Psychology Essay
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M o d u le 1 2 .4 : R e g u la t io n o f S t r e s s
As w e learned in the previous section, stress— especially if it is chronic— takes a toll on our bodies and can have enorm ously negative health
im plications. W hen w e experience events in our lives that w e appraise as stressful, it is essential that w e use effective coping strategies to
m anage our stress. Coping refers to m ental and behavioral efforts that w e use to deal w ith problem s relating to stress, including its presum ed
cause and the unpleasant feelings and em otions it produces.
C o p in g S ty le s
Lazarus and Folkm an (1984) distinguished tw o fundam ental kinds of coping: problem -focused coping and em otion-focused coping. In problem -
focused coping, one attem pts to m anage or alter the problem that is causing one to experience stress (i.e., the stressor). Problem -focused
coping strategies are sim ilar to strategies used in everyday problem -solving: they typically involve identifying the problem , considering possible
solutions, w eighing the costs and benefits of these solutions, and then selecting an alternative. A problem -focused approach to m anaging stress
m eans w e actively try to do things to address the problem .
Em otion-focused coping, in contrast, consists of efforts to change or reduce the negative em otions associated w ith stress. These efforts m ay
include avoiding, m inim izing, or distancing oneself from the problem , or positive com parisons w ith others ("I'm not as bad off as she is"), or
seeking som ething positive in a negative event ("N ow that I've been fired, I can sleep in for a few days"). In som e cases, em otion-focused coping
strategies involve reappraisal, w hereby the stressor is construed differently (and som ew hat self-deceptively) w ithout changing its objective level
of threat. In a certain sense, em otion-focused coping can be thought of as treating the sym ptom s rather than the actual cause.
W hile m any stressors elicit both kinds of coping strategies, problem -focused coping is m ore likely to occur w hen encountering stressors w e
perceive as controllable, w hile em otion-focused coping is m ore likely to predom inate w hen faced w ith stressors that w e believe w e are
pow erless to change. Clearly, em otion-focused coping is m ore effective in dealing w ith uncontrollable stressors.
Fortunately, m ost stressors w e encounter can be m odified and are, to varying degrees, controllable. A person w ho cannot stand her job can quit
and look for w ork elsew here; a m iddle-aged divorcee can find another potential partner; the freshm an w ho fails an exam can study harder next
tim e, and a breast lum p does not necessarily m ean that one is fated to die of breast cancer.
C o n tro l a n d S tre s s
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The desire and ability to predict events, m ake decisions, and affect outcom es— that is, to enact control in our lives— is a basic tenet of hum an
behavior. O ur reaction to potential stressors depends to a large extent on how m uch control w e feel w e have over such things. Perceived
control is our beliefs about our personal capacity to exert influence over and shape outcom es, and it has m ajor im plications for our health and
happiness.
Extensive research has dem onstrated that perceptions of personal control are associated w ith a variety of favorable outcom es, such as better
physical and m ental health and greater psychological w ell-being. G reater personal control is also associated w ith low er reactivity to stressors in
daily life. For exam ple, researchers in one investigation found that higher levels of perceived control at one point in tim e w ere later associated
w ith low er em otional and physical reactivity to interpersonal stressors.
D ig D e e p e r
Learned H elplessness
W hen w e lack a sense of control over the events in our lives, particularly w hen those events are threatening, harm ful, or
noxious, the psychological consequences can be profound. In one of the better illustrations of this concept, psychologist
M artin Seligm an conducted a series of classic experim ents in the 1960s in w hich dogs w ere placed in a cham ber w here they
received electric shocks from w hich they could not escape. Later, w hen these dogs w ere given the opportunity to escape the
shocks by jum ping across a partition, m ost failed to even try; they seem ed to just give up and passively accept any shocks
the experim enters chose to adm inister. In com parison, dogs w ho w ere previously allow ed to escape the shocks tended to
jum p the partition and escape the pain (Figure 12.18). 2017/7/27 PSY101 - Module 12.4
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Figure 12.18 Seligm an's learned helplessness
experim ents with dogs used an apparatus that
m easured when the anim als would m ove from a floor
delivering shocks to one without
Seligm an believed that the dogs w ho failed to try to escape the later shocks w ere dem onstrating learned helplessness: they
had acquired a belief that they w ere pow erless to do anything about the noxious stim ulation they w ere receiving. Seligm an
also believed that the passivity and lack of initiative these dogs dem onstrated w as sim ilar to that observed in hum an
depression. Therefore, Seligm an speculated that acquiring a sense of learned helplessness m ight be an im portant cause of
depression in hum ans: H um ans w ho experience negative life events that they believe they are unable to control m ay
becom e helpless. As a result, they give up trying to control or change the situation and som e m ay becom e depressed and
show lack of initiative in future situations in w hich they can control the outcom es.
Seligm an and colleagues later reform ulated the original learned helplessness m odel of depression. In their reform ulation,
they em phasized attributions (i.e., a m ental explanation for w hy som ething occurred) that lead to the perception that one
lacks control over negative outcom es are im portant in fostering a sense of learned helplessness.
The reform ulated version of Seligm an's study holds that the attributions m ade for negative life events contribute to
depression. Consider the exam ple of a student w ho perform s poorly on a m idterm exam . This m odel suggests that the
student w ill m ake three kinds of attributions for this outcom e: internal vs. external (believing the outcom e w as caused by
his ow n personal inadequacies or by environm ental factors), stable vs. unstable (believing the cause can be changed or is
perm anent), and global vs. specific (believing the outcom e is a sign of inadequacy in m ost everything versus just this area).
Assum e that the student m akes an internal ("I'm just not sm art"), stable ("N othing can be done to change the fact that I'm
not sm art") and global ("This is another exam ple of how lousy I am at everything") attribution for the poor perform ance. The
reform ulated theory predicts that the student w ould perceive a lack of control over this stressful event and thus be 2017/7/27 PSY101 - Module 12.4
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especially prone to developing depression. Indeed, research has dem onstrated that people w ho have a tendency to m ake
internal, global, and stable attributions for bad outcom es tend to develop sym ptom s of depression w hen faced w ith
negative life experiences.
Seligm an's learned helplessness m odel has em erged over the years as a leading theoretical explanation for the onset of
m ajor depressive disorder. W hen you study psychological disorders, you w ill learn m ore about the latest reform ulation of
this m odel— now called hopelessness theory.
People w ho report higher levels of perceived control view their health as controllable, thereby m aking it m ore likely that they w ill better m anage
their health and engage in behaviors conducive to good health. N ot surprisingly, greater perceived control has been linked to low er risk of
physical health problem s.
The link betw een perceived control and health m ay provide an explanation for the frequently observed relationship betw een social class and
health outcom es. In general, research has found that m ore affl uent individuals experience better health m ainly because they tend to believe
that they can personally control and m anage their reactions to life's stressors. Perhaps buoyed by the perceived level of control, individuals of
higher social class m ay be prone to overestim ating the degree of influence they have over particular outcom es. For exam ple, those of higher
social class tend to believe that their votes have greater sw ay on election outcom es than do those of low er social class, w hich m ay explain
higher rates of voting in m ore affl uent com m unities. O ther research has found that a sense of perceived control can protect less affl uent
individuals from poorer health, depression, and reduced life-satisfaction— all of w hich tend to accom pany low er social standing.
S o c ia l S u p p o rt
The need to form and m aintain strong, stable relationships w ith others is a pow erful, pervasive, and fundam ental hum an m otive. Building
strong interpersonal relationships w ith others helps us establish a netw ork of close, caring individuals w ho can provide social support in tim es
of distress, sorrow , and fear. Social support can be thought of as the soothing im pact of friends, fam ily, and acquaintances. Social support can
take m any form s, including advice, guidance, encouragem ent, acceptance, em otional com fort, and tangible assistance (such as financial help).
Thus, other people can be very com forting to us w hen w e are faced w ith a w ide range of life stressors, and they can be extrem ely helpful in our
efforts to m anage these challenges.
Scientific interest in the im portance of social support first em erged in the 1970s w hen health researchers developed an interest in the health
consequences of being socially integrated. Social support has em erged as one of the w ell-docum ented psychosocial factors affecting health
outcom es. A statistical review of 148 studies conducted betw een 1982 and 2007 involving over 300,000 participants concluded that individuals
w ith stronger social relationships have a 50% greater likelihood of survival com pared to those w ith w eak or insuffi cient social relationships.
According to the researchers, the m agnitude of the effect of social support observed in this study is com parable w ith quitting sm oking and
exceeded m any w ell-know n risk factors for m ortality, such as obesity and physical inactivity (Figure 12.19). 2017/7/27 PSY101 - Module 12.4
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Figure 12.19 Close relationships with others, whether (a) a group of friends or (b) a fam ily circle, provide m ore
than happiness and fulfillm ent— they can help foster good health. (credit a: m odification of work by Nattachai
Noogure; credit b: m odification of work by Christian Haugen)
For m any of us, friends are a vital source of social support. But w hat if you found yourself in a situation in w hich you lacked friends or
com panions? For exam ple, suppose a popular high school student attends a far-aw ay college, does not know anyone, and has trouble m aking
friends and m eaningful connections w ith others during the first sem ester. W hat can be done? If real life social support is lacking, access to
distant friends via social m edia m ay help com pensate. In a study of college freshm en, those w ho had few face- to-face friends on cam pus but
w ho com m unicated electronically w ith distant friends w ere less distressed that those w ho did not. Also, for som e people, our fam ilies—
especially our parents— are a m ajor source of social support.
Social support appears to w ork by boosting the im m une system , especially am ong people w ho are experiencing stress. In a pioneering study,
spouses of cancer patients w ho reported high levels of social support show ed indications of better im m une functioning on tw o out of three
im m une functioning m easures, com pared to spouses w ho w ere below the m edian on reported social support. Studies of other populations
have produced sim ilar results, including those of spousal caregivers of dem entia sufferers, m edical students, elderly adults, and cancer
patients.
In addition, social support has been show n to reduce blood pressure for people perform ing stressful tasks, such as giving a speech or
perform ing m ental arithm etic. In these kinds of studies, participants are usually asked to perform a stressful task either alone, w ith a stranger
present (w ho m ay be either supportive or unsupportive), or w ith a friend present. Those tested w ith a friend present generally exhibit low er
blood pressure than those tested alone or w ith a stranger. In one study, 112 fem ale participants w ho perform ed stressful m ental arithm etic
exhibited low er blood pressure w hen they received support from a friend rather than a stranger, but only if the friend w as a m ale. Although 2017/7/27 PSY101 - Module 12.4
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these findings are som ew hat diffi cult to interpret, the authors m ention that it is possible that fem ales feel less supported and m ore evaluated
by other fem ales, particularly fem ales w hose opinions they value.
Taken together, the findings above suggest one of the reasons social support is connected to favorable health outcom es is because it has
several beneficial physiological effects in stressful situations. H ow ever, it is also im portant to consider the possibility that social support m ay
lead to better health behaviors, such as a healthy diet, exercising, sm oking cessation, and cooperation w ith m edical regim ens.
D ig D e e p e r
Coping w ith Prejudice and D iscrim ination
W hile having social support is quite beneficial, being the recipient of prejudicial attitudes and discrim inatory behaviors is
associated w ith a num ber of negative outcom es. In their literature review , Brondolo, Brady, Pencille, Beatty, and Contrada
(2009) describe how racial prejudice and discrim ination serve as unique, significant stressors for those w ho are the targets
of such attitudes and behavior. Being the target of racism is associated w ith increased rates of depression, low ered self-
esteem , hypertension, and cardiovascular disease.
G iven the com plex and pervasive nature of racism as a stressor, Brondolo et al. (2009) point out the im portance of coping
w ith this specific stressor. Their review is aim ed at determ ining w hich coping strategies are m ost effective at offsetting
negative health outcom es associated w ith racism -related stress. The authors exam ine the effectiveness of three coping
strategies: focusing on racial identity to handle race-related stress, anger expression/suppression, and seeking social
support. You've learned a bit about social support, so w e'll focus the rem ainder of this discussion on the potential coping
strategies of focusing on racial identity and anger expression/suppression.
Focusing on racial identity refers to the process by w hich a person com es to feel as if he belongs to a given racial group; this
m ay increase a sense of pride associated w ith group m em bership. Brondolo et al. (2009) suggest that a strong sense of
racial identity m ight help an individual w ho is the target of racism differentiate betw een prejudicial attitudes/behaviors that
are directed tow ard his group as a w hole rather than at him as a person. Furtherm ore, the sense of belonging to his group
m ight alleviate the distress of being ostracized by others. H ow ever, the research literature on the effectiveness of this
technique has produced m ixed results.
Anger expression/suppression refers to the options available as a function of the anger evoked by racial prejudice and
discrim ination. Put sim ply, a target of racist attitudes and behaviors can act upon her anger or suppress her anger. As
discussed by Brondolo et al. (2009), there has been very little research on the effectiveness of either approach; the results
are quite m ixed w ith som e show ing anger expression and others show ing anger suppression as the healthier option. 2017/7/27 PSY101 - Module 12.4
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In the end, racism -related stress is a com plex issue and each of the coping strategies discussed here has strengths and
w eaknesses. Brondolo et al. (2009) argue that it is im perative that additional research be conducted to ascertain the m ost
effective strategies for coping w ith the negative outcom es that are experienced by the targets of racism .
S tre s s R e d u c tio n T e c h n iq u e s
Beyond having a sense of control and establishing social support netw orks, there are num erous other m eans by w hich w e can m anage stress
(Figure 12.20). A com m on technique people use to com bat stress is exercise. It is w ell-established that exercise, both of long (aerobic) and short
(anaerobic) duration, is beneficial for both physical and m ental health. There is considerable evidence that physically fit individuals are m ore
resistant to the adverse effects of stress and recover m ore quickly from stress than less physically fit individuals. In a study of m ore than 500
Sw iss police offi cers and em ergency service personnel, increased physical fitness w as associated w ith reduced stress, and regular exercise w as
reported to protect against stress-related health problem s.
Figure 12.20 Stress reduction techniques m ay include (a) exercise, (b) m editation and relaxation, or (c)
biofeedback. (credit a: m odification of work by "UNE Photos"/Flickr; credit b: m odification of work by Caleb
Roenigk; credit c: m odification of work by Dr. Carm en Russoniello)
O ne reason exercise m ay be beneficial is because it m ight buffer som e of the deleterious physiological m echanism s of stress. In high-stress
hum ans, exercise has been show n to prevent telom ere shortening, w hich m ay explain the com m on observation of a youthful appearance
am ong those w ho exercise regularly. Further, exercise in later adulthood appears to m inim ize the detrim ental effects of stress on the
hippocam pus and m em ory. Am ong cancer survivors, exercise has been show n to reduce anxiety and depressive sym ptom s. Clearly, exercise is a
highly effective tool for regulating stress. 2017/7/27 PSY101 - Module 12.4
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In the 1970s, H erbert Benson, a cardiologist, developed a stress reduction m ethod called the relaxation response technique. The relaxation
response technique com bines relaxation w ith transcendental m editation, and consists of four com ponents:
1. sitting upright on a com fortable chair w ith feet on the ground and body in a relaxed position,
2. a quiet environm ent w ith eyes closed,
3. repeating a w ord or a phrase— a m antra— to oneself, such as "alert m ind, calm body,"
4. passively allow ing the m ind to focus on pleasant thoughts, such as nature or the w arm th of your blood nourishing your body.
The relaxation response approach is conceptualized as a general approach to stress reduction that reduces sym pathetic arousal, and it has
been used effectively to treat people w ith high blood pressure.
Another technique to com bat stress, biofeedback, w as developed by G ary Schw artz at H arvard U niversity in the early 1970s. Biofeedback is a
technique that uses electronic equipm ent to accurately m easure a person's neurom uscular and autonom ic activity— feedback is provided in the
form of visual or auditory signals. The m ain assum ption of this approach is that providing som ebody biofeedback w ill enable the individual to
develop strategies that help gain som e level of voluntary control over w hat are norm ally involuntary bodily processes. A num ber of different
bodily m easures have been used in biofeedback research, including facial m uscle m ovem ent, brain activity, and skin tem perature, and it has
been applied successfully w ith individuals experiencing tension headaches, high blood pressure, asthm a, and phobias.
C h e ck Yo u r K n o w le d g e
True or False?
U se the questions below to test your m em ory about solutions to stress! Read each of the statem ents carefully and decide if
they are true or false.
1. Coping refers to m ental and behavioral efforts that w e use to deal w ith problem s relating to stress, including its
presum ed cause and the unpleasant feelings and em otions its produces.
a. True
b. False
2. Biofeedback is a technique that uses m editation and deep breathing to control stress.
a. True
b. False 2017/7/27 PSY101 - Module 12.4
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3. Social support can take m any form s including advice, guidance, acceptance, and em otional com fort.
a. True
b. False
4. Perceived control is our false belief about our personal capacity to exert influence over and shape outcom es and is
associated w ith unfavorable outcom es.
a. True
b. False
5. Relaxation response technique is a stress reductions m ethod that com bines relaxation w ith transcendental m editation,
and consists of four com ponents.
a. True
b. False
M odule 12.3 M odule 12.5