1) To begin, please read your textbookKelley, Robin D.G. To Make Our World Anew, Volume 1. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Volume I, Chapter 4, pages 169-226 (WILL BE ATTACHED)Watch e

CH APTE R

Let M y P eo p le G o 1 804–1860

Deb ora h G ra y W hite

O n A ugust 3 0 i n th e y ear 1 800, a c hillin g f e ar s p re ad a m ong th e w hite p eo ple o f H enric o

C ounty , V ir g in ia . W ith in a f e w d ays th e f e ar h ad g rip ped th e m in d s o f m ost w hite V ir g in ia ns.

W ith in w eeks, s la v eho ld ers a s f a r w est a nd s o uth a s w hat w as th en th e M is sis sip pi T errito ry

w ere c auti o nin g e ach o th er to b ew are o f s u sp ic io us b ehav io r o n th e p art o f b la cks. O n th eir

t o ngues w as th e n am e G ab rie l P ro sse r; i n th eir m in d s w ere th o ughts o f w hat m ig ht h av e

h ap pened i f P ro sse r h ad s u cceed ed i n l e ad in g V ir g in ia s la v es i n r e v olt a gain st s la v ery .

Pro sse r, h is w ife , N anny, a nd h is tw o b ro th ers , M arti n a nd S olo m on, w ere a s la v eho ld er’s

n ig htm are . B orn i n to s la v ery , th ey d ecla re d th em se lv es f it f o r f r e ed om . T hey d ecid ed n o t o nly

t h at th ey w ould b e f r e e b ut th at a ll s la v es s h o uld b e f r e e. T ogeth er th ey p lo tte d to l e ad th e

s la v es o f th e R ic hm ond a re a i n r e v olt a gain st th e c ity . T heir p la n w as to c ap tu re th e a rs e nal

a nd , o nce s u p plie d w ith w eap ons, to ta ke o ver R ic hm ond a nd th en o th er c iti e s i n th e s ta te .

V ir g in ia , i t w as p la nned , w ould b eco m e a f r e e s ta te , a b la ck s ta te , a h o m ela nd f o r th o se u nfit

f o r s la v ery .

But P ro sse r n ev er g o t a c hance to p ut h is p la n i n to a cti o n. O n th e n ig ht o f th e s c hed ule d

a tta ck o n R ic hm ond , a te rrib le s to rm w ash ed o ut th e b rid ges a nd r o ad s to th e c ity . P ro sse r h ad

t o p ostp one h is r e b ellio n, a nd th e d ela y g av e s o m eo ne ti m e to b etr a y h im a nd e xp ose th e p la n.

A ll w ho c o nsp ir e d i n th e r e v olt w ere c ap tu re d a nd p ut to d eath . G ab rie l w as a m ong th e l a st to

b e c ap tu re d , tr ie d , a nd h anged .

He w as, h o w ev er, o ne o f th e f ir s t p eo ple i n th e n in ete enth c entu ry to s tr u ggle i n th e n am e o f

f r e ed om . A nd th is i s r e ally th e th em e o f th is p erio d o f A fr ic an- A meric an h is to ry : th e f ig ht

a gain st s la v ery , th e s tr u ggle to b e f r e e A meric an c iti z e ns, a nd r e sis ta nce, d esp ite i n cre d ib le

o dds, to m ain ta in h um an d ig nity i n th e f a ce o f o verw helm in g i n hum anity . T he c hance th at th e

A fr ic an A meric ans w ould s u cceed w as s m all. T he o dds a gain st i t b ein g a b lo odle ss s tr u ggle

w ere o verw helm in g. A nd th o se o dds i n cre ase d w hen c o tto n b ecam e th is c o untr y ’s p rin cip al

e xp ort c ro p, a fte r E li W hitn ey’s c o tto n g in m ad e th e p ro ducti o n o f h earty s h o rt- s ta p le c o tto n

p ro fita b le . To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

By m akin g c o tto n a p ro fita b le c ro p f o r S outh ern f a rm ers , th e c o tto n g in i n cre ase d th e d em and

fo r s la v es a nd c hanged th e c o urs e o f h is to ry f o r b la ck A meric ans.

Sho rt- s ta p le c o tto n w as i n d em and th ro ugho ut th e w orld , e sp ecia lly i n E ngla nd , w here

te xti le m anufa ctu re rs n ev er s e em ed to g et e no ugh. I t w as n o t l o ng b efo re c o tto n b ecam e th e

prin cip al c ash c ro p o f th e S outh a nd o f th e n ati o n. I n 1 790 th e S outh p ro duced o nly 3 ,1 35 b ale s

of c o tto n. B y 1 800 th is f ig ure h ad g ro w n to 7 3,1 45 b ale s; b y 1 820 o utp ut a m ounte d to 3 34,3 78

bale s, a cco unti n g f o r m ore th an h alf o f th e n ati o n’s a gric ultu ra l e xp orts . O n th e e v e o f th e C iv il

War, p ro ducti o n p eaked a t

4.8 m illio n b ale s. I f e v er c ir c um sta nces c o nsp ir e d a gain st a p eo ple ,

it w as th e c o m in g to geth er o f th e c o tto n g in , s h o rt- s ta p le c o tto n, f e rti le l a nd s, a nd w orld

dem and . O nce th is h ap pened , s la v es w ho m ig ht h av e b een s e t f r e e b y d eb t a nd

co nsc ie ncerid den C hesa p eake p la nte rs w ere i n ste ad s o ld to th e p la nte rs o f th e c o tto n-g ro w in g

sta te s o f th e L ow er S outh . C otto n s e ale d th e f a te o f s la v es a nd s la v ery .

It s e em ed a s th o ugh G ab rie l P ro sse r k new th is . L ik e s o m any o th er b la cks, h e p ro bab ly s a w

sla v eho ld ers c lo se d ow n th eir V ir g in ia to bacco f a rm s a nd p la nta ti o ns a nd h ead w ith th eir

sla v es s o uth a nd w est to w ard th e f e rti le b la ck s o il o f th e s o on-to -b e c o tto n b elt. L ik e o th ers , h e

no d oub t w in ced a t th e s ig ht o f c hain ed s la v es h ead in g o ut o f th e d eclin in g e co no m ie s o f

Vir g in ia , M ary la nd , a nd S outh C aro lin a to th e b oom in g a re as o f A la b am a, M is sis sip pi, To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

Louis ia na, A rk ansa s, a nd T exas. I n 1 800 th ese a re as w ere n o t e v en s ta te s. T exas, i n f a ct, w as

sti ll p art o f M exic o . T hese p la ces w ere n o t u nin hab ite d , b ut w ere h o m e to f iv e N ati v e

Americ an tr ib es, th e C re eks, C ho cta w s, S em in o le s, C hic kasa w s, a nd C hero kees. N o m atte r,

th o ugh. T he c erta in w ealth th at c o tto n b ro ught e nsu re d th at th ese a re as w ould s o on b e f lo oded

with w hite s e ttl e rs w ho w ould s e e to i t th at th e l a nd b ecam e th eir s . T hey w ould tu rn th e

te rrito rie s i n to s ta te s a nd i n th e p ro cess tr a nsfo rm th e v ery n atu re o f s la v ery .

Esse nti a l to th e tr a nsfo rm ati o n w as th e d om esti c s la v e tr a d e. B efo re 1 800 a s la v e s to od

so m e c hance o f o bta in in g h is o r h er f r e ed om , e ith er th ro ugh s e lf- p urc hase , m erito rio us s e rv ic e,

or s im ply th ro ugh th e g o od w ill o f a m aste r o r m is tr e ss; a fte r 1 800 th e i n cre ase d p ro fita b ility

of s la v ery m ad e m anum is sio n f o r a n i n d iv id ual s la v e l e ss l ik ely . O nce c o tto n g av e s la v ery a

new l e ase o n l ife , s la v es w ho w ere o f n o u se i n th e U pper S outh w ere n o t s e t f r e e, b ut s o ld to

th e L ow er S outh . T his m eant th at a g o od m any o f th e s la v es b orn i n V ir g in ia , M ary la nd , o r

South C aro lin a w ere l ik ely to d ie i n M is sis sip pi, A la b am a, o r L ouis ia na. T he d om esti c tr a d e

esta b lis h ed th e m eans o f g etti n g th em th ere . A t th e s a m e ti m e th at s la v es l iv ed i n f e ar o f h av in g

th eir f a m ilie s to rn a p art a nd b ein g “ so ld d ow n th e r iv er,” d om esti c s la v e tr a d ers c alc ula te d

ju st h o w m uch a b le -b odie d f ie ld h and s, e sp ecia lly th o se b etw een th e a ges o f f ifte en a nd

tw enty -fiv e, s o ld f o r i n th e n ew m ark ets .

The s a le a nd tr a nsp orta ti o n o f b la ck p eo ple w ith in th e U nite d S ta te s th us b ecam e b ig

busin ess. W hat h ad o nce ta ken p la ce m ostl y o n th e A fr ic an c o nti n ent— th e th eft o f p eo ple , th e

re nd in g o f f a m ilie s— no w to ok p la ce w ith v ulg ar r e gula rity b efo re th e e yes a nd e ars o f

Americ an w hite s a nd b la cks. F ro m V ir g in ia a lo ne, a n e sti m ate d th re e h und re d th o usa nd s la v es

were tr a nsp orte d s o uth f o r s a le b etw een 1 830 a nd 1 860. A s th e s la v e p ens s p ru ng u p , s o to o

did th e s ig hts a nd s o und s o f h um an m is e ry . W ith in v ie w o f th e n ati o n’s c ap ito l w ere s la v e p ens

th at, a s k id nap ped s la v e S olo m on N orth up d esc rib ed th em , w ere c o nstr u cte d s o th at “ th e

outs id e w orld c o uld n ev er s e e th e h um an c attl e th at w ere h erd ed th ere .” W ith in th e w alls o f th e

pens, i n o pen-a ir d ir t y ard s, a nd o n th e a ucti o n b lo cks, s la v e h usb and s a nd w iv es w ere

se p ara te d f r o m e ach o th er, p are nts w ere p arte d f r o m th eir c hild re n, a nd i n fa nts w ere to rn f r o m

th eir m oth ers ’ b re asts . F re e b la cks, to o, f e are d th e tr a d e, f o r l ik e N orth up th ey c o uld b e, a nd

were , s to le n b y u nsc ru p ulo us tr a d ers a nxio us

to m ake m oney b y a ny m eans. B la cks, w ho o nce

had h o ped th at th e c o nsti tu ti o nal p ro vis io n f o r th e e nd in g o f th e s la v e tr a d e i n 1 808 w ould p ut

sla v ery o n th e r o ad to e xti n cti o n, n o w k new th at s la v ery w as n o t a b out to d ie .

Fre e b la ck m en a nd w om en, l ik e P hila d elp hia s a ilm aker J a m es F orte n o r a b oliti o nis t M aria

Ste w art, w ere a lw ays a n a no m aly i n a s o cie ty w here d ark s k in c o lo r w as a b ad ge o f b ond age,

but th ey b ecam e e v en m ore i n se cure w ith th e tr a nsfo rm ati o n o f s la v ery . F ir s t a nd f o re m ost, th e

new ly r e v ita liz e d i n sti tu ti o n o f s la v ery d ecre ase d th eir n um bers . T his m eant th at th e f r e e b la ck

popula ti o n w ould a lw ays r e m ain s m all, w ith l im ite d a b ility to a ffe ct th e c o urs e o f s la v ery .

Fre e b la cks a lw ays h ad to p ro te ct th em se lv es a gain st k id nap pers . T ho se w ho m ad e u p th e

sm all c o m muniti e s o f s o uth ern f r e e b la cks h ad to k eep th eir f r e e p ap ers c lo se o r e ls e b e

mis ta ken f o r s la v es. I n b oth th e N orth a nd S outh f r e e b la cks f o und i t b enefic ia l to h av e w hite

fr ie nd s w ho c o uld te sti fy o n th eir b ehalf s h o uld th ey b e m is ta ken a s s la v es. T he l o ng a nd th e

sh o rt o f i t w as th at th e tr a nsfo rm ati o n o f s la v ery p ut f r e e b la cks a t r is k .

What i t d id to th o se i n b ond age w as m uch w ors e . T heir l o ss w as v ery p ers o nal, b ecause To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

th ro ugho ut th e U pper S outh th eir f a m ilie s w ere to rn a p art. W hite s w ho m ig ra te d to th e L ow er

South w ent i n f a m ily g ro up s. T ho se w ho d id n o t w ere u su ally s in gle m en w ho c ho se to s e ek

th eir f o rtu ne i n th e n ew a re a. S la v es h ad n o c ho ic e. T hey w ere ta ken o r s o ld a gain st th eir w ill,

fo rc ed to l e av e f a m ily , f r ie nd s, a nd a ll th at w as f a m ilia r. L ost to e ach o th er f o re v er, f a m ily

mem bers s e p ara te d b y h und re d s o f m ile s s u ffe re d tr e m end ous g rie f.

By th e ti m e c o tto n p ro ducti o n b egan to s o ar i n th e s ta te s o f th e L ow er S outh , V ir g in ia ,

Mary la nd , N orth C aro lin a, a nd S outh C aro lin a w ere c o nsid ere d “ o ld ” s ta te s. T he l a nd h ad

lo ng b een c le are d o f b ru sh a nd tr e es, f a rm s a nd p la nta ti o ns h ad a lr e ad y b een b uilt, a nd f ie ld s

had b een r e ad ie d f o r c ro ps. R oad s m ad e tr a nsp orta ti o n a nd c o m munic ati o n e asy, a nd c iti e s

mad e c o m merc ia l a nd c ultu ra l e xchange p ossib le .

The L ow er S outh w as n o t s o “ civ iliz e d .” A ll th e w ork th at h ad b een d one i n th e U pper

South h ad to b e r e p eate d h ere . I t w as th e n ew f r o nti e r, a nd a s o n a ll f r o nti e rs th e w ork w as

more b ackb re akin g. T o A delin e C unnin gham , a n e x-s la v e f r o m T exas, e v ery th in g w as h ard . A s

sh e p ut i t: “ D ey w as r o ugh p eo ple a nd d ey tr e at e v ’ry b ody r o ugh.” E vid ence o f r o ugh

tr e atm ent c o uld b e f o und i n th e s la v es’ b ir th a nd d eath r a te s. C om pare d w ith A fr ic an

Americ ans i n o th er r e gio ns i n th e U nite d S ta te s, b la cks i n th e L ow er S outh d id n o t l iv e a s l o ng

no r h av e a s m any c hild re n.

And y et, f o r a ll o f th e te rrib le c hanges th at to ok p la ce i n th e f ir s t f e w d ecad es o f th e

nin ete enth c entu ry , th e o vera ll c o nd iti o n o f th e a v era ge s la v e a ctu ally i m pro ved . T his i s o ne o f

th e g re at p ara d oxes o f th e h is to ry o f b ond age i n A meric a. A s s la v ery b ecam e m ore e ntr e nched ,

as m ore f a m ilie s w ere s e p ara te d a nd f r e ed om b ecam e l e ss a tta in ab le , i t a ctu ally g o t b ette r i n

te rm s o f p hysic al tr e atm ent. I n th e n in ete enth c entu ry th ere w ere f a r l e ss b ra nd in gs th at m ark ed

sla v es a s p ers o nal p ro perty . L im b a m puta ti o ns f o r th eft a nd r u nnin g a w ay w ere c urta ile d a nd

dis a b lin g w hip pin gs

and m urd er o ccurre d l e ss f r e q uentl y . W ork w as s ti ll b ackb re akin g a nd

end le ss, p unis h m ent w as s ti ll c erta in , b ut m ore a tte nti o n w as p aid to d ie t, s la v es w ere g iv en

more p ers o nal ti m e, a nd m arita l l ife w as e nco ura ged .

The r e aso ns f o r th ese s e em in gly c o ntr a ry o ccurre nces a re e asy to u nd ers ta nd . T hey w ere th e

co nse q uence o f th e c lo sin g o f th e i n te rn ati o nal s la v e tr a d e a t th e v ery ti m e th at c o tto n m ad e

sla v ery p ro fita b le . O nce i t w as n o l o nger p ossib le to b rin g s la v es f r o m A fr ic a, s la v eho ld ers

were f o rc ed to tr e at th e s la v es th ey h ad b ette r. T hey n eed ed s la v es f o r w ork , a nd s o th ey

need ed to k eep th e s la v es th ey h ad h ealth y a nd p ro ducti v e— and th ey n eed ed th o se s la v es to

re p ro duce.

This n eed r e su lte d i n b ette r m ate ria l c o nd iti o ns f o r A fr ic an A meric ans h eld i n b ond age.

Even g iv en th e s e v ere c o nd iti o ns o n th e f r o nti e r, i n c o m paris o n w ith A fr ic ans h eld i n s la v ery

in B ra zil, C ub a, a nd P uerto R ic o , A meric an s la v es l iv ed l o nger. O f c riti c al i m porta nce w as th e

hig h b ir th ra te i n th e U nite d S ta te s. T he b ette r l iv in g c o nd iti o ns th at c ause d th e h ig her f e rti lity

ra te s d ev elo ped o ut o f w hite g re ed a nd i n te nse d is re gard f o r A fr ic an-A meric an h um anity —

negati v e q ualiti e s, b ut o nes th at h elp ed th e A fr ic an-A meric an c o m munity g ro w . O nly h ere w as

th e r a ti o o f s la v e m en to w om en r e la ti v ely e q ual, a nd o nly h ere d id f a m ilie s d ev elo p. O nly

here d id th is r e su lt i n th e c re ati o n o f w hat h as b een te rm ed “ th e s la v e c o m munity .”

The l iv es o f b la ck A meric ans, h o w ev er, c o m pare d to th at o f o th er A meric ans, w as h ard ,

in to le ra b le , a nd u np ro te cte d . E very th in g a b out s la v ery w ent a gain st e v ery p rin cip le u p onTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

whic h th e n ati o n w as f o und ed . I n s la v ery th ere w as n o l ib erty , n o e q uality , n o d em ocra cy. I t

th ere fo re n eed ed j u sti fic ati o n. A r e aso n h ad to b e f o und to e xp la in w hy s la v ery e xis te d i n th e

nati o n th at w as th e m ost f r e e i n th e w orld . A r e aso n w as n eed ed to e xcuse th e S outh a nd e ase

th e c o nsc ie nce o f th e i n d iv id ual s la v eho ld er.

In th e p ro -s la v ery a rg um ent w as e v ery e xcuse u p on w hic h th e S outh b uilt i ts i n sti tu ti o n. A t

its c ente r w as d enia l o f th e w orth o f th e A fr ic an A meric an. B la cks, th e a rg um ent w ent, w ere

no t p re p are d f o r f r e ed om . T hey w ere c hild lik e, i n n eed o f d ir e cti o n. T hey w ere l a zy p eo ple

who w ould n o t w ork u nle ss f o rc ed to . T hey w ere c urs e d b y G od, a nd s la v ery w as G od’s

punis h m ent. T hey w ere , s o m e i n sis te d , s o u nlik e w hite s th at th ey w ere a d iffe re nt s p ecie s. I n

sh o rt, th e p ro -s la v ery a rg um ent tu rn ed s la v ery i n to s o m eth in g th at a t i ts w ors t w as a n ecessa ry

ev il, a nd a t i ts b est a p ositi v e g o od.

Sla v ery w as g o od f o r th e S outh , g o od f o r b la ck p eo ple , a nd g o od f o r th e n ati o n, o r s o th e

arg um ent w ent. W illia m H arp er, c hancello r o f th e U niv ers ity o f S outh C aro lin a, d ecla re d th at

bla cks “ are u nd erg o in g th e v ery b est e d ucati o n w hic h i t i s p ossib le to g iv e. T hey a re i n th e

co urs e o f b ein g ta ught h ab its o f r e gula r a nd p ati e nt i n d ustr y , a nd th is i s th e f ir s t l e sso n th at i s

re q uir e d .”

Lik e H arp er, p ro -s la v ery w rite rs g enera lly o verlo oked o r d enie d th e b ru ta lity o f s la v ery .

Most i n sis te d th at c ru elty o ccurre d o nly i n th e r a re st o f i n sta nces. M ost a ls o b elie v ed th at th eir

sla v es l iv ed b ette r th an th e a v era ge i n d ustr ia l w ork er, i n clu d in g th o se i n th e N orth ern U nite d

Sta te s. F acto ry o w ners , i t w as a rg ued , c are d n o th in g f o r th eir l a b ore rs . I n c o ntr a st to N orth ern

and E uro pean “ w age s la v es” w ho w ere w ork ed u nti l th ey w ere o f n o u se to th e c o m pany, a fte r

whic h th ey w ere f ir e d to f e nd f o r th em se lv es, S outh ern s la v es r e ceiv ed f r e e f o od, c lo th in g,

ho usin g, a nd m ed ic al c are f o r l ife . A ty p ic al o pin io n o n th is m atte r w as e xp re sse d b y V ir g in ia

Bap ti s t m in is te r T ho rto n S prin g f e llo w . L ik e m ost s la v eho ld ers , h e b elie v ed th at th e s la v es’

“co nd iti o n … i s n o w b ette r th an th at o f a ny e q ual n um ber o f l a b ore rs o n e arth , a nd i s d aily

im pro vin g.” To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

Tw o e ngra v in gs f r o m th e

Bib le D efe n ce o f S la very

( 1 853). M any S outh ern s la v e o w ners

belie v ed th at b la cks b enefite d f r o m s la v ery .

Obvio usly , G ab rie l P ro sse r a nd h is f o llo w ers th o ught d iffe re ntl y . T o th em s la v ery w as n o t a

kin d a nd c arin g i n sti tu ti o n b ut a m alic io us o ne th at r o bbed th em o f th eir f r e ed om . T heir f e elin gs

were s h are d b y b oth f r e e a nd e nsla v ed A fr ic an A meric ans, a ll o f w ho m s tr u ggle d i n o ne w ay

or a no th er a gain st s la v ery , a ll o f w ho m a t o ne ti m e o r a no th er r a is e d th e p la in ti v e c ry : “ L et m y

peo ple g o .”

What S la very W as

In th e S outh , b efo re th e C iv il W ar, th e y ear b egan th e s a m e w ay a s i t e nd ed — with w ork i n

co tto n. D urin g J a nuary a nd F eb ru ary s la v es f in is h ed g in nin g a nd p re ssin g c o tto n, a nd h aule d i t

in w ago ns to th e p oin t o f s h ip m ent. I n M arc h a nd A pril th ey w ere r e ad y to s ta rt p la nti n g a gain .

It to ok a t l e ast th re e s la v es to p la nt a r o w o f c o tto n. O ne s la v e d ro ve a m ule a nd p lo w ed

th ro ugh th e d ir t to b re ak th e l a nd i n to a r o w . A y o ung s la v e c am e b ehin d d ro ppin g th e s e ed i n to

th e g ro und , f o llo w ed b y a no th er s la v e w ith a no th er m ule -d ra w n p lo w , c o verin g u p th e s e ed .

Betw een A pril a nd A ugust, th e c o tto n w as p lo w ed a nd h o ed b y s la v es, f ir s t to m ake s u re th at

th ere w as o nly o ne s ta lk o f c o tto n to w hat w as c alle d a h ill, th en to k eep th e l a nd f r e e o f w eed sTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

and g ra ss. I n l a te A ugust, s la v es b egan th e c o tto n-p ic kin g s e aso n. U nm erc ifu lly l o ng, i t l a ste d

th ro ugh J a nuary o f th e n ext y ear.

Sla v es w ho c ulti v ate d r ic e, to bacco , h em p, o r s u gar h ad a s im ila r y ear-ro und r o uti n e, a nd

lik e th o se w ho w ork ed i n c o tto n, th eir w ork d id n o t e nd w ith th e s a le o f th e c ro p. T here w ere

ho gs to k ill, a nd th en th e m eat h ad to b e c ut a nd s a lte d . N ew l a nd w as c le are d . D itc hes w ere

dug, c le aned , a nd r e p air e d . F ences w ere b uilt a nd u nd er c o nsta nt r e p air, w ood w as c ut a nd

haule d , a nd v egeta b le g ard ens w ere c ulti v ate d . O n to p o f a ll th is w as th e c ulti v ati o n o f c o rn , a

cro p th at n eed ed e xte nsiv e h o ein g, p lo w in g, a nd h arv esti n g j u st l ik e th e c ash c ro p.

The s la v es’ d ay d id n o t e nd w hen f ie ld w ork w as d one. A t n ig ht m en c ut w ood w hile

wom en p re p are d m eals , s p un th re ad , w ove c lo th , a nd m ad e c lo th es. O n S atu rd ay a fte rn o ons

men o fte n tr a p ped w hile w om en w ash ed c lo th es, m ad e c and le s a nd s o ap , a nd h elp ed th e m en

te nd th e g ard en p lo ts w here th ey g re w th e f e w v egeta b le s th ey a te .

Sla v es w ho se c ho re s w ere i n th e m aste r’s h o use w ork ed a s m uch a s f ie ld h and s. B esid es

ta kin g c are o f th eir o w n f a m ilie s, a nd d oin g th eir c o okin g, c le anin g, s e w in g, a nd w ash in g, th ey

did a ll o f th e d om esti c ta sk s, d ay a nd n ig ht, f o r th e s la v e m aste r’s f a m ily .

For th e s la v e th is a d ded u p to e nd le ss w ork . B ut th at i s w hat s la v ery w as, a s y ste m o f

fo rc ed l a b or i n w hic h th e A fr ic an A meric an w ork ed w ith o ut p ay f o r s o m eo ne e ls e ’s p ro fit.

Every th in g e ls e d eriv ed f r o m s la v ery w as s e co nd ary to th is c entr a l p oin t. F or i n sta nce, th is

sy ste m o f f o rc ed l a b or p ro vid ed s la v eho ld ers w ith th e w ealth a nd p re sti g e th at th ey n eed ed to

dom in ate s o uth ern p oliti c s a nd s o cia l

re la ti o ns. F urth er, s la v ery o rg aniz e d th e r a ces n o t o nly to

se p ara te b la cks a nd w hite s, b ut to g iv e a ll w hite s s ta tu s s im ply b ecause th ey w ere w hite , a nd

to d eny s ta tu s to a ll b la cks s im ply b ecause th ey w ere b la ck. A n e xam ple o f h o w i n hum ane o ne

gro up o f p eo ple c o uld b e to a no th er, s la v ery w as a ls o o ne o f th e m ain c ause s o f th e C iv il W ar,

th e b lo odie st c o nflic t e v er f o ught o n A meric an s o il.

As a s y ste m o f l a b or th at e xp lo ite d b la ck w ork , s la v ery u su ally b enefite d a w hite m an, b ut

so m eti m es th e s la v e m aste r w as a w hite w om an, a N ati v e A meric an, o r r a re ly , a b la ck m an o r

wom an. U lti m ate ly , th e n ati o n p ro sp ere d f r o m th is e xp lo ita ti o n, b ecause a s th e S outh g re w r ic h

off th e c ulti v ati o n o f c ash c ro ps, s o d id th e c o untr y a s a w ho le . T he l o se rs w ere th e A fr ic an

Americ ans w ho se l iv es w ere o rg aniz e d a ro und e nd le ss w ork ; th e r e w ard s a lw ays w ent to

so m eo ne e ls e .

Where v er o ne w ent i n th e S outh b etw een 1 800 a nd 1 860 o ne c o uld e xp ect to s e e s la v es

doin g s o m e k in d o f w ork . T hey w ork ed a s l u m berja cks a nd tu rp enti n e p ro ducers i n th e f o re sts

of th e C aro lin as a nd G eo rg ia . I n V ir g in ia a nd K entu cky, s la v es w ork ed i n th e g o ld , c o al, a nd

sa lt m in es. O n th e M is sis sip pi R iv er s te am boats , th ey w ork ed a s d eckhand s a nd b oile r s to kers .

In G eo rg ia a nd L ouis ia na, th ey w ork ed a s te xti le l a b ore rs . S la v e l a b or w as s o p ro fita b le th at

in 1 847 th e o w ners o f th e T re d egar I r o n W ork s i n R ic hm ond , V ir g in ia , s h ifte d f r o m u sin g w hite

la b ore rs to s la v e l a b or. I n a d diti o n to s e rv in g a s f a cto ry l a b ore rs , s la v es a ls o m ad e u p a

sig nific ant p orti o n o f th e S outh ’s s k ille d a rti s a ns— carp ente rs , c o opers , b la cksm ith s,

silv ers m ith s, a nd th e l ik e.

How ev er, m ost o f th e f o ur m illio n A fr ic an A meric ans w ho w ere e nsla v ed i n 1 860 w ork ed

in th e f ie ld s o f th e f a rm s a nd p la nta ti o ns o f th e S outh . T hey w ork ed o n a n a v era ge d ay f o urte en

ho urs i n th e s u m mer a nd te n h o urs i n th e w in te r. D urin g h arv est ti m e s la v es o fte n w ork ed To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

eig hte en-h o ur d ays i n s u n th at w as p ie rc in g, h eat th at w as s w elte rin g.

Need le ss to s a y, th eir w ork w as b ackb re akin g. T he a v era ge s la v e w ork ed i n c o tto n

pro ducti o n, a nd d urin g h arv est s e aso n w as e xp ecte d to p ic k a b out 1 30 to 1 50 p ound s o f c o tto n

per d ay. W ork i n s u gar a nd r ic e w as e q ually h ard , i f n o t h ard er. B oth c ro ps d em and ed c o nsta nt

culti v ati o n a nd th e d ig gin g o f d ra in age d itc hes i n s n ake-in fe ste d f ie ld s. A t h arv est ti m e o n th e

su gar p la nta ti o ns, s la v es h ad to c ut, s tr ip , a nd c arry c ane to th e s u gar h o use f o r b oilin g. T his

was e xtr e m ely s tr e nuo us w ork . R ic e c ulti v ati o n w as e v en m ore m is e ra b le . S in ce r ic e i s g ro w n

und er w ate r, s la v es s p ent l o ng h o urs s ta nd in g i n w ate r u p to th eir k nees.

With s o m uch w ealth r id in g o n i t, s la v e w ork w as h ard ly d one h ap haza rd ly . O n th e c o ntr a ry ,

it w as c are fu lly o rg aniz e d s o th at s la v es w ork ed e ith er i n g angs o r a cco rd in g to ta sk s. S la v e

work g angs u su ally d id a s m uch w ork a s th e f a ste st w ork er c o uld d o. T he ta sk s y ste m p ro vid ed

gre ate r f le xib ility , a nd a lth o ugh a ssig nm ents w ere a s ta xin g a s th o se d one b y g angs, w hen a

sla v e o r a g ro up o f s la v es f in is h ed th e a ssig ned ta sk , th ey c o uld q uit w ork f o r th e d ay. U nlik e

th e g ang s y ste m , i n w hic h m en a nd w om en u su ally w ork ed i n s e p ara te g ro up s, ta sk s w ere o fte n

assig ned to a f a m ily .

A w hite w om an w hip s a s la v e, p ro bab ly a h o use s e rv ant. F or s la v es, v io le nt a tta cks c o uld

co m e f r o m a ny d ir e cti o n, a nd a t a ny ti m e. To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

Sla v es w ho w ork ed i n th e h o use h ad a to ta lly d iffe re nt r e gim en, o ne th at w as p hysic ally

easie r b ut m enta lly ta xin g. W om en p re d om in ate d i n th e h o use , a nd l ik e m ale s la v e a rti s a ns,

th ey d id w ork th at a llo w ed f o r m ore c re ati v ity a nd s e lf- d ir e cti o n th an th e w ork d one b y f ie ld

hand s. W ork in g i n d oors , th ey c o oked , c le aned , d id l a und ry , s e w ed , a nd c are d f o r i n fa nts .

Alth o ugh th ey c o uld c o unt o n b ette r f o od a nd c lo th in g th an th eir c o unte rp arts i n th e f ie ld , th ey

were u nd er c lo se r s u p erv is io n, w ere o n c all b oth d ay a nd n ig ht, a nd w ere m ore o fte n i n v olv ed

in p ers o nality c o nflic ts w ith th e w hite f a m ily . A s p ut b y o ne h o use s e rv ant, “ W e w ere

co nsta ntl y e xp ose d to th e w him s a nd p assio ns o f e v ery m em ber o f th e f a m ily .” T his m eant

ev ery th in g f r o m a ssig nm ent to p etty j o bs to i n su lts , s p onta neo us a ngry w hip pin gs, a nd s e xual

assa ults .

Alth o ugh h o use s e rv ants w ere u nd er th e c lo se st s u rv eilla nce, c o m pare d to s la v es i n o th er

parts o f th e A meric as a ll s la v es i n th e U nite d S ta te s w ere r e la ti v ely c lo se ly s u p erv is e d . U nlik e

in C arib bean s la v e s o cie ti e s o r i n L ati n A meric a, s la v es, s la v eho ld ers , a nd o vers e ers i n th e

Unite d S ta te s l iv ed i n v ery c lo se p ro xim ity to e ach o th er. I n J a m aic a, f o r i n sta nce, o ne-th ir d o f

all s la v es l iv ed o n e sta te s w ith tw o h und re d s la v es o r m ore , a nd th re e-q uarte rs o f a ll s la v es

liv ed o n h o ld in gs o f a t l e ast f ifty . S uch l a rg e n um bers o f b ond sm en m ad e c lo se s u p erv is io n o f

sla v e l ife a nd w ork i m possib le .

In th e U nite d S ta te s, b y c o ntr a st, s u ch l a rg e p la nta ti o ns w ere r a re . O nly o ne-q uarte r o f a ll

sla v es l iv ed o n p la nta ti o ns w ith m ore th an f ifty s la v es. S in ce m ost l iv ed o n h o ld in gs o f te n to

fo rty -n in e s la v es, a nd a b out o ne-q uarte r l iv ed o n v ery s m all h o ld in gs o f o ne to n in e s la v es,

sla v e w ork a nd l ife w as c o nsta ntl y m onito re d a nd s u p erv is e d s o th at m aste rs c o uld r e ap e v ery

bit o f p ro fit to w hic h th ey th o ught th ey w ere e nti tl e d .

Of c o urs e , s la v e m aste rs l ik e to th in k th at s la v es w ere h ap pie st w hen th ey w ere a t w ork .

Som e e v en m ad e th is c la im a s p art o f th e p ro -s la v ery a rg um ent. B ut m ost s la v eho ld ers

und ers to od th at i t w as th e th re at o f p hysic al p unis h m ent th at k ep t s la v es h ard a t th eir j o bs. I n

fa ct, th e s u b m is sio n o f m ost s la v es w as n ev er p erfe ct, a nd th ey c o uld s e ld om d o a s m uch w ork

as f a st a s th e o w ners d em and ed . T his i s o ne r e aso n w hy s la v es w ere w hip ped : to g et th em to

work h ard er, f a ste r. T his w as c erta in ly th e c ase o n E dw in E ppes’s L ouis ia na p la nta ti o n, w here

th e e nd o f th e c o tto n-p ic kin g d ay b ro ught f e ar i n ste ad o f r e lie f. A t s u nd ow n th e c o tto n w as

weig hed , a nd n o m atte r h o w m uch c o tto n th ey h ad p ic ked , th e s la v es c arrie d th eir c o tto n to th e

gin h o use i n f e ar. A s to ld b y k id nap ped s la v e S olo m on N orth up , “ If i t f a lls s h o rt i n w eig ht— if

he h as n o t p erfo rm ed th e f u ll ta sk a p poin te d h im , h e k no w s th at h e m ust s u ffe r. A nd i f h e h as

exceed ed i t b y te n o r tw enty p ound s, i n a ll p ro bab ility h is m aste r w ill m easu re th e n ext d ay’s

ta sk a cco rd in gly . S o w heth er h e h as to o l ittl e o r to o m uch, h is a p pro ach to th e g in -h o use i s

alw ays w ith f e ar a nd tr e m blin g… . A fte r w eig hin g, f o llo w th e w hip pin gs.”

On a nte b ellu m S outh ern p la nta ti o ns w hip pin g a nd w ork w ent h and i n h and . F or i n sta nce, o n

one A la b am a e sta te , w om en w ho h ad j u st g iv en b ir th to i n fa nts a nd w ere s ti ll c o nfin ed to th e

sla v e c ab in s h ad to s p in th re ad . A cco rd in g to a n e x-s la v e n am ed C ato , “ If th ey d id n o t s p in

se v en o r e ig ht c uts a d ay th ey g o t a w hip pin g.”

Overs e ers ’ a nd d riv ers ’ r e p orts te ll th e s a m e g ru eso m e s to ry . T hese b la ck a nd w hite m en

who w ork ed f o r s la v eho ld ers h ad th e p rim e r e sp onsib ility f o r th e p ro ducti o n o f th e c ro p.

White o vers e ers a tte nd ed to th e o vera ll d ay-to -d ay a nd s e aso n-to -s e aso n s tr a te gy o f p la nta ti o nTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

work , a nd b la ck d riv ers w ere o n-th e-s p ot d is c ip lin aria ns w ho m ad e s u re th e w ork g o t d one.

Charg ed w ith m anagin g s la v es to e nsu re th at th e p la nta ti o n tu rn ed a p ro fit, a nd f a ced w ith th e

lo ss o f th eir p ositi o n i f i t d id n o t, b oth o vers e er a nd d riv er u se d a ny m eans n ecessa ry to m ake

sla v es w ork a s h ard a s p ossib le . T his w as e sp ecia lly tr u e o n p la nta ti o ns w here th e o w ners

were a b se nt. W ith o ut th e s u p erv is io n o f s la v eho ld ers , w ho w ere o bvio usly

more i n te re ste d

th an th eir m anagers i n p ro te cti n g th eir i n v estm ent i n th e s la v es, o vers e ers a nd d riv ers c o uld

and o fte n d id u se a s m uch f o rc e a s th ey w ante d . T his d is tu rb ed th o se w ho w ere v ig o ro us

su p porte rs o f s la v ery . P ro -s la v ery S outh ern er D anie l R . H und le y a d m ir e d a nd d efe nd ed th e

South ’s i n sti tu ti o ns. N ev erth ele ss, h e a d m itte d th at “ th e o vers e ers o n m any s o uth ern p la nta ti o ns

are c ru el a nd u nm erc ifu lly s e v ere .”

Even th o se o vers e ers a nd d riv ers n o t c o nsid ere d e sp ecia lly b ru ta l r e v eale d th e i n here nt

vio le nce o f th e s y ste m . F or i n sta nce, i n o ne o f h is w eekly r e p orts R obert A lls to n’s o vers e er

casu ally n o te d th at h e h ad “ flo gged f o r h o ein g c o rn b ad F anny tw elv e l a sh es, S ylv ia tw elv e,

Mond ay tw elv e, P ho eb ee tw elv e, S usa nna tw elv e, S alin a tw elv e, C elia tw elv e, I r is tw elv e.”

Geo rg e S kip w ith , a b la ck d riv er f o r J o hn H artw ell C ocke, a V ir g in ia p la nte r, w as e q ually

lib era l w ith th e w hip . I n 1 847 h e r e p orte d to h is m aste r th at s e v era l s la v es w ho w ork ed u nd er

him “ at a r e aso nab le d ays w ork ” s h o uld h av e p lo w ed s e v en a cre s a p ie ce b ut h ad o nly d one

one a nd a h alf. T here fo re , w ith o ut a th o ught o f th e u nre aso nab le ness o f h is d em and s, a nd

with o ut s y m path y f o r th o se o f h is o w n r a ce, S kip w ith r e p orte d , “ I g av e th en te n l ic k a p eace

up on th eir s k in s [ a nd ] I g av e J u ly ann e ig ht o r te n l ic ks f o r m is p la cin g h er h o e.”

That S kip w ith w as b la ck a nd th at h e w ie ld ed th e w hip a s r e ad ily a s a ny w hite m an s h o uld

co m e a s n o s u rp ris e . I t w as to th e s la v eho ld ers ’ a d vanta ge to a llo w b la cks a m easu re o f

su p erv is io n o ver s o m e o f th e d ay-to -d ay w ork . N ot o nly c o uld o vers e ers n o t b e e v ery w here a t

once, b ut th eir te nure o n a p arti c ula r p la nta ti o n w as o fte n s h o rt- te rm . I n c o ntr a st, a s a s la v e,

and a v alu ed o ne a t th at, th e d riv er’s s e rv ic e w as p erp etu al, a nd b ecause i t w as, h e p ro vid ed

co nti n uity th at m ad e f o r th e s m ooth r u nnin g o f th e p la nta ti o n. S in ce d riv ers l iv ed w ith th e

sla v es, th eir s u p erv is o ry r o le e xte nd ed i n to th e a fte r-w ork h o urs , w hic h w ere s p ent a w ay f r o m

white o vers e ers . I n f a ct, i t w as th is f a m ilia rity w ith th e s la v es th at m ad e th e d riv ers s o

necessa ry . A lth o ugh i t w as i lle gal, s o m e m aste rs n ev er e v en h ir e d w hite o vers e ers , b ut r e lie d

on th e d riv er, a m an w ho u su ally k new a s m uch, i f n o t m ore , a b out th e d aily m anagem ent o f a

pla nta ti o n.

Lik e o vers e ers , d riv ers c am e w ith a ll k in d s o f te m pera m ents a nd s k ills . S om e w ere

parti c ula rly c ru el a nd m ean. T hey r a p ed w om en a nd u se d th eir p ow er to p re y o n th eir f e llo w

bond sm en. S uch w as th e d riv er r e m em bere d b y J a ne J o hnso n, a f o rm er S outh C aro lin a s la v e.

Acco rd in g to h er, th e d riv er w as “ d e m eanest m an, w hite o r b la ck.” O th er d riv ers , th o ugh, u se d

sk illfu l m eth o ds o f l e ad ers h ip to g et th eir w ay. T hey u se d th e w hip o nly w hen n ecessa ry . T hey

med ia te d d is p ute s b etw een s la v es a nd a cte d a s th eir r e p re se nta ti v e to th e m aste r. T hey e arn ed

th e r e sp ect o f th eir f e llo w s la v es a nd th ere fo re th eir c o m plia nce. S uch w as th e d riv er

re m em bere d b y W est T urn er o f V ir g in ia . T his d riv er w hip ped h ard o nly w hen th e m aste r w as

lo okin g. A t o th er ti m es “ he n ev er w ould b eat d em s la v es,” b ut ti e th em u p a nd p re te nd to b eat

th em .

How ev er th ey a cco m plis h ed th eir j o bs, d riv ers w ere p art a nd p arc el o f th e s y ste m th at n o tTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

only g o t m axim um w ork o ut o f th e s la v e b ut a ls o e nsu re d “ p erfe ct

su b m is sio n.” I n d eed ,

sla v eho ld ers c o uld c o m mand a s la v e’s l a b or o nly i f th ey c o uld m in im iz e th e s la v e’s r e sis ta nce

to th eir a uth o rity . R esis ta nce, n o m atte r h o w s lig ht, w as r ig htf u lly p erc eiv ed a s a r e fle cti o n o f

in d ep end ence. S in ce i n d ep end ence w as c le arly i n co m pati b le w ith s la v ery , a ll b ehav io r o n th e

part o f th e s la v e th at s u ggeste d e v en a h in t o f s e lf- d ete rm in ati o n h ad to b e s q uelc hed .

Dep end ence h ad to b e i n sti lle d . S la v es w ho s h o w ed to o m uch s e lf- d ir e cti o n w ere d eem ed

re b ellio us a nd j u d ged d angero us. P unis h m ent, th ere fo re , s e rv ed th e p urp ose o f m akin g s la v es

work , b ut i t a ls o f u ncti o ned to a w e th e s la v e w ith a s e nse o f th e m aste r’s p ow er. A nd p ow er i s

what th e m aste r u se d to m ake th e s la v e s ta nd i n f e ar.

The s la v eho ld er a nd h is f a m ily d em onstr a te d th eir p ow er i n a v arie ty o f w ays. T o b egin

with , th ey a lw ays m ad e th e s la v e s h o w d efe re nce, n o t j u st to th em b ut to a ll w hite p eo ple .

Sla v es h ad to b ow i n th e p re se nce o f w hite s, th ey h ad to g iv e w ay to w hite s w alk in g i n th eir

path , a nd th ey w ere s u b je ct to w hip pin gs g iv en b y w hite c hild re n. W hen th ey a p pro ached th e

overs e er o r th e m aste r th ey h ad to s h o w h um ility . O n C harle s B all’s p la nta ti o n th e s la v es,

acco rd in g to o ne o f B all’s f o rm er s la v es, “ w ere a lw ays o blig ed to a p pro ach th e d oor o f th e

mansio n, i n th e m ost h um ble a nd s u p plic ati n g m anner, w ith o ur h ats i n o ur h and s, a nd th e m ost

su b dued a nd b ese echin g l a nguage i n o ur m outh s.”

Hand i n h and w ith h um ility w ent c heerfu ln ess. S la v eho ld ers f e are d th e r e b ellio usn ess o f

sla v es w ho s h o w ed d is sa ti s fa cti o n, a nd th ere fo re d id n o t to le ra te s u lle n o r s o rro w fu l m oods.

Form er s la v e H enry W ats o n n o te d th at “ th e s la v eho ld er w atc hes e v ery m ove o f th e s la v e, a nd

if h e i s d ow ncast o r s a d ,— in f a ct, i f th ey a re i n a ny m ood b ut l a ughin g a nd s in gin g, a nd

manife sti n g s y m pto m s o f p erfe ct c o nte nt a t h eart,— th ey a re s a id to h av e th e d ev il i n th em .”

The p ow er to m ake s la v es w ork a nd to s h o w d efe re nce a nd f a ls e h ap pin ess w as g ra nte d to

sla v eho ld ers b y s ta te a nd c ity l e gis la tu re s th ro ugh s ta tu te s c alle d s la v e c o des. H is to ria ns

deb ate th e p ro te cti o ns a ffo rd ed b la cks b y s la v e l a w s, b ut i t i s c le ar th at th ro ugho ut th e S outh

th e l e gal s y ste m w as d esig ned to p ro te ct th e i n te re sts o f w hite s la v e o w ners . S la v ery d iffe re d

as o ne w ent f r o m o ne r e gio n o f th e S outh to a no th er, f r o m o ne c ro p to a no th er, e v en f r o m o ne

maste r to a no th er. W hat g av e th e s y ste m i ts u nifo rm ity , h o w ev er, w as th e c o nsis te ncy o f s o cia l

th o ught o n th e m atte r o f s la v eho ld er p ow er. M anife ste d th ro ugho ut th e S outh i n th e s la v e c o des,

th e w hite S outh ’s th in kin g a b out s la v ery l e ft th e e nsla v ed n o l e gal m eans to c halle nge a cti o ns

co m mitte d a gain st th em i n v io la ti o n o f th e l a w .

The L ouis ia na s la v e c o de w as ty p ic al o f o th er s ta te a nd c ity c o des. T he v ery f ir s t p ro vis io n

sta te d th at th e s la v e “ o w es to h is m aste r, a nd to h is f a m ily , a r e sp ect w ith o ut b ound s, a nd a n

ab so lu te o bed ie nce.” T he c o de d efin ed s la v es a s p ro perty th at c o uld b e “ se iz e d a nd s o ld a s

re al e sta te .” M ost o f th e p ro vis io ns s ta te d w hat s la v es w ere p ro hib ite d f r o m d oin g. F or

in sta nce, s la v es c o uld n o t tr a v el w ith o ut a p ass, n o r a sse m ble i n g ro up s. T hey w ere p ro hib ite d

fr o m b uyin g a nd s e llin g a ny k in d o f g o ods a nd th ey c o uld n o t c arry a rm s, n o r r id e h o rs e s

with o ut th e p erm is sio n o f th eir m aste r. B esid es d ic ta ti n g th e b ehav io r o f b la cks, th e c o des a ls o

re str ic te d th e

acti o ns o f w hite s. W hite s c o uld n o t s e ll to , o r b uy a nyth in g f r o m , s la v es. W hite s

co uld n o t te ach s la v es to r e ad o r w rite , a nd a s la v eho ld er c o uld n o t f r e e a s la v e w ith o ut

posti n g a th o usa nd d olla r b ond g uara nte ein g th at th e f r e ed s la v e w ould l e av e th e s ta te . T he

co de a ls o m ad e d eath th e p enalty a s la v e s u ffe re d i f h e o r s h e w illfu lly h arm ed th e m aste r, To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

mis tr e ss, th eir c hild re n, o r th e o vers e er. I f a s la v e s e t f ir e to th e c ro p o r a ny p art o f th e o w ner’s

pro perty , i f a s la v e r a p ed a ny w hite f e m ale o r a ssa ulte d a ny w hite p ers o n i n a n a tte m pt to

esc ap e f r o m s la v ery , th e c o de a ls o m ad e d eath th e p unis h m ent.

Wheth er o r n o t th e s la v e c o des w ere e nfo rc ed , th e s to rie s to ld b y e x-s la v es r e v eal th is

sy ste m o f f o rc ed l a b or to b e j u st a s c ru el a nd i n hum ane a s th e s ta tu te s s u ggest i t w as. E ven th e

“kin d est” m aste rs k ep t th eir s la v es i llite ra te , b ro ke u p f a m ilie s th ro ugh s a le , g av e th em to o

much w ork , a nd f e d th eir s la v es a d ie t th at l a cked f r e sh m eat, d air y p ro ducts , a nd v egeta b le s.

Thro ugho ut th e S outh s la v e c hild re n w ere d enie d p ro per p hysic al c are a nd e m oti o nal s u p port,

and a d ult s la v es w ere s tr ip ped n aked a nd w hip ped i n f r o nt o f f a m ily a nd f r ie nd s f o r th e

slig hte st i n fr a cti o ns. S ad ly , to o, th e p re se nce o f th o usa nd s o f m ula tto c hild re n g av e u nd enia b le

te sti m ony to th e f r e q uency o f th e s e xual a b use o f b la ck w om en.

And y et, A fr ic an A meric ans s u rv iv ed th is b arb arity b ette r th an a ny e nsla v ed b la ck p eo ple

in th e W este rn H em is p here . S urv iv al w as a tr ib ute to th e N orth A meric an s la v e’s a b ility to

ad ap t a nd r e sis t, a nd to c re ate c o m muniti e s th at n o uris h ed th e s tr e ngth i t to ok to r e sis t s o m e o f

th e m ost i n hum ane a sp ects o f th e s y ste m .

Sla ve C om munit ie s

In th e s la v e q uarte rs , f a r r e m oved f r o m th e e yes a nd e ars o f th e s la v e m aste r a nd h is f a m ily ,

sla v e p are nts to ld th eir c hild re n th e n o w -c la ssic s to ry o f B r’e r R ab bit, th e W olf, a nd T ar B ab y.

The s to ry b egin s w hen th e s tr o ng a nd p ow erfu l W olf c re ate s a s ti c ky d oll, o r T ar B ab y, to tr a p

Rab bit, w ho i s i n q uis iti v e a nd s ly . W hile w alk in g th ro ugh th e w oods o ne d ay, R ab bit c o m es

up on T ar B ab y s itti n g b y th e s id e o f th e r o ad , w here i t h as b een p la ced b y W olf. B ein g a

fr ie nd ly s o rt, R ab bit g re ets i t w ith a “ H ello , h o w dy d o.” W hen T ar B ab y d oes n o t r e p ly , th e

angry R ab bit h its th e b ab y d oll. F ir s t o ne h and g ets s tu ck, th en th e o th er. L osin g h is te m per

ev en f u rth er, R ab bit k ic ks T ar B ab y a nd b utts i t w ith h is h ead , o nly to g et h is e nti r e b ody s tu ck

to T ar B ab y.

When W olf a rriv es to c o lle ct R ab bit, h e d ecid es to k ill h im b y b urn in g h im i n th e b ru sh .

In ste ad o f c rin gin g i n f e ar, R ab bit’ s c le v er r e sp onse i s to p re te nd th at h e w ants to f e el th e

warm th o f f ir e o n h is c o at. W olf f a lls f o r R ab bit’ s d ecep ti o n a nd d ecid es th at th e th o rn y b ria r

patc h m ig ht b e a m ore s u ita b le p unis h m ent. R ab bit, h o w ev er, k no w s th at i f h e g ets th ro w n i n

th e b ria r p atc h h e c an w ork h is w ay l o ose f r o m T ar B ab y a nd e sc ap e. H e th ere fo re p re te nd s to

crin ge a t W olf ’s th re at: “ M erc y, m erc y, w hate v er y o u d o, p le ase d on’t th ro w m e i n th e b ria r

patc h.” W olf f a lls f o r R ab bit’ s f e ig ned te rro r a nd th ro w s h im i n th e b ria r p atc h, w here up on

Rab bit m akes a q uic k e sc ap e.

In th e a sso rtm ent o f ta le s to ld b y a d ult s la v es to th e y o ung w as a no th er a b out a v ery

ta lk ati v e s la v e. I n th is ta le , th e s la v e c o m es a cro ss a f r o g w ho c an s p eak. A maze d a t s u ch a

wond er, th e s la v e r u ns a nd te lls h is m aste r o f th is m ir a cle . T he m aste r d oes n o t b elie v e th e

sla v e a nd th re ate ns to p unis h h im i f h e i s l y in g. W hen th e f r o g r e fu se s to ta lk f o r th e m aste r, th e

sla v e i s b eate n s e v ere ly . O nly w hen th e m aste r l e av es d oes th e f r o g s p eak, s a yin g, “ A to l’ y uh

‘d e o th ah d ay, y uh ta lk to o m uch.”

These a re o nly tw o o f th e h und re d s o f ta le s th at w ere to ld i n th e s la v e q uarte rs , b ut i f w eTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

use th ese ta le s to r e p re se nt p la nta ti o n l ife , th ey te ll u s a g re at d eal a b out th e r e la ti o nsh ip

betw een s la v es a nd m aste rs . O ne th in g th ey te ll u s i s th at m aste rs d id n o t a lw ays h av e th eir

way. W olf h ad R ab bit i n h is c o ntr o l, a t h is m erc y, b ut h e w as s ti ll u nab le to c o nq uer h im .

Sla v es l e arn ed f r o m th is . T hey l e arn ed th at q uic k-w itte d ness w as a n e sse nti a l s u rv iv al tr a it,

and th at d ecep ti o n c o uld g iv e th e w eak s o m e c o ntr o l o ver th e s tr o ng, a llo w in g th e p ow erle ss to

su rv iv e w ith a m in im al a m ount o f p hysic al o r e m oti o nal a ssa ult. T he s to ry a ls o l a id b are th e

co ncep ts th at m ig ht d id n o t a lw ays m ake f o r r ig ht, a nd th at r a sh b ehav io r, l ik e th at i n d ulg ed i n

by R ab bit, s e ld om y ie ld ed r e w ard s. T hese w ere i m porta nt l e sso ns f o r th e s la v e c hild . T hey

were l e sso ns a b out l ife — no t a l ife th at w as d is ta nt a nd a b str a ct, b ut o ne th e s la v e h ad to l iv e

ev ery d ay.

The s a m e w as tr u e o f th e s e co nd s to ry . T ho ugh s im ple r th an th e f ir s t, i t ta ught y o ung b la cks

im porta nt l e sso ns a b out s u rv iv al. F ir s t, i t s h o w ed th e s la v e’s w orld to b e u np re d ic ta b le .

Where e ls e b ut i n a w orld f ille d w ith u ncerta in ty w ould a f r o g s p eak, a nd s p eak to a p ow erle ss

sla v e, a t th at? I n th e s la v e’s r e al w orld , m aste rs , a ngry a t G od k no w s w hat, m ig ht l a sh o ut a t a

sla v e a t a ny m om ent. A m is tr e ss m ig ht a ll o f a s u d den f in d f a ult w ith h er h o use m aid a nd s tr ik e

out w ith a f is t o r a f o ot. A y ear o r tw o o f b ad h arv ests m ig ht l e ad to a s la v eho ld er’s f in ancia l

ru in , f o rc in g h im to s e ll s o m e o f h is s la v es. T his m ig ht s e p ara te p are nt f r o m c hild , h usb and

fr o m w ife , b ro th er f r o m s is te r.

What th e s la v e l e arn ed f r o m th e s to ry o f th e ta lk in g f r o g w as th at th e b est d efe nse a gain st

unp re d ic ta b ility w as s ile nce, th e k ey to s e cre cy. S ile nce k ep t m aste rs i g no ra nt o f e v ery th in g

th at w ent o n b ehin d th eir b acks: th e f o od s la v es s to le , th e r e lig io us s e rv ic es h eld i n s e cre t, th e

esc ap es m ad e b y th e b old est o f s la v es, th e a nger a nd h atr e d th at b la cks f e lt to w ard w hite s.

Sile nce p ro te cte d th e s la v e q uarte rs . I t k ep t th e s la v e f a m ily a nd th e s la v e’s r e lig io us l ife

re m oved f r o m w hite i n v asio n. I n o th er w ord s, th e s to ry ta ught th e s la v e c hild h o w to p ro te ct

Afr ic an-A meric an p la nta ti o n c o m muniti e s.

If m aste rs c o uld h av e s u rv iv ed w ith o ut th e s la v e c o m munity th ey n o d oub t w ould h av e.

Work , n o t c o m munity , w as w hat th ey w ante d m ost f r o m s la v es. R ela ti o nsh ip s th at g av e th e

sla v e p oin ts o f r e fe re nce o uts id e o f th eir i n flu ence w ere n o t a s i m porta nt a s th o se th at p ut th e

sla v e u nd er th eir c o ntr o l. T hey d id n o t w ant b ond ed m en a nd w om en to h av e to o m any r o le s

th at w ere i n d ep end ent o f th at a ssig ned to th em . T here fo re , to th e m aste r, th e f a ct th at A fr ic an

Americ ans w ere

pare nts , p re achers , o r a nyth in g o th er th an l a b ore rs w as i m mate ria l. T hey

dem and ed , a nd u su ally g o t, o bed ie nt w ork ers .

And y et, b ecause m aste rs a nd s la v es w ere l o cked i n a c ycle o f m utu al d ep end ency th at b oth

und ers to od, th eir d em and s a id ed th e d ev elo pm ent o f th e s la v e c o m munity . S la v es k new th at th e

la w s o f s la v ery g av e th e m aste r th e p ow er o f l ife a nd d eath ; a nd th at th ese l a w s i n tu rn m ad e

th em d ep end ent o n th eir m aste r’s g o od w ill. B ut th ey a ls o k new th at a s l o ng a s s la v e o w ners

re lie d o n th em f o r th eir w ealth th ere w ere l im its to th e s la v eho ld er’s p ow er. M aste rs

und ers to od th is to o. T hey h ad th e p ow er o f l ife a nd d eath o ver th e s la v e, b ut d ead s la v es c o uld

no t c ulti v ate c ro ps, a nd i n ju re d o r r e b ellio us s la v es c o uld n o t w ork . I n th e e nd b oth m aste r a nd

sla v e s e ttl e d o n a n a rra ngem ent th at to ok i n to a cco unt th is m utu al d ep end ence. T ho ugh c o m ple x

in i ts w ork in gs, th e r e la ti o nsh ip th at d ev elo ped w as r e ally q uite s im ple . I n g enera l, a s l o ng a s

sla v es d id th eir w ork w ith d ilig ence, d efe re nce, a nd o bed ie nce, m aste rs a llo w ed th em s o m eTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

dis c re ti o n o ver h o w th ey s p ent th eir n o n-w ork ti m e.

The s la v e f a m ily w as a t th e c ente r o f l ife o n th e p la nta ti o n, b ut w as v ie w ed i n d iffe re nt

ways b y th e m aste r a nd h is e nsla v ed w ork ers . F or th e m aste r, s la v e f a m ilie s p ro vid ed a m eans

of o rg aniz in g th e p la nta ti o n. R ath er th an th e b arra ck-s ty le l iv in g th at o ne f o und i n th e

Carib bean a nd L ati n A meric a, s la v es i n th e A meric an S outh l iv ed i n q uarte rs w ith th eir

fa m ilie s. T hese l iv in g a rra ngem ents m ad e f o r l e ss r e b ellio usn ess a m ong th e s la v es, a f a ct o f

whic h m aste rs to ok a d vanta ge.

Alth o ugh s la v e o w ners u se d th e s la v e f a m ily to m ain ta in c o ntr o l o ver b ond ed m en a nd

wom en, th eir m ost o bvio us u se f o r th e f a m ily w as to r e p ro duce th e s la v e p opula ti o n. T his w as

esp ecia lly s o a fte r th e f o re ig n s la v e tr a d e b ecam e i lle gal i n 1 807. A fte r th at th e o nly l e gal w ay

fo r a m aste r to i n cre ase h is h o ld in gs i n s la v es w as to p urc hase th em f r o m a no th er s la v eho ld er

or a s la v e tr a d er, o r to e nco ura ge h is o w n s la v es to h av e c hild re n. T he l a tte r m eans w as

pre fe rre d b ecause i t w as c heap er, e asie r, a nd th e m ost n atu ra l— natu ra l b ecause s la v es h ad

th eir o w n r e aso ns f o r w anti n g to h av e c hild re n, a nd e asie r b ecause i t u su ally d id n o t r e q uir e

fo rc efu l i n te rv enti o n b y th e m aste r.

Fam ilie s th ere fo re w ere i n th e m aste r’s b est i n te re st a nd f e rti lity s ta ti s ti c s p ro ve i t. I n e ach

year b etw een 1 800 a nd th e C iv il W ar m ore th an o ne-fifth o f th e b la ck w om en b etw een th e a ges

of f ifte en a nd f o rty -fo ur y ears o f a ge b ore a c hild . O n a v era ge f e m ale s la v es h ad th eir f ir s t

child a t a ge n in ete en, tw o y ears b efo re th e a v era ge S outh ern w hite w om an h ad h ers . S la v e

wom en c o nti n ued h av in g c hild re n a t tw o-a nd -a -h alf- y ear i n te rv als u nti l th ey r e ached th e a ge o f

th ir ty -n in e o r f o rty . I t b ears r e p eati n g th at th is l e v el o f f e rti lity i s w hat m ad e N orth A meric an

sla v ery u niq ue i n th e W este rn H em is p here . I n m ost o th er p la ces s la v e o w ners r e lie d h eav ily o n

purc hasin g n ew s la v es f r o m A fr ic a.

To s a y th at s la v e o w ners d ep end ed o n n atu ra l i n cre ase i s n o t to s a y th at th ey d id n o t tr y

hard to m anip ula te f a m ily f o rm ati o n. I n a d diti o n to th e v erb al p ro ddin g to e nco ura ge y o ung

wom en to r e p ro duce, s la v e o w ners u se d m ore s u b tl e te chniq ues a s p art o f th e m anagem ent o f

th eir p la nta ti o ns. F or e xam ple , m ost, th o ugh b y n o m eans a ll, p re gnant a nd n urs in g w om en d id

le ss w ork a nd r e ceiv ed m ore f o od th an n o n-p re gnant w om en. F ra nces K em ble r e p orte d th at o n

her h usb and ’s G eo rg ia a nd S outh C aro lin a r ic e p la nta ti o ns, w hen c hild re n w ere b orn “ certa in

ad diti o ns o f c lo th in g a nd a n a d diti o nal w eekly r a ti o n w ere b esto w ed u p on th e f a m ily .” I f

in d ucem ents s u ch a s th ese w ere n o t s u ffic ie nt to s e cure th e c o opera ti o n o f th e s la v e o f

child bearin g a ge, th e m aste r a lw ays h ad r e co urs e to p unis h m ent. A cco rd in g to e x-s la v e B erry

Cla y, “ a b arre n w om en w as s e p ara te d f r o m h er h usb and a nd u su ally s o ld .” A nd i t w as n o t

unco m mon f o r s la v eho ld ers to d em and th eir m oney b ack f o r f e m ale s la v es th ey h ad p urc hase d

who l a te r p ro ved i n cap ab le o f g iv in g b ir th . To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

Child re n w ere g iv en c ho re s a t a n e arly a ge. H ere , w om en a nd c hild re n w ork a nd p la y i n f r o nt

of th eir c ab in s d urin g a b re ak.

Because m ost s la v es th em se lv es w ante d a f a m ily l ife , th ey a cti v ely s o ught o ut th eir o w n

mate s a nd d id w hat th ey c o uld to m ake th e f a m ily a s ta b le u nit. I t w as h ard , o f c o urs e . T he

sla v e m aste r’s p ow er w as d is ru p ti v e. B ut i t w as th e f a m ily th at s o fte ned th e i m pact o f th at

pow er. T he f a m ily w as th e b uffe r th at s to od b etw een th e m aste r a nd th e i n d iv id ual s la v e.

Only i n th e e yes o f th e l a w a nd th e m aste r w ere s la v e m arria ges n o t b in d in g. F or

sla v es

who h ad c ho se n th eir o w n s p ouse s, m arria ge v ow s w ere s a cre d . I t d id n o t m atte r th at th e

cere m ony w as o fte n a s im ple r itu al, s o m eti m es a cco m panie d b y th e a ct o f j u m pin g o ver a

bro om to s y m boliz e th e b egin nin g o f d om esti c l iv in g to geth er. F or s la v es, i t w as a tte nd ed w ith

re v ere nce.

And f o r g o od r e aso n. T he f a m ily g av e th e s la v e a p oin t o f r e fe re nce th at d id n o t b egin a nd

end w ith th e m aste r. I t g av e b ond ed m en a nd w om en th e r o le o f p are nt. I t g av e th eir c hild re n

th e s ib lin g r o le , w hic h e v olv ed i n to th e r o le s o f a unt a nd u ncle . W ith th e f a m ily , s la v es b ecam e

pro vid ers a nd p ro te cto rs f o r th eir s p ouse s a nd th eir c hild re n. I f p are nts w ere l u cky e no ugh to

su rv iv e i n to o ld a ge w ith o ut b ein g s e p ara te d , a nd u su ally i t w as a m oth er s u rv iv in g w ith a

daughte r, th en th e m oth er c o uld c o unt o n h er d aughte r’s c are . C le arly , f a m ily l ife h ap pened

with in th e c o nstr a in ts o f s la v ery , b ut th e l ittl e r o om l e ft b y th e m aste r’s d ep end ence o n th e

sla v e a llo w ed i t to h ap pen n ev erth ele ss.

Courts h ip p atte rn s s h o w h o w th e s la v e c o m munity a nd th e f a m ily a b so rb ed s o m uch o f th e

pain a nd d esp era ti o n o f s la v ery . F or i n sta nce, d urin g th e w eek th e c lo th es o f f ie ld w ork ers

were ta tte re d a nd d ir ty , b ut o n S und ays s la v es w ore th eir b est c lo th in g. T his m ad e a r e al

diffe re nce i n th eir o th erw is e d re ary l iv es, e sp ecia lly th e l iv es o f s la v e w om en. O n S und ays

th ey w ore d re sse s th at h ad b een p acked a ll w eek i n s w eet- s m ellin g f lo w ers a nd h erb s, d re sse s To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

perfu m ed to a ttr a ct th e o pposite s e x. E x-s la v e G us F easte r h ad p le asa nt r e m em bra nces o f th e

wom en w ho “ to ok th eir h air d ow n o ute n th e s tr in gs,” w ho c harm ed th e m en “ w id h o neysu ckle

and r o se p eta ls h id i n d ere b oso m s,” a nd w ho “ d rie d c hennyb errie s a nd p ain te d d em a nd

wo’e m o n a s tr in g a ro und d ere n ecks.” I f c o urts h ip a llo w ed f o r f e m in in e e xp re ssio n, i t a ls o

gav e m en th e o pportu nity to d em onstr a te m asc ulin ity i n a d om ain n o t c o ntr o lle d b y th e m aste r.

When th ese c o urts h ip r itu als r e su lte d i n m arria ge, th e s la v e c o uld c o unt o n a n e v en g re ate r

varie ty o f r o le s, n o t to m enti o n a n ew k in d o f c o m panio nsh ip . F ro m e ach o th er, s la v e h usb and s

and w iv es c o uld c o unt o n c o m passio n.

In w hat w as, b y n ecessity , a n e galita ria n m arita l r e la ti o nsh ip , b oth p are nts p ro vid ed w hat

extr a s th ey c o uld f o r e ach o th er, th eir c hild re n, a nd o th er r e la ti v es. A s p are nts , s la v es a ls o

ed ucate d th eir c hild re n. P art o f th at e d ucati o n i n clu d ed te achin g th e c hild re n h o w to b eco m e

go od p are nts a nd p ro vid ers w hen th ey g re w o ld er. F ath ers to ok p rid e i n te achin g th eir s o ns

ho w to tr a p w ild tu rk eys a nd r a b bits , h o w to r u n d ow n a nd c atc h r a cco ons, h o w to b uild

cano es o ut o f g re at o ak l o gs. M oth ers ta ught th eir d aughte rs h o w to q uilt a nd s e w , a nd h unt a nd

fis h , to o. B oth p are nts to ld th eir k id s th e a nim al s to rie s th at ta ught s o m any l e sso ns a b out h o w

to l iv e i n a c ru el a nd u ncerta in w orld . A nd u su ally , a t th eir o w n p eril, b oth p are nts d id w hat

th ey c o uld to s h o w th eir c hild re n h o w to p ro te ct th eir o w n. A c ase i n p oin t i n v olv ed th e m oth er

of F annie M oore . W ith p rid e, M oore r e calle d th at i n th e f a ce o f h atr e d f r o m “ d e o ld o vers e er,”

her m oth er s to od u p f o r h er c hild re n a nd w ould n o t l e t th em b e b eate n. F or th at “ sh e g et m ore

whip pin … d an a nyth in ’ e ls e .”

Lest w e e rr o n th e s id e o f i d ealis m , i t s h o uld b e r e m em bere d th at f o r a ll th e g o od th e f a m ily

co uld d o f o r th e s la v e i t c o uld a ls o b e a s o urc e o f h eartb re ak a nd d id i n f a ct l e sse n r e sis ta nce

to th e m aste r. F ew m en w ho h ad r o m anti c r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith w om en e sc ap ed w ith o ut w ound ed

prid e, e nd urin g a nger, a nd a d im in is h ed s e nse o f m anho od. L ouis H ughes s to od s ta rk s ti ll,

blo od b oilin g, a s h is m aste r c ho ked h is w ife f o r ta lk in g b ack to th e m is tr e ss. H is w ife w as

su b se q uentl y ti e d to a j o is t i n a b arn a nd b eate n w hile h e s to od p ow erle ss to d o a nyth in g f o r

her. T he f a m ily w as a ls o th e s c ene o f d om esti c v io le nce. W hen E lle n B otts ’s m oth er s h o w ed

up i n th e k itc hen o f a s u gar p la nta ti o n w ith a l u m p o n h er h ead i t w as b ecause h er h o t- te m pere d

husb and h ad p ut i t th ere . A nd f o r a ll th at p are nts c o uld d o f o r th eir o ffs p rin g, th ey c o uld n o t

sh ie ld th em f r o m th e p ain fu l r e aliti e s o f p erp etu al s e rv itu d e, f r o m th e w hip , o r f r o m th e

kno w le d ge th at w hate v er i n str u cti o ns th ey g av e th em , m aste rs a nd m is tr e sse s h ad th e u lti m ate

auth o rity . To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

When th e o w ner o f th ese s la v es m oved to E uro pe, h e a ucti o ned o ff h is s la v es i n d iv id ually .

Sla v e f a m ilie s l iv ed w ith th e c o nsta nt f e ar th at th ey c o uld b e to rn a p art o r s o ld a w ay f r o m o ne

ano th er a t a ny m om ent.

And y et i n th e s la v e’s v ie w , th e f a m ily , w ith a ll th at c o uld g o w ro ng w ith i t, w as th e m ost

im porta nt u nit o n th e p la nta ti o n. S o m uch s o th at w hen f a m ily m em bers w ere s e p ara te d b y s a le

or d eath , u nre la te d m em bers o f th e s la v e c o m munity f ille d i n a s k in . I f a c hild w as l e ft

moth erle ss o r f a th erle ss a n a unt o r u ncle o r c lo se f r ie nd “ ad opte d ” th e c hild a nd b ecam e i ts

moth er o r f a th er. O ld er c o m munity m em bers b ecam e g ra nd pare nts to c hild re n w ho h ad n o ne.

When m en f r o m U pper S outh s la v e s ta te s l ik e V ir g in ia a nd N orth C aro lin a w ere s o ld to th e

new L ow er S outh s ta te s o f M is sis sip pi, A la b am a, a nd A rk ansa s th ey c re ate d b ro th ers a nd

sis te rs o f s la v es w ho , l ik e th em se lv es, h ad b een s e p ara te d f r o m th eir r e al f a m ily . A lw ays th ere

was th is f a m ilia l b ond in g, a lw ays th e s e arc h f o r a n i d enti ty th at m ad e th e s la v e m ore th an a

beast o f b urd en.

The s la v e’s s a cre d w orld , r e fle cte d i n s o ng, m usic , r e lig io n, a nd f o lk b elie fs , w as a no th er

sp ace A fr ic an A meric ans c re ate d a p art f r o m th e r e alm o f th e s la v e m aste r. L ik e th e f a m ily , th e

sa cre d w orld p ut d is ta nce b etw een th e m aste r a nd th e s la v e. I t p re v ente d l e gal s la v ery f r o m

ta kin g o ver th e s o ul. E ven m ore th an th e f a m ily , w hic h c o uld a fte r a ll b e s p lit a p art a nd To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

affe cte d i n o th er w ays b y w hite s, th e s a cre d w orld , th e w orld th at g re w f r o m th e s p ir it,

in hab ite d a n u nto uchab le s p here .

But a s th ey d id w ith th e s la v e’s f a m ily , s la v eho ld ers tr ie d to c o ntr o l i t a nd u se i t to th eir

ad vanta ge. T hey e sp ecia lly tr ie d to u se r e lig io n a s a m eans o f s o cia l c o ntr o l. “ Y ou w ill f in d ,”

wro te T ho m as A ffle ck i n h is i n str u cti o ns to o vers e ers , “ th at a n h o ur d ev ote d e v ery S ab bath

morn in g to [ s la v es’] m ora l a nd r e lig io us i n str u cti o n w ould p ro ve a g re at a id to y o u i n b rin gin g

ab out a b ette r s ta te o f th in gs a m ongst th e N egro es.” F ro m th e s la v eho ld er’s p oin t o f v ie w a

bette r s ta te o f th in gs m eant m ore o bed ie nce, l e ss s te alin g, m ore h ard w ork . S la v e te sti m ony

re v eals th at w hite p re achers a lw ays s tr e sse d th ese p oin ts . H annah S co tt r e se nte d i t: “ A ll h e

sa y i s ‘ b ed ie nce to d e w hite f o lk s, a nd w e h ears ‘ n o ugh o f d at w ith o ut h im te llin ’ u s.” T he

re lig io n th e m aste rs o rd ere d f o r th e s la v e w as n o t o nly m eant to d ir e ctl y c o ntr o l th e s la v e; i t

was a ls o a n a tte m pt to m ake s la v ery s a fe r a nd l e giti m ate . I t w as n o m ere c o in cid ence th at

maste rs b egan h ir in g p re achers i n g re at n um bers a ro und 1 830, th e s a m e ti m e th at th e p ro -

sla v ery a rg um ent w as p ush ed w ith g re ate r i n te nsity . B oth e ase d th e s o m eti m es tr o ub le d m in d o f

th e s la v e m aste r. R elig io us i n str u cti o n g av e s la v eho ld ers th e m eans o f i m parti n g th eir o w n

co de o f m ora lity , w hile i t a ls o g av e th em a w ay to p ro ve to th em se lv es th at th ey w ere r e ally

tr y in g to u p lift th o se th ey h ad d ecla re d b arb aric h eath ens. T he th o ught th at r e lig io n c o uld m ake

sla v ery s a fe r b y m akin g s la v es l e ss r e b ellio us w as a n a d diti o nal s o urc e o f p sy chic c o m fo rt.

For m aste rs w ho f e are d th at s la v e o w ners h ip d am med th eir o w n s o uls , th e r e lig io us i n str u cti o n

th ey g av e th eir s la v es w as th e m eans b y w hic h th ey h o ped to r e d eem th em se lv es.

A p la nta ti o n o w ner a nd h is f a m ily a tte nd c hurc h s e rv ic es w ith th eir s la v es. S la v eho ld ers tr ie d

to u se r e lig io n a s a to ol to m ore f u lly d om in ate th e l iv es o f th eir s la v es.

Maste rs m ad e s im ila r u se o f o th er a sp ects o f th e s la v e’s s a cre d w orld . S la v e s o ng, f o r

in sta nce, w as ta ken b y th em a nd th eir f a m ilie s a s e v id ence o f th e s la v es’ h ap pin ess. O n s o m e

pla nta ti o ns th e s la v e’s m usic e v en b ecam e th e c ente rp ie ce o f e nte rta in m ent, w ith b la cks a sk ed To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

to p erfo rm th eir s p ir itu als a nd p la y th eir i n str u m ents b efo re i n v ite d w hite g uests . T hese

perfo rm ances l e nt th e a p peara nce o f m aste r a nd s la v e l o cked i n h arm onio us b lis s, e ach c o nte nt

with th eir s ta tu s a nd r a nk, e ach s a ti s fie d w ith th eir p arti c ula r “ p la ce.”

Appeara nces, th o ugh, w ere d eceiv in g, e sp ecia lly to th e m aste r. S la v e r e lig io n, a nd th e s o ng

th at w as a n i n te gra l p art o f i t, r e fle cte d a w orld th e m aste r c o uld n o t s e e. T hey w ere th e

outw ard m anife sta ti o n o f a w orld vie w p osse sse d b y b la ck p eo ple . T ogeth er w ith f o lk b elie fs

and s la v e ta le s, r e lig io n a nd m usic d em onstr a te d n o t th at s la v es w ere c o nte nt, n o r th at s la v ery

was s a fe . T he s a cre d w orld o f b la ck p eo ple d em onstr a te d th e i n d om ita b le s tr e ngth o f th e

sp ir it.

Chris ti a nity i s a p rim e e xam ple . I t w as g iv en to s la v es o ne w ay, b ut d ig este d a no th er.

Afr ic an A meric ans to ok a t f a ce v alu e th e i d ea th at a ll m en w ere e q ual i n th e s ig ht o f G od.

Because th ey d id , th ey c o uld n o t ta ke s e rio usly th e w hite p re acher’s te xt “ sla v es o bey y o ur

maste rs .” I f G od w as th e a ll- p ow erfu l M aste r w ith n o o ne, n o t e v en th e s la v e m aste r, a b ove

Him , a nd i f a ll m en a nd w om en w ere G od’s c hild re n, w ith o ut r e gard to r a nk a nd s ta ti o n i n l ife ,

th en a ll G od’s c hild re n w ere e q ual, w hite a nd b la ck a lik e. A ll, i n clu d in g th e s la v e o w ner, h ad

to a nsw er to a h ig her a uth o rity .

Sla v es b elie v ed th at th e s la v eho ld er, n o t th e s la v e, w as th e s in ner, a nd th e B ib le g av e th em

th e e v id ence th at th ey w ere r ig ht. H ad n’t G od s e nt M ose s to d eliv er th e I s ra elite s o ut o f

bond age? H ad h e n o t p unis h ed th e E gyp ti a ns f o r e nsla v in g h is c ho se n p eo ple ? H ad h e n o t s e nt

his s o n, J e su s, to r e d eem th e w orld , a nd w as n o t J e su s, l ik e th e s la v e, a h um ble s u ffe re r, a

se rv ant? B y i d enti fy in g w ith th e I s ra elite s a nd w ith J e su s, th e s la v e tu rn ed th e m aste r i n to th e

sin ner a nd g av e h im se lf th e i n ner s tr e ngth th at f lo w ed f r o m th e b elie f i n h is o w n s a lv ati o n i n

th e n ext w orld . I n h is e v ery d ay w orld , th is i n ner s tr e ngth g av e th e s la v e e no ugh p sy chic

fr e ed om to r e sis t b eco m in g c o m ple te ly s u b se rv ie nt to w hite p eo ple .

The d eliv era nce s la v es p ra yed f o r w as n o t j u st f o r th e n ext w orld . T hey w ante d to b e f r e e

in th is w orld , a nd m any o f th e s a cre d s o ngs c o nta in ed e le m ents o f p ro te st a nd m essa ges o f

lib era ti o n. F or e xam ple , w hen F re d eric k D ougla ss, a nd m any o f h is f e llo w s la v es, s a ng “ O

Canaan, s w eet C anaan, / I a m b ound f o r th e l a nd o f C anaan,” th ey w ere s in gin g n o t o nly a b out

so m ed ay g o in g to h eav en, b ut a b out r e achin g th e N orth . T he N orth w as a ls o th e i m plie d

desti n ati o n i n th e s o ng “ R un to J e su s, s h un th e d anger, / I d on’t e xp ect to s ta y m uch l o nger

here .” I n th e s a m e v ein , w hen s la v es s a ng “ S te al A w ay to J e su s,” th ey w ere j u st a s l ik ely to b e

anno uncin g a s e cre t w ors h ip s e rv ic e a s th ey w ere to b e ta lk in g a b out s a lv ati o n. T he s e rv ic e,

und er th e d ir e cti o n o f p re achers A fr ic an A meric ans th em se lv es c ho se , g av e s la v es a s e nse o f

in d ep end ence, a k in d o f f r e ed om , a nd th e c o ura ge to r e sis t a nd e sc ap e s la v ery a lto geth er.

Folk b elie fs , a no th er c ru cia l p art o f th e s la v es’ s a cre d w orld , a ls o i n sti lle d th is s e nse o f

fr e ed om a nd r e sis ta nce. A lth o ugh m ost w hite s, a nd s o m e s la v es, g enera lly f o und b elie fs i n

fo rtu ne te lle rs , w itc hes, m agic s ig ns, a nd c o nju re rs to b e a t o dds w ith C hris ti a nity , f o r m ost

sla v es th ere w as n o g ap b etw een th e tw o. T he s a m e s la v e w ho b elie v ed f e rv entl y i n J e su s

Chris t c o uld a ls o b elie v e th at th e d ead r e tu rn ed to th e l iv in g i n s p ir itu al v is ita ti o ns, th at

child re n b orn w ith te eth o r a s tw in s c am e u nd er a n o m in o us s ig n, th at c o nju rin g c ause d i n sa nity

and o th er i lln ess.

In s la v e f o lk r e lig io n s ig ns w ere i m porta nt. A s c re ech o w l’s c ry w as a s ig n o f d eath th at To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

co uld b e c o unte re d b y tu rn in g s h o es u p sid e d ow n a t a d oor, o r tu rn in g o ne’s p ockets i n sid e o ut;

a b la ck c at c ro ssin g o ne’s p ath w as b ad l u ck u nle ss o ne s p it o n th e s p ot w here th e p ath s m et.

Many s la v es b elie v ed th at a c ro ss-e yed p ers o n c o uld b rin g o n a s p ell u nle ss o ne c ro sse d o ne’s

fin gers a nd s p at o n th em .

Dre am s w ere a ls o ta ken s e rio usly . A f o rm er S outh C aro lin a s la v e r e p orte d th at h e d re am ed

he s a w h is th re e u ncle s s k in nin g a c o w a nd c utti n g i t o pen w hile w om en a nd c hild re n s a t

aro und c ry in g. W hen h e to ld h is m oth er a b out th e d re am s h e to ld h im th at f r e sh m eat i n a d re am

was a s ig n o f d eath . “ S ure e no ugh th at v ery e v enin g U ncle P ete r P ric e d ie d .” A cco rd in g to th e

fo rm er s la v e, h is d re am s c am e tr u e s o o fte n th at th e o ld er p eo ple o n h is p la nta ti o n u se d h is

dre am s a s a w ay o f p re d ic ti n g th e f u tu re .

And i n a w ay p re d ic ti n g w as w hat f o lk b elie fs w ere a ll a b out. S la v es l iv ed i n a w orld o ver

whic h th ey h ad l ittl e c o ntr o l. F or th em , l ife h eld s o m any u ncerta in ti e s, s o l ittl e th at w as

pre d ic ta b le . F olk b elie fs p ro vid ed a w ay o f i m posin g o rd er o n a n u nsta b le e nv ir o nm ent. L ik e

Chris ti a nity , s la v e f o lk b elie fs c o uld n o t b e c o ntr o lle d b y w hite s a nd th ere fo re b ecam e a no th er

so urc e o f s tr e ngth .

Alth o ugh a ll s la v es c o uld m ake u se o f th is p ow er, c o nju re rs w ere th e p eo ple b elie v ed to

hav e a s p ecia l g ift f o r r e ad in g s ig ns a nd d re am s, a t e ffe cti n g c hange th ro ugh th e u se o f s p ells ,

herb m ix tu re s, a nd c harm s. A fr ic an i n o rig in , c o nju rin g s u rv iv ed w hite a tte m pts to e lim in ate i t.

Most s la v es f e are d c o nju re rs a s m uch a s th ey f e are d th e m aste r b ecause th ey b elie v ed th at

th ese m en a nd w om en c o uld b rin g a b out a ll m anner o f b ad o r g o od l u ck. T hey c o uld m ake

mean m aste rs k in d a nd k in d m aste rs m ean, p re v ent o r c ause w hip pin gs, s e p ara ti o ns, i lln ess, o r

death , e nsu re l o ve a nd h ap pin ess o r f r ic ti o n a nd h ate . T hey w ere e sp ecia lly k no w n f o r th e e v il

th ey c o uld d o.

Rath er th an s u b m it to th e c ure s o f w hite m ed ic al d octo rs b ro ught i n b y m aste rs , A fr ic an

Americ ans u su ally p re fe rre d to tr e at th eir o w n i lln esse s a nd m ake th eir o w n m ed ic in es. T hey

had g o od r e aso n. B ecause e arly n in ete enth -c entu ry m ed ic in e w as h ard ly a n e xact s c ie nce, th e

med ic al p ra cti ti o ners ’ tr e atm ent w as l ik ely to b e a s s u ccessfu l a s th at a p plie d b y b la ck r o ot

and h erb d octo rs . S la v es l o oked to th eir o w n w hen th ey w ere s ic k o r i n n eed o f s p ir itu al

guid ance. B ecause th ey d id , th ey s tr e ngth ened th eir o w n c o m munity a nd g av e m en a nd w om en a

chance to g ain s ta tu s i n th eir o w n g ro up .

With o ut th eir c o m munity to c o nfir m a nd r e in fo rc e th eir f a m ilie s, r e lig io n, a nd f o lk b elie fs ,

th e i n d iv id ual s la v es w ould h av e h ad o nly th e m aste r’s d efin iti o n o f th eir e xis te nce. A s i t w as,

sla v e c hild re n d id l e arn a t a n e arly a ge th at th ey w ere a m ong th e w orld ’s w eak a nd p ow erle ss.

But th ro ugh th e s la v e ta le s th ey l e arn ed h o w to s u rv iv e a nd c ir c um vent th e p ow erfu l. T hey

belo nged to a c o m munity th at, th o ugh p ow erle ss, p ut p sy cho lo gic al s p ace b etw een th em se lv es

and th e w hite s a ro und th em .

Fit f o r F re ed om

Som eti m e a ro und 1 833, F re d eric k D ougla ss l o oked o ut a cro ss th e C hesa p eake B ay w ith h is

min d b ent o n f r e ed om . H e a sk ed h im se lf, “ O w hy w as I b orn a m an, o f w ho m to m ake a b ru te !”

The m ore h e th o ught, th e m ore h e k new h e w ante d h is f r e ed om :To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

The F ugitiv e’s S ong

w as c o m pose d i n 1 845 a s a tr ib ute to F re d eric k D ougla ss, w ho h ad

esc ap ed f r o m s la v ery i n 1 833 to b eco m e a r e v ere d a b oliti o nis t, n ew sp ap er e d ito r, a nd l e ctu re r.

Why a m I a s la v e? I w ill r u n a w ay. I w ill n o t s ta nd i t. G et c aught o r g et c le ar. I ’ ll tr y

it… . I h av e o nly o ne l ife to l o se . I h ad a s w ell b e k ille d r u nnin g a s d ie s ta nd in g… . I t

canno t b e th at I s h all l iv e a nd d ie a s la v e.

For a ll th e m illio ns o f s la v es w ho a t o ne ti m e o r a no th er h ad th ese th o ughts , o nly a b out a

th o usa nd a y ear a ctu ally a cte d o n th em . T his i s b ecause e sc ap e w as i n cre d ib ly d iffic ult. S la v es

lik e D ougla ss, w ho w ere i n th e U pper S outh , c lo se to f r e e s ta te s, s to od th e b est c hance o f

su ccess. T ho se c lo se to s o uth ern c iti e s a ls o h ad

a g o od c hance, f o r i f th ey e sc ap ed to a n u rb an

are a th ey c o uld b eco m e l o st i n i ts h ustl e a nd b ustl e , a s w ell a s i n i ts f r e e b la ck c o m munity .

Sla v es w ho a cco m panie d th eir m aste rs a nd m is tr e sse s o n n o rth ern tr ip s w ere a ls o l ik ely

ru naw ays, b ut l ik e a ny s la v e th ey h ad to h av e th e w ill to r u n. T his w ill h ad to b e m ore

pow erfu l th an th e f e ar o f a b ru ta l w hip pin g o r s a le a w ay f r o m f a m ily a nd l o ved o nes, m ore

pow erfu l e v en th an th e f e ar o f d eath .

Dougla ss f o und h e h ad th e n eed ed w ill w hen o ne d ay h e r e fu se d to b e w hip ped . H is m aste r

had h ir e d h im o ut f o r a y ear to a m an n am ed E dw ard C ovey, w ho w as w id ely k no w n f o r h is To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

ab ility to b re ak th e s p ir it o f u nru ly s la v es. C ovey h ad a lm ost s u cceed ed i n w ork in g a nd b eati n g

Dougla ss i n to th e m ost a b je ct o bed ie nce w hen D ougla ss b y c hance v is ite d a c o nju re r, w ho

gav e h im a r o ot r e p ute d to p re v ent w hip pin gs. A s h e w as to ld to d o, D ougla ss k ep t th e r o ot i n

his r ig ht p ocket. T he n ext ti m e C ovey tr ie d to b eat h im h e s e iz e d C ovey a ro und th e th ro at, f lu ng

him to th e g ro und , d ecla re d th at h e w ould n o l o nger b e tr e ate d a s a b ru te , a nd f o ught o ff th e

oth er s la v es C ovey g o t to a ssis t h im . T he f ig ht c o nti n ued f o r tw o h o urs , b ut i n th e e nd D ougla ss

won o ut o ver C ovey, a nd h e w as n ev er a gain w hip ped b y h im o r a ny o th er w hite m an.

The v ic to ry D ougla ss w on o ver C ovey w as s m all c o m pare d to th e o ne h e h ad w on o ver h is

ow n f e ar. A s h e p ut i t, “ I f e lt a s I n ev er f e lt b efo re … . M y l o ng c ru sh ed s p ir it r o se , c o w ard ic e

dep arte d , b old d efia nce to ok i ts p la ce; a nd I n o w r e so lv ed th at, h o w ev er l o ng I m ig ht r e m ain a

sla v e i n f o rm , th e d ay h ad p asse d f o re v er w hen I c o uld b e a s la v e i n f a ct.” F our y ears l a te r,

Dougla ss e sc ap ed f r o m s la v ery a nd f o und h is w ay to N ew Y ork .

But th e r e co rd s o f s la v ery s h o w th at f e w f le d s la v ery a s D ougla ss d id . F ew er s ti ll

parti c ip ate d i n l a rg e-s c ale r e b ellio ns a im ed a t o verth ro w in g th e i n sti tu ti o n. T here w ere ,

ho w ev er, m any s la v es w ho to ok a s ta nd a gain st th eir s e rv itu d e, w ho s o m eho w m anaged to b e

sla v es i n f o rm b ut n o t i n f a ct. T hese w ere m en a nd w om en w ho r e sis te d th e w ors t a sp ects o f

sla v ery . S om e, l ik e D ougla ss, r e fu se d to b e w hip ped ; s o m e r a n a w ay f o r s h o rt p erio ds o f ti m e.

Som e f e ig ned i g no ra nce o f h o w to d o a p arti c ula r c ho re a nd o th ers f e ig ned i lln ess r a th er th an

work to th e l im its th at th e m aste r w ante d . S ti ll o th ers u se d i n d iv id ual a cts o f v io le nce to

co unte r th e a uth o rity o f th e m aste r.

Unlik e r u nnin g a w ay, th is k in d o f r e sis ta nce o nly s e p ara te d th e s la v e f r o m th e w ors t a sp ects

of s la v ery . I ts e nd w as n o t l ib erty , j u st r e le ase f r o m s o m e o f s la v ery ’s m is e ry . H ow ev er, l ik e

th e s la v e f a m ily , s la v e C hris ti a nity , a nd f o lk r e lig io n, i t n ev erth ele ss h elp ed A fr ic an A meric ans

su rv iv e th is m ost i n hum an i n sti tu ti o n. R esis ta nce o f a ll ty p es p ro ved th at b la ck p eo ple w ere f it

fo r f r e ed om .

Whate v er o th er c ir c um sta nce c am e to geth er i n th e l ife o f a s la v e to m ake h im o r h er c o m mit

an a ct o f i n d iv id ual r e sis ta nce, o ne th in g i s f o r s u re : T he s la v e w ho r e sis te d d id n o t s ta nd i n

perp etu al a b je ct f e ar o f th eir m aste r, n o r d id th e s la v e c o m ple te ly l o se th o se q ualiti e s th at

mad e h im o r h er a w ho le h um an b ein g. S la v es

who s to le e xtr a f o od, f o r e xam ple , c are d e no ugh

ab out th eir o w n w ell- b ein g to d efy th e s la v eho ld ers ’ r a ti o nin g s y ste m . S la v es w ho r is k ed th eir

liv es i n th eir s tr u ggle n o t to b e w hip ped w ere m akin g a p ers o nal s ta te m ent a b out th eir s e lf-

este em a nd i n d iv id ual h o no r. W om en w ho k ic ked a nd c la w ed th eir s e xual a b use rs m ad e

elo quent s ta te m ents a b out th eir p ers o nal d ig nity . T hese i n d iv id ual a cts o f r e sis ta nce w ere

atte m pts to r e ta in o r ta ke b ack s o m e c o ntr o l o ver l iv es th at w ere b y l a w a ssig ned to s o m eo ne

els e .

Now here i s th is m ore a p pare nt th an th e a tte m pts b y s o m e s la v es to g et e no ugh to e at. T he

usu al f a re o n m ost f a rm s a nd p la nta ti o ns f r o m V ir g in ia to M is sis sip pi w as s a lt p ork a nd

co rn m eal. W hen th ey c o uld , s la v es s u p ple m ente d th is w ith v egeta b le s g ro w n i n th eir o w n

gard ens, a nd m eat a nd f is h th ey c aught. M ost s la v es n eed ed m ore a nd m ost s to le w hat th ey

need ed . M any d id n o t v ie w s te alin g f r o m th e m aste r a s s o m eth in g s in fu l. W heth er th ey s to le

clo th in g, m oney, c ro ps, o r f o od, s la v es o fte n j u sti fie d th eir a cti o ns w ith th e a rg um ent th at n o t

only h ad th ey w ork ed f o r th e g o ods, b ut th ey w ere s im ply m ovin g th em f r o m o ne p art o f th e To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

maste r’s p ro perty to a no th er.

This th in kin g w as e sp ecia lly o bvio us d urin g th e C iv il W ar. T ho se w ho f le d to U nio n tr o ops

ta kin g th eir m aste r’s g o ods w ith th em f e lt th at th e p ro m is e d ti m e o f r e tr ib uti o n h ad a rriv ed .

South ern m is tr e ss A dele P etti g ru A lls to n p ro bab ly m ad e a n a ccura te a sse ssm ent o f th e s la v e’s

atti tu d e w hen s h e c o m pla in ed : “ T he c o nd uct o f th e n egro es i n r o bbin g o ur h o use , s to re r o om ,

meat h o use , e tc ., a nd r e fu sin g to r e sto re a nyth in g s h o w s y o u th ey

th in k i t r ig ht

to s te al f r o m u s,

to s p oil u s, a s th e I s ra elite s d id th e E gyp ti a ns.”

Many s la v es d id n o t w ait u nti l th e C iv il W ar to a ct th is w ay. B esid es s te alin g, th ey b urn ed

gin h o use s, b arn s, c o rn crib s, a nd s m okeho use s. S om e s la v es u se d p ois o n o r o utr ig ht p hysic al

fo rc e to k ill th eir m aste rs . C ap tu re a lw ays m eant c erta in d eath , b ut th ey d id i t n o neth ele ss.

To g uard a gain st v io le nce, e sp ecia lly th at w hic h c o uld l e ad to l a rg e-s c ale r e b ellio ns,

sla v eho ld ers c re ate d th e s la v e p atr o ls . T hese w ere g ro up s o f w hite m ale s, u su ally o f th e l o w er

cla sse s, c alle d to geth er to l o ok f o r r u naw ays, to p re v ent s la v e g ath erin gs, a nd g enera lly e nsu re

th e s a fe ty o f th e w hite c o m munity . S in ce s la v es w ere n o t a llo w ed to tr a v el th e c o untr y sid e

with o ut a p ass f r o m th eir m aste r, a p rin cip al ta sk o f th e p atr o ls w as to e nfo rc e th e p ass s y ste m .

This th ey o fte n d id w ith e xcessiv e b ru ta lity , a d m in is te rin g b eati n gs o n th e a uth o rity g iv en th em

by s la v eho ld ers w ho u se d th e p atr o l s y ste m a s a w ay o f b in d in g a ll w hite s to geth er a gain st a ll

bla cks.

Desp ite th e p atr o l s y ste m s la v es r e sis te d . T hey u se d p asse s w ritte n b y th e f e w i n th eir o w n

gro up w ho c o uld r e ad a nd w rite . T hey s h elte re d r u naw ays i n th eir c ab in s, a nd th ey l a id tr a p s

th at tr ip ped u p p atr o lle rs ’ h o rs e s.

Som e s la v es j u st s to od a nd f o ught. S om e f o und th e c o ura ge to e sc ap e, a nd m any m ore f o und

th e w ill to tr y . G eo rg ia s la v e J o hn B ro w n r a n a w ay s e v era l ti m es b efo re

he f in ally s u cceed ed .

One ti m e h e g o t a s f a r a s T ennesse e; a no th er ti m e, th in kin g h e w as g o in g n o rth , h e tr a v ele d

alm ost a ll o f th e w ay o n f o ot to N ew O rle ans. E ach ti m e h e w as c ap tu re d h e w as w hip ped ,

chain ed , a nd h ad b ells a tta ched to h im . O ver a nd o ver a gain h e e sc ap ed u nti l h e f in ally r e ached

In d ia na. A unt C heyney o f th e K ilp atr ic k c o tto n p la nta ti o n i n M is sis sip pi w as n o t s o f o rtu nate ,

ho w ev er. S he w as o ne o f h er m aste r’s m is tr e sse s a nd h ad r e centl y g iv en b ir th to th e f o urth o f

her m aste r’s c hild re n w hen s h e r a n a w ay. K ilp atr ic k s e t h is d ogs o n h er tr a il. W hen th ey c aught

up w ith h er h e o rd ere d th em to a tta ck. A cco rd in g to h er f r ie nd M ary R eyno ld s, “ T he d ogs to re

her n aked a nd e t th e b re asts p lu m b o ff h er b ody.” T his s e rv ed a s a p unis h m ent f o r C heyney, b ut

it w as a ls o K ilp atr ic k’s w ay o f w arn in g a ll s la v es, e sp ecia lly w om en, a gain st r u nnin g a w ay.

How ev er m uch A fr ic an A meric ans w ere h aunte d b y th ese k in d s o f h o rro rs , th ere w ere s ti ll

th o se w ho w ould n o t b e s to pped . T he s to rie s o f e sc ap e r e v eal a s m uch r e le ntl e ss p ers e v era nce

as th ey d o i n genuity . H enry “ B ox” B ro w n, f o r e xam ple , w as c arrie d f o r tw enty -s e v en h o urs

fr o m R ic hm ond to P hila d elp hia b y A dam s E xp re ss i n a b ox th re e f e et l o ng a nd tw o f e et d eep .

He l ite ra lly m aile d h im se lf to f r e ed om . T he l ig ht- s k in ned E lle n C ra ft e sc ap ed b y p re te nd in g to

be a s ic kly w hite m an tr a v elin g i n th e c o m pany o f h is s la v e. T he s la v e i n a tte nd ance w as i n

fa ct h er d ark er-s k in ned h usb and W illia m . T ogeth er th e tw o tr a v ele d b y s ta geco ach, b oat, a nd

tr a in f r o m G eo rg ia to P hila d elp hia . T hey s to pped a t s o m e o f th e b est h o te ls a lo ng th e w ay, a nd

Elle n e v en c o nv ers e d w ith s la v eho ld ers a b out th e tr o ub le o f r u naw ay s la v es.

The p ers o n w ho s e em ed to g iv e th e S outh th e m ost r u naw ay tr o ub le , th o ugh, w as H arrie t To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

Tub m an. S he w as b orn a s la v e s o m e ti m e a ro und 1 821 o n M ary la nd ’s E aste rn S ho re a nd l iv ed

in s la v ery f o r tw enty -e ig ht y ears . L ik e m ost s la v es i n th is U pper S outh r e gio n, T ub m an l iv ed i n

dre ad o f b ein g s o ld to th e D eep S outh . I n 1 849, w hen s h e l e arn ed th at s h e w as i n d eed g o in g to

be s o ld , s h e j o in ed th e th o usa nd s o f o th ers w ho to ok to th e w oods a nd s to le th em se lv es.

What m ad e h er u niq ue i s th at s h e r e tu rn ed , n o t o nce b ut m any ti m es, to r e sc ue o th ers ,

in clu d in g h er s is te r, h er s is te r’s tw o c hild re n, a nd h er p are nts . G iv en th e i d enti fic ati o n o f

Afr ic an A meric ans w ith th e I s ra elite s i t s h o uld c o m e a s n o s u rp ris e th at T ub m an w as c alle d

“M ose s.” A nd g iv en th e w ay A fr ic an A meric ans u se d th eir r e lig io n to s p eak a b out f r e ed om , i t

is a ls o n o t s u rp ris in g th at w hen T ub m an s a id , “ T ell m y b ro th ers to b e a lw ays

watc h in g u nto

pra yer

, a nd

when t h e g ood s h ip Z io n c o m es a lo ng, t o b e r e a dy t o s te p o n b oard

,” th is w as

her s ig nal to l e av e, n o t f o r h eav en, b ut f o r f r e ed om . I t i s s a id th at s h e r e tu rn ed n in ete en ti m es

and r e sc ued m ore th an th re e h und re d s la v es. S he w as s o g o od a t w hat s h e d id th at M ary la nd

pla nte rs o ffe re d a f o rty -th o usa nd -d olla r b ounty f o r h er c ap tu re .

Sla v eho ld ers w ante d to c atc h T ub m an a b out a s m uch a s th ey w ante d to p ut a n e nd to th e

Und erg ro und R ailr o ad . T his n etw ork o f h id in g p la ces r u n b y o pponents o f s la v ery p ro vid ed th e

sla v es f o rtu nate e no ugh to u se i t w ith f o od, s h elte r,

money, c lo th in g, a nd d is g uis e s. A b la ck

man, W illia m S ti ll, a n o ffic er o f th e P hila d elp hia V ig ila nce C om mitte e, w as th e m ovin g f o rc e

behin d th e U nd erg ro und R ailr o ad . H e w ro te o f H arrie t T ub m an th at s h e w as “ a w om an o f n o

pre te nsio ns,” a nd “ in p oin t o f c o ura ge, s h re w dness, a nd d is in te re ste d e xerti o ns to r e sc ue h er

fe llo w man, s h e w as w ith o ut e q ual.”

In g enera l w om en h ad a h ard er ti m e e sc ap in g th an m en b ecause th ey w ere m ore r e lu cta nt to

le av e w ith o ut th eir c hild re n. A t th e s a m e ti m e, i t w as th e f e ar o f l o sin g th em th at o fte n

pro vid ed th e i n centi v e to f le e. E sc ap in g a lo ne w as d iffic ult e no ugh; e sc ap in g w ith c hild re n

was c lo se to i m possib le . T here i s n o q uesti o n th at m ale r u naw ays r e gre tte d l e av in g th eir w iv es

and c hild re n b ehin d , b ut w om en, i t s e em s, s u ffe re d a s p ecia l a go ny w hen f a ced w ith s u ch a

decis io n.

Tru ancy s e em s to h av e b een th e w ay m any s la v e w om en r e co ncile d th eir d esir e to f le e w ith

th eir n eed to s ta y. M en to o p ra cti c ed tr u ancy, b ut w om en m ad e th e m ost l ik ely tr u ants b ecause

th ey n urs e d a nd w ere d ir e ctl y r e sp onsib le f o r th eir c hild re n. F orm er s la v e B enja m in J o hnso n

re m em bere d th at s o m eti m es w hen w om en w ould n o t ta ke a w hip pin g th ey “ w ould r u n a w ay a n’

hid e i n d e w oods. S om eti m es d ey w ould c o m e b ack a fte r a s h o rt s ta y a n’ d en d ey w ould h av e

to p ut d e h o und s o n d ere tr a il to b rin g d em b ack h o m e.”

Wom en’s s h o rt- te rm f lig ht w as b y n o m eans a r e fle cti o n o f th eir l e sse r c o ura ge o r g re ate r

acco m modati o n to s la v ery . T ru ants f a ced p unis h m ent w hen th ey r e tu rn ed , p unis h m ent m any

bra v ed o ver a nd o ver a gain . M ore o ver, tr u ancy i n v olv ed a s m uch d anger a s r u nnin g a w ay. A s

Jo hnso n’s c o m ment i n d ic ate s, d ogs h unte d th em d ow n, a nd th e w oods a nd s w am ps th ey h id i n

held a ll k in d s o f d angers .

Rath er th an r e fle cti n g a l e sse r d anger, o r l e v el o f c o ura ge, w hat tr u ancy m ir ro re d w as th e

diffe re nt s la v e e xp erie nces o f m en a nd w om en, a nd th ere fo re th eir d iffe re nt w ays o f r e sis ti n g.

For e xam ple , th e d iv is io n o f l a b or o n m ost f a rm s a nd p la nta ti o ns c o nfe rre d g re ate r m obility o n

male s th an o n f e m ale s la v es. F ew o f th e c ho re s p erfo rm ed b y f e m ale s la v es to ok th em o ff th e

pla nta ti o n. U su ally m aste rs c ho se th eir m ale s la v es to a ssis t i n th e tr a nsp orta ti o n o f c ro ps to To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

mark et, a nd th e tr a nsp ort o f s u p plie s a nd o th er m ate ria ls to th e p la nta ti o n. M ore m ale th an

fe m ale s la v es w ere a rti s a ns a nd c ra fts m en, a nd th is m ad e i t m ore d iffic ult to h ir e o ut a f e m ale

sla v e th an a m ale s la v e. F ew er f e m ale s la v es th ere fo re h ad a c hance to v ary th eir w ork

exp erie nce. A s a c o nse q uence, m ore m en th an w om en w ere a b le to te st th eir s u rv iv al s k ills

und er d iffe re nt c ir c um sta nces.

Ano th er f a cto r a ffe cti n g s la v e m obility w as th e “ ab ro ad m arria ge,” a u nio n b etw een s la v es

who r e sid ed a t d iffe re nt l o cati o ns. W hen “ ab ro ad ” s p ouse s v is ite d e ach o th er, u su ally o nce a

week, i t w as m ost o fte n th e h usb and w ho tr a v ele d to th e w ife . A ll i n a ll, i t w as f e m ale

bond age, m ore th an m ale b ond age, th at m eant b ein g ti e d to th e i m med ia te e nv ir o nm ent o f th e

pla nta ti o n o r f a rm . F or th ese r e aso ns, f e m ale s la v es m uch m ore th an m ale s la v es j u st “ sta yed

put.”

By a nd l a rg e, th o ugh, w om en d id r e sis t i n s u b tl e w ays. F or i n sta nce, th ey “ p la yed

th e f o ol”

more th an m en. I n o th er w ord s, i n o rd er to a v oid d oin g s o m e o nero us c ho re , th ey w ould s m ile

hum bly a nd p re te nd to m is u nd ers ta nd i n str u cti o ns g iv en b y th e m aste r, m is tr e ss, o r o vers e er.

The u se o f p ois o n a ls o s u ite d w om en b ecause th ey o ffic ia te d a s c o oks a nd n urs e s o n th e

pla nta ti o n. A s e arly a s 1 755 a C harle sto n s la v e w om an w as b urn ed a t th e s ta ke f o r p ois o nin g

her m aste r, a nd i n 1 769 a s p ecia l i s su e o f th e

South C aro lin a G aze tte

c arrie d th e s to ry o f a

sla v e w om an w ho h ad p ois o ned h er m aste r’s i n fa nt c hild . S in ce th e s la v e’s o bje cti v e w as n o t

to g et c aught w e w ill n ev er r e ally k no w j u st h o w m any w hite s w ere u sh ere d b y s la v e w om en

to a n e arly g ra v e.

We a ls o w ill n ev er k no w h o w m any i n sta nces o f i lln ess w ere a ctu ally r u se s to e sc ap e

backb re akin g l a b or. W om en h ad a n a d vanta ge o ver m en i n th is r e alm b ecause c hild bearin g w as

a p rim ary e xp ecta ti o n th at s la v e o w ners h ad o f s la v e w om en. I n a n a ge w here w om en’s

dis e ase s w ere s ti ll s h ro ud ed i n m yste ry , g etti n g th e m axim um a m ount o f w ork f r o m w om en o f

child bearin g a ge w hile r e m ain in g c o nfid ent th at n o d am age w as d one to th eir r e p ro ducti v e

org ans w as a g uessin g g am e th at f e w w hite s la v e o w ners w ante d to p la y o r c o uld a ffo rd to

lo se . I n d efe re nce to th eir “ m yste rio us” c o nd iti o ns, w om en, e sp ecia lly th o se o f c hild bearin g

age, w ere s e ld om d esig nate d a s a b le -b odie d w ork ers . U nlik e h ealth y y o ung a nd m id dle -a ged

men w ho w ere c o nsid ere d f u ll h and s, w om en, d ep end in g o n th eir s ta ge o f p re gnancy a nd th eir

fr e q uency o f n urs in g, w ere l a b ele d th re e-q uarte r h and s, h alf h and s, o r q uarte r h and s. M en

co uld a nd d id f e ig n i lln ess. B ut s in ce w om en d id , i n f a ct, h av e m ore s ic kness b ecause o f

menstr u ati o n a nd c hild bir th , th ey w ere m ore l ik ely to g et a w ay w ith i t.

Wheth er th ey a ls o g o t a w ay w ith b ir th c o ntr o l a nd a b orti o n i s s o m eth in g w e w ill n ev er

kno w . F ew n in ete enth -c entu ry w om en, w hite o r b la ck, w ere i g no ra nt o f th e w ays a nd m eans o f

av oid in g p re gnancy. T he d eclin e i n th e b ir th ra te a m ong w hite A meric ans f r o m 7 .0 4 i n 1 800 to

3.5 6 b y th e e v e o f th e tw enti e th c entu ry i s e v id ence o f th e u se o f b ir th c o ntr o l, i n clu d in g

ab orti o n. F or w hite w om en, p arti c ula rly th o se o f th e u rb an m id dle c la sse s, a s m all f a m ily h ad

its b enefits , n o t th e l e ast o f w hic h w as th e l o w er r is k o f d yin g i n c hild bir th a nd th e a b ility to

sp end m ore ti m e w ith a n i n d iv id ual c hild .

The s la v e w om an, h o w ev er, h ad n o s u ch b enefit. I n f a ct, th o ugh s h e, l ik e o th er n in ete enth -

centu ry w om en, a p pro ached p re gnancy w ith f e ar a nd n ev er h ad e no ugh ti m e to s p end w ith a ny

of h er c hild re n, s h e r is k ed s a le i f s h e r e m ain ed c hild le ss. T he r is k n o tw ith sta nd in g, s o m eTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

wom en j u st r e fu se d to h av e c hild re n. H ow th ey m anaged to s ta y c hild le ss, w hat m eth o ds o f

bir th c o ntr o l th ey u se d , a nd th e f r e q uency o f a b orti o n, r e m ain ed s e cre ts th at w ere v ir tu ally

exclu siv e to th e f e m ale w orld o f th e s la v e q uarte rs .

Tho ugh f e w s la v e w om en d iv ulg ed th ese s e cre ts , s la v eho ld ers w ere c o nv in ced th at b la ck

wom en k new h o w to a v oid p re gnancy a nd a ls o h o w to b rin g o n a m is c arria ge. A T ennesse e

physic ia n, D r. J o hn H . M org an, w ro te th at s la v e w om en u se d th e h erb s o f ta nsy a nd r u e, th e

ro ots a nd s e ed s o f th e c o tto n p la nt, c ed ar b errie s, a nd

cam pho r to b rin g a b out m is c arria ge, a nd

Dr. E . M . P end le to n c la im ed th at p la nte rs r e gula rly c o m pla in ed o f w ho le f a m ilie s o f w om en

who f a il to h av e a ny c hild re n.

More s e rio us w ere th e i n fr e q uent c ase s o f i n fa nti c id e. W om en w ho c ho se to k ill c hild re n

th ey h ad r is k ed th eir l ife h av in g w ere c le arly d esp era te . Y et th ey s tr u ck o ut a t th e s y ste m w here

th ey k new i t w ould h urt, w here th ey k new th ey h ad r e al i m pact— in th e i n cre ase o f th e s la v e

popula ti o n. T hat th ey h urt th em se lv es m ore th an th ey h urt th e m aste r c an b e a ssu m ed , f o r th ey

were e ith er p ro se cute d a nd h anged , o r th ey s u ffe re d e m oti o nal d is tr e ss f o re v er.

If A fr ic an A meric ans c o uld h av e o verth ro w n th e s y ste m th at f o rc ed s u ch tr a gic d ecis io ns,

th ey w ould h av e. B ut b la ck p eo ple f a ced h o pele ss o dds. U nlik e o th er s la v es i n o th er n ati o ns i n

th e A meric as, b la ck p eo ple i n th e U nite d S ta te s w ere o verw helm in gly o utn um bere d b y w hite s

and g ro up ed i n s m all n um bers o n p la nta ti o ns th at w ere m ile s a p art. W hite s h ad th e g uns, th e

am muniti o n, th e h o rs e s, th e d ogs, a nd th e l a w . T hey h ad th e r e so urc es to c ru sh a ny r e v olt b y

sla v es, a nd th e s la v es k new i t. R esis ta nce, th ere fo re , w as i n d iv id ual b ecause i t h ad to b e;

white s p ut d ow n th e f e w l a rg e-s c ale r e b ellio ns a nd p la nned r e v olts w ith a v ic io usn ess th at

se rv ed n o ti c e th at r e v olt w as f u ti le .

In s p ite o f th e o dds a nd th e r e p re ssio n, r e b ellio ns d id o ccur, a nd c o nsp ir a cie s a b ound ed .

Among th e f ir s t w as th e l a rg est— an u p ris in g i n 1 811 o f c lo se to f o ur h und re d s la v es i n S t.

Charle s a nd S t. J o hn th e B ap ti s t p aris h es i n L ouis ia na. L ed b y a s la v e n am ed C harle s

Deslo nd es, th e s la v es s e nt w hite s f le ein g th eir p la nta ti o ns f o r s a fe ty i n N ew O rle ans. F urth er

east, i n 1 817 a nd 1 818 b la cks j o in ed th e S em in o le I n d ia ns i n th eir f ig ht to k eep th eir F lo rid a

ho m ela nd s. T o d efe nd th em se lv es, u nits o f b la cks a nd I n d ia ns r a id ed p la nta ti o ns i n G eo rg ia ,

killin g w hite s a nd c arry in g o ff s la v es. A gain i n 1 835 b la cks j o in ed th e S em in o le s i n th eir

unsu ccessfu l f ig ht a gain st th e m iliti a s o f F lo rid a, G eo rg ia , a nd T ennesse e. S em in o le l a nd s h ad

co nti n ued to b e h av ens f o r r u naw ay s la v es, a nd b y th e 1 830s P re sid ent A nd re w J a ckso n w as

dete rm in ed to e lim in ate th ese i n d ep end ent c o m muniti e s a nd s e iz e a ll I n d ia n l a nd s f o r w hite

sla v eho ld ers . B y th at ti m e, th o ugh, i t w as h ard to c all S em in o le l a nd I n d ia n te rrito ry b ecause

bla cks a nd I n d ia ns h ad i n te rm arrie d to th e e xte nt th at th ey w ere i n d is ti n guis h ab le . I n d eed , s o

many h und re d s o f b la cks f o ught o n th e s id e o f th e S em in o le s th at U nite d S ta te s G enera l T ho m as

Je su p d ecla re d : “ T his , y o u m ay b e a ssu re d , i s a n egro , n o t a n I n d ia n w ar.”

Genera l J e su p u nd ers to od w hat a ll s la v eho ld ers k new — th at r e sis ta nce h ad a lw ays g o ne

hand i n h and w ith s la v ery . T he c entu ry h ad b egun w ith G ab rie l P ro sse r’s a tte m pt to s e iz e

Ric hm ond , a nd th e y ear h e d ie d , 1 800, w as th e y ear th at D enm ark V ese y b ought h is f r e ed om

fr o m h is m aste r a nd b egan h is l ife a s a f r e e m an. T hat s a m e y ear N at T urn er w as b orn . B oth

men w ere to b eco m e th e s la v eho ld er’s w ors t n ig htm are .

Vese y w as a f r e e A fr ic an-A meric an c arp ente r w ho w ork ed h ard e no ugh to b eco m e n o t j u st To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

se lf- s u p porti n g b ut r e la ti v ely w ealth y b y th e s ta nd ard s o f th e d ay. H e w as a p ro ud , l ite ra te ,

fr e e b la ck m an w ho h ate d s la v ery a nd h ate d to s e e h is

peo ple b ow in g a nd s c ra p in g to w hite s.

At a ge f ifty -th re e h e g ath ere d a ro und h im tr u ste d b la ck m en, b oth f r e e a nd s la v e, a nd p la nned to

cap tu re th e c ity o f C harle sto n. H is f o llo w ers w ere c hurc h l e ad ers a nd c ra fts m en. O ne o f th em ,

Gulla h J a ck, w as a c o nju re r. F or m onth s th ey p la nned th eir a tta ck o n th e a rs e nal a t C harle sto n

and o n p la nta ti o ns s u rro und in g th e c ity . D urin g th is ti m e th ey r e cru ite d s la v es a nd f r e e m en

who h ad th e s te ad y n erv es to c arry o ut th e p la n. T hen, o n a f a te fu l d ay i n 1 822, th ey w ere

betr a yed . B etr a yal m eant c ap tu re , a nd c ap tu re m eant d eath . P ete r P oyas, o ne o f V ese y’s

lie ute nants , w ent to th e g alle ys w ith th e w ord s o f th e s p ir itu als o n h is l ip s. “ F ear n o t,” h e to ld

th e b la cks o f C harle sto n, “ th e L ord G od th at d eliv ere d D anie l i s a b le to d eliv er u s.”

Nat T urn er b elie v ed h im se lf to b e th e d eliv ere r. H e c arrie d h im se lf i n th e m anner o f a

messia h. P ro ud a nd s e lf- c o nfid ent, l ite ra te a nd a rti c ula te , h e s a w v is io ns o f G od’s d eliv era nce

of b la ck p eo ple f r o m b ond age. H e f e lt h im se lf to b e th e M ose s w ho w ould l e ad h is p eo ple o ut

of b ond age. A cti n g o n th at f e elin g, T urn er l e d a b out s e v enty s la v es i n a n a ssa ult o n th e w hite s

of S outh am pto n, V ir g in ia . I n o ne o f th e m ost c le ar-c ut c ase s o f s la v e r e b ellio n th at o ccurre d i n

th is c o untr y , N at T urn er w ent f r o m o ne p la nta ti o n to th e n ext k illin g w hite s. H is i n str u cti o ns to

his f e llo w i n su rre cti o nis ts w ere f o llo w ed to th e l e tte r. T hey s p are d n o o ne. A ge a nd s e x m ad e

no d iffe re nce.

In th e e nd N at T urn er w as c aught. B y th e ti m e h is m urd er c o unt r e ached a ro und s ix ty , b and s

of w hite m en c aught u p w ith h is m en a nd p ut d ow n th e r e v olt. T urn er to ok to th e w oods a nd

managed to e v ad e c ap tu re u nti l m ost o f h is m en h ad b een p ut to d eath . A s h ad h ap pened i n th e

Pro sse r a nd V ese y c o nsp ir a cie s, th e f e ar o f i n su rre cti o n s p re ad a cro ss th e S outh w ith a la rm in g

sp eed , a nd w hite s l a sh ed o ut m erc ile ssly a t b la cks, e sp ecia lly th o se i n th e v ic in ity o f th e

re b ellio n. A nyo ne s u sp ecte d o f a id in g T urn er w as p ut to d eath . A ll a cts o f d is re sp ect w ere

ta ken a s a d ir e ct c halle nge to w hite a uth o rity , a nd s la v es w ho d id n o t a ct i n th e m ost h um ble

manner w ere p unis h ed s e v ere ly , e v en k ille d . B la cks w ere n o t a llo w ed to h o ld r e lig io us

se rv ic es o r g ath er i n g ro up s a t a ll. A ll b la cks, s la v e a nd f r e e, w ere w atc hed b y p atr o ls w ho

had th eir n um bers i n cre ase d a nd f ir e arm s r e ad y. T he m essa ge w as c le ar. A meric a w as h o m e to

th e f r e e a nd th e b ra v e, b ut o nly f o r th o se w ho w ere w hite .

Som ew here th o ugh, d eep d ow n, s la v eho ld ers u nd ers to od th at a s l o ng a s s la v ery e xis te d s o

to o w ould r e sis ta nce. T his i s o ne o f th e r e aso ns w hy n in ete enth -c entu ry s la v eho ld ers tr ie d to

im pro ve th e m ate ria l c o nd iti o ns o f th e s la v es. T hey th o ught th at m ore f o od, b ette r l iv in g

quarte rs , a nd f e w er w hip pin gs w ould m ake s la v es l e ss r e b ellio us a nd m ore c o nte nt a nd

willin g to b ear a ll o f s la v ery ’s b urd ens.

Afr ic an A meric ans d id b ear s la v ery ’s b urd ens, b ut n o t w ith o ut r e sis ta nce. T he c o nti n uin g

str u ggle a gain st s la v ery c re ate d th e p sy chic s p ace b la ck p eo ple n eed ed to s u rv iv e, a nd i t

pro ved to c o nte m pora ry a nd f u tu re g enera ti o ns th at th o ugh e nsla v ed , A fr ic an A meric ans w ere

fit f o r f r e ed om .

A D if fe re n t K in d o f F re ed om

On A pril 8 , 1 816, A pril E llis o n, a m ula tto e xp ert c o tto n g in m aker, s to od w ith h is w hite

maste r, W illia m E llis o n, b efo re a m agis tr a te a nd f iv e f r e eho ld ers o f th e F air fie ld D is tr ic t o fTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

South C aro lin a. I t w as a s o le m n o ccasio n. N o d oub t e v ery w ord , e v ery m ovem ent b ecam e

in d elib ly e tc hed i n A pril’s m in d , b ecause i t w as th e d ay o f h is m anum is sio n, th e d ay th at h e

bought h im se lf o ut o f s la v ery . A t th at ti m e, A pril w as tw enty -s ix y ears o ld . B y th e ti m e h e w as

th ir ty h e h ad l e gally c hanged h is n am e to W illia m , h ad b ought h is w ife , M ati ld a, a nd h is

daughte r, E liz a A nn, o ut o f s la v ery , a nd h ad f r e ed th em . H e h ad m oved o ut o f th e d is tr ic t o f h is

sla v e y o uth a nd e sta b lis h ed h im se lf a s a f r e e p ers o n o f c o lo r i n S ta te b urg , i n th e S um pte r

Dis tr ic t. A nd h e h ad b ought tw o a d ult m ale s la v es to h elp h im i n h is b usin ess. T w o y ears l a te r,

in 1 822, h e b ought a n a cre o f l a nd , a nd tw o y ears a fte r th is h e p eti ti o ned a nd r e ceiv ed

perm is sio n f r o m th e w hite m em bers o f H oly C ro ss E pis c o pal C hurc h to w ors h ip w ith th em o n

th e m ain f lo or o f th e v estr y , a w ay f r o m th e s la v es a nd f r e e b la cks w ho w ere c o nfin ed to th e

balc o ny.

Eliz a b eth H obbs, a n a ttr a cti v e m ula tto , w as b orn i n to s la v ery i n 1 818, a y ear a fte r

Fre d eric k D ougla ss’s b ir th . S he w as b orn i n V ir g in ia , b ut i n h er te enage y ears s h e w as s o ld

fu rth er s o uth to a N orth C aro lin a m aste r b y w ho m s h e h ad a s o n. R ep urc hase d b y a m em ber o f

th e f a m ily th at h ad s o ld h er to b egin w ith , s h e w as ta ken to S t. L ouis , M is so uri, w here s h e m et

and m arrie d a b la ck m an n am ed J a m es K eckle y. T ho ugh K eckle y to ld h er th at h e w as f r e e, h e

was i n f a ct a s la v e, a nd th eir l ife to geth er w as a s h o rt o ne. F ar m ore l o ng-te rm i n i ts

co nse q uences w ere E liz a b eth K eckle y’s a b iliti e s a s a s e am str e ss, s k ills p erfe cte d a t h er

moth er’s i n str u cti o n w hen s h e w as j u st a c hild . A s a d re ssm aker i n S t. L ouis , s h e w as s o g o od,

and s o p opula r, th at h er c usto m ers o ffe re d to l e nd h er th e m oney to b uy h ers e lf a nd h er s o n o ut

of s la v ery . I n 1 855, w hen s h e w as th ir ty -s e v en y ears o ld , K eckle y a nd h er s o n b ecam e f r e e

pers o ns o f c o lo r. A fte r s h e l e arn ed to r e ad a nd w rite a nd p aid o ff h er l o an, s h e r e tu rn ed e ast,

fir s t to B alti m ore th en to W ash in gto n, D .C . I n W ash in gto n, h er c lie nts w ere a m ong th e c ity ’s

elite , th e m ost n o ta b le b ein g P re sid ent L in co ln ’s w ife , M ary T odd, to w ho m s h e b ecam e a

co m panio n a nd f r ie nd .

While K eckle y w as k eep in g th e c o m pany o f th e F ir s t L ad y, S ojo urn er T ru th w as a id in g a nd

nurs in g r e fu gee s la v es f le ein g th e c arn age o f th e C iv il W ar. A t th e w ar’s b egin nin g s h e w as

six ty -o ne y ears o ld a nd h ad i n h er l ife ti m e b een a h o use keep er, a p re acher, a n a b oliti o nis t, a nd

a p ub lic s p eaker f o r w om en’s r ig hts . A d ark -s k in ned w om an, s h e h ad b een b orn I s a b ella

Bom efr e e a b out 1 799, a nd w as f r e ed i n 1 827 b y N ew Y ork S ta te l a w . U nlik e K eckle y o r

Ellis o n, T ru th n ev er l e arn ed to r e ad o r w rite , n o r d id th e S outh e v er h o ld h er a s a s la v e.

Noneth ele ss s h e w as e lo quent i n h er a tta cks a gain st s la v ery , a nd m ore th an a nyo ne e ls e o f h er

ti m e, s h e w as s te ad fa st i n h er p ub lic d efe nse o f b la ck w om en.

The l iv es o f W illia m E llis o n, E liz a b eth K eckle y, a nd S ojo urn er T ru th te ll u s a l o t a b out th e

liv es o f a ll b la cks w ho w ere f r e e d urin g th e ti m e o f s la v ery . M ore th an a nyth in g e ls e , th eir

liv es, a nd th o se o f a ll f r e e A fr ic an A meric ans, r e v eal th at b la ck f r e ed om a nd w hite f r e ed om

were a lw ays v ery d iffe re nt. To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

A c erti fic ate s ig ned b y a n I llin o is c o unty c le rk w as g ra nte d to a f r e e b la ck w om an to c erti fy h er

cla im to f r e ed om . F re e b la cks a lw ays h ad to k eep s u ch d ocum ents c lo se b y to a v oid b ein g s o ld

in to s la v ery b y u nsc ru p ulo us s la v e tr a d ers .

The r e aso n f o r th e d iffe re nt r e aliti e s o f b la ck a nd w hite f r e ed om w as w hite p re ju d ic e. I t

was s tr o ng i n th e S outh , w here n in ety p erc ent o f a ll b la cks w ere s la v es a nd a d ark s k in w as a

pre su m pti o n o f b ond age. I t w as e q ually s tr o ng i n th e N orth a nd W est w here th ere w as a n

ab id in g s e nti m ent a gain st b oth b la cks a nd s la v ery . W hat

Fanny K em ble , a w ell- tr a v ele d w hite

wom an, s a id o f f r e e b la cks i n th e N orth h eld tr u e a ll o ver th e c o untr y . “ T hey a re n o t s la v es

in d eed , b ut th ey a re p aria hs, d eb arre d f r o m e v ery f e llo w sh ip s a v e w ith th eir o w n d esp is e d

ra ce… . A ll h and s a re e xte nd ed to th ru st th em o ut, a ll f in gers p oin t a t th eir d usk y s k in , a ll

to ngues … h av e l e arn ed to tu rn th e v ery n am e o f th eir r a ce i n to a n i n su lt a nd a r e p ro ach.”

That s o m e A fr ic an A meric ans h ad a h erita ge o f f r e ed om th at p re d ate d th e A meric an

Rev olu ti o n w as o f f a r l e ss s ig nific ance to w hite s th an th e f a ct th at th ey w ere b la ck. A s th e

nin ete enth c entu ry p ro gre sse d a nd th e c o untr y m oved c lo se r a nd c lo se r to th e C iv il W ar, a d ark

sk in c arrie d th e p re su m pti o n o f s la v ery i n b oth th e N orth a nd th e S outh . M ore a nd m ore , f r e e

bla cks h ad to p ro ve th at th ey w ere n o t s la v es. T his w as a b urd en th at n o w hite p ers o n c arrie d ,

because w hite s k in c o lo r c arrie d w ith i t th e p re su m pti o n o f f r e ed om .To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

Afte r th e A meric an R ev olu ti o n, th e f r e e b la ck p opula ti o n n um bere d 5 9,0 00 i n 1 790 a nd

gre w to 4 88,0 00 b y th e e v e o f th e C iv il W ar. T hese n um bers w ere i n cre ase d b y b la cks b orn o f

fr e e m oth ers , i n clu d in g th o se o f w hite w om en w ith b la ck p artn ers , a nd f r e e m ula tto i m mig ra nts

fr o m th e W est I n d ie s, e sp ecia lly th o se w ho f le d H aiti a fte r th e 1 790 s la v e r e v olt l e d b y

Toussa in t L ’O uv ertu re . E very y ear n atu ra l i n cre ase a d ded to th eir n um bers .

When n ew ly f r e ed b la cks c ho se th eir n ew n am es, th ey s o m eti m es p ic ked th o se th at

re fle cte d th eir c o m ple xio n. T here w ere th us m any B ro w ns a nd B la cks a m ong th e f r e ed

popula ti o n. S om eti m es th e n am e r e fle cte d th eir o ccup ati o n. F or e xam ple , th e l ite ra l m eanin g o f

Sojo urn er T ru th i s tr a v elin g p re acher. I n d eed , T ru th ’s o ra to ric al s k ills w ere r e no w ned a nd s h e

use d th em i n th e c ause o f C hris ti a nity a s w ell a s a b oliti o nis m a nd w om en’s r ig hts . H enry

Maso n, f o r e xam ple , w as a b ric kla yer, C harle s G re en w as a g ard ener, a nd T ho m as S m ith c o uld

hav e b een a b la cksm ith o r a s ilv ers m ith . O th er f o rm er s la v es c ho se th e n am es o f l ib erty . T here

were n am es l ik e J u sti c e, a nd m any c ho se th e n am e F re em an a s a m ark o f th eir n ew i d enti ty .

In a d diti o n to s ig nify in g a n ew i d enti ty , th e n am e c ho se n b y th ese f r e e m en a nd w om en

re fle cte d th eir e v alu ati o n o f th eir c hances o f s u ccess. T ho se w ho to ok th e n am e o f th eir c ra ft,

fo r i n sta nce, p ro bab ly f e lt g o od a b out p ro sp erin g e co no m ic ally . T he f e w l ik e W illia m E llis o n,

who to ok th eir m aste r’s n am e, n o d oub t s a w a d vanta ges i n th eir c ho ic es, to o. I n a w orld w here

bla ck s k in w as i n hib iti n g, w hite m en c o uld e ase th e w ay to e co no m ic i n d ep end ence. E llis o n

knew th is . H is b usin ess m akin g c o tto n g in s w as b uilt a s m uch o n h is o w n s k ills a s o n th e

Ellis o n n am e, a n am e a sso cia te d w ith o ne o f th e w ealth ie st p la nte rs i n a r e gio n w here s u ch

wealth y p la nte rs h ad a n eed f o r h is s k ill a nd p ro duct.

More th an k eep in g h is m aste r’s n am e, E llis o n a ls o k ep t h is a tta chm ent to h is m aste r b y

sta yin g f a ir ly c lo se to h im , s o m eth in g m ost f r e ed s la v es a v oid ed . E llis o n’s c ho ic e n o d oub t h ad

a l o t to d o w ith th e f a ct th at h is m aste r w as p ro bab ly a ls o h is f a th er. T ho ugh h e d id m ove a b out

fifty m ile s to a no th er to w n, th is w as f a r l e ss o f a m ove th an th at m ad e b y m any f r e ed p eo ple . O f

co urs e , r u naw ays h ad to f le e b ecause th eir l iv es d ep end ed o n i t. B ut l e gally e m ancip ate d

sla v es a ls o l e ft th e

are a w here th ey h ad b een e nsla v ed . S om e j u st n eed ed to te st th eir m obility

as a w ay o f d em onstr a ti n g th eir l ib erty . O th ers m ig ra te d to a re as w here th ey k new th ey h ad

fr ie nd s a nd f a m ily . S ti ll o th ers l e ft f o r o nly a s h o rt w hile , r e tu rn in g

beca use

o f th e f a m ilia rity

th ey h ad w ith th e a re a a nd th e p eo ple . A bove a ll, th ey tr ie d to g et o ut f r o m u nd er th eir f o rm er

maste r’s s u p erv is io n. T he b est w ay to d o th at w as to m ove.

And y et, f o r b la ck A meric ans f r e ed om d id n o t m ean to ta l l ib erty . T ho se w ho m oved to r u ra l

are as f o und i t d iffic ult to m ake f r e ed om w ork f o r th em . I n th e S outh , r u ra l f r e e b la cks w ho

were n o t a tta ched to p la nta ti o ns a s c arp ente rs , b la cksm ith s, c o opers , a nd th e l ik e, r e nte d l a nd ,

eq uip m ent, a nd s u p plie s a nd tr ie d to e ke o ut a l iv in g b y g ro w in g a nd s e llin g th eir c ro ps. V ery

fe w w ere s u ccessfu l. W hite l a nd ow ners c harg ed e xo rb ita nt r a te s f o r th e r e nta l o f l a nd a nd j u st

one m ed io cre h arv est c o uld p ut a f r e e b la ck f a m ily f a r i n to d eb t. A fr ic an A meric ans i n th is

situ ati o n w ere f o rc ed to g o to p ris o n o r, to m eet th eir d eb ts , s ig n o ver th eir f u tu re c ro ps to th e

la nd ow ner. I n e ith er c ase th ey b ecam e p eo ns, p eo ple ti e d to th e l a nd . T hey e ith er h ad to w ork

fo re v er f o r th e p ers o n w ho se l a nd th ey r e nte d o r b e i m pris o ned . I f th ey w ent to j a il th ey w ere

su b se q uentl y h ir e d o ut a nd f o rc ed to w ork f o r th e p ers o n th e a uth o riti e s h ad s o ld th eir l a b or to ,

to p ers o ns w illin g to p ay th eir d eb ts . E ith er w ay m any r u ra l f r e e b la cks f o und th em se lv es i n To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

vir tu al s e rv itu d e.

A b ad ge i s su ed to a f r e ed b la ck l iv in g i n C harle sto n, S outh C aro lin a. B oth f r e ed b la cks a nd

sla v es w ere r e q uir e d to w ear th ese i d enti fic ati o n b ad ges.

Faced w ith th e c ho ic e o f r e nti n g l a nd u nd er s u ch u nfa v ora b le c ir c um sta nces o r s ig nin g

la b or c o ntr a cts , m ost r u ra l f r e e b la cks o pte d f o r th e l a tte r. B ut th is to o p ut th em i n s la v elik e

cir c um sta nces. M ost c o ntr a cts s p ecifie d th at f r e e N egro es w ork a cco rd in g to th e s a m e r u le s

go vern in g s la v e h and s. T hus w hen A aro n G rig gs h ir e d h im se lf to a L ouis ia na p la nte r h e

ple d ged “ to w ork a s o ne o f th e h and s o f th e p la nta ti o n.” H e p le d ged a ls o n o t to l e av e th e

pla nta ti o n d urin g h is te rm o f s e rv ic e, “ to g o o ut to th e f ie ld s a t th e s a m e h o urs w ith th e p eo ple

of th e p la nta ti o n & to w ork w ith th e p la nta ti o n o vers e er.” I n a ll l ik elih o od G rig gs g o t th e s a m e

am ount o f f o od a nd c lo th in g a s th e s la v es, b ut s in ce h e h ad to p ay f o r th em a t p ric es s e t b y h is

em plo yer h e f o und h im se lf a t th e e nd o f th e y ear i n d eb t to th e v ery p ers o n w ho h e h ad w ork ed

fo r l ik e a s la v e.

Fre e b la cks w ho s u cceed ed i n th e r u ra l S outh w ere th e r a re e xcep ti o n. W illia m E llis o n

fa lls i n to th is c ate go ry . H is s k ill a s a g in m aker m ad e h im i n d is p ensa b le

to w hite p la nte rs . H e

was th ere fo re a b le to m ake f r e ed om w ork f o r h im . B ut E llis o n a ls o h ad o th er a d vanta ges. H e

was l ig ht s k in ned , a nd w hite s, e sp ecia lly th o se i n th e L ow er S outh , s h o w ed a d efin ite

to le ra nce f o r b la cks w ho w ere c lo se to th em i n s k in c o lo r.

It w as n o t j u st a m atte r o f s ta nd ard s o f b eauty . A l ig ht c o lo r s ig nifie d a b ir th c o nnecti o n to a

white p ers o n. A lth o ugh th ere w ere e no ugh w hite s w ho b elie v ed th at o ne d ro p o f N egro b lo od

mad e o ne a N egro , th ere w ere a ls o m any w hite m en w ho h ad f a th ere d m ula tto es, a nd s o m e

white w om en w ho h ad g iv en b ir th to th em . T hese w hite p are nts w ere o fte n r e lu cta nt to l e av e

th eir c hild re n to ta lly e xp ose d to r a cis t h o sti lity . T hey th us p ro te cte d th em b y p ro vid in g f o r

so m e e d ucati o n o r tr a in in g i n a tr a d e. T he i n d ustr io usn ess o f th ese f r e e p ers o ns o f c o lo r m ad eTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

so m e w hite S outh C aro lin ia ns f e el s a fe i n th eir p re se nce. A s a g ro up o f w hite m en w ho s ig ned

an 1 822 C harle sto n p eti ti o n p ut i t, m ula tto es w ere “ a b arrie r b etw een o ur o w n c o lo r a nd th at

of th e b la ck.”

For s u re , E llis o n m ad e th e m ost o f th is s e nti m ent. R eco rd s s h o w , f o r i n sta nce, th at h e w as

pro bab ly th e s o n e ith er o f h is m aste r o r o f h is m aste r’s f a th er. I t w as th is b lo od c o nnecti o n th at

sa v ed h im f r o m b eco m in g a n o rd in ary f ie ld h and o n th e c o tto n p la nta ti o ns o w ned b y h is

re la ti v es. T hat h e to ok th e n am e o f h is m aste rs , a nd i d enti fie d w ith th em i n e v ery w ay, e v en to

th e e xte nt o f h o ld in g s la v es, i s q uite u nd ers ta nd ab le .

Sin ce m ost f r e e b la cks l a cked E llis o n’s a d vanta ges, th ey h ad to f in d o th er w ays o f

su rv iv in g. I n b oth th e N orth a nd th e S outh th e c iti e s h eld m ore o pportu niti e s f o r A fr ic an

Americ ans th an r u ra l a re as d id . T his i s w here m ost o f th e u nsk ille d j o bs w ere , a nd s in ce,

unlik e K eckle y o r E llis o n, m ost f r e e A fr ic an A meric ans w ere u nsk ille d l a b ore rs , th e c ity w as

th e p la ce to f in d w ork .

It w as a ls o a p la ce to f in d o th er f r e e b la cks a nd b egin th e ta sk o f m akin g n ew f r ie nd s a nd

build in g a n ew l ife . I n th e c iti e s f r e e b la cks h ad m ore c ho ic es th an th ey h ad i n r u ra l a re as.

There th ey c o uld j o in a b la ck c hurc h a nd w ors h ip th e w ay th ey w ante d . T hey c o uld s e nd th eir

child re n to a s c ho ol s e t u p b y th at c hurc h o r th e s c ho ol e sta b lis h ed b y th e b enev ole nt s o cie ty to

whic h th ey m ig ht a ls o b elo ng. I n th e c ity th ey c o uld h o ld c ele b ra ti o ns. T hey c o uld g o to th e

gro g s h o ps o r b ars , o r a tte nd a s h o w , o r e v en b ury th eir d ead i n a s e rv ic e u nd er th eir o w n

dir e cti o n. T hey c o uld d o s o , m ore o ver, a w ay f r o m th e c o nsta nt s u p erv is in g e yes o f w hite

sla v eho ld ers .

Sm all w ond er th en th at b y 1 860, o n th e e v e o f th e C iv il W ar, f r e e b la cks c o uld b e d esc rib ed

as th e m ost u rb an o f a ll o f A meric a’s p eo ple . I n th e S outh m ore th an a th ir d o f th e f r e e b la ck

popula ti o n d w elle d i n c iti e s o r to w ns, a lth o ugh o nly f ifte en p erc ent o f th e w hite s a nd a b out

fiv e p erc ent o f th e s la v es l iv ed i n c iti e s. I n th e N orth , B osto n, N ew Y ork , C in cin nati , a nd

Phila d elp hia h eld th e b ulk o f th e f r e e b la ck p opula ti o n.

Opportu niti e s p re v aile d i n a nte b ellu m u rb an A meric a b ut n o t w ith o ut s tr u ggle . A s i n r u ra l

are as, b la cks f a ced o bsta cle s. E very w here th ey tu rn ed th ey e nco unte re d w hite s u sp ic io n,

co m peti ti o n, a nd h o sti lity . O ppositi o n to th em w as s o f ie rc e, a nd

th eir f r e ed om w as s o

re str ic te d , th at l ik e f r e e r u ra l A fr ic an A meric ans i t i s m ore a p t to d esc rib e th eir c o nd iti o n n o t

as f r e e b ut a s q uasi- fr e e.

Most c iti e s a nd s ta te s, i n f a ct, tr ie d h ard to l im it th e s iz e o f th e f r e e b la ck p opula ti o n, a nd

where p ossib le , to e lim in ate i t. T his e ffo rt b egan e arly i n th e 1 800s a nd c o uld b e tr a ced to th e

wanin g o f th e r e v olu ti o nary f e rv or o ver l ib erty , th e r is e o f c o tto n, a nd th e r e su lti n g d em and f o r

sla v es. S pecific ally , a s th e n ati o n s e ttl e d i n to i ts g ro w in g-u p s ta ge, a nd a s i ts e co no m y b ecam e

more a nd m ore f u ele d b y th e m oney m ad e f r o m c o tto n p ro ducti o n, a nyth in g th at th re ate ned

sla v ery , th e i n sti tu ti o n u p on w hic h c o tto n p ro ducti o n w as b ase d , w as p erc eiv ed a s d angero us.

By w hite s ta nd ard s, th ere fo re , f r e e b la cks w ere d angero us. T hey th re ate ned to d is ru p t th e

exis ti n g o rd er b ecause th ey c o ntr a d ic te d th e p ro -s la v ery a rg um ent th at N egro es c o uld n o t

su rv iv e w ith o ut w hite s u p erv is io n. T hey a ls o th re ate ned s la v ery b ecause th ey h ad a v este d

in te re st i n s la v ery ’s e lim in ati o n. N ot o nly d id m ost h av e b itte r m em orie s o f th eir ti m e i n

sla v ery , b ut m ost h ad r e la ti v es o r f r ie nd s s ti ll i n b ond age. M ore o ver, a s l o ng a s s la v ery To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

exis te d , a nd a s l o ng a s m ost b la cks w ere s la v es, a ll b la cks w ere p re su m ed s la v es, e v en f r e e

bla cks. F re e A fr ic an A meric ans th ere fo re h ad e v ery r e aso n to w ant— and w ork to w ard —

sla v ery ’s e lim in ati o n.

Ante b ellu m w hite s h ad a to ta lly d iffe re nt m in d se t. I n th e N orth , S outh , a nd W est, w hite s

who w ere s k ille d a rti s a ns a nd c o m mon w ork ers f e are d f r e e A fr ic an A meric ans. T hanks to th e

1820 M is so uri C om pro m is e , s la v ery w as o utl a w ed n o rth o f th e 3 6th p ara lle l. N orth ern a nd

weste rn w hite l a b ore rs , th ere fo re , d id n o t h av e to c o m pete a gain st s la v e l a b or, a c o m peti ti o n

th ey c o uld n ev er w in b ecause th ey c o uld n o t s e ll th eir l a b or a s c heap ly a s th e s la v e w ho , o f

co urs e , w ork ed f o r n o th in g. T he f r e e b la ck, th o ugh, w as a f o rm id ab le c o m peti to r b ecause

dis c rim in ati o n f o rc ed A fr ic an A meric ans to s e ll th eir l a b or f o r l e ss th an i t w as w orth . I t w as i n

th e w hite l a b ore r’s i n te re st, th ere fo re , to e lim in ate a ll b la ck c o m peti ti o n h o w ev er h e c o uld .

One w ay h e d id th is w as b y r e fu sin g to w ork a lo ngsid e b la cks. F re d eric k D ougla ss r a n i n to

th is p ro ble m w hen, a s a f u giti v e f r o m s la v ery , h e m oved to N ew B ed fo rd , M assa chuse tts , a nd

so ught w ork a s a c aulk er. E m plo yers w ould n o t h ir e h im b ecause th ey r is k ed l o sin g a ll th eir

white e m plo yees. A s D ougla ss e xp la in ed , “ I w as to ld b y a n a nti - s la v ery s h ip build er th ere ,

who h ad a v esse l o n th e s to cks to b e c aulk ed , th at i f h e s h o uld e v en v entu re to s e nd m e o n th at

sh ip , e v ery w hite m an w ould l e av e h im , a nd h e c o uld n o t g et h er r e ad y f o r s e a. G o w here I

would , I c o uld n o t g et e m plo ym ent a t m y tr a d e.” E x-s la v e c arp ente r H enry B oyd h ad a s im ila r

exp erie nce i n C in cin nati . A fte r d ays o f u nsu ccessfu l j o b h unti n g, h e f in ally f o und a n

Englis h m an w ho w ould h ir e h im . W hen h e e nte re d th e s h o p, th o ugh, “ th e w ork m en th re w d ow n

th eir to ols , a nd d ecla re d th at h e s h o uld l e av e o r th ey w ould . ‘ T hey w ould n ev er w ork w ith a

nig ger.’ ”

Law s r e str ic ti n g th e m ovem ent a nd r ig hts o f f r e e b la cks w ere a s e ffe cti v e a s s u ch

im pro m ptu a tte m pts to l im it th e f r e ed om o f A fr ic an A meric ans. I n th e S outh f r e e b la cks w ere

fo rc ed to c arry c erti fic ate s o f f r e ed om o n th eir p ers o n. I f c aught w ith o ut o ne th ere w as th e

danger o f b ein g c la im ed a s a s la v e. I n m any p la ces f r e e b la cks

had to r e gis te r w ith th e p olic e

or c o urt a uth o riti e s. S outh C aro lin a, f o r i n sta nce, r e q uir e d f r e e p eo ple o f c o lo r b etw een th e

ages o f s ix te en a nd s ix ty to p ay a tw o-d olla r ta x e ach y ear. T he ta x e nab le d w hite s to k no w

who w as f r e e a nd w here f r e e b la cks l iv ed . L ik e o th er S outh ern s ta te s, S outh C aro lin a a ls o

pro hib ite d th e m ig ra ti o n o f f r e e b la cks i n to th e s ta te , a s w ell a s th e e m ancip ati o n o f s la v es.

These l a w s a im ed to r e d uce th e n um ber o f f r e e b la cks, a nd th ey d id s o v ery e ffe cti v ely .

A h o st o f o th er l a w s w ere p asse d to c urta il th e r ig hts o f S outh ern f r e e b la cks. W hen f r e e

Afr ic an A meric ans m et i n a ny n um bers , e v en i n c hurc h, th ey w ere r e q uir e d to h av e a w hite

pers o n i n a tte nd ance. S outh ern l a w s a ls o s e t c urfe w s f o r b la ck g ath erin gs. B la cks w ere w id ely

exclu d ed f r o m p ub lic p ark s a nd b uria l g ro und s, r e le gate d to th e b alc o nie s o f th eate rs a nd o pera

ho use s, a nd b arre d f r o m h o te ls a nd r e sta ura nts . O f a ll th e S outh ern s ta te s o nly M ary la nd ,

Tennesse e, a nd N orth C aro lin a g av e f r e e b la cks th e v ote , b ut b y 1 835 a ll h ad r e p eale d th is

rig ht. T o a d d i n su lt to i n ju ry , n o S outh ern c o urt a llo w ed th em to s e rv e o n j u rie s o r g iv e

te sti m ony i n c o urt a gain st w hite s. A nd , i f c o nv ic te d o f a ny c rim e, th e p unis h m ent m ete d o ut to

th em w as a lw ays m ore s e v ere th an th at g iv en to w hite s c o nv ic te d o f th e s a m e c rim e. F re e

bla cks f a ced p ub lic w hip pin gs a nd , m ost o m in o us o f a ll, e nsla v em ent, a f a te w hite s n ev er

su ffe re d .To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

Cond iti o ns i n th e n o n-s la v eho ld in g s ta te s w ere s lig htl y b ette r b ut g o t w ors e a s o ne tr a v ele d

fr o m th e N orth east to th e N orth w est. S la v ery h ad b een o utl a w ed i n th e s ta te s o f O hio , I n d ia na,

Illin o is , W is c o nsin , a nd M ic hig an b y th e N orth w est O rd in ance o f 1 787, b ut w hite s th ere w ere

sti ll p re ju d ic ed a gain st b la cks. A s i n th e S outh , s k ille d l a b ore rs w ere e sp ecia lly f e arfu l o f

bla ck c o m peti ti o n. T o d is c o ura ge b la ck m ig ra ti o n, N orth w este rn a nd W este rn s ta te s a lik e

passe d b la ck c o des th at r e se m ble d th e r e str ic ti v e l a w s o f s la v ery . L ik e S outh ern s ta te s th ey

als o r e q uir e d b la cks to r e gis te r th eir c erti fic ate s o f f r e ed om a t a c o unty c le rk ’s o ffic e, b ut h ere

fr e e b la cks h ad to p ay a b ond o f f iv e h und re d o r o ne th o usa nd d olla rs g uara nte ein g th at th ey

would n o t d is tu rb th e p eace o r b eco m e a p ub lic c harg e. I llin o is , I n d ia na, a nd O re go n a ctu ally

exclu d ed b la ck m ig ra nts a lto geth er.

Cond iti o ns f o r f r e e b la cks w ere p ro bab ly th e b est i n th e N orth east, b ut e v en i n th ese s ta te s

re str ic ti o ns w ere i n to le ra b le . M ost q ualifie d b la ck v ote rs l o st th e v ote a nd s o cia l c usto m k ep t

th em o ff j u rie s. W hat th e l a w d id n o t d o, m ob v io le nce d id . B la cks i n P hila d elp hia s u ffe re d th e

fu ry o f th e m ob a s e arly a s 1 805, w hen d oze ns o f w hite c iti z e ns tu rn ed o n th o se g ath ere d f o r a

Fourth o f J u ly c ere m ony a nd d ro ve th em a w ay f r o m th e f e sti v iti e s w ith a to rre nt o f c urs e s.

Durin g th e 1 830s a nd 1 840s, r io ts o ccurre d a gain i n P hila d elp hia , a nd a ls o i n N ew Y ork ,

Pitts b urg h, C in cin nati , a nd P ro vid ence. I n e ach c ase w hite m obs b urn ed a nd l o ote d b la ck

churc hes, m eeti n g h alls , a nd h o m es, a nd b eat, s to ned , a nd e v en m urd ere d b la ck c iti z e ns.

To s u rv iv e, m ost A fr ic an A meric ans f o und a w ay to w ork a ro und w hite p re ju d ic e.

Now here i n th e U nite d S ta te s w as th is e asy. I n th e N orth east, e m plo ym ent o pportu niti e s i n th e

em erg in g i n d ustr ie s w ent a lm ost e nti r e ly to w hite s w ho u se d e v ery m eans, i n clu d in g v io le nce,

to k eep th eir e co no m ic a d vanta ge. B la cks c o uld

fin d j o bs o nly a t th e b otto m o f th e j o b l a d der

as c o m mon l a b ore rs . T hey l o ad ed s h ip s, d ug w ells , g ra v es, a nd h o use f o und ati o ns, a nd to ile d

as s w eep ers , p orte rs , a sh m en, c him ney s w eep s, a nd b ootb la cks.

Para d oxic ally , e co no m ic o pportu niti e s i n cre ase d f o r f r e e b la cks th e f u rth er s o uth o ne w ent

in to s la v e c o untr y . N ot o nly w ere th ere f e w er s k ille d a nd u nsk ille d w hite i m mig ra nt l a b ore rs i n

th e S outh , b ut w hite e m plo yers w ere a ccusto m ed to h ir in g b la cks to d o w ork th at w hite m en

would n o t d o. F re e b la cks, th ere fo re , w ere a b le to e ke o ut a l iv in g e v en th o ugh th ey f a ced

co m peti ti o n f r o m b oth s la v es a nd n ati v e-b orn w hite s. F or e xam ple , n o w here i n th e S outh

would w hite m en c ut h air. F re e b la cks th ere fo re a cq uir e d a m ono poly o n th e b arb erin g tr a d e.

In C harle sto n, s k ille d w hite c arp ente rs , ta ilo rs , a nd m illw rig hts w ere s c arc e, l e av in g th ese

occup ati o ns to b e f ille d b y f r e e b la cks. B la cks a ls o f o und e m plo ym ent i n S outh ern i n d ustr ie s,

usu ally i n th e l e ast- s k ille d p ositi o ns. I n R ic hm ond , f o r i n sta nce, h alf th e e m plo yed N egro m en

la b ore d i n to bacco f a cto rie s, p ap er m ills , a nd i r o n f o und rie s.

Fre e b la ck u rb an w om en d id n o t h av e a s m any o pportu niti e s a s th eir m ale c o unte rp arts .

Eliz a b eth K eckle y w as e xcep ti o nal. B oth N orth a nd S outh , f e w b la cks o w ned th eir o w n

busin esse s o r c o m mand ed th eir o w n ti m e. M ost w ork ed i n th e s e rv ic e tr a d es a s l a und re sse s,

co oks, a nd m aid s. E ven i n th is k in d o f w ork th ey f a ced c o m peti ti o n f r o m n ati v e-b orn w hite

wom en o f th e p oore r c la sse s, a nd a s th e p erio d p ro gre sse d , f r o m i m mig ra nt w om en, e sp ecia lly

th o se f r o m I r e la nd . L ik e f r e e b la ck m en, th o ugh, th ey w ork ed l o nger h o urs th an th e a v era ge

white p ers o n, a nd l o nger h o urs th an th e a v era ge w hite w om an, w ho o fte n d id n o t w ork a t a ll.

With s o m e l u ck th ey m anaged to s u rv iv e o n th eir o w n. To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

Wheth er m ale o r f e m ale , s u rv iv in g i n th e c ity a nd s u rv iv in g w ell m eant b ein g b le sse d w ith

so m e a m ount o f l u ck. L uck h ad d iffe re nt m eanin gs f o r w hite s a nd f r e e b la cks. F or th e l a tte r

lu ck m eant h av in g a tr a d e th at w as n o t ta ken o ver b y w hite l a b ore rs . L uck a ls o m eant b ein g

ab le to s u p port o ne’s c hild re n s o th at o ffic ia ls c o uld n o t f o rc e th em i n to l e gal a p pre nti c esh ip s.

Tho usa nd s o f b la ck p are nts i n b oth th e N orth a nd S outh h ad th eir c hild re n ta ken a w ay a nd

fo rc ed i n to e ig hte en o r tw enty y ears o f s e rv ic e b ecause s ta te o r c ity o ffic ia ls d eem ed th em

unab le o r u nfit to c are f o r th em . I n P hila d elp hia , a p pre nti c esh ip p erio ds f o r b la cks w ere

so m eti m es a s l o ng a s tw enty -e ig ht y ears . O nce i n a n a p pre nti c esh ip b la ck c hild re n s e ld om

re ceiv ed th e e d ucati o n o r th e tr a in in g i n a tr a d e th at w hite c hild re n r e ceiv ed .

In l ig ht o f a ll th e r e str ic ti o ns o n f r e e b la cks a nd th e d is c rim in ati o n a nd p re ju d ic e th ey f a ced ,

it i s w orth r e m em berin g th at th ey w ere n o t s la v es. A lth o ugh th ey w ere o nly s e m i- fr e e, th ey

were n o t i n b ond age. T his s ta tu s h ad r e al s ig nific ance, s ig nific ance a s la v e c o uld a p pre cia te .

For, a fte r a ll, f r e e b la cks c o uld l e gally r e nam e th em se lv es. T hey c o uld m arry l e gally , a nd f r e e

wom en g av e b ir th to f r e e c hild re n. T hey h ad m ore o pportu niti e s to l e arn to r e ad a nd w rite . F or

in sta nce, a lth o ugh o nly o ne o f S ojo urn er T ru th ’s f iv e c hild re n o bta in ed a ny e d ucati o n, a t l e ast

tw o o f h er g ra nd child re n o bta in ed l ite ra cy d urin g th e d ays o f s la v ery . W illia m E llis o n’s

child re n w ere m ore f o rtu nate th an T ru th ’s . H e s e nt th em to P hila d elp hia to b e e d ucate d a t th e

Lom bard S tr e et P rim ary S cho ol, a s c ho ol r u n b y M arg are tta F orte n, a f r e e b la ck te acher.

Fre e b la cks c o uld a ls o m ake th eir l iv es m eanin gfu l i n w ays s la v es c o uld n o t. T hro ugho ut

th e c o untr y f r e e A fr ic an A meric ans h ad m ore c o ntr o l o ver th eir r e lig io us p ra cti c es. S ho rtl y

afte r S ojo urn er T ru th w as f r e ed , s h e j o in ed a M eth o dis t c o ngre gati o n i n U ls te r, N ew Y ork .

Lik e th o usa nd s o f f r e e b la cks, T ru th f o und th e m ore p arti c ip ato ry , u nco nstr a in ed e m oti o nal

se rv ic es o f th e M eth o dis ts m ore to h er l ik in g th an th e q uie t, s o le m n s e rv ic es o f o th er

deno m in ati o ns.

For f r e e b la cks, th o ugh, i t w as n o t e no ugh to b e a ccep te d i n a w hite c o ngre gati o n. W hite s,

ho w ev er, p ro te ste d i n d ep end ent b la ck o rg aniz in g, s u ch a s th at c o nd ucte d b y A bsa lo m J o nes’s

Fre e A fr ic an S ocie ty i n P hila d elp hia . E sp ecia lly i n th e S outh b la cks e nco unte re d s tr e nuo us

white r e sis ta nce to b la ck c hurc hes.

In th e e nd , h o w ev er, w hite p re ju d ic e w ork ed

fo r

A fr ic an A meric ans. I n th e S outh , w here

la w s p ro hib ite d b la ck a sse m bly , w hite s n ev erth ele ss s h unned i n te gra te d w ors h ip w ith f r e e

Afr ic an A meric ans. Y et, a d opti n g th e s a m e r e aso nin g th ey e m plo yed r e gard in g s la v es, w hite s

belie v ed th at C hris ti a nity w ould m ake f r e e b la cks m ore c o ntr o lla b le a nd l e ss d angero us.

There fo re , e v en th o ugh b la ck c hurc hes w ere o fte n r a id ed a nd s h ut d ow n b y s u sp ic io us w hite s,

betw een 1 800 a nd 1 860, a nd e sp ecia lly a fte r 1 840, i n d ep end ent A fr ic an-A meric an c hurc hes

gre w a nd th riv ed .

To th e e xte nt th at th e c hurc hes s u rv iv ed a nd p ro sp ere d , s o to o d id A fr ic an-A meric an

co m muniti e s. L ik e s la v es, f r e e b la cks i d enti fie d w ith th e J e w s o f th e O ld T esta m ent a nd

belie v ed th at G od w ould d eliv er th em i n th is w orld a nd th e n ext.

For f r e e b la cks, h o w ev er, th e c hurc h w as a s tr u ctu re — an i n sti tu ti o n— in a w ay i t w as n o t

fo r th e s la v e. B esid es b ein g th e o ne c o rn er o f th e w orld w here b la cks w ent u nhin d ere d b y

white s, th e c hurc h w as th e c ente r o f b la ck l ife . M ost b la ck s c ho ols w ere f o und ed b y th e b la ck

churc h. M ost s e lf- h elp a cti v iti e s w ere c o nd ucte d th ro ugh th e c hurc h, a nd m ost p ositi o ns o fTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

le ad ers h ip i n th e c o m munity w ere h eld i n th e c hurc h. N ot s u rp ris in gly , i t w as o fte n th e c hurc h’s

str u ggle f o r s u rv iv al a gain st w hite e ffo rts to s h ut i ts d oors th at l e nt u nity a nd s o lid arity to m any

Afr ic an-A meric an c o m muniti e s.

So m uch w as d ep end ent o n th e s u rv iv al o f th e b la ck c hurc h. B la ck s c ho ols o ffe r a g o od

exam ple . I n a nte b ellu m A meric a i n b oth th e N orth a nd th e S outh a d ult e d ucati o n w as a lm ost

no nexis te nt, a nd b la ck c hild re n w ere e ith er g iv en s u b sta nd ard e d ucati o n o r w ere b arre d f r o m

pub lic a nd p riv ate s c ho ols a lto geth er. I t w as u su ally th e c hurc h th at to ok u p th is b urd en. I n th e

North a nd th e u p per a nd b ord er S outh ern s ta te s, A fr ic an c hurc hes r a n S und ay s c ho ols w here

child re n w ere e nco ura ged to r e ad th e B ib le . M ost c hurc hes i n th ese a re as h ad d ay s c ho ols th at

child re n a tte nd ed f o r f r e e o r f o r a s m all f e e.

In a d diti o n to th e c hurc h, b enev ole nt s o cie ti e s w ere a u nify in g e le m ent i n f r e e A fr ic an-

Americ an s o cie ty . O ne o f th e f ir s t w as f o und ed i n B osto n b y P rin ce H all, w ho b efo re th e

Americ an R ev olu ti o n w as g ra nte d a c harte r f r o m E ngla nd to

esta b lis h a M aso nic l o dge. I n

1797 H all p re sid ed o ver th e i n sta lla ti o n o f th e f ir s t o ffic ers i n P hila d elp hia ’s A fr ic an L odge o f

Pennsy lv ania . B y 1 815 th ere w ere f o ur l o dges i n P hila d elp hia th at h ad p oole d th eir r e so urc es

to b uild a b la ck M aso nic H all.

Lik e b enev ole nt s o cie ti e s i n o th er c iti e s i n b oth N orth a nd S outh , th ese o rg aniz a ti o ns

pro vid ed s e rv ic es to th eir m em bers a s w ell a s to th e l a rg er b la ck c o m munity . F or e xam ple ,

th ey p ro vid ed d is a b le d m em bers w ith “ sic k d ues” to a ssu re th em a n i n co m e w hen th ey c o uld

no t w ork , a nd th ey a ls o g av e e ld erly m em bers m oney to l iv e o n. T hey o rg aniz e d th e b uria l o f

th eir m em bers , p ro vid in g p lo ts , h ead sto nes, a nd c ere m onie s f o r th e d ep arte d . S om e o f th e

asso cia ti o ns r a n s c ho ols f o r o rp han c hild re n a nd p ro vid ed f o r c o m panio nsh ip f o r th e s ic k a nd

dis a b le d . S om e w ork in gm en’s a sso cia ti o ns tr ie d to s e cure b ette r w ages a nd j o b s e curity , a nd

sti ll o th ers f u ncti o ned l ik e B alti m ore ’s S ocie ty f o r R elie f i n C ase o f S eiz u re , a n o rg aniz a ti o n

th at g uard ed a gain st th e k id nap pin g o f f r e e b la cks i n to s la v ery .

These b enev ole nt s o cie ti e s n o t o nly p ro vid e a n e xcelle nt e xam ple o f A fr ic an-A meric an

se lf- h elp b ut a ls o g iv e u s i n sig ht i n to th e s o cia l o rg aniz a ti o n o f m ost A fr ic an-A meric an

co m muniti e s. I n 1 790 th e B ro w n F ello w sh ip S ocie ty o f C harle sto n, S outh C aro lin a, w as

fo rm ed b y f iv e f r e e m en o f c o lo r. M em bers h ip w as l im ite d to f ifty p ers o ns, w ho h ad to p ay a n

in iti a l m em bers h ip f e e o f f ifty d olla rs p lu s m onth ly d ues. T he f e llo w sh ip u se d th is m oney to

pro vid e f o r th e f u nera l a nd b uria l e xp ense s o f i ts m em bers a nd m onth ly s ti p end s f o r th e

wid ow s a nd o rp hans o f m em bers . T he s o cie ty a ls o p ro vid ed f o r th e c are o f s o m e o f th e p oor

am ong C harle sto n’s f r e e b la ck p opula ti o n. A no th er s o cie ty , a ls o o f C harle sto n, th e F rie nd ly

Mora lis t S ocie ty , f o und ed i n 1 838, f u ncti o ned s im ila rly . Y et a no th er C harle sto n o rg aniz a ti o n,

th e H um ane B ro th erh o od, w as f o rm ed i n 1 843, a nd i t to o p ro vid ed s ic k b enefits , b uria l

exp ense s, a nd a f ix ed y early i n co m e f o r w id ow s a nd o rp hans o f d ecease d m em bers .

What m akes th ese a sso cia ti o ns i n te re sti n g i s th eir o rg aniz a ti o n a ro und w ealth a nd

co m ple xio n. O bvio usly a ny f r e e b la ck w ho c o uld a ffo rd th e m em bers h ip d ues o f th ese

so cie ti e s b elo nged to th e e xcep ti o nal c la ss o f f r e e A fr ic an A meric ans— peo ple w ho , l ik e

Willia m E llis o n, h ad d is ti n guis h ed th em se lv es f r o m th e m asse s o f i llite ra te a nd u nsk ille d f r e e

bla cks. T hey o w ned p ro perty , w ere e d ucate d , a nd c o uld p ro vid e f o r th e e d ucati o n o f th eir

child re n, e v en i f i t m eant s e nd in g th em o ut o f th e s ta te o r e v en o ut o f th e c o untr y . To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

In e v ery c ity , w heth er N ew Y ork o r N ew O rle ans, th ere w ere c la sse s o f A fr ic an A meric ans

who w ere d is ti n guis h ed th is w ay. T hey w ere th e e lite w ho s u cceed ed d esp ite a ll th e o bsta cle s

pla ced i n th eir w ay. I n c ity a fte r c ity th ey f o rm ed m usic al a nd l ite ra ry s o cie ti e s. T hey p re ached

a g o sp el o f m ora l p urity , a nd th eir s o cia l e v ents w ere r e p orte d i n b la ck n ew sp ap ers s u ch a s

Fre ed om ’s J o urn al

, f ir s t p ub lis h ed b y J o hn R ussw urm a nd S am uel C orn is h i n 1 827 i n N ew

York C ity . T hey h eld th em se lv es u p to b la cks a nd w hite s a lik e a s th e m ora l g uard ia ns o f th e

ra ce, th e s ta nd ard o f e xcelle nce th at a ll b la cks c o uld a chie v e i f w hite p re ju d ic e d is a p peare d .

These s o cie ti e s i n C harle sto n w ere a ls o n o ta b le b ecause th ey w ere o rg aniz e d a ro und c o lo r.

Specific ally , th e B ro w n F ello w sh ip a nd F rie nd ly M ora lis t s o cie ti e s w ere e xclu siv ely f o r

mula tto es, w hile th e H um ane B ro th erh o od w as l im ite d to n o m ore th an th ir ty -fiv e “ re sp ecta b le

Fre e D ark M en.” T his d iv is io n o f b enev ole nt s o cie ti e s a lo ng c o lo r l in es c o uld b e f o und

ev ery w here i n th e U nite d S ta te s, b ut i t w as e sp ecia lly p ro no unced i n th e L ow er S outh , f r o m

South C aro lin a to L ouis ia na. I t w as i n th ese s ta te s, w here s la v ery w as m ost e ntr e nched , th at th e

fr e e b la ck p opula ti o n w as th e s m alle st a nd m ost r e str ic te d . M anum is sio ns, e v en d urin g th e

Rev olu ti o n, w ere n ev er n um ero us, a nd s la v es w ho w ere e m ancip ate d w ere v ery l ik ely b lo od

re la ti v es o f th eir m aste r. I n th ese s ta te s, m ula tto es, u su ally c alle d f r e e p eo ple o f c o lo r, w ere

pre su m ed b y a uth o riti e s to b e f r e e, a nd d ark -s k in ned b la cks, e v en th o se w ho w ere f r e e, w ere

pre su m ed to b e s la v es.

In p ra cti c al te rm s th is m eant th at m ula tto es h ad a b ette r c hance o f s u rv iv in g a nd s u cceed in g

th an d ark -c o m ple xio ned b la cks d id . O fte n i t w as b ecause th eir w hite r e la ti v e g av e th em s o m e

ad vanta ge o ver o th er A fr ic an A meric ans. I n W illia m E llis o n’s c ase i t w as a n e d ucati o n a nd

tr a in in g a s a c o tto n g in m aker; f o r o th ers i t i n clu d ed a ti c ket o ut o f th e S outh . T he f a ct th at

white s w ere n o t a s th re ate ned b y m ula tto es a s th ey w ere b y th e d ark er s k in ned w ork ed i n th e

fo rm er’s f a v or a s w ell. U pper-c la ss A fr ic an-A meric an s o cie ty th ere fo re w as g enera lly l ig hte r

th an th e p oor, w ork in g, a nd m id dle c la sse s.

And y et, th e e xis te nce o f th e d ark -s k in ned , u p per-c la ss H um ane B ro th erh o od i s e v id ence

th at w ealth a nd g o od f o rtu ne w ere n o t a lw ays s y no nym ous w ith l ig ht s k in . A t th e s a m e ti m e th at

many d ark -s k in ned b la cks e xcelle d , s o uth ern p la nta ti o ns h eld m any m ula tto es i n s la v ery . S om e

were s o w hite th at th eir A fr ic an h erita ge w as n o t o bvio us. F or A fr ic an-A meric an w om en, l ig ht

sk in c o uld b rin g d ub io us a d vanta ges. W hite m en o fte n f o und th em d esir a b le a nd th is s o m eti m es

had i ts e nd i n f r e ed om f o r th e m ula tto w om an, b ut m ore o fte n th an n o t, th e r e su lt c o uld b e a

life ti m e o f s e xual e xp lo ita ti o n. M ula tto w om en p ro bab ly s a w m ore h o use s e rv ic e th an d id th eir

dark er s is te rs , b ut h o use s e rv ic e w as n o t a lw ays a b le ssin g.

A l ig ht s k in c o uld h elp w ith s u ccess, b ut o th er f a cto rs s u ch a s l ite ra cy, a tr a d e o r

pro fe ssio n, a nd w hite c o nnecti o ns h elp ed s tr u ctu re f r e e b la ck a nte b ellu m s o cie ty . A nd

str u ctu re d i t w as. D iffe re nces i n w ealth , l ite ra cy, c o m ple xio n, a nd o ccup ati o n m ad e f o r

diffe re nt s o cia l c o nnecti o ns a nd c la sse s w ith in b la ck s o cie ty . I t w as n o t u nusu al f o r w ealth ie r

Afr ic an A meric ans to a tte nd a d iffe re nt c hurc h f r o m th o se o f th e m id dle a nd l o w er c la sse s.

Usu ally th e w ealth ie r th e f r e e b la ck, th e l e ss e m oti o nal h is r e lig io us d eno m in ati o n. M eth o dis ts

and B ap ti s ts a ttr a cte d th e A fr ic an-A meric an m asse s, a nd th o se w ith s k ills , l ite ra cy, a nd w ealth

usu ally j o in ed o r f o rm ed th eir o w n m ore r e se rv ed E pis c o pal o r P re sb yte ria n c hurc h.

Desp ite th e d iffe re nces a nd v arie d o ccup ati o ns a nd c hances f o r s u ccess, f r e ed om f o rTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

Afr ic an A meric ans w as a lw ays a nd e v ery w here l im ite d . W hite f r e ed om a nd b la ck f r e ed om

were n ev er th e s a m e, a nd a lth o ugh th ere w ere m any th in gs to d iv id e b la cks f r o m e ach o th er,

th eir p arti a l f r e ed om b ro ught th em a ll to geth er. A s th e

nati o n m oved c lo se r to th e C iv il W ar, th e

more s im ila r a ll b la ck l ife b ecam e. I n th e S outh , w here b y 1 860 th e c o lo r l in e w as d ra w n f a st

and ti g ht, a ll f r e e A fr ic an A meric ans— th e l ig ht s k in ned a nd th e d ark , th e s k ille d a nd th e

unsk ille d , th e l ite ra te a nd th e i llite ra te , th e E pis c o palia n a nd th e B ap ti s t— fa ced th e s a m e

ho sti le w hite s. A s th ey r a is e d th eir v oic es i n p ro te st i n th e y ears i m med ia te ly p re ced in g th e

Civ il W ar th ey s tr u ck a c ho rd o f u nity — unity w ith e ach o th er, a nd u nity w ith th e s la v e.

Let M y P eo p le G o

In 1 847 th e f ir s t e d iti o n o f F re d eric k D ougla ss’s n ew sp ap er, th e

North S ta r

, r o lle d o ff th e

pre sse s. I t w as n o t th e f ir s t A fr ic an-A meric an n ew sp ap er n o r w ould i t b e th e l a st. A nd l ik e th e

nam es o f m any o th er A fr ic an-A meric an p ub lic ati o ns,

North S ta r

s ig nifie d b la ck a sp ir a ti o ns,

because th e N orth S ta r, th e l ig ht th at g uid ed s o m any r u naw ays o ut o f th e S outh , s y m boliz e d

fr e ed om .

In h is d ed ic ati o n D ougla ss ti e d th e f a te o f a ll b la cks to geth er, th e f r e e a nd e nsla v ed , th o se

no rth a nd th o se s o uth . “ W e a re o ne,” h e d ecla re d , “ o ur c ause i s o ne” a nd “ w e m ust h elp e ach

oth er.” D ougla ss w ent o n to d ecla re th e u nity o f th e f r e e b la ck w ith th e s la v e. “ W hat y o u s u ffe r,

we s u ffe r; w hat y o u e nd ure , w e e nd ure . W e a re i n d is so lu b ly u nite d , a nd m ust f a ll o r f lo uris h

to geth er.”

Dougla ss’s w ord s w ere p ro pheti c , b ut i t d id n o t ta ke a p ro phet to s e e th e w is d om o f h is

re m ark s. T he n ati o n w as j u st th ir te en y ears f r o m th e C iv il W ar. A lr e ad y th e f e rm ent w as r is in g.

The A meric an A nti - s la v ery S ocie ty w as f o urte en y ears o ld . F ound ed b y b la cks a nd w hite s, th e

so cie ty h eld r e lig io us r e v iv al- s ty le m eeti n gs w here a b oliti o nis ts m ad e s ti r rin g s p eeches

co nd em nin g s la v ery a s a m ora l w ro ng. T hey u rg ed th eir l is te ners to p ut p re ssu re o n s ta te

le gis la tu re s to e nd s la v ery . T he a b oliti o nis t m ovem ent s p aw ned th e L ib erty p arty , a nd i n 1 840

and 1 844 i t r a n a nti - s la v ery p re sid enti a l c and id ate s. A lth o ugh th e L ib erty p arty d id n o t a ttr a ct a

sig nific ant f o llo w in g, i t d id p la nt th e s e ed o f f e ar o f “ sla v e p ow er.” T he a d m itta nce o f T exas

in to th e U nio n a s a s la v e s ta te i n 1 845 a nd th e p ro m is e d a d diti o n o f s la v e s ta te s f r o m th e

te rrito rie s ta ken b y th e U nite d S ta te s a s a r e su lt o f th e M exic an W ar i n 1 846 d id i n f a ct

co nv in ce m any N orth ern ers th at s la v eho ld ers w ould u se th eir p oliti c al a nd e co no m ic p ow er to

make s la v ery l e gal e v ery w here . M ore a nd m ore , N orth ern w hite s w ond ere d w heth er s la v ery

would o r c o uld b e c o nfin ed o nly to th e S outh ; m ore a nd m ore th ey w ond ere d a b out th e f a te o f

white l a b ore rs i n a s la v e l a b or e co no m y.

Bla cks, to o, p ond ere d th eir f a te . B ut f o r th em , th e i s su es w ere d iffe re nt. M ost i m porta nt, th e

co ncern s o f A fr ic an A meric ans d id n o t d iv id e th em a s m uch a s th e d eb ate o ver s la v ery d iv id ed

white s. T hey h ad m uch to g ain f r o m w hite c o nflic t o ver s la v ery , a nd th ey u nd ers to od th at th ey

would n o t b enefit a t a ll i f th ey w ere n o t u nite d . A nd f o r th e m ost p art th ey s p oke w ith o ne

voic e. F re e b la cks, th o se w ho c o uld s p eak o ut a gain st i n ju sti c e, a ll w ante d f r e ed om f o r th e

ensla v ed a nd j u sti c e f o r th e f r e e. A ll w ante d b la cks to h av e th e r ig hts th at w ere a cco rd ed b y

th e C onsti tu ti o n to a ll A meric ans. T hey d iffe re d , h o w ev er, o n th e m eans to a chie v e th ese e nd s.

The s to ry o f b la ck p ro te st i n th e y ears b efo re th e C iv il W ar i s o ne o f u nity o n th e l a rg e i s su es To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

of r ig hts a nd d eb ate a b out th e w ay to a chie v e th em .

The A nti- S la very A lp habet

, p ub lis h ed i n 1 847 f o r a n a nti - s la v ery f a ir i n P hila d elp hia , u se d

sim ple r h ym es to e xp ose c hild re n to th e h o rro rs o f s la v ery .

Bla ck p ro te st a gain st s la v ery b egan l o ng b efo re th e 1 833 f o rm ati o n o f th e p re d om in antl y

white A meric an A nti - s la v ery S ocie ty . D urin g th e R ev olu ti o n th e C onti n enta l C ongre ss w as

bom bard ed w ith p eti ti o ns f r o m N orth ern s la v es w ho u se d th e “ all m en a re c re ate d e q ual”

cla use o f th e D ecla ra ti o n o f I n d ep end ence to c la im th eir f r e ed om . P ro te st a gain st s la v ery

co nti n ued th ro ugh th e C onfe d era ti o n p erio d, a nd a t th e b egin nin g o f th e n in ete enth c entu ry th e

Afr ic an M eth o dis t E pis c o pal m in is te r A bsa lo m J o nes w alk ed th e s tr e ets o f P hila d elp hia

carry in g a p eti ti o n th at p ro te ste d th e r e new al o f th e s la v e tr a d e i n M ary la nd , th e b ir th p la ce o f

many P hila d elp hia b la cks. I n th eir c hurc hes a nd b enev ole nt s o cie ti e s A fr ic an A meric ans r a is e d

money to h elp r u naw ays, w ro te p eti ti o ns p ro te sti n g s la v ery , a nd s p oke a gain st b la ck b ond age

whenev er a nd w here v er th e o pportu nity a ro se .

On a m ore s u b tl e l e v el, b la cks c ele b ra te d N ew Y ear’s D ay a s th eir I n d ep end ence D ay. A s

Fre d eric k D ougla ss n o te d , to th e s la v e th e n ati o nal F ourth o f J u ly c ele b ra ti o n w as a d ay th at

re v eale d “ th e g ro ss i n ju sti c e a nd c ru elty to w hic h h e i s th e c o nsta nt v ic ti m .” T o th e s la v e, th e

sh o uts o f l ib erty a nd e q uality , th e p ra yers , h ym ns, s e rm ons, a nd th anksg iv in gs w ere “ ho llo w

mockery … m ere b om bast, f r a ud , d ecep ti o n, i m pie ty , a nd h yp ocris y — a th in v eil to c o ver u p

crim es w hic h w ould

dis g ra ce a n ati o n o f s a v ages.” N ew Y ear’s D ay, i n c o ntr a st, h ad r e al

meanin g f o r A fr ic an A meric ans. I t w as th e a nniv ers a ry o f H aiti a n i n d ep end ence i n 1 804 a nd

th e e nd o f th e f o re ig n s la v e tr a d e w ith th e U nite d S ta te s i n 1 808.

As e ach N ew Y ear’s D ay p asse d , f r e e b la cks i n cre asin gly c o nd em ned th e f e d era l

go vern m ent f o r i ts p erp etu ati o n o f s la v ery . T hey d id n o t h av e to g o m uch f u rth er th an th e

Consti tu ti o n to f in d a f e d era l d ocum ent w orth y o f c o nd em nati o n. T he C onsti tu ti o n a llo w ed th e

fo re ig n s la v e tr a d e to p ers is t f o r tw enty y ears a fte r i ts s ig nin g. F or p urp ose s o f r e p re se nta ti o n, To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

it c o unte d e nsla v ed A fr ic an A meric ans a s th re e-fifth s o f a p ers o n. I t a ls o p ro m is e d to p ut d ow n

sla v e i n su rre cti o ns a nd to tr a ck d ow n f u giti v es f r o m s la v ery a nd r e tu rn th em to th eir o w ners .

This l a st p ro vis io n, w hic h p ut th e f e d era l g o vern m ent i n th e b usin ess o f s la v e c atc hin g, w as

re in fo rc ed b y a f u giti v e s la v e l a w i n 1 793 a nd b y a p arti c ula rly h ars h o ne i n 1 850. A fr ic an

Americ ans v ig o ro usly o ppose d th ese l a w s, b ut b etw een 1 836 a nd 1 844 th e H ouse o f

Rep re se nta ti v es a d opte d a “ gag r u le ” a gain st a ll a nti - s la v ery p eti ti o ns. U nd er th is r u le a ll

ab oliti o nis t p eti ti o ns w ere a uto m ati c ally ta b le d s o th at th ey c o uld n o t e v en b e d is c usse d o n th e

flo or o f th e H ouse .

Sti ll b la cks p ro te ste d . T hey to ok p arti c ula r a im a t th e p ro gra m o f th e A meric an

Colo niz a ti o n S ocie ty . F ound ed i n 1 816, th is s o cie ty c o unte d s o m e o f A meric a’s m ost n o ta b le

citi z e ns a m ong i ts m em bers . P re sid ents J a m es M ad is o n a nd A nd re w J a ckso n, S enato r D anie l

Web ste r, a nd F ra ncis S co tt K ey, a uth o r o f “ T he S ta r-S pangle d B anner,” a ll a rg ued th at b la cks

sh o uld b e r e tu rn ed to A fr ic a b ecause i t w as th e o nly n atu ra l h o m e o f b la ck p eo ple . C entr a l to

th eir a rg um ent w as th eir b elie f th at b la cks w ould n ev er b e a ccep te d i n A meric a. A cco rd in g to

nati o nal l e ad er a nd p re sid enti a l- h o pefu l H enry C la y, th e “ G re at C om pro m is e r,” b la cks w ould

ev er i n hab it “ th e l o w est s tr a ta o f s o cia l g ra d ati o n.” I n h is o pin io n b la cks w ere “ alie ns—

politi c al- m ora l- s o cia l a lie ns, s tr a ngers , th o ugh n ati v e.” A fr ic a, o n th e o th er h and , h eld h o pe

fo r b la cks. I t w as a p la ce w here th ey w ould n o t b e d egra d ed a nd d eb ase d . M ore o ver,

ad vocate s o f c o lo niz a ti o n b elie v ed th at A meric an N egro es, h av in g c o m e u nd er th e c iv iliz in g

in flu ence o f C hris ti a nity a nd h av in g o bse rv ed th e b enefits o f d em ocra cy a nd c ap ita lis m , w ould

re d eem A fr ic a. T hey a rg ued th at A fr ic an A meric ans w ould tr a nsfo rm A fr ic a i n to p ro sp ero us

min i- A meric an b la ck r e p ub lic s. C olo niz a ti o n w ould o pen u p n ew c o m merc ia l r o ute s b etw een

Afr ic a a nd A meric a. I n s h o rt, w hat b la cks c o uld n o t d o h ere i n A meric a, th ey c o uld a nd w ould

do i n A fr ic a. I n th eir m in d s, th e e nd r e su lt o f c o lo niz a ti o n w ould b enefit b oth b la cks a nd

white s, A meric a a nd A fr ic a.

Colo niz a ti o nis ts tr ie d to r e cru it w ell- k no w n, s u ccessfu l b la cks to l e ad th e e xo dus to A fr ic a.

The m ost c o m mon s tr a te gy w as to l u re i n flu enti a l b la ck l e ad ers w ith th e p ro sp ect o f p ow er,

wealth , a nd p re sti g e. F or e xam ple , th ey o ffe re d J a m es F orte n, a w ealth y s a ilm aker,

co m merc ia l a d vanta ges i f h e w ould l e ad b la cks b ack to W est A fr ic a. H e r e fu se d , b ut i t d id n o t

sto p c o lo niz a ti o nis ts f r o m s e nsa ti o naliz in g th e a d vanta ges o f g o in g to A fr ic a.

All b ut a f e w d eclin ed th e o pportu nity to r e tu rn . T ho se w ho d id l e av e s e ttl e d o n l a nd n ear

th e B riti s h c o lo ny o f S ie rra L eo ne. L ocate d o n l a nd p urc hase d b y th e A meric an C olo niz a ti o n

Socie ty i n 1 822, th e c o lo ny w as n am ed L ib eria , th e “ la nd o f f r e ed om .” S ettl e rs h o ped th at th is

sm all c o untr y w ould f u lfill th e p ro m is e o f i ts n am e a nd p ro vid e th e l ib erty th at A meric a

with held . C erta in ly th is w as th e h o pe o f tw o o f i ts m ost r e no w ned s e ttl e rs , th e b la ck s e a

cap ta in a nd s h ip ow ner P aul C uffe e a nd J o hn R ussw urm , a n e d ucato r a nd th e e d ito r o f

Fre ed om ’s J o urn al

. B oth m en e nd ors e d c o lo niz a ti o n b ecause th ey f e lt A meric a w ould n ev er

tr e at i ts b la ck c iti z e ns f a ir ly . “ If th e s la v es o f o ur c o untr y w ith o ne a cco rd w ere d eliv ere d f r o m

bond age,” R ussw urm a sk ed , “ can th ey b e e le v ate d to a n e q uality w ith th e w hite s? C an th ey

while i n th is c o untr y b e d iv este d o f th e o diu m o f i n fe rio r a nd d egra d ed c aste ?” R ussw urm ’s

answ er to h is o w n q uesti o n w as “ N o!” F or h im a nd h is s m all f o llo w in g, L ib eria w ould

pro vid e th e l ib erty d enie d b y A meric a. To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

But o nly a f e w p eo ple w ere w illin g to f o llo w h im . N ew s o f th e tr o ub le d r e la ti o nsh ip s th at

th e s e ttl e rs h ad w ith s u rro und in g A fr ic an tr ib es a nd th e d iffic ulty A meric an b la cks h ad w ith

Afr ic an d is e ase s th w arte d s e ttl e m ent. H ow ev er, th e m ost i m porta nt r e aso n w hy A fr ic an

Americ ans r e fu se d to r e tu rn to A fr ic a w as th eir f e elin g th at A meric a w as th eir c o untr y . A fr ic a

was i n d eed th eir

ancestr a l

h o m ela nd , b ut A meric a w as th eir b ir th p la ce a nd f r o m i t th ey d re w

th eir i d enti ty . T hey h ad f o ught a nd d ie d i n A meric a’s w ars , h ad c le are d th is c o untr y ’s l a nd a nd

sw am ps, h ad h elp ed b uild u p i ts to w ns. T he w orld , n o t j u st A meric a, g re w r ic h o ff th e c o tto n,

ric e, a nd s u gar g ro w n b y b la ck p eo ple . T hey b elie v ed th ey h ad p ro ved th em se lv es p ro ducti v e,

se lf- s u ffic ie nt c iti z e ns, m ore s o th an e v en th e s la v eho ld er w ho h ad f e w er s k ills , a nd w ho l iv ed

off th e l a b or o f o th ers . T o b e a sk ed to l e av e a fte r s u ch s a crific e to A meric a w as s h eer

in ju sti c e.

Many A fr ic an A meric ans a ls o b elie v ed th at th is p ush b y w hite s e xp ose d u nad ulte ra te d

white r a cis m . A fr ic an A meric ans a sk ed th at th ey b e a llo w ed to l iv e f r e e i n th is l a nd th at w as

th e b eaco n o f l ib erty . T hey p ro te ste d th e c o lo niz a ti o nis ts ’ c la im th at b la cks w ere i n cap ab le o f

liv in g i n f r e ed om . T hey c halle nged A meric a to s ta nd b y i ts p rin cip le s o f d em ocra cy a nd

lib erty .

Fre e b la cks u nd ers to od th at i t w as th eir o rg aniz e d o ppositi o n to s la v ery th at w as

th re ate nin g. P ro m in ent a m ong th e l e ad ers a nd m em bers o f c o lo niz a ti o n s o cie ti e s w ere

sla v eho ld ers , n o ne o f w ho m s u p porte d th e e m ancip ati o n o f s la v es a nd th eir r e tu rn to A fr ic a,

but a ll o f w ho m a rg ued th at b la cks w ere u np re p are d f o r f r e ed om . I n th e o pin io n o f m ost

Afr ic an-A meric an l e ad ers , c o lo niz a ti o n w as a s c hem e to p ro te ct s la v ery a nd p re se rv e f r e ed om

fo r w hite s o nly . T heir f ig ht a gain st c o lo niz a ti o n, th ere fo re , w as a f ig ht f o r th em se lv es b ut a ls o

fo r th eir b ro th ers a nd s is te rs i n s la v ery . A s th ey s a w th in gs, th ey w ere th e s la v e’s b est h o pe,

and th e s la v e w as th eir b est a lly i n th e c ause o f b la ck r ig hts .

Not th at th ey d id n o t w ant to f o rg e a llia nces w ith w hite A meric ans, to o. T hese w ere m ore

pro ble m ati c , h o w ev er. F or o ne th in g, m ost p ro m in ent A fr ic an-A meric an

le ad ers w ere

dis m ayed b y th e w id esp re ad s u p port g iv en to c o lo niz a ti o n s o cie ti e s. B efo re th e 1 830s m en

lik e W illia m L lo yd G arris o n, G errit S m ith , A rth ur a nd L ew is T ap pan, a nd B enja m in L und y—

white s w ho a cti v ely o ppose d s la v ery — als o s u p porte d c o lo niz a ti o n. T hey d id n o t s e e h o w

co lo niz a ti o n h elp ed p re se rv e s la v ery , o r h o w th e s c hem e e xp ose d f r e e b la cks to th e r a ge o f

anti - b la ck m obs.

Such a m ob l e t l o ose i ts v eno m i n C in cin nati i n 1 829. T ensio n i n th e c ity h ad b een g ro w in g

th ro ugho ut th e 1 820s. A s th e f r e e b la ck p opula ti o n i n cre ase d a nd c o m pete d f o r j o bs, w hite s

dem and ed th eir e xp uls io n. T hey w ere e nco ura ged b y th e l e ad ers o f th e C in cin nati C olo niz a ti o n

Socie ty . S in ce i ts f o und in g i n 1 826, i t h ad p ro m pte d m in is te rs a nd l o cal n ew sp ap ers to a gita te

again st th e c ity ’s b la cks. I ts p ro pagand a p ro vid ed th e j u sti fic ati o n f o r d riv in g th em f r o m th e

city . I n th e s u m mer o f 1 829 c ity o ffic ia ls tr ie d to p ush A fr ic an A meric ans o ut b y e nfo rc in g th e

Ohio B la ck L aw s, w hic h r e q uir e d b la cks to p ost b ond s g uara nte ein g “ go od b ehav io r.” B efo re

bla ck l e ad ers c o uld g et a r e p rie v e f r o m th e c ity l e gis la tu re , w hite m obs a tta cked d efe nse le ss

bla cks. M ore th an h alf th e b la ck p opula ti o n f le d to C anad a a nd o th er p arts o f th e U nite d S ta te s.

Alth o ugh th is a nd s im ila r i n cid ents c o nv in ced s o m e s y m path eti c w hite s th at c o lo niz a ti o n

was i n here ntl y e v il, i t d id n o t a lte r th eir p re ju d ic e to w ard b la cks. T his w as a no th er r e aso n th at To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

Afr ic an-A meric an l e ad ers f o und a llia nces w ith w hite s p ro ble m ati c . F or e xam ple , e v en th o ugh

bla ck a b oliti o nis ts l ik e P ete r W illia m s a nd W illia m W atk in s c o axed w hite m en l ik e W illia m

Llo yd G arris o n a nd G errit S m ith a w ay f r o m c o lo niz a ti o n, w hen G arris o n a nd a s m all g ro up o f

white f r ie nd s m et to o rg aniz e th e N ew E ngla nd A nti s la v ery S ocie ty i n 1 832, th ey i n v ite d

bla cks to j o in th em o nly a fte r a ll th eir p la ns h ad b een f o rm ula te d . S im ila rly , o nly th re e b la cks

were a m ong th e s ix ty -tw o s ig ners o f th e A meric an A nti s la v ery S ocie ty ’s D ecla ra ti o n o f

Senti m ents . T ho ugh i t h ad tw enty -s ix v ic e p re sid ents a nd a n in e-m em ber e xecuti v e c o m mitte e,

th e s o cie ty h ad n o b la ck o ffic ers .

Afr ic an-A meric an l e ad ers w ere f u rth er d is tu rb ed b y th e l im ite d p ers p ecti v es a nd g o als o f

white a b oliti o nis ts . A s f r e e b la cks th ey s p oke a gain st s la v ery a s w ell a s b la nket d is c rim in ati o n

again st a ll b la cks. W hite a b oliti o nis ts , th ey f o und , w ere n o t m uch c o ncern ed w ith r a cis m .

Many b la ck a b oliti o nis ts s h are d th e r e acti o n o f T heo dore W rig ht, w ho c riti c iz e d th e

“co nsti tu ti o ns o f a b oliti o n s o cie ti e s, w here n o th in g w as s a id a b out th e i m pro vem ent o f th e m an

of c o lo r!” S peakin g b efo re th e N ew Y ork A nti s la v ery S ocie ty i n 1 837, W rig ht c o m pla in ed th at

“th ey h av e o ver-lo oked th e g ia nt s in o f p re ju d ic e. T hey h av e p asse d b y th is f o ul m onste r,

whic h i s a t o nce th e p are nt a nd o ffs p rin g o f s la v ery .”

Bla ck a b oliti o nis ts f u rth er n o te d th at m any w hite a b oliti o nis ts r e fu se d to a d m it b la ck

child re n to th eir s c ho ols , w ould n o t h ir e b la ck w ork ers f o r a nyth in g b ut m enia l j o bs, a nd e v en

fa ile d to h ir e b la cks to w ork i n a nti - s la v ery o ffic es. T hey a ls o o bse rv ed th at i n th e e arly s ta ges

of th eir e ffo rts , w hite a b oliti o nis ts d id n o t h ir e b la ck l e ctu re rs , a nd w hen th ey e v entu ally d id

th ey tr ie d to c o ntr o l e v ery a sp ect o f th eir l a nguage a nd m essa ge.

A c ase i n p oin t i n v olv ed F re d eric k D ougla ss. W hen D ougla ss f ir s t b egan l e ctu rin g i n 1 841

he r e la te d th e tr ia ls o f h is s la v ery a nd th e te rro rs o f th e i n sti tu ti o n. G arris o n a nd o th ers w ere

ple ase d . T hey e nco ura ged D ougla ss to r e p eat h is p erfo rm ance o ver a nd o ver. A s D ougla ss

matu re d a s a s p eaker, a nd a s h e p ond ere d th e m eanin g o f f r e ed om f o r h im se lf a nd th e n ati o n, h e

gre w m ore p hilo so phic al a nd l e arn ed i n h is ta lk s. W hite a b oliti o nis ts f o und D ougla ss th e

philo so pher to b e l e ss “ auth enti c ” th an D ougla ss th e e x-s la v e. T hey d id n o t w ant h im to g ro w .

In ste ad th ey r e p eate d ly c riti c iz e d h im f o r a p pearin g to o s m art. A t o ne p oin t h e w as to ld ,

“P eo ple w on’t b elie v e y o u e v er w ere a s la v e, F re d eric k, i f y o u k eep o n th is w ay… . B ette r

hav e a

little

o f th e p la nta ti o n m anner o f s p eech th an n o t.”

But D ougla ss, l ik e o th er A fr ic an-A meric an l e ad ers , l is te ned to h is o w n v oic e, a nd h is o w n

peo ple , a nd i n a v ery s h o rt ti m e w ent h is o w n w ay. B la cks c o nti n ued to b uild th eir o w n

movem ent, a nd c entr a l to i t w as th e b la ck p re ss. N ew sp ap ers f o und ed b y l e ad in g p ers o naliti e s

re m in d ed b la ck A meric ans o f th eir r o le i n th e d ev elo pm ent o f th e A meric an n ati o n. T here w as

no l a ck o f a rti c le s o n th e r o le b la ck s o ld ie rs p la yed i n th e A meric an R ev olu ti o n a nd th e W ar o f

1812.

At th e s a m e ti m e th at n ew sp ap ers c o nfir m ed th e b la ck’s i d enti ty a s a n A meric an, th ey a ls o

gro und ed th at i d enti ty i n th e c o m mon b la ck e xp erie nce. T hus i n th eir r e p orti n g o f s la v e

re sis ta nce, th e te rro rs o f s la v ery , a nd th e f r e e b la ck c o m muniti e s’ a ssis ta nce to f u giti v e s la v es,

new sp ap ers m ad e i t d iffic ult f o r f r e e b la cks to f o rg et th eir r e la ti v ely p riv ile ged s ta tu s i n

re la ti o n to th e s la v e. J u st a s i m porta nt, th ese a cco unts h elp ed c em ent th e b ond b etw een s la v e

and f r e e. To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

New sp ap ers w ith s u ch n am es a s

The C olo re d A m eric a n

, th e

Weekly A dvo ca te

, th e

New

Era

, a nd th e

Weekly A nglo -A fr ic a n

h elp ed u nify A fr ic an A meric ans b y k eep in g th em i n fo rm ed

of h ap penin gs i n th eir o w n c o m munity a nd th e n ati o n. A rti c le s a nd a d verti s e m ents c o verin g

th eir v ario us c o ncerts , l e ctu re s, c hurc h e v ents , e d ucati o nal o pportu niti e s, a nd s c ho ol p ro gra m s

were r e gula r f e atu re s o f b la ck n ew sp ap ers . B y r e p orti n g n ati o nal e v ents f r o m a b la ck

pers p ecti v e a nd a ccep ti n g e d ito ria ls f r o m o rd in ary A fr ic an A meric ans, th ese n ew sp ap ers

allo w ed b la cks to e xp re ss th eir i d eas o n a v arie ty o f s u b je cts a nd v ent f r u str a ti o ns th at h ad n o

oth er o utl e t. S in ce o nly a s m all p erc enta ge o f th e A fr ic an-A meric an p opula ti o n w as l ite ra te ,

and th ese p riv ile ged f e w h ad to r e ad o r o th erw is e c o m munic ate th e n ew sp ap er’s c o nte nts to

th o se w ho c o uld n o t r e ad , n ew sp ap ers h elp ed f o rg e th e b ond s o f c o m munity . T hey b rid ged th e

gap b etw een th e e d ucate d a nd th e i llite ra te .

Thro ugh th eir o w n n ew sp ap ers a nd a f e w e d ite d b y w hite a b oliti o nis ts , o rd in ary A fr ic an

Americ ans l e arn ed o f th e p ro te st a cti v ity o f th eir l e ad ers — men a nd w om en s u ch a s D ougla ss,

Marti n D ela ny, H enry H ig hla nd G arn et, W illia m W ells B ro w n, W illia m W hip per, a nd M aria

Ste w art. T he q uesti o n w as h o w b la cks s h o uld o bta in th eir f r e ed om . T he d ecis io n w as n o t a n

easy o ne. W ould a rm ed r e b ellio n s u cceed ? F ro m th eir r e la ti v ely s a fe s u rro und in gs, s h o uld th ey

enco ura ge th e s la v es to r is k e v ery th in g i n a b re ak f o r f r e ed om ? H ow f a r s h o uld f r e e b la cks g o

in o pposin g th e f u giti v e s la v e l a w s? S ho uld th ey h o ld o ff s la v e c atc hers w ith g uns

or w ould

civ il d is o bed ie nce b e e no ugh? H ow w ould th ey a chie v e th eir r ig hts o f f u ll c iti z e nsh ip ?

Answ ers to th ese q uesti o ns c am e f r o m m any q uarte rs . I n h is s p eeches a nd i n a p am phle t

enti tl e d

Walk er’s A ppea l … t o t h e C olo re d C itiz e n s o f t h e W orld B ut i n P artic u la r a nd V ery

Exp re ssly t o t h ose o f t h e U nite d S ta te s o f A m eric a

, D av id W alk er u rg ed A fr ic an A meric ans to

meet th e s la v eho ld ers ’ v io le nce w ith v io le nce o f th eir o w n. H e b la m ed th e o ppre ssio n o f

bla cks o n w hite g re ed f o r m oney a nd p ow er. I n th e b y-n o w -ty p ic al A fr ic an-A meric an tr a d iti o n

of b le nd in g th e s e cula r w ith th e s a cre d , o f u sin g r e lig io n to h elp s o lv e l ife ’s p ro ble m s, W alk er

urg ed b la ck p eo ple to r is e u p a nd w age a h o ly w ar a gain st w hite s, w ho h ad b y th eir s in a gain st

Afr ic an A meric ans s in ned a gain st G od. “ T hey w ant u s f o r th eir s la v es,” h e w ro te . T hey “ th in k

no th in g o f m urd erin g u s i n o rd er to s u b je ct u s to th at w re tc hed c o nd iti o n.” I n h is j u sti fic ati o n o f

arm ed r e sis ta nce, W alk er w ro te , “ It i s n o m ore h arm f o r y o u to k ill a m an w ho i s tr y in g to k ill

yo u, th an i t i s f o r y o u to ta ke a d rin k o f w ate r w hen th ir s ty : i n f a ct th e m an w ho w ill s ta nd s ti ll

and l e t a no th er m an m urd er h im i s w ors e th an a n i n fid el.”

No d oub t m any A fr ic an A meric ans f e lt th e s a m e w ay W alk er d id , b ut m ost s p oke w ith m ore

modera te v oic es. A lth o ugh th ey d id n o t l o se s ig ht o f th e r o le p la yed b y w hite s i n b la ck

oppre ssio n, m any l e ad ers u rg ed A fr ic an A meric ans to ta ke a n a cti v e r o le i n l ib era ti o n b y

up lifti n g th em se lv es. M aria S te w art, o ne o f th e f e w A fr ic an-A meric an f e m ale p ub lic l e ctu re rs ,

urg ed b la cks to g iv e u p d rin kin g a nd i n v est i n s c ho ols a nd s e m in arie s. A n a d m ir e r a nd

fo llo w er o f W alk er, S te w art n ev erth ele ss b elie v ed th at “ no th in g w ould r a is e o ur r e sp ecta b ility ,

ad d to o ur p eace a nd h ap pin ess, a nd r e fle ct s o m uch h o no r u p on u s, a s to b e o urs e lv es th e

pro m ote rs o f te m pera nce, a nd th e s u p porte rs … o f u se fu l a nd s c ie nti fic k no w le d ge.” A n

ad vocate o f f e m ale e d ucati o n d urin g a ti m e w hen i t w as th o ught th at w om en b est s e rv ed th e

ra ce b y s e rv in g th eir h usb and s, b ro th ers , a nd f a th ers , S te w art a rg ued th at th e r a ce n eed ed b oth

men a nd w om en i n p ub lic r o le s. “ D aughte rs o f A fr ic a” n eed ed to u nite . T hey c o uld r a is e To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

money to b uild s c ho ols to e d ucate b la ck y o uth , th ey c o uld o w n s to re s th at w ould s e rv ic e th eir

co m munity , th ey c o uld e d ucate th em se lv es a nd th ro ugh th em th e r a ce w ould b e u p lifte d .

As d esp air in g a s S te w art s o m eti m es w as w hen s h e l o oked a t th e p lig ht o f A fr ic an

Americ ans, s h e, l ik e m any o th ers , w as s ti ll m ore o pti m is ti c a b out th e f u tu re th an w as D av id

Walk er. T he g o al o f u p lift w as, a fte r a ll, e v entu al i n te gra ti o n i n to A meric an l ife . B la cks w ere

behin d n o t b ecause o f n atu ra l i n fe rio rity b ut b ecause o f p re ju d ic e a nd s la v ery . O nce th ese

im ped im ents w ere a b olis h ed , e d ucati o n a nd o pportu nity w ould r e m ed y th e s itu ati o n.

Thro ugho ut th e 1 830s a nd 1 840s F re d eric k D ougla ss s h are d S te w art’ s o pti m is m . H e d id n o t

su p port a rm ed r e sis ta nce o r p ro gra m s to g o b ack to A fr ic a. H e b elie v ed th at th ro ugh c o nsta nt

pre achin g, p oliti c al l o bbyin g, a nd h ard s tr u ggle b la cks w ould e v entu ally f in d l ib erty i n

Americ a. “ Y ou m ust b e a m an h ere ,” h e

in sis te d , “ and f o rc e y o ur w ay to i n te llig ence, w ealth

and r e sp ecta b ility . I f y o u c an’t d o th at h ere , y o u c an’t d o i t th ere .”

But th ere w ere m any w ho d is a gre ed . M arti n D ela ny, a H arv ard -e d ucate d p hysic ia n, w as th e

most a rti c ula te s p okesm an a gain st th e v ie w s D ougla ss a nd o th ers e xp re sse d . “ N o p eo ple c an

be f r e e w ho th em se lv es d o n o t c o nsti tu te a n e sse nti a l p art o f th e

ru lin g e le m en t

o f th e c o untr y

in w hic h th ey l iv e.” T hese w ord s, p ub lis h ed i n h is 1 852 b ook e nti tl e d

The C onditio n,

Ele va tio n, E m ig ra tio n, a nd D estin y o f t h e C olo re d P eo ple o f t h e U nite d S ta te s

, w ere p art o f

his a rg um ent f o r e m ig ra ti n g f r o m th e e aste rn U nite d S ta te s to C entr a l o r S outh A meric a o r to

so m e n o nse ttl e d a re a i n th e A meric an W est. H e d id n o t s h are w ith D ougla ss th e b elie f th at

Americ a w ould a llo w b la cks to b eco m e c iti z e ns. M uch l ik e N ati v e A meric ans, b la cks, h e

wro te , w ere “ a n ati o n w ith in a n ati o n.” B la cks a nd w hite s s h are d a c o m mon c o untr y . B ut

white s w ere a n o ppre sso r n ati o n a nd b la cks th e o ppre sse d n ati o n. B la ck p eo ple , h e c la im ed ,

lo ved A meric a, b ut b ecause th at l o ve w as m et w ith o nly b elittl e m ent a nd d egra d ati o n, b la ck

peo ple w ere “ p oliti c ally n o t o f th em , b ut a lie ns to th e l a w s a nd p riv ile ges o f th e c o untr y .” T hus

se p ara te d , A fr ic an A meric ans h ad a d uty to e sta b lis h a b la ck s o cie ty w here th ey w ould b e f r e e

to e njo y th e p riv ile ges o f c iti z e nsh ip .

These , th en, w ere th e l in es o f p ro te st i n A fr ic an-A meric an c o m muniti e s b efo re 1 850.

Desp ite th eir d iffe re nt l e v els o f o pti m is m a nd d iffe re nt s tr a te gie s o f r e sis ta nce, a nte b ellu m

bla ck l e ad ers w ere u nite d i n th eir g o od f e elin gs a b out th em se lv es. N ev er d id th ey g iv e i n to

se lf- h atr e d , n o r d id th ey e v er b elie v e th e p ro sla v ery a rg um ents th at h eld th at th ey w ere

natu ra lly i n fe rio r to w hite s. B efo re A meric a th ey s to od ta ll a nd p ro ud .

It w as th is b la ck p rid e th at e v entu ally d ro ve a ll b la ck a b oliti o nis t l e ad ers to a d vocate s o m e

degre e o f b la ck s e p ara ti s m . I n th eir m in d s, b la cks, a s a p eo ple , h ad to d o f o r th em se lv es; s e lf-

im pro vem ent h ad to b e b ase d o n s e lf- re lia nce. S aid P hillip A . B ell, i n th e

Weekly A dvo ca te

white s m ay m ake “ O UR C A USE ” th eir c ause a ll th ey w ant, b ut th eir e ffo rts w ill b e u nav ailin g

“w ith o ut o ur th in kin g a nd a cti n g, a s a b ody, f o r o urs e lv es.”

In th in kin g a nd a cti n g f o r th em se lv es b la cks m et d urin g th e 1 830s th ro ugh th e 1 850s i n

bla ck-o nly n ati o nal c o nv enti o ns. N orth ern c iti e s s u ch a s A lb any, R ocheste r, C in cin nati ,

Phila d elp hia , B uffa lo , a nd C le v ela nd w ere th e s ite s o f s o m e o f th e m eeti n gs w here th e m eans

of u p lift a nd s tr a te gie s o f r e sis ta nce w ere d eb ate d . A lth o ugh th o se w ho a tte nd ed th ese

co nv enti o ns r e aliz e d th at s o m e m ig ht th in k th at a ll- b la ck m eeti n gs w ork ed a gain st th e g o al o f

in te gra ti o n o f b la cks i n to th e A meric an m ain str e am , m ost c o nclu d ed th at r a cia l s o lid arity w as To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

necessa ry to s e cure th eir s ta tu s a s f u ll- fle d ged A meric ans. S ep ara ti s m , w heth er i n c o nv enti o ns,

sc ho ols , o r c hurc hes, w as n o t th e e nd i n i ts e lf, b ut th e m eans to th e e nd .

For a ll o f th eir w ork , i t w as, i n th e e nd , n o t b la ck o r e v en w hite a b oliti o nis ts w ho s tr u ck th e

fa ta l b lo w a gain st s la v ery . T he i n sti tu ti o n p ro ved s o e ntr e nched th at i t

to ok a c iv il w ar to e nd

it. B la ck p ro te ste rs , h o w ev er, c o uld b e p ro ud o f th e w ork th ey d id i n u nify in g th e s p ir its o f f r e e

bla cks a nd i n f o rg in g th e b ond b etw een f r e e a nd e nsla v ed A fr ic an A meric ans. I n s o d oin g, th ey

la id th e i n te lle ctu al f o und ati o n o n w hic h th e p ro te st o f f u tu re g enera ti o ns o f b la cks a nd w hite s

was b uilt.

Fro m D esp era tio n t o H op e

At th e e nd o f 1 850 A fr ic an A meric ans d id n o t k no w th at th e n ati o n w as j u st a d ecad e a w ay

fr o m c iv il w ar, th at s la v ery w ould b e i ts c ause , o r th at th e w ar w ould e nd s la v ery f o r g o od.

They c o uld n o t k no w th at i t w ould b e th e b lo odie st w ar e v er f o ught o n A meric a’s s o il o r th at

th eir c iti z e nsh ip a nd v oti n g r ig hts w ould h ang i n th e b ala nce.

How ev er, b la ck p eo ple c o uld n o t h elp b ut s e nse th at s o m eth in g o ut o f th e o rd in ary w as

hap penin g. S la v ery w as a t th e h eart o f h eate d d is c ussio ns a b out th e n ati o n’s f u tu re , a nd th e

Com pro m is e o f 1 850, m eant to q uell a nxie ty a b out th e s la v ery q uesti o n, a ctu ally f a nned i ts

fla m es. T he C om pro m is e b ro ught C alifo rn ia i n to th e n ati o n a s a f r e e s ta te , e lim in ate d th e s la v e

tr a d e i n th e D is tr ic t o f C olu m bia , a nd o rg aniz e d th e te rrito rie s o f U ta h a nd M exic o . I ts m ost

obno xio us p art w as th e F ugiti v e S la v e L aw . U nd er i ts h ars h p ro vis io ns, th e l a w f o rc ed b la cks

accuse d o f b ein g f u giti v es to p ro ve th eir f r e e s ta tu s, n o t to a j u ry , b ut to a s p ecia l c o m mis sio ner

who w as p aid m ore ( te n d olla rs ) f o r r e tu rn in g a s la v e to h is o w ner th an f o r s e tti n g h im o r h er

fr e e ( fiv e d olla rs ). T he l a w a ls o c o m pelle d N orth ern ers to h unt d ow n a nd tu rn i n r u naw ay

sla v es.

As s la v e h unte rs k no w n a s “ kid nap pers ” f lo oded th e N orth s e iz in g f u giti v es, b la cks h ad to

decid e w hat to d o. T hey h ad a lw ays r e sis te d f u giti v e s la v e l a w s, b ut b y p utti n g a b ounty o n

ev ery r u naw ay’s h ead , a nd m akin g e v ery w hite p ers o n a p ote nti a l s la v e c atc her, th is l a te st

fu giti v e l a w m ad e r e sis ta nce m ore r is k y a nd l ife f o r f r e e b la cks te rrib ly i n se cure — so i n se cure

th at m any f r e e b la cks to ok o ne l a st s tr id e to w ard f r e ed om b y f le ein g a cro ss th e C anad ia n

bord er.

The v ast m ajo rity w ho r e m ain ed f a ced a n ati o n r a cked w ith c o nflic t th at d id n o t l e sse n.

Abra ham L in co ln ’s e le cti o n to th e p re sid ency i n 1 860 b ro ught s o m e h o pe th at l ib era ti o n w as

on th e h o riz o n. M ostl y th o ugh, th ere w as d esp air o ver th e w ay th e d ecad e h ad p ro ceed ed a nd

wre tc hed b itte rn ess o ver th e c o untr y ’s b etr a yal o f b la cks.

Ir o nic ally , th e 1 850s w as a d ecad e o f p ro sp erity . N ot o nly w hite s b ut b la cks, to o, d id

re la ti v ely w ell. T his w as i n d ic ate d b y th e s te ad y i n cre ase i n b la ck l a nd a nd p ro perty

ow ners h ip a ll o ver th e c o untr y . I n N ash v ille , f o r e xam ple , i n 1 860 th ere w ere tw enty -s ix f r e e

bla cks w ho w ere w orth m ore th an a th o usa nd d olla rs w ho h ad o w ned n o p ro perty te n y ears

earlie r. C harle sto n h ad a lw ays h ad a w ealth y c o lo re d e lite , b ut d urin g th e 1 850s a s m any a s

se v enty -fiv e w hite s r e nte d th eir h o m es f r o m f r e em en. I n B alti m ore f r e e b la cks m ono poliz e d th e

caulk in g tr a d e, a nd th ro ugho ut th e U pper S outh f r e e b la ck a gric ultu ra l l a b ore rs to ok a d vanta ge To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

of th e m ovem ent o f s la v es s o uth b y d em and in g a nd r e ceiv in g h ig her w ages.

Eco no m ic s u ccess g enera te d c o nfid ence. T his c o nfid ence w as v is ib le i n th e n ew c hurc hes

bein g b uilt b y l a rg er a nd w ealth ie r b la ck c o ngre gati o ns i n th e N orth a nd th e S outh . I t w as a ls o

sh o w n b y th e i n cre ase d a ud acity o f f r e e b la cks. I n P ete rs b urg , V ir g in ia , f o r e xam ple , w hite s

co m pla in ed th at b la cks w ere s lo w to g iv e w ay to w hite s o n w alk w ays.

Bla cks a ls o e xud ed m ore c o nfid ence i n th e w ay th ey r e sp ond ed to o ppre ssio n. I n

Ric hm ond , f o r i n sta nce, f r e e b la cks p eti ti o ned th e c ity c o uncil to r e p eal th e c ity ’s r e p re ssiv e

Bla ck C ode, a nd i n N ew Y ork C ity th ere w as th e s tu nnin g b ehav io r o f E liz a b eth J e nnin gs. O n a

Sund ay m orn in g i n 1 854 s h e w as p ulle d o ut o f a h o rs e -d ra w n tr o lle y c ar a nd w re stl e d to th e

gro und b y a w hite c o nd ucto r a nd d riv er w ho s o ught to k eep h er f r o m s itti n g i n th e w hite

se cti o n. W ith th e s a m e c o nv ic ti o n a nd a ud acity s h o w n b y th e f r e e b la cks o f R ic hm ond ,

Je nnin gs to ok h er c ase to c o urt. H er v ic to ry th ere b ro ke th e b ack o f s e gre gati o n o n p ub lic

co nv eyances i n N ew Y ork .

All o ver th e c o untr y b la cks tr ie d to d o th e s a m e to th e F ugiti v e S la v e L aw . T w ic e i n

Bosto n, b la cks a nd w hite s s to rm ed a c o urth o use i n f a ile d a tte m pts to r e sc ue T ho m as S im s i n

1851 a nd A nth o ny B urn s i n 1 854. O th ers , s u ch a s E lija h A nd ers o n, J o hn M aso n, a nd o f c o urs e ,

Harrie t T ub m an, c o nti n ued to r is k l ife a nd l im b g o in g i n to th e S outh a nd d eliv erin g A fr ic an

Americ ans f r o m s la v ery . F re d eric k D ougla ss a ls o r is k ed h arm b y h is r e sis ta nce to th e l a w .

Tho ugh v ery m uch i n th e p ub lic e ye, h e, l ik e c o untl e ss o th ers , r a is e d m oney f o r f u giti v es, h id

th em i n h is R ocheste r h o m e, a nd h elp ed h und re d s e sc ap e to C anad a.

And , l ik e o th ers , h e h ad to s tr u ggle w ith th e m eanin g o f th e F ugiti v e S la v e L aw . I n

Rocheste r, N ew Y ork , i n 1 853 D ougla ss a nd o th er b la ck a b oliti o nis ts h eld o ne o f th eir l a rg est

co nv enti o ns to tr y to d ecid e w hat to d o a b out r e sis ti n g th e l a w . R elu cta nt th o ugh th ey w ere to

call f o r th e c re ati o n o f s e p ara te b la ck i n sti tu ti o ns, th ey f e lt th e F ugiti v e S la v e L aw l e ft th em n o

cho ic e. A meric a s e em ed d ete rm in ed to c ast th em a sid e a nd d estr o y th eir r ig hts a s c iti z e ns.

Som eho w , th ey h ad to s a lv age th em . I n th eir a tte m pt to d o th is , b la ck a b oliti o nis ts c alle d f o r

th e c re ati o n o f a n ati o nal c o uncil to o vers e e b la ck i m pro vem ent a nd a m anual l a b or s c ho ol f o r

th e e d ucati o n o f b la ck c hild re n i n s c ie nce, l ite ra tu re , a nd th e m echanic al a rts . T hey d id th is ,

th ey s a id , n o t to “ b uild o urs e lv es u p a s a d is ti n ct a nd s e p ara te c la ss i n th is c o untr y b ut a s a

means to … e q uality i n p oliti c al r ig hts , a nd i n c iv il r ig hts , a nd i n c iv il a nd s o cia l p riv ile ges

with th e r e st o f th e A meric an p eo ple .”

Alth o ugh b la ck a b oliti o nis ts a s a g ro up to ok l a rg er s tr id es to w ard s e p ara ti s m , s o m e

in d iv id uals s p oke o ut i n f a v or o f a rm ed r e sis ta nce. D ougla ss w as a m ong th em . H e n o t o nly

in cre ase d h is a id to f u giti v e s la v es b ut h e b ecam e d ecid ed ly m ore m ilita nt: “ T he o nly w ay to

make th e F ugiti v e S la v e L aw a d ead l e tte r i s to m ake a h alf d oze n o r m ore d ead k id nap pers .”

For M arti n D ela ny, D ougla ss’s r e sp onse f e ll s h o rt o f a r e m ed y. I t w as n o t e no ugh to

challe nge th e i n d iv id ual k id nap per w hen th e s o urc e o f th e p ro ble m w as th e p re ju d ic e th at

perm eate d a ll A meric an i n sti tu ti o ns, i n clu d in g th e g o vern m ent.

Sho ot o ne k id nap per, a nd

ano th er w ould ta ke h is p la ce. T he l a w w as a r e fle cti o n o f g o vern m ent p olic y, a nd i n D ela ny’s

opin io n e v en th e c all f o r s e p ara te b la ck i n sti tu ti o ns d id n o t g o f a r e no ugh to c o unte r w hite

ra cis m . W hen D ela ny p ond ere d i n sti tu ti o nal d is c rim in ati o n a nd th e F ugiti v e S la v e L aw , h e

co nclu d ed th at “ a p eo ple c ap ab le o f o rig in ati n g a nd s u sta in in g s u ch a l a w a s th is a re n o tTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

peo ple to w ho m w e a re w illin g to e ntr u st o ur l ib erty a t d is c re ti o n.” H is a d vic e w as to “ go to

whate v er p arts o f C entr a l a nd S outh A meric a” a nd “ m ake c o m mon c ause w ith th e p eo ple .” F or

Dela ny, e m ig ra ti o n w as s ti ll th e o nly a nsw er.

Dela ny f o und s u p port a t c o nv enti o ns h eld i n M ary la nd i n 1 852 a nd C le v ela nd i n 1 854.

Unlik e th e d ele gate s to th e R ocheste r c o nv enti o n, th o se w ho a tte nd ed th e C le v ela nd m eeti n g

were n o t r e lu cta nt s u p porte rs o f b la ck s e p ara ti s m , n o r d id th ey s e e th e p oin t i n a rg uin g f o r

se p ara ti o n a s a m eans to A meric an c iti z e nsh ip . A s D ela ny p ut i t, i t w as ti m e f o r b la ck p eo ple

to l o ok o uts id e o f A meric a, to g ra b h o ld o f th o se p la ces i n th e w orld w here c hance w as i n

th eir f a v or a nd w here th e r ig hts a nd p ow er o f th e c o lo re d r a ce c o uld b e e sta b lis h ed .

Alth o ugh m ore b la cks th an e v er to ok u p th is p ositi o n i n th e 1 850s, m ost A fr ic an A meric ans

re m ain ed h o pefu l o f c hange w ith in th e U nite d S ta te s. T hey c o uld n o t a b and on th e l a nd o f th eir

bir th , g iv e u p th e d re am f o r w hic h th eir f o re fa th ers h ad s a crific ed s o m uch, n o r l e av e th eir

ensla v ed b re th re n w ith n o b la ck a d vocate s f o r f r e ed om . D ele gate s to th e B alti m ore c o nv enti o n

fo und th is o ut w hen th e m eeti n g th ey c alle d to d is c uss e m ig ra ti o n w as b ro ken u p b y a ngry b la ck

cro w ds w ho w ante d n o p art o f A fr ic a, H aiti , M exic o , o r C anad a. T hey d id n o t d is a gre e w ith

th e d ele gate s’ d em and to b e tr e ate d l ik e m en. N or d id th ey ta ke i s su e w ith th e c o nv enti o n’s

genera l s e nti m ent th at i n M ary la nd s w in e w ere tr e ate d b ette r th an f r e e N egro es. C le arly

th o ugh, th ey, l ik e m ost f r e e b la cks, w ante d to m ake th eir s ta nd h ere i n A meric a.

In th e f ir s t f e w y ears o f th e d ecad e i t s e em ed th at th ey h ad s u p port. I n f a ct, w hite

North ern ers d id g ro w m ore s y m path eti c . T his w as i n p art b ecause th e F ugiti v e S la v e L aw

bro ught th e i s su e o f s la v ery to th eir d oors te p . W hite s w ho w itn esse d s la v es b ein g d ra gged

unw illin gly b ack S outh f o und i t d iffic ult to r e m ain d eta ched f r o m th e i s su e. T hey c o uld n o

lo nger tr e at i t a s s o m eth in g th at j u st h ap pened “ d ow n th ere .”

And w hat w as h ap penin g “ d ow n th ere ” w as m ad e e v en m ore r e al b y th e p ub lic ati o n i n

magazin e i n sta llm ents , a nd th en a s a b ook i n 1 852, o f H arrie t B eecher S to w e’s

Uncle T o m ’s

Cabin

. I n a b rillia nt m anip ula ti o n o f p ub lic s e nti m ent, S to w e r a is e d p ub lic c o nsc io usn ess

ab out th e e v ils o f s la v ery . S he d id th is b y m akin g h er s la v es p eo ple w ith w ho m a lm ost a ll

white s c o uld i d enti fy . T here w ere f e w N orth ern m oth ers w ho d id n o t h ail E liz a ’s c o ura geo us

esc ap e a cro ss th e f lo es o f th e O hio R iv er, o r c ry o ver L ittl e E va’s d eath . O nly th e m eanest

co uld s id e w ith th e w ic ked Y ankee s la v eho ld er S im on L egre e, a nd a ll c o uld s e e th e C hris tl ik e

go odness o f th e b elo ved U ncle T om . S o l a rg e a nd s o s ti r re d w as th e N orth ern r e ad ers h ip th at

when L in co ln m et S to w e i n 1 863 h e i s s u p pose d to h av e s a id , “ S o y o u’re th e l ittl e w om an w ho

wro te th e b ook th at m ad e th is g re at w ar!”

If A fr ic an A meric ans h ad r e aso n to b e b uo yed b y th is n ew a w are ness o n th e p art o f th e

North ern p ub lic , th ey s u re ly h ad r e aso n to b e w ary o f th e r e sp onse i t d re w f r o m S outh ern ers .

Alr e ad y u nnerv ed b y th e s te ad y e co no m ic p ro gre ss a nd i n cre asin g b old ness o f f r e e b la cks,

South ern w hite s’ a nxie ty o nly i n cre ase d i n th e f a ce o f N orth ern a nti - s la v ery a cti v ity . I n

parti c ula r, s la v eho ld ers w ere s u re th at f r e e b la cks a nd i n cre ase d a nti - s la v ery a cti v ity h ad

so m eth in g to d o w ith th e i n cre ase i n th e n um ber o f r u naw ay s la v es a nd i n cid ents o f o vert

re sis ta nce.

And to S outh ern ers i t s e em ed a s th o ugh e v ery d ay b ro ught n ew s o f s o m e o th er v io le nt

in cid ent i n v olv in g s la v es. I t w as s a id th at o vers e ers i n th e M is sis sip pi V alle y s o f e are d f o rTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

th eir l iv es th at th ey w ere n ev er c aught w ith o ut th eir g uns. I n T ennesse e f o ur s la v es w ere p ut to

death f o r a tte m pti n g to a tta ck th e i r o n m ills w here th ey w ork ed .

Som e b la cks i n T exas a ls o s e em ed r e ad y. F ro m th at s ta te c am e n ew s o f a n a lle ged p lo t th at

was to b rin g b la cks a nd M exic ans to geth er i n a n a tte m pt to r id th e s ta te o f i ts w hite p opula ti o n.

Alth o ugh w hite s k ille d f iv e b la cks s u sp ecte d o f f o m enti n g th e i n su rre cti o n, th ey c o uld n o t q uell

bla ck d is c o nte nt, n o r w hite f e ar o f i t.

They tr ie d to , th o ugh. B ecause th ey f e lt th at th e e v er-g ro w in g f r e e b la ck p opula ti o n w as

in citi n g s la v es to f le e a nd r e b el, S outh ern ers tr ie d to g et r id o f th em . W ith th e e xcep ti o n o f

Dela w are a nd N orth C aro lin a, e v ery U pper S outh s ta te i n sti tu te d a c o lo niz a ti o n p la n.

Vir g in ia ’s w as ty p ic al. I n 1 850 i t a p pro pria te d th ir ty th o usa nd d olla rs a nnually f o r f iv e y ears to

se nd f r e e b la cks a nd e m ancip ate d s la v es to th e W est A fr ic an n ati o n o f L ib eria . A ta x p la ced o n

fr e e b la cks a d ded a n a d diti o nal te n th o usa nd d olla rs . M ary la nd p asse d a s im ila r l a w i n 1 852,

Tennesse e i n 1 853, a nd M is so uri a nd K entu cky i n 1 855.

These p la ns f a ile d f o r tw o r e aso ns. T o b egin w ith , n o t e no ugh m oney w as a p pro pria te d f o r

su ch a m assiv e r e m oval o f p eo ple . B ut e v en h ad th ere b een e no ugh f u nd s, th ere w ere f e w

peo ple w ho w ante d to g o . A fr ic an A meric ans w ere a lr e ad y o ppose d to th e e m ig ra ti o n p la ns

pro pose d b y th eir o w n l e ad ers . T hey w ere h ard ly m ore d is p ose d to l e av in g u nd er a p ro gra m

arra nged b y th eir o ppre sso rs . J o hn R ap ie r s a id w hat m ost b la cks b elie v ed : “ T hey

[c o lo niz a ti o nis ts ] w ould n o t c are i f a ll th e f r e e n egro es i n th e U nite d S ta te s w as a t th e B oto m

of th e S ea s o th ey w as o ut o f th e U nite d S ta te s.”

Not o nly w as R ap ie r r ig ht, h e c aught w hat w as f a st b eco m in g th e te m per o f th e n ati o n.

Every w here , n o t j u st i n th e S outh , a nti - b la ck s e nti m ent w as r is in g. I n d ia na o ffe rs a g o od

exam ple o f th is m ood. I n 1 851 s ta te l e gis la to rs r e w ro te th e s ta te c o nsti tu ti o n w ith p ro vis io ns

th at d ep riv ed b la cks o f th e r ig hts to v ote , a tte nd w hite s c ho ols , a nd m ake c o ntr a cts . A fr ic an

Americ ans w ho c o uld n o t p ost a f iv e h und re d d olla r b ond w ere e xp elle d f r o m th e s ta te , a nd a n

1852 l a w m ad e i t a c rim e f o r b la cks to s e ttl e i n I n d ia na.

If n o th in g e ls e th ese s ta te l a w s d em onstr a te d th at a nti - s la v ery s e nti m ent e asily c o exis te d

with h o sti lity to w ard A fr ic an A meric ans. M ost w hite c iti z e ns d id n o t w ant

any

b la cks i n th eir

mid st, s la v e o r f r e e. T his s e nti m ent f o und n ati o nal e xp re ssio n i n th e n ew R ep ub lic an p arty ,

whic h w as f o und ed i n 1 854. T he p rin cip al p la tf o rm o f th is m ostl y N orth ern p arty w as “ no

sla v ery i n th e te rrito rie s.” B y th is R ep ub lic ans m eant th at th ey w ante d to k eep th e n ew w este rn

te rrito rie s a s “ fr e e s o il,” m eanin g f r e e o f s la v ery . S la v ery , th ey b elie v ed , r e ta rd ed u p w ard

mobility a nd e co no m ic g ro w th . F ro m th eir p oin t o f v ie w th e S outh w as s ta gnant a nd b ackw ard ,

while th e N orth a nd U pper M id w est w ere e nerg eti c a nd p ro gre ssiv e. R ep ub lic ans p ro m is e d

no t to o ppose s la v ery w here i t a lr e ad y w as. B ut i n asm uch a s A meric a’s d em ocra cy a nd i ts

in sti tu ti o ns d ep end ed o n th e a b ility o f m en to m ove a nd w ork i n a f r e e l a b or m ark et, th ey

arg ued th at th e f u tu re g re atn ess o f th e A meric an n ati o n d ep end ed o n th e c o nfin em ent o f s la v ery

and th e e xp ansio n o f f r e e s o il. To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

This 1 856 c hart o f th e U nite d S ta te s s h o w s th e d iv is io n b etw een f r e e a nd s la v e s ta te s. T he

chart a ls o o ffe rs a s ta ti s ti c al c o m paris o n b etw een th e N orth a nd th e S outh , w ith f ig ure s f o r th e

num ber o f p ub lic l ib ra rie s, th e n um ber o f c hild re n w ho a tte nd s c ho ol, a nd o th er c ate go rie s.

For A fr ic an A meric ans th e R ep ub lic an p arty w as b oth g o od a nd b ad n ew s. T he g o od n ew s

was th at m any R ep ub lic ans w ere a b oliti o nis ts w ho o ppose d n o t j u st th e e xp ansio n o f s la v ery

but a ls o s la v ery w here i t e xis te d . S enato r W illia m S ew ard o f N ew Y ork a nd S enato rs C harle s

Sum ner o f M assa chuse tts a nd G eo rg e J u lia n o f O hio w ere a rd ent a b oliti o nis ts w ho s o ught to

div orc e th e f e d era l g o vern m ent f r o m th e s u p port o f s la v ery b y f r e ein g s la v es i n th e D is tr ic t o f

Colu m bia , r e p ealin g th e F ugiti v e S la v e L aw , a nd e lim in ati n g th e d om esti c s la v e tr a d e.

There w as g o od n ew s to o i n e v en th e l im ite d g o al o f k eep in g s la v ery o ut o f th e te rrito rie s.

The r iv al p arty , th e D em ocra ts , h ad a lr e ad y g o ne o n r e co rd a s s u p porti n g p opula r s o vere ig nty ,

th e s e ttl e r’s r ig ht to d ecid e w heth er s la v ery s h o uld e xis t i n th e te rrito rie s. I ts l e ad in g

politi c ia n, S te p hen A . D ougla s, h ad p ush ed th e K ansa s-N eb ra sk a A ct th ro ugh C ongre ss e arly

in 1 854. T his a ct a llo w ed th e p eo ple w ho s e ttl e d i n th e n ew ly o rg aniz e d K ansa s a nd N eb ra sk a

re gio ns to d ecid e f o r th em se lv es w heth er th ey w ante d s la v ery . I n a llo w in g f o r th e p ossib ility

of s la v ery i n th ese te rrito rie s th e a ct o vertu rn ed th e 1 820 M is so uri C om pro m is e , w hic h h ad

outl a w ed s la v ery i n r e gio ns n o rth o f M is so uri. T he R ep ub lic ans th us o ffe re d a m uch-n eed ed

co unte r to w hat w as w ith o ut a d oub t a m ajo r th re at f r o m th e p ow er o f th e s la v e o w ners .

The b ad n ew s, th o ugh, w as th at th e b ulk o f th e p arty ’s s u p port c am e f r o m w hite s w ho w ere

as m uch a nti - b la ck a s th ey w ere a nti - s la v ery . F ro m th e A fr ic an A meric an’s p oin t o f v ie w th is

mad e th e p arty s u sp ect. R ep ub lic ans d id n o t d ir e ctl y o ppose s la v ery w here i t w as, n o r d id th ey

ta ckle i s su es l ik e th e d om esti c s la v e tr a d e o r th e F ugiti v e S la v e L aw . F urth erm ore , th e p arty ’s

su p porte rs a nd i ts p ro m in ent l e ad er, A bra ham L in co ln , d id n o t f a v or e q ual r ig hts f o r A fr ic an

Americ ans. I n o pposin g th e v ote , j u ry s e rv ic e, a nd i n te rm arria ge, R ep ub lic ans m ad e c le ar th eir

belie f th at w hite s w ere s u p erio r to b la cks, a nd th at th e tw o r a ces c o uld n o t l iv e to geth er o nTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

te rm s o f s o cia l a nd p oliti c al e q uality .

The f o rm ati o n o f th e R ep ub lic an p arty , th ere fo re , l e ft b la cks w ith a l o t to th in k a b out. T hey

to ok h eart th at th ere w as, f o r th e f ir s t ti m e, a p oliti c al f o rc e o pposin g s la v ery , b ut th ey w orrie d

ab out th e l im its o f th at o ppositi o n a nd th e e xte nt to w hic h th e R ep ub lic ans w ould g o to k eep

bla cks f r o m e xerc is in g c iv il a nd p oliti c al r ig hts . T hat th ey w ere s ti ll w ith o ut e ffe cti v e n ati o nal

allie s i n a n i n cre asin gly h o sti le e nv ir o nm ent w as a f a ct th at d id n o t e sc ap e th em .

The d ep th o f th e n ati o n’s h o sti lity to b la cks w as r e v eale d b y th e S up re m e C ourt’ s 1 857

decis io n i n

Sco tt

v .

Sandfo rd

( th e “ D re d S co tt c ase ”), a r u lin g th at s e nt s h iv ers d ow n th e s p in e

of b la ck A meric a. I n 1 846 D re d a nd H arrie t S co tt h ad f ile d s u it i n M is so uri f o r th eir f r e ed om .

They a rg ued th at b ecause th eir m aste r h ad ta ken th em i n to M in neso ta , W is c o nsin , a nd o th er

te rrito rie s w here s la v ery h ad b een o utl a w ed b y th e M is so uri C om pro m is e , th ey w ere b y r ig ht

fr e e. C hie f J u sti c e R oger B . T aney, w riti n g f o r th e c o urt, d is a gre ed . D re d a nd H arrie t S co tt

were n o t f r e e. T aney s ta te d th at b la cks w ere “ b ein gs o f a n i n fe rio r o rd er” a nd th ere fo re “ had

no r ig hts w hic h w hite m en w ere b ound to r e sp ect.” J u sti c e P ete r V . D anie l, o f V ir g in ia , a d ded

in su lt to i n ju ry b y h is c la im th at “ th e A fr ic an N egro r a ce” d id n o t b elo ng “ to th e f a m ily o f

nati o ns” b ut r a th er w as o nly a s u b je ct f o r “ co m merc e o r tr a ffic ,” “ sla v es,” “ p ro perty .”

If th is p art o f th e r u lin g f e ll l ik e a d ead w eig ht o n f r e e b la cks, th e c o urt’ s d ecis io n r e gard in g

th e M is so uri C om pro m is e w as a d eath s e nte nce. I n s ta ti n g th at th e 1 820 l a w w as

unco nsti tu ti o nal b ecause C ongre ss d id n o t h av e th e r ig ht to b an s la v ery i n a te rrito ry , th e c o urt

opened th e e nti r e c o untr y to s la v ery . I f C ongre ss c o uld n o t b an s la v ery i n th e te rrito rie s th en i t

co uld n o t k eep i t o ut o f N orth ern s ta te s.

Sla v eho ld ers c o uld ta ke th eir s la v es n o rth , s e ttl e

where v er th ey w ante d , a nd a cco rd in g to th e l o gic o f th e D re d S co tt d ecis io n, th ere w as n o th in g

th at c o uld b e d one a b out i t. W hen p ut to geth er w ith th e F ugiti v e S la v e L aw , th e D re d S co tt

decis io n l e ft n o w here f o r th e f u giti v e to r u n. Q uesti o nab le a s th e N orth w as a s a h av en f o r f r e e

bla cks, th ese tw o m easu re s e lim in ate d i t a s a h av en o f a ny s o rt.

Events i n K ansa s b etw een 1 854 a nd J o hn B ro w n’s r a id a t H arp ers F erry , V ir g in ia , i n 1 859,

lite ra lly l e ft f r e e b la cks n ati o nle ss. A fte r th e K ansa s-N eb ra sk a A ct w as p asse d b oth p ro - a nd

anti - s la v ery f o rc es r u sh ed i n to K ansa s, e ach g ro up a tte m pti n g to m ake s u re th at th e te rrito ry

was s e ttl e d a cco rd in g to i ts w is h es. A t s ta ke w as w heth er th e te rrito rie s w ould b e s la v e o r

fr e e. W ith b oth f o rc es w illin g to d ie f o r th eir c ause , v io le nce w as i n ev ita b le . A s th e f o rc es

cla sh ed i n g uerrilla -s ty le w arfa re , o nly th e f r e e b la cks’ f u tu re th ere w as c erta in : S la v eho ld ers

did n o t w ant th em i n th eir m id st, a nd f r e e-s o ile rs w ro te a c o nsti tu ti o n th at f o rb ad e th em f r o m

ente rin g th e s ta te .

Jo hn B ro w n’s r a id o nly m ad e th e s itu ati o n o f f r e e b la cks m ore p re cario us. W hen th e d ust

se ttl e d a fte r th e b and o f tw enty -tw o m en tr ie d to ta ke th e f e d era l a rs e nal a t H arp ers F erry , f r e e

bla cks w ere f o und to b e a m ong th e c o nsp ir a to rs . S la v eho ld ers c rin ged w hen th ey th o ught a b out

what m ig ht h av e h ap pened h ad B ro w n’s p la n to s e iz e a nd d is tr ib ute w eap ons to s la v es

su cceed ed . T hey c o uld a nd d id h ang J o hn B ro w n f o r tr e aso n, b ut m any th o usa nd s o f f r e e b la cks

who s to od r e ad y to ta ke u p B ro w n’s m antl e r e m ain ed a m ong th e p opula ti o n. H av in g a lw ays

vie w ed th e f r e e b la ck a s o ut o f p la ce i n th e S outh , w hite S outh ern ers n o w s a w a n o pportu nity

to e lim in ate th is g ro up f o r g o od.

Life f o r S outh ern f r e e b la cks h ad g ro w n h ard er a nd m ore d angero us. S ta te s th at h ad a lr e ad yTo Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

mad e e ffo rts to f o rc e th em to l e av e th ro ugh c o lo niz a ti o n r e new ed th eir e ffo rts to e lim in ate th em

—th is ti m e th ro ugh o utr ig ht e xp uls io n. E vents i n S outh C aro lin a, th e h o m e o f W illia m E llis o n,

were ty p ic al. O n th e u rg in g o f C harle sto n’s w hite m echanic s, c ity o ffic ia ls c ra cked d ow n o n

fr e e p eo ple o f c o lo r. I n O cto ber 1 858 th ey b egan a rre sti n g th o se w ho h ad f a ile d to p ay th e

cap ita ti o n ( lite ra lly , “ p er h ead ”) ta x, th e ta x f r e e p ers o ns o f c o lo r h ad to p ay to a tte st to th eir

fr e ed om . I n D ecem ber o f th e f o llo w in g y ear, w hite C harle sto nia ns f o rm ed a C om mitte e o f

Safe ty to s e arc h o ut a nd a rre st a nyo ne w ith a b oliti o nis t s y m path ie s. T hese i n clu d ed w hite s w ho

ra n b la ck s c ho ols a nd b la cks w ho r e ceiv ed a b oliti o nis t n ew sp ap ers o r o th erw is e e ngaged i n

su sp ic io us b ehav io r. A s im ila r c o m mitte e w as f o rm ed b y E llis o n’s n eig hb ors i n S ta te b urg .

Meanw hile , a s th e s ta te l e gis la tu re d eb ate d r e ensla v em ent b ills , S outh C aro lin a’s

new sp ap ers c arrie d a rti c le s a ssa ilin g th e f r e e A fr ic an A meric an a t e v ery tu rn . O ne c o ntr ib uto r

ask ed w hy f r e e b la cks w ere a llo w ed to a tte nd b alls , c hurc hes, a nd f u nera ls i n c arria ges; w hy

th ey w ere a llo w ed to a ssu m e th e p re ro gati v es a nd d is ti n cti o ns th at “ o ught to b e, a m ong th e

la nd m ark s s e p ara ti n g th e c la sse s.” “ S hall th ey,” h e c o nti n ued , “ in s ilk s a nd l a ces, p ro m enad e

our p rin cip al th o ro ughfa re s, w ith th e a rro gance o f e q uals .”

If th e w hite s la v eho ld ers w ho w ere th e g uard ia ns o f f r e e b la cks w ere w illin g to p ut u p w ith

su ch b ehav io r, w hite w ork in gm en m ad e i t c le ar th at th ey w ere n o t. I n th e S outh C aro lin a s ta te

le gis la tu re th eir l e ad ers i n tr o duced a b ill th at p ro hib ite d a ll f r e e p ers o ns o f c o lo r f r o m

“ente rin g i n to c o ntr a cts o n a ny m echanic al b usin ess o n th eir o w n a cco unt.” W ith a c all to

“M EC H ANIC S, W ORK IN G M EN A ND A LL W HIT E M EN W HO L IV E B Y T H E S W EAT O F

TH EIR B RO W ,” w hite w ork ers u rg ed s o lid arity a gain st f r e e b la cks.

Alo ng w ith th o usa nd s o f o th er f r e e b la cks th ro ugho ut th e S outh , m ost o f w ho m w ere n o t

nearly a s w ealth y, W illia m E llis o n a nd h is f a m ily m ad e p la ns to e m ig ra te . B etw een 1 858 a nd

th e e le cti o n o f L in co ln i n 1 860, th e s tr e am o f f r e e b la cks h ead in g o ut o f th e S outh b ecam e a

riv er. A s i n S outh C aro lin a, e v ery S outh ern l e gis la tu re d eb ate d e xp uls io n a nd r e ensla v em ent,

and l ik e E llis o n, f r e e b la cks c o nsid ere d m ovin g e ith er n o rth to C anad a o r s o uth to H aiti o r

Centr a l A meric a. I t d id n o t m atte r th at b y th e C iv il W ar o nly A rk ansa s h ad a ctu ally e xp elle d

fr e e b la cks, o rd erin g th em to l e av e th e s ta te b y J a nuary 1 , 1 860, o r b e e nsla v ed . T he f u ry w ith

whic h e xp uls io n a nd e nsla v em ent w ere b ein g d eb ate d s c are d A fr ic an A meric ans.

Afr ic an-A meric an l e ad ers c o uld n o t h elp b ut b e d is tu rb ed . E very w here th ey l o oked f o rc es

se em ed a rra yed a gain st th eir p eo ple . E vents i n K ansa s, th e D re d S co tt d ecis io n, th e F ugiti v e

Sla v e L aw , e xp uls io n a nd r e ensla v em ent b ills a ll m ad e f o r d esp air. T he n ati o n w as m ovin g

to w ard d is so lu ti o n w ith a c erta in ty th at w as f r ig hte nin g. W hile f r e e A fr ic an A meric ans w ere

bein g s a crific ed , S outh ern c alls f o r s e cessio n th re ate ned to ti g hte n th e n o ose o f s la v ery a ro und

bla cks f o re v er. S o d ep re sse d w as th e e v er-o pti m is ti c F re d eric k D ougla ss th at h e, l ik e E llis o n,

began l o okin g to w ard H aiti a s a p ossib le h o m ela nd f o r b la ck p eo ple . M arti n D ela ny, w ho h ad

by L in co ln ’s e le cti o n a lr e ad y m oved h im se lf, h is w ife , a nd h is f iv e c hild re n to C anad a,

tr a v ele d to W est A fr ic a i n s e arc h o f a p la ce f o r h is p eo ple to s e ttl e .

Amazin gly , b ut u nd ers ta nd ab ly , th e s a m e e v ents th at c ause d s o m uch d esp air f o r f r e e b la cks

and th eir l e ad ers s e em ed to i n sp ir e s la v es. A s th ey h ad d one d urin g th e A meric an R ev olu ti o n

and th e W ar o f 1 812, s la v es tu rn ed th e n ati o n’s tu rm oil to th eir a d vanta ge. T hat th ey w ere a t th e

cente r o f th e n ati o n’s d iv is io ns d id n o t e sc ap e th em , b ecause b y 1 860 th e f u tu re o f s la v ery w as To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

on e v ery o ne’s m in d a nd l ip s. T he s la v es’ k no w le d ge w as m anife ste d b y a cts m eant to s u b vert

th e s y ste m . F ro m A usti n , T exas, c am e r e p orts o f s la v es’ a tte m pts to r e p eat “ th e h o rro rs e nacte d

at H arp ers F erry .” I n M ontg o m ery , A la b am a, i t w as r e p orte d th at N egro es h ad p lo tte d to

div id e u p th e e sta te s, m ule s, l a nd s, a nd h o use ho ld f u rn itu re o f th eir w hite m aste rs . T he m ore

co nv ers a ti o ns th ey o verh eard , th e m ore n ew sp ap er a rti c le s th at l ite ra te b la cks r e ad , th e c le are r

it b ecam e th at th ere w ere f o rc es b eyo nd th e S outh l in in g u p a gain st s la v ery .

What w as n o t c le ar th o ugh w as th e n atu re a nd th e s tr e ngth o f th ese f o rc es. T he R ep ub lic ans

oppose d s la v ery i n th e te rrito rie s, b ut th ey a ls o o ppose d b la ck r ig hts . A bra ham L in co ln

wav ere d w hen i t c am e to A fr ic an A meric ans. A t o ne p oin t h e s p oke i n f a v or o f b la ck r ig hts .

Bla cks, h e s a id a re “ m y e q ual a nd … th e e q ual o f

ev ery l iv in g m an.” T he N egro m an, h e

decla re d , i s “ enti tl e d to a ll th e n atu ra l r ig hts … i n th e D ecla ra ti o n o f I n d ep end ence” a nd h ad

th e r ig ht a ls o to “ p ut i n to h is m outh th e b re ad th at h is o w n h and s h av e e arn ed .” A t a no th er

poin t, th o ugh, L in co ln s p oke w ord s th at w ere m ore i n l in e w ith m ost o f h is g enera ti o n. H e

cla im ed th at h e w as a gain st “ th e s o cia l a nd p oliti c al e q uality o f th e w hite a nd b la ck r a ces,”

th at h e d id n o t “ fa v or m akin g v ote rs o r j u ro rs o f n egro es, n o r o f q ualify in g th em to h o ld o ffic e,

no r to i n te rm arry w ith w hite p eo ple .” S in ce, h e s a id , th ere w as a “ p hysic al d iffe re nce b etw een

th e w hite a nd b la ck r a ces w hic h … w ill f o r e v er f o rb id th e tw o r a ces l iv in g to geth er o n te rm s

of s o cia l a nd p oliti c al e q uality ,” L in co ln w ent o n r e co rd a s f a v orin g w hite s o ver b la cks.

“T here m ust b e,” h e s a id d urin g h is c am paig n f o r th e S enate i n 1 858, “ th e p ositi o n o f s u p erio r

and i n fe rio r, a nd I a s m uch a s a ny o th er m an a m i n f a v or o f h av in g th e s u p erio r p ositi o n

assig ned to th e w hite r a ce.”

Exp re ssio ns s u ch a s th ese i n sp ir e d i n cre asin g d esp air. T o S outh ern ers , A bra ham L in co ln

was th e d ev il i n carn ate , r e ad y a nd w illin g to s n atc h th eir s la v es f r o m th em a t w hate v er c o st.

Upon h is e le cti o n to th e p re sid ency, l e gis la tu re s o f s ta te s i n th e S outh s e ced ed f r o m th e U nite d

Sta te s b y d ecla rin g th at th e s ta te s w ere n o l o nger p art o f th e U nio n. F ir s t, S outh C aro lin a

se ced ed o n D ecem ber 2 4, 1 860, f o llo w ed b y M is sis sip pi, F lo rid a, A la b am a, G eo rg ia ,

Louis ia na, T exas, V ir g in ia , N orth C aro lin a, A rk ansa s, a nd T ennesse e. T hese e le v en s ta te s

jo in ed to geth er to f o rm th e C onfe d era te S ta te s o f A meric a. T hey e le cte d th eir o w n p re sid ent,

Je ffe rs o n D av is , a nd a fte r i n iti a l d eb ate e sta b lis h ed a c ap ita l i n R ic hm ond , V ir g in ia .

Lik e D ougla ss, b la cks w ante d “ th e c o m ple te a nd u niv ers a l

abolitio n

o f th e w ho le s la v e

sy ste m ,” a s w ell a s e q ual s u ffr a ge a nd o th er r ig hts f o r f r e e b la cks. I n e arly 1 861 L in co ln w as

sti ll p ro m is in g n o t to to uch s la v ery w here i t w as a nd n o t to r e p eal th e F ugiti v e S la v e L aw .

Sm all w ond er th en th at A fr ic an A meric ans h ard ly c ele b ra te d h is i n augura ti o n.

The f ir in g o n F ort S um te r, S outh C aro lin a, o n A pril 1 2, 1 861 d id , h o w ev er, b rin g

cele b ra ti o n. T hese f ir s t s h o ts o f th e C iv il W ar s ti r re d r e al h o pe th at s la v ery w ould s o on e nd . I t

all h ap pened s o s u d denly , s o on a fte r th e o ffic er i n c harg e o f th e f o rt, M ajo r R obert A nd ers o n,

in fo rm ed L in co ln th at h e n eed ed m en, a rm s, a nd s u p plie s to m ain ta in th e f e d era l p re se nce i n

Charle sto n h arb or. L in co ln ’s d ile m ma w as o bvio us. I f h e d id n o th in g, h e w ould a p pear w eak

and S um te r w ould f a ll to th e C onfe d era cy, a s h ad o th er f e d era l f o rts , c usto m h o use s, a nd p ost

offic es. O n th e o th er h and , i f h e s e nt f o rc es th is w ould n o d oub t b e ta ken b y th e C onfe d era cy a s

an a ct o f w ar. L in co ln ’s c ho ic e— to s e nd s u p plie s b ut n o tr o ops o r a rm s— sh ifte d th e b urd en o f

war to th e C onfe d era cy, w hic h i ts e lf s to od to l o se c re d ib ility a s a s o vere ig n n ati o n i f i t To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.

allo w ed L in co ln to m ain ta in th e f o rt w ith in i ts b ord ers . I t w as h ard ly th eir i n te nti o n, b ut th e

sh o ts C onfe d era te g enera ls f ir e d o n th e s h ip s s e nt to r e su p ply A nd ers o n w ere s h o ts th at p ut

sla v ery o n th e r o ad to e xti n cti o n. To Make Our World Anew : Volume I: A History of African Americans to 1880, edited by Robin D. G. Kelley, and Earl Lewis, Oxford University Press, 2005. ProQuest Ebook Central,

http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/apus/detail.action?docID=422450.

Created from apus on 2018-01-08 07:15:59.