About case study 6-C Page 118-119 pdf will be uploaded 1. Is what Politifact.com does reporting? Is it objective reporting? 2. Should individual journalists be responsible for checking the political c

i Med ia E th ic s

Issu es a n d C ase s

Nin th E dit io n

Phili p P atte rs o n

Okla h om a C hris t ia n U niv er sit y

Lee W ilk in s

Wayn e S ta te U niv er sit y

Univ er sit y o f M is so u ri

Chad P ain te r

Univ er sit y o f D ayto n

RO W MAN & L IT TLE FIE LD

Lan ham

• B ou ld er

• N ew Y ork

• L on don

2 i i

Execu tiv e E dit o r: E li z ab eth S w ay ze

A ssis ta n t E dit o r: M eg an M an zan o

S en io r M ark etin g M an ag er: K im L yo n s

C re d it s a n d a ck n ow le d gm en ts f o r m ate ria l b orro w ed f r o m o th er s o u rc e s, a n d r e p ro d uce d w it h p erm is sio n , a p pea r o n t h e a p pro p ria te p ag e

w it h in t h e t e x t.

P ubli s h ed b y R ow m an & L it tle fie ld

A n i m prin t o f T he R ow m an & L it tle fie ld P ubli s h in g G ro u p , I n c.

4 501 F orb es B ou le v ard , S uit e 2 00, L an h am , M ary la n d 2 0706

w ww.r o w m an .c o m

U nit A , W hit a cre M ew s, 2 6-3 4 S ta n nary S tr e et, L on don S E 11 4 A B, U nit e d K in gd om

C op yrig h t © 2 019 b y T he R ow m an & L it tle fie ld P ubli s h in g G ro u p , I n c.

A ll r ig h ts r ese r v ed

. N o p art o f t h is b ook m ay b e r e p ro d uce d i n a n y f o rm o r b y a n y e le ctr o n ic o r m ech an ic a l m ea n s, i n clu d in g i n fo rm atio n s to ra g e

a n d r e tr ie v al s y ste m s, w it h ou t w rit te n p erm is sio n f r o m t h e p ubli s h er, e x ce p t b y a r e v ie w er w ho m ay q uote p assa g es i n a r e v ie w .

B rit is h L ib ra ry C ata lo gu in g i n P ubli c a tio n I n fo rm atio n A vaila b le

L ib ra ry o f C on gre ss

Cata lo gin g

- in

- Publi c a tio n

Data A vaila b le

I S B N 9 78-1 -5 381-1 258-8 ( p bk.: a lk . p ap er)

I S B N 9 78-1 -5 381-1 259-5 ( e b ook)

T he p ap er u se d i n t h is p ubli c a tio n m eets t h e m in im um r e q uir e m en ts o f A m eric a n N atio n al S ta n dard f o r I n fo rm atio n S cie n ce s—

P erm an en ce o f P ap er f o r P rin te d L ib ra ry M ate ria ls , A N SI/N IS O Z 39.4 8-1 992.

P rin te d i n t h e U nit e d S ta te s o f A m eric a

3 iii

For L in da, D av id , a n d L au rel

4 iv

Brie f C on te n ts

F ore w ord

P re fa ce

1 A n I n tr o d uctio n t o E th ic a l D ecis io n -M ak in g

2 In fo rm atio n E th ic s: A P ro fe ssio n S eek s t h e T ru th

3 Str a te g ic C om mun ic a tio n : D oes C li e n t A dvo ca te M ea n C on su m er A dvers a ry ?

4 Loyalt y : C hoosin g B etw een C om petin g A lle g ia n ce s

5 Priv acy : L ookin g f o r S oli t u d e i n t h e G lo b al V illa g e

6 Mass M ed ia i n a D em ocra tic S ocie ty : K eep in g a P ro m is e

7 Med ia E co n om ic s: T he D ea d li n e M eets t h e B otto m L in e

8 Pic tu re T his : T he E th ic s o f P hoto a n d V id eo J o u rn ali s m

9 In fo rm in g a J u st S ocie ty

v 10

The E th ic a l D im en sio n s o f A rt a n d E nte rta in m en t

1 1

Beco m in g a M ora l A dult

R efe re n ce s

I n dex

5 vi

Con te n ts

F ore w ord

P re fa ce

1 A n I n tr o d uctio n t o E th ic a l D ecis io n -M ak in g

Essa y : C ase s a n d m ora l s y ste m s

Den i E lli o tt

Case 1 -A : H ow t o r e a d a c a se s tu d y

Phili p P atte r so n

2 I n fo rm atio n E th ic s: A P ro fe ssio n S eek s t h e T ru th

Case 2 -A : A non ym ou s o r c o n fid en tia l: U nnam ed s o u rc e s i n t h e n ew s

Lee W ilk in s

Case 2 -B : D ea th a s c o n te n t: S ocia l r e sp on sib ili t y a n d t h e d ocu m en ta ry f ilm mak er

Tan ner H aw kin s

Case 2 -C : N ew s a n d t h e t r a n sp are n cy s ta n dard

Lee W ilk in s

Case 2 -D : C an I q uote m e o n t h at?

Chad P ain te r

Case 2 -E : N PR , t h e

New Y ork T im es

, a n d w ork in g c o n dit io n s i n C hin a

Lee W ilk in s

vii

Case 2 -F : W hen i s o b je ctiv e r e p ortin g i r re sp on sib le r e p ortin g?

Theo d ore

Gla sse r

Case 2 -G : I s i t n ew s y et?

Mic h elle P elt ie r

Case 2 -H : W hat’s y o u rs i s m in e: T he e th ic s o f n ew s a g gre g atio n

Chad P ain te r

3 S tr a te g ic C om mun ic a tio n : D oes C li e n t A dvo ca te M ea n C on su m er A dvers a ry ?

Case 3 -A : W eed vertis in g

Lee W ilk in s

Case 3 -B : C le a n in g u p t h eir a ct: T he C hip otle f o od s a fe ty c ris is

Kayla M cL au gh li n a n d K elly V ib ber

Case 3 -C : K eep in g U p w it h t h e K ard ash ia n s’ p re sc rip tio n d ru g c h oic e s

Tara W alk er

Case 3 -D : B etw een a ( K id ) R ock a n d a h ard p la ce

Molly S hor

Case 3 -E : W as t h at a n A pple c o m pute r I s a w ? P ro d uct p la ce m en t i n t h e U nit e d S ta te s a n d a b ro ad

Phili p P atte r so n

Case 3 -F : S pon so rs h ip s, s in s, a n d P R : W hat a re t h e b ou n darie s?

Lau ren B aco n B ren ga rth

Case 3 -G : A c h arit y d ro p s t h e b all

Phili p P atte r so n

4 L oyalt y : C hoosin g B etw een C om petin g A lle g ia n ce s

Case 4 -A : F air o r f o u l? R ep orte r/ p la y er r e la tio n sh ip s i n t h e s p orts b ea t

Lau ren A . W au gh

Case 4 -B : T o w atc h o r t o r e p ort: W hat jo u rn ali s ts w ere t h in kin g i n t h e m id st o f d is a ste r

Lee W ilk in s

Case 4 -C : P ubli c /o n -a ir jo u rn ali s t v s. p riv ate /o n li n e l i f e : C an i t w ork ?

6 Mad is o n H agood

Case 4 -D : W hen y o u a re t h e s to ry : S ex u al h ara ssm en t i n t h e n ew sro om

Lee W ilk in s

Case 4 -E : W hose F ace b ook p ag e i s i t a n yw ay ?

Am y S im on s

viii

Case 4 -F : W here e v ery b od y k n ow s y o u r n am e: R ep ortin g a n d r e la tio n sh ip s i n a s m all m ark et

Gin ny W hit e h ou se

Case 4 -G : Q uit , b lo w t h e w his tle , o r g o w it h t h e f lo w ?

Rob er t

Wakefi e ld

Case 4 -H : H ow o n e t w eet r u in ed a l i f e

Phili p P atte r so n

5 P riv acy : L ookin g f o r S oli t u d e i n t h e G lo b al V illa g e

Case 5 -A : D ro n es a n d t h e n ew s

Kath le en B artz en C ulv er

Case 5 -B : C on cu ssio n b ou n ty : I s t r u st e v er w orth v io la tin g?

Lee W ilk in s

Case 5 -C : J o e M ix o n : H ow d o w e r e p ort o n d om estic v io le n ce i n s p orts ?

Brett D eev er

Case 5 -D : L ookin g f o r R ic h ard S im mon s

Lee W ilk in s

Case 5 -E : C hild re n a n d f r a m in g: T he u se o f c h ild re n ’s i m ag es i n a n a n ti- sa m e-se x m arria g e a d

Yan g L iu

Case 5 -F : M ay o r J im W est’s c o m pute r

Gin ny W hit e h ou se

Case 5 -G : P oli t ic s a n d m on ey : W hat’s p riv ate a n d w hat’s n ot

Lee W ilk in s

6 M ass M ed ia i n a D em ocra tic S ocie ty : K eep in g a P ro m is e

Case 6 -A : R ep ortin g o n r u m ors : W hen s h ou ld a n ew s o rg an iz atio n d eb u n k?

Lee W ilk in s

Case 6 -B : D oxxer, D oxxer, g iv e m e t h e n ew s?

Mark A nth on y P oep se l

Case 6 -C : T he t r u th a b ou t t h e f a cts : P oli t if a ct.c o m

Lee W ilk in s

Case 6 -D : W ik iL ea k s

Lee W ilk in s

Case 6 -E : C on tr o l R oom : D o c u lt u re a n d h is to ry m atte r i n r e p ortin g t h e n ew s?

Lee W ilk in s

Case 6 -F : V ic tim s a n d t h e p re ss

Rob er t L og a n

Case 6 -G : F or G od a n d C ou n tr y : T he m ed ia a n d n atio n al s e cu rit y

Je r em y L it ta u a n d M ark S la gle

7 M ed ia E co n om ic s: T he D ea d li n e M eets t h e B otto m L in e

Case 7 -A : M urd och ’s m ess

Lee W ilk in s

Case 7 -B : W ho c o n tr o ls t h e l o ca l n ew s? S in cla ir B ro ad ca stin g G ro u p a n d “ m ust- ru n s”

Keen a N ea l

Case 7 -C : A uto m ate d jo u rn ali s m : T he r is e o f r o b ot r e p orte rs

Chad P ain te r

Case 7 -D : C on te ste d i n te re sts , c o n te ste d t e rra in : T he

New Y ork T im es

C od e o f E th ic s

Lee W ilk in s a n d B on nie B ren nen

Case 7 -E : T ra n sp are n cy i n f u n dra is in g: T he C orp ora tio n f o r P ubli c B ro ad ca stin g s ta n dard

Lee W ilk in s

Case 7 -F : N ew s n ow , f a cts l a te r

Lee W ilk in s

7 Case 7 -G : C ro ssin g t h e l i n e? T he

LA T im es

a n d t h e S ta p le s a ffa ir

Phili p P atte r so n a n d M er ed it h B ra d fo rd

8 P ic tu re T his : T he E th ic s o f P hoto a n d V id eo J o u rn ali s m

Case 8 -A : K illi n g a jo u rn ali s t o n -a ir : A m ea n s/e n ds t e st

Mit ch el A lle n

Case 8 -B : R em em ber m y f a m e: D ig it a l n ecro m an cy a n d t h e i m morta l c e le b rit y

Sam an th a M ost

Case 8 -C : P ro b le m p h oto s a n d p ubli c o u tc ry

Jo n R oose n ra ad

Case 8 -D : A bove t h e f o ld : B ala n cin g n ew sw orth y p h oto s w it h c o m mun it y s ta n dard s

Jim G od bold

a n d

Ja n elle H artm an

Case 8 -E : H orro r i n S ow eto

Sue O ’B rie n

Case 8 -F : P hoto gra p h in g f u n era ls o f f a lle n s o ld ie rs

Phili p P atte r so n

x 9 I n fo rm in g a J u st S ocie ty

Case 9 -A :

Spotli g h t

: I t t a k es a v illa g e t o a b u se a c h ild

Lee W ilk in s

Case 9 -B :

12th a n d C la ir m ou n t

: A n ew sp ap er’s f o ra y i n to d ocu m en tin g a p iv o ta l s u m mer

Lee W ilk in s

Case 9 -C :

Cin cin nati E nqu ir er

’s h ero in b ea t

Chad P ain te r

Case 9 -D : F em in is t f a u lt l i n es: P oli t ic a l m em oir s a n d H illa ry C li n to n

Mir a n da A tk in so n

Case 9 -E : G old ie B lo x: B uild in g a f u tu re o n t h eft

Sco tt B urg ess

T he E th ic a l D im en sio n s o f A rt a n d E nte rta in m en t

Case 1 0-A :

Get O ut

: W hen t h e h orro r i s r a ce

Mic h ael F uhlh age a n d L ee W ilk in s

Case 1 0-B : T o d ie f o r: M ak in g t e rro ris ts o f g am ers i n

Mod er n W arfa re 2

Phili p P atte r so n

Case 1 0-C : D aily d ose o f c iv ic d is c o u rs e

Chad P ain te r

Case 1 0-D :

The O nio n :

F in din g h um or i n m ass s h ootin gs

Chad P ain te r

Case 1 0-E : H ate r a d io : T he o u te r l i m it s o f t a ste fu l b ro ad ca stin g

Bria n S im mon s

Case 1 0-F :

Sea rch in g f o r S uga r M an

: R ed is c o vere d a rt

Lee W ilk in s

B eco m in g a M ora l A dult

Refe re n ce s

In dex

8 x i

9 Fore w ord

Cli f fo rd G . C hris tia n s

Rese a rch P ro fe sso r o f C om mun ic a tio n ,

Univ er sit y o f I lli n ois – U rb a n a

T he p la y fu l w it a n d s h arp m in d o f S ocra te s a ttr a cte d d is c ip le s f r o m a ll a cro ss a n cie n t G re ece . T hey c a m e t o

l e a rn a n d d eb ate in w hat c o u ld b e t r a n sla te d a s “ h is t h in kery .” B y s h if t in g t h e d is p ute s a m on g A th en ia n s o ver

e a rth , a ir , fir e , a n d w ate r to h um an v ir tu e, S ocra te s g av e W este rn p h ilo so p h y a n d e th ic s a n ew in te lle ctu al

c e n te r (

Cassie r 1 944

B ut so m etim es his re le n tle ss arg u m en ts w ou ld go now here . O n on e occa sio n , he sp arre d w it h th e

p h ilo so p h er H ip pia s a b ou t t h e d if fe re n ce b etw een t r u th a n d f a ls e h ood . H ip pia s w as w orn in to s u bm is sio n b u t

r e to rte d a t t h e e n d, “ I c a n not a g re e w it h y o u , S ocra te s.” A nd t h en t h e m aste r c o n clu d ed : “ N or I w it h m yse lf ,

H ip pia s. . . . I g o a str a y , u p a n d d ow n, a n d n ev er h old t h e s a m e o p in io n .” S ocra te s a d m it te d t o b ein g s o c le v er

t h at h e h ad b efu d dle d h im se lf . N o w on der h e w as a f a v o rit e t a rg et o f t h e c o m ic p oets . I . F . S to n e li k en s t h is

w iz ard ry t o “ w hale s o f t h e i n te lle ct f la ili n g a b ou t i n d eep s e a s” (

Sto n e 1 988

W it h h is y o u n g fr ie n d M en o, S ocra te s a rg u ed w heth er v ir tu e is te a ch ab le . M en o w as e a g er to le a rn m ore ,

a ft e r “ h old in g f o rth o ft e n o n t h e s u bje ct in f r o n t o f la rg e a u d ie n ce s.” B ut h e c o m pla in ed , “ Y ou a re e x erc is in g

m ag ic a n d w it c h cra ft u p on m e a n d p osit iv ely la y in g m e u n der y o u r s p ell u n til I a m ju st a m ass o f h elp le ssn ess.

. . . Y ou a re e x actly li k e t h e f la t s tin gra y t h at o n e m eets in t h e s e a . W hen ev er a n yo n e c o m es in to c o n ta ct w it h

i t , it n um bs h im , a n d th at is th e s o rt o f th in g y o u s e em to b e d oin g to m e n ow . M y m in d a n d m y li p s a re

l i t e ra lly n um b.”

Philo so p h y is n ot a s e m an tic g am e, t h ou gh s o m etim es it s id io sy n cra sie s f e e d t h at r e sp on se in to t h e p op ula r

m in d.

Med ia E th ic s: Issu es a n d C ase s

d oes n ot d eb u n k p h ilo so p h y as th e ex ce ss o f so vere ig n re a so n . T he

a u th ors o f th is b ook w ill n ot e n co u ra g e th ose w ho rid ic u le p h ilo so p h y a s c u n nin g

xii

rh eto ric . T he is su e a t

s ta k e h ere i s a ctu ally a s o m ew hat d if fe re n t p ro b le m — th e C arte sia n m od el o f p h ilo so p h iz in g.

T he f o u n der o f m od ern p h ilo so p h y, R en é D esc a rte s, p re fe rre d t o w ork in s o li t u d e. P aris w as w hir li n g in t h e

e a rly 1 7th c e n tu ry , b u t f o r t w o y ea rs e v en D esc a rte s’s f r ie n ds c o u ld n ot f in d h im a s h e s q uir re le d h im se lf a w ay

s tu d yin g m ath em atic s. O ne c a n e v en g u ess th e m otto a b ove h is d esk : “ H ap py is h e w ho li v es in s e clu sio n .”

I m ag in e th e c o n dit io n s u n der w hic h h e w ro te “ M ed it a tio n s I I.” T he T hir ty Y ea rs ’ W ar in E uro p e b ro u gh t

s o cia l c h ao s e v ery w here . T he S pan is h w ere ra v ag in g th e F re n ch p ro vin ce s a n d e v en th re a te n in g P aris , b u t

D esc a rte s w as s h ut a w ay in a n a p artm en t in H olla n d. T ra n quili t y fo r p h ilo so p h ic a l s p ecu la tio n m atte re d s o

m uch t o h im t h at u p on h ea rin g G ali le o h ad b een c o n dem ned b y t h e C hurc h , h e r e tr a cte d p ara lle l a rg u m en ts

o f h is o w n o n n atu ra l sc ie n ce . P ure p h ilo so p h y a s a n a b str a ct e n te rp ris e n eed ed a c o ol a tm osp h ere is o la te d

f r o m e v ery d ay e v en ts .

D esc a rte s’s m ag n if ic e n t f o rm ula tio n s h av e a lw ay s h ad t h eir d etr a cto rs , o f c o u rs e . D av id H um e d id n ot t h in k

o f p h ilo so p h y in th ose te rm s, b eli e v in g a s h e d id th at se n tim en t is th e fo u n datio n o f m ora li t y . F or S øre n

K ie rk eg aard , a n a b str a ct s y ste m o f e th ic s is o n ly p ap er c u rre n cy w it h n oth in g t o b ack it u p . K arl M arx in sis te d

t h at w e c h an ge th e w orld a n d n ot m ere ly e x p la in it . B ut n o o n e d re w th e m od ern p h ilo so p h ic a l m ap m ore

d ecis iv ely t h an D esc a rte s, a n d h is m od e o f r ig id i n quir y h as g en era lly d efin ed t h e f ie ld ’s p ara m ete rs .

T his b ook a d op ts t h e h is to ric a l p ers p ectiv e s u ggeste d b y S te p h en T ou lm in :

The p h ilo so p h y w hose le g it im acy t h e c rit ic s c h alle n ge i s a lw ay s t h e s e v en te en th c e n tu ry t r a d it io n f o u n ded p rim arily u p on R en é D esc a rte s. .

. . [ T he] a rg u m en ts a re d ir e cte d t o o n e p artic u la r s ty le o f p h ilo so p h iz in g— a t h eo ry -c e n te re d s ty le w hic h p ose s p h ilo so p h ic a l p ro b le m s, a n d

fr a m es so lu tio n s to th em , in tim ele ss an d u n iv ers a l te rm s. F ro m 1 650, th is p artic u la r sty le w as ta k en as d efin in g th e very ag en da o f

ph ilo so p h y ( 1 988, 3 38).

T he 17th -c e n tu ry ph ilo so p h ers se t asid e th e partic u la r, th e tim ely , th e lo ca l, an d th e ora l. A nd th at

d ev elo p m en t l e ft u n to u ch ed n ea rly h alf o f t h e p h ilo so p h ic a l a g en da. I n deed , i t i s t h ose n eg le cte d t o p ic s— what

I h ere c a ll “ p ra ctic a l p h ilo so p h y”— th at a re s h ow in g fr e sh s ig n s o f li f e t o d ay , a t t h e v ery t im e w hen t h e m ore

f a m ili a r “ th eo ry -c e n te re d ” h alf o f t h e s u bje ct i s l a n gu is h in g (

Tou lm in 1 988

, 3 38).

T his b ook c o lla b ora te s in d em oli s h in g t h e b arrie r o f t h re e c e n tu rie s b etw een p ure a n d a p pli e d p h ilo so p h y; it

j o in s in r e en te rin g p ra ctic a l c o n ce rn s a s t h e le g it im ate d om ain o f p h ilo so p h y it s e lf . F or T ou lm in , t h e p rim ary

f o cu s o f e th ic s h as m oved fr o m th e s tu d y to th e b ed sid e to c rim in al c o u rts , e n gin eerin g la b s, th e n ew sro om ,

f a cto rie s, an d eth nic str e et co rn ers . M ora l p h ilo so p h ers are n ot b ein g ask ed to h an d o ver th eir d utie s to

10 te ch nic a l ex p erts

xiii

in to d ay ’s in stit u tio n s b u t ra th er to fa sh io n th eir ag en das w it h in th e co n dit io n s o f

co n te m pora ry s tr u ggle .

All h um an s h av e a t h eo re tic a l c a p acit y . C rit ic a l t h in kin g, t h e r e fle ctiv e d im en sio n , is o u r c o m mon p ro p erty .

And th is b ook n urtu re s th at r e fle ctio n in c o m mun ic a tio n c la ssro om s a n d b y e x te n sio n in to c e n te rs o f m ed ia

pra ctic e . I f t h e m in d is li k e a m usc le , t h is v o lu m e p ro vid es a r e g im en o f e x erc is e s f o r s tr e n gth en in g it s p ow ers

of sy ste m atic re fle ctio n a n d m ora l d is c e rn m en t. It d oes n ot p erm it th ose a im le ss a rg u m en ts th at re su lt in

quan dary e th ic s. I n ste a d , it o p era te s in th e fin est tr a d it io n s o f p ra ctic a l p h ilo so p h y, a n ch orin g th e d eb ate s in

re a l- li f e c o n un dru m s b u t p ush in g t h e d is c u ssio n t o w ard s u bsta n tiv e is su es a n d in te g ra tin g a p pro p ria te t h eo ry

in to t h e d ecis io n -m ak in g p ro ce ss. I t s e ek s t o e m pow er s tu d en ts t o d o e th ic s t h em se lv es, u n der t h e o ld a d ag e

th at t e a ch in g s o m eo n e t o f is h l a sts a l i f e tim e, a n d p ro vid in g f is h o n ly s a v es t h e d ay .

Med ia E th ic s: I ssu es a n d C ase s

a rriv es o n t h e s c e n e a t a s tr a te g ic t im e in h ig h er e d uca tio n . S in ce t h e la te 1 9th

ce n tu ry , eth ic a l questio n s hav e been ta k en fr o m th e cu rric u lu m as a w hole an d fr o m th e ph ilo so p h y

dep artm en t. R eco verin g p ra ctic a l p h ilo so p h y h as in vo lv ed a r e v o lu tio n d urin g t h e la st d eca d e in w hic h c o u rs e s

in p ro fe ssio n al e th ic s h av e r e a p pea re d t h ro u gh ou t t h e c u rric u lu m . T his b ook a d vo ca te s t h e p erv asiv e m eth od

an d c a rrie s th e d is c u ssio n s e v en fu rth er, b ey o n d fr e esta n din g c o u rs e s in to c o m mun ic a tio n c la ssro om s a cro ss

th e b oard .

In th is s e n se , th e b ook r e p re se n ts a c o n str u ctiv e r e sp on se to th e c u rre n t d eb ate s o ver th e m is sio n o f h ig h er

ed uca tio n . P ro fe ssio n al eth ic s has lo n g been sa d dle d w it h th e dile m ma th at th e un iv ers it y w as giv en

re sp on sib ili t y fo r p ro fe ssio n al tr a in in g p re cis e ly a t th e p oin t in it s h is to ry th at it tu rn ed a w ay fr o m v alu es to

sc ie n tif ic n atu ra li s m . T od ay o n e s e es it a s a v ast h oriz o n ta l p la in g iv en to te ch nic a l e x ce lle n ce b u t b arre n in

en ab li n g s tu d en ts t o a rtic u la te a p h ilo so p h y o f l i f e . A s t h e l a te J a m es C are y c o n clu d ed ,

Hig h er e d uca tio n h as n ot b een p erfo rm in g w ell o f la te a n d, li k e m ost A m eric a n in stit u tio n s, is s u ffe rin g fr o m a c o n fu sio n o f p urp ose , a n

ex ce ss o f a m bit io n t h at b ord ers o n h ubris , a n d a n a p petit e f o r m on ey t h at i s t r u ly a la rm in g ( 1 989, 4 8).

The b ro ad sid e c rit iq ues le v ele d in T hors te in V eb le n ’s

The H ig h er L ea rn in g in A m er ic a

(1 918) a n d U pto n

Sin cla ir ’s

The G oose S te p

( 1 922) a re n ow t o o b la ta n tly o b vio u s t o i g n ore . B ut

Med ia E th ic s: I ssu es a n d C ase s

d oes

not m ere ly dem an d a bette r gen era l ed uca tio n or a re co m mit m en t to valu es; it str e n gth en s th e

co m mun ic a tio n s cu rric u lu m b y eq uip pin g th ou gh tfu l stu d en ts w it h a m ore en li g h te n ed m ora l aw are n ess.

Sin ce C on fu ciu s, w e h av e u n ders to od t h at li g h tin g a c a n dle is b ette r t h an c u rs in g t h e d ark n ess, o r, in M oth er

Tere sa ’s v ers io n , w e f e ed t h e w orld o n e m ou th a t a t im e.

11 xiv

Pre fa ce

M ore th an th re e d eca d es a g o , tw o o f u s b eg an th e q uest o f d eli v erin g a m ed ia e th ic s te x tb ook g ro u n ded in

t h e th eo ry o f m ora l p h ilo so p h y a n d u sin g c a se s tu d ie s fo r s tu d en ts to b e a b le to a p ply th e th eo ry le a rn ed . I n

o u r pla n nin g, th e book w ou ld beg in an d en d w it h th eo ry — mora l ph ilo so p h y an d m ora l dev elo p m en t,

r e sp ectiv ely — an d t h e c h ap te rs in b etw een w ou ld b e t o p ic a l a n d c ro ss a ll m ed iu m s. S o in ste a d o f c h ap te r t it le s

s u ch a s “ jo u rn ali s m ” o r “ p ubli c r e la tio n s” y o u s e e t it le s s u ch a s “ lo yalt y ” a n d “ p riv acy .”

D esp it e th e p assa g e o f d eca d es, o u r fo u n datio n al a ssu m ptio n re m ain s th at th e m ed ia a n d d em ocra cy n eed

o n e an oth er to su rv iv e. If th ere is a sin gle an im atin g id ea in th is b ook, it is th at w heth er yo u r fo cu s is

e n te rta in m en t, n ew s, o r s tr a te g ic c o m mun ic a tio n , w heth er y o u r r o le is t h at o f a p ro fe ssio n al o r a p are n t, y o u r

“ jo b ” is m ad e e a sie r in a fu n ctio n in g d em ocra cy . A nd d em ocra cy fu n ctio n s b est w it h a fr e e a n d in dep en den t

m ass m ed ia th at sp urs c h an ge, re if ie s c u lt u re , a n d p ro vid es o p portu n it y to re a d a n d th in k a n d e x p lo re a n d

c re a te . W e b eli e v e t h at t h in kin g a b ou t a n d u n ders ta n din g e th ic s m ak es y o u b ette r a t w hate v er p ro fe ssio n y o u

c h oose — an d w hate v er y o u r r o le w hen y o u g et h om e f r o m w ork . T his b ook r e m ain s o p tim is tic a b ou t t h e v ery

t o u gh t im es i n w hic h w e f in d o u rs e lv es.

L et’s b eg in w it h w hat’s b een le ft o u t a n d c o n clu d e w it h w hat y o u ’l l fin d in th e te x t. F ir s t, y o u ’l l fin d n o

m ed ia b ash in g in t h is b ook. T here ’s e n ou gh o f t h at a lr e a d y, a n d b esid es, it ’s t o o e a sy t o d o. T his b ook is n ot

d esig n ed t o in dic t t h e m ed ia ; it ’s d esig n ed t o t r a in it s fu tu re p ra ctit io n ers . I f w e d w ell o n e th ic a l la p se s fr o m

t h e p ast, it is o n ly to le a rn fr o m th em w hat w e c a n d o to p re v en t s im ila r o ccu rre n ce s in th e fu tu re . S eco n d,

y o u ’l l f in d n o c o n clu sio n s in t h is b ook— neit h er a t t h e e n d o f t h e b ook n or a ft e r e a ch c a se . N o o n e h as

yet

w rit te n t h e c o n clu siv e c h ap te r t o t h e e th ic a l d ile m mas o f t h e m ed ia , a n d w e d on ’t s u sp ect t h at w e w ill b e t h e

f ir s t.

A ll a lo n g, t h e c a se s w ere t o b e t h e “ sta rs ” o f t h e b ook— mostly r e a l li f e ( a s o p pose d t o h yp oth etic a l) , u su ally

r e ce n t a n d la rg ely g u est- w rit te n , e sp ecia lly w hen w e c o u ld fin d s o m eo n e w ho li v ed in c lo se p ro xim it y to th e

m ark et w here t h e c a se s tu d y h ap pen ed . W e w ou ld e n d e a ch c a se w it h p ed ag o gic a l q uestio n s. T hese b eg an , a t

t h e lo w est le v el, w it h t h e a ctu al d eta ils o f t h e c a se a n d w ere c a lle d “ m ic ro i s su es.” T he q uestio n s t h en w en t o u t

i n e v er- w id en in g c o n ce n tr ic c ir c le s to la rg er is su es a n d d eep er q uestio n s a n d e v en tu ally e n ded a t d eb atin g

s o m e o f th e la rg est is su es in s o cie ty s u ch a s ju stic e , r a ce , fa ir n ess, tr u th -te lli n g, m ed ia ’s r o le in a d em ocra cy ,

a n d m an y o th ers . W e c a lle d t h ese “ m acro i s su es.” T he q uestio n s w ere n ot a n sw ere d i n t h e t e x tb ook. I t w as l e ft

t o t h e s tu d en t a n d t h e p ro fe sso r t o a rriv e a t a n a n sw er t h at c o u ld b e ju stif ie d g iv en t h e e th ic a l u n derp in nin gs

o f t h e t e x t.

T his s im ple i d ea b eca m e p op ula r a n d s u bse q uen t e d it io n s a d ded t o t h e d ep th o f t h e c h ap te rs a n d t h e r e ce n cy

o f th e ca se s. A s th e fie ld ch an ged an d stu d en t m ajo rs w it h in th e fie ld ch an ged , so d id th e b ook. S om e

a d dit io n s, in clu d in g a n “ in te rn atio n al” c h ap te r a n d a “ n ew m ed ia ” c h ap te r, c a m e a n d w en t, a n d th e m ate ria l

w as a b so rb ed in o th er p la ce s in t h e b ook. W rit in g a b ou t “ p ubli c r e la tio n s” b eca m e “ str a te g ic c o m mun ic a tio n s”

w it h a ll t h e n uan ce s t h at e n ta ile d . S ocia l m ed ia r o ck ed o u r i n dustr y a n d c h an ged o u r e co n om ic m od el, a n d t h e

b ook fo llo w ed w it h th e o b vio u s eth ic a l is su es th at cit iz en jo u rn ali s m b ro u gh t w it h it . A t ev ery sta g e, it

r e m ain ed a t r u e m ed ia e th ic s t e x tb ook a n d n ot s im ply a jo u rn ali s m e th ic s b ook. B oth t h e c u rre n t c h ap te rs a n d

c u rre n t c a se s b ea r t h at o u t.

T his n in th e d it io n b rin gs w it h it m an y c h an ges, t h e m ajo r o n es b ein g a n ew p ubli s h er, a n ew c o -a u th or, a n d

a n ew ch ap te r o n so cia l ju stic e . M ore th an h alf o f a ll ca se s a ls o a re n ew . B ut a la rg e a m ou n t o f th e te x t

r e m ain s t h e s a m e a n d a s ig n if ic a n t m in orit y o f t h e c a se s a ls o r e m ain in t h e t e x tb ook. T hese d ecis io n s m ir ro r

t h e s ta te o f t h e f ie ld o f m ed ia e th ic s: s o m e o f t h e p ro b le m s m ed ia p ro fe ssio n als f a ce t o d ay a re n ew ; o th ers a re

a s o ld a s o u r p ro fe ssio n s.

E ach o f u s b ea rs a s ig n if ic a n t d eb t o f g ra tit u d e t o f a m ili e s, t o t e a ch ers a n d m en to rs , t o c o lle a g u es, a n d t o o u r

n ew a n d d eli g h tfu l p ubli s h er. W e a ck n ow le d ge t h eir c o n tr ib u tio n s t o o u r in te lle ctu al a n d m ora l d ev elo p m en t

i n m ak in g t h is t e x tb ook p ossib le , a n d w e a cce p t t h e f la w s o f t h is b ook a s o u r o w n.

xv i

12 13 1 1

An I n tr o d uctio n t o E th ic a l D ecis io n -M ak in g

B y t h e e n d o f t h is c h ap te r, y o u s h ou ld b e a b le t o

• re co gn iz e t h e n eed f o r p ro fe ssio n al e th ic s i n jo u rn ali s m

• work t h ro u gh a m od el o f e th ic a l d ecis io n -m ak in g

• id en tif y a n d u se t h e f iv e p h ilo so p h ic a l p rin cip le s a p pli c a b le t o m ass c o m mun ic a tio n s it u atio n s

MAKIN G E T H IC AL D EC IS IO NS

N o m atte r y o u r p ro fe ssio n al n ic h e in m ass c o m mun ic a tio n , t h e p ast f e w y ea rs h av e b een n oth in g s h ort o f a n

a ssa u lt o n th e b u sin ess m od el th at s u p ports y o u r o rg an iz atio n a n d p ay s y o u r s a la ry , o n th e r o le y o u p la y in a

d em ocra tic s o cie ty , o n w heth er y o u r jo b m ig h t b e b ette r— an d c e rta in ly m ore c h ea p ly — don e b y a r o b ot o r a n

a lg o rit h m .

C on sid er t h e f o llo w in g e th ic a l d ecis io n s t h at m ad e t h e n ew s:

• th e

New Y ork T im es

c h oosin g t o c a ll P re sid en t D on ald J . T ru m p a li a r in it s n ew s c o lu m ns a s w ell a s o n t h e

ed it o ria l p ag es. N atio n al P ubli c R ad io m ad e a d if fe re n t d ecis io n , re fu sin g to u se th e w ord in it s n ew s

co vera g e;

• Face b ook u se rs w ho, in th e la st tw o w eek s o f th e U S p re sid en tia l e le ctio n , c h ose to sh are “ n ew s sto rie s”

orig in atin g w it h R ussia n bots m ore fr e q uen tly th an th ey sh are d new s sto rie s fr o m le g it im ate new s

org an iz atio n s. M ea n w hile , F ace b ook f o u n der M ark Z uck erb erg c o n tin ued t o a sse rt t h at F ace b ook is n ot a

med ia o rg an iz atio n ;

• 2 th e G an nett C orp ora tio n a n d G ate h ou se M ed ia c lo se d d ow n c o p y d esk s a t i n div id ual n ew sp ap ers i n f a v o r

of a re g io n al c o p y h ub sy ste m , th ere b y e n su rin g th at lo ca l n ew s w ou ld n o lo n ger b e e d it e d in in div id ual

med ia m ark ets ;

• H&R B lo ck p urc h asin g “ n ativ e a d vertis in g” t h at in clu d ed a p h oto o f a w om an “ ta k in g a b re a k ” a ft e r f illi n g

ou t h er n am e a n d a d dre ss o n h er in co m e ta x fo rm s. N ativ e a d vertis in g is n ow fo u n d u biq uit o u sly o n li n e

an d in le g acy p ubli c a tio n s su ch as th e

New Y ork T im es

an d th e

Atla n tic

. C om ed ia n Jo h n O li v er h as

sk ew ere d th e p ra ctic e in m ult ip le se g m en ts , n otin g, “I t’s n ot tr ic k ery . I t’s sh arin g sto ry te lli n g to ols . A nd

th at’s n ot b u lls h it . I t’s r e p urp ose d b ovin e w aste ”;

• te le v is io n jo u rn ali s ts an d oth er ca b le pers o n ali t ie s ch arg in g th eir em plo yers , sp ecif ic a lly F ox N ew s

man ag em en t, w it h s y ste m ic s e x u al h ara ssm en t;

• film s s u ch a s

Get O ut

—wit h it s b le n d o f h orro r a n d s c ie n ce fic tio n — th at in clu d ed s o m e s u btle a n d s o m e

in -y o u r- fa ce m essa g es a b ou t ra ce — ea rn in g c rit ic a l a n d b ox o ffic e su cce ss. T he y ea r b efo re

Get O ut

w as

re le a se d , t h e A ca d em y A ward s w ere t h e f o cu s o f f u rio u s c rit ic is m f o r a la ck o f d iv ers it y i n n om in atio n s, t h e

Osc a r- so -w hit e m ovem en t;

• an d la st, b u t in m an y w ay s th e m ost c e n tr a l, P re sid en t D on ald J. T ru m p, le ss th an six m on th s in to h is

ad m in is tr a tio n , la b eli n g “ th e m ed ia ” a s th e e n em y o f th e p eo p le , a c h ara cte riz atio n th at w as g re ete d w it h

an ger a n d a la rm b y s o m e a n d e m bra ce d b y o th ers .

In a c a m paig n v id eo re le a se d in A ugu st 2 017, th e d ay a ft e r th e fa r- rig h t ra lly in C harlo tte sv ille , V ir g in ia ,

k ille d on e an d in ju re d m an y oth ers , A fr ic a n -A m eric a n jo u rn ali s t A pril R yan sta te d th at sh e an d oth er

j o u rn ali s ts h ad b een s in gle d o u t a s a n “ e n em y o f t h e W hit e H ou se .” T he v id eo , t it le d “ L et P re sid en t T ru m p

d o h is jo b ” i n clu d ed s m all i m ag es o f a d ozen jo u rn ali s ts w hile t h e v o ic e o ver d esc rib ed “ th e m ed ia a tta ck in g o u r

p re sid en t” a n d r e fe rre d t o “ th e p re sid en t’s e n em ie s” w ho “ d on ’t w an t h im t o s u cce ed .” R yan , a v ete ra n W hit e

H ou se c o rre sp on den t fo r th e A m eric a n U rb an R ad io N etw ork s a n d a p oli t ic a l a n aly st fo r C N N, re sp on ded

w it h a t w eet c a stig atin g t h e c a m paig n ’s “ ra cia l h ate .”

E ach o f t h ese in sta n ce s r e p re se n t a n e th ic a l c h oic e , d ecis io n s t h at m ost o ft e n b eg in w it h in div id uals b u t a re

14 Each o f t h ese in sta n ce s r e p re se n t a n e th ic a l c h oic e , d ecis io n s t h at m ost o ft e n b eg in w it h in div id uals b u t a re

th en re in fo rc e d b y th e p ro fit - m ak in g o rg an iz atio n s fo r w hic h th ey w ork o r b y th e so cia l o rg an iz atio n s in

whic h p eo p le w illi n gly p artic ip ate . A lm ost a ll o f t h em in clu d e t h e e le m en t o f m eld in g r o le s— am I a ctin g a s a

new s re p orte r o r as a co n su m er, as a p riv ate cit iz en o r as a p ro fe ssio n al, as an au d ie n ce m em ber w ho

un ders ta n ds th at co m ed ia n s ca n so m etim es sp ea k a c e rta in so rt o f tr u th , o r a s a n o b je ctiv e

3 re p orte r fo r

whom w ord s th at im ply o r s ta te a n o p in io n a re fo rb id den . A s y o u n g p ro fe ssio n als , y o u a re to ld to “ p ro m ote

yo u r o w n b ra n d” w hile s im ult a n eo u sly p ro m otin g y o u r c li e n t, y o u r n ew s o rg an iz atio n , o r y o u r p ro fe ssio n . I t’s

a sta g gerin g a rra y o f re q uir e m en ts a n d o b li g atio n s, m ad e m ore d if fic u lt b y th e v ery p ubli c n atu re — an d th e

pote n tia l p ubli c r e sp on se — th at y o u r d ecis io n s w ill in ev it a b ly p ro vo ke. A s im ple G oogle s e a rc h o f e a ch o f t h e

fo re g o in g e th ic a l c h oic e s w ill o p en u p a w orld o f c o n fli c tin g o p in io n s.

The D ile m ma o f D ile m mas

The su m marie s ab ove are d ile m mas— th ey p re se n t an eth ic a l p ro b le m w it h n o sin gle (o r sim ple ) “rig h t”

an sw er. R eso lv in g d ile m mas is th e b u sin ess o f e th ic s. It’s n ot a n e a sy p ro ce ss, b u t e th ic a l d ile m mas c a n b e

an tic ip ate d a n d p re p are d fo r, a n d th ere is a w ea lt h o f e th ic a l th eo ry — so m e o f it c e n tu rie s o ld — to b ack u p

yo u r f in al d ecis io n . I n t h is c h ap te r a n d t h ro u gh ou t t h is b ook, y o u w ill b e e q uip ped w it h b oth t h e t h eo rie s a n d

th e t o ols t o h elp s o lv e t h e d ile m mas t h at a ris e i n w ork in g f o r t h e m ass m ed ia .

In t h e e n d, y o u w ill h av e t o ols , n ot a n sw ers . A nsw ers m ust c o m e f r o m w it h in y o u , b u t y o u r a n sw ers s h ou ld

be in fo rm ed b y w hat o th ers h av e w rit te n a n d e x p erie n ce d . O th erw is e , y o u w ill a lw ay s b e f o rc e d t o s o lv e e a ch

eth ic a l p ro b le m w it h ou t t h e b en efit o f a n yo n e e ls e ’s in sig h t. G ain in g t h ese t o ols a ls o w ill h elp y o u t o p re v en t

ea ch d ile m ma fr o m sp ir a li n g in to “q uan dary e th ic s” — th e fe eli n g th at n o b est ch oic e is a v aila b le a n d th at

ev ery o n e’s c h oic e i s e q ually v ali d ( s e e D en i E lli o tt’s e ssa y f o llo w in g t h is c h ap te r).

Will co d es o f eth ic s h elp ? V ir tu ally all th e m ed ia asso cia tio n s h av e o n e, b u t th ey h av e li m it a tio n s. F or

in sta n ce , th e e th ic s c o d e fo r th e S ocie ty o f P ro fe ssio n al Jo u rn ali s ts c o u ld b e re a d to a llo w fo r re v ea li n g o r

wit h hold in g in fo rm atio n , tw o a ctio n s th at a re p ola r o p posit e s. T hat d oesn ’t m ak e th e c o d e u se le ss; it s im ply

poin ts o u t a s h ortfa ll i n d ep en din g o n c o d es.

While w e d on ’t d is m is s c o d es, w e b eli e v e y o u w ill fin d m ore u n iv ers a lly a p pli c a b le h elp in th e w rit in gs o f

ph ilo so p h ers , a n cie n t a n d m od ern , i n tr o d uce d i n t h is c h ap te r.

This b ook, o r a n y e th ic s t e x t, s h ou ld t e a ch m ore t h an a s e t o f r u le s. I t s h ou ld g iv e y o u t h e s k ills , a n aly tic a l

mod els , v o ca b u la ry , a n d in sig h ts o f o th ers w ho h av e fa ce d th ese c h oic e s, to m ak e a n d ju stif y y o u r e th ic a l

decis io n s.

Som e w rit e rs c la im t h at e th ic s c a n ’t b e t a u gh t. I t’s s it u atio n al, s o m e c la im . B eca u se e v ery m essa g e is u n iq ue,

th ere is n o re a l w ay to le a rn e th ic s o th er th an b y d aily li f e . E th ic s, it is a rg u ed , is s o m eth in g y o u h av e, n ot

so m eth in g y o u d o. B ut w hile it ’s tr u e th at re a d in g a b ou t e th ic s is n o g u ara n te e y o u w ill p erfo rm y o u r jo b

eth ic a lly , t h in kin g a b ou t e th ic s i s a s k ill a n yo n e c a n a cq uir e .

4 While e a ch a re a o f m ass c o m mun ic a tio n h as it s u n iq ue e th ic a l is su es, th in kin g a b ou t e th ic s is th e sa m e,

wheth er y o u m ak e y o u r li v in g w rit in g a d vertis in g c o p y o r o b it u arie s. T hin kin g a b ou t e th ic s w on ’t n ece ssa rily

mak e to u gh c h oic e s e a sie r, b u t, w it h p ra ctic e , y o u r e th ic a l d ecis io n -m ak in g c a n b eco m e m ore c o n sis te n t. A

co n sis te n tly e th ic a l a p pro ach to y o u r w ork a s a re p orte r, d esig n er, o r c o p yw rit e r in w hate v er fie ld o f m ass

co m mun ic a tio n y o u e n te r c a n i m pro ve t h at w ork a s w ell.

Eth ic s a n d M ora ls

Con te m pora ry p ro fe ssio n al e th ic s r e v o lv es a ro u n d t h ese q uestio n s:

• What d utie s d o I h av e, a n d t o w hom d o I o w e t h em ?

• What v alu es a re r e fle cte d b y t h e d utie s I ’v e a ssu m ed ?

Eth ic s t a k es u s o u t o f t h e w orld o f “ T his is t h e w ay I d o it ” o r “ T his is t h e w ay it ’s a lw ay s b een d on e” in to

th e r e a lm o f “ T his is w hat I s h ou ld d o” o r “ T his is th e a ctio n th at c a n b e r a tio n ally ju stif ie d .” E th ic s in th is

se n se is “ o u gh t t a lk .” T he q uestio n s a ris in g f r o m d uty a n d v alu es c a n b e a n sw ere d a n um ber o f w ay s a s lo n g a s

th ey a re c o n sis te n t w it h e a ch o th er. F or e x am ple , a jo u rn ali s t a n d a p ubli c r e la tio n s p ro fe ssio n al m ay s e e th e

tr u th o f a sto ry d if fe re n tly b eca u se th ey se e th eir d utie s d if fe re n tly a n d b eca u se th ere a re d if fe re n t v alu es a t

work in th eir p ro fe ssio n s, b u t ea ch ca n b e actin g eth ic a lly if th ey are o p era tin g u n der th e im pera tiv es o f

“o u gh tn ess” f o r t h eir p ro fe ssio n .

It is im porta n t h ere t o d is tin gu is h b etw een

eth ic s,

a r a tio n al p ro ce ss f o u n ded o n c e rta in a g re ed -o n p rin cip le s,

an d

mora ls ,

w hic h a re in th e re a lm o f re li g io n . T he T en C om man dm en ts a re a m ora l sy ste m in th e Ju d eo -

Chris tia n tr a d it io n , a n d Je w is h sc h ola rs h av e e x p an ded th is stu d y o f th e la w s th ro u gh ou t th e B ib le ’s O ld

15 Testa m en t in to t h e T alm ud , a 1 ,0 00-p ag e r e li g io u s v o lu m e. T he B ud dh is t E ig h tfo ld P ath p ro vid es a s im ila r

mora l f r a m ew ork .

But m ora l s y ste m s a re n ot s y n on ym ou s w it h e th ic s.

Eth ic s b eg in s w hen e le m en ts w it h in a m ora l s y st e m c o n fli c t .

Eth ic s is le ss ab ou t th e co n fli c t b etw een rig h t an d w ro n g th an it is ab ou t th e co n fli c t b etw een eq ually

co m pelli n g (o r e q ually u n attr a ctiv e) a lt e rn ativ es a n d th e c h oic e s th at m ust b e m ad e b etw een th em . E th ic s is

ju st a s o ft e n a b ou t t h e c h oic e s b etw een g o od a n d b ette r o r p oor a n d w ors e t h an a b ou t r ig h t a n d w ro n g, w hic h

te n ds t o b e t h e d om ain o f m ora ls .

When e le m en ts w it h in a m ora l s y ste m c o n fli c t, e th ic a l p rin cip le s c a n h elp y o u m ak e to u gh c h oic e s. W e’l l

re v ie w se v era l eth ic a l p rin cip le s b rie fly aft e r d esc rib in g h ow o n e p h ilo so p h er, S is se la B ok, sa y s w ork in g

pro fe ssio n als c a n l e a rn t o m ak e g o od e th ic a l d ecis io n s.

A W ord a b ou t E th ic s

The c o n ce p t o f e th ic s c o m es f r o m t h e G re ek s, w ho d iv id ed t h e p h ilo so p h ic a l w orld in to s e p ara te d is c ip li n es.

Aest h etic s

w as t h e s tu d y o f t h e

bea u tif u l a n d h ow a p ers o n c o u ld a n aly ze b ea u ty w it h ou t re ly in g o n ly o n su bje ctiv e e v alu atio n s.

Epis t e m olo g y

w as th e stu d y o f k n ow in g,

deb ate s a b ou t w hat c o n stit u te s le a rn in g a n d w hat is k n ow ab le .

Eth ic s

w as t h e s tu d y o f w hat is g o od , b oth f o r t h e in div id ual a n d f o r s o cie ty .

In te re stin gly , th e ro ot o f th e w ord m ea n s “c u sto m ” o r “h ab it ,” g iv in g e th ic s a n u n derly in g ro ot o f b eh av io r th at is lo n g e sta b li s h ed a n d

ben efic ia l to th e o n go in g o f so cie ty . T he G re ek s w ere a ls o c o n ce rn ed w it h th e in div id ual v ir tu es o f fo rtit u d e, ju stic e , te m pera n ce , a n d

wis d om , a s w ell a s w it h s o cie ta l v ir tu es s u ch a s f r e ed om .

Two th ou sa n d y ea rs la te r, e th ic s h as c o m e to m ea n le a rn in g to m ak e r a tio n al d ecis io n s a m on g a n a rra y o f c h oic e s, a ll o f w hic h m ay b e

mora lly ju stif ia b le , b u t so m e m ore so th an o th ers . R atio n ali t y is th e k ey w ord h ere , fo r th e G re ek s b eli e v ed , a n d m od ern p h ilo so p h ers

affir m , th at p eo p le sh ou ld b e a b le to e x p la in th eir e th ic a l d ecis io n s to o th ers a n d th at a ctin g e th ic a lly c o u ld b e sh ow n to b e a ra tio n al

decis io n to m ak e. T hat a b ili t y to e x p la in e th ic a l c h oic e s is a n im porta n t o n e fo r m ed ia p ro fe ssio n als w hose c h oic e s a re so p ubli c . W hen

co n fr o n te d w it h a n a n gry p ubli c , “ I t s e em ed li k e t h e r ig h t t h in g t o d o a t t h e t im e” is a p ers o n ally e m barra ssin g

an d

e th ic a lly u n sa tis fa cto ry

ex p la n atio n .

5 BO K’S M ODEL

Bok’s eth ic a l d ecis io n -m ak in g fr a m ew ork w as in tr o d uce d in h er b ook

Lyin g: M ora l C hoic e in P ubli c a n d

Priv ate L ife .

B ok’s m od el is b ase d o n tw o p re m is e s: th at w e m ust h av e e m path y fo r th e p eo p le in vo lv ed in

eth ic a l d ecis io n s a n d th at m ain ta in in g so cia l tr u st is a fu n dam en ta l g o al. W it h th is in m in d, B ok sa y s a n y

eth ic a l q uestio n s h ou ld b e a n aly zed i n t h re e s te p s.

Fir s t, c o n su lt y o u r o w n c o n sc ie n ce a b ou t t h e “ rig h tn ess” o f a n a ctio n .

How d o y ou f e el a bou t t h e a ct io n ?

Seco n d, s e ek e x p ert a d vic e fo r a lt e rn ativ es t o t h e a ct c re a tin g t h e e th ic a l p ro b le m . E xp erts , b y t h e w ay , c a n

be th ose e it h er li v in g o r d ea d — a p ro d uce r o r e d it o r y o u tr u st o r a p h ilo so p h er y o u a d m ir e .

Is th er e a n oth er

pro fe ssio n ally a cce p ta ble w ay t o a ch ie v e t h e s a m e g oa l t h at w ill n ot r a is e e th ic a l i s su es?

Thir d , if p ossib le , c o n duct a p ubli c d is c u ssio n w it h t h e p artie s in vo lv ed in t h e d is p ute . T hese in clu d e t h ose

who a re d ir e ctly in vo lv ed s u ch a s a r e p orte r o r t h eir s o u rc e , a n d t h ose in dir e ctly in vo lv ed s u ch a s a r e a d er o r a

med ia o u tle t o w ner. I f th ey c a n not b e g ath ere d — an d th at w ill m ost o ft e n b e th e c a se — yo u c a n c o n duct th e

co n vers a tio n h yp oth etic a lly in y o u r h ea d , p la y in g

6 ou t th e r o le s. T he g o al o f th is c o n vers a tio n is to d is c o ver

How w ill o th er s r esp on d t o t h e p ro p ose d a ct ?

Let’s se e h ow B ok’s m od el w ork s in th e fo llo w in g sc e n ario . I n th e se ctio n a ft e r th e c a se , fo llo w th e th re e

ste p s B ok r e co m men ds a n d d ecid e i f y o u w ou ld r u n t h e s to ry .

How M uch N ew s I s F it t o P rin t?

In y o u r c o m mun it y , t h e m ajo r c h arit y is t h e U nit e d W ay . T he a n nual f u n dra is in g d riv e w ill b eg in in le ss t h an

tw o w eek s. H ow ev er, at a la te -n ig h t m eetin g o f th e b oard w it h n o m ed ia p re se n t, th e ex ecu tiv e d ir e cto r

re sig n s. T hou gh t h e a g en cy i s n ot c o vere d b y t h e O pen M eetin gs A ct, y o u a re a b le t o le a rn m ost o f w hat w en t

on f r o m a s o u rc e o n t h e b oard .

Acco rd in g t o h er, t h e e x ecu tiv e d ir e cto r h ad t a k en p ay f r o m t h e a g en cy b y s u bm it tin g a f a ls if ie d t im e s h eet

while h e w as a ctu ally a w ay a t th e fu n era l o f a c o lle g e ro om mate . T he U nit e d W ay b oard in vestig ate d th e

ab se n ce a n d a sk ed fo r h is re sig n atio n , c it in g th e ly in g a b ou t th e a b se n ce a s th e re a so n , th ou gh m ost a g re ed

th at t h ey w ou ld h av e g iv en h im p aid l e a v e h ad h e a sk ed .

The U nit e d W ay w an ts to is su e a sh ort sta te m en t, p ra is in g th e w ork o f th e ex ecu tiv e d ir e cto r w hile

re g re tfu lly acce p tin g h is re sig n atio n . T he ex ecu tiv e d ir e cto r als o w ill is su e a sh ort sta te m en t cit in g o th er

op portu n it ie s a s h is r e a so n f o r le a v in g. Y ou a re a ssig n ed t h e s to ry b y a n e d it o r w ho d oes n ot k n ow a b ou t t h e

ad dit io n al in fo rm atio n y o u h av e o b ta in ed b u t w an ts y o u t o “ se e if t h ere ’s a n y m ore t o it [ th e r e sig n atio n ] t h an

th ey ’r e t e lli n g.”

You c a ll y o u r so u rc e o n th e b oard a n d sh e a sk s y o u , a s a fr ie n d, to w it h hold th e d am ag in g in fo rm atio n

16 You c a ll y o u r so u rc e o n th e b oard a n d sh e a sk s y o u , a s a fr ie n d, to w it h hold th e d am ag in g in fo rm atio n

beca u se it w ill h in der t h e U nit e d W ay ’s a n nual f u n d-ra is in g e ffo rt a n d je o p ard iz e s e rv ic e s t o n eed y p eo p le in

th e c o m mun it y b eca u se fa it h in th e U nit e d W ay w ill b e d estr o yed . Y ou c o n fr o n t th e e x ecu tiv e d ir e cto r. H e

sa y s h e a lr e a d y h as a jo b i n te rv ie w w it h a n oth er n on -p ro fit a n d i f y o u r u n t h e s to ry y o u w ill r u in h is c h an ce s o f

a f u tu re c a re er.

What d o y o u d o?

TH E A N ALY SIS

Bok’s fir s t ste p re q uir e s y o u to

co n su lt y ou r co n sc ie n ce

. W hen y o u d o, y o u re a li z e y o u h av e a p ro b le m . Y ou r

re sp on sib ili t y is to te ll th e tr u th , a n d th at m ea n s p ro vid in g re a d ers w it h a ll th e fa cts y o u d is c o ver. Y ou a ls o

hav e a la rg er re sp on sib ili t y n ot to h arm y o u r c o m mun it y , a n d p rin tin g th e c o m ple te sto ry m ig h t w ell c a u se

sh ort- te rm h arm . C le a rly , y o u r c o n sc ie n ce i s o f t w o m in ds a b ou t t h e i s su e.

7 You m ove to th e se co n d ste p :

alt e r n ativ es

. D o y o u sim ply ru n th e re sig n atio n re le a se , fig u rin g th at th e

pers o n c a n d o n o f u rth er h arm a n d t h ere fo re s h ou ld b e le ft a lo n e? D o y o u r u n t h e w hole s to ry b u t b u ttr e ss it

wit h b oard m em bers ’ q uote s t h at s u ch a n a ctio n c o u ld n ’t h ap pen a g ain , f ig u rin g t h at y o u h av e r e sto re d p ubli c

tr u st in t h e a g en cy ? D o y o u d o n oth in g u n til a ft e r t h e f u n dra is in g d riv e a n d r is k t h e lo ss o f t r u st f r o m r e a d ers

if t h e s to ry c ir c u la te s a ro u n d t o w n a s a r u m or? A gain , t h ere a re a lt e rn ativ es, b u t e a ch h as s o m e c o st.

In th e th ir d ste p o f B ok’s m od el, y o u w ill a tte m pt to

hold a p u bli c eth ic a l d ia lo g u e

w it h a ll o f th e p artie s

in vo lv ed . M ost li k ely y o u w on ’t g et a ll t h e p artie s in to t h e n ew sro om o n d ea d li n e. I n ste a d y o u c a n c o n duct a n

im ag in ary d is c u ssio n a m on g t h e p artie s i n vo lv ed . S uch a d is c u ssio n m ig h t g o l i k e t h is :

E XEC U TIV E

IR E C TO R

: “ I t h in k m y r e sig n atio n is s u ffic ie n t p en alt y f o r a n y m is ta k e I m ig h t h av e m ad e, a n d y o u r a rtic le w ill je o p ard iz e m y

ab ili t y t o f in d a n oth er jo b . I t’s r e a lly h urtin g m y w if e a n d k id s, a n d t h ey ’v e d on e n oth in g w ro n g.”

R EPO RT ER

: “ B ut s h ou ld n ’t y o u h av e th ou gh t a b ou t th at

befo re

y o u d ecid ed to fa ls if y th e tim e s h eet? T his is a g o od s to ry , a n d I th in k th e

publi c s h ou ld k n ow w hat t h e p eo p le w ho a re h an dli n g t h eir d on atio n s a re l i k e.”

R EA D ER

1 : “ W ait a m in ute . I a m th e p ubli c , a n d I ’m tir e d o f a ll o f th is b ad n ew s y o u r p ap er fo cu se s o n . T his m an h as d on e n oth in g b u t

go od i n t h e c o m mun it y , a n d I c a n ’t s e e w here a n y m on ey t h at b elo n ged t o t h e p oor w en t i n to h is p ock et. W hy c a n ’t w e s e e s o m e g o od n ew s

fo r a c h an ge?”

R EA D ER

2 : “I d is a g re e. I b u y th e p ap er p re cis e ly b eca u se it d oes th is k in d o f re p ortin g. S to rie s li k e th is th at k eep th e g o vern m en t, th e

ch arit ie s a n d e v ery o n e e ls e o n t h eir t o es.”

P UBLIS H ER

: “ Y ou m ea n l i k e a w atc h dog f u n ctio n .”

R EA D ER

2 : “ E xactly . A nd i f i t b oth ers y o u , d on ’t r e a d i t .”

P UBLIS H ER

: “ I d on ’t r e a lly li k e t o h urt p eo p le w it h t h e p ow er w e h av e, b u t if w e d on ’t p rin t s to rie s li k e t h is , a n d t h e c o m mun it y la te r f in ds

ou t t h at w e w it h held n ew s, o u r c re d ib ili t y i s r u in ed , a n d w e’r e o u t o f b u sin ess.” [ T o s o u rc e ] “ D id y o u r e q uest t h at t h e i n fo rm atio n b e o ff t h e

re co rd ?”

S OURC E

: “ N o. B ut I n ev er t h ou gh t y o u ’d u se i t i n y o u r s to ry .”

R EPO RT ER

: “ I ’m a r e p orte r. I r e p ort w hat I h ea r f o r a li v in g. W hat d id y o u t h in k I w ou ld d o w it h it ? S to rie s li k e t h ese a llo w m e t o s u p port

my f a m ily .”

E XEC U TIV E

IR E C TO R

: “ S o it ’s y o u r c a re er o r m in e, is t h at w hat y o u ’r e s a y in g? L ook, n o c h arg es h av e b een f ile d h ere , b u t if y o u r s to ry r u n s,

I l o ok l i k e a c rim in al. I s t h at f a ir ? ”

P UBLIS H ER

: “ A nd i f i t d oesn ’t r u n , w e d on ’t k eep o u r p ro m is e t o t h e c o m mun it y . I s t h at f a ir ? ”

N EED Y

OTH ER

: “ F air ? Y ou w an t t o t a lk f a ir ? D o y o u s u ffe r if t h e d on atio n s g o d ow n? N o, I d o. T his is ju st a n oth er s to ry t o y o u . I t’s t h e

dif fe re n ce i n m e a n d m y f a m ily g ettin g b y.”

8 The c o n vers a tio n c o u ld c o n tin ue, a n d o th er p oin ts o f v ie w c o u ld b e v o ic e d . Y ou r im ag in ary c o n vers a tio n s

co u ld b e m ore o r le ss e la b ora te t h an t h e o n e a b ove, b u t o u t o f t h is d is c u ssio n i t s h ou ld b e p ossib le t o r a tio n ally

su p port a n e th ic a l c h oic e .

There a re t w o c a u tio n s i n u sin g B ok’s m od el f o r e th ic a l d ecis io n -m ak in g. F ir s t, i t i s i m porta n t t o g o t h ro u gh

all t h re e s te p s b efo re m ak in g a f in al c h oic e . M ost o f u s m ak e e th ic a l c h oic e s p re m atu re ly , a ft e r w e’v e c o n su lt e d

on ly o u r c o n sc ie n ce s, a n e rro r B ok s a y s r e su lt s in a lo t o f f la b by m ora l t h in kin g. S eco n d, w hile y o u w ill n ot b e

en dow ed w it h a n y c la ir v o yan t p ow ers t o a n tic ip ate y o u r e th ic a l p ro b le m s, t h e e th ic a l d ia lo gu e o u tli n ed in t h e

th ir d s te p i s b est w hen c o n ducte d i n a d van ce o f t h e e v en t, n ot i n t h e h ea t o f w rit in g a s to ry .

For in sta n ce , a n a d vertis in g c o p yw rit e r m ig h t c o n duct s u ch a d is c u ssio n a b ou t w heth er a d vertis in g c o p y c a n

eth ic a lly w it h hold dis c la im ers ab ou t pote n tia l h arm fr o m a pro d uct. A re p orte r m ig h t co n duct su ch a

dis c u ssio n w ell in a d van ce o f th e tim e h e is a ctu ally a sk ed to w it h hold a n e m barra ssin g n am e o r fa ct fr o m a

sto ry . S in ce it is li k ely t h at s u ch d ile m mas w ill a ris e in y o u r c h ose n p ro fe ssio n ( th e illu str a tio n a b ove is b ase d

on w hat h ap pen ed to o n e o f th e a u th ors th e fir s t d ay o n th e jo b ), y o u r a n sw er w ill b e m ore r e a d ily a v aila b le

an d m ore lo gic a l if y o u h old su ch d is c u ssio n s e it h er w it h tr u ste d co lle a g u es in a ca su al a tm osp h ere o r b y

yo u rs e lf , w ell i n a d van ce o f t h e p ro b le m . T he c a se s i n t h is b ook a re s e le cte d p artia lly f o r t h eir a b ili t y t o p re d ic t

yo u r o n -th e-jo b d ile m mas a n d s ta rt t h e e th ic a l d is c u ssio n n ow .

17 GUID ELIN ES F O R M AKIN G E T H IC AL D EC IS IO NS

Sin ce t h e d ay s o f a n cie n t G re ece , p h ilo so p h ers h av e t r ie d t o d ra ft a s e rie s o f r u le s o r g u id eli n es g o vern in g h ow

to m ak e e th ic a l ch oic e s. In e th ic a l d ile m mas su ch a s th e o n e a b ove, y o u w ill n eed p rin cip le s to h elp y o u

dete rm in e w hat t o d o a m id c o n fli c tin g v o ic e s. W hile a n um ber o f p rin cip le s w ork w ell, w e w ill r e v ie w f iv e.

Aris to tle ’s G old en M ea n

Aris to tle b eli e v ed th at h ap pin ess— whic h so m e sc h ola rs tr a n sla te a s “flo u ris h in g”— was th e u lt im ate h um an

go od . B y flo u ris h in g, A ris to tle s o u gh t to e le v ate a n y a ctiv it y th ro u gh th e s e ttin g o f h ig h s ta n dard s, w hat h e

ca lle d e x erc is in g “ p ra ctic a l r e a so n in g.”

Aris to tle b eli e v ed t h at p ra ctic a l r e a so n w as e x erc is e d b y in div id uals w ho u n ders to od w hat t h e G re ek s c a lle d

th e “ v ir tu es” a n d d em on str a te d t h em

9 in t h eir li v es a n d c a lli n g. S uch a p ers o n w as t h e

ph ren em os,

o r p ers o n o f

pra ctic a l w is d om , w ho d em on str a te d e th ic a l e x ce lle n ce in h is o r h er d aily a ctiv it y . F or A ris to tle , th e h ig h est

vir tu e w as c it iz en sh ip , a n d it s h ig h est p ra ctit io n er t h e s ta te sm an , a p oli t ic ia n w ho e x erc is e d s o m uch p ra ctic a l

wis d om i n h is d aily a ctiv it y t h at h e e le v ate d t h e c ra ft o f p oli t ic s t o a rt. I n c o n te m pora ry t e rm s, w e m ig h t t h in k

of a

ph ren em os

a s a p ers o n w ho e x ce ls a t a n y o f a v arie ty o f a ctiv it ie s— ce lli s t Y o-Y o M a, th e la te p oet M ay a

Angelo u , f ilm mak ers G eo rg e L uca s a n d S te v en S pie lb erg . T hey a re p eo p le w ho f lo u ris h in t h eir p ro fe ssio n al

perfo rm an ce , e x te n din g o u r o w n v is io n o f w hat i s p ossib le .

This n otio n o f flo u ris h in g le d A ris to tle to a sse rt th at p eo p le a ctin g v ir tu ou sly a re th e m ora l b asis o f h is

eth ic a l s y ste m , n ot t h ose w ho s im ply f o llo w r u le s. H is e th ic a l s y ste m is n ow c a lle d

vir tu e e th ic s

. V ir tu e e th ic s

flo w s f r o m b oth t h e n atu re o f t h e a ct it s e lf a n d t h e m ora l c h ara cte r o f t h e p ers o n w ho a cts . I n t h e A ris to te li a n

se n se , t h e w ay t o b eh av e e th ic a lly is t h at ( 1 ) y o u m ust k n ow ( th ro u gh t h e e x erc is e o f p ra ctic a l r e a so n in g) w hat

yo u a re d oin g; (2 ) y o u m ust s e le ct th e a ct fo r it s o w n s a k e— in o rd er to flo u ris h ; a n d (3 ) th e a ct it s e lf m ust

sp rin g f r o m a f ir m a n d u n ch an gin g c h ara cte r.

Fig u re 1 .1 .

Calv in a n d H ob bes

It is n ot s tr e tc h in g A ris to tle ’s fr a m ew ork to a sse rt t h at o n e w ay to le a rn e th ic s is to s e le ct h ero es a n d to

tr y to m od el y o u r in div id ual a cts a n d u lt im ate ly y o u r p ro fe ssio n al c h ara cte r o n w hat y o u b eli e v e th ey w ou ld

do. A n A ris to te li a n m ig h t w ell c o n su lt t h is h ero a s a n e x p ert w hen m ak in g a n e th ic a l c h oic e . A sk in g w hat m y

hero w ou ld d o in a p artic u la r s it u atio n is a v ali d f o rm o f e th ic a l a n aly sis . T he t r ic k , h ow ev er, is t o s e le ct y o u r

hero es c a re fu lly a n d c o n tin ue t o t h in k f o r y o u rs e lf r a th er t h an m ere ly c o p y b eh av io r y o u h av e s e en p re v io u sly .

What th en is a v ir tu e?

Vir tu e li e s a t th e m ea n b etw een tw o ex tr em es o f ex ce ss a n d d efi c ie n cy

, a re d uctio n o f

Aris to tle ’s p h ilo so p h y o ft e n c a lle d t h e “ G old en M ea n ” a s s h ow n in

ta b le 1 .1

. C ou ra g e, f o r e x am ple , is a m ea n

betw een f o olh ard in ess o n o n e h an d a n d c o w ard ic e o n t h e o th er. B ut t o d ete rm in e t h at m ea n f o r y o u rs e lf , y o u

hav e to ex erc is e p ra ctic a l w is d om , act acco rd in g to h ig h sta n dard s, an d act in acco rd an ce w it h fir m an d

co n tin uin g c h ara cte r t r a it s .

Tab le 1 .1 . A ris to tle ’s G old en M ea n

Unacce p ta ble B eh av io rs ( D efi c ie n cy )

Acce p ta ble B eh av io rs

Unacce p ta ble B eh av io rs ( E xce ss)

Cow ard ic e

Cou ra g e

Foolh ard in ess

Sham ele ssn ess

Mod esty

Bash fu ln ess

Stin gin ess

Gen ero sit y

Waste fu ln ess

In r e a li t y , th ere fo re , th e m id dle g ro u n d o f a v ir tu e is n ot a s in gle p oin t o n a li n e th at is th e s a m e fo r e v ery

in div id ual. I t is in ste a d a r a n ge o f b eh av io rs t h at v arie s in div id ually , w hile a v o id in g t h e u n desir a b le e x tr e m es.

18 Can dor is a g o od e x am ple o f a v ir tu e th at is m ost c e rta in ly c o n te x tu al— what is to o b lu n t in o n e in sta n ce is

kin d in a n oth er. C on sid er t w o w it n esse s t o a p ote n tia l d ro w nin g: o n e o n lo oker is a p oor s w im mer b u t a fa st

ru n ner, t h e o th er is a g o od s w im mer b u t a s lo w r u n ner. W hat is c o w ard ic e f o r o n e is f o olh ard y f o r t h e o th er.

Each c a n e x h ib it c o u ra g e, b u t i n d if fe re n t w ay s.

Seek in g t h e g o ld en m ea n i m pli e s t h at i n div id ual a cts a re n ot d is c o n necte d f r o m o n e a n oth er, b u t c o lle ctiv ely

fo rm a w hole th at a p ers o n o f g o od c h ara cte r sh ou ld a sp ir e to . A v ir tu e th eo ry o f e th ic s is n ot o u tc o m e-

orie n te d . I n ste a d , it is a g en t- o rie n te d , a n d rig h t a ctio n s in a v ir tu e th eo ry o f e th ic s a re a re su lt o f a n a g en t

se ek in g v ir tu e a n d a cco m pli s h in g it . A s A ris to tle w ro te in

Nic o m ach ea n E th ic s

, “w e le a rn a n a rt o r c ra ft b y

doin g th e th in gs th at w e sh all h av e to d o w hen w e h av e le a rn t it : fo r in sta n ce , m en b eco m e b u ild ers b y

bu ild in g h ou se s, h arp ers b y p la y in g o n th e h arp . S im ila rly w e b eco m e ju st b y d oin g ju st a cts , te m pera te b y

doin g t e m pera te a cts , b ra v e b y d oin g b ra v e a cts .”

Far fr o m b ein g o ld -fa sh io n ed , A ris to tle ’s c o n ce p t o f v ir tu e e th ic s h as b een re d is c o vere d b y a v arie ty o f

pro fe ssio n s. A s K en neth W ood w ard (

1994

) sta te s in a

New sw eek

e ssa y e n tit le d “ W hat is V ir tu e?” a c a ll fo r

vir tu e i s s till r e le v an t t o d ay :

But b efo re p oli t ic ia n s e m bra ce v ir tu e a s t h eir la te st e le ctio n -y ea r s lo gan , t h ey w ou ld d o w ell t o t u n e in to c o n te m pora ry p h ilo so p h y. D esp it e

th e c a ll f o r v ir tu e, w e li v e in a n a g e o f m ora l r e la tiv is m . A cco rd in g t o t h e d om in an t s c h ool o f m ora l p h ilo so p h y, t h e s k ep tic is m e n gen dere d

by th e E nli g h te n m en t h as re d uce d a ll id ea s o f rig h t a n d w ro n g to m atte rs o f p ers o n al ta ste , e m otio n al p re fe re n ce o r c u lt u ra l c h oic e . . . .

Again st t h is m ora l r e la tiv is m , a d vo ca te s o f t h e “ e th ic s o f v ir tu e” a rg u e t h at s o m e p ers o n al c h oic e s a re m ora lly s u p erio r t o o th ers .

Kan t’s C ate g o ric a l I m pera tiv e

Im man uel K an t is b est k n ow n f o r h is

ca te g oric a l i m per a tiv e

, w hic h is m ost o ft e n s ta te d in t w o w ay s. T he f ir s t

asse rts t h at a n in div id ual s h ou ld a ct a s if t h e c h oic e s o n e m ak es fo r o n ese lf c o u ld b eco m e u n iv ers a l la w . T he

se co n d s ta te s t h at y o u s h ou ld a ct s o t h at y o u t r e a t e a ch i n div id ual a s a n e n d a n d n ev er a s m ere ly a m ea n s. K an t

ca lle d t h ese t w o r u le s “ c a te g o ric a l” im pera tiv es, m ea n in g t h at t h eir d em an ds w ere u n iv ers a l a n d n ot s u bje ct t o

sit u atio n al fa cto rs . M an y re a d ers w ill re co gn iz e th e sim ila rit y betw een K an t’s fir s t m an if e sta tio n of th e

ca te g o ric a l im pera tiv e a n d t h e B ib le ’s g o ld en r u le : D o u n to o th ers a s y o u w ou ld h av e o th ers d o u n to y o u . T he

tw o a re q uit e s im ila r i n t h eir f o cu s o n d uty .

Kan t’s e th ic a l t h eo ry is b a se d o n t h e n otio n t h at it is in t h e a ct it se lf , r a th er t h an t h e p er so n w ho a ct s, w her e m ora l

fo rce r esid es.

T his th eo ry o f e th ic s is u n li k e A ris to tle ’s in th at it m oves th e n otio n o f w hat is e th ic a l fr o m th e

acto r t o t h e a ct it s e lf . T his d oes n ot m ea n t h at K an t d id n ot b eli e v e in m ora l c h ara cte r, b u t r a th er t h at p eo p le

co u ld a ct m ora lly f r o m a s e n se o f d uty e v en i f t h eir c h ara cte r m ig h t i n cli n e t h em t o a ct o th erw is e .

For K an t, a n a ctio n w as m ora lly ju stif ie d o n ly if it w as p erfo rm ed f r o m d uty — motiv e m atte rs t o K an t— an d

in K an t’s m ora l u n iv ers e th ere w ere tw o so rts o f d utie s. T he str ic t d utie s w ere g en era lly n eg ativ e: n ot to

murd er, n ot t o b re a k p ro m is e s, n ot t o li e . T he m erit o rio u s d utie s w ere m ore p osit iv e: t o a id o th ers , t o d ev elo p

on e’s ta le n ts , to sh ow g ra tit u d e. K an t sp en t v ery li t tle tim e d efin in g th ese n otio n s, b u t p h ilo so p h ers h av e

gen era lly a sse rte d t h at t h e s tr ic t d utie s a re s o m ew hat m ore m ora lly m an dato ry t h an t h e m erit o rio u s d utie s.

Som e h av e a rg u ed th at c o n se q uen ce s a re n ot im porta n t in K an t’s e th ic a l r e a so n in g. W e p re fe r a s o m ew hat

le ss a u ste re r e a d in g o f K an t. W hile K an t’s v ie w is th at th e m ora l w orth o f a n a ctio n d oes n ot d ep en d o n it s

co n se q uen ce s, th ose c o n se q uen ce s a re n ot ir re le v an t. F or e x am ple , a su rg eo n

may sh ow m ora l v ir tu e in

atte m ptin g t o s a v e a p atie n t t h ro u gh a n e x p erim en ta l p ro ce d ure , b u t t h e d ecis io n a b ou t w heth er t o u n derta k e

th at p ro ce d ure r e q uir e s t a k in g i n to a cco u n t t h e p ro b ab ili t y o f a c u re . T his f r a m in g o f K an tia n p rin cip le s a llo w s

us t o l e a rn f r o m o u r m is ta k es.

The te st o f a m ora l a ct, a cco rd in g to K an t, is it s u n iv ers a li t y — wheth er it c a n b e a p pli e d to e v ery o n e. F or

in sta n ce , u n der K an t’s c a te g o ric a l im pera tiv e, jo u rn ali s ts c a n c la im fe w s p ecia l p riv ile g es, s u ch a s t h e r ig h t t o

li e o r th e r ig h t to in vad e p riv acy in o rd er to g et a s to ry . K an t’s v ie w , if ta k en s e rio u sly , r e m in ds y o u o f w hat

yo u g iv e u p — tr u th , p riv acy , a n d t h e l i k e— when y o u m ak e c e rta in e th ic a l d ecis io n s.

Utili t a ria n is m

The o rig in al a rtic u la tio n o f

utili t a ria n is m

b y E ngli s h m en Je re m y B en th am a n d la te r Jo h n S tu art M ill in th e

19th c e n tu ry in tr o d uce d w hat w as th en a n ovel n otio n in to e th ic s d is c u ssio n s:

th e co n se q u en ce s o f a ct io n s a re

im porta n t i n d ecid in g w heth er t h ey a re e th ic a l

. I n t h e u tili t a ria n v ie w , it m ay b e c o n sid ere d e th ic a l t o h arm o n e

pers o n fo r th e ben efit of th e la rg er gro u p . T his ap pro ach , fo r ex am ple , is th e eth ic a l ju stif ic a tio n fo r

in vestig ativ e r e p ortin g, t h e r e su lt s o f w hic h m ay h arm in div id uals e v en a s t h ey a re p rin te d o r b ro ad ca st in t h e

hop e o f p ro vid in g a g re a te r s o cie ta l g o od .

The a p pea l o f u tili t a ria n is m is t h at it h as p ro ven t o m esh w ell w it h W este rn t h ou gh t, p artic u la rly o n h um an

rig h ts . H arv ard e th ic is t A rth ur D yck (

1977

, 5 5) w rit e s o f M ill:

He t o ok t h e v ie w t h at t h e r ig h tn ess o r w ro n gn ess o f a n y a ctio n is d ecid ed b y it s c o n se q uen ce s. . . . H is p artic u la r u n ders ta n din g o f w hat is

19 He t o ok t h e v ie w t h at t h e r ig h tn ess o r w ro n gn ess o f a n y a ctio n is d ecid ed b y it s c o n se q uen ce s. . . . H is p artic u la r u n ders ta n din g o f w hat is

best o n t h e w hole w as t h at w hic h b rin gs a b ou t t h e m ost h ap pin ess o r t h e le a st s u ffe rin g, i.e ., t h e b est b ala n ce o f p le a su re o ver p ain f o r t h e

gre a te st n um ber.

The b en efit o f u tili t a ria n is m is t h at it p ro vid es a p rin cip le b y w hic h r ig h tn ess a n d w ro n gn ess c a n b e id en tif ie d

an d ju d ged , c o n fli c ts c a n b e re so lv ed , a n d e x ce p tio n s c a n b e d ecid ed . T he u tili t a ria n c a lc u lu s a ls o h as m ad e

possib le th e “q uan tif ic a tio n o f w elf a re ” D yck sa y s, a llo w in g g o vern m en ts to m ak e d ecis io n s th at c re a te th e

most f a v o ra b le b ala n ce o f b en efit s o ver h arm s.

Wit h it s fo cu s o n th e c o n se q uen ce s o f a n a ctio n , u tili t a ria n is m c o m ple te s a c y cle b eg u n w it h A ris to tle ( s e e

ta b le 1 .2

). A ris to tle , in d ev elo p in g t h e g o ld en m ea n , f o cu se d o n t h e

act o r

. K an t, in h is c a te g o ric a l im pera tiv e,

fo cu se d o n t h e

act io n ,

w hile M ill, i n h is u tili t a ria n p h ilo so p h y, f o cu se d o n t h e

ou tco m e

Tab le 1 .2 . T he S hif t in g F ocu s o f E th ic s f r o m A ris to tle t o M ill

Philo so p h er

Know n F or

Pop u la rly K now n A s

Em ph asiz ed

Aris to tle

Gold en m ea n

Vir tu e l i e s b etw een e x tr e m es.

The a cto r

Kan t

Cate g o ric a l i m pera tiv e

Act s o y o u r c h oic e s c o u ld b e u n iv ers a l l a w ; t r e a t h um an it y a s a n e n d, n ev er a s a m ea n s o n ly .

The a ctio n

Mill

Utili t y p rin cip le

An a ct’s r ig h tn ess i s d ete rm in ed b y i t s c o n tr ib u tio n t o a d esir a b le e n d.

The o u tc o m e

Utili t a ria n is m h as b een c o n den se d t o t h e e th ic a l p h ilo so p h y o f t h e “ g re a te st g o od f o r t h e g re a te st n um ber.”

While t h is p it h y p h ra se is a v ery r o u gh a n d

re a d y c h ara cte riz atio n o f u tili t a ria n t h eo ry , it a ls o h as le d t o a n

overly m ech an is tic a p pli c a tio n o f th e p rin cip le : J u st ta lly u p th e a m ou n t o f g o od a n d s u btr a ct th e a m ou n t o f

harm . I f t h e r e m ain in g n um ber i s p osit iv e, t h e a ct i s e th ic a l. H ow ev er, w hen p ro p erly a p pli e d , u tili t a ria n is m i s

not m ech an ic a l.

To d o ju stic e to u tili t a ria n th eo ry , it m ust b e u n ders to od w it h in a h is to ric a l c o n te x t. M ill w ro te a ft e r th e

ch an ges o f th e E nli g h te n m en t. T he p rin cip le o f d em ocra cy w as fr e sh a n d u n tr ie d , a n d th e th ou gh t th at th e

av era g e p ers o n s h ou ld b e a b le t o s p ea k h is m in d t o t h ose i n p ow er w as n ovel. U tili t a ria n is m , a s M ill c o n ce iv ed

of it , w as a p ro fo u n dly s o cia l e th ic ; M ill w as a m on g t h e f ir s t t o a ck n ow le d ge t h at t h e g o od o f a n e n tir e s o cie ty

had a p la ce i n e th ic a l r e a so n in g.

Mill w as w hat p h ilo so p h ers c a ll a

valu atio n al h ed on is t

. H e a rg u ed t h at p le a su re — an d t h e a b se n ce o f p ain —

was th e o n ly in tr in sic m ora l e n d. M ill fu rth er a sse rte d th at a n a ct w as rig h t in th e p ro p ortio n in w hic h it

co n tr ib u te d to g en era l h ap pin ess. C on vers e ly , a n a ct w as w ro n g in th e p ro p ortio n in w hic h it c o n tr ib u te d to

gen era l u n h ap pin ess o r p ain . U tili t a ria n is m c a n b e s u btle a n d c o m ple x in th at th e s a m e a ct c a n m ak e s o m e

hap py b u t c a u se o th ers p ain . M ill in sis te d t h at b oth o u tc o m es b e v alu ed s im ult a n eo u sly , a p re ca rio u s a ctiv it y

bu t o n e t h at f o rc e s d is c u ssio n o f c o m petin g s ta k eh old er c la im s.

In u tili t a ria n th eo ry , n o o n e’s h ap pin ess is a n y m ore v alu ab le th an a n yo n e e ls e ’s , a n d d efin it e ly n ot m ore

valu ab le th an ev ery o n e’s — quan tit y an d q uali t y b ein g eq ual. In d em ocra tic so cie tie s, th is is a p artic u la rly

im porta n t c o n ce p t b eca u se it m esh es w ell w it h c e rta in s o cia l a n d p oli t ic a l g o als . I n a p pli c a tio n , u tili t a ria n is m

has a w ay o f p un ctu rin g en tr e n ch ed se lf - in te re st, b u t w hen b ad ly ap pli e d , it ca n actu ally p ro m ote so cia l

se lf is h ness.

Utili t a ria n is m a ls o s u ggests t h at m ora l q uestio n s a re o b je ctiv e, e m pir ic a l, a n d. e v en in s o m e s e n se , s c ie n tif ic .

Utili t a ria n is m p ro m ote s a un iv ers a l eth ic a l sta n dard th at ea ch ra tio n al p ers o n ca n d ete rm in e. H ow ev er,

utili t a ria n is m is a m on g t h e m ost c rit ic iz ed o f p h ilo so p h ic a l p rin cip le s b eca u se it is

so d if fic u lt t o a ccu ra te ly

an tic ip ate all th e co n se q uen ce s of a partic u la r act. D if fe re n t ph ilo so p h ers als o h av e dis p ute d h ow on e

ca lc u la te s t h e g o od , r e n derin g a n y u tili t a ria n c a lc u lu s f u n dam en ta lly e rro r p ro n e.

While u tili t a ria n is m is a p ow erfu l th eo ry , to o m an y re ly e x clu siv ely o n it . T ak en to e x tr e m es, th e a ct o f

ca lc u la tin g th e g o od c a n le a d to e th ic a l g rid lo ck , w it h e a ch g ro u p o f sta k eh old ers h av in g se em in gly e q ually

str o n g c la im s w it h li t tle w ay to c h oose a m on g th em . S lo p pily d on e, u tili t a ria n is m m ay b ia s th e u se r to w ard

sh ort- te rm b en efit , w hic h i s o ft e n c o n tr a ry t o t h e n atu re o f e th ic a l d ecis io n s.

Plu ra li s tic T heo ry o f V alu e

Philo so p h er W illi a m D av id R oss (

1930

) b ase d h is e th ic a l th eo ry o n th e b eli e f th at th ere is o ft e n m ore th an

on e e th ic a l v alu e s im ult a n eo u sly “ c o m petin g” f o r p re em in en ce in o u r e th ic a l d ecis io n -m ak in g, a t e n sio n s e t u p

in th e tit le o f h is b ook

The R ig h t a n d th e G ood

. C om men tin g o n th e te n sio n , e th ic is t C hris to p h er M ey ers

( 2003

, 8 4) s a y s,

As t h e b ook t it le s u ggests , R oss d is tin gu is h ed b etw een t h e

rig h t

a n d t h e

good

. T he la tte r t e rm r e fe rs t o a n o b je ctiv e, if in defin ab le , q uali t y

pre se n t in a ll a cts . I t is s o m eth in g s e en , n ot d on e. R ig h t, o n th e o th er h an d, r e fe rs to a ctio n s. A r ig h t a ctio n is s o m eth in g u n derta k en b y

pers o n s m otiv ate d b y c o rre ct r e a so n s a n d o n c a re fu l r e fle ctio n . N ot a ll r ig h t a ctio n s, h ow ev er, w ill b e p ro d uctiv e o f t h e g o od .

In a ck n ow le d gin g th e c o m petit io n b etw een th e g o od a n d th e rig h t, R oss d if fe rs fr o m K an t o r M ill, w ho

20 In a ck n ow le d gin g th e c o m petit io n b etw een th e g o od a n d th e rig h t, R oss d if fe rs fr o m K an t o r M ill, w ho

pro p ose d o n ly o n e u lt im ate v alu e. T o R oss, th ese c o m petin g e th ic a l c la im s, w hic h h e c a lls d utie s, a re e q ual,

pro vid ed t h at t h e c ir c u m sta n ce s o f t h e p artic u la r m ora l c h oic e a re e q ual. F urth er, t h ese d utie s g ain t h eir m ora l

weig h t n ot f r o m t h eir c o n se q uen ce s b u t f r o m t h e h ig h ly p ers o n al n atu re o f d uty .

Ross p ro p ose d t h ese t y p es o f d utie s:

th ose d utie s o f

fi d eli t y ,

b ase d o n m y i m pli c it o r e x p li c it p ro m is e ;

th ose d utie s o f

rep ara tio n ,

a ris in g f r o m a p re v io u s w ro n gfu l a ct;

th ose d utie s o f

gra tit u de

t h at r e st o n p re v io u s a cts o f o th ers ;

th ose d utie s o f

ju st ic e

t h at a ris e f r o m t h e n ece ssit y t o e n su re t h e e q uit a b le a n d m erit o rio u s d is tr ib u tio n o f

ple a su re o r h ap pin ess;

th ose d utie s o f

ben efi c e n ce

t h at r e st o n t h e f a ct t h at t h ere a re o th ers i n t h e w orld w hose l o t w e c a n b ette r;

th ose d utie s o f

se lf - im pro v em en t

t h at r e st o n t h e f a ct t h at w e c a n i m pro ve o u r o w n c o n dit io n ; a n d

on e n eg ativ e d uty : t h e d uty o f

not i n ju rin g o th er s

We w ou ld r e co m men d t w o a d dit io n al d utie s t h at m ay b e i m pli e d b y R oss’ l i s t b u t a re n ot s p ecif ic a lly s ta te d :

th e d uty t o t e ll t h e t r u th ,

ver a cit y

( w hic h m ay b e i m pli e d b y f id eli t y ); a n d

th e d uty t o

nurtu re,

t o h elp o th ers a ch ie v e s o m e m ea su re o f s e lf - w orth a n d a ch ie v em en t.

Ross’ t y p olo gy o f d utie s w ork s w ell f o r p ro fe ssio n als w ho o ft e n m ust b ala n ce c o m petin g r o le s. I t a ls o b rin gs

to e th ic a l re a so n in g so m e a ffir m ativ e n otio n s o f th e p rim acy o f co m mun it y a n d re la tio n sh ip s a s a w ay to

bala n ce t h e l a rg ely r ig h ts - b ase d t r a d it io n s o f m uch W este rn p h ilo so p h ic a l t h eo ry .

Lik e K an t, R oss d iv id ed h is d utie s in to tw o k in ds.

Prim a fa cie d u tie s

a re th ose d utie s th at s e em to b e r ig h t

beca u se o f th e n atu re o f th e act it s e lf .

Duty pro p er

(a ls o ca lle d actu al d utie s) are th ose d utie s th at are

para m ou n t g iv en sp ecif ic cir c u m sta n ce s. A rriv in g at y o u r d uty p ro p er fr o m am on g th e p rim a fa cie d utie s

re q uir e s t h at y o u c o n sid er w hat e th ic is ts c a ll t h e

mora lly r ele v an t d iffe r en ce s

. B ut R oss (

1988

, 2 4) w arn s t h at

th ere is n o r e a so n t o a n tic ip ate t h at e v ery a ct t h at is o u r d uty is s o f o r o n e a n d t h e s a m e r e a so n . W hy s h ou ld t w o s e ts o r c ir c u m sta n ce s, o r

on e s e t o f c ir c u m sta n ce s

not

p osse ss d if fe re n t c h ara cte ris tic s, a n y o n e o f w hic h m ak es a c e rta in a ct o u r

prim a f a cie

d uty ?

Let’s t a k e a n e x am ple u sin g o n e o f R oss’ p rim a f a cie d utie s: k eep in g p ro m is e s. I n y o u r jo b a s a r e p orte r, y o u

hav e m ad e a n a p poin tm en t w it h t h e m ay o r t o d is c u ss a y ea r- e n d f e a tu re o n y o u r c o m mun it y . O n y o u r w ay t o

Cit y H all, y o u d riv e b y a s e rio u s a u to a ccid en t a n d s e e a y o u n g c h ild w an derin g, d az ed , a lo n g t h e r o ad . I f y o u

sto p to h elp y o u w ill c e rta in ly b e la te fo r y o u r a p poin tm en t a n d m ay h av e to c a n ce l a lt o geth er. Y ou h av e

bro ken a p ro m is e .

But i s t h at a ct e th ic a l?

Ross w ou ld p ro b ab ly s a y y es b eca u se t h e s p ecif ic a sp ects o f t h e s it u atio n h ad a b ea rin g o n t h e f u lf illm en t o f a

prim a fa cie d uty . Y ou e x erc is e d d is c e rn m en t. Y ou k n ew t h at y o u r c o m mit m en t t o t h e m ay o r w as a r e la tiv ely

min or so rt o f p ro m is e . Y ou r n ew s o rg an iz atio n w ill n ot b e h urt b y p ostp on in g th e in te rv ie w , a n d y o u r a ct

allo w ed y o u to fu lf ill th e p rim a fa cie d utie s o f b en efic e n ce , a v o id in g h arm a n d n urtu rin g. H ad th e in te rv ie w

been m ore im porta n t, o r th e w re ck le ss s e v ere , th e m ora lly r e le v an t fa cto rs w ou ld h av e b een d if fe re n t. R oss’

plu ra li s tic th eo ry o f v alu es m ay b e m ore d if fic u lt to a p ply th an a s y ste m o f a b so lu te ru le s, b u t it re fle cts th e

way w e m ak e e th ic a l c h oic e s.

Ross’ c o n ce p t o f m ult ip le d utie s “ h elp s to e x p la in w hy w e fe el u n ea sy a b ou t b re a k in g a p ro m is e e v en w hen

we a re ju stif ie d i n d oin g s o . O ur u n ea sin ess c o m es f r o m t h e f a ct t h at w e h av e b ro ken a

prim a f a cie

d uty e v en a s

we f u lf ille d a n oth er” ( L eb acq z

1985

, 2 7).

Com mun it a ria n is m

Cla ssic a l eth ic a l th eo ry p la ce s it s d om in an t in te lle ctu al em ph asis o n th e in div id ual a n d in div id ual a cts b y

em ph asiz in g c o n ce p ts su ch a s c h ara cte r, c h oic e , li b erty , a n d d uty . B ut c o n te m pora ry re a li t ie s p oin t o u t th e

in te lle ctu al w ea k n ess in th is a p pro ach . C on sid er th e e n vir o n m en t. O n m an y e n vir o n m en ta l q uestio n s, it is

possib le fo r p eo p le to m ak e ap pro p ria te in div id ual d ecis io n s— to d ay I d riv e m y ca r— th at ta k en to geth er

pro m ote e n vir o n m en ta l d eg ra d atio n . M y in div id ual d ecis io n to d riv e m y c a r (o r to p urc h ase a h yb rid c a r)

doesn ’t m atte r v ery m uch ; w hen i n div id ual d ecis io n s a ccu m ula te , h ow ev er, t h e i m pact i s p ro fo u n d n ot o n ly f o r

a s in gle g en era tio n b u t f o r s u bse q uen t o n es a s w ell.

Com mun it a ria n is m , w hic h has it s ro ots in poli t ic a l th eo ry , se ek s to pro vid e eth ic a l gu id an ce w hen

co n fr o n tin g th e so rt of so cie ty -w id e is su es th at mark cu rre n t poli t ic a l an d bu sin ess activ it y .

Com mun it a ria n is m re tu rn s to A ris to tle ’s c o n ce p t o f th e “p oli s ” — or c o m mun it y — an d in vests it w it h m ora l

weig h t. P eo p le b eg in th eir li v es, at le a st in a b io lo gic a l se n se , as m em bers o f a tw o-p ers o n co m mun it y .

21 Com mun it a ria n ph ilo so p h y ex te n ds th is bio lo gic a l beg in nin g to a ph ilo so p h ic a l world vie w . “I n

co m mun it a ria n is m , p ers o n s h av e c e rta in in esc a p ab le c la im s o n o n e a n oth er th at c a n not b e r e n ou n ce d e x ce p t

at th e c o st o f th eir h um an it y ” (C hris tia n s, F erré , a n d F ack le r

1993

, 1 4). C om mun it a ria n s a sse rt th at w hen

is su es a re p oli t ic a l a n d s o cia l, c o m mun it y i n te re sts t r u m p i n div id ual i n te re sts b u t d oes n ot t r a m ple t h em .

Com mun it a ria n is m f o cu se s o n t h e o u tc o m e o f i n div id ual e th ic a l d ecis io n s a n aly zed i n li g h t o f t h eir p ote n tia l

to im pact s o cie ty . A nd w hen a p pli e d to jo u rn ali s m , y o u h av e a p ro d uct “ c o m mit te d to ju stic e , c o ven an t a n d

em pow erm en t. A uth en tic co m mun it ie s are m ark ed b y ju stic e ; in str o n g d em ocra cie s, co u ra g eo u s ta lk is

mob ili z ed in to a ctio n . . . . I n n orm ativ e c o m mun it ie s, c it iz en s a re e m pow ere d fo r s o cia l tr a n sfo rm atio n , n ot

mere ly f r e ed f r o m e x te rn al c o n str a in ts ” ( C hris tia n s e t a l.

1993

, 1 4).

Com mun it a ria n is m a sse rts t h at s o cia l ju stic e i s t h e p re d om in an t m ora l v alu e. C om mun it a ria n s r e co gn iz e t h e

valu e o f p ro ce ss b u t a re ju st a s c o n ce rn ed w it h o u tc o m es. H is to ry is fu ll o f “ g o od ” p ro ce sse s th at le d to b ad

ou tc o m es. F or e x am ple , d em ocra tic e le ctio n s le d t o t h e 1 933 t a k eo ver o f G erm an y b y a m in orit y p arty h ea d ed

by H it le r. It w as a d em ocra tic a lly w rit te n an d ad op te d C on stit u tio n th at in clu d ed th e th re e-fif t h s cla u se

where A fr ic a n -A m eric a n s w ere e q ual to th re e-fif t h s o f a s in gle C au ca sia n fo r p urp ose s o f p op ula tio n c o u n t.

Under c o m mun it a ria n is m , t h e a b ili t y o f in div id ual a cts t o c re a te a m ore ju st s o cie ty is a n a p pro p ria te m ea su re

of t h eir r ig h tn ess, a n d o u tc o m es a re p art o f t h e c a lc u lu s.

Com mun it a ria n t h in kin g a llo w s e th ic a l d is c u ssio n t o in clu d e v alu es s u ch a s a lt r u is m a n d b en ev o le n ce o n a n

eq ual fo otin g w it h m ore tr a d it io n al

questio n s su ch as tr u th te lli n g an d lo yalt y . In deed , N ob el P riz e–

win nin g w ork in g am e t h eo ry h as e m pir ic a lly d em on str a te d t h at c o op era tio n , o n e o f t h e f o u n datio n s to n es o f

co m mun it y , p ro vid es d esir a b le r e su lt s o n ce t h ou gh t t o b e p ossib le o n ly t h ro u gh c o m petit io n ( A xelr o d

1984

Coop era tio n is partic u la rly pow erfu l w hen th e “sh ad ow of th e fu tu re ,” an un ders ta n din g th at w e w ill

en co u n te r th e o u tc o m e o f o u r d ecis io n s a n d th eir im pact o n o th ers in r e a d ily fo re se ea b le tim e, is ta k en in to

acco u n t.

Com mun it a ria n is m su ffe rs fr o m a la ck o f a su ccin ct su m mary o f it s g en era l p ro p osit io n s. H ow ev er, a n y

notio n o f a c o m mun it a ria n c o m mun it y b eg in s w it h th e fa ct th at it s m em bers w ou ld in clu d e, a s p art o f th eir

un ders ta n din g o f se lf , th eir m em bers h ip in th e c o m mun it y . “F or th em , c o m mun it y d esc rib es n ot ju st w hat

th ey h av e as fe llo w cit iz en s b u t als o w hat th ey are , n ot as a re la tio n sh ip th ey ch oose (a s in a vo lu n ta ry

asso cia tio n ) b u t a n a tta ch m en t th ey d is c o ver, n ot m ere ly a n a ttr ib u te b u t a s a c o n stit u en t o f th eir id en tit y ”

(S an del

1982

, 1 50). A c o m mun it a ria n c o m mun it y r e se m ble s f a m ily m ore t h an i t r e se m ble s t o w n.

Under c o m mun it a ria n is m , jo u rn ali s m c a n not s e p ara te i t s e lf f r o m t h e p oli t ic a l a n d e co n om ic s y ste m o f w hic h

it is a p art. C om mun it a ria n th in kin g m ak es it p ossib le to ask w heth er cu rre n t p ra ctic e (fo r ex am ple , a

tr a d it io n al d efin it io n o f n ew s) p ro vid es a g o od m ech an is m fo r a c o m mun it y to d is c o ver it s e lf , le a rn a b ou t

it s e lf , a n d u lt im ate ly t r a n sfo rm i t s e lf .

Com mun it a ria n re a so n in g allo w s jo u rn ali s ts to u n ders ta n d th eir in stit u tio n al ro le an d to ev alu ate th eir

perfo rm an ce a g ain st s h are d s o cie ta l v alu es. F or in sta n ce , t h e n ew sro om a d ag e “ if it b le ed s it le a d s” m ig h t s e ll

new sp ap ers o r a ttr a ct v ie w ers , b u t i t a ls o m ig h t g iv e a f a ls e i m pre ssio n o f c o m mun it y a n d i t s p erils t o t h e m ost

vu ln era b le m em bers . C om mun it a ria n is m w ou ld n ot b an t h e c o vera g e o f c rim e b u t w ou ld d em an d c o n te x t t h at

wou ld h elp v ie w ers o r r e a d ers d ecid e i f t h ey n eed t o t a k e a ctio n .

Thin kin g a s a c o m mun it a ria n n ot o n ly m ute s th e c o m petit io n a m on g jo u rn ali s tic o u tle ts , it a ls o p ro vid es a

new a g en da fo r n ew s. R ap e sto rie s w ou ld in clu d e m ob ili z in g in fo rm atio n a b ou t th e lo ca l ra p e c ris is c e n te r.

Poli t ic a l sto rie s w ou ld fo cu s o n is su es, n ot th e h ors e ra ce o r p ers o n al sc a n dals , a n d th e c o vera g e w ou ld b e

am ple e n ou gh fo r a n in fo rm ed c it iz en ry to c a st a k n ow le d gea b le b allo t. W rit e rs h av e li n ked c o m mun it a ria n

ph ilo so p h y w it h t h e c iv ic jo u rn ali s m m ovem en t. B ut li k e t h e p h ilo so p h y o f c o m mun it a ria n is m , t h e p ra ctic e o f

civ ic jo u rn ali s m h as n ot y et b een e m bra ce d b y t h e m ain str e a m o f s o cie ty .

TH E “ S C IE N CE” O F E T H IC S

Lif e in t h e 2 1st c e n tu ry h as c h an ged h ow m ost p eo p le t h in k a b ou t is su es, s u ch a s w hat c o n stit u te s a f a ct a n d

what d oes o r d oes n ot in flu en ce m ora l ce rta in ty . B ut eth ic a l th eo ry , w it h it s ap pare n t u n ce rta in tie s an d

co n tr a d ic tio n s,

ap pea rs to h av e ta k en a b ack s e a t to s c ie n ce . A s p eo p le h av e b eco m e d ra w n to e th ic s th ey

se ek “ th e a n sw er” t o a n e th ic a l d ile m ma in t h e s a m e w ay t h ey s e ek “ th e a n sw er” in s c ie n ce . C on se q uen tly , t h e

vag arie s o f e th ic a l c h oic e a s c o n tr a ste d w it h t h e s e em in g c e rta in ty o f s c ie n tif ic k n ow le d ge c a sts a n u n fa ir li g h t

on e th ic s.

We’d li k e t o o ffe r y o u a d if fe re n t c o n ce p tu ali z atio n o f “ th e f a cts ” o f b oth s c ie n ce a n d e th ic s. S cie n ce , a n d t h e

se em in g c e rta in ty o f s c ie n tif ic k n ow le d ge, h as u n derg o n e v ast c h an ges in t h e p ast 1 00 y ea rs . B efo re E in ste in ,

most e d uca te d p eo p le b eli e v ed t h at S ir F ra n cis B aco n h ad a ccu ra te ly a n d e te rn ally d esc rib ed t h e b asic a ctio n s

an d la w s o f th e p h ysic a l u n iv ers e . B ut B aco n w as w ro n g. S cie n tif ic in quir y in th e 2 0th c e n tu ry e x p lo re d a

varie ty o f p h ysic a l p h en om en a, u n co vere d n ew re la tio n sh ip s, n ew are a s o f k n ow le d ge, an d n ew are a s o f

22 ig n ora n ce . T he “c e rta in ty ” o f sc ie n tif ic tr u th h as c h an ged fu n dam en ta lly in th e p ast 1 00 y ea rs , a n d th ere is

ev ery r e a so n t o e x p ect s im ila r c h an ges in t h is c e n tu ry , e sp ecia lly in t h e a re a s o f n eu ro sc ie n ce , n an ote ch nolo gy,

an d a rtif ic ia l i n te lli g en ce . S cie n ce a n d c e rta in ty a re n ot s y n on ym ou s d esp it e o u r t e n den cy t o b lu r t h e t w o.

Con tr a st th ese fu n dam en ta l ch an ges in th e sc ie n tif ic w orld vie w w it h th e d ev elo p m en ts o f m ora l th eo ry .

Aris to tle ’s w rit in g, m ore th an 2 ,0 00 y ea rs o ld , s till h as m uch to r e co m men d it to th e m od ern e ra . T he s a m e

ca n b e s a id o f u tili t a ria n is m a n d o f th e K an tia n a p pro ach — both a ft e r 1 00 y ea rs o f c rit ic a l r e v ie w . C erta in ly ,

new m ora l t h in kin g h as e m erg ed — fo r e x am ple , f e m in is t t h eo ry , b u t s u ch w ork t e n ds t o b u ild o n r a th er t h an

ra d ic a lly a lt e r t h e m ora l t h eo ry t h at h as g o n e b efo re . E th ic a l p h ilo so p h ers s till h av e f u n dam en ta l d eb ate s, b u t

th ese d eb ate s h av e gen era lly te n ded to d eep en p re v io u s in sig h ts ra th er th an to “p ro ve” th em in co rre ct.

Furth er, th in kin g a b ou t g lo b al e th ic s u n co vers s o m e s tr ik in g a re a s o f a g re em en t. W e a re a w are o f n o e th ic a l

sy ste m , f o r e x am ple , t h at a rg u es t h at m urd er i s a n e th ic a l b eh av io r, o r t h at ly in g, c h ea tin g, a n d s te a li n g a re t h e

so rts o f a ctiv it ie s t h at h um an b ein gs o u gh t t o e n gag e i n o n a r e g u la r b asis .

Fro m t h is v ie w poin t, t h ere is m ore c o n tin uit y in t h in kin g a b ou t e th ic s t h an in s c ie n tif ic t h ou gh t. W hen t h e

av era g e p ers o n c o n tr a sts e th ic s w it h s c ie n ce , it is e th ic s th at te n ds to b e v ie w ed a s c h an gea b le , u n sy ste m atic ,

an d id io sy n cra tic . S cie n ce h as rig o r, p ro of, a n d so m e re la tio n sh ip to a n e x te rn al re a li t y . W e w ou ld li k e to

su ggest th at s u ch c h ara cte riz atio n s a ris e fr o m a s h ort- te rm v ie w o f th e h is to ry o f s c ie n ce a n d e th ic s. I n o u r

vie w , e th ic s a s a fie ld h as a t le a st a s m uch c o n tin uit y o f th ou gh t a s d ev elo p m en ts in sc ie n ce . A nd w hile it

ca n not o ft e n b e q uan tif ie d , it h as t h e r ig o r, t h e s y ste m atic q uali t y , a n d t h e r e la tio n sh ip t o r e a li t y t h at m od ern s

to o o ft e n c h ara cte riz e a s t h e e x clu siv e d om ain o f s c ie n tif ic t h in kin g.

SU G GEST ED R EA D IN G S

Aris to tle .

Nic o m ach ea n e th ic s

Bok, S . ( 1 978).

Lyin g: M ora l c h oic e i n p u bli c a n d p riv ate l i fe

. N ew Y ork : R an dom H ou se .

Bord en , S . L . ( 2 009).

Jo u rn ali s m a s p ra ct ic e

. B urli n gto n , V T: A sh gate .

Chris tia n s, C ., F erré , J ., & F ack le r, M . ( 1 993).

Good n ew s: S ocia l e th ic s a n d t h e p ress

. N ew Y ork : O xfo rd U niv ers it y P re ss.

Gert, B .. ( 1 988).

Mora li t y : A n ew j u st ifi c a tio n o f t h e m ora l r u le s

. N ew Y ork : O xfo rd U niv ers it y P re ss.

Mill, J . S .

On l i b er ty

Pojm an , L . ( 1 998).

Eth ic a l t h eo ry : C la ssic a l a n d c o n te m pora ry r ea d in gs

. B elm on t, C A: W ad sw orth .

Ross, W . D . ( 1 930).

The r ig h t a n d t h e g ood

. O xfo rd : C la re n don P re ss.

23 20

ESSA Y

CASE S A N D M ORA L S Y ST EM S

DEN I E LLIO TT

Univ er sit y o f S ou th F lo rid a– S t. P ete r sb u rg

C ase s tu d ie s a re w on derfu l v eh ic le s f o r e th ic s d is c u ssio n s w it h s tr e n gth s t h at i n clu d e h elp in g d is c u ssa n ts

1 .

ap pre cia te t h e c o m ple x it y o f e th ic a l d ecis io n -m ak in g;

2 .

un ders ta n d t h e c o n te x t w it h in w hic h d if fic u lt d ecis io n s a re m ad e;

3 .

tr a ck t h e c o n se q uen ce s o f c h oosin g o n e a ctio n o ver a n oth er; a n d

4 .

le a rn b oth h ow a n d w hen t o r e co n cile a n d t o t o le ra te d iv erg en t p oin ts o f v ie w .

H ow ev er, w hen c a se s tu d ie s a re m is u se d , t h ese s tr e n gth s b eco m e w ea k n esse s. C ase s tu d ie s a re v eh ic le s f o r a n

e th ic s d is c u ssio n , n ot it s u lt im ate d estin atio n . T he p urp ose o f a n e th ic s d is c u ssio n is t o t e a ch d is c u ssa n ts h ow

t o “d o eth ic s” — th at is , to te a ch p ro ce sse s so th at d is c u ssa n ts ca n p ra ctic e an d im pro ve th eir o w n crit ic a l

d ecis io n -m ak in g a b ili t ie s t o r e a ch a r e a so n ed r e sp on se t o t h e i s su e a t h an d.

W hen t h e d is c u ssio n s to p s s h ort o f t h is p oin t, it is o ft e n b eca u se t h e d estin atio n h as b een f o gged in b y o n e

o r m ore m yth s o f m ed ia c a se d is c u ssio n s:

M yth 1 :

E very o p in io n i s e q ually v ali d .

N ot tr u e. T he b est o p in io n (c o n clu sio n ) is th e o n e th at is b est s u p porte d b y ju d ic io u s a n aly sis o f fa ct a n d

t h eo ry a n d o n e t h at b est a d dre sse s t h e m ora lly r e le v an t f a cto rs o f t h e c a se ( G ert

1988

). A n a ctio n h as m ora lly

r e le v an t f a cto rs if it is li k ely t o c a u se s o m e in div id ual t o s u ffe r a n e v il t h at a n y r a tio n al p ers o n w ou ld w is h t o

a v o id ( s u ch a s d ea th , d is a b ili t y , p ain , o r lo ss o f f r e ed om o r p le a su re ), o r i f i t i s t h e k in d o f a ctio n t h at g en era lly

c a u se s e v il ( s u ch a s d ece p tio n , b re a k in g p ro m is e s, c h ea tin g, d is o b ed ie n ce o f l a w , o r n eg le ct o f d uty ).

M yth 2 :

S in ce w e c a n ’t a g re e o n a n a n sw er, t h ere i s n o r ig h t a n sw er.

In a n e th ic s c a se , i t m ay b e t h at t h ere a re a n um ber o f a cce p ta b le a n sw ers . B ut t h ere a ls o w ill b e m an y w ro n g

a n sw ers — man y ap pro ach es th at th e g ro u p ca n ag re e w ou ld b e u n acce p ta b le . W hen d is c u ssa n ts b eg in to

d esp air o f ev er re a ch in g an y ag re em en t o n a rig h t an sw er o r an sw ers , it is tim e to re fle ct o n all o f th e

a g re em en t t h at e x is ts w it h in t h e g ro u p c o n ce rn in g t h e a ctio n s t h at w ou ld b e o u t o f b ou n ds.

Myth 3 :

I t h ard ly m atte rs if y o u c o m e u p w it h t h e “ e th ic a l t h in g t o d o” b eca u se p eo p le u lt im ate ly a ct o u t

o f t h eir o w n s e lf - in te re st a n yw ay .

A ny in stit u tio n s u p porte d b y s o cie ty — man ufa ctu rin g fir m s o r m ed ia c o rp ora tio n s, m ed ic a l c e n te rs , a n d s o

o n — pro vid es s o m e s e rv ic e th at m erit s th at s u p port. N o m atte r w hat th e s e rv ic e , p ra ctit io n ers o r c o m pan ie s

a ctin g o n ly in th e s h ort- te rm in te re st ( i.e ., to m ak e m on ey ) w ill n ot la st lo n g. B oth fr e e-m ark et p ra g m atis m

a n d e th ic s d ic ta te t h at i t m ak es l i t tle s e n se t o i g n ore t h e e x p ecta tio n s o f c o n su m ers a n d o f t h e s o cie ty a t l a rg e.

T he g u id eli n es b elo w c a n s e rv e a s a m ap fo r a n e th ic s d is c u ssio n . T hey a re h elp fu l to h av e w hen w ork in g

t h ro u gh u n fa m ili a r t e rra in t o w ard i n div id ual e n d p oin ts . T hey a ls o c a n h elp y o u a v o id t h e m yth s a b ove. W hile

d is c u ssin g t h e c a se , c h eck t o s e e i f t h ese q uestio n s a re b ein g a d dre sse d :

1 .

What a re t h e m ora lly r e le v an t f a cto rs o f t h e c a se ?

(a )

Will th e pro p ose d actio n ca u se an ev il— su ch as dea th , dis a b ili t y , pain , lo ss of fr e ed om or

op portu n it y , o r l o ss o f p le a su re — th at a n y r a tio n al p ers o n w ou ld w is h t o a v o id ?

(b )

Is th e pro p ose d actio n th e so rt of actio n — su ch as dece p tio n , bre a k in g pro m is e s, ch ea tin g,

dis o b ed ie n ce o f la w , o r d is o b ed ie n ce o f p ro fe ssio n al o r ro le -d efin ed d uty — th at g en era lly ca u se s

ev il?

2 .

If t h e p ro p ose d a ctio n i s o n e d esc rib ed a b ove, i s a g re a te r e v il b ein g p re v en te d o r p un is h ed b y a llo w in g i t

to g o f o rw ard ?

3 .

If s o , i s t h e a cto r i n a u n iq ue p osit io n t o p re v en t o r p un is h s u ch a n e v il, o r i s t h at a m ore a p pro p ria te r o le

fo r s o m e o th er p ers o n o r p ro fe ssio n ?

4 .

If t h e a cto r f o llo w ed t h ro u gh o n t h e a ctio n , w ou ld h e b e a llo w in g h im se lf t o b e a n e x ce p tio n t o a r u le t h at

he t h in ks e v ery o n e e ls e s h ou ld f o llo w ? ( I f s o , t h en t h e a ctio n i s p ru d en t, n ot m ora l.)

5 .

Fin ally , w ou ld a r a tio n al, u n in vo lv ed p ers o n a p pre cia te t h e r e a so n f o r c a u sin g h arm ? A re t h e jo u rn ali s ts

re a d y a n d a b le t o s ta te , e x p la in , a n d d efe n d t h e p ro p ose d a ctio n i n a p ubli c f o ru m , o r w ou ld a m ore

deta ch ed jo u rn ali s t b e r e a d y t o w rit e a n e x p ose ?

24 25 22

CASE

CASE 1 -A

HOW T O R EA D A C ASE S T U D Y

PH IL IP P A TTER SO N

Okla h om a C hris t ia n U niv er sit y

W hen yo u lo ok at th e p h oto , it stir s yo u r em otio n s. It’s th e la st m om en t o f o n e g ir l’s li f e (th e yo u n ger

s u rv iv ed ). It’s a te ch nic a lly g o od p h oto — perh ap s a o n ce -in -a -li f e tim e sh ot. B ut w hen y o u le a rn th e “b ack

s to ry ” o f t h is p h oto , a w orld o f i s su es e m erg es, a n d t h e r e a l d is c u ssio n s b eg in . A nd t h at’s t h e b ea u ty o f c a se s a s

a w ay o f l e a rn in g m ed ia e th ic s.

F or th is ca se , h ere is w hat y o u n eed to k n ow . O ne Ju ly aft e rn oon ,

Bost o n H er a ld

p h oto gra p h er S ta n le y

F orm an a n sw ere d a c a ll a b ou t a f ir e in o n e o f t h e c it y ’s o ld er s e ctio n s. W hen h e a rriv ed , h e f o llo w ed a h un ch

a n d r a n d ow n t h e a lle y t o t h e b ack o f t h e r o w o f h ou se s. T here h e s a w a 2 -y ea r- o ld g ir l a n d h er 1 9-y ea r- o ld

g o d m oth er, o n t h e f if t h -flo or f ir e e sc a p e. A f ir e t r u ck h ad r a is e d it s a eria l la d der t o h elp . A noth er f ir e fig h te r

w as o n t h e r o of, t a n ta li z in gly c lo se t o p ulli n g t h e g ir ls t o s a fe ty . T hen c a m e a lo u d n ois e , t h e f ir e e sc a p e g av e

w ay a n d t h e g ir ls t u m ble d t o t h e g ro u n d. F orm an s a w it a ll t h ro u gh h is 1 35 m m le n s a n d t o ok f o u r p h oto s a s

t h e t w o w ere f a lli n g.

T he c a se s tu d y h as s e v era l p ossib le a n gle s. Y ou c a n d is c u ss t h e g rit ty r e a li t y o f t h e c o n te n t. Y ou c a n f a cto r i n

t h at w it h in 2 4 h ou rs , t h e c it y o f B osto n a cte d t o im pro ve t h e in sp ectio n o f a ll f ir e e sc a p es in t h e c it y a n d t h at

g ro u p s a cro ss th e n atio n u se d th e p h oto s to p ro m ote sim ila r e ffo rts . Y ou c a n ta lk a b ou t th e in gen uit y a n d

i n dustr y o f F orm an t o g o w here t h e s to ry w as r a th er t h an r e m ain in f r o n t w here t h e r e st o f t h e m ed ia m is se d

i t . Y ou c a n c rit iq ue h is re fu sa l to p h oto gra p h th e g ir ls a ft e r im pact. Y ou c a n d eb ate w hy th e P uli t z er P riz e

c o m mit te e g av e F orm an it s to p p riz e fo r th is p h oto a n d a d d in th e fa ct th at m ore th an h alf o f th e v ario u s

“ P ic tu re o f t h e Y ea r” a w ard s o ver d eca d es a re o f d ea th o r im min en t d ea th . Y ou c a n a rg u e w heth er t h e

Bost o n

H er a ld

p ro fit e d o ff o f th e d ea th a n d in ju ry o f th e g ir ls a n d w hat F orm an ’s ro le w as o n ce h e w it n esse d th e

t r a g ed y. A nd y o u c a n p on der w hat h ap pen s w hen t h is p h oto h it s t h e i n te rn et, s tr ip ped o f c o n te x t.

Y ou c a n t a lk a b ou t a n y o r a ll o f t h ese i s su es o r i m ag in e o th ers . T hat’s t h e b ea u ty o f a c a se s tu d y— yo u c a n g o

w here it ta k es y o u . F ro m th is o n e c a se , y o u c a n a rg u e ta ste in c o n te n t, m ed ia e co n om ic s (“ I f it b le ed s, it

l e a d s” ), p ers o n al v ers u s p ro fe ssio n al d uty , e tc .

Perh ap s y o u w ill w an t t o r o le p la y . P erh ap s y o u w ill a sk y o u rs e lf w hat K an t o r M ill w ou ld d o if h e w ere

t h e e d it o r o r w heth er a c o m mun it a ria n w ou ld a p pro ve th e m ea n s ( th e p h oto ) b eca u se o f th e e n d ( b ette r fir e

e sc a p e s a fe ty ). P erh ap s y o u w an t to ta lk a b ou t th e “ b re a k fa st te st” fo r o b je ctio n ab le c o n te n t in th e m orn in g

p ap er, w heth er it p asse s th e te st o r w heth er th e te st o u gh t to e x is t. O r w hat v alu es le d th e p ap er to r u n th e

p h oto a n d t h e c o m mit te e t o g iv e i t a n a w ard .

D urin g th e se m este r, y o u c a n d o m ore th an ju st w ork th ro u gh th e c a se s in th is b ook— yo u c a n fin d y o u r

o w n. A ll a ro u n d y o u a re c a se s o f m erit o rio u s m ed ia b eh av io r a n d c a se s o f q uestio n ab le m ed ia b eh av io r. A nd,

q uit e fr a n kly , th ere a re c a se s w here g o od p eo p le w ill d is a g re e o ver w hic h c a te g o ry th e b eh av io r fa lls in to .

G ood c a se s m ak e f o r g o od d is c u ssio n , n ot o n ly n ow b u t a ls o w hen y o u g ra d uate i n to t h e m ark etp la ce a s w ell.

So d iv e i n , d is c u ss, a n d d efe n d.

26 Fig u re 1 .2 . S ta n le y J . F orm an , P uli t z er P riz e 1 977. U se d w it h p erm is sio n .

27 24

In fo rm atio n E th ic s

A P ro fe ssio n S eek s t h e T ru th

B y t h e e n d o f t h is c h ap te r, y o u s h ou ld b e f a m ili a r w it h

• both t h e E nli g h te n m en t a n d p ra g m atic c o n str u ctio n s o f t r u th

• th e d ev elo p m en t a n d s e v era l c rit ic is m s o f o b je ctiv e n ew s r e p ortin g a s a p ro fe ssio n al i d ea l

• why t r u th i n “ g ettin g” t h e n ew s m ay b e a s i m porta n t a s t r u th i n r e p ortin g i t

• how t o d ev elo p a p ers o n al l i s t o f e th ic a l n ew s v alu es

E ach tr a d it io n al p ro fe ssio n h as la id cla im s to a ce n tr a l te n et o f p h ilo so p h y. L aw is e q uate d w it h ju stic e ,

m ed ic in e w it h t h e d uty t o r e n der a id . J o u rn ali s m , t o o, h as a l o ft y i d ea l: t h e c o m mun ic a tio n o f t r u th .

B ut th e id ea l o f tr u th is p ro b le m atic . W e o ft e n c o n sid er tr u th a s ta b le c o m mod it y : it d oesn ’t c h an ge m uch

f o r u s o n a d ay -to -d ay b asis , n or d oes it v ary g re a tly a m on g m em bers o f a c o m mun it y . H ow ev er, t h e c o n ce p t

o f tr u th h as c h an ged th ro u gh ou t h is to ry . A t o n e le v el o r a n oth er, h um an b ein gs sin ce a n cie n t tim es h av e

a ck n ow le d ged th at h ow tr u th is d efin ed m ay v ary . S in ce P la to ’s a n alo gy o f li f e a s e x p erie n ce d b y in div id ual

h um an b ein gs a s “ tr u th fu l” i n t h e s a m e w ay a s s h ad ow s o n t h e w all o f a c a v e r e se m ble t h e p h ysic a l o b je cts t h at

c a st th ose sh ad ow s m ore th an 3 ,0 00 y ea rs a g o , p eo p le h av e g ra p ple d w it h th e a m orp h ou s n atu re o f tr u th .

T od ay , w hile w e a cce p t s o m e c u lt u ra l “ li e s” — th e e x is te n ce o f S an ta C la u s— we c o n dem n o th ers — in co m e t a x

e v asio n o r fa b ric a tin g a n e m plo ym en t h is to ry . M ost o f th e tim e, w e k n ow w hat th e b ou n darie s a re , a t le a st

w hen w e d ea l w it h o n e a n oth er f a ce -to -fa ce .

C om pou n din g t h e m od ern p ro b le m o f t h e s h if t in g n atu re o f t r u th is t h e c h an gin g m ed ia a u d ie n ce . W hen a

p ro fe ssio n a cce p ts t h e r e sp on sib ili t y o f

prin tin g a n d b ro ad ca stin g t h e t r u th , fa cts t h at a re a p pare n t in fa ce -

t o -fa ce in te ra ctio n b eco m e s u bje ct t o d if fe re n t in te rp re ta tio n s a m on g t h e g eo gra p h ic a lly a n d c u lt u ra lly d iv ers e

r e a d ers a n d v ie w ers . I d ea s o n ce r e a d ily a cce p te d a re o p en to d eb ate . T elli n g th e tr u th b eco m es n ot m ere ly a

m atte r o f p osse ssin g g o od m ora l c h ara cte r b u t s o m eth in g th at re q uir e s le a rn in g h ow to re co gn iz e tr u th a n d

c o n vey in g i t i n t h e l e a st d is to rte d m an ner p ossib le .

A C H AN G IN G V IE W O F T RU TH

O ne p re -S ocra tic G re ek tr a d it io n v ie w ed tr u th —

ale th ea

—as e n co m passin g w hat h um an s re m em ber, s in gle d

o u t t h ro u gh m em ory f r o m e v ery th in g t h at is d estin ed f o r

Leth e,

t h e r iv er o f f o rg etfu ln ess ( B ok

1978

). L in kin g

t r u th a n d re m em bra n ce is e sse n tia l in a n o ra l c u lt u re , o n e th at re q uir e s th at in fo rm atio n b e m em oriz ed a n d

r e p ea te d s o a s n ot to b e fo rg o tte n . R ep ea tin g th e m essa g e, o ft e n in th e fo rm o f s o n gs o r p oetr y , m ea n t th at

i d ea s a n d k n ow le d ge w ere k ep t a li v e o r t r u e f o r s u bse q uen t g en era tio n s. H om er’s

Ili a d

a n d

Odysse y

o r m uch o f

t h e B ib le ’s O ld T esta m en t s e rv ed t h is f u n ctio n .

T his o ra l n otio n o f tr u th , a s n ote d in

ta b le 2 .1

, w as g ra d ually d is c a rd ed o n ce w ord s a n d id ea s w ere w rit te n

d ow n. H ow ev er, it h as co m e to th e fo re w it h th e ad ven t o f te le v is io n an d it s co m pute r co u sin s su ch as

Y ou T ube t h at a llo w v ie w ers t o h ea r t h e w ord s o f t h e p re sid en t r a th er t h an w ait f o r t h ose w ord s t o b e p asse d

d ow n to th em . W hen w e se e so m eth in g o n te le v is io n o r o u r co m pute r sc re en , w e assu m e th at it clo se ly

c o rre sp on ds to re a li t y . T he m ax im “se ein g is b eli e v in g” re m in ds u s th at tr u th h as b eco m e e n ta n gle d w it h

p ic tu re s, a n o ra l c o n ce p t o f tr u th th at h as b een a d orm an t fo rm o f k n ow le d ge fo r h un dre d s o f y ea rs u n til

t e ch nolo gy m ad e “ se ein g” e v en ts l i v e w orld w id e p ossib le .

T ab le 2 .1 . A P hilo so p h y o f T ru th E m erg es

S ou rce

Tru th E qu als

28 Ancie n t G re ek s

What i s m em ora b le a n d i s h an ded d ow n

Pla to

What a b id es i n t h e w orld o f p erfe ct f o rm s

Med ie v al

What t h e k in g, C hurc h , o r G od s a y s

Milt o n

What e m erg es f r o m t h e “ m ark etp la ce o f i d ea s”

Enli g h te n m en t

What i s v erif ia b le , r e p li c a b le , u n iv ers a l

Pra g m atis ts

What i s f ilt e re d t h ro u gh i n div id ual p erc e p tio n

While th e a n cie n t G re ek s tie d tr u th to m em ory , P la to w as th e fir s t to li n k tr u th to h um an r a tio n ali t y a n d

in te lle ct. I n

Rep u bli c

, P la to e q uate d tr u th

wit h a w orld o f p ure fo rm , a w orld to w hic h h um an b ein gs h ad

on ly i n dir e ct a cce ss. I n P la to ’s v is io n , t h ere w as a n i d ea l n otio n o f a c h air — bu t t h at i d ea l c h air d id n ot e x is t i n

re a li t y . W hat p eo p le t h ou gh t o f a s a c h air w as a s s im ila r t o t h e id ea l c h air a s t h e s h ad ow s o n t h e w all o f t h e

ca v e a re to th e o b je cts illu m in ate d b y th e fir e . T o P la to , tr u th w as k n ow ab le o n ly to th e h um an in te lle ct— it

co u ld n ot b e t o u ch ed o r v erif ie d . W e’r e l i v in g i n t h e c a v e.

Pla to ’s m eta p h or o f th e c a v e h as h ad a p ro fo u n d in flu en ce o n W este rn th ou gh t. N ot o n ly d id P la to li n k

tr u th t o r a tio n ali t y , a s o p pose d t o h um an e x p erie n ce , b u t h is w ork im pli e s t h at t r u th is s o m eth in g t h at c a n b e

ca p tu re d o n ly th ro u gh th e in te lle ct. P la to n ic tr u th is im pli c it w it h in a th in g it s e lf ; tr u th d efin ed th e “ p erfe ct

fo rm .” P la to ’s c o n ce p t o f th e tr u th se p ara te d th e c o n ce p t fr o m th e e x te rn al w orld in w hic h p h ysic a l o b je cts

ex is t.

Subse q uen t c e n tu rie s a n d t h in kers a d h ere d t o P la to ’s v ie w . M ed ie v al t h eo lo gia n s b eli e v ed t r u th w as r e v ea le d

on ly b y G od o r b y t h e C hurc h . T he in te lle ctu al le g acy o f t h e R efo rm atio n c e n te re d o n w heth er it is p ossib le

fo r th e a v era g e p ers o n to a sc e rta in tr u th w it h ou t b en efit o f a p rie st o r a k in g. A bou t 2 00 y ea rs la te r, M ilt o n

su ggeste d t h at c o m petin g n otio n s o f t h e t r u th s h ou ld b e a llo w ed t o c o ex is t, w it h t h e u lt im ate t r u th e v en tu ally

em erg in g ( s e e

ta b le 2 .1

Milt o n ’s asse rtio n s fo re sh ad ow ed th e p h ilo so p h y o f th e E nli g h te n m en t, fr o m w hic h m od ern jo u rn ali s m

borro w s it s n otio n o f tr u th . T he E nli g h te n m en t c a st tr u th in s e cu la r te rm s, d iv o rc e d fr o m th e C hurc h , a n d

dev elo p ed a “c o rre sp on den ce th eo ry ” o f tr u th still h eld to d ay . T he c o rre sp on den ce th eo ry a sse rts th at tr u th

sh ou ld c o rre sp on d to e x te rn al fa cts o r o b se rv atio n s. T he E nli g h te n m en t c o n ce p t o f tr u th w as li n ked to w hat

hum an b ein gs c o u ld p erc e iv e w it h th eir s e n se s h arn esse d th ro u gh th e in te lle ct. T ru th a cq uir e d s u bsta n ce . I t

was s o m eth in g t h at c o u ld b e k n ow n a n d s o m eth in g t h at c o u ld b e r e p li c a te d .

This E nli g h te n m en t n otio n o f t r u th is e sse n tia l t o t h e s c ie n tif ic m eth od . T ru th h as b eco m e in cre a sin gly t ie d

to w hat is w rit te n d ow n, w hat ca n b e em pir ic a lly verif ie d , w hat ca n b e p erc e iv ed b y th e h um an se n se s.

Enli g h te n m en t t r u th d oes n ot v ary a m on g p eo p le o r c u lt u re s. I t is a t r u th u n iq uely s u it e d t o t h e w rit te n w ord ,

fo r i t l i n ks w hat i s w rit te n w it h w hat i s f a ctu al, a ccu ra te , a n d i m porta n t.

Tru th a n d O bje ctiv it y

This E nli g h te n m en t v ie w o f tr u th is th e b asis fo r th e jo u rn ali s tic id ea l o f o b je ctiv it y . W hile o b je ctiv it y h as

man y d efin it io n s, m in im ally it is th e re q uir e m en t th at jo u rn ali s ts d iv o rc e fa ct fr o m o p in io n . O bje ctiv it y is a

way o f k n ow in g th at co n nects h um an p erc e p tio n w it h fa cts an d th en k n ow le d ge. O bje ctiv it y is

als o a

pro ce ss o f in fo rm atio n c o lle ctio n ( W ard

2004

). J o u rn ali s ts v ie w o b je ctiv it y a s r e fu sin g t o a llo w in div id ual b ia s

to in flu en ce w hat t h ey r e p ort o r h ow t h ey c o ver it . I t is in jo u rn ali s m t h at a ll f a cts a n d p eo p le a re r e g ard ed a s

eq ual an d eq ually w orth y of co vera g e. C ult u re , an in div id ual se n se of m is sio n , an d in div id ual an d

org an iz atio n al fe eli n gs a n d v ie w s d o n ot b elo n g in o b je ctiv e n ew s a cco u n ts . A n E nli g h te n m en t v ie w o f t r u th

allo w ed o b je ctiv it y to b e c o n sid ere d a n a tta in ab le id ea l, a n d o b je ctiv it y w as o ft e n li n ked to th e e n d r e su lt o f

re p ortin g a n d e d it in g: t h e i n div id ual n ew s s to ry o r m ed ia o u tle t.

How ev er, p h ilo so p h y w as n ot th e o n ly re a so n th at o b je ctiv it y b eca m e a p ro fe ssio n al sta n dard in th e e a rly

1900s. T he e a rly A m eric a n p re ss g arn ere d m uch o f it s f in an cia l s u p port f r o m p oli t ic a l a d vertis in g a n d m ost o f

it s r e a d ers t h ro u gh a v o w ed ly p artis a n p oli t ic a l r e p ortin g. B ut A m eric a b eca m e m ore u rb an in t h e la te 1 800s,

an d p ubli s h ers re a li z ed th at to c o n vin ce p ote n tia l a d vertis e rs th at th eir a d vertis in g w ou ld b e s e en b y a la rg e

au d ie n ce , th ey h ad to m ak e c e rta in th eir p ubli c a tio n s w ou ld b e re a d . P artis a n p ubli c a tio n s c o u ld n ot e n su re

th at, f o r s tr o n g v ie w s o ffe n ded p ote n tia l r e a d ers . W hat p ubli s h ers a t t h e t u rn o f t h e 2 0th c e n tu ry n eed ed w as a

pro d uct th at b u ilt o n a n E nli g h te n m en t p rin cip le th at g u ara n te ed th at fa cts w ou ld b e fa cts , n o m atte r w ho

was d oin g th e re a d in g. O pin io n w ou ld b e re le g ate d to sp ecif ic p ag es, a n d b oth fa cts a n d o p in io n c o u ld b e

wra p ped a ro u n d a d vertis in g (S ch ud so n

1978

). In th is c e n tu ry , th e n ic h ed p oli t ic a l p ro d uct h as re em erg ed ,

fir s t o n c a b le te le v is io n a n d th en m ore r o b u stly o n th e w eb . A s a d vertis in g it s e lf h as b eco m e m ore ta rg ete d ,

fin an cia l s u p port f o r p oli t ic a l c o n te n t t h at a ttr a cts s o m e a n d r e p els o th ers h as n ot b een a d is a d van ta g e.

The n orm ativ e id ea l o f o b je ctiv it y c a m e a lo n g a t a n a d van ta g eo u s tim e fo r y et a n oth er re a so n . T he m ass

pre ss o f th e ea rly 1 900s w as d eep ly an d co rru p tly in vo lv ed in yello w jo u rn ali s m . F ab ric a te d sto rie s w ere

29 co m mon ; n ew sp ap er w ars w ere c lo se t o t h e r e a l t h in g. O bje ctiv it y w as a g o od w ay t o c le a n u p jo u rn ali s m ’s a ct

wit h a se t o f sta n dard s w here se em in gly n on e h ad ex is te d b efo re . It fit th e cu lt u ra l ex p ecta tio n s o f th e

Enli g h te n m en t th at tr u th w as k n ow ab le a n d a sc e rta in ab le . A nd it m ad e su re th at re a d ers o f n ew s c o lu m ns

wou ld r e m ain u n offe n ded l o n g e n ou gh t o g la n ce a t t h e a d s.

The E nli g h te n m en t vie w of tr u th als o w as co m patib le w it h dem ocra cy an d it s em ph asis on ra tio n al

go vern m en t. P eo p le w ho c o u ld r e a so n t o geth er c o u ld a rriv e a t s o m e s h are d “ tr u th ” o f h ow t h ey c o u ld g o vern

th em se lv es. I n fo rm atio n w as e sse n tia l t o g o vern m en t, f o r i t a llo w ed c it iz en s t o s c ru tin iz e g o vern m en t. A s lo n g

as t r u th w as a sc e rta in ab le , g o vern m en t c o u ld f u n ctio n . C it iz en s a n d g o vern m en t n eed ed in fo rm atio n in o rd er

to c o n tin ue th eir ra tio n al fu n ctio n . I n fo rm atio n , a n d th e n otio n th at it c o rre sp on ded in so m e e sse n tia l w ay

wit h t h e t r u th , c a rrie d e n orm ou s p ro m is e .

That ch an ged w hen th e 20th -c e n tu ry pra g m atis ts — most nota b ly A m eric a n s Jo h n D ew ey , G eo rg e

Herb ert M ea d , C harle s S an ders P ie rc e , a n d W illi a m Ja m es— ch alle n ged th e E nli g h te n m en t v ie w o f tr u th .

They h eld th at th e p erc e p tio n o f tr u th d ep en ded o n h ow it w as in vestig ate d an d o n w ho w as d oin g th e

in vestig atin g. F urth er, t h ey r e je cte d t h e n otio n t h at t h ere w as o n ly o n e p ro p er m eth od o f in vestig atio n — th at

is , t h e s c ie n tif ic m eth od . B orro w in g f r o m E in ste in , p ra g m atis ts a rg u ed t h at t r u th , l i k e m atte r, w as r e la tiv e.

Specif ic a lly , t h e p ra g m atis ts p ro p ose d t h at k n ow le d ge a n d r e a li t y w ere n ot

fi x ed b y

b u t in ste a d w ere

th e r esu lt

a n e v o lv in g str e a m o f c o n sc io u sn ess a n d le a rn in g. R ea li t y it s e lf v arie d b ase d o n th e p sy ch olo gic a l, so cia l,

his to ric a l, o r c u lt u ra l c o n te x t. A ddit io n ally , r e a li t y w as d efin ed a s t h at w hic h w as p ro b ab le , n ot a s s o m eth in g

in tr in sic ( th e P la to n ic v ie w ) o r s o m eth in g d ete rm in ed b y o n ly o n e m eth od o f o b se rv atio n ( th e E nli g h te n m en t

vie w ). P ra g m atis m fo u n d a c o m fo rta b le h om e in 2 0th -c e n tu ry U nit e d S ta te s. U nder p ra g m atis m , tr u th lo st

much of it s un iv ers a li t y , bu t it w as in re m ark ab le ag re em en t w it h th e A m eric a n valu e of dem ocra tic

in div id uali s m . S oon p ra g m atis m f ilt e re d t h ro u gh l i t e ra tu re , s c ie n ce , a n d s o m e p ro fe ssio n s, s u ch a s l a w .

Pra g m atis m pro vid ed a ch alle n ge to ob je ctiv it y . N o so on er h ad th e jo u rn ali s tic co m mun it y em bra ce d

ob je ctiv it y t h an t h e c u lt u re a d op te d m ore p ra g m atic n otio n s o f t r u th . T hat c la sh f u ele d c rit ic is m o f o b je ctiv it y .

Pra g m atis m c h alle n ged t h e jo u rn ali s tic p ro d uct: t h e in div id ual n ew s s to ry a n d t h e m ed ia e co sy ste m in w hic h

it e m erg ed . H ow ev er, i f o b je ctiv it y i s d efin ed a s a m eth od o f i n fo rm atio n c o lle ctio n — a s y ste m atic a p pro ach t o

gath erin g “fa cts ” fr o m m an y poin ts of vie w — th en th is ph ilo so p h ic a l dev elo p m en t pro vid es su p port fo r

defin in g o b je ctiv it y a s a p ro ce ss r a th er t h an a s a r e su lt .

Postm od ern p h ilo so p h y h as ta k en th ese q uestio n s to th eir lo gic a l e x te n sio n , s u ggestin g th at th e c o n ce p t o f

tr u th is d ev o id o f m ea n in g. P ostm od ern is m asse rts th at co n te x t is li t e ra lly ev ery th in g, an d th at m ea n in g

ca n not e x is t a p art f r o m c o n te x t, w hic h i s d ir e ctly o p pose d t o f a ct- b ase d jo u rn ali s m .

The la st d eca d e o f th e 2 0th c e n tu ry a n d a ll th e y ea rs o f th e 2 1st c e n tu ry h av e a d ded y et a n oth er le v el o f

co m ple x it y to th e p ro b le m : th e in fo rm atio n e x p lo sio n . F acts a n d tr u th c o m e to u s q uic k ly fr o m a ll o ver th e

glo b e. W hile o b je ctiv e r e p ortin g is s till

on e

s ta n dard , it is n ot t h e

on ly

s ta n dard . W it h t h e a d ven t o f w eb sit e s

th at in clu d e n ot ju st w ord s, b u t im ag es, a g gre g ate d fr o m m an y so u rc e s, y et a d if fe re n t n otio n o f tr u th is

re su rfa cin g— what p h ilo so p h ers c a ll th e c o n verg en ce o r c o h ere n ce th eo ry o f tr u th . U nder th is v ie w , tr u th is

dis c o vere d n ot th ro u gh an y sin gle m eth od o f in vestig atio n b u t b y d ete rm in in g w hic h se t o f fa cts fo rm a

co h ere n t m en ta l pic tu re of ev en ts an d id ea s in vestig ate d th ro u gh a varie ty of m eth od s. C on verg en ce

jo u rn ali s m — whic h u se s

so u n ds, im ag es, a n d w ord s to c o ver sto rie s— is o n e p ro fe ssio n al re sp on se to th e

co h ere n ce th eo ry o f tr u th a n d th e te ch nolo gic a l p ossib ili t ie s o f th e in te rn et a n d th e p ers o n al c o m pute r. O f

co u rs e , co n verg en ce jo u rn ali s m re q uir e s an activ e au d ie n ce , an d an activ e au d ie n ce b rin gs it s p re ex is tin g

beli e fs , valu es, an d co n te x t to ev ery m essa g e. A ll to o oft e n , it is possib le to be overw helm ed by th e

in fo rm atio n a v aila b le t o u s r a th er t h an d ev o tin g t h e t im e a n d e ffo rt r e q uir e d t o m ak e s e n se o f it . R ea d in g t h e

new s s e n t t o u s b y F ace b ook f r ie n ds is le ss t im e-c o n su m in g a n d in te lle ctu ally e a sie r t h en s e ek in g o u t a v arie ty

of i n fo rm atio n s o u rc e s o n o u r o w n.

In s h ort, o b je ctiv it y h as b een d eep ly u n derm in ed b y b oth p h ilo so p h ic a l s h if t a n d te ch nolo gic a l in novatio n

(C hris tia n s, F erré , a n d F ack le r

1993

). T elli n g y o u r re a d ers a n d v ie w ers th e tr u th h as b eco m e a c o m pli c a te d

bu sin ess a s S is se la B ok p oin ts o u t:

Telli n g th e “tr u th ” th ere fo re is n ot so le ly a m atte r o f m ora l c h ara cte r; it is a ls o a m atte r o f c o rre ct a p pre cia tio n o f re a l sit u atio n s a n d o f

se rio u s r e fle ctio n u p on t h em . . . . T elli n g t h e t r u th , t h ere fo re , is s o m eth in g w hic h m ust b e le a rn t. T his w ill s o u n d v ery s h ock in g t o a n yo n e

who th in ks th at it m ust a ll d ep en d o n m ora l c h ara cte r a n d th at if th is is b la m ele ss th e r e st is c h ild ’s p la y . B ut th e s im ple fa ct is th at th e

eth ic s c a n not b e d eta ch ed fr o m re a li t y , a n d c o n se q uen tly c o n tin ual p ro gre ss in le a rn in g to a p pre cia te re a li t y is a n ece ssa ry in gre d ie n t in

eth ic a l a ctio n . ( B ok

1978

, 3 02–3)

WHO’S D O IN G T H E T A LK IN G A N YW AY?

The p ra g m atic ’s c rit iq ue o f o b je ctiv it y h as c a lle d a tte n tio n t o t h e q uestio n o f w ho w rit e s t h e n ew s. J o u rn ali s ts

30 The p ra g m atic ’s c rit iq ue o f o b je ctiv it y h as c a lle d a tte n tio n t o t h e q uestio n o f w ho w rit e s t h e n ew s. J o u rn ali s ts

—prim arily m ale , C au ca sia n , w ell e d uca te d , a n d m id dle -to -u p per c la ss— are o ft e n a sk ed to c o ver is su es a n d

questio n s th at li f e e x p erie n ce s h av e n ot p re p are d th em to c o ver. S te p h en H ess (

1981

) n ote d th at jo u rn ali s ts

(p artic u la rly t h e E aste rn “ e li t e ” m ed ia ), in t e rm s o f t h eir s o cio eco n om ic s ta tu s, lo ok a g re a t d ea l m ore li k e t h e

fa m ou s o r p ow erfu l p eo p le t h ey c o ver t h an t h e p eo p le t h ey a re s u p pose d ly w rit in g f o r. W ork o n t h e n atio n al

pre ss co rp s h as sh ow n sim ila r re su lt s (W ea v er, B ea m , B ro w nle e, V oak es, an d W ilh oit

2007

). Jo u rn ali s ts

gen era lly a re b ette r p aid a n d b ette r e d uca te d t h an t h e a u d ie n ce f o r t h eir p ro d uct.

Alm ost e v ery p ro fe ssio n al jo u rn ali s tic o rg an iz atio n h as d ev elo p ed p ro gra m s s p ecif ic a lly t o a ttr a ct a n d r e ta in

wom en an d m in orit ie s w it h o n ly in cre m en ta l an d sp ora d ic su cce ss. T his la ck o f acce ss to th e en gin es o f

in fo rm atio n h as n ot b een lo st o n a v arie ty o f g ro u p s— fr o m re li g io u s fu n dam en ta li s ts , w ho h av e e sta b li s h ed

th eir o w n m ed ia o u tle ts , to ra cia l

min orit ie s, w ho fa il to fin d th em se lv es e it h er a s o w ners o r m an ag ers o f

med ia o u tle ts , t o p oli t ic a l c o n se rv ativ es. T hey a rg u e t h at t h e r e su lt is n ew s a b ou t m id dle -c la ss C au ca sia n s, f o r

mid dle -c la ss C au ca sia n s, a n d li b era l in p oli t ic a l o rie n ta tio n . H ow in div id ual jo u rn ali s ts a n d th e c o rp ora tio n s

th ey w ork fo r s h ou ld re m ed y th e s it u atio n is u n cle a r. B ut a s d em ogra p h ic s c h an ge u s fr o m a c u lt u re th at is

pre d om in an tly C au ca sia n t o o n e t h at i s n ot, t h e m ass m ed ia w ill p la y a d ecre a sin g r o le u n le ss jo u rn ali s ts f in d a

way to re p ort n ew s th at is o f in te re st to th e n ew m ajo rit y . I n th is c e n tu ry , w orld w id e n ew sp ap er re a d ers h ip

an d b ro ad ca st v ie w ers h ip c o n tin ues to d ecli n e in fa v o r o f th e in te rn et (in clu d in g n ew sp ap er w eb sit e s) a n d

mag az in es th at fo cu s on ce le b rit ie s ra th er th an publi c affa ir s (T hors o n , D uffy , an d Sch um an n

2007

Tra d it io n al jo u rn ali s ts fa ce d a n a u d ie n ce in o p en r e b elli o n w it h n o c le a r s tr a te g y to r e m ain fin an cia lly v ia b le

an d p ro vid e t h e p ubli c w it h t h e i n fo rm atio n t h at c iv ic e n gag em en t r e q uir e s.

DEFIN IN G A N D C O NST RU C TIN G T H E N EW S

More t h an 8 0 y ea rs a g o , jo u rn ali s t W alt e r L ip pm an n (

1922

) s a id , “ F or t h e m ost p art, w e d o n ot f ir s t s e e, a n d

th en d efin e, w e d efin e fir s t a n d th en se e.” H e a d ded th at w e te n d to p ic k o u t w hat o u r c u lt u re h as a lr e a d y

defin ed f o r u s, a n d t h en p erc e iv e i t i n t h e f o rm s te re o ty p ed f o r u s b y o u r c u lt u re .

In o n e c la ssic s tu d y (R ain ville a n d M cC orm ic k

1977

), a b li n d N ew Y ork jo u rn ali s m p ro fe sso r c la im ed h e

co u ld p re d ic t th e ra ce o f fo otb all p la y ers b ein g d esc rib ed in th e p la y -b y-p la y b y w hat w as sa id a b ou t th em .

Cau ca sia n a th le te s w ere d esc rib ed a s in te lle ctu ally g if t e d w hile A fr ic a n -A m eric a n a th le te s w ere d esc rib ed a s

ph ysic a lly g if t e d . In a cu lt u re th at valu es b ra in s o ver b ra w n, A fr ic a n -A m eric a n fo otb all p la y ers w ere th e

su bje ct o f r e p ea te d s te re o ty p ic a l in su lt s — all c o u ch ed a s p ra is e . A nd e v en t h ou gh t h e s tu d y is n ow m ore t h an

70 y ea rs o ld , t h e t e n den cy t o r e v ert t o t h ese s te re o ty p es c o n tin ues o n s p orts b ro ad ca sts t o d ay i n w hic h a th le te s

are c a lle d “ sm art” a n d o th ers a re c a lle d “ a th le tic .” I n t h e f o rm er, t h e q uali t y w as o b ta in ed b y h ard w ork ; in t h e

la tte r, it w as a g if t o f g en etic s. W om en , th e e ld erly , a n d th e g ay c o m mun it y h av e b een th e fo cu s o f s tu d ie s

wit h sim ila r re su lt s . T heir c o n clu sio n h as b een th at w hile jo u rn ali s ts m ain ta in th at th ey a re o b je ctiv e, th ey

(li k e t h eir r e a d ers a n d v ie w ers ) b rin g s o m eth in g t o t h e m essa g e t h at li t e ra lly c h an ges w hat t h ey s e e a n d w hat

th ey r e p ort ( L este r

1996

How jo u rn ali s ts d o th eir w ork — what s c h ola rs c a ll n ew s r o u tin es— als o h as a n im pact o n w hat r e a d ers a n d

vie w ers “ se e.” “ O bje ctiv it y c a n tr ip u s u p o n th e w ay to tr u th ,” s a y s B re n t C un nin gh am (

2003

). “ O bje ctiv it y

ex cu se s

la z y re p ortin g. I f y o u ’r e o n d ea d li n e a n d a ll y o u h av e is ‘b oth s id es o f th e s to ry ,’ th en th at’s o ft e n

go od e n ou gh .” C un nin gh am p oin ts to a stu d y o f 4 14 Ira q w ar sto rie s b ro ad ca st o n A BC , C BS, a n d N BC

le a d in g u p to th e 2 003 c o n fli c t. A ll b u t 3 4 o rig in ate d fr o m th e W hit e H ou se , th e P en ta g o n , o r th e S ta te

Dep artm en t. T he r e su lt : t h e “ o ffic ia l t r u th ” b eco m es t h e r e ce iv ed t r u th , a n d o n ly t h e b ra v est jo u rn ali s ts d are d

dep art fr o m it . T im oth y C ro u se in h is 1 974 ca m paig n m em oir

The B oy s on th e B us

re p orte d th e sa m e

ph en om en on . Jo h n O li v er’s ach in gly fu n ny ta k e on re p ortin g cli m ate ch an ge re p ea ts th e crit ic is m th at

ob je ctiv it y m is u se d c a n r e su lt i n l i e s o f s ta g gerin g c o n se q uen ce ( N uccit e lli

2014

New s re fle cts c e rta in c u lt u ra l v alu es a n d p ro fe ssio n al n orm s. In a c la ssic stu d y, so cio lo gis t H erb ert G an s

( 1979

) stu d ie d h ow sto rie s b eca m e n ew s at

New sw eek

an d C BS an d fo u n d th at alm ost all n ew s sto rie s

re fle cte d th ese s ix c u lt u ra l v alu es: (1 ) e th noce n tr is m , (2 ) a lt r u is tic d em ocra cy , (3 ) re sp on sib le c a p it a li s m , (4 )

in div id uali s m , (5 ) a n e m ph asis o n th e n eed fo r a n d m ain te n an ce o f so cia l o rd er, a n d (6 ) le a d ers h ip . T hese

dom in an t v alu es h elp ed t o s h ap e w hic h s to rie s w ere p rin te d a n d w hat t h ey s a id , w hat c o m mun ic a tio n s c h ola rs

ca ll “ fr a m in g.”

Gan s ca lle d th ese valu es th e “p ara -id eo lo gy” o f th e m ed ia . H e ad ded th at “th e n ew s is n ot so m uch

co n se rv ativ e o r li b era l a s it is r e fo rm is t.” R ese a rc h er J a m es C are y ( q uote d in C un nin gh am

2003

) s a y s t h at it is

th is p ara -id eo lo gy th at r e su lt s in c h arg es o f li b era l b ia s a g ain st th e m ed ia . “ T here is a b it o f th e r e fo rm er in

an yo n e w ho e n te rs jo u rn ali s m . A nd r e fo rm ers a re a lw ay s g o in g t o m ak e c o n se rv ativ es u n co m fo rta b le .”

New s sto rie s a b ou t m id dle -c la ss o r u p per- c la ss p eo p le , th ose w ho te n d to su cce ssfu lly a d op t th e c u lt u re ’s

31 New s sto rie s a b ou t m id dle -c la ss o r u p per- c la ss p eo p le , th ose w ho te n d to su cce ssfu lly a d op t th e c u lt u re ’s

valu es, m ad e th e A m eric a n n ew s “ b u d get,” a cco rd in g to G an s. W hile G an s fo cu se d o n jo u rn ali s m a b ou t th e

Unit e d Sta te s, oth er sc h ola rs hav e note d th e sa m e ph en om en on , ca lle d

dom est ic a tin g th e fo reig n

, in

in te rn atio n al c o vera g e ( G ure v it c h , L ev y , a n d R oeh

1991

). J o u rn ali s ts w ork in g f o r U S m ed ia o u tle ts t e ll s to rie s

ab ou t in te rn atio n al e v en ts in c u lt u ra l t e rm s A m eric a n s c a n r e a d ily u n ders ta n d b u t t h at a ls o s a crif ic e a ccu ra cy .

For ex am ple , ro u tin e co vera g e o f ele ctio n s in B rit a in o r Isra el is co n vey ed in h ors e -ra ce m eta p h ors ev en

th ou gh b oth c o u n tr ie s e m plo y a p arli a m en ta ry s y ste m w here g o vern in g c o ali t io n s a re c o m mon a n d w ho w in s

th e h ors e r a ce i s n ot n ea rly s o i m porta n t.

E. J . D io n ne (

1996

) c la im s t h at t h e p re ss is in in te rn al c o n tr a d ic tio n . I t m ust b e n eu tr a l y et in vestig ativ e. I t

must b e d is e n gag ed b u t h av e an im pact. It m ust b e fa ir m in ded b u t h av e an ed ge. T he co n fli c ts m ak e

ob je ctiv it y v ir tu ally i m possib le t o d efin e a n d e v en h ard er t o p ra ctic e .

Fig u re 2 .1 . 1 993, W ash in gto n P ost W rit e rs G ro u p. R ep rin te d w it h p erm is sio n .

PA C KA G IN G T H E S T O RY: N EW S A S M AN UFA C TU RED P R O DUC T

The g o al o f t e lli n g a “ g o od s to ry ” a ls o r a is e s o th er e th ic a l q uestio n s, s p ecif ic a lly t h ose t h at f o cu s o n p ack ag in g

to h ig h li g h t dra m a an d h um an in te re st. T hese questio n s h av e in te n sif ie d as all m ed ia ch an nels — fr o m

new sp ap ers to d ocu m en ta ry film to e n te rta in m en t p ro gra m min g— hav e fo cu se d o n c o h ere n t s to ry te lli n g a n d

th e n eed fo r a p ow erfu l sto ry to ca p tu re au d ie n ce in te re st. C urre n t re se a rc h su ggests th at n arra tiv es are

mem ora b le , b u t n ew s n arra tiv es a re n ot a lw ay s n ea t a n d t h e f a cts f r o m w hic h t h ey e m erg e c a n b e b oth c h ao tic

an d c o n tr a d ic to ry .

This d riv e to p ack ag e h as le d to a p ro fe ssio n th at v alu es fin din g a n “ e v en t” to r e p ort a n d to b e th ere fir s t.

Few c o n su m ers r e a li z e it , b u t n ew s i s “ m an ufa ctu re d ” d aily , ju st a s s u re ly a s f u rn it u re , c a rs , o r t h e m ea l a t y o u r

fa v o rit e fa st- fo od re sta u ra n t— an d o ft e n th e p ro ce ss ca n b e m essy . Jo u rn ali s ts sta rt th e d ay w it h a b la n k

co m pute r s c re en a n d w it h p re ss t im e o r b ro ad ca st t im e lo om in g. O n d ea d li n e— oft e n a d ea d li n e o f m in ute s—

th ey p ro d uce a p rin t s to ry , a v id eo p ack ag e, a t w eet, o r a m ult im ed ia r e p ort— or o ft e n a ll f o u r. A nd a d din g t o

th e b u ilt - in te n sio n o f d ea d li n es is th e c h alle n ge to b e fa ir , c o m ple te , a ccu ra te , a n d, a b ove a ll, in te re stin g.

Whole in dustr ie s— partic u la rly publi c re la tio n s or “str a te g ic co m mun ic a tio n s” — hav e em erg ed to help

jo u rn ali s ts p ack ag e t h eir d aily s to rie s o n d ea d li n e.

The n eed t o f in d a n e v en t h as m ea n t t h at jo u rn ali s ts h av e m is se d s o m e im porta n t s to rie s b eca u se t h ey w ere

not ev en ts bu t ra th er h is to ric dev elo p m en ts w it h both a past an d a fu tu re . F or ex am ple , m ajo r so cia l

dev elo p m en ts s u ch a s th e w om en ’s m ovem en t (M ills

1989

), th e B la ck L iv es M atte r m ovem en t, th e O ccu p y

Wall S tr e et m ovem en t, a n d th e c iv il rig h ts m ovem en t a n d th e a n ti– V ie tn am W ar m ovem en ts o f th e 2 0th

ce n tu ry w ere u n der- c o vere d u n til t h eir le a d ers c re a te d e v en ts f o r t h e m ed ia t o r e p ort. D ir e cto r M ic h ael M oore

sa id h e b eg an h is c a re er w it h t h e 1 989 f ilm

Rog er a n d M e

a b ou t t h e d ev asta tio n o f G en era l M oto rs la y o ffs in

his h om eto w n o f F li n t, M ic h ig an , b eca u se h e “d id n ’t se e o n th e silv er sc re en o r th e te le v is io n sc re en w hat

hap pen ed to p eo p le li k e u s” ( S m it h

1992

The p re o ccu p atio n w it h e v en ts a ffe cts c o vera g e o f s c ie n ce , to o,

whic h is m ost f r e q uen tly r e p orte d a s a s e rie s o f d is c o verie s a n d “ fir s ts ” r a th er t h an a s a p ro ce ss ( N elk in

1987

“N ew h op e” a n d “ n o n op e” d riv e m ost s c ie n ce r e p ortin g. W e a re t r e a te d t o s to rie s a b ou t c u re s o ft e n w it h ou t

th e n ece ssa ry co n te x t— poli t ic a l, eco n om ic , etc .— to in te rp re t th e la te st re se a rc h re su lt s . O th er sto rie s are

mis se d o r m is re p orte d w hen th ey la ck th e e a sy “ p eg ” e d it o rs lo ok fo r. T he

Wash in gto n P ost

’s P uli t z er P riz e–

win nin g s to rie s o n c o n dit io n s a t W alt e r R eed a rm y h osp it a l e m erg ed o n ly a ft e r d is m ay ed v ete ra n s a n d th eir

fa m ili e s c o n ta cte d t h e n ew sp ap er m ult ip le t im es ( P rie st a n d H all

2007

). W hen t h ou sa n ds o f li v es w ere lo st in

Bhop al, I n dia , b y a m alf u n ctio n in g p la n t, c o vera g e fo cu se d e n tir e ly o n th e p ic tu re -fr ie n dly e v en t a n d n ot o n

th e so cio eco n om ic , sc ie n tif ic , a n d p oli t ic a l c a u se s th at le d to th e d is a ste r (W ilk in s

1987

). A d eep er lo ok a t

32 new s c o vera g e o f t h e 1 986 C hern ob yl n ucle a r d is a ste r, s o m eth in g C harle s P erro w c a lls a “ n orm al a ccid en t” in

his b ook o f th e sa m e tit le , fo u n d th at c o vera g e e ch oed th e ste re o ty p e o f A m eric a n su p erio rit y a n d R ussia n

in fe rio rit y r a th er a n a p pro ach f o cu sin g o n s c ie n ce a n d r is k ( P atte rs o n

1989

). P hen om en a n ot li n ked t o s p ecif ic

ev en ts — su ch as th e gro w th of a perm an en t A m eric a n un der- c la ss or th e cu rre n t op io id cris is — wen t

un re p orte d f o r y ea rs w ait in g f o r a n a p pro p ria te n ew s p eg .

The p h en om en on o f “ p ack jo u rn ali s m ” h as b een c h ro n ic le d in s e v era l film s, d atin g b ack to th e c la ssic

The

Fro n t P age

to th e re b oot o f

The M an ch u ria n C an did at

e (2 004). A ll e m ph asiz e jo u rn ali s tic e x ce sse s a n d a n

un w illi n gn ess to e n gag e in in dep en den t th ou gh t th at w ou ld d is tu rb e n li g h te n ed a n d p ra g m atic p h ilo so p h ers

ali k e. T hey a ls o e x p ose a to o-e a sily m an ip ula te d sy ste m , p artic u la rly a s n ew sro om sta ffs h av e sh ru n k. T his

un w illi n gn ess t o le a v e t h e “ p ack ” w it h a b re a k o u t s to ry h as a llo w ed s o m e o f t h e h otte st p oli t ic a l s to rie s o f t h e

new c e n tu ry b ein g r e p orte d f ir s t o n t h e w eb w here t h ese i n stit u tio n al p re ssu re s a re d if fe re n t. S ey m ou r H ers h ’s

orig in al re p ortin g o f th e M y L ai m assa cre d urin g th e V ie tn am W ar, w hic h e v en tu ally a p pea re d in th e

New

York T im es,

w as h eld u p b eca u se n o o th er r e p orte r h ad a s im ila r s to ry . S om e 3 0 y ea rs la te r, i t w asn ’t u n til C BS

bro ad ca st i m ag es o f p ris o n er a b u se a t t h e n oto rio u s A bu G hra ib p ris o n i n I ra q t h at H ers h ’s i n it ia l r e p ortin g o f

th e s c a n dal i n

The A tla n tic

r e ce iv ed s e rio u s n atio n al a tte n tio n .

Tru th is m ore th an ju st a c o lle ctio n o f fa cts . F acts h av e a re la tio n sh ip to o n e a n oth er a n d to o th er fa cts ,

fo rm in g a la rg er w hole . Y et, a n aly tic c o vera g e o f A m eric a n in stit u tio n s, o f s c ie n ce a n d t e ch nolo gy, o f p oli t ic s,

an d o f s o cia l m ovem en ts is r a re . W hat is m ore c o m mon — esp ecia lly o n c a b le n ew s o u tle ts — is t o in vit e t w o o r

more p artie s w it h c o n fli c tin g v ie w s, a llo t th em to o li t tle tim e to d is c u ss th e is su e a t h an d, a n d th en s it b ack

an d l e t t h e r e su lt in g h ea te d e x ch an ge t a k e t h e p la ce o f r e p ortin g.

Ste p h en H ess (

1981

) h as a rg u ed th at jo u rn ali s ts n eed to e n gag e in re p ortin g th at lo oks m ore li k e so cia l

sc ie n ce t h an s to ry te lli n g. G an s (

1979

) a rg u es f o r n ew s t h at is la b ele d a s o rig in atin g f r o m a p artic u la r p oin t o f

vie w . O th er s c h ola rs a rg u e f o r n ew s t h at is a n aly tic a l r a th er t h an a n ecd ota l, p ro activ e

ra th er t h an r e a ctiv e,

an d c o n te x tu al r a th er t h an d eta ch ed . O n a p ra ctic a l le v el, w ork in g r e p orte rs a n d e d it o rs in sis t t h at in div id ual

jo u rn ali s ts n eed t o d o a b ette r jo b o f u n ders ta n din g t h eir o w n b ia se s a n d c o m pen sa tin g f o r t h em .

The a ccu m ula te d e v id en ce , b oth a n ecd ota l a n d s c h ola rly , t o d ay s tr ik es a t t h e c o re o f o b je ctiv it y ( C ra ft

2017

)

an d sh ow s th at, in te lle ctu ally , w e a re li v in g in a p ra g m atic e ra , b u t w e se em to b e u n ab le p ro fe ssio n ally to

dev elo p a w ork in g a lt e rn ativ e to th e E nli g h te n m en t’s v ie w o f tr u th . B eca u se o f th is , m ain str e a m m ed ia a re

in cre a sin gly se en as ir re le v an t, p artic u la rly to a yo u n ger au d ie n ce fo r w hom tr u th is m ore li k ely to b e a

se g m en t o n S te p h en C olb ert, w ho in 2 012 w on a P ea b od y A ward f o r h is c o vera g e o f t h e im pact o f S up erP acs

on e le ctio n s, t h an a r e p ort o n t h e n etw ork s’ n ig h tly n ew sc a sts .

ON T H E E T H IC S O F D EC EPT IO N: F A KE N EW S

Eth ic is t S is se la B ok in h er b ook

Lyin g

(1 978) n ote s th at d is c e rn in g th e tr u th — an d th en te lli n g it — is h ard .

Bok’s b ook fo cu se s in te n se ly o n h um an re la tio n sh ip s. I t w ou ld b e fa ir to s a y th at s h e d id n ot a n tic ip ate th e

mach in e. I n th is d eca d e, th e c o n flu en ce o f a c u lt u ra l s h if t a b ou t th e n atu re o f tr u th , th e s e g m en ta tio n o f a n

activ e a u d ie n ce o n t h e o n e h an d a n d t h e r a n ge o f m ed ia o u tle ts o n t h e o th er, t h e e m erg en ce o f F ace b ook a s a

purv ey o r o f n ew s th ro u gh sh arin g, a n d th e in cre a sin gly so p h is tic a te d te ch nolo gy a sso cia te d w it h c o m pute rs

an d w id ely a v aila b le s o ft w are h as l e d t o t h e e m erg en ce o f y et a n oth er c h alle n ge t o jo u rn ali s m : f a k e n ew s.

So, le t’s b eg in w it h a d efin it io n . B ok d efin es ly in g in t h e f o llo w in g w ay : t h e li e m ust b e s ta te d , t h e li a r m ust

kn ow in gly p ro vid e in fo rm atio n t h at s h e/h e is a w are is in co rre ct o r w ro n g, a n d t h e li e m ust b e t o ld in o rd er t o

gain p ow er o ver th e p ers o n w ho is b ein g li e d to . F or B ok a n d m an y o th er e th ic is ts , ly in g a s a n a ct— li k e

murd er— sta rts o u t in t h e “ m ora l d efic it ” c o lu m n. T he h um an d efa u lt is “ tr u th ”; ly in g m ust b e ju stif ie d t o b e

eth ic a l, a n d s a tis fa cto ry ju stif ic a tio n i s r a re .

We th in k th e p ara lle ls b etw een B ok’s d efin it io n o f ly in g a n d a n y d efin it io n o f fa k e n ew s a re s tr o n g. F ir s t,

fa k e n ew s is “ sta te d ”— th at is , p ubli c a tio n o n t h e in te rn et, in clu d in g t h e d ark w eb , is t h e e q uiv ale n t o f s a y in g

so m eth in g t o a f r ie n d. S eco n d, t h ose w ho p ro d uce f a k e n ew s— or s e t i t s p ro d uctio n i n m otio n t h ro u gh t h e u se

of b ots o r o th er t e ch nolo gic a l t o ols — are a w are t h at it is w ro n g o r in accu ra te . T his s e ts f a k e n ew s a p art f r o m a

mis ta k e (d is c u sse d la te r in th is c h ap te r) o r a h oax , so m eth in g th at w as c o m mon in jo u rn ali s m in th e 1 9th

ce n tu ry a n d w as d on e p rim arily t o g arn er a tte n tio n a n d h en ce i n co m e. H ow ev er, i n t h e 1 9th c e n tu ry , b oth t h e

perp etr a to r o f t h e h oax a n d m ost m em bers o f t h e a u d ie n ce w ere “ in ” o n t h e d ece p tio n . N o o n e w as f o ole d , a t

le a st n ot f o r lo n g. F ak e n ew s f o ole d lo ts o f f o lk s, a n d it s im pact p ers is ts a s y o u r e a d t h ese w ord s. T hir d , f a k e

new s is d ev elo p ed a n d d is tr ib u te d to g ain

pow er, in th is co n te x t th e e co n om ic p ow er th at co m es fr o m

in te rn et c li c k s li n ked t o a d vertis in g c o n te n t. T he m otiv e h ere i s n ot b ette r s o cia l r e la tio n s o r p oli t ic a l a ctiv is m ;

th e g o al i s t o g ain p ow er t h ro u gh w ea lt h .

Tak e t h is e x am ple : A M ace d on ia n t e en a n d h is m ate s w ho li v e in t h e r u st b elt t o w n o f V ele s, o n ce p art o f

33 Tak e t h is e x am ple : A M ace d on ia n t e en a n d h is m ate s w ho li v e in t h e r u st b elt t o w n o f V ele s, o n ce p art o f

th e fo rm er Y ugo sla v ia , a d m it te d to g en era tin g fa k e n ew s c o n te n t fr o m m ult ip le w eb sit e s. T he te en e a rn ed

more th an $ 60,0 00 in six m on th s b y p ro d ucin g fa k e n ew s sto rie s th at w ere p ic k ed u p th ro u gh F ace b ook

postin gs, d re w t h ou sa n ds o f r e a d ers , a n d e a rn ed t h e p ro d uce rs a p en ny-p er- c li c k t h at a d ded u p t o a s ta g gerin g

in co m e in c o m paris o n to o th ers in th at c o u n tr y . O ne te en , w ho w as in te rv ie w ed b y N BC , b ra g ged th at h is

fa k e n ew s s to rie s h ad e a rn ed h im m ore m on ey t h an h is p are n ts e a rn ed in a y ea r ( S m it h a n d B an ic

2016

). T he

te en w as q uote d a s s a y in g, “ I d id n ’t fo rc e a n yo n e to g iv e m e m on ey . P eo p le s e ll c ig are tte s, th ey s e ll a lc o h ol.

That’s n ot ille g al. W hy is m y b u sin ess ille g al? ” T hese sto rie s w ere d if fic u lt to sp ot; th e o n ly w ay a re a d er

wou ld k n ow t h at t h e s to ry ’s o rig in w as a t ip o ff t o p ro b le m atic c o n te n t w as a c lo se lo ok a t t h e im it a tio n U RL

on w hat w as b u ilt t o l o ok l i k e a l e g it im ate n ew s p ag e f r o m s o u rc e s s u ch a s F ox N ew s o r t h e

Huffi n gto n P ost

Much c lo se r t o t h e U nit e d S ta te s, a M ain e r e sid en t o p era tin g u n der m ult ip le p se u d on ym s b u t p rim arily o n

his w eb sit e L astli n eo fD efe n se .o rg , p ubli s h ed m ult ip le sto rie s th at h e sa id h e in te n ded a s p aro d y to “fo ol”

poli t ic a l c o n se rv ativ es. C hris to p h er B la ir t o ld P oli t if a ct, w hic h h ad d eb u n ked m ore t h an 1 00 o f h is s to rie s f o r

mon th s b efo re t h e 2 016 p re sid en tia l e le ctio n , t h at h is g o al w as t o “ fe ed t h e H overo u n ders t h eir d aily n eed f o r

hate an d th eir u n dyin g u rg e to b la m e ev ery th in g in th e k n ow n u n iv ers e o n H illa ry C li n to n an d B ara ck

Obam a” ( G illi n

2017

). T he p ro b le m is th at it ’s u n cle a r w heth er w hat B la ir to ld th at n ew s o rg an iz atio n a n d

man y o th ers w as t h e t r u th a b ou t t h e m otiv e f o r h is a ctiv it ie s.

Jo u rn ali s ts w ho un m ask in te rn et tr o lls — an d th ere b y ch alle n ge th eir w orld vie w — hav e th em se lv es been

th re a te n ed . Ja re d Y ate s S ex to n , a

New Y ork T im es

c o n tr ib u to r a n d a ssis ta n t p ro fe sso r o f c re a tiv e w rit in g a t

Geo rg ia S ou th ern U niv ers it y , sh are d w it h

HuffP ost

se v era l th re a te n in g m essa g es d ir e cte d at h im sin ce h e

un m ask ed a n in te rn et tr o ll w ho c re a te d a v id eo re tw eete d b y P re sid en t D on ald J. T ru m p. I n o n e, a R ed dit

use r w arn s o f a lo om in g “ jo u rn oca u st” — pre su m ab ly a h olo ca u st f o r jo u rn ali s ts . I n a n oth er, a T wit te r u se r s a y s

th ere ’s “ a c iv il w ar c o m in g” a n d t h at m em es— sp ecif ic a lly , t h e a n ti- S em it ic o n e b y t h e c re a to r o f t h e v id eo t h at

Tru m p s h are d — are “ th e l e a st” o f S ex to n ’s p ro b le m s.

“T here ’s a fe v er p it c h to th is d ia lo gu e th at is d an gero u s to e v ery b od y,” S ex to n to ld

HuffP ost

. “ A nd it ’s th e

peo p le w ho a re m en ta lly ill, w ho a re u n h in ged , w ho a re u n w ell— th ey p ic k u p o n th is stu ff. A nd th ey a re

re a lly , r e a lly m oved t o a ct b y i t ” ( D ’A ngelo

2017

Bok’s tr e a tis e on ly in g d oes n ot an tic ip ate th at th ose w ho te ll th e tr u th ab ou t li e s w ill b e p h ysic a lly

th re a te n ed b y th ose w ho li e . S he a ssu m es th at, in c iv il s o cie ty , th e h um an n eed fo r tr u th in o rd er to li v e a n

au th en tic li f e w ill tr iu m ph o ver th e s h ort- te rm n eed to e a se d if fic u lt q uestio n s a n d d if fic u lt re la tio n sh ip s b y

ev ery th in g fr o m fib bin g to te lli n g w hop pers . B ut, a s th e a b ove e x am ple s a n d m an y o th ers s u ggest, g ettin g

“fo u n d o u t” ab ou t ly in g d oes n ot se em to d ete r th e im puls e , w hic h ca n b e fu ele d b y a d riv e fo r w ea lt h ,

noto rie ty , o r b oth .

And, o f c o u rs e , b y th e tim e y o u re a d th ese w ord s, th is b ra n d o f fa k e n ew s w ill se em “o h , so y este rd ay .”

Aud io is e v en e a sie r to fa k e th an w ord s a n d s till im ag es. V ir tu al p up pete erin g, a s re p orte d b y N PR ’s R ad io

Lab , w ill a llo w y o u a n d a n yo n e e ls e w it h t h e r ig h t s o ft w are a n d a n in ex p en siv e v id eo c a m era t o p ut y o u r v o ic e

an d t h ou gh ts i n t h e m ou th o f s o m eo n e w ho i s p erh ap s m ore f a m ou s, s a y f o rm er p re sid en t B ara ck O bam a, i n a

way th at is a lm ost u n dete cta b le to th e h um an e y e a n d e a r (A dle r

2017

). T he N PR r e p ort le ft li s te n ers w it h

th e s ta rtli n g, e th ic s- fo cu se d q uestio n : I f w e k n ow th at s u ch te ch nolo gy c a n b e u se d fo r b oth p ro -so cia l a n d

male v o le n t p urp ose s, w hat sh ou ld so cie ty — in clu d in g th ose w ho a re in ven tin g th e te ch nolo gy— do to m ak e

ce rta in t h at t h ose w it h m ale v o le n t e n ds d o n ot g o u n ch eck ed ?

And, w hy is fa k e n ew s so p ern ic io u s? B eca u se as h um an b ein gs, w e are attr a cte d to th in gs th at se em

ou tla n dis h a n d s tr a n ge. I n a s tu d y th at e x am in ed h ow tw eets w ere s h are d b eg in nin g in 2 006 a n d c o n tin uin g

th ro u gh 2 013, s o cia l s c ie n tis ts fo u n d fa ls e tw eets r e a ch ed a n a u d ie n ce o f 1 ,5 00 o r m ore s ix tim es fa ste r th an

tr u e o n es, a p atte rn t h at e m erg ed a s m ore t h an 1 26,0 00 in div id ual n ew s it e m s w ere s h are d 4 .5 m illi o n t im es

am on g m ore t h an 3 m illi o n p eo p le . A s o n e o f t h e r e se a rc h ers n ote d , “ T he c ra z y s tu p id . . . i s t h e o n e t h at g o es

massiv ely v ir a l,” ( L az er e t a l.

2018

Fak e n ew s is a n ew fr o n tie r fo r jo u rn ali s ts . T here a re to o m an y fa k e n ew s sto rie s to sp en d th e tim e a n d

re so u rc e s to d eb u n k e v ery o n e. D eb u n kin g it s e lf m ay p ut jo u rn ali s ts a n d th eir n ew s o rg an iz atio n s in h arm ’s

way . T ech nolo gic a l s o lu tio n s, f o r e x am ple , t h e d ev elo p m en t o f r e a l- tim e a lg o rit h m s t h at w ou ld s p ot t h e f a k e

an d la b el it a s s u ch , a re in d ev elo p m en t b u t n ot y et in t h e w orld . F ace b ook h as s ta rte d t o t a g s o m e s to rie s a s

“d is p ute d ,” b u t t h at la b el c o m es o n ly a ft e r s to rie s h av e b een p oste d a n d s h are d , a n d it is n ot a s t h oro u gh a s it

need s t o b e, b y F ace b ook’s o w n a d m is sio n . W e w ill d is c u ss t h e im pact o f “ fa k e n ew s” o n d em ocra tic d ecis io n -

mak in g in

ch ap te r 6

, b u t fo r o u r p urp ose s in th is c h ap te r, o n e p rin cip le s ta n ds o u t. I t h as n ev er b een m ore

im porta n t f o r p ro fe ssio n al jo u rn ali s ts t o t e ll t h e t r u th i n t h eir r e p ortin g a n d t o m ak e e v ery e ffo rt t o c o n tin ue t o

do s o . M in im ally , t r u st i n t h e p ro fe ssio n a n d b eli e f i n i t s c re d ib ili t y a re a t s ta k e.

34 ON T H E E T H IC S O F D EC EPT IO N: T H E J O URN ALIS T ’S P E R SP E C TIV E

In a p ro fe ssio n t h at v alu es t r u th , is it e v er e th ic a l t o li e ? T o e d it o rs ? T o r e a d ers ? T o s o u rc e s, w ho m ay b e li a rs

th em se lv es? A re th ere le v els o f ly in g? I s fla tte rin g s o m eo n e to g et a n in te rv ie w a s s e rio u s a tr a n sg re ssio n a s

docto rin g a q uote o r p h oto gra p h ? I s w it h hold in g in fo rm atio n th e s a m e th in g a s ly in g? I f y o u c a n o n ly g et

on e s id e o f t h e s to ry , d o y o u g o w it h i t ? D oes i t m atte r t o d ay i f o p in io n m in gle s w it h n ew s?

Cris e s o f c re d ib ili t y h av e fa ce d m ed ia o u tle ts o f a ll s iz es in clu d in g s p ecta cu la r in sta n ce s a t b oth

USA T od ay

an d t h e

New Y ork T im es

t h at r e su lt e d in f r o n t- p ag e e d it o ria l a p olo gie s a n d m ult i- p ag e r e tr a ctio n s. I n t h e c a se

of t h e

Tim es

, i t s ta rte d w hen a 2 7-y ea r- o ld r e p orte r, J a y so n B la ir , f a b ric a te d a ll o r p art o f m ore t h an 4 0 s to rie s.

Aft e r h is re sig n atio n fr o m th e p ap er, th e

Tim es

ra n fo u r fu ll p ag es o f c o rre ctio n s d ocu m en tin g e v ery e rro r

dis c o vere d in B la ir ’s re p ortin g. T he

Tim es

’ c o rre ctio n m ad e it c le a r th at th e

Tim es

h ad fa ile d to c o rre ct th e

pro b le m i n e a rli e r s ta g es d esp it e m an y o p portu n it ie s t o d o s o . I n a s u bse q uen t a n aly sis o f t h e c a se , m an y a t t h e

Tim es

a n d o th er p la ce s s u ggeste d t h at o n e r e a so n B la ir ’s a ctio n s h ad b een u n ch eck ed f o r s o lo n g w as b eca u se

of h is r a ce . B la ir w as A fr ic a n -A m eric a n , a n d h e h ad b een h ir e d a s p art o f th e

Tim es

’ d iv ers it y p ro gra m . H is

men to rs a t th e p ap er, E xecu tiv e E dit o r H ow ell R ain es a n d M an ag in g E dit o r G era ld B oyd , w ho a ls o w as

Afr ic a n -A m eric a n , w ere a m on g B la ir ’s s tr o n gest s u p porte rs a n d b oth e v en tu ally r e sig n ed in t h e f a llo u t. W hile

th e

Tim es

d en ie d t h at r a ce w as t h e r e a so n t h at B la ir h ad b een p ro m ote d , B la ir h im se lf d id n ot.

Erro rs i n J o u rn ali s m : I n ev it a b ili t y a n d A rro gan ce

Con fo u n din g tr u th a n d d ece p tio n in jo u rn ali s m is th e p ro b le m o f e rro rs . I n ad verte n t m is ta k es in s to rie s a re c o m mon . O ne fr e ela n ce fa ct

ch eck er ( H art

2003

) w ro te in t h e

Colu m bia J o u rn ali s m R ev ie w ( C JR )

t h at s h e h ad n ot e x p erie n ce d a n e rro r- fr e e s to ry in t h re e y ea rs o f fa ct

ch eck in g f o r

CJR

, o n e o f jo u rn ali s m ’s l e a d in g w atc h dog p ubli c a tio n s. H er c a lls t o f e llo w f a ct c h eck ers a t o th er p ubli c a tio n s l e d h er t o b eli e v e

th at a rtic le s w it h e rro rs a re t h e r u le , n ot t h e e x ce p tio n .

How ev er, m is ta k es a re d if fe re n t fr o m fa b ric a tio n a n d d o n ot in dic a te a la ck o f d ed ic a tio n to th e tr u th . S om e, if n ot m ost, m is ta k es a re

matte rs o f in te rp re ta tio n , b u t o th ers are o u tr ig h t erro rs o f fa ct. In h er artic le “D elu sio n s o f A ccu ra cy ,” A rie l H art sa y s th at h ea rin g

jo u rn ali s ts p ro u d ly c la im to h av e h ad n o e rro rs o r fe w er e rro rs th an th e

Tim es

fo u n d in B la ir ’s w rit in g is “sc a ry , n ot th e le a st b eca u se it

en co u ra g es d elu sio n s o f a ccu ra cy .”

One p ro b le m s e em s to b e a u d ie n ce m em bers s o d is c o n necte d fr o m th e m ed ia th at th ey d on ’t b oth er to c o rre ct jo u rn ali s ts ’ m is ta k es o r,

wors e , a ssu m e, a s r e a d ers o f t h e

Tim es

e v id en tly d id , t h at f a b ric a tio n is

de r ig u eu r

f o r jo u rn ali s ts . “ Jo u rn ali s ts s u re ly m ak e m is ta k es o ft e n , b u t

I t h in k w e d on ’t — or c a n ’t — ad m it it t o o u rs e lv es b eca u se t h e id ea o f a m is ta k e is s o s tig m atiz ed . . . . S o m is ta k es n eed t o b e d estig m atiz ed

or r e stig m atiz ed a n d d ea lt w it h a cco rd in gly . T hey s h ou ld b e t r e a te d l i k e l a n gu ag e e rro rs ,” H art a rg u es.

Fig u re 2 .2 .

Pea rls B efo re S w in e

How ev er, B la ir w asn ’t th e o n ly b ad n ew s fo r th e

Tim es

d urin g th ose w eek s. P uli t z er P riz e– w in nin g

re p orte r R ic k B ra g g a ls o re sig n ed fr o m th e p ap er a ft e r it b eca m e p ubli c th at h e, to o, h ad p ubli s h ed sto rie s

base d la rg ely o n t h e r e p ortin g o f s tr in gers w ho d id n ot r e ce iv e a b yli n e i n t h e

Tim es

. F urth erm ore , s o m e o f h is

sto rie s f ile d w it h n on -N ew Y ork d ate li n es h ad b een w rit te n o n a ir p la n es a n d in h ote l r o om s w here B ra g g w as

fu n ctio n in g m ore a s a r e w rit e e d it o r r a th er t h an d oin g a ctu al o n -th e-sc e n e r e p ortin g. B ra g g s a id h is p ra ctic e s

were k n ow n a t t h e

Tim es

a n d c o m mon in t h e in dustr y . T hat c o m men t a li g n s w it h o n e h ea rd f r e q uen tly in t h e

Bla ir in cid en t th at so u rc e s did not co m pla in to th e

Tim es

ab ou t in co rre ct sto rie s sin ce th ey fe lt th at

fic tio n ali z in g sto rie s w as ju st th e w ay th in gs are d on e. T his cy n ic a l ap pra is a l o f jo u rn ali s m th re a te n s o u r

cre d ib ili t y , w hic h i s t h e c h ie f c u rre n cy o f t h e p ro fe ssio n .

35 So, h ow d o jo u rn ali s ts fe el a b ou t d ece p tio n ? A su rv ey o f m em bers o f I n vestig ativ e R ep orte rs a n d E dit o rs

(I R E) p ro vid es s o m e in sig h t in to t h e p ro fe ssio n ’s t h in kin g ( L ee

2005

). J o u rn ali s ts t h in k a b ou t d ece p tio n o n a

co n tin uum . A t o n e e n d, th ere is a lm ost u n iv ers a l re je ctio n o f ly in g to re a d ers , v ie w ers , a n d li s te n ers . IR E

mem bers r e g ard s u ch li e s a s a m on g t h e w ors t e th ic a l p ro fe ssio n al b re a ch es. A t t h e o th er e n d, m ore t h an h alf

of t h e I R E m em bers s u rv ey ed s a id t h ey a p pro ved o f fla tte rin g a s o u rc e t o g et a n in te rv ie w , e v en t h ou gh t h at

fla tte ry c o u ld b e c o n sid ere d d ece p tiv e a n d c e rta in ly w as i n sin ce re .

In th e sa m e su rv ey , li e s o f o m is sio n — su ch a s w it h hold in g in fo rm atio n fr o m re a d ers a n d v ie w ers a n d a ls o

ed it o rs a n d b osse s— were c o n sid ere d le ss o f a p ro b le m th an fa b ric a tin g fa cts in a sto ry o r fa b ric a tin g e n tir e

sto rie s, w hic h w as a lm ost u n iv ers a lly c o n dem ned . I R E m em bers w ere m ore w illi n g t o w it h hold i n fo rm atio n i n

in sta n ce s w hen n atio n al s e cu rit y is su es w ere in vo lv ed . T he jo u rn ali s ts a ls o s a id s o m e li e s w ere ju stif ie d ; th ey

ap pro ved o f l y in g i f i t w ou ld s a v e a l i f e o r p re v en t i n ju ry t o a s o u rc e .

The jo u rn ali s ts su rv ey ed a ls o n ote d th at th ere w ere o u ts id e in flu en ce s o n th ese ju d gm en ts . B ro ad ca st

jo u rn ali s ts w ere m ore a cce p tin g o f h id den c a m era s a n d a lt e rin g v id eo th an w ere p rin t jo u rn ali s ts , a lt h ou gh

th at dif fe re n ce m ig h t be ch an gin g as m ore prin t jo u rn ali s ts get vid eo ex p erie n ce via th eir n ew sp ap er’s

web sit e s. A nd, th ose w ho w ork ed in c o m petit iv e m ark ets w ere m ore w illi n g to a cce p t d ece p tio n th an w ere

th ose w ho s a w th em se lv es in le ss c o m petit iv e e n vir o n m en ts . T he m ore e x p erie n ce d a jo u rn ali s t w as, th e le ss

li k ely h e o r s h e w as t o a cce p t a n y f o rm o f d ece p tio n . F in ally , t h e s u rv ey r e v ea le d w hat jo u rn ali s ts w orry a b ou t

is t h e im pact s u ch r e p ortin g m eth od s h av e o n t h e b eli e v ab ili t y o f n ew s a cco u n ts a n d o n jo u rn ali s ts ’ a b ili t y t o

co ver s u bse q uen t s to rie s i f c a u gh t i n a n e th ic a l l a p se .

Is it eth ic a l to li e to li a rs ? Is w it h hold in g in fo rm atio n th e sa m e th in g as ly in g? If n ot, un der w hat

cir c u m sta n ce s m ig h t it b e a p pro p ria te ? I f it is , a re th ere e th ic a lly b ase d ju stif ic a tio n s fo r s u ch a n a ct? S is se la

Bok (

1978

) a rg u es t h at s u ch a n a ct r a is e s t w o q uestio n s. W ill t h e li e s e rv e a la rg er s o cia l g o od , a n d d oes t h e

act o f l y in g m ea n t h at w e a s p ro fe ssio n als a re w illi n g t o b e l i e d t o i n r e tu rn ?

Bok s u ggests th at m ost o f th e tim e, w hen w e li e w e w an t “ fr e e r id er” s ta tu s— gain in g th e b en efit s o f ly in g

wit h ou t in cu rrin g t h e r is k s o f b ein g li e d t o . I n o th er w ord s, s o m e jo u rn ali s ts m ay b eli e v e it ’s a cce p ta b le t o li e

to a c ro ok t o g et a s to ry , b u t t h ey p ro fe ssio n ally r e se n t b ein g l i e d t o b y a n y s o u rc e , r e g ard le ss o f m otiv e.

Lyin g is a w ay t o g et a n d m ain ta in p ow er. T hose in p osit io n s o f p ow er o ft e n b eli e v e t h ey h av e t h e r ig h t t o

li e b eca u se th ey h av e a g re a te r th an o rd in ary u n ders ta n din g o f w hat is a t s ta k e. L yin g in a c ris is (to p re v en t

pan ic ) a n d ly in g t o e n em ie s ( to p ro te ct n atio n al s e cu rit y ) a re t w o e x am ple s. I n b oth c ir c u m sta n ce s, jo u rn ali s ts

ca n b e— eit h er a ctiv ely o r w it h ou t t h eir k n ow le d ge— in vo lv ed in t h e d ece p tio n . D o jo u rn ali s ts h av e a r ig h t t o

co u n te r t h is ly in g w it h li e s o f t h eir o w n, t o ld u n der t h e g u is e o f t h e p ubli c ’s n eed t o k n ow ? D oes a jo u rn ali s t

hav e th e re sp on sib ili t y to p rin t th e tr u th w hen p rin tin g it w ill c a u se o n e o f th e e v ils — pan ic o r a th re a t to

natio n al s e cu rit y — th at t h e l i e w as c o n co cte d t o p re v en t?

Then t h ere is t h e “ o m is sio n v ers u s c o m mis sio n ” is su e. I n t h e f ir s t, t h e li e is t h at s o m e p art o f t h e t r u th w as

co n ven ie n tly le ft o u t; i n t h e la tte r, t h e li e i s a n u n tr u th t o ld p urp ose fu lly . B ok a sse rts t h at a g en uin ely w hit e li e

may b e e x cu sa b le o n so m e g ro u n ds, b u t th at a ll fo rm s o f ly in g m ust sta n d u p to q uestio n s o f fa ir n ess a n d

mutu ali t y . A cco rd in g t o K an t’s c a te g o ric a l im pera tiv e, t h e t e lle r o f t h e w hit e li e m ust a ls o b e w illi n g t o b e li e d

to . E ven l y in g t o l i a rs c a n h av e i t s d ow nsid e a s B ok p oin ts o u t i n h er b ook

Lyin g

(

1978

, 1 40):

In th e en d, th e p artic ip an ts in d ece p tio n th ey ta k e to b e m utu ally u n ders to od m ay en d u p w it h co ars e n ed ju d gm en t an d d im in is h ed

cre d ib ili t y . B ut if , f in ally , t h e li a r t o w hom o n e w is h es t o li e is a ls o in a p osit io n t o d o o n e h arm , t h en t h e b ala n ce m ay s h if t ; n ot b eca u se h e

is a l i a r, b u t b eca u se o f t h e t h re a t h e p ose s.

Rep ortin g

via

t h e i n te rn et h as g iv en n ew u rg en cy t o t h e i s su e o f ly in g b y o m is sio n . I n m ost i n sta n ce s, f a ili n g

to id en tif y y o u rs e lf a s a r e p orte r w hen c o lle ctin g in fo rm atio n e le ctr o n ic a lly f r o m n ew s g ro u p s, c h at r o om s, o r

oth er m od es o f p ubli c d is c u ssio n is co n sid ere d p ro b le m atic . Jo u rn ali s ts , w hen p re sse d , n ote th at th e U S

Sup re m e C ou rt h as ru le d in te rn et tr a n sm is sio n s a re p ubli c . T he e th ic a l is su e e m erg es w hen m ost o f th ose

in vo lv ed in th e d is c u ssio n a re n ot a w are o f th e le g al s ta n dard s a n d e x p ect, in ste a d , th e m ore e th ic a lly b ase d

re la tio n s o f f a ce -to -fa ce i n te ra ctio n s. E th ic a l t h ou gh t l e a v es jo u rn ali s ts w it h d if fic u lt c h oic e s.

Rep ortin g

th e c o n te n ts o f th e in te rn et— an d c a b le te le v is io n — ra is e s a n oth er se rie s o f c h alle n ges. H ow

sh ou ld jo u rn ali s ts g o ab ou t d eb u n kin g in te rn et ru m ors , w hic h ca n so m etim es b e d is tin gu is h ed fr o m fa k e

new s? C on ven tio n al w is d om f o r t h e le g acy m ed ia h old s t h at r e p rin tin g o r r e b ro ad ca stin g r u m ors o n ly f u rth ers

th em . N ew s org an iz atio n s in N ew O rle a n s co verin g H urric a n e K atr in a fa ce d a se rie s of d if fic u lt n ew s

decis io n s in t h e f a ce o f r u m ors s w eep in g t h e c it y . I n s o m e in sta n ce s, t h ey e le cte d t o p rin t o r b ro ad ca st r u m ors

pre v ale n t in th e n etw ork ed w orld th at th ey c o u ld n ot su bsta n tia te . T he sa m e p ro b le m s c o n tin ue to p la g u e

jo u rn ali s ts in sto rie s a s d is tin ct a s n ew s o f M ic h ael Ja ck so n ’s d ea th , o r te rro ris t a tta ck s in E uro p e o r I n dia .

Anoth er eq ually se rio u s ch alle n ge is how to tr e a t in fo rm atio n pro m ulg ate d by w ell- k n ow n so u rc e s—

in fo rm atio n th at is fa ls e . C alli n g so m eo n e a li a r, a t o n e le v el, se em s th e h eig h t o f n on ob je ctiv e jo u rn ali s m .

How ev er, w hen t h e f a cts s u ggest t h at a s o u rc e is ly in g— ev en if t h at s o u rc e is n ot h eld t o t h e s a m e s ta n dard s

36 of t r u th t e lli n g a s jo u rn ali s ts a re — what b eco m es a n a cce p ta b le p ro fe ssio n al m ech an is m t o h old n on -jo u rn ali s t

so u rc e s t o a cco u n t?

ET H IC AL N EW S V A LU ES

Most m ass m ed ia co u rs e s p re se n t a li s t o f q uali t ie s th at d efin e n ew s. M ost su ch li s ts in clu d e p ro xim it y ,

tim eli n ess, c o n fli c t, c o n se q uen ce , p ro m in en ce , r a rit y , c h an ge, c o n cre te n ess, a ctio n , a n d p ers o n ali t y . A ddit io n al

ele m en ts m ay i n clu d e n otio n s o f m yste ry , d ra m a, a d ven tu re , c e le b ra tio n , s e lf - im pro vem en t,

an d e v en e th ic s.

While th ese li s ts a re h elp fu l to b eg in nin g jo u rn ali s ts , th ey p ro b ab ly w ill n ot h elp y o u d ecid e h ow to r e co u n t

th e n ew s e th ic a lly .

We s u ggest y o u e x p an d y o u r jo u rn ali s tic d efin it io n s o f n ew s to in clu d e a li s t o f e th ic a l n ew s v alu es. T hese

valu es a re in te n ded t o r e fle ct t h e p h ilo so p h ic t e n sio n s in h ere n t in a p ro fe ssio n w it h a c o m mit m en t t o t r u th . I f

new s v alu es w ere c o n str u cte d f r o m e th ic a l r e a so n in g, w e b eli e v e t h e f o llo w in g e le m en ts w ou ld b e e m ph asiz ed

by b oth jo u rn ali s ts a n d t h e o rg an iz atio n s f o r w hic h t h ey w ork .

Accu ra cy

—usin g t h e c o rre ct f a cts a n d t h e r ig h t w ord s a n d p uttin g t h in gs in c o n te x t. J o u rn ali s ts n eed t o b e

as in dep en den t a s th ey c a n w hen fr a m in g sto rie s. T hey n eed to b e a w are o f th eir o w n b ia se s, in clu d in g

th ose t h ey “ in h erit ” a s s o cia l c la ss, g en der, a n d e th nic it y , a s w ell a s l e a rn ed p ro fe ssio n al n orm s.

Con fir m atio n

—writ in g a rtic le s t h at a re a b le t o w it h sta n d s c ru tin y in sid e a n d o u ts id e t h e n ew sro om . M ed ia

eth ic is t S an dy B ord en (

2009

) r e fe rs t o t h is a s t h e “ d is c ip li n e o f c o n fir m atio n ,” a c o n ce p t t h at r e fle cts h ow

dif fic u lt i t c a n b e t o c a p tu re e v en a p ortio n o f t h e t r u th i n s o m etim es c o m ple x n ew s s it u atio n s.

Ten acit y

—kn ow in g w hen a sto ry is im porta n t en ou gh to re q uir e ad dit io n al effo rt, b oth p ers o n al an d

in stit u tio n al. T en acit y d riv es jo u rn ali s ts to p ro vid e all th e d ep th th ey ca n re g ard le ss o f th e in div id ual

assig n m en t. I t h as i n stit u tio n al i m pli c a tio n s, t o o, f o r t h e i n div id ual c a n not f u n ctio n w ell i n a n e n vir o n m en t

where r e so u rc e s a re t o o s c a rc e o r t h e c o rp ora te b otto m li n e t o o d om in an t. I n a d dit io n , n ew s o rg an iz atio n s

need t o t r u st jo u rn ali s ts w hen t h ey r e p ort i n dep en den tly r a th er t h an e x p ect t h em t o a ct a s p art o f a p ack .

Dig n it y

—le a v in g th e su bje ct of a sto ry as m uch se lf - re sp ect as possib le . D ig n it y valu es ea ch pers o n

re g ard le ss o f th e p artic u la r sto ry o r th e p artic u la r ro le th e in div id ual p la y s. D ig n it y a llo w s th e in div id ual

jo u rn ali s t to re co gn iz e th at n ew sg ath erin g is a c o op era tiv e e n te rp ris e w here e a ch p la y s a ro le , in clu d in g

ed it o rs , v id eo gra p h ers , d esig n ers , a n d a d vertis in g s a le s s ta ff.

Recip ro cit y

—tr e a tin g o th ers a s y o u w is h to b e tr e a te d . T oo o ft e n , jo u rn ali s m is “w rit in g fo r th e lo w est

co m mon d en om in ato r.” R ecip ro cit y d em an ds r e sp ect f o r t h e r e a d er. I t a ls o r e je cts t h e n otio n o f jo u rn ali s m

as b en ev o le n t p ate rn ali s m — “W e’l l t e ll y o u w hat w e t h in k is g o od f o r y o u ”— an d r e co gn iz es t h at jo u rn ali s ts

an d t h eir v ie w ers a n d r e a d ers a re p artn ers b oth in d is c o verin g w hat is im porta n t a n d in g le a n in g m ea n in g

fr o m i t .

Suffic ie n cy

—allo ca tin g a d eq uate r e so u rc e s t o i m porta n t i s su es. O n t h e i n div id ual le v el, s u ffic ie n cy c a n m ea n

th oro u gh ness, f o r e x am ple ,

ch eck in g b oth p eo p le a n d d ocu m en ts f o r e v ery s c ra p o f f a ct b efo re b eg in nin g

to w rit e . O n a n o rg an iz atio n al le v el, it m ea n s a llo ca tin g a d eq uate r e so u rc e s to th e n ew sg ath erin g p ro ce ss.

Wit h v ir tu ally e v ery m ed ia o u tle t su ffe rin g fr o m d ecli n in g re a d ers o r v ie w ers , th an ks m ain ly to th e w eb ,

th is i s p ro b ab ly t h e c e n tr a l i s su e o f t h e c u rre n t m ed ia l a n dsc a p e.

Equ it y

—se ek in g ju stic e fo r a ll in vo lv ed in c o n tr o vers ia l is su es a n d tr e a tin g a ll s o u rc e s a n d s u bje cts e q ually .

Equit y a ssu m es a c o m pli c a te d w orld w it h a v arie ty o f p oin ts o f v ie w . E quit y d em an ds th at a ll p oin ts o f

vie w b e c o n sid ere d b u t d oes n ot d em an d t h at a ll s id es b e f r a m ed a s e q ually c o m pelli n g. E quit y e x p an ds t h e

jo u rn ali s tic n orm s o f “ te lli n g b oth s id es o f t h e s to ry ” t o “ te lli n g a ll s id es o f t h e s to ry .”

Com mun it y

—valu in g s o cia l c o h esio n . O n th e o rg an iz atio n le v el, a s e n se o f c o m mun it y m ea n s th at m ed ia

ou tle ts a n d t h e c o rp ora tio n s t h at o w n t h em n eed t o c o n sid er t h em se lv es a s c it iz en s r a th er t h an m ere “ p ro fit

ce n te rs .” O n t h e i n div id ual l e v el, i t m ea n s e v alu atin g s to rie s w it h a n e y e f ir s t t o s o cia l g o od .

Div ers it y

—co verin g all se g m en ts of th e au d ie n ce fa ir ly an d ad eq uate ly . T here ap pea rs to be alm ost

overw helm in g ev id en ce th at new s org an iz atio n s do not “lo ok li k e” th e so cie ty th ey co ver. W hile

man ag em en t c a n r e m ed y p art o f t h is p ro b le m b y c h an gin g h ir in g p atte rn s, in div id ual jo u rn ali s ts c a n le a rn

to “ th in k d iv ers it y ” r e g ard le ss o f t h eir i n div id ual h erit a g es.

In 2013, th e C orp ora tio n fo r P ubli c B ro ad ca stin g (C PB ) decid ed to m ak e an eth ic a l new s valu e—

tr a n sp are n cy — th e c o rn ers to n e o f it s n ew s ta n dard s a n d p ra ctic e s p oli c y . W e’l l a sk y o u to ta k e a lo ok a t th e

im pact o f t h at e th ic a l n ew s v alu e— an d it s im pli c a tio n f o r t h e o th er v alu es w e h av e li s te d — in a c a se s tu d y in

th is ch ap te r. R eg ard le ss, n o li s t o f eth ic a l n ew s v alu es sh ou ld b e co n sid ere d co n clu siv e. C olle ctiv ely , th ey

pro vid e a f r a m ew ork w it h in w hic h i n fo rm ed e th ic a l c h oic e s c a n b e m ad e.

37 SU G GEST ED R EA D IN G S

Bok, S . ( 1 978).

Lyin g: M ora l c h oic e i n p u bli c a n d p riv ate l i fe

. N ew Y ork : R an dom H ou se .

Gan s, H . ( 1 979).

Decid in g w hat’s n ew s: A s t u dy o f C BS E ven in g N ew s, N BC N ig h tly N ew s, N ew sw eek a n d T im e

. N ew Y ork : V in ta g e.

Ja m ie so n , K . H . ( 1 992).

Dir ty p oli t ic s

. N ew Y ork : O xfo rd U niv ers it y P re ss.

Lip pm an n, W . ( 1 922).

Publi c o p in io n

. N ew Y ork : F re e P re ss.

Pla to .

Rep u bli c

Wea v er, D av id H ., B ea m , R . A ., B ro w nle e, B . J ., V oak es, P . S ., & W ilh oit , G . C . ( 2 007).

The A m er ic a n j o u rn ali s t i n t h e 2 1st c e n tu ry : U .S . n ew s

peo p le a t t h e d aw n o f a n ew m ille n niu m ( L E A’s C om mun ic a tio n S er ie s)

. M ah w ah , N J: L aw re n ce E rlb au m A sso cia te s.

38 43

CASE S

CASE 2 -A

AN O NYM OUS O R C O NFID EN TIA L: U N NAM ED S O URC ES I N T H E N EW S

LE E W IL K IN S

Wayn e S ta te U niv er sit y

Univ er sit y o f M is so u ri

T hey a re c h ara cte riz ed in m an y d if fe re n t w ay s. F re q uen tly , t h ere a re n o n am es, ju st b lu rre d r e fe re n ce s t o jo b

d utie s.

F ro m t h e

New Y ork T im es

o n D ec. 9 , 2 017, a s i t r e p orte d o n P re sid en t D on ald J . T ru m p’s d aily r o u tin e:

O ne a d vis e r sa id th at a id es to th e p re sid en t n eed ed to sta y p osit iv e a n d lo ok fo r silv er li n in gs w here v er

th ey c o u ld f in d t h em , a n d t h at t h e W est W in g t e a m a t t im es r e so lv ed n ot t o le t t h e t w eets d om in ate t h eir

day .

Oth er t im es, t h ey a re s li g h tly m ore a n on ym ou s.

F ro m t h e

New Y ork er

’s r e p ortin g a b ou t t h e H arv ey W ein ste in s e x u al a b u se /h ara ssm en t s c a n dal b y jo u rn ali s t

R on an F arro w :

Two s o u rc e s c lo se t o t h e p oli c e in vestig atio n s a id t h at t h ey h ad n o r e a so n t o d ou bt G utie rre z ’s a cco u n t o f

th e in cid en t. O ne o f th em , a p oli c e so u rc e , sa id th at th e d ep artm en t h ad c o lle cte d m ore th an e n ou gh

ev id en ce to p ro se cu te W ein ste in . B ut th e o th er so u rc e sa id th at G utie rre z ’s sta te m en ts a b ou t h er p ast

co m pli c a te d t h e c a se fo r t h e o ffic e o f t h e M an h atta n D is tr ic t A tto rn ey , C yru s V an ce J r . A ft e r t w o w eek s

of i n vestig atio n , t h e d is tr ic t a tto rn ey ’s o ffic e d ecid ed n ot t o f ile c h arg es.

T here a re t h ose w ho h av e m ad e jo u rn ali s tic h is to ry , s u ch a s W ate rg ate ’s a n on ym ou s s o u rc e , w ho w as k n ow n

i n b oth th e b ook a n d th e film o n ly a s “D eep T hro at.” Jo u rn ali s ts B ob W ood w ard a n d C arl B ern ste in k ep t

D eep T hro at’s id en tit y a s e cre t fo r m ore th an 3 0 y ea rs u n til F B I a g en t M ark F elt , s h ortly b efo re h is d ea th ,

a n nou n ce d t h at h e h ad p la y ed t h is p iv o ta l “ fo llo w t h e m on ey ” r o le i n t h e i n vestig atio n .

A nd, s o m etim es t h ey e v en m ak e it t o t h e U S S up re m e C ou rt a s in

Coh en v . C ow le s M ed ia C o.

, 5 01 U S 6 63

( 1 991), w hen th e c o u rt r u le d th at jo u rn ali s ts c o u ld n ot a llo w s o u rc e s to r e m ain c o n fid en tia l if s u ch p ro m is e s

w ou ld v io la te n orm ally a p pli c a b le l a w s. C oh en v . C ow le s c h an ged t h e w ay n ew sro om s o p era te d .

Anon ym ou s so u rc e s m ay e v en c h an ge th e c o u rs e o f h is to ry . Ju d it h M ille r, a fo rm er

New Y ork T im es

r e p orte r w ho pro te cte d h er an on ym ou s so u rc e s in h er re p ortin g on th e ex is te n ce of w ea p on s of m ass

d estr u ctio n i n I ra q i n 2 002 a n d 2 003, w as u lt im ate ly v ili f ie d i n a p ro fe ssio n t h at h ad o n ce li o n iz ed h er w hen i t

w as re v ea le d th at th e “a n on ym ou s so u rc e s” w ere , in fa ct, fo rm er p re sid en t G eo rg e W . B ush a d m in is tr a tio n

o ffic ia ls w ho h ad d em an ded a n on ym it y in r e tu rn f o r a cce ss. T he w ea p on s o f m ass d estr u ctio n , o f c o u rs e , d id

n ot ex is t, an d b oth M ille r an d th e

Tim es

h ad to fa ce th e h is to ric im pact o f erro n eo u s re p ortin g th at

s u p porte d t h e U S d ecis io n t o i n vad e I ra q .

A non ym ou s s o u rc e s a re a ls o u se d a s p oli t ic a l b lu d geo n s. I f a s to ry i s s o u rc e d a n on ym ou sly , i t ’s t a n ta m ou n t t o

“ fa k e n ew s.” A r e a d er v o ic e d w hat m an y o th er w ere th in kin g in a F eb ru ary 2 017

New Y ork T im es

p ie ce th at

r e fle cte d o n it s o w n s o u rc in g p ra ctic e s, s o m eth in g t h at t h e n ew sp ap er h as b een c rit ic iz ed f o r s in ce a t le a st t h e

e a rly 1 990s. T he

Tim es’

a rtic le in clu d ed t h e f o llo w in g: “ G en e G am bale o f I n dio , C ali f ., is a m on g t h e r e a d ers

w ho w ro te to c o m pla in in re ce n t w eek s. ‘I h av e n otic e d a c o n tin uou s a n d d is tu rb in g tr e n d o f re ly in g u p on

u n nam ed so u rc e s,’ G am bale sa id . ‘I b eli e v e th at is p oor jo u rn ali s m a n d d ep riv es th e re a d er o f a n y w ay to

e v alu ate , o n t h eir o w n, t h e c re d ib ili t y o f t h ose s o u rc e s o r t h e a ccu ra cy o f t h e s ta te m en ts t h ey m ak e.’ ”

A non ym ou s s o u rc e s h av e b eco m e s o m uch a p art o f w hat t h e p ubli c b eli e v es it k n ow s a b ou t h ow jo u rn ali s ts

o p era te t h at e v ery b eg in nin g r e p orte r h as f a ce d t h is q uestio n , w heth er it c o m es f r o m a v era g e c it iz en s, o r lo ca l

e le cte d , a p poin te d , o r n on go vern m en ta l o ffic ia ls : “I ’d li k e to te ll y o u th is , b u t I d on ’t w an t y o u to u se m y

n am e.”

H ow to h an dle s u ch r e q uests , a n d u n der w hat c ir c u m sta n ce s, h as b een a c o n tin ual p ro fe ssio n al d eb ate th at

d ate s b ack t o t h e f o u n din g o f t h e U S r e p ubli c w hen B en ja m in F ra n kli n u se d m ult ip le “ n om d e p lu m e” s u ch a s

S ile n ce D ogo od a n d R ic h ard S au n ders , w ho p ubli s h ed re sp ectiv ely in th e

New E ngla n d C ou ra n t

a n d a s th e

a u th or o f th e

Poor R ic h ard ’s A lm an ac

. E th ic a l d ecis io n -m ak in g a sk s jo u rn ali s ts to b ala n ce p ote n tia l h arm to

s o u rc e s— fo r e x am ple , r a ttin g o u t a d ru g c a rte l in a n ew s s to ry is a li f e -th re a te n in g d ecis io n , t h e n eed f o r t h e

p ubli c to kn ow co n se q uen tia l in fo rm atio n an d to ev alu ate it , decis io n s th at in vo lv e tr u th te lli n g an d

t r a n sp are n cy , an d th e ab ili t y fo r n ew s o rg an iz atio n s to d efe n d th eir d ecis io n s in co u rt— so m eth in g th at

39 mult ip le n ew s o rg an iz atio n s h av e h ad to d o s in ce th e C oh en d ecis io n a n d w hic h is o ft e n th re a te n ed b y th e

su bje cts o f u n fla tte rin g a n d o ft e n i n vestig ativ e p ie ce s.

Mic ro I ssu es

How w ou ld y o u r e sp on d t o a c it y c o u n cilp ers o n w ho r e q uests a n on ym it y b efo re s p ea k in g w it h y o u a b ou t

an i m porta n t l o ca l i s su e? W hy?

Man y jo u rn ali s ts b eli e v e t h at t h e C oh en r u li n g i s a n e x am ple o f “ b ad l a w ” o verrid in g i m porta n t e th ic a l

prin cip le s. E valu ate t h is c la im . W hat i s t h e r o le o f t r u st b etw een a jo u rn ali s t a n d h er s u p erv is in g e d it o rs

in s u ch d ecis io n s? B etw een a jo u rn ali s t a n d t h e n ew s o rg an iz atio n ’s c o rp ora te o w ners ?

Mid ra n ge I ssu es

How w ou ld y o u r e sp on d t o t h e r e a d er w ho w ro te t o t h e

New Y ork T im es

t o q uestio n t h at p ap er’s u se o f

an on ym ou s s o u rc e s?

Is t h ere a d is tin ctio n b etw een s o u rc e s w ho a re u n kn ow n t o t h e g en era l p ubli c b u t w ell k n ow n t o t h e

majo r p la y ers i n s p ecif ic s to rie s a n d s o u rc e s s u ch a s D eep T hro at w ho a re k n ow n o n ly t o jo u rn ali s ts ?

Why?

The n am es o f r a p e a n d s e x u al h ara ssm en t v ic tim s a re o ft e n a llo w ed t o r e m ain a n on ym ou s. E valu ate t h is

pro fe ssio n al n orm .

Macro I ssu es

In vestig ativ e jo u rn ali s t a n d

Wash in gto n P ost

e d it o r B ob W ood w ard h as s a id t h at s o m e i n stit u tio n s, s u ch a s

th e m ili t a ry a n d t h e c o u rts , c o u ld n ot b e c o vere d w ere i t n ot f o r a n on ym ou s s o u rc e s. A ssu m in g t h at

Wood w ard i s c o rre ct, w hat s h ou ld jo u rn ali s ts a g re e t o i n o rd er t o c o ver t h ese i m porta n t b ea ts ?

Ju d it h M ille r s p en t t h re e m on th s i n ja il r a th er t h an r e v ea l t h e s o u rc e s o f h er s to rie s o n w ea p on s o f m ass

destr u ctio n . W ou ld y o u b e w illi n g t o t a k e s u ch a s ta n d? D o y o u t h in k n ew s o rg an iz atio n s s h ou ld s u p port

jo u rn ali s ts w ho d o m ak e s u ch d ecis io n s?

CASE 2 -B

DEA TH A S C O NTEN T: S O CIA L R ESP O NSIB IL IT Y A N D T H E D O CUM EN TA RY

FIL M MAKER

TA N NER H AW KIN S

Okla h om a C hris t ia n U niv er sit y

Eric S te ele ’s d ocu m en ta ry

The B rid ge

te lls th e sto ry o f th e G old en G ate B rid ge— th e le a d in g lo ca tio n fo r

su ic id e in th e w orld — an d th e p eo p le w ho tr a v el fr o m aro u n d th e n atio n to en d th eir li v es th ere . T he

docu m en ta ry a ls o f e a tu re s i n te rv ie w s w it h t h e f a m ili e s o f t h e d ece a se d a n d a l o n e ju m per w ho s u rv iv ed .

Ste ele ’s c re w s p en t 3 65 d ay s r e co rd in g th e b rid ge a n d d ocu m en te d 2 3 o f th e 2 4 s u ic id es th at o ccu rre d in

2004. A cco rd in g to S te ele , h e a n d h is c re w w ere o ft e n th e fir s t c a lle rs to th e b rid ge p atr o l o ffic e to re p ort

ju m pers , b u t th ey n ev er sto p ped re co rd in g d urin g in cid en ts w it h p ote n tia l ju m pers a n d th ose th at fo llo w ed

th ro u gh . T o a ccu ra te ly p ortr a y th e a m ou n t o f s u ic id es th at ta k e p la ce a n nually a t th e b rid ge, S te ele a n d h is

cre w d id n ot p ers o n ally i n te rfe re w it h a n y o f t h e ju m pers .

In t h e U nit e d S ta te s, a p pro xim ate ly 3 0,0 00 p eo p le k ill t h em se lv es e a ch y ea r. T he a v era g e a g e f o r t h e G old en

Gate B rid ge is in th e 2 0s. E le v en m en d ie d b u ild in g th e s tr u ctu re . I n a n in te rv ie w , S te ele s a id h e h ad o n ce

co n sid ere d s u ic id e. “ I t’s t h at H um pty D um pty m om en t w hen it ’s a ll g o in g t o f a ll a p art,” h e s a id . “ F or m e a n d

man y o th ers , i t d id n ’t c o m e. F or t h e p eo p le i n t h is f ilm , i t d id ” ( G li o n na

2006

Soon aft e r Ste ele ’s cre w w ra p ped up film in g, th e

San F ra n cis c o C hro n ic le

re p orte d th at m ult ip le

go vern m en t o ffic ia ls c la im ed th at S te ele li e d a b ou t th e in te n tio n s o f h is d ocu m en ta ry . W hen a p ply in g fo r a

perm it t o f ilm i n t h e G old en G ate N atio n al R ecre a tio n A re a , S te ele s a id h e p la n ned t o f ilm t h e “ p ow erfu l a n d

sp ecta cu la r in te ra ctio n b etw een th e m on um en t a n d n atu re .” H e la te r e m aile d b rid ge o ffic ia ls to c o n fe ss th e

tr u e i n te n tio n s o f h is d ocu m en ta ry , k n ow in g t h ere w as l i t tle t h ey c o u ld d o.

Man y crit ic s la m baste d th e docu m en ta ry , cla im in g th at fe a tu rin g th e brid ge as a pro m in en t su ic id e

destin atio n in s u ch a s o m ber m an ner w ou ld o n ly in cre a se th e n um ber o f s u ic id es. I t w as c a lle d “ v o yeu ris tic ,”

“g h astly ,” a n d “ im mora l” in v ario u s r e v ie w s a n d c a lle d th e e q uiv ale n t o f a “ sn uff film ” b y o n e S an F ra n cis c o

su p erv is o r.

“T his is li k e a n ew sp ap er c a rry in g a fr o n t- p ag e p h oto o f so m eo n e b lo w in g h is h ea d o ff; it ’s ir re sp on sib le ,

ex p lo it iv e,” s a id M ark C haffe e, p re sid en t o f S uic id e P re v en tio n A dvo ca cy N etw ork C ali f o rn ia .

40 Oth er d etr a cto rs re b u ked th e film fo r fa ili n g to in clu d e in te rv ie w s w it h an y m en ta l illn ess ex p erts or

psy ch olo gis ts . T he re v ie w o n th e B BC w eb sit e (M attin

2007

) n ote d th at “d esp it e th e sh ock in g, u p -c lo se

lo ok, w e’r e n o c lo se r t o a r e a l u n ders ta n din g o f t h e t e rrib le u rg e t o e n d i t a ll.”

The

New Y ork T im es

( H old en

2006

) t o ok a m id dle r o ad , o b se rv in g t h at

The B rid ge

r a is e s in ev it a b le q uestio n s

ab ou t t h e f ilm mak er’s m otiv es a n d m eth od s a n d w heth er h e c o u ld h av e t r ie d h ard er t o s a v e li v es. I t r a is e s a g e-

old m ora l a n d a esth etic q uestio n s a b ou t th e d eta ch m en t fr o m o n e’s su rro u n din gs th at g az in g th ro u gh th e

ca m era ’s le n s te n ds to p ro d uce .” T he a u th or g o es o n to sa y th at su ch d is c u ssio n w as b ey o n d th e sc o p e o f a

movie r e v ie w .

How ev er, ju st a s m an y s u p porte rs c a m e to th e d efe n se o f th e d ocu m en ta ry , a rg u in g th at th e film b ro u gh t

aw are n ess to a n im porta n t

to p ic th at is n ot d is c u sse d o p en ly e n ou gh in s o cie ty . R ev ie w er Jim E m ers o n (

2006

), w rit in g f o r R oger E bert’s w eb sit e , s a id o f t h e f ilm :

The B rid ge

is n eit h er a w ell- in te n tio n ed h um an it a ria n p ro je ct, n or a v o yeu ris tic s n uff f ilm . I t s u cce ed s b eca u se it is h on est a b ou t e x h ib it in g

un den ia b le e le m en ts o f b oth . I t’s a p ro fo u n dly a ffe ctin g w ork o f a rt t h at p eers i n to a n a b yss t h at m ost o f u s a re t e rrif ie d t o f a ce .

Follo w in g t h e r e le a se o f t h e f ilm , t h e c it y o f S an F ra n cis c o v o te d t o s p en d $ 2 m illi o n o n a s tu d y t o e x am in e

bu ild in g a p ed estr ia n s u ic id e b arrie r, a m ove t h ey h ad r e sis te d i n t h e p ast ( G li o n na

2006

Mic ro I ssu es

Shou ld t h e m ak ers o f t h e d ocu m en ta ry h av e t r ie d t o i n te rv en e i n a n y o f t h e t w en ty -p lu s s u ic id es t h ey

wit n esse d ? W hy o r w hy n ot? J u stif y y o u r a n sw er.

If a n ew s c re w h ad b een o n t h e b rid ge a t t h e t im e o f a ju m per, w ou ld t h eir o b li g atio n s b e a n y d if fe re n t

th an a d ocu m en ta ria n ?

Beca u se s u ic id e i s a c rim e, d id t h e f ilm mak ers h av e a d uty t o r e p ort t h e ju m pers a s t h ey c li m bed t o t h e

to p o f t h e b rid ge?

Mid ra n ge I ssu es

Does t h e r e co rd in g o f t h e l a st m om en ts o f n ea rly t w o d ozen l i v es v io la te t h e p riv acy o f i n div id uals

su ffe rin g f r o m s e v ere m en ta l i lln ess? T he p riv acy o f t h eir f a m ili e s? I f s o , i s t h is v io la tio n ju stif ie d ?

Does S te ele ’s d is h on esty i n o b ta in in g a p erm it t o f ilm t h e b rid ge a n d t h e ju m pers n eg ate t h e i n te g rit y o f

his d ocu m en ta ry ? D is c u ss y o u r a n sw er i n l i g h t o f u tili t a ria n t h eo ry .

Is t h ere a n y m erit t o c o m pla in ts t h at t h e d ocu m en ta ry m ig h t e n co u ra g e “ c o p yca ts ” a m on g t h ose

str u ggli n g w it h s u ic id al t h ou gh ts ? J u stif y y o u r a n sw er.

Do y o u a g re e w it h t h e c o m men ts b y C haffe e t h at t h e f ilm i s e q uiv ale n t t o a n ew sp ap er p rin tin g a p h oto

of s o m eo n e b lo w in g h is h ea d o ff? I n w hat w ay i s t h e c o m paris o n r ig h t o r w ro n g i n y o u r o p in io n ?

Macro I ssu es

Is t h ere a d if fe re n ce b etw een h ow a u tili t a ria n s u ch a s M ill w ou ld v ie w t h e d ecis io n s m ad e b y t h e

docu m en ta ria n s a n d h ow i t w ou ld

be v ie w ed b y a d eo n to lo gis t s u ch a s K an t? I f s o , d is c u ss h ow t h ey

wou ld d if fe r?

Oth er d ocu m en ta ria n s h av e h ad t o m ak e d ecis io n s t h at a llo w ed h arm t o c o m e t o t h eir s u bje cts o r

decis io n s t o n ot r e n der a id t o t h eir s u bje cts i n p urs u it o f a t r u th fu l o u tc o m e o n f ilm . W hat i s t h e “ g re a te r

go od ” i n s it u atio n s s u ch a s t h is ? I s t h ere a u n iv ers a l p rin cip le f o r a ll d ocu m en ta rie s o r s h ou ld i t b e d ecid ed

on a c a se -b y-c a se b asis ?

Man y b eli e v e t h at t h e d ecis io n b y t h e c it y t o f in an ce a s tu d y t o e x am in e w ay s t o p re v en t f u tu re s u ic id es

was m otiv ate d b y t h e f ilm . D oes t h is c h an ge y o u r o p in io n o f t h e f ilm i n a n y w ay ? I f s o , h ow ?

CASE 2 -C

NEW S A N D T H E T RA N SP A REN CY S T A N D ARD

LE E W IL K IN S

Wayn e S ta te U niv er sit y

Univ er sit y o f M is so u ri

By m an y m ea su re s, 2 010 a n d 2 011 w ere v ery b ad y ea rs f o r t h e C PB a n d it s r a d io a rm , N atio n al P ubli c R ad io

(N PR ). C PB fo u n d it s e lf u n der a tta ck b y m em bers o f th e T ea P arty a n d so m e o th er R ep ubli c a n s fo r w hat

th ey v ie w ed a s a “ li b era l” m ed ia a g en da. C on gre ss t h re a te n ed t o c u t C BP’s $ 320 m illi o n f u n din g, a m ove t h at

wou ld h av e p la ce d t h e f in an cia l f u tu re o f a b ou t 5 0 p erc e n t o f p ubli c r a d io a n d p ubli c t e le v is io n s ta tio n s ( m ost

of t h ose in s m alle r m ark ets ) in fis c a l je o p ard y. A t t h e s a m e t im e, t h e g re a t r e ce ssio n t h at b eg an in 2 008 a ls o

to ok a f in an cia l t o ll; a u d ie n ce f u n dra is in g a ctiv it y — an d c o rp ora te s u p port— wea k en ed .

41 Fin an ce s w ere n ot th e o n ly p ro b le m . T hese y ea rs in clu d ed a se rie s o f sig n if ic a n t c o n tr o vers ie s, b eg in nin g

wit h th e fir in g o f N PR ’s Ju an W illi a m s fo r c o m men ts h e m ad e a b ou t M usli m s th at w ere b ro ad ca st o n F ox

New s, w here h e a ls o w as a c o m men ta to r. U lt im ate ly , N PR ’s to p n ew s m an ag er, E lle n W eis s, w as fo rc e d to

re sig n o ver t h e in cid en t. J u st w eek s la te r, N PR ’s t o p e x ecu tiv e, V iv ia n S ch ille r, w ho h ad c o m e t o p ubli c r a d io

aft e r w ork in g a t t h e

New Y ork T im es

, w as f o rc e d t o r e sig n a ft e r a n a u d io t a p e o f o n e o f t h e o rg an iz atio n ’s t o p

fu n dra is e rs , R on S ch ille r ( n o r e la tio n ), s u rfa ce d o n t h e in te rn et. I n t h at a u d io t a p e, R on S ch ille r c a lle d s o m e

co n gre ssio n al R ep ubli c a n s a n d p artic u la rly m em bers o f t h e T ea P arty r a cis t, u n ch ris tia n , a n d a n ti- in te lle ctu al.

Sch ille r als o sa id h e b eli e v ed th at N PR an d th e C PB w ou ld , o ver th e lo n g ru n , b e b ette r o ff

wit h ou t

co n gre ssio n al f u n din g s u p port. B oth V iv ia n S ch ille r a n d R on S ch ille r w ere f o rc e d o u t.

All t h is c a m e in t h e m id st o f p ro fe ssio n al s u cce sse s, in clu d in g a li s te n in g a u d ie n ce f o r N PR o f m ore t h an 2 7

milli o n p eo p le — much ab ove th ose w atc h in g te le v is io n n etw ork an d ca b le n ew s— an d re p ortin g th at w on

ev ery p ro fe ssio n al p riz e.

CPB h ad la st c h an ged it s e d it o ria l a n d o rg an iz atio n al s ta n dard s in 2 005 b u t, b eg in nin g in 2 009, la u n ch ed a

mult i- y ea r p ro je ct t o u p d ate t h ose s ta n dard s a n d t o a p ply t h em t o a ll a sp ects o f C PB e ffo rts — fr o m p ro gra m

se le ctio n to fu n dra is in g to n ew s. T he in te n t w as a sin gle se t o f sta n dard s th at w ou ld in fo rm b est p ra ctic e s

th ro u gh ou t t h e c o rp ora tio n . E xecu tiv es h op ed t h ese c o n sis te n t s ta n dard s w ou ld s tr e n gth en t ie s w it h a u d ie n ce

mem bers a n d fu n ders , in clu d in g C on gre ss. T hose n ew sta n dard s w ere a d op te d in Ju n e 2 011 a n d m ay b e

acce sse d at:

http :/ /w ww.p bs.o rg /a b ou t/ e d it o ria l- sta n dard s/

. In m an y w ay s, th ese sta n dard s w ere sim ila r to

th ose t h at h ad i n fo rm ed t h e o rg an iz atio n s in ce i t s i n ce p tio n .

Those n ew sta n dard s in clu d ed sta n dard s fo r th e n ew s o rg an iz atio n th at au d ie n ce s k n ow as N PR . T he

sta n dard s w ere b ase d o n a n orm ativ e fr a m ew ork fo r N PR ’s jo u rn ali s m a n d in clu d ed a n a ck n ow le d gem en t o f

th e f o llo w in g p rin cip le s: f a ir n ess, a ccu ra cy , b ala n ce , r e sp on siv en ess t o t h e p ubli c ( a cco u n ta b ili t y ), c o u ra g e a n d

co n tr o vers y , s u bsta n ce o ver te ch niq ue, e x p erim en t a n d in novatio n , a n d e x p lo ra tio n o f s ig n if ic a n t s u bje cts , a s

well a s s u bse ctio n s o n w hat w ou ld b e c o n sid ere d u n pro fe ssio n al c o n duct, u n acce p ta b le p ro d uctio n m eth od s,

an d N PR ’s u se o f s o cia l m ed ia , p artic u la rly a s a s o u rc e fo r n ew s s to rie s. T hir d o n th e n orm ativ e li s t w as th e

sta n dard o f o b je ctiv it y , w hic h t h ose w ho d ev elo p ed t h e u p d ate d s ta n dard s l i n ked t o t r a n sp are n cy i n t h is w ay :

Bey o n d th at, fo r a w ork to b e c o n sid ere d o b je ctiv e, it sh ou ld re a ch a c e rta in le v el o f tr a n sp are n cy . In a

bro ad s e n se , t h is s p ir it o f t r a n sp are n cy m ea n s t h e a u d ie n ce s h ou ld b e a b le t o u n ders ta n d t h e b asic s o f h ow

th e p ro d uce rs p ut th e m ate ria l to geth er. F or e x am ple , th e a u d ie n ce g en era lly s h ou ld b e a b le to k n ow n ot

on ly w ho th e s o u rc e s o f in fo rm atio n a re , b u t a ls o w hy th ey w ere c h ose n a n d w hat th eir p ote n tia l b ia se s

mig h t b e. A s a n oth er e x am ple , i f p ro d uce rs f a ce p artic u la rly d if fic u lt e d it o ria l d ecis io n s t h at t h ey k n ow w ill

be c o n tr o vers ia l, th ey sh ou ld c o n sid er e x p la in in g w hy c h oic e s w ere m ad e so th e p ubli c c a n u n ders ta n d.

Pro d uce rs sh ou ld sim ila rly co n sid er ex p la in in g to th e au d ie n ce w hy ce rta in questio n s co u ld not be

an sw ere d , in clu d in g w hy, if c o n fid en tia l s o u rc e s a re r e li e d o n , t h e p ro d uce rs a g re ed t o a llo w t h e s o u rc e t o

re m ain a n on ym ou s. A nd th e sp ir it o f tr a n sp are n cy su ggests th at if th e p ro d uce rs h av e a rriv ed a t c e rta in

co n clu sio n s o r a p oin t o f v ie w , th e a u d ie n ce s h ou ld b e a b le to s e e th e e v id en ce s o it c a n u n ders ta n d h ow

th at p oin t o f v ie w w as a rriv ed a t. O ne

asp ir a tio n im pli c it in t h e id ea o f t r a n sp are n cy is t h at a n a u d ie n ce

mig h t a p pre cia te a n d l e a rn f r o m c o n te n t w it h w hic h i t a ls o m ig h t d is a g re e.

Opin io n an d co m men ta ry are d if fe re n t fr o m n ew s an d an aly sis . W hen a p ro gra m , se g m en t, d ig it a l

mate ria l o r o th er c o n te n t is d ev o te d t o o p in io n o r c o m men ta ry , t h e p rin cip le o f t r a n sp are n cy r e q uir e s t h at

it b e c le a rly la b ele d a s s u ch . A ny c o n te n t s e g m en t th at p re se n ts o n ly li k e-m in ded v ie w s w it h ou t o ffe rin g

co n tr a stin g v ie w poin ts s h ou ld b e c o n sid ere d o p in io n a n d s h ou ld id en tif y w ho is r e sp on sib le fo r t h e v ie w s

bein g p re se n te d .

No co n te n t d is tr ib u te d b y P B S sh ou ld p erm it co n sc io u s m an ip ula tio n o f se le cte d fa cts in o rd er to

pro p ag an diz e.

In div id ual m ed ia ou tle ts — both te le v is io n an d ra d io — may decid e w heth er to ad op t th ese vo lu n ta ry

sta n dard s.

Mic ro I ssu es

Are t h ere c e rta in s o rts o f a g re em en ts b etw een jo u rn ali s ts a n d t h eir s o u rc e s t h at w ou ld b e je o p ard iz ed b y

th e t r a n sp are n cy s ta n dard ?

Are t h ere c e rta in s o rts o f a ctiv it ie s jo u rn ali s ts d o— fo r e x am ple , d ecid in g w hic h s to rie s t o c o ver— th at

mig h t b en efit f r o m a “ tr a n sp are n cy ” s ta n dard ?

Does b ein g t r a n sp are n t a b ou t p ro ce ss a d d u n pro d uctiv ely t o a jo u rn ali s ts ’ w ork lo ad ?

Is t r a n sp are n cy b est c o n sid ere d a c o m pon en t p art o f o b je ctiv it y ?

Mid ra n ge I ssu es

42 1.

Tak e a n ew s s to ry f r o m a n y m ed ia s o u rc e a n d e v alu ate h ow w ell i t m eets t h e C PB n orm ativ e g u id eli n es.

What v alu es o n t h e C PB l i s t d o y o u f in d i n te rn ally c o n sis te n t? C on tr a d ic to ry ? C ou ld y o u a d op t t h ese

sta n dard s a s p art o f y o u r b est p ra ctic e s?

Do y o u t h in k l a b eli n g s o m eth in g n ew s o r o p in io n m atte rs t o m ost a u d ie n ce m em bers ? W hat a b ou t

en te rta in m en t p ro gra m min g s u ch a s

The D aily S how

Macro I ssu es

Shou ld t h e U S t a x p ay er f u n d m ed ia o rg an iz atio n s s u ch a s t h e C PB ?

What d efin it io n o f t r u th d o y o u b eli e v e C PB i s a p ply in g t o n ew s c o n te n t— at l e a st a s r e fle cte d i n i t s

pro fe ssio n al s ta n dard s?

CASE 2 -D

CAN I Q UO TE M E O N T H AT?

CH AD P A IN TER

Univ er sit y o f D ayto n

Durin g a n A ug. 1 9, 2 012, in te rv ie w w it h S t. L ou is te le v is io n s ta tio n K TV I- T V , M is so u ri s e n ate c a n did ate

Tod d A kin s a id w om en c a n not g et p re g n an t fr o m “ le g it im ate r a p e” b eca u se th eir b od ie s h av e w ay s to b lo ck

un w an te d p re g n an cie s. R ep ubli c a n p re sid en tia l c o n te n der M it t R om ney q uic k ly c o n dem ned th e c o m men ts ,

ca lli n g th em “ in su lt in g, in ex cu sa b le , a n d fr a n kly , w ro n g” a n d s a y in g th at h e fo u n d th e c o m men ts “ o ffe n siv e”

an d “ e n tir e ly w it h ou t m erit ,” a cco rd in g t o a n a rtic le i n t h e

Natio n al R ev ie w

But d id R om ney a ctu ally s a y t h ose w ord s?

There is q uestio n b eca u se g o vern m en t a n d c a m paig n o ffic ia ls re g u la rly g ra n t in te rv ie w s to jo u rn ali s ts o n ly

un der t h e c o n dit io n o f q uote a p pro val, a cco rd in g t o

New Y ork T im es

r e p orte r J e re m y P ete rs . Q uote a p pro val,

Tim e

m ed ia c rit ic J a m es P on ie w ozik w ro te , is w hen a jo u rn ali s t a g re es t o s e n d h is o r h er s o u rc e q uote s t o b e

“re d acte d , s tr ip ped o f c o lo rfu l m eta p h ors , c o llo q uia l l a n gu ag e a n d a n yth in g e v en m ild ly p ro vo ca tiv e.”

Pete rs w ro te th at R om ney an d h is ca m paig n ad vis e rs alm ost alw ay s re q uir e quote ap pro val fr o m an y

co n vers a tio n , a n d t h at jo u rn ali s ts q uotin g a n y o f R om ney ’s f iv e s o n s u se o n ly q uota tio n s a p pro ved b y h is p re ss

offic e . Q uote a p pro val a ls o is t h e a cce p te d n orm f o r P re sid en t B ara ck O bam a, h is t o p s tr a te g is ts , a n d a lm ost

all o f h is m id le v el a id s i n C hic a g o a n d W ash in gto n .

Sev era l m ajo r n ew s o rg an iz atio n s— in clu d in g th e

New Y ork T im es

Wash in gto n P ost

Reu te r s

Blo om ber g

Van it y F air

, a n d

Natio n al J o u rn al

—hav e a cce p te d t h e p ra ctic e o f q uote a p pro val in p oli t ic a l s to rie s, a cco rd in g

to P ete rs . (T here als o is a lo n g-sta n din g, p ro b le m atic tr a d it io n o f q uote ap pro val fo r ce le b rit y n ew s an d

ce rta in ty p es o f sp orts sto rie s.) O ne re a so n fo r th e a cq uie sc e n ce b y re p orte rs , P on ie w ozik w ro te , is th at a

re p orte r w ho d oes n ot a cce p t t h e c o n dit io n c o u ld b e s c o op ed b y a n oth er r e p orte r w ho d id . A s e co n d r e a so n is

th at r e p orte rs o ft e n a re d esp era te to p ic k th e b ra in s o f a p oli t ic ia n o r h is to p s tr a te g is ts . F in ally , e a ch o f th e

re p orte rs P ete rs in te rv ie w ed s a id t h at t h e m ea n in gs o f q uote s w ere n ot a lt e re d , a n d t h at c h an ges w ere a lw ay s

sm all a n d s e em in gly u n nece ssa ry .

Man y jo u rn ali s ts p erfo rm a ccu ra cy c h eck s w it h s o u rc e s, e n su rin g t h at t h e q uote s a n d in fo rm atio n g ain ed

fr o m a so u rc e are co rre ct. S om e p ubli c a tio n s re q uir e accu ra cy ch eck s. H ow ev er, q uote ap pro val is q uit e

dif fe re n t f r o m a n a ccu ra cy c h eck .

The q uote a p pro val r e q uir e m en t r e a lly is a s tr u ggle b etw een r e p orte rs a n d p oli t ic ia n s f o r p ow er a n d c o n tr o l.

New s is a c o n str u ctio n o f re a li t y (G ula ti, Ju st, a n d C rig le r

2004

) d ep en den t o n th e re la tio n sh ip o f a n ew s

org an iz atio n w it h o th er in stit u tio n s, in te re sts , o r g ro u p s in a s o cie ty (B ald asty

1992

; S hoem ak er a n d R eese

1996

). N ew s a b ou t p oli t ic a l c a m paig n s is a n o n go in g n eg o tia tio n — or p ow er s tr u ggle — betw een jo u rn ali s ts ,

ed it o rs , a n d o w ners o n o n e s id e, a n d c a n did ate s, c a m paig n s ta ffe rs , a n d p arty a ctiv is ts o n t h e o th er ( G ula ti e t

al.

2004

). T he m ed ia n eed a ste a d y, re li a b le flo w o f th e ra w m ate ria l o f n ew s (H erm an C hom sk y

2002

Jo u rn ali s ts b eco m e r e li a n t o n t h eir s o u rc e s b eca u se o f t h is c o n sta n t n eed f o r n ew i n fo rm atio n , a n d t h is r e li a n ce

allo w s s o u rc e s t o d ic ta te t e rm s o f c o vera g e.

Poli t ic ia n s a n d t h eir c a m paig n s ta ffs a ls o c o u ld b e a sse rtin g c o n tr o l, c a lli n g o ff t h e h ou n ds o f a n a tta ck -d og

pre ss. S ab ato (

2000

) su ggests th at atta ck jo u rn ali s m d urin g p re sid en tia l ca m paig n s ca u se s ca n did ate s to

beco m e in cre a sin gly s e cre tiv e b eca u se o f t h eir f e a r o f r e p orte rs . T he r e su lt is t h at p oli t ic ia n s li m it p re ss a cce ss

ex ce p t u n der h ig h ly c o n tr o lle d sit u atio n s (S ab ato

2000

). T he u lt im ate h ig h ly c o n tr o lle d sit u atio n is fo r a

poli t ic ia n t o g ra n t i n te rv ie w s o n ly w hen h e o r s h e k n ow s a n y q uote c a n b e d ele te d o r c h an ged .

Mic ro I ssu es

43 1.

Cit iz en s n eed i n fo rm atio n a b ou t c a n did ate s’ a n d p oli t ic ia n s’ v ie w s o n i s su es. H ow ev er, w hat s h ou ld

jo u rn ali s ts b e w illi n g t o g iv e u p i n o rd er t o o b ta in t h at i n fo rm atio n ?

How r e li a b le i s i n fo rm atio n o b ta in ed a ft e r a p oli t ic ia n o r h is o r h er a d vis e rs h av e m assa g ed o r a lt e re d

quote s?

Are t h ere c e rta in s o rts o f s to rie s, f o r e x am ple , s to rie s a b ou t s c ie n ce o r f in an ce , w here t h is p ra ctic e m ig h t

be m ore a cce p ta b le ? W hy o r w hy n ot?

Mid ra n ge I ssu es

Quote a p pro val i s f o r n ew sp ap er jo u rn ali s ts . S hou ld t h ere b e s u ch a t h in g a s v id eo a p pro val? W hat w ou ld

be t h e m ora lly r e le v an t d is tin ctio n s?

Shou ld r e p orte rs d is c lo se t o t h eir r e a d ers w hen t h ey h av e s u bm it te d a s to ry f o r q uote a p pro val?

How i s q uote a p pro val r e la te d t o t r u th ?

Macro I ssu es

Med ia b ase d o n s o cia l r e sp on sib ili t y i s p re m is e d o n t h e i d ea t h at f r e ed om o f e x p re ssio n i s a p osit iv e

fr e ed om ( N ero n e

1995

). T he m ora l r ig h t o f f r e ed om o f e x p re ssio n i s n ot u n co n dit io n al ( T he

Com mis sio n o n F re ed om o f t h e P re ss

1947

) b u t a r ig h t g ra n te d t o d o m ora l g o od ( N ero n e

1995

). B y

ag re ein g t o “ q uote a p pro val,” a re r e p orte rs o p en in g t h e d eb ate a s t o w heth er t h ey a re s e rv in g t h e b est

in te re sts o f t h e p ubli c o r s e rv in g t h e i n te re sts o f p oli t ic ia n s?

How d oes t h e n otio n o f c it iz en jo u rn ali s m i n flu en ce t h e c o n ce p t o f q uote a p pro val? O f c a n did ate s’

willi n gn ess t o s p ea k “ o ff t h e c u ff” w it h c it iz en s?

CASE 2 -E

NPR , T H E

NEW Y O RK T IM ES

, A N D W ORK IN G C O ND IT IO NS I N C H IN A

LE E W IL K IN S

Wayn e S ta te U niv er sit y

Univ er sit y o f M is so u ri

On Ja n . 6 , 2 012, Ira G la ss, h ost o f A m eric a n P ubli c M ed ia ’s “T his A m eric a n L if e ,” d ev o te d a 3 9-m in ute

se g m en t t o a r e p ort o n w ork in g c o n dit io n s a t m an ufa ctu rin g p la n ts i n C hin a.

The s h ow w as b ase d e x te n siv ely o n a s in gle s o u rc e , M ik e D ais e y , w ho r e co u n te d w hat h e h ad s e en a n d w hat

he h ad b een t o ld t h ro u gh a n in te rp re te r o n a v is it t o a F oxco n n f a cto ry in C hin a, a p la n t t h at m ak es p arts f o r

th e p op ula r iP hon e a n d iP ad . D ais e y r e co u n te d s to rie s a b ou t w ork in g c o n dit io n s a n d s ta te d s o m e w ork ers in

th e p la n t h ad b een p ois o n ed d urin g t h e m an ufa ctu rin g p ro ce ss.

Less th an a m on th la te r, th e

New Y ork T im es

ra n a s e rie s o f in vestig ativ e s to rie s o n w ork in g c o n dit io n s a t

Chin ese p la n ts m ak in g A pple p ro d ucts .

“M r. D ais e y a n d th e A pple F acto ry ” q uic k ly b eca m e th e m ost p op ula r “ T his A m eric a n L if e ” p od ca st, w it h

ab ou t 8 80,0 00 d ow nlo ad s. D ais e y , a p erfo rm an ce a rtis t, b eca m e s o m eth in g o f a c e le b rit y a n d A pple c rit ic ,

gra n tin g num ero u s in te rv ie w s ab ou t his ex p erie n ce s. F ace d w it h th e publi c it y , A pple it s e lf re sp on ded ,

an nou n cin g th at it w ou ld fo r th e fir s t tim e allo w th ir d -p arty in sp ectio n s of it s C hin ese m an ufa ctu rin g

fa cili t ie s.

NPR ’s “ M ark etp la ce ” re p orte r R ob S ch m it z a ls o h ad s p en t a g re a t d ea l o f tim e in C hin a a n d re p orte d o n

work in g c o n dit io n s t h ere . H e, t o o, h ea rd t h e M r. D ais e y s e g m en t— an d h e t o ld h is b osse s a t N PR t h at t h ere

were f a cts i n clu d ed i n i t t h at d id n ot r in g t r u e. H e w as g iv en t h e g o a h ea d t o d o i n dep en den t r e p ortin g.

Less t h an t h re e m on th s l a te r, G la ss a ir e d t h e f o llo w in g r e tr a ctio n :

I h av e d if fic u lt n ew s. W e’v e le a rn ed t h at M ik e D ais e y ’s s to ry a b ou t A pple in C hin a— whic h w e b ro ad ca st

in Ja n uary — co n ta in ed sig n if ic a n t fa b ric a tio n s. W e’r e re tr a ctin g th e sto ry b eca u se w e c a n ’t v o u ch fo r it s

tr u th . T his is n ot a s to ry w e c o m mis sio n ed . I t w as a n e x ce rp t o f M ik e D ais e y ’s a ccla im ed o n e-m an s h ow

“T he A go n y a n d t h e E csta sy o f S te v e J o b s,” in w hic h h e t a lk s a b ou t v is it in g a f a cto ry in C hin a t h at m ak es

iP hon es a n d o th er A pple p ro d ucts .

The C hin a c o rre sp on den t fo r th e p ubli c ra d io sh ow “M ark etp la ce ” tr a ck ed d ow n th e in te rp re te r th at

Dais e y h ir e d w hen h e v is it e d S hen zh en C hin a. T he in te rp re te r d is p ute d m uch o f w hat D ais e y h as b een

sa y in g o n s ta g e a n d o n o u r s h ow . O n t h is w eek ’s e p is o d e o f

This A m er ic a n L ife

, w e w ill d ev o te th e e n tir e

hou r t o d eta ili n g t h e e rro rs i n “ M r. D ais e y G oes t o t h e A pple F acto ry .”

Dais e y li e d t o m e a n d t o

This A m er ic a n L ife

p ro d uce r B ria n R eed d urin g t h e f a ct c h eck in g w e d id o n t h e

44 Dais e y li e d t o m e a n d t o

This A m er ic a n L ife

p ro d uce r B ria n R eed d urin g t h e f a ct c h eck in g w e d id o n t h e

sto ry , b efo re it w as b ro ad ca st. T hat d oesn ’t e x cu se t h e fa ct t h at w e n ev er s h ou ld ’v e p ut t h is o n t h e a ir . I n

th e e n d, t h is w as o u r m is ta k e.

Subse q uen t in sp ectio n s at F oxco n n pla n ts did re v ea l num ero u s vio la tio n s of ag re em en ts to w ork in g

co n dit io n s t h ere . M r. D ais e y , in s u bse q uen t in te rv ie w s, h as s a id t h at w hile t h e s p ecif ic s o f h is a lle g atio n s a re

fa b ric a tio n s, t h e o vera ll i n dic tm en t o f A pple i s “ tr u e.”

Mic ro I ssu es

Ju stif y S ch m it z ’s d ecis io n t o g o t o h is e d it o rs , w ho w ork f o r t h e s a m e o rg an iz atio n t h at b ro ad ca sts “ T his

Am eric a n L if e ,” a sk in g t o r e in vestig ate t h is s to ry ?

Dow nlo ad t h e o rig in al M r. D ais e y p ie ce a n d t h e

New Y ork T im es

i n vestig ativ e r e p ort. E xam in e t h e

so u rc e s f o r e a ch . W hat p rin cip le s r e g ard in g “ k n ow in g” a n d “ te lli n g” t h e t r u th e m erg e?

Was t h e r e tr a ctio n t h at I ra G la ss p ro vid ed e th ic a lly ju stif ia b le ? W hy?

Mid ra n ge I ssu es

Man y r e p orte rs w ork i n c o u n tr ie s w here t h ey d o n ot s p ea k t h e n ativ e l a n gu ag e(s ). W hat a re t h e r is k s t o

accu ra te r e p ortin g w hen t h e i n div id ual jo u rn ali s t d oes n ot u n ders ta n d t h e w ord s t h at a re b ein g s p oken ?

Shou ld “ h elp ers ” s u ch a s t r a n sla to rs r e ce iv e s o m e b yli n e o r o n -a ir c re d it f o r t h eir a ssis ta n ce w it h s u ch

co vera g e?

What jo u rn ali s tic n orm s m ad e M r. D ais e y ’s a cco u n ts s o b eli e v ab le ? H ow d o y o u s e e t h ose n orm s

ex p re sse d i n o th er i n vestig ativ e r e p orts ?

The

New Y ork T im es

h as n ev er h ad t o r e tr a ct a n y o f i t s r e p ortin g o n t h is i s su e. E valu ate t h e d is tin ctio n s

betw een t h e

Tim es

r e p ort a n d t h e M r. D ais e y p ie ce b ase d o n t h e e th ic a l n ew s v alu es o u tli n ed i n t h is

ch ap te r.

Macro I ssu es

How s h ou ld jo u rn ali s ts t r e a t s o u rc e s t h at l i e t o t h em , p artic u la rly a ft e r t h e l i e h as b een d is c o vere d ? I s

what I ra G la ss d id i n h is r e tr a ctio n e th ic a l?

Is M r. D ais e y r ig h t— ev en t h ou gh h is f a cts w ere w ro n g? W as t h e o vera ll s to ry “ tr u e”? W hat d efin it io n o f

tr u th d o y o u u se i n r e sp on din g t o t h is q uestio n ?

CASE 2 -F

WHEN I S O BJE C TIV E R EPO RT IN G I R RESP O NSIB LE R EPO RT IN G ?

TH EO DO RE L . G LA SSE R

Sta n fo rd U niv er sit y

Am an da L au re n s, a re p orte r fo r a lo ca l d aily n ew sp ap er, c o vers th e c it y m ay o r’s o ffic e , w here y este rd ay sh e

atte n ded a 4 p .m . p re ss c o n fe re n ce . T he m ay o r, B en A dam s, r e a d a s ta te m en t a ccu sin g E van M ic h aels , a c it y

co u n cil m em ber, o f b ein g a “ p aid li a r” fo r th e p estic id e in dustr y . “ C ou n cilm an M ic h aels ,” th e m ay o r s a id a t

th e p re ss co n fe re n ce , “h as in te n tio n ally d is to rte d th e fa cts ab ou t th e effe cts o f ce rta in p estic id es o n b ir d s

in dig en ou s to th e lo ca l a re a .” “M r. M ic h aels ,” th e m ay o r c o n tin ued , “is o n th e p ay ro ll o f a lo ca l p estic id e

man ufa ctu re r,” a n d h is v ie w s o n t h e e ffe cts o f p estic id es o n b ir d l i f e “ a re n ece ssa rily t a in te d .”

The p re ss c o n fe re n ce e n ded a t a b ou t 5 :1 5 p .m ., le ss th an a n h ou r b efo re h er 6 p .m . d ea d li n e. L au re n s

quic k ly c o n ta cte d C ou n cilm an M ic h aels f o r a q uote in r e sp on se t o t h e m ay o r’s s ta te m en t. M ic h aels , h ow ev er,

re fu se d to co m men t, e x ce p t to sa y th at M ay o r A dam s’s a ccu sa tio n s w ere “u tte r n on se n se ” a n d “p oli t ic a lly

motiv ate d .” L au re n s f ile d h er s to ry , w hic h in clu d ed b oth t h e m ay o r’s a ccu sa tio n a n d t h e c o u n cilm an ’s d en ia l.

Lau re n s’s e d it o r t h ou gh t t h e s to ry w as f a ir a n d b ala n ce d a n d r a n i t t h e f o llo w in g m orn in g o n t h e f r o n t p ag e.

The m ay o r w as p le a se d w it h th e c o vera g e h e re ce iv ed . H e th ou gh t L au re n s h ad a cte d p ro fe ssio n ally a n d

re sp on sib ly b y r e p ortin g h is a ccu sa tio n a lo n g w it h M ic h aels ’s d en ia l. A nyth in g e ls e , t h e m ay o r t h ou gh t, w ou ld

hav e v io la te d th e p rin cip le s o f o b je ctiv e jo u rn ali s m . T he m ay o r h ad a lw ay s b eli e v ed th at o n e o f th e m ost

im porta n t re sp on sib ili t ie s o f th e p re ss w as to p ro vid e a n im partia l fo ru m fo r p ubli c c o n tr o vers ie s, a n d th e

ex ch an ge b etw een h im a n d t h e c o u n cilm an w as c e rta in ly a b on afid e p ubli c c o n tr o vers y . D ecid in g w ho’s r ig h t

an d w ho’s w ro n g is n ot th e re sp on sib ili t y o f jo u rn ali s ts , th e m ay o r b eli e v ed , b u t a re sp on sib ili t y b est le ft to

re a d ers .

Cou n cilm an M ic h aels , in co n tr a st, w as o u tr a g ed . H e w ro te a sc a th in g le tte r to th e ed it o r, ch id in g th e

45 Cou n cilm an M ic h aels , in co n tr a st, w as o u tr a g ed . H e w ro te a sc a th in g le tte r to th e ed it o r, ch id in g th e

new sp ap er fo r m in dle ss, ir re sp on sib le jo u rn ali s m . “ T he s to ry m ay h av e b een fa ir , b ala n ce d a n d a ccu ra te ,” h e

wro te , “b u t it w as n ot tr u th fu l.” H e h ad n ev er li e d a b ou t th e e ffe cts o f p estic id es o n b ir d li f e , a n d h e h ad

“n ev er b een o n th e p ay ro ll o f a n y p estic id e m an ufa ctu re r,” h e w ro te . “ A r e sp on sib le r e p orte r w ou ld d o m ore

th an r e p ort th e fa cts tr u th fu lly ; s h e w ou ld a ls o r e p ort th e tr u th a b ou t th e fa cts .” I n th is c a se , M ic h aels s a id ,

th e re p orte r sh ou ld h av e h eld o ff o n th e sto ry u n til sh e h ad tim e to in dep en den tly in vestig ate th e m ay o r’s

accu sa tio n ; a n d if t h e a ccu sa tio n h ad p ro ved t o b e o f n o m erit , a s M ic h aels in sis te d , t h en t h ere s h ou ld n ’t h av e

been a s to ry . O r i f t h ere h ad t o b e a s to ry , M ic h aels a d ded , “ it s h ou ld b e a s to ry a b ou t t h e

mayor

l y in g.”

By w ay o f b ack gro u n d: T he e ffe cts o f p estic id es o n b ir d li f e h ad b een a lo ca l is su e f o r n ea rly a y ea r. P art o f

th e c o m mun it y b ack s M ay o r A dam s’s p osit io n o n t h e h arm fu l e ffe cts o f c e rta in p estic id es a n d s u p ports lo ca l

le g is la tio n th at w ou ld li m it o r b an th eir u se . O th ers in th e co m mun it y su p port C ou n cilm an M ic h aels ’s

posit io n t h at t h e e v id en ce o n t h e e ffe cts o f p estic id es o n b ir d li f e is a t b est a m big u ou s a n d t h at m ore s c ie n tif ic

stu d y is n eed ed b efo re a n yo n e p ro p ose s le g is la tio n . T hey a rg u e t h at p estic id es a re u se fu l, p artic u la rly t o lo ca l

fa rm ers w ho n eed to p ro te ct cro p s, an d b eca u se th e av aila b le ev id en ce ab ou t th eir d ele te rio u s effe cts is

in co n clu siv e, t h ey b eli e v e t h at t h e c it y c o u n cil s h ou ld n ot s e ek

to f u rth er r e str ic t o r p ro h ib it t h eir u se . T he

ex ch an ge b etw een M ay o r A dam s a n d C ou n cilm an M ic h aels is th e la te st in a se rie s o f v erb al b ou ts o n th e

su bje ct o f p estic id es a n d t h e c it y ’s r o le i n t h eir r e g u la tio n .

Mic ro I ssu es

Did L au re n s d o t h e r ig h t t h in g b y s u bm it tin g h er s to ry w it h ou t t h e b en efit o f a n i n dep en den t

in vestig atio n i n to t h e m ay o r’s a ccu sa tio n s a b ou t C ou n cilm an M ic h aels ?

Is t h e m ay o r c o rre ct i n a rg u in g t h at L au re n s a cte d r e sp on sib ly b y p ro vid in g f a ir a n d b ala n ce d c o vera g e o f

both s id es o f a p ubli c c o n tr o vers y w it h ou t t r y in g t o ju d ge w hose s id e i s r ig h t a n d w hose s id e i s w ro n g?

Is t h e c o u n cilm an c o rre ct i n a rg u in g t h at L au re n s a cte d i r re sp on sib ly b y c o n ce rn in g h ers e lf o n ly w it h

re p ortin g t h e f a cts t r u th fu lly a n d i g n orin g t h e “ tr u th a b ou t t h e f a cts ” ?

Mid ra n ge I ssu es

Is i t s u ffic ie n t w hen c o verin g p ubli c c o n tr o vers ie s t o s im ply r e p ort t h e f a cts a ccu ra te ly a n d f a ir ly ? D oes i t

matte r t h at f a ir a n d a ccu ra te r e p ortin g o f f a cts m ig h t n ot d o ju stic e t o t h e t r u th a b ou t t h e f a cts ?

Does t h e p ra ctic e o f o b je ctiv e r e p ortin g d is ta n ce r e p orte rs f r o m t h e s u bsta n ce o f t h eir s to rie s i n w ay s

co n tr a ry t o t h e i d ea ls o f r e sp on sib le jo u rn ali s m ?

If r e p orte rs s e rv e a s t h e e y es a n d e a rs o f t h eir r e a d ers , h ow c a n t h ey b e e x p ecte d t o r e p ort m ore t h an w hat

th ey ’v e h ea rd o r s e en ?

Macro I ssu es

What d is tin gu is h es f a ct f r o m t r u th ? F or w hic h s h ou ld jo u rn ali s ts a cce p t r e sp on sib ili t y ?

If jo u rn ali s ts k n ow t h at a f a ct i s n ot t r u e, d o t h ey h av e a n o b li g atio n t o s h are t h at k n ow le d ge w it h t h eir

re a d ers ? A nd i f t h ey d o s h are t h at k n ow le d ge, h ow c a n t h ey c la im t o b e o b je ctiv e i n t h eir r e p ortin g?

Ju stif y o r r e je ct t h e r o le o f o b je ctiv it y i n a n e ra w here m ore m ed ia o u tle ts a re a v aila b le t h an e v er b efo re .

CASE 2 -G

IS I T N EW S Y ET ?

MIC H ELLE P E LT IE R

Univ er sit y o f M is so u ri

Every w eek d ay aft e rn oon , h e sc re a m s, p ou ts , w hin es, sto m ps h is fe et, an d th ro w s th in gs in ra b id fit s o f

fr u str a tio n . I t’s J im C ra m er, t h e m an ic 5 4-y ea r- o ld h ost o f C N BC ’s “ M ad M on ey ” p ro gra m . C ra m er u se s a ll

th e h yp erk in etic b ells , w his tle s, an d sp ecia l effe cts of a te le v is io n gam e sh ow to sh ow ca se th e n on sto p

on sla u gh t o f h is l a te st b u y a n d s e ll r e co m men datio n s f o r s to ck s.

“I t occu p ie s so m e so rt of n eth erw orld betw een sh eer en te rta in m en t an d use fu l fin an cia l ad vic e ,” sa id

Wash in gto n P ost

m ed ia w rit e r H ow ard K urtz , ju st a f e w m on th s a ft e r t h e s h ow b eg an i n 2 005 ( F arz ad

2005

“T his s h ow is a b ou t m ak in g m on ey a n d e d uca tin g y o u w hile w e e n te rta in y o u . T here ’s n o b on es a b ou t t h at,”

Susa n K ra k o w er, t h e v ic e p re sid en t o f s tr a te g ic d ev elo p m en t a t C N BC , w ho c o cre a te d t h e s h ow w it h C ra m er,

to ld t h e

Holly w ood R ep orte r

( G ou gh

2006

Base d o n ra tin gs, vie w ers h ip ris e s alo n g w it h th e sto ck m ark et’s vo la tili t y , th ou gh it ’s d if fic u lt to k n ow

46 Base d o n ra tin gs, vie w ers h ip ris e s alo n g w it h th e sto ck m ark et’s vo la tili t y , th ou gh it ’s d if fic u lt to k n ow

wheth er t h e p eo p le w ho t u n e in a re m ore in te re ste d in e n te rta in m en t o r a d vic e ( C arr

2008

). W hat is c e rta in

is th at C ra m er’s o ver- th e-to p sty le ap pea ls to vie w ers w ho m ig h t o th erw is e tu n e o u t th e d en se d ro n e o f

fin an cia l n ew s c o vera g e. T he in fo rm atio n C ra m er, a fo rm er h ed ge-fu n d m an ag er, p re se n ts is b oth re a l a n d

re le v an t. H e r e a ch es m ore y o u n ger v ie w ers t h an t r a d it io n al f in an cia l s h ow s; in f a ct, C ra m er t o u rs U S c o lle g es

on a r e g u la r b asis .

How ev er, d urin g th e fin an cia lly d is a str o u s y ea r o f 2 008, th e s h ow ’s h ost m ad e a n um ber o f h ig h p ro file —

an d q uestio n ab le — sta te m en ts .

In M arc h 2 008, C ra m er r e sp on ded t o a v ie w er w ho w as t e m pte d t o s e ll h is s h are s o f s tr u ggli n g B ea r S te a rn s

sto ck .

“N o, n o, n o! B ea r S te a rn s is f in e,” C ra m er s a id o n a ir . “ D on ’t m ove y o u r m on ey f r o m B ea r! T hat’s ju st b ein g

silly .”

When JP M org an C hase to ok o ver th e b ele a g u ere d in vestm en t b an k le ss th an a w eek la te r, th e s to ck v alu e

plu n ged . C ra m er ju stif ie d h is m is p la ce d o p tim is m , e v en su ggestin g th at it w as p artly c a lc u la te d , sa y in g, “I

gu ess I c o u ld h av e c a u se d a r u n o n t h e b an k a n d s a id t a k e y o u r m on ey o u t o f B ea r.”

In S ep te m ber 2 008, C ra m er i n te rv ie w ed t h e C EO o f W ach ovia a n d c a lle d t h e b an k’s s to ck o n e o f o n ly a f e w

pote n tia l “w in ners ” in th e $ 700 b illi o n b ailo u t (S ork in

2008

). T wo w eek s la te r, a c h ag rin ed a n d su lle n

Cra m er g lo w ere d a n a p olo gy i n to t h e S te a d ic a m , t e lli n g h is v ie w ers t h at h e h ad “ sc re w ed u p .”

“I le t y o u d ow n ’c a u se I w asn ’t s k ep tic a l e n ou gh ,” h e s a id . “ I h av e t o p re su m e w hen i t c o m es t o b an kin g r ig h t

now , t h ere i s n o o b je ctiv e t r u th , ju st n eg ativ e, ju st t e rrib le t h in gs.”

Fin ally , in O cto b er, C ra m er a p pea re d o n N BC ’s “ T od ay S how ” w it h a g rim e co n om ic fo re ca st. “ W hate v er

mon ey y o u m ay n eed fo r th e n ex t fiv e y ea rs , p le a se ta k e it o u t o f th e s to ck m ark et r ig h t n ow , th is w eek ,” h e

ad vis e d v ie w ers .

Am id a ccu sa tio n s t h at s u ch s ta te m en ts w ere a k in t o s h ou tin g “ fir e ” in a c ro w ded b u ild in g, C ra m er s to od b y

his a d vic e , e m ph asiz in g th at h e re m ain ed c o n fid en t in th e lo n g-te rm in vestm en t p ote n tia l o f sto ck s (C arr

2008

). “I a m still c o m mit tin g fo r m y re tir e m en t,” h e to ld S co tt C olli n s o f th e

Los A ngele s T im es

. “I ’m n ot

back in g a w ay . B eca u se , I h av e n o i n te n tio n o f r e tir in g i n t h e n ex t f iv e y ea rs ” ( C olli n s

2008

Leg ally , C N BC p ro te cts it s e lf a n d it s v o la tile s h ow h ost w it h e x te n siv e d is c la im ers w arn in g o f t h e f in an cia l

ris k in th e a d vic e o ffe re d o n th e p ro gra m . I n p art, th e w arn in g s ta te s v ie w ers “ sh ou ld n ot ta k e a n y o p in io n

ex p re sse d b y C ra m er a s a s p ecif ic i n duce m en t t o m ak e a p artic u la r i n vestm en t o r f o llo w a p artic u la r s tr a te g y.”

Mic ro I ssu es

How i m porta n t i s i t t h at C ra m er i n te n ds t o e n te rta in a s w ell a s i n fo rm i n t e rm s o f t h e w ay h e p re se n ts

fin an cia l n ew s?

Is t h e d is c la im er t h at r u n s a t t h e b eg in nin g o f e v ery s h ow e th ic a lly d efe n sib le ? H ow w ou ld y o u d efe n d i t ?

How s h ou ld a r a tio n al a cto r e v alu ate t h e c la im s o f C ra m er?

How i s C ra m er’s s h ow l i k e a n d u n li k e w hat a p ubli c r e la tio n s p ers o n f o r y o u r l o ca l b an k m ig h t d o? A re

th ere e th ic a l d is tin ctio n s b etw een C ra m er’s a p pro ach a n d m ore t r a d it io n al a d vertis in g o r p ubli c r e la tio n s?

Mid ra n ge I ssu es

What i s t h e e th ic a l r o le o f C N BC i n p re se n tin g a s h ow s u ch a s “ M ad M on ey ”?

Com pare C ra m er’s b ra n d o f f in an cia l n ew s w it h C om ed y C en tr a l’s J o n S te w art a n d h is b ra n d o f m ock

new s. W hic h i s m ore e th ic a lly ju stif ia b le ? W hy?

Shou ld a l o ca l n ew sp ap er’s b u sin ess o r f in an cia l r e p orte r t r e a t C ra m er’s r e co m men datio n s a s a n ew s s to ry ?

Do y o u t h in k a u d ie n ce s a re p artic u la rly v u ln era b le w hen i t c o m es t o c o m ple x t o p ic s s u ch a s f in an cia l

new s? D oes t h at v u ln era b ili t y r e su lt i n a n y d is tin ct e th ic a l o b li g atio n s?

Macro I ssu es

Are t h ere s o m e s u bje cts t h at a re t o o s e rio u s t o b e m ad e e n te rta in in g i n t h is w ay ?

Cra m er i s a n a v o w ed c a p it a li s t. C an h e a ls o b e t r u ste d t o b e a n o b je ctiv e c rit ic o f t h e c a p it a li s tic s y ste m —

partic u la rly c o n sid erin g t h e f in an cia l d is a ste rs o f 2 008? I s t h at h is r o le ?

Evalu ate t h e u se fu ln ess o f C ra m er’s s h ow t o i n div id ual v ie w ers . I s h e a d vis o r o r e n te rta in er?

CASE 2 -H

WHAT’S Y O URS I S M IN E: T H E E T H IC S O F N EW S A G GREG ATIO N

47 CH AD P A IN TER

Univ er sit y o f D ayto n

In J u n e 2 008, T he

Hartfo rd C ou ra n t

c u t 9 5 jo b s fr o m it s n ew s d ep artm en t, r o u gh ly h alf o f it s n ew s s ta ff, in

tw o r o u n ds o f la y o ffs . B ut w it h in a f e w m on th s, w it h a n o n li n e n ew s h ole t o f ill a n d a r e d uce d s ta ff, t h e p ap er

sta rte d a g gre g atin g l o ca l n ew s f r o m s u rro u n din g d aili e s.

In a s e a rc h o f t h e p ubli c a tio n ’s w eb sit e f o r A ug. 2 9–30, 2 009,

Jo u rn al I n qu ir er

r e p orte r C hris tin e M cC lu sk ey

co u n te d 1 12 sto rie s th at w ere w rit te n b y th e

Cou ra n t

’s C on nectic u t c o m petit o rs

Bris t o l P ress

New B rit a in

Her a ld

Torrin gto n R eg is t e r - C it iz en

Wate r b u ry R ep u bli c a n A m er ic a n

, a n d h er o w n p ap er (M cC lu sk ey

2009

The s to rie s w ere o ft e n — bu t n ot a lw ay s— attr ib u te d to th e o rig in al s o u rc e , a p ra ctic e M ic h ael E . S ch ro ed er,

publi s h er o f th e

Bris t o l P ress

an d

New B rit a in H er a ld

ca lle d , “a t b est p la g ia ris m , at w ors t o u tr ig h t th eft ”

(M cC lu sk ey ,

2009

Je ffr e y S . L ev in e, t h e

Hartfo rd C ou ra n t

’s d ir e cto r o f c o n te n t, e x p la in ed h is p ap er’s p osit io n . “ A ggre g atio n is

th e p ro ce ss o f s y n op siz in g in fo rm atio n fr o m o th er n ew s s o u rc e s, m ost c o m mon ly b y p la cin g a p ortio n o f t h e

in fo rm atio n o n y o u r w eb sit e a n d li n kin g to th e o rig in al s to ry ” ( M cC lu sk ey

2009

). H e c it e d a m is ta k e in h is

pap er’s e d it in g p ro ce ss th at “in ap pro p ria te ly d ro p ped th e a ttr ib u tio n o r p ro p er cre d it

an d in so m e ca se s

cre d it e d o u rs e lv es w it h a b yli n e t o a

Cou ra n t

r e p orte r” a s t h e b asis f o r t h e p la g ia ris m c la im s.

The S ocie ty o f P ro fe ssio n al Jo u rn ali s ts c o d e o f c o n duct s ta te s “ N ev er p la g ia riz e” a n d th e A sso cia te d P re ss

co d e w arn s it s w rit e rs : “ d on ’t p la g ia riz e.” S im ila rly , a n e th ic s p rim er in o n li n e jo u rn ali s m f r o m t h e U niv ers it y

of S ou th ern C ali f o rn ia ’s A nnen berg S ch ool o f Jo u rn ali s m sta te s “D on ’t ste a l o th ers ’ w ork . S uch th eft is

pla g ia ris m ” ( N ile s

2009

). B ill K ovach a n d T om R ose n stie l c a ll it a “ d ece p tiv ely s im ple b u t p ow erfu l id ea in

th e d is c ip li n e f o r p urs u in g t r u th : d o y o u r o w n w ork ” ( 2 007, 9 9).

How ev er, ag gre g atio n is not a bla ck -a n d-w hit e is su e. Is it acce p ta b le to dis se m in ate an oth er new s

org an iz atio n ’s w ork a s lo n g a s th at w ork is p ro p erly c re d it e d ? S hou ld th e ru le s b e th e s a m e fo r n ew sp ap ers ,

bro ad ca st o u tle ts , a n d o n li n e jo u rn ali s m ? W hat a b ou t c o n te n t- sh arin g o rg an iz atio n s su ch a s th e A sso cia te d

Pre ss?

One o f t h e c o re p rin cip le s o f jo u rn ali s m is t h e d is c ip li n e o f v erif ic a tio n ( K ovach a n d R ose n stie l

2007

, 7 9).

Aggre g atio n v io la te s th at p rin cip le b eca u se it m ig h t n ot d is c rim in ate b etw een ru m or, fa ct, a n d sp ecu la tio n

(K ovach a n d R ose n stie l

2007

), a n d b eca u se i t d oesn ’t a llo w f o r i n dep en den t c o n fir m atio n o f f a cts . F als e h ood s

an d r u m or g o u n ch eck ed e v en if t h e o rig in al s o u rc e is su es a r e tr a ctio n if t h e a g gre g ato rs f a il t o c o rre ct o r p ull

th e o ffe n din g s to ry .

How ev er, a g gre g atio n i s n ’t a n ew c o n ce p t i n t h e n ew s b u sin ess.

Tim e

m ag az in e w as a n oto rio u s a g gre g ato r. F ir s t p ubli s h ed M arc h 3 , 1 923, H en ry L uce ’s f la g sh ip m ag az in e

aim ed t o s u m mariz e t h e n ew s q uic k ly , b u t f e w o f it s b u sy r e a d ers w ou ld h av e g u esse d t h at

Tim e

w as d ig este d

en tir e ly fr o m th e d ozen s o f n ew sp ap ers it su bsc rib ed to , “g ain in g it s g re a te st fr e e lu n ch fr o m th e o p ule n t

ta b le s o f t h e

New Y ork T im es

a n d

New Y ork W orld

” ( S w an berg

1972

, 5 8).

Rad io , a t le a st in it s in fa n cy , r e li e d h ea v ily o n n ew sp ap ers f o r a s te a d y s u p ply o f n ew s r e p orts . F or t h eir p art,

new sp ap ers a t f ir s t e it h er c o op era te d w it h r a d io f o r i n cre a se d e x p osu re o r c o m ple te ly i g n ore d t h e n ew m ed iu m

(C heste r

1949

). T hat c h an ged w it h th e ris e o f th e C BS a n d N BC c h ain ra d io b ro ad ca stin g n etw ork s a n d

in cre a se d ad vertis in g co m petit io n fr o m ra d io . O n A pril 2 4, 1 933, th e m em bers o f th e A sso cia te d P re ss

“p asse d a re so lu tio n d ir e ctin g th e A P B oard o f D ir e cto rs to re fu se to g iv e A P n ew s to an y ra d io ch ain ”

(C heste r

1949

, 2 55). S ta te a n d n atio n al p re ss a sso cia tio n s “ b u sie d t h em se lv es w it h r e so lu tio n s a tte m ptin g t o

re str ic t n ew s b ro ad ca stin g, m ostly b eca u se it w as in co n gru ou s fo r n ew sp ap ers to fu rn is h fr e e n ew s” to th eir

co m petit o rs in ra d io (H am marg re n

1936

, 93). E ven tu ally th e co u rts w eig h ed in , pun is h in g th e m ost

eg re g io u s u se s o f n ew sp ap er c o n te n t o n t h e r a d io a ir w av es a s a n u n fa ir p ra ctic e .

Curre n tly , th e A sso cia te d P re ss is b attli n g ag gre g atin g w eb sit e s su ch as G oogle N ew s over u se of

un au th oriz ed c o n te n t. T he A sso cia te d P re ss a n nou n ce d p la n s in J u ly 2 009 t o c re a te “ a n ew s r e g is tr y t h at w ill

ta g a n d tr a ck a ll A P c o n te n t o n li n e to a ssu re c o m pli a n ce w it h te rm s o f u se .” T he p ro p ose d tr a ck in g s y ste m

“w ill r e g is te r k ey id en tif y in g in fo rm atio n a b ou t e a ch p ie ce o f c o n te n t t h at A P d is tr ib u te s a s w ell a s t h e t e rm s

of u se o f th at c o n te n t, a n d e m plo y a b u ilt - in b ea co n to n otif y A P a b ou t h ow th e c o n te n t is u se d ” (S tr u p p

2009).

The A sso cia te d P re ss it s e lf is a c o op era tiv e th at su p pli e s a ro u n d-th e-c lo ck n ew s c o n te n t to it s 1 ,5 00 U S

daily n ew sp ap er m em bers , as w ell as in te rn atio n al su bsc rib ers an d co m merc ia l cu sto m ers . T here is als o a

re ce n t t r e n d a m on g fo rm erly r iv al p ap ers t o fo rm lo ca li z ed c o n te n t- sh arin g a rra n gem en ts ( R ic ch ia rd i

2009

The n ew sp ap ers c it e b u d geta ry c o n str a in ts a n d th e c o st o f A sso cia te d P re ss c o n te n t a s th e m ajo r r e a so n s fo r

th e a rra n gem en ts .

But A la n M utte r, a f o rm er e d it o r i n C hic a g o a n d S an F ra n cis c o w ho c u rre n tly w rit e s t h e b lo g

Refle ct io n s o f a

New so sa u r

s p ea k s f o r t h ose w ho r e g re t t h e lo ss o f d iv ers it y w hen h e s a y s: “ W here t h ere a re m ult ip le r e p orte rs

48 co verin g t h e s a m e b ea t o r s a m e e v en t, y o u ’r e g o in g t o g et m ult ip le v ie w s a n d e v ery b od y is g o in g t o t r y h ard er

to g o to a h ig h er le v el o f re p ortin g. It’s a fa ct o f h um an n atu re th at co m petit io n in sp ir e s b ette r w ork ”

(R ic ch ia rd i

2009

Mic ro I ssu es

Does p ro p er a ttr ib u tio n s o lv e t h e e th ic a l p ro b le m o f a g gre g atio n ? I f n ot, d o y o u h av e a n a lt e rn ativ e i d ea ?

If n ew s o rg an iz atio n s v o lu n ta rily a g re e t o o ffe r t h eir c o n te n t t o b e a g gre g ate d u n der s p ecif ic c o n dit io n s,

does t h at e li m in ate t h e e th ic a l i s su es?

Mid ra n ge I ssu es

Evalu ate t h e f o llo w in g s ta te m en t: C re d ib ili t y , o n e o f t h e f o u n datio n s o f jo u rn ali s m , i s p re d ic a te d o n “ th e

notio n t h at t h ose w ho r e p ort t h e n ew s a re n ot o b str u cte d f r o m d ig gin g u p a n d t e lli n g t h e t r u th ” a n d t h at

th e jo u rn ali s ts c a n t e ll “ th e n ew s n ot o n ly a ccu ra te ly b u t a ls o p ers u asiv ely ” ( K ovach a n d R ose n stie l

2007

53). C an a n a g gre g ato r b e e x p ecte d t o b e a w atc h dog o ver i n fo rm atio n t h at t h eir m ed ia o u tle t d id n ot

cre a te ?

How a re c o n te n t a g gre g ato rs s u ch a s t h e

Huffi n gto n P ost

d is tin ct, i n a n e th ic a l s e n se , f r o m l o n g-

sta n din g c o op era tiv es s u ch a s t h e A sso cia te d P re ss?

Macro I ssu es

Is a g gre g atio n a n i s su e p rim arily o f e co n om ic s o r e th ic s? I f a g gre g ato rs s u ch a s G oogle N ew s p aid f o r

co n te n t, w ou ld t h at s o lv e t h e p ro b le m ?

Who “ o w ns” t h e n ew s? D oes a m ed ia o u tle t h av e t h e r ig h t t o r e q uir e t h at a c o n su m er p ay f o r i n fo rm atio n

th at h e o r s h e n eed s t o b e a p artic ip an t i n a d em ocra tic s o cie ty ? D id t h e f r a m ers o f t h e B ill o f R ig h ts g iv e

an y c lu es i n t h is a re a ?

49 64

Str a te g ic C om mun ic a tio n

Does C li e n t A dvo ca te M ea n C on su m er A dvers a ry ?

B y t h e e n d o f t h is c h ap te r, y o u s h ou ld b e a b le t o

• kn ow h ow n ew t e ch nolo gie s r a is e o ld e th ic a l q uestio n s

• un ders ta n d b ala n ce a n d c o gn it iv e d is so n an ce p ers u asio n t h eo rie s a n d t h eir r o le i n p ers u asio n

• un ders ta n d t h e a m pli f ie d T A RES t e st f o r e v alu atin g t h e e th ic s o f i n div id ual m essa g es

• un ders ta n d w hy t h e r e la tio n sh ip b etw een t h e m ed ia a n d p ubli c r e la tio n s i s b oth s y m bio tic a n d s tr a in ed

REA C H O UT A N D T O UC H S O M EO NE

M ost o f t h e r e a d ers o f t h is b ook a re in t h eir e a rly 2 0s, a n d a re m ost o ft e n s e ek in g

so m eo n e

in a d dit io n t o t h e

s o m eth in g

o f a c o lle g e e d uca tio n . M an y o f y o u w ill c o n duct y o u r s e a rc h fo r fr ie n ds a n d li f e p artn ers o n li n e—

a n d in cre a sin gly o n sit e s su ch a s e h arm on y. V is it o rs to th at sit e a n d o th ers li k e it p ay a su bsc rip tio n fe e,

c o m ple te vario u s so rts o f p ro file s, an d are li n ked w it h p ossib le m atc h es. T he n on -v ir tu al w orld an d th at

h um an t h in g c a lle d c h em is tr y s e em t o t a k e i t f r o m t h ere .

N ot m uch o f a n e th ic a l is su e in vo lv ed — th at is , u n til y o u le a rn h ow s u ch w eb sit e s r e a lly m ak e t h eir m on ey .

T hey d o it n ot e x clu siv ely th ro u gh th e m atc h in g s e rv ic e th ey a d vertis e b u t m ore p re d om in an tly b y a tta ch in g

c o okie s to su bsc rib ers ’ c o m pute rs a n d th en se lli n g th at in fo rm atio n — willi n gly p ro vid ed in th e fo rm o f th e

p ro file — to m ark ete rs w ho se ek a sp ecif ic d em ogra p h ic , fo r e x am ple , p eo p le o f a ce rta in a g e, o r a ce rta in

i n co m e, a n d w it h

sp ecif ic li k es a n d d is li k es. T hose e le ctr o n ic li s ts th e w eb sit e s se ll— a p ro ce ss y o u m ust

a g re e t o in o rd er t o u se t h e m atc h in g s e rv ic e — th en a llo w m ark ete rs t o p ush s p ecif ic s o rts o f m essa g es a t y o u

e le ctr o n ic a lly a n d a t t im es o f t h eir c h oosin g, e m plo yin g w hat t h e i n dustr y n ow t e rm s b eh av io ra l m ark etin g.

B eh av io ra l m ark etin g, w hic h als o is so m etim es ca lle d beh av io ra l ta rg etin g, is use d to in cre a se th e

e ffe ctiv en ess o f a d vertis in g b y t a p pin g in to d ata c re a te d b y u se rs a s t h ey s u rf t h e w eb . W hen y o u b u y a b ook

o n A m az o n , y o u ’v e c re a te d a d ata p oin t t h at t h e s it e ’s a lg o rit h m u se s t o a d vertis e o th er s im ila r b ooks. W hen

y o u “ li k e” a c a t v id eo o n F ace b ook, y o u h av e s e n t a s ig n al t h at y o u m ig h t b e in te re ste d in a d s f o r c a t f o od o r

p et a d op tio n . U se rs s o m ew hat in vo lu n ta rily c re a te a w ea lt h o f d ata , f r o m w hic h w eb sit e s a n d p ag es t h ey v is it

t o t h e li n ks t h ey c li c k o n a n d t h e t e rm s t h ey e n te r in to G oogle o r o th er s e a rc h e n gin es. T his i n fo rm atio n t h en

c a n b e co m bin ed w it h a p ers o n ’s g eo gra p h y an d d em ogra p h ic are a , as w ell as p ers o n al in fo rm atio n th ey

v o lu n ta rily d is c lo se o n w eb sit e s a n d so cia l m ed ia . P ubli s h ers lo ve th is d ata ; th ey c a n c h arg e a p re m iu m fo r

t a rg ete d a d s b eca u se c o n su m ers a re m ore l i k ely t o p urc h ase p ro d ucts f r o m s u ch a d s w hen c o m pare d t o r a n dom

a d vertis in g. W hile th e m ark ete rs n ev er k n ow y o u r s p ecif ic id en tif y — in o th er w ord s y o u r n am e— th ey k n ow

e n ou gh a b ou t y o u fo r s e lli n g p urp ose s, r ig h t d ow n t o t h e fa ct t h at y o u li k e t e rrie r d ogs b u t n ot c a ts a n d t h at

y o u r f a v o rit e m usic ia n i s P ost M alo n e.

It’s a ll p art o f th e b ra v e n ew w orld o f s tr a te g ic c o m mun ic a tio n , o r th e s e a m le ss c o n nectio n s b etw een w hat

p ro fe ssio n als u se d t o r e fe r t o a s a d vertis in g a n d p ubli c r e la tio n s.

A nd s tr a te g ic c o m mun ic a tio n , ju st li k e n ew s, is fa cin g a n ew e co n om ic r e a li t y : a b u sin ess m od el th at is n o

l o n ger s u cce ssfu l. W hat u se d to b e th e c a se , th at e n te rta in m en t o r n ew s c o n te n t o n e it h er te le v is io n o r in a

p rin t m ed iu m w as d esig n ed to d eli v er a n a u d ie n ce to a d vertis e rs , is n ow in cre a sin gly p ro b le m atic b eca u se

p eo p le are fin din g w ay s to d od ge p ers u asiv e m essa g es as n ev er b efo re . W heth er it ’s T iV o an d sk ip pin g

t h ro u gh c o m merc ia ls o r g ettin g n ew s “ fo r fr e e” o n th e w eb , s tr a te g ic c o m mun ic a tio n p ro fe ssio n als a re b ein g

f o rc e d to fin d n ovel w ay s to g et th eir m essa g es to “e y eb alls ” — or p eo p le a ctin g in th eir ro le s a s c o n su m ers .

S tr a te g ic c o m mun ic a tio n p ro fe ssio n als a re a ls o f a ce d w it h t h e r e a li t y o f a n a ctiv e a u d ie n ce — an a u d ie n ce t h at

n ot o n ly b u ys p ro d ucts o r s e rv ic e s b u t a ls o e x p ects to b e a b le t o e v alu ate th ose s e rv ic e s a n d p ro d ucts o n s it e s

s u ch as Y elp , w hic h allo w s co n su m ers to p ost th eir u n filt e re d o p in io n s ab ou t lo ca l b u sin esse s, in clu d in g

50 re sta u ra n ts , s h op s, a n d o th er s o rts o f lo ca l s e rv ic e s. L oca l b u sin esse s p artic u la rly t h riv e w it h p osit iv e m en tio n s

an d a re p un is h ed b y n eg ativ e r e v ie w s. S ev era l s m all b u sin ess o w ners h av e f ile d la w su it s , c o m pla in in g t h at Y elp

has a f in an cia l in te re st in t h e li s tin gs, s o c o n su m er r e v ie w s p oste d o n t h e s it e

were m an ip ula te d d ep en din g

on w hic h c o m pan ie s a d vertis e o n th e s it e — cla im s th at Y elp e x ecu tiv es d en y, s ta tin g th at b oth n eg ativ e a n d

posit iv e fe ed back p ro vid e au th en tic it y an d valu e. In A pril 2 009, Y elp b eg an allo w in g lo ca l b u sin esse s to

re sp on d to c o m men ts o n th e s it e . T hese a u d ie n ce -b ase d m ea su re s o f p ro d ucts a n d s e rv ic e s h av e a d ded n ew

dim en sio n s t o e ffo rts t o “ c o n tr o l t h e m essa g e” t h at h as b een p art o f b oth a d vertis in g a n d p ubli c r e la tio n s fo r

deca d es.

These n ovel a p pro ach es c a n r a is e s e rio u s in div id ual e th ic a l is su es— is su es t h at o n ce s e em ed m ore t h e r e a lm

of th e jo u rn ali s t. S tu d en ts w ho o n ce sa id , “I w en t in to a d vertis in g b eca u se I d on ’t fe el c o m fo rta b le fo rc in g

peo p le t o t a lk t o m e, a n d I d on ’t h av e t o t h in k a b ou t i n vad in g p eo p le ’s p riv acy ” a re n ow f a cin g d ecis io n s a b ou t

wheth er a n d h ow t o u se c o m pute r- b ase d t e ch nolo gie s t o d o p re cis e ly t h ese t h in gs— on ly t h is t im e t o p ro m ote

sa le s o f v ario u s p ro d ucts a n d l i f e sty le s.

These f a cts o f n ew m ed ia li f e a ls o d o n ot b lu n t s o m e o f t h e d eep est c o n tin uin g c rit ic is m s o f p ers u asio n , t h at

th e n atu re o f t h e p ers u asiv e m essa g e it s e lf — sh ort, h ig h ly v is u al, a n d in te n tio n ally v ag u e— is o verly r e li a n t o n

ste re o ty p es, s p in s th e tr u th , g lo rif ie s c o n su m eris m a t th e e x p en se o f c o m mun it y , a n d a s a n in stit u tio n w arp s

non -p ers u asiv e c o n te n t in s ig n if ic a n t w ay s. T he e a se o f b yp assin g p ers u asiv e m essa g es a ls o c h alle n ges o n e o f

th e m ost s ig n if ic a n t ju stif ic a tio n s f o r a d vertis in g: t h at w it h ou t t h e f u n din g it p ro vid es, b ro ad -ra n gin g p oli t ic a l

dis c o u rs e w ou ld n ot b e p ossib le in d ev elo p ed d em ocra cie s su ch a s th e U nit e S ta te s. T hese n ew e co n om ic

re a li t ie s h av e h eig h te n ed th e n eed fo r cle a r eth ic a l th in kin g fo r th ose en te rin g th e p ers u asiv e en d o f th e

bu sin ess.

TEC H NO LO GY: A R O OM O F R EQ UIR EM EN T O R A S Y ST EM O F V A LU ES?

The ubiq uit o u s natu re of so cia l m ed ia an d oth er fo rm s of nea rly in sta n ta n eo u s new s an d ad vertis in g

co n su m ptio n r a is e s a n oth er is su e: f a k e a d s. T he p ro b le m c a m e t o a h ea d f o llo w in g t h e r e v ela tio n t h at R ussia n

co m pan ie s w it h t ie s t o t h e K re m li n p urc h ase d d iv is iv e, in fla m mato ry , a n d f a ls e a d s o n F ace b ook a n d T wit te r

in a n a tte m pt t o t ip t h e p re sid en tia l e le ctio n t o D on ald T ru m p, a s w ell a s s o w s o cia l d is c o rd t h ro u gh ou t t h e

Unit e d S ta te s. T hese a d s, w hic h w ere s e en b y u p w ard s o f h alf o f U S a d ult s , f e a tu re d h ot t a k es o n g u n c o n tr o l,

ra ce an d an ti- ra cis t gro u p s, w om en ’s rig h ts , im mig ra tio n , an d poli t ic a l ra lli e s in clu d in g th e “N ot M y

Pre sid en t” an d “D ow n w it h H illa ry !” ra lli e s th at d id n ’t ex is t. T he in fo rm atio n in th ese ad s w as fa ls e —

in clu d in g m ad e-u p p ro te st g ro u p s a n d e v en ts , a s w ell a s d is c re d it e d in fo rm atio n . H ow ev er, s o m e

ad s w ere

fe a tu re d p ro m in en tly o n fa ct- c h eck in g sit e s su ch as P oli t iF act an d S nop es, sit e s th at aim to d is p el su ch

fa ls e h ood s. G oogle , F ace b ook, a n d T wit te r a ll a re u n der s c ru tin y, in clu d in g C on gre ssio n al h ea rin gs, fo r h ow

th eir a u to m ate d a d s y ste m s w ere u se d b y R ussia n s t o s p re a d t h is f a ls e i n fo rm atio n .

Face b ook’s ad p ro b le m s d id n ’t sto p th ere , h ow ev er. A nyo n e ca n cre a te an ad o n F ace b ook; th e to ol is

pro m in en tly d is p la y ed o n it s h om ep ag e, a n d it ’s e a sy a n d r e la tiv ely c h ea p t o u se . I t’s a ls o e a sy t o d is c rim in ate :

A P ro P ubli c a in vestig atio n in S ep te m ber 2 017 re v ea le d th at a d vertis e rs c a n d ir e ct th eir p it c h es to sp ecif ic

gro u p s— in clu d in g to p eo p le w ho e x p re sse d in te re st in to p ic s s u ch a s “ Je w h ate r,” “ H ow to b u rn je w s,” a n d

“H is to ry o f ‘w hy je w s ru in th e w orld .’ ” In N ovem ber 2 017, P ro P ubli c a re v ea le d th e re su lt s o f a se co n d

in vestig atio n w here it s r e p orte rs b ou gh t r e n ta l h ou sin g a d s o n F ace b ook b u t a sk ed th at c e rta in c a te g o rie s o f

use rs — in clu d in g A fr ic a n -A m eric a n s, peo p le in te re ste d in w heelc h air ra m ps, an d Span is h sp ea k ers — be

ex clu d ed , a c le a r v io la tio n o f th e F air H ou sin g A ct. P ro P ubli c a a g ain fo u n d p ro b le m s w it h F ace b ook a d s in

Dece m ber 2 017; th is tim e, e m plo yers c o u ld ta rg et a d s to jo b se ek ers u n der 4 0, a llo w in g a d vertis e rs to sk ir t

em plo ym en t la w . T he p ro b le m c o m es fr o m a u to m atio n . U nli k e le g acy m ed ia c o m pan ie s, F ace b ook u se s a n

alg o rit h m in ste a d o f s a le s r e p re se n ta tiv es. S o, in ste a d o f a F ace b ook e m plo yee s e le ctin g a u d ie n ce s o ffe re d to

ad vertis e rs , a d c a te g o rie s a re c re a te d a u to m atic a lly b ase d o n w hat u se rs sh are o n F ace b ook a n d th eir o th er

on li n e a ctiv it y .

Man y o f th ese is su es a ris e b eca u se te ch nolo gy m ak es c e rta in a ctiv it ie s p ossib le . S uch a ctiv it ie s, w hic h m ost

oft e n re q uir e th e e n orm ou s d ata p ro ce ssin g c a p acit ie s o f th e c o m pute r, a ls o p re se n t p ro fe ssio n als w it h tw o

dif fe re n t w ay s o f t h in kin g a b ou t t e ch nolo gy i t s e lf .

The f ir s t a p pro ach e q uate s t e ch nolo gy w it h e ffic ie n cy . T hose w ho s u bsc rib e t o t h is s c h ool o f t h ou gh t a sse rt

th at t e ch nolo gy it s e lf r a is e s n o e th ic a l is su es, b u t r a th er t h e e th ic a l is su es a ris e in h ow t h e t e ch nolo gy is p ut t o

use . T he s e co n d a p pro ach a sse rts t h at a n y t e ch nolo gy is e m bed ded w it h v alu es. T hin k o f t h e t e ch nolo gy y o u

are u sin g r ig h t n ow : t h e w rit te n w ord a n d t h e p rin tin g p re ss. W hat d oes w rit in g v alu e? A s p ecif ic d efin it io n o f

tr u th , a s r e v ie w ed in

ch ap te r 2

of t h is b ook. A s p ecif ic s ta n dard o f e v id en ce , fo r e x am ple , w rit te n d ocu m en ts

an d so u rc e s fo r th em a re im porta n t. S om e sp ecif ic w ay s o f o rg an iz in g h um an co m mun it y an d o f p la cin g

51 eco n om ic valu e o n so m e activ it ie s are als o em ph asiz ed b y th e w rit te n w ord . T he act o f w rit in g an d th e

te ch nolo gy o f th e p rin tin g p re ss h av e m ad e m uch o f c o n te m pora ry h um an c o m mun it y p ossib le — bu t th ose

co m mun it ie s p riv ile g e s o m e v alu es w hile m in im iz in g o th ers .

In th is v ie w , a rtic u la te d b y F re n ch th eo lo gia n Ja cq ues E llu l, te ch nolo gy is a t c o re a sy ste m o f v alu es th at

must b e u n ders to od b efo re a n y d ecis io n to

ad op t a te ch nolo gy c a n b e m ad e. F ailu re to u n ders ta n d th e

valu es e m bed ded i n a t e ch nolo gy c a n h av e m an y u n in te n ded c o n se q uen ce s, s o m e o f t h em q uit e h orrib le .

Bein g a c o m pete n t a n d e th ic a l p ro fe ssio n al d oes n ot r e q uir e y o u t o r e so lv e t h is d eep ly p h ilo so p h ic a l d eb ate .

But it d oes re q uir e y o u to a ck n ow le d ge th at it e x is ts a n d to th in k c le a rly a b ou t w heth er, in th e p ro ce ss o f

cla im in g e ffic ie n cy , y o u h av e o verlo oked i m porta n t q uestio n s o f v alu es.

TH IN KIN G A BO UT T H E A U D IE N CE: F R O M P E R SU ASIO N T H EO RY T O P H IL O SO PH IC AL

AN TH RO PO LO GY

Psy ch olo gis ts fir s t b eg an to tr y to u n ders ta n d p ers u asio n b y w ork in g w it h a stim ulu s– re sp on se m od el. T his

ea rly b eh av io ris t a p pro ach le d m an y t o b eli e v e t h at t h e m ed ia c o u ld a ct a s a “ h yp od erm ic n eed le ” o r a “ m ag ic

bu lle t,” se n din g a stim ulu s/m essa g e to a n u n re sis tin g a u d ie n ce . T hese re se a rc h ers , ca lle d “p ow erfu l e ffe cts

th eo ris ts ,” fo u n d e x am ple s to s u p port th eir th eo ry in th e s u cce ss o f p ro p ag an da d urin g b oth w orld w ars a n d

th e p ubli c p an ic a ft e r O rs o n W elle s’s

War o f t h e W orld s

b ro ad ca st o n O ct. 3 0, 1 938 ( th ou gh t h e e x te n t o f t h at

pan ic h as b een o verb lo w n).

But, th e stim ulu s– re sp on se m od el pro ved to be a poor pre d ic to r of m uch hum an beh av io r. L ate r,

co m mun ic a tio n th eo ris ts fo cu se d o n co gn it iv e p sy ch olo gy. R ath er th an an aly zin g p ers u asio n as a sim ple

beh av io ra l re a ctio n to a su ffic ie n t stim ulu s, th ese sc h ola rs th eo riz ed th at h ow p eo p le th in k a n d w hat th ey

bro u gh t to th e p ers u asiv e sit u atio n h elp ed to e x p la in p ers u asio n . A cco rd in g to th ese th eo rie s, p eo p le str a in

to w ard c o gn it iv e b ala n ce . S im ply p ut, w e a re m ost c o m fo rta b le w hen a ll o f o u r b eli e fs , a ctio n s, a ttit u d es, a n d

re la tio n sh ip s a re i n h arm on y, a s ta te t h eo ris ts c a lle d “ sy m metr y .”

Such t h eo rie s h av e b eco m e k n ow n a s “ b ala n ce t h eo rie s” b eca u se t h ey s tr e ss t h e t e n den cy o f p eo p le t o s tr iv e

fo r c o gn it iv e b ala n ce in t h eir li v es. A p ers o n a ch ie v es b ala n ce o n ly w hen h is o r h er a ttit u d es, in fo rm atio n , a n d

actio n s a re in h arm on y. L eo n F estin ger (

1957

) c o in ed th e te rm c o gn it iv e d is so n an ce to d esc rib e th e sta te

where a m essa g e a n d a n a ctio n g iv e c o n fli c tin g a n d u n co m fo rta b le s ig n als . T hin k o f it a s k n ow in g t h e h az ard s

of sm okin g bu t ch oosin g to sm oke an yw ay , se ttin g u p a cla ssic bra in /a ctio n d is so n an ce . T he d esir e to

eli m in ate th at d is so n an ce is a str o n g o n e, so m etim es str o n g e n ou gh to in flu en ce p urc h asin g b eh av io r a n d

vo tin g h ab it s — at l e a st s o m e o f t h e t im e.

Advertis e rs u se th is th eo ry . K nock a c o n su m er o ff b ala n ce e a rly in th e c o m merc ia l a n d p ro m is e r e sto ra tio n

of th at b ala n ce th ro u gh th e p urc h ase o f a p ro d uct. F or in sta n ce , th e o p en in g sc e n e o f a c o m merc ia l m ig h t

su ggest th at yo u r d an dru ff is m ak in g yo u a so cia l o u tc a st, an d th e su bse q uen t co p y p ro m is e s yo u so cia l

ap pro val i f y o u u se t h e c o rre ct s h am poo.

Fig u re 3 .1 .

Doon esb u ry

Bala n ce th eo rie s a ls o e x p la in ed w hy p ers u asiv e m essa g es w ere so m etim es q uit e e ffe ctiv e w hile a t o th er

tim es in co n se q uen tia l. N o c o n se q uen ce s to th e p ro b le m , n o la ck o f b ala n ce , a n d s u bse q uen tly n o s a le . T his

in div id ually fo cu se d a p pro ach a ls o p ro vid ed th e u lt im ate p ra ctic a l ju stif ic a tio n fo r a d vertis in g, th e a n cie n t

Rom an p h ra se

ca v ea t e m pto r,

“L et th e b u yer b ew are .” T he c re a to rs o f th e a d s w ere w illi n g to a ssu m e li t tle

re sp on sib ili t y fo r th e im pact o f th eir w ork , a n d a ca d em ic s tu d ie s g av e th em p artia l c o ver: I f y o u c a n ’t p ro ve

th at s o m eth in g’s b een e ffe ctiv e, t h en it ’s u n re a so n ab le t o s u ggest y o u t a k e s o m e r e sp on sib ili t y f o r it . E ven t h e

FT C a llo w s “ p uffe ry in a d vertis in g b u t n ot d ece p tio n ”— bu t th ey n ev er te ll y o u w here th ey p la n to d ra w th e

li n e.

Anth ro p olo gis ts a sse rt th at h um an ra tio n ali t y e x is ts o n e q ual fo otin g w it h d aily e x p erie n ce , la n gu ag e, a n d

52 Anth ro p olo gis ts a sse rt th at h um an ra tio n ali t y e x is ts o n e q ual fo otin g w it h d aily e x p erie n ce , la n gu ag e, a n d

sy m bols . C ult u re an d ou r pers o n al ex p erie n ce bala n ce ra tio n ali t y (W ilk in s an d C hris tia n s

2001

). If

ph ilo so p h ic a l a n th ro p olo gy is c o rre ct, t h en e th ic a l a n aly sis o f a d vertis in g f o u n ded in “ L et t h e b u yer b ew are ” is

mora lly u n su sta in ab le .

In ste a d , th e e th ic a l g o al o f a d vertis in g sh ou ld b e th e e m pow erm en t o f m ult ip le sta k eh old ers — fr o m th ose

who n eed t o b u y, t h ose w ho n eed t o s e ll, t h ose w ho li v e in a c o m mun it y f u ele d b y c o m merc e a n d t a x d olla rs ,

an d f in ally t h ose w ho d ep en d o n a d vertis in g-su p porte d n ew s t o b e p artic ip ato ry c it iz en s i n a d em ocra cy .

If t h e c o n ce p t o f h um an b ein g a s c re a to r o f c u lt u re a n d t h en a d yn am ic u se r o f s y m bols b eco m es a n e th ic a l

fo u n datio n fo r th in kin g a b ou t th e a u d ie n ce ,

ad vertis in g p ra ctit io n ers s h ou ld b e e x p ecte d to o p era te w it h in

th e f o llo w in g f r a m ew ork :

• Cli e n ts an d th e p ubli c n eed in fo rm atio n th at g iv es th em “a g o od re a so n to ad op t a co u rs e o f actio n ”

(K oeh n

1998

, 1 06). T he r e a so n n eed s t o b e n on -a rb it r a ry a n d c a p ab le o f h elp in g p eo p le s u p port o n e a ctio n

in ste a d o f o th ers .

• Rath er th an o ffe rin g o n ly e x p ert o p in io n , a d vertis in g s h ou ld fo ste r o n go in g d is c u ssio n s o th at p eo p le c a n

ex p lo re w hen o p tio n s a re s o u n d a n d w hen p ra ctic a l k n ow le d ge ( c o m mon s e n se ) i s s u p erio r.

• Advertis in g, ju st li k e n ew s, c a n h elp fo ste r r e fle ctiv e c o m mun it y , in clu d in g th e c o m mun it y o f c o n su m ers .

Ju st li k e th e S up er B ow l re su lt s th at are d is c u sse d at w ork th e n ex t d ay , o ft e n th e cre a tiv e ad s th at

su p porte d i t a re p art o f t h e s o cia l e x p erie n ce a s w ell.

• Advertis in g n eed s to ta k e se rio u sly th e ro le o f cu lt u re in o u r li v es. T hat m ea n s th at ad vertis in g m ust

au th en tic a lly r e fle ct t h e d iv ers e v o ic e s t h at c o m pris e o u r c u lt u re .

• Advertis in g w ill s p ea k t o t h e r o le o f o rg an iz atio n s in o u r li v es. Q uestio n s o f h is to ry a n d b ack gro u n d c a n b e

co n vey ed i n a d s, b u t t h at m ust b e d on e a ccu ra te ly a n d i n c o n te x t.

Giv en t h ese g en era l g u id eli n es, l e t’s e x p lo re a s p ecif ic f r a m ew ork t h at p uts a d s t o a n e th ic a l t e st.

TH IN KIN G A BO UT T H E M ESSA G E: A S Y ST EM ATIC T EST

The o rig in al T A RES te st is a ch eck li s t o f q uestio n s th e cre a to rs o f ev ery p ers u asiv e m essa g e sh ou ld ask

th em se lv es to d ete rm in e th e eth ic a l w orth in ess o f th e m essa g e (B ak er an d M artin so n

2001

). W hile th e

TA RES t e st t a k es it s in sp ir a tio n fr o m t h e “ sy m bol fo rm atio n ” fu n ctio n o f b oth a d vertis in g a n d n ew s, p ubli c

re la tio n s p ra ctit io n ers h av e ad ded th e sig n if ic a n t ele m en t o f ad vo ca cy to an eth ic a l ev alu atio n o f p ubli c

re la tio n s m essa g es. A dvo ca cy m ea n s “ u n ders ta n din g a n d v alu in g t h e p erc e p tio n o f p ubli c s in sid e a n d o u ts id e

org an iz atio n s” (G ru n ig , T oth , a n d H on

2000

). A dvo ca cy a ls o m ea n s co m mun ic a tin g th ose p erc e p tio n s to

oth er publi c s, an effo rt th at h as beco m e m ore co m ple x beca u se it in vo lv es re la tio n sh ip s w it h m ult ip le

sta k eh old ers “ in a w orld o f in cre a sin gly d iv ers e a n d m ore a ctiv e p ubli c s w ho a re e m pow ere d b y a n d c o n necte d

th ro u gh t h e I n te rn et” ( F it z p atr ic k a n d B ro n ste in

2006

x ).

Those w ho su p port th e ad vo ca cy m od el arg u e th at an y m is le a d in g in fo rm atio n put ou t by str a te g ic

co m mun ic a tio n s p ro fe ssio n als w ill b e s o m eh ow

“se lf - c o rre cte d ” b y th e g ate k eep ers o f th e m ed ia o r b y th e

se lf - rig h tin g “ m ark etp la ce o f id ea s.” T hose w ho r e je ct th e a d vo ca cy m od el d o s o o n tw o g ro u n ds. F ir s t, th ey

asse rt t h at a d vo ca cy t o o e a sily m orp h s i n to d is to rtio n a n d li e s. S eco n d, t h ey a rg u e t h at t h e lo n g-te rm h ea lt h o f

man y e n te rp ris e s, fr o m b u sin ess t o g o vern m en t p ro gra m s, is ill- se rv ed b y “ sp in ” a n d b ette r s e rv ed b y h on est,

tim ely c o m mun ic a tio n — ev en a t t h e e x p en se o f s h ort- te rm l o sse s.

Of c o u rs e , p ubli c r e la tio n s p ro fe ssio n als d o n ot e n jo y t h e s p ecia l s ta tu s o f t h e “ F ou rth E sta te .” I n deed , a s r e p re se n ta tiv es o f

sp ecia l

in te re sts

—as c o m pare d t o t h e

pu bli c

in te re st— th ey a n d th eir c li e n ts a n d e m plo yers m ay h av e le ss p ro te ctio n fr o m ju d ic ia l fo ra y s in to q uestio n s o f

eth ic s. P ubli c re la tio n s p ro fe ssio n als m ust c o n sid er b oth w heth er th e s p ecia l o b li g atio n s a sso cia te d w it h th e fr e ed om to c o m mun ic a te a re

bein g m et a n d w heth er, in th e a b se n ce o f e ffe ctiv e

se lf

-re g u la tio n , th e g o vern m en t m ig h t ste p in to h old p ra ctit io n ers a cco u n ta b le fo r

ir re sp on sib le b eh av io r ( F it z p atr ic k a n d B ro n ste in

2006

, 1 6) [ it a li c s i n t h e o rig in al] .

To h elp y o u th in k th ro u gh th e e th ic a l is su es th at p ers u asio n ra is e s— partic u la rly in th e w orld o f str a te g ic

co m mun ic a tio n w here m ost p ro fe ssio n als w ill b e a sk ed t o m eld t r a d it io n al a d vertis in g a n d p ubli c r e la tio n s, w e

hav e c o n necte d t h e a p pro ach es i n b oth f ie ld s t h ro u gh a s in gle , e th ic a lly b ase d t e st o f s p ecif ic m essa g es.

The f ir s t e le m en t o f t h e t e st—

T —sta n ds f o r

tr u th fu ln ess

. A re t h e c la im s, b oth v erb al a n d v is u al, t r u th fu l?

If th e m essa g e c o m mun ic a te s o n ly p art o f th e tr u th (a n d m an y a d s d o th is ), a re th e o m is sio n s d ece p tiv e?

Con vers e ly , a m essa g e w ou ld p ass t h e t e st if it m eets a g en uin e h um an n eed t o p ro vid e t r u th fu l in fo rm atio n ,

ev en if s o m e f a cts a re o m it te d . D oes t h e t e ch nolo gy u se d t o c o n vey t h e m essa g e o b sc u re o r h elp t o r e v ea l t h e

tr u th a b ou t t h e c la im s? I n a d dit io n , p ra ctit io n ers s h ou ld b e a b le t o v erif y w it h c li e n ts t h e t r u th fu ln ess o f c li e n t

53 cla im s, a n d t h ey s h ou ld p ro vid e in fo rm atio n t o t h eir a u d ie n ce s t h at w ill a llo w t h em t o v erif y t h e t r u th fu ln ess

of c la im s i n m essa g es a im ed a t t h e p ubli c (

ta b le 3 .1

Tab le 3 .1 . T he A m pli f ie d T A RES T est o f E th ic a l P ers u asio n

T Are t h e a d c la im s

Tru th fu l?

A Is t h e a d c la im

Auth en tic

R Does t h e a d t r e a t t h e r e ce iv er w it h

Resp ect?

E Is t h ere

Equ it y

b etw een t h e s e n der a n d t h e r e ce iv er?

S Is t h e a d

Socia lly

r e sp on sib le ?

The C heerio s te le v is io n a d s th at e m ph asiz e e a tin g C heerio s a s p art o f a h ea rt- h ea lt h y li f e sty le c o u ld e a sily

pass t h e f ir s t e le m en t o f t h e T A RES t e st. P eo p le d o h av e t o e a t, a n d t h e a d s p ro vid e n eed ed i n fo rm atio n . T he

ad s a ls o o m it so m e in fo rm atio n — fo r e x am ple , th e o th er c o m pon en ts o f a h ea rt- h ea lt h y li f e sty le o r th e fa ct

th at o th er b re a k fa st ce re a ls a ls o m eet th ese re q uir e m en ts . B ut th e o m it te d in fo rm atio n d oes n ot le a d th e

matu re c o n su m er t o m ak e f a ls e a ssu m ptio n s a n d b ad c h oic e s.

In a d dit io n , t e lli n g t h e t r u th in t im es o f c ris is , s u ch a s b eco m in g a n a d vo ca te r a th er t h an a n a d vers a ry in t h e

lo n g-te rm h ea lt h ca re o f a p artic u la r cli e n t, te sts th e fo re m ost p ro fe ssio n al p rin cip le s fo r p ubli c re la tio n s

pra ctit io n ers . T he h is to ry o f t h e f ie ld w ou ld s u ggest t h at b u sin esse s a n d a g en cie s w hose

actio n s d em on str a te

th at p ubli c h ea lt h a n d s a fe ty a re m ore im porta n t t h an s h ort- te rm p ro fit s — te lli n g t h e t r u th e v en w hen it h urts

—are q uit e l i k ely t o p ro fit a n d s u rv iv e i n t h e l o n g t e rm .

Ste p tw o in th e a m pli f ie d T A RES te st—

A fo r

au th en tic it y

—is c lo se ly li n ked to ste p o n e. A uth en tic it y

su ggests t h at it ’s im porta n t n ot o n ly t o d o t h e r ig h t t h in g, b u t a ls o “ to d o it w it h t h e r ig h t a ttit u d e” ( P ojm an

1998

, 1 58). W e li n k th is n otio n to th e c o n ce p t o f sin ce rit y . F ir s t, is th ere a sin ce re n eed fo r th is p ro d uct

wit h in t h e r a n ge o f p ro d ucts a n d s e rv ic e s a v aila b le ? S eco n d, a re t h e r e a so n s g iv en t o t h e c o n su m er p urc h asin g

th e p ro d uct p re se n te d in s u ch a w ay th at th ey a ls o w ou ld m otiv ate th e p ers o n w ho d ev elo p ed a n d w ro te th e

messa g e? S im ply put: W ou ld yo u bu y yo u r ow n re a so n in g ab ou t th e use s an d quali t y of th e pro d uct

ad vertis e d ?

Auth en tic it y , u se d in th is w ay , is clo se ly li n ked to d is c lo su re , a n im porta n t sta n dard fo r p ubli c re la tio n s

messa g es. T he e th ic a l e n d o f d is c lo su re is t h e g en era tio n o f t r u st a m on g a n d b etw een v ario u s p ubli c s. “ E th ic a l

publi c r e la tio n s p ro fe ssio n als a re f o rth rig h t a n d h on est a n d c o u n se l c li e n ts a n d e m plo yers t o a d op t r e sp on sib le

co m mun ic a tio n p oli c ie s b u ilt o n p rin cip le s o f o p en ness a n d tr a n sp are n cy ” (F it z p atr ic k a n d B ro n ste in

2006

13). D is c lo su re a ls o d em an ds p ro vid in g in fo rm atio n a b ou t w ho is p ay in g fo r th e m essa g e a n d w ho s ta n ds to

pro fit fr o m it s s u cce ss. D ir e ct a d vertis in g o f p h arm ace u tic a ls to c o n su m ers — on ce b an ned b y la w — oft e n fa il

th is p art o f t h e t e st.

Let’s ta k e a se t o f str a te g ic co m mun ic a tio n m essa g es ab ou t p ro d ucts d esig n ed to h elp eld erly o r in fir m

peo p le li v e m ore i n dep en den tly . A lt h ou gh s o m e o f t h ese p ro d ucts — fo r e x am ple , d ev ic e s t h at t u rn o n li g h ts i n

re sp on se to a h an d cla p — may se em li t tle m ore th an h ig h -te ch to ys, an yo n e w it h a gra n dpare n t in a

wheelc h air , a s ib li n g c rip ple d b y a n i lln ess li k e r h eu m ato id a rth rit is , o r e v en a y o u n g p ers o n s u ffe rin g f r o m t h e

im pose d i m mob ili t y o f a b ro ken l e g c a n r e a d ily u n ders ta n d t h e n eed f o r s u ch d ev ic e s.

Oth ers , su ch as ad vertis e m en ts fo r ex te n ded ca re fa cili t ie s o r su p ple m en ts to ex is tin g in su ra n ce p la n s,

atte m pt to fo cu s o n th e h um an d esir e o f in dep en den t li v in g. B ut in m ak in g th is p oin t, if th e m essa g es

ste re o ty p e e ld erly p eo p le a s fr a il, h elp le ss, w ea k , o r e a sily p an ic k ed , o r if th ey k n ock o th erw is e

hea lt h y

in div id uals o ff b ala n ce to se ll a p ro d uct b ase d o n fe a r, th ey d o n ot a u th en tic a lly re fle ct th e re a li t y o f li f e

bey o n d a g e 6 5. T he a d la ck s a u th en tic it y b ase d o n a n u n re a li s tic s te re o ty p e o f t h e e a rly r e tir e e. T he T A RES

te st w ou ld r e q uir e r e th in kin g t h e s p ecif ic a p pea l in t h e a d t o o n e t h at s c a re s a n d s te re o ty p es le ss a n d in fo rm s

more . F or c re a tiv e p eo p le , su ch a sw it c h is re a d ily a cco m pli s h ed if th ey th in k a b ou t it . Ju st a s im porta n t, a

fr e sh er a p pro ach m ig h t w ell s e ll m ore .

The

R in th e te st sta n ds fo r

re sp ect

, in th is c a se , re sp ect fo r th e p ers o n w ho w ill re ce iv e th e p ers u asiv e

messa g e. H ow ev er, a s a s h orth an d w ay o f th in kin g th ro u gh th is e le m en t o f th e te st, it m ig h t b e a p pro p ria te

fo r a d vertis in g p ra ctit