history book review. The book is attached below. I also attached a sample book review and a guide, but it must be written in MLA format and double spaced, and has to be 4 pages in length.

Oxfo rd N ew Y ork Auck la n d C ap e T ow n D ar e s S ala am H ong K ong K ara ch i Kuala L um pur M ad rid M elb ourn e M ex ic o C ity N air o bi New D elh i S han ghai T aip ei T oro nto With o ffic es i n Arg en tin a A ustr ia B ra zil C hile C zech R ep ublic F ra n ce G re ece Guate m ala H ungary I ta ly J a p an P ola n d P ortu gal S in gap ore South K ore a S w itz erla n d T haila n d T urk ey U kra in e V ie tn am Copyrig ht © 2 008 b y O xfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss, I n c.

Publis h ed b y O xfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss, I n c.

198 M ad is o n A ven ue, N ew Y ork , N ew Y ork 1 0016 www.o up.c o m Oxfo rd i s a r e g is te re d t r a d em ark o f O xfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss All r ig hts r e se rv ed . N o p art o f t h is p ublic atio n m ay b e r e p ro duced , sto re d i n a r e tr ie v al s y ste m , o r t r a n sm itte d , i n a n y f o rm o r b y a n y m ean s, ele ctr o nic , m ech an ic al, p hoto co pyin g, r e co rd in g, o r o th erw is e , with out t h e p rio r p erm is sio n o f O xfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss.

Lib ra ry o f C ongre ss C ata lo gin g-in -P ublic atio n D ata Wall, W en dy, 1 962– In ven tin g t h e A m eric an w ay : t h e p olitic s o f c o nse n su s f ro m t h e N ew Deal t o t h e c iv il r ig hts m ovem en t / W en dy L . W all.

p. c m .

In clu des b ib lio gra p hic al r e fe re n ces a n d i n dex . IS B N 9 78-0 -1 9-5 32910-0 1. U nite d S ta te s— Politic s a n d g overn m en t— 1933–1945. 2 . U nite d Sta te s— Politic s a n d g overn m en t— 1945–1989. 3 . P olitic al c u ltu re — Unite d S ta te s— His to ry — 20th c en tu ry .

4. N atio nalis m — Unite d S ta te s— His to ry — 20th c en tu ry . 5 . B usin essm en — Unite d S ta te s— Politic al activ ity — His to ry — 20th c en tu ry . 6 . U nite d Sta te s— Offic ia ls a n d e m plo yees— Politic al a ctiv ity — His to ry — 20th cen tu ry . 7 . E lite ( S ocia l s c ie n ces)— Unite d Sta te s— Politic al a ctiv ity — His to ry — 20th c en tu ry . 8 . P olitic al a ctiv is ts —Unite d S ta te s— His to ry — 20th cen tu ry . 9 . I n te lle ctu als — Unite d S ta te s— Politic al a ctiv ity — His to ry — 20th c en tu ry . 1 0. U nite d S ta te s— Socia l co nditio ns— 20th c en tu ry .

I. T itle .

E743.W 355 2 008 973.9 17— dc2 2 2 007010975 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Prin te d i n t h e U nite d S ta te s o f A m eric a o n a cid -fre e p ap er To m y p aren ts Joh n K lie w er W all a n d Joyce B ric k m an W all Ack now le d gm en ts W hen a p ro je ct t a k es a s l o ng a s t h is o ne h as o ne a ccu m ula te s m an y d eb ts — to c o lle ag ues, i n stitu tio ns, f rie n ds, a n d f a m ily . T o t h ose n am ed b elo w , a n d m an y o th ers h ere u nnam ed , I a m i m measu ra b ly g ra te fu l.

The i n sig htf u l c o m men ts , c ritic is m s, a n d s u ggestio ns o f v ario us m en to rs h elp ed s h ap e t h is p ro je ct f ro m i ts i n cep tio n. D av id K en ned y o ffe re d e n th usia stic s u pport ( o ccasio nally b ala n ced b y j u dic io us s k ep tic is m ), a n d p ro m pte d m e t o t h in k e v en m ore b ro ad ly a b out t h e t o pic s a d dre sse d h ere t h an I w as i n clin ed t o d o o n m y o w n. M eetin gs w ith G eo rg e F re d eric k so n l e ft m e b oth r e en erg iz ed a n d i n te lle ctu ally i n sp ir e d ; t h e i n te re st w ith w hic h h e r e ad m y a cco unts o f p eo ple a n d e v en ts h e’d s o m etim es e x perie n ced f ir s th an d p ers u ad ed m e t h at I w as o n t h e r ig ht t r a ck . S te v en Z ip pers te in ’s q uie t g en ero sity o f s p ir it a lw ay s m ad e h is o ffic e s e em l ik e a n o cean o f c alm .

D an ie l K ev le s a n d N an cy H ew itt o ffe re d m e i n valu ab le s u pport a n d s a g e c o unse l a t v ario us s ta g es i n t h e p ro cess. A s m etic u lo us s c h ola rs c o m mitte d t o n urtu rin g y ounger h is to ria n s a n d t o r e ach in g a b ro ad er p ublic , a ll o ffe re d w onderfu l m odels o f t h e b est t h at a cad em ia h as t o o ffe r. A lth ough s h e d oes n ot k now i t, m y h ig h s c h ool h is to ry t e ach er T assie H ad lo ck P iltz f ir s t s p ark ed m y i n te re st i n A m eric a’s n atio nal i d en tity .

My t h in kin g h as b en efite d e n orm ously o ver t h e y ears f ro m t h e i n sig hts o f s e m in ar a n d p an el p artic ip an ts , m an usc rip t r e v ie w ers , a n d c o lle ag ues a t S ta n fo rd , C alte ch , D uke, a n d C olg ate . S usa n T horn e a n d F ay e D udden r e ad t h e e n tir e m an usc rip t a t d if fe re n t s ta g es; b oth o ffe re d h elp fu l e d ito ria l a d vic e a n d a g en tle n udge t o “ se n d i t o ff.” T he c o m men ts o f K ev in K ru se , D av id H ollin ger, a n d t w o a n onym ous r e ad ers h elp ed g uid e m y t h in kin g a t v ario us s ta g es i n t h e r e v is io n p ro cess. I a m a ls o g ra te fu l t o E ric a n d J e ssic a A llin a- P is a n o, A nto nio B arre ra , D av id B en nett, R obert C hern y, E ste lle F re ed m an , C hris H en ke, C aro ly n H su , G le n n L oury , R obert N em es, D av id R obin so n, A ndy R otte r, C am illa Tow nse n d a n d J u dith W eis e n fe ld f o r t h eir c o m men ts o n i d eas o r l a n gau ge i n t h is b ook. Audie n ce m em bers a t p ro fe ssio nal c o nfe re n ces a n d o th er f o ru m s re sp onded g ra cio usly a n d t h oughtf u lly t o m y w ork . I a m p artic u la rly t h an kfu l to t h e f o llo w in g i n stitu tio ns f o r g iv in g m e t h e o pportu nity t o d is c u ss m y fin din gs: t h e A m eric an H is to ric al A sso cia tio n, t h e A m eric an S tu die s Asso cia tio n, t h e O rg an iz atio n o f A m eric an H is to ria n s, t h e R ese arc h Tria n gle ’s I n te lle ctu al H is to ry S em in ar, t h e R ese arc h T ria n gle ’s F em in is t Wom en i n H is to ry G ro up, t h e r e se arc h w ork sh op o f B .U .’ s I n stitu te o n R ace an d S ocia l D iv is io n, a n d t h e U niv ers ity o f W is c o nsin ’s H is to ry D ep artm en t.

Specia l t h an ks t o R ag nhild F ie b ig von H ase w ho p ro vid ed m y e arlie st m odel of a p ro fe ssio nal h is to ria n a n d l a te r a rra n ged f o r m e t o p re se n t s o m e pre lim in ary t h oughts t o t h e a n nual c o nfe re n ce o f h is to ria n s i n t h e G erm an Asso cia tio n o f A m eric an S tu die s.

Sta n fo rd U niv ers ity p ro vid ed f in an cia l s u pport f o r t h is p ro je ct i n i ts earlie st s ta g es. T he N atio nal E ndow m en t f o r t h e H um an itie s g en ero usly aw ard ed m e a d is se rta tio n f e llo w sh ip . I b eg an t h in kin g a b out t h is p ro je ct while a p re d octo ra l f e llo w a t t h e S ta n fo rd H um an itie s C en te r, a n d l a u nch ed my r e v is io ns w hile a r e se arc h a sso cia te a t B osto n U niv ers ity ’s I n stitu te o n Race a n d S ocia l D iv is io n. B oth c en te rs o ffe re d n ot o nly f in an cia l s u pport, b ut wonderfu l c o lle ag ues w ho h elp ed t o s h arp en m y t h in kin g. A C la rk e Cham bers T ra v el F ello w sh ip f ro m t h e S ocia l W elf a re H is to ry A rc h iv es a t t h e Univ ers ity o f M in neso ta , a G ild er L eh rm an F ello w sh ip a t C olu m bia Univ ers ity ’s R are B ook a n d M an usc rip t L ib ra ry , a n d r e se arc h g ra n ts f ro m t h e Hag le y M use u m a n d L ib ra ry , t h e R ock efe lle r A rc h iv e C en te r, a n d t h e H arry S. T ru m an L ib ra ry I n stitu te a llo w ed m e t o d o e x te n siv e w ork i n t h ose arc h iv es. C olg ate U niv ers ity ’s R ese arc h C ouncil f u nded f u rth er t r a v el, tr a n sla tin g h elp , a n d t h e a cq uis itio n o f m an y o f t h e i m ag es f o und i n t h is book.

Arc h iv is ts a n d l ib ra ria n s p ro vid ed v ita l a ssis ta n ce a t v ario us s ta g es a lo ng th e w ay . I a m i n deb te d t o t h e s ta ffs o f t h e r e se arc h l ib ra rie s a n d a rc h iv es men tio ned a b ove, a s w ell a s t o t h ose a t t h e N atio nal A rc h iv es i n W ash in gto n, D.C . a n d C olle g e P ark , M ary la n d; t h e N atio nal R eco rd s C en te r i n S uitla n d, Mary la n d; t h e L ib ra ry o f C ongre ss; t h e W is c o nsin S ta te H is to ric al S ocie ty ; th e H arv ard U niv ers ity a rc h iv es; B ak er L ib ra ry a t H arv ard B usin ess S ch ool; th e N ew Y ork P ublic L ib ra ry ; t h e A m eric an J e w is h C om mitte e’s B la u ste in Lib ra ry ; t h e Y IV O I n stitu te f o r J e w is h R ese arc h ; t h e A dvertis in g C ouncil Arc h iv es a t t h e U niv ers ity o f I llin ois ; t h e I m mig ra tio n H is to ry R ese arc h Cen te r; t h e H oover I n stitu tio n’s l ib ra ry a n d a rc h iv es; a n d t h e u niv ers ity lib ra rie s a t S ta n fo rd , t h e C alif o rn ia I n stitu te o f T ech nolo gy, D uke, a n d Colg ate . D av id K la asse n a t t h e Socia l W elf a re H is to ry A rc h iv es d ese rv es sp ecia l t h an ks f o r a le rtin g m e t o t h e p ap ers o f t h e C hild S tu dy A sso cia tio n o f Am eric a, a d is c o very t h at m ad e S uperm an a p art o f t h is s to ry . S pecia l t h an ks als o t o A nn A ck ers o n, K are n F orn i A ustin , a n d o th ers o n t h e c ir c u la tio n a n d in te rlib ra ry l o an s ta ffs a t C olg ate ; t h eir c re ativ ity a n d p ers is te n ce a llo w ed m e to c o m ple te t h is b ook a t a t im e w hen t h e c o lle g e m ain l ib ra ry w as c lo se d f o r re n ovatio n a n d m uch o f t h e c o lle ctio n r e le v an t t o m y p ro je ct w as i n l o ng- te rm s to ra g e.

Irv in g E lic h ir ig oity a n d A nth ony C ash m an h elp ed m e t r a n sla te a rtic le s fro m t h e I ta lia n -A m eric an p re ss. L in da H allb erg t r a n sla te d p ortio ns o f Gunnar a n d A lv a M yrd al’ s Konta kt m ed A m erik a f ro m S w ed is h . C in dy R yan sp en t w eek s r e sto rin g r e se arc h f ile s t h at b ecam e g arb le d w hen I t r a n sla te d th em f ro m W ord P erfe ct t o W ord . R ay N ard elli a n d C aro ly n H su h elp ed m e pre p are s o m e o f t h e i llu str a tio ns f o r t h is v olu m e.

Both t h e 1 942 a n d 1 965 e d itio ns o f M arg are t M ead ’s n atio nal c h ara cte r stu dy And K eep Y our P ow der D ry a re q uote d c o urte sy o f t h e I n stitu te f o r In te rc u ltu ra l S tu die s, I n c. i n N ew Y ork , N ew Y ork . P arts o f ch ap te rs 3 a n d 5 pre v io usly a p peare d i n a lte re d f o rm i n “ ‘O ur E nem ie s W ith in ’: N azis m , Natio nal U nity a n d A m eric a’s W artim e D is c o urs e o n T ole ra n ce,” i n Enem y Im ages i n A m eric a n H is to ry , e d s. R ag nhild F ie b ig von H ase a n d U rs u la Leh m kuhl ( P ro vid en ce, R .I .: B erg hah n B ooks, 1 997), 2 09–229. A p ortio n o f Chap te r 8 a p peare d a s “ A m eric a’s ‘ B est P ro pag an dis ts ’: I ta lia n A m eric an s an d t h e 1 948 ‘ L ette rs t o I ta ly ’ C am paig n,” i n Cold W ar C onstr u ctio ns: T he Politic a l C ultu re o f U nite d S ta te s I m peria lis m , 1 945–1966 , e d . C hris tia n Appy ( A m hers t: U niv ers ity o f M assa ch use tts P re ss, 2 000), 8 9–109. T han ks to b oth p re sse s f o r p erm is sio n t o r e p rin t t h is m ate ria l.

At O xfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss, S usa n F erb er s h ep herd ed t h is p ro je ct t h ro ugh th e a p pro val p ro cess w ith l ig htn in g s p eed . A rm ed w ith h er e v er-p re se n t Bla ck berry , s h e a n sw ere d q uestio ns f ro m h ote l r o om s i n T ex as a n d a hig hw ay i n V ir g in ia . M an y t h an ks a ls o t o m y p ro ductio n e d ito r G wen doly n T. C olv in f o r a ll h er w ork o n t h e f in al s ta g es o f t h e b ook.

Frie n ds a n d f a m ily m em bers u nstin tin gly o ffe re d e m otio nal s u pport, a so undin g b oard f o r m y i d eas, l o dgin g, e m erg en cy c h ild care , a n d l a st- m in ute co m pute r a ssis ta n ce. A lth ough a n y l is t w ould b e i n co m ple te , I a m partic u la rly i n deb te d t o J o hnny W all, K im berly a n d C hris W all O verto n, Mic h ael W all a n d W en dy F en g, R och elle a n d A ri Z ak , P au l E ngelm ay er a n d Em ily M an dels ta m , I n és S ala zar a n d J e ff U ngar, T hom as a n d F rie d em arie Farra r, S co tt K ilm an , K ath erin e J o llu ck , J e h an ne G heith , A ndy R otte r a n d Pad m a K aim al, C aro ly n H su a n d C hris H en ke, K äre n W ig en , P ila r M ejia Barre ra , R eg in a C onti, A str id Helf a n t, a n d E liz ab eth M arlo w e. T his p ro je ct co uld n ev er h av e b een c o m ple te d w ith out t h e c h eerfu l s ta ff o f t h e C hen an go Nurs e ry S ch ool a n d a h ost o f e x cep tio nal b ab ysitte rs . I n t h e f in al d ecad e o f his l if e , t h e l a te E ugen e R oberts o n s h are d w ith m e h is l o ve o f P au l R obeso n an d m uch m ore ; h e e m bodie d f o r m e t h e h um an e a n d p ro gre ssiv e p atr io tis m th at m ark ed m uch o f t h e A m eric an l e ft d urin g t h e 1 930s.

A h an dfu l o f i n div id uals d ese rv e s p ecia l t h an ks f o r s u sta in in g m y f a ith i n myse lf a n d t h is p ro je ct. F or t h e b ette r p art o f t h re e d ecad es, A m y S ch w artz has b een a c lo se f rie n d a n d s o ul m ate . S he a llo w ed m e t o c am p i n h er t in y ap artm en t f o r w eek s a t a t im e, w as i n te lle ctu al m id w if e t o t h is p ro je ct i n i ts early s ta g es, a n d b ro ught h er j o urn alis t’ s e ar a n d e y e t o t h e c o m ple te d man usc rip t. A lis o n T uch er h as a ls o l is te n ed p atie n tly a n d c h eere d m e o n sin ce t h is b ook’s i n cep tio n; s h e a n d h er h usb an d, C huck D yke, e sta b lis h ed th e “ T uch er-D yke F und f o r M oth ers i n A cad em ia ” t o h elp m e p ay f o r s o m e ad ditio nal c h ild care d urin g t h e b ook’s f in al s ta g es. O n m y j o urn ey t h ro ugh gra d uate s c h ool a n d b ey ond, I h av e b een b le sse d w ith t h e c o m pan y o f a wonderfu l a n d e v olv in g g ro up o f f e llo w s o jo urn ers : K are n D unn-H ale y , Arie la G ro ss, L eslie M . H arris , A lic e Y an g M urra y , W en dy L ynch a n d R en ee Rom an o. O ver t h e y ears , w e s h are d m eals , l a u ghs, s o rro w s a n d c o nfid en ces; pra ctic ed j o b t a lk s a n d l e ctu re s; a n d s w ap ped w ritin g a t r e g ula r r e ad in g g ro up “re tr e ats .” T hey h av e a ll r e ad m ultip le v ers io ns o f t h is m an usc rip t, a n d t h ey in ev ita b ly h ad m ore c o nfid en ce i n m e t h an I h ad i n m yse lf . F or t h is , a n d f o r th eir c ritic is m s a n d c o m pan io nsh ip , I a m d eep ly g ra te fu l.

My g re ate st d eb ts a re t o m y i m med ia te f a m ily . A ndre w W . R oberts o n h as ex perie n ced b oth t h e j o ys a n d p erils o f b ein g m arrie d t o a f e llo w h is to ria n .

Over t h e y ears , o ur w id e-ra n gin g d is c u ssio ns o f m y t o pic h av e n ev er f a ile d t o re sto re m y e n th usia sm , a n d h is l o ve, s u pport a n d s e n se o f h um or h av e l ig hte d my p ath i n t h e d ark est t im es. O ur d ogs, B eau a n d N im h, a cco m pan ie d m e o n num ero us r e sto ra tiv e b each w alk s a n d h ik es. L au ra J o yce R oberts o n a n d Thad deu s D an ie l W all R oberts o n b oth a rriv ed w hile I w as t u rn in g m y dis se rta tio n i n to a b ook a n d t h ey w ere f o rc ed t o s h are t h eir m oth er w ith t h at pro je ct. T hey c o nsta n tly r e m in ded m e t h at t h ere a re m ore i m porta n t t h in gs th an m an usc rip ts , a n d t h ey i n varia b ly k ep t m e l a u ghin g, e v en i n t h e f in al gru elin g s tr e tc h .

My l o ve o f h is to ry w as b orn a t m y p are n ts ’ d in ner t a b le a n d i n t h eir liv in g r o om . W hen I w as e le v en o r t w elv e, w e w ould g ath er b y t h e f ir e p la ce while m y f a th er r e ad c h ap te rs f ro m a l e n gth y h is to ry o f t h e R ev olu tio nary War; l a te r w e w ould r e p la y b attle s o ver d in ner w ith t h e c arto n o f m ilk sta n din g i n f o r t h e C ontin en ta l A rm y a n d t h e p eas r e p re se n tin g t h eir B ritis h fo es. F am ily vacatio ns t o ok m e t o C alif o rn ia m is sio ns a n d C olo ra d o m in in g cam ps, C iv il W ar b attle fie ld s a n d M is sis sip pi r iv er t o w ns, a n d t h ro ugh n early fo rty s ta te s. I f ir s t h eard a b out t h e o rig in al F re ed om T ra in f ro m m y p are n ts , as w e w aite d t o b oard i ts m ore l im ite d r e in carn atio n i n 1 976. W ith out m y moth er a n d f a th er’s i n te re st i n h is to ry a n d t h eir f a ith i n A m eric a, I w ould nev er h av e g one t o g ra d uate s c h ool, l e t a lo ne t a ck le d t h is p ro je ct. W ith out th eir e n durin g l o ve a n d s u pport— not t o m en tio n a c erta in d eg re e o f i n herite d stu bborn ness— I w ould n ev er h av e s e en i t t h ro ugh t o f ru itio n. W ith l o ve a n d gra titu de, I d ed ic ate i t t o t h em . Perm is sio n s L yric s r e p rin te d f ro m T H E H OUSE I L IV E I N . B y E arl R obin so n a n d L ew is A lle n . C opyrig ht © 1 942 ( R en ew ed ) b y M usic S ale s C orp . ( A SC A P). A ll r ig hts o uts id e t h e U .S . a d m in is te re d b y W B M usic C orp . A ll r ig hts i n t h e U .S . c o ntr o lle d b y M usic S ale s C orp . ( A SC A P). I n te rn atio nal c o pyrig ht s e cu re d . A ll r ig hts r e se rv ed . R ep rin te d b y p erm is sio n o f M usic S ale s C orp .

a n d A lf re d P ublis h in g C o., I n c.

“F re ed om T ra in ,” f ro m T H E C O LLEC TED P O EM S O F L A NGST O N H UGHES b y L an gsto n H ughes, e d ite d b y A rn old R am pers a d w ith D av id R oesse l, a sso cia te e d ito r. C opyrig ht © 1 994 b y T he E sta te o f L an gsto n H ughes. U se d b y p erm is sio n o f A lf re d A . K nopf, a d iv is io n o f R an dom H ouse , I n c., a n d H aro ld O ber A sso cia te s I n c. Con te n ts In tr o ductio n 3 P art I E nem ie s a t H om e a n d A bro ad ( 1 935–1941) 1 “ A re W e a N atio n?” 2 I n dustr ia l D em ocra cy v ers u s F re e E nte rp ris e 3 I n S earc h o f C om mon G ro und P art I I T he P olit ic s o f U nit y d urin g W orld W ar I I ( 1 942–1945) 4 T he S pectr e o f “ D iv id e a n d C onquer” 5 “ T he H ouse I L iv e I n ” P art I II S hap in g a C old W ar C on se n su s ( 1 946–1955) 6 U nite d A m eric a 7 T he F re ed om T ra in 8 C ru sa d in g f o r F re ed om a t H om e a n d A bro ad Conclu sio n Abbre v ia tio ns U se d i n N ote s Note s In dex In ven tin g t h e “ A m eric a n W ay” In tr o d uctio n I n M ay 1 947, a n i llu str io us g ro up o f b usin ess a n d a d vertis in g e x ecu tiv es, H olly w ood m oguls , l a b or l e ad ers , a n d h ead s o f r e lig io us, c iv ic , a n d c iv il r ig hts o rg an iz atio ns g ath ere d a t t h e W hite H ouse t o p ut t h eir s ta m p o f a p pro val o n o ne o f t h e m ost a m bitio us i d eo lo gic al c am paig ns e v er u nderta k en i n t h e U nite d S ta te s: t h e F re ed om T ra in . L ate r t h at y ear, a t r a in c arry in g o ver o ne h undre d orig in al d ocu m en ts — am ong t h em , J e ffe rs o n’s d ra ft o f t h e D ecla ra tio n o f I n dep en den ce, W ash in gto n’s c o py o f t h e C onstitu tio n, a n d L in co ln ’s s c ra w le d G etty sb urg A ddre ss— le ft o n a s ix te en - m onth j o urn ey t h ro ugh 3 22 c itie s i n a ll f o rty -e ig ht s ta te s. T he F re ed om T ra in ’s p assa g e w as c o ord in ate d w ith h undre d s o f l o cal c ele b ra tio ns, d ubbed p atr io tic “ re v iv al m eetin gs,” a n d a n atio nw id e m ed ia b litz . N ew sre els , n ew sp ap ers , a n d n atio nal m ag azin es g av e t h e t r a in e x te n siv e c o vera g e; F re ed om T ra in m essa g es w ere w ork ed i n to p opula r r a d io p ro gra m s s u ch a s F ib ber M cG ee a nd M olly ; I rv in g B erlin c o m pose d a s o ng i n t h e t r a in ’s h onor; a n d f o ur m illio n s c h oolc h ild re n r e ceiv ed c o pie s o f t h e c o m ic b ook C apta in M arv el a nd t h e F re ed om T ra in !

A n e stim ate d 3 .5 m illio n A m eric an s b oard ed t h e t r a in d urin g i ts t r a v els , a n d a s m an y a s o ne i n t h re e p artic ip ate d i n F re ed om R allie s, F re ed om F ash io n S how s, a n d o th er e v en ts s ta g ed t o c ele b ra te t h e t r a in ’s a rriv al i n t h eir t o w ns.

1 Both t h e t r a in a n d t h e m ed ia b arra g e w ere o ste n sib ly d esig ned t o r e m in d A m eric an s o f t h eir s h are d h erita g e a n d v alu es. C om men ts m ad e b y t h e t r a in ’s o rg an iz ers , h ow ev er, s u ggeste d t h at t h e p ro je ct w as d esig ned t o i n still, r a th er t h an s im ply r e fle ct, t h ose c o m mon m ore s. A tto rn ey G en era l T om C la rk , w hose o ffic e o rig in ate d t h e i d ea, a rg ued t h at “ in doctr in atio n i n d em ocra cy i s t h e e sse n tia l c ata ly tic a g en t n eed ed t o b le n d o ur v ary in g g ro ups i n to o ne A m eric an f a m ily .” 2 P ara m ount P ic tu re s p re sid en t B arn ey B ala b an , t h e s o n o f R ussia n J e w is h i m mig ra n ts a n d t h e m an w ho h elp ed t r a n sfo rm t h e t r a in i n to a m ajo r e x tr a v ag an za, s a w i n t h e F re ed om T ra in “ a w onderfu l v eh ic le f o r cre atin g g ood w ill a m ong v ario us r a cia l a n d r e lig io us g ro ups.” 3 T hom as D’A rc y B ro phy, t h e a d vertis in g e x ecu tiv e w ho u ltim ate ly o rc h estr a te d t h e en tir e p ro je ct, h oped t o d efu se c la ss t e n sio ns a n d h ead o ff “ sta te s o cia lis m ” i n th e U .S . b y “ re -s e llin g A m eric an is m t o A m eric an s.” 4 Each o f t h ese i n div id uals h ad a s lig htly d if fe re n t a g en da, a n d t h eir v oic es were n ot t h e o nly o nes s h ap in g t h e p ro je ct. I n deed , t h e f a çad e o f c o nse n su s su rro undin g t h e F re ed om T ra in c o nceale d a n o ngoin g c o nte st i n volv in g m an y dif fe re n t g ro ups. B eh in d t h e s c en es a n d o ccasio nally i n p ublic , c o rp ora te a n d ad vertis in g e x ecu tiv es, T ru m an a d m in is tr a tio n o ffic ia ls , c iv il s e rv an ts w ith New D eal l o yaltie s, C om munis ts , p acif is ts , a rd en t s e g re g atio nis ts , a n d so uth ern b la ck s f ig htin g t o e n d J im C ro w v ie d t o c o ntr o l t h e m essa g e a n d mean in g o f t h e t r a in . C ontr o vers y e ru pte d o ver t h e d ocu m en ts t h at w ould b e in clu ded i n t h e e x hib it a n d o ver t h e i n te rp re ta tio n a sc rib ed t o e ach : W ere t h e Fourte en th a n d F if te en th a m en dm en ts t o t h e C onstitu tio n— th ose guara n te ein g “ d ue p ro cess” a n d t h e r ig ht t o v ote — re ally t h e “ co m mon herita g e o f all A m eric an s” ?

5 W ere p ic tu re s o f i m mig ra n ts , a rtif a cts docu m en tin g t h e r is e o f t h e l a b or m ovem en t, o r e v en F D R’s 1 940 s p eech decla rin g A m eric a t o b e t h e “ ars e n al o f d em ocra cy ” s u ffic ie n tly nonco ntr o vers ia l t o b e d is p la y ed a b oard t h e F re ed om T ra in ? H ow m uch atte n tio n s h ould b e p aid t o A le x an der H am ilto n, a f a v orite o f e co nom ic co nse rv ativ es, a s c o m pare d t o T hom as J e ffe rs o n, t h e f o undin g f a th er b elo ved by N ew D eal D em ocra ts ? T he i s su e o f r a ce— sp ecif ic ally , w heth er w hite s an d b la ck s s h ould b oard t h e t r a in a n d v ie w t h e d ocu m en ts t o geth er— pro ved partic u la rly t r o uble so m e w hen t h e t r a in h ead ed i n to t h e S outh . I n deed , t h e co ntr o vers y o ver s e g re g atio n b ecam e s o h eate d t h at t r a in o rg an iz ers in str u cte d a d van ce w ork ers o pera tin g b elo w t h e M aso n-D ix on L in e t o r e fe r to i t i n t e le g ra m s s im ply a s “ P ro ble m D .” I n t h is c h arg ed e n vir o nm en t, e v en a word a s s e em in gly c en tr a l t o A m eric a’s n atio nal i d en tity a s “ d em ocra cy ” w as ultim ate ly d eem ed t o o c o ntr o vers ia l t o b e u se d i n s lo gan s a n d p re ss m ate ria ls .

Under t h e b an ner o f “ fre ed om ,” A m eric an s w ith w id ely d iv erg en t i n te re sts use d t h e F re ed om T ra in t o r e in fo rc e t h e c o rp ora te o rd er, s h ore u p s u pport f o r th e c o ld w ar, a n d c am paig n f o r r e lig io us t o le ra n ce a n d c iv il r ig hts .

The s to ry o f t h e F re ed om T ra in h ig hlig hts t h e p olitic s o f c o nse n su s i n Am eric a i n t h e m id dle d ecad es o f t h e t w en tie th c en tu ry . A t f ir s t g la n ce, t h ese tw o n otio ns— “p olitic s” a n d “ co nse n su s” — may s e em a t o dds. A fte r a ll, “co nse n su s” s u ggests a f u ndam en ta l a g re em en t o n v alu es— in t h e w ord s o f th e Oxfo rd E nglis h D ic tio nary , “ th e c o lle ctiv e u nan im ous o pin io n o f a num ber o f p ers o ns.” 6 C erta in ly , A m eric an p undits a n d s c h ola rs w ritin g i n t h e tw o d ecad es f o llo w in g W orld W ar I I t e n ded t o d ow npla y p olitic al b attle s a n d to s tr e ss t h e v alu es t h eir f e llo w c itiz en s s h are d . I n 1 949, A rth ur M .

Sch le sin ger J r., optim is tic ally d ecla re d t h at m ost A m eric an s, i n t h e N orth a n d South , a ccep te d t h e b asic t e n ets o f c iv il r ig hts , w hile “ lib era ls h av e v alu es i n co m mon w ith m ost m em bers o f t h e b usin ess c o m munity .” 7 E le v en y ears la te r, t h e p olitic al s c ie n tis t C lin to n R ossite r a g re ed : “ In t h is f a v ore d c o untr y we h av e a lm ost a lw ay s f o und m ore t h in gs o n w hic h t o a g re e t h an t o dis a g re e,” h e w ro te i n a r e p ort c o m mis sio ned b y P re sid en t E is e n how er. T he early 1 960s, h e a d ded , “ ap pear t o b e a t im e o f b ro ad c o nse n su s o n fu ndam en ta ls .” 8 Our v ie w l o okin g b ack h as b een s tr o ngly s h ap ed b y s u ch pro nouncem en ts . F or n early h alf a c en tu ry , b oth s c h ola rly a n d p opula r co m men ta to rs h av e d ep ic te d t h e p ostw ar y ears , a n d e sp ecia lly t h e 1 950s a n d early 1 960s, a s a t im e o f u nusu ally d eep a n d w ell- g ro unded n atio nal u nity , a tim e w hen p ost- w ar a fflu en ce a n d t h e c o ld w ar c o m bin ed t o p ro duce a re m ark ab le l e v el o f a g re em en t a b out t h e n atio n’s c o re v alu es.

9 O bse rv ers o n both t h e l e ft a n d t h e r ig ht c o m pare t h e f ra ctio usn ess a n d p ola riz atio n o f politic s t o day t o t h e p re su m ed h arm ony o f t h ose e arlie r d ecad es.

In r e cen t y ears , s o m e s c h ola rs h av e c h alle n ged t h is p ic tu re o f i d eo lo gic al co hesio n, p oin tin g t o e v id en ce o f g ra ssro ots r e sis ta n ce o n b oth t h e l e ft a n d th e r ig ht.

10 T heir a p pro ach , h ow ev er, b eg s a c en tr a l q uestio n: I f A m eric an s re m ain ed d iv id ed o n m an y i s su es i n t h e p ostw ar y ears , w hy d id a t o ne o f unity a n d a cco rd s o p erv ad e t h e w ritin g a n d p olitic s o f t h e e ra ? W hy d id a “v en eer o f c o nse n su s a n d c iv ility ” r e ig n?

11 A fte r a ll, t h e c o m bin ed e ffe cts o f afflu en ce a n d a n ti- c o m munis m d id n ot p ro duce e v en t h e a p peara n ce o f co nse n su s i n o th er e p och s o f U .S . h is to ry — th e 1 920s o r t h e 1 980s, f o r ex am ple . W hat m ad e t h e p ostw ar d ecad es d if fe re n t?

This b ook t a ck le s t h at q uestio n. I t b eg in s w ith t h e p re m is e t h at A m eric a’s mid -c en tu ry “ co nse n su s” c an b est b e u nders to od n ot a s a “ n atu ra l” dev elo pm en t b ut a s a p olitic al p ro je ct. B ro ad s o cie ta l t r e n ds m ay h av e co ntr ib ute d t o t h e “ cen tr ip eta l i m puls e ” o f p ostw ar p olitic al c u ltu re , b ut t h at cu ltu re w as s tr o ngly s h ap ed b y t h e c o nsc io us a ctiv itie s o f m ultip le g ro ups.

12 Busin ess a n d a d vertis in g e x ecu tiv es, i n te rfa ith a ctiv is ts , g overn m en t o ffic ia ls , an d o th er c u ltu ra l e lite s s e iz ed o n t h e n otio n o f a u nif y in g a n d d is tin ctiv e “A m eric an W ay ” a n d s o ught t o d efin e i t i n w ay s t h at f u rth ere d t h eir o w n politic al a n d s o cia l a g en das. A ll o f t h ese g ro ups h ad a s tr o ng i n te re st i n cem en tin g n atio nal c o hesio n, a n d a ll p ro m ote d t h e n otio n o f “ co nse n su s,” ev en a s t h ey d if fe re d o n t h e s p ecif ic v alu es a n d a ttr ib ute s t h at t h eir f e llo w citiz en s s h are d . T he c o m pro m is e s t h ey m ad e— an d t h e a llia n ces t h ey f o rg ed —did m uch t o p ro duce t h e c o nse n su s c u ltu re t h at m ark ed t h e p ublic a re n a durin g t h e p ostw ar y ears .

The r o ots o f t h is c o nse n su s c u ltu re c an b e f o und n ot i n t h e c o ld w ar e ra , as p re v io us h is to ria n s h av e s u ggeste d , b ut i n t h e t u rb ule n t d ecad e t h at pre ced ed U .S . e n tr y i n to W orld W ar I I. A m eric an s o f d iv ers e b ack gro unds an d d iv erg en t a g en das w ere a la rm ed b y t h e c h ao s o f t h e D ep re ssio n y ears , a s well a s b y t h e r is e o f f a sc is m a n d c o m munis m a b ro ad . T o c o nse rv ativ e in dustr ia lis ts a n d l e ft- lib era l i n te lle ctu als a lik e, t h ese “ alie n ” i d eo lo gie s se em ed t o t h re ate n t h e U .S . n ot o nly e x te rn ally , b ut i n te rn ally a s w ell. T o co unte r s u ch t h re ats — to s h ore u p t h eir v is io n o f A m eric an d em ocra cy o r t h e natio n’s e co nom ic s y ste m — div ers e g ro ups a rtic u la te d t h eir v ers io n o f a unif y in g n atio nal i d eo lo gy a n d s o ught t o c o nvin ce t h eir f e llo w c itiz en s o f i ts merits . T he r e su ltin g “ cu ltu ra l c o nvers a tio n” l a ste d n early t h re e d ecad es a n d sp aw ned B ro ad w ay p la y s, f ilm s h orts , c o m ic s tr ip s, m ovie s, r a d io s h ow s, ad vertis in g b litz es, a n d c o ld w ar l e tte r-w ritin g c am paig ns.

13 I t s h ap ed c u ltu ra l pro ductio ns r a n gin g f ro m t h e F re ed om T ra in t o t h e r a d io s e ria l The Adven tu re s o f S uperm an . I ts l e g acie s i n clu de t e rm s t h at r e m ain c en tr a l t o Am eric an p olitic al l if e — te rm s s u ch a s “ fre e e n te rp ris e ” a n d t h e “ A m eric an Way ,” b oth o f w hic h w ere p opula riz ed i n t h e l a te 1 930s.

Tw o k ey s tr u ggle s l ie a t t h e h eart o f t h is s to ry , o verla p ped b y a t h ir d . T he fir s t r e v olv ed a ro und t h e s h ap e a n d p la ce o f c ap ita lis m i n A m eric an l if e . T he eco nom ic c o lla p se o f t h e 1 930s u nderm in ed t h e p olitic al a n d c u ltu ra l au th ority o f t h e n atio n’s b usin ess c o m munity a n d c alle d i n to q uestio n r a re ly ch alle n ged a ssu m ptio ns a b out t h e s ta b ility a n d c o urs e o f U .S . s o cie ty . I n t h is co nte x t, P re sid en t R oose v elt a n d h is N ew D eale rs p ro m ote d a n “ A m eric an Way ” b uilt a ro und t h e t w in p illa rs o f m ajo rita ria n d em ocra cy a n d e co nom ic se cu rity f o r a ll A m eric an s. F re ed om f ro m w an t, F D R a rg ued , w as a v ita l underp in nin g o f d em ocra cy a n d s o m eth in g t h at c o uld o nly b e e n su re d b y a n activ is t g overn m en t. I n dustr ia l u nio nis ts a n d t h ose o n t h e l e ft w in g o f t h e New D eal c o alitio n p ush ed F D R’s v is io n e v en f u rth er, c allin g f o r a n ex te n sio n o f m ajo rita ria n d em ocra cy f ro m t h e p olitic al i n to t h e e co nom ic re alm . I n p ra ctic e, s u ch “ in dustr ia l d em ocra cy ” c o uld t a k e m an y f o rm s, ra n gin g f ro m t h e s p re ad o f c o nsu m er a n d i n dustr ia l c o opera tiv es t o a g re ate r ro le f o r l a b or i n c o rp ora te d ecis io n-m ak in g.

Corp ora te l e ad ers a n d t h eir a llie s r e sp onded t o t h is c h alle n ge b y la u nch in g a n a ll- o ut c am paig n b eg in nin g i n t h e l a te 1 930s t o r e asse rt t h eir au th ority a n d t o s h ore u p w hat t h ey o fte n r e fe rre d t o a s t h e “ A m eric an eco nom ic s y ste m .” R eg ro upin g a fte r t h e i n itia l s h ock o f t h e D ep re ssio n— an d in cre asin gly c o nvin ced t h at t h eir p ro ble m s l a y n ot w ith N ew D eal “ ra d ic als ” but w ith t h e A m eric an p eo ple a s a w hole — busin ess g ro ups l a u nch ed a s e rie s of a d vertis in g a n d p ublic r e la tio ns c am paig ns d esig ned t o r e ed ucate t h e public . T hey p ro m ote d a v ers io n o f t h e A m eric an W ay t h at c ele b ra te d in div id ual f re ed om r a th er t h an m ajo rita ria n d em ocra cy a n d t h at p osite d a harm ony o f in te re sts a m ong c la sse s. R ep la cin g t h e b ele ag uere d t e rm “ p riv ate en te rp ris e ” w ith t h e m ore r e so nan t “ fre e e n te rp ris e ,” t h ey r e sp onded t o N ew Deal a n d l a b or e ffo rts t o l in k A m eric an s’ e co nom ic a n d p olitic al r ig hts w ith a lin kag e o f t h eir o w n: w ith out e co nom ic f re ed om , t h ey a rg ued , A m eric an s’ politic al, c iv il, a n d r e lig io us l ib ertie s w ould d is a p pear. A lth ough b usin ess gro ups m ad e o nly m arg in al h ead w ay i n t h e l a te 1 930s, t h ey i n tr o duced th em es a n d t e rm s t h at w ould r e so nate t h ro ugh d is c u ssio ns o f A m eric an politic al c u ltu re i n to t h e 1 950s a n d b ey ond.

If d eb ate s o ver p olitic al e co nom y f o rm ed o ne a x is o f t h e c o nvers a tio n o n th e A m eric an W ay i n t h e l a te 1 930s, d eb ate s o ver t h e c u ltu ra l d efin itio n o f Am eric a f o rm ed a n oth er: H ow w ould a n atio n t h at e lite s h ad l o ng d efin ed a s white a n d P ro te sta n t i n co rp ora te a d iv ers e c itiz en ry i n to i ts n atio nal i d en tity an d s o cia l f a b ric ? T he D ep re ssio n t o ok h old j u st a s m illio ns o f “ n ew im mig ra n ts ” a n d t h eir A m eric an -b orn c h ild re n — an d b la ck A m eric an s w ho had j o in ed t h e G re at M ig ra tio n o ut o f t h e S outh a fte r W orld W ar I — were mak in g a b id f o r g re ate r p olitic al a n d s o cia l i n clu sio n. T he N ew D eal co alitio n w elc o m ed m an y o f t h ese n ew ly e n fra n ch is e d A m eric an s, b ut t h e Dep re ssio n a n d e sc ala tin g t e n sio ns a b ro ad a ls o p ro duced a s u rg e i n a n ti- Sem itis m a n d o th er f o rm s o f e th nic a n d r a cia l i n to le ra n ce. M ean w hile , t h e su ccesse s o f F asc is t a n d C om munis t r e g im es a b ro ad u nders c o re d b oth t h e possib ilitie s a n d d an gers i n here n t i n c u ltu ra l d iv ers ity . M an y A m eric an opin io n m old ers e q uate d t o ta lita ria n is m w ith e n fo rc ed h om ogen eity a n d cam e t o s e e d iv ers ity a s a d efin in g f e atu re o f d em ocra cy . T he A m eric an W ay , th ey a rg ued , w as t h e a b ility o f d iv ers e i n div id uals t o l iv e t o geth er harm onio usly . Y et s u ch c ele b ra to ry p ro cla m atio ns w ere o fte n t in ged w ith fe ar— fe ar t h at u nbounded d iv ers ity c o uld p ro duce v en om ous h atr e d s t h at would u ltim ate ly t e ar a d em ocra cy a p art. W hat w as n eed ed , m an y b elie v ed , was a b ro ad ly s h are d c iv ic c o nse n su s c ap ab le o f p ro ducin g a s ta b le a n d unif ie d , y et t o le ra n t a n d v arie g ate d , n atio n.

Resp ondin g t o s u ch c o ncern s, d iv ers e g ro ups o f A m eric an s— lib era l in te lle ctu als , g overn m en t o ffic ia ls , “ n ew i m mig ra n t” a n d c iv ic l e ad ers , assim ila te d A m eric an J e w s, a n d o th ers — work ed t o b lu nt d om estic in to le ra n ce a n d t o b ro ad en t h e b ounds o f n atio nal i n clu sio n b y p ro m otin g both c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m a n d a u nif y in g A m eric an W ay . T hey h aile d A m eric a’s dem ogra p hic v arie ty , e v en a s t h ey c ele b ra te d v alu es t h at t h ey a rg ued w ere bro ad ly s h are d b y t h eir f e llo w c itiz en s. T hose o ffe rin g s u ch p re sc rip tiv e vis io ns, h ow ev er, d efin ed t h e p ara m ete rs o f d iv ers ity a n d c o nse n su s i n mark ed ly d if fe re n t w ay s. S om e c ast A m eric a a s a “ n atio n o f i m mig ra n ts ” o r a “n atio n o f n atio ns,” a c o lle ctio n o f e th nic ally d iv ers e i n div id uals u nite d b y se cu la r E nlig hte n m en t valu es. O th ers e m phasiz ed r e lig io us r a th er t h an e th nic div ers ity , s u ggestin g t h at A m eric a w as a b ove a ll a “ P ro te sta n t- C ath olic - Je w is h ” n atio n. A dvocate s o f t h is a p pro ach g en era lly c o nte n ded t h at r e lig io n was a ls o a k ey u nif y in g f o rc e. A m eric an s, t h ey p ro cla im ed , w ere u nite d b y sh are d “ Ju deo -C hris tia n ” b elie fs s u ch a s “ th e F ath erh ood o f G od a n d t h e Bro th erh ood o f M an ” o r t h e “ sa cre d ness o f t h e i n div id ual.” 14 B la ck Am eric an s s tr u ggle d w ith b oth p ara d ig m s s in ce n eith er e n tir e ly ack now le d ged t h eir u niq ue h is to ry o r t h e d ep th o f t h e c h alle n ges t h ey s till fa ced . S till, s o m e s a w i n t h is p re w ar i m puls e a n o pportu nity t o p urs u e “ a politic s o f i n clu sio n.” 15 A t h ir d a x is o f d eb ate — th e p re cis e n atu re o f A m eric a’s f o re ig n f o e— overla p ped w ith t h e o th er t w o. B eg in nin g i n t h e l a te 1 930s, l e ftis t in te lle ctu als a n d a rtis ts , g overn m en t o ffic ia ls , i n te rfa ith a ctiv is ts , c o nse rv ativ e busin essm en , a n d m an y o th ers a rg ued t h at a n e x te rn al e n em y s o ught t o t u rn Am eric an s a g ain st o ne a n oth er— in s h ort, t o “ d iv id e a n d c o nquer” t h e n atio n.

Lib era ls a n d l e ftis ts g en era lly s a w t h at e n em y a s f a sc is m a n d t r ie d t o u nite Am eric an s i n a n a n ti- fa sc is t c o nse n su s. M an y d efin ed f a sc is m e x pan siv ely , usin g i t t o c o ndem n e v ils r a n gin g f ro m r a cia l i n eq uality a n d e co nom ic ex plo ita tio n t o r e d -b aitin g.

16 O th er A m eric an s, i n clu din g a rd en t d efe n ders o f fre e e n te rp ris e , c ast t h e n atio n’s c h ie f e n em y a s “ to ta lita ria n is m ,” a t e rm t h at en co m passe d c o m munis m a s w ell. M an y i n t h is c am p w arn ed a g ain st any div is io n t h at m ig ht s u nder A m eric an s. I n t h eir v ie w , d is g ru ntle d w ork ers o r pro te stin g b la ck s w ere a s o r m ore l ik ely t o p ro vid e a n o pen in g f o r t h e t a ctic s of “ d iv id e a n d c o nquer” a s w ere o ppre ssiv e e m plo yers o r p urv ey ors o f r a cia l in to le ra n ce.

As t h ese c o ntr a stin g v ie w s o f A m eric a’s e x te rn al e n em y s u ggest, a cen tr a l d iv id e c u t a cro ss a ll d is c u ssio ns o f a u nif y in g A m eric an W ay . M an y govern m en t o ffic ia ls a n d p riv ate e lite s— in clu din g i n flu en tia l v oic es i n b oth th e b usin ess a n d “ in te rg ro up” c o m munitie s— use d t h e l a n guag e o f c o nse n su s to p ro m ote civ ility a cro ss c la ss, r a cia l, e th nic , a n d r e lig io us l in es. D en yin g o r min im iz in g e co nom ic a n d p ow er i m bala n ces, t h ey s tr e sse d t h e h arm ony o f in te re sts a m ong v ario us g ro ups i n A m eric an s o cie ty a n d s o ught t o s h ore u p th e s ta tu s q uo. O th er A m eric an s, h ow ev er, p ut eq uality r a th er t h an c o m ity a t th e c en te r o f t h eir c o nse n su al v is io n. C iv il r ig hts a ctiv is ts , l e ft- lib era l in te lle ctu als , a n d s o m e a d vocate s o f t h e r ig hts o f l a b or t r ie d t o u nite Am eric an s a ro und a s e t o f v alu es t h at t h ey b elie v ed w ould u ltim ate ly l e ad t o so cia l c h an ge. R ath er t h an i g norin g p ow er i m bala n ces, t h ey t r ie d t o u se t h e la n guag e o f c o nse n su s t o c o rre ct t h em .

17 These o verla p pin g s tr u ggle s o ver t h e p re cis e n atu re o f t h e A m eric an W ay were u ltim ate ly r e sh ap ed b y t h e p olitic s o f W orld W ar I I a n d t h e c o ld w ar.

The w ar a g ain st t h e A xis p ow ers b ro ught t h e f e d era l g overn m en t f u lly i n to th e a ct o f p ro m otin g n atio nal c o hesio n a n d p ro duced a n i n fra str u ctu re of in stitu tio ns d ev ote d t o p ublic ly d efin in g f o r A m eric an s t h eir c o m mon g ro und.

It a ls o f o rc ed g ro ups o n b oth e n ds o f t h e p olitic al s p ectr u m t o c u rta il t h e vitr io lic r h eto ric t h ey h ad s o m etim es u se d d urin g t h e 1 930s. I n t h e p ostw ar years , c o m munis m q uic k ly r e p la ced f a sc is m a s t h e n atio n’s p rin cip al e n em y.

Man y o f t h ose w ho h ad b en efite d m ost f ro m t h e r h eto ric o f u nity d urin g World W ar I I l a u nch ed c u ltu ra l p ro gra m s d esig ned t o e x te n d a n d r e sh ap e t h e wartim e e m phasis o n c o m mon g ro und. T he v ery e n erg y t h at p ro ponen ts o f co nse n su s d ev ote d t o t h eir v ario us c am paig ns, h ow ev er, s u ggests t h at whate v er c o nse n su s e x is te d w as f ra g ile a t b est.

In ven tin g t h e “ A m eric a n W ay” a tte m pts t o r e sto re a s e n se o f s tr u ggle a n d uncerta in ty t o t h e e m erg en ce o f a p ostw ar c o nse n su s. A t t h e s a m e t im e, i t sh ed s l ig ht o n s h if ts a t t h e c en te r o f U .S . p olitic al c u ltu re i n t h e m id -tw en tie th cen tu ry . B etw een t h e m id -1 930s a n d t h e e n d o f W orld W ar I I, t h e f o cu s o f Am eric an l ib era lis m — an d o f A m eric an p olitic s m ore g en era lly — moved fro m c la ss-b ase d c o ncern s t o a p re o ccu patio n w ith p lu ra lis m a n d i n div id ual rig hts .

18 T his b ook s u ggests t h at t h e p olitic s o f c o nse n su s i n t h e l a te 1 930s an d 1 940s b oth s p urre d a n d r e in fo rc ed t h at t r a n sfo rm atio n. M an y l ib era ls who h ad p re v io usly w orrie d a b out t h e d an gers p ose d t o t h e n atio n b y eco nom ic i n eq uality a n d a n o ppre ssiv e b usin ess e lite b ecam e i n cre asin gly co ncern ed t h at i n te rn al d iv is io ns o f a n y s o rt m ig ht t e ar a d em ocra cy a p art.

Aban donin g t h e l a n guag e o f p ro gre ssiv e s tr u ggle , t h ey p ro m ote d “ to le ra n ce” an d “ in div id ual d ig nity ” a s c o re A m eric an v alu es. A t t h e s a m e t im e, s o m e i n th e b usin ess c o m munity s o ught t o c lo th e t h eir d efe n se o f A m eric an -s ty le cap ita lis m i n t h e l a n guag e o f t o le ra n ce, p lu ra lis m , a n d n atio nal u nity . I n t h e postw ar y ears , c am paig ns l a u nch ed b y i n te rg ro up a ctiv is ts o n b eh alf o f re lig io us a n d s o m etim es r a cia l t o le ra n ce g arn ere d s u pport f ro m m em bers o f th e b usin ess c o m munity w ho s o ught t o b urn is h t h eir i m ag e. M ean w hile , co rp ora te l e ad ers w ork ed t o d is c re d it l a b or m ilita n cy b y e x te n din g t h e messa g e o f s o cia l h arm ony a n d c o nse n su s a t t h e c o re o f s u ch c am paig ns t o co ver c la ss r e la tio ns a s w ell.

The r e la tio nsh ip b etw een r e lig io n a n d A m eric an p ublic l if e a ls o c h an ged dra m atic ally i n t h e p erio d c o vere d b y t h is b ook. D esp ite t h e n atio n’s s ta te d co m mitm en t t o r e lig io us f re ed om c o nta in ed i n t h e B ill o f R ig hts , v ir u le n t an ti- C ath olic is m m ark ed A m eric an p olitic s i n to t h e 1 920s a n d b ey ond. A nti- Sem itis m , t o o, s u rg ed a fte r t h e t u rn o f t h e t w en tie th c en tu ry , a ssu m in g partic u la rly v en om ous f o rm s d urin g t h e G re at D ep re ssio n. A s l a te a s 1 931, a majo rity o f t h e S upre m e C ourt d ecla re d A m eric an s t o b e a “ C hris tia n peo ple .” 19 Y et d urin g a n d a fte r W orld W ar I I, t h e l o ng-s ta n din g e q uatio n i n public d is c o urs e o f “ A m eric an is m ” w ith P ro te sta n tis m g av e w ay r a p id ly , i f in co m ple te ly , t o t h e n otio n t h at t h e U .S . w as a J u deo -C hris tia n , “ tr i- fa ith ,” o r bro ad ly “ G od-fe arin g” n atio n.

20 T his b ook l in ks t h at t r a n sfo rm atio n t o t h e politic s o f c o nse n su s. T o e lite s w ho w ere t r y in g t o d efin e t h e n atio n t h ro ugh a co ntr a st w ith F asc is t o r C om munis t e n em ie s, t h e “ in te rfa ith i d ea” p ro ved partic u la rly u se fu l. B oth F asc is ts a n d C om munis ts w ere s a id t o e m bra ce co erc iv e h om ogen eity a n d t o r e je ct a n y r e lig io n o th er t h an t h at o f t h e s ta te . I n th is c o nte x t, e cu m en ic al r e lig io n c o uld s e rv e s im ulta n eo usly a s a s y m bol o f Am eric an p lu ra lis m a n d A m eric an c o nse n su s.

In e x plo rin g s u ch i s su es, t h is b ook s e ek s t o i llu m in ate t h e “ m yth s, la n guag es a n d a rg um en ts ” t h at “ se rv e[d ] a t l e ast s o m e A m eric an s as Am eric a ns .” 21 A t t h e s a m e t im e, i t h ig hlig hts t h e c u ltu re w ars o f m id -c en tu ry —wars t h at h av e g en era lly e lu ded o ur h in dsig ht f o r t w o r e aso ns. M an y e lite partic ip an ts t o ok p ain s t o h id e t h eir d if fe re n ces i n p ublic a n d t o s u ppre ss gra ssro ots e v id en ce o f o pen d is se n t. A t t h e s a m e t im e, A m eric an s h av e l o ng sh are d a r ic h p olitic al l a n guag e a n d a c o m mon s e t o f m otif s a n d h is to ric al re fe re n ces. “ V yin g f o r c o ntr o l o f a c o m mon v ocab ula ry , s te alin g e ach o th er’s te rm s i n h opes o f i n vestin g t h em w ith r a d ic ally a lte re d m ean in gs, p olitic al opponen ts h av e o fte n l e ft b eh in d a n i llu sio n o f c o nse n su s,” D an ie l T .

Rodgers w rite s i n h is p io neerin g w ork Conte ste d T ru th s . 22 O f n o p erio d o f U.S . h is to ry i s t h is t r u er t h an o f t h e d ecad es i m med ia te ly f o llo w in g W orld War I I: t h e m ean in g o f t e rm s s u ch a s “ fre ed om ” a n d “ d em ocra cy ” w ere bitte rly c o nte ste d d urin g t h ose y ears , e v en a s t h e t e rm s t h em se lv es w ere wid ely u se d . T he w ay s i n w hic h A m eric an s’ c o m mon l a n guag e a n d ic o nogra p hy b oth d iv id ed t h em a n d d re w t h em t o geth er c o m pris e s o ne o f t h e cen tr a l t h em es o f t h is b ook.

The c o nvers a tio n o n c o nse n su s w as c arrie d o n i n m an y d if fe re n t r e g is te rs an d b y m an y d if fe re n t v oic es. B ecau se t h e d ynam ic s o f n atio nal i d en tity i n th is p erio d h av e o nly r e cen tly b eg un t o a ttr a ct a tte n tio n f ro m s c h ola rs , t h is book t a k es a n i n clu siv e a p pro ach — en co m passin g g ro ups a s d iv ers e a s l e ft- lib era l i n te lle ctu als , c o nse rv ativ e m an ufa ctu re rs , i n te rfa ith a ctiv is ts , f o re ig n polic y s tr a te g is ts , a n d b la ck A m eric an s p re ssin g f o r c iv il r ig hts . T his ap pro ach u nders c o re s t h e s c ale o f t h e s h if t i n A m eric an p olitic al c u ltu re a t mid -c en tu ry a n d s u ggests t h at t h e u su al c la ssif ic atio ns a p plie d t o U .S . h is to ry in t h is p erio d— politic al, r a cia l, r e lig io us, l a b or a n d e co nom ic , c u ltu ra l- in te lle ctu al, a n d d ip lo m atic , a m ong t h em — don’t h old u p w hen n atio nal id en tity i s t h e s u bje ct u nder c o nsid era tio n. I t a ls o h ig hlig hts c o nnectio ns betw een s u bje cts a n d a cto rs t h at a re o fte n c o nsid ere d i n i s o la tio n. F in ally , sin ce t h e l a n guag e o f c o nse n su s c o nceale d w id ely d if fe rin g p rio ritie s, t h is ap pro ach h elp s r e co ncile i n vocatio ns o f c o nse n su s w ith t h e r e ality o f c o nflic t.

Nev erth ele ss, t h is b ook can not h ope t o d o j u stic e t o a ll o f t h ose i n volv ed i n th ese d eb ate s. I t f o cu se s m ost h eav ily o n i n div id uals a n d i n stitu tio ns t h at were w ell p ositio ned b oth t o b e h eard a n d t o c o nta in d is se n tin g v oic es.

More o fte n t h an n ot, t h ose w ith m oney a n d i n flu en ce “ w on” t h e c u ltu ra l battle s o f t h e 1 940s a n d 1 950s b y s h ap in g t h e t e rm s o f p ublic d eb ate . N ot a ll Am eric an s a ccep te d t h eir v arie d m essa g es o n t h e v alu e o f A m eric an -s ty le fre e e n te rp ris e ; t h e d an gers o f c la ss, r e lig io us, a n d r a cia l a n ta g onis m ; a n d t h e need t o c o m bat f ir s t t h e F asc is t a n d l a te r t h e C om munis t t h re at. N ev erth ele ss, th ey h elp ed t o f o rg e a s h are d p ublic v ocab ula ry a n d t o e sta b lis h t h e fra m ew ork i n w hic h m an y s o cia l a n d e co nom ic i s su es w ere u ltim ate ly ad dre sse d . T hat f ra m ew ork p riv ile g ed i n div id ual f re ed om , n atio nal u nity , a n d a s h are d f a ith i n G od a b ove a ll e ls e . I n c o nstr u ctin g a n d r e in fo rc in g t h is lin guis tic f ra m ew ork , t h ey h elp ed c re ate a c u ltu ra l r e ality .

While m an y e sta b lis h ed e lite s b en efite d f ro m t h e n atio n’s l o ng-ru nnin g co nvers a tio n o n c o nse n su s, t h ey w ere n ot a lo ne. C am paig ns o n b eh alf o f re lig io us, e th nic , a n d e v en r a cia l “ b ro th erh ood” h elp ed r e sh ap e A m eric an id en tity a n d r e fra m e t h e b oundarie s o f a ccep ta b le d is c o urs e , a llo w in g m an y work in g-c la ss e th nic s a n d o th ers t o f e el “ at h om e” i n A m eric a. E ffo rts t o mobiliz e i m mig ra n ts a n d t h eir c h ild re n i n to c o ld w ar p ro pag an da c am paig ns ofte n r e in fo rc ed t h e n atio n’s c o rp ora te o rd er; b ut t h ey a ls o a llo w ed f ir s t- a n d se co nd-g en era tio n A m eric an s t o p ositio n t h em se lv es n ot a s m em bers o f a th re ate n in g a n d a lie n m in ority , b ut a s U .S . a m bassa d ors a n d t h e s ta u nch est o f Am eric an p atr io ts . T im e a n d a g ain , t h e i s su e o f r a ce p ro ved a s tu m blin g blo ck f o r p ro ponen ts o f c o nse n su s. S till, t h e d is c o urs e o n s h are d n atio nal valu es a llo w ed b la ck A m eric an s t o m ak e l im ite d g ain s. T he l a n guag e o f in div id ual f re ed om , f a ith , a n d n atio nal u nity u se d p erv asiv ely b y i n te rfa ith pro ponen ts , e co nom ic c o nse rv ativ es, a n d c o ld w arrio rs w as r e cla im ed a n d re cast b y s o uth ern b la ck s b attlin g f o r d e j u re c iv il r ig hts . I n s h ort, e ffo rts t o defin e a u nif y in g n atio nal c o nse n su s g av e r e lig io us, e th nic , a n d r a cia l “o uts id ers ” a p ow erfu l l e v er w ith w hic h t o p ry o pen so m e d oors o f A m eric a’s main str e am c u ltu re .

If t h e e ra ’s c iv ic e d ucatio n c am paig ns h elp ed o pen t h e d oor f o r c erta in kin ds o f s o cia l c h an ge, t h ey s la m med t h e d oor o n o th ers . E co nom ic in eq uality d id n’t v an is h w ith t h e e n d o f W orld W ar I I, b ut i t w as e ffe ctiv ely ta k en o ff t h e t a b le i n t h e l a te 1 940s a n d 1 950s a s a p olitic al i s su e. O ne r e aso n fo r t h is w as t h e w id esp re ad e q uatio n o f t h e A m eric an W ay — in s e rm ons a n d civ ic s l e sso ns, m ovie s a n d p olitic al s p eech es, p ublic s e rv ic e a d vertis in g a n d pre ss a cco unts — not w ith m ajo rita ria n d em ocra cy o r e g alita ria n e co nom ic valu es b ut w ith in div id ual f re ed om s, r ig hts , a n d o pportu nitie s.

23 T he f o cu s o n in div id ual f re ed om p ro ved a pow erfu l t o ol i n t h e f ig ht a g ain st a n ti- S em itis m , natio nal o rig in q uota s, a n d d e j u re r a cia l s e g re g atio n, b ut i t m ad e e ffo rts t o ad dre ss i n stitu tio naliz ed e co nom ic i n eq uality p olitic ally d if fic u lt, i f n ot unte n ab le .

24 The p olitic s o f c o nse n su s f ra ctu re d i n t h e u pheav als o f t h e l a te 1 960s a n d early 1 970s. I n t h e e ra o f V ie tn am , y outh p ro te sts , r e su rg en t c ele b ra tio ns o f eth nic ity , a n d w id ely p ublic iz ed u rb an r io ts a n d a n ti- b usin g v io le n ce, t h e varie d e lite s w ho h ad w ork ed f o r s e v era l d ecad es t o n urtu re a n d s h ap e a n illu so ry n atio nal c o nse n su s w ere n o l o nger a b le t o c h an nel o r c o nta in dis se n tin g v oic es. M an y r a cia l a n d e th nic o uts id ers w ho h ad o nce e m bra ced th e n otio n o f s h are d A m eric an v alu es a n d t r ie d t o s h ap e t h e l a n guag e o f co nse n su s t o t h eir o w n e n ds n ow r e je cte d a n i d io m r o ote d u ltim ate ly i n Am eric an p atr io tis m . T he e co nom ic p ro ductiv ity a n d a fflu en ce t h at h ad o nce se em ed t o s u cco r n atio nal h arm ony a n d c o nse n su s n ow s p ark ed s h arp den uncia tio ns o f A m eric an m ate ria lis m a n d t h e m ald is tr ib utio n o f w ealth .

The p ro cesse s o f f ra g m en ta tio n a n d p ola riz atio n t h at f ir s t s u rfa ced d urin g t h e Jo hnso n a n d N ix on a d m in is tr a tio ns h av e o nly a ccele ra te d i n r e cen t d ecad es, sp aw nin g d eb ate s o ver m ultic u ltu ra lis m , t h e p ublic r o le o f r e lig io n, a n d, m ost re cen tly , “ re d v s. b lu e” A m eric a.

The l e g acy o f t h e c o nse n su s e ra s u rv iv es, h ow ev er, i n i n stitu tio ns, politic al r h eto ric , a n d a ssu m ptio ns a b out t h at p ast t h at c o ntin ue t o i n fo rm dis c u ssio ns o f n atio nal u nity a n d p ublic v alu es. C om petin g a tte m pts t o d efin e co re A m eric an v alu es— to f in d c o m mon g ro und c ap ab le o f u nitin g in cre asin gly e str a n ged g ro ups o f A m eric an s— ofte n t a k e t h is p erio d a s t h eir im plic it b ack dro p. P ro ponen ts a n d c ritic s o f a ffir m ativ e a ctio n, a b ortio n re str ic tio ns, g ay m arria g e, w elf a re a n d i m mig ra tio n r e fo rm , a n d a h ost o f oth er i s su es i n voke p hra se s a n d i d eas p opula riz ed d urin g t h is e ra . A t a t im e when A m eric a s e em s m ore p ola riz ed t h an e v er— yet w hen p olitic ia n s a n d co m men ta to rs c o ntin ue t o c all f o r n atio nal u nity a n d a r e tu rn t o t h e “ v ita l cen te r” — it i s i n str u ctiv e t o k now h ow a n d w hy a f ra g ile n atio nal c o nse n su s was s h ap ed i n t h e p ast, w hat i t d id f o r A m eric an p olitic al d is c o urs e a n d valu es, a n d w hat i t i n ev ita b ly c o uld n ot d o.

25 PA RT I Enem ie s a t H om e a n d A bro ad ( 1 935– 1941) CH APT ER 1 “A re W e a N atio n ?” I n t h e s p rin g o f 1 937, Harp er’s m ag azin e a n nounced a $ 1,0 00 e ssa y c o nte st t o d efin e a p hra se t h at h ad s u dden ly b eg un t o a p pear i n n ew sp ap er h ead lin es a n d o n b illb oard s a cro ss t h e n atio n: t h e “ A m eric an W ay .” T he t e rm w as n ot e n tir e ly n ew t o A m eric a’s p olitic al l e x ic o n; b ut i n t h e m id -1 930s, i t e x plo ded i n to p opula r u se . I n t h e e ig hty y ears p re ced in g F ra n klin D ela n o R oose v elt’ s e le ctio n i n 1 932, t h e p hra se a p peare d s o m e 7 25 t im es i n t h e p ag es o f t h e New Y ork T im es , g en era lly i n e ith er t h e n eg ativ e ( “ n ot t h e A m eric an w ay ”) o r t h e p lu ra l ( “ A m eric an w ay s a n d c u sto m s” ). I n t h e t e n y ears f o llo w in g, i t m ad e s o m e 2 ,2 30 a p peara n ces i n t h e n ew sp ap er’s p ag es a n d w as f re q uen tly c ap ita liz ed . B ooks b eg an t o a p pear e n title d s im ply The A m eric a n W ay o r The A m eric a n W ay o f L ife . B efo re 1 933, o nly t w o v olu m es h ad u se d t h e p hra se i n t h eir t itle s; o ne o f t h ese w as The A m eric a n W ay o f P la yin g U ku le le S olo s . 1 Those w ho w ro te a b out t h e “ A m eric an W ay ” w ere a d iv ers e l o t: a c o nse rv ativ e e co nom ic c o lu m nis t a n d a n e x pert o n a d ult e d ucatio n, r e p re se n ta tiv es o f w hat w as t h en c alle d t h e N atio nal C onfe re n ce o f J e w s a n d C hris tia n s a n d t h e f a m ous p la y w ritin g t e am o f G eo rg e K au fm an a n d M oss H art. H en ry W alla ce, R oose v elt’ s p ro gre ssiv e S ecre ta ry o f A gric u ltu re , w eig hed i n o n t h e t o pic w ith a n a rtic le e n title d “ T he S earc h f o r a n A m eric an W ay .” S o t o o d id t h e l ib era l j o urn alis t a n d c o m men ta to r E lm er D av is , l ib ra ria n s a n d b an kers , t h e N atio nal A sso cia tio n o f M an ufa ctu re rs , a n d c o m pile rs o f a r e ad in g l is t f o r H arv ard C olle g e s tu den ts .

2 By e arly 1 937, t h e p hra se w as b ein g i n voked s o w id ely t h at t h e e d ito rs o f H arp er’s f e lt i t w as t im e f o r c la rif ic atio n. T he m ag azin e i n vite d i ts r e ad ers t o h elp “ re sta te ” a n d “ re in te rp re t” A m eric an t r a d itio ns a n d i d eals i n l ig ht o f t h e D ep re ssio n a t h om e a n d t h re ate n in g i d eo lo gie s a b ro ad . “ W ord s a n d phra se s l ik e ‘ d em ocra cy ,’ ‘ lib erty ,’ ‘ th e p io neer s p ir it,’ ‘ e q uality o f o pportu nity ,’ ‘ s e lf -re lia n ce,’ ‘ lo cal s e lf -ru le ,’ a n d ‘ c o nstitu tio nal g overn m en t’ m ean d if fe re n t t h in gs t o d if fe re n t p eo ple ,” t h e m ag azin e’s e d ito rs a ck now le d ged .

“ W e s h ould l ik e t o s e e t h e e sse n tia l A m eric an t r a d itio ns a n d i d eals s e p ara te d fro m t h e u nesse n tia l a n d t h e o utd ate d , s o a s t o f o rm a c re d o a d ap te d t o pre se n t a n d f u tu re n eed s.” T he n eed t o a rtic u la te s u ch a c re d o h ad n ev er b een gre ate r, Harp er’s e d ito rs s u ggeste d . “ T he d octr in es l o ose ly k now n a s co m munis m a n d f a sc is m h av e t o -d ay v ir tu ally t h e e m otio nal f o rc e o f re lig io ns,” t h ey w ro te . “ It m ig ht b e a g ood t h in g i f t h ose A m eric an i d eas a n d id eals w hic h m an y o f u s t a k e f o r g ra n te d … c o uld b e f o rm ula te d a n ew s o t h at men a n d w om en o f d iv ers e p olitic al a n d e co nom ic v ie w s m ig ht j o in i n accep tin g t h em w ith a w ill, f e elin g t h at t h ey o ffe r n ot o nly a l in k w ith t h e p ast but a g uid e t o a ctio n.” T he m ag azin e u rg ed c o nte sta n ts t o p re se n t t h e Am eric an c re ed i n s u ch a w ay a s t o “ ra lly e n th usia sm .” 3 The Harp er’s c o nte st e v en tu ally a ttr a cte d 1 570 e ssa y s; b ut i f t h e mag azin e’s e d ito rs h oped i t w ould r e v eal a w id esp re ad a g re em en t o n t h e natio n’s c o re v alu es, t h ey m ust s u re ly h av e b een d is a p poin te d . T he co ntr ib utio ns v arie d “ fro m a rg um en ts f o r c o m munis m ” t o “ arg um en ts f o r old -fa sh io ned a ris to cra tic i d eals ,” t h e e d ito rs l a te r w ro te , “ fro m a rg um en ts f o r all m an ner o f s p ecif ic e co nom ic p ro gra m s, s u ch a s s y ste m s o f c o -o pera tiv es or c h an ges i n t h e c u rre n cy , t o f e rv id d efe n se s o f t h e s ta tu s q uo; f ro m u p-to - th e-m in ute d is c u ssio ns o f t h e a lle g ed g lo rie s o r t h e a lle g ed a b om in atio ns o f th e N ew D eal t o c are fu l a n aly se s o f t h e b ack gro unds a n d p rin cip le s o f t h e early C olo nis ts , t h e C onstitu tio n-m ak ers , t h e F oundin g F ath ers .” 4 U ltim ate ly , Harp er’s e d ito rs r e p rin te d f o ur e ssa y s. A c o nstr u ctio n e n gin eer t u rn ed N ew Deal p la n ner a rg ued t h at “ lib erty h as t o b e f o unded o n s e cu rity ,” w hile a Holly w ood s c re en w rite r e q uate d t h e A m eric an W ay w ith “ eco nom ic dem ocra cy … a r e d is tr ib utio n o f i n co m e f ro m t h e p ro pertie d t o t h e pro perty le ss.” A G erm an é m ig ré a ls o i n voked d em ocra cy b ut d efin ed i t a s “p olitic al e q uality ” a n d “ so cia l p eace.” A n e d ito ria l w rite r f o r t h e Baltim ore Even in g S un r e je cte d a ll t h re e f o rm ula tio ns, a rg uin g t h at n eith er d em ocra cy nor l ib erty w as f u ndam en ta l t o A m eric an is m . R ath er, h e d ecla re d , b oth w ere “lo gic al o utg ro w th s” o f t h e “ g en uin e” A m eric an p rin cip le s: b elie f i n “ th e dig nity o f t h e i n div id ual” a n d “ a r e aso nab le m easu re o f r e sp ect f o r r e ality i n politic s.” A s Harp er’s c o lu m nis t B ern ard D eV oto n ote d d ry ly , “ A nyone c an sh out ‘ A m eric an W ay ’ i n f u rth era n ce o f h is o w n i n te re sts a n d n early ev ery one d oes.” 5 The Harp er’s e ssa y c o nte st— an d t h e e m erg en ce o f t h e t e rm “ A m eric an Way ” m ore g en era lly — te stif ie d t o t h e u rg en cy w ith w hic h U .S . c itiz en s tu rn ed t o t h e q uestio n o f A m eric a’s n atio nal i d en tity a n d s h are d v alu es i n t h e la te 1 930s.

Am eric an i n te lle ctu als a n d p olitic al l e ad ers h ad w re stle d w ith su ch i s su es s in ce t h e e arlie st d ay s o f t h e R ep ublic ; b ut i n t h e l a tte r h alf o f t h e Dep re ssio n d ecad e, d om estic a n d i n te rn atio nal p re ssu re s c o nverg ed t o pro duce a p artic u la rly i n te n se , s e lf -c o nsc io us, a n d w id e-ra n gin g “ cu ltu ra l co nvers a tio n” o n t h e n atio n’s c o lle ctiv e i d en tity .

6 “ A m eric an W ay ” w as n ot th e o nly r e so nan t p hra se t o a p pear a t t h at h is to ric al m om en t. T he h is to ria n Ja m es T ru slo w A dam s i n tr o duced t h e e x pre ssio n “ A m eric an d re am ” i n h is 1931 t o m e The E pic o f A m eric a . B y t h e e n d o f t h e d ecad e, p la y w rig hts , ed ucato rs , j o urn alis ts , m in is te rs , a n d i n div id uals r a n gin g f ro m H erb ert Hoover t o t h e i m mig ra n t w rite r L ouis A dam ic w ere e m plo yin g t h e p hra se t o in dic ate a n i d eal o r a sp ir a tio n s h are d b y a ll A m eric an s.

7 O th er w rite rs dis c u sse d t h e “ A m eric an c re ed ” a n d t h e “ A m eric an i d ea,” b oth t e rm s t h at als o a p peare d f a r m ore f re q uen tly t h an t h ey h ad i n t h e p ast.

As t h e Harp er’s e ssa y c o nte st s u ggeste d , h ow ev er, t h e w id esp re ad in vocatio n o f a c o m mon A m eric an w ay , d re am , i d ea, o r c re ed d id n ot in dic ate t h e d aw n o f a n e ra o f h arm ony a n d c o nse n su s.

8 O n t h e c o ntr a ry , t h e pro lif e ra tio n o f s u ch t e rm s i n t h e l a te 1 930s a tte ste d t o a p ro fo und s e n se o f an xie ty — an a n xie ty s h are d b y A m eric an s a cro ss t h e p olitic al s p ectr u m — ab out n atio nal i d en tity a n d u nity i n a n i n cre asin gly t h re ate n in g w orld . T he co lla p se o f t h e n atio nal e co nom y u nderm in ed l o ng-s ta n din g p ow er s tr u ctu re s an d c alle d i n to q uestio n r a re ly c h alle n ged a ssu m ptio ns a b out t h e s ta b ility a n d pro gre ss o f A m eric an c ap ita lis m . T he m atu ra tio n o f “ n ew i m mig ra n t” co m munitie s a n d t h e m ig ra tio n o f t h ousa n ds o f b la ck s o ut o f t h e S outh r a is e d questio ns a b out t h e t e rm s o n w hic h e th nic , r e lig io us, a n d r a cia l “ o uts id ers ” would b e i n co rp ora te d i n to a s o cie ty t h at h ad l o ng b een d efin ed b y e lite s a s Anglo -S ax on a n d P ro te sta n t. A bove a ll, t h e p olitic al t r iu m phs o f f a sc is m a n d co m munis m a b ro ad — co m bin ed w ith f e ars t h at t h ose i d eo lo gie s w ere g ain in g gro und i n t h e U .S .— in te n sif ie d c o ncern s a b out A m eric a’s c o re v alu es, pro m ptin g t h ose o n t h e l e ft a s w ell a s t h ose o n t h e r ig ht t o t r y t o d efin e a n alte rn ativ e i d eo lo gy c ast i n “ A m eric an ” t e rm s. A ll t h is w as r e fle cte d i n t h e questio n p ose d b y J a m es T ru slo w A dam s a t t h e e n d o f t h e d ecad e: “ A re w e, as s o m e h av e s a id , m ere ly a h odgep odge o f m in oritie s? O r a re w e a n atio n with a c o m mon b ack gro und a n d, d esp ite o ur p olitic al b attle s, a c o ntin uin g natio nal i d eal? ” 9 “B urie d U nder t h e R uin s” The “ cris is o f A m eric an is m ” b eg an i n O cto ber 1 929, w hen t h e “ G re at B ull Mark et” o f t h e T w en tie s c o lla p se d , w ip in g o ut i n a m atte r o f w eek s a lm ost 4 0 perc en t o f t h e v alu e o f U .S . s to ck s.

10 F in an cia l c o m men ta to rs i n itia lly dis m is se d t h e d ow ntu rn a s a s p ecu la tiv e p an ic , b ut t h e c ra sh w as m ere ly t h e porte n t o f t h e G re at D ep re ssio n t o c o m e. P lu ngin g s to ck p ric es h elp ed u pen d th e n atio n’s o verle v era g ed e co nom y, c au sin g t h ousa n ds o f b an ks a n d busin esse s t o f a il. W ith in f iv e m onth s, 3 .2 m illio n A m eric an s w ere o ut o f work ; a n d t w o y ears l a te r, u nem plo ym en t h ad c lim bed t o n early 1 3 m illio n, so m e 2 5 p erc en t o f t h e n atio nal w ork fo rc e. B y e arly 1 932, t h e n atio n’s in dustr ia l p ro ductio n w as l e ss t h an h alf w hat i t h ad b een j u st t h re e y ears earlie r.

11 The e co nom ic c ata str o phe f u ndam en ta lly c h alle n ged t h e w ay A m eric an s co ncep tu aliz ed t h eir n atio n. F or t h e p re v io us 1 50 y ears , m ost A m eric an s h ad belie v ed t h at, w hate v er o ne’s i n div id ual f a te , t h e n atio n a s a w hole w as gro w in g e v er m ore p ro sp ero us. A m eric a’s e x perie n ce i n t h e o pen in g d ecad es of t h e t w en tie th c en tu ry h ad s tr o ngly r e in fo rc ed t h is f a ith . B etw een 1 900 a n d 1930, t h e n atio n’s m an ufa ctu rin g o utp ut q uad ru ple d , t h an ks i n p art t o wid esp re ad f a cto ry e le ctr if ic atio n. T he a d ven t o f m ass p ro ductio n, c o nsu m er cre d it, a n d a d vertis in g p ro duced i n t h e U .S . t h e w orld ’s f ir s t m ass c o nsu m er eco nom y. R ura l A m eric an s f o r t h e m ost p art d id n ot s h are i n t h is e co nom ic bonan za; b ut f o r t h ose i n t h e n atio n’s u rb an c en te rs , t h e p ro sp erity w as ta n gib le . M id dle -c la ss f a m ilie s a cq uir e d w ash in g m ach in es, r e frig era to rs , te le p hones, a n d a u to m obile s, w hile u rb an w ork ers b ought c an ned f o ods, ra d io s, a n d t ic k ets t o m otio n p ic tu re t h eatr e s.

12 “ W e t h ought A m eric an busin ess w as t h e R ock o f G ib ra lta r,” r e calle d E . Y . ( Y ip ) H arb urg s e v era l decad es l a te r. “ W e w ere t h e p ro sp ero us n atio n a n d n oth in g c o uld s to p u s now .” 13 By t h e e arly 1 930s, t h is n atio nal n arra tiv e o f c ap ita lis t- d riv en g ro w th a n d ab undan ce s e em ed q uestio nab le a t b est, a m onstr o us d elu sio n a t w ors t. I n Chic ag o, m en f o ught o ver t h e c o nte n ts o f r e sta u ra n ts ’ g arb ag e b arre ls a n d te ach ers f a in te d i n t h eir c la ssro om s f o r w an t o f f o od. I n S to ck to n, C alif o rn ia , peo ple s c av en ged t h e c ity d um p l o okin g f o r h alf -ro tte n v eg eta b le s. I n Appala ch ia , f a m ilie s s u bsis te d o n “ su ch w eed s a s c o w s e at,” a n d s ib lin gs so m etim es a lte rn ate d m eals . M illio ns o f A m eric an s w ere e v ic te d o r l o st heav ily m ortg ag ed h ouse s a n d f a rm s, a n d a t l e ast o ne m illio n t o ok t o t h e ro ad .

14 M illio ns m ore l o st j o bs o r b an k a cco unts , p are d s p en din g t o t h e b one, or d ro pped o ut o f s c h ool t o h elp s u pport t h eir f a m ilie s. Y ip H arb urg l o st h is busin ess, b ecam e a l y ric is t, a n d p en ned t h e s o ng t h at w ould b eco m e t h e an th em o f t h e d ecad e: “ B ro th er, C an Y ou S pare a D im e?” Am eric an s o cie ty s o m etim es s e em ed o n t h e v erg e o f d is in te g ra tio n. I n 1930 a n d 1 931, f o od r io ts b ro ke o ut i n c itie s a cro ss t h e c o untr y , w hile r is in g fru str a tio n f u ele d m ass m arc h es o f t h e u nem plo yed . T he f o llo w in g y ear, polic e a n d F ord M oto r C o. s e cu rity g uard s b attle d s o m e t h re e t h ousa n d hunger marc h ers o uts id e t h e c o m pan y’s R iv er R ouge p la n t i n D earb orn , Mic h ig an ; f o ur m arc h ers d ie d i n t h e “ B attle o f R iv er R ouge,” a n d m ore t h an six t h ousa n d p eo ple j o in ed t h e s u bse q uen t f u nera l p ro cessio n, m arc h in g th ro ugh d ow nto w n D etr o it t o t h e s tr a in s o f t h e C om munis t P arty ’s a n th em , th e “ In te rn atio nale .” B y 1 933, M id w este rn f a rm ers w ere d um pin g m ilk , blo ck ad in g r o ad s, a n d u sin g v ig ila n te j u stic e t o d is ru pt f o re clo su re pro ceed in gs. M ean w hile , c o tto n w ork ers i n C alif o rn ia ’s S an J o aq uin v alle y jo in ed i n t h e l a rg est a g ric u ltu ra l s tr ik e i n U .S . h is to ry . I n 1 934, g en era l str ik es p ara ly zed T ole d o, M in neap olis , a n d S an F ra n cis c o , a n d s o m e f o ur hundre d t h ousa n d t e x tile w ork ers s c atte re d f ro m N ew E ngla n d t o t h e so uth ern p ie d m ont w alk ed o ff t h e j o b.

To s o m e, i t s e em ed t h at c ap ita lis m i ts e lf w as i m perile d . “ N ot s o m an y years a g o i n R ussia a ll t h e s u ffe rin gs o f p overty … c o nceiv ed a c h ild … a n d its n am e w as B ols h ev is m ,” a w om an f ro m O il C ity , P en nsy lv an ia , w arn ed t h e dir e cto r o f P re sid en t H oover’s E m erg en cy C om mitte e o n U nem plo ym en t i n 1930. “ R ig ht n ow o ur g ood o ld U .S .A . i s s ittin g o n a S eeth in g V olc an o,” s h e co ntin ued . “ In t h e P ublic S ch ools o ur l ittle c h ild re n s ta n d a t s a lu te a n d r e cite a ‘ rig m a r o le ’ i n w hic h i s m en tio ned ‘ J u stic e t o a ll.’ W hat a l ie , w hat a n ak ed lie .” 15 R ex fo rd T ugw ell, a C olu m bia U niv ers ity e co nom is t a n d a m em ber o f Roose v elt’ s B ra in T ru st, a g re ed w ith a t l e ast p art o f t h e w om an ’s a sse ssm en t.

“I d o n ot t h in k i t i s t o o m uch t o s a y ,” h e c o nfid ed t o h is j o urn al, “ th at o n Marc h 4 [ 1 933, t h e d ay R oose v elt w as i n au gura te d ] w e w ere c o nfro nte d w ith a c h oic e b etw een a n o rd erly r e v olu tio n— a p eacefu l a n d r a p id d ep artu re f ro m th e p ast c o ncep ts — an d a v io le n t a n d d is o rd erly o verth ro w o f t h e w hole cap ita lis t s tr u ctu re .” 16 Most A m eric an s d id n ot j o in i n o r p ut d ow n s tr ik es, e n gag e i n r io ts , o r purs u e v ig ila n te j u stic e. N ev erth ele ss, t h e m ag nitu de o f t h e D ep re ssio n, t h e sc ale o f t h e s o cia l u nre st, a n d t h e r e actio n o f g overn m en t a n d i n dustr ia l le ad ers t o b oth c alle d i n to q uestio n t h e w is d om a n d a u th ority o f t h e n atio n’s re ig nin g e lite s. N o e p is o de d id m ore t o f o cu s p ublic a tte n tio n o n t h e f a ilu re s of U .S . c ap ita lis m a n d i ts d efe n ders i n g overn m en t t h an t h e f a te o f t h e “B onus A rm y.” I n t h e s p rin g a n d s u m mer o f 1 932, t h ousa n ds o f u nem plo yed arm y v ete ra n s c o nverg ed o n W ash in gto n D .C . t o d em an d e arly p ay m en t o f a bonus t h ey w ere o w ed f o r t h eir s e rv ic e i n W orld W ar I . B y J u ne, a s m an y a s tw en ty -fiv e t h ousa n d h ad a rriv ed i n t h e c ap ita l, s o m e w ith t h eir f a m ilie s. T he Sen ate , h ow ev er, r e fu se d t o a cced e t o t h eir d em an ds. I n l a te J u ly , w hen t h e “B onus M arc h ers ” f a ile d t o d is p ers e , D is tr ic t o f C olu m bia p olic e t r ie d t o ev ic t t h em f ro m e m pty g overn m en t b uild in gs d ow nto w n ( fig ure 1 .1 ). A r io t en su ed a n d P re sid en t H oover u ltim ate ly s e n t i n f e d era l t r o ops. L ed b y Gen era l D ougla s M acA rth ur, t h e t r o ops t u rn ed t a n ks a n d t e ar g as o n t h e vete ra n s a n d t o rc h ed t h eir e n cam pm en t.

17 T he f ir e s b urn in g i n A naco stia sp ew ed a s m oky p all o ver th e n atio n’s c ap ita l, a s t h e d is p ir ite d v ete ra n s str a g gle d b ack t o a c am p i n n earb y J o hnsto w n, P en nsy lv an ia . “ I u se d t o b e a hundre d -p erc en te r,” a m an w ith a t e ar-s tr e ak ed f a ce s a id , r e fe rrin g t o t h e arc h -p atr io ts o f W orld W ar I . “ N ow I ’m a R ed r a d ic al. I h ad a n A m eric an fla g , b ut t h e d am ned t in s o ld ie rs b urn ed i t. N ow I d on’t e v er w an t t o s e e a fla g a g ain . G iv e m e a g un a n d I ’ll g o b ack t o W ash in gto n.” 18 Fig u re 1 .1 .

B onus M arc h ers b attle W ash in gto n, D .C . p olic e i n J u ly 1 932. Epis o des l ik e t h is r e in fo rc ed a g ro w in g s e n se o f u nease i n t h e U nite d S ta te s an d f o cu se d p ublic a tte n tio n o n t h e f a ilu re s o f U .S . c ap ita lis m a n d i ts defe n ders i n g overn m en t ( N atio nal A rc h iv es 1 11-S C -9 7560).

The i m ag e o f U .S . t r o ops t u rn in g t a n ks a n d b ay onets o n u narm ed v ete ra n s unse ttle d e v en m an y c o nse rv ativ es. I n t h e c o untr y a t l a rg e, i t r e in fo rc ed a gro w in g s e n se o f u nease . “ T here i s a f e elin g a m ong t h e m asse s g en era lly t h at so m eth in g i s r a d ic ally w ro ng,” O sc ar A m erin ger, a n O kla h om a a tto rn ey , t o ld a H ouse s u bco m mitte e i n 1 932. “ T hey s a y t h e o nly t h in g y ou d o i n Wash in gto n i s t o t a k e m oney f ro m t h e p ock ets o f t h e p oor a n d p ut i t i n to t h e pock ets o f t h e r ic h . T hey s a y t h at t h is G overn m en t i s a c o nsp ir a cy a g ain st t h e co m mon p eo ple .” 19 T he h is to ria n G era ld J o hnso n a rg ued t h at f e w m id dle - cla ss A m eric an s— th e m id le v el b an kers , i n su ra n ce s o lic ito rs , a n d f a m ily pra ctitio ners w ho l iv ed o n h is b lo ck — “ch eris h [e d ] a n y s e rio us d oubts a b out cap ita lis m .” E ven t h ey , h ow ev er, h ad d ev elo ped a “ n ew a n d d ecid ed ly critic al a ttitu de” to w ard c erta in a sp ects o f t h e c ap ita lis t s y ste m “ as i t h as b een dev elo ped i n t h is c o untr y .” “ It w ill b e m an y a l o ng d ay b efo re A m eric an s o f th e m id dle c la ss w ill l is te n w ith a n yth in g a p pro ach in g t h e r e v ere n ce t h ey f e lt in 1 928 w hen ev er a m ag nate o f b usin ess s p eak s,” J o hnso n e x pla in ed . “ T he whole p an th eo n o f t h eir i d ols h as b een d em olis h ed . T he B ig B usin ess M an , lik e S am so n, h as p ulle d d ow n t h e p illa rs o f t h e t e m ple … a n d h e i s p re tty well b urie d u nder t h e r u in s.” 20 Thus, b y t h e e arly 1 930s, t h e a u th ority o f b usin ess a n d t h e e q uatio n o f Am eric an is m w ith l a is se z-fa ir e c ap ita lis m w ere u nder s ie g e o n m an y f ro nts .

These d ev elo pm en ts h elp ed p ro pel F ra n klin D ela n o R oose v elt a n d h is N ew Deale rs i n to o ffic e. T he r e su ltin g i d eo lo gic al b attle , h ow ev er, w as n ot f u lly jo in ed u ntil t h e s e co nd h alf o f t h e d ecad e. I n 1 933, i n dustr ia lis ts a n d o th er eco nom ic c o nse rv ativ es w ere s h ell s h ock ed a n d d em ora liz ed , a n d s o m e belie v ed t h ey m ig ht b e a b le t o w ork w ith t h e n ew p re sid en t. W ith in t w o y ears th eir v ie w s h ad c h an ged . I n e arly 1 935, F D R i n tr o duced a s p ra w lin g p ack ag e of l e g is la tio n— dubbed b y h is to ria n s t h e “ S eco nd N ew D eal” — th at effe ctiv ely p ulle d t h e N ew D eal t o t h e l e ft. D ev elo pm en ts i n t h e s e co nd h alf of t h e d ecad e a ls o s tr e n gth en ed t h e h an d o f o rg an iz ed l a b or a n d s p aw ned t h e Com mitte e f o r I n dustr ia l O rg an iz atio n ( la te r t h e C ongre ss o f I n dustr ia l Org an iz atio ns). I n t h e l a te 1 930s, i n dustr ia l u nio nis ts s o ught t o e x te n d F D R’s vis io n, e v en a s c o nse rv ativ e i n dustr ia lis ts r e g ro uped a n d l a u nch ed a n a ll- o ut defe n se o f l a is se z-fa ir e c ap ita lis m i n g en era l. The n atio n’s t r a d itio nal e lite s, w hite a n d h eav ily P ro te sta n t, t o ok a le ad in g r o le i n t h ese d eb ate s. I n cre asin gly , h ow ev er, t h ey w ere j o in ed b y t h e eth nic , r e lig io us, a n d r a cia l “ o uts id ers ” w ho m ad e u p t h e m ajo rity o f t h e natio n’s w ork in g c la ss a n d w hose p olitic al a sp ir a tio ns w ere j u st b eg in nin g t o be r e co gniz ed b y t h e N ew D eal. T hese n ew , o r n ew ly e n fra n ch is e d , Am eric an s h elp ed f u el t h e d eb ate o ver t h e n atio n’s p olitic al e co nom y, w hile ra is in g q uestio ns a b out t h e s c o pe a n d s h ap e o f A m eric an p lu ra lis m a n d t h e natu re o f t h e n atio n’s b in din g v alu es.

“T he F oreig n E le m en t i n T his C ou ntr y ” The G re at D ep re ssio n s tr u ck a t a v ery u nusu al m om en t i n A m eric an h is to ry —near t h e s ta rt o f w hat o ne s c h ola r h as c alle d “ th e g re at i m mig ra tio n in te rre g num .” 21 F or n early 1 50 y ears , i m mig ra n ts h ad p oure d i n to t h e U nite d Sta te s f ro m a ll p arts o f t h e w orld , w ith t w en ty -s e v en m illio n a rriv in g b etw een 1880 a n d 1 930 a lo ne.

22 T his e ra o f m ass i m mig ra tio n c am e t o a n e n d i n 1 924 when Congre ss p asse d l e g is la tio n b an nin g a ll i m mig ra n ts f ro m A sia a n d slo w in g t h e i n flu x o f p eo ple f ro m S outh ern a n d E aste rn E uro pe t o a t r ic k le .

In t h e l a te 1 920s, m ig ra n ts c o ntin ued t o a rriv e f ro m i m poveris h ed r e g io ns o f Mex ic o a n d F ra n co phone C an ad a; b ut w ith t h e c o lla p se o f t h e U .S . e co nom y, ev en t h ose s tr e am s e v ap ora te d . R efu gees, d is p la ced p ers o ns, a n d i n div id uals fro m t h e W este rn h em is p here f ilte re d i n to t h e U .S . d urin g a n d a fte r W orld War I I, b ut i m mig ra tio n d id n ot a g ain a p pro ach t h e l e v els r e ach ed d urin g t h e early t w en tie th c en tu ry u ntil a fte r t h e o verh au l o f t h e n atio n’s i m mig ra tio n le g is la tio n i n 1 965.

The v ir tu al c u to ff o f i m mig ra tio n t o t h e U .S . i n ev ita b ly s h ap ed dis c u ssio ns o f A m eric a’s n atio nal i d en tity a n d c o re v alu es. B elie v in g t h at a ch ap te r i n U .S . h is to ry h ad c lo se d , s o m e s c h ola rs i n t h e l a te 1 920s a n d 1 930s tu rn ed t h eir a tte n tio n t o A m eric a’s i m mig ra n t p ast, f in din g t h ere a s o urc e o f natio nal e x cep tio nalis m .

23 M ean w hile , t h e r e str ic tiv e l e g is la tio n o f 1 924 haste n ed t h e a ccu ltu ra tio n o f i m mig ra n t c o m munitie s a n d s h if te d p olitic al deb ate f ro m i m mig ra tio n p er s e t o t h e t e rm s o n w hic h t h e U .S . s h ould in co rp ora te t h e n ew a rriv als . M an y f ir s t- a n d s e co nd-g en era tio n A m eric an s so ught f u ll p olitic al a n d s o cia l e n fra n ch is e m en t— ev en a s t h ey s o ught t o defin e a n A m eric a b ro ad e n ough t o e n co m pass t h em . S om e “ o ld s to ck ” Am eric an s c h afe d a t t h is n otio n, c lin gin g t o v is io ns o f t h e n atio n r o ote d i n “tr ib al” a ttr ib ute s s u ch a s w hite n ess, A nglo -S ax on o r N ord ic d esc en t, o r Pro te sta n tis m . O th ers , r e co gniz in g t h at t h e n ew i m mig ra n ts w ere d estin ed t o beco m e a p ote n t p olitic al a n d c u ltu ra l f o rc e, t r ie d t o s h ap e t h e v alu es a n d politic al b elie fs o f t h ese n ew est A m eric an s.

The s ta k es i n t h ese d eb ate s w ere h eig hte n ed b y t h e n atu re o f t h e im mig ra n ts t h em se lv es. T he o verw helm in g m ajo rity o f t h ose w ho a rriv ed i n th e U .S . b etw een 1 890 a n d 1 924 c am e f ro m S outh ern a n d E aste rn E uro pe, alth ough h undre d s o f t h ousa n ds o f J a p an ese , A rm en ia n s, M ex ic an s, S yria n Chris tia n s, a n d o th ers a ls o j o in ed t h e i m mig ra n t s tr e am . D iv ers e a s t h ese new co m ers w ere , t h ey s h are d s e v era l c h ara cte ris tic s. T o a f a r g re ate r d eg re e th an e arlie r i m mig ra n ts , t h ey s e ttle d i n t h e n atio n’s m an ufa ctu rin g c en te rs , where t h ey w ere q uic k ly a b so rb ed i n to a n ew ly i n dustr ia liz ed w ork in g c la ss.

More o ver, u nlik e t h e e lite s w ho h ad l o ng s h ap ed p ublic c o ncep tio ns o f “A m eric a,” r e la tiv ely f e w w ere N ord ic o r P ro te sta n t. T he v ast m ajo rity w ere Cath olic , E aste rn O rth odox, o r J e w is h , a lth ough s o m e p ra ctic ed B uddhis m , Is la m , S hin to is m , a n d a sso rte d o th er r e lig io ns.

Alth ough t h e “ n ew i m mig ra n ts ” p ose d t h e m ost o bvio us c h alle n ge t o Am eric a’s n atio nal i d en tity , t h ey w ere n ot t h e o nly n ew a rriv als i n U .S . c itie s.

Bla ck s h ad b een t r ic k lin g o ut o f t h e r u ra l S outh s in ce t h e e n d o f Reco nstr u ctio n, but t h e o utb re ak o f W orld W ar I l a u nch ed w hat b ecam e know n a s t h e “ G re at M ig ra tio n.” D urin g t h e w ar, h alf a m illio n s o uth ern bla ck s j o urn ey ed n orth t o t a k e n ew ly a v aila b le j o bs i n t h e m eta lw ork in g sh ops, a u to m obile p la n ts , a n d p ack in g h ouse s o f c itie s s u ch a s N ew Y ork , Chic ag o, a n d D etr o it. B la ck A m eric an s o ccu pie d t h e l o w est r u ngs o n t h e in dustr ia l l a d der. S till, t h e u rb an c en te rs o f t h e N orth east a n d M id w est offe re d a n e sc ap e f ro m t h e e co nom ic p eo nag e, d is fra n ch is e m en t, a n d l y nch mobs t h at s h ap ed b la ck l if e i n t h e r u ra l S outh . B y t h e e n d o f t h e 1 920s, an oth er m illio n b la ck s h ad m oved n orth .

24 Both t h e n ew i m mig ra n ts a n d s o uth ern b la ck s w ere r a p id ly i n co rp ora te d in to A m eric a’s i n dustr ia l w ork fo rc e, b ut t h ey w ere n ot w elc o m ed w ith o pen arm s. S co re s o f p ro m in en t i n te lle ctu als s u ch a s t h e P ro gre ssiv e l a b or eco nom is t J o hn R . C om mons a rg ued t h at S outh ern a n d E aste rn E uro pean peasa n ts b elo nged t o “ an i n fe rio r r a ce t h at f a v ors d esp otis m a n d o lig arc h y ra th er t h an d em ocra cy .” 25 B la ck s w ere s im ila rly s c o rn ed . M ean w hile , t h e Am eric an F ed era tio n o f L ab or i n ven te d t h e n otio n o f a n “ A m eric an S ta n dard of L iv in g” a n d u se d i t t o l in k h ig h w ag es t o n atio nal i d en tity . U nio n a ctiv is ts arg ued t h at A sia n a n d s o m e E uro pean i m mig ra n t g ro ups s h ould b e b arre d fro m t h e c o untr y b ecau se o f t h eir w illin gness t o w ork f o r “ sla v e w ag es.” 26 With t h e U .S .’ s e n tr y i n to W orld W ar I , t h e f o cu s o f t h is c u ltu ra l an im osity s h if te d b rie fly t o G erm an A m eric an s. W hen t h e w ar e n ded , how ev er, m an y w hite P ro te sta n t A m eric an s a g ain t a rg ete d t h e n ew i m mig ra n t gro ups a n d r a cia l m in oritie s. I n te lle ctu als a n d c iv ic l e ad ers p ic tu re d t h ese gro ups a s f o m en te rs o f l a b or u nre st, t h re ats t o A m eric an j o bs, c ata ly zers o f “ra ce s u ic id e” a m ong “ o ld s to ck ” A m eric an s, a n d s u bverte rs o f d em ocra cy its e lf . R ace r io ts e ru pte d i n C hic ag o a n d o th er c itie s i n 1 919, w hile t h e Bols h ev ik R ev olu tio n h elp ed s p aw n a d om estic r e d s c are w ith n ativ is t overto nes. I n t h e e arly 1 920s, a r e in carn ate d K u K lu x K la n d en ounced Cath olic s a n d J e w s a s w ell a s b la ck s. M ean w hile , a e u gen ic s c ra ze s w ep t t h e natio n, s p aw nin g s c o re s o f l o cal a n d n atio nal s o cie tie s, a e u gen ic s “cate ch is m ” a n d s e rm on c o nte st, a n d “ F itte r F am ily ” c o m petitio ns a t s ta te fa ir s .

27 S uch f e ars a b out “ n atio nal d iv is io n a n d t h e c o nse q uen t d estr u ctio n o f Am eric an s o cia l c o hesio n” c u lm in ate d i n 1 924 w ith C ongre ss’s p assa g e o f th e I m mig ra tio n R estr ic tio n A ct.

28 Iro nic ally , t h e t r iu m ph o f a c u ltu ra lly a n d r a cia lly r e str ic tiv e d efin itio n o f Am eric a i n t h e 1 920s s e t i n m otio n d em ogra p hic a n d c u ltu ra l t r e n ds t h at would g ra d ually e ro de t h at d efin itio n. B y l im itin g t h e i n flu x o f f o re ig ners t o Am eric a’s e th nic c o m munitie s, t h e 1 924 a ct a ccele ra te d t h e p ro cess o f accu ltu ra tio n. T he e co nom ic c o lla p se o f t h e e arly 1 930s e x te n ded t h is p ro cess to t h ose f e w i m mig ra n t c o m munitie s u naffe cte d b y t h e l e g is la tio n o f t h e pre v io us d ecad e. T he M ex ic an -A m eric an c o m munity i n L os A ngele s, f o r in sta n ce, was r e sh ap ed b y h ars h r e p atr ia tio n c am paig ns i n t h e 1 930s; o ver t h e co urs e o f h alf a d ecad e, a c o m munity t h at h ad b een c o m pris e d l a rg ely o f im mig ra n ts w as t r a n sfo rm ed i n to o ne d om in ate d b y t h eir s e co nd-g en era tio n ch ild re n .

29 T hro ughout t h e n atio n, t h is p ro cess o f a ccu ltu ra tio n w as f u rth er haste n ed b y t h e i n te n se a tte n tio n t h at c o rp ora tio ns, p atr io tic a sso cia tio ns, se ttle m en t h ouse w ork ers , a n d o th ers d ev ote d t o “ A m eric an iz in g” i m mig ra n ts durin g a n d a fte r W orld W ar I .

One m ark er o f t h e t r a n sfo rm atio n o ccu rrin g w ith in i m mig ra n t co m munitie s w as v ote r t u rn out. L arg e n um bers o f u rb an e th nic s d id n ot v ote th ro ugh t h e m id -1 920s, e ith er b ecau se t h ey w ere n ot c itiz en s o r b ecau se t h ey did n ot r e g is te r o r c o m e t o t h e p olls . R ig id c itiz en sh ip r e q uir e m en ts d ete rre d so m e, b ut m an y “ sim ply d id n ot f in d n atio nal p arty p olitic s r e le v an t t o t h eir liv es.” T he c o m bin ed i m pact o f d em ogra p hic s h if ts , p ro hib itio n, a n d t h e Gre at D ep re ssio n c h an ged t h at c alc u lu s. I n s o m e C hic ag o d is tr ic ts , t h e num ber o f f o re ig n-b orn citiz e n s m ore t h an d ouble d b etw een 1 920 a n d 1 930.

Durin g t h e s a m e d ecad e, m an y i n t h e A m eric an -b orn s e co nd g en era tio n c am e of a g e. T hese n ew A m eric an s i n cre asin gly c o nclu ded t h at t h ey h ad a s ta k e i n th e p olic ie s o f t h e f e d era l g overn m en t. I n 1 928, t h ey t u rn ed o ut i n r e co rd num bers t o v ote f o r D em ocra tic p re sid en tia l c an did ate A l S m ith . F our y ears la te r, t h ey f o rm ed t h e b ack bone o f t h e e le cto ra l m ajo rity t h at s w ep t F ra n klin Dela n o R oose v elt i n to o ffic e.

30 If n ew g en era tio ns o f A m eric an s w ere i n cre asin gly t a k in g t h eir p la ces i n th e v otin g b ooth , t h ey w ere a ls o s ta rtin g t o m ak e t h eir v oic es h eard i n t h e cu ltu ra l a re n a. I n 1 930, m ost n on-W ASP A m eric an s r e m ain ed c o nfin ed t o co m para tiv ely l o w -p ay in g j o bs i n t h e i n dustr ia l w ork in g c la ss. A g ro w in g num ber, h ow ev er, h ad w ork ed t h eir w ay i n to p ositio ns o f i n flu en ce i n t h e new c u ltu re i n dustr ie s t h at e m erg ed i n t h e o pen in g d ecad es o f t h e t w en tie th cen tu ry . M uch h as b een w ritte n a b out t h e p ro m in en ce o f J e w s i n t h e m ovie in dustr y d urin g t h e 1 930s a n d 1 940s, b ut t h e H olly w ood h onor r o ll a ls o in clu ded t h e I ris h -A m eric an d ir e cto r J o hn F ord , t h e I ta lia n -A m eric an d ir e cto r Fra n k C ap ra , a n d S pyro s P . S koura s, t h e s o n o f a n i m poveris h ed G re ek sh ep herd w ho h elp ed t u rn T w en tie th C en tu ry -F ox i n to o ne o f H olly w ood’s most p ow erfu l s tu dio s. L ouis A dam ic , a S lo ven ia n -A m eric an w ho h ad im mig ra te d t o t h e U .S . a t t h e a g e o f f if te en , b ecam e a b est- s e llin g a u th or i n 1934 w ith t h e p ublic atio n o f h is m em oir , The N ativ e’s R etu rn . P ublic re la tio ns a n d a d vertis in g, t w o c o m para tiv ely n ew f ie ld s t h at p ro duced m uch of t h e m ate ria l h eard o n r a d io i n t h e 1 930s, a ls o c o unte d l a rg e n um bers o f Je w s a n d C ath olic s a m ong t h eir s ta ffe rs . S o, t o o, e v en tu ally d id t h e f e d era l cu ltu re a g en cie s e sta b lis h ed b y t h e N ew D eal.

31 Bla ck A m eric an s t o o m ad e l im ite d b re ak th ro ughs d urin g t h e 1 920s, alth ough t h ey f a ced e v en g re ate r b arrie rs t o p olitic al a n d c u ltu ra l in co rp ora tio n t h an d id t h e n ew i m mig ra n ts . I n t h e l a te n in ete en th c en tu ry , bla ck s h ad b een e ffe ctiv ely d is fra n ch is e d t h ro ughout t h e S outh ; b ut b y 1 930, ro ughly o ne i n f iv e l iv ed i n a re as o f t h e c o untr y w here t h ey c o uld v ote . B la ck Am eric an s f e lt a d eep -s e ate d l o yalty t o t h e p arty o f L in co ln , a l o yalty t h at held t h ro ugh t h e p re sid en tia l e le ctio n o f 1 932. I n 1 934, h ow ev er, b la ck Am eric an s t h re w t h eir s u pport b eh in d t h e D em ocra tic P arty a n d R oose v elt’ s New D eal c o alitio n, a p erm an en t p olitic al s h if t t h at w ould s h ap e U .S . p olitic s fo r t h e r e st o f t h e c en tu ry .

32 If t h eir e x odus f ro m t h e r u ra l S outh g av e b la ck s l im ite d p olitic al c lo ut, i t als o f u ele d r is in g e x pecta tio ns a n d a n ew s p ir it o f c u ltu ra l r e sis ta n ce. D urin g th e e arly 1 920s, M arc u s G arv ey m obiliz ed m illio ns o f b la ck A m eric an s i n to his U niv ers a l N eg ro I m pro vem en t A sso cia tio n b y p re ach in g a m essa g e o f “ra ce p rid e” a n d e co nom ic s e lf -s u ffic ie n cy . G arv ey w as p ro fo undly c y nic al ab out t h e p ossib ilitie s f o r b la ck i n clu sio n i n w hite A m eric an s o cie ty , b ut oth er b la ck A m eric an s h arb ore d m ore h ope. T he N atio nal A sso cia tio n f o r t h e Advan cem en t o f C olo re d P eo ple ( N AACP) h ad b een f o unded i n 1 910, b ut i t attr a cte d b ro ad er p ublic a w are n ess i n t h e 1 920s w ith i ts c am paig ns a g ain st se g re g atio n, d is e n fra n ch is e m en t, a n d l y nch in g. A lth ough r e la tiv ely f e w bla ck s m ad e i n ro ad s i n H olly w ood o r M ad is o n A ven ue, t h e w rite rs , a rtis ts , an d m usic ia n s o f t h e H arle m R en ais sa n ce a ttr a cte d w hite p atr o ns a n d a n au die n ce t h at t r a n sc en ded r a cia l b oundarie s. M ost H arle m R en ais sa n ce a rtis ts so ught t o d efin e a d is tin ctiv e b la ck c u ltu re t h at c o uld b e a s o urc e o f e th nic prid e; m an y a ls o s tr e sse d t h e c o ntr ib utio ns t h at b la ck s h ad m ad e t o A m eric an cu ltu re m ore b ro ad ly .

33 Thus, b y t h e m id -1 930s, A m eric a’s “ n ew i m mig ra n ts ” a n d r a cia l min oritie s w ere m ak in g a b id f o r g re ate r p olitic al, s o cia l, a n d c u ltu ra l in clu sio n. T heir s tr o ng s u pport f o r P re sid en t R oose v elt w as r e w ard ed : t h e New D eale rs w en t f u rth er t h an m em bers o f a n y p ast a d m in is tr a tio n t o in co rp ora te J e w s, C ath olic s, a n d b la ck s i n to t h e r a n ks o f g overn m en t a n d t o ad m in is te r f e d era l p ro gra m s e v en han ded ly .

34 T he “ n ew i m mig ra n ts ” a n d bla ck s a ls o m ad e u p t h e b ack bone o f t h e i n dustr ia l l a b or m ovem en t t h at em erg ed i n t h e l a te 1 930s— a m ovem en t t h at, a s L iz ab eth C ohen h as p oin te d out, w as a n ch ore d i n a m ultie th nic a n d m ultir a cia l “ cu ltu re o f u nity .” 35 The g en era lly i n clu siv e e th os o f t h e N ew D eal a n d t h e C IO h as t e n ded i n his to ric al a cco unts t o o vers h ad ow a c o ntr a stin g t r e n d: t h e r is e t o w ard t h e e n d of t h e d ecad e o f v ir u le n t f o rm s o f i n to le ra n ce.

36 X en ophobia w an ed a fte r 1924, b ut i t n ev er d is a p peare d ; a n d t h e D ep re ssio n f a n ned t h e b an ked e m bers of p re ju dic e t o l if e . A s i n dustr ie s c o lla p se d a n d u nem plo ym en t s o are d , re se n tm en ts b etw een g ro ups i n te n sif ie d . “ In m an y p la ces t h e f o re ig n-b orn an d t h ose o f t h eir A m eric an -b orn c h ild re n w hose n am es h ad a s o -c alle d fo re ig n s o und w ere l a id o ff f ir s t, b efo re o ld -s to ck w ork ers , s o m etim es e v en befo re t h e N eg ro es,” t h e l a b or j o urn alis t L ouis A dam ic r e p orte d .

37 T he decad e’s l a b or s u rp lu s a llo w ed m an y e m plo yers t o s p ecif y “ W PX ” ( fo r “w hite , C hris tia n , P ro te sta n t” ) i n j o b a d vertis e m en ts a n d n otic es p la ced w ith em plo ym en t a g en cie s.

38 F in ally , N ew D eal p ro gra m s t h at p ut A m eric an s o f all r a cia l a n d e th nic b ack gro unds o n t h e s a m e f o otin g d re w v en om f ro m s o m e quarte rs . A “ d is g uste d A m eric an ” w ro te R oose v elt a id e H arry H opkin s i n 1936 t o c o m pla in a b out t h e i n div id uals a ssig ned t o a W ork s P ro gre ss Adm in is tr a tio n s e w in g p ro je ct i n N ew Y ork C ity . “ D id y ou f o rg et t h at t h ere are s till a f e w ‘ w hite A m eric an s l e ft,’ ” t h e a n onym ous l e tte r w rite r a sk ed . “ Its th e w ors t t h in g a s f a r a s p la cin g i s c o ncern ed . N oth in g b ut c o lo re d , S pan is h , West I n die s, I ta lia n s + a h an d f u l o f w hite s.… [ I]f y ou d on’t s e e a r a ce r io t th ere i t’ s a s u rp ris e .” A C hic ag o m an e x te n ded t h is s e n tim en t t o m an y o th er im mig ra n t g ro ups. “ T hey s h ould k ic k t h em a ll b ack t o E uro pe a s t h e m ajo rity of t h em a re a b so lu te ly n ogood,” h e w ro te . “ T he f o re ig n e le m en t i n t h is co untr y a re a llo w ed e n tir e ly t o m uch l e ew ay i n p ra ctic ally e v ery r e sp ect.” 39 Sim merin g e co nom ic r e se n tm en ts s o m etim es e ru pte d i n to r a cia l v io le n ce.

On t h e W est C oast, w hite m en t h re ate n ed t h ose w ho h ir e d F ilip in o l a b ore rs an d t h re w d ynam ite b om bs i n to t h e l a b ore rs ’ e n cam pm en ts .

40 O ffic ia ls i n South ern C alif o rn ia a n d e ls e w here r e p atr ia te d t h ousa n ds o f M ex ic an s a n d Mex ic an A m eric an s— in s o m e c ase s f o rc ib ly .

41 I n 1 936, n ew sp ap ers a cro ss th e n atio n f ille d w ith s to rie s a b out t h e s e cre tiv e B la ck L eg io n, a M ic h ig an - base d v ig ila n te g ro up t h at, a m ong o th er t h in gs, s o ught t o h elp i ts m em bers get a n d k eep j o bs. M em bers o f t h e L eg io n f lo gged , k id nap ped , a n d k ille d , an d p artic u la rly t a rg ete d c o m munis ts , J e w s, C ath olic s, a n d b la ck s. W hile so m e a rg ued t h at t h e B la ck L eg io n w as a n o ffs h oot o f t h e K KK, o th ers s a w i t as “ a m odern f o re ru nner o f a n A m eric an b ra n d o f f a sc is m .” 42 If A m eric a’s n on-W ASP m in oritie s w ere f re q uen t t a rg ets o f e th nic , re lig io us, o r r a cia l a n im osity , t h ey c o uld a ls o b e s o urc es o f s u ch h ostility . A s th e 1 930s w ore o n, s tr a in s a n d w arfa re a ro und t h e g lo be r e v erb era te d i n t h e U.S . a s w ell. M an y I ta lia n A m eric an s h aile d M usso lin i’ s i n vasio n o f E th io pia in 1 935, s e ein g i t a s a s ig n o f t h e r e su rg en t g lo ry o f R om e. I n r e sp onse , b la ck Am eric an s i n N ew Y ork a n d C hic ag o b oyco tte d s to re s o w ned b y I ta lia n - Am eric an m erc h an ts . A m eric an C ath olic s a n d J e w s h ad l o ng d if fe re d o n a varie ty o f s o cia l a n d p olitic al i s su es, b ut t e n sio ns b etw een t h e t w o g ro ups so are d a s a r e su lt o f t h e S pan is h C iv il W ar.

43 H itle r’s a n nex atio n o f A ustr ia an d C zech oslo vak ia , th e G erm an a n d S ovie t i n vasio ns o f P ola n d, S ta lin ’s co nquest o f F in la n d a n d t h e B altic s ta te s, a n d t h e N azi b litz k rie g a cro ss Euro pe i n t h e s p rin g o f 1 940 a ll r e k in dle d d orm an t l o yaltie s w ith in i m mig ra n t co m munitie s.

44 S uch d ev elo pm en ts t h re ate n ed t o t u rn A m eric an s o f d iv ers e back gro unds a g ain st o ne a n oth er a n d f u ele d f e ars — ev en o n t h e p art o f s o m e lib era ls a n d l e ftis ts — th at i m mig ra n ts a n d t h eir c h ild re n c o uld b eco m e co nduits f o r v ario us “ alie n ” i d eo lo gie s.

The F asc is t a n d C om munis t T hrea ts The D ep re ssio n a n d d em ogra p hic c h an ge t h us d esta b iliz ed l o ng d om in an t notio ns o f “ A m eric an is m ,” o pen in g t h e d oor t o n ew v oic es a n d c o m petin g defin itio ns o f t h e n atio n. A s t h e Harp er’s e ssa y c o nte st s u ggeste d , h ow ev er, it w as t h e s u ccesse s o f c o m munis m a n d f a sc is m a b ro ad — co m bin ed w ith fe ars t h at b oth d octr in es w ere w in nin g s y m path iz ers i n t h e U .S .— th at g av e effo rts t o d efin e A m eric a’s c o re v alu es i n t h e l a te 1 930s n ew u rg en cy . T ak en to geth er, c o m munis m a n d f a sc is m p ro vid ed A m eric an s a cro ss t h e p olitic al sp ectr u m w ith a f e ars o m e i d eo lo gic al “ o th er” a g ain st w hic h t h e n atio n c o uld an d s h ould b e d efin ed .

45 T hose A m eric an s w ho m ost f e are d c o m munis m a n d th ose w ho s a w f a sc is m a s t h e g re ate r d an ger r a re ly a g re ed o n t h eir c o ncep t o f an i d eal s o cie ty ; b ut i n t h e l a te 1 930s, b oth g ro ups c ast t h eir v is io ns i n Am eric a n t e rm s. S o t o o d id m an y r e fu gee i n te lle ctu als f ro m o th er p arts o f t h e glo be. B y a rtic u la tin g a n d p ro m otin g a n A m eric an i d ea, c re ed , o r w ay o f l if e , U.S . a n d f o re ig n i n te lle ctu als , g overn m en t o ffic ia ls , p undits , a n d b usin ess an d c iv ic l e ad ers s o ught b oth t o s e t t h e l im its a n d p ossib ilitie s o f U .S .

politic al c u ltu re a n d t o p ro vid e a n orm ativ e e x am ple t o t h e w orld .

Com munis m h ad b een o n A m eric an s’ r a d ar s c re en s in ce t h e B ols h ev ik Rev olu tio n o f 1 917, b ut g lo bal d ev elo pm en ts i n t h e 1 930s a d ded g re atly t o th e s e n se o f a la rm i n s o m e q uarte rs . D esp ite d ir e w arn in gs, t h e S ovie t U nio n had r e m ain ed a p olitic al a n d e co nom ic p aria h t h ro ugh m ost o f t h e 1 920s.

Mean w hile , A m eric an c o rp ora tio ns f lo uris h ed v ir tu ally u nch eck ed . T hat bala n ce c h an ged w ith t h e G re at D ep re ssio n. W hile c ap ita lis t e co nom ie s ev ery w here g ro und t o a h alt, t h e S ovie t U nio n e n gag ed i n f o rc ed a n d r a p id in dustr ia liz atio n, a n a ch ie v em en t t h at i m pre sse d m an y f o re ig n o bse rv ers .

More o ver, i n A ugust 1 935, S ta lin r e sp onded t o t h e r is e o f H itle r b y a d optin g th e p olic y o f t h e P opula r F ro nt; t h is a llo w ed c o m munis ts a ro und t h e g lo be t o ally t h em se lv es w ith s o cia lis ts a n d “ b ourg eo is ” d em ocra ts i n a n tif a sc is t co alitio ns. T he s u ccess o f t h is p olic y w as i m med ia te ly e v id en t i n s u ch co untr ie s a s S pain a n d Fra n ce. I n F eb ru ary 1 936, S pan ia rd s e le cte d a P opula r Fro nt g overn m en t, o verth ro w in g a c o alitio n o f c en tr is t a n d r ig htis t p artie s a n d se ttin g t h e s ta g e f o r t h e S pan is h C iv il W ar. I n F ra n ce, t o o, t h e s tr a te g y tr a n sfo rm ed t h e c o m munis ts i n to a m ass p arty , a n d a P opula r F ro nt c o alitio n tr iu m phed i n t h e 1 936 e le ctio ns. W ith a S ocia lis t p rim e m in is te r a t t h e h elm , th e g overn m en t l im ite d w ork w eek s a n d n atio naliz ed b oth t h e a rm am en ts in dustr y a n d t h e B an k o f F ra n ce.

Fasc is m h ad g otte n a l a te r s ta rt t h an c o m munis m — both B en ito M usso lin i an d A dolf H itle r b uilt t h eir m ovem en ts i n t h e 1 920s— but i t t o o b en efite d fro m t h e c ata cly sm o f t h e D ep re ssio n. A s G erm an y’s u nem plo ym en t r a te so are d i n 1 930, s o t o o d id s u pport f o r t h e N azis a m ong v ote rs . T he p arty , whic h h ad p olle d j u st 8 09,0 00 v ote s i n 1 928, g arn ere d 6 .4 m illio n v ote s i n 1930. T w o y ears l a te r, t h e N azis w on a p lu ra lity o f s e ats i n t h e G erm an Reic h sta g ; a n d i n J a n uary 1 933, H itle r w as n am ed c h an cello r. L ib era ls a n d le ftis ts a ro und t h e w orld w atc h ed i n h orro r a s t h e N azis s e iz ed d ic ta to ria l pow er, a b olis h ed t h e G erm an f e d era l s y ste m , d is so lv ed t r a d e u nio ns, b urn ed books, a n d c o m men ced t h e p ers e cu tio n o f J e w s. B y e arly 1 938, I ta ly h ad co nquere d E th io pia , J a p an w as r a v ag in g C hin a, a n d F ra n co ’s f o rc es s e em ed to b e w in nin g t h e c iv il w ar i n S pain . B efo re t h e y ear w as o ut, H itle r h ad an nex ed A ustr ia a n d s e iz ed t h e C zech oslo vak ia n S udete n la n d.

These d ev elo pm en ts a la rm ed A m eric an s o n b oth t h e r ig ht a n d t h e l e ft.

Addin g t o t h eir u nease w ere s ig ns t h at “ co m munis m ” a n d “ fa sc is m ” b ro ad ly defin ed m ig ht b e g ain in g a t o eh old i n t h e U .S . a s w ell. E co nom ic co nse rv ativ es, w ho w ere k een ly a w are o f w hat w as h ap pen in g i n F ra n ce, atta ck ed t h e i n dustr ia l u nio n m ovem en t a n d d ecrie d t h e N ew D eal a s “cre ep in g s ta te s o cia lis m .” ( A m in ority a ls o l ik en ed t h e N ew D eal t o fa sc is m .) A t t h e s a m e t im e, t h ey e y ed w ith c o ncern t h e e m erg en ce o f a b ro ad an d m ultif a cete d l e ft- w in g m ovem en t i n t h e U .S . w ith s tr o ng t ie s t o t h e C IO an d R oose v elt’ s N ew D eal c o alitio n a n d t a n gen tia l c o nnectio ns t o t h e Com munis t P arty . A t a p olitic al l e v el, t h is m ovem en t e n co m passe d s u ch varie d g ro ups a s N ew Y ork ’s A m eric an L ab or P arty , M in neso ta ’s F arm er- Lab or P arty , W is c o nsin ’s P ro gre ssiv e P arty , W ash in gto n’s C om monw ealth Fed era tio n, a n d t h e E nd-P overty -in -C alif o rn ia c am paig n o f m uck ra k er U pto n Sin cla ir . C ultu ra lly , t h e m ovem en t c o unte d n um ero us a u th ors , c ritic s, a cto rs , sc re en w rite rs , m usic ia n s, a n d o th er i n te lle ctu als a m ong i ts m em bers . T he U.S . C om munis t P arty i ts e lf r e m ain ed s m all, b ut i t t o o c ap ita liz ed o n t h e Popula r F ro nt s tr a te g y, d oublin g i ts m em bers h ip b etw een 1 936 a n d 1 938 a n d billin g c o m munis m a s “ tw en tie th -c en tu ry A m eric an is m .” 46 Am eric an i n dustr ia lis ts a n d o th ers i n t h e b usin ess c o m munity w orrie d i n part a b out t h e a p peal o f “ sta te s o cia lis m ” t o m em bers o f t h e m id dle c la ss who had b eco m e d is illu sio ned w ith t h e c o untr y ’s e co nom ic l e ad ers h ip . T hey w ere als o d eep ly c o ncern ed a b out t h e v ie w s o f f ir s t- a n d s e co nd-g en era tio n Am eric an s. B ecau se i m mig ra n ts a n d t h eir c h ild re n c lu ste re d i n t h e l e ss sk ille d e ch elo ns o f t h e w ork in g c la ss, t h ey w ere h eav ily r e p re se n te d i n t h e in dustr ia l l a b or m ovem en t. A s M ic h ael D en nin g h as s h ow n, t h ese g ro ups als o p la y ed a n i m porta n t r o le i n t h e “ cu ltu ra l f ro nt.” 47 N ot s u rp ris in g, w hen busin ess g ro ups l a u nch ed t h eir c o unte ra tta ck a g ain st t h e N ew D eal i n t h e l a te 1930s, t h ey a im ed b oth t o c o nta in a n d t o c o nvert t h e n atio n’s n ew est Am eric an s.

If t h e s p ecte r o f A m eric an s o cia lis m h au nte d e co nom ic c o nse rv ativ es, fe ars o f d om estic f a sc is m h ad a s im ila rly g alv an iz in g e ffe ct o n l ib era ls a n d th ose o n t h e l e ft. A m eric an s r a n gin g f ro m t h e a ctiv is t l a w yer C are y McW illia m s t o t h e p ro m in en t t h eo lo gia n R ein hold N ie b uhr w arn ed o f a fa sc is t m en ace w ith in t h e U .S . w ith e sc ala tin g u rg en cy a s t h e d ecad e w ore on. A rtic le s r e fle ctin g s u ch f e ars a p peare d n ot o nly i n l e ft- le an in g m ag azin es su ch a s t h e New R ep ublic , t h e Natio n , a n d Am eric a n M erc u ry , b ut a ls o i n public atio ns s u ch a s t h e Chris tia n C en tu ry , t h e Am eric a n S ch ola r , a n d t h e Satu rd ay E ven in g P ost . I n 1 935, A m eric a’s f ir s t N obel l a u re ate i n l ite ra tu re , Sin cla ir L ew is , p ublis h ed It C an’t H appen H ere , a n ovel t h at e n vis io ned t h e fa sc is t t a k eo ver o f t h e U .S .

48 Leftis ts s u ch a s M cW illia m s s a w e v id en ce o f f a sc is m i n p hen om en a a s div ers e a s u nio n b ustin g, m ilita ris m , r e d -b aitin g, a n d v ig ila n te j u stic e.

49 E ven th ose w ho d efin ed t h e f a sc is t t h re at m ore n arro w ly , h ow ev er, w ere a la rm ed by t h e r is e i n e th nic a n d r e lig io us s c ap eg oatin g d urin g t h e d ecad e, a n d partic u la rly b y t h e s u rg e i n a n ti- S em itis m . A nti- S em itis m w as b y n o m ean s a new p hen om en on i n A m eric a; b ut i n t h e l a te 1 930s, i t a p peare d t o t a k e a f a r more v ir u le n t f o rm . M ore t h an o ne h undre d a n ti- S em itic o rg an iz atio ns w ere cre ate d i n t h e U .S . b etw een 1 933 a n d 1 941; b y o ne e stim ate , t h is w as t w en ty tim es t h e n um ber f o rm ed i n t h e c o untr y u p t o t h at p oin t.

50 I n t h e p ast, dom estic a n ti- S em itis m h ad p rim arily t a k en t h e f o rm o f s o cia l o r e co nom ic dis c rim in atio n, b ut m an y o f t h e n ew o rg an iz atio ns— whic h b oaste d n am es su ch a s t h e S ilv er S hir ts , t h e A m eric an N atio nalis t F ed era tio n, D efe n ders o f th e C hris tia n F aith , a n d t h e K nig hts o f t h e W hite C am elia — re so rte d t o vio le n ce. S om e b en efite d f ro m f o re ig n s u pport, e v en a s t h ey w ra p ped th em se lv es i n t h e m an tle o f A m eric an is m .

One s u ch o rg an iz atio n w as t h e G erm an A m eric an B und. F ounded i n 1 936 by a D etr o it a u to w ork er, F ritz K uhn, t h e B und h eld m ass r a llie s m ark ed b y unif o rm s a n d h is tr io nic s t h at e erily r e se m ble d t h ose f o und i n M unic h a n d Nure m burg . T he B und h ad c lo se t ie s t o H itle r’s N azi p arty , y et K uhn c ast i t as “ a g re at A m eric an m ovem en t o f L ib era tio n” s e ek in g t o b re ak t h e dic ta to rs h ip o f a “ Je w is h i n te rn atio nal m in ority .” B und m eetin gs a n d m arc h es fe atu re d Am eric an f la g s, p ortr a its o f G eo rg e W ash in gto n ( w hom K uhn eq uate d t o A dolf H itle r), i n vocatio ns o f t h e R ev olu tio nary W ar g en era l B aro n Von S te u ben , a n d r o usin g r e n ditio ns o f “ T he S ta r-S pan gle d B an ner” ( fig ure 1.2 ). W hen t h e B und h eld w hat i t b ille d a s a “ m ass-d em onstr a tio n f o r t r u e Am eric an is m ” i n M ad is o n S quare G ard en i n F eb ru ary 1 939 t o c ele b ra te Geo rg e W ash in gto n’s b ir th day , s o m e t w en ty -tw o t h ousa n d B undis ts a n d oth er s y m path iz ers a tte n ded .

51 Fig u re 1 .2 . M em bers o f t h e G erm an A m eric an B und m arc h i n Y ap han k, New Y ork i n 1 937. A lth ough t h is g ath erin g w as s m all, a B und r a lly a t Mad is o n S quare G ard en o n W ash in gto n’s B ir th day i n 1 939 d re w m ore t h an tw en ty t h ousa n d p eo ple . T he s u rg e i n v ir u le n t a n ti- S em itis m i n t h e U nite d Sta te s d urin g t h e D ep re ssio n f e d f e ars o n t h e p art o f m an y l ib era ls a n d l e ftis ts th at A m eric an s t o o c o uld s u ccu m b t o f a sc is m ( T im e & L if e P ic tu re s/G etty Im ag es). Desp ite t h e B und’s d ir e ct t ie s t o N azi G erm an y, t h e i n div id ual w ho m ost ala rm ed m an y l ib era ls w as F ath er C harle s C oughlin . I n t h e e arly 1 930s, t h e ch aris m atic p rie st a ttr a cte d a n a u die n ce o f m illio ns t o h is w eek ly r a d io s h ow , in w hic h h e a tta ck ed c o m munis m , r a ile d a g ain st t h e g old s ta n dard , a n d c alle d fo r t h e n atio naliz atio n o f t h e U .S . b an kin g s y ste m . C oughlin a ls o f o unded a politic al o rg an iz atio n, t h e N atio nal U nio n f o r S ocia l J u stic e, a n d l a u nch ed a week ly n ew sp ap er. B y 1 934, h e w as r e ceiv in g m ore m ail t h an a n yone e ls e i n th e U nite d S ta te s, i n clu din g t h e p re sid en t. C oughlin h ad l o ng b la m ed t h e Dep re ssio n o n “ m oney c h an gers ” a n d “ in te rn atio nal b an kers ” ; b ut i n 1 938, h e tu rn ed o pen ly a n d s tr id en tly a n ti- S em itic . H e r e p eate d ly a ssa ile d “co m munis tic J e w s” a n d i n o ne e d ito ria l l if te d w ord in g d ir e ctly f ro m a sp eech b y H itle r’s c h ie f p ro pag an dis t, J o se p h G oeb bels . B y t h e e n d o f t h e decad e, C oughlin n o l o nger a ttr a cte d t h e h uge a n d a d orin g a u die n ce h e o nce had ; s till, a G allu p p oll c o nducte d i n e arly 1 938 s h ow ed t h at 1 0 p erc en t o f a ll Am eric an f a m ilie s w ith r a d io s t u ned h im i n r e g ula rly a n d t h at 8 3 p erc en t o f th ose w ho l is te n ed w eek ly a p pro ved o f h is m essa g e. M ean w hile , t h e Chris tia n F ro nt, a m ovem en t o f C oughlin s u pporte rs f o rm ed a t h is u rg in g, drille d i ts m em bers i n m ilita ry t a ctic s a n d s to ck pile d w eap ons. I n c itie s s u ch as B osto n a n d N ew Y ork , r o vin g g an gs o f C hris tia n F ro nte rs s m ash ed t h e win dow s o f J e w is h -o w ned s to re s a n d “ en gag ed i n o pen , N azi- lik e b ra w ls with J e w s.” 52 The B la ck L eg io n l im ite d i ts m em bers h ip t o n ativ e-b orn w hite Pro te sta n ts , b ut t h e C hris tia n F ro nt f lo uris h ed i n C ath olic i m mig ra n t neig hborh oods i n t h e u rb an N orth east. T he f o under o f t h e G erm an A m eric an Bund w as a G erm an i m mig ra n t, a n d t h e s u pport o f I ta lia n A m eric an s f o r Musso lin i w as w ell k now n. A ll t h is p ro m pte d s o m e t o v ie w r e cen t im mig ra n ts — th ose w ho h ad n ot y et b een f u lly A m eric an iz ed — as p artic u la rly su sc ep tib le t o f a sc is m . S ta ffe rs f o r t h e N atio nal C onfe re n ce o f C hris tia n s a n d Je w s, f o r i n sta n ce, a rg ued t h at t h e o rg an iz atio n s h ould w ork m ore c lo se ly with o rg an iz ed l a b or a s i t t r ie d t o c o m bat r e lig io us p re ju dic e a n d p artic u la rly an ti- S em itis m . “ T his g ro up,” t h ey e x pla in ed , “ in clu des a l a rg e p erc en ta g e o f fo re ig n-b orn w ho h av e b ro ught f a ls e b elie fs i n to t h is n atio n.” 53 The S ea rch f o r a n “ A m eric a n W ay” Confro nte d w ith e co nom ic c o lla p se a n d i d eo lo gic al t h re ats b oth a t h om e a n d ab ro ad , a g ro w in g n um ber o f i n te lle ctu als , p ublic o ffic ia ls , c iv ic l e ad ers , a n d oth ers a g re ed w ith t h e l ite ra ry s c h ola r H ow ard M um fo rd J o nes. “ In a p erio d of i n te n se s o cia l s tr a in ,” h e d ecla re d i n D ecem ber 1 935, “ th e c o untr y n eed s [th e] s te ad yin g e ffe ct o f a v ita l c u ltu ra l t r a d itio n.” 54 T he p oet a n d L ib ra ria n o f Congre ss A rc h ib ald M acL eis h c h astis e d h is c o m patr io ts f o r “ m ora lly dis a rm in g” A m eric a b y e le v atin g E uro pean o ver h om eg ro w n v alu es.

Am eric an i n te lle ctu als , h e a lle g ed , h ad “ ir re sp onsib ly u nderm in ed t h e natio n’s h is to ric p rin cip le s a n d i d eals ,” l e av in g i t w eak en ed i n t h e f a ce o f t h e fa sc is t t h re at.

55 G ilb ert S eld es, t h e f ilm c ritic a n d b ook r e v ie w er w ho i n 1 932 pro duced t h e b itin g The Y ea rs o f t h e L ocu st , c h arg ed f o ur y ears l a te r t h at write rs w ere f a r m ore d an gero us t o t h e n atio n t h an i n dustr ia lis ts o r f in an cie rs .

The f o rm er “ m ere ly r a v ag ed t h e c o untr y ’s e n vir o nm en t a n d r e so urc es,” h e wro te , w hile t h e l a tte r im pose d “ an a lie n s y ste m o f i d eals u pon A m eric a” t h at “p re v en te d u s f ro m u nders ta n din g o urs e lv es.” 56 Such v ie w s o nly i n te n sif ie d a s t h e d ecad e d re w t o a c lo se . T he o utb re ak of w ar i n E uro pe i n S ep te m ber 1 939, t h e G erm an b litz k rie g i n t h e s p rin g o f 1940, a n d p artic u la rly t h e f a ll o f F ra n ce t h at J u ne g av e t h e a p peals o f U .S .

an d é m ig ré i n te lle ctu als a n ote o f d ir e u rg en cy . “ O ne c an not c o unte r t h e re lig io us f a ith o f f a sc is m u nle ss o ne p osse sse s a f a ith e q ually s tr o ng, e q ually cap ab le o f f o ste rin g d ev otio n a n d l o yalty a n d c o m man din g s a crif ic e,” decla re d a rc h ite ctu ra l c ritic L ew is M um fo rd i n h is 1 940 c all- to -a rm s Faith fo r L iv in g . “ If o ur d em ocra cy i s t o s a v e i ts e lf ,” w arn ed p ro gre ssiv e e d ucato r Geo rg e S . C ounts i n h is p re sid en tia l a d dre ss t o t h e A m eric an F ed era tio n o f Teach ers , “ it m ust a sse rt i ts e lf a s a p ositiv e a n d a g gre ssiv e s o cia l f a ith .” 57 Som e c o m men ta to rs w orrie d p artic u la rly a b out t h e t h re at t o n atio nal u nity an d r e so lv e p ose d b y A m eric an e th nic s. S uch v ie w s w ere c o m mon o n t h e rig ht b ut e x te n ded i n a r a th er d if fe re n t v ein t o m an y l ib era ls a n d s o m e o n t h e le ft. I n a 1 938 a rtic le i n t h e Atla ntic , f o r i n sta n ce, H ow ard M um fo rd J o nes warn ed o f t h e d an ger A m eric a w ould f a ce i f i t a llo w ed e th nic i s o la tio n a n d hostility b etw een g ro ups t o u nderm in e A m eric an s’ s e n se o f c o m mon g ro und.

Fasc is t a n d c o m munis t “ d ic ta to r c o untr ie s” p ose d a “ se rio us … m en ace t o politic al d em ocra cy ” p re cis e ly b ecau se t h ey h ad s u cceed ed i n m ak in g “p atr io tis m g la m oro us,” h e a rg ued . A m eric an s n eed ed a “ p atr io tic re n ais sa n ce,” b ut o ne t h at w ould e n co m pass all A m eric an s, n ot j u st desc en den ts o f t h e Mayflo w er a n d “ o ne-h undre d -p er-c en te rs .” “ It i s p re cis e ly th e c h ild re n a n d g ra n dch ild re n o f t h e m illio ns w ho ‘ c am e o ver’ s o m e cen tu rie s a fte r t h ese e arlie r i m mig ra tio ns w ho n eed t o h av e t h eir i m ag in atio ns kin dle d b y A m eric an m yth olo gy,” J o nes w ro te . “ T he g ulf b etw een t h e Bosto n B ra h m in s a n d t h e B osto n I ris h , o ld D etr o ite rs a n d t h e s w arm in g th ousa n ds o f a u to m obile w ork er … is n ot … g oin g t o b e b rid ged b y a b rig ht re cita l o f t h e F re n ch a n d I n dia n W ars .” J o nes c o nclu ded t h at “ n o r a ce o r re lig io n o r g ro up o r n atio nality c an b e p erm itte d t o a ssu m e t h at i t h as a monopoly o f A m eric an h is to ry , a n d n o r a ce o r r e lig io n o r g ro up o r n atio nality can b e p erm itte d t o f e el i t i s e x clu ded , i f p olitic al d em ocra cy i s t o s u rv iv e.” 58 Alth ough s o m e i n te lle ctu als a n d c iv ic l e ad ers f o cu se d o n A m eric an eth nic s, o th ers c o nclu ded t h at e v en t h ose w ith d eep r o ots i n t h e n atio n— an d fir m f o otin g i n t h e m id dle a n d u pper c la sse s— need ed a t u to ria l o n t h eir o w n cu ltu re . F or y ears H arv ard U niv ers ity h ad l a rg ely i g nore d A m eric an t o pic s i n its c u rric u lu m ; b ut i n t h e l a te 1 930s, i t t o ok a s e rie s o f s te p s t o r e ctif y t h is im bala n ce.

59 A m ong o th er t h in gs, i t p ublis h ed a n e x te n siv e r e ad in g l is t o n Am eric an h is to ry a n d c u ltu re , w hic h i t d is tr ib ute d t o s tu den ts , a lu m ni, a n d in te re ste d m em bers o f t h e p ublic . T he p re fa ce l a m en te d t h e f a ct t h at Am eric an s’ k now le d ge o f t h eir p ast o fte n p eak ed i n h ig h s c h ool a n d f a d ed th ere afte r. “ O ne r e su lt o f t h is i g nora n ce a n d i n dif fe re n ce i s t h e l a ck o f re sis ta n ce o f e v en w ell- e d ucate d p ers o ns t o v ario us f o rm s o f p ro pag an da whic h w ould h av e t h em c o nceiv e ‘ A m eric an is m ’ i n t e rm s o f c la ss, p arty , se ctio nal, r a cia l, o r r e lig io us a ffilia tio n,” t h e p re fa ce w arn ed . I t a d m onis h ed re ad ers a g ain st “ a m ere p assiv e r e ad in g” o f t h e b ooks l is te d s in ce t h at w ould “n ot m ak e a n ybody a m ore i n te llig en t c itiz en .” I n ste ad , r e ad ers s h ould “ b e pre p are d t o m ak e [ th eir ] o w n s y nth ese s, a n d a n sw er [ th eir ] o w n q uestio ns.

What i s t h e A m eric an w ay o f l if e ? T he A m eric an w ay o f t h ought? H ow d oes it d if fe r f ro m E uro pean o r O rie n ta l w ay s o f l if e a n d t h ought? ” 60 The c o m pile rs o f t h e H arv ard r e ad in g l is t u rg ed r e ad ers t o d ev elo p t h eir ow n u nders ta n din g o f t h e “ A m eric an W ay ”; b ut i n t h e l a te 1 930s, in te lle ctu als , p olitic al l e ad ers , a n d a n a rra y o f c iv ic o rg an iz atio ns r u sh ed t o defin e t h is c o ncep t f o r a ll. M uch h in ged o n t h e o utc o m e o f t h eir e ffo rts . A t sta k e w as t h e p la ce a n d s h ap e o f c ap ita lis m i n U .S . s o cie ty . W ould t h e p ow er of l a b or u nio ns a n d t h e f e d era l g overn m en t b e s tr e n gth en ed ? T o w hat d eg re e would b usin ess b e r e g ula te d ? W ould t h e w elf a re s ta te b e e x pan ded o r f o rc ed to c o ntr a ct? A t s ta k e t o o w as w hat m ig ht b e c alle d t h e c u ltu ra l d efin itio n o f Am eric a— th e t e rm s o n w hic h t h e n atio n’s n ew i m mig ra n ts a n d r a cia l min oritie s w ould b e i n co rp ora te d i n to t h e U .S .’ s n atio nal i d en tity a n d s o cia l fa b ric . W ould t h ey b e e q uals o r s e co nd-c la ss c itiz en s? W ould t h ey b e f o rc ed to s h ed t h eir s e p ara te e th nic a n d r a cia l i d en titie s, o r w ould t h ose i d en titie s b e re co nfig ure d ? W ould A m eric a c o ntin ue t o b e s e en a s a p re d om in an tly w hite an d P ro te sta n t n atio n? B eh in d t h ese t w o g ro ups o f q uestio ns l u rk ed a t h ir d :

What r o le w ould t h e U .S ., a s a cto r o r e x em pla r, p la y o n t h e w orld s ta g e?

Am ong t h ose e ag er t o a n sw er t h ese q uestio ns w ere N ew D eale rs , i n dustr ia l unio nis ts , a n d t h eir f o es i n t h e b oard ro om s a n d p re ss o ffic es o f c o rp ora te Am eric a. CH APT ER 2 In dustr ia l D em ocra cy v ersu s F ree Ente rp ris e M an y A m eric an s f ir s t e n co unte re d t h e p hra se “ th e A m eric an W ay ” o n h uge b illb oard s t h at b y 1 938 h ad s p ro ute d i n h undre d s o f U .S . c itie s a n d t o w ns.

S hoppin g f o r g ro cerie s, h ead in g t o w ork , o r e n te rin g a n e m pty s tr e tc h o f h ig hw ay , t h ey w ere s u dden ly c o nfro nte d b y a g ia n t t a b le au o f a c h eerfu l A m eric an f a m ily p ic n ic k in g, g re etin g D ad a t t h e e n d o f a w ork day , o r t a k in g a S unday d riv e w ith t h e f a m ily d og. T he f o urs o m e’s b rig ht s m ile s, c o m fo rta b le c ar, a n d t r e llis -a d orn ed h om e i n dic ate d t h at t h ey h ad f e w m ate ria l o r p sy ch olo gic al w orrie s, a n i m pre ssio n t h at b old l e tte rin g o n t h e t o p o f e ach s ig n u nders c o re d . “ W orld ’s S horte st W ork in g H ours ,” d ecla re d o ne.

“ W orld ’s H ig hest W ag es,” p ro cla im ed a n oth er. “ W orld ’s H ig hest S ta n dard o f L iv in g,” t r u m pete d a t h ir d . S crip t o n t h e s id e o f e ach b illb oard i n str u cte d v ie w ers : “ T here ’s n o w ay l ik e t h e A m eric an W ay .” The b illb oard s, w hic h w ere d esig ned a n d d is tr ib ute d b y t h e N atio nal A sso cia tio n o f M an ufa ctu re rs ( N AM ), m ust h av e s e em ed o ut o f p la ce t o m an y A m eric an s m ir e d i n t h e d ep th s o f c ap ita lis m ’s w ors t c ris is .

N ev erth ele ss, t h ey t e stif ie d t o t h e i n te n sity o f t h e d eb ate o ver n atio nal v alu es u nle ash ed b y t h e D ep re ssio n. W ith o th er n atio ns t u rn in g t o c o m munis m a n d f a sc is m f o r s o lu tio ns t o t h e g lo bal e co nom ic c o lla p se , w ith A m eric a’s c ap ita lis t i d ols k nock ed o ff t h eir p ed esta ls , A m eric an s, t o o, b eg an r e ex am in in g t h eir p olitic al o ptio ns. I n t h is c h arg ed a tm osp here , N ew D eale rs , i n dustr ia l u nio nis ts , c o nse rv ativ e b usin essm en , a n d t h eir v ario us a llie s a ll s e iz ed o n t h e l a n guag e o f A m eric an is m a n d s o ught t o d efin e t h e n atio n i n w ay s t h at f u rth ere d t h eir o w n p olitic al a n d s o cia l a g en das. U sin g n ew t e ch nolo gie s a n d p ublic r e la tio ns t e ch niq ues, th ey o ffe re d t h eir o w n v ers io ns o f A m eric a’s h is to ry a n d c o re v alu es a n d t r ie d t o s e t t h e l im its a n d possib ilitie s o f U .S . p olitic al c u ltu re .

All a d dre sse d A m eric an s’ d esir e t o b e f re e o f w an t, a n d a ll a tte m pte d t o co nnect e co nom ic a n d p olitic al c o ncern s. B ey ond t h at, h ow ev er, t h ey f ra m ed th e i s su e i n p ro fo undly d if fe re n t, e v en c o nflic tin g, w ay s. P re sid en t R oose v elt, le ad ers o f t h e C ongre ss o f I n dustr ia l O rg an iz atio ns ( C IO ), a n d o th ers i n t h e New D eal c o alitio n s tr e sse d t h e m ajo rita ria n o verto nes o f t h e w ord “d em ocra cy ” a n d c alle d f o r a n a ctiv is t g overn m en t t o h elp e n su re A m eric an s’ eco nom ic s e cu rity . I n dustr ia lis ts a n d t h eir a llie s, b y c o ntr a st, e m phasiz ed in div id ual r ig hts a n d t h e l ib erta ria n d im en sio ns o f A m eric an “ fre ed om .” T hey pain te d b usin ess, n ot g overn m en t, a s w ork in g p eo ple s’ t r u e f rie n d. T he C IO , th eir a llie s t o t h e l ib era l l e ft o n A m eric a’s p olitic al s p ectr u m , a n d e v en F D R fo r a t im e e m phasiz ed t h e s tr u ggle o f “ th e p eo ple ” a g ain st m onopolis tic cap ita l a n d c alle d f o r m utu alis tic r e sp onse s t o t h e e co nom ic c ris is .

Mean w hile , c o rp ora tio ns a n d b usin ess g ro ups p ro m ote d a n “ A m eric an W ay ” built o n c la ss h arm ony a n d a r e tu rn t o t h e p re -N ew D eal s ta tu s q uo. T he en su in g b attle — pittin g “ d em ocra cy ” a g ain st “ fre ed om ,” m utu alis m a g ain st in div id ualis m , a n d a p ro gre ssiv e e th os a g ain st i n te rc la ss u nity — pre sa g ed co nte sts t h at w ould c o ntin ue i n to t h e p ostw ar e ra .

FD R a n d t h e N ew D ea le rs Shortly b efo re t e n o ’c lo ck o n a c lo udy n ig ht i n l a te J u ne 1 936, P re sid en t Fra n klin D ela n o R oose v elt a rriv ed a t t h e U niv ers ity o f P en nsy lv an ia ’s Fra n klin F ie ld t o a ccep t t h e D em ocra tic P arty ’s u nan im ous r e n om in atio n f o r pre sid en t. E nte rin g t h e s ta d iu m o n t h e a rm o f h is s o n J a m es, F D R ack now le d ged t h e w ild c h eerin g o f a c ro w d e stim ate d a t m ore t h an o ne hundre d t h ousa n d p eo ple . H e w aite d t h ro ugh t h e s in gin g o f “ T he S ta r- Span gle d B an ner,” a n i n vocatio n b y a n E pis c o pal b is h op, a n d b rie f r e m ark s by h is v ic e p re sid en t a n d s e v era l p arty o ffic ia ls .

1 T hen F D R r o se a n d ad dre sse d t h e a sse m bly . “ P hila d elp hia i s a g ood c ity i n w hic h t o w rite Am eric an h is to ry ,” h e d ecla re d . “ T his i s f ittin g g ro und o n w hic h t o r e affir m th e f a ith o f o ur f a th ers ; t o p le d ge o urs e lv es t o r e sto re t o t h e p eo ple a w id er fre ed om ; t o g iv e t o 1 936 a s t h e f o unders g av e t o 1 776— an A m eric an w ay o f lif e .” 2 T he p re sid en t’ s e n su in g a d dre ss w as n ot t h e “ fig htin g s p eech ” t h at most i n t h e t h ro ng h ad e x pecte d o r t h at m an y o f F D R’s a d vis o rs h ad u rg ed him t o g iv e. R ath er t h an a ssa ilin g h is R ep ublic an o pponen t, R oose v elt offe re d w hat t h e New Y ork T im es c alle d “ a s ta te m en t o f a p hilo so phy.” 3 H e outlin ed t h e b ro ad s e t o f c o nvic tio ns t h at u nderla y t h e N ew D eal a n d t h at defin ed f o r F D R t h e A m eric an W ay .

Roose v elt b eg an h is a d dre ss i n P hila d elp hia b y i n vokin g t h e i m ag e o f a peo ple u nite d . L ookin g b ack o ver t h e p re v io us f o ur y ears , h e d ecla re d t h at “re sc u e” f ro m t h e d ep th s o f t h e d ep re ssio n h ad n ot b een “ a m ere p arty t a sk .” “It w as t h e c o ncern o f a ll o f u s,” h e a sse rte d . “ In o ur s tr e n gth w e r o se to geth er, r a llie d o ur e n erg ie s t o geth er, a p plie d t h e o ld r u le s o f c o m mon s e n se an d t o geth er s u rv iv ed .” 4 I n t h us e m phasiz in g A m eric an s’ s h are d p ro ble m s, FD R r e ite ra te d a n ote h e h ad s tr u ck m an y t im es a s p re sid en t. “ I a ssu m e unhesita tin gly t h e l e ad ers h ip o f t h is g re at a rm y o f o ur p eo ple d ed ic ate d t o a dis c ip lin ed a tta ck u pon o ur c o m mon p ro ble m s,” R oose v elt h ad d ecla re d i n his f ir s t i n au gura l a d dre ss.

5 T w o y ears l a te r, t h e p re sid en t h ad a g ain u se d wartim e m eta p hors — an d i n voked w artim e u nity — in a f ir e sid e c h at defe n din g t h e n ew ly e sta b lis h ed W ork s P ro gre ss A dm in is tr a tio n: “ T his i s a gre at n atio nal c ru sa d e t o d estr o y e n fo rc ed i d le n ess w hic h i s a n e n em y o f t h e hum an s p ir it g en era te d b y t h is d ep re ssio n,” h e h ad t o ld h is l is te n ers . “ O ur atta ck u pon t h ese e n em ie s m ust b e w ith out s tin t a n d w ith out d is c rim in atio n.

No s e ctio nal, n o p olitic al d is tin ctio ns c an b e p erm itte d .” 6 As t h is l a st q uote s u ggests , F D R b elie v ed f ir m ly t h at i t w as t h e re sp onsib ility o f t h e f e d era l g overn m en t t o s e rv e A m eric an s’ co lle ctiv e in te re st— “to p ro m ote t h e g en era l w elf a re ,” a s h e p ut i t i n 1 935.

7 R oose v elt re co gniz ed t h e i n here n t t e n sio n b etw een u nch eck ed i n div id ualis m a n d t h e need s o f c o m munity ; a s p re sid en t, h e c am e d ow n r e p eate d ly o n t h e s id e o f th e l a tte r. “ O nly t h ro ugh t h e s u bm erg in g o f i n div id ual d esir e s i n to u nse lf is h an d p ra ctic al c o opera tio n c an c iv iliz atio n g ro w ,” h e t o ld a n a u die n ce i n G re en Bay , W is c o nsin , i n A ugust 1 934.

8 A ddre ssin g a g ath erin g o f N atio nal Reco very A dm in is tr a tio n c o de a u th oritie s t h at s a m e y ear, R oose v elt a rg ued th at t h e U .S . h ad g otte n i ts e lf i n to t h e “ d if fic u lt a n d d an gero us s itu atio n” i t fa ced i n t h e b le ak w in te r o f 1 932–1933, “ d ue t o t h e g en era l a ttitu de, ‘ E very man f o r h im se lf ; t h e d ev il t a k e t h e h in dm ost.’ ” 9 I n a s p eech i n L os A ngele s in 1 935, t h e p re sid en t r e cast l ib era lis m b y l in kin g i t t o “ h um an c o opera tio n”:

“T he f a ith o f a l ib era l,” h e d ecla re d , “ is p ro fo und b elie f n ot o nly i n t h e cap acitie s o f i n div id ual m en a n d w om en , b ut a ls o i n t h e e ffe ctiv en ess o f peo ple h elp in g e ach o th er.” 10 This f a ith i n c o opera tio n— to geth er w ith t h e a ssu m ptio n t h at A m eric an s had h arm onio us i n te re sts — had s h ap ed N ew D eal a p pro ach es t o t h e e co nom ic cris is e v er s in ce R oose v elt’ s i n au gura tio n i n M arc h 1 933. T he p re sid en t a n d his a id es r e p eate d ly w ork ed t o s h ow f a rm ers a n d i n dustr ia l l a b ore rs t h at t h ey need ed o ne a n oth er’s p ro ducts a n d p urc h asin g p ow er.

11 N ew D eale rs sh unned s o lu tio ns a im ed a t s p ecif ic e th nic a n d r a cia l g ro ups e v en a s t h ey so ught t o a d m in is te r f e d era l p ro gra m s e v en han ded ly . W hen H aro ld I c k es tr a v ele d t o A tla n ta i n O cto ber 1 934 t o d ed ic ate t h e f ir s t l o w -c o st h ousin g pro je ct f o r b la ck s, h e d id n ot s in gle o ut J im C ro w f o r d en uncia tio n. I n ste ad , he d ecla re d th at “ it i s f o r t h e e co nom ic b en efit o f t h e w hole c o untr y f o r a ll div is io ns o f i t t o b e p ro sp ero us.” 12 F D R e m plo yed p ara lle l l o gic w hen t w ic e veto in g t h e “ B onus B ill” t h at h ad p ro ved s u ch a s o urc e o f a n guis h t o H erb ert Hoover. “ T he H erc u le an t a sk o f t h e U nite d S ta te s G overn m en t t o day i s t o ta k e c are t h at i ts c itiz en s h av e t h e n ecessitie s o f l if e ,” h e e x pla in ed i n h is f ir s t messa g e v eto in g t h e b ill. “ W e a re s e ek in g h onestly a n d h onora b ly t o d o t h is , ir re sp ectiv e o f c la ss o r g ro up.” A lth ough a ll A m eric an s h onore d t h e a b le - bodie d v ete ra n s o f t h e G re at W ar, t h ey s h ould b e t r e ate d n o d if fe re n tly f ro m th eir f e llo w c itiz en s, h e a v erre d .

13 On t h is s u m mer n ig ht i n P hila d elp hia , F D R r e m in ded t h e g ath ere d t h ro ng —as w ell a s t h e m illio ns o f A m eric an s l is te n in g t o h is s p eech o n t h e r a d io — of t h eir s h are d i n te re sts . H e t h en w arn ed t h em t h at a ll w as n ot w ell i n t h e world . “ C lo uds o f s u sp ic io n, t id es o f i ll- w ill a n d i n to le ra n ce g ath er d ark ly i n man y p la ces,” h e d ecla re d . E ven i n t h e U .S ., “ th e r u sh o f m odern c iv iliz atio n its e lf h as r a is e d f o r u s n ew d if fic u ltie s, n ew p ro ble m s w hic h m ust b e s o lv ed if w e a re t o p re se rv e t o t h e U nite d S ta te s t h e p olitic al a n d e co nom ic f re ed om s fo r w hic h W ash in gto n a n d J e ffe rs o n p la n ned a n d f o ught.” 14 In t h us r e fe rrin g t o “ eco nom ic f re ed om s,” F D R a llu ded t o a n a d ditio nal th em e a t t h e c o re o f h is p olitic al p hilo so phy: t h e “ rig ht,” a s h e s a w i t, o f a ll Am eric an s t o a m easu re o f e co nom ic s e cu rity . R oose v elt s a w s u ch e co nom ic se cu rity — partic u la rly t h e r ig ht t o “ d ecen t h om es,” “ p ro ductiv e w ork ,” a n d “se cu rity a g ain st t h e h azard s a n d v ic is situ des o f l if e ”— as i n ex tr ic ab ly l in ked to f re ed om i ts e lf . “ I a m n ot f o r a r e tu rn t o t h at d efin itio n o f l ib erty u nder whic h f o r m an y y ears a f re e p eo ple w ere b ein g g ra d ually r e g im en te d i n to t h e se rv ic e o f t h e p riv ile g ed f e w ,” R oose v elt h ad d ecla re d i n a f ir e sid e c h at i n Sep te m ber 1 934. “ I p re fe r a n d I a m s u re y ou p re fe r t h at b ro ad er d efin itio n o f lib erty u nder w hic h w e a re m ovin g f o rw ard t o g re ate r f re ed om , t o g re ate r se cu rity f o r t h e a v era g e m an t h an h e h as e v er k now n b efo re i n t h e h is to ry o f Am eric a.” 15 I n e arly 1 941, F D R w ould l is t e co nom ic s e cu rity a s o ne o f t h e “fo ur e sse n tia l h um an f re ed om s.” B y t h en h e w ould c all i t s im ply “ fre ed om fro m w an t.” 16 Fam ilie s a n d s m all c o m munitie s, F D R b elie v ed , h ad o nce b een a b le t o pro vid e s u ch s e cu rity , b ut “ th e c o m ple x itie s o f g re at c o m munitie s a n d o f org an iz ed i n dustr y ”— th e “ ru sh o f m odern c iv iliz atio n” t o w hic h h e r e fe rre d in P hila d elp hia — mean t t h ey c o uld n o l o nger d o s o . E co nom ic s e cu rity , Roose v elt h ad a rg ued r e p eate d ly , c o uld n ow c o m e f ro m o nly o ne p la ce: “ th e activ e i n te re st o f t h e N atio n a s a w hole t h ro ugh g overn m en t.” 17 D urin g h is fir s t t e rm i n o ffic e, F D R h ad p ush ed t h ro ugh C ongre ss a w id e r a n ge o f pro gra m s d esig ned t o p ro vid e s u ch “ eco nom ic f re ed om .” T he N ew D eale rs had s e t u p w ork -re lie f p ro gra m s s u ch a s t h e C iv ilia n C onse rv atio n C orp s a n d th e W ork s P ro gre ss A dm in is tr a tio n. T hey h ad i n stitu te d a g ric u ltu ra l p ric e su pports , f e d era l guara n te es f o r b an k d ep osits a n d h om e m ortg ag es, a n d— with t h e p assa g e o f t h e S ocia l S ecu rity A ct— pen sio ns f o r t h e e ld erly . T he Ten nesse e V alle y A uth ority b ro ught i r rig atio n, e le ctr ic ity , j o bs, a n d t h e pro m is e o f p ro sp erity t o a l a rg e s w ath o f t h e r u ra l a n d i m poveris h ed S outh .

Fin ally , S ectio n 7 a o f t h e N atio nal I n dustr ia l R eco very A ct a n d t h e l a te r, more p ow erfu l W ag ner A ct g uara n te ed w ork ers ’ r ig hts t o o rg an iz e a n d barg ain c o lle ctiv ely . B oth m easu re s s tr e n gth en ed t h e a b ility o f o rg an iz ed la b or t o s e ek e co nom ic s e cu rity f o r i ts m em bers .

Such m oves t r ig gere d a b ack la sh . E co nom ic c o nse rv ativ es c h arg ed t h at th e a d m in is tr a tio n w as c o nsp ir in g t o s u bvert t h e C onstitu tio n a n d e sta b lis h so cia lis m , c o m munis m , o r e v en f a sc is m .

18 F D R a d m itte d t h at t h e m ean s h e pro pose d f o r p ro vid in g A m eric an s w ith s e cu rity w ere n ew , b ut h e s c o ffe d a t what h e c alle d t h e “ p ro phets o f c ala m ity .” 19 R oose v elt h ad l o ng a rg ued t h at dem ocra cy w as “ n ot a s ta tic t h in g” b ut r a th er w as “ an e v erla stin g m arc h ” t h at need ed t o e v olv e t o m eet c h an gin g s o cia l c o nditio ns.

20 T he C onstitu tio n’s fra m ers , h e b elie v ed , h ad a llo w ed f o r s u ch e v olu tio n b y d ra ftin g a d ocu m en t th at m ad e p ossib le “ d ra stic c h an ges i n t h e m eth ods a n d f o rm s a n d f u nctio ns of g overn m en t w ith out d estr o yin g t h e b asic p rin cip le s.” 21 I n a f ir e sid e c h at deliv ere d i n J u ne 1 934, R oose v elt h ad c o m pare d t h e N ew D eal t o t h e re n ovatio n o f t h e o ld E xecu tiv e O ffic e B uild in g t h en u nderw ay : j u st a s t h e gra n d o ld b uild in g w as b ein g e q uip ped w ith m odern e le ctr ic al w ir in g a n d plu m bin g, s o , t o o, t h e N ew D eal w as u pdatin g t h e f e d era l g overn m en t w hile keep in g i ts b asic p urp ose s i n ta ct. “ A ll t h at w e d o s e ek s t o f u lf ill t h e h is to ric tr a d itio ns o f t h e A m eric an p eo ple ,” F D R h ad s a id t h en . “ O th er N atio ns m ay sa crif ic e d em ocra cy f o r t h e t r a n sito ry s tim ula tio n o f o ld a n d d is c re d ite d au to cra cie s. W e a re r e sto rin g c o nfid en ce a n d w ell- b ein g u nder t h e r u le o f t h e peo ple t h em se lv es.” 22 N ow , i n P hila d elp hia , F D R r e tu rn ed t o t h e s a m e th em e; h e t o ld h is a u die n ce t h at h e w as p urs u in g t h e i d eals o f W ash in gto n an d J e ffe rs o n b y o ffe rin g a n u pdate d v ers io n o f t h e A m eric an w ay o f l if e .

Hav in g t h us i m plic itly d efe n ded h is p olic ie s, F D R w en t a s te p f u rth er. H e su ggeste d t h at e co nom ic s e cu rity — “eco nom ic f re ed om ,” i n h is w ord s— was an e sse n tia l u nderp in nin g o f A m eric an s’ p olitic al r ig hts a n d i n deed o f dem ocra cy i ts e lf . T em pora rily j e ttis o nin g h is r h eto ric o f s h are d v alu es, h e su ggeste d t h at t h ose p olitic al f re ed om s w ere i n cre asin gly b ein g t h re ate n ed b y a p ow erfu l e co nom ic m in ority .

In 1 776 a n d t h e R ev olu tio n t h at f o llo w ed , t h e p re sid en t e x pla in ed , Am eric an s h ad s o ught a n d w on t h eir f re ed om f ro m “ th e t y ra n ny o f a p olitic al au to cra cy .” I n t h e i n te rv en in g y ears , h ow ev er, “ m an ’s i n ven tiv e g en iu s re le ase d n ew f o rc es i n o ur l a n d w hic h r e o rd ere d t h e l iv es o f o ur p eo ple .” Mach in ery , r a ilr o ad s, s te am , e le ctr ic ity , t h e t e le g ra p h, t h e r a d io , m ass pro ductio n, a n d mass d is tr ib utio n h ad “ co m bin ed t o b rin g f o rw ard a n ew civ iliz atio n” b ut a ls o n ew p ro ble m s f o r “ th ose w ho s o ught t o r e m ain f re e.” “O ut o f t h is m odern c iv iliz atio n,” F D R d ecla re d , “ eco nom ic r o yalis ts c arv ed new d ynastie s.” T his “ n ew i n dustr ia l d ic ta to rs h ip ,” h e s a id , s h if tin g meta p hors , c o ntr o lle d t h e h ours m en a n d w om en w ork ed , t h e w ag es t h ey re ceiv ed , l a b or c o nditio ns, f a m ily s a v in gs, p ric es f o r f a rm p ro ducts , a n d cap ita l. N o o ne e x cep t t h e r o yalis ts t h em se lv es w ere i m mune: w ork ers , fa rm ers , s m all b usin essm en a n d m erc h an ts , e v en “ h onest a n d p ro gre ssiv e- min ded m en o f w ealth ,” h ad a ll f o und t h em se lv es u nder t h e h eel o f t h is n ew “d esp otis m .” 23 This d ev elo pm en t e n dan gere d m ore t h an A m eric an s’ e co nom ic w ell- bein g. “ F or t o o m an y o f u s t h e p olitic al e q uality w e o nce h ad w on w as mean in gle ss i n t h e f a ce o f e co nom ic i n eq uality ,” t h e p re sid en t d ecla re d . “ F or to o m an y o f u s l if e w as n o l o nger f re e; l ib erty n o l o nger r e al; m en c o uld n o lo nger f o llo w t h e p urs u it o f h ap pin ess.” A gain st s u ch “ eco nom ic t y ra n ny,” Am eric an c itiz en s “ co uld a p peal o nly t o t h e o rg an iz ed p ow er o f Govern m en t.” I n e le ctin g R oose v elt a n d t h e N ew D eale rs i n 1 932, t h e p ublic had d one j u st t h at.

24 But t h is s m all c liq ue o f i n dustr ia lis ts a n d t h eir c ro nie s h ad c h alle n ged t h e govern m en t’ s a b ility t o t a k e a ctio n. “ T he r o yalis ts o f t h e e co nom ic o rd er hav e c o nced ed t h at p olitic al f re ed om w as t h e b usin ess o f G overn m en t, b ut th ey h av e m ain ta in ed t h at e co nom ic s la v ery w as n obody’s b usin ess,” F D R arg ued . “ T hey g ra n te d t h at t h e G overn m en t c o uld p ro te ct t h e c itiz en i n h is rig ht t o v ote , b ut t h ey d en ie d t h at t h e G overn m en t c o uld d o a n yth in g t o pro te ct t h e c itiz en i n h is r ig ht t o w ork a n d h is r ig ht t o l iv e.” P ara p hra sin g Lin co ln , t h e p re sid en t c o ntin ued , “ T oday w e s ta n d c o m mitte d t o t h e pro positio n t h at f re ed om i s n o h alf -a n d-h alf a ffa ir . I f t h e a v era g e c itiz en i s guara n te ed e q ual o pportu nity i n t h e p ollin g p la ce, h e m ust h av e e q ual opportu nity i n t h e m ark et p la ce.” T he A m eric an w ay o f l if e , F D R s u ggeste d , en co m passe d n ot o nly p olitic al d em ocra cy b ut t h e m easu re o f e co nom ic se cu rity r e q uir e d t o m ak e p olitic al d em ocra cy m ean in gfu l. I t w as u p t o t h e fe d era l g overn m en t t o e n su re b oth .

25 In f o cu sin g o n s u ch “ eco nom ic r o yalis ts ,” F D R w as h eark en in g b ack t o a ric h s tr a in i n A m eric an p olitic al l a n guag e a n d t h ought: p ro gre ssiv is m . I n t h e open in g d ecad es o f t h e t w en tie th c en tu ry , P ro gre ssiv e h is to ria n s s u ch a s Vern on P arrin gto n, F re d eric k J a ck so n T urn er, a n d C harle s B eard h ad c ast Am eric an h is to ry a s a n o ngoin g s tr u ggle b etw een “ th e p eo ple ” a n d “ th e in te re sts .” “ B eh in d t h e p eo ple s to od v ir tu e, d em ocra cy , a n d a n i d eal r e p ublic , while b eh in d t h e i n te re sts s to od a lie n m onopolis ts a sso cia te d w ith t h e e v ils o f Euro pe, a ris to cra cy , a n d c ap ita lis m ,” w rite s h is to rio gra p her D av id N oble .

“In ex ora b ly , p ro gre ss w as p ush ed f o rw ard b y t h e b attle b etw een g ood a n d ev il u nfo ld in g i n A m eric a.” 26 A s im ila r “ p ro gre ssiv e e th os” — positin g “ a dualis tic str u ggle b etw een a d em ocra tic i n su rg en cy a n d u n-A m eric an monopolis ts ” — an im ate d n um ero us s o cia l a n d p olitic al m ovem en ts i n t h e l a te nin ete en th a n d e arly t w en tie th c en tu rie s.

27 In P hila d elp hia , F D R c alle d t h e d om estic s tr u ggle b ein g w ag ed b y h is ad m in is tr a tio n “ a w ar f o r t h e s u rv iv al o f d em ocra cy .” I n p art, t h is r e fle cte d th e p ro portio ns o f t h e e co nom ic c ris is : i f m en a n d w om en w ere n ot g iv en a measu re o f s e cu rity , i f t h ey c o uld n ot f e ed a n d s h elte r t h eir f a m ilie s, t h ey mig ht p ro ve w illin g t o s u rre n der e v en t h eir p olitic al r ig hts . I n t h e c o nte x t o f a dia tr ib e a g ain st “ eco nom ic r o yalis ts ,” h ow ev er, t h e p hra se t o ok o n a d ded sig nif ic an ce, h ig hlig htin g t h e p re sid en t’ s d efin itio n o f d em ocra cy i ts e lf . T hat defin itio n e m phasiz ed a b ove a ll m ajo rita ria n r u le — th e r u le , t h ro ugh govern m en t a n d e le cte d l e ad ers , o f t h e c o m mon m an . M en s u ch a s T hom as Je ffe rs o n, A ndre w J a ck so n, A bra h am L in co ln , a n d T heo dore R oose v elt k new “th at t h e m ajo rity o fte n m ak es m is ta k es,” R oose v elt w ould t e ll a n a u die n ce i n Ja n uary 1 938. “ B ut t h ey b elie v ed p assio nate ly t h at r u le b y a s m all m in ority unfa ilin gly m ak es w ors e m is ta k es.” 28 T he B ill o f R ig hts , F D R a rg ued i n an oth er s p eech , w as “ p ut i n to t h e C onstitu tio n n ot o nly t o p ro te ct a g ain st in to le ra n ce o f m ajo ritie s, b ut t o p ro te ct m ajo ritie s a g ain st e n th ro nem en t o f min oritie s.” 29 This v ie w o f A m eric an d em ocra cy s e rv ed w ell a p re sid en t w ho h ad w on tw o s w eep in g e le cto ra l m an date s, b ut i t w as n ot s im ply u tilita ria n . F D R’s fa ith i n t h e a b ility o f “ th e p eo ple ” t o m ak e s o und d ecis io ns— lik e h is b elie f th at t h e f e d era l g overn m en t w as o blig ate d t o e n su re t h at a ll A m eric an s w ere fre e f ro m w an t— was d eep ly r o ote d . H is t ir a d es a g ain st e co nom ic r o yalis ts , by c o ntr a st, w ere m ore p ra g m atic . T em pera m en ta lly , F D R a lw ay s p re fe rre d to s tr e ss t h e harm ony o f A m eric an s’ i n te re sts , t o l e ad A m eric an s i n a u nite d cam paig n a g ain st a c o m mon f o e. T he r e cessio n o f 1 937, R oose v elt’ s i ll- fa te d co urt- p ack in g s c h em e, a n d g ro w in g t h re ats o f w ar a b ro ad c h an ged t h e pre sid en t’ s c alc u la tio n i n t h e c lo sin g y ears o f t h e d ecad e, n ecessita tin g a gra d ual r a p pro ch em en t w ith t h e i n dustr ia l e lite s h e h ad f o r a t im e d en ounced .

FD R’s h ars h a n tib usin ess r h eto ric p eak ed d urin g t h e 1 936 p re sid en tia l cam paig n a n d f a d ed t h ere afte r. T here w ere o th ers , h ow ev er, w ho e x te n ded th is v is io n o f A m eric a b oth i n c o nte n t a n d c h ro nolo gy.

In dustr ia l U nio n is ts a n d T heir Allie s The p re sid en cy a n d t h e a g en cie s o f t h e N ew D eal g av e F D R a n u nm atc h ed podiu m f o r a rtic u la tin g h is v ers io n o f t h e A m eric an W ay . B ut a s t h e 1 930s wore o n, R oose v elt’ s v is io n w as i n cre asin gly c o m ple m en te d a n d c h alle n ged by o th ers . T o t h e p re sid en t’ s l e ft, a m ore r a d ic al i n te rp re ta tio n o f t h e n atio n’s his to ry a n d c o re v alu es e m erg ed f ro m i n dustr ia l l a b or a n d s o cia lis t c ir c le s.

Alth ough t h is i n te rp re ta tio n f re q uen tly c o nverg ed w ith R oose v elt’ s — partic u la rly o n t h e n eed f o r a n a ctiv is t g overn m en t t o h elp e n su re w ork ers ’ eco nom ic s e cu rity — it p aid g re ate r a tte n tio n t o w ork pla ce p ow er a n d w as more c o nsis te n t i n i ts p ortr a y al o f A m eric an h is to ry a s a b attle b etw een “ th e peo ple ” a n d u n-A m eric an c ap ita lis t “ in te re sts .” T his r a d ic al A m eric an is m cast A m eric an w ork ers a n d u nio n o rg an iz ers a s t h e h ero es o f a n o ngoin g str u ggle t o s a v e t h e e n dan gere d r e p ublic f ro m “ in dustr ia l T orie s.” T he cen te rp ie ce o f t h is p ro gre ssiv e v is io n w as “ in dustr ia l d em ocra cy ”— a r e cip e fo r e x te n din g m ajo rita ria n d em ocra cy f ro m t h e p olitic al i n to t h e e co nom ic are n a.

As G ary G ers tle h as s u ggeste d , t h e r o ots o f “ in su rg en t A m eric an is m ” l a y in t h e 1 920s. T he c o nse rv ativ e A m eric an iz atio n c am paig ns o f t h at d ecad e se v ere ly w eak en ed b oth l a b or a n d t h e l e ft, b ut t h ey a ls o p ro m pte d m an y ra d ic als a n d l a b or o rg an iz ers t o “ re d efin e t h eir p olitic s i n a w ay t h at f it[ te d ] Am eric an p olitic al d is c o urs e .” D urin g t h e 1 920s, m en s u ch a s V ito Marc an to nio , W alte r a n d V ic to r R eu th er, J o hn L . L ew is , S id ney H illm an , a n d A. J . M uste s e iz ed o n A m eric an s y m bols a n d s ta te d v alu es a n d d ep lo yed th em i n t h e b attle f o r w ork ers ’ r ig hts . M ean w hile , S ocia lis ts s u ch a s H arry Laid le r a n d N orm an T hom as a tte m pte d t o r e g ain l e g itim acy i n t h e w ak e o f th e B ols h ev ik R ev olu tio n b y r e d efin in g t h eir a im s i n A m eric an t e rm s. A s Unite d M in e W ork ers p re sid en t J o hn L ew is w ro te i n h is 1 925 b ook The Min er’s F ig ht f o r A m eric a n S ta ndard s , “ T he s o lu tio n o f m ost o f t h e pro ble m s o f A m eric an l if e c an b e f o und i n a r e tu rn t o f ir s t p rin cip le s— a re asse rtio n i n p ra ctic e o f t h e r u le s l a id d ow n b y t h e F ath ers o f t h e Rep ublic .” 30 Still, r a d ic al v ers io ns o f “ A m eric an is m ” r e m ain ed o n t h e m arg in s o f U .S .

politic al d is c o urs e i n to t h e e arly 1 930s. B ut a s t h e D ep re ssio n w ore o n, unders c o rin g t h e g ap b etw een A m eric an d re am s a n d A m eric an r e alitie s, le ftis ts a n d l a b or o rg an iz ers i n cre asin gly s e iz ed o n i t t o m otiv ate n ew ly politic iz ed — an d i n m an y c ase s, n ew ly A m eric an iz ed — work ers . I n 1 932, org an iz ers o f t h e N atio nal U nem plo yed L eag ue c h ose J u ly 4 th w eek en d f o r th eir f o undin g c o nven tio n a n d c alle d t h eir c en tr a l d ocu m en t “ T he D ecla ra tio n of W ork ers ’ a n d F arm ers ’ R ig hts .” T he f o llo w in g y ear, S ocia lis ts g ath ere d fo ur t h ousa n d u nem plo yed o r d is sa tis fie d w ork ers a n d D ep re ssio n-p in ch ed fa rm ers i n W ash in gto n a t a C ontin en ta l C ongre ss f o r E co nom ic Reco nstr u ctio n. T he d ele g ate s, d ra w n f ro m “ co m mitte es o f c o rre sp onden ce,” decla re d i n dep en den ce f ro m a p ro fit s y ste m t h at h ad “ en th ro ned e co nom ic an d f in an cia l k in gs … m ore p ow erfu l, m ore i r re sp onsib le , a n d m ore dan gero us t o h um an r ig hts t h an t h e p olitic al k in gs w hom t h e f a th ers overth re w .” 31 I n W is c o nsin , P ro gre ssiv e P arty f o under Philip L a F olle tte decla re d t h at “ lib era lis m i s n oth in g b ut a s o rt o f m ilk -a n d-w ate r t o le ra n ce.… I belie v e i n a f u ndam en ta l a n d b asic c h an ge. I t h in k a c o opera tiv e s o cie ty base d o n A m eric an t r a d itio ns i s i n ev ita b le .” 32 E ven t h e U .S . C om munis t Party a fte r 1 935 d ecla re d i ts e lf t o b e t h e c h am pio n o f “ tw en tie th -c en tu ry Am eric an is m .” 33 Such i n div id uals a n d o rg an iz atio ns m ad e u p t h e l e ft w in g o f t h e N ew Deal c o alitio n. I n deed , s o m e w ith in t h e a d m in is tr a tio n i ts e lf s u bsc rib ed t o sim ila r v ie w s. I n a 1 936 a rtic le i n Scrib ner’s e n title d “ T he S earc h f o r a n Am eric an W ay ,” A gric u ltu re S ecre ta ry H en ry A . W alla ce a rg ued t h at Am eric an s n eed ed t o a ch ie v e “ u nity i n d iv ers ity ” b y “ ev olv in g a c o ncep t o f th e g en era l w elf a re g ro unded i n b oth p olitic al a n d e co nom ic d em ocra cy .” T o do t h is , A m eric an s n eed ed t o r e co gniz e t h at t h e n atio n h ad m atu re d eco nom ic ally — th at “ certa in t y pes o f e co nom ic l ib erty … c an not b e t o le ra te d an y m ore t h an a u to m obile d riv ers c an b e a llo w ed t o d is o bey a r e d l ig ht.” While W alla ce d id n ot r e je ct c ap ita lis m o ut o f h an d, h e a rg ued t h at Am eric an s n eed ed t o p la ce m ore e m phasis o n “ co opera tio n, a s d is tin guis h ed fro m f re e c o m petitio n.” T hus f a r, h e s o unded m uch l ik e t h e p re sid en t h e se rv ed . B ut W alla ce c o ntin ued :

The o nly w ay i n w hic h d em ocra cy c an s u rv iv e t h e l o gic al o nsla u ght o f t h e dic ta to r-s ta te a sp ect o f C om munis m a n d F asc is m i s t o d ev elo p t h e g en uin e co opera tiv e i d ea t o t h e l im it. P ro ducers ’ c o opera tiv es a re n ot e n ough. F or t h e most p art t h ey m ere ly t a k e t h e p la ce o f m id dle m en , a n d … t h ey d o n ot h av e an y v ery p ro fo und e ffe ct o n t h e p eo ple w hom t h ey s e rv e. T he c o opera tiv e way o f l if e m ust p erv ad e t h e c o m munity , a n d t h is m ean s t h ere m ust b e co nsu m ers ’ c o opera tiv es a s w ell a s p ro ducers ’ c o opera tiv es, a n d u ltim ate ly in dustr ia l c o opera tiv es. T o l iv e h ap pily i n a c o opera tiv e s o cie ty t a k es a n en tir e ly d if fe re n t a ttitu de o f m in d f ro m t h at r e q uir e d i n a s o cie ty w here f re e co m petitio n i s t h e d om in atin g r u le .

34 Walla ce’s v ers io n o f t h e A m eric an W ay w as h ard ly c o m munis m . S till, i n i ts im plic atio ns f o r m utu alis m a n d w ork er c o ntr o l, i t w en t f a r b ey ond t h e re fo rm s i n stitu te d u nder t h e N ew D eal.

It w as t h e C IO , h ow ev er, t h at d id m ore t h an a n y o th er g ro up d urin g t h e la te 1 930s a n d e arly 1 940s t o p ublic iz e, p artic u la rly t o w ork ers , a m ore ra d ic al u nders ta n din g o f t h e n atio n’s h is to ry a n d c o re v alu es.

35 T he C IO ’s vers io n o f “ A m eric an is m ” r e v olv ed a ro und t h e n otio n o f “ in dustr ia l dem ocra cy ,” a n i d ea t h at h ad f ir s t e m erg ed i n t h e U .S . d urin g t h e 1 890s a n d cau ght f ir e d urin g t h e l a b or s tr u ggle s t h at f o llo w ed W orld W ar I . E m bra ced by P ro gre ssiv e r e fo rm ers , l a b or l e ad ers , s o cia lis ts , a n d e v en s o m e l ib era l busin ess l e ad ers , t h e t e rm mean t m ark ed ly d if fe re n t t h in gs t o d if fe re n t peo ple . T o s o m e, i t s ig nale d a s o cia l c o m pact i n w hic h w ork ers a n d m an ag ers would s h are p ow er w ith in t h e o vera rc h in g f ra m ew ork o f c ap ita lis m , p erh ap s th ro ugh c o lle ctiv e b arg ain in g. T o o th ers , i t “ p ro m is e d a n e n d t o h ie ra rc h y, cen tr a liz ed a u th ority , a n d t h e d eg ra d in g f ra g m en ta tio n o f s k ills .” T o s till oth ers , “ in dustr ia l d em ocra cy ” m ean t t h e s p re ad o f p ro ducers ’ c o opera tiv es or s o cia lis m i n A m eric an c lo th es.

36 The v ie w s o f t h e C IO ’s f o under a n d f ir s t p re sid en t J o hn L ew is , a n d t h us of t h e e arly C IO , w ere d eep ly i n flu en ced b y t h ose o f a o ne-tim e a cad em ic eco nom is t n am ed W . J e tt L au ck .

37 L au ck b eg an w ork in g f o r L ew is a n d t h e Unite d M in e W ork ers i n t h e 1 920s a n d q uic k ly b ecam e o ne o f t h e l a b or le ad er’s c lo se st a d vis o rs . D urin g t h e 1 930s, h e d ra fte d “ alm ost a ll [ o f] Lew is ’s m ajo r a d dre sse s a n d p ublic atio ns.” I n t h e e arly y ears o f t h e N ew Deal, L au ck a ls o a d vis e d F D R o n e co nom ic i s su es, a n d h e h as b een c re d ite d with h elp in g s e cu re t h e i n clu sio n o f t h e u nio n-p ro te ctin g S ectio n 7 a i n t h e Natio nal I n dustr ia l R eco very A ct.

38 As L au ck s a w i t, p olitic al d em ocra cy “ in i ts m odern s e n se ” b eg an i n t h e Am eric an c o lo nie s i n 1 776. T he e sta b lis h m en t o f t h e r e p ublic “ u pon dem ocra tic p rin cip le s a n d r ig hts o f p ers o nal a n d c iv il l ib erty ” w as n ot acco m pan ie d b y “ cla ss w arfa re ” s in ce “ p olitic ally a n d s o cia lly , a n d i n t h e hold in g o f p ro perty , t h ere w ere f e w d is tin ctio ns i n A m eric a a t t h at t im e.” 39 But s u bse q uen t e co nom ic a n d f in an cia l d ev elo pm en ts — partic u la rly t h e In dustr ia l R ev olu tio n a n d t h e e x cesse s o f d ecad es l ik e t h e 1 920s— had pro duced a c o ncen tr a tio n o f w ealth a n d f in an cia l p ow er t h at n ow fu ndam en ta lly t h re ate n ed t h e n atio n’s p olitic al a n d s o cia l o rd er. “ A c ab al o f ban kers a n d f in an cie rs ‘ w ork in g o ut i ts o bje ctiv es s ile n tly , i n vis ib ly , a n d with out o ffic ia l r e co gnitio n’ h ad c o m e t o d om in ate t h e A m eric an e co nom y.” In 1 929, t h is p lu to cra cy h ad p lu nged t h e U .S . i n to e co nom ic c h ao s. M ore th an t h e e co nom y w as i n d an ger, L au ck a rg ued . “ In t h e e ffo rt t o s h ie ld th em se lv es f ro m p ublic s c ru tin y a n d r e g ula tio n, t h e ‘ K in gs o f M oney a n d Lord s o f F in an ce’ w ere p erv ertin g t h e C onstitu tio n a n d t h e B ill o f R ig hts , co rru ptin g t h e p olitic al p ro cesse s, a n d r e g im en tin g t h e p eo ple . T hey w ould sto p a t n oth in g l e ss t h an ‘ T ory R ev olu tio n.’ ” A s i f t h at w ere n ’t e n ough, t h e au to cra tic p olic ie s o f A m eric a’s f in an cia l a n d c o rp ora te l e ad ers w ere nurtu rin g “ d estr u ctiv e r a d ic alis m ,” w hic h t h re ate n ed t o u nderm in e t h e politic al a ch ie v em en ts o f t h e R ev olu tio n.

40 If L au ck a n d L ew is ’s r e te llin g o f A m eric an h is to ry s o unded m uch l ik e FD R’s d urin g t h e 1 936 p re sid en tia l c am paig n, t h eir p re sc rip tio n f o r t h e natio n’s f u tu re p ush ed w ell b ey ond h is . R oose v elt h ad g re at f a ith i n t h e wis d om o f “ th e p eo ple ” a s e x erc is e d t h ro ugh t h eir e le cte d r e p re se n ta tiv es, an d h e c alle d f o r “ fre ed om ” i n b oth t h e p olitic al a n d e co nom ic a re n as. H is vis io n o f dem ocra cy , h ow ev er, w as a lw ay s m ore l im ite d . A lth ough F D R h as ofte n b een p ortr a y ed a s “ th e p atr o n o f l a b or’s a w ak en in g,” h e w as “ a r a th er dif fid en t c h am pio n” o f u nio ns. F D R b elie v ed t h at t h e b est w ay t o i m pro ve work ers ’ l iv es, t o e n su re t h eir f re ed om f ro m w an t, w as b y r e ly in g o n govern m en t r e g ula tio n— by p assin g p en sio n, u nem plo ym en t, a n d w ag e-a n d- hour l a w s. H e w as a t b est a l u kew arm s u pporte r o f c o lle ctiv e b arg ain in g rig hts , a n d h e t h re w h is s u pport b eh in d t h e p iv ota l W ag ner A ct o nly bela te d ly .

41 Lew is , L au ck , a n d t h eir c o m patr io ts i n t h e C IO w en t f u rth er, c o nte n din g th at t h e o nly w ay t o s to p t h e f o rc es o f r e actio n a n d s a v e t h e R ep ublic w as b y ex te n din g d em ocra cy f ro m t h e p olitic al t o t h e e co nom ic a re n a. I n h is 1 926 book, Politic a l a nd I n dustr ia l D em ocra cy, 1 776–1926 , L au ck h ad a rg ued t h at em plo yees s h ould p artic ip ate i n c o rp ora te m an ag em en t t h ro ugh m an ag em en t- la b or c o m mitte es a n d e m plo yee o w ners h ip o f c o m mon s to ck .

42 W ith in t h e in dustr ia l l a b or m ovem en t, t h e p re cis e m ean in g o f “ in dustr ia l d em ocra cy ” was a s u bje ct o f i n te n se c o nte n tio n d urin g t h e l a te 1 930s a n d 1 940s, b ut a ll vers io ns p ro m is e d w ork ers a t l e ast a m easu re o f e m pow erm en t o n t h e s h op flo or. F or s o m e, “ in dustr ia l d em ocra cy ” m ean t u nio n r e p re se n ta tio n a n d t h e sy ste m o f c o lle ctiv e b arg ain in g o ver w ag es, h ours , a n d w ork in g c o nditio ns se t u p b y t h e W ag ner A ct. F or o th ers , i t i m plie d t h at w ork ers s h ould h av e a voic e i n “ th eir e m plo yers ’ p ric in g a n d i n vestm en t d ecis io ns.” 43 A s L au ck wro te t o L ew is i n a 1 935 m em o, i n dustr ia l u nio nis m w as a n “ ep och -m ak in g cru sa d e f o r h um an ity a n d d em ocra cy .” 44 In t h e l a te 1 930s, t h ese i d eas f ille d t h e p ag es o f C IO n ew sp ap ers a n d ech oed t h ro ugh t h e s p eech es o f C IO o ffic ia ls , m an y o f w hic h w ere r e p rin te d or b ro ad cast b y u nio n-s p onso re d r a d io . E dito ria ls a n d c arto ons i n t h e CIO New s p ortr a y ed i n dustr ia l u nio nis ts a s c h am pio ns o f d em ocra cy , d efe n din g Am eric an v alu es f ro m “ eco nom ic r o yalis ts ” a n d “ T ory e m plo yers ” w ho w ere ben t o n i m posin g “ au to cra tic r u le o ver t h eir w ork ers .” 45 A c o lu m n b y t h e CIO p ublic is t L en D e C au x, h ead lin ed “ W an te d , M ore P au l R ev ere s!” a rg ued th at “ h om e-g ro w n A m eric an t o rie s a re t r y in g t o d o t o t h eir c o untr y w hat Kin g G eo rg e I II a n d a ll h is B ritis h t o rie s f a ile d t o d o. T he g en era l i d ea o f t h e Am eric an t o rie s s e em s t o b e t h at d em ocra cy a n d f re ed om a re b unk; a n d t h at th e l o w er c la sse s s h ould b e k ep t d ow n b y a j u dic io us m ix tu re o f s ta rv atio n an d c la ss l e g is la tio n.” D e C au x w arn ed t h at “ th e l ib ertie s a n d t h e v ery liv elih ood o f m illio ns o f A m eric an s a re i n s e rio us d an ger t o day ” a n d t h at “o nly t h e l a b or p re ss c o nvey s a n y r e al c all o f w arn in g t o p atr io tic Am eric an s.” 46 As t h is c o lu m n s u ggests , C IO o rg an iz ers — an d w ork ers t h em se lv es— were q uic k t o i n voke t h e a u th ority o f A m eric a’s p atr io tic p an th eo n. S tr ik ers fre q uen tly c arrie d A m eric an f la g s a n d l ik en ed t h eir o pponen ts t o t r a ito ro us “T orie s.” T he CIO N ew s h ig hlig hte d t h e p ro -la b or c re d en tia ls o f A m eric an s ra n gin g f ro m t h e r a d ic al p am phle te er T hom as P ain e t o t h e a b olitio nis t a n d fe m in is t L ucre tia M ott.

47 B ut i t w as t h e o ld r a il- s p litte r a n d c h am pio n o f “fre e l a b or” A be L in co ln w hom C IO o ffic ia ls m ost f re q uen tly i n voked . T he CIO p am phle t The R ig ht t o S tr ik e— Keysto ne o f L ib erty f e atu re d a q uote f ro m Lin co ln o n i ts c o ver: “ T han k G od w e h av e a c o untr y w here w ork in g m en hav e t h e r ig ht t o s tr ik e.” A “ L ab or F acts ” f e atu re i n t h e CIO N ew s n ote d t h at when a g en era l s e n t U nio n s o ld ie rs t o r e p la ce s tr ik in g p rin te rs i n S t. L ouis i n 1864, L in co ln q uic k ly r e calle d t h e t r o ops t o d uty a n d d ecla re d t h at h e h ad n o in te n tio n o f i n te rfe rin g. A nd a n a rtic le e x pla in in g i n dustr ia l u nio nis m n ote d th at C IO p re sid en t J o hn L . L ew is s h are d L in co ln ’s b ir th day . C IO o ffic ia ls were a ls o f o nd o f p ara p hra sin g L in co ln ’s G etty sb urg A ddre ss. I n 1 938, Lew is t o ld t h e f ir s t n atio nal c o nven tio n o f t h e C IO t h at “ th ere h as b een b orn in A m eric a a n ew , m odern l a b or m ovem en t d ed ic ate d t o t h e p ro positio n t h at all w ho l a b or a re e n title d t o e q uality o f o pportu nity , t h e r ig ht t o o rg an iz e, t h e rig ht t o p artic ip ate i n t h e b ountie s a n d t h e b le ssin gs o f t h is c o untr y a n d o ur govern m en t.” T w o y ears l a te r, L en D e C au x w ro te t h at “ o ur i d ea o f a ‘ n ew bir th o f f re ed om ’ i s a n e x pan sio n o f c o lle ctiv e b arg ain in g a n d i n dustr ia l dem ocra cy .” 48 If C IO o ffic ia ls m ad e f re q uen t r e fe re n ce t o L in co ln a n d o th er n atio nal hero es, t h ey a ls o t r ie d r e p eate d ly t o l in k t h e l a b or s tr u ggle t o o th er r ig hts a n d valu es t h at A m eric an s, p artic u la rly t h eir w ork in g-c la ss c o nstitu en ts , h eld dear. T he CIO N ew s r e p rin te d e x te n siv e e x cerp ts o f a s p eech b y t h e c h air m an of t h e N atio nal L ab or R ela tio ns B oard i n w hic h , e ch oin g F D R, h e d ecla re d th at t h e W ag ner A ct r e p re se n te d a “ n ew l ib erty ” c o m para b le i n i ts sig nif ic an ce t o t h e “ an cie n t l ib ertie s” e n sh rin ed i n t h e B ill o f R ig hts . “ In deed , th e c o nstitu tio nal l ib ertie s o f f re ed om o f s p eech , p re ss a n d a sse m bly , c o uld not, i n t h eir a sp ects m ost i m porta n t t o w ork in g p eo ple , b e e n jo yed u ntil t h is new l ib erty w as c re ate d ,” h e d ecla re d . A c arto on p ublis h ed i n t h e n ew sp ap er in 1 939 s h ow ed t h e h am mer o f “ B ig B usin ess” u sin g t h e c h is e l o f “ W ag ner Act A m en dm en ts ” t o b re ak t h e “ L ab or” l in k i n t h e c h ain o f d em ocra cy — a ch ain w hose o th er l in ks i n clu ded “ F re e S peech ,” “ C hurc h ,” “ S ch ool,” a n d “Y our O rg an iz atio n.” “ If y ou w eak en o r d estr o y t h e p ro te ctio n o f o ne l in k i n th e c h ain o f d em ocra cy , e ach o f t h e o th ers a re s u ccessiv ely a n d e asily destr o yed !” t h e c ap tio n w arn ed ( fig ure 2 .1 ).

49 CIO o ffic ia ls m ost o fte n u se d t h e m ajo rita ria n l a n guag e o f “ d em ocra cy ” to c ap tu re t h eir a g en da, b ut t h ey s o m etim es i n voked “ lib erty ” a n d “ fre ed om ” as w ell. T he f re ed om t h ey c alle d f o r b oth r e in fo rc ed a n d e x te n ded F D R’s notio n o f “ fre ed om f ro m w an t.” “ T he l ib erty w e s e ek i s d if fe re n t” f ro m t h at so ught b y i n dustr ia lis ts , d ecla re d J o hn L ew is i n h is r e p ort t o t h e 1 938 C IO co nven tio n. “ It i s l ib erty f o r c o m mon p eo ple — fre ed om f ro m e co nom ic bondag e, f re ed om to r e g ain a g ain s o m e h um an i n itia tiv e, f re ed om t h at a ris e s fro m e co nom ic s e cu rity , a n d h um an s e lf -re sp ect.” I n a c o lu m n i n t h e CIO New s , L en D e C au x e ch oed t h ese s e n tim en ts , p ain tin g “ a v ery d efin ite a n d co ncre te p ic tu re o f w hat f re ed om m ean s t o m illio ns o f A m eric an w ork in g peo ple t o day . I t m ean s i n t h e f ir s t p la ce a f re ed om w hic h i s o fte n o verlo oked by h ig h-fa lu tin ’ l ib era ls — fre ed om f ro m l o w w ag es, i n to le ra b le s p eed -u ps, la y offs a n d i n se cu rity .” 50 Fig u re 2 .1 .

T his c arto on a p peare d i n t h e CIO N ew s o n 1 7 A pril 1 939. N ote its e m phasis o n t h e w ord “ d em ocra cy ,” a s w ell a s i ts a tte m pt t o l in k org an iz ed l a b or t o o th er i n stitu tio ns a n d v alu es t h at A m eric an s p riz ed (c o urte sy o f t h e A FL -C IO ; r e p ro duced b y t h e W is c o nsin H is to ric al S ocie ty ).

In o rd er t o a ch ie v e s u ch f re ed om s, h ow ev er, w ork ers h ad t o b e f re e t o org an iz e, a n d t h is i n t u rn r e q uir e d t h e f re ed om s o f s p eech , p re ss, a n d asse m bly . T hus, C IO o ffic ia ls a n d o rg an iz ers p ut p artic u la r e m phasis o n t h e fre ed om s g uara n te ed b y t h e F ir s t A m en dm en t, f re q uen tly p ortr a y in g w ork ers as t h e c h am pio ns o f t h e B ill o f R ig hts . ( T hey w ere a id ed i n m ak in g t h is arg um en t b y t h e f in din gs o f a s p ecia l S en ate c o m mitte e, c h air e d b y Wis c o nsin S en ato r R obert M . L a F olle tte J r. T he c o m mitte e, f o rm ed i n J u ly 1936 t o i n vestig ate c o rp ora te v io la tio ns o f w ork ers ’ r ig hts , u nco vere d num ero us e p is o des o f c o rp ora te e sp io nag e, i n tim id atio n, a n d v io le n ce.) O n th e 1 51st a n niv ers a ry o f t h e B ill o f R ig hts , a c arto on i n t h e CIO N ew s s h ow ed th e m ig hty a rm o f t h e C IO d is p la y in g t h e F ir s t A m en dm en t t o a g ath erin g o f plu to cra tic e x ecu tiv es f ro m “ an ti- u nio n c o rp ora tio ns” s u ch a s F ord M oto r Com pan y a n d B eth le h em S te el; t e llin gly , t h e e x ecu tiv es w ere d ep ic te d i n t h e ta ilc o ats a n d t o p h ats o f G ild ed A ge r o bber b aro ns r a th er t h an i n t h e s u its worn b y t w en tie th -c en tu ry e x ecu tiv es. A n a cco m pan yin g c o lu m n c h arg ed th at F ord h ad d en ie d i ts e m plo yees t h e r ig ht t o s p eak a n d a sse m ble “ w ith out th e p re se n ce o f s p ie s a n d s to ol p ig eo ns” a n d h ad v io la te d f re ed om o f t h e pre ss b y p ro hib itin g t h e d is tr ib utio n o f u nio n l ite ra tu re .

51 J o hn T . J o nes, t h e CIO ’s l e g is la tiv e d ir e cto r, t o ld a 1 941 g ath erin g o f t h e F arm er-L ab or P arty i n Dulu th , M in neso ta , t h at “ th e d efe n se o f t h e d em ocra tic w ay o f l if e ” r e q uir e d defe n se o f s u ch b asic “ d em ocra tic f re ed om s” a s “ fre ed om o f t h ought, fre ed om o f t h e p re ss, f re ed om o f a sse m bly .” T hese “ d em ocra tic r ig hts ,” h e decla re d , “ are a tta ck ed e sp ecia lly b y t h ose w ho a re a fra id t h at t h e f u ll a n d vig oro us o pera tio n o f d em ocra cy w ill j e o pard iz e t h eir s p ecia l p ositio ns o f priv ile g e a n d p ow er.” 52 A s t h is s u ggests , t h e C IO , l ik e F D R i n t h e l a te 1 930s, cast t h e B ill o f R ig hts a b ove a ll a s a d ocu m en t s e cu rin g t h e r ig hts o f t h e majo rity f ro m a n u nsc ru pulo us m in ority .

Desp ite t h is e m phasis o n m ajo rity r ig hts , C IO o ffic ia ls w ere q uic k t o re m in d l is te n ers a n d r e ad ers t h at t h e o rg an iz atio n s to od f o r “ eq uality o f pro te ctio n t o a n y g ro up, a n y m in ority , a n y r e lig io n.” I n p art t h is r e fle cte d t h e re aliz atio n o f t h e C IO l e ad ers h ip t h at i n o rd er t o b uild a c la ss-b ase d n atio nal movem en t, t h ey w ould h av e t o f o ste r a “ cu ltu re o f u nity ” t h at c ro sse d e th nic , re lig io us, g eo gra p hic , a n d r a cia l l in es.

53 A t t h e s a m e t im e, i t e v in ced t h e effo rts o f t h e C IO l e ad ers h ip t o l in k t h eir a g en da t o e v en ts a b ro ad . A c arto on in t h e CIO N ew s i n N ovem ber 1 938 s h ow ed a m an r e p re se n tin g t h e C IO sta n din g s h ould er-to -s h ould er w ith F D R i n a d oorw ay l a b ele d “ A m eric an Dem ocra cy .” B earin g r if le s, t h e t w o m en f e n ded o ff a s w astik a-b ra n ded w olf th at c ir c le d t h e c arc asse s o f “ la b or u nio ns” a n d “ re lig io us a n d r a cia l min oritie s.” I n G erm an y, J o hn L ew is d ecla re d i n a s p eech t h e s a m e m onth , th e d estr u ctio n o f t h e l a b or m ovem en t p re ced ed t h e p ers e cu tio n o f J e w s. “ W e can not p re se rv e d em ocra cy here i n o ur c o untr y ,” h e a d ded , “ if w e e n co ura g e as a p eo ple t h e o verw helm in g t id al w av e o f c ritic is m , s la n der a n d a b use f o r an A m eric an i n stitu tio n l ik e t h e C IO t h at s ta n ds f o r t h e p ro te ctio n o f t h e priv ile g es o f a ll A m eric an s, w heth er t h ey b e g en tile s o r J e w s o r o f a n y c re ed or r e lig io n, o r a n y s c h ool o f t h ought t h at m ain ta in s i ts r e sp ect f o r o ur in stitu tio ns.” 54 Such a rg um en ts g re w m ore p ro nounced i n C IO r h eto ric a n d w ritin gs a s th e f a sc is t t h re at l o om ed e v er l a rg er o n t h e h oriz o n. T he t e rm “ T ory ” n ev er dis a p peare d f ro m t h e C IO ’s v ocab ula ry , b ut i n cre asin gly C IO o ffic ia ls lik en ed t h eir o pponen ts — ru th le ss e m plo yers , c o ngre ssio nal e n em ie s o f t h e Wag ner A ct, a n d t h e A FL ’s p re sid en t W illia m G re en , a m ong o th ers — to fa sc is ts , E uro pean d ic ta to rs , o r f if th c o lu m nis ts . C IO v ic e p re sid en t R eid Robin so n a d dre sse d a c o nven tio n o f t h e A m alg am ate d C lo th in g W ork ers j u st as F ra n ce w as c o lla p sin g i n J u ne 1 940. M an y A m eric an s b elie v ed t h at o nly tr a ito rs w ith in c o uld h av e c ata ly zed F ra n ce’s d ow nfa ll, a n d R obin so n t o ld h is lis te n ers t h at A m eric a h ad h ad i ts o w n f if th c o lu m n f o r a d ecad e: t h is c o lu m n, “o ppose d t o o ur d em ocra tic i n stitu tio ns,” w as “ m ad e u p o f t h e g ro up t h at belie v es t h at t h ey c an k eep A m eric an p eo ple i n t h e r o lls o f t h e u nem plo yed ,” Reid d ecla re d . L ate r t h at y ear, a p ic k et o uts id e a F ord p la n t c arrie d a s ig n re ad in g “ H itle ris m a n d F ord is m v ers u s A m eric an is m a n d t h e W ag ner A ct.” And w hen a n o ffic e m an ag er a t t h e Bir m in gham P ost t h re ate n ed t o d on h is Ala b am a s ta te g uard u nif o rm a n d f ir e o n t h ose s tr ik in g t h e p ap er, a CIO New s e d ito ria l c o m pare d h is l a n guag e t o t h at u se d b y “ F asc is t b ullie s” a n d “N azi s to rm t r o opers .” 55 The C IO w as h ard ly a lo ne i n t h e l a te 1 930s i n w arn in g a b out a d om estic fa sc is t t h re at. S till, i ts v oic e d id n ot g o u nch alle n ged . I n deed , e v en a s t h e C IO was e m erg in g a s a n i n dep en den t o rg an iz atio n, U .S . c o rp ora tio ns w ere gearin g u p f o r b attle t o d efin e t h e n atio n’s l e g itim ate v alu es. T hey t o o w ould in voke a n “ alie n ” i d eo lo gy t h at n ow t h re ate n ed A m eric a— to ta lita ria n is m — an d t h ey w ould u se i t t o h elp p opula riz e a n ew t e rm i n A m eric a’s p olitic al le x ic o n: “ fre e e n te rp ris e .” The N atio n al A sso cia tio n o f Man ufa ctu rers a n d C orp ora te Am eric a The r a p id ity w ith w hic h t h e w ord “ fre e e n te rp ris e ” e n te re d g en era l u sa g e i n th e l a te 1 930s i s s tu nnin g e v en b y t h e s ta n dard s o f p olitic al s p eech . A s l a te a s 1935, t h e Rea der’s G uid e t o P erio dic a l L ite ra tu re d id n ot h av e a n e n tr y f o r “fre e e n te rp ris e ”; a n d i n 1 937, i t w as s till r e fe rrin g r e ad ers t o “ la is se z-fa ir e .” The w ord s “ fre e” a n d “ en te rp ris e ” a p peare d s id e b y s id e i n t h e New Y ork Tim es j u st t h ir ty tim es b etw een 1 857 a n d 1 934, a n d m an y o f t h ose r e fe re n ces bore l ittle r e se m bla n ce t o w hat i s n ow m ean t b y t h e t e rm .

56 B y c o ntr a st, “ fre e en te rp ris e ,” u se d a s a s y nonym f o r t h e l e ss e v ocativ e “ p riv ate e n te rp ris e ,” ap peare d i n A m eric a’s p ap er-o f-re co rd 2 5 t im es i n 1 935, 1 14 t im es i n 1 937, an d 2 20 t im es i n 1 940. B y t h en , i t h ad b eco m e a s ta p le o f A m eric an s’ politic al v ocab ula ry .

The e m erg en ce o f t h e t e rm “ fre e e n te rp ris e ” d urin g t h ese y ears o w ed much t o t h e c h an gin g p olitic al s tr a te g ie s o f A m eric a’s c o rp ora te l e ad ers .

Som e b usin essm en , p artic u la rly t h ose a sso cia te d w ith t h e A m eric an L ib erty Leag ue, h ad a im ed t h eir r h eto ric al g uns a t t h e N ew D eal a s e arly a s 1 934. B y 1937, h ow ev er, t h e s c ale o f t h is e ffo rt h ad s h if te d d ra m atic ally . A ban donin g th eir h is to ric f o cu s o n p ro m otin g i n div id ual p ro ducts , l e g is la tiv e p olic ie s, o r co rp ora te i m ag es, U .S . c o rp ora tio ns f o r t h e f ir s t t im e j o in ed f o rc es i n a b ro ad - base d d efe n se o f l a is se z-fa ir e c ap ita lis m i n g en era l. I n a d vertis e m en ts , sy ndic ate d c o lu m ns, c arto ons, b ooks, r a d io s h ow s, a n d d ocu m en ta ry f ilm s, th e N atio nal A sso cia tio n o f M an ufa ctu re rs ( N AM ), t h e U .S . C ham ber o f Com merc e, a n d a h ost o f i n dustr ia l g ia n ts t r ie d t o c o nvin ce t h e A m eric an public t h at t h eir i n te re sts a n d t h ose o f t h e n atio n’s l a rg est c o rp ora tio ns w ere vir tu ally i n dis tin guis h ab le . P ain tin g a p ic tu re o f c la ss h arm ony a n d c o nsu m er pro sp erity — guara n te ed b y b usin ess, n ot b y g overn m en t— th ey d ubbed t h is im ag e “ th e A m eric an W ay .” I n vokin g t h e t e rm “ fre e e n te rp ris e ,” t h ey co unte re d m utu alis tic N ew D eal a n d C IO v is io ns o f t h e n atio n b y em phasiz in g i n div id ual r ig hts a n d t h e l ib erta ria n d im en sio ns o f “ fre ed om .” Am eric an i n dustr y ’s w illin gness t o c lo se r a n ks a n d u nderta k e s u ch a cam paig n r e fle cte d i ts c h an gin g d ia g nosis o f t h e p ro ble m b usin ess co nfro nte d . I n 1 934, t h e p re sid en t o f t h e U .S . C ham ber o f C om merc e h ad co m pla in ed a n grily t h at t h e g overn m en t w as i n t h e h an ds o f a n “ o rg an iz ed mob.” 57 A t t h at p oin t, h ow ev er, F D R w as s till t r y in g t o u se t h e N atio nal Reco very A dm in is tr a tio n t o c o -o pt c o rp ora te l e ad ers , a n d m an y o f t h ose le ad ers h oped t o d efe at h im a t t h e p olls . B y l a te 1 936, t h e s itu atio n l o oked very d if fe re n t. T he N ew D eal h ad v eere d s h arp ly t o t h e l e ft; a n d d esp ite a cam paig n o f l o bbyin g a n d f ro nta l a ssa u lts , i n dustr ia lis ts a n d t h eir a llie s h ad fa ile d m is e ra b ly i n t h eir e ffo rts t o d era il t h e W ag ner A ct, t h e S ocia l S ecu rity Act, t h e B an kin g A ct, t h e P ublic U tility H old in g C om pan y A ct, a n d t h e pre sid en t’ s t a x p ro gra m . C onsu m er a n d l a b or g ro ups, i n clu din g t h e C IO , were a tta ck in g c h eris h ed b usin ess p re ro gativ es. M ean w hile , t h e S en ate Com mitte e c h air e d b y R obert L a F olle tte J r., w as m ak in g h ead lin es w ith i ts ch arg es o f w id esp re ad c o rp ora te a b use . I n N ovem ber 1 936, F D R w on re ele ctio n i n a l a n dslid e, a id ed i n p art b y h is d en uncia tio n o f “ eco nom ic ro yalis ts .” To m an y i n t h e b usin ess w orld , a ll t h is s u ggeste d t h at a n ew s tr a te g y w as need ed — th at t h e p ro ble m b usin ess c o nfro nte d w as n ot s o m uch t h e N ew Deal sp ecif ic ally a s t h e A m eric an p ublic i n g en era l. “ T he p ublic d oes n ot unders ta n d i n dustr y , l a rg ely b ecau se i n dustr y i ts e lf h as m ad e n o r e al e ffo rt t o te ll i ts s to ry ,” N AM p re sid en t R obert L und h ad w arn ed a s e arly a s 1 933.

58 Now o th ers e ch oed t h at a sse ssm en t. A c o ntr ib uto r t o Public O pin io n Quarte rly a rg ued i n 1 937 t h at t h e “ o ld e asy r e lia n ce o n t h e p ro fe ssio nals o f politic s t o t e m per t h e t id es o f p opula r u nre st” h ad b eco m e “ u ntr u stw orth y.” Public r e la tio ns e x pert C arl B yoir w en t f u rth er, p re d ic tin g t h at u nle ss busin ess a cte d , “ th e w hole c ap ita lis t s y ste m ” c o uld s o on b e d estr o yed b y t h e “v olc an o” o f p ublic o pin io n. T he d ean o f C olu m bia ’s s c h ool o f j o urn alis m fo llo w ed F D R’s e x am ple i n l in kin g t h e s tr u ggle a t h om e t o w orld e v en ts .

“E very c itiz en i n t h e U nite d S ta te s t o day ,” h e d ecla re d i n 1 938, “ is partic ip atin g i n a w orld w ar o f i d eas. T his w ar m ay b e a s d estr u ctiv e o f pro perty r ig hts , i n div id ual f re ed om , i n stitu tio ns a n d f a m ily l if e a s a w ar in volv in g m ate ria l r e so urc es.” 59 But i f b usin ess w as t o d efe n d i ts e lf , i t h ad t o d o m ore t h an s im ply pro cla im i ts r ig hte o usn ess, c o m men ta to rs a g re ed : i t h ad t o e x pla in t o t h e public t h at t h eir i n te re sts a n d t h ose o f t h e b usin ess c o m munity w ere a lig ned .

“R ese arc h , m ass p ro ductio n, a n d l o w p ric es a re t h e o ffs p rin g o f b usin ess big ness” a n d i ts “ ju stif ic atio n,” a d vertis in g g uru B ru ce B arto n t o ld a g ro up o f man ufa ctu re rs i n 1 935. “ T his s to ry s h ould b e t o ld … j u st a s c o ntin uously a s th e p eo ple a re t o ld t h at I v ory S oap f lo ats o r t h at c h ild re n c ry f o r C asto ria .” 60 Ban k p re sid en t T hom as B oush all t o ld a g ro up o f s o uth ern b usin essm en i n a wid ely r e p rin te d s p eech t h at “ th e A m eric an p eo ple a n d A m eric an b usin ess hav e t h e s a m e g en era l c o ncep t o f w hat w e m ean b y t h e p hra se ‘ T he Am eric an W ay .’ ” T he p ro ble m , h e a rg ued , w as t h at “ th e p eo ple ” d id n ot re aliz e t h is . B usin ess n eed ed “ to g iv e a v ery c le ar d efin itio n w hen w e r e fe r t o ‘T he A m eric an W ay ’” a n d t o m ak e c le ar t o A m eric an c itiz en s t h at b usin ess to o “ h as t h e s a m e c o ncep t a n d g iv es t h e s a m e d efin itio n.” 61 In cre asin gly , c o rp ora te e x ecu tiv es s ta rte d t o a ct o n s u ch a d vic e. I n t h e la te 1 930s, e n te rp ris e s r a n gin g f ro m G oodyear a n d G en era l E le ctr ic t o t h e Alu m in um C om pan y o f A m eric a a n d I n te rn atio nal B usin ess M ach in es b eg an ru nnin g a d vertis e m en ts i n m ag azin es a n d n ew sp ap ers d efe n din g t h e “A m eric an e co nom ic s y ste m .” L arg e p riv ate u tilitie s b ack ed a n O re g on- base d n ew s s e rv ic e t h at d is tr ib ute d l ith ogra p hed e d ito ria ls t o s o m e t w elv e th ousa n d d aily a n d w eek ly n ew sp ap ers i n s m all t o w ns a cro ss t h e c o untr y .

Chase N atio nal B an k, t o geth er w ith f o rty -fiv e a ffilia te s, s p onso re d a “b usin ess f o ru m s p ic ed w ith o rc h estr a l s e le ctio ns” t h at w as b ro ad cast F rid ay ev en in gs o ver f ir s t t h e C BS a n d t h en t h e N BC r a d io n etw ork . G en era l M oto rs la u nch ed o ne o f t h e l a rg est p ublic r e la tio ns c am paig ns— pla cin g f o ur-c o lo r ad s i n m ass m ag azin es s u ch a s t h e Satu rd ay E ven in g P ost , p ro ducin g docu m en ta rie s, a n d s p onso rin g th e a n nual “ S oap B ox D erb y” r a ces u nder t h e slo gan “ It’ s t h e S oap B ox D erb y a g ain st t h e s o ap -b ox o ra to rs .” D urin g t h e week ly “ G en era l M oto rs S ym phony H our,” t h e “ V oic e o f G en era l M oto rs ” offe re d s o und b ite s o n e m plo ym en t, w ag e l e v els , a n d “ th e A m eric an s y ste m of f re e o pportu nity , f re e i n itia tiv e, f re e c o m petitio n.” G M ’s “ P ara d e o f Pro gre ss,” a t r a v elin g s a lu te t o t h at A m eric an s y ste m , l o gged t w en ty th ousa n d m ile s t o urin g t h e U .S . i n 1 936.

62 All o f t h ese e ffo rts r e fle cte d t h e r is e o ver t h e p re v io us t w o d ecad es o f t h e new f ie ld o f p ublic r e la tio ns. A s S tu art E w en h as s h ow n, t h e i d ea o f m old in g public o pin io n— of “ en gin eerin g c o nse n t” — em erg ed i n t h e U .S . i n t h e 1 910s an d 1 920s. D urin g t h e P ro gre ssiv e e ra , c o rp ora te s p okesm en a n d g overn m en t offic ia ls h ad r e acte d t o j o urn alis tic m uck ra k ers b y o ffe rin g f a cts a n d r a tio nal arg um en ts . D urin g W orld W ar I , h ow ev er, t h e W ils o n a d m in is tr a tio n t r ie d t o co unte r w id esp re ad i s o la tio nis t s e n tim en t b y f o rm in g t h e C om mitte e o n Public I n fo rm atio n ( C PI). T he c re atio n o f t h e C PI, o r C re el C om mitte e a s i t was o fte n c alle d , r e fle cte d a g ro w in g a w are n ess o f “ p ublic o pin io n” a m ong politic al a n d b usin ess e lite s: t h e c o m mitte e s o ught t o “ m obiliz e a n d c h an nel popula r e n th usia sm ” f o r t h e w ar b y m ars h alin g s p eak ers a n d p ro ducin g pro pag an dis tic a d s, p oste rs , a n d f ilm s. A fte r t h e w ar, t h e g ro w in g i n flu en ce of S ig m und F re u d f u rth er u nderm in ed t h e f a ith o f m an y e lite s i n a r a tio nal public . I n t h e 1 920s, E dw ard B ern ay s, w ho w as F re u d’s n ep hew a s w ell a s a fo ot s o ld ie r i n t h e C PI, h elp ed f o und t h e f ie ld o f p ublic r e la tio ns b y su ggestin g t h at c o rp ora te l e ad ers a n d o th er e lite s c o uld d is c re etly m an ip ula te public e m otio ns u sin g s lo gan s, s y m bols , a n d i m ag es.

63 I n t h e 1 920s, m an y co rp ora tio ns l a tc h ed o nto t h e n ew t e ch niq ues i n a n e ffo rt t o b urn is h t h eir co rp ora te i m ag es. I n t h e l a te 1 930s, t h ey t u rn ed t h eir p ublic r e la tio ns d olla rs to t h e t a sk o f s a lv ag in g “ fre e e n te rp ris e ” i ts e lf .

In t h eir e ffo rts t o s e ll t h eir v ie w s t o t h e A m eric an p ublic , c o rp ora tio ns mad e e x te n siv e u se o f r a d io — a v eh ic le t h at r e ach ed e v en t h ose w ho c o uld n’t re ad . I n f a ct, d urin g t h e 1 930s, b usin ess l e ad ers p io neere d t h e u se o f dra m atiz atio n s u btly t o i n str u ct A m eric an s o n p olitic al v alu es w ith out so undin g s h rill. ( D ev elo pin g t h is t a ctic i n t h e r e alm s o f r a d io a n d s p onso re d motio n p ic tu re s, t h ey e v en tu ally c arrie d i t t o t e le v is io n a s w ell.) 64 N o pro gra m b ette r e x em plif ie s i n dustr y ’s c re atio n o f a “ u sa b le ” p ast t h ro ugh dra m a t h an Cava lc a de o f A m eric a , a w eek ly r a d io a n th olo gy l a u nch ed b y E .

I. D uP ont d e N em ours & C o. i n O cto ber 1 935. D uP ont, a m ajo r m unitio ns man ufa ctu re r, h ad b een i n vestig ate d b y t h e S en ate ’s N ye C om mitte e t h e pre v io us y ear, a n d D uP ont e x ecu tiv es, t o geth er w ith t h eir c o lle ag ues a t Gen era l M oto rs , w ere s o m e o f t h e m ost a ctiv e a n d i n flu en tia l m em bers o f t h e Lib erty L eag ue.

Cava lc a de o f A m eric a c o nsis te d o f h alf -h our d ra m atiz atio ns of w hat a c o m pan y pre ss r e le ase c alle d “ little -k now n b ut a u th en tic i n cid en ts in A m eric an h is to ry .” “ In sp ir a tio nal i n t y pe,” t h e p re ss r e le ase c o ntin ued , “th e t r e atm en t o ffe rs a n ew a n d a b so rb in g a p pro ach t o h is to ry , t h e i n cid en ts bein g r e en acte d s o a s t o e m phasiz e t h e q ualitie s o f A m eric an c h ara cte r w hic h hav e b een r e sp onsib le f o r t h e b uild in g o f t h is c o untr y .” 65 B y t h e e arly 1 940s, DuP ont e stim ate d t h at s ix m illio n p eo ple l is te n ed t o t h e s h ow e ach w eek , a n d it e n su re d t h e p ro gra m ’s c o ntin uin g i m pact b y o ffe rin g r e co rd in gs t o s c h ools an d c o lle g es f o r c la ssro om u se .

66 Each s h ow b eg an w ith a s h ort “ an nouncem en t” s tr e ssin g “ th e a p plic atio n of c h em is tr y t o h um an n eed s [ a n d] s h ow in g h ow t h e c h em is t’ s a rt h as co ntr ib ute d t o t h e c o m fo rt a n d h ap pin ess o f p eo ple i n a ll w alk s o f l if e .” 67 B ut th e s h ow ’s i n str u ctio n w en t f a r b ey ond c h em is tr y . T his c an c le arly b e s e en i n an e p is o de o n J a n e A ddam s t h at w as b ro ad cast i n M ay 1 940, f iv e y ears a fte r Addam s’s d eath a n d f if ty y ears a fte r t h e f o undin g o f H ull H ouse . T he b rie f ep is o de, w hic h s ta rre d H ele n H ay es i n t h e t itle r o le , f o llo w ed J a n e f ro m h er ch ild hood t o h er a ccep ta n ce o f t h e N obel P eace P riz e; h ow ev er, t h e d ra m atic te n sio n— an d m ost o f t h e p lo t— re v olv ed a ro und a “ little -k now n” a n d a lm ost certa in ly f ic tio nal e v en t d urin g J a n e’s l if e a t H ull H ouse . A s t h e Cava lc a de sc rip tw rite rs t o ld t h e s to ry , J a n e’s a ctiv is m o n b eh alf o f f e m ale w ork ers a n d te n em en t d w elle rs a n ta g oniz ed a l o cal s w eats h op o w ner a n d a n I ris h w ard boss, w ho b oth w orrie d t h at s h e w as g iv in g i m mig ra n ts “ id eas … i d eas [ th at] ain ’t d oin g u s n o g ood.” T he t w o m en p la n te d a n a rtic le i n t h e l o cal p ap er, ch arg in g J a n e w ith “ m ed dlin g” i n t h e a ffa ir s o f w ork in g p eo ple a n d g ettin g work ers f ir e d a s a r e su lt. A m ob, e n ra g ed b y t h e a rtic le , a tta ck ed a n d ra n sa ck ed H ull H ouse . D esp era te a n d f in an cia lly s tr a p ped , J a n e t u rn ed t o t h e Man ufa ctu re rs A sso cia tio n f o r h elp . A lth ough s h e w as i n itia lly r e b uffe d — a fe w m em bers r a n t h e k in d o f s w eats h op J a n e d ep lo re d — a m an ufa ctu re r w ho gre w u p i n t h e H ull H ouse n eig hborh ood s o ught h er o ut a fte r t h e m eetin g a n d pre se n te d h er w ith a h an dfu l o f l a rg e c h eck s. “ B y t h e t im e I g et t h ro ugh,” h e to ld h er “ ev ery decen t b usin ess m an i n C hic ag o— an d t h ere a re a l o t o f t h em —is g oin g t o b e r o otin g f o r y ou.… Then w e’ll s ta rt o n t h e p olitic ia n s.” 68 The m essa g es o f t h is e p is o de w ere c le ar. A lth ough b usin ess, l ik e a n y fie ld , h ad a f e w b ad a p ple s, m ost m an ufa ctu re rs w ere h onora b le , e v en gen ero us, m en . I n f a ct, s o m e h ad g ro w n u p i n i m mig ra n t n eig hborh oods th em se lv es a n d, b y e m bra cin g t h e “ A m eric an W ay ,” h ad m ad e e n ough money t o h an d o ut l a rg e c h eck s. T he s a m e c o uld n ot b e s a id o f p olitic ia n s, partic u la rly D em ocra ts s u ch a s t h e I ris h w ard b oss i n t h e d ra m a o r ( b y im plic atio n) t h e m an y w ho s u pporte d t h e N ew D eal. I n t h e e n d, man ufa ctu re rs , n ot p olitic ia n s, w ere t h e w ork in g p eo ple ’s t r u e f rie n ds. T his vers io n o f h is to ry m ay h av e b een o nly lo ose ly r o ote d i n r e ality , b ut i t w as desig ned t o a p peal b oth t o m id dle -c la ss A m eric an s a n d t o s tr iv in g e th nic work ers w ho m ig ht t u ne i n Cava lc a de o n t h eir r a d io d ia ls .

Corp ora tio ns s u ch a s D uP ont a n d G en era l M oto rs r e ach ed m illio ns o f Am eric an s w ith t h eir a d vertis e m en ts , s p onso re d e v en ts , a n d r a d io p ro gra m s.

But b y t h e m id -1 930s, s o m e i n dustr ia lis ts a n d b usin ess p undits h ad co nclu ded t h at a m ore c o ord in ate d e ffo rt t o r e sh ap e p ublic a ttitu des w as calle d f o r. W hen t h e e d ito rs o f M cG ra w -H ill, p ublis h ers o f Busin ess W eek an d o th er t r a d e p ublic atio ns, s u rv ey ed v ario us i n dustr ie s i n t h e w ak e o f FD R’s 1 936 l a n dslid e, t h ey f o und t h at c o m pan ie s’ l a ck o f a g re em en t o n t h e defin itio n a n d g oal o f p ublic r e la tio ns l e ft e m plo yees a n d c o m munitie s “b ew ild ere d a n d c o nfu se d b y t h e e ffo rts i n dustr y w as m ak in g t o t e ll i ts s to ry an d t o d efe n d i ts e lf .” C astin g i ts e lf a s i n dustr y ’s s a v io r, M cG ra w -H ill b eg an co nductin g “ P ublic R ela tio ns F oru m s” i n m ajo r c itie s a ro und t h e c o untr y t o help “ g iv e i n dustr y a c o m mon a p pro ach t o t h e p ro ble m .” 69 Alth ough M cG ra w -H ill, t h e U .S . C ham ber o f C om merc e, a n d o th er org an iz atio ns e n te re d t h e f ra y , t h e N atio nal A sso cia tio n o f M an ufa ctu re rs (N AM ) q uic k ly e m erg ed a s t h e c en tr a l v eh ic le b eh in d b usin ess’s c o ord in ate d effo rt i n t h e l a te 1 930s t o r e d efin e A m eric a’s p olitic al c u ltu re . F ounded i n 1895, t h e N AM h ad l o ng u se d p ublic ity t o c o m bat u nio nis m a n d t o “ co ntr o l natio nal q uestio ns o f i m porta n ce t o m an ufa ctu re rs .” B ut t h e c am paig n t h e asso cia tio n l a u nch ed i n t h e m id -1 930s w as u niq ue b oth f o r i ts s c o pe a n d f o r its e ffo rts t o c o urt, r a th er t h an c h astis e , t h e p ublic . I n 1 934, f o llo w in g t h e ta k eo ver o f t h e N AM b y a g ro up o f c o nse rv ativ e i n dustr ia lis ts , t h e org an iz atio n’s n ew p re sid en t t a p ped W alte r W eis e n burg er, a c o m bativ e e x - jo urn alis t a n d f o rm er e x ecu tiv e o f t h e S t. L ouis C ham ber o f C om merc e, t o head t h e p ublic r e la tio ns e ffo rt. W eis e n burg er a n d h is s ta ff w ork ed c lo se ly with t w o n ew ly f o rm ed c o m mitte es o f i n dustr y e x ecu tiv es: o ne c h arg ed w ith overs e ein g t h e c am paig n, a n d a s e co nd f o rm ed t o r a is e m oney f o r t h e cru sa d e.

70 The N AM ’s c am paig n d id n ot g et o ff t h e g ro und i m med ia te ly ; b ut b y 1937, i t w as w ell u nderw ay . T hat y ear, t h e N AM s p en t n early $ 800,0 00 o n i ts in fo rm atio n p ro gra m , a n d i t r e ceiv ed a n oth er $ 3.2 5 m illio n i n i n -k in d donatio ns o f n ew sp ap er a n d o utd oor a d vertis in g s p ace a n d f re e r a d io t im e.

71 (T he a sso cia tio n’s b udgets c o ntin ued t o e sc ala te t h ro ughout t h e d ecad e.) Usin g t h at m oney , t h e N AM ’s p ublic r e la tio ns s ta ff t r a n sla te d i n dustr y ’s messa g e i n to w hat W alte r W eis e n burg er b oaste d w as “ ev ery m ed ia o f p ublic in fo rm atio n”: n ew sp ap er a rtic le s, o p-e d p ie ces a n d c arto ons; f ilm s tr ip s, new sre els , a n d m ovie s h orts ; d ir e ct m ail c am paig ns; m ag azin e, n ew sp ap er, an d b illb oard a d vertis in g; p oste rs a n d d is p la y s f o r s c h ools , f a cto rie s, a n d sto re w in dow s; “p ay ro ll s tu ffe rs ” a n d c lip sh eets f o r p la n t p ublic atio ns; r a d io pro gra m s; a s p eak er’s b ure au ; b um per s tic k ers ; a n d p am phle ts f o r u se i n sc h ools a n d l o cal l ib ra rie s. S om e o f t h is m ate ria l w as t r a n sla te d i n to G erm an , Hungaria n , S w ed is h , P olis h , I ta lia n , a n d Y id dis h , c le arly i n dic atin g t h at t h e org an iz atio n w as t r y in g t o r e ach i m mig ra n t w ork ers a s w ell a s t h e E nglis h - sp eak in g m id dle c la ss. T he N AM ’s I n dustr ia l P re ss S erv ic e d is tr ib ute d n ew s sto rie s, e d ito ria ls , a n d p re m atte d c o m ic s tr ip s t o o ne-q uarte r o f t h e new sp ap ers i n t h e n atio n, i n clu din g m an y s m all w eek ly , d aily , a n d f o re ig n- la n guag e p ap ers t h at u se d t h e m ate ria l t o f ill s p ace w ith out m en tio nin g i ts so urc e. L ik ew is e , h undre d s o f r a d io s ta tio ns a cro ss t h e c o untr y b ro ad cast t h e fif te en -m in ute d ra m a Am eric a n F am ily R obin so n e ach w eek , w ith out in dic atin g t h at t h ey h ad r e ceiv ed i t gra tis f ro m t h e N AM .

72 While t h e N AM ’s p ublic r e la tio ns s ta ff f o cu se d o n p ro ducin g t h is a rra y o f mate ria l, t h ey r e lie d o n a v ast n etw ork o f l o cal c o m mitte es t o d is tr ib ute i t.

Adoptin g a t a ctic p io neere d b y G eo rg e C re el a n d t h e f e d era l C PI d urin g World W ar I , t h e N AM u rg ed i ts m em bers t o s e t u p S pecia l C om mitte es o n Public I n fo rm atio n i n t h eir c o m munitie s. I d eally , t h ese c o m mitte es w ould b e co m pose d o f m en w ho w ere “ k now n t o b e i n te re ste d i n t h is s u bje ct,” h ad “ th e co nta cts t o r a is e m oney ,” w ere w illin g t o “ g iv e s o m e t im e t o s ittin g d ow n with e d ito rs , m in is te rs , f o re ig n l a n guag e g ro ups, h ead s o f w om en ’s c lu bs, etc .,” a n d w ere “ in flu en tia l e n ough t o m ak e t h eir w eig ht f e lt w ith new sp ap ers , r a d io s ta tio ns a n d o th er b usin ess p eo ple w ith in t h e t o w n.” T hese co m mitte es w ould o rg an iz e “ civ ic p ro gre ss” m eetin gs a n d s p eak in g en gag em en ts , d is tr ib ute t h e N AM ’s p ro pag an da l o cally , a n d r a is e f u nds f o r th e a sso cia tio n’s a d vertis in g c am paig n.

73 In p re p arin g i ts “ in fo rm atio n” m ate ria ls , t h e N AM s ta ff s tr o ve t o a v oid defe n siv en ess. I n ste ad , i t p re se n te d A m eric an i n dustr y a s a “ co ura g eo us, pro gre ssiv e f o rc e” a n d e m phasiz ed t h e s e lf -in te re st o f t h ose t o w hom i t dir e cte d i ts m essa g e.

74 A lth ough N AM p ro pag an da c o vere d a r a n ge o f th em es— th e “ m ir a cle s” o f i n dustr ia l r e se arc h , t h e “ sh are d ” b urd en o f h ig h ta x es, t h e “ m yth ” t h at m ach in es e lim in ate d j o bs— its b otto m l in e w as a lw ay s th e s a m e: t h e “ A m eric an s y ste m ” h ad r e su lte d i n a s ta n dard o f l iv in g f o r a ll Am eric an s t h at, e v en i n t h e w ors t o f t im es, w as t h e e n vy o f t h e w orld . I n poste rs , p am phle ts , s p eech es, a n d b illb oard s, t h e N AM r e p eate d ly d ro ve hom e t h e m essa g e t h at A m eric an s h ad h ig her w ag es, s h orte r w ork in g h ours , an d m ore c ars , r a d io s, r e frig era to rs , a n d h om es p er c ap ita t h an a n y o th er natio n a ro und t h e g lo be. B y 1 937, t h e N AM h ad s e ttle d o n a p hra se t h at cap tu re d t h e f a m ily -c en te re d l if e sty le t h is a b undan ce s u ppose d ly m ad e possib le : t h e “ A m eric an W ay o f L if e .” 75 The N AM ’s p ublic ity b litz t h us c o -o pte d a n d r e d ep lo yed t h e n otio n o f eco nom ic s e cu rity — fre ed om f ro m w an t— th at w as c en tr a l t o t h e p olitic s o f both t h e N ew D eal a n d t h e C IO . F D R h ad a rg ued t h at o nly t h e f e d era l govern m en t c o uld p ro vid e s u ch s e cu rity a n d t h at, a s t h e e m bodim en t o f t h e will o f a m ajo rity o f t h e p eo ple , i t h ad a c le ar o blig atio n t o d o s o . T he C IO wen t e v en f u rth er, d en ouncin g b usin essm en a s t r a ito ro us T orie s a n d dem an din g m ore p ow er f o r l a b or i n t h e w ork pla ce. T he N AM v eh em en tly re je cte d b oth n otio ns, i n t h e p ro cess o ffe rin g i ts o w n d efin itio ns o f s u ch c o re Am eric an v alu es a s “ fre ed om ” a n d “ d em ocra cy .” Where as l e ft l ib era ls i n t h e N ew D eal a n d t h e C IO a ssu m ed t h at w ork ers an d t h eir e m plo yers o fte n h ad c o m petin g i n te re sts , t h e N AM b uilt i ts s o cia l an d p olitic al v is io n a ro und t h e n otio n o f s o cia l h arm ony. A cco rd in g t o N AM mate ria ls , t h e i n te re sts o f i n dustr ia lis ts w ere v ir tu ally i n dis tin guis h ab le f ro m th ose o f o th er A m eric an s. “ O ne n eed n ot t h in k v ery d eep ly t o u nders ta n d t h at th e i n te re st o f l a b or a n d b usin ess— th at i s t o s a y , t h e e m plo yer— are id en tic al,” r e ad o ne i te m t h at t h e N AM s u pplie d t o f a cto ry p ublic atio ns i n early 1 938. “ In t h e l o ng r u n t h eir i n te re sts d o c o in cid e b ecau se t h ey a re b oth parts o f t h e s a m e s y ste m .” 76 O ver a n d o ver, t h e N AM e m phasiz ed t h at “ w ag e an d s a la ry w ork ers ” o w ned p ro perty ( h om es, c ars , s to ck s, s a v in gs a cco unts , an d i n su ra n ce p olic ie s), t h at c o nditio ns f o r U .S . l a b or h ad i m pro ved m ark ed ly over t h e d ecad es, a n d t h at t o w ns a n d e m plo yees b en efite d w hen b usin ess d id well. A nd l ik e b oth F D R a n d t h e C IO , t h ey t u rn ed f re q uen tly t o A bra h am Lin co ln f o r s u pport: “ T here i s n o p erm an en t c la ss o f h ir e d l a b ore rs a m ongst us,” a n oth er N AM -a u th ore d a rtic le q uote d L in co ln a s s a y in g. “ T w en ty -fiv e years a g o I w as a h ir e d l a b ore r. T he h ir e d l a b ore r o f y este rd ay l a b ors o n h is ow n a cco unt t o day , a n d w ill h ir e o th ers t o l a b or f o r h im t o m orro w .” 77 L ik e th e Cava lc a de e p is o de o n J a n e A ddam s, t h is a rtic le p la y ed t o w ork ers ’ dre am s o f s o cia l m obility .

Perh ap s t h e m ost e x te n ded e x plic atio n o f t h is v ie w c am e i n a s e rie s o f a d s carry in g t h e s lo gan “ P ro sp erity D wells W here H arm ony R eig ns,” w hic h t h e NAM p la ced i n n ew sp ap ers a ro und t h e c o untr y i n 1 937. S om e o f t h e a d s, undoubtly a im ed a t m em bers o f t h e m id dle c la ss, s tr e sse d t h e d ep en den ce o f hom e p ric es, s m all b usin esse s, a n d c ity s e rv ic es o n i n dustr y ’s p ay ro ll. O th ers re m in ded w ork ers o f t h e b en efits a n d o pportu nitie s t h ey g le an ed f ro m t h e Am eric an s y ste m . O ne h aile d t h e “ lo yal p artn ers h ip ” b etw een w ork ers , cap ita l, a n d m an ag em en t t h at h ad m ad e t h e “ av era g e w ork m an ’s l o t” f a r bette r t h an t h at o f h is c o unte rp arts a ro und t h e w orld . A noth er s h ow ed a work er o n s te el s c affo ld in g w av in g t o a n e x ecu tiv e i n a c h au ffe u re d lim ousin e: “ I k new him w hen h e p ush ed a w heelb arro w ,” t h e w ork er s a id .

The f in al a d , a im ed i n p art a t f ir s t- a n d s e co nd-g en era tio n A m eric an s, b are ly re fe rre d t o b usin ess at a ll. B esid e a p ic tu re o f t h e S ta tu e o f L ib erty , b old le tte rin g d em an ded “ Are Y ou a n A m eric an C itiz en ?” “ A T R U E A m eric an … must b e a n A m eric an c itiz en n ot a lo ne b y a ccid en t o f b ir th o r p riv ile g e o f natu ra liz atio n,” t h e c o py c o ntin ued :

He m ust b e a n A m eric an c itiz en a t h eart, p ro ud o f h is h erita g e o f l ib erty a n d opportu nity — willin g t o a ccep t t h e d uty o f c itiz en sh ip t o p ro te ct A m eric an id eals .… Today m an y i n flu en ces a re a t w ork t o d estr o y t h e r e al v alu e o f y our citiz en sh ip . T hey p re ach v io le n ce a s o ppose d t o r e aso n. T hey s tr iv e t o pit c la ss a g ain st c la ss— to g ain a d van ta g e f o r t h e f e w w ith out r e g ard f o r th e w elf a re o f t h e m an y.… T hey u nderm in e t h e s p ir it o f c o -o pera tio n an d t e am work a m ong a ll g ro ups o n w hic h t h is n atio n h as b een b uilt.

Their s u ccess w ould s p ell t h e e v en tu al b re ak dow n o f a ll t h at h as m ad e Am eric a m ean “ o pportu nity ” f o r m illio ns.

“T hese i n flu en ces,” t h e a d c o nclu ded , “ C A N N OT s u cceed w here A m eric an s are a w ak e t o t h eir d uty a s c itiz en s. A RE Y OU A N A M ER IC A N CIT IZ EN ?” 78 T he a d c le arly s u ggeste d t h at a n yone w ho d id n ot f o ste r “te am work a m ong a ll g ro ups” — an yone w ho w ork ed t o f o m en t c la ss u nre st— was n ot a t r u e A m eric an .

The i n sid io us “ in flu en ces” t o w hic h t h is a d p oin te d w ere c le arly n ot “eco nom ic r o yalis ts ” o r “ in dustr ia l T orie s.” B usin essm en , i n t h e N AM ’s sc h em a, w ere c u sto dia n s o f t h e p eo ple ’s i n te re sts . T he g re at d an ger c am e fro m a n o verw een in g g overn m en t t h at t r a m ple d o n t h e r ig hts a n d p riv ile g es of i ts c itiz en s, i n t h e p ro cess u nderm in in g t h e p ro sp erity t h at o nly b usin ess co uld p ro duce. “ When w e g iv e a ny G overn m en t i n cre a sin g p ow er t o r e g ula te our d aily l iv es w e a re g iv in g a w ay o ne o f t h e m ost s a cre d l ib ertie s a ny Am eric a n c itiz e n c a n p osse ss ,” o ne N AM l e afle t w arn ed . “ G overn m en ts lo ve pow er! D on’t g iv e any G overn m en t t h e r ig ht t o d ic ta te where y ou s h all w ork , when y ou s h all w ork a n d what y our w ag es s h all b e!” 79 A n N AM b ookle t en title d The A m eric a n W ay r e in fo rc ed t h is m essa g e, d is tin guis h in g b etw een tw o k in ds o f g overn m en t: “ o ne i n w hic h t h e c itiz en i s s u pre m e a n d t h e govern m en t o bey s h is w ill; t h e o th er i n w hic h t h e s ta te i s s u pre m e a n d co ntr o ls t h e c itiz en .” I m plic itly c o ntr a stin g t h e U .S . a p pro ach t o t h at o f to ta lita ria n s ta te s, t h e b ookle t l e ft l ittle d oubt w hic h w as, a n d s h ould r e m ain , th e A m eric an W ay .

80 As s u ch a d s a n d p am phle ts s u ggest, N AM s ta ffe rs , l ik e N ew D eale rs a n d in dustr ia l u nio nis ts , c ast A m eric an c itiz en sh ip a s, a b ove a ll, a m atte r o f sh are d v alu es. T he v alu es t h ey h ig hlig hte d , h ow ev er, d if fe re d s h arp ly f ro m th ose c h am pio ned b y F D R a n d t h e C IO . W hile F D R s tr e sse d m ajo rita ria n ru le , em bodie d i n t h e f e d era l g overn m en t, t h e N AM h aile d i n div id ual lib ertie s a n d t h e l im its o n g overn m en t g uara n te ed b y t h e B ill o f R ig hts . W hile th e C IO c alle d f o r i n dustr ia l dem ocra cy , w hic h i m plie d a n e x te n sio n o f majo rity r u le i n to t h e e co nom ic a re n a, t h e N AM s tr e sse d fr e ed om o f opportu nity . T he v ario us d efin itio ns c o nverg ed o nly o n f re ed om f ro m w an t.

Not s u rp ris in gly , t h e N AM f o ught a n u phill b attle . I ts p ortr a y al o f busin ess a s t h e g uara n to r o f p ro sp erity w ork ed o nly i f i t o verlo oked t h e ra v ag es o f t h e c o ntin uin g D ep re ssio n; t h is e x pla in s t h e N AM ’s t e n den cy i n th e l a te 1 930s t o b ack date s ta tis tic s t o 1 929. S en ato r R obert M . L a F olle tte ’s Com mitte e o n C iv il L ib ertie s i n vestig ate d t h e p ro pag an da o nsla u ght a s p art of a l a rg er p ro be i n to t h e u nio n-b ustin g a ctiv itie s o f c o rp ora te A m eric a, a n d th e CIO N ew s r e p rin te d s o m e o f t h e c o m mitte e’s f in din gs. M an y o th er Am eric an s w ere r e m in ded o f t h e s tr a in ed n ote i n t h e c am paig n b y p ic tu re s ta k en b y s o m e o f t h e d ecad e’s m ost a b le d ocu m en ta ry p hoto gra p hers :

Marg are t B ourk e-W hite ’s f a m ous s h ot o f b la ck f lo od v ic tim s l in ed u p i n fro nt o f a n N AM b illb oard i n L ouis v ille , K en tu ck y, f ir s t a p peare d i n Fortu ne mag azin e i n 1 937.

Nev erth ele ss, b y e arly 1 939, t h e N AM b elie v ed i t w as m ak in g p ro gre ss.

In 1 937, t h e C IO h ad i n tr o duced a n ew t a ctic — th e s it- d ow n s tr ik e— in i ts cam paig n a g ain st G en era l M oto rs . A lth ough t h e t a ctic b ro ught t h e a u to m ak er to i ts k nees, s p re ad in g s it- d ow n s tr ik es b eg an t o u nderm in e m id dle -c la ss su pport f o r t h e l a b or m ovem en t. A ro und t h e s a m e t im e, F D R t r ie d t o c o unte r Supre m e C ourt a n ta g onis m t o t h e N ew D eal w ith a d is a str o us p la n t o “ p ack ” th e c o urt. R oose v elt’ s t r a n sp are n tly p olitic al p ro posa l b ack fir e d b ad ly , ero din g h is s ta tu re e v en a m ong m an y D em ocra ts a n d N ew D eal s u pporte rs .

81 The f u ll i m pact o f t h ese d ev elo pm en ts w as n ot f e lt i m med ia te ly ; b ut b y Marc h 1 939, W alte r W eis e n burg er c o uld r e p ort t h at p ublic o pin io n h ad sh if te d t o t h e r ig ht. M ean w hile , t h e e co nom ic d ow ntu rn o f 1 937 a n d 1 938, dubbed b y s o m e t h e “ R oose v elt R ecessio n,” h elp ed t h e N AM c am paig n i n ir o nic w ay s. S ch ools a n d c o lle g es, s tr a p ped f o r f u nds, u se d t h e a sso cia tio n’s You a nd I n dustr y p am phle ts a s t e x tb ooks. N ew sp ap ers e ag er f o r e co nom ic new s s n ap ped u p c o lu m ns a n d o th er m ate ria ls p ro vid ed gra tis b y t h e N AM .

And a d ro p-o ff i n c o rp ora te b illb oard a d vertis in g o pen ed m ore d onate d s p ace fo r t h e N AM ’s A m eric an W ay c am paig n. “ W e f e el t h at t h e c o nditio n h as ch an ged f ro m a s itu atio n i n w hic h w e a re a s e lle r, t r y in g t o f o rc e o ur p ro duct, in to w hat y ou m ig ht c all a b uyer’s m ark et,” W eis e n burg er r e p orte d w ith obvio us s a tis fa ctio n. “ T his o ffe rs o ne o f t h e g re ate st o pportu nitie s t h is asso cia tio n h as.” 82 Weis e n burg er’s o ptim is m w as n ot b ase d o n d om estic e v en ts a lo ne. B y early 1 939, r is in g t e n sio ns i n E uro pe g av e n ew r e so nan ce t o s e v era l o f t h e NAM ’s l o ng-s ta n din g t h em es. W ith m ore a tte n tio n f o cu se d a b ro ad , t h e NAM ’s e ffo rt t o co ntr a st t h e A m eric an W ay t o f o re ig n l iv in g s ta n dard s se em ed l e ss l a b ore d t h an i t h ad i n t h e p ast. N ew s r e p orts o n g overn m en t in itia tiv es i n G erm an y, I ta ly , a n d J a p an p ro vid ed a p ow erfu l b ack dro p f o r NAM a tta ck s o n t h e g ro w th o f f e d era l p ow er i n t h e U .S . A bove a ll, in te rn atio nal t e n sio ns a n d n ew s r e p orts f ro m G erm an y m ad e d is c o rd a t h om e se em i n cre asin gly w orris o m e t o m an y i n t h e U .S . I n J a n uary , o ne N AM sp eak er l in ked t h e a sso cia tio n’s a d vocacy o f c o opera tio n a n d h arm ony dir e ctly t o e v en ts a b ro ad . “ I a m p ro ud t o s a y t h at i n dustr y h as m ad e i ts s ta rt to w ard s e sta b lis h in g t h is c o untr y ’s f ir s t l in e o f d efe n se — harm ony b etw een all g ro ups i n o ur e co nom y,” F ulle r B arn es, a n e x ecu tiv e o f t h e A sso cia te d Sprin g C om pan y, t o ld s tu den ts a n d f a cu lty a t H artf o rd T heo lo gic al S em in ary .

“If i n dustr y ’s g ood f a ith a n d g ood r e aso nin g i n t h is r e sp ect c an b e m atc h ed by o th er g ro ups, w e n eed n ot f e ar t h e t id es o f h ate a n d m ad ness t h at h av e sw ep t o th er l a n ds.” 83 T hat s a m e m onth , t h e N AM l a u nch ed a n ew b illb oard cam paig n w ith t h e s lo gan “ L et’ s A ll W ork T ogeth er— It’ s a n O ld A m eric an Custo m .” “ D ic ta to rs h ip s b re ed o n m is u nders ta n din gs b etw een g ro ups a n d cla sse s,” a n i te m s e n t t o p la n t p ublic atio ns e x pla in ed . “ T hey c an n ev er pre v ail h ere a s l o ng a s w e h av e a u nite d A m eric a.” 84 Tw o e v en ts i n t h e l a te s u m mer a n d e arly f a ll o f 1 939 g av e n ew e n erg y t o th e N AM c am paig n. N ew s o f t h e N azi- S ovie t p act i n l a te A ugust g av e cre d en ce t o t h e a rg um en t t h at f a sc is m a n d c o m munis m w ere r e ally o ne a n d th e s a m e— th at b oth w ere i n f a ct “ to ta lita ria n is m .” A f e w w eek s l a te r, t h e outb re ak o f w ar i n E uro pe r a is e d t h e s ta k es f o r a ll A m eric an s. “ N ow e v en ts ab ro ad o ffe r a d ra m atic b ack -d ro p a g ain st w hic h t h e t r u e v alu e o f t h e Am eric an W ay c an b e m easu re d ,” a s ta ff m em o e x ulte d i n t h e f a ll o f 1 939.

“A m eric an is m , t h e A m eric an s y ste m a n d a ll t h at t h ey s ta n d f o r h av e b een s e t off i n b old r e lie f. A s t h ey s u rv ey w ar-to rn E uro pe, a s t h ey s e e t h e s p re ad o f dic ta to rs h ip s a n d t h e r u th le ss s u ppre ssio n o f r ig hts a n d f re ed om s a s co m monpla ce h ere a s t h e a ir w e b re ath e a n d a s t h ey s e e C om munis m , Nazis m a n d F asc is m r e v eale d a s o ne a n d t h e s a m e i d eo lo gy, t h e A m eric an peo ple a re i n a m ood t o r e co gniz e a n d c o unt t h eir b le ssin gs.” 85 If t h e w ar i n E uro pe o pen ed o pportu nitie s f o r t h e N AM c am paig n, i t a ls o calle d f o r a s h if t i n e m phasis . I n t h e l a te 1 930s, N AM o ffic ia ls a n d o th er co rp ora te l e ad ers h ad b eg un t e n ta tiv ely u sin g t h e t e rm “ fre e e n te rp ris e ”— in pla ce o f t h e l e ss r e so nan t “ la is se z-fa ir e ” o r “ p riv ate e n te rp ris e ”— in a n e ffo rt to l in k t h eir e co nom ic a g en da t o t h e o ne v alu e t h at v ir tu ally a ll A m eric an s held d ear. N ow N AM s ta ffe rs u rg ed t h em t o t a k e a f u rth er s te p . “ F re e en te rp ris e [ w ill n ot] b e s a v ed a s t h e r e su lt o f a p peals i n t h e n am e o f f re e en te rp ris e a lo ne,” t h e s ta ff m em o a rg ued . “ D em ocra cy a n d i ts p re se rv atio n are t h e i n te re st o f e v ery p atr io tic A m eric an t o day ,” i t c o ntin ued : “ T he p ublic must b e c o nvin ced t h at fre e e n te rp ris e i s a s m uch a n i n div is ib le p art o f dem ocra cy a n d t h e s o urc e o f a s m an y b le ssin gs a n d b en efits a s a re o ur o th er fre ed om s o f s p eech , p re ss a n d r e lig io n.” I f t h e N AM ’s p ro gra m “ can em phasiz e e ffe ctiv ely t h e i n se p ara b ility o f ‘ d em ocra cy ’ a n d ‘ fre e e n te rp ris e ,’ it m ay w ell b e t h at t h e w av e o f e n th usia sm a n d s u pport f o r t h e f o rm er w ill carry t h e l a tte r t o u npre ced en te d h eig hts i n p ublic e ste em .” 86 This n otio n o f h itc h in g i n dustr y ’s e co nom ic a g en da t o A m eric a’s p olitic al valu es w as n ot e n tir e ly n ew i n l a te 1 939. B oth F D R a n d t h e C IO h ad l in ked th eir e co nom ic v is io ns t o p olitic al r ig hts ; a n d i n e arly 1 938, R ay m ond M ole y had r e co m men ded t h at b usin ess d o l ik ew is e . M ole y , w ho h ad r e sig ned f ro m FD R’s B ra in T ru st a n d b eco m e a n a d vocate f o r A m eric an b usin ess, c alle d o n co rp ora te l e ad ers t o “ ag ain a n d a g ain m ak e i t c le ar t h at o ur e co nom ic s y ste m an d o ur p olitic al s y ste m a re e sse n tia lly o pposite s id es o f t h e s a m e c o in .” 87 I n his J a n uary 1 939 H artf o rd s p eech , t h e N AM s p eak er F ulle r B arn es h ad in voked “ th e t h re efo ld b asis o f o ur A m eric an w ay o f l if e — re lig io us f re ed om , priv ate e n te rp ris e a n d r e p re se n ta tiv e d em ocra cy .” T he N AM ’s r a d io d ra m a Am eric a n F am ily R obin so n h ad e x perim en te d w ith t h e s a m e t h em es t h at su m mer.

88 Nev erth ele ss, t h e e m phasis o n d em ocra cy i n l a te 1 939 a n d 1 940 p ose d a ch alle n ge t o N AM s ta lw arts . T he a sso cia tio n’s p re sid en t, H . W . P re n tis J r., an d m an y o th er N AM m em bers w ere w ary o f t h e t e rm , i n l a rg e p art b ecau se its m ajo rita ria n o verto nes h ad b een u se d b y P re sid en t R oose v elt a n d o th ers t o ju stif y t h e N ew D eal.

89 I n a d s, p atte rn s p eech es, a n d o th er m ate ria ls , t h e NAM w as a lw ay s c are fu l t o r e fe r t o “ re p re se n ta tiv e d em ocra cy ” o r s im ply t o “p olitic al f re ed om .” The N AM a d opte d t h is a p pro ach a g ain i n t h e w in te r o f 1 939–1940, w hen it l a u nch ed a m ajo r n ew e ffo rt t h at b ecam e k now n a s t h e “ T rip od o f Fre ed om ” c am paig n. T he N AM ’s p re sid en t, H . W . P re n tis J r., e x pla in ed t h e pre m is e b eh in d t h e c am paig n i n a s p eech t o m an ufa ctu re rs i n A pril 1 940. T he “tr ip od o f h um an f re ed om ,” P re n tis t o ld h is a u die n ce, h ad t h re e l e g s:

“re p re se n ta tiv e d em ocra cy ,” “ civ il a n d r e lig io us l ib ertie s,” a n d “ eco nom ic fre ed om , t h e i n stitu tio n o f p riv ate e n te rp ris e .” “ T hro ughout t h e a g es, t h ese in stitu tio ns h av e g one h an d i n h an d,” h e c o ntin ued . “ T hey a re i n se p ara b le .

When o ne g oes, a ll g o.” T hen , b orro w in g a n a rg um en t f ro m t h e i n te rfa ith movem en t, h e e x pla in ed , “ T he s a m e b asic c o ncep t u nderlie s t h em a ll— a re lig io us c o ncep t c o m mon t o P ro te sta n tis m , R om an C ath olic is m a n d J u dais m alik e, t h e s a cre d ness o f t h e i n div id ual.” 90 If f re ed om ’s t h re e f o undatio ns w ere i n se p ara b le , “ fre e p riv ate e n te rp ris e ” was t h e m ost v uln era b le e le m en t i n t h e t r io , P re n tis a rg ued . “ E ven t h e Com munis t a n d F asc is t a n d S ocia lis t g ro ups a m ong u s p ra te a b out t h eir dev otio n to r e p re se n ta tiv e d em ocra cy a n d i n sis t u pon t h e p re se rv atio n o f c iv il an d r e lig io us l ib ertie s, a t l e ast s o l o ng a s t h ey t h em se lv es a re n ot i n p ow er,” he d ecla re d . “ T he a tta ck a lw ay s i s a g ain st t h at o th er l e g o f t h e t r ip od, eco nom ic f re ed om .” P re n tis a rg ued t h at “ n atio nal e co nom ic p la n nin g” in ev ita b ly l e d t o t h e e ro sio n o f b oth p olitic al d em ocra cy a n d c iv il l ib ertie s, sin ce p la n ners w ere r e q uir e d t o c o ntr o l a ll “ o pin io n-fo rm in g” a g en cie s t h at mig ht t h ro w “ m onkey -w re n ch es i n to t h eir c are fu lly l a id p la n s” : “ In o th er word s, u nder n atio nal e co nom ic p la n nin g, y ou w ould h av e h ere e v en tu ally ju st w hat y ou s e e i n t h e d ic ta to r-c o ntr o lle d c o untr ie s o f E uro pe t o day : t h e su ppre ssio n o f a ll t e ach in g e x cep t t h at w hic h i s i n l in e w ith t h e g en era l i d eas of t h e g overn m en t c en so rs h ip o f t h e p re ss; t h e e n d o f f re ed om o f e x pre ssio n; an d t h e d estr u ctio n o f r e lig io us l ib erty .” 91 Fig u re 2 .2 .

T his N atio nal A sso cia tio n o f M an ufa ctu re rs b illb oard i n Dubuque, I o w a, t e stif ie s t o t h e b usin ess c o m munity ’s g ro w in g u se o f t h e te rm “ fre e e n te rp ris e ” i n t h e l a te 1 930s. T he a d w as p art o f t h e “ T rip od o f Fre ed om ” c am paig n l a u nch ed b y t h e N AM i n t h e w in te r o f 1 939–40 i n a n effo rt t o c o nnect w hat h ad o nce b een c alle d “ p riv ate e n te rp ris e ” t o o th er tr e asu re d A m eric an f re ed om s ( L ib ra ry o f C ongre ss L C -D IG -fs a -8 a0 5396). This q uote s u ggests o ne o f t h e r e aso ns t h at t h e N AM d eem ed t h e “ tr ip od of f re ed om ” i m ag ery s o u se fu l. A n N AM p oll, p ro bab ly c o nducte d i n 1 940, sh ow ed t h at 9 6 p erc en t o f A m eric an s b elie v ed t h at t h e a b olitio n o f r e lig io us fre ed om w ould v io la te t h eir p ers o nal l ib ertie s, a n d 9 0 p erc en t f e lt th e s a m e ab out f re ed om o f s p eech . B y c o ntr a st, o nly 7 1 p erc en t b elie v ed t h at t h e opera tio n o f p riv ate b usin ess w as a b asic A m eric an r ig ht, a n d 4 0 p erc en t th ought t h e r ig ht t o s tr ik e w as a f u ndam en ta l l ib erty .

92 T he N AM b elie v ed th at t h e t r ip od o f f re ed om s h ad “ re m oved o ur o bje ctiv es f ro m t h e s e lf is h cate g ory ” a n d l in ked u nfe tte re d “ fre e e n te rp ris e ” t o o th er v alu es t h at Am eric an s c le arly h eld i n g re ate r e ste em .

93 Thro ughout 1 940 a n d 1 941, t h e N AM t r u m pete d t h e t r ip od o f f re ed om s in e v ery a v aila b le f o ru m . N AM b illb oard s h ig hlig hte d A m eric a’s fu ndam en ta l f re ed om s ( fig ure 2 .2 ) a s d id p am phle ts , b ro ch ure s, a n d t h e Am eric a n F am ily R obin so n r a d io s h ow .

Prim er f o r A m eric a ns , a s e v en ty - se v en -p ag e p am phle t d esig ned f o r c itiz en sh ip s tu dy b y w om en ’s g ro ups, bro ke d ow n t h e “ A m eric an W ay ” i n to t h re e c o nstitu en t p arts : “ p riv ile g e o f se lf -e x pre ssio n,” “ rig ht o f s e lf -g overn m en t,” a n d “ o pportu nity o f f re e en te rp ris e .” T he h ero o f a n N AM m ovie s h ort d re am ed t h at h e w as a n atto rn ey c alle d u pon t o d efe n d t h e A m eric an w ay o f l if e . H e s u m moned witn esse s w ho t e stif ie d t o t h e n atio n’s d iv ers e f re ed om s a n d m ate ria l ab undan ce, t h en d ra m atiz ed h is c o nclu din g a rg um en t w ith t h e u se o f a s m all tr ip od.

94 These i n te rtw in ed f re ed om s, a cco rd in g t o t h e N AM , c o nstitu te d t h e r ig hts an d p riv ile g es A m eric an s e n jo yed ; a t t h e s a m e t im e, t h eir e n jo ym en t d efin ed th e A m eric an . “ T o b e a n A m eric an — does i t m ean a n yth in g?” a n a rtic le writte n b y t h e N AM ’s s ta ff f o r u se i n p la n t p ublic atio ns b eg an . “ A m eric an s,” th e a rtic le c o ntin ued , “ in clu de p eo ple o f m an y r a ces a n d r e lig io ns— man y way s o f t h in kin g, w ork in g, a n d l iv in g.” W hat m ad e t h ese d iv ers e i n div id uals Am eric an s? N ot s im ply t h eir r e sid en cy “ w ith in … c erta in b oundarie s y ou fin d o n a m ap .” N o, t h e a rtic le c o nclu ded , t h ey w ere A m eric an s b ecau se t h ey co uld w ors h ip , a sso cia te , s p eak , r e ad , a n d t r a v el a s t h ey w is h ed ; b ecau se t h ey co uld j o in p olitic al p artie s a n d v ote f re ely f o r a g overn m en t “ w hose a u th ority is l im ite d ”; b ecau se t h ey c o uld c h oose t h eir o w n o ccu patio n, s p en d a n d s a v e earn in gs a s t h ey w is h ed , a n d o w n a n d u se p ro perty w ith a m in im um o f outs id e i n te rfe re n ce. “ T o b e a n A m eric an ,” t h e a rtic le d ecla re d , w as t o b e “ a fre e m em ber o f o ne o f t h e f re est s o cie tie s o n e arth ,” a “ civ iliz atio n” b uilt o n “th e f u ndam en ta l p rin cip le … t h at t h e i n div id ual m atte rs .” 95 The N AM ’s e m phasis o n i n div id ual f re ed om — lik e i ts e m phasis o n t h e dan gers o f a n o verw een in g g overn m en t a n d t h e n eed f o r “ te am work a m ong all g ro ups” i n A m eric an s o cie ty — co ntr a ste d s h arp ly w ith t h e v is io n o f Am eric an is m o ffe re d b y b oth t h e C IO a n d N ew D eale rs . A lth ough n eith er t h e CIO n or F D R n eg le cte d i n div id ual f re ed om , b oth p ut t h eir f a ith i n majo rita ria n d em ocra cy a n d s a w t h e g re ate st d an ger t o A m eric a c o m in g f ro m a s e lf is h a n d p ow erfu l m in ority . I n dustr ia l u nio nis ts a ls o h ig hlig hte d t h e fu ndam en ta l in eq uality b etw een l a b or a n d c ap ita l, a n i n eq uality t h at w ould need t o b e r e d re sse d b efo re t r u e “ te am work ” w ould b e p ossib le . S om e o f t h e NAM ’s a rg um en ts , h ow ev er, r e so nate d w ith a d if fe re n t g ro up— th e m otle y co lle ctio n o f “ in te rg ro up” a ctiv is ts w ho i n t h e y ears i m med ia te ly p re ced in g World W ar I I s o ught t o d ep lo y a n A m eric an W ay t o d efu se r is in g t e n sio ns am ong A m eric a’s e th nic , r e lig io us, a n d r a cia l s u bgro ups. CH APT ER 3 In S ea rch o f C om mon G ro u nd O n J a n uary 2 1, 1 939, G eo rg e K au fm an a n d M oss H art’ s p la y , The A m eric a n W ay , c o m men ced a n e ig ht- m onth r u n a t N ew Y ork ’s R ock efe lle r C en te r. T he t w o m en w ere b est k now n f o r t h eir l ig hth earte d c o m ed ie s, b ut t h is w as a m elo dra m atic e p ic .

The A m eric a n W ay t o ld t h e l if e s to ry o f M artin G unth er, a f ic tio nal G erm an c ab in etm ak er w ho i m mig ra te d t o M ap le to n, O hio , b ecau se h e w as d ete rm in ed t o s e e h is c h ild re n g ro w u p i n a f re e c o untr y . M artin l e arn ed E nglis h a n d b eg an a b re ath ta k in g r is e u p t h e t o w n’s e co nom ic a n d s o cia l l a d der, t r a n sfo rm in g h is s m all s h op i n to a f lo uris h in g f a cto ry . H is f a ith i n h is a d opte d c o untr y , h ow ev er, t r a n sc en ded e co nom ic s u ccess: e v en t h e l o ss o f h is f a cto ry d urin g t h e D ep re ssio n d id n ot s h ak e M artin ’s f a ith i n t h e A m eric an W ay ( fig ure 3 .1 ).

Martin ’s g ra n dso n, K arl, w as l e ss c o nvin ced o f h is c o untr y ’s m erits .

E m bitte re d b y h is f a m ily ’s f in an cia l l o sse s a n d h is o w n i n ab ility t o f in d a j o b, K arl w as r e cru ite d b y a n u nnam ed o rg an iz atio n c le arly m odele d o n t h e G erm an A m eric an B und. W hen M artin t r ie d t o d is su ad e h is g ra n dso n f ro m j o in in g t h e g ro up, B undis ts b eat t h e e ld erly i m mig ra n t t o d eath . T his v io le n t a ct f in ally c o nverte d h is m ourn in g g ra n dso n, a n d i n t h e p la y ’s f in al m om en ts , M artin w as g iv en a h ero ’s f u nera l. E ulo giz ed a s a t r u e A m eric an , h e w as h aile d a s a m an w ho “ liv ed i n t o le ra n ce a n d i n p eace a m ong h is n eig hbors ” a n d w ho d ie d f ig htin g f o r t h e f re ed om “ w hic h h e f e lt g av e m ean in g t o l if e .” 1 Kau fm an a n d H art’ s p la y m ig ht h av e g iv en s o m e s o la ce t o t h e b usin essm en c lu ste re d a ro und t h e N AM ; a fte r a ll, i ts h ero w as a f a cto ry o w ner w ho w as b elo ved b y h is n eig hbors a n d w hose l if e s to ry o ffe re d p ers o nal p ro of o f t h e a b ility o f A m eric an s t o t r a n sc en d c la ss b oundarie s. T he p la y ’s p rin cip al c o ntr ib utio n t o t h e d ecad e’s d is c u ssio n o f A m eric a’s i d en tity a n d c o re v alu es, how ev er, l a y e ls e w here . A lth ough t h e p la y n ev er m en tio ned H itle r o r t h e B undis ts b y n am e, i ts m essa g e w as c le ar: t h e “ A m eric an W ay ” was t h e w ay o f i m mig ra n ts w ho h ad f lo uris h ed u nder f re ed om a n d l e arn ed t o liv e t o geth er b y r e sp ectin g t h eir f e llo w m an . I f a G erm an -A m eric an C hris tia n co uld b e m urd ere d b y B undis ts f o r h is b elie f i n t o le ra n ce a n d i n div id ual fre ed om , t h en N azis m a n d t h e b ig otr y i t e m bodie d w ere a t h re at, n ot o nly t o Je w s, b ut t o a ll w ho s u bsc rib ed t o t h e A m eric an W ay .

Fig u re 3 .1 .

T his s c en e o f E llis I s la n d a p peare d i n G eo rg e K au fm an a n d M oss Hart’ s 1 939 m elo dra m a The A m eric a n W ay . T he p la y s u ggeste d t h at t h e “A m eric an w ay ” w as t h e w ay o f i m mig ra n ts w ho h ad f lo uris h ed u nder fre ed om a n d l e arn ed t o l iv e t o geth er b y r e sp ectin g t h eir f e llo w m an ( B illy Rose T heatr e D iv is io n, T he N ew Y ork P ublic L ib ra ry f o r t h e P erfo rm in g Arts , A sto r, L en ox a n d T ild en F oundatio ns).

As K au fm an a n d H art’ s p la y s u ggeste d , e ffo rts t o d efin e a u nif y in g Am eric an W ay i n t h e y ears i m med ia te ly p re ced in g U .S . e n tr y i n to W orld War I I w ere n ot l im ite d t o d is c u ssio ns o f t h e n atio n’s p olitic al e co nom y. I n th e l a te 1 930s a n d e arly 1 940s, a g ro w in g n um ber o f o pin io n m old ers a rg ued th at a d is tin ctiv e— in deed d efin in g— fe atu re o f A m eric an l if e w as t h e a b ility of d iv ers e i n div id uals t o l iv e t o geth er h arm onio usly . C astin g A m eric a a s t h e arc h ety pe o f “ u nity w ith in d iv ers ity ,” i n te lle ctu als , f e d era l o ffic ia ls , a n d a n arra y o f c iv ic g ro ups e m phasiz ed t h e n atio n’s d iv ers e d em ogra p hic s tr a n ds, portr a y ed “in te rg ro up” h ostility a s a n a lie n i m port, a n d s u ggeste d t h at a deep ly r o ote d i d eo lo gic al c o nse n su s m ad e o th er f o rm s o f p lu ra lis m p ossib le . Effo rts t o h ig hlig ht A m eric a’s d em ogra p hic d iv ers ity , a s w ell a s t o re co ncile t h at d iv ers ity w ith t h e n eed f o r n atio nal u nity , s tr e tc h ed b ack a t le ast t o 1 782 w hen J . H ecto r S t. J o hn d e C rè v eco eu r p en ned h is f a m ous Lette rs f r o m a n A m eric a n F arm er . I n deed , A m eric a’s “ v arie ty ” h ad o fte n been s e en a s “ an i n vio la b le s ig n o f n atio nal e x cep tio nalis m .” 2 S till, t h e s c o pe an d s c ale o f e ffo rts t o c h am pio n c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m — an d t o c u rb c u ltu ra l pre ju dic e— in t h e l a te 1 930s w ere s ta rtlin g, p artic u la rly i n l ig ht o f A m eric a’s re cen t p ast. W ell i n to t h e 1 920s, p ro m in en t i n te lle ctu als a n d o th er p ow erfu l elite s h ad w arn ed a g ain st t h e “ m ongre liz atio n” o f t h e n atio n, v oic in g a f e ar th at f u ele d t h e e u gen ic s m ovem en t, i m mig ra tio n r e str ic tio ns, a n d a r e su rg en t Ku K lu x K la n . B y t h e l a te 1 930s, t h e t e n or o f t h is n atio nal d is c u ssio n h ad sh if te d d ra m atic ally . I n te lle ctu als a n d c iv ic l e ad ers n ow h aile d A m eric a’s div ers e e th nic , r e lig io us, a n d s o m etim es r a cia l s tr a in s a n d a rg ued t h at t h e U.S . h ad d ev elo ped “ th e h ig hest, m ost m atu re c o ncep t o f h um an r e la tio ns y et dev is e d .” 3 E xis tin g o rg an iz atio ns s u ch a s t h e C om mon C ouncil f o r A m eric an Unity ( C CA U) a n d t h e N atio nal C onfe re n ce o f C hris tia n s a n d J e w s ( N CCJ) re d ouble d t h eir e ffo rts t o p ro m ote i n te rg ro up h arm ony a s k ey a sp ects o f t h e Am eric an W ay . N ew o rg an iz atio ns— th e C ouncil A gain st I n to le ra n ce, t h e Com mitte e f o r N atio nal M ora le , t h e C ouncil f o r D em ocra cy , t h e I n stitu te f o r Am eric an D em ocra cy , a n d m an y o th ers — sp ra n g u p d urin g t h ese y ears t o pro m ote s im ila r a g en das.

4 A c o m ple x a rra y o f d ev elo pm en ts a b ro ad a n d a t h om e s p urre d t h ese effo rts t o b oth s p otlig ht a n d t a m e A m eric an d iv ers ity . D urin g t h e l a te 1 930s, U.S . p olitic al o bse rv ers f re q uen tly j u xta p ose d t h e A m eric an W ay w ith “to ta lita ria n is m ,” a n ew ly c o in ed t e rm u se d t o c ap tu re t h e s h are d e v ils o f fa sc is m a n d c o m munis m . S in ce a c o erc ed a n d h om ogen eo us u nity w as o ne o f th ese e v ils , t h e t o ta lita ria n t h re at m ad e a ccep ta n ce o f d iv ers ity a lm ost a defin itio n o f d em ocra cy .

5 C astin g A m eric an v arie ty i n e th nocu ltu ra l t e rm s pro ved p olitic ally e asie r t h an i t h ad b een i n t h e p ast, i n p art b ecau se o f t h e cla m p-d ow n o n i m mig ra tio n t o t h e U .S . i n t h e 1 920s. T he r e str ic tiv e le g is la tio n o f t h at d ecad e e ffe ctiv ely t o ok i m mig ra tio n o ff t h e t a b le a s a su bje ct o f n atio nal d eb ate a n d h aste n ed t h e a ccu ltu ra tio n o f e th nic co m munitie s. I n s o d oin g, i t m ad e d ecla ra tio ns o f c u ltu ra l d iv ers ity l e ss th re ate n in g.

If g lo bal d ev elo pm en ts t h us p ro m pte d m an y A m eric an s t o e q uate dem ocra cy w ith v arie ty , t h ey a ls o u nders c o re d t h e d an gers o f u nch eck ed dif fe re n ce. I n te lle ctu als a n d c iv ic l e ad ers b elie v ed t h at w arrin g f a ctio ns h ad underm in ed n atio nal m ora le i n G erm an y a n d F ra n ce, p av in g t h e w ay f o r t h e politic al a n d m ilita ry t r iu m ph o f f a sc is ts . A t t h e s a m e t im e, U .S . n ew sp ap ers , mag azin es, an d n ew sre els w ere f ille d w ith s to rie s a b out m urd ero us c la sh es both b etw een a n d w ith in e th nic a n d n atio nal g ro ups. I n 1 937, f o r i n sta n ce, t h e New Y ork T im es o pen ed t h e y ear w ith r e p orts o f v ir u le n t a n ti- S em itis m i n Germ an y a n d E aste rn E uro pe t h at w as t h re ate n in g t o t u rn “ th e r e cu rre n t Je w is h t r a g ed y” i n t h at p art o f t h e w orld i n to “ a f in al d is a ste r o f t r u ly h is to ric mag nitu de.” I n A pril, t h e p ap er r e p orte d t h e t e rro r b om bin g o f t h e a n cie n t Basq ue c ity o f G uern ic a b y G erm an b om bers a llie d w ith S pan is h n atio nalis ts ; an d i n S ep te m ber, i t t o ld r e ad ers t h at S ovie t p urg es h ad m ad e t h e p re v io us tw elv e m onth s “ th e b lo odie st s in ce t h e e arly y ears o f t h e B ols h ev is t [ s ic ] re v olu tio n.” D ecem ber b ro ught n ew s o f t h e J a p an ese “ ra p e” o f t h e Natio nalis t C hin ese c ap ita l a t N an kin g— a t h re e-w eek o rg y o f r a p e, t o rtu re , beh ead in g, b ay onetin g, a n d m ach in e-g unnin g t h at l e ft a s m an y a s t h re e hundre d t h ousa n d C hin ese d ead .

6 A nd t h at w as o nly 1 937.

In t h is c o nte x t, t h e U .S . l o oked t o m an y A m eric an a n d f o re ig n o bse rv ers lik e a c o sm opolita n h av en ; t h e g en era lly i n clu siv e e th os o f t h e N ew D eal only s tr e n gth en ed t h is p erc ep tio n.

7 A t t h e s a m e t im e, m an y o f t h ose w ho haile d A m eric an p lu ra lis m a n d t o le ra n ce w ere d riv en i n p art b y f e ar— fe ar th at t h e U .S ., t o o, m ig ht s u ccu m b t o t h e h atr e d s r a v ag in g o th er l a n ds.

Am eric a h ad a l o ng h is to ry o f n ativ is m , r a cis m , a n d r e lig io us i n to le ra n ce, a n d th e D ep re ssio n o nly f u ele d s u ch s e n tim en ts i n s o m e q uarte rs . M ore o ver, ris in g t e n sio ns b etw een n atio ns i n E uro pe a n d A sia h ad t r ig gere d w hat t h e im mig ra n t w rite r L ouis A dam ic c alle d a “ p ow erfu l b ack w ash o f g ro up fe elin gs o r n atio nal e m otio ns” w ith in A m eric a’s e th nic c o m munitie s. “ T he cle av ag es a m ong t h e v ario us g ro ups [ in A m eric a] a re d eep en in g,” A dam ic warn ed o m in ously i n a s p eech h e d eliv ere d w id ely i n 1 939 a n d 1 940.

“G ro ups a re p ullin g a p art i n to v ario us c o rn ers , a w ay f ro m o ne a n oth er.” 8 Such f e ars m ean t t h at n early a ll o f t h ose w ho e m phasiz ed A m eric a’s plu ra lis t m ak eu p i n t h e y ears i m med ia te ly p re ced in g W orld W ar I I y oked div ers ity t ig htly t o c o nse n su s.

9 B y e m phasiz in g t h e n atio n’s d em ogra p hic varie ty , t h ey s o ught t o d is tin guis h t h e U .S . f ro m t o ta lita ria n “ o th ers ” a n d t o mak e e th nic , r e lig io us, a n d r a cia l m in oritie s f e el a t h om e i n t h e n atio n. B y co nvin cin g A m eric an s o f d iv ers e b ack gro unds t h at t h ey s h are d f u ndam en ta l belie fs , o pin io n m old ers s o ught t o a v ert c h ao s a n d i n to le ra n ce a n d t o str e n gth en n atio nal m ora le . B y d ecla rin g t h at A m eric a w as a n atio n o f d iv ers e in div id uals b ound b y c o nse n su s, t h ey s o ught t o c all s u ch a n atio n i n to b ein g an d t o p ro vid e a n e x am ple f o r t h e w orld .

The f a ct t h at v arie d i n div id uals a n d g ro ups c ast A m eric a a s a d iv ers e natio n u nif ie d b y c erta in c o re b elie fs s h ould n ot o bsc u re k ey d if fe re n ces i n th e w ay t h ey r e ck oned b oth p lu ra lis m a n d c o nse n su s. S om e c ast A m eric a a s a “n atio n o f i m mig ra n ts ” — or m ore b ro ad ly a “ n atio n o f n atio ns” — unite d b y th e s e cu la r E nlig hte n m en t v alu es e n sh rin ed i n t h e D ecla ra tio n o f In dep en den ce a n d t h e U .S . C onstitu tio n. M em bers o f t h e b urg eo nin g in te rfa ith m ovem en t, h ow ev er, e m phasiz ed r e lig io us r a th er t h an e th nic div ers ity a n d s a w i n s h are d s p ir itu al b elie fs t h e s o urc e o f t h e n atio n’s co m mon g ro und. S om e a n tir a cis t s o cia l s c ie n tis ts , n ota b ly i n clu din g Marg are t M ead , e m phasiz ed A m eric an s’ i m mig ra n t past b ut f o cu se d o n t h e assim ila tin g p ow er o f A m eric an c u ltu re . R esu rre ctin g t h e n otio n o f “ n atio nal ch ara cte r,” t h ey s o ught t o r e co ncile t h e t e n sio n b etw een u nity a n d d iv ers ity by s h ow in g t h at A m eric an s o f d iv ers e o rig in s i n te rn aliz ed c erta in k ey v alu es.

Such d if fe re n ces m atte re d . A n A m eric a p ic tu re d a s a “ n atio n o f im mig ra n ts ” i m plic itly l e ft o ut b oth A m eric an I n dia n s a n d b la ck s. E ven t h ose who a d vocate d t h e b ro ad er “ n atio n o f n atio ns” f o rm ula tio n o fte n f a ile d t o re co gniz e t h e u niq ue h is to ry a n d c h alle n ges c o nfro nte d b y b la ck A m eric an s.

Portr a y als o f t h e n atio n a s “ P ro te sta n t- C ath olic -J e w is h ” s id este p ped i s su es o f eth nic a n d r a cia l d iv ers ity a n d e x clu ded a th eis ts , s e cu la r h um an is ts , a n d oth ers w ho d id n ot s u bsc rib e t o o ne o f t h ese t h re e m ajo r f a ith s. M arg are t Mead s a w p ro lo nged i n to le ra n ce a s i m ped in g t h e d ev elo pm en t o f a s h are d “n atio nal c h ara cte r.” T hus, h er v is io n o f t h e n atio n e x clu ded b oth p erp etr a to rs an d v ic tim s o f r a cis m .

Bey ond a ll t h is l o om ed l a rg er q uestio ns o f c o m ity a n d j u stic e. I f a fu ndam en ta l a g re em en t o n v alu es— an i d eo lo gic al c o nse n su s— was a necessa ry p re co nditio n f o r h arm oniz in g d iv ers e g ro ups, t h en w hat w as t h e co nte n t o f t h at c o nse n su s a n d w ho c o ntr o lle d i ts b oundarie s? S hould “to le ra n ce” ( o r e v en “ accep ta n ce”) e x te n d t o c o nse rv ativ e b usin essm en ? T o co m munis ts a n d o th ers o n t h e l e ft? T o b ig ots ? T o t h ose w ho c o ndem ned ra cia l b ig otr y b ut m ad e n o m ove t o d is m an tle s e g re g atio n? I n s h ort, d id t h e Am eric an W ay m ean g re ate r eq uality f o r p eo ple o f a ll b ack gro unds o r s im ply gre ate r civ ility w ith in t h e c o nte x t o f t h e e co nom ic a n d s o cia l s ta tu s q uo? A s Am eric an s d eb ate d t h ese i s su es i n t h e l a te 1 930s a n d e arly 1 940s, t h e para m ete rs o f d iv ers ity a n d c o nse n su s— th e l im its o f u nity a n d i n clu sio n— becam e c o nte ste d t e rra in .

Lou is A dam ic a n d t h e “ N atio n o f Natio n s” A ppro ach In t h e f a ll o f 1 939 a n d t h e s p rin g o f 1 940, t h e S lo ven ia n -A m eric an j o urn alis t Louis A dam ic t o ure d t h e U .S ., l e ctu rin g t o s o m e o ne h undre d a u die n ces ab out h is n ew p ro je ct, a m assiv e a tte m pt t o r e w rite A m eric an h is to ry i n a w ay th at w ould i n te g ra te “ P ly m outh R ock a n d E llis I s la n d.” E ven a h undre d y ears earlie r, he a rg ued , “ th e p eo ple o f t h is c o untr y w ere l a rg ely d eriv ed f ro m Brita in ” a n d w ere f o r t h e m ost p art A nglo -S ax on a n d P ro te sta n t. ( A dam ic ack now le d ged t h e p re se n ce o f “ g re at n um bers ” o f N eg ro es a n d I n dia n s b ut arg ued t h at f o r v ario us r e aso ns b oth g ro ups w ere s e en a s “ o uts id e t h e pro cesse s o f A m eric an c u ltu re .” ) A c en tu ry o f i m mig ra tio n h ad c h an ged t h at pic tu re . “ In t h e l a st h undre d y ears , 3 8,0 00,0 00 i m mig ra n ts c am e o ver; 24,0 00,0 00 i n t h e l a st f if ty y ears ,” A dam ic w ro te . “ A nd t h e m ajo rity o f t h em were n on-A nglo -S ax ons a n d n on-P ro te sta n ts , a n d w ere n ot v ery c lo se ly atta ch ed t o t h e a ttitu de t o l if e c alle d P urita n is m .” T his s h if t h ad n ot b een re fle cte d i n t h e n atio n’s h is to ric al n arra tiv e o r i ts s e n se o f n atio nal i d en tity .

Adam ic p ro pose d t o c h an ge t h at. H e w ould w rite “ an i n te lle ctu al- e m otio nal sy nth esis o f o ld a n d n ew A m eric a; o f t h e M ay flo w er a n d t h e s te era g e; o f t h e New E ngla n d w ild ern ess a n d t h e s o cia l- e co nom ic j u ngle o f t h e c ity s lu m s an d t h e f a cto ry s y ste m ; o f t h e L ib erty B ell a n d t h e S ta tu e o f L ib erty .” “ T he old A m eric an D re am n eed s t o b e i n te rla ced w ith t h e i m mig ra n ts ’ e m otio ns a s th ey s a w t h e S ta tu e o f L ib erty ,” h e d ecla re d . “ T he t w o m ust b e m ad e i n to o ne sto ry .” 10 Adam ic w as a l o gic al i n div id ual t o u nderta k e s u ch a p ro je ct. H e h ad em ig ra te d f ro m t h e A ustr o -H ungaria n E m pir e a t t h e a g e o f f if te en , l e arn ed Englis h i n N ew Y ork C ity n ig ht s c h ools , a n d b eco m e a n A m eric an c itiz en while s e rv in g i n t h e a rm y d urin g W orld W ar I . D urin g t h e 1 920s a n d e arly 1930s, h e h ad w ork ed a s a W est C oast j o urn alis t, b efrie n din g s u ch a ctiv is t write rs a s C are y M cW illia m s a n d U pto n S in cla ir a n d e sta b lis h in g h is re p uta tio n a s a r a d ic al d em ocra t w hose a lle g ia n ce l a y w ith t h e l e ft w in g o f th e N ew D eal c o alitio n. A dam ic ’s e arly w ork f o cu se d o n c la ss a n d l a b or is su es, b ut h is t h ir d b ook, a b est- s e llin g a cco unt o f h is r e tu rn t o S lo ven ia a fte r a t w en ty -y ear a b se n ce, s ig nale d a s h if t i n e m phasis . I n t h e m id -1 930s, Adam ic b eg an p ublic iz in g h is “ P ly m outh R ock a n d E llis I s la n d” p ro je ct th ro ugh l e ctu re t o urs a n d a l e n gth y q uestio nnair e d ubbed t h e “ B ro ad sid e.” H e so lic ite d l e tte rs f ro m i m mig ra n ts , t h eir c h ild re n , a n d “ O ld S to ck ” A m eric an s ab out t h eir e x perie n ces i n a n d v ie w s o f t h e U .S . D ra w in g o n t h e t h ousa n ds o f re sp onse s h e r e ceiv ed , A dam ic p ublis h ed f o ur w id ely a ccla im ed b ooks betw een 1 940 a n d 1 945 t h at b ecam e k now n c o lle ctiv ely a s t h e “ N atio n o f Natio ns” s e rie s.

11 Adam ic w as p erh ap s t h e m ost v is ib le s p okesp ers o n f o r a v is io n o f Am eric a t h at b eg an t o g ain w id e a ccep ta n ce i n t h e l a te 1 930s— a v is io n t h at cast t h e U .S . a s a “ n atio n o f i m mig ra n ts ” o r, i n t h e w ord s t h at A dam ic borro w ed f ro m W alt W hitm an , a s a “ n atio n o f n atio ns.” D urin g t h ese y ears , pio neers o f i n te rc u ltu ra l e d ucatio n d is tr ib ute d m ate ria ls o n d iv ers e e th nic a n d ra cia l g ro ups t o t e ach ers a cro ss t h e c o untr y i n a n a tte m pt t o p ro m ote c ro ss- cu ltu ra l u nders ta n din g.

12 T he S ta tu e o f L ib erty , w hic h f o r d ecad es h ad b een se en a s a n em ble m o f U .S . i n dep en den ce a n d “ F ra n co -A m eric an f rie n dsh ip ,” was r e cast a s a b eaco n “ to t h e h uddle d m asse s o f t h e O ld W orld .” 13 T he Ju stic e D ep artm en t l a u nch ed “ I A m a n A m eric an D ay ” t o h onor n ew ly natu ra liz ed c itiz en s, r e in fo rc in g i ts m essa g e o f u nity a n d d iv ers ity w ith b oth a ra d io p ro gra m a n d a b ook o f t h e s a m e n am e.

14 M ean w hile , “ B alla d f o r Am eric an s,” a r o usin g c an ta ta c o m pose d f o r a F ed era l T heatr e P ro je ct r e v ue, cele b ra te d “ an I ris h , N eg ro , J e w is h , I ta lia n , F re n ch a n d E nglis h , S pan is h , Russia n , C hin ese , P olis h , S co tc h , H ungaria n , L itv ak , S w ed is h , F in nis h , Can ad ia n , G re ek a n d T urk , a n d C zech a n d d ouble C zech A m eric an .” W ritte n by J o hn L a T ouch e a n d E arl R obin so n, b oth m em bers o f w hat M ic h ael Den nin g h as c alle d t h e “ C ultu ra l F ro nt,” t h e s o ng w as p opula riz ed i n l a te 1939 b y t h e g re at b la ck b ass P au l R obeso n. B y 1 940, M GM h ad s n ap ped i t up f o r a m ovie , s c h ool c h oru se s w ere p erfo rm in g i t a cro ss t h e c o untr y , a n d both t h e R ep ublic an a n d C om munis t p artie s u se d i t i n t h eir n atio nal co nven tio ns.

15 “B alla d f o r A m eric an s” a ls o b ecam e a t h em e s o ng o f t h e “ A m eric an Com mon” a t t h e 1 940 N ew Y ork W orld ’s F air .

16 W hen t h e S ovie t U nio n with dre w f ro m t h e f a ir i n t h e w ak e o f t h e N azi- S ovie t p act, e x positio n desig ners d ecid ed t o u se t h e n ew ly o pen ed s p ace t o “ d em onstr a te a n i d ea dia m etr ic ally o ppose d t o t h e p ro pag an da o f t h e t o ta lita ria n s ta te s,… [n am ely ] th at A m eric a’s g re atn ess s p rin gs f ro m t h e f re e a n d d em ocra tic i n stitu tio ns th at a llo w h er i n div id ual c itiz en s a n d c u ltu ra l g ro ups t o p urs u e h ap pin ess i n th eir o w n d if fe rin g w ay s.” F air o rg an iz ers a llo w ed d if fe re n t e th nic g ro ups t o ta k e o ver t h e A m eric an C om mon f o r a n e v en in g, a d ay o r a w eek , a n d t o u se th e b an d s h ell, a u dito riu m , a n d m ark etp la ce t o “ g iv e i ts o w n d is tin ctiv e ‘c o untr y f a ir ’ w ith i ts o w n o ld -w orld b azaars a n d f ie sta s.” A s i ts n am e su ggeste d , h ow ev er, t h e A m eric an C om mon u ltim ate ly h aile d d iv ers ity i n t h e co nte x t o f n atio nal u nity . T he S ta rs a n d S tr ip es t o w ere d o ver t h e C om mon o n a “ L ib erty P ole ,” a n d e ach d ay e n ded w ith w hat o rg an iz ers c alle d a “ b rillia n t patr io tic g ath erin g.” “ H ere ,” o ne p ublic ity r e le ase i n to ned , “ w ill b e A m eric a in i ts r ic h est m in gle d t r a d itio ns. H ere w ill b e t h e m ost d ir e ct a n d p ow erfu l an sw er t o t h e d ic ta to rs w ho w ould m old a ll p eo ple s i n to t h e s a m e r ig id patte rn .” 17 As t h is q uote s u ggests , t h e c ele b ra tio n o f A m eric a’s d iv ers e e th nic s tr a in s in t h e l a te 1 930s a n d e arly 1 940s i n p art r e fle cte d s im ply a n ew t w is t o n a n old t r a d itio n: i n vokin g A m eric an d iv ers ity t o a rg ue f o r n atio nal ex cep tio nalis m . M an y l ib era l i n te lle ctu als , g overn m en t o ffic ia ls , a n d c iv ic le ad ers a ls o b elie v ed t h at a m ore i n clu siv e v is io n o f t h e n atio n w as e sse n tia l to c em en tin g n atio nal u nity a n d p ro te ctin g p olitic al d em ocra cy d urin g a t im e of i n te rn atio nal p eril. A dam ic a n d o th ers w orrie d a b out t h e p hysic al a n d psy ch ic e ffe ct o f i n te rg ro up h ostility o n t h e i n div id uals w ho w ere i ts t a rg ets .

“N ot a f e w o ld sto ck A m eric an s g o o n b elie v in g t h ey a re o n t h e i n sid e t r a ck of a p atte rn o f c iv iliz atio n a n d c u ltu re w hic h w as f ix ed l o ng a g o, o nce a n d f o r all,” A dam ic d ecla re d . T his O ld S to ck p re ju dic e, a g gra v ate d b y t h e e co nom ic pre ssu re s o f t h e D ep re ssio n, k ep t A m eric a’s n ew est a rriv als f ro m i d en tif y in g with A m eric a, h e b elie v ed : “ W hen t h ey s a y ‘ A m eric an s,’ t h ey d on’t m ean th em se lv es.” S uch p re ju dic e o nly r e in fo rc ed O ld W orld l o yaltie s, ex acerb atin g t e n sio ns a m ong e th nic g ro ups t h at h ad e m erg ed a s a r e su lt o f hostilitie s a b ro ad . B oth o ld a n d n ew A m eric an s, A dam ic w arn ed , w ere “b eco m in g u nhooked f ro m t h e c o untr y ’s e x pan siv e a n d c re ativ e i m puls e s, fro m t h e A m eric an D re am .” 18 As A dam ic s e t a b out a d dre ssin g t h ese p ro ble m s, h is p ro je ct q uic k ly f o und in stitu tio nal s u pport. T he F ore ig n L an guag e I n fo rm atio n S erv ic e ( F L IS ) h ad em erg ed f ro m t h e f e d era l C om mitte e o n P ublic I n fo rm atio n d urin g W orld War I a n d h ad w ork ed f o r m ore t h an t w o d ecad es t o s o lv e t h e “ im mig ra n t pro ble m ” b y “ ed ucatin g a w ay t h e m is u nders ta n din g a n d i g nora n ce” t h at pla g ued b oth t h e f o re ig n a n d n ativ e b orn ; i t d id t h is l a rg ely b y d is p en sin g tr a n sla te d b ulle tin s t o t h e f o re ig n-la n guag e p re ss. I n t h e l a te 1 920s, t h e F L IS had f a lle n o n h ard t im es, b ut t h e r is e o f H itle r a n d g ro w in g t e n sio ns i n Euro pe d urin g t h e f o llo w in g d ecad e r e su sc ita te d t h e o rg an iz atio n. T he F L IS ’s dir e cto r, R ead L ew is , w as i n tr ig ued w ith A dam ic ’s n otio n t h at a m ore ex pan siv e u nders ta n din g o f A m eric a’s p ast a n d s h are d v alu es c o uld i m pro ve th e m ora le o f s e co nd-g en era tio n A m eric an s a n d d efu se r e lig io us a n d e th nic te n sio ns l ik e t h ose h e s a w e m an atin g f ro m E uro pe. I n t h e m id -1 930s h e re cru ite d t h e y oung w rite r t o h elp r e o rg an iz e t h e a g en cy a n d b ro ad en i ts man date . T he F L IS a n d A dam ic ’s “ N atio n o f N atio ns” p ro je ct a ls o g arn ere d sig nif ic an t f in an cia l s u pport f ro m t h e C arn eg ie C orp ora tio n. E nerg iz ed b y a new s e n se o f p urp ose , A dam ic a n d L ew is r e n am ed t h e o rg an iz atio n t h e Com mon C ouncil f o r A m eric an U nity ( C CA U) a n d l a u nch ed a “ little mag azin e” t h ey e n title d Com mon G ro und . O n t h e e v e o f W orld W ar I I, t h ey ste ere d t h e C CA U i n to t h e f o re fro nt o f a h ost o f l ib era l g ro ups t h at p re ach ed natio nal i d eo lo gic al u nity a s a n a n tid ote t o d eep en in g r e lig io us, r a cia l, a n d eth nic d iv id es.

19 Adam ic , t h e C CA U, a n d t h eir a llie s o n t h e l ib era l l e ft c ritic iz ed t h e n otio n of a h om ogen ous a n d s ta tic A m eric an c u ltu re a n d i n ste ad e n co ura g ed ap pre cia tio n f o r t h e c o ntr ib utio ns o f e th nic a n d r a cia l g ro ups t o A m eric a’s “cu ltu re i n t h e m ak in g.” A t t h e s a m e t im e, t h ey r e je cte d t h e e th nocu ltu ra l esse n tia lis m e m bra ced b y t h e f ir s t a d vocate o f c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m , H ora ce Kalle n . W ritin g i n a n e ra o f m ass i m mig ra tio n a n d r e p re ssiv e Am eric an iz atio n c am paig ns, K alle n s a w e th nic g ro up c o nsc io usn ess a s a bulw ark a g ain st d is c rim in atio n. T hus, h e e n vis io ned t h e U .S . a s a l o ose ly lin ked f e d era tio n o f r e la tiv ely s ta b le e th nic n atio nalitie s.

20 T w o d ecad es l a te r, in t h e m id st o f t h e gre at i m mig ra tio n i n te rre g num , t h e e d ges o f A m eric a’s eth nic e n cla v es h ad b eg un t o b lu r. M ore i m porta n t, A dam ic , t h e C CA U, a n d man y o th er l ib era ls a n d l e ftis ts h ad c o m e t o s e e e th nocu ltu ra l i d en tity a s a double -e d ged s w ord : i t c o uld e n ric h A m eric an c u ltu re a n d p ro vid e a te m pora ry s o urc e o f s u pport f o r i n div id uals a s t h ey m erg ed “ o rg an ic ally ” i n to th e n atio n, b ut r ig id g ro up l o yaltie s c o uld a ls o f a n t h e f la m es o f p re ju dic e t h at were r a v ag in g E uro pe a n d t h re ate n in g t h e U .S . a s w ell.

21 In f a ct, A dam ic a rg ued t h at t h e U .S . s h ould “ in vite d iv ers ity ” p re cis e ly becau se t h is w as t h e b est w ay t o f re e in div id uals f ro m t h e v ic e-lik e g rip o f eth nic p asts a n d “ to p ro duce u nity i n a d em ocra tic c o untr y .” S uppre ssio n o f div ers ity , A dam ic a rg ued , w ould t e n d t o m ak e c u ltu ra l g ro ups a sh am ed a n d defe n siv e, d riv in g t h em i n to “ th e c o ncen tr a tio n-c am p-lik e f o re ig n s e ctio ns an d g hetto s a n d r e str ic te d r e sid en tia l d is tr ic ts .” I n vitin g d iv ers ity , b y c o ntr a st, “w ill e n co ura g e m ovem en t a n d d is p ers a l, a t t h e s a m e t im e t h at i t w ill w ork fo r h arm ony a n d f u sio n,” A dam ic w ro te . “ In vitin g d iv ers ity b rin gs o ut t h e basic s a m en ess o f p eo ple , j u st a s t h e o pposite r e su lts o nly i n m ore a n d sh arp er d if fe re n ces.” 22 As t h is f in al l in e s u ggests , t h e “ u nity i n d iv ers ity ” t h at A dam ic h oped t o cre ate r e ste d u ltim ate ly o n h is p ro positio n t h at i n div id ual A m eric an s, whate v er t h eir b ack gro und, s h are d a c o m mon s e t o f v alu es a n d a sp ir a tio ns.

Adam ic a rg ued i n h is o ft- d eliv ere d “ P ly m outh R ock a n d E llis I s la n d” l e ctu re th at b oth “ o ld s to ck ” A m eric an s a n d t h ose w hose a n cesto rs h ad a rriv ed m ore re cen tly h ad b een p ro pelle d b y a “ su rg e t o w ard f re ed om ” a n d t h at b oth su bsc rib ed t o t h e “ A m eric an D re am .” T his d re am w as “ a m atte r m ostly o f fa ith i n t h e h um an i n div id ual a n d t h e c o ncep ts o f l ib erty , f ra te rn ity a n d eq uality , o f g en era l w elf a re a n d d em ocra cy w hic h w ere s ta te d o r e m bodie d i n th e D ecla ra tio n o f I n dep en den ce a n d t h e C onstitu tio n.” 23 T his e m phasis o n sh are d b elie fs a n d v alu es a ls o p erm eate d Com mon G ro und . “ N ev er h as i t been m ore i m porta n t t h at w e b eco m e i n te llig en tly a w are o f t h e g ro und Am eric an s o f v ario us s tr a in s h av e i n c o m mon,” t h e e d ito rs d ecla re d i n t h e open in g i s su e, “ th at w e s in k o ur t a p r o ots d eep i n to i ts r ic h a n d v arie d cu ltu ra l p ast a n d a tta in r a tio nal s ta b ility i n p la ce o f e m otio nal h yste ria ; t h at we r e aw ak en t h e o ld A m eric an D re am , t h e d re am w hic h , i n i ts p ow erfu l em phasis o n t h e f u ndam en ta l w orth a n d d ig nity o f e v ery h um an b ein g, c an b e a b ond o f u nity n o t o ta lita ria n a tta ck c an b re ak .” 24 Thus, f o r a ll t h eir c ele b ra tio n o f e th nocu ltu ra l d iv ers ity , A dam ic a n d t h e CCA U p ut t h eir g re ate st h opes f o r a j u st a n d h arm onio us s o cie ty i n t h e v alu es sh are d b y f re e i n div id uals w ith in t h e c o nte x t o f t h e A m eric an n atio n. T he Am eric an D re am , A dam ic a rg ued , h ad m an y s o urc es, a n d i ts a p peal w as pote n tia lly u niv ers a l. “ A t i ts b est, A m eric an is m i s n obody’s m onopoly , b ut a hap py c o ncen tr a te o f s o m e o f t h e h ig hest a sp ir a tio ns a n d t e n den cie s o f hum an ity a t i ts b est n early e v ery w here a t o ne t im e o r a n oth er,” A dam ic wro te . “ It i s , a m ong o th er t h in gs, a m ovem en t a w ay f ro m p rim itiv e r a cis m , fe ar a n d n atio nalis m , a n d h erd i n stin cts a n d m en ta lity ; a m ovem en t t o w ard fre ed om , c re ativ en ess, a u niv ers a l o r p an -h um an c u ltu re .” 25 S in ce A dam ic belie v ed t h at t h e U .S . b est e x em plif ie d t h ese “ u niv ers a l” E nlig hte n m en t- deriv ed v alu es, h is w ritin g o fte n t o ok o n a c ele b ra to ry t o ne. “ A m eric a … em bodie s t h e h ig hest, m ost m atu re c o ncep t o f h um an r e la tio ns y et d ev is e d ,” he a rg ued i n a 1 943 a rtic le . “ T he u npre ced en te d s c o pe o f t h is e x perim en t i n liv in g t o geth er w ith r e la tiv ely l ittle f ric tio n h as g iv en t h e U nite d S ta te s a uniq ue s ta tu s. T o m illio ns o f t h e o ppre sse d t h ro ughout t h e w orld ‘ A m eric a’ i s a m ag ic n am e; i t i s p ara d is e c o m e t r u e o n e arth .” 26 Such a d ula tio n m ig ht n ot s e em s u rp ris in g c o m in g f ro m s o m e o f t h e m ore co nse rv ativ e v oic es w ho e m bra ced t h e “ n atio n o f i m mig ra n ts ” p ara d ig m .

Adam ic , h ow ev er, o pen ly a d vocate d r a cia l e q uality a n d e co nom ic j u stic e a n d was a s ta lw art o f t h e P opula r F ro nt. H is w ritin gs i n t h e l a te 1 930s a n d e arly 1940s p ut l e ss e m phasis o n c la ss i s su es t h an d id h is e arlie r w ork ; s till h e arg ued i n 1 938 t h at A m eric a’s p hilo so phy o f g overn m en t “ b asic ally a n d gen era lly … h as n o q uarre l w ith t h e i d eal o f C om munis m , w hic h i s esse n tia lly t h e i d eal o f e q uality .” 27 I n t h e s a m e a rtic le i n w hic h h e e x to lle d Am eric a a s a n e arth ly p ara d is e , A dam ic a ck now le d ged t h at “ w e a re s till ham pere d b y p re ju dic e, b y x en ophobia , r a cis m , i s o la tio nis m , a n d ‘ c la ss’ dis tin ctio ns.” 28 I n a p riv ate l e tte r w ritte n i n e arly 1 939, A dam ic n ote d t h at h e was a n A m eric an , “ b ut d is p le ase d w ith m uch i n p re se n t d ay A m eric a a n d passio nate o nly i n m y f e elin g o r i d ea t h at w e h av e a c h an ce h ere t o c re ate a n am azin g c u ltu re a n d c iv iliz atio n.” 29 As t h is f in al q uote s u ggests , A dam ic r e co ncile d h is c o nflic tin g v ie w s b y ad optin g a n a p pro ach o fte n a ttr ib ute d t o G unnar M yrd al’ s f a m ous 1 944 s tu dy of r a ce r e la tio ns, An A m eric a n D ile m ma . L ik e M yrd al a n d m an y o th er lib era ls a n d l e ftis ts i n t h e l a te 1 930s a n d e arly 1 940s, A dam ic d is tin guis h ed —alw ay s p riv ate ly a n d s o m etim es i n h is p ublic s p eech es a n d w ritin gs— betw een t h e A m eric a h e s a w a n d t h e A m eric a t h at w as b eco m in g.

30 “ T he Unite d S ta te s i s n ot a n yth in g f in is h ed a n d p erfe ct, b ut a p ro cess i n n um ero us way s a n d r e sp ects ,” A dam ic a rg ued i n t h e s p eech h e g av e t o a u die n ces aro und t h e c o untr y . “ T he r o ad a h ead i s l o ng, a n d … w e h av e t o b e p atie n t.” Adam ic w as o ptim is tic t h at A m eric an s w ere m ovin g i n t h e r ig ht d ir e ctio n. I n str e ssin g t h eir c o re b elie fs a n d c o m mon v alu es, h ow ev er, h e w as n ot s im ply cele b ra tin g t h e p ath h is f e llo w c itiz en s h ad t a k en ; h e w as t r y in g i n ste ad t o nudge t h em d ow n t h e l o ng r o ad a h ead .

Bla ck A m eric an s g en era lly a p pla u ded s o m e a sp ects o f A dam ic ’s ap pro ach — partic u la rly h is e q uatio n o f A m eric an is m w ith i n div id ual f re ed om an d e q uality a n d h is j u dgm en t t h at A m eric a’s a b ility t o s o lv e “ th e N eg ro questio n” w ould b e t h e “ u ltim ate t e st” o f i ts c iv iliz atio n.

31 S om e, h ow ev er, ch alle n ged h is o ptim is tic t o ne. “ T he N eg ro t e ach er i s e x pecte d t o t e ach Am eric an d em ocra cy j u st a s t h e w hite t e ach er d oes. B ut t h is i d ealis m d oes not e x is t,” a b la ck t e ach er f ro m N orth C aro lin a w ro te i n A pril 1 940 i n re sp onse t o A dam ic ’s q uestio nnair e . “ T he s tu den t s o on d is c o vers t h e f a lla cy of t h is l e sso n. D oors o f o pportu nity a re c lo se d i n h is f a ce. H e i s c ru sh ed i n more w ay s t h an o ne.” C ould t h e p eo ple o f t h e U nite d S ta te s a ffo rd t o c ritic iz e Germ an y “ fo r c ru sh in g t h e J e w s,” t h e t e ach er a sk ed , “ w hen p eo ple i n Am eric a w ill h an g N eg ro es u p t r e es a n d c u t o ff p arts o f t h eir b odie s f o r so uven ir s ? ” 32 What t h is a n d o th er b la ck A m eric an s w ere q uestio nin g w as A dam ic ’s ju dgm en t t h at t h e “ N eg ro P ro ble m ” w as s im ply “ a s e ctio n o f t h e A m eric an Pro ble m w hic h i n volv es a ll o f u s, w hite a n d b la ck , o ld -s to ck w hite f o lk a n d peo ple o f r e cen t- im mig ra n t s to ck s.” 33 A dam ic b elie v ed t h is s o f e rv en tly t h at when t h e w hite p hila n th ro pis t A nso n P help s S to kes a p pro ach ed h im i n 1 935 ab out p la n s b ein g h atc h ed b y W . E . B . D uB ois a n d o th ers f o r a n Encyclo ped ia o f t h e N eg ro , A dam ic b ru sq uely s u ggeste d t h at t h ey a b an don th e i d ea. “ T he N eg ro m illio ns a re p art o f t h e U nite d S ta te s, n ot s e p ara te f ro m it,” h e w ro te S to kes, “ an d I f e el t h at t h ey b elo ng, a lo ng w ith t h e I n dia n s, Yan kees, t h e D utc h , a n d t h e m ore r e cen t i m mig ra n t s tr a in s, i n a c o m ple te ra cia l e n cy clo ped ia , w hic h w ill t e ll u s— th e p eo ple o f t h e U nite d S ta te s: a ll o f us— who w e a re , w hat w e h av e i n u s, e tc .” A dam ic w as n ot a lo ne i n t h is vie w . I n h is d is p ute w ith S to kes a n d D uB ois , A dam ic s u ccessfu lly s o ught t h e su pport o f t h e “ y oung T urk s” a t H ow ard U niv ers ity , i n clu din g e co nom is t Abra m H arris , p olitic al s c ie n tis t R alp h B unch e, a n d s o cio lo gis t E . F ra n klin Fra zie r.

34 T his g ro up o f y oung r a d ic al s c h ola rs f e rv en tly o ppose d w hat t h ey sa w a s t h e “ ra ce c h au vin is m ” o f D uB ois a n d h is a llie s a n d i n ste ad p la ced th eir h opes f o r b la ck a d van ce a n d d im in is h ed r a ce p re ju dic e i n i n te rra cia l unio nis m .

35 Adam ic ’s r e fu sa l t o d is tin guis h s h arp ly b etw een t h e e x perie n ce o f b la ck s an d o th er A m eric an s w as s h are d b y m ost w hite s w ho c ele b ra te d t h e n atio n’s cu ltu ra l d iv ers ity o n t h e e v e o f W orld W ar I I. T hose w ho o rc h estr a te d t h e era ’s p ublic d is p la y s o f c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m — govern m en t o ffic ia ls , in te rc u ltu ra l e d ucato rs , r a d io s c rip tw rite rs , a n d t h e h ead s o f o rg an iz atio ns l ik e th e C CA U, t h e I n te rn atio nal I n stitu te s, a n d t h e W orld F air ’s “ A m eric an Com mon”— did n ot a lw ay s s h are A dam ic ’s r a d ic al p olitic s, b ut t h ey gen era lly c ele b ra te d t h e h is to ry o f t h e n atio n’s d iv ers e p eo ple s a n d o fte n em phasiz ed t h e “ g if ts ” t h at e ach h ad c o ntr ib ute d t o t h e n atio nal c u ltu re .

36 Bla ck A m eric an s w ere i n se rte d in to t h is p an oply o f p ro gre ss, o fte n w ith out fu ll r e co gnitio n o f t h eir v ery d if fe re n t h is to ry a n d t h e u niq ue c h alle n ges with in A m eric an s o cie ty t h at t h ey c o ntin ued t o f a ce.

The d ile m mas t h is p ose d f o r b la ck A m eric an s w ere c le arly a p pare n t i n Adam ic ’s p ortr a y al o f t h e “ F estiv al o f N atio ns” s ta g ed b y t h e S t. P au l In te rn atio nal I n stitu te i n A pril 1 939. I n p re p ara tio n f o r t h e a n nual e v en t, t h e city a u dito riu m “ w as t r a n sfo rm ed i n to a m ark et s q uare i n a c o m posite O ld World c ity o f a b out t h e y ear 1 850, w hen m odern i m mig ra tio n t o A m eric a beg an i n e arn est.” W ith t h e h elp o f a l o cal a rc h ite ct, t h e e d ges o f t h e v ast sp ace w ere t r a n sfo rm ed t o s u ggest “ th e a rc h ite ctu re o f t w o d ozen E uro pean an d A sia tic c o untr ie s.” P artic ip an ts — in clu din g b la ck s, w ho h ad b een i n vite d fo r t h e f ir s t t im e t o t a k e p art— were s u ppose d t o d on t h e c o stu m es t h at t h eir an cesto rs m ig ht h av e w orn a ro und 1 850.

37 This d elig hte d m ost m em bers o f t h e c ity ’s e th nic c o m munitie s, b ut i t pose d a p ro ble m f o r b la ck s. I n t h e l a te 1 930s, m an y b la ck A m eric an s w ere re lu cta n t t o c all a tte n tio n t o t h eir A fric an h erita g e. S outh ern r a cis ts s u ch a s Mis sis sip pi s e n ato r T heo dore B ilb o w ere a ctiv ely p ro m otin g p la n s t o s h ip Am eric an b la ck s t o A fric a, b y f o rc e i f n ecessa ry .

38 M ore o ver, t h e c o ntin en t’ s re sid en ts w ere r e g ard ed a s i n ep t, c o rru pt, a n d s a v ag e b y n early a ll w hite s a n d ev en m an y p ro gre ssiv e b la ck s. T he a ttitu des o f m an y b la ck A m eric an s s ta rte d to c h an ge i n 1 935, w ith t h e I ta lia n i n vasio n o f E th io pia . S till, t h e e v olu tio n was g ra d ual.

39 W hen t h e C ouncil A gain st I n to le ra n ce i n 1 942 d is tr ib ute d th ousa n ds o f c la ssro om w all m ap s c h artin g A m eric a’s p opula tio n b y c o untr y of o rig in ( e .g . “ Ire la n d,” “ S w ed en ,” e tc .) , b la ck s w ere t h e o nly g ro up n ot id en tif ie d g eo gra p hic ally . O n t h e a d vic e o f W alte r W hite , e x ecu tiv e s e cre ta ry of t h e N atio nal A sso cia tio n f o r t h e A dvan cem en t o f C olo re d P eo ple (N AACP), t h e C ouncil u se d “ N eg ro ” i n ste ad o f “ A fric a.” 40 For b la ck A m eric an s, s u ch c o ncern s c le arly c o m plic ate d t h e r e q uest t h at th ey d on h is to ric ally a p pro pria te a ttir e . I n a n y c ase , i n 1 850— th e d ate c h ose n by t h e o rg an iz ers o f t h e S t. P au l f e stiv al— th e a n cesto rs o f m ost b la ck Am eric an s w ere n ot i n A fric a b ut i n c h ain s. “ T he N eg ro g ro up d id n ot w an t to r e m in d a n yone o f t h eir a n cestr a l s la v ery ,” A dam ic n ote d . “ T hey p re fe rre d co nte m pora ry c lo th es— bla ck c h oir r o bes o r s ta rc h ed w hite j a ck ets a n d ap ro ns.” 41 T his c le arly d is tu rb ed A dam ic , w ho b elie v ed t h at f e elin gs o f in fe rio rity w ere a s g re at a b arrie r t o d em ocra tic u nity a s f e elin gs o f su perio rity . “ W hate v er o ne’s b ack gro und, o ne s h ould n ot b e a sh am ed o f i t, re g ard le ss o f a n y p re ju dic e a g ain st i t,” h e w ro te . “ S ham e o f t h at s o rt i s dam ag in g t o c h ara cte r a n d i n ner m ak e-u p, a n d i t t e n ds t o t u rn o ne i n to a neg ativ e p ers o n o utw ard ly .” 42 H ap pily , i n A dam ic ’s a cco unt, “ afte r s e ein g oth er g ro ups i n p easa n t a n d g hetto co stu m es, t h e l e ad er o f t h e N eg ro g ro up ap peare d i n t h e ‘ A m eric an s A ll’ p ro cessio n i n w hat s h e c alle d h er ‘ m am my clo th es.’ S he h ad s h ed h er d efe n siv e i n fe rio rity a n d f o r t h e f ir s t t im e r e ally accep te d h er o w n b ack gro und.” A dam ic h aile d t h e f e stiv al a s a n e x am ple o f “u nity w ith in d iv ers ity ” t h at t h e e n tir e n atio n m ig ht e m ula te .

43 The l e ad er o f t h e “ N eg ro g ro up” a t t h e S t. P au l f e stiv al m ay h av e b een willin g t o d on “ m am my c lo th es,” b ut m an y o th er b la ck A m eric an s w ere unders ta n dab ly r e lu cta n t t o c ele b ra te t h eir h erita g e a s c h atte l. T his w as ap pare n t w hen t h e F ed era l R ad io P ro je ct o f t h e U .S . O ffic e o f E ducatio n dev elo ped a t w en ty -s ix -p art r a d io s e rie s e n title d Am eric a ns A ll— Im mig ra nts All t o b e b ro ad cast o ver m ore t h an o ne h undre d C BS-a ffilia te d r a d io s ta tio ns in l a te 1 938 a n d 1 939. T he a g en cy h ir e d G ilb ert S eld es, a c ritic , n ovelis t, a n d pla y w rig ht a sso cia te d w ith t h e P opula r F ro nt, t o w rite t h e s c rip t f o r t h e pro ductio n. ( A lth ough A dam ic d id n ot i n itia te Am eric a ns A ll , h e s e rv ed a s one o f i ts a d vis o rs .) T he s e rie s w as d esig ned t o s h ore u p d em ocra tic n atio nal unity b y m ak in g n ativ is m a n d o th er f o rm s o f i n to le ra n ce s e em u npatr io tic .

Gen era l e p is o des t o ld t h e s to ry o f t h e m in glin g a n d i n te g ra tio n o f p eo ple s i n Am eric a a n d t h e d is a p peara n ce o f s o cia l a n d c u ltu ra l d iv is io ns. S ubse q uen t pro gra m s f o cu se d o n a s in gle o uts ta n din g a ttr ib ute — fo r i n sta n ce, t h e Scan din av ia n “ g if t f o r c o opera tio n”— th at e ach g ro up h ad c o ntr ib ute d t o Am eric an c u ltu re . T he s h ow o n “ T he N eg ro ” f o llo w ed t h is g en era l p atte rn , em phasiz in g a m ong o th er t h in gs t h e h is to ry o f b la ck w ork ers i n b oth t h e South a n d N orth . S eld es h ad i n co rp ora te d s o m e s u ggestio ns m ad e b y W . E .

B. D uB ois a n d A la in L ock e. N ev erth ele ss, w hen t w o o ffic ia ls i n t h e NAACP’s N ew Y ork o ffic e r e ad t h e s c rip t, t h ey c o m pla in ed t h at i t s tr e sse d “u nduly t h e s la v e p erio d a n d t h e N eg ro a s a w ork er.” “ T his s c rip t r e ad s l ik e a his to ry o f t h e p ro gre ss o f w hite p eo ple u sin g t h e l a b or a n d t a le n ts o f Neg ro es,” t h ey w ro te . “ It d oes n ot r e ad l ik e t h e h is to ry a n d p ro gre ss o f t h e Neg ro h im se lf .” T he s h ow w as w ritte n t o c o nclu de w ith a n A fric an s o ng a n d th e N eg ro N atio nal A nth em , “ L if t E very V oic e a n d S in g,” b oth s u ng b y t h e re n ow ned b la ck b arito ne J u le s B le d so e. J u st b efo re a ir tim e, h ow ev er, t h e music al d ir e cto r s c ra tc h ed t h e s c h ed ule d l in eu p a n d s u bstitu te d a s o ng en title d “ B la ck B oy.” T he s u bstitu tio n h orrif ie d b la ck l is te n ers i n clu din g Lock e, w ho c alle d t h e s o ng a “ m am my i n te rp ola tio n.” L ock e a n d o th ers pers u ad ed C BS o ffic ia ls t o r e re co rd t h e f in al f if te en m in ute s o f t h e p ro gra m so t h at w ax r e co rd in gs s e n t t o s c h ools a n d l ib ra rie s w ould n’t c arry t h e s o ng.

44 These t w o e p is o des— th e S t. P au l “ F estiv al o f N atio ns” a n d t h e Am eric a ns A ll— Im mig ra nts A ll r a d io s e rie s— su ggest t h e t e n sio ns t h at ex is te d o ver p ortr a y als o f u nity a n d p lu ra lis m b oth w ith in t h e b la ck co m munity a n d b etw een m an y b la ck s a n d s y m path etic w hite s, e v en t h ose i n th e P opula r F ro nt. F or in sta n ce, o rg an iz ers o f t h e W orld F air ’s A m eric an Com mon w an te d t o u se “ B alla d f o r A m eric an s” — th e s o ng p opula riz ed b y Pau l R obeso n— durin g N eg ro W eek . M em bers o f t h e N eg ro A cto rs ’ G uild did n ot w an t t h e s o ng u se d , b ecau se “ it w as n ot w ritte n b y a N eg ro .” T hey arg ued t h at b la ck c o m pose rs h ad d if fic u lty g ettin g a u die n ces o r a rtis ts t o in te rp re t t h eir w ork s, w hile m ost b la ck i n te rp re te rs u se d m usic w ritte n b y peo ple w ho w ere n ’t b la ck . T hey w ere u ltim ate ly o verru le d , a n d “ B alla d f o r Am eric an s” c lo se d t h e N eg ro W eek p ro gra m .

45 Man y b la ck A m eric an s t h us r e sis te d t h e s p ecif ic v is io n o f “ u nity w ith in div ers ity ” p ut f o rw ard b y l ib era l a n d l e ftis t w hite s s u ch a s A dam ic .

Nev erth ele ss, s o m e s a w i n t h is p re w ar d is c o urs e a n o pportu nity t o p urs u e what B arb ara S av ag e h as c alle d “ a p olitic s o f i n clu sio n.” 46 ( T hey a ls o re co gniz ed t h at i t c o uld c o nta in a n i m plic it l o yalty t e st: T he o rg an iz ers o f t h e New Y ork W orld ’s F air , f o r i n sta n ce, d ecla re d t h at t h e p urp ose o f t h e Am eric an C om mon w as t o “ m ak e l o yalty t o o ur c o untr y t h e o nly t e st o f Chris tia n o r J e w , w hite o r b la ck , n ativ e o r f o re ig n b orn .” 47 ) R ath er t h an cele b ra tin g t h eir y ears i n s la v ery , m an y b la ck s a d opte d a n a p pro ach u se d b y th e f o rm er s la v e a n d a b olitio nis t F re d eric k D ougla ss i n t h e l a te n in ete en th cen tu ry : t h ey p re se n te d t h em se lv es a s t h e q uin te sse n tia l t e st o f A m eric an dem ocra cy a n d u rg ed A m eric an s t o l iv e u p t o t h eir i d eals . A s L aw re n ce Red dic k , t h e c u ra to r o f t h e N ew Y ork P ublic L ib ra ry ’s S ch om burg Colle ctio n, w ro te i n a s o uven ir p ro gra m d is tr ib ute d d urin g t h e A m eric an Com mon’s N eg ro W eek , “ T he g re ate st g if t o f t h e N eg ro t o A m eric a” w as th at “ in o ne w ay o r t h e o th er h e h as s to od i n e v ery h is to ric p erio d, a s a t e st o f th e s in cerity , t h e r e al r e ality o f t h e p re ach m en ts o f d em ocra cy .” “ A nd s o to day ,” R ed dic k c o ntin ued , th e d riv e f o r l ib erty , s e cu rity a n d f o r e q uality o f o pportu nity i s a b ro ad str u ggle b y a n d f o r t h e c o m mon m an . S in ce t h e N eg ro , h is to ric ally , h as b orn e th e b ru nt o f t h ese s o cia l d en ia ls , h e, p erh ap s, m ore t h an a n y o th er, ap pre cia te s t h e v alu e a n d m ean in g o f t h em a ll. T he A m eric an D re am i s t h e dre am o f t h e N eg ro . T he d re am o f t h e N eg ro i s t h e d re am o f a n A m eric a whic h g uara n te es, i n t h e w ord s o f D ougla ss, “ all r ig hts f o r a ll.” 48 As R ed dic k ’s w ord s s u ggest, t h e v is io n o f p lu ra lis tic u nity a n d i n div id ual fre ed om p ro m ote d b y A dam ic a n d m an y o th ers i n t h e l a te 1 930s a n d 1 940s offe re d a n o pen in g t o b la ck s, w hic h s o m e t r ie d t o a p pro pria te . U ltim ate ly , how ev er, t h is c o nse n su al v is io n o f t h e n atio n l a rg ely o verlo oked t h e en tr e n ch ed p ro ble m s o f r a cia l i n eq uality .

In te rfa it h U nit y a s t h e “ A m eric a n Way” In l a te M ay 1 939, a s L ouis A dam ic w as p re p arin g f o r h is “ P ly m outh R ock an d E llis I s la n d” l e ctu re t o ur, a g ro up o f p ro m in en t N ew Y ork ers — in clu din g su ch B ro ad w ay l e g en ds a s H ele n H ay es a n d I rv in g B erlin — gath ere d a t t h e Cen te r T heatr e b efo re t h e m atin ee p erfo rm an ce o f K au fm an a n d H art’ s p la y The A m eric a n W ay . T hey a sse m ble d t o c o nfe r o n t h e t w o s ta rs o f t h e s h ow , Fre d eric M arc h a n d h is w if e , F lo re n ce E ld rid ge, t h e “ b ad ge o f t o le ra n ce” aw ard ed b y t h e N ew Y ork R ound T ab le o f t h e N atio nal C onfe re n ce o f Chris tia n s a n d J e w s ( N CCJ). I n p re se n tin g t h e a w ard , H ele n H ay es w arn ed ag ain st “ atte m pts t o i m port i n to t h is c o untr y d is c rim in atio ns a n d h ostilitie s th at h av e p re v aile d i n o th er l a n ds.” “ T here i s n o r o om i n t h is c o untr y f o r r a ce hatr e d o r r e lig io us i n to le ra n ce,” s h e d ecla re d . “ H ere w e b elie v e t h at a m an has a r ig ht t o b e j u dged o n h is o w n m erit a n d s h ould n ot h av e t o b e s u bje cte d to a n y d is a b ilitie s w hats o ev er o n t h e g ro und o f h is r a cia l o rig in o r r e lig io us fa ith .” 49 Both K au fm an a n d H art’ s p la y a n d H ay es’s s p eech e m phasiz ed a p oin t mad e r e p eate d ly b y L ouis A dam ic a n d m an y o th er a d vocate s o f t h e “ n atio n of n atio ns” a p pro ach i n t h e l a te 1 930s: b ig otr y a n d i n to le ra n ce o f v ario us ty pes w ere f u ndam en ta lly i n co m patib le w ith t h e A m eric an W ay . A dam ic a n d th e C CA U a ck now le d ged t h e e x is te n ce o f r a cis m a n d n ativ is m i n t h e U .S ., but t h ey d is c o unte d t h e c en tr a lity o f s u ch u gly “ -is m s” t o A m eric an c u ltu re by e m phasiz in g A m eric an s’ l o fty — an d p re su m ab ly s h are d — id eals .

Mean w hile , t h e N CCJ a n d i ts a llie s c ast “ ra ce h atr e d ” a n d “ re lig io us in to le ra n ce” a s a lie n i m ports , i n te rlo pers o n A m eric an s h ore s. A m eric an s were u nite d , b oth A dam ic a n d m em bers o f t h e i n te rfa ith m ovem en t a rg ued , by c erta in s h are d b elie fs , c h ie f a m ong t h em t h eir s u pport f o r t h e f re ed om a n d dig nity o f t h e i n div id ual. T he s im ila ritie s b etw een t h e C CA U a n d N CCJ ap pro ach es m ay b e g lim pse d i n t h e f a ct t h at A dam ic l ik ely b orro w ed t h e nam e f o r h is n ew m ag azin e, Com mon G ro und , f ro m a b ook b y t h e s a m e nam e p ublis h ed i n 1 938 b y a l e ad in g m em ber o f t h e i n te rfa ith m ovem en t.

50 If m em bers o f t h e i n te rfa ith m ovem en t a n d t h ose l ik e A dam ic w ho pic tu re d t h e U .S . p rim arily a s a “ n atio n o f n atio ns” b oth p la ced p lu ra lis m with in t h e c o nte x t o f a c iv ic c o nse n su s, t h ey d if fe re d i n o th er k ey w ay s.

While A dam ic a n d h is a llie s h ig hlig hte d t h e n atio n’s e th nic a n d r a cia l div ers ity , t h e i n te rfa ith m ovem en t p ortr a y ed A m eric an p lu ra lis m a s a b ove a ll re lig io us. T he “ b ad ge o f t o le ra n ce” p re se n te d t o M arc h a n d E ld rid ge b y t h e NCCJ s h ow ed t h re e h an ds c la sp ed b efo re t h e S ta tu e o f L ib erty a n d w as desc rib ed b y t h e New Y ork T im es a s “ sy m bolic o f t h e U nity o f A m eric an Pro te sta n ts , C ath olic s a n d J e w s fo r d em ocra cy , f re ed om a n d b ro th erh ood.” 51 Rab bi M orris L azaro n, t h e i n te rfa ith l e ad er w hose b ook l ik ely i n sp ir e d Adam ic , c alle d f o r r e co gnitio n o f t h e “ co m mon g ro und” s h are d b y A m eric an Pro te sta n ts , C ath olic s, a n d J e w s.

52 L azaro n h im se lf h elp ed p io neer a v is io n of A m eric an “ u nity w ith in d iv ers ity ” t h at w ould b eco m e c o m monpla ce i n Am eric a o ver t h e n ex t t w o d ecad es: t h e “ to le ra n ce t r io .” I n l a te 1 933, h e jo in ed a P re sb yte ria n m in is te r a n d a C ath olic p rie st o n a t h re e-m onth , t w en ty - six -s ta te “ p ilg rim ag e o f u nders ta n din g” s p onso re d b y t h e N CCJ.

53 B y t h e l a te 1930s, t h e N CCJ w as d is p atc h in g “ to le ra n ce t r io s” — co m pris e d o f c le rg ym en or p ro m in en t l a y m en f ro m e ach r e lig io n— to s c h ools , c o lle g es, a n d c iv ic fo ru m s a ro und t h e c o untr y . T hey p re ach ed a v is io n o f r e lig io us p lu ra lis m with in a c iv ic c o nse n su s, w hic h t h e N CCJ d ubbed “ th e A m eric an W ay .” 54 If r e lig io n, i n t h e N CCJ’s v ie w , w as t h e c h ie f r e p osito ry o f A m eric an plu ra lis m , i t w as a ls o t h e s o urc e o f t h e n atio n’s c iv ic c o nse n su s. T he N CCJ was p erh ap s t h e m ost v is ib le a rm o f a g ro w in g m ovem en t a m ong i n te lle ctu als an d c iv ic l e ad ers i n t h e l a te 1 930s t h at a rg ued t h at r e lig io us v alu es, r a th er th an t h e s e cu la r v alu es o f t h e E nlig hte n m en t, p ro vid ed t h e c ru cia l underp in nin g f o r A m eric an d em ocra cy .

55 R elig io n— sp ecif ic ally t h e b elie f i n “th e F ath erh ood o f G od a n d t h e B ro th erh ood o f M an ”— “is t h e f o undatio n o f tr u e d em ocra cy ,” d ecla re d t h e N CCJ’s J e w is h c o ch air m an i n a s p eech deliv ere d i n 1 936 o r 1 937. H e a d ded t h at “ th e f e elin g t h at a s w e a re b ro th ers an d h av e t h e s a m e f a th er [ m ean s] w e m ust s tr iv e f o r t h e g re ate st g ood f o r all.” 56 A n N CCJ p re ss r e le ase f ro m F eb ru ary 1 940 r e ite ra te d t h is a rg um en t, re in fo rc in g a n d e x te n din g t h e a n alo gy o f f a m ily : “ T he d em ocra tic i n stitu tio ns by w hic h w e l iv e a re f o unded o n a g re at r e lig io us i n sig ht, t h at u nder t h e Fath erh ood o f G od w e a re a ll b ro th ers a n d s is te rs … a n d a ll o f u s n eed in g a ll th e r e st o f u s t o m ak e t h e f a m ily c o m ple te .” 57 The N CCJ f re q uen tly h aile d A m eric a’s h erita g e o f r e lig io us f re ed om , callin g i t t h e n atio n’s “ m ost s ig nif ic an t c o ntr ib utio n … t o t h e t h eo ry a n d pra ctic e o f g overn m en t.” 58 T his w as n ot, h ow ev er, a n e n dors e m en t o f ath eis m o r e v en s e cu la r h um an is m . R ath er, t h e N CCJ c h am pio ned t h e n otio n, ju st e m erg in g i n t h e l a te 1 930s, o f a “ Ju deo -C hris tia n t r a d itio n.” 59 Pro te sta n ts , C ath olic s, a n d J e w s, t h e o rg an iz atio n a rg ued , s h are d o ne s p ir itu al valu e e sse n tia l t o a n y d em ocra cy — th e b elie f t h at e v ery i n div id ual h as “ an in vio la b le p ers o nal d ig nity a s a c h ild o f o ur o ne F ath er.” T his b elie f, i n t u rn , le d t o t h e “ re lig io us v alu es o f l ib erty , j u stic e a n d f ra te rn ity h an ded d ow n t o us b y e arlie r g en era tio ns o f A m eric an s.” N ow , h ow ev er, t h ese v alu es w ere “b ein g u nderm in ed ,” t h e N CCJ w arn ed . “ E m otio nal a p peals t o P ro te sta n ts , Cath olic s a n d J e w s t o h ate e ach o th er a re b ein g m ad e b y t h ose w ho w ould b e ty ra n ts o ver u s a ll.” 60 This v ie w o f A m eric a’s h erita g e a n d v alu es c le arly m in im iz ed t h e natio n’s h is to ry o f r e lig io us i n to le ra n ce a n d d ow npla y ed r e al t h eo lo gic al dif fe re n ces b etw een g ro ups. A s e arly a s 1 931, t h e e d ito r o f t h e Men ora h Jo urn al w arn ed t h at t h e N CCJ’s a p pro ach s u ggeste d t h at “ th e d if fe re n ces a re gen uin ely NO T d if fe re n ces, b ut m is u nders ta n din gs. T here a re e n ough r e al, ir re co ncila b le d if fe re n ces b etw een C ath olic a n d P ro te sta n t, J e w a n d G en tile , to m ak e h arm onio us s o lu tio ns g ra v ely d oubtf u l.” 61 T he C ath olic h ie ra rc h y was p artic u la rly r e sis ta n t t o t h e N CCJ’s a p pro ach , w orry in g t h at s u ch co opera tio n w ould “ im ply t h at a ll r e lig io ns w ere e q ually v alid .” 62 S till o th ers , in clu din g L ouis A dam ic , f o und t h e i n te rfa ith m ovem en t’ s s in gle -m in ded fo cu s o n r e lig io n t r o ublin g. I n a 1 939 l e tte r t o R ab bi L azaro n, A dam ic warn ed a g ain st “ sim plif y [in g] t h e p ro ble m [ o f i n te rg ro up t e n sio n] d ow n t o so m eth in g t h at i n volv es o nly t h e J e w s a s s u ch a n d t h e C hris tia n s a s s u ch .… You s e e s o m an y o f u s a re n ot e sp ecia lly J e w is h o r C hris tia n .” 63 Adam ic d id a p pro ve o f a n oth er a sp ect o f t h e i n te rfa ith a p pro ach : i ts em phasis o n Am eric a . B ut w hile A dam ic a n d m an y o f h is a llie s o n t h e l ib era l le ft u se d “ A m eric an is m ” a lm ost i n te rc h an geab ly w ith “ u niv ers a lis m ”— em phasiz in g w hat t h ey s a w a s t h e f u ndam en ta l hum an v alu es s h are d b y a ll Am eric an s— th e N CCJ p ut m ore e x plic it e m phasis o n t h e b in din g p ow er o f th e n atio n-s ta te . “ T he t a sk o f r e sp onsib le l e ad ers h ip i n A m eric a t o day i s t o la y b efo re o ur c itiz en s t h e l a rg er l o yalty t o A m eric a w hic h e m bra ces t h e le sse r l o yaltie s o f g ro up a n d c la ss a n d c re ed , t h e l a rg er l o yalty w ith out w hic h th e l e sse r l o yaltie s c an not b e s a v ed , o r e v en t h e g re ate st l o yalty o f a ll— th e lo yalty o f m an t o h is M ak er,” R ab bi L azaro n w ro te i n h is b ook, Com mon Gro und . 64 E vere tt C lin ch y, t h e P re sb yte ria n m in is te r w ho h ead ed t h e N CCJ, put t h e m atte r m ore s u ccin ctly i n a 1 940 i n te rv ie w w ith t h e New Y ork T im es .

The o rg an iz atio n, h e e x pla in ed , w as t r y in g t o b rin g a b out “ a l o ve f o r A m eric a so g re at t h at n o o ne w ill b e a b le t o h ate a n y g ro up i n t h e A m eric an neig hborh ood.” 65 The d if fe re n t a p pro ach es t o a ch ie v in g “ u nity w ith in d iv ers ity ” t a k en b y th e C CA U a n d t h e N CCJ c an b e a ttr ib ute d i n p art t o t h e d if fe re n t h is to rie s o f th e m ovem en ts t h ey r e p re se n te d . T he n otio n t h at t h e U .S . w as a “ n atio n o f im mig ra n ts ” o r “ n atio n o f n atio ns” e m erg ed i n t h e 1 930s, p ro pelle d i n itia lly by i n te rc u ltu ra l e d ucato rs , s e ttle m en t h ouse w ork ers , l a b or o rg an iz ers , a n d sp okesm en f o r t h e “ n ew i m mig ra n ts ” s u ch a s L ouis A dam ic ; a s M ic h ael Den nin g h as s h ow n, t h is v is io n o f “ p an -e th nic A m eric an is m ” d re w p ow erfu l early s u pport f ro m t h e c u ltu ra l l e ft.

66 T he i n te rfa ith m ovem en t h ad a d if fe re n t gen esis a n d d if fe re n t b ack ers . I n t h e w ak e o f W orld W ar I , a b ro ad -b ase d Pro te sta n t r e v iv al c o in cid ed w ith a m assiv e d riv e t o “ A m eric an iz e” im mig ra n ts . M an y P ro te sta n t c h urc h es, u rb an m is sio ns, a n d o th er g ro ups so ught t o “ A m eric an iz e” t h e n ew im mig ra n ts i n p art b y C hris tia n iz in g t h em .

Je w is h g ro ups r e sp onded a n grily t o s u ch e v an geliz in g e ffo rts , l e ad in g i n t h e mid -1 920s t o t h e e sta b lis h m en t o f a h an dfu l o f g ro ups d esig ned t o p ro m ote “g oodw ill” b etw een C hris tia n s a n d J e w s. S upport f o r t h e n asc en t i n te rfa ith movem en t a ls o b en efite d f ro m t h e a n ti- C ath olic is m a n d a n ti- S em itis m o f t h e re b orn K KK, w hic h a p palle d m an y l ib era l P ro te sta n ts .

67 The e ffo rts o f l ib era l C hris tia n s a n d J e w s t o p ro m ote r e lig io us g oodw ill was t h us t ie d f ro m t h e b eg in nin g t o d eb ate s o ver A m eric an is m a n d n atio nal id en tity . T he c o nnectio n i s m ad e e x plic itly i n a r e m ark ab le New Y ork T im es ed ito ria l, w hic h a p peare d o n S atu rd ay , A pril 1 6, 1 927. T hat d ate m ark ed b oth th e s ta rt o f t h e P asso ver h olid ay a n d, i n a r a re c ale n dric c o in cid en ce, t h e Vig il o f E aste r. T he s im ulta n eo us c ele b ra tio n o f E aste r a n d P asso ver i n sp ir e d th e p ap er’s e d ito rs t o s u ggest q uix otic ally t h at t h e t w o h olid ay s b e perm an en tly f ix ed o n t h e s a m e d ate . D oin g s o , t h ey a rg ued , “ w ould t e n d t o giv e w id er r e co gnitio n t o t h e p art o f r e lig io n i n t h e l if e o f t h e n atio n, t o c all sp ecia l a tte n tio n t o w hat a ll o f m onoth eis tic f a ith h av e i n c o m mon, a n d t o te ach … u nders ta n din g a n d t o le ra n ce.” 68 F our d ay s l a te r, a s m all g ro up m et to f o und t h e o rg an iz atio n t h at w ould e v en tu ally b eco m e k now n a s t h e Natio nal C onfe re n ce o f C hris tia n s a n d J e w s.

69 F or t h e n ex t h alf c en tu ry , t h e NCCJ w ould b e t h e f la g sh ip o f t h e i n te rfa ith m ovem en t.

Alth ough t h e m en a n d w om en w ho t h re w t h eir w eig ht b eh in d t h e N CCJ in i ts e arly d ecad es w ere r e lig io us l ib era ls , m an y w ould h ard ly h av e b een co nsid ere d l ib era l i n o th er c o nte x ts . T he N CCJ’s c o nstitu tio n d ecla re d t h at i ts purp ose w as t o “ p ro m ote j u stic e, a m ity , u nders ta n din g a n d c o opera tio n am ong J e w s, C ath olic s a n d P ro te sta n ts i n t h e U nite d S ta te s, a n d t o a n aly ze, modera te a n d f in ally e lim in ate i n te rg ro up p re ju dic es w hic h d is fig ure a n d dis to rt r e lig io us, b usin ess, s o cia l a n d p olitic al r e la tio ns.” 70 D esp ite t h e co nstitu tio n’s r e fe re n ce t o j u stic e, m an y o f t h ose w ho p ro vid ed e n erg y a n d fin an cia l s u pport t o t h e N CCJ i n i ts e arly y ears w ere m otiv ate d p rim arily b y “a c o nse rv ativ e d esir e t o h old A m eric an s o cie ty t o geth er s o t h at p olitic s, ed ucatio n a n d b usin ess w ould f u nctio n n orm ally .” 71 O ne s u ch i n div id ual w as New to n B ak er, t h e N CCJ’s f ir s t P ro te sta n t c o ch air m an . B orn i n W est Vir g in ia , t h e s o n o f a C onfe d era te c av alr y m an -tu rn ed -c o untr y d octo r, B ak er wen t o n t o b eco m e a c o rp ora te l a w yer a n d m ay or o f C le v ela n d b efo re s e rv in g as W oodro w W ils o n’s S ecre ta ry o f W ar. I n 1 932, m an y c en tr is t a n d co nse rv ativ e D em ocra ts h oped h e w ould b e t h eir p arty ’s p re sid en tia l nom in ee. A fte r F D R’s e le ctio n, B ak er w as s h arp ly c ritic al o f m an y N ew D eal in itia tiv es; a n d i n 1 936, h e l e d a n u nsu ccessfu l e ffo rt t o s w in g t h e D em ocra tic Party p la tf o rm t o t h e r ig ht. B ak er d en ounced r a cia l p re ju dic e a n d dis c rim in atio n, b ut h e w as n ot a ra cia l e g alita ria n : h e r e fe rre d t o N eg ro es a s an “ in fa n t r a ce” a n d b elie v ed t h at f e w w ere c ap ab le o f m ore t h an a b asic ed ucatio n.

72 Bak er w as h ard ly t h e o nly N CCJ s ta lw art w hose s y m path ie s l a y w ith co rp ora te A m eric a. R oger W . S tr a u s, t h e o rg an iz atio n’s J e w is h c o ch air m an fo r n early t h ir ty y ears , w as t h e s o n o f t h e f ir s t J e w t o s e rv e i n a p re sid en tia l cab in et. S tr a u s h im se lf m arrie d i n to t h e G uggen heim f a m ily a n d, b y t h e l a te 1930s, h ad r is e n t o t h e p ositio n o f c h ie f e x ecu tiv e o f a m in in g c o nglo m era te .

Oth er e arly N CCJ b ack ers i n clu ded E dw ard B ern ay s, t h e f o under o f t h e public r e la tio ns i n dustr y ; H en ry B re ck en rid ge, a p ro m in en t N ew Y ork atto rn ey w ho j o in ed B ak er i n t h e D em ocra tic o ppositio n t o F D R; S upre m e Court J u stic e C harle s E van s H ughes J r., w ho a u th ore d a n um ber o f d ecis io ns opposin g t h e N ew D eal; i n vestm en t b an ker F elix M . W arb urg ; a n d n um ero us mem bers o f t h e O ch s-S ulz b erg er f a m ily t h at o w ned t h e New Y ork T im es . 73 I n 1940, t h e N atio nal A sso cia tio n o f M an ufa ctu re rs d ep lo yed a k ey N CCJ i d ea as p art o f i ts “ T rip od o f F re ed om ” c am paig n, a n d t h e f o llo w in g y ear a re p re se n ta tiv e o f t h e N AM a d dre sse d a n I n stitu te o n H um an R ela tio ns sp onso re d b y t h e N CCJ.

74 N CCJ b ack ers i n clu ded m an y l ib era ls a s w ell, b ut fro m t h e s ta rt i n dustr ia lis ts a n d t h eir a llie s f o und a c o ngen ia l h om e i n t h e org an iz atio n.

The N CCJ’s e arly s u pporte rs a ls o i n clu ded a l a rg e n um ber o f p ro m in en t Je w s. L ib era l P ro te sta n ts s u ch a s N ew to n B ak er a n d E vere tt C lin ch y h elp ed fo und t h e o rg an iz atio n; a n d, d esp ite s te ad fa st o ppositio n f ro m R om e, i t en ro lle d s o m e C ath olic s a s w ell.

75 F ro m t h e b eg in nin g, h ow ev er, a ssim ila te d , an ti- Z io nis t J e w s p la y ed a p artic u la rly i m porta n t r o le i n t h e c o nfe re n ce.

Roger S tr a u s c o ntr ib ute d t h e $ 5,0 00 n eed ed t o l a u nch t h e N CCJ, a n d n in e o f th e t e n i n itia l a ffilia tin g o rg an iz atio ns w ere J e w is h . ( T he t e n th w as t h e Fed era l C ouncil o f C hurc h es, a c o alitio n o f l ib era l P ro te sta n t d en om in atio ns.) B’n ai B ’rith w as t h e N CCJ’s l a rg est f in an cia l s p onso r i n i ts f ir s t f e w y ears .

This h eav y J e w is h i n volv em en t w as r e fle cte d i n t h e C onfe re n ce’s o rig in al nam e: t h e N atio nal C onfe re n ce o f J e w s a n d C hris tia n s. T he n am e w as ch an ged i n l a te 1 938, c o in cid in g w ith a n e ffo rt b y A m eric an J e w s t o dow npla y t h eir r o le i n t h e a n ti- N azi e ffo rt.

76 The N CCJ’s n am e c h an ge s ig nale d a n i m porta n t s h if t i n t h e A m eric an Je w is h c o m munity t h at w ould r e v erb era te t h ro ugh t h e b ro ad er d is c u ssio n o f Am eric an is m t h en u nderw ay . A nti- S em itis m w as h ard ly a n ew p hen om en on in t h e U .S ., b ut A m eric an J e w s h ad l o ng c o nsid ere d t h em se lv es s a fe f ro m t h e most v ic io us f o rm s o f b ig otr y . T his c h an ged i n t h e m id -1 930s w hen H itle r sy m path iz ers s ta rte d d is tr ib utin g N azi p ro pag an da i n t h e U .S . a n d t h e Dep re ssio n t r ig gere d a s u rg e i n i n dig en ous a n ti- S em itis m ; t h e p opula rity o f Fath er C oughlin p artic u la rly a la rm ed m an y A m eric an J e w s. R ela tiv ely assim ila te d J e w s s u ch a s K au fm an a n d H art f e lt a h eig hte n ed a w are n ess o f th eir J e w is h id en titie s, a n d m ajo r J e w is h o rg an iz atio ns b ooste d t h eir d efe n se effo rts i n t h e d om estic a re n a. O ne o f t h ese w as t h e A m eric an J e w is h Com mitte e ( A JC ). F ounded i n 1 906 b y p ro m in en t G erm an -A m eric an J e w s, th e o rg an iz atio n d if fe re d f ro m t h e A m eric an J e w is h C ongre ss i n p art b ecau se of i ts s ta u nch o ppositio n t o Z io nis m . F or m ost o f i ts f ir s t t h re e d ecad es, t h e AJC h ad f o cu se d o n a id in g J e w s a b ro ad ; i n t h e m id -1 930s, h ow ev er, i t t u rn ed its a tte n tio n a n d f u nd-ra is in g e ffo rts a lm ost e x clu siv ely t o d om estic defe n se .

77 In 1 936, w ith a n i n itia l w ar c h est o f $ 600,0 00, t h e A JC l a u nch ed w hat i t calle d t h e S urv ey C om mitte e. T his g ro up, w hic h n ev er h ad m ore t h an t h ir ty mem bers , g uid ed t h e A JC ’s d efe n se e ffo rt u ntil s h ortly b efo re t h e U .S . e n tr y in to W orld W ar I I. T he S urv ey C om mitte e i n clu ded a s m atte rin g o f pro m in en t l a w yers , i n vestm en t b an kers , a d vertis in g e x ecu tiv es a n d politic ia n s, a s w ell a s t h e e d ito r o f t h e New Y ork P ost , t h e b ro th er o f t h e publis h er o f t h e New Y ork T im es , t h e h ead o f V ik in g P re ss, a n d t h e f a m ed Holly w ood p ro ducer D av id S elz n ic k . M an y o f t h ese m en h ad n ev er b een activ e i n a J e w is h o rg an iz atio n b efo re . T hese m en w ere b y n o m ean s re p re se n ta tiv e o f a ll A m eric an J e w s; i n f a ct, o ne c o m mitte e m em ber re m ark ed t h at t h ey w ere “ lo oked u pon b y t h e m asse s [ o f J e w s] a s re p re se n tin g t h e e co nom ic r o yalis ts , s o cia l s n obs, a n d r e lig io us r e n eg ad es i n Am eric an J e w ry .” N ev erth ele ss, t h ey h ad t h e e co nom ic a n d s o cia l c lo ut t o mak e t h em se lv es h eard .

78 Mem bers o f t h e S urv ey C om mitte e a n d A JC s ta ffe rs b elie v ed t h at t h e f a te of J e w s w as t ie d t o t h e f a te o f l ib era lis m a n d d em ocra cy . “ T o t h e e x te n t t h at we c an h elp p ro m ote a tta ch m en t t o t h e d em ocra tic i d eal, w e m ust d o s o ,” wro te M orris W ald m an , t h e A JC ’s e x ecu tiv e s e cre ta ry . “ W e m ust m ak e p la in our o ppositio n t o e x tr e m is m o f b oth r ig ht a n d l e ft v arie tie s.” T he S urv ey Com mitte e’s p ro gra m f o r 1 937 r e ite ra te d t h e l in k b etw een J e w s a n d dem ocra cy a n d a d ded t h at “ th e s p ecif ic a ctio ns r e la tiv e t o e d ucatin g t h e public o n t h e t r u th a b out J e w s m ust b e i n te g ra te d w ith t h e m ajo r t a sk o f main ta in in g p eacefu l r e la tio ns b etw een t h e v ario us g ro ups c o m posin g o ur popula tio n.” 79 When m em bers o f t h e S urv ey C om mitte e s p oke o f “ d em ocra cy ,” t h ey were n ot n ecessa rily h ailin g m ajo rity r u le . A fte r a ll, d em ocra cie s c o uld a ls o pro duce m ajo rity t y ra n nie s. R ath er, l ik e t h e c o nse rv ativ e i n dustr ia lis ts i n t h e Natio nal A sso cia tio n o f M an ufa ctu re rs , t h ey w ere i n vokin g t h e m in ority - pro te ctin g f re ed om s t h ough f o r d if fe re n t r e aso ns, i n t h e B ill o f R ig hts , partic u la rly r e lig io us f re ed om . S urv ey C om mitte e m em bers b elie v ed t h at a lib era l, B ill o f R ig hts -b ase d d em ocra cy r e p re se n te d t h e b est h ope f o r min oritie s i n a w orld i n cre asin gly d iv id ed b etw een r ig ht a n d l e ft. A s b oard mem ber C yru s A dle r p ut i t, “ If t h e l ib era ls i n t h e w orld f a il a n d e v ery body beco m es a F asc is t o r a C om munis t, t h en , o f c o urs e , t h e J e w s w ill f a il a ls o .” 80 Work in g t h ro ugh t h e S urv ey C om mitte e, t h e A JC t r ie d t o d is c re d it Nazis m a n d s h ore u p A m eric an s’ b elie f i n r e lig io us f re ed om a n d t h e “ h um an ch ara cte ris tic s” c o m mon t o a ll g ro ups. I n d oin g s o , i t r e lie d h eav ily o n w hat i t re fe rre d t o a s “ n erv e c en te r w ork ”— in flu en cin g t h ose i n div id uals a n d g ro ups who i n t u rn m old ed p ublic o pin io n. T hro ughout t h e 1 930s, t h e A JC f u nded th e w ork o f a n th ro polo gis t F ra n z B oas a n d c alle d m ed ia a tte n tio n t o h is an tir a cia lis t f in din gs. I t a ls o p ro duced a n d d is tr ib ute d p am phle ts a n d b ooks; main ta in ed a n a ctiv e s p eak ers ’ b ure au ; s e cu re d t im e f o r, w ro te , o r c o ntr ib ute d to h undre d s o f r a d io p ro gra m s; a n d a rra n ged f o r d ozen s o f n ew sp ap ers a n d natio nal m ag azin es, r a n gin g f ro m Rea der’s D ig est t o t h e New Y ork T im es , t o “carry a n d/o r r e p rin t m ate ria l o f i n te re st t o u s.” T o w ork t h e “ p ro -d em ocra cy ” messa g e i n to f ilm s, a n d t o s c re en o ut p ote n tia lly i n fla m mato ry m ate ria l, t h e AJC e sta b lis h ed a c o m mitte e o f s y m path etic H olly w ood w rite rs a n d d ir e cto rs head ed b y t h e f a m ous p ro ducer a n d S urv ey C om mitte e m em ber D av id Selz n ic k . F in ally , t h ro ugh d ir e ct s u bsid ie s o r b y t a p pin g t h e p ock ets a n d ex pertis e o f i ts m em bers , t h e A JC q uie tly c h an nele d a d vic e a n d f in an cia l su pport t o d ozen s o f o rg an iz atio ns w ith s im ila r g oals .

81 One o f t h e g ro ups t h at b en efite d m ost f ro m t h e A JC ’s i n te re st w as t h e NCCJ. A m eric an J e w s w ere s p lit i n t h e l a te 1 930s b etw een t h ose w ho s a w Ju dais m a s a n e th nocu ltu ra l a ffilia tio n a n d t h ose w ho v ie w ed i t s o le ly a s a re lig io n.

82 T he f o rm er g ro up i n clu ded m an y c o m para tiv ely r e cen t i m mig ra n ts fro m E aste rn E uro pe; t h ey t e n ded t o b elo ng t o t h e A JC ’s p rin cip le r iv al, t h e Am eric an J e w is h C ongre ss, a n d t o s u pport Z io nis m . T he A JC , b y c o ntr a st, was l e d b y t h ir d - a n d f o urth -g en era tio n A m eric an J e w s, o fte n o f G erm an orig in , w ho w ere h orrif ie d b y a n yth in g t h at s m ack ed o f e th nic s e p ara tis m .

This g ro up v ie w ed J u dais m e n tir e ly i n r e lig io us t e rm s a n d t h us f o und t h e NCCJ’s v is io n o f A m eric an p lu ra lis m p artic u la rly a p pealin g.

83 T he A JC a ls o sa w t h e N atio nal C onfe re n ce a s a n i m porta n t a lly i n t h e e ffo rt t o m obiliz e Am eric an C hris tia n s a g ain st b oth N azis m a n d d om estic a n ti- S em itis m . I n 1933, t h e A JC r e p orte d t h at i t w as “ m ak in g a n e ffo rt t o h av e t h e N atio nal Confe re n ce a ssu m e t h e p ositio n o f i m porta n ce i n t h e U .S . t h at i t m erits .” A JC sta ffe rs a rra n ged n ew sre el c o vera g e o f t h e N CCJ’s f ir s t “ tr io t o ur” a n d in ven te d “ B ro th erh ood D ay ,” t h e n atio nw id e c ele b ra tio n u se d f o r d ecad es b y th e N CCJ t o s p re ad i ts t h em es. T he A JC a ls o q uie tly f u nded a s tu dy o f Pro te sta n t t e x tb ook r e fe re n ces t o J e w s, w hic h w as f o rm ally s p onso re d b y t h e NCCJ. F in ally , t h e A JC p ro vid ed s ta rt- u p f u nds f o r t h e N CCJ’s R elig io us New s S erv ic e, t h en u se d t h e w ir e s e rv ic e t o f e ed i ts m essa g es t o t h e n atio n’s Chris tia n a n d d aily p re ss.

84 Both t h e A m eric an J e w is h C om mitte e a n d t h e N atio nal C onfe re n ce o f Chris tia n s a n d J e w s s te ere d c le ar o f d efe n din g J e w s d ir e ctly , f e arin g t h at t h is would o nly p re cip ita te a “ Je w is h d eb ate ” i n t h e U nite d S ta te s. N CCJ d ir e cto r Clin ch y w arn ed i n 1 939 t h at a n “ o pen a p pro ach ” t o c o m batin g a n ti- S em itis m an d a n ti- C ath olic is m m ig ht a ctu ally f u el r e lig io us i n to le ra n ce. M em bers o f th e A JC ’s S urv ey C om mitte e c le arly a g re ed : “ A rg um en ts t h at t h e J e w s a re not c o m munis ts , t h at t h ey a re not w ar m ongers , t h at t h ey a re not d is h onest i n busin ess— th ese , t h ough b ase d o n f a ct, o nly f a n t h e f la m e o f t h e a n ti- S em itic is su e i ts e lf ,” t h ey d ecla re d .

85 I n ste ad , t h e S urv ey C om mitte e c alle d o n t h e AJC a n d a llie d g ro ups t o s h if t t h e d eb ate f ro m “ Je w s v s. N azis ” t o “ N azis v s.

civ iliz atio n/d em ocra cy [ a n d] A m eric an is m ”:

It m ust b e m ad e p erfe ctly c le ar t h at i t i s t h e Nazis w ho a re t h e w arm ongers ; th e Nazis w ho a re d em ora liz in g f o re ig n t r a d e a n d t h us c re atin g u nse ttle m en t in t h e b usin ess w orld a n d u nre st i n t h e r a n ks o f t h e u nem plo yed ; t h e Nazis who a re f e rtiliz in g t h e s o il f o r c o m munis m a n d w ho, i n f a ct, h av e d ev elo ped a “ B ro w n B ols h ev is m ” o f t h eir o w n; t h e Nazis w ho a re a tta ck in g t h e b ase s o f re lig io n i n a ll i ts f o rm s; t h e Nazis w ho a re u nderm in in g t h e h om e, a b olis h in g lib era l e d ucatio n, a n d d estr o yin g e v ery th in g w hic h m odern m en h av e c o m e t o re sp ect.

“If t h e i s su e i s s tr e sse d o f ‘ N azis v s. C iv iliz atio n,’ ” t h e D ecem ber 1 939 mem o c o ntin ued , “ th e J e w s w ill f in d t h em se lv es f ig htin g s h ould er t o sh ould er w ith a ll o th er r ig ht- th in kin g m en .” 86 The r e fe re n ce i n t h is m em o t o “ rig ht- th in kin g m en ” i s s u ggestiv e b ecau se it u nders c o re s t h e d eg re e t o w hic h r e lig io us t o le ra n ce, i n t h e A JC ’s v ie w , dep en ded o n i d eo lo gic al c o nse n su s. N CCJ r e p re se n ta tiv es m ad e a s im ila r poin t w hen t h ey d efe n ded r e lig io us p lu ra lis m b y p ara p hra sin g B ooker T . Wash in g-to n’s d efe n se o f s o cia l s e g re g atio n: “ In a ll t h in gs r e lig io us, w e Cath olic s, J e w s a n d P ro te sta n ts c an b e a s s e p ara te a s t h e f in gers o n a m an ’s outs tr e tc h ed h an d; i n a ll t h in gs c iv ic a n d A m eric an , w e c an b e a s u nite d a s a man ’s c le n ch ed f is t.” 87 B oth q uote s a ssu m ed a p riv ate a re n a o f d iv ers ity a n d to le ra n ce a n d a p ublic a re n a o f u nity a n d c o nse n su s. H ow t h ose a re n as w ere defin ed , h ow ev er, c o uld l e ad t o d ra m atic ally d if fe re n t p olitic al r e su lts . T he CIO a d vocate d r e lig io us a n d r a cia l t o le ra n ce i n a n e ffo rt t o u nite w ork ers o f div ers e b ack gro unds i n a c la ss-b ase d c o alitio n. W hen t h e N AM s p oke u p o n beh alf o f i n te rg ro up h arm ony, b y c o ntr a st, i t w as a d vocatin g c o opera tio n betw een w ork ers a n d o w ners a s m uch a s b etw een e th nocu ltu ra l g ro ups. T he fa ct t h at a n a n alo gy u se d t o j u stif y r a cia l s e g re g atio n c o uld b e m ars h ale d o n beh alf o f r e lig io us t o le ra n ce s u ggests s o m e o f t h e p ro ble m s t h at w ould l a te r dev elo p w ith e x te n din g t h e N CCJ’s v is io n o f t h e “ A m eric an W ay ” t o b la ck s.

Sim ila r t e n sio ns— over t h e n atu re o f A m eric a’s c o re v alu es a n d t h e ap pro pria te a re n as f o r t o le ra n ce a n d c o nse n su s— em erg ed b etw een t h e A JC an d t h e N CCJ a n d s o m e o f t h e g ro ups w ith w hic h t h ey w ere a llie d i n t h e l a te 1930s. T he A JC b rie fly f u nded t h e C ouncil A gain st I n to le ra n ce i n A m eric a, an o rg an iz atio n f o unded i n 1 938 b y J a m es W ate rm an W is e . ( W is e w as a l e ft- le an in g w rite r a n d t h e s o n o f R ab bi S te p hen S . W is e , w ho h ead ed t h e Am eric an J e w is h C ongre ss.) L ik e t h e A JC a n d t h e N CCJ, t h e C ouncil Again st I n to le ra n ce h aile d r e lig io us f re ed om a n d c alle d t h e B ill o f R ig hts “th e s o ul a n d s p ir it o f t h e C onstitu tio n.” T he o rg an iz atio ns d if fe re d , h ow ev er, in o th er k ey r e sp ects . T he C ouncil, l ik e R ab bi W is e a n d t h e A m eric an J e w is h Congre ss, r e co gniz ed J e w s’ e th nic i d en tity , a p ositio n t h at m ad e m ost A JC mem bers q uite n erv ous. T he C ouncil a ls o e m phasiz ed eq uality a s m uch a s to le ra n ce a n d w as f a r m ore w illin g t h an t h e A JC o r t h e N CCJ t o h ig hlig ht Am eric a’s s h ortc o m in gs a n d t o d en ounce r a cia l s e g re g atio n. A s t h is s u ggests , th e o rg an iz atio ns d if fe re d s h arp ly o n p re cis e ly w hat a n d w hom s h ould b e to le ra te d . R efle ctin g t h e v ie w s o f i ts f o under, t h e C ouncil A gain st I n to le ra n ce str e sse d t h e f re e s p eech g uara n te es o f t h e B ill o f R ig hts a n d t r ie d t o c o m bat pre ju dic e a g ain st r a d ic als a s w ell a s a g ain st r e lig io us a n d r a cia l g ro ups. T his ap pro ach w orrie d m an y A JC m em bers , w ho t e n ded t o b e s tr o ngly a n ti- Com munis t a n d w ho w an te d t o s e v er a n y p erc eiv ed l in ks b etw een J e w s a n d th e l e ft. A s o ne A JC s ta ffe r w ro te i n a m em o e v alu atin g t h e C ouncil i n Octo ber 1 939, “ N o i n te llig en t p ers o n d esir e s t o b e t o le ra n t o f a ll t h in gs.… Any a tte m pt t o c o m bat i n to le ra n ce t o w ard t h e l a b el ‘ ra d ic al’ o n t h e s a m e basis a s i n to le ra n ce t o w ard J e w s, N eg ro es, a n d o th ers , i s f o unded u pon a fa lla cy , s in ce p olitic al p re ju dic e a ris e s f ro m d if fe re n t s o urc es a n d h as dif fe re n t r a tio naliz atio ns t h an a n ti- J e w is h a n d o th er p re ju dic es.” 88 The N CCJ a ls o s te ere d c le ar o f e co nom ic r a d ic alis m , a s ta n ce t h at w as hard ly s u rp ris in g, g iv en t h e s o cia l a n d e co nom ic p ro file o f m an y o f i ts su pporte rs . I n M arc h o f 1 933, j u st d ay s a fte r F D R’s i n au gura tio n, t h e Natio nal C onfe re n ce o f J e w s a n d C hris tia n s c ir c u la te d a m an if e sto c allin g o n ele cte d r e p re se n ta tiv es t o m ak e e m erg en cy r e lie f a v aila b le t h ro ugh s ta te s a n d lo cal a g en cie s a n d t o p ro vid e “ ad eq uate c are o f t h e a g ed ” a n d t a x r e fo rm . T he man if e sto , w hic h w as e v en tu ally s ig ned b y 1 60 p ro m in en t c le rg ym en a n d la y m en o f v ario us f a ith s, a ls o c alle d o n l e g is la to rs a n d l e ad ers o f i n dustr y a n d la b or t o w ork t o geth er t o p ro vid e u nem plo ym en t i n su ra n ce, t o c h eck t h e bre ak dow n i n l a b or s ta n dard s, a n d t o c re ate a n atio nal i n dustr ia l p la n nin g board “ to l a y d ow n f a rs ig hte d l in es o f i n dustr ia l c o ntr o l f o r h um an w elf a re .” The d ocu m en t c le arly e v in ced a d eep ly r o ote d c o ncern a b out “ th e p re se n t cru el a n d u nnecessa ry i n eq ualitie s i n m en ’s o pportu nity t o o bta in a n d e n jo y th e e arth ’s mate ria l b le ssin gs” ; b ut i ts a p peal t o l e ad ers o f i n dustr y a n d l a b or, as w ell a s p olitic ia n s, a ssu m ed a n u nderly in g h arm ony o f i n te re sts i n t h e polity .

89 A s t h e d ecad e r o lle d o n, F D R i m ple m en te d t h e N ew D eal, a n d t h e CIO e m erg ed a t t h e f o re fro nt o f t h e l a b or m ovem en t, t h e N CCJ f e ll s ile n t o n eco nom ic i s su es. G ra d ually , h ow ev er, i t b eg an i n clu din g e co nom ic c la sse s i n its l is t o f t h ose a ssa ile d b y “ g ro up p re ju dic e.” A d ecla ra tio n c ir c u la te d b y t h e NCCJ a n d s ig ned b y m ore t h an 5 50 P ro te sta n t, C ath olic , a n d J e w is h l a y a n d re lig io us l e ad ers i n J u ne 1 939 w arn ed o f “ th e u ltim ate c o nse q uen ces o f pro pag an da w hic h a d vocate s h atr e d a g ain st c la sse s, r a ces a n d r e lig io us gro ups.” “ T he f ir e s o f p re ju dic e b urn q uic k ly a n d d is a str o usly ,” t h e d ocu m en t decla re d , i n vokin g t h e e x am ple o f E uro pe. “ W hat m ay b eg in a s p ole m ic s ag ain st a c la ss o r g ro up m ay e n d w ith p ers e cu tio n, m urd er, p illa g e a n d dis p osse ssio n o f t h at g ro up.” 90 I n F eb ru ary 1 940, t h e N CCJ’s i n vita tio n t o obse rv e B ro th erh ood W eek d en ounced “ v oic es” t h at “ se ek … t o d iv id e a n d weak en u s” b y s e ttin g “ ch urc h a g ain st c h urc h , g ro up a g ain st g ro up, a n d c la ss ag ain st c la ss.” 91 In i ts l is t o f h ate -fo m en tin g e v ils t h at A m eric an s s h ould r e sis t, t h e 1 939 NCCJ a p peal b eg an w ith “ ath eis tic c o m munis m .” ( It t h en t u rn ed , i n o rd er, t o fa sc is m a n d N azis m , a n ti- C ath olic is m , a n ti- P ro te sta n tis m , a n d a n ti- Sem itis m .) “ A th eis tic c o m munis m ,” i t s u ggeste d , “ se ek s t o d estr o y r e lig io n an d t o p it c la ss a g ain st c la ss i n r u in ous s o cia l a n d e co nom ic w arfa re .” T his was h ard ly t h e o nly l in k m ad e b etw een i n te rfa ith u nity a n d a n tic o m munis m in t h e y ears i m med ia te ly p re ced in g W orld W ar I I. I n J a n uary 1 938, t h e Cham ber o f C om merc e i n J e rs e y C ity , N ew J e rs e y , o rc h estr a te d a m ass meetin g t o s u pport M ay or F ra n k H ag ue i n h is e ffo rts t o s to p w hat t h e m ay or calle d t h e “ C om munis t i n vasio n” o f t h e c ity b y t h e C IO . I n i ts f ro nt- p ag e sto ry o n t h e e v en t, t h e New Y ork T im es n ote d t h at r e p re se n ta tiv es o f b usin ess, civ ic , r e lig io us, a n d v ete ra n s o rg an iz atio ns j o in ed t h e s p eak ers o n t h e f la g - fla n ked p la tf o rm . “ C ath olic p rie sts s a t w ith P ro te sta n t m in is te rs a n d J e w is h ra b bis w ere p re se n t,” i t r e p orte d .

92 Tak en t o geth er, t h ese t w o e p is o des f o re sh ad ow t h e r o le t h e i n te rfa ith movem en t w ould p la y i n c o m in g y ears i n c o nstr u ctin g a n atio nal c o nse n su s defin ed a g ain st c o m munis m , a s w ell a s a g ain st f a sc is m . T o a n atio n t r y in g t o defin e i ts e lf a g ain st e n em ie s d eem ed b oth t o ta lita ria n a n d a th eis t, t h e “in te rfa ith i d ea” w ould p ro ve p artic u la rly u se fu l. B y c astin g p lu ra lis m a b ove all i n r e lig io us t e rm s, t h e i n te rfa ith m ovem en t w ould a llo w g overn m en t offic ia ls a n d o th er e lite s t o s tr e ss A m eric a’s d em ocra tic d iv ers ity w ith out re in fo rc in g e th nic l o yaltie s o r d iv is io ns. A t t h e s a m e t im e, t h e n otio n t h at Pro te sta n tis m , C ath olic is m , a n d J u dais m w ere “ th e r e lig io ns o f d em ocra cy ” 93 —th at t h ey w ere d iv ers e r e p re se n ta tio ns o f s p ir itu al i d eals a n d m ora l v alu es th at a ll A m eric an s s h are d — re in fo rc ed t h e u nderly in g c o hesiv en ess o f Am eric an s o cie ty . I n t h e fa ce o f i r re lig io n o r a th eis m , b elie f i n any o f Am eric a’s “ th re e g re at f a ith s” 94 c o uld p ro vid e a b asis f o r c u ltu ra l u nity .

Durin g W orld W ar I I, t h e a n tif a sc is t a sp ects o f t h is a rg um en t w ould g et t h e most e x posu re . I n t h e p ostw ar p erio d, t h e e m phasis w ould s h if t t o an tic o m munis m .

Marg aret M ea d a n d t h e Resu rrectio n o f N atio n al C hara cte r In t h e s p rin g o f 1 939, M arg are t M ead a n d h er h usb an d, t h e B ritis h an th ro polo gis t G re g ory B ate so n, r e tu rn ed t o t h e U .S . a fte r s e v era l y ears o f fie ld -w ork i n B ali a n d t h e i s la n ds o f t h e D utc h E ast I n die s a rc h ip ela g o. T he tw o a n th ro polo gis ts h ad l a rg ely i g nore d p olitic s d urin g t h e i n te rw ar y ears . Becau se o f p ro lo nged a b se n ces f ro m t h e c o untr y , M ead h ad n ot e v en v ote d sin ce 1 924. “ I w as l iv in g i n a t im e p ers p ectiv e o f a h undre d y ears , a n d pre p arin g t h e m ate ria ls w ith w hic h w e w ould , h opefu lly , b e b ette r p re p are d fo r t h at l o ng f u tu re ,” s h e l a te r w ro te . “ F asc is m , C om munis m , N azis m , Cap ita lis m f ro m s u ch a l o ng s ta n d p oin t, w ere p ertu rb atio ns, w ith w hic h oth er p eo ple h ad t o d eal.” T he c o uple ’s r e tu rn t o t h e U .S . a b ru ptly c h an ged th eir p ers p ectiv e. C om in g h om e t o a w orld o n t h e v erg e o f w ar, t h ey r e aliz ed th at H itle r “ p re se n te d a t e rrib le t h re at t o e v ery th in g w e v alu ed .” 95 M ead a n d Bate so n b ecam e c o nvin ced t h at i t w as t im e t o t u rn t h eir e x pertis e “ to t h e pro ble m s o f o ur o w n s o cie ty .” 96 A s t h ey s o ught t o d o t h is o ver t h e n ex t f e w years , t h ey h elp ed r e su rre ct a c o ncep t t h at t h ey a n d o th er c u ltu ra l an th ro polo gis ts h ad w ork ed f o r t w o d ecad es t o u nderm in e: t h e c o ncep t o f natio nal c h ara cte r.

Chie f a m ong t h e p ro ble m s t h at M ead a n d B ate so n i d en tif ie d o n t h eir re tu rn t o t h e U .S . w as t h e n eed t o b ols te r n atio nal m ora le . T hey w ere h ard ly alo ne i n t h is a sse ssm en t. T he r is e o f f a sc is m — an d p artic u la rly t h e an nouncem en t o f t h e N azi- S ovie t p act a n d t h e o utb re ak o f w ar i n E uro pe— ala rm ed h undre d s o f A m eric an a n d r e fu gee s o cia l s c ie n tis ts . T he N azi blitz k rie g a n d t h e s tu nnin g c o lla p se o f F ra n ce i n t h e s p rin g a n d s u m mer o f 1940 c o m pounded t h eir c o ncern s. B oth A m eric an a n d f o re ig n c o m men ta to rs bla m ed F ra n ce’s d efe at n ot o n m ilita ry t a ctic s b ut o n a l a ck o f n atio nal u nity an d m ora le . S om e c o m men ta to rs , i n clu din g t h e e d ito rs o f t h e Natio n , b la m ed Fra n ce’s s p ir itu al p ara ly sis o n a n ti- S em itis m , a n ti- S ovie tis m , a n d Anglo phobia . O th ers , s u ch a s t h e F re n ch r e fu gee w rite r A ndré M au ro is , lo oked t o t e n sio ns b etw een c o m munis ts a n d r ig ht- w in g g ro ups i n D ep re ssio n- str ic k en F ra n ce. T he R eu te rs w ar c o rre sp onden t G ord on W ate rfie ld a rg ued th at “ p olitic al a n d c la ss d iv is io ns,” p artic u la rly t h e “ b itte r f e elin gs b etw een big b usin ess o n o ne s id e a n d t h e work in g c la sse s o n t h e o th er,” h ad w eak en ed th e c o untr y “ an d p re v en te d p arlia m en ta ry g overn m en t f ro m f u nctio nin g ad eq uate ly .” W ate rfie ld ’s b est- s e llin g b ook, What H appen ed t o F ra nce , para p hra se d A bra h am L in co ln i n p ro cla im in g t h e T hir d R ep ublic “ a n atio n div id ed a g ain st i ts e lf .” “ F ra n ce h as b een b eate n i n a w ay t h at R ep ublic an Spain w as n ot b eate n , n or F in la n d, P ola n d, N orw ay o r C hin a,” W ate rfie ld decla re d . T he F re n ch “ ap pear t o h av e l o st h eart.” 97 Such d ia g nose s p ro m pte d s c o re s o f s o cia l s c ie n tis ts , j o urn alis ts , his to ria n s, a n d g overn m en t o ffic ia ls — in clu din g m an y o n t h e l ib era l l e ft— to tu rn f ro m a n aly se s o f e co nom ic a n d p olitic al i n eq ualitie s i n A m eric an s o cie ty to t h e p ro m otio n o f s o cia l h arm ony a n d n atio nal m ora le . T he m ora le cam paig n t h at g ain ed s te am i n 1 940 a n d 1 941 s o ught t o c o m bat i s o la tio nis m an d t o b ols te r A m eric an s’ “ se n se o f c o lle ctiv e s o lid arity a n d r e sp onsib ility ” in t h e f a ce o f t h e f a sc is t t h re at.

98 I t a ttr a cte d i n div id uals a s d iv ers e a s psy ch olo gis ts G ord on A llp ort a n d K en neth C la rk , a n th ro polo gis ts M arg are t Mead a n d R uth B en ed ic t, p ublic o pin io n s p ecia lis ts E lm o R oper a n d G eo rg e Gallu p, I n te rio r S ecre ta ry H aro ld I c k es, j o urn alis t L ouis A dam ic , a n d pla y w rig ht R obert S herw ood. S om e o f t h ose i n volv ed p air e d a c o ntin uin g— if mute d — critiq ue o f U .S . c ap ita lis m w ith a r e n ew ed e m phasis o n t h e c o m mon gro und s h are d b y all A m eric an s. O th ers f o llo w ed t h e p ath t a k en b y H arv ard so cio lo gis t a n d P opula r F ro nt i n te lle ctu al T alc o tt P ars o ns. P ars o ns h ad dev ote d h is e arly c are er t o “ a c ritic al s tu dy o f t h e e co nom ic i n stitu tio ns o f modern c ap ita lis m ”; b ut i n 1 940, h e j o in ed t h e n ew ly f o rm ed C ouncil f o r Dem ocra cy a n d t h re w h is e n erg y i n to t h e m ora le c am paig n. I n a m em o dra fte d f o r t h e C ouncil, P ars o ns w arn ed t h at m an y o f t h e “ an ta g onis m s” t h at had h elp ed p ro pel G erm an f a sc is ts t o p ow er i n t h e 1 920s a n d e arly 1 930s were p re se n t “ in o ur o w n s o cie ty n ow .” A m ong t h ese “ an ta g onis m s” h e in clu ded a n ti- in te lle ctu alis m , a t r a d itio n o f r a cia l n atio nalis m , a n d h ostility t o big b usin ess o n t h e p art o f A m eric a’s “ lo w er m id dle c la ss.” I n s u bse q uen t writin gs a n d l e ctu re s, P ars o ns w en t f u rth er, s u ggestin g t h at t h e e m phasis o n cap ita lis m i n s tu die s o f W este rn c u ltu re h ad d is to rte d p ublic d is c o urs e a n d sp ark ed u nnecessa ry s o cia l u nre st. A s H ow ard B ric k h as o bse rv ed , P ars o ns in cre asin gly c am e t o “ v ie w s o cie ty a s a c o m munal b ody a n d r e fo rm a s t h e purs u it o f h arm ony.” W hile P ars o ns c o ntin ued t o a d vocate “ th e g oal o f m ass welf a re ,” h e n ow “ u rg ed r e sp ect f o r e sta b lis h ed s o cia l e lite s i n o rd er t o min im iz e m ass u pheav al,” a n d h e s u ggeste d t h at t h e r o le o f g overn m en t partic u la rly i n w artim e s h ould b e t o “ re in fo rc e” c o m mon v alu es.

99 P ars o ns’s tr a n sfo rm atio n c an b e s e en a s p art o f a b ro ad er i n te lle ctu al s h if t i n t h e l a te 1930s a n d e arly 1 940s s p ark ed b y t h e f o cu s o n n atio nal m ora le : i n cre asin gly , so cia l s c ie n tis ts i n v ario us d is c ip lin es a ttr ib ute d c o nflic t i n A m eric an s o cie ty to “ m is p erc ep tio ns” r a th er t h an t o a r e al c o llis io n o f i n te re sts .

100 Marg are t M ead h ad n ev er b een e x plic itly c o ncern ed w ith e co nom ic s o r with c o nflic ts b etw een g ro ups w ith in t h e U nite d S ta te s; i n f a ct, h er p re w ar work f o cu se d a lm ost e n tir e ly o n t h e S outh S eas. N ev erth ele ss, a s a c u ltu ra l an th ro polo gis t a n d d is c ip le o f F ra n z B oas, s h e h ad b een d eep ly i n volv ed f o r nearly t w o d ecad es i n a n i n te lle ctu al p ro je ct t h at i m plic itly c h alle n ged t h e cu ltu ra l h om ogen eity o f t h e U nite d S ta te s. I n t h e l a te n in ete en th a n d e arly tw en tie th c en tu rie s, t h e n otio n o f n atio nal c h ara cte r o fte n r e ste d o n a rg um en ts ab out t h e b io lo gic al t r a n sm is sio n o f c u ltu ra l v alu es. S uch r a cia lis t a rg um en ts fu ele d c alls f o r i m mig ra tio n r e str ic tio ns, a s a m ean s o f i m posin g n atio nal unity . M ean w hile , A m eric an iz atio n c am paig ns w ere o fte n p re m is e d o n a n ev olu tio nary v ie w o f h um an c u ltu re : t h ose a t t h e f o re fro nt o f s u ch e ffo rts gen era lly s a w t h em se lv es a s h elp in g “ p rim itiv e” p eo ple s p ro gre ss t o w ard gre ate r c iv iliz atio n. B oas a n d h is d is c ip le s r e je cte d b oth a rg um en ts . T hey ch alle n ged b io lo gic al d ete rm in is m b y c allin g a tte n tio n t o t h e o verw helm in g ro le p la y ed b y c u ltu re i n s h ap in g h um an u nders ta n din g a n d b eh av io r. A t t h e sa m e t im e, t h ey s u ggeste d t h at “ cu ltu re ” w as n ot s im ply a n a ttr ib ute o f “ad van ced ” s o cie tie s. R ath er, c u ltu re s w ere o rg an ic w hole s, s tr u ctu re s o f mean in g t h at h um an s u se d t o i n te rp re t a ll a sp ects o f l if e . T he r e la tio nsh ip betw een c u ltu re s w as r e la tiv e, n ot e v olu tio nary .

101 B y s h ow in g t h ose Am eric an s w ho h eld p ow er “ th at t h eir o w n p re fe re n ces w ere n ot a b so lu te ,” Boasia n a n th ro polo gis ts h oped t o b re ed g re ate r t o le ra n ce o f c u ltu ra l dif fe re n ce.

102 Boasia n a n th ro polo gis ts a rg ued t h at c u ltu re w as n ot b io lo gic ally tr a n sm itte d , b ut i n itia lly t h ey h ad t r o uble e x pla in in g h ow c u ltu re s m ain ta in ed th em se lv es a cro ss g en era tio ns. T his b eg an t o c h an ge i n t h e 1 920s a n d 1 930s when a l o ose g ro up o f a n th ro polo gis ts a n d p sy ch olo gis ts c en te re d a ro und New Y ork C ity a n d Y ale b eg an c o m bin in g t h e i n sig hts o f c u ltu ra l an th ro polo gy w ith t h ose o f F re u dia n p sy ch olo gy.

103 F or d ecad es, s tu den ts o f ch ild d ev elo pm en t, w ork in g w ith in a F re u dia n f ra m ew ork , h ad e x plo re d t h e way s i n w hic h c h ild re n l e arn ed s o cia l t r a d itio n; b ut t h ese s c h ola rs p rim arily stu die d y oungste rs f ro m t h e m id dle a n d u pper c la sse s o f t h e U .S . a n d E uro pe, an d t h ey g en era lly a ssu m ed t h at t h e p ers o nality t r a its s h are d b y t h eir s u bje cts were h um an a n d u niv ers a l.

104 P io neers o f “ cu ltu re a n d p ers o nality ” t h eo ry ch alle n ged t h is a ssu m ptio n. T hey a rg ued t h at a n i n div id ual’ s e m otio ns a n d beh av io r w ere n eith er b io lo gic ally d ete rm in ed n or u niv ers a l; r a th er, t h ey were s tr o ngly s h ap ed b y c u ltu ra l p atte rn s l e arn ed i n c h ild hood, o fte n i n in fa n cy . A s o ne s o cia l s c ie n tis t e x pla in ed , “ T he u niq ue a sp ects o f a n y s o cie ty are d ete rm in ed a n d m ain ta in ed b y e m otio nal h ab its l e arn ed i n i n fa n cy b y a majo rity o f p artic ip atin g i n div id uals .” S uch h ab its , d ev elo ped t h ro ugh in te ra ctio ns w ith p are n ts a n d o th ers , w ere s o “ d eep ly o rg an ic ” t h at t h ey ex hib ite d a “ su btle p rim acy ,” s h ap in g t h e i n div id ual’ s c o nduct t h ro ughout h is or h er l if e .

105 In t h e 1 920s a n d 1 930s, m ost p ra ctitio ners o f “ cu ltu re a n d p ers o nality ” th eo ry f o cu se d o n A m eric an I n dia n t r ib es o r o n t h e i n hab ita n ts o f r e m ote villa g es o r P acif ic i s la n ds. T heir s tu die s o fte n c o ntr a ste d t h e “ sim ple c u ltu ra l harm ony” o f s u ch p la ces w ith t h e “ fra g m en te d n eu ro tic c iv iliz atio n” o f t h e cap ita lis t W est. T heir w ork s tr e sse d b oth t h e h olis m o f c u ltu re s a n d t h e re sis ta n ce o f c u ltu re s t o c h an ge; t h us, i t c o uld b e i n voked t o s u pport arg um en ts f o r c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m i n t h e U .S .

106 T he i m plic atio ns o f c u ltu re an d p ers o nality r e se arc h , h ow ev er, d ep en ded h eav ily o n t h e u nit a n aly zed . A s lo ng a s s c h ola rs a ssu m ed t h at e th nic , r e g io nal, r e lig io us, o r r a cia l s u bgro ups were t h e p rim e c arrie rs o f c u ltu re , t h eir s tu die s t e n ded t o e m phasiz e t h e in te rn al d iv ers ity o f m odern n atio n-s ta te s s u ch a s t h e U .S . I f t h ey t o ok t h e natio n-s ta te t o b e t h e p rin cip le c arrie r o f c u ltu re , t h eir a n aly se s w ould in ev ita b ly u nders c o re t h e unity o f s u ch s o cie tie s.

This i s t h e i n te lle ctu al s h if t t h at M arg are t M ead a n d m an y o f h er co lle ag ues m ad e s o on a fte r t h e o utb re ak o f W orld W ar I I. I n t h e w ak e o f t h e Germ an b litz k rie g , M ead a n d B ate so n j o in ed m ore t h an o ne h undre d o th er pro m in en t a n th ro polo gis ts , p sy ch olo gis ts , h is to ria n s, j o urn alis ts , a n d so cio lo gis ts i n a n ew o rg an iz atio n c alle d t h e C om mitte e o n N atio nal M ora le (C N M ). T he b ra in ch ild o f a p hilo so phy p ro fe sso r-tu rn ed -P ers ia n a rt e x pert, Arth ur U pham P ope, t h e C N M s o ught t o a p ply s o cia l s c ie n ce t e ch niq ues t o questio ns o f u nity a t h om e a n d a b ro ad . M ead h ead ed t h e o rg an iz atio n’s Subco m mitte e o n C om para tiv e N atio nal P sy ch olo gy a n d i n t h is c o nte x t beg an a p ply in g “ cu ltu re a n d p ers o nality ” t h eo ry t o m odern n atio n-s ta te s.

Rath er t h an f o cu sin g o n t h e d if fe re n ces b etw een e th nocu ltu ra l g ro ups i n U .S .

so cie ty , s h e a n d h er c o lle ag ues n ow f o cu se d o n w hat d if fe re n tia te d Am eric an s f ro m G erm an s a n d R ussia n s f ro m J a p an ese .

Mead a n d h er c o lle ag ues t o ok t h is s te p b ecau se t h ey b elie v ed s tr o ngly i n th e r ig hte o usn ess a n d e ffic acy o f s o cia l e n gin eerin g.

107 T ota l w ar, M ead su ggeste d , t e ste d a n atio n’s n atio nal c h ara cte r. O nly b y u nders ta n din g “ m odal ch ara cte r s tr u ctu re ” c o uld t h e A llie s p ut t h is p ow erfu l t o ol t o u se . “ W hat i s a n Am eric an , a G erm an , a n E nglis h m an , o r a n A ustr a lia n ?” M ead a sk ed . “ W hat is h is p ecu lia r p atte rn o f s tr e n gth a n d w eak ness, i n vin cib le u nder o ne s e t o f co nditio ns, i n fin ite ly v uln era b le u nder a n oth er? I n a l a st- d itc h w ar,” M ead co nclu ded , “ th ese w ill b e t h e i m pondera b le s t h at c o unt.” 108 M ead a n d h er co lle ag ues h oped t h at b y i llu m in atin g t h ose f a cto rs t h ey c o uld h elp t h e U .S . an d i ts a llie s a v oid c ro ss-c u ltu ra l m is u nders ta n din g; d ev elo p m ore e ffe ctiv e ra tio nin g, m ilita ry t r a in in g, a n d c iv il d efe n se p ro gra m s f o r t h e h om efro nt; an d c ra ft p ro pag an da t o ols f o r u se a b ro ad . F ed era l o ffic ia ls a g re ed : s o on a fte r th e b om bin g o f P earl H arb or, m an y o f t h e s o cia l s c ie n tis ts s tu dyin g n atio nal ch ara cte r w ere b ro ught i n to f e d era l a g en cie s, a m ong t h em t h e O ffic e o f W ar In fo rm atio n a n d t h e O ffic e o f S tr a te g ic S erv ic es. O n t h e d ay o f t h e a tta ck , Mead w as i n vite d t o s e rv e a s e x ecu tiv e s e cre ta ry o f t h e C om mitte e o n F ood Hab its , a n o ffs h oot o f t h e N atio nal R ese arc h C ouncil’ s D iv is io n o f Anth ro polo gy a n d P sy ch olo gy.

109 While h er h usb an d a n d c o lle ag ues d ev elo ped c o lle ctiv e p ro file s o f t h e Germ an s, R ussia n s, a n d J a p an ese , M ead t u rn ed t o h er n ativ e l a n d. I n 1 942, sh e p ublis h ed And K eep Y our P ow der D ry , t h e f ir s t b ook t o a p ply t h e r e v iv ed notio n o f n atio nal c h ara cte r t o U .S . s o cie ty . T he b ook m ad e a n i m passio ned case f o r t h e u nity o f A m eric an c u ltu re a n d f o r a n i n te rn aliz ed c o nse n su s.

Am eric an c h ara cte r, M ead a rg ued , w as a n “ ex pre ssio n o f A m eric an in stitu tio ns a n d o f A m eric an a ttitu des w hic h i s e m bodie d i n e v ery A m eric an , in e v ery one b orn i n t h is c o untr y a n d s o m etim es e v en i n t h ose w ho h av e c o m e la te r t o t h ese s h ore s.” 110 N ow l a rg ely f o rg otte n , t h e b ook w as w id ely h aile d at t h e t im e; w ell i n to t h e 1 960s, i t w as r e q uir e d r e ad in g i n c la sse s o n citiz en sh ip a n d A m eric an s tu die s. M ead ’s v olu m e a ls o p av ed t h e w ay f o r a sp ate o f n atio nal c h ara cte r s tu die s w ritte n i n s u bse q uen t y ears b y a cad em ic s an d j o urn alis ts s u ch a s D . W . B ro gan , D av id R eis m an , H en ry S te ele Com mag er, D av id P otte r, a n d M ax L ern er.

111 Mead ’s b ook o ste n sib ly p la ced t h e i m mig ra n t e x perie n ce a t t h e c en te r o f th e n atio nal n arra tiv e: “ W e a re a ll t h ir d g en era tio n,” s h e d ecla re d i n h er piv ota l t h ir d c h ap te r. B y t a k in g t h e U .S . a s h er f u ndam en ta l u nit o f a n aly sis , how ev er, s h e r e le g ate d c u ltu ra l d if fe re n ce l a rg ely t o t h e p ast a n d s tr e sse d a unity b ase d u ltim ate ly o n a ssim ila tio n. I f o ne R ussia n b ro th er i m mig ra te d t o th e U .S . w hile a n oth er s ta y ed b eh in d, t h eir c h ild re n w ould b e f u ndam en ta lly dif fe re n t, s h e a rg ued . T he “ A m eric an P ete r” w ould b eco m e “ a g o-g ettin g mem ber o f t h e J u nio r C ham ber o f C om merc e” w ho d is lik ed S ta lin . T he “R ussia n I v an ,” b y c o ntr a st, w ould f in d i t n early i m possib le “ to u nders ta n d what A m eric an s m ean b y r u gged i n div id ualis m .” 112 A m eric an n atio nal ch ara cte r w as s u ffic ie n tly d is tin ctiv e, s h e s u ggeste d , t h at a n o bse rv er w ould re co gniz e A m eric an s t r a v elin g a b ro ad “ w heth er t h ey h av e c o m e f ro m Ark an sa s o r M ain e o r P en nsy lv an ia , w heth er t h ey b ear G erm an o r S w ed is h or I ta lia n s u rn am es.” 113 Mead ’s s tr e ss o n a ssim ila tio n r e fle cte d a s h if t i n e m phasis o n t h e p art o f cu ltu ra l a n th ro polo gis ts b ut n ot a c o m ple te r e v is io n i n t h eir t h in kin g. B ecau se Boasia n a n th ro polo gis ts w ere r e n ow ned a d vocate s o f c u ltu ra l r e la tiv is m , sc h ola rs h av e o fte n o verlo oked t h e r o le t h at a ssim ila tio n p la y ed i n t h eir th in kin g. F or m ore t h an t h re e d ecad es, B oas a n d h is d is c ip le s h ad a rg ued f o r th e p rim acy o f c u ltu re o ver b io lo gy— an d a tta ck ed r a cia lis t t h in kin g— by poin tin g t o t h e c o nverg en ce o f i m mig ra n ts t o a n “ A m eric an ” n orm .

114 T his em phasis i s c le arly ap pare n t i n t h e b ook t h at f ir s t b ro ught t h e n otio n o f cu ltu ra l r e la tiv is m f o rc efu lly t o a p opula r a u die n ce, R uth B en ed ic t’ s 1 934 cla ssic Patte rn s o f C ultu re . B en ed ic t, a s tu den t a n d c o lle ag ue o f B oas a n d a clo se f rie n d o f M ead , m ad e n o s e cre t o f h er m ora l a g en da i n w ritin g t h e book. D ecry in g t h e “ n atio nalis m a n d r a cia l s n obbery ” o f t h e U .S . a n d o th er Weste rn n atio ns, s h e p le ad ed f o r t o le ra n ce f o r “ alie n s” a n d o th er o uts id ers .

115 The b ulk o f B en ed ic t’ s b ook d ealt w ith t h re e n on-W este rn s o cie tie s— th e Zuñi, D obu, a n d K wak iu tl— whic h s h e u se d t o e x plo re t h e c o ncep t o f c u ltu re , but h er p le a f o r t o le ra n ce r e ste d o n h er c o nte n tio n t h at c u ltu re w as n ot “b io lo gic ally t r a n sm itte d .” T o s u pport t h is c ru cia l p ie ce o f h er a rg um en t, Ben ed ic t t u rn ed f o r e v id en ce t o t h e a ssim ila tiv e p ow er o f A m eric an s o cie ty .

“A n O rie n ta l c h ild a d opte d b y a n O ccid en ta l f a m ily l e arn s E nglis h , s h ow s to w ard i ts f o ste r p are n ts t h e a ttitu des c u rre n t a m ong t h e c h ild re n h e p la y s with , a n d g ro w s u p t o t h e s a m e p ro fe ssio ns t h at t h ey e le ct,” s h e w ro te . “ T he sa m e p ro cess h ap pen s o n a g ra n d s c ale w hen e n tir e p eo ple s i n a c o uple o f gen era tio ns s h ak e o ff t h eir t r a d itio nal c u ltu re a n d p ut o n t h e c u sto m s o f a n alie n g ro up.” I n f a ct, B en ed ic t s u ggeste d t h at t h e c u ltu re o f b la ck A m eric an s who l iv ed i n n orth ern c itie s “ h as c o m e t o a p pro xim ate i n d eta il t h at o f t h e white s i n t h e s a m e c itie s.” “ W hat r e ally b in ds m en t o geth er i s t h eir c u ltu re — th e i d eas a n d s ta n dard s t h ey h av e i n c o m mon,” s h e c o nclu ded . T he n atio n would s u bstitu te “ re alis tic t h in kin g” f o r “ d an gero us” a n d “ m is le ad in g” “sy m bolis m ,” i f “ in ste ad o f s e le ctin g a s y m bol l ik e c o m mon b lo od h ere d ity an d m ak in g a s lo gan o f i t, [ it] t u rn ed i ts a tte n tio n r a th er t o t h e c u ltu re t h at unite s i ts p eo ple .” 116 Ben ed ic t, M ead , a n d o th er c u ltu re a n d p ers o nality t h eo ris ts t h us t r ie d t o co m bat p re ju dic e— an d t o r e co ncile t h e t e n sio n b etw een n atio nal u nity a n d dem ogra p hic i n clu sio n— by f o cu sin g o n a natio nal c u ltu re t h at t h ey b elie v ed was e m bed ded i n t h e p sy ch e o f i n div id ual A m eric an s. T his f o cu s o n assim ila tio n d if fe re n tia te d M ead a n d h er c o lle ag ues f ro m L ouis A dam ic .

Adam ic t o o b elie v ed t h at i n div id uals o f d iv ers e e th nic b ack gro unds w ould gra d ually b eco m e A m eric an iz ed , b ut h e d id n ot s e e t h is a s t h e p rin cip le so urc e o f t h eir c o m mon v alu es. I n A dam ic ’s v ie w , a b elie f i n E nlig hte n m en t- deriv ed v alu es s u ch a s i n div id ual f re ed om a n d e q uality p ro pelle d i m mig ra n ts to t h e N ew W orld ; s u ch v alu es w ere n ot s im ply p art o f a c u ltu re a cq uir e d la te r. A dam ic s a w A m eric an s’ s h are d v alu es a s p ote n tia lly u niv ers a l. M ead , lik e t h e N CCJ, s a w t h em a s g ro unded i n a n d b ounded b y t h e c u ltu re o f t h e natio n-s ta te .

Racis m a n d n ativ is m e n te re d M ead ’s a cco unt o nly b rie fly — as a b arrie r t o fu ll a ssim ila tio n. I n a s h ort b ut t e llin g p assa g e o n a g gre ssio n, s h e s u ggeste d th at a n “ A m eric an b oy” m ig ht e n co unte r b la ck , P uerto R ic an , M ex ic an , I ris h , an d S ic ilia n c h ild re n w ho h ad v ery d if fe re n t i d eas a b out f ig htin g. I n t h e Sic ilia n c ase , M ead m ad e c le ar t h at s h e w as r e fe rrin g t o f ir s t- g en era tio n ch ild re n , w ho h ad n ot y et b een f u lly a ssim ila te d . “ N eg ro es,” h ow ev er, h ad a “v ie w o f w hat i s f a ir ” t h at h ad b een “ d an gero usly s k ew ed b y t h e cir c u m sta n ces t h at t h ey t h em se lv es h av e b een t o o l o ng ‘ fa ir g am e’ f o r w hite peo ple .” 117 I f v ic tim s o f r a cis m c o uld t h us b e e x clu ded f ro m M ead ’s v is io n of t h e A m eric an c h ara cte r, s o , t o o, c o uld t h ose w ho e n sh rin ed r a cis t b elie f. I n fa ct, t h e o ne g ro up M ead e x plic itly e x clu ded f ro m h er a n aly sis w as so uth ern ers . “ T he g en era liz atio ns i n t h is b ook s h ould b e r e g ard ed a s b ase d prim arily o n t h e N orth , M id dle W est a n d W est,” M ead s u ggeste d i n a fo otn ote . T he S outh ’s “ b i- ra cia l c la ssif ic atio n o f h um an ity ” s o a ffe cte d i ts cu ltu re t h at a n y a tte m pt t o g en era liz e a b out b oth t h e N orth a n d t h e S outh would “ b e t o o a b str a ct t o b e f ru itf u l.” 118 Hav in g d efe n ded t h e n otio n o f A m eric an c h ara cte r, M ead t u rn ed t o i ts co nte n t.

119 A m eric a, s h e e m phasiz ed , h ad a “ m ora l c u ltu re ,” o ne w hic h “b ris tle [e d ] w ith w ord s l ik e good a n d bad .” T his w as b y n o m ean s a u niv ers a l quality . T he S am oan s, f o r i n sta n ce, e m phasiz ed g ra ce a n d a w kw ard ness ra th er t h an m ora lity . T he B alin ese w ere m ore c o ncern ed w ith “ w heth er a giv en a ct w ould m ak e p eo ple f e el palin g , t h e B alin ese w ord f o r t h e s ta te o f not k now in g w here y ou a re .” M ead n ote d t h at A m eric an s’ u nusu al f o cu s o n mora lity w as r e in fo rc ed b y t h eir c h ild -re arin g t e ch niq ues. A m eric an p are n ts to ok r e sp onsib ility f o r p unis h in g t h eir c h ild re n , w here as p are n ts i n m ost so cie tie s “ call[ e d ] i n g ods, o r s c are d an cers , o r r e la tiv es” r a th er t h an r is k fa cin g t h eir c h ild re n ’s “ h ostility a n d h atr e d .” S uch p ra ctic es p ro duced i n Am eric an c h ild re n a c o nsc ie n ce, a n a ttr ib ute t h at M ead d eem ed “ v ery r a re an d s p ecia l.” 120 Am eric an s s h are d a n i n te rn aliz ed m ora lity w ith m ost o th er J u deo - Chris tia n c u ltu re s, b ut o th er a sp ects o f t h e n atio nal c h ara cte r d is tin guis h ed Am eric an s f ro m E uro pean s, M ead s u ggeste d . A m eric an s, s h e o bse rv ed , w ere ete rn ally i n m otio n, w ith n o f ix ed s e n se o f g eo gra p hic o r s o cia l p la ce. L ik e th ir d -g en era tio n i m mig ra n ts , t h ey p urp ose fu lly f o rg ot t h eir E uro pean an cesto rs a n d l o oked i n ste ad t o t h eir A m eric an p ast— hom eto w ns, p opula r cu ltu re , v olu nta ry a sso cia tio ns, a n d m ilita ry s e rv ic e— to p ro duce s h allo w co m mon b onds. T hey e x pecte d t o l e av e t h eir f a th ers b eh in d o ccu patio nally , geo gra p hic ally , a n d s o cia lly , j u st a s t h eir f a th ers h ad o nce l e ft t h eir gra n dfa th ers b eh in d. T his f o rw ard g aze a n d p erp etu al u pw ard s tr iv in g w as em bodie d i n A m eric an s’ r e la tio nsh ip t o t h e f o undin g f a th ers . “ W ash in gto n does n ot r e p re se n t t h e p ast t o w hic h o ne b elo ngs b y b ir th ,” M ead w ro te , “ b ut th e p ast t o w hic h o ne t r ie s t o b elo ng b y e ffo rt.” 121 If M ead b elie v ed t h at a ll A m eric an s w ere “ th ir d g en era tio n,” s h e s a w th eir c h ara cte r s tr u ctu re a s f u ndam en ta lly P urita n . N ot o nly w ere t h ey mora lis tic , b ut a ls o , l ik e t h e P urita n s, t h ey l in ked s u ccess a n d g oodness, belie v in g t h at “w ealth w as t h e i n ev ita b le r e w ard o f v ir tu e a n d i n dustr y .” Mead c o nsid ere d t h is t o b e o ne o f t h e n atio n’s “ m ost d is tin guis h in g ch ara cte ris tic s.” “ O n i t i s b ase d o ur a ccep ta n ce o f m en f o r w hat t h ey h av e beco m e r a th er t h an f o r w hat t h ey w ere b orn ,” s h e w ro te . “ O n i t i s b ase d o ur fa ith t h at s im ple p eo ple … a re w orth y o f a h earin g i n t h e h alls o f t h e g re at.

On i t i s b ase d o ur s p ecia l b ra n d o f d em ocra cy .” 122 Critic al a s M ead b elie v ed t h is m ora l c o de t o b e, s h e a ls o s a w i t a s ex ceed in gly f ra g ile — so m eth in g t h at r e q uir e d “ v ery s p ecia l c ir c u m sta n ces” i n ord er t o f lo uris h . T he l in k b etw een v ir tu e a n d s u ccess h ad f lo w ere d i n t h e U.S . w hile w ith erin g i n E ngla n d b ecau se A m eric a’s “ p io neer c o nditio ns” fu ele d “ a g re at a n d e x pan din g e co nom y.” D urin g t h e D ep re ssio n, M ead obse rv ed , t h is “ m ora l k ey sto ne” o f t h e A m eric an c h ara cte r h ad “ ta k en a b ody blo w .” I f A m eric an s e v er l o st i t e n tir e ly , s h e w arn ed , t h e c o nse q uen ces would b e d ev asta tin g: I f A m eric an s b ecam e c o nvin ced t h at “ it’ s a ll a m atte r of p ull, o f w ho y ou k now , t h at w ork in g h ard d oesn ’t g et y ou a n yw here now ad ay s,” t h ey m ig ht s in k i n to a “ cy nic is m w hic h c o uld w ell f o rm t h e b asis of a n A m eric an f a sc is m .” 123 Desp ite t h e o m in ous n ote i n t h ese p assa g es, M ead r e m ain ed o ptim is tic . The k ey t o s a v in g t h e A m eric an c h ara cte r w as r e d efin in g A m eric a’s p la y in g fie ld a n d t h e m ean in g o f s u ccess. W orld e v en ts , h orrif ic a s t h ey w ere , h ad open ed j u st s u ch a n o pportu nity b y m ak in g i t c le ar t o a ll t h at t h e w orld need ed t o b e “ b uilt n ew , a cco rd in g t o a n ew p la n .” A m eric an s n ow h ad t h e ch an ce t o b eco m e “ d ev ote d e n tr e p re n eu rs ” o f t h is n oble c au se . “ B uild in g t h e world n ew ” d id n ot m ean s im ply r e m ak in g i t i n A m eric a’s i m ag e, M ead cau tio ned . R ath er, i t m ean t c re atin g “ fro m a h undre d c u ltu re s, o ne c u ltu re whic h d oes w hat n o c u ltu re h as e v er d one b efo re — giv es a p la ce t o e v ery hum an g if t.” T o a cco m plis h t h is , A m eric an s w ould h av e t o s tu dy o th er cu ltu re s c lo se ly , b ut M ead b elie v ed t h at o nly A m eric an s h ad t h e e n erg y, pra ctic ality , a n d “ m ora l f ra m ew ork o f b asic h um an r ig hts ” t o m ak e i t h ap pen .

Dev otio n t o t h is c au se — th e c au se o f r e str u ctu rin g w orld c u ltu re a fte r t h e w ar —would , i n t u rn , h elp A m eric an s f ig ht w ell, M ead d ecla re d . H er c o m patr io ts , sh e a rg ued , w ould f ig ht “ o nly i f t h ey b elie v e, w ith e v ery f ib er i n t h eir b ein g, th at t h eir c au se i s j u st— an d n ew .” 124 Thus, M ead u ltim ate ly e n ded o n t h e s a m e n ote s tr u ck b y n um ero us o th er activ is ts a n d c o m men ta to rs i n t h e l a te 1 930s a n d e arly 1 940s. A m eric a, s h e su ggeste d , w as a n atio n o f i m mig ra n ts w ho h ad d is c o vere d t h e s e cre t t o tr a n se th nic h arm ony a n d w ho c o uld c arry t h at m essa g e t o t h e g lo be. T his se cre t w as e m bodie d i n t h e s h are d b elie fs a n d v alu es t h at m ad e a dem ogra p hic ally d iv ers e n atio n p ossib le — in w hat M ead c alle d t h e “A m eric an c h ara cte r,” w hat A dam ic c alle d t h e “ A m eric an D re am ,” w hat re p re se n ta tiv es o f t h e N CCJ c alle d th e “ A m eric an W ay ,” a n d w hat a v is itin g Sw ed is h e co nom is t w ould s o on i m morta liz e a s t h e “ A m eric an C re ed .” The “ W ar W ork ” o f G unnar a n d Alv a M yrd al In S ep te m ber 1 938, G unnar M yrd al a rriv ed i n t h e U nite d S ta te s t o t a k e t h e re in s o f a s tu dy o n t h e A m eric an N eg ro p ro pose d a n d f u nded b y t h e C arn eg ie Corp ora tio n, a s tu dy t h at w ould e v en tu ally b eco m e k now n a s An A m eric a n Dile m ma . T he s tu dy i n quir y h ad f ir s t b een s u ggeste d i n l a te 1 935 b y N ew to n Bak er, t h e C arn eg ie t r u ste e w ho a ls o s e rv ed a s t h e N CCJ’s f ir s t P ro te sta n t c o - ch air . I t w as m ad e p ossib le i n p art b ecau se t h e f o undatio n h ad d ecid ed n ot t o fu nd a n oth er a m bitio us p ro je ct: t h e “ E ncy clo ped ia o f t h e N eg ro ” p ro m ote d by W . E . B . D uB ois , w hic h L ouis A dam ic h ad s o f ie rc ely o ppose d . W hen Carn eg ie C orp ora tio n p re sid en t F re d eric k K ep pel f in ally s e le cte d a s c h ola r t o head t h e s tu dy, h e r e lie d o n t h e r e co m men datio n o f t w o f o rm er o ffic ia ls o f th e R ock efe lle r F oundatio n. O ne o f t h ose o ffic ia ls w as L aw re n ce K .

Fra n k.

125 A f o under o f t h e c h ild d ev elo pm en t m ovem en t i n t h e U nite d S ta te s, Fra n k h ad i n tr o duced M arg are t M ead t o s e v era l o f t h e p sy ch ia tr is ts a n d psy ch olo gis ts w ho p ro ved s o i n flu en tia l t o h er c u ltu re a n d p ers o nality w ork .

In a d ditio n, M ead ’s a n d F ra n k’s f a m ilie s s h are d a h ouse i n t h e e arly 1 940s while M ead w as d ra ftin g And K eep Y our P ow der D ry . 126 As t h is w eb o f i n cid en ta l c o nnectio ns s u ggests , M yrd al’ s s tu dy w as em bed ded f ro m i ts i n cep tio n i n a n i n te lle ctu al m ilie u t h at f o cu se d o n co m batin g i n to le ra n ce a n d d is u nity i n t h e U .S ., a n d f ig htin g f a sc is m a b ro ad , by e m phasiz in g t h e b elie fs a n d v alu es t h at d iv ers e A m eric an s a lle g ed ly sh are d . B ak er, A dam ic , M ead , a n d t h e v ario us o rg an iz atio ns t o w hic h t h ey were a tta ch ed d is a g re ed o n m an y s p ecif ic s, b ut a ll c ast A m eric a a s t h e arc h ety pe o f “ u nity w ith in d iv ers ity ”— a n atio n i n w hic h a c iv ic c o nse n su s allo w ed a h ete ro gen eo us c itiz en ry t o l iv e t o geth er i n p eace. M ore o ver, a ll belie v ed t h at b y b ro ad castin g t h eir v is io ns— by u sin g b ooks, m ag azin es, public p ag ean ts , s c h ool p ro gra m s, a n d s p eak in g t o urs t o e d ucate t h e Am eric an p ublic — th ey c o uld c all s u ch a n atio n i n to b ein g. T his U .S .

dis c o urs e o n A m eric an s’ c o m mon g ro und c le arly h ad a p ro fo und i m pact o n Gunnar M yrd al a n d h is w if e , A lv a. A s M yrd al’ s b io gra p her h as n ote d , t h e co uple “ arriv ed a t a n e x ag gera te d n otio n o f t h e i m porta n ce o f t h e A m eric an cre ed p artly b y l is te n in g t o A m eric an i n te lle ctu als f ro m t h e f a ll o f 1 938 t o t h e sp rin g o f 1 940.” 127 The M yrd als ’ o w n i n te lle ctu al b ack gro unds a ls o p re d is p ose d t h em t o l o ok fo r s h are d n atio nal v alu es. G unnar h ad b eg un h is c are er a s a n eo cla ssic al eco nom is t w ho b elie v ed t h at t h e f re e m ark et w as t h e m ost e ffic ie n t w ay t o sp re ad n atio nal w ealth . H is v ie w s s h if te d i n 1 929–1930 w hen R ock efe lle r Foundatio n f e llo w sh ip s b ro ught t h e c o uple t o t h e U .S . a n d t h ey w itn esse d fir s th an d t h e s tu nnin g c o lla p se o f t h e U .S . e co nom y. T he f a ilu re o f neo cla ssic al e co nom ic s t o c o pe w ith t h is d is a ste r a lte re d G unnar’s p olitic al an d e co nom ic v ie w s; a n d u pon h is r e tu rn t o S w ed en , h e t u rn ed h is in te lle ctu al e n erg y t o s o cia l e n gin eerin g a n d t h e p ro m otio n o f t h e w elf a re sta te . M ydra l d if fe re d f ro m m ost s o cia l e n gin eers , h ow ev er, b ecau se h e belie v ed t h at s o cia l s c ie n tis ts s h ould s ta te e x plic itly t h eir a ssu m ptio ns a b out what w as r ig ht a n d w ro ng, g ood a n d b ad , j u st a n d u nju st. M ore o ver, h e arg ued t h at i n a d em ocra cy , t h ey “ sh ould a tte m pt, i n s o f a r a s p ossib le , t o dra w t h eir v alu e p re m is e s f ro m t h e g en era l b elie fs a n d v alu es o f t h e peo ple .” 128 A lv a, m ean w hile , h ad s p en t h er f e llo w sh ip y ear m eetin g w ith so cia l a n d c h ild p sy ch olo gis ts — in clu din g s o m e i n volv ed w ith t h e d ev elo pin g fie ld o f c u ltu re a n d p ers o nality t h eo ry — an d v is itin g s c h ool c iv ic s c la sse s i n whic h “ A m eric an ” v alu es w ere t a u ght.

129 W hen t h e c o uple r e tu rn ed t o Sw ed en , t h ey j o in ed t h e S ocia l D em ocra tic P arty a n d w ork ed t o b uild b ro ad natio nal s u pport f o r t h e p arty ’s p olic ie s. A b ook o n S w ed en ’s “ p opula tio n cris is ,” w hic h t h ey c o au th ore d i n 1 934, r e fle cte d t h eir n ew fo und i n te re st i n id en tif y in g a n d c em en tin g n atio nal v alu es. “ H is to ry h as n ev er s e en a bala n ced a n d h arm onio us s o cie ty t h at w as n ot g ro unded i n s e cu re v alu es with in a c o lle ctiv e p sy ch olo gy,” t h ey w ro te .

130 When t h e M yrd als r e tu rn ed t o t h e U nite d S ta te s i n 1 938, t h ey w ere buffe te d b y t h e s a m e c o m bin atio n o f h opes a n d f e ars t h at a ffe cte d m an y o th er lib era l a n d l e ftis t i n te lle ctu als . D urin g t h eir f ir s t v is it, t h e c o uple h ad b een ap palle d b y t h e e n orm ous i n eq uitie s i n A m eric an s o cie ty , a s w ell a s b y t h e natio n’s l a ck o f s o cia l a n d e co nom ic p la n nin g; t h ey b elie v ed t h e n atio n’s la is se z-fa ir e l ib era lis m d eriv ed d ir e ctly f ro m t h e A m eric an e m phasis o n in div id ual f re ed om . A d ecad e l a te r, t h e U .S . s e em ed t r a n sfo rm ed . T he pro lo nged D ep re ssio n h ad f o rc ed A m eric an s t o a ccep t m ore s o cia l re sp onsib ility , t h e M yrd als b elie v ed , a n d t h e “ h um an ita ria n p ra g m atis t” F D R had w ro ught t h e g re ate st c h an ge i n t h e A m eric an s o cia l s y ste m “ sin ce t h e re v olu tio n.” T he m ora lis m o f A m eric an c u ltu re , w hic h s e em ed o ppre ssiv e i n 1929, l o oked l ik e a v ir tu e i n t h e g lo bal c o nte x t o f t h e l a te 1 930s. A m eric an in div id ualis m , w hic h t h e M yrd als h ad p re v io usly v ie w ed a s a n o bsta cle t o re fo rm , n ow s e em ed a s ig n o f t h e n atio n’s e n erg y a n d s p ir it.

131 Durin g t h eir R ock efe lle r y ear, t h e M yrd als h ad b een p artic u la rly s tr u ck by t h e a rra y o f E uro pean i m mig ra n ts w ho m ad e t h e U .S . t h eir h om e; t h ey wondere d w hat b onds h eld s u ch a d iv ers e c o untr y t o geth er. I n h is w ritin gs fro m t h at t im e, G unnar M yrd al n ote d t h e “ th ro ng o f r a ces” t h at d iv id ed th e work in g c la ss. H e a ls o l ik en ed A m eric a’s “ p olitic al i n doctr in atio n” o f i ts ch ild re n a n d i m mig ra n ts — th ro ugh c iv ic s a n d A m eric an iz atio n c la sse s— to th at u nderta k en b y t h e S ovie t U nio n a n d I ta ly . T he r e su lt, h e a rg ued , w as t h at when i n div id uals w ere a sk ed a b out t h eir p olitic al b elie fs , t h ey “ u se co nven tio nal a n d s te re o ty ped s to ck p hra se s w hic h m ay h av e l ittle b earin g o n … b eh av io r.” 132 W hen t h e M yrd als r e tu rn ed t o t h e U .S . a t t h e e n d o f t h e decad e, t h e t e n or o f t h eir o bse rv atio ns h ad c h an ged . T hey e m phasiz ed t h e ra p id ity w ith w hic h d iv ers e E uro pean i m mig ra n ts w ere a ssim ila tin g i n to Am eric an c u ltu re , f o rg in g a c o m mon i d en tity , a n d l e arn in g t o l iv e s id e b y sid e. B y c o ntr a st, t h eir E uro pean k in w ere s la u ghte rin g o ne a n oth er i n pogro m s a n d o n t h e b attle fie ld .

133 Even a s t h e M yrd als c ele b ra te d A m eric a’s s o cia l h arm ony, h ow ev er, t h ey sh are d w ith m an y o th er A m eric an l ib era ls a n d l e ftis ts a c o ncern t h at f a sc is m co uld “ h ap pen h ere .” I n a J u ne 1 939 i n te rv ie w w ith a r e p orte r f o r t h e St.

Louis P ost D is p atc h , G unnar w ondere d a lo ud w heth er A m eric an s w ere co m mitte d t o p re se rv in g t h eir d em ocra cy .

134 A lv a e x am in ed t h e s a m e questio n i n a rtic le s w ritte n f o r S w ed is h m ag azin es t h at f a ll. S he c o m pare d Fath er C oughlin ’s v ie w s t o t h e e arly i d eo lo gy o f t h e N azis , n otin g t h at b oth were a n ti- S em itic a n d h ostile t o c ap ita lis m . A lv a s a w t h e S outh — with i ts “g re at c la ss i n eq ualitie s” a n d “ ra cia l p ers e cu tio n”— as t h e o th er p ossib le so urc e o f A m eric an f a sc is m , a lth ough s h e b elie v ed t h e S outh ’s “ fa sc is m ” w as more “ o ld -fa sh io ned ” a n d “ fe u dalis [tic ].” 135 S till, A lv a c ast t h ese u nse ttlin g te n den cie s a s t h e e x cep tio n i n A m eric a. A s W alte r J a ck so n h as n ote d , s h e “fra m ed t h e c o nflic t b etw een f a sc is m a n d d em ocra cy a s a n i d eo lo gic al a n d mora l c o nflic t” a n d “ o ptim is tic ally p re d ic te d t h at d em ocra tic v alu es w ould win o ut o ver c la ss a n d r a cia l i n eq uality i n A m eric a.” 136 The M yrd als ’ o w n b elie fs a n d e x perie n ces— as w ell a s t h e i n te lle ctu al en vir o nm en t i n w hic h t h ey f o und t h em se lv es i n t h e l a te 1 930s— th us p rim ed Gunnar t o t h in k a b out t h e p ro ble m o f r a ce i n A m eric a i n m ora l a n d id eo lo gic al t e rm s. N ev erth ele ss, t h is f o cu s d id n ot e m erg e i m med ia te ly .

When M ydra l s u bm itte d a m em o t o C arn eg ie p re sid en t K ep pel i n J a n uary 1939 t e n ta tiv ely l a y in g o ut h is a p pro ach , h e p aid g re at a tte n tio n t o t h e eco nom ic “ d ete rm in an ts ” o f b la ck l if e a n d b eh av io r a n d d id n ot m en tio n t h e “A m eric an c re ed .” I n a m em o w ritte n t h e f o llo w in g s u m mer, h e i n tr o duced th e i d ea o f t h e “ A m eric an s ta te r e lig io n” b ut d id n ot e m phasiz e i t o ver o th er fa cto rs .

137 In t h e e n d, i t w as n ot i n A m eric a, b ut i n S w ed en , t h at t h e c en tr a l arg um en t o f An A m eric a n D ile m ma e m erg ed . T he G erm an b litz k rie g i n t h e sp rin g o f 1 940, w hic h s o a la rm ed A m eric an i n te lle ctu als , h ad a n e v en m ore pow erfu l e ffe ct o n t h e M yrd als . T he G erm an W eh rm ach t h ad l a u nch ed i ts offe n siv e in e arly A pril b y i n vad in g D en m ark a n d N orw ay , a n d t o m an y obse rv ers i t s e em ed t h at S w ed en c o uld b e n ex t. B oth M yrd als w ere dete rm in ed t o b e i n t h eir h om ela n d d urin g i ts m om en t o f c ris is . I n e arly M ay 1940, t h ey s a ile d f o r E uro pe w ith t h eir c h ild re n o n t h e o nly s h ip a v aila b le : a Fin nis h f re ig hte r p ack ed w ith d ynam ite . A rriv in g i n S w ed en , t h ey w ere ap palle d b y t h e p olitic s o f n eu tr a lity t h ey f o und. T o h ead o ff a n i n vasio n, t h e Sw ed is h g overn m en t h ad a g re ed t o c o ntin ue t r a d in g w ith G erm an y a n d t o allo w s o m e N azi t r o ops t o c ro ss t h e c o untr y b y r a il t o a n d f ro m N orw ay . T he govern m en t a ls o r e str ic te d p re ss c o vera g e o f G erm an y a n d t h e w ar, o pen ed le tte rs , a n d c en so re d t e le g ra p h a n d t e le p hone c o m munic atio ns. “ S w ed en i s i n th e p ock et o f G erm an y,” G unnar M yrd al c o m pla in ed t o a c o lle ag ue i n t h e U.S .

138 As t h e M yrd als ’ w ork ed i n t h e s p rin g a n d s u m mer o f 1 940 t o s tr e n gth en th eir c o untr y ’s “ id eo lo gic al d efe n se s,” t h ey i n cre asin gly f o und t h em se lv es tu rn in g t o t h e e x am ple o f t h e U nite d S ta te s. S w ed en w as a d em ocra tic so cie ty , b ut t h ey w orrie d t h at t h e a v era g e S w ed e w ould n ot b e a s v ig ila n t a s his o r h er A m eric an c o unte rp art a b out t h e e ro sio n o f r ig hts a n d l ib ertie s. T o ale rt S w ed es t o t h is d an ger a n d t o s tr e n gth en t h e n atio n’s i d eo lo gic al pre p are d ness, t h e M yrd als c o au th ore d a b ook e n title d Konta kt m ed A m erik a (C onta ct w ith A m eric a), w hic h t h ey p ublis h ed i n 1 941. T he s e co nd c h ap te r —“D en a m erik an sk a t r o sb ek än nels e n ”— dev elo ped t h eir n otio n o f t h e “A m eric an C re ed .” A m eric an s, t h ey a rg ued , s h are d a f u ndam en ta l c o nse n su s of v alu es t h at t r a n sfo rm ed a c o ntin en ta l a n d c u ltu ra lly v arie d d em ocra cy i n to a s ta b le a n d u nif ie d l a n d. T he U .S . s till h ad “ g la rin g i n eq ualitie s,” t h ey ad m itte d , b ut “ ah ead o f e v ery o th er c o untr y i n t h e w hole W este rn w orld ” i t “h as a l iv in g s y ste m o f e x pre sse d i d eals f o r h um an c o opera tio n w hic h i s unif ie d , s ta b le , a n d c le arly f o rm ula te d .” S w ed en ’s p olitic al b elie f s y ste m co nsis te d o f “ la te n t, u npra ctic ed p rin cip le s.” B y c o ntr a st, A m eric a’s s h are d id eals “ h av e b een m ad e c o nsc io us a n d a rtic u la te i n a ll s o cia l l e v els .” 139 In 1 929, G unnar M yrd al h ad s u ggeste d t h at A m eric an s s im ply p arro te d “sto ck p hra se s” w hen a sk ed a b out t h eir p olitic al b elie fs . N ow t h e c o uple arg ued t h at e v ery A m eric an h ad t h e b asic t e n ets o f t h e A m eric an c re ed “sta m ped i n h is c o nsc io usn ess.” 140 H ow w as t h is p ossib le , t h ey a sk ed ? P art of t h e a n sw er, t h ey a rg ued , c o uld b e f o und i n s h are d c ele b ra tio ns o f n atio nal hero es a n d h is to ric e v en ts . M ak in g a p oin t s im ila r t o o ne m ad e b y M ead , t h ey note d t h at o nly t h e U .S . c ele b ra te d t h e b ir th day s a n d d eath s o f f a m ous p eo ple lo ng d ecease d . T he M yrd als a ls o c re d ite d t h e U .S . p olitic al a n d l e g al s y ste m , esp ecia lly t h e S upre m e C ourt, a s w ell a s A m eric an c h urc h es a n d s c h ools .

Alv a M yrd al, w ho s h ap ed t h e b ook’s d is c u ssio n o f e d ucatio n, d re w h eav ily on h er e x perie n ce w ith p ublic s c h ools i n t h e M id w est a n d e x perim en ta l pro gre ssiv e sc h ools l a u nch ed i n t h e U .S . d urin g t h e p re v io us d ecad e.

Gen era liz in g f ro m t h ese — an d l a rg ely i g norin g b oth s e g re g ate d s c h ools a n d tr a d itio nal p riv ate i n stitu tio ns— Alv a a rg ued t h at A m eric an s c h ools b ro ught to geth er c h ild re n f ro m d iv ers e e th nic a n d r e lig io us b ack gro unds a n d t a u ght th em d em ocra tic v alu es a n d t h e t o ols n eed ed t o c o opera te .

141 What w ere t h ose d em ocra tic v alu es? T o t h e M yrd als t h e “ A m eric an cre ed ” m ean t, “ ab ove a ll, c iv il r ig hts , c iv il l ib ertie s, a f re e p re ss, a n d dem ocra tic d ecis io n m ak in g.” T hey s a w t h ese i d eals a s r o ote d i n t h e Enlig hte n m en t a n d e m bed ded i n t h e U .S . C onstitu tio n. A lth ough A m eric an s did n ot a lw ay s m atc h t h eir s h are d v alu es, t h e M yrd als a ssu re d t h eir a u die n ce th at “ th ere i s s c arc ely a n y d oubt t h at t h e n atio nal v alu e s y ste m i s c o ntin ually in cre asin g i n i n flu en ce.” I t w as i n t h is c o nte x t— a l e sso n o n i d eo lo gic al “re sis ta n ce” p re ach ed t o f e llo w S w ed es— th at G unnar M yrd al d ev elo ped t h e arg um en t t h at w ould e v en tu ally f ra m e An A m eric a n D ile m ma . A m eric an s d id not a lw ay s a ct o n t h e A m eric an c re ed , b ecau se i t s o m etim es c o nflic te d w ith th eir “ lo cal i d eo lo gie s” o r “ in te re sts ,” h e a rg ued . N ev erth ele ss, e v en re actio nary s o uth ern ers d efe n ded t h e n atio nal i d eo lo gy. “ T he N eg ro p ro ble m , ju st l ik e a ll o th er d if fic u lt s o cia l p ro ble m s, i s t h ere fo re i n t h e f ir s t p la ce a pro ble m i n t h e A m eric an s’ o w n h eart,” M yrd al c o nclu ded .

This w as t h e Am eric an d ile m ma.

142 Konta kt t o pped t h e S w ed is h b est- s e lle r l is t a n d b ecam e a n i m porta n t re sis ta n ce b ook i n o ccu pie d N orw ay . G unnar M yrd al r e tu rn ed t o t h e U .S . i n Marc h 1 941 a n d t h at s u m mer b eg an d ra ftin g h is s e m in al s tu dy o f “ th e n eg ro pro ble m a n d m odern d em ocra cy .” I n c o ncep tu aliz in g t h e p ro je ct, M yrd al dre w o n t h e k ey c o ncep ts t h at h e a n d A lv a h ad d ev elo ped i n S w ed en .

143 T he re su ltin g b ook, p ublis h ed i n 1 944, b ecam e o ne o f t h e m ost i n flu en tia l b ooks ev er w ritte n i n A m eric a a n d o ne o f m ost i m porta n t s o cio lo gic al s tu die s e v er.

It i n flu en ced f e d era l p olic y a n d S upre m e C ourt d ecis io ns a n d “ se t t h e re sp ecta b le p ara m ete rs f o r t h e s tu dy o f r a ce i n t h e U nite d S ta te s f o r t h e n ex t quarte r c en tu ry .” 144 T he n otio n t h at A m eric an s s h are d a d eep ly r o ote d co nse n su s o n v alu es— an d t h at t h e U .S . “ ra ce p ro ble m ” w as f u ndam en ta lly mora l, p sy ch olo gic al, a n d i d eo lo gic al— would s h ap e A m eric an unders ta n din gs o f r a ce t h ro ugh a t l e ast t h e m id -1 960s.

Of Konta kt t h e M yrd al’ s d au ghte r, S is se la B ok, h as w ritte n , “ th e m ost asto undin g p oin ts o f v ie w , s o m etim es e m an atin g e n tir e ly f ro m t h eir o w n hopes a n d f e ars , a re p re se n te d a s f a cts . A ll w rite rs a re p ro ne t o s u ch overs ta tin g, b ut A lv a a n d G unnar … o ffe r[e d ] p ers o nal i n te rp re ta tio ns o f ab str u se m atte rs a s o bvio us t o a ll w ho h ad t h eir e y es o pen .” 145 I n l a te r y ears , th e M yrd als a ck now le d ged t h at t h ey m ig ht h av e b een m ore c ritic al o f t h e U.S . i n a d if fe re n t c o nte x t; Konta kt , t h ey n ote d , w as w ritte n a s a “p re p are d ness” o r “ re sis ta n ce” b ook ra th er t h an a s a s c h ola rly v olu m e.

146 An Am eric a n D ile m ma d re w o n e x te n siv e r e se arc h b y a h uge s ta ff a n d e v en tu ally ra n t o n early f if te en h undre d p ag es. I t w as c le arly a s c h ola rly e ffo rt, y et i t t o o had a n i d eo lo gic al g oal. W hile h e w as w ritin g t h e b ook, G unnar b elie v ed t h at it w ould h elp A m eric an s s e e c le arly t h e d if fe re n ce b etw een t h eir v alu es a n d th ose o f N azi G erm an y; i n s o d oin g, i t w ould h elp s h ore u p h om e f ro nt mora le . I n te rv ie w ed n early f o ur d ecad es l a te r, h e r e fe rre d t o t h e b ook a s h is “w ar w ork ,” a d din g “ I t h in k t h is m ean t m uch f o r w hat t h e b ook c am e t o be.” 147 In t h e l a te 1 930s a n d e arly 1 940s, A lv a a n d G unnar M yrd al— lik e Adam ic , M ead , r e p re se n ta tiv es o f t h e N CCJ, a n d d ozen s o f o th er i n div id uals an d o rg an iz atio ns— in voked a n A m eric an c o nse n su s f o r p olitic al e n ds.

In div id uals a n d g ro ups a rra y ed a cro ss t h e p olitic al s p ectr u m s tr e sse d Am eric an s’ s h are d v alu es i n a n e ffo rt t o c o m bat i n to le ra n ce a n d p ro m ote so cia l h arm ony a t h om e a n d t o s te el t h eir f e llo w c itiz en s t o w ith sta n d “ alie n ” hatr e d s a n d i d eo lo gie s. T hey d if fe re d , h ow ev er, n ot o nly i n t h e w ay t h ey defin ed A m eric an s’ s h are d v alu es, b ut a ls o i n t h e w ay t h ey c ast t h e re la tio nsh ip b etw een t h is p re sc rib ed c o nse n su s a n d t h e n atio n’s l e g al a n d so cia l s ta tu s q uo. G ro ups s u ch a s t h e N AM a n d o fte n t h e N CCJ e m phasiz ed civ ility a cro ss c la ss, r e lig io us, a n d o th er l in es a n d p ro m ote d a n i m ag e o f t h e natio n t h at d en ie d o r m in im iz ed e co nom ic a n d p ow er i m bala n ces.

Mean w hile , c iv il r ig hts a ctiv is ts a n d l e ft- lib era l i n te lle ctu als s u ch a s L ouis Adam ic , J a m es W ate rm an W is e , a n d t h e M yrd als p ut eq uality a t t h e c en te r o f th eir u nif y in g v is io ns. R ath er t h an t r y in g t o c o nvin ce t h eir f e llo w c itiz en s t h at U.S . s o cie ty w as a lr e ad y v ir tu ally f la w le ss, t h ey t r ie d t o u nite A m eric an s aro und a s e t o f v alu es t h at w ould u ltim ate ly l e ad t o s o cia l c h an ge; r a th er t h an ig norin g p ow er i m bala n ces, t h ey t r ie d t o u se t h e l a n guag e o f c o nse n su s t o co rre ct t h em . T he b ala n ce b etw een t h ese t w o v is io ns o f A m eric a’s c o re valu es w ould s o on b e s tr o ngly i n flu en ced b y A m eric a’s e n tr y i n to W orld W ar II. PA RT I I The P olit ic s o f U nit y d urin g W orld War I I ( 1 942–1945) CH APT ER 4 The S pectr e o f “ D iv id e a n d C on quer” O n D ecem ber 7 , 1 941, J a p an ese w arp la n es a tta ck ed t h e U .S . P acif ic f le et a t P earl H arb or, b rin gin g t h e U .S . i n to W orld W ar I I. T he f o llo w in g d ay , t h e C IO N ew s r a n a c arto on c o ntr a stin g “ T he A m eric an W ay ” w ith “ T he H itle r W ay ” ( fig ure 4 .1 ). O ne p an el d ep ic te d U ncle S am p re sid in g o ver t h e t a b le o f “ V olu nta ry A gre em en t,” f la n ked b y p le asa n t- lo okin g m en r e p re se n tin g “ L ab or” a n d “ M an ag em en t.” T he o th er p an el p ic tu re d “ S hack le d L ab or” b ein g w hip ped b y a s to rm t r o oper w ie ld in g “ A nti- L ab or B ills .” T he s e co nd i m ag e c o nta in ed r e so nan ces o f t h e s h arp a n tib usin ess r h eto ric t h at h ad c h ara cte riz ed t h e i n dustr ia l l a b or m ovem en t s in ce i ts c o ale sc en ce i n t h e m id - 1 930s: t h e p ic tu re i n dic te d n ot o nly N azi G erm an y b ut a ls o i m plic itly t h ose i n t h e U .S . w ho s o ught t o h ogtie o rg an iz ed l a b or. T he f ir s t i m ag e, h ow ev er, s u ggeste d a n a lte rn ativ e t h at h ad b een l a rg ely m is sin g i n p re v io us CIO N ew s c arto ons: a n “ A m eric an W ay ” o f c o lle ctiv e b arg ain in g a n d h arm onio us b usin ess-la b or r e la tio ns, w ith U ncle S am p la y in g a p ow erfu l m ed ia tin g r o le .

1 The a p peara n ce o f t h is c arto on i n p art r e fle cte d l e ad ers h ip c h an ges w ith in t h e C IO , b ut i t a ls o f o re sh ad ow ed d ev elo pm en ts i n t h e U nite d S ta te s d urin g W orld W ar I I. T he b om bin g o f P earl H arb or a n d t h e e n tr y o f t h e U .S . i n to t h e w ar b ro ught t h e f e d era l g overn m en t f u lly i n to t h e a ct o f p ro m otin g n atio nal c o hesio n. I t a ls o p ro vid ed a n o pen in g t o a v arie ty o f p riv ate g ro ups w ho s o ught t o u se t h e c alls f o r s o cia l a n d i d eo lo gic al u nity t o t h eir o w n e n ds.

D urin g t h e m id - t o l a te 1 930s, i n dustr ia l u nio nis ts , t h eir a llie s i n t h e l e ft w in g o f t h e N ew D eal c o alitio n, a n d a t t im es e v en t h e p re sid en t h im se lf , had a rg ued t h at s e lf is h a n d u ndem ocra tic b usin ess e lite s p ose d t h e g re ate st t h re at t o A m eric a’s c iv ic i n stitu tio ns a n d v alu es. A t t h e s a m e t im e, a v arie ty o f r ig ht- w in g p opulis t m ovem en ts c o m bin ed h ostility t o c o rp ora te A m eric a w ith r a cis t a n d a n ti- S em itic a p peals .

2 W ith t h e U .S . n ow f u lly e n gag ed i n t h e w ar, t h is p opulis t r h eto ric l a rg ely d is a p peare d . I n ste ad , g ro ups a n d i n div id uals acro ss t h e p olitic al s p ectr u m w arn ed o f t h e N azi t a ctic o f “ d iv id e a n d co nquer” a n d p ro m ote d h arm ony a n d c o opera tio n b etw een v ario us s u bgro ups in U .S . s o cie ty . C onse n su s— a c o nse n su s d efin ed b y a c o m mon e n em y— cam e t o b e s e en a s t h e sin e q ua n on o f t h e “ A m eric an W ay .” 3 Fig u re 4 .1 .

T his c arto on a p peare d i n t h e CIO N ew s t h e d ay a fte r t h e b om bin g of P earl H arb or. W hile t h e c arto on c o ntin ues t o e q uate “ an tila b or b ills ” w ith Nazis m , i t a ls o e n vis io ns a n a lte rn ativ e “ A m eric an w ay ” m ark ed b y harm onio us a g re em en t b etw een l a b or a n d m an ag em en t ( c o urte sy o f t h e A FL - CIO ; r e p ro duced b y t h e W is c o nsin H is to ric al S ocie ty ).

Ben eath t h is b ro ad c an opy o f c o nse n su s, h ow ev er, s h arp i d eo lo gic al dif fe re n ces r e m ain ed . M an y l ib era l a n d l e ftis t i n te lle ctu als , l a b or o rg an iz ers , an d o th ers w ho h ad j o in ed t h e P opula r F ro nt c o alitio n d urin g t h e l a te 1 930s sa w t h e w ar a b ove a ll a s a w orld w id e b attle a g ain st “ fa sc is m ,” a t e rm t h ey em plo yed e x pan siv ely t o c o ver e v ils r a n gin g f ro m a n ti- S em itis m t o e co nom ic ex plo ita tio n. T hese A m eric an s h oped t o u se t h e s tr u ggle t o p ro m ote a n “ an ti- fa sc is t” c o nse n su s a t h om e a n d a b ro ad a n d t o b rin g a b out a m ore d em ocra tic an d e g alita ria n s o cia l, p olitic al, a n d e co nom ic o rd er. C astin g t h e w ar a s a n all- o ut c o nte st b etw een “ fre ed om ” a n d “ sla v ery ,” t h ey a rg ued t h at H itle r a n d his m in io ns w ere u sin g r a cis m a n d r e d -b aitin g t o d iv id e A m eric an s. F ro m th eir p ositio ns i n f e d era l p ro pag an da a g en cie s a n d a v arie ty o f p riv ate g ro ups, th ey s o ught t o e x te n d t h e e co nom ic a g en da o f t h e N ew D eal a n d t o p ro m ote eth nic , r e lig io us, a n d r a cia l e q uality .

These p ro m ote rs o f a b ro ad a n tif a sc is t c o nse n su s w ere c o unte re d f ro m t h e beg in nin g b y o th ers w ho u se d c alls f o r n atio nal h arm ony t o s h ore u p t h e co rp ora te o rd er a n d t o r e in fo rc e e x is tin g p ow er r e la tio ns i n U .S . s o cie ty .

Som e o f t h ese A m eric an s v ie w ed t h e w ar a s a f ig ht a m ong n atio ns o r p eo ple s ra th er t h an a b attle o f i d eas; t h ey s o ught t o u nite a ll A m eric an s i n a p ro - Am eric an c o alitio n a g ain st t h e G erm an s, I ta lia n s, a n d J a p an ese . O th ers , partic u la rly c o nse rv ativ es, p ortr a y ed t h e n atio n’s e n em y a s t o ta lita ria n is m s o f both r ig ht a n d l e ft. T he l a tte r v ie w h ad w id e a p peal d urin g t h e t w en ty -tw o month s o f t h e N azi- S ovie t p act, b ut i t w as c o m plic ate d b y t h e N azi i n vasio n of t h e S ovie t U nio n i n J u ne 1 941. R ath er t h an o pen ly c o ndem nin g A m eric a’s wartim e a lly , m an y w ho f a v ore d t h is a p pro ach f o cu se d o n p ro m otin g c iv ility an d “ se llin g A m eric a t o A m eric an s.” 4 As t h is s u ggests , t h e e m phasis o n n atio nal u nity a n d c o nse n su s d urin g t h e war w as a d ouble -e d ged s w ord : R ed -b aite rs , u nio n b uste rs , a n d p urv ey ors o f eth nic , r e lig io us, a n d r a cia l h atr e d c o uld b e c ast a s N azi a g en ts , b ut s o t o o co uld t h ose w ho f o rc ib ly a d vocate d s o cia l c h an ge. I n t h e e n d, g ro ups o n b oth en ds o f t h e p olitic al s p ectr u m w ere f o rc ed t o c u rta il t h e v itr io lic r h eto ric t h ey had d ep lo yed d urin g t h e l a te 1 930s. T his w as p artic u la rly a p pare n t i n t h e eco nom ic a re n a. T he C IO l a rg ely a b an doned i ts “ m ilita n t i d io m ” d urin g t h e war, o ptin g t o a lly i ts e lf w ith t h e f e d era l g overn m en t i n a b id t o e x pan d i ts mem bers h ip .

5 B usin ess g ro ups a ls o m odera te d t h eir t o ne. T he U .S . C ham ber of C om merc e a n d e v en t h e N atio nal A sso cia tio n o f M an ufa ctu re rs b ack ed aw ay f ro m f ro nta l a ssa u lts o n u nio ns a n d t h e N ew D eal. I n ste ad , t h ey a n d th eir a llie s w ork ed t o r e cap tu re c u ltu ra l a u th ority b y c o nvin cin g A m eric an s th at a ll w ould b en efit f ro m a h arm onio us, h ig hly p ro ductiv e, a n d c o nsu m er- orie n te d p ostw ar s o cie ty , o ne i n w hic h b usin ess r a th er t h an g overn m en t t o ok th e l e ad . The I n fr a str u ctu re o f C on se n su s The U .S .’ s i n volv em en t i n W orld W ar I I p ro duced a n i n fra str u ctu re o f in stitu tio ns d ev ote d t o p ublic ly d efin in g f o r A m eric an s t h eir c o m mon g ro und.

While s o m e o f t h ese o rg an iz atio ns p re d ate d t h e J a p an ese a tta ck o n P earl Harb or, m ost w ere s p aw ned o r g re atly s tr e n gth en ed b y t h e n atio n’s w ar effo rt. S om e w ould c o ntin ue t o o pera te i n to t h e p ostw ar y ears , b eco m in g cru cia l v eh ic le s f o r p ro m otin g o r s h ap in g a c o ld w ar c o nse n su s o n A m eric an public v alu es. D urin g t h e w ar, h ow ev er, t h e r a n ge o f c o m petin g v oic es m ean t th at b attle s t o s h ap e A m eric a’s w artim e c o nse n su s p ro ceed ed o n m an y f ro nts .

The f e d era l a g en cy o ffic ia lly c h arg ed w ith d efin in g t h e m ean in g o f t h e war t o A m eric an s o n t h e h om e f ro nt w as t h e O ffic e o f W ar I n fo rm atio n.

Eag er t o a v oid t h e “ calc u la te d h yste ria ” t h at h ad m ark ed f e d era l p ro pag an da effo rts d urin g W orld W ar I , F D R i n itia lly o ppose d t h e f o rm atio n o f a n y s u ch ag en cy . P re ssu re d b y k ey a d vis o rs , h e e v en tu ally e sta b lis h ed a n O ffic e o f Facts a n d F ig ure s ( O FF) i n O cto ber 1 941 a n d c h arg ed i t w ith d is se m in atin g “fa ctu al i n fo rm atio n o n t h e d efe n se e ffo rt.” A rc h ib ald M acL eis h , t h e Lib ra ria n o f C ongre ss w ho w as b ro ught i n t o h ead t h e n ew a g en cy , m ap ped out a “ str a te g y o f t r u th ” t h at c alle d f o r p ro vid in g h ard f a cts t o t h e m ed ia , ofte n w ith l ittle a cco m pan yin g i n te rp re ta tio n. T his a p pro ach , h ow ev er, l e ft th e b usin ess o f i n te rp re ta tio n e n tir e ly t o t h e p riv ate p re ss, r a d io n etw ork s, a n d Holly w ood. P ublic o pin io n s p ecia lis ts a rg ued t h at “ th e s e p ara tio n o f d ata fro m i n sp ir a tio n w as b oth a rtif ic ia l a n d c rip plin g”; a n d b y M ay 1 942, MacL eis h h im se lf a g re ed . T he “ k ey t o u nity i n f ig htin g t h is w ar,” h e w ro te Roose v elt, i s “ [a ] f u ll k now le d ge o f w hat w e a re f ig htin g f o r, c o uple d w ith assu ra n ce t h at w e c an w in o ur g oals .” T he f o llo w in g m onth F D R t o ok MacL eis h ’s s u ggestio n a n d f o ld ed t h e O FF i n to a n ew a g en cy w ith b ro ad er pow ers , t h e O ffic e o f W ar I n fo rm atio n ( O W I).

6 The O W I w as h ard ly t h e o nly f e d era l a g en cy w ork in g t o b uild a w artim e co nse n su s a m ong A m eric an s. I n f a ct, t h e T re asu ry D ep artm en t u ndoubte d ly re ach ed a t l e ast a s m an y c iv ilia n s t h ro ugh i ts w ar b ond c am paig ns a s d id t h e write rs a n d a rtis ts o f t h e O W I. T re asu ry S ecre ta ry H en ry M org en th au J r., t h e only J e w i n R oose v elt’ s c ab in et, w as a n e arly o pponen t o f t h e N azi r e g im e.

Even befo re t h e U .S . e n te re d t h e w ar, h e h ad d ecid ed “ to u se bonds t o s e ll t h e war , r a th er t h an vic e v ersa .

” 7 T he a d m in is tr a tio n c o ntin ued t o e m phasiz e defe n se b onds’ i d eo lo gic al— as o ppose d t o s im ply e co nom ic — ro le , e v en afte r t h e J a p an ese a tta ck o n P earl H arb or. B y o ffe rin g a ll A m eric an s a s ta k e in t h e w ar e ffo rt, b y l in kin g p ers o nal f in an cia l s e cu rity t o n atio nal d efe n se , fe d era l o ffic ia ls h oped t o b uttr e ss n atio nal m ora le a n d c re ate a “ ch an nel f o r unity ” b eh in d t h e w ar e ffo rt. S uch c o nsid era tio ns s h ap ed a ll a sp ects o f t h e wartim e b ond c am paig ns. I n a n e ffo rt t o e n su re t h at a ll A m eric an s c o uld b uy bonds, t h e T re asu ry D ep artm en t c re ate d “ S erie s E ” b onds, w hic h w ere s o ld only t o i n div id uals , a n d s a v in g s ta m ps, w hic h e v en c h ild re n a n d t h e p oor co uld a ffo rd . T he d ep artm en t m obiliz ed t h e n atio nal m ed ia a s w ell a s Holly w ood c ele b ritie s i n to i ts s e llin g c am paig n, b ut i t a ls o w ork ed w ith gro ups r e p re se n tin g v ir tu ally e v ery s e g m en t o f t h e A m eric an p opula tio n:

fa rm ers , w ork ers , w om en , s c h oolc h ild re n , b la ck A m eric an s, a n d a v arie ty o f re lig io us a n d e th nic g ro ups.

8 While t h e c o nse n su s-b uild in g m essa g es o f t h e O W I a n d t h e T re asu ry Dep artm en t r e ach ed v ir tu ally a ll A m eric an c iv ilia n s, t h e s ix te en m illio n m en an d w om en w ho s e rv ed i n u nif o rm d urin g t h e w ar r e ceiv ed t h eir i n str u ctio n on t h e n atio n’s u nif y in g v alu es a n d w artim e a im s p rim arily f ro m t h e a rm ed fo rc es. I n 1 940, t h e a rm y i n stitu te d a n o rie n ta tio n c o urs e f o r n ew r e cru its , whic h c o nsis te d p rim arily o f p am phle ts p re p are d b y s c h ola rly e x perts a n d le ctu re s d eliv ere d d urin g b asic t r a in in g. B y m id -1 941, A rm y C hie f o f S ta ff Gen era l G eo rg e C . M ars h all h ad d ecid ed t h at s o m eth in g f u rth er w as c alle d fo r. F ilm mak ers a n d a rtis ts r a n gin g f ro m F ra n k C ap ra t o T heo dore S . G eis e l (a k a D r. S eu ss) w ere r e cru ite d t o m ak e m ora le -b oostin g d ocu m en ta ry f ilm s under t h e a u sp ic es o f t h e U nite d S ta te s A rm y’s I n fo rm atio n a n d E ducatio n Div is io n. I n 1 943, b oth c iv ilia n a n d m ilita ry l e ad ers b eg an t o w orry t h at t h e la ck o f a c o m mon e n em y a fte r t h e w ar m ig ht l e ad t o w id esp re ad s o cia l unre st. W ork in g w ith t h e A m eric an H is to ric al A sso cia tio n, t h e a rm y pro duced a s e rie s o f G.I . R oundta ble p am phle ts d esig ned t o e d ucate t r o ops o n th e n atu re o f t h e e n em y, t h e r e aso ns t h ey w ere f ig htin g, a n d t h e s h ap e o f t h e postw ar w orld .

9 Work in g a lo ngsid e t h ese b ra n ch es o f t h e f e d era l g overn m en t w as a multitu de o f p riv ate g ro ups. O ne o f t h e m ost c en tr a l t o t h e p olitic s o f co nse n su s b oth d urin g a n d a fte r t h e w ar w as t h e W ar A dvertis in g C ouncil.

The v ery e x is te n ce o f t h e C ouncil t e stif ie d t o t h e r e su rg in g p ow er o f b usin ess durin g t h e w ar. I n t h e f a ll o f 1 941, m an y M ad is o n A ven ue e x ecu tiv es h ad been “ ru nnin g s c are d .” T he a d vertis in g i n dustr y ’s p ro fits h ad b een h ard h it by t h e D ep re ssio n, a n d, w ith c o m pan ie s i n cre asin gly s w itc h in g p ro ductio n fro m c o nsu m er d ura b le s t o a rm am en ts , t h e f u tu re l o oked b le ak . M ore o ver, ris in g p opula r s u sp ic io ns o f Mad is o n A ven ue h ad l e d i n 1 938 t o t h e f ir s t fe d era l r e g ula tio ns o n a d vertis in g; m an y i n t h e i n dustr y f e are d f u rth er co nsu m er-d riv en a tta ck s. T hey w orrie d p artic u la rly t h at t h e f e d era l govern m en t m ig ht n ot c o nsid er a d vertis in g “ a l e g itim ate b usin ess e x pen se f o r th e p urp ose o f c o rp ora te t a x es a n d w ar c o ntr a cts .” I n N ovem ber 1 941, m ore th an s ix h undre d a d vertis in g, i n dustr y , a n d m ed ia e x ecu tiv es g ath ere d i n Flo rid a t o b ra in sto rm w ay s t o h ead o ff g overn m en t c o ntr o ls . T ak in g t h eir c u e fro m J a m es W . Y oung o f t h e J . W alte r T hom pso n a g en cy , t h e c o nfe re es se ttle d o n a p la n t o b urn is h t h e i n dustr y ’s i m ag e b y e m bra cin g “ p ublic se rv ic e” a d vertis in g; t h is s te p w ould h av e t h e a d ditio nal b en efit o f a llo w in g ad vertis e rs t o d efe n d f re e e n te rp ris e i n t h e n am e o f t h e p ublic i n te re st.

10 The b om bin g o f P earl H arb or l e ss t h an a m onth l a te r d era ile d t h ose i n itia l pla n s b ut o pen ed n ew o pportu nitie s t o t h e a d m en . T he R oose v elt ad m in is tr a tio n n ow s o ught t o u se a d vertis in g t o s e ll i ts d om estic p ro gra m s t o th e p ublic . B oth b efo re a n d i m med ia te ly a fte r P earl H arb or, h ow ev er, ad m in is tr a tio n o ffic ia ls m et r e sis ta n ce w hen t h ey a p pro ach ed m ed ia org an iz atio ns d ir e ctly a b out d onatin g a d vertis in g s p ace f o r c ritic al w artim e cam paig ns.

11 W hen M ad is o n A ven ue e x ecu tiv es o rg an iz ed t h e W ar Advertis in g C ouncil i n e arly 1 942 a n d o ffe re d t h eir s e rv ic es t o t h e f e d era l govern m en t, t h eir o ffe r w as q uic k ly a ccep te d . T he f e d era l g overn m en t in cre asin gly r e lie d o n t h e q uasi- p riv ate C ouncil: b etw een 1 942 a n d 1 945, i t orc h estr a te d s c o re s o f “ in fo rm atio n c am paig ns” o n b eh alf o f a w id e v arie ty o f fe d era l a g en cie s. I t p ro m ote d w ar b ond s a le s, m ilita ry a n d w om an pow er re cru itm en t, g ood n utr itio n, a n d b lo od d onatio ns; f o ught i n fla tio n, ab se n te eis m , e m plo yee t u rn over, a n d “ lo ose t a lk ” a b out t h e m ilita ry ; a n d urg ed t h e c o nse rv atio n o f e v ery th in g f ro m r u bber a n d f u el t o t in c an s a n d kitc h en f a ts .

12 I n t h e p ro cess, t h e C ouncil h elp ed b oost p ublic s u pport f o r busin ess a n d i m pre sse d f e d era l o ffic ia ls w ith a d vertis in g’s p ow er. I t f o rg ed a lin k b etw een t h e W hite H ouse a n d M ad is o n A ven ue t h at w ould p ro ve v ita l t o th e p olitic s o f c o nse n su s l o ng a fte r t h e w ar h ad e n ded .

If t h e W ar A dvertis in g C ouncil w as o ne i m porta n t q uasi- p riv ate c o nduit of i n fo rm atio n, H olly w ood w as a n oth er. T he d ir e cto r o f t h e O W I, E lm er Dav is , r e co gniz ed t h at f ilm s w ere t h e “ easie st w ay t o i n je ct p ro pag an da i d eas in to m ost p eo ple ’s m in ds” b ecau se m ovie g oers w ere s o a b so rb ed i n t h e o n- sc re en a ctio n t h ey d id n ot r e aliz e t h eir v ie w s w ere b ein g s h ap ed .

13 I n e arly 1942, D av is e sta b lis h ed a l ia is o n o ffic e i n H olly w ood t o h elp s h ap e a n d v et stu dio f ilm s. H olly w ood d id n ot a lw ay s f o llo w t h e O W I’s s c rip t.

Nev erth ele ss, i t g en era lly p ro ved a s ta u nch a lly i n t h e f e d era l g overn m en t’ s overa rc h in g c am paig n t o u nif y A m eric an s b eh in d t h e w ar e ffo rt.

While t h e W ar A dvertis in g C ouncil a n d t h e H olly w ood s tu dio s w ere t w o of t h e m ost i m porta n t p riv ate c h an nels o f w artim e m ean in g, t h ey w ere h ard ly alo ne. V ir tu ally e v ery i n stitu tio n a n d o rg an iz atio n t h at h ad e n te re d t h e c o nte st to d efin e A m eric a’s c o re n atio nal v alu es i n t h e l a te 1 930s m ain ta in ed t h eir effo rts d urin g t h e w ar. M an y s te p ped u p t h eir a ctiv itie s, c o uch in g t h eir ap peals i n t e rm s o f c o nse n su s a n d u nity . I n l a te 1 942, f o r e x am ple , t h e Council A gain st I n to le ra n ce b eg an p ublis h in g a m onth ly g uid e f o r e d ucato rs en title d Am eric a n U nity ; i t c o ntin ued i s su in g t h e p ublic atio n t h ro ughout t h e war. W ith f e d era l a p pro val, t h e N atio nal C onfe re n ce o f C hris tia n s a n d J e w s carrie d i ts m essa g e o f i n te rfa ith h arm ony i n to h undre d s o f U .S . a rm y c am ps; its m essa g e w as f u rth er r e in fo rc ed b y t h e n ew ly i n stitu te d U nite d S erv ic e Org an iz atio ns. M ean w hile , d ozen s o f c o lle g es a n d u niv ers itie s a cro ss t h e co untr y i n stitu te d p ro gra m s i n A m eric an s tu die s o r A m eric an c iv iliz atio n.

These g ro ups a n d m an y o th ers r e aliz ed t h at, i n d efin in g t h e m ean in g o f t h e war f o r A m eric an s— in d efin in g t h e g ro unds o n w hic h A m eric an s s h ould unite — th ey w ere i n f a ct h elp in g s h ap e t h e p ostw ar w orld .

“D iv id e a n d C on quer” The m essa g e t h at A m eric an s g ot f ro m e v ery q uarte r d urin g W orld W ar I I w as en cap su la te d i n t h e p hra se “ d iv id e a n d c o nquer.” T his w as t h e s tr a te g y, t h ey were t o ld , t h at H itle r h ad u se d t o g ain p ow er i n G erm an y a n d l a te r t o t o pple Fra n ce. N ow , t h e N azi r e g im e w ould a tte m pt t o f o m en t s o cia l d iv is io n i n t h e U.S . a s w ell. T hus, d efe atin g t h e A xis d ep en ded a b ove a ll o n n atio nal u nity .

Durin g t h e w ar, t h is m essa g e b ecam e a s ta p le o f t h e f e d era l g overn m en t’ s dom estic p ro pag an da c am paig n. I n h is S ta te o f t h e U nio n m essa g e, d eliv ere d one m onth a fte r t h e J a p an ese a tta ck o n P earl H arb or, P re sid en t R oose v elt warn ed A m eric an s t o “ g uard a g ain st d iv is io ns a m ong o urs e lv es” a n d t o b e “p artic u la rly v ig ila n t a g ain st r a cia l d is c rim in atio n i n a n y o f i ts u gly f o rm s.” A fe w m onth s l a te r, t h e O ffic e o f F acts a n d F ig ure s i s su ed a p am phle t e n title d Div id e a nd C onquer , w hic h c h arg ed t h at H itle r a n d h is a g en ts w ere “so w [in g] s e ed s o f h ate a n d d is u nity ” a m ong A m eric an s. T he t h em e a ls o sh ow ed u p i n s p eech es b y J u stic e D ep artm en t o ffic ia ls ; i n p am phle ts , “ fa ct sh eets ,” a n d m ovie s h orts p ro duced b y t h e O FF a n d t h e O W I; i n w ar b ond ad vertis e m en ts a n d o th er p ublic s e rv ic e m essa g es p ro duced b y t h e W ar Advertis in g C ouncil; a n d i n F ra n k C ap ra ’s f a m ous m ora le -b oostin g f ilm s t h at becam e k now n c o lle ctiv ely a s t h e Why W e F ig ht s e rie s.

14 W hen t h e O W I la u nch ed a “ S to p T hat R um or!” c am paig n i n 1 943, i t n ote d t h at “ h ate ru m ors ” w ere t h e m ost c o m mon a n d d an gero us t y pe. T he O W I i d en tif ie d Je w s, C ath olic s, a n d N eg ro es a s c o m mon t a rg ets o f s u ch r u m ors , b ut i t a ls o lis te d b lo od b an ks, d ra ft b oard s, busin ess, u nio ns, t h e R ussia n s, a n d t h e Britis h . H ate r u m ors , t h e O W I c la rif ie d , a re “ th e o nes t h at e x pre ss p re ju dic e, an im osity o r h ostility f o r r e lig io us, r a cia l, s o cia l o r e co nom ic g ro ups o th er th an t h e e n em y.” 15 A s im ila r t h em e e m an ate d f ro m a r a n ge o f H olly w ood f ilm s. T he l o w - budget p ic tu re Hitle r’s C hild re n , w hic h b ecam e a “ sle ep er” s e n sa tio n i n 1943, s h ow ed h ow t h e N azi t a ctic o f d iv id e a n d c o nquer c o uld d estr o y t h e fa m ily . S o t o o d id t h e B ro ad w ay h it- tu rn ed -s c re en pla y Tom orro w t h e W orld (1 944).

16 T he 1 944 t h rille r Life b oat , d ir e cte d b y A lf re d H itc h co ck a n d b ase d on a s to ry b y J o hn S te in beck , t r a n sfe rre d t h e d ra m a t o t h e N orth A tla n tic . A s th e f ilm o pen s, a G erm an U -b oat t o rp ed oes a l u xury o cean l in er a n d i s i n t u rn su nk b y t h e s tr ic k en s h ip . A s m all g ro up o f s u rv iv ors — in clu din g a s o cia lite re p orte r-p hoto gra p her, a r a d ic al C zech A m eric an m erc h an t s e am an , a busin ess t y co on, a C ock ney r a d io o pera to r, a n urs e f ro m K an sa s, a b ad ly wounded G erm an -A m eric an s to ker, a n d a b la ck s te w ard — fin d t h em se lv es ad rif t i n a l if e b oat. W hen t h ey r e sc u e t h e l o ne s u rv iv or o f t h e s u bm arin e, t h e Nazi c ap ta in , h e r u th le ssly t r ie s t o d iv id e a n d c o nquer t h e f ra ctu re d g ro up. H e alm ost s u cceed s, t a k in g t h e h elm o f t h e l if e b oat a fte r t h e o th ers a re u nab le t o ag re e o n a l e ad er a n d s te erin g t h em t o w ard a m id -o cean r e n dezv ous w ith a Germ an s u pply s h ip . T he N azi q uie tly e lim in ate s o ne o f t h e A m eric an s, push in g t h e w ounded a n d d elir io us s to ker o verb oard w hile t h e o th ers s le ep .

Only i n t h e f in al m om en ts o f t h e f ilm a re t h e r e m ain in g o ccu pan ts o f t h e lif e b oat a b le t o o verc o m e t h eir d if fe re n ces a n d k ill t h e G erm an i n w hat t h e New Y ork T im es d esc rib ed a s “ a r u sh o f h orrif ie d r a g e.” T he f ra g ile u nity o f th e A llie d s u rv iv ors i s s y m boliz ed a n d c em en te d b y t w o b lo sso m in g ro m an ces— one b etw een t h e K an sa s n urs e a n d C ock ney r a d io o pera to r, an oth er b etw een t h e w ealth y s o cia lite a n d t h e r a d ic al s e am an .

17 In u nders c o rin g t h e n eed f o r A m eric an s t o s u rm ount t h eir d iv is io ns o f cla ss, p olitic s, e th nic ity , a n d r a ce, Life b oat d ra m atiz ed w hat L ary M ay h as calle d t h e “ co nvers io n n arra tiv e” o f W orld W ar I I f ilm s. I n t h e 1 930s, s tu dio s tu rn ed o ut p ic tu re s t h at p ro m ote d w hat o ne s c re en w rite r c alle d t h e “ sp ir it o f th e N ew D eal b ro ad ly d efin ed .” “ T o o verc o m e s o cia l a n d e co nom ic co rru ptio n,” M ay w rite s, “ h ero es c o m monly s h ed t h eir l o yalty t o t h e r ic h ” an d a llie d w ith t h e l o w er c la sse s, t h us r e alig nin g c u ltu ra l a n d p olitic al au th ority . T his s to ry l in e w as p artic u la rly a p pare n t i n m ovie s s ta rrin g W ill Rogers a n d i n F ra n k C ap ra f ilm s s u ch a s Mr. D eed s G oes t o T ow n ( 1 936) a n d Mr. S m ith G oes t o W ash in gto n ( 1 939). W orld W ar I I p ro duced a v ery dif fe re n t c o nvers io n n arra tiv e. I n cre asin gly , h ero es a n d h ero in es r e ach ed acro ss c la ss a n d c u ltu ra l l in es, n ot t o c h alle n ge o ffic ia l i n stitu tio ns a n d ex pose g re ed y b usin essm en a n d c o rru pt p olitic ia n s, b ut t o s a v e t h e n atio n fro m a f o re ig n e n em y. I n m ovie s ra n gin g f ro m Decem ber 7 ( 1 942) a n d Casa bla nca ( 1 942) t o Life b oat , c o nse n su s b ecam e “ th e n atio n’s c o re v alu e, where as d is tin ct e th nic a s w ell a s c la ss i n te re sts [ w ere ] n ow s e en a s a lie n t o public l if e .” 18 May a n d o th er h is to ria n s h av e s u ggeste d t h at t h e e m phasis o n overc o m in g d iv is io ns d urin g t h e w ar— on u nitin g i n a c o nse n su s d efin ed b y a co m mon e n em y— was i n here n tly c o nse rv ativ e. C erta in ly , t h e N AM a n d o th er busin ess g ro ups s o ught b oth b efo re a n d d urin g t h e w ar t o c o unte r t h e dem an ds o f l a b or a n d t h e c o ntin uin g t h re at o f t h e N ew D eal b y a rg uin g t h at “d ic ta to rs h ip s b re ed o n m is u nders ta n din gs b etw een g ro ups a n d c la sse s.” 19 But t h e l a n guag e o f “ d iv id e a n d c o nquer” w as u se d b y t h ose o n t h e l e ft a s well a s t h ose o n t h e r ig ht: a v arie ty o f l ib era l a n d l e ft- le an in g o rg an iz atio ns use d i t t o d is c re d it e v ery th in g f ro m e th nic , r e lig io us, a n d r a cia l p re ju dic e t o unio n b ustin g a n d r e d -b aitin g.

The s lip pery p olitic al n atu re o f “ d iv id e a n d c o nquer” r h eto ric i s c le arly re v eale d i n a w artim e e p is o de i n volv in g F ra n k C ap ra ’s f a m ous Why W e F ig ht se rie s. W hen t h e a rm y r e cru ite d t h e f a m ous f ilm mak er t o p ro duce t h e s e rie s in e arly 1 942, C ap ra q uic k ly a sse m ble d a t e am o f H olly w ood w rite rs . H e so on f ir e d m ost o f t h em , c h arg in g y ears l a te r t h at t h eir s c rip ts w ere f ille d w ith “C om munis t p ro pag an da.” I n f a ct, C ap ra ’s c o rre sp onden ce a t t h e t im e su ggests t h at h e f ir e d t h e m en , n ot b ecau se o f h is o w n c o nvic tio ns, b ut becau se h e w as b ein g p re ssu re d b y t h e a rm y a n d b y m em bers o f t h e H ouse Specia l C om mitte e o n U n-A m eric an A ctiv itie s. T he S pecia l C om mitte e, fo re ru nner t o H UAC, h ad b een h ead ed s in ce i ts f o rm atio n i n 1 938 b y t h e Tex as D em ocra t a n d v ir u le n t r e d -b aite r M artin D ie s. D ie s r e p eate d ly d ecrie d th e “ p urv ey ors o f c la ss, r a cia l a n d r e lig io us h atr e d ” a n d a rg ued t h at co m munis m ( lik e f a sc is m ) w as a n “ alie n f o rc e t e arin g a t A m eric an u nity .” Acco rd in g t o C ap ra , m em bers o f t h e D ie s c o m mitte e w ho w ere a ls o o n t h e House A ppro pria tio ns C om mitte e h ad t h re ate n ed t o c u t o ff f u ndin g f o r t h e pro je ct b ecau se s o m e o f C ap ra ’s c h ose n w rite rs w ere t o o “ re d .” 20 If a n tic o m munis ts o n t h e D ie s c o m mitte e c h arg ed l e ftis ts w ith t u rn in g Am eric an s a g ain st o ne a n oth er, t h ose t h ey t a rg ete d s im ply r e v ers e d t h e alle g atio n. W hen s c re en w rite r J o hn S an fo rd l e arn ed o f h is d is m is sa l f ro m t h e pro je ct, h e s e n t C ap ra a l e tte r o f w arn in g. T he w ar “ can b e l o st i f w e a re div id ed a g ain st o urs e lv es,” h e w ro te :

It c an b e l o st i f G en tile i s p la y ed o ff a g ain st J e w , b la ck a g ain st w hite , r ic h ag ain st p oor, l a b or a g ain st c ap ita l, h am mer-a n d-s ic k le a g ain st s ta rs -a n d- str ip es.… T o s p ik e o ne a n ti- fa sc is t v oic e t o day ( w heth er i t b e t h e v oic e o f a co m munis t, a r e p ute d c o m munis t, o r n o c o m munis t a t a ll) i s t o s p ik e o ne g un at a t im e w hen a ll g uns— good, poor, a n d o bso le te — sh ould b e s h ootin g t ill th eir b arre ls g et t o o h ot t o b e h eld .

21 San fo rd w as a m em ber o f t h e C om munis t P arty , a n d i n t h e 1 950s, h e w as bla ck lis te d f o r t a k in g t h e F if th A m en dm en t b efo re H UAC. I n 1 942, h ow ev er, he t o o c o uld d ep lo y t h e l a n guag e o f “ d iv id e a n d c o nquer,” d ra w in g o n rh eto ric t h at h ad b een u se d b y a n tif a sc is t l e ftis ts f o r s e v era l y ears .

Antif a sc is m v ersu s P ro - Am eric a n is m : C om petin g V is io n s of C on se n su s Durin g t h e w ar, l e ftis ts , l ib era ls , m odera te s, a n d c o nse rv ativ es c o uld a ll u se th e l a n guag e o f n atio nal u nity a n d s o cia l d iv is io n f o r o ne s im ple r e aso n. “D iv id e a n d c o nquer” w as a s tr a te g y u se d b y t h e e n em y. I t s a id n oth in g a b out who o r what t h at e n em y a ctu ally w as.

22 I n f a ct d urin g t h e e arly y ears o f t h e war, t h e p re cis e n atu re o f A m eric a’s e n em y— an d t h us o f t h e c o nse n su s defin ed b y t h at e n em y— was a m atte r o f c o nsid era b le d eb ate .

Man y o n t h e l ib era l l e ft s a w t h e w ar a s a g lo bal b attle a g ain st f a sc is m i n all o f i ts m yria d m an if e sta tio ns. A lth ough t h ey v ir u le n tly c o ndem ned t h e actio ns o f H itle r, M usso lin i, a n d H ir o hito a b ro ad , t h ey d id n ot l im it t h eir vis io n o f f a sc is m t o G erm an y, I ta ly , a n d J a p an . A s D an ie l G eary h as obse rv ed , a n tif a sc is m d urin g t h e 1 930s a n d e arly 1 940s w as “ a p olitic al postu re t h at c alle d f o r r a d ic al r e fo rm s t o w ard e co nom ic r e co nstr u ctio n a n d ra cia l e q uality i n a d em ocra tic c o nstitu tio nal o rd er.” M an y a n tif a sc is ts ap plie d t h e “ m eta p hor o f f a sc is m ” t o a w id e r a n ge o f d om estic e v ils , in clu din g l y nch in g, n ativ is m , a n ti- S em itis m , u nio n b ustin g, c ap ita lis t ex plo ita tio n, a n d r e d -b aitin g.

23 V ie w in g t h e w ar a s a c ata cly sm ic b attle betw een i d eo lo gie s a n d w ay s o f l if e , t h ey s o ught t o s h ap e a n a n tif a sc is t co nse n su s b oth a t h om e a n d a b ro ad .

The m ost e lo quen t a n d p ro m in en t s p okesm an f o r t h is p ositio n d urin g t h e war w as R oose v elt’ s h an d-p ic k ed v ic e p re sid en t H en ry A . W alla ce. I n a sp eech d eliv ere d s ix m onth s a fte r P earl H arb or, W alla ce c ast t h e w ar i n phra se s b orro w ed f ro m L in co ln ’s f a m ous “ H ouse D iv id ed ” s p eech . T he w ar was a “ fig ht t o t h e d eath b etw een t h e f re e w orld a n d t h e s la v e w orld ,” Walla ce d ecla re d , e sta b lis h in g a n a n alo gy t h at w ith in a f e w y ears w ould assu m e a v ery d if fe re n t m ean in g. “ Ju st a s t h e U nite d S ta te s i n 1 862 c o uld n ot re m ain h alf s la v e a n d h alf f re e, s o i n 1 942 t h e w orld m ust m ak e i ts d ecis io n fo r a c o m ple te v ic to ry o ne w ay o r t h e o th er.” T he p re v io us 1 50 y ears , Walla ce s u ggeste d , h ad b een a “ lo ng-d ra w n-o ut p eo ple ’s r e v olu tio n,” desig ned t o g iv e “ th e c o m mon m an ” ev ery w here a b ette r s ta n dard o f l iv in g, th e s k ills a n d t im e t o r e ad a n d w rite , a n d t h e a b ility t o “ th in k a n d w ork to geth er.” A cco rd in g t o W alla ce, t h is “ p eo ple ’s r e v olu tio n” h ad b eg un i n Am eric a i n 1 775, b ut i t h ad s p re ad a ro und t h e w orld — to F ra n ce i n 1 792, t o Latin A m eric a i n t h e B oliv aria n e ra , t o G erm an y i n 1 848, a n d t o R ussia i n 1917. T he c u rre n t w ar w as a N azi- le d “ co unte rre v olu tio n” b y w hic h “ S ata n now i s t r y in g t o l e ad t h e c o m mon m an o f t h e w hole w orld b ack i n to s la v ery an d d ark ness.” T he e ffo rt, W alla ce p re d ic te d , w ould n ot s u cceed . N ot o nly would t h e A llie s w in t h e w ar, b ut a ls o “ th e c o m mon m an w ill s m oke t h e Hitle r s to oges o ut i n to t h e o pen i n t h e U nite d S ta te s, i n L atin A m eric a, a n d i n In dia . H e w ill d estr o y t h eir i n flu en ce.” T he w ar w ould u sh er i n a “ cen tu ry o f th e c o m mon m an ,” i n w hic h t h e v alu es e m bed ded i n t h e N ew D eal a n d in voked i n F D R’s F our F re ed om s a d dre ss t o C ongre ss w ould b e e x te n ded both i n t h e U .S . a n d a ro und t h e g lo be.

24 Walla ce’s “ C en tu ry o f t h e C om mon M an ” s p eech w as a d ir e ct r e sp onse to a n oth er v is io n o f A m eric a a n d t h e p ostw ar w orld o ffe re d s o m e f if te en month s e arlie r b y t h e p ublis h in g m ag nate H en ry R . L uce. I n a f a m ous Life mag azin e e d ito ria l e n title d “ T he A m eric an C en tu ry ,” L uce e n vis io ned a postw ar P ax A m eric an a i n w hic h t h e U .S ., l ik e B rita in b efo re i t, p re sid ed wis e ly o ver t h e w orld , r e m ak in g t h e g lo be i n i ts o w n i m ag e. A m eric a, L uce arg ued , s h ould b eco m e i n t h e t w en tie th c en tu ry “ th e d ynam ic c en te r o f e v er- wid en in g s p here s o f e n te rp ris e ,” “ th e t r a in in g c en te r o f t h e s k illf u l s e rv an ts o f man kin d,” t h e “ G ood S am arita n ” f e ed in g t h e w orld ’s h ungry , a n d t h e “p ow erh ouse o f t h e i d eals o f F re ed om a n d J u stic e.” A m eric a h ad f lir te d w ith co lle ctiv is m u nder t h e N ew D eal, b ut i ts d ev otio n t o s e lf -re lia n ce, in dep en den ce, a n d e q ual o pportu nity r e m ain ed s tr o ng. T he “ p ro m is e o f ad eq uate p ro ductio n f o r a ll m an kin d, t h e ‘ m ore a b undan t l if e ,’ ” w as a “ch ara cte ris tic ally A m eric an p ro m is e ,” L uce a rg ued , d esp ite t h e f a ct t h at i t was o fte n m ad e b y “ d em ag ogues a n d p ro ponen ts o f a ll m an ner o f s lic k sc h em es a n d ‘ p la n ned e co nom ie s.’ ” “ It i s f o r A m eric a a n d f o r A m eric a alo ne,” L uce c o nclu ded , “ to d ete rm in e w heth er a s y ste m o f f re e e co nom ic en te rp ris e — an e co nom ic o rd er c o m patib le w ith f re ed om a n d p ro gre ss— sh all or s h all n ot p re v ail i n t h is c en tu ry .” 25 The v is io ns o ffe re d b y W alla ce a n d L uce s h are d c erta in s im ila ritie s. B oth in voked t h e l a n guag e o f f re ed om , a n d b oth e n vis io ned a p ostw ar w orld i n whic h t h e p ro m is e o f a b undan ce w ould b e e x te n ded t o a ll.

26 B oth a ls o s a w th e U .S . a n d i ts v alu es a s e n gin es d riv in g t h is p ostw ar c h an ge a ro und t h e glo be. H ere , h ow ev er, t h e p ara lle ls e n ded . W alla ce c ast t h e w ar a s a s tr u ggle to t h e d eath a g ain st f a sc is m e v ery w here a n d p ortr a y ed t h e A m eric an a n d Bols h ev ik r e v olu tio ns a s a d van cin g t h e s a m e c au se . L uce i m plie d t h at co m munis m w as a t l e ast a s a lie n t o t h e A m eric an W ay a s f a sc is m . W alla ce dis p la y ed a d eep c o m mitm en t to e co nom ic d em ocra cy a n d s u ggeste d t h at govern m en t a ctio n m ig ht w ell b e n eed ed t o a ch ie v e f re ed om f ro m w an t.

Luce, l ik e t h e N AM a n d o th er e co nom ic c o nse rv ativ es, d ep ic te d f re e en te rp ris e a n d p olitic al d em ocra cy a s i n here n tly i n te rtw in ed . W alla ce d id n ot atta ck t h e w ealth y p er s e , b ut h e e m phasiz ed t h e m arc h o f t h e “ co m mon m an ” an d w arn ed a g ain st m en o f m ean s w ho s o ught t o s e cu re t h eir f o rtu nes b y “lu r[in g] t h e p eo ple b ack i n to s la v ery o f t h e m ost d eg ra d ed k in d.” 27 L uce, b y co ntr a st, p riv ile g ed s ta b ility , o rd er, a n d e sta b lis h ed h ie ra rc h ie s o f p ow er.

Above a ll, W alla ce— lik e L ouis A dam ic , G unnar M yrd al, a n d m an y o th ers o n th e l ib era l l e ft— belie v ed t h at t h e U .S . h ad f a lle n s h ort o f i ts n oble g oals .

Luce, b y c o ntr a st, s a w t h e p re -N ew D eal U .S . a s a p erfe cte d m odel f o r t h e world .

Luce’s e d ito ria l w as w ritte n i n F eb ru ary 1 941, f o ur m onth s b efo re H itle r in vad ed t h e S ovie t U nio n a n d s e v ere d t h e a llia n ce t h at h ad h elp ed p opula riz e th e n otio n o f a “ to ta lita ria n ” b lo c. N ev erth ele ss, m an y c o m men ta to rs co ntin ued t o c o unte rp ose t h e U .S . t o a t o ta lita ria n — ra th er t h an a f a sc is t —“o th er” d urin g t h e w ar. A f e w o n t h e l e ft u se d t h e t e rm “ to ta lita ria n is m ” t o em phasiz e t h eir d is a g re em en ts w ith S ta lin . M an y m ore o n t h e r ig ht a p plie d th e t e rm m ore b ro ad ly t o c o ndem n n ot o nly S ovie t- s ty le c o m munis m b ut a ls o th e e n cro ach m en t o f t h e s ta te i n to e co nom ic , r e lig io us, a n d i n te rp ers o nal affa ir s . W hen W alt D is n ey p ro duced a n a n ti- N azi c arto on s h ort, Chic ken Little , i n 1 943, a n im ato rs o rig in ally u se d t h e w ord “ fa sc is m ” t o d esc rib e t h e belie fs h eld b y t h e e v il a n d c o nniv in g F oxey L oxey . D is n ey , a s ta u nch an tic o m munis t w ho h ad s u ppre sse d a s tr ik e w ith in h is o w n s tu dio , i n sis te d th at t h e w ord b e c h an ged t o “ to ta lita ria n is m ,” d esp ite t h e e x pen se a n d t im e re q uir e d t o r e an im ate t h e s e q uen ce. A lth ough t h e S ovie t U nio n w as n ev er ex plic itly m en tio ned i n t h e f ilm , t h e p oin t, o ne o f t h e a n im ato rs l a te r ex pla in ed , w as t o “ m ak e i t s o und l ik e w e’re c o ndem nin g R ussia t o o.” 28 With in t h e g overn m en t, t h e a n tif a sc is t v ie w poin t w as m ost s tr o ngly re p re se n te d b y t h e l ib era ls a n d l e ftis ts a sso cia te d w ith t h e O FF a n d t h e O W I.

These i n clu ded w rite rs a n d a rtis ts s u ch a s A rc h ib ald M acL eis h , M alc o lm Cow le y , R obert S herw ood, A rth ur S ch le sin ger J r., H en ry P rin gle , B en S hah n, an d F ra n cis B re n nan , a s w ell a s m em bers o f t h e F ore ig n L an guag e D iv is io n lik e A la n C ra n sto n. L ik e H en ry W alla ce, t h ese m en g en era lly c ast t h e w ar a s a f ig ht “ fo r f re ed om a n d a g ain st s la v ery ,” a “ p eo ple ’s w ar” t h at w ould l e ad t o th e e x te n sio n o f “ fre ed om o f s p eech , f re ed om o f r e lig io n, f re ed om f ro m wan t, [ a n d] f re ed om f ro m f e ar.” 29 T hey w ork ed t o c o nvin ce A m eric an s t h at th e n atio n’s e n em y w as t h e i d eo lo gy o f f a sc is m , e v en a s t h ey t r ie d t o s id elin e th ose A m eric an s w ho a p peare d t o s u bsc rib e t o f a sc is t b elie fs . E xte n din g t h eir an tif a sc is t a rg um en t i n to t h e d om estic a re n a, t h ey a rg ued t h at t h e b est w ay t o re cru it d iv ers e Am eric an s i n to t h e w ar e ffo rt w as b y a ctiv ely c o m batin g “d is c rim in atio n o f a n y s o rt d ue t o r a ce, c o lo r, c re ed , o r n atio nal o rig in .” 30 A t ev ery t u rn , h ow ev er, t h ey e n co unte re d o ppositio n f ro m o th ers b oth w ith in an d o uts id e o f t h e g overn m en t w ho h ad a d if fe re n t v ie w .

The O W I p ro gre ssiv es, f o r i n sta n ce, a rg ued r e p eate d ly d urin g t h e w ar th at A m eric a’s e n em ie s w ere f a sc is t i d eo lo gie s a n d t h eir p ro ponen ts — th e Nazis , t h e I ta lia n F asc is ts , a n d t h e J a p an ese w arlo rd s— ra th er t h an t h e Germ an , I ta lia n , o r J a p an ese p eo ple . T he v ast m ajo rity o f p eo ple l iv in g i n t h e Axis c o untr ie s, t h e O W I c o nte n ded , w ere s im ply “ d upes” — dupes w ho h ad t o be “ lib era te d ” f ro m t h eir “ d esp otic r u le rs ” a n d e v en tu ally w elc o m ed i n to t h e postw ar “ b ro th erh ood o f m an .” 31 T his d is tin ctio n, h ow ev er, p ro ved t o o s u btle fo r m an y A m eric an s, i n clu din g s o m e w ith in t h e a d m in is tr a tio n. M an y s id ed with R obert M ax w ell, t h e d ir e cto r o f t h e c h ild re n ’s r a d io s h ow The Adven tu re s o f S uperm an . W hen a n O W I o ffic ia l i n 1 943 e n co ura g ed Max w ell t o t o ne d ow n t h e p ro gra m ’s v ir u le n t a tta ck s o n t h e G erm an s a n d Ja p an ese , t h e d ir e cto r r e sp onded :

I c o ntr o l t h e d estin ie s o f t h re e j u ven ile r a d io p ro gra m s w ith a u die n ces ru nnin g i n to t h e m illio ns. I c an , i n s o m e s m all w ay , f o rm ula te i d eo lo gie s f o r th ese y oungste rs .… I a m , a t t h e m om en t, t e ach in g t h is v ast a u die n ce t o h ate .

… A nd, u nfo rtu nate ly , t h ere i s n o c le av ag e b etw een t h e i n div id ual a n d t h e sta te w hose i d eo lo gy h e d efe n ds. A G erm an i s a N azi a n d a J a p i s t h e l ittle yello w m an w ho “ k nif e d u s i n t h e b ack a t P earl H arb or.” To a rg ue o th erw is e , M r. M ax w ell c o nclu ded , w as s im ply t o “ m ak e f o r co nfu sio n.” 32 I n t h e c ase o f t h e J a p an ese , m an y i n t h e g overn m en t a n d t h e med ia w en t f u rth er s till: d esp ite e v id en ce t o t h e c o ntr a ry , t h ey c ast n ot o nly Ja p an ese b ut a ll A m eric an s o f J a p an ese d esc en t a s p ote n tia lly t r a ito ro us.

33 Alth ough t h e O W I r e p eate d ly p ro te ste d s u ch p ortr a y als , i t d id n ot h av e t h e mean s t o e n fo rc e i ts a p pro ach .

If O W I s ta ffe rs c o uld n ot c o nvin ce o th er o pin io n m old ers o f t h e in nocen ce o f e n em y c iv ilia n s o r J a p an ese A m eric an s, t h ey a ls o h ad t r o uble when t h ey t r ie d t o m arg in aliz e p ote n tia l f a sc is ts a t h om e. M an y I ta lia n - Am eric an pro m in en ti , m em bers o f t h e c o m munity ’s c o nse rv ativ e l e ad ers h ip , had s u pporte d M usso lin i u p u ntil t h e m om en t t h e U .S . e n te re d W orld W ar I I.

Ala n C ra n sto n, t h e h ead o f t h e O W I’s F ore ig n L an guag e D iv is io n, n ote d t h at his g ro up h ad t r ie d t o “ ab olis h t h e l o ng-e sta b lis h ed l e ad ers h ip o f t h e p ro - fa sc is ts b y i g norin g t h em .” T heir e ffo rts w ere t h w arte d , h ow ev er, b y t h e Tre asu ry D ep artm en t, w hic h a p poin te d m an y o f t h e pro m in en ti t o I ta lia n - Am eric an w ar bond c o m mitte es. C ra n sto n c o m pla in ed t h at t h e T re asu ry Dep artm en t h ad a p poin te d G en ero so P ope, a n I ta lia n -la n guag e p re ss b aro n who h ad b een a s ta u nch M usso lin i s u pporte r, t o h ead a k ey w ar b ond co m mitte e. W hen a n tif a sc is ts i n t h e I ta lia n -A m eric an c o m munity r e fu se d t o se rv e w ith P ope, t h e T re asu ry D ep artm en t a p poin te d a d ozen m ore I ta lia n - Am eric an c o nse rv ativ es, t o t h e d is m ay o f C ra n sto n a n d o th ers o n h is s ta ff.

By e arly 1 943, t h e O W I h ad l a rg ely a b an doned i ts e ffo rts t o u nderm in e t h e pro m in en ti a n d s e ttle d i n ste ad f o r t r y in g t o u nite a ll I ta lia n A m eric an s— an d ev en tu ally A m eric an s o f a ll n atio nality g ro ups— in a b ro ad “ A m eric an s A ll” co alitio n t h at “ str e sse d p ro -A m eric an t h em es.” 34 Even a s l ib era ls a n d l e ftis ts i n t h e O W I t r ie d t o c o nvin ce A m eric an s t h at fa sc is m w as t h e e n em y, t h ey w ork ed t o f u rth er t h e g oals o f t h e b ro ad er a n ti- fa sc is t c am paig n— str e n gth en in g a n d e x te n din g t h e g oals o f t h e N ew D eal an d c o m batin g d is c rim in atio n a t h om e. A l e afle t e n title d How t o R ais e $ 16 Billio n a d vocate d w ith hold in g t a x es a s a m ean s o f s p re ad in g t h e b urd en o f pay in g f o r w ar.

Battle S ta tio ns A ll , a p am phle t d ealin g w ith i n fla tio n, su pporte d p ric e a n d r e n t c o ntr o l, i n cre ase d t a x atio n, a n d o th er s te p s d esig ned to “ ta k [e ] t h e p ro fit o ut o f w ar.” I t a ls o c alle d f o r g uara n te ein g p eo ple a t l e ast th eir m in im um e sse n tia ls o f f o od, c lo th in g, s h elte r, t r a n sp orta tio n, a n d re cre atio n.

Neg ro es a nd t h e W ar n ot o nly l a u ded t h e c o ntr ib utio n t h at b la ck Am eric an s w ere m ak in g t o t h e w ar e ffo rt b ut a ls o d esc rib ed t h e e d ucatio nal an d e co nom ic a d van ces t h ey h ad m ad e u nder t h e N ew D eal. T he p am phle t pra is e d t h e r o le o f t h e W ork s P ro gre ss A dm in is tr a tio n a n d t h e N atio nal Youth A dm in is tr a tio n a n d d esc rib ed t h e N ew D eal a s r in gin g “ lik e a p le asa n t bell i n t h e e ars o f t h e A m eric an N eg ro .” T he O W I m an ual When R adio Write s f o r W ar u rg ed t h e a u th ors o f r a d io p ro gra m s n ot t o p ortr a y N eg ro es a s “th e S te p in F ech it t y pe, t h e m in str e l m an , t h e s to oge, t h e d um b d om estic , t h e guy a lw ay s b ein g c h ase d b y g hosts .” 35 Outr a g ed c o nse rv ativ es s a w i n s u ch b ookle ts — with t h eir s u pport f o r eco nom ic r e d is tr ib utio n a n d g re ate r r a cia l e q uality — ev id en ce o f t o ta lita ria n te n den cie s o n t h e p art o f t h e a d m in is tr a tio n. M ore o ver, s u ch m ate ria ls d id n ot re p re se n t t h e o nly v oic e o f t h e O W I. M an y o f t h e l ib era l w rite rs , a rtis ts , a n d re se arc h ers i n t h e a g en cy h ad j o in ed t h e O FF w hen i t w as h ead ed b y Arc h ib ald M acL eis h , t h e p oet l a u re ate o f t h e P opula r F ro nt. W hen t h e O FF was m erg ed i n to t h e O W I i n J u ne 1 942, G ard ner C ow le s J r., a M id w este rn new sp ap er p ublis h er, w as a p poin te d t o h ead t h e d om estic b ra n ch . A l ib era l Rep ublic an a n d s ta u nch s u pporte r o f W en dell W ilk ie , C ow le s b ack ed Roose v elt’ s f o re ig n p olic y b ut o ppose d m an y a sp ects o f t h e N ew D eal. H e als o b elie v ed t h at t h e O W I’s p rin cip al r o le w as t o c o ord in ate g overn m en t cam paig ns o n t h e h om e f ro nt.

He e sta b lis h ed t h e B ure au o f C am paig ns with in t h e a g en cy a n d s tr e n gth en ed t h e O W I’s t ie s t o t h e a d vertis in g in dustr y . A s a r e su lt, t h e a n tif a sc is ts i n cre asin gly f o und t h em se lv es co m petin g f o r i n flu en ce a n d r e so urc es w ith s ta ffe rs d ra w n f ro m M ad is o n Aven ue. T hese m en a n d w om en s h ow ed l ittle i n te re st i n p ortr a y in g t h e grim mer a sp ects o f t h e w ar o r i n p ro m otin g d om estic r e fo rm . I n ste ad , t h ey so ught t o r a lly s u pport f o r s p ecif ic g overn m en t p ro gra m s b y “ se llin g A m eric a to A m eric an s.” 36 T hey o vers a w s e n tim en ta l, p atr io tic , a n d u pbeat c am paig ns th at g en era lly r e in fo rc ed t h e n atio n’s c o rp ora te o rd er. T he l ib era l c h ie f o f t h e OW I’s g ra p hic s b ure au c o m pla in ed t h at s u ch M ad is o n A ven ue t e ch niq ues had “ d one m ore t o w ard d im min g p erc ep tio n, s u sp en din g c ritic al v alu es, a n d sp re ad in g t h e s tic k y s y ru p o f c o m pla cen cy o ver t h e p eo ple t h an a lm ost a n y oth er f a cto r.” 37 The g ro w in g t e n sio ns w ith in t h e O W I c am e t o a h ead i n t h e s p rin g o f 1943. C ow le s r e o rg an iz ed t h e d om estic b ra n ch , b rin gin g i ts w rite rs , a rtis ts , an d r e se arc h ers u nder t h e d ir e ct c o ntr o l o f s e v era l m en w ho f a v ore d t h e “ad vertis in g t e ch niq ue.” 38 P ric e G ilb ert, a f o rm er C oca-C ola e x ecu tiv e w ho had b een a p poin te d t o h ead t h e B ure au o f G ra p hic s a n d P rin tin g, s h elv ed viv id p oste rs o f N azi b ru ta lity c re ate d b y P opula r F ro nt a rtis t B en S hah n, re p la cin g t h em w ith f o lk sy A m eric an s c en es b y m ag azin e i llu str a to r N orm an Rock w ell. ( S hah n a n d a c o lle ag ue r e sp onded b y p ro ducin g a p oste r o f t h e Sta tu e o f L ib erty c arry in g f o ur b ottle s o f C oke i n h er u pra is e d h an d. T he motto o n t h e p oste r d ecla re d “ T he W ar T hat R efre sh es: T he F our D elic io us Fre ed om s!” ) M ean w hile , W illia m L ew is , a f o rm er v ic e p re sid en t o f t h e Colu m bia B ro ad castin g S yste m , c u rb ed t h e w ork o f t h e w rite rs , t e llin g t h em th ey c o uld w rite “ o nly t o s p ecif ic atio n” a n d k illin g a p ro pose d p am phle t o n th e n atio n’s f o od s u pply .

39 I n A pril, s o m e f if te en m en a n d w om en r e sig ned fro m t h e O W I e n m asse . I n a l e tte r t o t h e New Y ork T im es , t h ey c h arg ed t h at th e a g en cy w as b eco m in g a n “ o ffic e o f w ar b ally hoo.” 40 O ne o f t h e r e sig nin g write rs , A rth ur S ch le sin ger J r., w en t f u rth er i n a p riv ate l e tte r t o l ite ra ry c ritic Bern ard D eV oto . “ T he a d vertis in g m en h av e b een s tr ik in g o ut f o r m ore a n d more p ow er o ver t h e w hole d om estic i n fo rm atio n p olic y ,” h e w ro te . “ It h as mean t a n i n cre asin g c o nvic tio n t h at a n y g overn m en t i n fo rm atio n c am paig n lik ely t o a ffe ct a v este d b usin ess i n te re st s h ould f ir s t b e a p pro ved b y t h at in te re st. I t h as m ean t a s te ad y r e p la cem en t o f i n dep en den t w rite rs , new sp ap erm en , p ublis h ers , m ostly o f l ib era l i n clin atio n, b y m en b eh old en t o th e b usin ess c o m munity f o r t h eir l iv elih ood a n d t h in kin g a lw ay s a s t h e busin ess c o m munity t h in ks.” 41 The m ass r e sig natio n w as t h e b eg in nin g o f t h e e n d f o r t h e O W I’s dom estic b ra n ch . B y e arly 1 943, t h e a g en cy w as u nder i n te n se f ir e f ro m co nse rv ativ es i n C ongre ss, w ho c o ntr o lle d b oth h ouse s a fte r t h e f a ll e le ctio ns of 1942. R ep ublic an s a n d s o uth ern D em ocra ts b oth s a w t h e a g en cy a s pro m otin g t h e a g en da o f F D R a n d t h e N ew D eal. T he p ublic r e le ase o f F ra n k Cap ra ’s Pre lu de t o W ar —desp ite t h e d is m is sa l o f m uch o f t h e o rig in al sc re en w ritin g t e am — only f u ele d s u ch a tta ck s. A rm y C hie f o f S ta ff G en era l Geo rg e C . M ars h all i n te rv en ed p ers o nally t o d ir e ct c o ngre ssio nal a n ger a w ay fro m t h e C ap ra f ilm s. T he O W I, h ow ev er, w as n ot s o l u ck y. C onse rv ativ es atta ck ed t h e p am phle ts o n t a x atio n a n d i n fla tio n a n d a rg ued t h at Neg ro es a nd th e W ar w as b oth p artis a n p le ad in g a n d a n a tte m pt t o f o rc e a n “ alie n ” philo so phy— ra cia l e q uality — on t h e S outh . T he r a n kin g R ep ublic an o n t h e House A ppro pria tio ns C om mitte e d ecla re d t h at O W I f ilm s, r a d io s c rip ts , a n d public atio ns w ere “ p artly d riv el, p artly i n sid io us p ro pag an da a g ain st Congre ss a n d f o r a f o urth t e rm ,” a n d o ccasio nally “ alo ng c o m munis tic l in es.” In J u ne 1 943, a c o alitio n o f R ep ublic an s a n d s o uth ern D em ocra ts s la sh ed fu ndin g f o r t h e d om estic b ra n ch o f t h e O W I.

42 The r e sig natio ns a n d f u ndin g c u tb ack s a t t h e O W I i n m id -1 943 s ile n ced th e s ta u nch est a n d b est- p ositio ned a d vocate s o f a p ro gre ssiv e, a n ti- fa sc is t co nse n su s w ith in t h e f e d era l g overn m en t. I n s o d oin g, t h ey e ffe ctiv ely am plif ie d t h e v oic e o f t h e b usin ess c o m munity . M an y c o rp ora te , a d vertis in g, an d p ublic r e la tio ns e x ecu tiv es h oped t o u se t h e w ar t o r e esta b lis h t h eir cu ltu ra l a n d p olitic al a u th ority . A m eric a’s n ew r o le a s t h e “ ars e n al o f dem ocra cy ”— to geth er w ith s u rg in g w artim e p ro ductio n— gav e t h em t h e open in g. T he w ar r e v iv ed c o rp ora te p ro fits , r e sto re d n atio nal p ro sp erity , a n d allo w ed t h ose w ho h ad o nce b een d ubbed “ in dustr ia l T orie s” t o w ra p th em se lv es i n t h e m an tle o f p atr io tis m . S till, m an y b usin essm en r e aliz ed t h at su ch d ev elo pm en ts w ould p ay f e w p olitic al d iv id en ds i n t h e p ostw ar p erio d unle ss t h ey w ere b ro ught t o t h e a tte n tio n o f t h e A m eric an p ublic . M an y co rp ora tio ns a ls o w orrie d a b out k eep in g t h eir n am es i n t h e p ublic e y e a t a tim e w hen t h ey h ad f e w o r n o c o nsu m er g oods t o o ffe r. T hey s o lv ed b oth pro ble m s b y t a k in g t h e a d vic e o f t h e Y oung & R ubic am a d vertis in g a g en cy , whic h i n str u cte d p ote n tia l c lie n ts t o “ se rv e t h e c o m pan y” b y “ se rv [in g] t h e natio n.” 43 The W ar A dvertis in g C ouncil o rc h estr a te d s u ch e ffo rts . F ed era l a g en cie s, ofte n w ork in g t h ro ugh t h e O W I’s B ure au o f C am paig ns, f u nnele d r e q uests fo r s u pport t o t h e C ouncil. T he C ouncil r a n ked r e q ueste d c am paig ns b y re la tiv e i m porta n ce, t h en a ssig ned t h em t o v olu nte er a d a g en cie s, w hic h dev elo ped c am paig n t h em es a n d c o m pile d s u pportin g f a cts . T he r e su ltin g “cam paig n g uid es” w ere d is tr ib ute d t o c o m pan ie s a n d i n dustr y a sso cia tio ns fo r u se i n p riv ate ly s p onso re d a d vertis e m en ts . ( C om pan ie s w ere f re e t o s e le ct th e c am paig ns a n d t h em es t h ey w is h ed t o u se .) I n s o m e c ase s, t h e C ouncil its e l outd oor a d vertis e rs d onate d s p ace. T he C ouncil a ls o s u perv is e d t h e pre se n ta tio n o f p ublic s e rv ic e a n nouncem en ts o n t h e r a d io b y c re atin g a n d su perv is in g a r a d io a llo catio n p la n . F in ally , i t f o rw ard ed “ fa ct s h eets ” o n im porta n t t o pic s t o v ario us m ed ia o utle ts . B oth t h e p rin t a n d b ro ad cast m ed ia dre w o n t h ese f a ct s h eets w hen d ra ftin g e d ito ria ls o r a ssig nin g a n d r e p ortin g sto rie s.

44 The W ar A dvertis in g C ouncil t o ok i ts c u es f ro m t h e f e d era l g overn m en t; nev erth ele ss, t h is s y ste m t r a n sfe rre d a g re at d eal o f c o ntr o l o ver w artim e pro pag an da f ro m t h e p ublic t o t h e p riv ate s e cto r. A lth ough t h e f e d era l govern m en t s e le cte d t h e i s su es a d dre sse d i n p ublic s e rv ic e a d vertis in g cam paig ns, M ad is o n A ven ue i n cre asin gly f ra m ed t h e m essa g es A m eric an s re ceiv ed . N ot s u rp ris in g, m essa g es c o nceiv ed b y t h e W ar A dvertis in g Council a n d d is se m in ate d b y t h e C ouncil o r c o rp ora te a d vertis e rs h ad m ore i n co m mon w ith t h e v is io n o f H en ry L uce t h an w ith t h at o f H en ry W alla ce. I n ag gre g ate , t h ese c am paig ns e q uate d t h e A m eric an W ay n ot w ith g re ate r eq uality o r s e cu rity b ut w ith t h e f re ed om o f i n div id uals t o c o nsu m e. T hey su ggeste d t h at U .S . i n dustr y , n ot t h e f e d era l g overn m en t, w as b est a b le t o guara n te e A m eric an s’ “ fre ed om f ro m w an t.” Durin g t h e w ar, A m eric an s h ad o nly t o o pen t h eir n ew sp ap ers o r mag azin es, t u rn o n t h e r a d io , o r w alk t h ro ugh t h e s tr e ets o f t h eir c ity o r t o w n to s e e o r h ear m essa g es t h at l in ked b ra n d n am es o r c o rp ora te l o gos t o t h e w ar effo rt: t h e c o nsu m ptio n o f P ab st B lu e R ib bon b eer o r P ep si- C ola t o s te p ped - up w artim e p ro ductio n, a g if t o f C harle s-o f-th e-R itz c o sm etic s t o t h e purc h ase o f w ar b onds, o r C an non p erc ale s h eets t o t h e d onatio n o f b lo od.

45 OW I w rite rs h ad c o ndem ned s u ch e ffo rts t o t ie “ co m merc ia l p lu gs i n w ith war m essa g es,” w arn in g t h at s u ch l in kag es r e p re se n te d a t a ste le ss e ffo rt t o “cap ita liz e o n t h e g ra v ity o f t h e w ar.” 46 B y c o ntr a st, i t w as p re cis e ly t h is str a te g y— in te rtw in in g “ sa crif ic e a n d s e lf -in te re st” — th at t h e W ar A dvertis in g Council a n d p riv ate a d vertis in g a g en cie s r e co m men ded w hen p ers u ad in g co rp ora te c lie n ts t o r u n p ublic s e rv ic e a d s. A 1 943 a d f o r C heste rfie ld cig are tte s f e atu re d a s m ilin g f e m ale s o ld ere r, C heste rfie ld d an glin g f ro m h er lip s, a n d u rg ed f e m ale r e ad ers t o c o nta ct t h e U .S . E m plo ym en t S erv ic e Offic e.

47 B en dix H om e A pplia n ces e m phasiz ed i ts p atr io tic c o ntr ib utio n i n an a d s h ow in g a w om an s in gin g a s s h e h ung o ut t h e w ash : “ M y B en dix l ie s over t h e o cean , m y B en dix l ie s o ver t h e s e a, m y B en dix d oes w ash f o r t h e nav y, i n ste ad o f t h e l a u ndry f o r m e.” 48 M an y a d s t o ute d a w ard s t h at co m pan ie s h ad r e ceiv ed f ro m e ith er t h e m ilita ry o r t h e T re asu ry D ep artm en t fo r a ch ie v in g w artim e p ro ductio n o r b ond s a le s g oals .

Such a d s s u ggeste d t h at i n div id ual c o m pan ie s w ere g oin g a ll o ut f o r t h e war e ffo rt. M an y a ls o r e m in ded A m eric an s o f h ow g ood t h ey h ad i t— not only c o m pare d t o t h e n atio n’s f ig htin g m en , b ut a ls o c o m pare d t o c iv ilia n s i n oth er co untr ie s. “ S ure y ou’v e g ot t h e m oney … S o h av e l o ts o f u s,” d ecla re d an a n ti- in fla tio n a d p re p are d b y t h e W ar A dvertis in g C ouncil. ( T he a d w en t on t o u rg e A m eric an s t o s a v e, r a th er t h an s p en d, t h e m oney t h ey h ad .) A n an ti- in fla tio n a d s p onso re d b y t h e B ow ery S av in gs B an k o f N ew Y ork n ote d th at “ o ld -fa sh io ned t h rif t” w as “ o ne o f t h e r e aso ns w hy w e h av e m ore t o e at an d m ore t o w ear— an d p ay l e ss f o r n ecessitie s— th an m en a n d w om en i n man y o th er c o untr ie s.” 49 “ W e w ere S poile d … a n d T han k G od f o r i t! ” Chry sle r e x cla im ed i n a Satu rd ay E ven in g P ost a d p ro m otin g w ar b onds.

“W e b ought t h in gs t h at o nly t h e v ery r ic h c o uld a ffo rd i n o th er c o untr ie s.

Shop g ir ls d re sse d a s w ell a s t h e s m arte st w om en i n P aris .” C hry sle r a d ded th at t h is “ A m eric an w ay o f l iv in g” w as n ot o nly “ th e e n vy o f t h e w orld ,” b ut “p ro bab ly s a v ed t h e w orld ”: “ T o m eet y our d em an d f o r m ore a n d s till m ore cars a t t h e p ric es y ou w an te d t o p ay , y ou m ad e u s a t C hry sle r, f o r e x am ple , build t h e p ro ductio n s y ste m t h at w as l a te r t o p our o ut w eap ons t o o ur f ig htin g men .” 50 Such a d s c o nven ie n tly o verlo oked t h e r a v ag es o f t h e D ep re ssio n a n d t h e war-w ro ught d ev asta tio n o f o th er l a n ds, w hile c re d itin g c o rp ora te A m eric a fo r A llie d s u ccesse s. G overn m en t d efe n se s p en din g w as f u elin g t h e n atio n’s eco nom ic b oom , b ut a d s g en era lly i g nore d t h is f a ct. I n ste ad , t h ey a ttr ib ute d th e n atio n’s p ro sp erity — both p ast a n d p re se n t— to “ o ld -fa sh io ned ” A m eric an valu es, h arm onio us b usin ess-la b or r e la tio ns, a n d t h e p ro w ess a n d i n gen uity of A m eric an b usin ess. “ H ard sh ip s t a u ght o ur f o re fa th ers t h e v ir tu e o f s e lf - re lia n ce a n d t h e n eed f o r c o opera tio n,” B udw eis e r p ro cla im ed , u nder a pic tu re o f N ew E ngla n d P urita n s. T hose s a m e v alu es w ould w in t h e w ar, a n d “in p eacetim e t h at s a m e u nity o f e ffo rt w ill k eep A m eric a s tr o ng a n d pro sp ero us.” 51 I n a r e m ark ab le a d e n title d “ S tr a n ge F ru it,” W yan dotte Chem ic als C orp ora tio n r e cast t h e t itle o f t h e a n tily nch in g b alla d t h at B illie Holid ay h ad p opula riz ed a f e w y ears e arlie r. T he t r e e i n t h e a d w as a d orn ed not w ith A fric an -A m eric an b odie s b ut w ith t h e p ro ducts o f a n a b undan t co nsu m er s o cie ty : a m ag azin e, a r a y on d re ss, p hoto gra p hic f ilm , a n a ir p la n e, an d a b ottle o f p erfu m e. A ll t h ese , t h e a d c o py s u ggeste d , w ere d eriv ed f ro m wood u sin g a c h em ic al m an ufa ctu re d b y t h e c o m pan y. “ M oney m ay n ot g ro w on t r e es,” t h e a d d ecla re d , “ b ut m ir a cle s d o.” 52 Both t h e W ar A dvertis in g C ouncil a n d c o rp ora te a d vertis e rs ack now le d ged t h at m an y p ro ducts w ere n ot i m med ia te ly a v aila b le t o h om e- fro nt c o nsu m ers . A t t h e s a m e t im e, m ost l in ked a p peals f o r w artim e s a crif ic e to t h e p ro m is e o f p ostw ar c o nsu m ptio n.

53 T his w as p artic u la rly t r u e o f t h e man y a d s t h at u rg ed A m eric an s t o p urc h ase w ar b onds o r t o s a v e m oney i n ord er t o h ead o ff i n fla tio n. “ B uy a n E xtr a W ar B ond f o r Y ou— an d M e,” a so ld ie r i n str u cte d h is w if e i n a 1 944 a d p la ced b y t h e E ure k a V acu um C le an er Com pan y i n McC all’ s :

I w an t y ou t o b uy a n e x tr a W ar B ond a n d p ut b oth o ur n am es o n i t. A nd when y ou’v e b ought t h at e x tr a B ond … I w an t y ou t o b uy y ours e lf a d re ss … so m eth in g s o ft a n d s o m eth in g b lu e. B ecau se out h ere t h at’ s h ow I t h in k o f you— an d t h in kin g o f y ou I t h in k o f a ll t h e f u n w e’ll h av e t o geth er w hen I co m e h om e … b uyin g t h in gs f o r t h e m ost w onderfu l h ouse i n a ll t h e w orld .

…our h ouse , t h e h ouse I ’m g oin g t o b uild f o r y ou.

Such a d s s u ggeste d t h at A m eric an s w ere f ig htin g n ot f o r f re ed om o f sp eech o r r e lig io n b ut f o r a r ig ht t o b uy t o aste rs , r e frig era to rs , a n d C ad illa cs.

These g oods a n d m an y o th ers “ h ad m arc h ed a w ay t o w ar,” b ut t h ey w ould re tu rn a fte r V ic to ry D ay w hen A m eric an w ould “ m eet i ts d estin y o f p eace an d p le n ty .” 54 I n f a ct, m an y a d s s u ggeste d t h at t h e r ig ht t o p urc h ase s u ch goods— an d t h e s y ste m o f f re e e n te rp ris e t h at p ro duced t h em — were c o re Am eric an v alu es. “ H ow Am eric a n i t i s … t o w an t s o m eth in g b ette r!” pro cla im ed a le -m ak er P . B alla n tin e & S ons i n a n a d s h ow in g t w o f e m ale w ar work ers p ock etin g w ar b onds.

55 T he m ak ers o f S parto n r a d io s e n vis io ned a fa th er t a lk in g t o h is y oung s o n. “ W e h av e s o m an y t h in gs, h ere i n A m eric a, th at b elo ng o nly t o f re e p eo ple ,” h e s a id .

The r ig ht t o f re e s p eech a n d a ctio n.

Warm , c o m fo rta b le h om es.

Auto m obile s a n d r a d io s b y t h e m illio n.

Ele ctr ic al m ach in es t o k eep a n d c o ok o ur f o od; t o w ash a n d c le an f o r u s.

56 The S te w art- W arn er C orp ora tio n s tr u ck a s im ila r n ote i n a n a d u rg in g Am eric an s t o o bse rv e r e d uced s p eed l im its a n d t o b uy w ar b onds. “ W ill y ou ever o w n a n oth er c ar? A noth er r a d io ? A noth er g le am in g n ew r e frig era to r? ” th e m an ufa ctu re r o f a u to p arts a n d a p plia n ces a sk ed . “ T hose w ho l iv e u nder dic ta to rs m ere ly d re am o f s u ch p osse ssio ns.” A lth ough a p ic tu re o f a d ark sw astik a t o pped t h e a d , t h e r e fe re n ce t o “ d ic ta to rs ” s u ggeste d a b ro ad er in te rp re ta tio n o f t h e e n em y.

57 In t h e m ean tim e, a ll A m eric an s n eed ed t o d o t h eir p art. M ate ria ls pro duced b y t h e a n tif a sc is t w rite rs a n d a rtis ts i n t h e O W I h ad p ra is e d N ew Deal p ro gra m s a n d o fte n a d vocate d g overn m en t s o lu tio ns f o r p re ssin g wartim e p ro ble m s— fo r i n sta n ce, p ric e a n d r e n t c o ntr o ls a s a n a n tid ote t o in fla tio n.

By c o ntr a st, c am paig ns o rc h estr a te d b y t h e W ar A dvertis in g Council g en era lly e m phasiz ed t h e r e sp onsib ility o f i n div id ual c itiz en s. I n o ne Council a d , “ th e P A TR IO TIC M rs . J o nes” f o ught i n fla tio n b y c o ntin uin g t o use a c h ip ped t e acu p a n d b y “ w earin g h er c lo th es f o r a n oth er y ear— an d an oth er.” I n a s e co nd, “ u s l ittle g uys— us w ork ers , u s f a rm ers , u s b usin ess men ” f o ught i n fla tio n i n p art b y f o re g oin g p urc h ase s a n d p ric e h ik es a n d b y not “ ask [in g] h ig her w ag es f o r o ur w ork .” A t h ir d a d s h ow ed a f is h l a b ele d “Jo hn Q . P ublic ” e n tic ed b y t h e b aite d h ook o f “ d ep re ssio n.” “ D on’t g et hooked a g ain !” t h e a d d ecla re d . “ T o a v oid t h e k in d o f d ep re ssio n w e h ad afte r t h e l a st w ar— WE M UST H EA D O FF I N FL A TIO N N OW ! A nd t h e best w ay t o d o t h at i s t o s a v e y our m oney .” “ If y ou d on’t [ k eep p ric es d ow n], who w ill? ” a f o urth a d a sk ed r h eto ric ally . “ U ncle S am c an ’t d o i t a lo ne.” 58 Som e a d s w ere e x plic itly p olitic al, s o undin g t h e s a m e t h em es u se d b y t h e NAM a n d o th er b usin ess g ro ups i n t h e l a te 1 930s. A n a d s p onso re d b y Lib erty M oto rs & E ngin eerin g C orp ora tio n p la y ed o ff F D R’s “ F our Fre ed om s,” d ecla rin g t h e “ U .S . S yste m o f F re e E nte rp ris e ” t o b e “ T he F if th Fre ed om .” 59 A s e rie s o f a d s r u n b y t h e N ash -K elv in ato r C orp . i n 1 943 a n d 1944 s h ow ed A m eric an s e rv ic em en d re am in g a b out t h e c o untr y t o w hic h th ey w ould e v en tu ally r e tu rn . “ T he f u tu re I’m a fte r i s s o b ig n obody’s e v er goin g t o h an d i t t o m e o n a s ilv er p la tte r!” d ecla re d o ne s a ilo r s tr a n ded i n a lif e b oat. A noth er, b ein g c arrie d o ut o f a P acif ic j u ngle o n a s tr e tc h er, t h ought of t h e m en w ho h ad c o m e b efo re h im . “ A nd a ll I a sk i s t h e c h an ce th ey h ad , th e c h an ce o f a n i n div id ual f ig htin g m an w hen t h e c h ip s a re d ow n … a n d t h e opportu nity t o g o a h ead i n a l a n d w here n oth in g a n d n obody c u ts g re at m en dow n … w here n o f a ls e p ow er b uild s l ittle m en u p … w here e v ery m an a n d wom an a n d c h ild i s a f re e in div id ual .” 60 The P olit ic s o f M od era tio n In 1 943, t h e c ele b ra te d m uck ra k er G eo rg e S eld es s e lf -p ublis h ed a b ook en title d Facts a nd F asc is m t h at e x plic itly l in ked f a sc is m a b ro ad a n d a t h om e.

“T here a re m an y p ow erfu l e le m en ts w ork in g a g ain st a g re ate r d em ocra cy ,” Seld es a rg ued , “ ag ain st a n A m eric a w ith out d is c rim in atio n b ase d o n r a ce, co lo r a n d c re ed , a n A m eric a w here n ev er a g ain w ill o ne t h ir d o f t h e p eo ple b e with out s u ffic ie n t f o od, c lo th in g a n d s h elte r, w here n ev er a g ain w ill t h ere b e 12,0 00,0 00 u nem plo yed a n d m an y m ore m illio ns w ork in g f o r s e m i- s ta rv atio n wag es w hile t h e D uP ont, F ord , H ears t, M ello n a n d R ock efe lle r E m pir e s move i n to t h e b illio ns o f d olla rs .” S eld es a rg ued t h at t h e N atio nal Asso cia tio n o f M an ufa ctu re rs a n d th e b usin ess e m pir e s i t r e p re se n te d w ere “th e c en te r o f A m eric an F asc is m ,” t h e U .S . e q uiv ale n t o f t h e i n dustr ia lis ts who h ad f u nded M usso lin i a n d H itle r. H is a tta ck , h ow ev er, d id n ot s to p t h ere .

“W hen i t c o m es t o r e la tin g f o re ig n F asc is m w ith n ativ e A m eric an F asc is m th ere i s a c o nsp ir a cy o f s ile n ce i n w hic h t h e O W I, t h e A m eric an p re ss, a n d a ll th e f o rc es o f r e actio n i n A m eric a a re u nite d ,” S eld es w ro te . “ V ic to ry o ver fo re ig n F asc is m i s c erta in ,” h e p re d ic te d , b ut t h e j o b a t h om e r e m ain ed “u nfin is h ed .” P artly b ecau se o f t h e u nw illin gness o f A m eric an l ib era ls a n d le ftis ts t o t a k e o n c o rp ora te c o nse rv ativ es, A m eric an c iv ilia n s w ould “ h av e t o co ntin ue t o f ig ht n ativ e F asc is m f o r m an y y ears .” O th erw is e , S eld es w arn ed , “w e w ill s tu pid ly h av e d ro pped t h e v ic to ry w on i n A fric a, i n I ta ly , i n Germ an y a n d i n J a p an .” 61 Facts a nd F asc is m w as a h ig hly u nusu al w artim e t r a ct. W hat m ad e t h e book s o e x cep tio nal w as n ot S eld es’s a n tif a sc is t v is io n b ut h is u nstin tin g atta ck o n o th er A m eric an s. A lth ough m an y l ib era ls a n d l e ftis ts s h are d Seld es’s h opes f o r a m ore e g alita ria n f u tu re , m ost b elie v ed t h at t h e f ir s t s te p to w ard s e cu rin g t h at f u tu re w as d efe atin g t h e A xis p ow ers , a s te p t h ey belie v ed r e q uir e d n atio nal u nity . M ore o ver, t h e s tr e ss o n s o cia l c o hesio n durin g t h e w ar— as t h e e sse n tia l c o unte rm easu re t o t h e N azi t a ctic o f “ d iv id e an d c o nquer” — open ed b oth p urv ey ors o f p re ju dic e a n d p ro m ote rs o f p ro te st to c h arg es t h at t h ey w ere a id in g t h e e n em y. B oth f a cto rs c o ntr ib ute d t o w hat Seld es d ubbed a “ co nsp ir a cy o f s ile n ce.” M ost A m eric an s w ho s a w f a sc is m as a g lo bal c o ncern m odera te d t h eir t o ne o n t h e h om e f ro nt d urin g t h e w ar.

Alth ough s o m e i n t h e O W I a n d e ls e w here s o ught t o s id elin e p ro fa sc is t gro ups, t h ey g en era lly s h unned a ll- o ut a tta ck s o n d om estic e n em ie s. I n ste ad , th ey f o cu se d o n u nif y in g A m eric an s b eh in d t h e w ar e ffo rt a n d u sin g t h e w ar to p ro m ote e g alita ria n v alu es.

This s tr a te g y c an c le arly b e s e en i n t h e w artim e a ctiv itie s o f t h e l a b or movem en t, p artic u la rly t h e C IO . A lth ough t h e C IO r e p re se n te d o nly o ne- th ir d o f a ll o rg an iz ed w ork ers d urin g t h e w ar, i t d om in ate d k ey i n dustr ie s su ch a s s te el a n d a u to m obile s t h at w ere a t t h e h eart o f t h e d efe n se b uild up.

More o ver, i ts e n erg y a n d v is io n h ad d riv en l a b or’s m obiliz atio n d urin g t h e la te 1 930s. I n t h ose y ears , C IO o ffic ia ls a n d t h e CIO N ew s r e g ula rly j o in ed Seld es a n d o th er l e ftis ts i n l a u nch in g b lis te rin g a tta ck s o n t h e N AM a n d i ts politic al a n d b usin ess a llie s; t h ey d ubbed t h eir d om estic e n em ie s “ eco nom ic ro yalis ts ,” “ in dustr ia l T orie s,” a n d i n cre asin gly “ A m eric an f a sc is ts .” T hese rh eto ric al s a lv os w ere m atc h ed b y m ilita n t o n-th e-g ro und t a ctic s. A s R obert Zie g er h as o bse rv ed , “ T o b e f o r l a b or m ean t m arc h in g o n p ic k et l in es, f a cin g polic e t r u nch eo ns, a n d f ig htin g f o r w ork ers ’ r ig hts .” 62 The C IO ’s r e tr e at f ro m t h is a p pro ach b eg an i n l a te 1 940, w hen t h e s o ft- sp oken P hilip M urra y r e p la ced t h e f ie ry J o hn L . L ew is a s p re sid en t o f t h e org an iz atio n. L ew is w as a n i s o la tio nis t w ho v ie w ed d ev elo pm en ts a b ro ad th ro ugh t h e l e n s o f 1 917: h e b elie v ed t h at B ritis h i m peria lis ts w ere t r y in g t o dra g t h e U .S . i n to a E uro pean “ b lo odbath ” t h at w ould u ltim ate ly e n dan ger t h e la b or m ovem en t, a n d h e s a w F D R’s d efe n se p olic ie s a s m is g uid ed , i f n ot dis h onest. M urra y a n d h is s u pporte rs , b y c o ntr a st, b elie v ed t h at H itle r h ad t o be s to pped . T hey r e m ain ed c o m mitte d t o b ols te rin g l a b or’s p ow er a n d t o im pro vin g t h e l iv in g s ta n dard s o f w ork ers , b ut t h ey a rg ued t h at t h e b est w ay to d o t h is w as b y s ta n din g b y t h e p re sid en t w ho a lr e ad y h ad h elp ed l a b or ach ie v e u npre ced en te d g ain s. M odera tin g t h eir a n tib usin ess t o ne, t h ey t h re w th eir w eig ht b eh in d t h e a ccele ra tin g d efe n se b uild up, a rg uin g a t t h e s a m e tim e f o r i n cre ase d l a b or p artic ip atio n i n m an ag eria l d ecis io n-m ak in g a n d natio nal p la n nin g. I n e sse n ce, t h e C IO l e ad ers h ip m oved a w ay “ fro m r a w , cla ss-c o nsc io us p olitic s” t o “ a v ie w o f w ork ers a s p artic ip an ts i n a b ro ad civ ic c o alitio n.” 63 The U .S .’ s e n tr y i n to W orld W ar I I a ccele ra te d t h is s tr a te g ic s h if t, a m ove th at w as r e fle cte d i n CIO N ew s a rtic le s a n d c arto ons l ik e t h e o ne c o ntr a stin g th e “ H itle r W ay ” w ith t h e “ A m eric an W ay .” I t w as a ls o e v id en t i n a n in flu en tia l b ook p ublis h ed i n e arly 1 942 b y t w o o f M urra y ’s l o ngtim e asso cia te s o n t h e S te el W ork ers O rg an iz in g C om mitte e. I n The D yn am ic s o f In dustr ia l D em ocra cy , C lin to n G old en a n d H aro ld R utte n berg a rg ued f o r co lle ctiv e b arg ain in g, a u nio n s h op, a n d “ th e p artic ip atio n o f o rg an iz ed work ers i n m an ag em en t.” T hese s te p s, t h ey a rg ued , w ere c ritic al t o b oth “ th e esta b lis h m en t a n d m ain te n an ce o f i n dustr ia l p eace” a n d t h e “ atta in m en t o f fu ll p ro ductio n.” M ore o ver, c o lle ctiv e b arg ain in g r e p re se n te d “ th e e x te n sio n of t h e b asic p ra ctic es a n d p rin cip le s o f d em ocra cy i n to i n dustr y .” A lth ough Gold en a n d R utte n berg c o ntin ued t o c all f o r r a d ic al r e fo rm s a n d t o l ik en in dustr ia l c itiz en sh ip t o p olitic al c itiz en sh ip , t h eir t o ne w as h ard ly co nfro nta tio nal. T his w as u nders c o re d b y t h e f a ct t h at R usse ll W . D av en port, ch air m an o f Fortu ne ’s B oard o f E dito rs a n d a f o rm er s p eech w rite r f o r Wen dell W ilk ie , a g re ed t o w rite t h e b ook’s f o re w ord . “ W hen y ou r e ad t h is book y ou m ove f ro m a c ra zy w orld i n to a r a tio nal o ne,” D av en port w ro te .

“Y ou l e av e b eh in d t h e w orld o f t h e l a st t e n y ears , i n w hic h s tr ik es, l o ck -o uts , an d r io ts m ark ed t h e i n ab ility o f m en t o r e co gniz e a c o m mon i n te re st o r a co m mon g oal.” G old en a n d R utte n berg , h e s u ggeste d , h ad m ap ped o ut “ a new w orld i n w hic h a c o m mon i n te re st b in ds m en t o geth er a n d a c o m mon goal i s i n s o m e m easu re a ch ie v ed .” 64 If U .S . i n volv em en t i n t h e w ar d ele g itim iz ed o rg an iz ed l a b or’s “ m ilita n t id io m ,” i t a ls o u nderm in ed u nio ns’ m ost p ote n t w eap on— th e s tr ik e.

65 W ith in week s o f t h e d ecla ra tio n o f w ar, t h e C IO a n d o th er l a b or o rg an iz atio ns h ad ag re ed t o a “ n o-s tr ik e p le d ge” p ro m ulg ate d b y F D R. M an y w ork ers d id en gag e in w ork s to ppag es d urin g t h e w ar, b ut m ost w ere s h ort a n d t r ig gere d by t h e “ d ay -to -d ay i n dig nitie s” s u ffe re d i n “ h ectic w artim e w ork pla ces” ; man y i n volv ed o nly a s in gle d ep artm en t o r s h if t. M ean w hile , p olls c o nducte d by t h e G allu p o rg an iz atio n b etw een 1 942 a n d 1 944 s h ow ed t h at f o ur o ut o f ev ery f iv e A m eric an s f a v ore d s o m e f o rm o f a n tis tr ik e l e g is la tio n. S uch v ie w s ex te n ded t o u nio n m em bers , w ho w ere f o r t h e m ost p art s tr o ngly p atr io tic .

CIO v ic e p re sid en t S id ney H illm an n ote d i n 1 943 t h at w ork ers w ould d efe n d th eir o w n s tr ik es, w hile c o ndem nin g t h ose o f o th ers i n t h e l a b or m ovem en t.

66 In deed , w hen J o hn L . L ew is l e d a h alf m illio n c o al m in ers o n a n e x te n ded str ik e t h at y ear, p olls s h ow ed t h at h e w as t h e m ost u npopula r m an i n A m eric a —with a n “ u nfa v ora b le ” r a tin g t h at p ut h im o n t h e s a m e p la n e a s H itle r a n d Hir o hito .

67 The a p pro ach o f t h e C IO ’s l e ad ers h ip d urin g t h e w ar i n volv ed a calc u la te d b et— a b et t h at i f o rg an iz ed l a b or a b an doned i ts m ilita n cy a t l e ast te m pora rily , i t c o uld s o lid if y i ts a llia n ce w ith t h e f e d era l g overn m en t a n d em erg e f ro m t h e w ar i n a b ette r p ositio n t o m ak e i ts v oic e h eard . I n s o m e re sp ects , t h is b et p aid o ff. D esp ite s tr o ng o ppositio n f ro m t h e N AM a n d o th er busin ess g ro ups, F D R e sta b lis h ed t h e N atio nal W ar L ab or B oard ( N W LB ) veste d w ith a b ro ad r a n ge o f p ow ers .

68 T he N W LB q uic k ly i n stitu te d a “m ain te n an ce o f m em bers h ip ” c la u se t h at s w elle d u nio n r a n ks a t a t im e w hen millio ns o f n ew w ork ers — te en ag ers , h ouse w iv es, m ig ra n t f a rm w ork ers , a n d oth ers w ith l ittle h is to ric c o m mitm en t t o t h e l a b or m ovem en t— were f lo odin g in to d efe n se p la n ts . I n ste ad o f c o lla p sin g, t h e C IO ’s m em bers h ip m ore t h an double d b etw een 1 939 a n d 1 944, d esp ite t h e d ep artu re f ro m t h e o rg an iz atio n of s ix h undre d t h ousa n d m em bers o f L ew is ’s U nite d M in er W ork ers u nio n.

69 Longer h ours , o vertim e p ro vis io ns, i n cen tiv e p ay p la n s, a n d v acatio n b en efits (o fte n t a k en i n t h e f o rm o f d ouble -tim e p ay ) l e d t o a 2 7 p erc en t r is e i n r e al earn in gs d urin g t h e w ar f o r w ork ers i n t h e m an ufa ctu rin g s e cto r.

70 If t h e w ar b ols te re d o rg an iz ed l a b or’s n um bers a n d s w elle d t h e pock etb ooks o f i n div id ual w ork ers , i t n ev erth ele ss r e d uced u nio ns’ cu m ula tiv e p ow er. O ver t h e c o urs e o f t h e w ar, t h e N W LB i n cre asin gly sh if te d f ro m a “ p re stig io us f o ru m f o r t h e p re se n ta tio n o f [ la b or’s ] i n te re sts ” to a n “ in fla tio n-fig htin g a g en t” i n te re ste d p rim arily i n l im itin g w ag es.” 71 Alth ough w ork ers ’ a v era g e w eek ly e arn in gs s o are d 6 5 p erc en t d urin g t h e war, t h is r e fle cte d o vertim e h ours m ore t h an w ag e g ain s. A t t h e s a m e t im e, th e p ro fits r e co rd ed b y c o rp ora tio ns a lm ost d ouble d .

72 M ean w hile , t h e im plie d l in kag e b etw een l a b or’s “ n o-s tr ik e p le d ge” a n d t h e g overn m en t’ s “m ain te n an ce o f m em bers h ip ” g uara n te e e ffe ctiv ely t r a n sfe rre d u nio n p ow er to t h e f e d era l g overn m en t. “ T he w artim e ‘ c o ntr a ct’ t h at e m erg ed ” b etw een org an iz ed l a b or a n d t h e n atio nal g overn m en t w as m ark ed ly d if fe re n t f ro m t h e “b old v is io ns o f s h are d d ecis io n-m ak in g” l a id out b y M urra y a n d o th ers a t th e s ta rt o f t h e w ar, A la n B rin kle y h as w ritte n : “ In ste ad o f a n a ctiv e partic ip an t i n t h e c o uncils o f i n dustr y , t h e l a b or m ovem en t h ad b eco m e, i n effe ct, a w ard o f t h e s ta te .” 73 If t h e w artim e e m phasis o n n atio nal u nity p ro m pte d l a b or l e ad ers t o ab an don t h eir m ilita n t t o ne, i t h ad a s im ila r e ffe ct o n A m eric a’s b usin ess co m munity . T his w as n ot b ecau se c o rp ora te A m eric a h ad d ecid ed i t w as o ut of t h e w oods. T he w ar r e sto re d t h e p re stig e a n d p ro fita b ility o f U .S . i n dustr y , but i t a ls o g re atly e x pan ded t h e f e d era l g overn m en t’ s r o le i n t h e e co nom y.

Fed era l d efe n se c o ntr a cts k ep t w ar p la n ts h um min g, w hile f e d era l r e g ula to ry ag en cie s o vers a w e v ery th in g f ro m p ric in g t o w ag e r a te s. M an y c o rp ora te , ad vertis in g, a n d p ublic r e la tio ns e x ecu tiv es b elie v ed t h at t h eir e ffo rts t o “ se ll” th e p ublic o n t h e a b str a ct c o ncep ts o f f re e e n te rp ris e a n d i n div id ual l ib erty had b een g en era lly s u ccessfu l. B ut w hat d id “ fre e e n te rp ris e ” m ean i n pra ctic e? T he r e al i s su e f a cin g i n dustr y w as n o l o nger “ p riv ate e n te rp ris e vers u s c o lle ctiv is m ,” a t o p N AM s ta ffe r t o ld t h e W ar C ongre ss o f A m eric an In dustr y i n D ecem ber 1 942, b ut “ p riv ate e n te rp ris e v ers u s ‘ m odif ie d en te rp ris e ’” — “ to p re se rv e i n div id ual i n itia tiv e i n t h e m anagem en t o f pro perty ; n ot m ere ly t h e r ig ht o f t h e i n div id ual t o o w n p ro perty .

” 74 S uch co ncern s w ere w id ely s h are d a n d r e m ain ed s tr o ng t h ro ughout t h e w ar. A s Thom as D ’A rc y B ro phy, p re sid en t o f t h e K en yon & E ck hard t a d vertis in g ag en cy , w ro te i n vestm en t b an ker P re sc o tt B ush i n A ugust 1 944, “ R eg ard le ss of t h e o utc o m e o f t h e [ u pco m in g p re sid en tia l] e le ctio n, f re e e n te rp ris e i s i n fo r a f ig ht.” 75 Nearly a ll m em bers o f t h e b usin ess c o m munity f e are d e x pan ded f e d era l co ntr o l o f t h e e co nom y a fte r t h e w ar, a s w ell a s a r e su rg en ce i n t h e p olitic al pow er o f o rg an iz ed l a b or. T hey w ere n ot, h ow ev er, o f o ne m in d a b out t h e sc o pe o f t h e d an ger. “ T ra d itio nal o r p ra ctic al c o nse rv ativ es” v ie w ed u nio ns as “ ille g itim ate ,” d is tr u ste d t h e f e d era l g overn m en t, a n d c alle d f o r t h e “d is m an tlin g” o f m ost N ew D eal p ro gra m s. B y c o ntr a st, m odera te s a n d “m ore s o phis tic ate d ” c o nse rv ativ es b elie v ed t h at b usin ess s h ould w ork t o cu rb r a th er t h an t o d estr o y t h e N ew D eal. T hey s o ught t o p re se rv e c o rp ora te an d m an ag eria l p re ro gativ es b ut s a w a r o le f o r t h e g overn m en t i n p ro m otin g eco nom ic g ro w th a n d p re v en tin g “ w ild e co nom ic f lu ctu atio ns.” T hey a ls o belie v ed t h at u nio ns— pro perly c o nta in ed — co uld m ak e w ork ers a llie s, r a th er th an e n em ie s, i n t h e d riv e f o r g re ate r p ro ductio n a n d “ in dustr ia l s ta b ility .” 76 The e m phasis o n n atio nal u nity a n d c o nse n su s d urin g t h e w ar g av e m odera te s th e u pper h an d a n d f o rc ed e v en t r a d itio nal c o nse rv ativ es t o m odula te t h eir to ne. I n ste ad o f l a u nch in g a ll- o ut a tta ck s o n u nio ns a n d t h e f e d era l govern m en t, m an y i n t h e b usin ess c o m munity e m phasiz ed w hat t h ey a rg ued was t h e n atu ra l h arm ony o f i n te re sts p ro duced b y m odern A m eric an cap ita lis m .

One e x am ple o f t h is s h if t w as t h e w artim e t r a n sfo rm atio n o f t h e n atio n’s la rg est b usin ess g ro up, t h e U .S . C ham ber o f C om merc e. T hro ughout t h e 1930s a n d i n to t h e 1 940s, t h e C ham ber o f C om merc e’s l e ad ers h ip h ad b een alm ost a s f a n atic al a s t h e N AM i n i ts o ppositio n t o t h e N ew D eal. I n t h e sp rin g o f 1 942, h ow ev er, a g ro up o f y oung, m ostly W este rn , m em bers re v olte d a g ain st t h is o ld g uard a n d i n sta lle d a s p re sid en t a y outh fu l a n d en erg etic S pokan e e n tr e p re n eu r, E ric J o hnsto n. J o hnsto n q uic k ly r e o rie n te d th e o rg an iz atio n, m ak in g p eace w ith F D R, u rg in g b usin esse s t o l e arn t o l iv e with u nio ns, a n d p ra is in g A m eric a’s w artim e e co nom y— with i ts e m phasis o n te am work a n d m assiv e p ro ductio n— as a m odel f o r t h e f u tu re . I n h undre d s o f in te rv ie w s, s p eech es, o p-e d p ie ces, a n d o th er f o ru m s, J o hnsto n u rg ed Am eric an s t o e m bra ce t h e p olitic s o f c o opera tio n, c o nsu m ptio n, a n d eco nom ic g ro w th .

77 H e q uic k ly b ecam e t h e m ost p ro m in en t s p okesm an f o r busin ess’s n ew c o nse n su s-o rie n te d a p pro ach .

Jo hnsto n m ost f u lly e x plic ate d h is v is io n i n a 1 944 m an if e sto e n title d Am eric a U nlim ite d . A m eric a, J o hnsto n d ecla re d , w as “ a c iv iliz atio n o f ab undan ce.” A ll A m eric an s w ere c ap ita lis ts “ in t h eir p sy ch olo gy” b ecau se th ey d id n ot a ccep t “ th e s ta tu s i n to w hic h b ir th a n d f a te h av e c ast t h em .” Durin g t h e e co nom ic c ata str o phe o f t h e D ep re ssio n, h ow ev er, A m eric an s h ad lo st s ig ht o f t h is c o m mon g ro und. A lth ough J o hnsto n w as c ritic al o f c erta in asp ects o f t h e N ew D eal— its a tte m pt “ to l e g is la te b y a d m in is tr a tiv e d ecre es,” its t e n den cy t o c en tr a liz atio n, a n d i ts e m phasis o n “ d efe atis t i d eas” s u ch a s mak e-w ork p ro gra m s a n d “ p lo w in g u nder” — he a rg ued t h at t h e g re ate st e v il of t h e p erio d w as i ts “ sp ir it o f v en detta a n d c la ss w arfa re .” T hat s p ir it h ad been f u ele d b y b oth N ew D eale rs a n d t h ose w ho o ppose d t h e a d m in is tr a tio n.

The w ar, J o hnsto n b elie v ed , h ad r e sc u ed t h e n atio n f ro m t h is s p ir itu al m ora ss by r e m in din g A m eric an s o f “ a f a ct w hic h h as b een t r u e a ll a lo ng, b ut co nceale d f ro m s ig ht— th at t h e a re as o f a g re em en t t r a n sc en d b y f a r t h e a re as of c o nflic t.” B usin ess, l a b or, a n d t h e g overn m en t w ere n ow w ork in g t o geth er to p ut t h e e co nom y i n to o verd riv e, i n t h e p ro cess b en efitin g a ll. J o hnsto n arg ued t h at t h is s p ir it o f c o nse n su s a n d t e am work s h ould b e e x te n ded i n to t h e postw ar p erio d. B usin ess s h ould r e co gniz e l a b or’s r ig ht t o b arg ain co lle ctiv ely ( a lth ough n ot t h e u nio n s h op), w hile l a b or a n d g overn m en t sh ould w ork t o r e m ove “ p hysic al, p olitic al, a n d p sy ch olo gic al o bsta cle s t o th e f re e f lo w o f e n te rp ris e c ap ita l.” I f m ore w as p ro duced , t h ere w ould b e more t o d iv id e. T he r e su lt, J o hnsto n e n th use d , w ould b e “ an e co nom y o f t h e peo ple , b y t h e p eo ple , f o r t h e p eo ple ”— a “ p eo ple ’s c ap ita lis m ” o f h ig h pro ductiv ity a n d h ig h c o nsu m ptio n t h at w ould c o ntr a st s h arp ly w ith b oth t h e “cap ita lis m o f p riv ate m onopoly a n d s p ecia l p riv ile g e” a n d w ith t h e “b ure au cra tic c ap ita lis m ” o f M osc o w a n d B erlin .

78 Jo hnsto n’s a p pro ach w as w id ely e m bra ced b y m ore m odera te o r pra g m atic m em bers o f t h e b usin ess c o m munity , i n clu din g t h ose a sso cia te d with g ro ups s u ch a s t h e B usin ess A dvis o ry C ouncil, t h e C om mitte e f o r Eco nom ic D ev elo pm en t, a n d t h e A dvertis in g C ouncil. B ut e v en b usin essm en who d id n ot s h are J o hnsto n’s d esir e t o r e co ncile w ith o rg an iz ed l a b or a n d t h e New D eal w ere f o rc ed d urin g t h e w ar t o r e ck on w ith h is v is io n. T he N AM , fo r i n sta n ce, u nderw en t a t u rb ule n t i n te rn al b attle , a s h ard -lin e m em bers tu ssle d w ith p ra g m atis ts i n t h e o rg an iz atio n a n d p artic u la rly o n t h e pro fe ssio nal s ta ff o ver t h e a sso cia tio n’s p ublic r e la tio ns a p pro ach .

For m ost o f t h e p re v io us d ecad e, t h e N AM h ad t r ie d t o c o nvin ce t h e public t h at, i n t h e w ord s o f o ne s ta ff m em o, “ th e c o ntin uan ce o f [ a ll govern m en t] r e g ula tio n w ill l e ad t h e c o untr y i n to c o lle ctiv is m .” T he pra g m atis ts a rg ued t h at t h is a p pro ach w asn ’t w ork in g: “ E ven i f t r u e, t h at co nte n tio n c an not b e s o ld t o t h e p ublic .” M ost A m eric an s, t h ey c o ntin ued , belie v ed f ir m ly i n “ th e s y m bol o f f re e e n te rp ris e ,” b ut t h ey a ls o a ttr ib ute d t h e deb acle o f 1 929 t o “ sh orts ig hte d s e lf is h ness a n d a l a ck o f v is io n o n t h e p art of b usin essm en .” T he p ublic “ fe lt t h at t h e n atio n’s e co nom ic l e ad ers h ip h ad fa ile d , a n d i t t r a n sfe rre d t h is l e ad ers h ip t o g overn m en t b ecau se g overn m en t was t h e o nly a g en cy t h at o ffe re d t o h elp u s o ut o f t h e m ess.” G iv en t h is his to ry , t h e p ra g m atis ts a rg ued , i t w ould b e n early i m possib le t o c o nvin ce t h e public t h at g overn m en t c o ntr o ls w ere i lle g itim ate . I n ste ad , t h e b usin ess co m munity s h ould a rg ue t h at s u ch c o ntr o ls w ere u nnecessa ry . R ath er t h an ta k in g a n eg ativ e a p pro ach — “o ppos[in g] unso und p ro posa ls t o p ro m ote se cu rity , h ig her l iv in g s ta n dard s a n d e n la rg ed o pportu nitie s” — th e N AM a n d its a llie s s h ould e m phasiz e a p ositiv e m essa g e: T hey s h ould “ co nvin ce t h e public t h at b usin essm en h av e s u ch s o und m otiv es a n d s o m uch e co nom ic vis io n t h at t h ere i s n o n eed ” f o r g overn m en t i n te rv en tio n.

79 T he b usin ess co m munity , i n o th er w ord s, s h ould p re se n t i ts e lf a s b est a b le t o p ro vid e t h ose th in gs A m eric an s m ost w an te d : j o bs, c o nsu m er g oods, e co nom ic s e cu rity , an d o pportu nity .

80 This a p pro ach m ean t c o nvin cin g t h e p ublic t h at t h e b usin ess c o m munity had “ co m e o f a g e” s in ce t h e 1 920s, w hen i t “ o ccasio nally u se d i ts e co nom ic fre ed om s in cere ly , b ut m is ta k en ly , a g ain st t h e g en era l w elf a re .” 81 T he N AM pra g m atis ts c o nte n ded t h at t h e b est w ay t o d o t h at— to c o nvin ce t h e p ublic “th at b usin ess m en a re b oth ea ger a n d co m pete n t t o a ch ie v e t h e n atio n’s goals ” — was “ to a sso cia te t h e p ostw ar p ro ble m s f a cin g A m eric a w ith a su ccessfu l acco m plis h m en t i n w hic h i n dustr y alr e a dy h as d em onstr a te d i ts eag ern ess a n d c ap acity t o s o lv e t h e n atio n’s p ro ble m s.” T hat a cco m plis h m en t was “ o bvio usly ” w artim e p ro ductio n. T he p ublic n eed ed t o b e c o nvin ced t h at hig h p ro ductiv ity — ach ie v ed t h ro ugh t h e h arm onio us c o opera tio n o f co nsu m ers , in vesto rs , w ork ers , a n d m an ag ers i n a f re e e n te rp ris e s y ste m — was t h e b est w ay t o a ch ie v e “ fu ll e m plo ym en t, r e aso nab le e co nom ic s e cu rity , hig her l iv in g s ta n dard s, o pportu nity f o r p ro gre ss, e co nom ic j u stic e, p ers o nal lib erty , a n d o th er l e g itim ate p ostw ar d esir e s o f t h e A m eric an p eo ple .” 82 H ig h pro ductiv ity c o uld a ls o b e a ch ie v ed t h ro ugh “ re g im en ta tio n a n d c o m puls io n,” as H itle r h ad s h ow n, b ut t h e p ric e o f p ro ductiv ity t h us a ch ie v ed w as “re lig io us, c iv il, p olitic al a n d e co nom ic f re ed om .” 83 ( H ere N AM p ra g m atis ts heark en ed b ack t o a t h em e p io neere d d urin g t h e “ T rip od o f F re ed om s” cam paig n i n 1 939 a n d 1 940.) Man y c o nse rv ativ es i n t h e N AM w ere l e ery o f t h e a p pro ach t h e pra g m atis ts p ro pose d . N ev erth ele ss, N AM s ta ffe rs t o ok s te p s d urin g t h e w ar to r e fo cu s t h e o rg an iz atio n’s e ffo rts . A t t h e a sso cia tio n’s u rg in g, c o m pan ie s ra n gin g f ro m t h e A lu m in um C om pan y o f A m eric a t o B oein g A ir c ra ft h eld “S old ie rs o f P ro ductio n” r a llie s d urin g w hic h N AM s p eak ers l in ked h ig h pro ductiv ity t o h ig h s ta n dard s o f l iv in g a n d u rg ed “ p artn ers h ip ” b etw een work ers a n d m an ag ers ; h undre d s o f t h ousa n ds o f e m plo yees a tte n ded s u ch ra llie s, a n d r a d io c arrie d t h em t o m illio ns m ore . T he N AM a ls o s te p ped u p i ts effo rts t o r e ach “ o pin io n m ould ers ” i n a g ric u ltu re , w om en ’s o rg an iz atio ns, ed ucatio n, a n d c h urc h es. A t N AM u rg in g, f o r i n sta n ce, b usin ess g ro ups i n dozen s o f c itie s h eld l o cal a n d r e g io nal c o nfe re n ces w ith r e lig io us l e ad ers , desig ned t o r e d uce o r e lim in ate “ th e m is c o ncep tio ns o f m otiv e a n d i n te re st know n t o e x is t t o w ard o rg an iz ed m an ag em en t i n t h is i n flu en tia l g ro up.” Busin ess a tte n dees a t s u ch m eetin gs s tr e sse d t h at i n dustr y h ad s e en t h e l ig ht —th at i t h ad a cq uir e d “ an e n la rg ed s o cia l v is io n d ev elo ped o ut o f t e n y ears o f eco nom ic t r ib ula tio n a n d d ep re ssio n.” T hey a ls o n ote d t h at t h e t w o g ro ups had a c o m mon i n te re st i n “ se ek [in g] a s ta te o f s o cie ty i n w hic h t h e w orth , dig nity , a n d p ote n tia l o f t h e i n div id ual a re p rim ary c o nsid era tio ns.” S uch a so cie ty , t h e b usin ess r e p re se n ta tiv es e m phasiz ed , r e q uir e d t h at a ll f o rm s o f fre ed om — “p olitic al, r e lig io us, a n d e co nom ic ”— be p re se rv ed . F in ally , t h ey arg ued t h at t h e b est w ay t o a ch ie v e h ig her l iv in g s ta n dard s, e co nom ic j u stic e, an d t h e “ m ain te n an ce a n d e x te n sio n o f o ur A m eric an f re ed om s” w as “th ro ugh o ne b asic m eth od— gre a te r p ro ductio n.

” 84 These t h em es w ere a ls o a t t h e h eart o f a n a d vertis in g c am paig n co m mis sio ned b y N AM s ta ffe rs a n d d ev elo ped i n l a te 1 944 a n d e arly 1 945 by t h e K en yon & E ck hard t a d vertis in g a g en cy . T he c am paig n w as d esig ned to p ro m ote a “ p ro gre ssiv e f re e-e n te rp ris e , f re e-m ark et” m odel f o r t h e eco nom y a n d t o p ortr a y b usin ess a s “ fo rw ard -lo okin g” a n d “ d ynam ic ” r a th er th an a s “ B ourb onis tic .” 85 A lth ough “ o ste n sib ly ” a d dre sse d t o “ M r. a n d M rs .

Am eric a,” t h e c am paig n w as a ctu ally i n te n ded t o “ so und a k ey note f o r s o m e th ousa n ds o f o th er b usin ess m en t o r e p eat” i n l u nch eo n s p eech es a n d in te rv ie w s.

Org an iz ers a ls o h oped “ to r e ach t h e w hole sa le rs o f p ublic o pin io n —ed ito rs , e d ucato rs , a n d t h e l ik e.” 86 A ds i n t h e c am paig n e m phasiz ed t h e se n se o f c o m mon g ro und t h at A m eric an s h ad r e d is c o vere d d urin g t h e w ar an d p ortr a y ed h ig h p ro ductio n a s t h e k ey t o p ostw ar p ro sp erity . “ G overn m en t han douts ” w ould “ re su lt o nly i n m ore a n d m ore d eb t,” b ut h ig h p ro ductiv ity would a llo w A m eric an s t o “ earn m ore , b uy m ore , h av e m ore .” S uch a h ig h- pro ductio n, h ig h-c o nsu m ptio n e co nom y r e q uir e d t h e c o opera tio n o f b oth busin ess a n d t h e p ublic . B usin ess n eed ed t o m ak e “ fu ll u se o f t h e te ch nolo gic al ‘ k now h ow ’” i t h ad a cq uir e d d urin g t h e w ar a n d t o p le d ge i ts e lf to “ a j u st a n d e n lig hte n ed w ag e p olic y .” T he p ublic ’s r o le w as p olitic al. I t need ed , a m ong o th er t h in gs, t o w ork f o r l o w er t a x es a n d “ la b or p olic ie s t h at esta b lis h t h e r e sp onsib ilitie s o f b oth l a b or and m an ag em en t.” A ds en co ura g ed r e ad ers t o w rite f o r a f re e b ookle t t h at p ro vid ed m ore in fo rm atio n.

87 Fearin g t h at t h e c am paig n w ould a p pear p artis a n a n d t h us b e d is c re d ite d , th e N AM h eld i t u ntil a fte r t h e 1 944 p re sid en tia l e le ctio n.

88 T he K en yon & Eck hard t a d s b eg an a p pearin g i n m id -D ecem ber, a n d d ozen s o f o th er l a rg e co rp ora tio ns p re p are d t o t ie t h eir o w n a d vertis in g t o t h e e ffo rt.

89 B y l a te Ja n uary , h ow ev er, t h e N AM ’s c am paig n w as u nder f ir e . C onse rv ativ es o n t h e NAM ’s b oard , l e d b y C hry sle r f in an ce c h air m an a n d f o rm er L ib erty L eag ue mem ber B . E . H utc h in so n, a tta ck ed t h e f re e b ookle t, c h alle n gin g i ts assu m ptio n t h at “ ev ery one s h ould h av e a j o b.” T hey a ls o a rg ued t h at i t offe re d u nre alis tic e x am ple s o f w hat e m plo yees c o uld e x pect t o e arn a n d t h at it “ ta citly a ccep t[ e d ] a g ro w in g l a b or m ovem en t.” 90 A lth ough m an y b oard mem bers s u pporte d t h e c am paig n, i t w as u ltim ate ly s c u ttle d .

91 M an y o f i ts key t h em es, h ow ev er, w ould r e em erg e a fte r t h e w ar i n c am paig ns o rg an iz ed by K en yon & E ck hard t’ s p re sid en t T hom as D ’A rc y B ro phy o n b eh alf o f a re co nstitu te d A dvertis in g C ouncil.

The d ead lo ck b etw een p ra g m atis ts a n d c o nse rv ativ es w ith in t h e N AM was f in ally b ro ken i n t h e l a te s p rin g o f 1 945, w hen E ric J o hnsto n a n d t h e U.S . C ham ber o f C om merc e j o in ed t h e C IO a n d A FL i n p ro m ulg atin g a “L ab or-M an ag em en t C harte r.” T he c h arte r c o m mitte d o rg an iz ed l a b or “ to re sp ect m an ag eria l r ig hts ” a n d “ esc h ew t h e n atio naliz atio n o f i n dustr y ,” b ut i t als o r e co gniz ed t h e “ fu ndam en ta l r ig hts o f l a b or t o o rg an iz e a n d e n gag e i n co lle ctiv e b arg ain in g.” P ra is e d b y F D R a s w ell a s p ro m in en t R ep ublic an s, t h e ch arte r w as u ltim ate ly e n dors e d b y t h e Wall S tr e et J o urn al a n d s u ch i n dustr y le ad ers a s C harle s E . W ils o n o f G en era l E le ctr ic a n d W in th ro p A ld ric h o f Chase N atio nal B an k. A lth ough t h e s tu nned N AM r e fu se d t o c lim b o n b oard , key m em bers o f t h e l e ad ers h ip n ow j o in ed m ost o f t h e a sso cia tio n’s s ta ff i n callin g f o r a m ore p ra g m atic p ublic r e la tio ns a p pro ach . T he N AM ’s p ositio ns re m ain ed very c o nse rv ativ e— it c o ntin ued , f o r i n sta n ce, t o l o bby a g ain st t h e Wag ner A ct a n d f o r a n tis tr ik e l e g is la tio n— but i t i n cre asin gly p ortr a y ed t h ese positio ns a s p ro m otin g t h e p ublic i n te re st a n d t h us p la ced “ th e o nus o f in dustr ia l d is c o rd o n u nio ns f o r r e fu sin g t o a ccep t r e aso nab le r e fo rm s.” I n la te 1 945, t h e N AM h ir e d a t o p p ublic r e la tio ns f ir m t o i n se rt i ts m essa g e —“m an ag em en t s e rv es t h e p ublic i n te re st” — in to a w id e r a n ge o f r a d io en te rta in m en t a n d n ew s p ro gra m s. T he N AM ’s r e fo cu se d “ m odera te ” str a te g y h elp ed i t t o rp ed o a n atio nal l a b or-m an ag em en t c o nfe re n ce c o nven ed by T ru m an j u st a fte r t h e e n d o f t h e w ar. M ore b ro ad ly , i t h elp ed t r a n sfo rm ed th e N AM i n to “ a p ote n t p olitic al f o rc e” i n t h e p ostw ar y ears .

92 Busin ess g ro ups w ere b y n o m ean s a lo ne i n l e arn in g t o d ep lo y t h e la n guag e o f s h are d v alu es d urin g t h e w ar. T he l a n guag e w as a ls o u se d b y th ose a rg uin g f o r g re ate r r e lig io us, e th nic , a n d r a cia l i n clu sio n. U ltim ate ly , n o gro up w ould b en efit m ore f ro m t h e c o m bin ed e m phasis o n u nity a n d plu ra lis m d urin g t h e w ar t h an t h ose w ho a rg ued t h at A m eric a w as a t r i- fa ith natio n. CH APT ER 5 “T he H ou se I L iv e I n ” O n A pril 2 2, 1 944, a g ro up o f H ow ard U niv ers ity s tu den ts c o nverg ed o n T hom pso n’s , a m odera te ly p ric ed c h ain r e sta u ra n t i n d ow nto w n W ash in gto n, D .C . L ik e m ost r e sta u ra n ts i n t h e n atio n’s c ap ita l, T hom pso n’s w as s e g re g ate d . S ix ty -fiv e s tu den ts e n te re d t h e r e sta u ra n t a n d, a fte r b ein g r e fu se d s e rv ic e, s a t d ow n q uie tly a n d b eg an t o r e ad . O th ers p ic k ete d o uts id e. “ A re y ou f o r H itle r’s W ay o r t h e A m eric an W ay ?” t h eir s ig ns r e ad . “ W e D ie T ogeth er. L et’ s E at T ogeth er.” Six b la ck G Is s o on n otic ed t h e p ic k ete rs a n d j o in ed t h e s tu den ts i n sid e.

W hite s e rv ic em en w ere a ls o e atin g i n t h e r e sta u ra n t a n d w hite m ilita ry p olic e a sk ed t h e b la ck s o ld ie rs t o l e av e. W hen t h ey r e fu se d , a n M P l ie u te n an t a sk ed t h em t o l e av e a s a p ers o nal f a v or: t h e a rm y d id n ot w an t t o b e e m barra sse d “ in c ase o f a n i n cid en t.” T he b la ck G Is k ep t t h eir s e ats . U ltim ate ly , t h e m ilita ry p olic e w ere f o rc ed t o o rd er a ll s e rv ic em en , w hite a n d b la ck , o ut o f T hom pso n’s . F our h ours l a te r, t h e m an ag em en t o f t h e r e sta u ra n t c h ain d ir e cte d t h at t h e s tu den ts b e s e rv ed .

1 As t h eir p la card s s u ggeste d , t h ese H ow ard U niv ers ity s tu den ts w ere a tte m ptin g t o b en d t h e l a n guag e o f w artim e u nity a n d c o nse n su s t o t h eir o w n e n ds. I n vokin g a n “ A m eric an W ay ” t h at t h ey c le arly c o ntr a ste d t o t h e r a cis t p ra ctic es o f H itle r, t h ey s u ggeste d t h at a n y A m eric an w ho d id n ot s u pport i n te g ra te d d in in g f a cilitie s s y m path iz ed w ith N azis . I n t h is i n sta n ce, t h eir s tr a te g y w ork ed , p erh ap s i n p art b ecau se t h e a rm y w as e ag er t o a v oid a r a cia l i n cid en t. I n m an y o th er c ase s, h ow ev er, t h ose p ush in g f o r m ore e g alita ria n t r e atm en t w ere d is m is se d a s t r o uble m ak ers , t r a ito rs t o a n “ A m eric an W ay ” t h at o fte n p ut c iv ility a n d s o cia l h arm ony a b ove a ll e ls e .

If c alls f o r n atio nal u nity — an d a p peals t o a c o nse n su s d efin ed b y a c o m mon e n em y— sh ap ed d eb ate s o ver t h e n atio n’s p olitic al e co nom y d urin g t h e w ar y ears , t h ey a ls o h ad a p ro fo und e ffe ct o n d is c u ssio ns o f e th nic ity , re lig io n, a n d r a ce. F ed era l a g en cie s, p olitic al c o m men ta to rs , H olly w ood, t h e new s m ed ia , a n d a n a rra y o f c iv ic o rg an iz atio ns c ele b ra te d A m eric a’s “d em ocra tic d iv ers ity ” i n s p eech es, m ovie s, r a d io s h ow s, e d ucatio nal pam phle ts , a n d a v arie ty o f o th er v en ues. S uch p aean s t o c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m were d esig ned b oth t o b ols te r t h e m ora le o f t h e n atio n’s h ete ro gen eo us popula tio n a n d t o d is tin guis h t h e U .S . f ro m i ts f a sc is t ( o r t o ta lita ria n ) en em ie s. A t t h e s a m e t im e, f e d era l o ffic ia ls a n d m an y c iv ic l e ad ers w orrie d ab out t h e p ote n tia l f o r s o cia l u nre st— or e v en v io le n ce— as A m eric an s o f wid ely d if fe rin g b ack gro unds w ere f lu ng t o geth er i n m ilita ry t r a in in g c am ps an d o verc ro w ded w ar p ro ductio n c en te rs . T hus, e v en a s t h ey h aile d Am eric a’s d iv ers e d em ogra p hic s tr a n ds, t h ey a p peale d f o r “ to le ra n ce” i n t h e nam e o f n atio nal d efe n se .

This f o rm ula tio n m ad e p lu ra lis m a c o ro lla ry o f c o nse n su s. I t p ro m ote d a more i n clu siv e v is io n o f U .S . s o cie ty b y r e co gniz in g t h e c o ntr ib utio ns t h at eth nic , r e lig io us, a n d r a cia l “ o uts id ers ” h ad m ad e t o A m eric an l if e . I t a ls o pro vid ed a p ow erfu l r h eto ric al t o ol w ith w hic h t o c o ndem n b ig ots a n d b ullie s of a ll s tr ip es. A t t h e s a m e t im e, t h is v is io n o f u nity a n d d if fe re n ce em phasiz ed t e am -w ork a n d a ssu m ed t h at a ll g ro ups i n A m eric an s o cie ty w ere work in g t o w ard t h e s a m e e n ds. D is tin ct e th nic , r e lig io us, r a cia l, r e g io nal, o r cla ss i n te re sts w ere l e g itim ate o nly t o t h e d eg re e t h at t h ey c o uld b e a lig ned with o r s u bsu m ed w ith in t h e v alu es a n d i n te re sts o f t h e n atio n a s a w hole .

The i m plic atio ns o f t h is l in kag e o f p lu ra lis m t o c o nse n su s h ad m ark ed ly dif fe re n t i m plic atio ns i n t h e a re n as o f e th nic ity , r e lig io n, a n d r a ce.

“O ur E nem ie s W it h in ” Even b efo re t h e J a p an ese a tta ck o n P earl H arb or, s o m e g ro ups p ro m otin g cu ltu ra l p lu ra lis m a n d i n te rg ro up h arm ony i n t h e U .S . h oped t o l in k t h eir cau se t o t h e i s su e o f n atio nal s e cu rity . I n e arly 1 941, f o r i n sta n ce, s ta ffe rs a t th e A m eric an J e w is h C om mitte e ( A JC ) a rg ued t h at t h e N azi b litz k rie g o f t h e pre v io us y ear g av e t h e o rg an iz atio n “ a u niq ue o pportu nity t o d is c re d it a n ti- Sem itis m n ot m ere ly i n t e rm s o f A m eric an is m , d ecen cy a n d f a ir p la y , a s i n th e p ast, b ut a ls o i n t e rm s o f A m eric an d efe n se a n d n atio nal s u rv iv al.” 2 M an y Am eric an s b elie v ed t h at o nly a f if th c o lu m n c o uld e x pla in G erm an y’s s tr in g of m ilita ry s u ccesse s, a n d p artic u la rly F ra n ce’s s p eed y c o lla p se i n J u ne o f 1940.

Pla y in g o ff o f N azi r a cia lis m , b oth t h e A JC a n d i ts a lly , t h e N atio nal Confe re n ce o f C hris tia n s a n d J e w s ( N CCJ), a rg ued t h at b ig ots f o rm ed j u st su ch a f if th c o lu m n. A nti- S em itis m , t h e N CCJ’s E vere tt C lin ch y a rg ued , w as a “ N azi t r ic k ” t h at H itle r h ad u se d t o d iv id e a n d u nderm in e W este rn dem ocra cie s.

3 In t h e m onth s l e ad in g u p t o P earl H arb or— an d p artic u la rly a fte r t h e U .S .

en tr y i n to t h e w ar— a h ost o f l ib era l o rg an iz atio ns j o in ed t h e A JC a n d t h e NCCJ i n p re ach in g t o le ra n ce i n t h e n am e o f n atio nal u nity a n d d efe n se .

Sch ools a n d c iv ic g ro ups a cro ss t h e c o untr y s h ow ed t h e N CCJ f ilm str ip The World W e W ant t o L iv e I n a n d l is te n ed t o c o nfe re n ce s p eak ers d ecry r e lig io us co nflic t a s “ a t r ic k t o w eak en a n d d estr o y u s.” T he C ouncil A gain st In to le ra n ce s p re ad t h e t h em e t h ro ugh a n nual I n dep en den ce D ay c ele b ra tio ns in s e v era l c itie s, w hic h w ere b ro ad cast o ver n atio nal n etw ork r a d io . I t a ls o dis tr ib ute d t o s c h ools m ate ria ls u rg in g t o le ra n ce, i n clu din g t h e a p tly n am ed mag azin e Am eric a n U nity . A g ro up c alle d C itiz en s f o r E ducatio nal S erv ic e In c. i s su ed a p am phle t e n title d Footp rin ts o f t h e T ro ja n H orse , w hic h dep ic te d a n ti- S em itis m a s a d ev ic e b ein g u se d t o d estr o y d em ocra cy o ne min ority a t a t im e. T hese e x am ple s c o uld b e m ultip lie d m an y t im es o ver.

4 Som e o f t h is m ate ria l u se d r h eto ric e v ery b it a s h yste ric al a s t h at u se d b y nativ is ts d urin g W orld W ar I o r b y r e d -b aite rs i n t h e p ostw ar y ears . F or in sta n ce, t h e C hic ag o c h ap te r o f t h e N CCJ i s su ed a b ro ch ure e n title d No Ocea n S ep ara te s U s f r o m O ur E nem ie s W ith in . T he d ocu m en t o pen ed t o a co lla g e o f N azi s to rm t r o opers , b om bed -o ut b uild in gs, a n d s tr ic k en w om en an d c h ild re n r e fu gees. “ E nem ie s W ith in H aste n ed t h e F all o f D em ocra tic , Lib erty L ovin g N atio ns A bro ad — Natio nal D efe n se D em an ds N atio nal Unity ,” t h e b ro ch ure i n to ned . O nly t h en d id t h e b ro ch ure m ak e c le ar t h at th ese i n te rn al e n em ie s w ere t h ose w ho “ p ro pag at[ e d ] l ie s, s u sp ic io n, mis u nders ta n din g a n d i n to le ra n ce a m ong A m eric an c itiz en s o f e v ery c re ed an d r a ce.” 5 With t h e U .S . e n tr y i n to W orld W ar I I, t h is p le a f o r t o le ra n ce i n t h e n am e of n atio nal u nity b ecam e a s ta p le o f t h e f e d era l g overn m en t’ s d om estic pro pag an da c am paig n. T he w ar t r ig gere d t h e g re ate st i n te rn al m ig ra tio n o f Am eric an s s in ce p io neers p oure d o ver t h e A ppala ch ia n s m ore t h an a c en tu ry earlie r; b y t h e e n d o f t h e w ar, o ne i n e v ery f iv e A m eric an s h ad l e ft t h eir hom es, m an y f o r m ilita ry s e rv ic e o r f o r u rb an c en te rs o f d efe n se p ro ductio n in t h e N orth a n d E ast.

6 A s A m eric an s w ith d if fe re n t a ccen ts , e atin g h ab its , re lig io ns, p olitic al b elie fs , a n d s k in c o lo rs e n co unte re d o ne a n oth er f o r t h e fir s t t im e, b oth t h e o pportu nitie s a n d t h e d an gers l o om ed l a rg e. T he f e d era l govern m en t s te p ped i n t o h elp s h ap e t h e o utc o m e. L ess t h an a m onth a fte r t h e Ja p an ese a tta ck o n P earl H arb or, P re sid en t R oose v elt w arn ed e m plo yers ag ain st d is c h arg in g o r r e fu sin g t o h ir e w ork ers “ sim ply b ecau se t h ey w ere born a b ro ad o r becau se t h ey h av e ‘ fo re ig n-s o undin g’ n am es.” “ R em em ber th e N azi t e ch niq ue,” t h e p re sid en t c o ntin ued . “ P it r a ce a g ain st r a ce, r e lig io n ag ain st r e lig io n, p re ju dic e a g ain st p re ju dic e. D iv id e a n d c o nquer!” 7 A n O W I man ual d is tr ib ute d t o t h e p ro ducers o f r a d io s h ow s d ecla re d s im ply , “ M en an d w om en w ho f o ste r r a cia l p re ju dic es a re f ig htin g f o r t h e e n em y.” 8 In 1 944, t h e A m eric an J e w is h C om mitte e p riv ate ly t o ok c re d it f o r “m ak in g t h e p hra se ‘ d iv id e a n d c o nquer’ a h ouse h old p hra se i n A m eric an lif e .” 9 T his i s a n o vers ta te m en t, b ut i t c o nta in s a g erm o f t r u th . T he A JC a n d gro ups s u ch a s t h e N CCJ w ith w hic h i t w ork ed c lo se ly w ere a m ong t h e f ir s t to c ast a rg um en ts f o r t o le ra n ce e x plic itly i n t e rm s o f n atio nal u nity a n d defe n se ; i n f a ct, t h e A JC h elp ed f u nd m an y o f t h e p riv ate g ro ups t h at d ecrie d th e d iv is iv e r e su lts o f p re ju dic e b oth b efo re a n d d urin g t h e w ar. M ore o ver, th e O ffic e o f F acts a n d F ig ure s c o nta cte d b oth t h e A JC a n d t h e N CCJ s h ortly afte r t h e b om bin g o f P earl H arb or f o r h elp i n c ra ftin g a n a n ti- N azi m essa g e.

10 In a n y c ase , t h e A JC , t h e N CCJ, a n d t h e v ario us o rg an iz atio ns w ith w hic h th ey w ere a llie d g re atly a m plif ie d t h e g overn m en t’ s m essa g e. F or i n sta n ce, th ey m ay w ell h av e b een r e sp onsib le f o r a s e rie s o f a d vertis e m en ts d ecry in g vario us f o rm s o f d om estic i n to le ra n ce t h at a p peare d i n l a b or n ew sp ap ers to w ard t h e e n d o f t h e w ar. I n t h e f a ll o f 1 944, f o ur s u ch a d s a p peare d i n t h e IT U N ew s , a b im onth ly m ag azin e p ublis h ed i n W oonso ck et, R hode I s la n d, b y org an iz ers o f t h e I n dep en den t T ex tile U nio n. A lth ough t h e a d s i n clu ded a lin e a t t h e b otto m u rg in g A m eric an s t o b uy w ar b onds, t h e b ulk o f e ach a d was d ev ote d t o a w arn in g a b out A m eric a’s “ en em ie s w ith in .” “ A m eric a h as its s n ip ers , t o o!” s c re am ed o ne a d , u nder a p ic tu re o f a d ark en ed s tr e et hau nte d b y a s n ip er a n d h is v ic tim . “ T hey d on’t s ta lk t h ro ugh t h e s tr e ets w ith guns i n h an d. T hey d on’t s h oot d ow n c h ild re n w ho a re o ut a fte r c u rfe w . B ut th ey t a lk c are le ssly , u nw is e ly a n d i n to le ra n tly .” T hese A m eric an s n ip ers , t h e ad c o ntin ued , w ere “ p la y in g H itle r’s g am e b y s n ip in g a t ‘ th ose C ath olic s,’ ‘th ose J e w s’ o r ‘ th ose P ro te sta n ts .’ ” A cco rd in g t o t h e a d , H itle r a ls o s o ught to t u rn “ N eg ro a n d W hite , e ach a g ain st t h e o th er” a n d t o s e t “ n ativ e-b orn ag ain st n atu ra liz ed c itiz en [s ].” I t c o nclu ded w ith a n a d m onitio n t o “ B e b ig … be l ib era l … b e t o le ra n t … B e A m eric an !” 11 The o th er a d s i n t h e s e rie s c arrie d s im ila r m essa g es. “ Is H itle r W in nin g a ‘S ecre t’ V ic to ry ?” a sk ed o ne. “ T he H itle r p la n o f s e ttin g c la ss a g ain st c la ss, of s tir rin g u p r a cia l a n d r e lig io us h atr e d , i s m ak in g i n sid io us h ead w ay r ig ht here i n t h is c o untr y — ev en t h ough o ur f ig htin g m en a re g iv in g u p t h eir l iv es to w ip e o ut t h ese p re ju dic es f o re v er.” A t h ir d a d o ffe re d A m eric an s a n “In vita tio n t o C om mitte e S uic id e” u nder a p ic tu re o f a r e v olv er a n d a n en gra v ed card r e ad in g, “ H ate t h e P ro te sta n ts … H ate t h e C ath olic s … H ate th e J e w s.” [ Fig ure 5 .1 ] T he f o urth a d p ic tu re d t h e m oth er o f t w o A m eric an se rv ic em en . T he w om an k nitte d s w eate rs f o r h er s o ld ie r s o ns, s e n t t h em ch oco la te c ak es, a n d u rg ed h er h usb an d t o p urc h ase m ore w ar b onds. B ut desp ite s u ch patr io tic a cts , t h e a d c h arg ed , t h is w om an w as a n e n em y a g en t.

Thro ugh h er “ th oughtle ss r e m ark s” a b out n eig hbors o f d if fe re n t r e lig io ns, sk in c o lo rs , a n d e th nic itie s, s h e s p re ad “ h atr e d a n d d is tr u st” a m ong g ro ups o f Am eric an s. “ A s s u re ly a s t h ough y ou l a n ded o n t h ese s h ore s i n t h e d ark o f nig ht f ro m a s u bm arin e, b en t o n b lo w in g u p f a cto rie s a n d b urn in g b rid ges,” th e a d w arn ed t h e w om an , “ in s p ite o f y our c h arm in g m an ner a n d y our a ll- out w ar r e co rd , l a d y, y ou a re a sa bote u r .” 12 Fig u re 5 .1 .

T his i m ag e g ra ced t h e 1 4 A ugust 1 944 c o ver o f The U nio n , a public atio n p ut o ut b y t h e C IO -a ffilia te d I n te rn atio nal U nio n o f M in e, M ill an d S m elte r W ork ers . A s im ila r i m ag e a p peare d i n t h e IT U N ew s , p ublis h ed in W oonso ck et, R hode I s la n d, b y o rg an iz ers o f t h e I n dep en den t T ex tile Unio n. T he I T U v ers io n, h ow ev er, d ro pped t h e l in e a b out N eg ro es a n d a d ded te x t a t t h e b otto m t h at e q uate d t e n sio ns b etw een c la sse s t o r a cia l a n d r e lig io us hatr e d ( c o urte sy o f t h e U nite d S te elw ork ers ; r e p ro duced b y t h e W is c o nsin His to ric al S ocie ty ).

As G ary G ers tle h as n ote d , t h e m essa g e o f c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m a n d to le ra n ce c o nta in ed i n t h ese a d s a p peale d t o t h e F re n ch C an ad ia n w ork ers who m ad e u p t h e b ulk o f t h e I n dep en den t T ex tile U nio n. F re n ch C an ad ia n s had f a ced f ie rc e a n ti- C ath olic p re ju dic e i n A m eric a, a n d “ th e n atio n’s decis io n t o a tta ch s o m uch i m porta n ce t o t h e f ig ht a g ain st r e lig io us dis c rim in atio n a p peare d t o t h em a n u npre ced en te d o pportu nity t o i n te g ra te th em se lv es i n to A m eric an l if e .” M ore o ver, t h e l a n guag e o f l o yalty a n d betr a y al t h at s u ffu se d t h e a d s u ndoubte d ly r e so nate d w ith w ork ers w ho w ere bein g p re ssu re d b y t h e g overn m en t t o g iv e t h eir f u ll s u pport t o t h e w ar e ffo rt.

In t h e l a te r y ears o f t h e w ar, I T U l e ad ers t h em se lv es i n cre asin gly a d opte d t h e la n guag e a n d s e n tim en ts c o nta in ed i n t h e a d s. I n d oin g s o , t h ey e m bra ced a vers io n o f c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m t h at e m phasiz ed t h e r ig hts o f e th nic i n div id uals ra th er t h an o f e th nic c o m munitie s. ( A s t h e “ S nip er” a d d ecla re d , “ W e’re all Am eric an s i f w e b elie v e i n t h e A m eric an i d eal o f ‘ in alie n ab le r ig hts ,’ o f ‘e q uality o f o pportu nity ’… of ‘ fre ed om o f t h e i n div id ual! ’” ) T his , w rite s Gers tle , “ th re ate n ed t o u nderm in e … t h e e th nic e n cla v e’s c o m munalis t orie n ta tio n,” a n o rie n ta tio n t h at p ro vid ed o ne o f t h e s o urc es o f i ts l a b or ra d ic alis m .

13 More o ver, t h ese a d s— lik e o th er p riv ate a n d g overn m en ta l a p peals f o r to le ra n ce d urin g t h e w ar— ofte n e q uate d t e n sio ns b etw een c la sse s t o r a cia l an d r e lig io us h atr e d . S om e v ers io ns o f t h e “ S uic id e” a d , f o r i n sta n ce, su ggeste d t h at “ C ap ita l i s p ro fite erin g” w as a s m uch a n e x am ple o f tr e aso nous b ig otr y a s “ T he N eg ro i s r e b ellin g” o r “ A tta ck t h e J e w s.” ( T his cast i n a m ore c o lo rfu l v ein t h e O W I s ta te m en t t h at e co nom ic g ro ups— lik e re lig io us, r a cia l, o r s o cia l o nes— were i lle g itim ate t a rg ets f o r “ p re ju dic e, an im osity o r h ostility .” ) S uch p ro pag an da f o r t o le ra n ce c h alle n ged “ th e notio n t h at t h e r e la tio ns b etw een c ap ita l a n d l a b or f o rm ed t h e c en tr a l p olitic al an d m ora l q uestio n o f m odern A m eric an l if e ,” G ers tle o bse rv es. A t t h e s a m e tim e, i t o bsc u re d “ th e f u ndam en ta l i n eq uality i n c ap ita l- la b or r e la tio ns.” 14 Both t h ese i d eas h ad b een c en tr a l t o t h e v is io n o f A m eric an is m o ffe re d b y t h e in dustr ia l l a b or m ovem en t a n d i ts l e ft- lib era l a llie s b efo re t h e w ar. D urin g t h e war, h ow ev er, t h ese a ssu m ptio ns w ere u nderm in ed , n ot o nly b y t h e c o nsc io us cam paig ns o f A m eric a’s b usin ess c o m munity , b ut a ls o b y t h e f e d era l govern m en t a n d man y o f t h e p riv ate o rg an iz atio ns t h at s o ught t o i n still t h e valu es o f c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m a n d i n te rg ro up h arm ony i n t h e A m eric an p eo ple .

“S te a m f r o m t h e M elt in g P ot” The n otio n t h at b ig ots w ere “ en em ie s w ith in ” w as n ot t h e o nly m eth od u se d to p ro m ote t o le ra n ce a n d c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m d urin g t h e w ar. O ne o f t h e m ost co m mon f o rm ula s f o r p ortr a y in g— an d t h us f u rth erin g— Am eric a’s p lu ra lis tic unity w as t h at u se d i n m ore t h an a d ozen W orld W ar I I c o m bat f ilm s. D urin g an d a fte r t h e w ar, H olly w ood t u rn ed o ut n um ero us c o m bat f ilm s f e atu rin g pla to ons, b om ber c re w s, o r o th er s m all c o m bat u nits c o m pris e d o f m en o f wid ely v ary in g b ack gro unds: a W ASP f ro m N ew E ngla n d, a K an sa s f a rm boy w ith a G erm an s u rn am e, a n I ris h C ath olic , a J e w o r I ta lia n f ro m Bro okly n, a s o uth ern er, a P olis h A m eric an f ro m t h e M id w est, a n d s o o n.

These f ilm s s h ow ed d iv ers e A m eric an s— Am eric an s d iv id ed b y r e g io n, eth nic ity , r e lig io n, c la ss, r a n k, s e rv ic e, a n d s o m etim es r a ce— unitin g t o b attle th e N azi o r J a p an ese e n em y, s a crif ic in g w hen n ecessa ry f o r t h e c o m mon cau se . T he s a m e f o rm ula w as w id ely e m plo yed i n r a d io s h ow s, b ooks, carto ons, a n d o th er f o rm ats .

Sch ola rly d is c u ssio ns o f t h ese f ilm s a n d s im ila r c u ltu ra l a rtif a cts h av e fo cu se d p artic u la r a tte n tio n o n t h eir “ ro ste r[s ] o f e x otic e th nic s u rn am es.” 15 One h is to ria n h as a rg ued t h at “ eth nic ity a n d r e g io n o f o rig in ” w ere t h e “ k ey dif fe re n ces” r e fle cte d i n t h ese m ovie s, p re cis e ly b ecau se m an y l ib era ls assu m ed t h at s u ch a ttr ib ute s a m ong w hite s w ere “ o f n o r e al c o nse q uen ce.” 16 Oth er s c h ola rs h av e i n voked t h e “ sp rin klin g o f I ta lia n s, P ole s, I ris h , a n d Scan din av ia n s” i n s u ch f ilm s a s e v id en ce o f t h e w artim e “ cele b ra tio n o f t h e eth nic d iv ers ity o f t h e A m eric an p eo ple .” 17 T o s till o th ers , t h ey o ffe r ev id en ce o f t h e u ltim ate t r iu m ph o f t h e “ n atio n o f n atio ns” a p pro ach esp ouse d b y L ouis A dam ic .

18 There i s n o q uestio n t h at t h e “ A m eric an s A ll” a p pro ach t o n atio nal u nity durin g W orld W ar I I d iv erg ed s h arp ly f ro m t h e “ 1 00 p erc en t A m eric an is m ” th at d om in ate d p ublic d is c o urs e d urin g W orld W ar I . N ev erth ele ss, t h e sc h ola rly e m phasis o n w artim e c ele b ra tio ns o f e th nic ity h as t e n ded t o m ask lin gerin g c o ncern s o n t h e p art o f b oth p riv ate g ro ups a n d m an y f e d era l offic ia ls a b out t h e l o yaltie s a n d p re d ile ctio ns o f A m eric a’s f o re ig n n atio nality gro ups. I n t h e l a te 1 930s a n d e arly 1 940s, l e ft l ib era ls s u ch a s L ouis A dam ic an d h is c o lle ag ues a t t h e C om mon C ouncil f o r A m eric an U nity w orrie d nearly a s m uch a b out t e n sio ns am ong A m eric a’s e th nic g ro ups a s a b out pre ju dic es a im ed a t th em b y t h e n ativ e b orn . B oth t h e A JC a n d t h e N CCJ c ast in to le ra n ce a s a n a lie n r a th er t h an a h om eg ro w n p hilo so phy a n d d efin ed big otr y , p artic u la rly a n ti- S em itis m , a s a n O ld W orld d is e ase . T hus, t h ey s a w re cen t i m mig ra n ts — th ose w ho h ad n ot y et b een f u lly A m eric an iz ed — as partic u la rly s u sc ep tib le t o p re ju dic e.

19 S uch f e ars w ere n ot l im ite d t o co sm opolita n l e ftis ts a n d i n te rg ro up l ib era ls , a n d t h ey d id n ot a b ate w hen t h e U.S . e n te re d W orld W ar I I. I n a S ep te m ber 1 942 a rtic le e n title d “ S te am f ro m th e M eltin g P ot,” Fortu ne w arn ed t h at e th nic A m eric an s m ig ht f o rm a f if th co lu m n. T he n atio n’s f o re ig n-la n guag e g ro ups, t h e m ag azin e d ecla re d , co m pris e d “ a r e p lic a o f e x plo siv e E uro pe o n U .S . g ro und.” 20 Fed era l o ffic ia ls t o o w orrie d a b out l o yaltie s a n d p re ju dic es i m porte d f ro m th e O ld W orld . W hile s o m e i n t h e g overn m en t s a w e th nic g ro ups a s a n a sse t —a p ow erfu l w eap on a b le “ to i n flu en ce o pin io n a n d e v en ts i n t h eir n ativ e co untr ie s a b ro ad ”— oth ers f e are d t h at t h e l o yaltie s o f f o re ig n-n atio nality gro ups t o o vers e as h om ela n ds c o uld p ose a n i n te rn al s e cu rity r is k , d is ru pt dom estic u nity , a n d u ltim ate ly u nderm in e t h e w ar e ffo rt. S uch c o ncern s pro m pte d t h e R oose v elt a d m in is tr a tio n t o c re ate s e v era l w artim e a g en cie s dev ote d s p ecif ic ally t o m onito rin g a n d i n flu en cin g t h e p olitic al a ctio ns o f Am eric a’s e th nic c o m munitie s. T hese i n clu ded t h e F ore ig n N atio nalitie s Bra n ch o f t h e O ffic e o f S tr a te g ic S erv ic es a n d t h e F ore ig n L an guag e D iv is io n of t h e O ffic e o f W ar I n fo rm atio n. O ld er a g en cie s— th e S ta te D ep artm en t, t h e FB I, a n d t h e D ep artm en t o f J u stic e— als o p la y ed a r o le i n t h ese e ffo rts .

21 Govern m en t o ffic ia ls f o cu se d s o m e o f t h eir c o ncern s o n A m eric an citiz en s a n d r e sid en ts w ith t ie s t o t h e A xis p ow ers , b ut t h eir a n xie tie s w ere not l im ite d t o t h ese e th nic g ro ups. T hey a ls o w orrie d t h at s im merin g t e n sio ns with in a n d a m ong i m mig ra n t g ro ups— th e s tr a in s b etw een v ario us S la v ic natio nalitie s, f o r i n sta n ce— mig ht e ru pt, h in derin g t h e w ar e ffo rt.

22 S im ila rly , th ey f e are d t h at O ld W orld h atr e d s— su ch a s t h e P olis h h atr e d o f t h e R ussia n s —would h urt A m eric a’s a b ility t o c o opera te w ith h er a llie s. S uch c o ncern s were e x acerb ate d b y e v id en ce t h at o vers e as i n te re sts a n d g overn m en ts w ere tr y in g t o m an ip ula te A m eric a’s f o re ig n-la n guag e g ro ups.

Phille o N ash s e rv ed a s s p ecia l a ssis ta n t f o r D om estic O pera tio ns i n t h e OW I f ro m 1 942 t o 1 945 a n d a s a s p ecia l c o nsu lta n t t o t h e S ecre ta ry o f W ar i n 1943. I n b oth p ositio ns, h e w as r e sp onsib le f o r o bse rv in g, r e p ortin g o n, a n d help in g c ra ft p olic y t o w ard A m eric a’s f o re ig n-la n guag e a n d r a cia l m in ority gro ups.

23 I n a m em o d ate d J u ne 3 , 1 943, h e w arn ed t h at A m eric an S lo vak s, Ita lia n s, M ag yars ( H ungaria n s), C ro atia n s, a n d G erm an s “ h av e b een su bje cte d , d urin g t h e p ast d ecad e o r l o nger, t o f o re ig n p ro pag an da i n flu en ces hostile t o t h e A m eric an w ay o f l if e , a n ti- d em ocra tic i n s p ir it, w ork in g t o utiliz e t h is c o untr y ’s f o re ig n l a n guag e p opula tio ns f o r p olitic al a n d e co nom ic purp ose s c o nnecte d w ith t h e E uro pean , n ot t h e A m eric an , s c en e.” T he Slo vak s, f o r e x am ple , “ h av e b een s u bje cte d t o t r e m en dous p re ssu re b y b oth Germ an y a n d H ungary s e ek in g t o w eak en t h e C zech oslo vak R ep ublic b y tu rn in g S lo vak s a g ain st i t.” T he G erm an s s o ught t o d estr o y t h e R ep ublic , while t h e H ungaria n s m ere ly w an te d a d ditio nal t e rrito ry , “ b ut t h e r e su lt o f th eir c o m bin ed a ctiv itie s h as b een t o c re ate s u ch w id esp re ad c o nfu sio n i n t h e min ds o f S lo vak -A m eric an s a s t o b lin d t h em t o t h e r e al i s su es o f t h e w ar.” “ It is n o e x ag gera tio n t o s ta te ,” N ash c o ntin ued , “ th at a n a la rm in g p ro portio n o f Slo vak -A m eric an s t o t h is d ay a re f e arfu l o f t h e e ffe ct a n A llie d v ic to ry i n t h e war w ill h av e o n t h e s o -c alle d ‘ S lo vak s ta te ’ a n d S lo vak ‘ in dep en den ce.’ ” 24 The c ata ly st f o r N ash ’s 1 943 m em o w as t h e w ild cat s tr ik e b y m em bers o f Jo hn L ew is ’s U nite d M in e W ork ers ’ u nio n. “ O f t h e 5 00,0 00-o dd c o al m in ers now o ut o n s tr ik e, t h us j e o pard iz in g t h e e n tir e A m eric an w ar e ffo rt, ap pro xim ate ly 4 00,0 00 a re m en o f f o re ig n b ir th o r t h e s o ns o f i m mig ra n ts ,” Nash w ro te . M ost o f t h e s tr ik in g m in ers b elo nged t o o ne o f t h e f o re ig n- la n guag e g ro ups t h at h e h ad c ite d a s s u bje ct t o f o re ig n p re ssu re , w ith t h e Slo vak s b ein g t h e l a rg est g ro up. “ It i s a s tr ik in g f a ct t h at t h e o verw helm in g majo rity o f t h e s tr ik ers b elo ng t o t h ose f o re ig n-la n guag e g ro ups w hic h h av e been l e ast a b le t o a ssim ila te a n d w hic h h av e b een s u bje ct t o t h e h eav ie st pre ssu re o f f o re ig n i n te re sts ,” N ash d ecla re d . “ T he g re at m ajo rity o f t h e c o al min ers n ow o n s tr ik e a re i g nora n t o f t h e b ro ad i s su es a t s ta k e a n d s e e n o re aso n w hy t h ey s h ould p la ce t h e i n te re st o f t h e U nite d S ta te s a s a w hole befo re t h eir o w n i n te re sts .” 25 Nash w as a l ib era l D em ocra t a n d N ew D eale r w hose f a m ily h ad l o ng been i n volv ed i n t h e s tr u ggle f o r r a cia l e q uality . H e h im se lf w as a s ta u nch ad vocate f o r c iv il r ig hts w ith in b oth t h e R oose v elt a n d T ru m an ad m in is tr a tio ns.

26 Y et d urin g t h e w ar, N ash c le arly p ut t h e n eed f o r u nity beh in d t h e w ar e ffo rt a b ove a ll e ls e . H e s a w s tr ik es a s i lle g itim ate a n d belie v ed t h at t h e w illin gness o f i m mig ra n ts a n d t h eir c h ild re n t o w alk o ff t h e jo b p ro vid ed e v id en ce t h at t h ey h ad n ot y et b een f u lly A m eric an iz ed . T his ex am ple s u ggests t h e m odera tin g i m pact t h at t h e d riv e f o r n atio nal u nity durin g t h e w ar h ad o n m an y i n t h e l ib era l c o m munity .

One p ossib le s o lu tio n t o t h e p erc eiv ed p ro ble m o f “ d an gero us” e th nic lo yaltie s w as t o c o nvert t h ose l o yaltie s i n to a sse ts b y t r a n sfo rm in g e th nic Am eric an s i n to U .S . a m bassa d ors . T his a p pro ach w as a d vocate d b y v oic es a s div erg en t a s L ouis A dam ic ’s a n d t h ose o f t h e e d ito rs o f Fortu ne . I n h is 1 941 book Tw o-W ay P assa ge —an d i n s u bse q uen t m eetin gs w ith t h e p re sid en t, Ele an or R oose v elt, a n d o th er a d m in is tr a tio n o ffic ia ls — Adam ic u rg ed U.S .

polic y m ak ers t o u se A m eric an e th nic s t o “ ig nite ” a n “ A m eric an r e v olu tio n i n Euro pe.” H e p ro pose d t h at U .S . i m mig ra n ts a n d t h eir c h ild re n , o rg an iz ed i n to natio nal a d vis o ry g ro ups, b e a llo w ed t o d ev elo p p ostw ar p la n s f o r t h eir an cestr a l h om es, t h en r e tu rn t e m pora rily t o a d m in is te r l ib era te d c o untr ie s afte r t h e w ar. T hese e th nic A m eric an s w ould b rin g p eace t o E uro pe, n ot b y “p olic in g” t h e C ontin en t o r i m posin g d em ocra cy f ro m w ith out, b ut b y “cu t[ tin g] l o ose t h e v ic io us t e n ta cle s o f h ate , n arro w n atio nalis m , o ppre ssio n an d f ru str a tio n” t h at k ep t t h e “ in here n t d em ocra cy ” i n t h e h earts o f Euro pean s f ro m f lo w erin g. O nly t h e U .S . c o uld a cco m plis h t h is t a sk :

Euro pean s w ould k now t h at t h e A m eric an s c am e n ot a s “ str a n gers ; n ot [ a s] co nquero rs o r i n vad ers , o r i n tr u ders — but [ a s] v is ito rs . W e a re t h eir n ep hew s an d s e co nd c o usin s.” 27 T his “ P assa g e B ack ” i d ea, A dam ic s u ggeste d , w ould als o h elp e ase A m eric a’s e th nic t e n sio ns, “ str a ig hte n [in g] o ut t h e k in ks a n d quir k s i n o ur A m eric an i n nard s w hic h c o m e f ro m t h e ‘ o ld c o untr y ,’ f ro m t h e fa ct t h at w e’re e x -E uro pean s, e sc ap ed P ole s a n d C ro atia n s a n d C zech s a n d Scan din av ia n s a n d E nglis h m en .” R ath er t h an b ein g t o rn a p art b y E uro pean co nflic ts , A m eric an e th nic s w ould u nite a ro und t h e n otio n o f b rin gin g fre ed om a n d d em ocra cy t o t h eir r e sp ectiv e h om ela n ds, A dam ic p re d ic te d .

Help in g e sta b lis h a “ U nite d S ta te s o f E uro pe” w ould a llo w e th nic s l ik e him se lf t o b e “ ju st p la in A m eric an s w hile w e’re c itiz en s o f t h e w orld .” 28 Fortu ne , t o o, c alle d f o r m obiliz in g i m mig ra n ts i n a f o re ig n c ru sa d e.

Giv en t h at m illio ns o f f ir s t- a n d s e co nd-g en era tio n A m eric an s “ can not y et g et Euro pe o ut o f t h eir s y ste m ,” t h e m ag azin e d ecla re d i n i ts S ep te m ber 1 942 artic le , t h e “ o nly s e n sib le a ttitu de … i s t o t r a n sfo rm o ur f o re ig n s to ck i n to t h e world ’s g re ate st t a sk f o rc e o f p olitic al w arfa re .” S uch a m ove w ould overc o m e O ld W orld a lle g ia n ces a n d a n im ositie s b y r a lly in g i m mig ra n ts t o Am eric a’s c au se . “ T here i s d ynam ite o n o ur s h ore s,” Fortu ne w arn ed , “ an d we s h ould e x plo de i t i n t h e r ig ht d ir e ctio n.” 29 Durin g t h e w ar, t h e O W I m ad e l im ite d u se o f t h is a p pro ach . I t u se d an tif a sc is t é m ig ré s a n d h ig h-p ro file e th nic A m eric an s i n i ts Voic e o f A m eric a bro ad casts , b ut s u ch r a d io p ro gra m s w ere d esig ned t o s h ap e v ie w s a b ro ad , not a t h om e. T he f e d era l a g en cy t h at d id t h e m ost t o m obiliz e e n tir e im mig ra n t c o m munitie s— an d t o c h an nel e th nic l o yaltie s i n to n atio nal alle g ia n ce— was t h e T re asu ry D ep artm en t. D urin g w ar b ond d riv es, T re asu ry offic ia ls a n d t h eir l ia is o ns i n t h e W ar A dvertis in g C ouncil w ork ed c lo se ly with f o re ig n-la n guag e r a d io s ta tio ns a n d w ith e th nic o rg an iz atio ns. T hey urg ed e th nic A m eric an s t o h old b ond d riv es i n t r a d itio nal c o stu m es a n d t o se ll e th nic f o od a t b ond r a llie s. M an y i m mig ra n t g ro ups c le arly u nders to od th e m essa g e t h ey w ere b ein g giv en : b uyin g w ar b onds w as a w ay t o r e ta in th eir e th nic i d en tity , w hile d em onstr a tin g t h eir l o yalty t o t h e n atio n.

30 Such c am paig ns c alle d o n f ir s t- a n d s e co nd-g en era tio n A m eric an s t o su bsu m e t h eir e th nic l o yaltie s w ith in t h eir l o yalty t o t h e n atio n. B ut h ow w as th at n atio nal l o yalty t o b e d efin ed ? A la n C ra n sto n, t h e l ib era l N ew D eale r who h ead ed t h e O W I’s F ore ig n L an guag e D iv is io n, c o m pla in ed i n a 1 942 sp eech t h at m an y G erm an -la n guag e n ew sp ap ers i n t h e U .S . r a n a rtic le s o n war b onds, r a tio nin g, a n d c iv ilia n d efe n se b ut r e fu se d t o p ublis h “ a s in gle word ” c o ndem nin g N azis m . “ If t h ey f a il t o s e p ara te t h em se lv es a n d t h eir peo ple f ro m t h e N azis ,” h e a sk ed r h eto ric ally , “ h ow c an t h ey p ossib ly e x pect th e r e st o f t h e w orld t o m ak e a n y d is tin ctio n b etw een t h e G erm an s w ho wors h ip H itle ris m a n d t h e G erm an s w ho h ate H itle ris m ? H ow c an t h ey ex pect A m eric an s i n t h e m id st o f a d eath s tr u ggle w ith t h e N azis t o c o ntin ue to t r e at G erm an i m mig ra n ts a s l o yal, f u ll- fle d ged A m eric an s? ” 31 T his co m men t s u ggests t h at C ra n sto n— lik e m an y o th er l e ft l ib era ls i n t h e O W I— eq uate d A m eric an l o yalty w ith s ta u nch a n tif a sc is m . M an y T re asu ry Dep artm en t o ffic ia ls c le arly d is a g re ed . T hey e q uate d A m eric an l o yalty w ith a willin gness t o p artic ip ate w hole h earte d ly i n t h e w ar e ffo rt, a n d t h ey w ork ed clo se ly w ith g ro ups a n d i n div id uals i n i m mig ra n t c o m munitie s w hom s o m e in t h e O W I b elie v ed t o b e p ro fa sc is t.

Sim ila r d is a g re em en ts d iv id ed f o rm er a llie s o uts id e o f t h e f e d era l govern m en t. I n 1 944, L ouis A dam ic b ro ke a b ru ptly w ith t h e C om mon Council f o r A m eric an U nity ( C CA U) a n d h is o ne-tim e f rie n d a n d b ack er Read L ew is . D urin g t h e c o urs e o f t h e w ar, t h e S lo ven ia n A dam ic h ad b eco m e deep ly i n volv ed w ith t h e p olitic s o f h is Y ugosla v ia n h om ela n d a n d h ad em erg ed a s a s tr o ng s u pporte r o f t h e c o m munis t r e sis ta n ce l e ad er J o se f B ro z Tito . T he C CA U, m ean w hile , w ork ed w ith Am erik a nsk i S rb obra n , a Pitts b urg h-b ase d n ew sp ap er p ublis h ed b y t h e S erb N atio nal F ed era tio n, whic h b oth C ra n sto n a n d A dam ic b elie v ed t o b e p ro fa sc is t a n d an tid em ocra tic . I n a l e n gth y m em o a cco m pan yin g h is r e sig natio n, A dam ic su ggeste d t h at t h e C CA U’s u nquestio nin g e m bra ce o f p lu ra lis m l e d i t t o defe n d “ d iv is iv e a n d d an gero us f o re ig n l a n guag e p ap ers u nder t h e s lo gan o f Am eric an U nity .” H e f u rth er a ccu se d t h e C CA U o f c h an gin g a n O W I p re ss re le ase o n t h e N azi p ers e cu tio n o f J e w s i n to a s ta te m en t a b out t h e “u nco nquere d m en a n d w om en o f E uro pe,” b efo re t r a n sla tin g t h e p re ss re le ase f o r u se b y f o re ig n-la n guag e p ap ers . T he C CA U, A dam ic c h arg ed , h ad “a p olic y o f ‘ a v oid in g c o ntr o vers ia l i s su es’ i n s u ch a w ay a s t o o bstr u ct, ra th er t h an p ro m ote , t h e c au se o f d em ocra cy i n t h e U nite d S ta te s.” 32 T his gen era l c ritic is m s e em s m is p la ced , s in ce t h e C CA U’s m ag azin e Com mon Gro und a tta ck ed b oth r a cia l s e g re g atio n a n d t h e i n te rn m en t o f J a p an ese Am eric an s d urin g t h e w ar.

33 S till, i t p oin ts t o a c ritic al i s su e a b out w hic h ev en l ib era ls d urin g t h e w ar d is a g re ed : w hat c o m mon v alu es u nite d t h e natio n, a n d h ow f a r s h ould t o le ra n ce a n d p lu ra lis m e x te n d?

“B elie v in g A m eric a n s” If o ne s o lu tio n t o t h e “ fo re ig n n atio nalitie s p ro ble m ” w as t o t r a n sfo rm eth nic ity i n to a w eap on o f w ar, a n oth er s o lu tio n w as t o r e cast A m eric an plu ra lis m i n r e lig io us t e rm s. T ole ra n ce o f d iv ers ity w as w id ely s e en a s a prim ary m ark er o f d em ocra cy — a k ey f e atu re t h at d is tin guis h ed t h e u nity o f th e U .S . f ro m t h e u nif o rm ity o f f a sc is t o r t o ta lita ria n s ta te s— but t h at div ers ity c o uld t a k e m an y f o rm s. B y s p eak in g o f P ro te sta n ts , C ath olic s, a n d Je w s r a th er t h an o f S can din av ia n s, S lo vak s, a n d J e w s, f e d era l o ffic ia ls a n d oth er o pin io n m old ers c o uld e m phasiz e A m eric a’s c u ltu ra l d iv ers ity w ith out re in fo rc in g p ote n tia lly p ro ble m atic l o yaltie s t o f o re ig n h om ela n ds.

In t h e c o nte x t o f W orld W ar I I, t h is a p pro ach h ad a n a d ditio nal ad van ta g e: i t t r a n sfo rm ed d if fe re n ce i n to s a m en ess, a llo w in g a s in gle para m ete r t o s e rv e a s a s y m bol o f b oth p lu ra lis m a n d c o nse n su s. A m eric a h ad a l o ng a n d b itte r h is to ry o f a n ti- C ath olic is m . A nti- S em itis m , t o o, h ad s u rg ed sin ce t h e t u rn o f t h e c en tu ry a n d h ad t a k en a p artic u la rly v ir u le n t t u rn d urin g th e 1 930s. S till, t h e i d ea o f r e lig io us f re ed om h ad l o ng b een c en tr a l t o Am eric a’s n atio nal i d en tity . F D R r e in fo rc ed t h is c o nnectio n i n J a n uary 1 941 when h e l is te d r e lig io us f re ed om a s o ne o f t h e “ fo ur e sse n tia l h um an fre ed om s” t h at h is p olic ie s w ere d esig ned t o s e cu re . D urin g t h e w ar, t h e pre sid en t a n d o th er f e d era l o ffic ia ls r e p eate d ly a rg ued t h at f re ed om o f re lig io n w as “ o ne o f t h e p rin cip le s f o r w hic h w e a re f ig htin g t h is w ar.” 34 This v is io n o f t h e U .S . c o ntr a ste d s h arp ly w ith A m eric an p ortr a y als o f t h e Axis p ow ers . T oday , m ost A m eric an s t h in k o f t h e N azis a s p rim arily a n ti- Sem itic , b ut t h at i s n ot t h e w ay t h ey w ere p ortr a y ed b efo re a n d d urin g W orld War I I. I n a s p eech i n l a te O cto ber 1 941, f o r i n sta n ce, R oose v elt a rg ued t h at Hitle r’s p la n w as “ to a b olis h a ll e x is tin g r e lig io ns— Pro te sta n t, C ath olic , Moham med an , H in du, B uddhis t a n d J e w is h a lik e.” “ T he p ro perty o f a ll ch urc h es w ill b e s e iz ed b y t h e R eic h a n d i ts p uppets ,” t h e p re sid en t d ecla re d .

The c ro ss a n d a ll o th er s y m bols o f r e lig io n a re t o b e f o rb id den . T he c le rg y are t o b e f o re v er s ile n ced u nder p en alty o f t h e c o ncen tr a tio n c am ps, w here ev en n ow s o m an y f e arle ss m en a re b ein g t o rtu re d b ecau se t h ey h av e p la ced God a b ove H itle r.

In t h e p la ce o f t h e c h urc h es o f o ur c iv iliz atio n, t h ere i s t o b e s e t u p a n In te rn atio nal N azi C hurc h — a c h urc h w hic h w ill b e s e rv ed b y o ra to rs se n t o ut b y t h e N azi G overn m en t.

35 These s e n tim en ts w ere e x te n ded t o t h e o th er A xis p ow ers a s w ell. A n O W I public atio n, Enem y J a pan , d ecla re d t h at “ th e o ffic ia l p ro pag an dis ts h av e ta k en t h e s im ple r e lig io us p ra ctic es o f t h e [ J a p an ese ] h om e a n d b y c h an nelin g th em t h ro ugh t h e o ffic ia l m ach in ery o f t h e S ta te h av e d ev elo ped t h e s e p ara te natio nal c u lt, S ta te S hin to .” T hro ugh t h e p ra ctic e o f S ta te S hin to , t h e docu m en t c o ntin ued , “ Ja p an ese c h ild re n a re t a u ght t h e s u pre m acy o f t h e Sta te o ver t h e i n div id ual, j u st a s i n N azi a n d F asc is t c o untr ie s.” 36 The n otio n t h at t h e U .S . w as f ig htin g a n i r re lig io us e n em y— an e n em y hostile t o all f a ith s o th er t h an t h at o f t h e s ta te — allo w ed r e lig io n t o p la y t w o dif fe re n t, b ut c o m ple m en ta ry , i d eo lo gic al r o le s. “ F re ed om o f r e lig io n” c o uld mean b oth t h e f re ed om t o a d here t o o ne’s o w n p artic u la r f a ith and t h e fre ed om t o b e r e lig io us. T his a p pro ach , w hic h c ast r e lig io n a s a s o urc e o f unity a s w ell a s d iv ers ity , h ad b een p ro m ulg ate d b y t h e N CCJ a n d a llie d gro ups s in ce t h e e arly 1 930s. F D R h im se lf p re sa g ed m an y o f t h e t h em es t h e govern m en t a n d o th ers w ould s tr ik e d urin g t h e w ar w hen h e d eliv ere d a r a d io ad dre ss o n b eh alf o f t h e N CCJ’s “ B ro th erh ood D ay ” i n F eb ru ary 1 936. T he day h ad b een s e t a sid e, R oose v elt n ote d , s o t h at “ w e c an m eet, n ot p rim arily as P ro te sta n ts o r C ath olic s o r J e w s b ut a s b elie v in g A m eric an s.” We w ho h av e f a ith c an not a ffo rd t o f a ll o ut a m ong o urs e lv es. T he v ery s ta te of t h e w orld i s a s u m mons t o u s t o s ta n d t o geth er. F or a s I s e e i t, t h e c h ie f re lig io us i s su e i s n ot b etw een o ur v ario us b elie fs . I t i s b etw een b elie f a n d unbelie f. I t i s n ot y our s p ecif ic f a ith o r m in e t h at i s b ein g c alle d i n to q uestio n —but a ll f a ith .

It w as b ecau se o f t h at t h re at, t h e p re sid en t c o nclu ded , “ th at y ou a n d I m ust re ach a cro ss t h e l in es b etw een o ur c re ed s, c la sp h an ds, a n d m ak e c o m mon cau se .” 37 Durin g t h e w ar, t h is v is io n o f A m eric a a s r e lig io usly d iv ers e , y et sp ir itu ally u nite d , a p peare d i n n um ero us v en ues: p re sid en tia l s p eech es, O W I pam phle ts , H olly w ood f ilm s, t h e Why W e F ig ht s e rie s, a n d n um ero us carto ons, t e x tb ooks, b ro ch ure s, r a d io s h ow s, a n d o th er m ate ria ls p ro duced b y an a rra y o f p riv ate g ro ups. N ot s u rp ris in g, t h e g ro ups t h at d id t h e m ost t o pro m ote t h is v is io n o f t h e U .S . i n clu ded t h e N CCJ, t h e A JC , t h e B ’n ai B ’rith Anti- D efa m atio n L eag ue, a n d t h e r e lig io us s o cia l w elf a re a g en cie s t h at c am e to geth er t o f o rm t h e U nite d S erv ic e O rg an iz atio ns ( U SO ). D urin g t h e w ar, th ese g ro ups w ork ed c lo se ly with m ilita ry o ffic ia ls a n d f e d era l a g en cie s— as well a s w ith H olly w ood p ro ducers a n d o th ers — to p ro m ote a v is io n o f in te rg ro up t o le ra n ce a n d n atio nal u nity p ic tu re d a b ove a ll i n r e lig io us t e rm s.

The r o le o f s u ch p riv ate o rg an iz atio ns o nly i n cre ase d a fte r C ongre ss c u t o ff fu ndin g t o t h e d om estic b ra n ch o f t h e O W I i n J u ne 1 943.

38 With f e d era l a p pro val, t h e N CCJ c arrie d i ts v ers io n o f t h e “ A m eric an Way ” i n to h undre d s o f U .S . a rm y c am ps. T he a rm y i n co rp ora te d N CCJ mate ria ls i n to G I o rie n ta tio n c o urs e s, a n d “ to le ra n ce t r io s” v is ite d m ilita ry in sta lla tio ns f ro m N orfo lk t o N om e. T hese t r a v elin g e m is sa rie s c o nducte d “tr ia lo gues” b efo re a sse m ble d t r o ops, i n w hic h t h ey a rg ued t h at r e lig io n w as a f o undatio n o f d em ocra cy a n d r e lig io us i n to le ra n ce, t h us a d an ger t o Am eric a’s v ery f o undatio n. T he N CCJ e stim ate d t h at, i n j u st t h e f ir s t y ear o f th e p ro gra m , m ore t h an t w o m illio n s o ld ie rs a n d s a ilo rs a tte n ded i n te rfa ith meetin gs o r s a w t h e N CCJ f ilm The W orld W e W ant t o L iv e I n . T he N CCJ als o d is tr ib ute d m illio ns o f t r i- fa ith p ra y er c ard s, a s w ell a s p am phle ts w ith su ch t itle s a s Unite d i n S erv ic e a n d Am eric a n B ro th erh ood.

I n 1 943, t h e NCCJ’s C lin ch y l e ctu re d o n i n te rfa ith t o le ra n ce t o e v ery g ra d uatin g c la ss o f both t h e A rm y a n d N av y C hap la in s’ S ch ools .

39 The N CCJ’s m essa g e o f i n te rfa ith t o le ra n ce a n d n atio nal c o nse n su s w as re in fo rc ed b y t h e “ p ra ctic al e cu m en ic ity ” o f t h e m ilita ry : n onden om in atio nal ch ap els , a n e cu m en ic al A rm y a n d N av y S erv ic e B ook, a n d a d is tin ctiv e “C hap la in s’ S carf.” 40 I t w as a ls o b uttr e sse d b y t h e a ctiv itie s o f t h e U SO , whic h p ro vid ed r e cre atio nal o pportu nitie s t o s e rv ic e p ers o nnel a n d d efe n se work ers . U nder t h e o rg an iz atio n’s u m bre lla , s ix n atio nal r e lig io us a g en cie s— th e Y oung M en ’s C hris tia n A sso cia tio n ( Y M CA ), t h e Y oung W om en ’s Chris tia n A sso cia tio n ( Y W CA ), t h e J e w is h W elf a re B oard , t h e S alv atio n Arm y, t h e N atio nal C ath olic C om munity S erv ic es, a n d t h e N atio nal Tra v ele r’s A id A sso cia tio n— opera te d c an te en s, d an ce h alls , c lu bs, a n d re cre atio n c en te rs a t m ore t h an e ig hte en h undre d l o catio ns a cro ss t h e co untr y .

41 A b oard o f d ir e cto rs , w hic h i n clu ded m an y p ro m in en t busin essm en , r a is e d f u nds f o r t h e o rg an iz atio n, b ut i t a ls o r e ceiv ed f e d era l fu ndin g.

42 T hro ugh b ro ch ure s, b ooks, a n d o th er m ate ria ls m ad e a v aila b le a t its c en te rs , t h e U SO p ro m ote d a v is io n o f t h e n atio n t h at e m phasiz ed b oth re lig io us t o le ra n ce a n d a n e cu m en ic al n atio nal c o nse n su s. T he U SO , co m men te d o ne U SO -Y M CA l e ad er, w as “ a d em onstr a tio n n ot o nly o f natio nal u nity b ut e v en m ore o f o ur b asic u nity t h ro ugh f a ith i n r e lig io n.” 43 NCCJ o ffic ia ls c le arly s a w t h eir m ilita ry c am p p ro gra m a s a n opportu nity , n ot o nly t o s h ap e l if e i n t h e a rm ed f o rc es, b ut t o h ead o ff postw ar t e n sio ns o f t h e s o rt t h at f o llo w ed W WI. W hen f o rm er T ex as govern or J a m es A llr e d ad dre sse d s a ilo rs a sse m ble d a t C am p W alla ce n ear Galv esto n o n b eh alf o f t h e N CCJ, h e n ote d t h at m an y v ete ra n s w ould b e “le ad ers i n t h eir h om e c o m munitie s” a fte r t h e w ar. A llr e d d esc rib ed h is o w n en co unte r w ith t h e K u K lu x K la n a fte r W orld W ar I a n d s u ggeste d t h at i t w as his f rie n dsh ip w ith a C ath olic a n d a J e w is h s h ip m ate t h at h ad k ep t h im f ro m jo in in g t h e c lo ak ed r a id ers . H e w arn ed h is a u die n ce t h at “ w hen t h is w ar i s over t h ere w ill b e a n oth er s e t o f o rg an iz ers o f h ate m ovem en ts ” w ho “ w ill wan t v ete ra n s t o j o in t o m ak e t h eir h ate fu l p la n s s e em p atr io tic .” “ W e co ngra tu la te y ou o n y our n ew -fo und u nity ,” A llr e d t o ld t h e s a ilo rs , a n d “ w e ask t h at y ou s e e t o i t t h at h ate m ovem en ts d o n ot g et g oin g i n t h e p la ces y ou liv e.” T he N CCJ r e p rin te d A llr e d ’s r e m ark s a n d d is tr ib ute d t h em w id ely to w ard t h e e n d o f t h e w ar.

44 Alth ough t h e N CCJ f o cu se d s ig nif ic an t a tte n tio n o n t h e m ilita ry , i t d id not n eg le ct c iv ilia n s o cie ty . N CCJ s ta ffe rs , f o r i n sta n ce, a rg ued i n 1 942 t h at th e N CCJ s h ould w ork m ore c lo se ly w ith o rg an iz ed l a b or b ecau se “ th is g ro up in clu des a l a rg e p erc en ta g e o f f o re ig n-b orn w ho h av e b ro ught f a ls e b elie fs in to t h is n atio n.” 45 ( S im ila r r e aso nin g p ro m pte d t h e A m eric an J e w is h Com mitte e t o l a u nch a N atio nal L ab or S erv ic e i n 1 945 t o “ slu ic e” c o m ic str ip s, p oste rs , a n d e d ito ria l c o py t o t h e n atio n’s u nio ns a n d l a b or p re ss.

46 ) Citie s a cro ss t h e c o untr y c ele b ra te d t h e N CCJ’s B ro th erh ood W eek d urin g th e w ar, w hile s c h ools a n d n ew sp ap ers u se d p am phle ts , c o m ic b ooks, p re ss ite m s, a n d o th er m ate ria ls d is tr ib ute d b y t h e c o nfe re n ce. O ne s u ch c o m ic book t o ld t h e s to ry o f “ th re e p als ” — Geo rg e F oste r, B la in e K eh oe, a n d Gers h on R oss— who h ad p la y ed t o geth er o n t h eir h ig h s c h ool f o otb all t e am .

Little d is tin guis h ed t h e t h re e f rie n ds e x cep t f o r t h eir r e lig io ns, w hic h w ere glim pse d t h ro ugh t h eir n am es a n d t h eir c u lin ary h ab its : G ers h on’s m oth er co oked g efü lte f is h , w hile B la in e c o uld n ot e at m eat o n F rid ay s. A fte r P earl Harb or, a ll t h re e e n lis te d i n t h e w ar a g ain st t h e “ Ja p s,” e ach w ith a d if fe re n t se rv ic e. E ach m an w as k ille d i n a ctio n w hile u rg in g h is b uddie s t o “ carry o n.” The f in al s c en e i n t h e b ook d ep ic te d t h e t h re e b uddie s, a rm -in -a rm , w alk in g ab ove t h e c lo uds. “ T he t h re e p als w ill n ev er m eet o n e arth a g ain , b ut t h ey hav e d one t h eir j o b g alla n tly a n d w ell; a n d t h eir s p ir its m in gle a s i n d ay s o f old ,” t h e c ap tio n r e ad . “ C ath olic , P ro te sta n t, J e w .… T hey d ie d , a s t h ey l iv ed … i n t r u e b ro th erh ood.… Am eric an s A ll! ” 47 The “ th re e p als ” — lik e t h e c h ara cte rs i n H olly w ood’s c o m bat f ilm s— were f ic titio us, b ut a r e al- lif e e p is o de i n e arly 1 943 f o llo w ed a s im ila r s c rip t an d g av e t h e i n te rfa ith m ovem en t a n e n durin g s y m bol. O n F eb ru ary 3 , t h e U.S . t r o opsh ip Dorc h este r w as t o rp ed oed o ff G re en la n d a n d q uic k ly s a n k, killin g h undre d s o f s e rv ic em en a n d f o ur a rm y c h ap la in s— tw o P ro te sta n ts , a Cath olic , a n d a J e w . A s t h e s to ry w as p ie ced t o geth er b y t h e J e w is h W elf a re Bure au an d o th ers , t h e f o ur c h ap la in s g av e u p t h eir l if e v ests s o t h at o th ers co uld s u rv iv e. T he s to ry w as w id ely r e to ld i n n ew sp ap ers a n d o th er f o ru m s, an d p oste rs s h ow in g t h e f o ur c h ap la in s h old in g h an ds a n d p ra y in g t o geth er on t h e d eck o f t h e s in kin g s h ip w ere d is tr ib ute d n atio nally . R ep ro duced o n posta g e s ta m ps, i n s ta in ed g la ss w in dow s a t W est P oin t a n d t h e P en ta g on, an d i n m an y o th er a rtif a cts a n d l o catio ns a ro und t h e c o untr y , t h is i m ag e o f in te rfa ith a n d A m eric an c o nse n su s a n d u nity b ecam e o ne o f t h e m ost f a m ilia r to e m erg e f ro m t h e w ar 48 ( fig ure 5 .2 ).

Gro ups s u ch a s t h e N CCJ a n d t h e U SO w ere a t t h e f o re fro nt o f e ffo rts t o re cast A m eric an p lu ra lis m a n d c o nse n su s i n r e lig io us t e rm s, b ut t h e t r i- fa ith vis io n o f t h e n atio n a ls o f o und s u pport i n t h e b usin ess c o m munity . T he N CCJ had l o ng a ttr a cte d s u pport f ro m p ro m in en t i n dustr ia lis ts , i n p art b ecau se i t pro m ote d s o cia l h arm ony a n d e m phasiz ed t h e “ d ig nity o f t h e i n div id ual” a s a cen tr a l f e atu re o f t h e A m eric an W ay . W hen N AM s ta ffe rs e n co ura g ed busin essm en t o h old l o cal a n d r e g io nal m eetin gs w ith c le rg y d urin g t h e w ar, th ey n ote d t h at p artic ip an ts “ sh ould i n clu de a c h urc h g ro up s e le cte d a n d in vite d b y t h e l e ad ers o f t h e t h re e p rin cip al d en om in atio nal g ro ups (P ro te sta n t, C ath olic , an d J e w is h ).” C onfe re n ce o rg an iz ers f o llo w ed t h ese re co m men datio ns; a n d i n c itie s s u ch a s B ro okly n, C hic ag o, a n d L os A ngele s, th e n um ber o f C ath olic a n d J e w is h r e lig io us l e ad ers a tte n din g N AM -in sp ir e d meetin gs b etw een 1 941 a n d 1 943 a ctu ally e x ceed ed t h e n um ber o f P ro te sta n t min is te rs a tte n din g.

49 Fig u re 5 .2 .

T his p osta g e s ta m p d ep ic ts t h e f o ur c h ap la in s w ho g av e t h eir liv es d urin g t h e s in kin g o f t h e t r o opsh ip U.S .S . D orc h este r i n 1 943 a n d becam e w artim e s y m bols o f A m eric an d iv ers ity a n d c o nse n su s. T he o rig in al sta m p d esig n i n clu ded t h e w ord s “ C ath olic , P ro te sta n t, a n d J e w is h ” i n ad ditio n t o t h e r e fe re n ce t o i n te rfa ith u nity ; t h ose w ord s w ere o m itte d f ro m th e s ta m p i s su ed i n 1 948. T his m ay r e fle ct t h e i n cre asin g e m phasis i n t h e public a re n a d urin g t h e c o ld w ar o n A m eric an s’s h are d f a ith r a th er t h an t h eir div ers e r e lig io us a ffilia tio ns.

The c o m bin ed e ffo rts o f t h e f e d era l g overn m en t, t h e N CCJ, t h e U SO , a n d man y o th er p riv ate g ro ups p ro pelle d t h e i n te rfa ith m ovem en t t o n ew h eig hts durin g t h e w ar. R elig io us p re ju dic e b y n o m ean s d is a p peare d — an ti- S em itis m actu ally p eak ed i n 1 945— but t h e “ in te rfa ith i d ea” e m erg ed a s a p ow erfu l sy m bol o f b oth A m eric an p lu ra lis m a n d A m eric an c o nse n su s.

50 D urin g t h e war, t h e n otio n t h at t h e U .S . w as a n atio n o f d iv ers e b ut “ b elie v in g” Am eric an s— a n atio n, i n p artic u la r, o f P ro te sta n ts , C ath olic s, a n d J e w s— riv ale d p ortr a y als o f t h e U .S . a s a “ n atio n o f n atio ns.” I n t h e p ostw ar p erio d, as A m eric an e n m ity s h if te d f ro m f a sc is m t o “ ath eis t c o m munis m ,” r e lig io n would i n cre asin gly s u ppla n t n atio nal o rig in i n d is c u ssio ns o f b oth p re ju dic e an d d iv ers ity i n A m eric an l if e .

“M ore ‘ A m eric a n ’ T han t h e W hit e Majo rit y ” In t h e f a ll o f 1 945, t h e N CCJ s p onso re d a n atio nw id e e ssa y c o nte st f o r h ig h sc h ool s tu den ts w ith t h e t h em e “ T he B est E xam ple o f T eam work I K now .” Essa y s w ere s u ppose d t o i llu str a te “ h ow A m eric an s o f d iv ers e b ack gro unds work t o geth er f o r t h e g ood o f t h eir s c h ool o r c o m munity , o r t h e n atio n.” T he win nin g c o m positio n, d ra m atiz ed b y H olly w ood f ilm s ta rs , w as t o b e fe atu re d o n a n atio nal r a d io p ro gra m d urin g A m eric an B ro th erh ood W eek i n Feb ru ary 1 946.

51 Nobukazu ( “ N oble ”) O yan ag i, a J a p an ese A m eric an s tu den t l iv in g i n S t.

Pau l, w on t h e c o nte st. N oble w ro te a b out t h e d ay t h at h is f a m ily w as t a k en fro m t h eir h om e i n T aco m a, W ash in gto n, t o t h e P in ed ale A sse m bly C en te r near F re sn o, C alif o rn ia .

52 “ A s w e w ork ed i n o ur h om e u ntil t h e t r a in t im e pre p arin g t o l e av e, i n p opped o ne o f o ur d eare st f rie n ds— Calla h an b y n am e, an I ris h m an i f t h ere e v er w as o ne,” w ro te N oble . C alla h an t o ok t im e o ff f ro m work t o d riv e t h e O yan ag i f a m ily t o t h e t r a in s ta tio n, w here N oble f o und a ll of h is “ b uddie s” w aitin g. J o e M in eth , a n I ta lia n , a n d G us M artig opolu s, a Gre ek , c arrie d t h e O yan ag is ’s l u ggag e t o t h e t r a in c o nco urs e . A noth er f rie n d gav e N oble a c o m ic b ook. A s t h e t r a in s ta rte d t o p ull a w ay , N oble s a w “ch um s o f e v ery n atio nality ” w ho h ad c o m e t o s e e h im o ff— “E ric L ilja s, a blo nd S w ed e; B obby F eld m an , a J e w is h p al; t h e e n tir e W in g f a m ily , w ho, alth ough t h eir h om ela n d w as r a v is h ed b y t h e J a p an ese , h ad n o h ars h f e elin gs to w ard u s.” 53 Here w as a p ic tu re o f p lu ra lis tic A m eric a h elp in g t o “ ease t h e b urd en o f ev acu atio n” f o r t h e O yan ag i f a m ily .

54 B ut t h ere w as m uch t h at t h e s to ry l e ft out. S hortly a fte r P earl H arb or, t h re e F B I a g en ts h ad c o m e t o t h e f a m ily ’s hom e, s e arc h ed t h e r e sid en ce, a n d— with out e x pla n atio n— ta k en N oble ’s ste p fa th er w ith t h em . T old t h ey w ould s o on h av e t o e v acu ate , t h e r e st o f t h e Oyan ag i f a m ily q uic k ly s o ld o ff t h e i n ven to ry o f t h e f a m ily g ro cery s to re a n d sto re d t h eir h ouse h old f u rn is h in gs i n a c h urc h b uild in g. T ak in g o nly w hat th ey c o uld c arry , N oble , h is m oth er, a n d h is t w o o ld er b ro th ers b oard ed a tr a in a n d “ tr a v ele d w ith s h ad es d ow n a n d a cco m pan ie d b y m ilita ry c arry in g sid e a rm s a n d r if le s.” 55 T hre e m onth s a fte r a rriv in g a t P in ed ale , t h e f a m ily was t r a n sfe rre d t o t h e T ule L ak e i n te rn m en t c am p i n n orth ern C alif o rn ia .

Noble h im se lf s p en t a y ear a n d h alf a t T ule L ak e, b efo re j o in in g a n o ld er bro th er w ho h ad b een a llo w ed t o l e av e t h e c am p t o a tte n d c o lle g e i n S t. P au l.

When N oble ’s h ig h s c h ool E nglis h t e ach er h an ded h im t h e e ssa y a ssig nm en t, his p are n ts w ere s till i n t h e c am p.

56 Perh ap s b ecau se o f t h e u ncerta in ty o f h is f a m ily ’s s itu atio n, N oble men tio ned n one o f t h is i n h is w in nin g e ssa y . I n ste ad , t h e t e en ag er w ro te , “ It was t r u ly t e am work i n a ctio n t h at I w itn esse d t h at d ay .” B ut t e am work f o r what? N eith er N oble n or h is f rie n ds c h alle n ged t h e l e g itim acy o f t h e ev acu atio n, a lth ough t h e y outh d id n ote t h at f o r h im i t w as a “ g lo om y, d is m al day .” R ath er, t h e e ssa y — an d c erta in ly t h e a cco m pan yin g p re ss m ate ria ls — im plie d t h at i n te rn m en t w as s im ply t h e s a crif ic e J a p an ese A m eric an s h ad t o mak e f o r t h eir c o untr y , j u st a s o th er A m eric an s h ad t o i n vest i n w ar b onds, donate b lo od, o r f o re g o s tr ik es. B y c ele b ra tin g t h e p lu ra lis tic u nity o f t h e frie n ds w ho a cco m pan ie d t h e O yan ag is t o t h e t r a in s ta tio n, t h e e ssa y a n d atte n dan t p ublic ity d efle cte d a tte n tio n f ro m t h e j u stic e o f t h e i n te rn m en t polic y i ts e lf .

Noble ’s e ssa y , a lth ough w ritte n s o m e w eek s a fte r V -J d ay , p ro vid es a str ik in g e x am ple o f t h e p ote n tia lly c o nse rv ativ e i m plic atio ns o f l in kin g to le ra n ce t o n atio nal u nity d urin g t h e w ar. W artim e c ele b ra tio ns o f A m eric an plu ra lis m h ig hlig hte d t h e c o ntr ib utio ns o f d iv ers e c u ltu ra l g ro ups t o U .S .

so cie ty b ut r a re ly a d dre sse d t h e t e rm s o f t h eir i n clu sio n i n t h e n atio n.

Mean w hile , a p peals f o r t o le ra n ce i n t h e n am e o f n atio nal u nity s tr e sse d co m ity a n d s o cia l h arm ony a b ove a ll e ls e . S uch a p peals c o uld b e u se d t o co ndem n b ig ots a n d b ullie s, b ut t h ey c o uld a ls o b e u se d t o c ritiq ue t h ose w ho pro te ste d t o o v ig oro usly . T hus, t h ey p ro vid ed a t b est a w eak t o ol w ith w hic h to c ritiq ue n atio nal p olic y , c o nte st e x is tin g p ow er s tr u ctu re s, o r p ro te st t h e eco nom ic a n d l e g al s ta tu s q uo.

As t h is s u ggests , t h e p ro m is e o f t h e w artim e d is c o urs e o n p lu ra lis m a n d co nse n su s w as l im ite d w hen i t c am e t o t h e n atio n’s r a cia l m in oritie s— partic u la rly Ja p an ese A m eric an s a n d b la ck s. U .S . p ro pag an da o f a ll s o rts str e sse d t h e r a cis m o f t h e N azis , j u st a s i t s tr e sse d t h eir h ostility t o a ll f o rm s of l e g itim ate f a ith . T his g av e a ctiv is ts a n o pen in g. S om e l in ked a p peals f o r Am eric an “ b ro th erh ood” t o d em an ds f o r c iv il r ig hts a n d c iv il l ib ertie s o r portr a y ed s e g re g atio n a n d i n stitu tio naliz ed d is c rim in atio n a s a N azi t a ctic t o “d iv id e a n d c o nquer.” R acia l p re ju dic e, h ow ev er, w as e m bed ded f a r m ore deep ly i n A m eric an l a w a n d s o cia l c u sto m t h an w ere e th nic a n d r e lig io us pre ju dic es. T hus, c h alle n ges t o r a cia l p re ju dic e— an d p artic u la rly e ffo rts t o se cu re eq uality r a th er t h an m ere c iv ility — were f a r m ore l ik ely t o t r ig ger so cia l u nre st. F ed era l p olic y m ak ers a n d m an y i n t h e i n te rg ro up m ovem en t hoped t o d am pen r a cia l h ostility a n d t o b ols te r t h e m ora le o f b la ck Am eric an s; a t t h e s a m e t im e, t h ey w orrie d a b out a n ta g oniz in g w hite s. W hen it c am e t o i s su es o f r a ce, t h e f e d era l g overn m en t a n d m an y p riv ate g ro ups tr o d c au tio usly — pre ach in g t o le ra n ce a n d w ork in g t o d efu se r a cia l v io le n ce, while b alk in g a t t h e c o ncre te s te p s n eed ed t o e n d d is c rim in atio n a n d dis m an tle J im C ro w .

Fed era l o ffic ia ls h ad p le n ty o f r e aso n t o b e c o ncern ed a b out t h e c h alle n ge to n atio nal u nity p ose d b y i s su es o f r a ce. E ven a fte r t h e a tta ck o n P earl Harb or, s o m e b la ck A m eric an s f e lt a m easu re o f s y m path y f o r J a p an , w hic h cla im ed t o b e f ig htin g w hite E uro pean c o lo nia lis m i n A sia . T his a rg um en t se em ed a ll t h e m ore c o nvin cin g t o s o m e i n t h e b la ck c o m munity s in ce Am eric a’s s ta u nch est a lly , G re at B rita in , o vers a w a l a rg e e m pir e c o m pris e d prim arily o f b ro w n a n d b la ck p eo ple . B la ck A m eric an s d id n ot s u pport H itle r, but m an y l ik en ed B ritis h i m peria lis m a n d A m eric an r a cis m t o t h e N azi’ s tr e atm en t o f J e w s, G ypsie s, a n d o th er “ u ndesir a b le s.” T heir a n ger a t t h e U .S .

was n ot l im ite d t o t h e A m eric an S outh . M ajo r d efe n se e m plo yers r e g ula rly dis c rim in ate d a g ain st b la ck s, i n m an y c ase s e n co ura g ed b y u nio ns. D urin g th e w ar, t h e a rm y a n d n av y a ssig ned b la ck r e cru its t o s e g re g ate d u nits a n d tr a in ed t h em a lm ost e x clu siv ely f o r n onco m bata n t r o le s a s c o oks, dis h w ash ers , s te w ard s, s te v ed ore s, a n d h ard l a b ore rs . T he M arin e C orp s a n d Arm y A ir C orp s a ccep te d n o b la ck s i n t h e e arly m onth s o f t h e w ar. A ddin g in su lt t o i n ju ry , t h e m ilita ry s e g re g ate d b lo od p la sm a, a lth ough t h e p la sm a o f bla ck s a n d w hite s w as i d en tic al.

Wartim e c o nditio ns o nly h eig hte n ed t h e o pportu nitie s f o r f e ste rin g r a cia l hatr e d s o r r e se n tm en ts t o e x plo de i n to v io le n t c la sh es. D urin g t h e w ar, s o m e se v en h undre d t h ousa n d b la ck c iv ilia n s— as w ell a s h undre d s o f t h ousa n ds o f white s— le ft t h e S outh m ostly f o r o verc ro w ded w ar p ro ductio n c en te rs i n t h e West a n d N orth .

57 T he i n flu x o f b la ck w ork ers t r ig gere d s c o re s o f “ h ate str ik es” b y w hite s, w ho r e se n te d t h e s ig ht o f “ fo rm er j a n ito rs o r c afe te ria work ers r u nnin g a d rill p re ss o r l a th e.” 58 C om petitio n f o r s c arc e h ousin g tr ig gere d b lo ody c o nfro nta tio ns— usu ally i n stig ate d b y w hite s— in D etr o it; Chic ag o; Beau m ont, T ex as; a n d o th er c itie s. M ean w hile , n orth ern b la ck s w ho jo in ed t h e m ilita ry o fte n f o und t h em se lv es s h ip ped t o t r a in in g c am ps i n t h e South , w here t h ey w ere s u bje cte d t o t h e h um ility o f s e g re g atio n f o r t h e f ir s t tim e. M an y o f t h e w ors t r a cia l c la sh es b ro ke o ut i n s u ch t r a in in g c en te rs , a s well a s i n a rm y a n d n av y e n cam pm en ts i n s u ch f a r-flu ng l o catio ns a s Lan cash ir e , E ngla n d, a n d G uam .

59 Most b la ck l e ad ers w en t t o g re at l e n gth s d urin g t h e w ar t o s tr e ss t h e lo yalty o f t h eir p eo ple t o t h e A m eric an c au se . I n a 1 942 a rtic le i n t h e Am eric a n M erc u ry , t h e a u th or J . S au nders R ed din g r e co unte d t h e m en ta l pro cess t h ro ugh w hic h h e c am e t o r e aliz e t h at “ I b elie v e i n t h is w ar.” Alth ough t h ere w as m uch a b out t h e w ar h e d id n ot l ik e, u ltim ate ly “ th is i s a war t o k eep m en f re e,” R ed din g w ro te . “ W e N eg ro es h ere i n A m eric a k now a lo t a b out f re ed om a n d l o ve i t m ore t h an a g re at m an y p eo ple w ho h av e l o ng had i t.” B la ck A m eric an s n eed ed t o c o ntin ue t o s tr u ggle “ to e n la rg e f re ed om here i n A m eric a,” b ut “ o ur f ir s t d uty i s t o k eep t h e r o ad o f f re ed om o pen ,” Red din g c o nclu ded .

60 A sk ed t o a d dre ss t h e q uestio n “ S hould t h e N eg ro C are Who W in s t h e W ar? ” t h e i n flu en tia l b la ck e d ucato r H ora ce M an n B ond arg ued t h at t h e “ N eg ro i n t h e U .S .” w as i n f a ct t h e “ q uin te sse n tia l Am eric an .” H e e la b ora te d , p la y in g o n l in gerin g c o ncern s a b out t h e l o yalty o f im mig ra n ts a n d t h eir c h ild re n : “ B y a n cestr y , b y b ir th , a n d b y t h e t r a d itio n o f his h is to ry , t h e N eg ro i s , i n deed , m ore ‘ A m eric an ’ t h an t h e w hite m ajo rity ,” Bond w ro te . “ T he v ery f a ct o f [ th e N eg ro ’s ] s e p ara tio n f ro m a n y p ast o r pre se n t n atio nal e x is te n ce— Germ an , E nglis h , W els h , S co tc h , I ris h , S w ed is h , Ita lia n , P olis h , F in nis h , H ungaria n , o r w hat h av e y ou— guara n te es t h e p urity of h is n atio nal a lle g ia n ce t o t h e A m eric an i d eal, a n d h is r e la tiv e f re ed om fro m t h e b asta rd iz in g i n flu en ces o f t h e ‘ m oth er-c o untr y c o nsc io usn ess’ whic h h as s o c o rru pte d A m eric a i n r e cen t y ears .” 61 Desp ite s u ch a ssu ra n ces, c o ncern s a b out b la ck l o yalty a n d m ora le b oth im med ia te ly b efo re a n d d urin g t h e w ar g av e c iv il r ig hts a ctiv is ts a l im ite d politic al l e v er. T he f ir s t t o g ra sp t h is p ossib ility w as A . P hilip R an dolp h, t h e pow erfu l h ead o f t h e a ll- b la ck B ro th erh ood o f S le ep in g C ar P orte rs . I n t h e su m mer o f 1 941, R an dolp h t h re ate n ed t o l e ad o ne h undre d t h ousa n d b la ck s on a m arc h o n W ash in gto n t o p ro te st s e g re g atio n i n t h e a rm ed f o rc es a n d ra cia l d is c rim in atio n i n d efe n se i n dustr y h ir in g. A s C are y M cW illia m s l a te r obse rv ed , t h e m arc h w as c alle d “ d urin g t h e p erio d o f n atio nal e m erg en cy pro cla im ed a fte r t h e f a ll o f F ra n ce,” a p erio d w hen A m eric an l e ad ers w ere partic u la rly a le rt t o t h e d an gers o f i n te rn al d is u nity . F D R t r ie d t o c o nvin ce Ran dolp h t o c all o ff t h e m arc h , b ut t h e u nio n l e ad er w ould n ot b udge. T he pre sid en t f o und h e c o uld o nly p re v en t t h e m arc h b y i s su in g a n e x ecu tiv e ord er b an nin g r a cia l d is c rim in atio n i n t h e d efe n se i n dustr y . T he F air Em plo ym en t P ra ctic es Com mis sio n, s e t u p a s a r e su lt o f t h e p re sid en t’ s ord er, h ad l im ite d e n fo rc em en t p ow ers . S till, a s M cW illia m s n ote d , i t m ark ed a h is to ric r e v ers a l o f t h e f e d era l g overn m en t’ s “ la is se z-fa ir e p olic y b ase d o n th e a ssu m ptio n t h at t h ere w as n oth in g t h e f e d era l g overn m en t c o uld d o t o pro te ct t h e c iv il r ig hts o f c itiz en s o f t h e U nite d S ta te s.” 62 T hat p olic y h ad been i n p la ce s in ce t h e e n d o f R eco nstr u ctio n. T he e sta b lis h m en t o f t h e F E PC th us m ark ed a k ey t u rn in g p oin t o n t h e r o ad t o t h e p ostw ar c iv il r ig hts movem en t.

63 Ran dolp h’s s u ccess i n t h e s u m mer o f 1 941 e m bold en ed o th er c iv il r ig hts ad vocate s. T he n atio n’s l a rg est- c ir c u la tio n b la ck n ew sp ap er, The P itts b urg h Courie r , h ad e arlie r d is m is se d R an dolp h’s s tr a te g y a s “ a c ra ck pot p ro posa l.” Now i t c alle d f o r a “ D ouble V ” c am paig n— “v ic to ry o ver o ur e n em ie s a t hom e a n d v ic to ry o ver o ur e n em ie s o n t h e b attle fie ld s a b ro ad .” T he C IO , a t its N ovem ber 1 941 c o nven tio n, c o ndem ned d is c rim in atio n i n h ir in g a s a “d ir e ct a tta ck a g ain st o ur n atio n’s p olic y t o b uild d em ocra cy i n o ur f ig ht ag ain st H itle ris m ”; a y ear l a te r i t f o unded a p erm an en t C om mitte e t o A bolis h Racia l D is c rim in atio n ( C A RD ).

64 I n 1 942, t h e C ouncil A gain st I n to le ra n ce mad e n atio nal h ead lin es w hen i t c alle d f o r a n i n te g ra te d a rm y d iv is io n.

65 That s a m e y ear, s tu den ts a t t h e U niv ers ity o f C hic ag o, i n sp ir e d i n p art b y Ran dolp h’s e x am ple , o rg an iz ed t h e C ongre ss o n R acia l E quality ( C O RE).

CO RE c ells q uic k ly s p ro ute d i n o th er c itie s a n d b eg an h old in g i n te rra cia l dem onstr a tio ns t o i n te g ra te t h eatr e s, r e sta u ra n ts , b us l in es, s k atin g r in ks, a n d oth er f a cilitie s.

66 T he H ow ard U niv ers ity s tu den ts w ho s a t i n a t T hom pso n’s in A pril 1 944 d re w t h eir i n sp ir a tio n f ro m b oth R an dolp h a n d C O RE.

Such e ffo rts o fte n m et r e sis ta n ce, a n d m an y o rg an iz atio ns t h at a d vocate d ra cia l “ to le ra n ce” a s a n e sse n tia l f e atu re o f t h e A m eric an W ay s to pped s h ort of p ro m otin g e q uality . I n M arc h 1 942, f o r i n sta n ce, N CCJ s ta ffe rs re co m men ded t h at t h e o rg an iz atio n t a k e o n r a ce m ore d ir e ctly a n d s h if t f ro m “p ublic iz in g t h e i d eal o f t o le ra n ce” t o a tta ck in g a ctu al i n sta n ces o f in to le ra n ce t h ro ugh d ir e ct a ctio n. T he o rg an iz atio n’s p re sid en t a n d b oard o f tr u ste es r e je cte d t h e p ro posa l. W hen t h e C onfe re n ce’s “ to le ra n ce t r io s” vis ite d a rm y c am ps, t h ey s p oke t o t r o ops r ig id ly s e g re g ate d b y r a ce.

67 A co m ic b ook e n title d They G ot t h e B la m e: T he S to ry o f S ca peg oats i n H is to ry was d is tr ib ute d b y t h e Y M CA a n d o th er g ro ups p ro m otin g r e lig io us, e th nic , an d r a cia l h arm ony. T he c o m ic d en ounced t h e “ to rtu re ” a n d “ te rro riz in g” perp etr a te d b y t h e K u K lu x K la n i n t h e p ast b ut s u ggeste d t h at “ th e N eg ro ra ce i s t o day a p pro ach in g t h e p olitic al, e co nom ic a n d s o cia l p ositio n w hic h th e A m eric an W ay o f L if e g uara n te es t o a ll.” 68 ( T he c o m ic a ls o d is c u sse d Iris h i m mig ra n ts , C ath olic s, a n d J e w s, b ut n o o th er g ro up r e q uir e d a s im ila rly re assu rin g s ta te m en t.) E ven t h e C IO ’s C om mitte e t o A bolis h R acia l Dis c rim in atio n ( C A RD ) a d opte d a r e la tiv ely cau tio us a p pro ach . D urin g t h e war, C A RD s p onso re d c o nfe re n ces d esig ned t o f u rth er r a cia l u nders ta n din g, mobiliz ed s u pport f o r t h e F E PC , p ush ed f o r n ondis c rim in ato ry p ublic housin g, a n d e n co ura g ed u nio ns t o p ush f o r c o ntr a ct c la u se s t h at p ro hib ite d dis c rim in atio n i n h ir in g. N ev erth ele ss, a s R obert Z ie g er h as a rg ued , “ Its sta te m en ts s tr e sse d g ood c itiz en sh ip , r e aso ned a p peals , a n d m odera tio n.” CA RD “ d is c o ura g ed r a cia l m ilita n cy ,” a n d i ts p ublic atio ns l a rg ely a v oid ed th e i s su es t h at m ost o fte n c au se d r a cia l t e n sio ns i n t h e w ork -p la ce, i n clu din g dis p ute s o ver j o b a ssig nm en ts a n d t h e p ro m otio n o f b la ck w ork ers .

69 Opera tin g w ith in t h is c o nstr a in in g e n vir o nm en t, b la ck A m eric an s m ad e what p ro gre ss t h ey c o uld . I n t h e f a ll o f 1 942, F ra n k C ap ra h ir e d t h e b la ck sc rip tw rite r C arlto n M oss t o w ork o n a n a rm y o rie n ta tio n f ilm e n title d The Neg ro S old ie r . T he a rm y h oped t h e f ilm w ould h elp b ols te r t h e m ora le o f bla ck G Is a n d d efu se r a cia l t e n sio ns i n t h e m ilita ry b y t e ach in g “ co m ra d ely re g ard a cro ss r a cia l l in es.” M oss d ecid ed t o “ ig nore w hat’ s w ro ng w ith t h e arm y a n d t e ll w hat’ s r ig ht w ith m y p eo ple .” H e h oped t h at b y d oin g s o h e would p ro m pt w hite s t o a sk , “ W hat r ig ht h av e w e t o h old b ack a p eo ple o f th at c alib er? ” T he r e su ltin g f ilm c o ntr a ste d N azi r a cis m t o t h e “ A m eric an Way ,” h aile d t h e c o ntr ib utio ns o f b la ck A m eric an s t o p ast w ars a n d i c o nic mom en ts i n A m eric an h is to ry , a n d f o llo w ed a l ig ht- s k in ned b la ck s o ld ie r th ro ugh O ffic er C an did ate S ch ool. T he f ilm m an ag ed t o a v oid a n y r e fe re n ce to s la v ery , J im C ro w , o r r a cia l s e g re g atio n i n t h e a rm y, b ut i t w as f ille d w ith im ag es o f w ell- d re sse d , r e sp onsib le , c h urc h -g oin g, a n d p atr io tic b la ck Am eric an s.

70 The a rm y o rig in ally i n te n ded t o s h ow t h e f ilm o nly t o b la ck r e cru its ; b ut when i t w as f in is h ed i n e arly 1 944, b la ck a ctiv is ts a n d s o cia l s c ie n tis ts i n t h e arm y u rg ed t h at i t b e s h ow n t o w hite s o ld ie rs a s w ell. A rm y b ra ss a n d t o p offic ia ls i n t h e W ar D ep artm en t p ers o nally s c re en ed t h e f ilm a n d r e q uir e d a se rie s o f s p ecif ic c h an ges d esig ned t o a v oid a n ta g oniz in g w hite s. F or in sta n ce, t h ey d em an ded t h at a s e q uen ce s h ow in g a w hite n urs e m assa g in g th e b ack o f a b la ck s o lid er b e c u t, e v en t h ough t h e a rm y u se d w hite m ed ic al sta ff t o t r e at b la ck G Is . A fte r a s e rie s o f t e st s c re en in gs b efo re b oth b la ck a n d white a u die n ces, t h e a rm y m ad e The N eg ro S old ie r m an dato ry v ie w in g f o r so ld ie rs o f a ll r a ces a t U .S . r e p la cem en t c en te rs . I t a ls o r e le ase d t h e f ilm t o civ ilia n s.

Desp ite t h e f ilm ’s f a ilu re t o c o nfro nt r a cia l i n eq ualitie s d ir e ctly , t h e NAACP a n d o th er c iv il r ig hts g ro ups w ork ed o vertim e i n t h e f in al y ears o f th e w ar t o p ro m ote t h e f ilm b oth t o c o m merc ia l t h eatr e s a n d t o s c h ools a n d civ ic o rg an iz atio ns. I n a n e ra w hen m ost H olly w ood f ilm s u se d b la ck s a s co m ic r e lie f, The N eg ro S old ie r m ark ed t h e b eg in nin g o f a t u rn in g p oin t.

Alf re d H itc h co ck ’s f ilm Life b oat , r e le ase d t h e s a m e m onth a s The N eg ro Sold ie r , a ls o i n clu ded a bla ck A m eric an i n i ts d iv ers e a n d “ d em ocra tic ” c re w , an d i t w as t h is m an w ho u ltim ate ly d is a rm ed t h e N azi s u bm arin e c ap ta in . T he bla ck , h ow ev er, w as a s te w ard , a n d, w hen g iv en t h e c h an ce, h e r e fu se d t o vote o n w ho s h ould c ap ta in t h e l if e b oat.

71 M ore o ver, h e w as t h e o nly mem ber o f t h e c re w w ho d id n ot j o in t h e f re n zie d m ob t h at b eat t h e N azi t o death t o w ard t h e e n d o f t h e f ilm . T he i m ag e o f a b la ck m an k illin g a w hite — ev en a n a v ow ed e n em y— was s till f a r t o o c o ntr o vers ia l i n w artim e A m eric a.

Both Life b oat a n d The N eg ro S old ie r a p peare d j u st m onth s a fte r r a ce r io ts eru pte d i n c itie s a cro ss t h e c o untr y , t h re ate n in g t o t u rn A m eric an u nity i n to a sh am ble s. T he t r o uble b eg an i n M obile , A la b am a, i n l a te M ay w hen w hite sh ip yard w ork ers r io te d o ver t h e p ro m otio n o f b la ck w eld ers . I n e arly J u ne, gan gs o f w hite s o ld ie rs a n d s a ilo rs — destin ed f o r t h e b lo ody w ar i n t h e Pacif ic — pro w le d t h e M ex ic an A m eric an d is tr ic ts o f L os A ngele s, b eatin g u p youth s w earin g z o ot s u its a n d a n yone e ls e w ho g ot i n t h eir w ay . I n m id -J u ne, a r a ce r io t s h ook B eau m ont, T ex as, a n d i n l a te J u ne, D etr o it e x plo ded . B y t h e tim e f e d era l t r o ops w ere c alle d i n t o q uell t h e v io le n ce, t w en ty -fiv e b la ck s an d n in e w hite s l a y d ead , w hile n early a t h ousa n d w ere i n ju re d . I n A ugust, a ra ce r io t i n H arle m c la im ed s ix b la ck l iv es a n d s e n t h undre d s m ore t o t h e hosp ita l.

The r a ce r io ts o f 1 943 s h ock ed A m eric an s, f o cu sin g a s p otlig ht o n r a cia l te n sio ns a cro ss t h e c o untr y a n d l a u nch in g w hat q uic k ly b ecam e k now n a s t h e “C iv ic U nity M ovem en t.” I n t h e m onth s t h at f o llo w ed , h undre d s o f c itie s, sta te s, r e lig io us g ro ups, a n d c o m munity o rg an iz atio ns s e t u p c o m mitte es desig ned t o i n vestig ate a n d d efu se t e n sio ns a m ong e th nic , r e lig io us, a n d partic u la rly r a cia l g ro ups. R acia l l ib era ls a n d c iv il r ig hts a d vocate s g en era lly ap pla u ded t h is m ove. R obert W eav er, t h e N ew D eale r w ho w ould e v en tu ally beco m e A m eric a’s f ir s t b la ck c ab in et s e cre ta ry , w ro te i n Phylo n i n 1 944, “T he m ost o uts ta n din g f e atu re o f t h is d ev elo pm en t h as b een t h e o ffic ia l re co gnitio n o f t h e r a ce p ro ble m i n t h e N orth .” 72 I n 1 951, C are y M cW illia m s arg ued t h at t h e c iv ic u nity m ovem en t h ad b ro ught t h e s tr u ggle f o r r a cia l ju stic e t o t h e a tte n tio n o f c o m munity l e ad ers a cro ss t h e n atio n a n d h elp ed t o “o rg an iz [e ], f o r t h e f ir s t t im e, a p ublic o pin io n o n t h e s u bje ct.” 73 S om e his to ria n s h av e s u ggeste d t h at t h is n etw ork o f o rg an iz atio ns “ sh ap ed t h e in cip ie n t c iv il r ig hts m ovem en t i n t h e y ears b efo re p ro te sts a g ain st r a cia l dis c rim in atio n g ain ed w id esp re ad n atio nal a tte n tio n.” 74 If t h ese c o m mitte es f o cu se d a tte n tio n o n t h e “ ra ce p ro ble m ,” h ow ev er, th ey a ls o s h ap ed t h e w ay i t w as u nders to od i n m an y q uarte rs . T hus, t h eir actio ns u nders c o re t h e a m biv ale n t l e g acy o f A m eric a’s w artim e d is c u ssio n o f plu ra lis m a n d c o nse n su s f o r i s su es o f r a ce. S om e g ro ups d id t a k e s te p s t o pro m ote c iv ic u nity b y a d dre ssin g u nderly in g i s su es o f r a cia l i n eq uality . I n 1945, f o r in sta n ce, t h e m ay or’s C iv ic U nity C om mitte e i n S eattle w ork ed with t h e l o cal t r a n sit c o m pan y, t h e b us d riv ers ’ u nio n, a n d t h e U rb an L eag ue to r e v ers e a l o ng-s ta n din g b an o n h ir in g b la ck d riv ers .

75 I n 1 949, t h e T ole d o Board o f C om munity R ela tio ns t o ok c re d it f o r c o nvin cin g l o cal h osp ita ls t o hir e b la ck n urs e s a n d f o r p ers u ad in g T ole d o h ote ls t o o pen t h eir d oors t o a ll cu sto m ers .

76 S uch a ch ie v em en ts g en era lly r e su lte d f ro m b eh in d-th e-s c en es bla n dis h m en t. M ost c iv ic u nity c o m mitte es s h unned l itig atio n a n d d ir e ct actio n— ta ctic s t h at, a fte r a ll, w ould i n cre ase r a cia l t e n sio ns b y a n ta g oniz in g dis c rim in ato rs .

Ultim ate ly , a s i ts n am e s u ggests , t h e c iv ic u nity m ovem en t w as m ost co ncern ed w ith p ro m otin g s o cia l h arm ony. T he S eattle M ay or’s C om mitte e pers u ad ed l o cal n ew sp ap ers n ot t o p rin t s to rie s a b out c o nfro nta tio ns b etw een white s a n d b la ck s o n t h e c ity t r a n sit s y ste m a n d t o p la y d ow n t h e r e tu rn o f Ja p an ese A m eric an s t o t h e W est C oast. I t w orrie d t h at c o vera g e o f b oth is su es w ould i n fla m e r a cia l t e n sio ns a n d p erh ap s e v en i n cite f u rth er vio le n ce.

77 I n C hic ag o, t e n sio ns o ver h ousin g, p artic u la rly b la ck e ffo rts t o move i n to n eig hborh oods c la im ed b y w hite s, l e d t o “ ch ro nic u rb an g uerilla warfa re ” b etw een 1 944 a n d t h e e n d o f t h e d ecad e. Y et h undre d s o f r a cia l “in cid en ts ” — ra n gin g f ro m v an dalis m t o a rs o n b om bin gs t o f u ll- s c ale r io ts in volv in g t h ousa n ds— were b are ly c o vere d b y t h e c ity ’s m ajo r m etr o polita n dailie s. T he M ay or’s C om mitte e o n R ace R ela tio ns a n d i ts s u ccesso r, t h e Chic ag o C om mis sio n o n H um an R ela tio ns, c o nvin ced t h e c ity ’s w hite -o w ned pap ers t h at c o verin g s u ch e p is o des w ould o nly f a n t h e f la m es o f r a cia l unre st.

78 S uch s te p s h elp ed s u sta in a n i m ag e o f r a cia l h arm ony a n d c o nse n su s well i n to t h e p ostw ar p erio d t h at w as o fte n a t o dds w ith e v en ts o n t h e g ro und.

“T he H ou se I L iv e I n ” In t h e w an in g m onth s o f W orld W ar I I, t h e b la ck f o lk s in ger J o sh W hite perfo rm ed a p atr io tic b alla d e n title d “ T he H ouse I L iv e I n ” i n v en ues a ro und New Y ork C ity . A t r o ughly t h e s a m e t im e, F ra n k S in atr a m ad e a t e n -m in ute film s h ort b uilt a ro und, a n d t itle d a fte r, t h e s a m e s o ng ( fig ure 5 .3 ). B oth J o sh White ’s a n d F ra n k S in atr a ’s v ers io n o f t h e s o ng o pen ed w ith t h e s a m e s ta n za, a s ta n za t h at b eg an a n d e n ded w ith a s im ple q uestio n: “ W hat i s A m eric a t o me?” T he t w o v ers io ns o f t h e s o ng, h ow ev er, a n sw ere d t h at q uestio n i n str ik in gly d if fe re n t w ay s. A c o m paris o n o f t h ese t w o c u ltu ra l p ro ductio ns su ggests b oth t h e w ay s i n w hic h a p ro gre ssiv e, a n tif a sc is t v is io n o f A m eric a was t a m ed d urin g t h e w ar a n d t h e w ay t h at i s su es o f p lu ra lis m a n d t o le ra n ce were i n cre asin gly c ast i n r e lig io us t e rm s. Fig u re 5 .3 .

I n t h e O sc ar-w in nin g f ilm s h ort The H ouse I L iv e I n ( 1 945), f ro m whic h t h is p ublic ity s h ot i s t a k en , F ra n k S in atr a c h astis e s a g an g o f b ullie s fo r b eatin g u p o n a J e w is h s c h oolm ate . A lth ough t h e f ilm h as b een h aile d f o r pro m otin g r a cia l t o le ra n ce, i ts a p peal t o b ro th erh ood a n d A m eric an u nity i s cast l a rg ely i n r e lig io us t e rm s ( P hoto fe st) .

“T he H ouse I L iv e I n ” h ad b een p en ned i n t h e f a ll o f 1 942 b y t h e P opula r Fro nt s o ngw ritin g d uo o f E arl R obin so n a n d L ew is A lla n . T hat O cto ber, t h e New Y ork -b ase d Y outh T heatr e i n clu ded i t i n a “ le ft- p atr io t r e v ue” e n title d Let F re ed om S in g , a n d t h e f o llo w in g s p rin g i t r e ceiv ed a r o usin g r e cep tio n a t a M ay D ay r a lly i n U nio n S quare .

79 W hite ’s r e n ditio n o f t h e s o ng w as i n keep in g w ith t h is P opula r F ro nt t r a d itio n. H e a n sw ere d t h e o pen in g q uestio n with p hra se s t h at b old ly c ap tu re d t h e l e ft- lib era l, a n tif a sc is t v is io n o f t h e natio n. A m eric a w as n ot c o m pris e d s o le ly o f t h e w hite , n ativ e b orn , a n d mid dle c la ss. R ath er, i t i n clu ded “ th e f o lk s b ey ond t h e r a ilr o ad ,” “ m y neig hbors w hite a n d b la ck ,” a n d “ th e p eo ple w ho j u st c am e h ere , o r f ro m gen era tio ns b ack .” B oth v ers io ns e q uate d A m eric a w ith d em ocra cy , b ut o nly White ’s e x plic itly c ast t h at v is io n i n e co nom ic t e rm s: “ A l a n d o f w ealth a n d beau ty , w ith e n ough f o r a ll t o s h are .” F in ally , w hile W hite ’s r e n ditio n c le arly cele b ra te d A m eric a’s p olitic al f re ed om s— in vokin g t h e t o w n h all a n d t h e so ap box, a s w ell a s L in co ln , Je ffe rs o n, a n d P ain e— it a ls o e m phasiz ed “ th e ta sk s t h at s till r e m ain .” I n f a ct, W hite e n ded t h e s o ng o n t h is n ote o f h ope a s yet u nfu lf ille d : “ W ith i ts p ro m is e f o r t o m orro w / T hat’ s A m eric a t o m e.” 80 The f ilm v ers io n o f t h e s o ng c o nta in s f e w o f t h ese p olitic ally c h arg ed re fe re n ces. I n ste ad , S in atr a a n sw ers t h e o pen in g q uestio n w ith a s tr in g o f se n tim en ta l— an d l a rg ely i n nocu ous— im ag es o f A m eric a a n d i ts p eo ple .

Am eric a i s a p lo t o f e arth , a s tr e et, t h e l o cal g ro cer, “ th e h ow dy a n d t h e han dsh ak e,” t h e c o rn er n ew ssta n d, a n d t h e c h urc h yard . S in atr a s in gs o f “ th e work er a t m y s id e,” b ut m ore p oin te d r e fe re n ces t o c la ss d iv is io n a re e x cis e d .

Am eric a’s c u ltu ra l d iv ers ity i s a llu ded t o i n o nly o ne a b str a ct l in e: “ A ll r a ces an d r e lig io ns, t h at’ s A m eric a t o m e.” I n f a ct, w hen L ew is A lla n , t h e s o ng’s ly ric is t, r e aliz ed t h at h is l in e a b out “ m y n eig hbors w hite a n d b la ck ” h ad b een cu t, h e b ecam e s o a n gry t h at h e h ad t o b e r e m oved f ro m t h e t h eate r.

81 A lla n , who h ad e arlie r p en ned t h e p ow erfu l a n tily nch in g b alla d “ S tr a n ge F ru it,” co nsid ere d t h is e x plic it r e fe re n ce t o r a cia l h arm ony c en tr a l t o t h e s o ng’s mean in g. H e a ls o u se d t h e p hra se “ T he H ouse I L iv e I n ” a s t h e t itle o f a b rie f poem t h at b eg an w ith t h e l in e “ b ig ot- tr e e” a n d e n ded w ith t h e w ord “ly nch ed .” 82 Jo urn alis ts a t t h e t im e a n d s c h ola rs a fte r h av e p ra is e d t h e f ilm s h ort f o r pro m otin g r a cia l t o le ra n ce.

83 Y et t h e f ilm ’s o vera ll a p peal f o r t o le ra n ce, bro th erh ood, a n d A m eric an u nity i s c ast l a rg ely i n r e lig io us t e rm s. T he f ilm open s w ith S in atr a , p la y in g h im se lf , c ro onin g a m elo dy d urin g a r e co rd in g se ssio n. L eav in g t h e s tu dio f o r a c ig are tte b re ak , h e e n co unte rs a g an g o f boys b eatin g u p o n a s c h oolm ate . W hen S in atr a a sk s w hat t h e p ro ble m i s , t h e le ad er o f t h e b ullie s c rie s, “ W e d on’t l ik e h is r e lig io n!” T he b oy, a p pare n tly , is J e w is h . A fte r s e v era l m ore e x ch an ges— durin g w hic h S in atr a s u ggests t h e gan g m em bers a re N azis r a th er t h an A m eric an s— th e s in ger g iv es t h e y outh his l e ctu re : “ R elig io n m ak es n o d if fe re n ce— ex cep t m ay be t o a N azi o r so m eo ne w ho’s s tu pid ,” S in atr a d ecla re s. “ W hy p eo ple a ll o ver t h e w orld wors h ip G od i n m an y w ay s. G od c re ate d e v ery one. H e d id n’t c re ate o ne peo ple b ette r t h an a n oth er.” 84 Natio nal o rig in a s a p ara m ete r o f d iv ers ity i s m en tio ned , b ut d e- em phasiz ed i n t h e f ilm . S in atr a n ote s t h at h is f a th er c am e f ro m I ta ly , a lth ough he h im se lf i s a n A m eric an . “ B ut s h ould I h ate y our D ad b ecau se h e c am e fro m I re la n d o r F ra n ce o r R ussia ?” h e a sk s t h e b oys. S in atr a t h en r e tu rn s t o re lig io n, r e te llin g a t r u e s to ry t h at w as w id ely i n voked b y t h e i n te rfa ith movem en t. A f e w d ay s a fte r P earl H arb or, h e t e lls t h e b oys, a s f o ota g e o f sh ip s a n d b om bers f ill t h e s c re en , a U .S . b om ber l o cate d a n d s u ccessfu lly atta ck ed a “ Ja p ” b attle sh ip . “ T he p ilo t o f t h at a ir c ra ft w as n am ed C olin K elly , an A m eric an a n d a P re sb yte ria n ,” S in atr a d ecla re s. “ D o y ou k now w ho dro pped t h e b om bs? M ey er L ev in , a n Am eric an a n d a J e w . D o y ou t h in k may be t h ey s h ould h av e c alle d t h at o ff b ecau se t h ey h ad d if fe re n t r e lig io ns? ” he a sk s r h eto ric ally .

If n atio nal o rig in g ets l im ite d a tte n tio n i n t h e f ilm s h ort, c la ss d iv is io ns an d t h e c o lo r l in e a re e n tir e ly i g nore d . N one o f t h e b oys p ic tu re d a re b la ck ; an d i n t h e f ilm , a s i n t h e s o ng, S in atr a m ak es n o e x plic it r e fe re n ces t o c o lo r.

Even a n i s su e o f c en tr a l c o ncern t o b la ck A m eric an s d urin g t h e w ar— th e milita ry ’s s e g re g atio n o f b la ck a n d w hite b lo od p la sm a— is p la y ed o ut i n t h e film i n r e lig io us t e rm s. S in atr a l e arn s t h at t h e c h ie f b ully ’s f a th er w as a n arm y s e rg ean t w ho r e ceiv ed s e v era l b lo od p la sm a t r a n sfu sio ns a fte r b ein g wounded . T he J e w is h b oy’s p are n ts b oth d onate d b lo od. “ I b etc h a m ay be your p op’s b lo od h elp ed s a v e h is D ad ’s l if e ,” S in atr a t e lls t h e J e w is h b oy.

Then t u rn in g t o t h e b ully , h e a sk s, “ D o y ou t h in k, i f h e’d k now n a b out i t i n tim e, y our f a th er w ould r a th er h av e d ie d t h an t o t a k e b lo od f ro m a m an o f a dif fe re n t r e lig io n?” O f c o urs e , d urin g t h e w ar, t h is w as h ard ly a n i s su e:

Je w is h a n d C hris tia n b lo od p la sm a, u nlik e b la ck a n d w hite , w as m ix ed .

Such o m is sio ns a n d a d ap ta tio ns a re p artic u la rly s u rp ris in g g iv en t h e co lle ctio n o f m en w ho c am e t o geth er t o m ak e t h e f ilm . S cre en w rite r A lb ert Maltz w as a m em ber o f t h e C om munis t P arty a n d w as u ltim ate ly j a ile d a s one o f t h e H olly w ood T en . M erv yn L eR oy d ir e cte d a n d c o pro duced t h e sh ort; t h ir te en y ears e arlie r h e h ad d ir e cte d t h e g ritty a n d e x plo siv e f ilm I A m a F ugitiv e o n a C hain G ang.

S in atr a , w ho h ad b een c alle d a “ d ir ty g uin ea” while g ro w in g u p i n H oboken , N ew J e rs e y , h ad b een g iv in g i m pro m ptu t a lk s on r a cia l, r e lig io us, a n d e th nic t o le ra n ce a t h ig h s c h ools a ro und t h e c o untr y ; a fe w w eek s b efo re t h e r e le ase o f t h e f ilm , h e s p oke t o a n a u die n ce o f f iv e th ousa n d i n G ary , I n dia n a, a fte r a h ig h s c h ool’ s a ccep ta n ce o f b la ck s tu den ts pro m pte d a w alk out b y w hite s.

85 A ll o f t h ese m en , t o geth er w ith p ro ducer Fra n k R oss a n d t h e R K O s tu dio , d onate d t h eir t im e a n d r e so urc es, w hile Alla n a n d R obin so n w aiv ed t h eir s o ng r o yaltie s.

86 P ro ceed s f ro m t h e f ilm sh ort w ere d onate d t o t e n c h aritie s. A m ong t h ose w ho b en efite d w ere s u ch le ad ers i n t h e b attle s f o r o rg an iz ed l a b or a n d c iv il r ig hts a s t h e A byssin ia n Bap tis t C hurc h i n H arle m , t h e H ig hla n der F olk S ch ool i n T en nesse e, t h e Fello w sh ip H ouse i n P hila d elp hia , a n d t h e C alif o rn ia L ab or S ch ool i n L os Angele s.

87 It i s u ncle ar w hy t h ese m en m ad e t h e f ilm t h ey d id . P erh ap s t h ey f e are d th at a f ilm t h at e x plic itly c o nfro nte d r a cia l a n d e co nom ic i n ju stic e w ould b e kep t o ut o f t h eate rs o r w ould n ot a ttr a ct a n a u die n ce. C erta in ly , i n t h e c o nte x t of w artim e d is c o urs e , c o uch in g a rg um en ts f o r t o le ra n ce i n r e lig io us t e rm s was a f a r s a fe r b et.

The H ouse I L iv e I n w as d is tr ib ute d t o t h eate rs f re e o f ch arg e b y R K O i n t h e f a ll o f 1 945. H aile d b y c ritic s a n d a p pla u ded b y in te rg ro up a ctiv is ts a n d t h e m ed ia , i t w on a s p ecia l A cad em y A ward i n 1 946 fo r i ts p ro m otio n of “ to le ra n ce a n d b ro th erh ood.” 88 I n i ts c en tr a l c o ncern s an d f o rm ula tio ns, t h e f ilm l o oked b ack w ard , b ut i t a ls o f o re sh ad ow ed t h e dir e ctio n t h at d is c u ssio ns o f A m eric an u nity a n d c o nse n su s w ould t a k e i n t h e postw ar y ears . T here w ould b e o ne c en tr a l d if fe re n ce: S ovie ts a n d t h eir Com munis t a llie s w ould s o on r e p la ce N azis a n d “ Ja p s” a s t h e e n em ie s th re ate n in g t o d iv id e a n d c o nquer A m eric an s. PA RT I II Shap in g a C old W ar Con se n su s ( 1 946–1955) CH APT ER 6 Unit e d A m eric a O n A pril 1 6, 1 946, m illio ns o f c h ild re n a cro ss A m eric a s a t d ow n b efo re d in ner t o l is te n t o t h eir f a v orite n ig htly r a d io d ra m a, The A dven tu re s o f S uperm an.

F or m ore t h an s ix y ears , t h e “ M an o f S te el” h ad a p peare d r e g ula rly o n s ta tio ns a ffilia te d w ith t h e M utu al B ro ad castin g S yste m a n d b attle d m ad N azi s c ie n tis ts , s in is te r a n d d is lo yal J a p an ese A m eric an s, a n d r a d io activ e m onste rs . T he s to ry l in e t h at b eg an t h at n ig ht, h ow ev er, w as d if fe re n t. E ntitle d “ T he H ate M ongers A sso cia tio n,” i t p itte d C la rk K en t/S uperm an a n d h is s id ek ic k J im my O ls e n a g ain st a s e cre tiv e g ro up c alle d t h e G uard ia n s o f A m eric a. T he G uard ia n s w ere t r y in g t o p re v en t a n i n te rfa ith c o uncil i n M etr o polis f ro m c o nstr u ctin g a c o m munity c lu bhouse a n d g ym nasiu m “ fo r t h e u se o f a ll b oys a n d g ir ls i n t h e n eig hborh ood, r e g ard le ss o f r a ce, c re ed o r c o lo r.” T hey f ir s t s e t f ir e t o t h e s to re o f a d ru ggis t n am ed D av id H offm an , t h en b ad ly b eat a b oy n am ed D an ny O ’N eill w ho h ad s e en t h em s e t t h e f ir e . “ It i s n ’t j u st t h e C ath olic s, o r t h e J e w s, o r t h e P ro te sta n ts t h ey ’re a fte r,” K en t t o ld J im my. “ T heir g am e i s t o s tir u p h atr e d a m ong a ll o f u s— to g et t h e C ath olic t o h ate t h e J e w a n d t h e J e w t o h ate t h e P ro te sta n t, a n d t h e P ro te sta n t t o h ate t h e C ath olic . I t’ s a d ir ty , v ic io us c ir c le , a n d l ik e H itle r a n d h is N azi k ille rs , t h ey p la n t o s te p i n a n d p ic k u p t h e m arb le s w hile w e’re b usy h atin g o ne a n oth er a n d c u ttin g e ach o th er’s t h ro ats .

I t’ s a n o ld t r ic k b ut f o r s o m e r e aso n a l o t o f u s s till f a ll f o r i t.” F or t h e n ex t f iv e w eek s, S uperm an b attle d n ot t h e S carle t W id ow , d er T eu fe l ( “ th e D ev il” ) o r t h e A to m M an — but b ig ote d A m eric an s.

1 “T he H ate M ongers A sso cia tio n” m ark ed a t u rn in g p oin t f o r S uperm an .

A s a j o urn alis t f o r t h e New Y ork H era ld T rib une n ote d , a fte r “ y ears o f p ure b lo od, t h under a n d a to m ic e n erg y,” t h e c ap ed a v en ger h ad b eg un c ru sa d in g f o r “ to le ra n ce.” I n J u ne 1 946, S uperm an f o ught “ T he C la n o f t h e F ie ry C ro ss,” whic h w as t r y in g t o r u n a C hin ese f a m ily o ut o f t o w n.

2 ( T ip ped o ff by a K u K lu x K la n i n filtr a to r, t h e s h ow ’s w rite rs w ork ed r e al K KK r itu als an d p assw ord s i n to t h e s h ow .

3 ) I n S ep te m ber, t h e M an o f S te el h elp ed p in a murd er o n a c ro oked p olitic al b oss, w ho h ad b een a ccu se d b y v ete ra n s “re p re se n tin g t h e t h re e f a ith s” o f d is c rim in atin g i n j o b a p poin tm en ts .

4 I n early 1 947, w hen t h e K nig hts o f t h e W hite C arn atio n s c h em ed t o k eep b oys with f o re ig n-s o undin g n am es o ff t h e W est S id e H ig h S ch ool b ask etb all t e am , Superm an r e sto re d t h e t e am a n d e x pose d t h e K nig hts . H e a ls o r e v eale d t h at th ey h ad s la in a p ro m in en t b usin essm en w ho h ad t r ie d t o e x pose t h eir dis c rim in ato ry a ctio ns.

5 C la rk K en t/S uperm an w as d ra w n i n to m an y o f t h ese cru sa d es b y h is f rie n d J im my O ls e n , w ho w as i n volv ed w ith a n onse cta ria n boys c lu b a p pro pria te ly n am ed “ U nity H ouse .” 6 B y 1 948, K ello gg C o., w hic h sp onso re d t h e p ro gra m , w as i n clu din g s h ort t a lk s o n t o le ra n ce “ b efo re a n d afte r e ach e p is o de b y e ith er t h e ‘ S uperm an ’ a cto r h im se lf o r b y t h e a n nouncer of t h e p ro gra m .” 7 W hen S uper-m an m ad e t h e l e ap t o t e le v is io n i n 1 951, t h e sh ow ’s p ro ducers h ig hlig hte d h is n ew fo und m is sio n i n t h eir i n tr o ductio n:

Superm an , t h e a n nouncer i n to ned , w as f ig htin g “ a n ev er-e n din g b attle f o r Tru th , J u stic e, a n d t h e A m eric an W ay .” Superm an ’s r e cru itm en t i n to t h e f ig ht f o r t h e “ A m eric an W ay ”— an Am eric an W ay b uilt a ro und n otio ns o f t o le ra n ce a n d t e am work — re fle cte d a sh if t i n s tr a te g y o n t h e p art o f s o m e i n A m eric a’s b usin ess c o m munity .

Pare n ts , t e ach ers , i n te rg ro up a ctiv is ts , a n d c h ild w elf a re o rg an iz atio ns h ad lo ng l o bbie d t h e p ro ducers o f c o m ic s tr ip s a n d c h ild re n ’s r a d io s h ow s t o mak e t h eir f a re m ore s o cia lly c o nsc io us, g en era lly w ith l ittle s u ccess.

8 I n l a te 1945, h ow ev er, W illia m B . L ew is , r a d io d ir e cto r a t t h e K en yon & E ck hard t ad vertis in g a g en cy , l a tc h ed o nto t h e i d ea a s a w ay o f s h ow in g t h at “ th e in te re sts o f t h e c o m munity a n d t h ose o f a c o m merc ia l a d vertis e r” w ere n ot in co m patib le .

9 K en yon & E ck hard t h ad t h e K ello gg C o. a cco unt, a n d L ew is se t Superm an d ir e cto r R obert M ax w ell t o w ork o n t h e i d ea. ( M ax w ell w as t h e sa m e i n div id ual w ho i n 1 943 h ad t o ld O W I o ffic ia ls t h at h e w as “ te ach in g th is v ast a u die n ce [ o f y oungste rs ] t o h ate .” ) I n c ra ftin g t h e s to ry l in e f o r “ T he Hate M ongers A sso cia tio n,” M ax w ell c o nsu lte d w ith e x perts r a n gin g f ro m Marg are t M ead t o o ffic ia ls a t t h e N atio nal C onfe re n ce o f C hris tia n s a n d J e w s (N CCJ).

10 M ean w hile , L ew is s o ld t h e i d ea t o K ello gg C o. e x ecu tiv es.

Their b et p aid o ff. L is te n er r a tin gs s o are d , r e ach in g 4 .5 m illio n p er w eek by M arc h 1 947 a n d m ak in g The A dven tu re s o f S uperm an t h e m ost p opula r ch ild re n ’s r a d io p ro gra m .

11 T w o y ears l a te r, i t m oved f ro m a f if te en -m in ute daily s lo t o n t h e M utu al N etw ork t o a f u ll h alf -h our t h re e t im es a w eek o n ABC.

12 E nth usia stic l e tte rs p oure d i n f ro m p are n ts a n d e d ucato rs , a n d n ew s org an iz atio ns r a n gin g f ro m PM t o New sw eek l a u ded t h e s h ow . T he A m eric an New sp ap er G uild , t h e N CCJ, a n d t h e A m eric an V ete ra n s’ C om mitte e honore d t h e s e rie s, a s d id t h e C alv in N ew sp ap er S erv ic e, w hic h p ro vid ed new s a n d s y ndic ate d c o lu m ns t o m ore t h an a h undre d b la ck n ew sp ap ers acro ss t h e c o untr y .

13 ( M ean w hile , t h e a n ti- S em itic e v an gelis t G era ld L . K .

Sm ith d en ounced S uperm an a s “ a d is g ra ce t o A m eric a” a n d, i n G eo rg ia , t h e Gra n d D ra g on o f t h e K KK t r ie d u nsu ccessfu lly t o l a u nch a b oyco tt o f Kello gg’s P ep c ere al.) A s a K en yon & E ck hard t e x ecu tiv e t o ld t h e New Rep ublic i n e arly 1 947, “ T his t o le ra n ce t h em e i s g ood b usin ess.” 14 At o ne l e v el, t h e r e v am pin g o f The A dven tu re s o f S uperm an p ro vid es a n early e x am ple o f w hat i s t o day c alle d s o cia lly c o nsc io us a d vertis in g: K ello gg Co. s o ught t o b oost i ts i m ag e a n d s a le s b y p re se n tin g i ts e lf a s r e sp onsib le a n d co m munity m in ded . A t a d eep er l e v el, h ow ev er, t h e p ro gra m ’s m ak eo ver c an be s e en a s p art o f a w id e-ra n gin g a n d m ultif a cete d e ffo rt b y a n a rra y o f in flu en tia l e lite s i n t h e i m med ia te p ostw ar y ears t o r e cap tu re t h e s e n se o f natio nal u nity a n d t e am work t h at h ad p erv ad ed p ublic d is c o urs e i n t h e U .S .

durin g W orld W ar I I. T hose e n gag ed i n t h is e n deav or i n clu ded s o cia l sc ie n tis ts w ho w orrie d a b out t h re ats t o s o cia l c o hesio n p ose d b y t h e “ g ro up min d”; i n te rg ro up a ctiv is ts w ho h oped t o e x te n d t h eir w artim e a n tip re ju dic e cam paig ns; b usin ess, a d vertis in g, a n d p ublic r e la tio ns e x ecu tiv es d ete rm in ed to d era il t h e r is in g p ow er o f l a b or a n d t o h alt o r r o ll b ack t h e p olic ie s o f t h e New D eal; a n d o ffic ia ls o f t h e T ru m an a d m in is tr a tio n w ho s o ught t o u nif y Am eric an s b eh in d t h eir e m erg in g c o ld w ar p olic ie s.

15 T he m otiv es o f t h ese div ers e e lite s d if fe re d s h arp ly , a s d id t h eir p re cis e d efin itio n o f t h e v alu es aro und w hic h A m eric an s s h ould u nite . W hat t h ey s h are d w as a f e ar o f s o cia l unre st o r u pheav al t h at p ro m pte d t h em t o p ro m ote a c o nse n su al a n d harm onio us v is io n o f t h e n atio n.

The b re ad th a n d d ep th o f s u ch c o ncern s c an b e g lim pse d i n a l e ctu re se rie s h eld a t C olu m bia U niv ers ity i n t h e w an in g m onth s o f W orld W ar I I an d p ublis h ed i n 1 947 u nder t h e t itle Unity a nd D iffe re n ce i n A m eric a n L ife .

Partic ip an ts i n t h e s y m posiu m r a n ged f ro m C olu m bia h is to ria n A la n N ev in s to H ow ard U niv ers ity s o cio lo gis t E . F ra n klin F ra zie r, f ro m f o undatio n offic ia l L aw re n ce K . F ra n k t o p ublic r e la tio ns p io neer E dw ard B ern ay s.

Man y o f t h e d ozen i n div id uals w ho c o ntr ib ute d t o t h e p ublis h ed v olu m e str e sse d A m eric an s’ n eed t o r e cap tu re c o m mon g ro und a fte r t h e w ar. F ra n k note d t h at “ th e d em ocra tic f a ith ” r e q uir e d A m eric an s t o “ en co ura g e in div id ual d if fe re n ces a n d d iv ers itie s o f a ll k in d.” “ B ut,” h e a d ded , “ if w e hope t o m ain ta in s o cia l o rd er, w e m ust f in d o r c re ate s o m e u nity , a t l e ast i n th e f o rm o f s o m e b asic a ssu m ptio ns, s o m e c o m mon v alu es.” R obert M .

MacIv er, t h e C olu m bia s o cio lo gis t w ho e d ite d t h e v olu m e, l in ked t h e n eed fo r s o cia l h arm ony t o b oth A m eric an id en tity a n d t h e n atio n’s p la ce i n t h e world : “ O f a ll n atio ns, o f a ll c o untr ie s, o urs d ep en ds m ore t h an a n y o th er o n th e c u ltiv atio n o f c o -o pera tiv en ess a n d g ood w ill b etw een g ro ups,” h e w ro te .

“W ith out t h at t h ere i s n o s u ch t h in g a s a n A m eric an w ay o f l if e ; w ith out t h at it i s v ery d if fic u lt t o k now t h at A m eric a s ta n ds f o r a n yth in g.” 16 But w hat w ould p ro duce s u ch c o opera tiv en ess a n d g oodw ill? W hat actio ns o r b elie fs w ere r e q uir e d t o r e in fo rc e t h is h arm onio us v is io n o f t h e Am eric an W ay ? F ra zie r, a d dre ssin g “ T he R acia