history book review. The book is attached below. I also attached a sample book review and a guide, but it must be written in MLA format and double spaced, and has to be 4 pages in length.

Oxfo rd N ew Y ork Auck la n d C ap e T ow n D ar e s S ala am H ong K ong K ara ch i Kuala L um pur M ad rid M elb ourn e M ex ic o C ity N air o bi New D elh i S han ghai T aip ei T oro nto With o ffic es i n Arg en tin a A ustr ia B ra zil C hile C zech R ep ublic F ra n ce G re ece Guate m ala H ungary I ta ly J a p an P ola n d P ortu gal S in gap ore South K ore a S w itz erla n d T haila n d T urk ey U kra in e V ie tn am Copyrig ht © 2 008 b y O xfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss, I n c.

Publis h ed b y O xfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss, I n c.

198 M ad is o n A ven ue, N ew Y ork , N ew Y ork 1 0016 www.o up.c o m Oxfo rd i s a r e g is te re d t r a d em ark o f O xfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss All r ig hts r e se rv ed . N o p art o f t h is p ublic atio n m ay b e r e p ro duced , sto re d i n a r e tr ie v al s y ste m , o r t r a n sm itte d , i n a n y f o rm o r b y a n y m ean s, ele ctr o nic , m ech an ic al, p hoto co pyin g, r e co rd in g, o r o th erw is e , with out t h e p rio r p erm is sio n o f O xfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss.

Lib ra ry o f C ongre ss C ata lo gin g-in -P ublic atio n D ata Wall, W en dy, 1 962– In ven tin g t h e A m eric an w ay : t h e p olitic s o f c o nse n su s f ro m t h e N ew Deal t o t h e c iv il r ig hts m ovem en t / W en dy L . W all.

p. c m .

In clu des b ib lio gra p hic al r e fe re n ces a n d i n dex . IS B N 9 78-0 -1 9-5 32910-0 1. U nite d S ta te s— Politic s a n d g overn m en t— 1933–1945. 2 . U nite d Sta te s— Politic s a n d g overn m en t— 1945–1989. 3 . P olitic al c u ltu re — Unite d S ta te s— His to ry — 20th c en tu ry .

4. N atio nalis m — Unite d S ta te s— His to ry — 20th c en tu ry . 5 . B usin essm en — Unite d S ta te s— Politic al activ ity — His to ry — 20th c en tu ry . 6 . U nite d Sta te s— Offic ia ls a n d e m plo yees— Politic al a ctiv ity — His to ry — 20th cen tu ry . 7 . E lite ( S ocia l s c ie n ces)— Unite d Sta te s— Politic al a ctiv ity — His to ry — 20th c en tu ry . 8 . P olitic al a ctiv is ts —Unite d S ta te s— His to ry — 20th cen tu ry . 9 . I n te lle ctu als — Unite d S ta te s— Politic al a ctiv ity — His to ry — 20th c en tu ry . 1 0. U nite d S ta te s— Socia l co nditio ns— 20th c en tu ry .

I. T itle .

E743.W 355 2 008 973.9 17— dc2 2 2 007010975 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Prin te d i n t h e U nite d S ta te s o f A m eric a o n a cid -fre e p ap er To m y p aren ts Joh n K lie w er W all a n d Joyce B ric k m an W all Ack now le d gm en ts W hen a p ro je ct t a k es a s l o ng a s t h is o ne h as o ne a ccu m ula te s m an y d eb ts — to c o lle ag ues, i n stitu tio ns, f rie n ds, a n d f a m ily . T o t h ose n am ed b elo w , a n d m an y o th ers h ere u nnam ed , I a m i m measu ra b ly g ra te fu l.

The i n sig htf u l c o m men ts , c ritic is m s, a n d s u ggestio ns o f v ario us m en to rs h elp ed s h ap e t h is p ro je ct f ro m i ts i n cep tio n. D av id K en ned y o ffe re d e n th usia stic s u pport ( o ccasio nally b ala n ced b y j u dic io us s k ep tic is m ), a n d p ro m pte d m e t o t h in k e v en m ore b ro ad ly a b out t h e t o pic s a d dre sse d h ere t h an I w as i n clin ed t o d o o n m y o w n. M eetin gs w ith G eo rg e F re d eric k so n l e ft m e b oth r e en erg iz ed a n d i n te lle ctu ally i n sp ir e d ; t h e i n te re st w ith w hic h h e r e ad m y a cco unts o f p eo ple a n d e v en ts h e’d s o m etim es e x perie n ced f ir s th an d p ers u ad ed m e t h at I w as o n t h e r ig ht t r a ck . S te v en Z ip pers te in ’s q uie t g en ero sity o f s p ir it a lw ay s m ad e h is o ffic e s e em l ik e a n o cean o f c alm .

D an ie l K ev le s a n d N an cy H ew itt o ffe re d m e i n valu ab le s u pport a n d s a g e c o unse l a t v ario us s ta g es i n t h e p ro cess. A s m etic u lo us s c h ola rs c o m mitte d t o n urtu rin g y ounger h is to ria n s a n d t o r e ach in g a b ro ad er p ublic , a ll o ffe re d w onderfu l m odels o f t h e b est t h at a cad em ia h as t o o ffe r. A lth ough s h e d oes n ot k now i t, m y h ig h s c h ool h is to ry t e ach er T assie H ad lo ck P iltz f ir s t s p ark ed m y i n te re st i n A m eric a’s n atio nal i d en tity .

My t h in kin g h as b en efite d e n orm ously o ver t h e y ears f ro m t h e i n sig hts o f s e m in ar a n d p an el p artic ip an ts , m an usc rip t r e v ie w ers , a n d c o lle ag ues a t S ta n fo rd , C alte ch , D uke, a n d C olg ate . S usa n T horn e a n d F ay e D udden r e ad t h e e n tir e m an usc rip t a t d if fe re n t s ta g es; b oth o ffe re d h elp fu l e d ito ria l a d vic e a n d a g en tle n udge t o “ se n d i t o ff.” T he c o m men ts o f K ev in K ru se , D av id H ollin ger, a n d t w o a n onym ous r e ad ers h elp ed g uid e m y t h in kin g a t v ario us s ta g es i n t h e r e v is io n p ro cess. I a m a ls o g ra te fu l t o E ric a n d J e ssic a A llin a- P is a n o, A nto nio B arre ra , D av id B en nett, R obert C hern y, E ste lle F re ed m an , C hris H en ke, C aro ly n H su , G le n n L oury , R obert N em es, D av id R obin so n, A ndy R otte r, C am illa Tow nse n d a n d J u dith W eis e n fe ld f o r t h eir c o m men ts o n i d eas o r l a n gau ge i n t h is b ook. Audie n ce m em bers a t p ro fe ssio nal c o nfe re n ces a n d o th er f o ru m s re sp onded g ra cio usly a n d t h oughtf u lly t o m y w ork . I a m p artic u la rly t h an kfu l to t h e f o llo w in g i n stitu tio ns f o r g iv in g m e t h e o pportu nity t o d is c u ss m y fin din gs: t h e A m eric an H is to ric al A sso cia tio n, t h e A m eric an S tu die s Asso cia tio n, t h e O rg an iz atio n o f A m eric an H is to ria n s, t h e R ese arc h Tria n gle ’s I n te lle ctu al H is to ry S em in ar, t h e R ese arc h T ria n gle ’s F em in is t Wom en i n H is to ry G ro up, t h e r e se arc h w ork sh op o f B .U .’ s I n stitu te o n R ace an d S ocia l D iv is io n, a n d t h e U niv ers ity o f W is c o nsin ’s H is to ry D ep artm en t.

Specia l t h an ks t o R ag nhild F ie b ig von H ase w ho p ro vid ed m y e arlie st m odel of a p ro fe ssio nal h is to ria n a n d l a te r a rra n ged f o r m e t o p re se n t s o m e pre lim in ary t h oughts t o t h e a n nual c o nfe re n ce o f h is to ria n s i n t h e G erm an Asso cia tio n o f A m eric an S tu die s.

Sta n fo rd U niv ers ity p ro vid ed f in an cia l s u pport f o r t h is p ro je ct i n i ts earlie st s ta g es. T he N atio nal E ndow m en t f o r t h e H um an itie s g en ero usly aw ard ed m e a d is se rta tio n f e llo w sh ip . I b eg an t h in kin g a b out t h is p ro je ct while a p re d octo ra l f e llo w a t t h e S ta n fo rd H um an itie s C en te r, a n d l a u nch ed my r e v is io ns w hile a r e se arc h a sso cia te a t B osto n U niv ers ity ’s I n stitu te o n Race a n d S ocia l D iv is io n. B oth c en te rs o ffe re d n ot o nly f in an cia l s u pport, b ut wonderfu l c o lle ag ues w ho h elp ed t o s h arp en m y t h in kin g. A C la rk e Cham bers T ra v el F ello w sh ip f ro m t h e S ocia l W elf a re H is to ry A rc h iv es a t t h e Univ ers ity o f M in neso ta , a G ild er L eh rm an F ello w sh ip a t C olu m bia Univ ers ity ’s R are B ook a n d M an usc rip t L ib ra ry , a n d r e se arc h g ra n ts f ro m t h e Hag le y M use u m a n d L ib ra ry , t h e R ock efe lle r A rc h iv e C en te r, a n d t h e H arry S. T ru m an L ib ra ry I n stitu te a llo w ed m e t o d o e x te n siv e w ork i n t h ose arc h iv es. C olg ate U niv ers ity ’s R ese arc h C ouncil f u nded f u rth er t r a v el, tr a n sla tin g h elp , a n d t h e a cq uis itio n o f m an y o f t h e i m ag es f o und i n t h is book.

Arc h iv is ts a n d l ib ra ria n s p ro vid ed v ita l a ssis ta n ce a t v ario us s ta g es a lo ng th e w ay . I a m i n deb te d t o t h e s ta ffs o f t h e r e se arc h l ib ra rie s a n d a rc h iv es men tio ned a b ove, a s w ell a s t o t h ose a t t h e N atio nal A rc h iv es i n W ash in gto n, D.C . a n d C olle g e P ark , M ary la n d; t h e N atio nal R eco rd s C en te r i n S uitla n d, Mary la n d; t h e L ib ra ry o f C ongre ss; t h e W is c o nsin S ta te H is to ric al S ocie ty ; th e H arv ard U niv ers ity a rc h iv es; B ak er L ib ra ry a t H arv ard B usin ess S ch ool; th e N ew Y ork P ublic L ib ra ry ; t h e A m eric an J e w is h C om mitte e’s B la u ste in Lib ra ry ; t h e Y IV O I n stitu te f o r J e w is h R ese arc h ; t h e A dvertis in g C ouncil Arc h iv es a t t h e U niv ers ity o f I llin ois ; t h e I m mig ra tio n H is to ry R ese arc h Cen te r; t h e H oover I n stitu tio n’s l ib ra ry a n d a rc h iv es; a n d t h e u niv ers ity lib ra rie s a t S ta n fo rd , t h e C alif o rn ia I n stitu te o f T ech nolo gy, D uke, a n d Colg ate . D av id K la asse n a t t h e Socia l W elf a re H is to ry A rc h iv es d ese rv es sp ecia l t h an ks f o r a le rtin g m e t o t h e p ap ers o f t h e C hild S tu dy A sso cia tio n o f Am eric a, a d is c o very t h at m ad e S uperm an a p art o f t h is s to ry . S pecia l t h an ks als o t o A nn A ck ers o n, K are n F orn i A ustin , a n d o th ers o n t h e c ir c u la tio n a n d in te rlib ra ry l o an s ta ffs a t C olg ate ; t h eir c re ativ ity a n d p ers is te n ce a llo w ed m e to c o m ple te t h is b ook a t a t im e w hen t h e c o lle g e m ain l ib ra ry w as c lo se d f o r re n ovatio n a n d m uch o f t h e c o lle ctio n r e le v an t t o m y p ro je ct w as i n l o ng- te rm s to ra g e.

Irv in g E lic h ir ig oity a n d A nth ony C ash m an h elp ed m e t r a n sla te a rtic le s fro m t h e I ta lia n -A m eric an p re ss. L in da H allb erg t r a n sla te d p ortio ns o f Gunnar a n d A lv a M yrd al’ s Konta kt m ed A m erik a f ro m S w ed is h . C in dy R yan sp en t w eek s r e sto rin g r e se arc h f ile s t h at b ecam e g arb le d w hen I t r a n sla te d th em f ro m W ord P erfe ct t o W ord . R ay N ard elli a n d C aro ly n H su h elp ed m e pre p are s o m e o f t h e i llu str a tio ns f o r t h is v olu m e.

Both t h e 1 942 a n d 1 965 e d itio ns o f M arg are t M ead ’s n atio nal c h ara cte r stu dy And K eep Y our P ow der D ry a re q uote d c o urte sy o f t h e I n stitu te f o r In te rc u ltu ra l S tu die s, I n c. i n N ew Y ork , N ew Y ork . P arts o f ch ap te rs 3 a n d 5 pre v io usly a p peare d i n a lte re d f o rm i n “ ‘O ur E nem ie s W ith in ’: N azis m , Natio nal U nity a n d A m eric a’s W artim e D is c o urs e o n T ole ra n ce,” i n Enem y Im ages i n A m eric a n H is to ry , e d s. R ag nhild F ie b ig von H ase a n d U rs u la Leh m kuhl ( P ro vid en ce, R .I .: B erg hah n B ooks, 1 997), 2 09–229. A p ortio n o f Chap te r 8 a p peare d a s “ A m eric a’s ‘ B est P ro pag an dis ts ’: I ta lia n A m eric an s an d t h e 1 948 ‘ L ette rs t o I ta ly ’ C am paig n,” i n Cold W ar C onstr u ctio ns: T he Politic a l C ultu re o f U nite d S ta te s I m peria lis m , 1 945–1966 , e d . C hris tia n Appy ( A m hers t: U niv ers ity o f M assa ch use tts P re ss, 2 000), 8 9–109. T han ks to b oth p re sse s f o r p erm is sio n t o r e p rin t t h is m ate ria l.

At O xfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss, S usa n F erb er s h ep herd ed t h is p ro je ct t h ro ugh th e a p pro val p ro cess w ith l ig htn in g s p eed . A rm ed w ith h er e v er-p re se n t Bla ck berry , s h e a n sw ere d q uestio ns f ro m h ote l r o om s i n T ex as a n d a hig hw ay i n V ir g in ia . M an y t h an ks a ls o t o m y p ro ductio n e d ito r G wen doly n T. C olv in f o r a ll h er w ork o n t h e f in al s ta g es o f t h e b ook.

Frie n ds a n d f a m ily m em bers u nstin tin gly o ffe re d e m otio nal s u pport, a so undin g b oard f o r m y i d eas, l o dgin g, e m erg en cy c h ild care , a n d l a st- m in ute co m pute r a ssis ta n ce. A lth ough a n y l is t w ould b e i n co m ple te , I a m partic u la rly i n deb te d t o J o hnny W all, K im berly a n d C hris W all O verto n, Mic h ael W all a n d W en dy F en g, R och elle a n d A ri Z ak , P au l E ngelm ay er a n d Em ily M an dels ta m , I n és S ala zar a n d J e ff U ngar, T hom as a n d F rie d em arie Farra r, S co tt K ilm an , K ath erin e J o llu ck , J e h an ne G heith , A ndy R otte r a n d Pad m a K aim al, C aro ly n H su a n d C hris H en ke, K äre n W ig en , P ila r M ejia Barre ra , R eg in a C onti, A str id Helf a n t, a n d E liz ab eth M arlo w e. T his p ro je ct co uld n ev er h av e b een c o m ple te d w ith out t h e c h eerfu l s ta ff o f t h e C hen an go Nurs e ry S ch ool a n d a h ost o f e x cep tio nal b ab ysitte rs . I n t h e f in al d ecad e o f his l if e , t h e l a te E ugen e R oberts o n s h are d w ith m e h is l o ve o f P au l R obeso n an d m uch m ore ; h e e m bodie d f o r m e t h e h um an e a n d p ro gre ssiv e p atr io tis m th at m ark ed m uch o f t h e A m eric an l e ft d urin g t h e 1 930s.

A h an dfu l o f i n div id uals d ese rv e s p ecia l t h an ks f o r s u sta in in g m y f a ith i n myse lf a n d t h is p ro je ct. F or t h e b ette r p art o f t h re e d ecad es, A m y S ch w artz has b een a c lo se f rie n d a n d s o ul m ate . S he a llo w ed m e t o c am p i n h er t in y ap artm en t f o r w eek s a t a t im e, w as i n te lle ctu al m id w if e t o t h is p ro je ct i n i ts early s ta g es, a n d b ro ught h er j o urn alis t’ s e ar a n d e y e t o t h e c o m ple te d man usc rip t. A lis o n T uch er h as a ls o l is te n ed p atie n tly a n d c h eere d m e o n sin ce t h is b ook’s i n cep tio n; s h e a n d h er h usb an d, C huck D yke, e sta b lis h ed th e “ T uch er-D yke F und f o r M oth ers i n A cad em ia ” t o h elp m e p ay f o r s o m e ad ditio nal c h ild care d urin g t h e b ook’s f in al s ta g es. O n m y j o urn ey t h ro ugh gra d uate s c h ool a n d b ey ond, I h av e b een b le sse d w ith t h e c o m pan y o f a wonderfu l a n d e v olv in g g ro up o f f e llo w s o jo urn ers : K are n D unn-H ale y , Arie la G ro ss, L eslie M . H arris , A lic e Y an g M urra y , W en dy L ynch a n d R en ee Rom an o. O ver t h e y ears , w e s h are d m eals , l a u ghs, s o rro w s a n d c o nfid en ces; pra ctic ed j o b t a lk s a n d l e ctu re s; a n d s w ap ped w ritin g a t r e g ula r r e ad in g g ro up “re tr e ats .” T hey h av e a ll r e ad m ultip le v ers io ns o f t h is m an usc rip t, a n d t h ey in ev ita b ly h ad m ore c o nfid en ce i n m e t h an I h ad i n m yse lf . F or t h is , a n d f o r th eir c ritic is m s a n d c o m pan io nsh ip , I a m d eep ly g ra te fu l.

My g re ate st d eb ts a re t o m y i m med ia te f a m ily . A ndre w W . R oberts o n h as ex perie n ced b oth t h e j o ys a n d p erils o f b ein g m arrie d t o a f e llo w h is to ria n .

Over t h e y ears , o ur w id e-ra n gin g d is c u ssio ns o f m y t o pic h av e n ev er f a ile d t o re sto re m y e n th usia sm , a n d h is l o ve, s u pport a n d s e n se o f h um or h av e l ig hte d my p ath i n t h e d ark est t im es. O ur d ogs, B eau a n d N im h, a cco m pan ie d m e o n num ero us r e sto ra tiv e b each w alk s a n d h ik es. L au ra J o yce R oberts o n a n d Thad deu s D an ie l W all R oberts o n b oth a rriv ed w hile I w as t u rn in g m y dis se rta tio n i n to a b ook a n d t h ey w ere f o rc ed t o s h are t h eir m oth er w ith t h at pro je ct. T hey c o nsta n tly r e m in ded m e t h at t h ere a re m ore i m porta n t t h in gs th an m an usc rip ts , a n d t h ey i n varia b ly k ep t m e l a u ghin g, e v en i n t h e f in al gru elin g s tr e tc h .

My l o ve o f h is to ry w as b orn a t m y p are n ts ’ d in ner t a b le a n d i n t h eir liv in g r o om . W hen I w as e le v en o r t w elv e, w e w ould g ath er b y t h e f ir e p la ce while m y f a th er r e ad c h ap te rs f ro m a l e n gth y h is to ry o f t h e R ev olu tio nary War; l a te r w e w ould r e p la y b attle s o ver d in ner w ith t h e c arto n o f m ilk sta n din g i n f o r t h e C ontin en ta l A rm y a n d t h e p eas r e p re se n tin g t h eir B ritis h fo es. F am ily vacatio ns t o ok m e t o C alif o rn ia m is sio ns a n d C olo ra d o m in in g cam ps, C iv il W ar b attle fie ld s a n d M is sis sip pi r iv er t o w ns, a n d t h ro ugh n early fo rty s ta te s. I f ir s t h eard a b out t h e o rig in al F re ed om T ra in f ro m m y p are n ts , as w e w aite d t o b oard i ts m ore l im ite d r e in carn atio n i n 1 976. W ith out m y moth er a n d f a th er’s i n te re st i n h is to ry a n d t h eir f a ith i n A m eric a, I w ould nev er h av e g one t o g ra d uate s c h ool, l e t a lo ne t a ck le d t h is p ro je ct. W ith out th eir e n durin g l o ve a n d s u pport— not t o m en tio n a c erta in d eg re e o f i n herite d stu bborn ness— I w ould n ev er h av e s e en i t t h ro ugh t o f ru itio n. W ith l o ve a n d gra titu de, I d ed ic ate i t t o t h em . Perm is sio n s L yric s r e p rin te d f ro m T H E H OUSE I L IV E I N . B y E arl R obin so n a n d L ew is A lle n . C opyrig ht © 1 942 ( R en ew ed ) b y M usic S ale s C orp . ( A SC A P). A ll r ig hts o uts id e t h e U .S . a d m in is te re d b y W B M usic C orp . A ll r ig hts i n t h e U .S . c o ntr o lle d b y M usic S ale s C orp . ( A SC A P). I n te rn atio nal c o pyrig ht s e cu re d . A ll r ig hts r e se rv ed . R ep rin te d b y p erm is sio n o f M usic S ale s C orp .

a n d A lf re d P ublis h in g C o., I n c.

“F re ed om T ra in ,” f ro m T H E C O LLEC TED P O EM S O F L A NGST O N H UGHES b y L an gsto n H ughes, e d ite d b y A rn old R am pers a d w ith D av id R oesse l, a sso cia te e d ito r. C opyrig ht © 1 994 b y T he E sta te o f L an gsto n H ughes. U se d b y p erm is sio n o f A lf re d A . K nopf, a d iv is io n o f R an dom H ouse , I n c., a n d H aro ld O ber A sso cia te s I n c. Con te n ts In tr o ductio n 3 P art I E nem ie s a t H om e a n d A bro ad ( 1 935–1941) 1 “ A re W e a N atio n?” 2 I n dustr ia l D em ocra cy v ers u s F re e E nte rp ris e 3 I n S earc h o f C om mon G ro und P art I I T he P olit ic s o f U nit y d urin g W orld W ar I I ( 1 942–1945) 4 T he S pectr e o f “ D iv id e a n d C onquer” 5 “ T he H ouse I L iv e I n ” P art I II S hap in g a C old W ar C on se n su s ( 1 946–1955) 6 U nite d A m eric a 7 T he F re ed om T ra in 8 C ru sa d in g f o r F re ed om a t H om e a n d A bro ad Conclu sio n Abbre v ia tio ns U se d i n N ote s Note s In dex In ven tin g t h e “ A m eric a n W ay” In tr o d uctio n I n M ay 1 947, a n i llu str io us g ro up o f b usin ess a n d a d vertis in g e x ecu tiv es, H olly w ood m oguls , l a b or l e ad ers , a n d h ead s o f r e lig io us, c iv ic , a n d c iv il r ig hts o rg an iz atio ns g ath ere d a t t h e W hite H ouse t o p ut t h eir s ta m p o f a p pro val o n o ne o f t h e m ost a m bitio us i d eo lo gic al c am paig ns e v er u nderta k en i n t h e U nite d S ta te s: t h e F re ed om T ra in . L ate r t h at y ear, a t r a in c arry in g o ver o ne h undre d orig in al d ocu m en ts — am ong t h em , J e ffe rs o n’s d ra ft o f t h e D ecla ra tio n o f I n dep en den ce, W ash in gto n’s c o py o f t h e C onstitu tio n, a n d L in co ln ’s s c ra w le d G etty sb urg A ddre ss— le ft o n a s ix te en - m onth j o urn ey t h ro ugh 3 22 c itie s i n a ll f o rty -e ig ht s ta te s. T he F re ed om T ra in ’s p assa g e w as c o ord in ate d w ith h undre d s o f l o cal c ele b ra tio ns, d ubbed p atr io tic “ re v iv al m eetin gs,” a n d a n atio nw id e m ed ia b litz . N ew sre els , n ew sp ap ers , a n d n atio nal m ag azin es g av e t h e t r a in e x te n siv e c o vera g e; F re ed om T ra in m essa g es w ere w ork ed i n to p opula r r a d io p ro gra m s s u ch a s F ib ber M cG ee a nd M olly ; I rv in g B erlin c o m pose d a s o ng i n t h e t r a in ’s h onor; a n d f o ur m illio n s c h oolc h ild re n r e ceiv ed c o pie s o f t h e c o m ic b ook C apta in M arv el a nd t h e F re ed om T ra in !

A n e stim ate d 3 .5 m illio n A m eric an s b oard ed t h e t r a in d urin g i ts t r a v els , a n d a s m an y a s o ne i n t h re e p artic ip ate d i n F re ed om R allie s, F re ed om F ash io n S how s, a n d o th er e v en ts s ta g ed t o c ele b ra te t h e t r a in ’s a rriv al i n t h eir t o w ns.

1 Both t h e t r a in a n d t h e m ed ia b arra g e w ere o ste n sib ly d esig ned t o r e m in d A m eric an s o f t h eir s h are d h erita g e a n d v alu es. C om men ts m ad e b y t h e t r a in ’s o rg an iz ers , h ow ev er, s u ggeste d t h at t h e p ro je ct w as d esig ned t o i n still, r a th er t h an s im ply r e fle ct, t h ose c o m mon m ore s. A tto rn ey G en era l T om C la rk , w hose o ffic e o rig in ate d t h e i d ea, a rg ued t h at “ in doctr in atio n i n d em ocra cy i s t h e e sse n tia l c ata ly tic a g en t n eed ed t o b le n d o ur v ary in g g ro ups i n to o ne A m eric an f a m ily .” 2 P ara m ount P ic tu re s p re sid en t B arn ey B ala b an , t h e s o n o f R ussia n J e w is h i m mig ra n ts a n d t h e m an w ho h elp ed t r a n sfo rm t h e t r a in i n to a m ajo r e x tr a v ag an za, s a w i n t h e F re ed om T ra in “ a w onderfu l v eh ic le f o r cre atin g g ood w ill a m ong v ario us r a cia l a n d r e lig io us g ro ups.” 3 T hom as D’A rc y B ro phy, t h e a d vertis in g e x ecu tiv e w ho u ltim ate ly o rc h estr a te d t h e en tir e p ro je ct, h oped t o d efu se c la ss t e n sio ns a n d h ead o ff “ sta te s o cia lis m ” i n th e U .S . b y “ re -s e llin g A m eric an is m t o A m eric an s.” 4 Each o f t h ese i n div id uals h ad a s lig htly d if fe re n t a g en da, a n d t h eir v oic es were n ot t h e o nly o nes s h ap in g t h e p ro je ct. I n deed , t h e f a çad e o f c o nse n su s su rro undin g t h e F re ed om T ra in c o nceale d a n o ngoin g c o nte st i n volv in g m an y dif fe re n t g ro ups. B eh in d t h e s c en es a n d o ccasio nally i n p ublic , c o rp ora te a n d ad vertis in g e x ecu tiv es, T ru m an a d m in is tr a tio n o ffic ia ls , c iv il s e rv an ts w ith New D eal l o yaltie s, C om munis ts , p acif is ts , a rd en t s e g re g atio nis ts , a n d so uth ern b la ck s f ig htin g t o e n d J im C ro w v ie d t o c o ntr o l t h e m essa g e a n d mean in g o f t h e t r a in . C ontr o vers y e ru pte d o ver t h e d ocu m en ts t h at w ould b e in clu ded i n t h e e x hib it a n d o ver t h e i n te rp re ta tio n a sc rib ed t o e ach : W ere t h e Fourte en th a n d F if te en th a m en dm en ts t o t h e C onstitu tio n— th ose guara n te ein g “ d ue p ro cess” a n d t h e r ig ht t o v ote — re ally t h e “ co m mon herita g e o f all A m eric an s” ?

5 W ere p ic tu re s o f i m mig ra n ts , a rtif a cts docu m en tin g t h e r is e o f t h e l a b or m ovem en t, o r e v en F D R’s 1 940 s p eech decla rin g A m eric a t o b e t h e “ ars e n al o f d em ocra cy ” s u ffic ie n tly nonco ntr o vers ia l t o b e d is p la y ed a b oard t h e F re ed om T ra in ? H ow m uch atte n tio n s h ould b e p aid t o A le x an der H am ilto n, a f a v orite o f e co nom ic co nse rv ativ es, a s c o m pare d t o T hom as J e ffe rs o n, t h e f o undin g f a th er b elo ved by N ew D eal D em ocra ts ? T he i s su e o f r a ce— sp ecif ic ally , w heth er w hite s an d b la ck s s h ould b oard t h e t r a in a n d v ie w t h e d ocu m en ts t o geth er— pro ved partic u la rly t r o uble so m e w hen t h e t r a in h ead ed i n to t h e S outh . I n deed , t h e co ntr o vers y o ver s e g re g atio n b ecam e s o h eate d t h at t r a in o rg an iz ers in str u cte d a d van ce w ork ers o pera tin g b elo w t h e M aso n-D ix on L in e t o r e fe r to i t i n t e le g ra m s s im ply a s “ P ro ble m D .” I n t h is c h arg ed e n vir o nm en t, e v en a word a s s e em in gly c en tr a l t o A m eric a’s n atio nal i d en tity a s “ d em ocra cy ” w as ultim ate ly d eem ed t o o c o ntr o vers ia l t o b e u se d i n s lo gan s a n d p re ss m ate ria ls .

Under t h e b an ner o f “ fre ed om ,” A m eric an s w ith w id ely d iv erg en t i n te re sts use d t h e F re ed om T ra in t o r e in fo rc e t h e c o rp ora te o rd er, s h ore u p s u pport f o r th e c o ld w ar, a n d c am paig n f o r r e lig io us t o le ra n ce a n d c iv il r ig hts .

The s to ry o f t h e F re ed om T ra in h ig hlig hts t h e p olitic s o f c o nse n su s i n Am eric a i n t h e m id dle d ecad es o f t h e t w en tie th c en tu ry . A t f ir s t g la n ce, t h ese tw o n otio ns— “p olitic s” a n d “ co nse n su s” — may s e em a t o dds. A fte r a ll, “co nse n su s” s u ggests a f u ndam en ta l a g re em en t o n v alu es— in t h e w ord s o f th e Oxfo rd E nglis h D ic tio nary , “ th e c o lle ctiv e u nan im ous o pin io n o f a num ber o f p ers o ns.” 6 C erta in ly , A m eric an p undits a n d s c h ola rs w ritin g i n t h e tw o d ecad es f o llo w in g W orld W ar I I t e n ded t o d ow npla y p olitic al b attle s a n d to s tr e ss t h e v alu es t h eir f e llo w c itiz en s s h are d . I n 1 949, A rth ur M .

Sch le sin ger J r., optim is tic ally d ecla re d t h at m ost A m eric an s, i n t h e N orth a n d South , a ccep te d t h e b asic t e n ets o f c iv il r ig hts , w hile “ lib era ls h av e v alu es i n co m mon w ith m ost m em bers o f t h e b usin ess c o m munity .” 7 E le v en y ears la te r, t h e p olitic al s c ie n tis t C lin to n R ossite r a g re ed : “ In t h is f a v ore d c o untr y we h av e a lm ost a lw ay s f o und m ore t h in gs o n w hic h t o a g re e t h an t o dis a g re e,” h e w ro te i n a r e p ort c o m mis sio ned b y P re sid en t E is e n how er. T he early 1 960s, h e a d ded , “ ap pear t o b e a t im e o f b ro ad c o nse n su s o n fu ndam en ta ls .” 8 Our v ie w l o okin g b ack h as b een s tr o ngly s h ap ed b y s u ch pro nouncem en ts . F or n early h alf a c en tu ry , b oth s c h ola rly a n d p opula r co m men ta to rs h av e d ep ic te d t h e p ostw ar y ears , a n d e sp ecia lly t h e 1 950s a n d early 1 960s, a s a t im e o f u nusu ally d eep a n d w ell- g ro unded n atio nal u nity , a tim e w hen p ost- w ar a fflu en ce a n d t h e c o ld w ar c o m bin ed t o p ro duce a re m ark ab le l e v el o f a g re em en t a b out t h e n atio n’s c o re v alu es.

9 O bse rv ers o n both t h e l e ft a n d t h e r ig ht c o m pare t h e f ra ctio usn ess a n d p ola riz atio n o f politic s t o day t o t h e p re su m ed h arm ony o f t h ose e arlie r d ecad es.

In r e cen t y ears , s o m e s c h ola rs h av e c h alle n ged t h is p ic tu re o f i d eo lo gic al co hesio n, p oin tin g t o e v id en ce o f g ra ssro ots r e sis ta n ce o n b oth t h e l e ft a n d th e r ig ht.

10 T heir a p pro ach , h ow ev er, b eg s a c en tr a l q uestio n: I f A m eric an s re m ain ed d iv id ed o n m an y i s su es i n t h e p ostw ar y ears , w hy d id a t o ne o f unity a n d a cco rd s o p erv ad e t h e w ritin g a n d p olitic s o f t h e e ra ? W hy d id a “v en eer o f c o nse n su s a n d c iv ility ” r e ig n?

11 A fte r a ll, t h e c o m bin ed e ffe cts o f afflu en ce a n d a n ti- c o m munis m d id n ot p ro duce e v en t h e a p peara n ce o f co nse n su s i n o th er e p och s o f U .S . h is to ry — th e 1 920s o r t h e 1 980s, f o r ex am ple . W hat m ad e t h e p ostw ar d ecad es d if fe re n t?

This b ook t a ck le s t h at q uestio n. I t b eg in s w ith t h e p re m is e t h at A m eric a’s mid -c en tu ry “ co nse n su s” c an b est b e u nders to od n ot a s a “ n atu ra l” dev elo pm en t b ut a s a p olitic al p ro je ct. B ro ad s o cie ta l t r e n ds m ay h av e co ntr ib ute d t o t h e “ cen tr ip eta l i m puls e ” o f p ostw ar p olitic al c u ltu re , b ut t h at cu ltu re w as s tr o ngly s h ap ed b y t h e c o nsc io us a ctiv itie s o f m ultip le g ro ups.

12 Busin ess a n d a d vertis in g e x ecu tiv es, i n te rfa ith a ctiv is ts , g overn m en t o ffic ia ls , an d o th er c u ltu ra l e lite s s e iz ed o n t h e n otio n o f a u nif y in g a n d d is tin ctiv e “A m eric an W ay ” a n d s o ught t o d efin e i t i n w ay s t h at f u rth ere d t h eir o w n politic al a n d s o cia l a g en das. A ll o f t h ese g ro ups h ad a s tr o ng i n te re st i n cem en tin g n atio nal c o hesio n, a n d a ll p ro m ote d t h e n otio n o f “ co nse n su s,” ev en a s t h ey d if fe re d o n t h e s p ecif ic v alu es a n d a ttr ib ute s t h at t h eir f e llo w citiz en s s h are d . T he c o m pro m is e s t h ey m ad e— an d t h e a llia n ces t h ey f o rg ed —did m uch t o p ro duce t h e c o nse n su s c u ltu re t h at m ark ed t h e p ublic a re n a durin g t h e p ostw ar y ears .

The r o ots o f t h is c o nse n su s c u ltu re c an b e f o und n ot i n t h e c o ld w ar e ra , as p re v io us h is to ria n s h av e s u ggeste d , b ut i n t h e t u rb ule n t d ecad e t h at pre ced ed U .S . e n tr y i n to W orld W ar I I. A m eric an s o f d iv ers e b ack gro unds an d d iv erg en t a g en das w ere a la rm ed b y t h e c h ao s o f t h e D ep re ssio n y ears , a s well a s b y t h e r is e o f f a sc is m a n d c o m munis m a b ro ad . T o c o nse rv ativ e in dustr ia lis ts a n d l e ft- lib era l i n te lle ctu als a lik e, t h ese “ alie n ” i d eo lo gie s se em ed t o t h re ate n t h e U .S . n ot o nly e x te rn ally , b ut i n te rn ally a s w ell. T o co unte r s u ch t h re ats — to s h ore u p t h eir v is io n o f A m eric an d em ocra cy o r t h e natio n’s e co nom ic s y ste m — div ers e g ro ups a rtic u la te d t h eir v ers io n o f a unif y in g n atio nal i d eo lo gy a n d s o ught t o c o nvin ce t h eir f e llo w c itiz en s o f i ts merits . T he r e su ltin g “ cu ltu ra l c o nvers a tio n” l a ste d n early t h re e d ecad es a n d sp aw ned B ro ad w ay p la y s, f ilm s h orts , c o m ic s tr ip s, m ovie s, r a d io s h ow s, ad vertis in g b litz es, a n d c o ld w ar l e tte r-w ritin g c am paig ns.

13 I t s h ap ed c u ltu ra l pro ductio ns r a n gin g f ro m t h e F re ed om T ra in t o t h e r a d io s e ria l The Adven tu re s o f S uperm an . I ts l e g acie s i n clu de t e rm s t h at r e m ain c en tr a l t o Am eric an p olitic al l if e — te rm s s u ch a s “ fre e e n te rp ris e ” a n d t h e “ A m eric an Way ,” b oth o f w hic h w ere p opula riz ed i n t h e l a te 1 930s.

Tw o k ey s tr u ggle s l ie a t t h e h eart o f t h is s to ry , o verla p ped b y a t h ir d . T he fir s t r e v olv ed a ro und t h e s h ap e a n d p la ce o f c ap ita lis m i n A m eric an l if e . T he eco nom ic c o lla p se o f t h e 1 930s u nderm in ed t h e p olitic al a n d c u ltu ra l au th ority o f t h e n atio n’s b usin ess c o m munity a n d c alle d i n to q uestio n r a re ly ch alle n ged a ssu m ptio ns a b out t h e s ta b ility a n d c o urs e o f U .S . s o cie ty . I n t h is co nte x t, P re sid en t R oose v elt a n d h is N ew D eale rs p ro m ote d a n “ A m eric an Way ” b uilt a ro und t h e t w in p illa rs o f m ajo rita ria n d em ocra cy a n d e co nom ic se cu rity f o r a ll A m eric an s. F re ed om f ro m w an t, F D R a rg ued , w as a v ita l underp in nin g o f d em ocra cy a n d s o m eth in g t h at c o uld o nly b e e n su re d b y a n activ is t g overn m en t. I n dustr ia l u nio nis ts a n d t h ose o n t h e l e ft w in g o f t h e New D eal c o alitio n p ush ed F D R’s v is io n e v en f u rth er, c allin g f o r a n ex te n sio n o f m ajo rita ria n d em ocra cy f ro m t h e p olitic al i n to t h e e co nom ic re alm . I n p ra ctic e, s u ch “ in dustr ia l d em ocra cy ” c o uld t a k e m an y f o rm s, ra n gin g f ro m t h e s p re ad o f c o nsu m er a n d i n dustr ia l c o opera tiv es t o a g re ate r ro le f o r l a b or i n c o rp ora te d ecis io n-m ak in g.

Corp ora te l e ad ers a n d t h eir a llie s r e sp onded t o t h is c h alle n ge b y la u nch in g a n a ll- o ut c am paig n b eg in nin g i n t h e l a te 1 930s t o r e asse rt t h eir au th ority a n d t o s h ore u p w hat t h ey o fte n r e fe rre d t o a s t h e “ A m eric an eco nom ic s y ste m .” R eg ro upin g a fte r t h e i n itia l s h ock o f t h e D ep re ssio n— an d in cre asin gly c o nvin ced t h at t h eir p ro ble m s l a y n ot w ith N ew D eal “ ra d ic als ” but w ith t h e A m eric an p eo ple a s a w hole — busin ess g ro ups l a u nch ed a s e rie s of a d vertis in g a n d p ublic r e la tio ns c am paig ns d esig ned t o r e ed ucate t h e public . T hey p ro m ote d a v ers io n o f t h e A m eric an W ay t h at c ele b ra te d in div id ual f re ed om r a th er t h an m ajo rita ria n d em ocra cy a n d t h at p osite d a harm ony o f in te re sts a m ong c la sse s. R ep la cin g t h e b ele ag uere d t e rm “ p riv ate en te rp ris e ” w ith t h e m ore r e so nan t “ fre e e n te rp ris e ,” t h ey r e sp onded t o N ew Deal a n d l a b or e ffo rts t o l in k A m eric an s’ e co nom ic a n d p olitic al r ig hts w ith a lin kag e o f t h eir o w n: w ith out e co nom ic f re ed om , t h ey a rg ued , A m eric an s’ politic al, c iv il, a n d r e lig io us l ib ertie s w ould d is a p pear. A lth ough b usin ess gro ups m ad e o nly m arg in al h ead w ay i n t h e l a te 1 930s, t h ey i n tr o duced th em es a n d t e rm s t h at w ould r e so nate t h ro ugh d is c u ssio ns o f A m eric an politic al c u ltu re i n to t h e 1 950s a n d b ey ond.

If d eb ate s o ver p olitic al e co nom y f o rm ed o ne a x is o f t h e c o nvers a tio n o n th e A m eric an W ay i n t h e l a te 1 930s, d eb ate s o ver t h e c u ltu ra l d efin itio n o f Am eric a f o rm ed a n oth er: H ow w ould a n atio n t h at e lite s h ad l o ng d efin ed a s white a n d P ro te sta n t i n co rp ora te a d iv ers e c itiz en ry i n to i ts n atio nal i d en tity an d s o cia l f a b ric ? T he D ep re ssio n t o ok h old j u st a s m illio ns o f “ n ew im mig ra n ts ” a n d t h eir A m eric an -b orn c h ild re n — an d b la ck A m eric an s w ho had j o in ed t h e G re at M ig ra tio n o ut o f t h e S outh a fte r W orld W ar I — were mak in g a b id f o r g re ate r p olitic al a n d s o cia l i n clu sio n. T he N ew D eal co alitio n w elc o m ed m an y o f t h ese n ew ly e n fra n ch is e d A m eric an s, b ut t h e Dep re ssio n a n d e sc ala tin g t e n sio ns a b ro ad a ls o p ro duced a s u rg e i n a n ti- Sem itis m a n d o th er f o rm s o f e th nic a n d r a cia l i n to le ra n ce. M ean w hile , t h e su ccesse s o f F asc is t a n d C om munis t r e g im es a b ro ad u nders c o re d b oth t h e possib ilitie s a n d d an gers i n here n t i n c u ltu ra l d iv ers ity . M an y A m eric an opin io n m old ers e q uate d t o ta lita ria n is m w ith e n fo rc ed h om ogen eity a n d cam e t o s e e d iv ers ity a s a d efin in g f e atu re o f d em ocra cy . T he A m eric an W ay , th ey a rg ued , w as t h e a b ility o f d iv ers e i n div id uals t o l iv e t o geth er harm onio usly . Y et s u ch c ele b ra to ry p ro cla m atio ns w ere o fte n t in ged w ith fe ar— fe ar t h at u nbounded d iv ers ity c o uld p ro duce v en om ous h atr e d s t h at would u ltim ate ly t e ar a d em ocra cy a p art. W hat w as n eed ed , m an y b elie v ed , was a b ro ad ly s h are d c iv ic c o nse n su s c ap ab le o f p ro ducin g a s ta b le a n d unif ie d , y et t o le ra n t a n d v arie g ate d , n atio n.

Resp ondin g t o s u ch c o ncern s, d iv ers e g ro ups o f A m eric an s— lib era l in te lle ctu als , g overn m en t o ffic ia ls , “ n ew i m mig ra n t” a n d c iv ic l e ad ers , assim ila te d A m eric an J e w s, a n d o th ers — work ed t o b lu nt d om estic in to le ra n ce a n d t o b ro ad en t h e b ounds o f n atio nal i n clu sio n b y p ro m otin g both c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m a n d a u nif y in g A m eric an W ay . T hey h aile d A m eric a’s dem ogra p hic v arie ty , e v en a s t h ey c ele b ra te d v alu es t h at t h ey a rg ued w ere bro ad ly s h are d b y t h eir f e llo w c itiz en s. T hose o ffe rin g s u ch p re sc rip tiv e vis io ns, h ow ev er, d efin ed t h e p ara m ete rs o f d iv ers ity a n d c o nse n su s i n mark ed ly d if fe re n t w ay s. S om e c ast A m eric a a s a “ n atio n o f i m mig ra n ts ” o r a “n atio n o f n atio ns,” a c o lle ctio n o f e th nic ally d iv ers e i n div id uals u nite d b y se cu la r E nlig hte n m en t valu es. O th ers e m phasiz ed r e lig io us r a th er t h an e th nic div ers ity , s u ggestin g t h at A m eric a w as a b ove a ll a “ P ro te sta n t- C ath olic - Je w is h ” n atio n. A dvocate s o f t h is a p pro ach g en era lly c o nte n ded t h at r e lig io n was a ls o a k ey u nif y in g f o rc e. A m eric an s, t h ey p ro cla im ed , w ere u nite d b y sh are d “ Ju deo -C hris tia n ” b elie fs s u ch a s “ th e F ath erh ood o f G od a n d t h e Bro th erh ood o f M an ” o r t h e “ sa cre d ness o f t h e i n div id ual.” 14 B la ck Am eric an s s tr u ggle d w ith b oth p ara d ig m s s in ce n eith er e n tir e ly ack now le d ged t h eir u niq ue h is to ry o r t h e d ep th o f t h e c h alle n ges t h ey s till fa ced . S till, s o m e s a w i n t h is p re w ar i m puls e a n o pportu nity t o p urs u e “ a politic s o f i n clu sio n.” 15 A t h ir d a x is o f d eb ate — th e p re cis e n atu re o f A m eric a’s f o re ig n f o e— overla p ped w ith t h e o th er t w o. B eg in nin g i n t h e l a te 1 930s, l e ftis t in te lle ctu als a n d a rtis ts , g overn m en t o ffic ia ls , i n te rfa ith a ctiv is ts , c o nse rv ativ e busin essm en , a n d m an y o th ers a rg ued t h at a n e x te rn al e n em y s o ught t o t u rn Am eric an s a g ain st o ne a n oth er— in s h ort, t o “ d iv id e a n d c o nquer” t h e n atio n.

Lib era ls a n d l e ftis ts g en era lly s a w t h at e n em y a s f a sc is m a n d t r ie d t o u nite Am eric an s i n a n a n ti- fa sc is t c o nse n su s. M an y d efin ed f a sc is m e x pan siv ely , usin g i t t o c o ndem n e v ils r a n gin g f ro m r a cia l i n eq uality a n d e co nom ic ex plo ita tio n t o r e d -b aitin g.

16 O th er A m eric an s, i n clu din g a rd en t d efe n ders o f fre e e n te rp ris e , c ast t h e n atio n’s c h ie f e n em y a s “ to ta lita ria n is m ,” a t e rm t h at en co m passe d c o m munis m a s w ell. M an y i n t h is c am p w arn ed a g ain st any div is io n t h at m ig ht s u nder A m eric an s. I n t h eir v ie w , d is g ru ntle d w ork ers o r pro te stin g b la ck s w ere a s o r m ore l ik ely t o p ro vid e a n o pen in g f o r t h e t a ctic s of “ d iv id e a n d c o nquer” a s w ere o ppre ssiv e e m plo yers o r p urv ey ors o f r a cia l in to le ra n ce.

As t h ese c o ntr a stin g v ie w s o f A m eric a’s e x te rn al e n em y s u ggest, a cen tr a l d iv id e c u t a cro ss a ll d is c u ssio ns o f a u nif y in g A m eric an W ay . M an y govern m en t o ffic ia ls a n d p riv ate e lite s— in clu din g i n flu en tia l v oic es i n b oth th e b usin ess a n d “ in te rg ro up” c o m munitie s— use d t h e l a n guag e o f c o nse n su s to p ro m ote civ ility a cro ss c la ss, r a cia l, e th nic , a n d r e lig io us l in es. D en yin g o r min im iz in g e co nom ic a n d p ow er i m bala n ces, t h ey s tr e sse d t h e h arm ony o f in te re sts a m ong v ario us g ro ups i n A m eric an s o cie ty a n d s o ught t o s h ore u p th e s ta tu s q uo. O th er A m eric an s, h ow ev er, p ut eq uality r a th er t h an c o m ity a t th e c en te r o f t h eir c o nse n su al v is io n. C iv il r ig hts a ctiv is ts , l e ft- lib era l in te lle ctu als , a n d s o m e a d vocate s o f t h e r ig hts o f l a b or t r ie d t o u nite Am eric an s a ro und a s e t o f v alu es t h at t h ey b elie v ed w ould u ltim ate ly l e ad t o so cia l c h an ge. R ath er t h an i g norin g p ow er i m bala n ces, t h ey t r ie d t o u se t h e la n guag e o f c o nse n su s t o c o rre ct t h em .

17 These o verla p pin g s tr u ggle s o ver t h e p re cis e n atu re o f t h e A m eric an W ay were u ltim ate ly r e sh ap ed b y t h e p olitic s o f W orld W ar I I a n d t h e c o ld w ar.

The w ar a g ain st t h e A xis p ow ers b ro ught t h e f e d era l g overn m en t f u lly i n to th e a ct o f p ro m otin g n atio nal c o hesio n a n d p ro duced a n i n fra str u ctu re of in stitu tio ns d ev ote d t o p ublic ly d efin in g f o r A m eric an s t h eir c o m mon g ro und.

It a ls o f o rc ed g ro ups o n b oth e n ds o f t h e p olitic al s p ectr u m t o c u rta il t h e vitr io lic r h eto ric t h ey h ad s o m etim es u se d d urin g t h e 1 930s. I n t h e p ostw ar years , c o m munis m q uic k ly r e p la ced f a sc is m a s t h e n atio n’s p rin cip al e n em y.

Man y o f t h ose w ho h ad b en efite d m ost f ro m t h e r h eto ric o f u nity d urin g World W ar I I l a u nch ed c u ltu ra l p ro gra m s d esig ned t o e x te n d a n d r e sh ap e t h e wartim e e m phasis o n c o m mon g ro und. T he v ery e n erg y t h at p ro ponen ts o f co nse n su s d ev ote d t o t h eir v ario us c am paig ns, h ow ev er, s u ggests t h at whate v er c o nse n su s e x is te d w as f ra g ile a t b est.

In ven tin g t h e “ A m eric a n W ay” a tte m pts t o r e sto re a s e n se o f s tr u ggle a n d uncerta in ty t o t h e e m erg en ce o f a p ostw ar c o nse n su s. A t t h e s a m e t im e, i t sh ed s l ig ht o n s h if ts a t t h e c en te r o f U .S . p olitic al c u ltu re i n t h e m id -tw en tie th cen tu ry . B etw een t h e m id -1 930s a n d t h e e n d o f W orld W ar I I, t h e f o cu s o f Am eric an l ib era lis m — an d o f A m eric an p olitic s m ore g en era lly — moved fro m c la ss-b ase d c o ncern s t o a p re o ccu patio n w ith p lu ra lis m a n d i n div id ual rig hts .

18 T his b ook s u ggests t h at t h e p olitic s o f c o nse n su s i n t h e l a te 1 930s an d 1 940s b oth s p urre d a n d r e in fo rc ed t h at t r a n sfo rm atio n. M an y l ib era ls who h ad p re v io usly w orrie d a b out t h e d an gers p ose d t o t h e n atio n b y eco nom ic i n eq uality a n d a n o ppre ssiv e b usin ess e lite b ecam e i n cre asin gly co ncern ed t h at i n te rn al d iv is io ns o f a n y s o rt m ig ht t e ar a d em ocra cy a p art.

Aban donin g t h e l a n guag e o f p ro gre ssiv e s tr u ggle , t h ey p ro m ote d “ to le ra n ce” an d “ in div id ual d ig nity ” a s c o re A m eric an v alu es. A t t h e s a m e t im e, s o m e i n th e b usin ess c o m munity s o ught t o c lo th e t h eir d efe n se o f A m eric an -s ty le cap ita lis m i n t h e l a n guag e o f t o le ra n ce, p lu ra lis m , a n d n atio nal u nity . I n t h e postw ar y ears , c am paig ns l a u nch ed b y i n te rg ro up a ctiv is ts o n b eh alf o f re lig io us a n d s o m etim es r a cia l t o le ra n ce g arn ere d s u pport f ro m m em bers o f th e b usin ess c o m munity w ho s o ught t o b urn is h t h eir i m ag e. M ean w hile , co rp ora te l e ad ers w ork ed t o d is c re d it l a b or m ilita n cy b y e x te n din g t h e messa g e o f s o cia l h arm ony a n d c o nse n su s a t t h e c o re o f s u ch c am paig ns t o co ver c la ss r e la tio ns a s w ell.

The r e la tio nsh ip b etw een r e lig io n a n d A m eric an p ublic l if e a ls o c h an ged dra m atic ally i n t h e p erio d c o vere d b y t h is b ook. D esp ite t h e n atio n’s s ta te d co m mitm en t t o r e lig io us f re ed om c o nta in ed i n t h e B ill o f R ig hts , v ir u le n t an ti- C ath olic is m m ark ed A m eric an p olitic s i n to t h e 1 920s a n d b ey ond. A nti- Sem itis m , t o o, s u rg ed a fte r t h e t u rn o f t h e t w en tie th c en tu ry , a ssu m in g partic u la rly v en om ous f o rm s d urin g t h e G re at D ep re ssio n. A s l a te a s 1 931, a majo rity o f t h e S upre m e C ourt d ecla re d A m eric an s t o b e a “ C hris tia n peo ple .” 19 Y et d urin g a n d a fte r W orld W ar I I, t h e l o ng-s ta n din g e q uatio n i n public d is c o urs e o f “ A m eric an is m ” w ith P ro te sta n tis m g av e w ay r a p id ly , i f in co m ple te ly , t o t h e n otio n t h at t h e U .S . w as a J u deo -C hris tia n , “ tr i- fa ith ,” o r bro ad ly “ G od-fe arin g” n atio n.

20 T his b ook l in ks t h at t r a n sfo rm atio n t o t h e politic s o f c o nse n su s. T o e lite s w ho w ere t r y in g t o d efin e t h e n atio n t h ro ugh a co ntr a st w ith F asc is t o r C om munis t e n em ie s, t h e “ in te rfa ith i d ea” p ro ved partic u la rly u se fu l. B oth F asc is ts a n d C om munis ts w ere s a id t o e m bra ce co erc iv e h om ogen eity a n d t o r e je ct a n y r e lig io n o th er t h an t h at o f t h e s ta te . I n th is c o nte x t, e cu m en ic al r e lig io n c o uld s e rv e s im ulta n eo usly a s a s y m bol o f Am eric an p lu ra lis m a n d A m eric an c o nse n su s.

In e x plo rin g s u ch i s su es, t h is b ook s e ek s t o i llu m in ate t h e “ m yth s, la n guag es a n d a rg um en ts ” t h at “ se rv e[d ] a t l e ast s o m e A m eric an s as Am eric a ns .” 21 A t t h e s a m e t im e, i t h ig hlig hts t h e c u ltu re w ars o f m id -c en tu ry —wars t h at h av e g en era lly e lu ded o ur h in dsig ht f o r t w o r e aso ns. M an y e lite partic ip an ts t o ok p ain s t o h id e t h eir d if fe re n ces i n p ublic a n d t o s u ppre ss gra ssro ots e v id en ce o f o pen d is se n t. A t t h e s a m e t im e, A m eric an s h av e l o ng sh are d a r ic h p olitic al l a n guag e a n d a c o m mon s e t o f m otif s a n d h is to ric al re fe re n ces. “ V yin g f o r c o ntr o l o f a c o m mon v ocab ula ry , s te alin g e ach o th er’s te rm s i n h opes o f i n vestin g t h em w ith r a d ic ally a lte re d m ean in gs, p olitic al opponen ts h av e o fte n l e ft b eh in d a n i llu sio n o f c o nse n su s,” D an ie l T .

Rodgers w rite s i n h is p io neerin g w ork Conte ste d T ru th s . 22 O f n o p erio d o f U.S . h is to ry i s t h is t r u er t h an o f t h e d ecad es i m med ia te ly f o llo w in g W orld War I I: t h e m ean in g o f t e rm s s u ch a s “ fre ed om ” a n d “ d em ocra cy ” w ere bitte rly c o nte ste d d urin g t h ose y ears , e v en a s t h e t e rm s t h em se lv es w ere wid ely u se d . T he w ay s i n w hic h A m eric an s’ c o m mon l a n guag e a n d ic o nogra p hy b oth d iv id ed t h em a n d d re w t h em t o geth er c o m pris e s o ne o f t h e cen tr a l t h em es o f t h is b ook.

The c o nvers a tio n o n c o nse n su s w as c arrie d o n i n m an y d if fe re n t r e g is te rs an d b y m an y d if fe re n t v oic es. B ecau se t h e d ynam ic s o f n atio nal i d en tity i n th is p erio d h av e o nly r e cen tly b eg un t o a ttr a ct a tte n tio n f ro m s c h ola rs , t h is book t a k es a n i n clu siv e a p pro ach — en co m passin g g ro ups a s d iv ers e a s l e ft- lib era l i n te lle ctu als , c o nse rv ativ e m an ufa ctu re rs , i n te rfa ith a ctiv is ts , f o re ig n polic y s tr a te g is ts , a n d b la ck A m eric an s p re ssin g f o r c iv il r ig hts . T his ap pro ach u nders c o re s t h e s c ale o f t h e s h if t i n A m eric an p olitic al c u ltu re a t mid -c en tu ry a n d s u ggests t h at t h e u su al c la ssif ic atio ns a p plie d t o U .S . h is to ry in t h is p erio d— politic al, r a cia l, r e lig io us, l a b or a n d e co nom ic , c u ltu ra l- in te lle ctu al, a n d d ip lo m atic , a m ong t h em — don’t h old u p w hen n atio nal id en tity i s t h e s u bje ct u nder c o nsid era tio n. I t a ls o h ig hlig hts c o nnectio ns betw een s u bje cts a n d a cto rs t h at a re o fte n c o nsid ere d i n i s o la tio n. F in ally , sin ce t h e l a n guag e o f c o nse n su s c o nceale d w id ely d if fe rin g p rio ritie s, t h is ap pro ach h elp s r e co ncile i n vocatio ns o f c o nse n su s w ith t h e r e ality o f c o nflic t.

Nev erth ele ss, t h is b ook can not h ope t o d o j u stic e t o a ll o f t h ose i n volv ed i n th ese d eb ate s. I t f o cu se s m ost h eav ily o n i n div id uals a n d i n stitu tio ns t h at were w ell p ositio ned b oth t o b e h eard a n d t o c o nta in d is se n tin g v oic es.

More o fte n t h an n ot, t h ose w ith m oney a n d i n flu en ce “ w on” t h e c u ltu ra l battle s o f t h e 1 940s a n d 1 950s b y s h ap in g t h e t e rm s o f p ublic d eb ate . N ot a ll Am eric an s a ccep te d t h eir v arie d m essa g es o n t h e v alu e o f A m eric an -s ty le fre e e n te rp ris e ; t h e d an gers o f c la ss, r e lig io us, a n d r a cia l a n ta g onis m ; a n d t h e need t o c o m bat f ir s t t h e F asc is t a n d l a te r t h e C om munis t t h re at. N ev erth ele ss, th ey h elp ed t o f o rg e a s h are d p ublic v ocab ula ry a n d t o e sta b lis h t h e fra m ew ork i n w hic h m an y s o cia l a n d e co nom ic i s su es w ere u ltim ate ly ad dre sse d . T hat f ra m ew ork p riv ile g ed i n div id ual f re ed om , n atio nal u nity , a n d a s h are d f a ith i n G od a b ove a ll e ls e . I n c o nstr u ctin g a n d r e in fo rc in g t h is lin guis tic f ra m ew ork , t h ey h elp ed c re ate a c u ltu ra l r e ality .

While m an y e sta b lis h ed e lite s b en efite d f ro m t h e n atio n’s l o ng-ru nnin g co nvers a tio n o n c o nse n su s, t h ey w ere n ot a lo ne. C am paig ns o n b eh alf o f re lig io us, e th nic , a n d e v en r a cia l “ b ro th erh ood” h elp ed r e sh ap e A m eric an id en tity a n d r e fra m e t h e b oundarie s o f a ccep ta b le d is c o urs e , a llo w in g m an y work in g-c la ss e th nic s a n d o th ers t o f e el “ at h om e” i n A m eric a. E ffo rts t o mobiliz e i m mig ra n ts a n d t h eir c h ild re n i n to c o ld w ar p ro pag an da c am paig ns ofte n r e in fo rc ed t h e n atio n’s c o rp ora te o rd er; b ut t h ey a ls o a llo w ed f ir s t- a n d se co nd-g en era tio n A m eric an s t o p ositio n t h em se lv es n ot a s m em bers o f a th re ate n in g a n d a lie n m in ority , b ut a s U .S . a m bassa d ors a n d t h e s ta u nch est o f Am eric an p atr io ts . T im e a n d a g ain , t h e i s su e o f r a ce p ro ved a s tu m blin g blo ck f o r p ro ponen ts o f c o nse n su s. S till, t h e d is c o urs e o n s h are d n atio nal valu es a llo w ed b la ck A m eric an s t o m ak e l im ite d g ain s. T he l a n guag e o f in div id ual f re ed om , f a ith , a n d n atio nal u nity u se d p erv asiv ely b y i n te rfa ith pro ponen ts , e co nom ic c o nse rv ativ es, a n d c o ld w arrio rs w as r e cla im ed a n d re cast b y s o uth ern b la ck s b attlin g f o r d e j u re c iv il r ig hts . I n s h ort, e ffo rts t o defin e a u nif y in g n atio nal c o nse n su s g av e r e lig io us, e th nic , a n d r a cia l “o uts id ers ” a p ow erfu l l e v er w ith w hic h t o p ry o pen so m e d oors o f A m eric a’s main str e am c u ltu re .

If t h e e ra ’s c iv ic e d ucatio n c am paig ns h elp ed o pen t h e d oor f o r c erta in kin ds o f s o cia l c h an ge, t h ey s la m med t h e d oor o n o th ers . E co nom ic in eq uality d id n’t v an is h w ith t h e e n d o f W orld W ar I I, b ut i t w as e ffe ctiv ely ta k en o ff t h e t a b le i n t h e l a te 1 940s a n d 1 950s a s a p olitic al i s su e. O ne r e aso n fo r t h is w as t h e w id esp re ad e q uatio n o f t h e A m eric an W ay — in s e rm ons a n d civ ic s l e sso ns, m ovie s a n d p olitic al s p eech es, p ublic s e rv ic e a d vertis in g a n d pre ss a cco unts — not w ith m ajo rita ria n d em ocra cy o r e g alita ria n e co nom ic valu es b ut w ith in div id ual f re ed om s, r ig hts , a n d o pportu nitie s.

23 T he f o cu s o n in div id ual f re ed om p ro ved a pow erfu l t o ol i n t h e f ig ht a g ain st a n ti- S em itis m , natio nal o rig in q uota s, a n d d e j u re r a cia l s e g re g atio n, b ut i t m ad e e ffo rts t o ad dre ss i n stitu tio naliz ed e co nom ic i n eq uality p olitic ally d if fic u lt, i f n ot unte n ab le .

24 The p olitic s o f c o nse n su s f ra ctu re d i n t h e u pheav als o f t h e l a te 1 960s a n d early 1 970s. I n t h e e ra o f V ie tn am , y outh p ro te sts , r e su rg en t c ele b ra tio ns o f eth nic ity , a n d w id ely p ublic iz ed u rb an r io ts a n d a n ti- b usin g v io le n ce, t h e varie d e lite s w ho h ad w ork ed f o r s e v era l d ecad es t o n urtu re a n d s h ap e a n illu so ry n atio nal c o nse n su s w ere n o l o nger a b le t o c h an nel o r c o nta in dis se n tin g v oic es. M an y r a cia l a n d e th nic o uts id ers w ho h ad o nce e m bra ced th e n otio n o f s h are d A m eric an v alu es a n d t r ie d t o s h ap e t h e l a n guag e o f co nse n su s t o t h eir o w n e n ds n ow r e je cte d a n i d io m r o ote d u ltim ate ly i n Am eric an p atr io tis m . T he e co nom ic p ro ductiv ity a n d a fflu en ce t h at h ad o nce se em ed t o s u cco r n atio nal h arm ony a n d c o nse n su s n ow s p ark ed s h arp den uncia tio ns o f A m eric an m ate ria lis m a n d t h e m ald is tr ib utio n o f w ealth .

The p ro cesse s o f f ra g m en ta tio n a n d p ola riz atio n t h at f ir s t s u rfa ced d urin g t h e Jo hnso n a n d N ix on a d m in is tr a tio ns h av e o nly a ccele ra te d i n r e cen t d ecad es, sp aw nin g d eb ate s o ver m ultic u ltu ra lis m , t h e p ublic r o le o f r e lig io n, a n d, m ost re cen tly , “ re d v s. b lu e” A m eric a.

The l e g acy o f t h e c o nse n su s e ra s u rv iv es, h ow ev er, i n i n stitu tio ns, politic al r h eto ric , a n d a ssu m ptio ns a b out t h at p ast t h at c o ntin ue t o i n fo rm dis c u ssio ns o f n atio nal u nity a n d p ublic v alu es. C om petin g a tte m pts t o d efin e co re A m eric an v alu es— to f in d c o m mon g ro und c ap ab le o f u nitin g in cre asin gly e str a n ged g ro ups o f A m eric an s— ofte n t a k e t h is p erio d a s t h eir im plic it b ack dro p. P ro ponen ts a n d c ritic s o f a ffir m ativ e a ctio n, a b ortio n re str ic tio ns, g ay m arria g e, w elf a re a n d i m mig ra tio n r e fo rm , a n d a h ost o f oth er i s su es i n voke p hra se s a n d i d eas p opula riz ed d urin g t h is e ra . A t a t im e when A m eric a s e em s m ore p ola riz ed t h an e v er— yet w hen p olitic ia n s a n d co m men ta to rs c o ntin ue t o c all f o r n atio nal u nity a n d a r e tu rn t o t h e “ v ita l cen te r” — it i s i n str u ctiv e t o k now h ow a n d w hy a f ra g ile n atio nal c o nse n su s was s h ap ed i n t h e p ast, w hat i t d id f o r A m eric an p olitic al d is c o urs e a n d valu es, a n d w hat i t i n ev ita b ly c o uld n ot d o.

25 PA RT I Enem ie s a t H om e a n d A bro ad ( 1 935– 1941) CH APT ER 1 “A re W e a N atio n ?” I n t h e s p rin g o f 1 937, Harp er’s m ag azin e a n nounced a $ 1,0 00 e ssa y c o nte st t o d efin e a p hra se t h at h ad s u dden ly b eg un t o a p pear i n n ew sp ap er h ead lin es a n d o n b illb oard s a cro ss t h e n atio n: t h e “ A m eric an W ay .” T he t e rm w as n ot e n tir e ly n ew t o A m eric a’s p olitic al l e x ic o n; b ut i n t h e m id -1 930s, i t e x plo ded i n to p opula r u se . I n t h e e ig hty y ears p re ced in g F ra n klin D ela n o R oose v elt’ s e le ctio n i n 1 932, t h e p hra se a p peare d s o m e 7 25 t im es i n t h e p ag es o f t h e New Y ork T im es , g en era lly i n e ith er t h e n eg ativ e ( “ n ot t h e A m eric an w ay ”) o r t h e p lu ra l ( “ A m eric an w ay s a n d c u sto m s” ). I n t h e t e n y ears f o llo w in g, i t m ad e s o m e 2 ,2 30 a p peara n ces i n t h e n ew sp ap er’s p ag es a n d w as f re q uen tly c ap ita liz ed . B ooks b eg an t o a p pear e n title d s im ply The A m eric a n W ay o r The A m eric a n W ay o f L ife . B efo re 1 933, o nly t w o v olu m es h ad u se d t h e p hra se i n t h eir t itle s; o ne o f t h ese w as The A m eric a n W ay o f P la yin g U ku le le S olo s . 1 Those w ho w ro te a b out t h e “ A m eric an W ay ” w ere a d iv ers e l o t: a c o nse rv ativ e e co nom ic c o lu m nis t a n d a n e x pert o n a d ult e d ucatio n, r e p re se n ta tiv es o f w hat w as t h en c alle d t h e N atio nal C onfe re n ce o f J e w s a n d C hris tia n s a n d t h e f a m ous p la y w ritin g t e am o f G eo rg e K au fm an a n d M oss H art. H en ry W alla ce, R oose v elt’ s p ro gre ssiv e S ecre ta ry o f A gric u ltu re , w eig hed i n o n t h e t o pic w ith a n a rtic le e n title d “ T he S earc h f o r a n A m eric an W ay .” S o t o o d id t h e l ib era l j o urn alis t a n d c o m men ta to r E lm er D av is , l ib ra ria n s a n d b an kers , t h e N atio nal A sso cia tio n o f M an ufa ctu re rs , a n d c o m pile rs o f a r e ad in g l is t f o r H arv ard C olle g e s tu den ts .

2 By e arly 1 937, t h e p hra se w as b ein g i n voked s o w id ely t h at t h e e d ito rs o f H arp er’s f e lt i t w as t im e f o r c la rif ic atio n. T he m ag azin e i n vite d i ts r e ad ers t o h elp “ re sta te ” a n d “ re in te rp re t” A m eric an t r a d itio ns a n d i d eals i n l ig ht o f t h e D ep re ssio n a t h om e a n d t h re ate n in g i d eo lo gie s a b ro ad . “ W ord s a n d phra se s l ik e ‘ d em ocra cy ,’ ‘ lib erty ,’ ‘ th e p io neer s p ir it,’ ‘ e q uality o f o pportu nity ,’ ‘ s e lf -re lia n ce,’ ‘ lo cal s e lf -ru le ,’ a n d ‘ c o nstitu tio nal g overn m en t’ m ean d if fe re n t t h in gs t o d if fe re n t p eo ple ,” t h e m ag azin e’s e d ito rs a ck now le d ged .

“ W e s h ould l ik e t o s e e t h e e sse n tia l A m eric an t r a d itio ns a n d i d eals s e p ara te d fro m t h e u nesse n tia l a n d t h e o utd ate d , s o a s t o f o rm a c re d o a d ap te d t o pre se n t a n d f u tu re n eed s.” T he n eed t o a rtic u la te s u ch a c re d o h ad n ev er b een gre ate r, Harp er’s e d ito rs s u ggeste d . “ T he d octr in es l o ose ly k now n a s co m munis m a n d f a sc is m h av e t o -d ay v ir tu ally t h e e m otio nal f o rc e o f re lig io ns,” t h ey w ro te . “ It m ig ht b e a g ood t h in g i f t h ose A m eric an i d eas a n d id eals w hic h m an y o f u s t a k e f o r g ra n te d … c o uld b e f o rm ula te d a n ew s o t h at men a n d w om en o f d iv ers e p olitic al a n d e co nom ic v ie w s m ig ht j o in i n accep tin g t h em w ith a w ill, f e elin g t h at t h ey o ffe r n ot o nly a l in k w ith t h e p ast but a g uid e t o a ctio n.” T he m ag azin e u rg ed c o nte sta n ts t o p re se n t t h e Am eric an c re ed i n s u ch a w ay a s t o “ ra lly e n th usia sm .” 3 The Harp er’s c o nte st e v en tu ally a ttr a cte d 1 570 e ssa y s; b ut i f t h e mag azin e’s e d ito rs h oped i t w ould r e v eal a w id esp re ad a g re em en t o n t h e natio n’s c o re v alu es, t h ey m ust s u re ly h av e b een d is a p poin te d . T he co ntr ib utio ns v arie d “ fro m a rg um en ts f o r c o m munis m ” t o “ arg um en ts f o r old -fa sh io ned a ris to cra tic i d eals ,” t h e e d ito rs l a te r w ro te , “ fro m a rg um en ts f o r all m an ner o f s p ecif ic e co nom ic p ro gra m s, s u ch a s s y ste m s o f c o -o pera tiv es or c h an ges i n t h e c u rre n cy , t o f e rv id d efe n se s o f t h e s ta tu s q uo; f ro m u p-to - th e-m in ute d is c u ssio ns o f t h e a lle g ed g lo rie s o r t h e a lle g ed a b om in atio ns o f th e N ew D eal t o c are fu l a n aly se s o f t h e b ack gro unds a n d p rin cip le s o f t h e early C olo nis ts , t h e C onstitu tio n-m ak ers , t h e F oundin g F ath ers .” 4 U ltim ate ly , Harp er’s e d ito rs r e p rin te d f o ur e ssa y s. A c o nstr u ctio n e n gin eer t u rn ed N ew Deal p la n ner a rg ued t h at “ lib erty h as t o b e f o unded o n s e cu rity ,” w hile a Holly w ood s c re en w rite r e q uate d t h e A m eric an W ay w ith “ eco nom ic dem ocra cy … a r e d is tr ib utio n o f i n co m e f ro m t h e p ro pertie d t o t h e pro perty le ss.” A G erm an é m ig ré a ls o i n voked d em ocra cy b ut d efin ed i t a s “p olitic al e q uality ” a n d “ so cia l p eace.” A n e d ito ria l w rite r f o r t h e Baltim ore Even in g S un r e je cte d a ll t h re e f o rm ula tio ns, a rg uin g t h at n eith er d em ocra cy nor l ib erty w as f u ndam en ta l t o A m eric an is m . R ath er, h e d ecla re d , b oth w ere “lo gic al o utg ro w th s” o f t h e “ g en uin e” A m eric an p rin cip le s: b elie f i n “ th e dig nity o f t h e i n div id ual” a n d “ a r e aso nab le m easu re o f r e sp ect f o r r e ality i n politic s.” A s Harp er’s c o lu m nis t B ern ard D eV oto n ote d d ry ly , “ A nyone c an sh out ‘ A m eric an W ay ’ i n f u rth era n ce o f h is o w n i n te re sts a n d n early ev ery one d oes.” 5 The Harp er’s e ssa y c o nte st— an d t h e e m erg en ce o f t h e t e rm “ A m eric an Way ” m ore g en era lly — te stif ie d t o t h e u rg en cy w ith w hic h U .S . c itiz en s tu rn ed t o t h e q uestio n o f A m eric a’s n atio nal i d en tity a n d s h are d v alu es i n t h e la te 1 930s.

Am eric an i n te lle ctu als a n d p olitic al l e ad ers h ad w re stle d w ith su ch i s su es s in ce t h e e arlie st d ay s o f t h e R ep ublic ; b ut i n t h e l a tte r h alf o f t h e Dep re ssio n d ecad e, d om estic a n d i n te rn atio nal p re ssu re s c o nverg ed t o pro duce a p artic u la rly i n te n se , s e lf -c o nsc io us, a n d w id e-ra n gin g “ cu ltu ra l co nvers a tio n” o n t h e n atio n’s c o lle ctiv e i d en tity .

6 “ A m eric an W ay ” w as n ot th e o nly r e so nan t p hra se t o a p pear a t t h at h is to ric al m om en t. T he h is to ria n Ja m es T ru slo w A dam s i n tr o duced t h e e x pre ssio n “ A m eric an d re am ” i n h is 1931 t o m e The E pic o f A m eric a . B y t h e e n d o f t h e d ecad e, p la y w rig hts , ed ucato rs , j o urn alis ts , m in is te rs , a n d i n div id uals r a n gin g f ro m H erb ert Hoover t o t h e i m mig ra n t w rite r L ouis A dam ic w ere e m plo yin g t h e p hra se t o in dic ate a n i d eal o r a sp ir a tio n s h are d b y a ll A m eric an s.

7 O th er w rite rs dis c u sse d t h e “ A m eric an c re ed ” a n d t h e “ A m eric an i d ea,” b oth t e rm s t h at als o a p peare d f a r m ore f re q uen tly t h an t h ey h ad i n t h e p ast.

As t h e Harp er’s e ssa y c o nte st s u ggeste d , h ow ev er, t h e w id esp re ad in vocatio n o f a c o m mon A m eric an w ay , d re am , i d ea, o r c re ed d id n ot in dic ate t h e d aw n o f a n e ra o f h arm ony a n d c o nse n su s.

8 O n t h e c o ntr a ry , t h e pro lif e ra tio n o f s u ch t e rm s i n t h e l a te 1 930s a tte ste d t o a p ro fo und s e n se o f an xie ty — an a n xie ty s h are d b y A m eric an s a cro ss t h e p olitic al s p ectr u m — ab out n atio nal i d en tity a n d u nity i n a n i n cre asin gly t h re ate n in g w orld . T he co lla p se o f t h e n atio nal e co nom y u nderm in ed l o ng-s ta n din g p ow er s tr u ctu re s an d c alle d i n to q uestio n r a re ly c h alle n ged a ssu m ptio ns a b out t h e s ta b ility a n d pro gre ss o f A m eric an c ap ita lis m . T he m atu ra tio n o f “ n ew i m mig ra n t” co m munitie s a n d t h e m ig ra tio n o f t h ousa n ds o f b la ck s o ut o f t h e S outh r a is e d questio ns a b out t h e t e rm s o n w hic h e th nic , r e lig io us, a n d r a cia l “ o uts id ers ” would b e i n co rp ora te d i n to a s o cie ty t h at h ad l o ng b een d efin ed b y e lite s a s Anglo -S ax on a n d P ro te sta n t. A bove a ll, t h e p olitic al t r iu m phs o f f a sc is m a n d co m munis m a b ro ad — co m bin ed w ith f e ars t h at t h ose i d eo lo gie s w ere g ain in g gro und i n t h e U .S .— in te n sif ie d c o ncern s a b out A m eric a’s c o re v alu es, pro m ptin g t h ose o n t h e l e ft a s w ell a s t h ose o n t h e r ig ht t o t r y t o d efin e a n alte rn ativ e i d eo lo gy c ast i n “ A m eric an ” t e rm s. A ll t h is w as r e fle cte d i n t h e questio n p ose d b y J a m es T ru slo w A dam s a t t h e e n d o f t h e d ecad e: “ A re w e, as s o m e h av e s a id , m ere ly a h odgep odge o f m in oritie s? O r a re w e a n atio n with a c o m mon b ack gro und a n d, d esp ite o ur p olitic al b attle s, a c o ntin uin g natio nal i d eal? ” 9 “B urie d U nder t h e R uin s” The “ cris is o f A m eric an is m ” b eg an i n O cto ber 1 929, w hen t h e “ G re at B ull Mark et” o f t h e T w en tie s c o lla p se d , w ip in g o ut i n a m atte r o f w eek s a lm ost 4 0 perc en t o f t h e v alu e o f U .S . s to ck s.

10 F in an cia l c o m men ta to rs i n itia lly dis m is se d t h e d ow ntu rn a s a s p ecu la tiv e p an ic , b ut t h e c ra sh w as m ere ly t h e porte n t o f t h e G re at D ep re ssio n t o c o m e. P lu ngin g s to ck p ric es h elp ed u pen d th e n atio n’s o verle v era g ed e co nom y, c au sin g t h ousa n ds o f b an ks a n d busin esse s t o f a il. W ith in f iv e m onth s, 3 .2 m illio n A m eric an s w ere o ut o f work ; a n d t w o y ears l a te r, u nem plo ym en t h ad c lim bed t o n early 1 3 m illio n, so m e 2 5 p erc en t o f t h e n atio nal w ork fo rc e. B y e arly 1 932, t h e n atio n’s in dustr ia l p ro ductio n w as l e ss t h an h alf w hat i t h ad b een j u st t h re e y ears earlie r.

11 The e co nom ic c ata str o phe f u ndam en ta lly c h alle n ged t h e w ay A m eric an s co ncep tu aliz ed t h eir n atio n. F or t h e p re v io us 1 50 y ears , m ost A m eric an s h ad belie v ed t h at, w hate v er o ne’s i n div id ual f a te , t h e n atio n a s a w hole w as gro w in g e v er m ore p ro sp ero us. A m eric a’s e x perie n ce i n t h e o pen in g d ecad es of t h e t w en tie th c en tu ry h ad s tr o ngly r e in fo rc ed t h is f a ith . B etw een 1 900 a n d 1930, t h e n atio n’s m an ufa ctu rin g o utp ut q uad ru ple d , t h an ks i n p art t o wid esp re ad f a cto ry e le ctr if ic atio n. T he a d ven t o f m ass p ro ductio n, c o nsu m er cre d it, a n d a d vertis in g p ro duced i n t h e U .S . t h e w orld ’s f ir s t m ass c o nsu m er eco nom y. R ura l A m eric an s f o r t h e m ost p art d id n ot s h are i n t h is e co nom ic bonan za; b ut f o r t h ose i n t h e n atio n’s u rb an c en te rs , t h e p ro sp erity w as ta n gib le . M id dle -c la ss f a m ilie s a cq uir e d w ash in g m ach in es, r e frig era to rs , te le p hones, a n d a u to m obile s, w hile u rb an w ork ers b ought c an ned f o ods, ra d io s, a n d t ic k ets t o m otio n p ic tu re t h eatr e s.

12 “ W e t h ought A m eric an busin ess w as t h e R ock o f G ib ra lta r,” r e calle d E . Y . ( Y ip ) H arb urg s e v era l decad es l a te r. “ W e w ere t h e p ro sp ero us n atio n a n d n oth in g c o uld s to p u s now .” 13 By t h e e arly 1 930s, t h is n atio nal n arra tiv e o f c ap ita lis t- d riv en g ro w th a n d ab undan ce s e em ed q uestio nab le a t b est, a m onstr o us d elu sio n a t w ors t. I n Chic ag o, m en f o ught o ver t h e c o nte n ts o f r e sta u ra n ts ’ g arb ag e b arre ls a n d te ach ers f a in te d i n t h eir c la ssro om s f o r w an t o f f o od. I n S to ck to n, C alif o rn ia , peo ple s c av en ged t h e c ity d um p l o okin g f o r h alf -ro tte n v eg eta b le s. I n Appala ch ia , f a m ilie s s u bsis te d o n “ su ch w eed s a s c o w s e at,” a n d s ib lin gs so m etim es a lte rn ate d m eals . M illio ns o f A m eric an s w ere e v ic te d o r l o st heav ily m ortg ag ed h ouse s a n d f a rm s, a n d a t l e ast o ne m illio n t o ok t o t h e ro ad .

14 M illio ns m ore l o st j o bs o r b an k a cco unts , p are d s p en din g t o t h e b one, or d ro pped o ut o f s c h ool t o h elp s u pport t h eir f a m ilie s. Y ip H arb urg l o st h is busin ess, b ecam e a l y ric is t, a n d p en ned t h e s o ng t h at w ould b eco m e t h e an th em o f t h e d ecad e: “ B ro th er, C an Y ou S pare a D im e?” Am eric an s o cie ty s o m etim es s e em ed o n t h e v erg e o f d is in te g ra tio n. I n 1930 a n d 1 931, f o od r io ts b ro ke o ut i n c itie s a cro ss t h e c o untr y , w hile r is in g fru str a tio n f u ele d m ass m arc h es o f t h e u nem plo yed . T he f o llo w in g y ear, polic e a n d F ord M oto r C o. s e cu rity g uard s b attle d s o m e t h re e t h ousa n d hunger marc h ers o uts id e t h e c o m pan y’s R iv er R ouge p la n t i n D earb orn , Mic h ig an ; f o ur m arc h ers d ie d i n t h e “ B attle o f R iv er R ouge,” a n d m ore t h an six t h ousa n d p eo ple j o in ed t h e s u bse q uen t f u nera l p ro cessio n, m arc h in g th ro ugh d ow nto w n D etr o it t o t h e s tr a in s o f t h e C om munis t P arty ’s a n th em , th e “ In te rn atio nale .” B y 1 933, M id w este rn f a rm ers w ere d um pin g m ilk , blo ck ad in g r o ad s, a n d u sin g v ig ila n te j u stic e t o d is ru pt f o re clo su re pro ceed in gs. M ean w hile , c o tto n w ork ers i n C alif o rn ia ’s S an J o aq uin v alle y jo in ed i n t h e l a rg est a g ric u ltu ra l s tr ik e i n U .S . h is to ry . I n 1 934, g en era l str ik es p ara ly zed T ole d o, M in neap olis , a n d S an F ra n cis c o , a n d s o m e f o ur hundre d t h ousa n d t e x tile w ork ers s c atte re d f ro m N ew E ngla n d t o t h e so uth ern p ie d m ont w alk ed o ff t h e j o b.

To s o m e, i t s e em ed t h at c ap ita lis m i ts e lf w as i m perile d . “ N ot s o m an y years a g o i n R ussia a ll t h e s u ffe rin gs o f p overty … c o nceiv ed a c h ild … a n d its n am e w as B ols h ev is m ,” a w om an f ro m O il C ity , P en nsy lv an ia , w arn ed t h e dir e cto r o f P re sid en t H oover’s E m erg en cy C om mitte e o n U nem plo ym en t i n 1930. “ R ig ht n ow o ur g ood o ld U .S .A . i s s ittin g o n a S eeth in g V olc an o,” s h e co ntin ued . “ In t h e P ublic S ch ools o ur l ittle c h ild re n s ta n d a t s a lu te a n d r e cite a ‘ rig m a r o le ’ i n w hic h i s m en tio ned ‘ J u stic e t o a ll.’ W hat a l ie , w hat a n ak ed lie .” 15 R ex fo rd T ugw ell, a C olu m bia U niv ers ity e co nom is t a n d a m em ber o f Roose v elt’ s B ra in T ru st, a g re ed w ith a t l e ast p art o f t h e w om an ’s a sse ssm en t.

“I d o n ot t h in k i t i s t o o m uch t o s a y ,” h e c o nfid ed t o h is j o urn al, “ th at o n Marc h 4 [ 1 933, t h e d ay R oose v elt w as i n au gura te d ] w e w ere c o nfro nte d w ith a c h oic e b etw een a n o rd erly r e v olu tio n— a p eacefu l a n d r a p id d ep artu re f ro m th e p ast c o ncep ts — an d a v io le n t a n d d is o rd erly o verth ro w o f t h e w hole cap ita lis t s tr u ctu re .” 16 Most A m eric an s d id n ot j o in i n o r p ut d ow n s tr ik es, e n gag e i n r io ts , o r purs u e v ig ila n te j u stic e. N ev erth ele ss, t h e m ag nitu de o f t h e D ep re ssio n, t h e sc ale o f t h e s o cia l u nre st, a n d t h e r e actio n o f g overn m en t a n d i n dustr ia l le ad ers t o b oth c alle d i n to q uestio n t h e w is d om a n d a u th ority o f t h e n atio n’s re ig nin g e lite s. N o e p is o de d id m ore t o f o cu s p ublic a tte n tio n o n t h e f a ilu re s of U .S . c ap ita lis m a n d i ts d efe n ders i n g overn m en t t h an t h e f a te o f t h e “B onus A rm y.” I n t h e s p rin g a n d s u m mer o f 1 932, t h ousa n ds o f u nem plo yed arm y v ete ra n s c o nverg ed o n W ash in gto n D .C . t o d em an d e arly p ay m en t o f a bonus t h ey w ere o w ed f o r t h eir s e rv ic e i n W orld W ar I . B y J u ne, a s m an y a s tw en ty -fiv e t h ousa n d h ad a rriv ed i n t h e c ap ita l, s o m e w ith t h eir f a m ilie s. T he Sen ate , h ow ev er, r e fu se d t o a cced e t o t h eir d em an ds. I n l a te J u ly , w hen t h e “B onus M arc h ers ” f a ile d t o d is p ers e , D is tr ic t o f C olu m bia p olic e t r ie d t o ev ic t t h em f ro m e m pty g overn m en t b uild in gs d ow nto w n ( fig ure 1 .1 ). A r io t en su ed a n d P re sid en t H oover u ltim ate ly s e n t i n f e d era l t r o ops. L ed b y Gen era l D ougla s M acA rth ur, t h e t r o ops t u rn ed t a n ks a n d t e ar g as o n t h e vete ra n s a n d t o rc h ed t h eir e n cam pm en t.

17 T he f ir e s b urn in g i n A naco stia sp ew ed a s m oky p all o ver th e n atio n’s c ap ita l, a s t h e d is p ir ite d v ete ra n s str a g gle d b ack t o a c am p i n n earb y J o hnsto w n, P en nsy lv an ia . “ I u se d t o b e a hundre d -p erc en te r,” a m an w ith a t e ar-s tr e ak ed f a ce s a id , r e fe rrin g t o t h e arc h -p atr io ts o f W orld W ar I . “ N ow I ’m a R ed r a d ic al. I h ad a n A m eric an fla g , b ut t h e d am ned t in s o ld ie rs b urn ed i t. N ow I d on’t e v er w an t t o s e e a fla g a g ain . G iv e m e a g un a n d I ’ll g o b ack t o W ash in gto n.” 18 Fig u re 1 .1 .

B onus M arc h ers b attle W ash in gto n, D .C . p olic e i n J u ly 1 932. Epis o des l ik e t h is r e in fo rc ed a g ro w in g s e n se o f u nease i n t h e U nite d S ta te s an d f o cu se d p ublic a tte n tio n o n t h e f a ilu re s o f U .S . c ap ita lis m a n d i ts defe n ders i n g overn m en t ( N atio nal A rc h iv es 1 11-S C -9 7560).

The i m ag e o f U .S . t r o ops t u rn in g t a n ks a n d b ay onets o n u narm ed v ete ra n s unse ttle d e v en m an y c o nse rv ativ es. I n t h e c o untr y a t l a rg e, i t r e in fo rc ed a gro w in g s e n se o f u nease . “ T here i s a f e elin g a m ong t h e m asse s g en era lly t h at so m eth in g i s r a d ic ally w ro ng,” O sc ar A m erin ger, a n O kla h om a a tto rn ey , t o ld a H ouse s u bco m mitte e i n 1 932. “ T hey s a y t h e o nly t h in g y ou d o i n Wash in gto n i s t o t a k e m oney f ro m t h e p ock ets o f t h e p oor a n d p ut i t i n to t h e pock ets o f t h e r ic h . T hey s a y t h at t h is G overn m en t i s a c o nsp ir a cy a g ain st t h e co m mon p eo ple .” 19 T he h is to ria n G era ld J o hnso n a rg ued t h at f e w m id dle - cla ss A m eric an s— th e m id le v el b an kers , i n su ra n ce s o lic ito rs , a n d f a m ily pra ctitio ners w ho l iv ed o n h is b lo ck — “ch eris h [e d ] a n y s e rio us d oubts a b out cap ita lis m .” E ven t h ey , h ow ev er, h ad d ev elo ped a “ n ew a n d d ecid ed ly critic al a ttitu de” to w ard c erta in a sp ects o f t h e c ap ita lis t s y ste m “ as i t h as b een dev elo ped i n t h is c o untr y .” “ It w ill b e m an y a l o ng d ay b efo re A m eric an s o f th e m id dle c la ss w ill l is te n w ith a n yth in g a p pro ach in g t h e r e v ere n ce t h ey f e lt in 1 928 w hen ev er a m ag nate o f b usin ess s p eak s,” J o hnso n e x pla in ed . “ T he whole p an th eo n o f t h eir i d ols h as b een d em olis h ed . T he B ig B usin ess M an , lik e S am so n, h as p ulle d d ow n t h e p illa rs o f t h e t e m ple … a n d h e i s p re tty well b urie d u nder t h e r u in s.” 20 Thus, b y t h e e arly 1 930s, t h e a u th ority o f b usin ess a n d t h e e q uatio n o f Am eric an is m w ith l a is se z-fa ir e c ap ita lis m w ere u nder s ie g e o n m an y f ro nts .

These d ev elo pm en ts h elp ed p ro pel F ra n klin D ela n o R oose v elt a n d h is N ew Deale rs i n to o ffic e. T he r e su ltin g i d eo lo gic al b attle , h ow ev er, w as n ot f u lly jo in ed u ntil t h e s e co nd h alf o f t h e d ecad e. I n 1 933, i n dustr ia lis ts a n d o th er eco nom ic c o nse rv ativ es w ere s h ell s h ock ed a n d d em ora liz ed , a n d s o m e belie v ed t h ey m ig ht b e a b le t o w ork w ith t h e n ew p re sid en t. W ith in t w o y ears th eir v ie w s h ad c h an ged . I n e arly 1 935, F D R i n tr o duced a s p ra w lin g p ack ag e of l e g is la tio n— dubbed b y h is to ria n s t h e “ S eco nd N ew D eal” — th at effe ctiv ely p ulle d t h e N ew D eal t o t h e l e ft. D ev elo pm en ts i n t h e s e co nd h alf of t h e d ecad e a ls o s tr e n gth en ed t h e h an d o f o rg an iz ed l a b or a n d s p aw ned t h e Com mitte e f o r I n dustr ia l O rg an iz atio n ( la te r t h e C ongre ss o f I n dustr ia l Org an iz atio ns). I n t h e l a te 1 930s, i n dustr ia l u nio nis ts s o ught t o e x te n d F D R’s vis io n, e v en a s c o nse rv ativ e i n dustr ia lis ts r e g ro uped a n d l a u nch ed a n a ll- o ut defe n se o f l a is se z-fa ir e c ap ita lis m i n g en era l. The n atio n’s t r a d itio nal e lite s, w hite a n d h eav ily P ro te sta n t, t o ok a le ad in g r o le i n t h ese d eb ate s. I n cre asin gly , h ow ev er, t h ey w ere j o in ed b y t h e eth nic , r e lig io us, a n d r a cia l “ o uts id ers ” w ho m ad e u p t h e m ajo rity o f t h e natio n’s w ork in g c la ss a n d w hose p olitic al a sp ir a tio ns w ere j u st b eg in nin g t o be r e co gniz ed b y t h e N ew D eal. T hese n ew , o r n ew ly e n fra n ch is e d , Am eric an s h elp ed f u el t h e d eb ate o ver t h e n atio n’s p olitic al e co nom y, w hile ra is in g q uestio ns a b out t h e s c o pe a n d s h ap e o f A m eric an p lu ra lis m a n d t h e natu re o f t h e n atio n’s b in din g v alu es.

“T he F oreig n E le m en t i n T his C ou ntr y ” The G re at D ep re ssio n s tr u ck a t a v ery u nusu al m om en t i n A m eric an h is to ry —near t h e s ta rt o f w hat o ne s c h ola r h as c alle d “ th e g re at i m mig ra tio n in te rre g num .” 21 F or n early 1 50 y ears , i m mig ra n ts h ad p oure d i n to t h e U nite d Sta te s f ro m a ll p arts o f t h e w orld , w ith t w en ty -s e v en m illio n a rriv in g b etw een 1880 a n d 1 930 a lo ne.

22 T his e ra o f m ass i m mig ra tio n c am e t o a n e n d i n 1 924 when Congre ss p asse d l e g is la tio n b an nin g a ll i m mig ra n ts f ro m A sia a n d slo w in g t h e i n flu x o f p eo ple f ro m S outh ern a n d E aste rn E uro pe t o a t r ic k le .

In t h e l a te 1 920s, m ig ra n ts c o ntin ued t o a rriv e f ro m i m poveris h ed r e g io ns o f Mex ic o a n d F ra n co phone C an ad a; b ut w ith t h e c o lla p se o f t h e U .S . e co nom y, ev en t h ose s tr e am s e v ap ora te d . R efu gees, d is p la ced p ers o ns, a n d i n div id uals fro m t h e W este rn h em is p here f ilte re d i n to t h e U .S . d urin g a n d a fte r W orld War I I, b ut i m mig ra tio n d id n ot a g ain a p pro ach t h e l e v els r e ach ed d urin g t h e early t w en tie th c en tu ry u ntil a fte r t h e o verh au l o f t h e n atio n’s i m mig ra tio n le g is la tio n i n 1 965.

The v ir tu al c u to ff o f i m mig ra tio n t o t h e U .S . i n ev ita b ly s h ap ed dis c u ssio ns o f A m eric a’s n atio nal i d en tity a n d c o re v alu es. B elie v in g t h at a ch ap te r i n U .S . h is to ry h ad c lo se d , s o m e s c h ola rs i n t h e l a te 1 920s a n d 1 930s tu rn ed t h eir a tte n tio n t o A m eric a’s i m mig ra n t p ast, f in din g t h ere a s o urc e o f natio nal e x cep tio nalis m .

23 M ean w hile , t h e r e str ic tiv e l e g is la tio n o f 1 924 haste n ed t h e a ccu ltu ra tio n o f i m mig ra n t c o m munitie s a n d s h if te d p olitic al deb ate f ro m i m mig ra tio n p er s e t o t h e t e rm s o n w hic h t h e U .S . s h ould in co rp ora te t h e n ew a rriv als . M an y f ir s t- a n d s e co nd-g en era tio n A m eric an s so ught f u ll p olitic al a n d s o cia l e n fra n ch is e m en t— ev en a s t h ey s o ught t o defin e a n A m eric a b ro ad e n ough t o e n co m pass t h em . S om e “ o ld s to ck ” Am eric an s c h afe d a t t h is n otio n, c lin gin g t o v is io ns o f t h e n atio n r o ote d i n “tr ib al” a ttr ib ute s s u ch a s w hite n ess, A nglo -S ax on o r N ord ic d esc en t, o r Pro te sta n tis m . O th ers , r e co gniz in g t h at t h e n ew i m mig ra n ts w ere d estin ed t o beco m e a p ote n t p olitic al a n d c u ltu ra l f o rc e, t r ie d t o s h ap e t h e v alu es a n d politic al b elie fs o f t h ese n ew est A m eric an s.

The s ta k es i n t h ese d eb ate s w ere h eig hte n ed b y t h e n atu re o f t h e im mig ra n ts t h em se lv es. T he o verw helm in g m ajo rity o f t h ose w ho a rriv ed i n th e U .S . b etw een 1 890 a n d 1 924 c am e f ro m S outh ern a n d E aste rn E uro pe, alth ough h undre d s o f t h ousa n ds o f J a p an ese , A rm en ia n s, M ex ic an s, S yria n Chris tia n s, a n d o th ers a ls o j o in ed t h e i m mig ra n t s tr e am . D iv ers e a s t h ese new co m ers w ere , t h ey s h are d s e v era l c h ara cte ris tic s. T o a f a r g re ate r d eg re e th an e arlie r i m mig ra n ts , t h ey s e ttle d i n t h e n atio n’s m an ufa ctu rin g c en te rs , where t h ey w ere q uic k ly a b so rb ed i n to a n ew ly i n dustr ia liz ed w ork in g c la ss.

More o ver, u nlik e t h e e lite s w ho h ad l o ng s h ap ed p ublic c o ncep tio ns o f “A m eric a,” r e la tiv ely f e w w ere N ord ic o r P ro te sta n t. T he v ast m ajo rity w ere Cath olic , E aste rn O rth odox, o r J e w is h , a lth ough s o m e p ra ctic ed B uddhis m , Is la m , S hin to is m , a n d a sso rte d o th er r e lig io ns.

Alth ough t h e “ n ew i m mig ra n ts ” p ose d t h e m ost o bvio us c h alle n ge t o Am eric a’s n atio nal i d en tity , t h ey w ere n ot t h e o nly n ew a rriv als i n U .S . c itie s.

Bla ck s h ad b een t r ic k lin g o ut o f t h e r u ra l S outh s in ce t h e e n d o f Reco nstr u ctio n, but t h e o utb re ak o f W orld W ar I l a u nch ed w hat b ecam e know n a s t h e “ G re at M ig ra tio n.” D urin g t h e w ar, h alf a m illio n s o uth ern bla ck s j o urn ey ed n orth t o t a k e n ew ly a v aila b le j o bs i n t h e m eta lw ork in g sh ops, a u to m obile p la n ts , a n d p ack in g h ouse s o f c itie s s u ch a s N ew Y ork , Chic ag o, a n d D etr o it. B la ck A m eric an s o ccu pie d t h e l o w est r u ngs o n t h e in dustr ia l l a d der. S till, t h e u rb an c en te rs o f t h e N orth east a n d M id w est offe re d a n e sc ap e f ro m t h e e co nom ic p eo nag e, d is fra n ch is e m en t, a n d l y nch mobs t h at s h ap ed b la ck l if e i n t h e r u ra l S outh . B y t h e e n d o f t h e 1 920s, an oth er m illio n b la ck s h ad m oved n orth .

24 Both t h e n ew i m mig ra n ts a n d s o uth ern b la ck s w ere r a p id ly i n co rp ora te d in to A m eric a’s i n dustr ia l w ork fo rc e, b ut t h ey w ere n ot w elc o m ed w ith o pen arm s. S co re s o f p ro m in en t i n te lle ctu als s u ch a s t h e P ro gre ssiv e l a b or eco nom is t J o hn R . C om mons a rg ued t h at S outh ern a n d E aste rn E uro pean peasa n ts b elo nged t o “ an i n fe rio r r a ce t h at f a v ors d esp otis m a n d o lig arc h y ra th er t h an d em ocra cy .” 25 B la ck s w ere s im ila rly s c o rn ed . M ean w hile , t h e Am eric an F ed era tio n o f L ab or i n ven te d t h e n otio n o f a n “ A m eric an S ta n dard of L iv in g” a n d u se d i t t o l in k h ig h w ag es t o n atio nal i d en tity . U nio n a ctiv is ts arg ued t h at A sia n a n d s o m e E uro pean i m mig ra n t g ro ups s h ould b e b arre d fro m t h e c o untr y b ecau se o f t h eir w illin gness t o w ork f o r “ sla v e w ag es.” 26 With t h e U .S .’ s e n tr y i n to W orld W ar I , t h e f o cu s o f t h is c u ltu ra l an im osity s h if te d b rie fly t o G erm an A m eric an s. W hen t h e w ar e n ded , how ev er, m an y w hite P ro te sta n t A m eric an s a g ain t a rg ete d t h e n ew i m mig ra n t gro ups a n d r a cia l m in oritie s. I n te lle ctu als a n d c iv ic l e ad ers p ic tu re d t h ese gro ups a s f o m en te rs o f l a b or u nre st, t h re ats t o A m eric an j o bs, c ata ly zers o f “ra ce s u ic id e” a m ong “ o ld s to ck ” A m eric an s, a n d s u bverte rs o f d em ocra cy its e lf . R ace r io ts e ru pte d i n C hic ag o a n d o th er c itie s i n 1 919, w hile t h e Bols h ev ik R ev olu tio n h elp ed s p aw n a d om estic r e d s c are w ith n ativ is t overto nes. I n t h e e arly 1 920s, a r e in carn ate d K u K lu x K la n d en ounced Cath olic s a n d J e w s a s w ell a s b la ck s. M ean w hile , a e u gen ic s c ra ze s w ep t t h e natio n, s p aw nin g s c o re s o f l o cal a n d n atio nal s o cie tie s, a e u gen ic s “cate ch is m ” a n d s e rm on c o nte st, a n d “ F itte r F am ily ” c o m petitio ns a t s ta te fa ir s .

27 S uch f e ars a b out “ n atio nal d iv is io n a n d t h e c o nse q uen t d estr u ctio n o f Am eric an s o cia l c o hesio n” c u lm in ate d i n 1 924 w ith C ongre ss’s p assa g e o f th e I m mig ra tio n R estr ic tio n A ct.

28 Iro nic ally , t h e t r iu m ph o f a c u ltu ra lly a n d r a cia lly r e str ic tiv e d efin itio n o f Am eric a i n t h e 1 920s s e t i n m otio n d em ogra p hic a n d c u ltu ra l t r e n ds t h at would g ra d ually e ro de t h at d efin itio n. B y l im itin g t h e i n flu x o f f o re ig ners t o Am eric a’s e th nic c o m munitie s, t h e 1 924 a ct a ccele ra te d t h e p ro cess o f accu ltu ra tio n. T he e co nom ic c o lla p se o f t h e e arly 1 930s e x te n ded t h is p ro cess to t h ose f e w i m mig ra n t c o m munitie s u naffe cte d b y t h e l e g is la tio n o f t h e pre v io us d ecad e. T he M ex ic an -A m eric an c o m munity i n L os A ngele s, f o r in sta n ce, was r e sh ap ed b y h ars h r e p atr ia tio n c am paig ns i n t h e 1 930s; o ver t h e co urs e o f h alf a d ecad e, a c o m munity t h at h ad b een c o m pris e d l a rg ely o f im mig ra n ts w as t r a n sfo rm ed i n to o ne d om in ate d b y t h eir s e co nd-g en era tio n ch ild re n .

29 T hro ughout t h e n atio n, t h is p ro cess o f a ccu ltu ra tio n w as f u rth er haste n ed b y t h e i n te n se a tte n tio n t h at c o rp ora tio ns, p atr io tic a sso cia tio ns, se ttle m en t h ouse w ork ers , a n d o th ers d ev ote d t o “ A m eric an iz in g” i m mig ra n ts durin g a n d a fte r W orld W ar I .

One m ark er o f t h e t r a n sfo rm atio n o ccu rrin g w ith in i m mig ra n t co m munitie s w as v ote r t u rn out. L arg e n um bers o f u rb an e th nic s d id n ot v ote th ro ugh t h e m id -1 920s, e ith er b ecau se t h ey w ere n ot c itiz en s o r b ecau se t h ey did n ot r e g is te r o r c o m e t o t h e p olls . R ig id c itiz en sh ip r e q uir e m en ts d ete rre d so m e, b ut m an y “ sim ply d id n ot f in d n atio nal p arty p olitic s r e le v an t t o t h eir liv es.” T he c o m bin ed i m pact o f d em ogra p hic s h if ts , p ro hib itio n, a n d t h e Gre at D ep re ssio n c h an ged t h at c alc u lu s. I n s o m e C hic ag o d is tr ic ts , t h e num ber o f f o re ig n-b orn citiz e n s m ore t h an d ouble d b etw een 1 920 a n d 1 930.

Durin g t h e s a m e d ecad e, m an y i n t h e A m eric an -b orn s e co nd g en era tio n c am e of a g e. T hese n ew A m eric an s i n cre asin gly c o nclu ded t h at t h ey h ad a s ta k e i n th e p olic ie s o f t h e f e d era l g overn m en t. I n 1 928, t h ey t u rn ed o ut i n r e co rd num bers t o v ote f o r D em ocra tic p re sid en tia l c an did ate A l S m ith . F our y ears la te r, t h ey f o rm ed t h e b ack bone o f t h e e le cto ra l m ajo rity t h at s w ep t F ra n klin Dela n o R oose v elt i n to o ffic e.

30 If n ew g en era tio ns o f A m eric an s w ere i n cre asin gly t a k in g t h eir p la ces i n th e v otin g b ooth , t h ey w ere a ls o s ta rtin g t o m ak e t h eir v oic es h eard i n t h e cu ltu ra l a re n a. I n 1 930, m ost n on-W ASP A m eric an s r e m ain ed c o nfin ed t o co m para tiv ely l o w -p ay in g j o bs i n t h e i n dustr ia l w ork in g c la ss. A g ro w in g num ber, h ow ev er, h ad w ork ed t h eir w ay i n to p ositio ns o f i n flu en ce i n t h e new c u ltu re i n dustr ie s t h at e m erg ed i n t h e o pen in g d ecad es o f t h e t w en tie th cen tu ry . M uch h as b een w ritte n a b out t h e p ro m in en ce o f J e w s i n t h e m ovie in dustr y d urin g t h e 1 930s a n d 1 940s, b ut t h e H olly w ood h onor r o ll a ls o in clu ded t h e I ris h -A m eric an d ir e cto r J o hn F ord , t h e I ta lia n -A m eric an d ir e cto r Fra n k C ap ra , a n d S pyro s P . S koura s, t h e s o n o f a n i m poveris h ed G re ek sh ep herd w ho h elp ed t u rn T w en tie th C en tu ry -F ox i n to o ne o f H olly w ood’s most p ow erfu l s tu dio s. L ouis A dam ic , a S lo ven ia n -A m eric an w ho h ad im mig ra te d t o t h e U .S . a t t h e a g e o f f if te en , b ecam e a b est- s e llin g a u th or i n 1934 w ith t h e p ublic atio n o f h is m em oir , The N ativ e’s R etu rn . P ublic re la tio ns a n d a d vertis in g, t w o c o m para tiv ely n ew f ie ld s t h at p ro duced m uch of t h e m ate ria l h eard o n r a d io i n t h e 1 930s, a ls o c o unte d l a rg e n um bers o f Je w s a n d C ath olic s a m ong t h eir s ta ffe rs . S o, t o o, e v en tu ally d id t h e f e d era l cu ltu re a g en cie s e sta b lis h ed b y t h e N ew D eal.

31 Bla ck A m eric an s t o o m ad e l im ite d b re ak th ro ughs d urin g t h e 1 920s, alth ough t h ey f a ced e v en g re ate r b arrie rs t o p olitic al a n d c u ltu ra l in co rp ora tio n t h an d id t h e n ew i m mig ra n ts . I n t h e l a te n in ete en th c en tu ry , bla ck s h ad b een e ffe ctiv ely d is fra n ch is e d t h ro ughout t h e S outh ; b ut b y 1 930, ro ughly o ne i n f iv e l iv ed i n a re as o f t h e c o untr y w here t h ey c o uld v ote . B la ck Am eric an s f e lt a d eep -s e ate d l o yalty t o t h e p arty o f L in co ln , a l o yalty t h at held t h ro ugh t h e p re sid en tia l e le ctio n o f 1 932. I n 1 934, h ow ev er, b la ck Am eric an s t h re w t h eir s u pport b eh in d t h e D em ocra tic P arty a n d R oose v elt’ s New D eal c o alitio n, a p erm an en t p olitic al s h if t t h at w ould s h ap e U .S . p olitic s fo r t h e r e st o f t h e c en tu ry .

32 If t h eir e x odus f ro m t h e r u ra l S outh g av e b la ck s l im ite d p olitic al c lo ut, i t als o f u ele d r is in g e x pecta tio ns a n d a n ew s p ir it o f c u ltu ra l r e sis ta n ce. D urin g th e e arly 1 920s, M arc u s G arv ey m obiliz ed m illio ns o f b la ck A m eric an s i n to his U niv ers a l N eg ro I m pro vem en t A sso cia tio n b y p re ach in g a m essa g e o f “ra ce p rid e” a n d e co nom ic s e lf -s u ffic ie n cy . G arv ey w as p ro fo undly c y nic al ab out t h e p ossib ilitie s f o r b la ck i n clu sio n i n w hite A m eric an s o cie ty , b ut oth er b la ck A m eric an s h arb ore d m ore h ope. T he N atio nal A sso cia tio n f o r t h e Advan cem en t o f C olo re d P eo ple ( N AACP) h ad b een f o unded i n 1 910, b ut i t attr a cte d b ro ad er p ublic a w are n ess i n t h e 1 920s w ith i ts c am paig ns a g ain st se g re g atio n, d is e n fra n ch is e m en t, a n d l y nch in g. A lth ough r e la tiv ely f e w bla ck s m ad e i n ro ad s i n H olly w ood o r M ad is o n A ven ue, t h e w rite rs , a rtis ts , an d m usic ia n s o f t h e H arle m R en ais sa n ce a ttr a cte d w hite p atr o ns a n d a n au die n ce t h at t r a n sc en ded r a cia l b oundarie s. M ost H arle m R en ais sa n ce a rtis ts so ught t o d efin e a d is tin ctiv e b la ck c u ltu re t h at c o uld b e a s o urc e o f e th nic prid e; m an y a ls o s tr e sse d t h e c o ntr ib utio ns t h at b la ck s h ad m ad e t o A m eric an cu ltu re m ore b ro ad ly .

33 Thus, b y t h e m id -1 930s, A m eric a’s “ n ew i m mig ra n ts ” a n d r a cia l min oritie s w ere m ak in g a b id f o r g re ate r p olitic al, s o cia l, a n d c u ltu ra l in clu sio n. T heir s tr o ng s u pport f o r P re sid en t R oose v elt w as r e w ard ed : t h e New D eale rs w en t f u rth er t h an m em bers o f a n y p ast a d m in is tr a tio n t o in co rp ora te J e w s, C ath olic s, a n d b la ck s i n to t h e r a n ks o f g overn m en t a n d t o ad m in is te r f e d era l p ro gra m s e v en han ded ly .

34 T he “ n ew i m mig ra n ts ” a n d bla ck s a ls o m ad e u p t h e b ack bone o f t h e i n dustr ia l l a b or m ovem en t t h at em erg ed i n t h e l a te 1 930s— a m ovem en t t h at, a s L iz ab eth C ohen h as p oin te d out, w as a n ch ore d i n a m ultie th nic a n d m ultir a cia l “ cu ltu re o f u nity .” 35 The g en era lly i n clu siv e e th os o f t h e N ew D eal a n d t h e C IO h as t e n ded i n his to ric al a cco unts t o o vers h ad ow a c o ntr a stin g t r e n d: t h e r is e t o w ard t h e e n d of t h e d ecad e o f v ir u le n t f o rm s o f i n to le ra n ce.

36 X en ophobia w an ed a fte r 1924, b ut i t n ev er d is a p peare d ; a n d t h e D ep re ssio n f a n ned t h e b an ked e m bers of p re ju dic e t o l if e . A s i n dustr ie s c o lla p se d a n d u nem plo ym en t s o are d , re se n tm en ts b etw een g ro ups i n te n sif ie d . “ In m an y p la ces t h e f o re ig n-b orn an d t h ose o f t h eir A m eric an -b orn c h ild re n w hose n am es h ad a s o -c alle d fo re ig n s o und w ere l a id o ff f ir s t, b efo re o ld -s to ck w ork ers , s o m etim es e v en befo re t h e N eg ro es,” t h e l a b or j o urn alis t L ouis A dam ic r e p orte d .

37 T he decad e’s l a b or s u rp lu s a llo w ed m an y e m plo yers t o s p ecif y “ W PX ” ( fo r “w hite , C hris tia n , P ro te sta n t” ) i n j o b a d vertis e m en ts a n d n otic es p la ced w ith em plo ym en t a g en cie s.

38 F in ally , N ew D eal p ro gra m s t h at p ut A m eric an s o f all r a cia l a n d e th nic b ack gro unds o n t h e s a m e f o otin g d re w v en om f ro m s o m e quarte rs . A “ d is g uste d A m eric an ” w ro te R oose v elt a id e H arry H opkin s i n 1936 t o c o m pla in a b out t h e i n div id uals a ssig ned t o a W ork s P ro gre ss Adm in is tr a tio n s e w in g p ro je ct i n N ew Y ork C ity . “ D id y ou f o rg et t h at t h ere are s till a f e w ‘ w hite A m eric an s l e ft,’ ” t h e a n onym ous l e tte r w rite r a sk ed . “ Its th e w ors t t h in g a s f a r a s p la cin g i s c o ncern ed . N oth in g b ut c o lo re d , S pan is h , West I n die s, I ta lia n s + a h an d f u l o f w hite s.… [ I]f y ou d on’t s e e a r a ce r io t th ere i t’ s a s u rp ris e .” A C hic ag o m an e x te n ded t h is s e n tim en t t o m an y o th er im mig ra n t g ro ups. “ T hey s h ould k ic k t h em a ll b ack t o E uro pe a s t h e m ajo rity of t h em a re a b so lu te ly n ogood,” h e w ro te . “ T he f o re ig n e le m en t i n t h is co untr y a re a llo w ed e n tir e ly t o m uch l e ew ay i n p ra ctic ally e v ery r e sp ect.” 39 Sim merin g e co nom ic r e se n tm en ts s o m etim es e ru pte d i n to r a cia l v io le n ce.

On t h e W est C oast, w hite m en t h re ate n ed t h ose w ho h ir e d F ilip in o l a b ore rs an d t h re w d ynam ite b om bs i n to t h e l a b ore rs ’ e n cam pm en ts .

40 O ffic ia ls i n South ern C alif o rn ia a n d e ls e w here r e p atr ia te d t h ousa n ds o f M ex ic an s a n d Mex ic an A m eric an s— in s o m e c ase s f o rc ib ly .

41 I n 1 936, n ew sp ap ers a cro ss th e n atio n f ille d w ith s to rie s a b out t h e s e cre tiv e B la ck L eg io n, a M ic h ig an - base d v ig ila n te g ro up t h at, a m ong o th er t h in gs, s o ught t o h elp i ts m em bers get a n d k eep j o bs. M em bers o f t h e L eg io n f lo gged , k id nap ped , a n d k ille d , an d p artic u la rly t a rg ete d c o m munis ts , J e w s, C ath olic s, a n d b la ck s. W hile so m e a rg ued t h at t h e B la ck L eg io n w as a n o ffs h oot o f t h e K KK, o th ers s a w i t as “ a m odern f o re ru nner o f a n A m eric an b ra n d o f f a sc is m .” 42 If A m eric a’s n on-W ASP m in oritie s w ere f re q uen t t a rg ets o f e th nic , re lig io us, o r r a cia l a n im osity , t h ey c o uld a ls o b e s o urc es o f s u ch h ostility . A s th e 1 930s w ore o n, s tr a in s a n d w arfa re a ro und t h e g lo be r e v erb era te d i n t h e U.S . a s w ell. M an y I ta lia n A m eric an s h aile d M usso lin i’ s i n vasio n o f E th io pia in 1 935, s e ein g i t a s a s ig n o f t h e r e su rg en t g lo ry o f R om e. I n r e sp onse , b la ck Am eric an s i n N ew Y ork a n d C hic ag o b oyco tte d s to re s o w ned b y I ta lia n - Am eric an m erc h an ts . A m eric an C ath olic s a n d J e w s h ad l o ng d if fe re d o n a varie ty o f s o cia l a n d p olitic al i s su es, b ut t e n sio ns b etw een t h e t w o g ro ups so are d a s a r e su lt o f t h e S pan is h C iv il W ar.

43 H itle r’s a n nex atio n o f A ustr ia an d C zech oslo vak ia , th e G erm an a n d S ovie t i n vasio ns o f P ola n d, S ta lin ’s co nquest o f F in la n d a n d t h e B altic s ta te s, a n d t h e N azi b litz k rie g a cro ss Euro pe i n t h e s p rin g o f 1 940 a ll r e k in dle d d orm an t l o yaltie s w ith in i m mig ra n t co m munitie s.

44 S uch d ev elo pm en ts t h re ate n ed t o t u rn A m eric an s o f d iv ers e back gro unds a g ain st o ne a n oth er a n d f u ele d f e ars — ev en o n t h e p art o f s o m e lib era ls a n d l e ftis ts — th at i m mig ra n ts a n d t h eir c h ild re n c o uld b eco m e co nduits f o r v ario us “ alie n ” i d eo lo gie s.

The F asc is t a n d C om munis t T hrea ts The D ep re ssio n a n d d em ogra p hic c h an ge t h us d esta b iliz ed l o ng d om in an t notio ns o f “ A m eric an is m ,” o pen in g t h e d oor t o n ew v oic es a n d c o m petin g defin itio ns o f t h e n atio n. A s t h e Harp er’s e ssa y c o nte st s u ggeste d , h ow ev er, it w as t h e s u ccesse s o f c o m munis m a n d f a sc is m a b ro ad — co m bin ed w ith fe ars t h at b oth d octr in es w ere w in nin g s y m path iz ers i n t h e U .S .— th at g av e effo rts t o d efin e A m eric a’s c o re v alu es i n t h e l a te 1 930s n ew u rg en cy . T ak en to geth er, c o m munis m a n d f a sc is m p ro vid ed A m eric an s a cro ss t h e p olitic al sp ectr u m w ith a f e ars o m e i d eo lo gic al “ o th er” a g ain st w hic h t h e n atio n c o uld an d s h ould b e d efin ed .

45 T hose A m eric an s w ho m ost f e are d c o m munis m a n d th ose w ho s a w f a sc is m a s t h e g re ate r d an ger r a re ly a g re ed o n t h eir c o ncep t o f an i d eal s o cie ty ; b ut i n t h e l a te 1 930s, b oth g ro ups c ast t h eir v is io ns i n Am eric a n t e rm s. S o t o o d id m an y r e fu gee i n te lle ctu als f ro m o th er p arts o f t h e glo be. B y a rtic u la tin g a n d p ro m otin g a n A m eric an i d ea, c re ed , o r w ay o f l if e , U.S . a n d f o re ig n i n te lle ctu als , g overn m en t o ffic ia ls , p undits , a n d b usin ess an d c iv ic l e ad ers s o ught b oth t o s e t t h e l im its a n d p ossib ilitie s o f U .S .

politic al c u ltu re a n d t o p ro vid e a n orm ativ e e x am ple t o t h e w orld .

Com munis m h ad b een o n A m eric an s’ r a d ar s c re en s in ce t h e B ols h ev ik Rev olu tio n o f 1 917, b ut g lo bal d ev elo pm en ts i n t h e 1 930s a d ded g re atly t o th e s e n se o f a la rm i n s o m e q uarte rs . D esp ite d ir e w arn in gs, t h e S ovie t U nio n had r e m ain ed a p olitic al a n d e co nom ic p aria h t h ro ugh m ost o f t h e 1 920s.

Mean w hile , A m eric an c o rp ora tio ns f lo uris h ed v ir tu ally u nch eck ed . T hat bala n ce c h an ged w ith t h e G re at D ep re ssio n. W hile c ap ita lis t e co nom ie s ev ery w here g ro und t o a h alt, t h e S ovie t U nio n e n gag ed i n f o rc ed a n d r a p id in dustr ia liz atio n, a n a ch ie v em en t t h at i m pre sse d m an y f o re ig n o bse rv ers .

More o ver, i n A ugust 1 935, S ta lin r e sp onded t o t h e r is e o f H itle r b y a d optin g th e p olic y o f t h e P opula r F ro nt; t h is a llo w ed c o m munis ts a ro und t h e g lo be t o ally t h em se lv es w ith s o cia lis ts a n d “ b ourg eo is ” d em ocra ts i n a n tif a sc is t co alitio ns. T he s u ccess o f t h is p olic y w as i m med ia te ly e v id en t i n s u ch co untr ie s a s S pain a n d Fra n ce. I n F eb ru ary 1 936, S pan ia rd s e le cte d a P opula r Fro nt g overn m en t, o verth ro w in g a c o alitio n o f c en tr is t a n d r ig htis t p artie s a n d se ttin g t h e s ta g e f o r t h e S pan is h C iv il W ar. I n F ra n ce, t o o, t h e s tr a te g y tr a n sfo rm ed t h e c o m munis ts i n to a m ass p arty , a n d a P opula r F ro nt c o alitio n tr iu m phed i n t h e 1 936 e le ctio ns. W ith a S ocia lis t p rim e m in is te r a t t h e h elm , th e g overn m en t l im ite d w ork w eek s a n d n atio naliz ed b oth t h e a rm am en ts in dustr y a n d t h e B an k o f F ra n ce.

Fasc is m h ad g otte n a l a te r s ta rt t h an c o m munis m — both B en ito M usso lin i an d A dolf H itle r b uilt t h eir m ovem en ts i n t h e 1 920s— but i t t o o b en efite d fro m t h e c ata cly sm o f t h e D ep re ssio n. A s G erm an y’s u nem plo ym en t r a te so are d i n 1 930, s o t o o d id s u pport f o r t h e N azis a m ong v ote rs . T he p arty , whic h h ad p olle d j u st 8 09,0 00 v ote s i n 1 928, g arn ere d 6 .4 m illio n v ote s i n 1930. T w o y ears l a te r, t h e N azis w on a p lu ra lity o f s e ats i n t h e G erm an Reic h sta g ; a n d i n J a n uary 1 933, H itle r w as n am ed c h an cello r. L ib era ls a n d le ftis ts a ro und t h e w orld w atc h ed i n h orro r a s t h e N azis s e iz ed d ic ta to ria l pow er, a b olis h ed t h e G erm an f e d era l s y ste m , d is so lv ed t r a d e u nio ns, b urn ed books, a n d c o m men ced t h e p ers e cu tio n o f J e w s. B y e arly 1 938, I ta ly h ad co nquere d E th io pia , J a p an w as r a v ag in g C hin a, a n d F ra n co ’s f o rc es s e em ed to b e w in nin g t h e c iv il w ar i n S pain . B efo re t h e y ear w as o ut, H itle r h ad an nex ed A ustr ia a n d s e iz ed t h e C zech oslo vak ia n S udete n la n d.

These d ev elo pm en ts a la rm ed A m eric an s o n b oth t h e r ig ht a n d t h e l e ft.

Addin g t o t h eir u nease w ere s ig ns t h at “ co m munis m ” a n d “ fa sc is m ” b ro ad ly defin ed m ig ht b e g ain in g a t o eh old i n t h e U .S . a s w ell. E co nom ic co nse rv ativ es, w ho w ere k een ly a w are o f w hat w as h ap pen in g i n F ra n ce, atta ck ed t h e i n dustr ia l u nio n m ovem en t a n d d ecrie d t h e N ew D eal a s “cre ep in g s ta te s o cia lis m .” ( A m in ority a ls o l ik en ed t h e N ew D eal t o fa sc is m .) A t t h e s a m e t im e, t h ey e y ed w ith c o ncern t h e e m erg en ce o f a b ro ad an d m ultif a cete d l e ft- w in g m ovem en t i n t h e U .S . w ith s tr o ng t ie s t o t h e C IO an d R oose v elt’ s N ew D eal c o alitio n a n d t a n gen tia l c o nnectio ns t o t h e Com munis t P arty . A t a p olitic al l e v el, t h is m ovem en t e n co m passe d s u ch varie d g ro ups a s N ew Y ork ’s A m eric an L ab or P arty , M in neso ta ’s F arm er- Lab or P arty , W is c o nsin ’s P ro gre ssiv e P arty , W ash in gto n’s C om monw ealth Fed era tio n, a n d t h e E nd-P overty -in -C alif o rn ia c am paig n o f m uck ra k er U pto n Sin cla ir . C ultu ra lly , t h e m ovem en t c o unte d n um ero us a u th ors , c ritic s, a cto rs , sc re en w rite rs , m usic ia n s, a n d o th er i n te lle ctu als a m ong i ts m em bers . T he U.S . C om munis t P arty i ts e lf r e m ain ed s m all, b ut i t t o o c ap ita liz ed o n t h e Popula r F ro nt s tr a te g y, d oublin g i ts m em bers h ip b etw een 1 936 a n d 1 938 a n d billin g c o m munis m a s “ tw en tie th -c en tu ry A m eric an is m .” 46 Am eric an i n dustr ia lis ts a n d o th ers i n t h e b usin ess c o m munity w orrie d i n part a b out t h e a p peal o f “ sta te s o cia lis m ” t o m em bers o f t h e m id dle c la ss who had b eco m e d is illu sio ned w ith t h e c o untr y ’s e co nom ic l e ad ers h ip . T hey w ere als o d eep ly c o ncern ed a b out t h e v ie w s o f f ir s t- a n d s e co nd-g en era tio n Am eric an s. B ecau se i m mig ra n ts a n d t h eir c h ild re n c lu ste re d i n t h e l e ss sk ille d e ch elo ns o f t h e w ork in g c la ss, t h ey w ere h eav ily r e p re se n te d i n t h e in dustr ia l l a b or m ovem en t. A s M ic h ael D en nin g h as s h ow n, t h ese g ro ups als o p la y ed a n i m porta n t r o le i n t h e “ cu ltu ra l f ro nt.” 47 N ot s u rp ris in g, w hen busin ess g ro ups l a u nch ed t h eir c o unte ra tta ck a g ain st t h e N ew D eal i n t h e l a te 1930s, t h ey a im ed b oth t o c o nta in a n d t o c o nvert t h e n atio n’s n ew est Am eric an s.

If t h e s p ecte r o f A m eric an s o cia lis m h au nte d e co nom ic c o nse rv ativ es, fe ars o f d om estic f a sc is m h ad a s im ila rly g alv an iz in g e ffe ct o n l ib era ls a n d th ose o n t h e l e ft. A m eric an s r a n gin g f ro m t h e a ctiv is t l a w yer C are y McW illia m s t o t h e p ro m in en t t h eo lo gia n R ein hold N ie b uhr w arn ed o f a fa sc is t m en ace w ith in t h e U .S . w ith e sc ala tin g u rg en cy a s t h e d ecad e w ore on. A rtic le s r e fle ctin g s u ch f e ars a p peare d n ot o nly i n l e ft- le an in g m ag azin es su ch a s t h e New R ep ublic , t h e Natio n , a n d Am eric a n M erc u ry , b ut a ls o i n public atio ns s u ch a s t h e Chris tia n C en tu ry , t h e Am eric a n S ch ola r , a n d t h e Satu rd ay E ven in g P ost . I n 1 935, A m eric a’s f ir s t N obel l a u re ate i n l ite ra tu re , Sin cla ir L ew is , p ublis h ed It C an’t H appen H ere , a n ovel t h at e n vis io ned t h e fa sc is t t a k eo ver o f t h e U .S .

48 Leftis ts s u ch a s M cW illia m s s a w e v id en ce o f f a sc is m i n p hen om en a a s div ers e a s u nio n b ustin g, m ilita ris m , r e d -b aitin g, a n d v ig ila n te j u stic e.

49 E ven th ose w ho d efin ed t h e f a sc is t t h re at m ore n arro w ly , h ow ev er, w ere a la rm ed by t h e r is e i n e th nic a n d r e lig io us s c ap eg oatin g d urin g t h e d ecad e, a n d partic u la rly b y t h e s u rg e i n a n ti- S em itis m . A nti- S em itis m w as b y n o m ean s a new p hen om en on i n A m eric a; b ut i n t h e l a te 1 930s, i t a p peare d t o t a k e a f a r more v ir u le n t f o rm . M ore t h an o ne h undre d a n ti- S em itic o rg an iz atio ns w ere cre ate d i n t h e U .S . b etw een 1 933 a n d 1 941; b y o ne e stim ate , t h is w as t w en ty tim es t h e n um ber f o rm ed i n t h e c o untr y u p t o t h at p oin t.

50 I n t h e p ast, dom estic a n ti- S em itis m h ad p rim arily t a k en t h e f o rm o f s o cia l o r e co nom ic dis c rim in atio n, b ut m an y o f t h e n ew o rg an iz atio ns— whic h b oaste d n am es su ch a s t h e S ilv er S hir ts , t h e A m eric an N atio nalis t F ed era tio n, D efe n ders o f th e C hris tia n F aith , a n d t h e K nig hts o f t h e W hite C am elia — re so rte d t o vio le n ce. S om e b en efite d f ro m f o re ig n s u pport, e v en a s t h ey w ra p ped th em se lv es i n t h e m an tle o f A m eric an is m .

One s u ch o rg an iz atio n w as t h e G erm an A m eric an B und. F ounded i n 1 936 by a D etr o it a u to w ork er, F ritz K uhn, t h e B und h eld m ass r a llie s m ark ed b y unif o rm s a n d h is tr io nic s t h at e erily r e se m ble d t h ose f o und i n M unic h a n d Nure m burg . T he B und h ad c lo se t ie s t o H itle r’s N azi p arty , y et K uhn c ast i t as “ a g re at A m eric an m ovem en t o f L ib era tio n” s e ek in g t o b re ak t h e dic ta to rs h ip o f a “ Je w is h i n te rn atio nal m in ority .” B und m eetin gs a n d m arc h es fe atu re d Am eric an f la g s, p ortr a its o f G eo rg e W ash in gto n ( w hom K uhn eq uate d t o A dolf H itle r), i n vocatio ns o f t h e R ev olu tio nary W ar g en era l B aro n Von S te u ben , a n d r o usin g r e n ditio ns o f “ T he S ta r-S pan gle d B an ner” ( fig ure 1.2 ). W hen t h e B und h eld w hat i t b ille d a s a “ m ass-d em onstr a tio n f o r t r u e Am eric an is m ” i n M ad is o n S quare G ard en i n F eb ru ary 1 939 t o c ele b ra te Geo rg e W ash in gto n’s b ir th day , s o m e t w en ty -tw o t h ousa n d B undis ts a n d oth er s y m path iz ers a tte n ded .

51 Fig u re 1 .2 . M em bers o f t h e G erm an A m eric an B und m arc h i n Y ap han k, New Y ork i n 1 937. A lth ough t h is g ath erin g w as s m all, a B und r a lly a t Mad is o n S quare G ard en o n W ash in gto n’s B ir th day i n 1 939 d re w m ore t h an tw en ty t h ousa n d p eo ple . T he s u rg e i n v ir u le n t a n ti- S em itis m i n t h e U nite d Sta te s d urin g t h e D ep re ssio n f e d f e ars o n t h e p art o f m an y l ib era ls a n d l e ftis ts th at A m eric an s t o o c o uld s u ccu m b t o f a sc is m ( T im e & L if e P ic tu re s/G etty Im ag es). Desp ite t h e B und’s d ir e ct t ie s t o N azi G erm an y, t h e i n div id ual w ho m ost ala rm ed m an y l ib era ls w as F ath er C harle s C oughlin . I n t h e e arly 1 930s, t h e ch aris m atic p rie st a ttr a cte d a n a u die n ce o f m illio ns t o h is w eek ly r a d io s h ow , in w hic h h e a tta ck ed c o m munis m , r a ile d a g ain st t h e g old s ta n dard , a n d c alle d fo r t h e n atio naliz atio n o f t h e U .S . b an kin g s y ste m . C oughlin a ls o f o unded a politic al o rg an iz atio n, t h e N atio nal U nio n f o r S ocia l J u stic e, a n d l a u nch ed a week ly n ew sp ap er. B y 1 934, h e w as r e ceiv in g m ore m ail t h an a n yone e ls e i n th e U nite d S ta te s, i n clu din g t h e p re sid en t. C oughlin h ad l o ng b la m ed t h e Dep re ssio n o n “ m oney c h an gers ” a n d “ in te rn atio nal b an kers ” ; b ut i n 1 938, h e tu rn ed o pen ly a n d s tr id en tly a n ti- S em itic . H e r e p eate d ly a ssa ile d “co m munis tic J e w s” a n d i n o ne e d ito ria l l if te d w ord in g d ir e ctly f ro m a sp eech b y H itle r’s c h ie f p ro pag an dis t, J o se p h G oeb bels . B y t h e e n d o f t h e decad e, C oughlin n o l o nger a ttr a cte d t h e h uge a n d a d orin g a u die n ce h e o nce had ; s till, a G allu p p oll c o nducte d i n e arly 1 938 s h ow ed t h at 1 0 p erc en t o f a ll Am eric an f a m ilie s w ith r a d io s t u ned h im i n r e g ula rly a n d t h at 8 3 p erc en t o f th ose w ho l is te n ed w eek ly a p pro ved o f h is m essa g e. M ean w hile , t h e Chris tia n F ro nt, a m ovem en t o f C oughlin s u pporte rs f o rm ed a t h is u rg in g, drille d i ts m em bers i n m ilita ry t a ctic s a n d s to ck pile d w eap ons. I n c itie s s u ch as B osto n a n d N ew Y ork , r o vin g g an gs o f C hris tia n F ro nte rs s m ash ed t h e win dow s o f J e w is h -o w ned s to re s a n d “ en gag ed i n o pen , N azi- lik e b ra w ls with J e w s.” 52 The B la ck L eg io n l im ite d i ts m em bers h ip t o n ativ e-b orn w hite Pro te sta n ts , b ut t h e C hris tia n F ro nt f lo uris h ed i n C ath olic i m mig ra n t neig hborh oods i n t h e u rb an N orth east. T he f o under o f t h e G erm an A m eric an Bund w as a G erm an i m mig ra n t, a n d t h e s u pport o f I ta lia n A m eric an s f o r Musso lin i w as w ell k now n. A ll t h is p ro m pte d s o m e t o v ie w r e cen t im mig ra n ts — th ose w ho h ad n ot y et b een f u lly A m eric an iz ed — as p artic u la rly su sc ep tib le t o f a sc is m . S ta ffe rs f o r t h e N atio nal C onfe re n ce o f C hris tia n s a n d Je w s, f o r i n sta n ce, a rg ued t h at t h e o rg an iz atio n s h ould w ork m ore c lo se ly with o rg an iz ed l a b or a s i t t r ie d t o c o m bat r e lig io us p re ju dic e a n d p artic u la rly an ti- S em itis m . “ T his g ro up,” t h ey e x pla in ed , “ in clu des a l a rg e p erc en ta g e o f fo re ig n-b orn w ho h av e b ro ught f a ls e b elie fs i n to t h is n atio n.” 53 The S ea rch f o r a n “ A m eric a n W ay” Confro nte d w ith e co nom ic c o lla p se a n d i d eo lo gic al t h re ats b oth a t h om e a n d ab ro ad , a g ro w in g n um ber o f i n te lle ctu als , p ublic o ffic ia ls , c iv ic l e ad ers , a n d oth ers a g re ed w ith t h e l ite ra ry s c h ola r H ow ard M um fo rd J o nes. “ In a p erio d of i n te n se s o cia l s tr a in ,” h e d ecla re d i n D ecem ber 1 935, “ th e c o untr y n eed s [th e] s te ad yin g e ffe ct o f a v ita l c u ltu ra l t r a d itio n.” 54 T he p oet a n d L ib ra ria n o f Congre ss A rc h ib ald M acL eis h c h astis e d h is c o m patr io ts f o r “ m ora lly dis a rm in g” A m eric a b y e le v atin g E uro pean o ver h om eg ro w n v alu es.

Am eric an i n te lle ctu als , h e a lle g ed , h ad “ ir re sp onsib ly u nderm in ed t h e natio n’s h is to ric p rin cip le s a n d i d eals ,” l e av in g i t w eak en ed i n t h e f a ce o f t h e fa sc is t t h re at.

55 G ilb ert S eld es, t h e f ilm c ritic a n d b ook r e v ie w er w ho i n 1 932 pro duced t h e b itin g The Y ea rs o f t h e L ocu st , c h arg ed f o ur y ears l a te r t h at write rs w ere f a r m ore d an gero us t o t h e n atio n t h an i n dustr ia lis ts o r f in an cie rs .

The f o rm er “ m ere ly r a v ag ed t h e c o untr y ’s e n vir o nm en t a n d r e so urc es,” h e wro te , w hile t h e l a tte r im pose d “ an a lie n s y ste m o f i d eals u pon A m eric a” t h at “p re v en te d u s f ro m u nders ta n din g o urs e lv es.” 56 Such v ie w s o nly i n te n sif ie d a s t h e d ecad e d re w t o a c lo se . T he o utb re ak of w ar i n E uro pe i n S ep te m ber 1 939, t h e G erm an b litz k rie g i n t h e s p rin g o f 1940, a n d p artic u la rly t h e f a ll o f F ra n ce t h at J u ne g av e t h e a p peals o f U .S .

an d é m ig ré i n te lle ctu als a n ote o f d ir e u rg en cy . “ O ne c an not c o unte r t h e re lig io us f a ith o f f a sc is m u nle ss o ne p osse sse s a f a ith e q ually s tr o ng, e q ually cap ab le o f f o ste rin g d ev otio n a n d l o yalty a n d c o m man din g s a crif ic e,” decla re d a rc h ite ctu ra l c ritic L ew is M um fo rd i n h is 1 940 c all- to -a rm s Faith fo r L iv in g . “ If o ur d em ocra cy i s t o s a v e i ts e lf ,” w arn ed p ro gre ssiv e e d ucato r Geo rg e S . C ounts i n h is p re sid en tia l a d dre ss t o t h e A m eric an F ed era tio n o f Teach ers , “ it m ust a sse rt i ts e lf a s a p ositiv e a n d a g gre ssiv e s o cia l f a ith .” 57 Som e c o m men ta to rs w orrie d p artic u la rly a b out t h e t h re at t o n atio nal u nity an d r e so lv e p ose d b y A m eric an e th nic s. S uch v ie w s w ere c o m mon o n t h e rig ht b ut e x te n ded i n a r a th er d if fe re n t v ein t o m an y l ib era ls a n d s o m e o n t h e le ft. I n a 1 938 a rtic le i n t h e Atla ntic , f o r i n sta n ce, H ow ard M um fo rd J o nes warn ed o f t h e d an ger A m eric a w ould f a ce i f i t a llo w ed e th nic i s o la tio n a n d hostility b etw een g ro ups t o u nderm in e A m eric an s’ s e n se o f c o m mon g ro und.

Fasc is t a n d c o m munis t “ d ic ta to r c o untr ie s” p ose d a “ se rio us … m en ace t o politic al d em ocra cy ” p re cis e ly b ecau se t h ey h ad s u cceed ed i n m ak in g “p atr io tis m g la m oro us,” h e a rg ued . A m eric an s n eed ed a “ p atr io tic re n ais sa n ce,” b ut o ne t h at w ould e n co m pass all A m eric an s, n ot j u st desc en den ts o f t h e Mayflo w er a n d “ o ne-h undre d -p er-c en te rs .” “ It i s p re cis e ly th e c h ild re n a n d g ra n dch ild re n o f t h e m illio ns w ho ‘ c am e o ver’ s o m e cen tu rie s a fte r t h ese e arlie r i m mig ra tio ns w ho n eed t o h av e t h eir i m ag in atio ns kin dle d b y A m eric an m yth olo gy,” J o nes w ro te . “ T he g ulf b etw een t h e Bosto n B ra h m in s a n d t h e B osto n I ris h , o ld D etr o ite rs a n d t h e s w arm in g th ousa n ds o f a u to m obile w ork er … is n ot … g oin g t o b e b rid ged b y a b rig ht re cita l o f t h e F re n ch a n d I n dia n W ars .” J o nes c o nclu ded t h at “ n o r a ce o r re lig io n o r g ro up o r n atio nality c an b e p erm itte d t o a ssu m e t h at i t h as a monopoly o f A m eric an h is to ry , a n d n o r a ce o r r e lig io n o r g ro up o r n atio nality can b e p erm itte d t o f e el i t i s e x clu ded , i f p olitic al d em ocra cy i s t o s u rv iv e.” 58 Alth ough s o m e i n te lle ctu als a n d c iv ic l e ad ers f o cu se d o n A m eric an eth nic s, o th ers c o nclu ded t h at e v en t h ose w ith d eep r o ots i n t h e n atio n— an d fir m f o otin g i n t h e m id dle a n d u pper c la sse s— need ed a t u to ria l o n t h eir o w n cu ltu re . F or y ears H arv ard U niv ers ity h ad l a rg ely i g nore d A m eric an t o pic s i n its c u rric u lu m ; b ut i n t h e l a te 1 930s, i t t o ok a s e rie s o f s te p s t o r e ctif y t h is im bala n ce.

59 A m ong o th er t h in gs, i t p ublis h ed a n e x te n siv e r e ad in g l is t o n Am eric an h is to ry a n d c u ltu re , w hic h i t d is tr ib ute d t o s tu den ts , a lu m ni, a n d in te re ste d m em bers o f t h e p ublic . T he p re fa ce l a m en te d t h e f a ct t h at Am eric an s’ k now le d ge o f t h eir p ast o fte n p eak ed i n h ig h s c h ool a n d f a d ed th ere afte r. “ O ne r e su lt o f t h is i g nora n ce a n d i n dif fe re n ce i s t h e l a ck o f re sis ta n ce o f e v en w ell- e d ucate d p ers o ns t o v ario us f o rm s o f p ro pag an da whic h w ould h av e t h em c o nceiv e ‘ A m eric an is m ’ i n t e rm s o f c la ss, p arty , se ctio nal, r a cia l, o r r e lig io us a ffilia tio n,” t h e p re fa ce w arn ed . I t a d m onis h ed re ad ers a g ain st “ a m ere p assiv e r e ad in g” o f t h e b ooks l is te d s in ce t h at w ould “n ot m ak e a n ybody a m ore i n te llig en t c itiz en .” I n ste ad , r e ad ers s h ould “ b e pre p are d t o m ak e [ th eir ] o w n s y nth ese s, a n d a n sw er [ th eir ] o w n q uestio ns.

What i s t h e A m eric an w ay o f l if e ? T he A m eric an w ay o f t h ought? H ow d oes it d if fe r f ro m E uro pean o r O rie n ta l w ay s o f l if e a n d t h ought? ” 60 The c o m pile rs o f t h e H arv ard r e ad in g l is t u rg ed r e ad ers t o d ev elo p t h eir ow n u nders ta n din g o f t h e “ A m eric an W ay ”; b ut i n t h e l a te 1 930s, in te lle ctu als , p olitic al l e ad ers , a n d a n a rra y o f c iv ic o rg an iz atio ns r u sh ed t o defin e t h is c o ncep t f o r a ll. M uch h in ged o n t h e o utc o m e o f t h eir e ffo rts . A t sta k e w as t h e p la ce a n d s h ap e o f c ap ita lis m i n U .S . s o cie ty . W ould t h e p ow er of l a b or u nio ns a n d t h e f e d era l g overn m en t b e s tr e n gth en ed ? T o w hat d eg re e would b usin ess b e r e g ula te d ? W ould t h e w elf a re s ta te b e e x pan ded o r f o rc ed to c o ntr a ct? A t s ta k e t o o w as w hat m ig ht b e c alle d t h e c u ltu ra l d efin itio n o f Am eric a— th e t e rm s o n w hic h t h e n atio n’s n ew i m mig ra n ts a n d r a cia l min oritie s w ould b e i n co rp ora te d i n to t h e U .S .’ s n atio nal i d en tity a n d s o cia l fa b ric . W ould t h ey b e e q uals o r s e co nd-c la ss c itiz en s? W ould t h ey b e f o rc ed to s h ed t h eir s e p ara te e th nic a n d r a cia l i d en titie s, o r w ould t h ose i d en titie s b e re co nfig ure d ? W ould A m eric a c o ntin ue t o b e s e en a s a p re d om in an tly w hite an d P ro te sta n t n atio n? B eh in d t h ese t w o g ro ups o f q uestio ns l u rk ed a t h ir d :

What r o le w ould t h e U .S ., a s a cto r o r e x em pla r, p la y o n t h e w orld s ta g e?

Am ong t h ose e ag er t o a n sw er t h ese q uestio ns w ere N ew D eale rs , i n dustr ia l unio nis ts , a n d t h eir f o es i n t h e b oard ro om s a n d p re ss o ffic es o f c o rp ora te Am eric a. CH APT ER 2 In dustr ia l D em ocra cy v ersu s F ree Ente rp ris e M an y A m eric an s f ir s t e n co unte re d t h e p hra se “ th e A m eric an W ay ” o n h uge b illb oard s t h at b y 1 938 h ad s p ro ute d i n h undre d s o f U .S . c itie s a n d t o w ns.

S hoppin g f o r g ro cerie s, h ead in g t o w ork , o r e n te rin g a n e m pty s tr e tc h o f h ig hw ay , t h ey w ere s u dden ly c o nfro nte d b y a g ia n t t a b le au o f a c h eerfu l A m eric an f a m ily p ic n ic k in g, g re etin g D ad a t t h e e n d o f a w ork day , o r t a k in g a S unday d riv e w ith t h e f a m ily d og. T he f o urs o m e’s b rig ht s m ile s, c o m fo rta b le c ar, a n d t r e llis -a d orn ed h om e i n dic ate d t h at t h ey h ad f e w m ate ria l o r p sy ch olo gic al w orrie s, a n i m pre ssio n t h at b old l e tte rin g o n t h e t o p o f e ach s ig n u nders c o re d . “ W orld ’s S horte st W ork in g H ours ,” d ecla re d o ne.

“ W orld ’s H ig hest W ag es,” p ro cla im ed a n oth er. “ W orld ’s H ig hest S ta n dard o f L iv in g,” t r u m pete d a t h ir d . S crip t o n t h e s id e o f e ach b illb oard i n str u cte d v ie w ers : “ T here ’s n o w ay l ik e t h e A m eric an W ay .” The b illb oard s, w hic h w ere d esig ned a n d d is tr ib ute d b y t h e N atio nal A sso cia tio n o f M an ufa ctu re rs ( N AM ), m ust h av e s e em ed o ut o f p la ce t o m an y A m eric an s m ir e d i n t h e d ep th s o f c ap ita lis m ’s w ors t c ris is .

N ev erth ele ss, t h ey t e stif ie d t o t h e i n te n sity o f t h e d eb ate o ver n atio nal v alu es u nle ash ed b y t h e D ep re ssio n. W ith o th er n atio ns t u rn in g t o c o m munis m a n d f a sc is m f o r s o lu tio ns t o t h e g lo bal e co nom ic c o lla p se , w ith A m eric a’s c ap ita lis t i d ols k nock ed o ff t h eir p ed esta ls , A m eric an s, t o o, b eg an r e ex am in in g t h eir p olitic al o ptio ns. I n t h is c h arg ed a tm osp here , N ew D eale rs , i n dustr ia l u nio nis ts , c o nse rv ativ e b usin essm en , a n d t h eir v ario us a llie s a ll s e iz ed o n t h e l a n guag e o f A m eric an is m a n d s o ught t o d efin e t h e n atio n i n w ay s t h at f u rth ere d t h eir o w n p olitic al a n d s o cia l a g en das. U sin g n ew t e ch nolo gie s a n d p ublic r e la tio ns t e ch niq ues, th ey o ffe re d t h eir o w n v ers io ns o f A m eric a’s h is to ry a n d c o re v alu es a n d t r ie d t o s e t t h e l im its a n d possib ilitie s o f U .S . p olitic al c u ltu re .

All a d dre sse d A m eric an s’ d esir e t o b e f re e o f w an t, a n d a ll a tte m pte d t o co nnect e co nom ic a n d p olitic al c o ncern s. B ey ond t h at, h ow ev er, t h ey f ra m ed th e i s su e i n p ro fo undly d if fe re n t, e v en c o nflic tin g, w ay s. P re sid en t R oose v elt, le ad ers o f t h e C ongre ss o f I n dustr ia l O rg an iz atio ns ( C IO ), a n d o th ers i n t h e New D eal c o alitio n s tr e sse d t h e m ajo rita ria n o verto nes o f t h e w ord “d em ocra cy ” a n d c alle d f o r a n a ctiv is t g overn m en t t o h elp e n su re A m eric an s’ eco nom ic s e cu rity . I n dustr ia lis ts a n d t h eir a llie s, b y c o ntr a st, e m phasiz ed in div id ual r ig hts a n d t h e l ib erta ria n d im en sio ns o f A m eric an “ fre ed om .” T hey pain te d b usin ess, n ot g overn m en t, a s w ork in g p eo ple s’ t r u e f rie n d. T he C IO , th eir a llie s t o t h e l ib era l l e ft o n A m eric a’s p olitic al s p ectr u m , a n d e v en F D R fo r a t im e e m phasiz ed t h e s tr u ggle o f “ th e p eo ple ” a g ain st m onopolis tic cap ita l a n d c alle d f o r m utu alis tic r e sp onse s t o t h e e co nom ic c ris is .

Mean w hile , c o rp ora tio ns a n d b usin ess g ro ups p ro m ote d a n “ A m eric an W ay ” built o n c la ss h arm ony a n d a r e tu rn t o t h e p re -N ew D eal s ta tu s q uo. T he en su in g b attle — pittin g “ d em ocra cy ” a g ain st “ fre ed om ,” m utu alis m a g ain st in div id ualis m , a n d a p ro gre ssiv e e th os a g ain st i n te rc la ss u nity — pre sa g ed co nte sts t h at w ould c o ntin ue i n to t h e p ostw ar e ra .

FD R a n d t h e N ew D ea le rs Shortly b efo re t e n o ’c lo ck o n a c lo udy n ig ht i n l a te J u ne 1 936, P re sid en t Fra n klin D ela n o R oose v elt a rriv ed a t t h e U niv ers ity o f P en nsy lv an ia ’s Fra n klin F ie ld t o a ccep t t h e D em ocra tic P arty ’s u nan im ous r e n om in atio n f o r pre sid en t. E nte rin g t h e s ta d iu m o n t h e a rm o f h is s o n J a m es, F D R ack now le d ged t h e w ild c h eerin g o f a c ro w d e stim ate d a t m ore t h an o ne hundre d t h ousa n d p eo ple . H e w aite d t h ro ugh t h e s in gin g o f “ T he S ta r- Span gle d B an ner,” a n i n vocatio n b y a n E pis c o pal b is h op, a n d b rie f r e m ark s by h is v ic e p re sid en t a n d s e v era l p arty o ffic ia ls .

1 T hen F D R r o se a n d ad dre sse d t h e a sse m bly . “ P hila d elp hia i s a g ood c ity i n w hic h t o w rite Am eric an h is to ry ,” h e d ecla re d . “ T his i s f ittin g g ro und o n w hic h t o r e affir m th e f a ith o f o ur f a th ers ; t o p le d ge o urs e lv es t o r e sto re t o t h e p eo ple a w id er fre ed om ; t o g iv e t o 1 936 a s t h e f o unders g av e t o 1 776— an A m eric an w ay o f lif e .” 2 T he p re sid en t’ s e n su in g a d dre ss w as n ot t h e “ fig htin g s p eech ” t h at most i n t h e t h ro ng h ad e x pecte d o r t h at m an y o f F D R’s a d vis o rs h ad u rg ed him t o g iv e. R ath er t h an a ssa ilin g h is R ep ublic an o pponen t, R oose v elt offe re d w hat t h e New Y ork T im es c alle d “ a s ta te m en t o f a p hilo so phy.” 3 H e outlin ed t h e b ro ad s e t o f c o nvic tio ns t h at u nderla y t h e N ew D eal a n d t h at defin ed f o r F D R t h e A m eric an W ay .

Roose v elt b eg an h is a d dre ss i n P hila d elp hia b y i n vokin g t h e i m ag e o f a peo ple u nite d . L ookin g b ack o ver t h e p re v io us f o ur y ears , h e d ecla re d t h at “re sc u e” f ro m t h e d ep th s o f t h e d ep re ssio n h ad n ot b een “ a m ere p arty t a sk .” “It w as t h e c o ncern o f a ll o f u s,” h e a sse rte d . “ In o ur s tr e n gth w e r o se to geth er, r a llie d o ur e n erg ie s t o geth er, a p plie d t h e o ld r u le s o f c o m mon s e n se an d t o geth er s u rv iv ed .” 4 I n t h us e m phasiz in g A m eric an s’ s h are d p ro ble m s, FD R r e ite ra te d a n ote h e h ad s tr u ck m an y t im es a s p re sid en t. “ I a ssu m e unhesita tin gly t h e l e ad ers h ip o f t h is g re at a rm y o f o ur p eo ple d ed ic ate d t o a dis c ip lin ed a tta ck u pon o ur c o m mon p ro ble m s,” R oose v elt h ad d ecla re d i n his f ir s t i n au gura l a d dre ss.

5 T w o y ears l a te r, t h e p re sid en t h ad a g ain u se d wartim e m eta p hors — an d i n voked w artim e u nity — in a f ir e sid e c h at defe n din g t h e n ew ly e sta b lis h ed W ork s P ro gre ss A dm in is tr a tio n: “ T his i s a gre at n atio nal c ru sa d e t o d estr o y e n fo rc ed i d le n ess w hic h i s a n e n em y o f t h e hum an s p ir it g en era te d b y t h is d ep re ssio n,” h e h ad t o ld h is l is te n ers . “ O ur atta ck u pon t h ese e n em ie s m ust b e w ith out s tin t a n d w ith out d is c rim in atio n.

No s e ctio nal, n o p olitic al d is tin ctio ns c an b e p erm itte d .” 6 As t h is l a st q uote s u ggests , F D R b elie v ed f ir m ly t h at i t w as t h e re sp onsib ility o f t h e f e d era l g overn m en t t o s e rv e A m eric an s’ co lle ctiv e in te re st— “to p ro m ote t h e g en era l w elf a re ,” a s h e p ut i t i n 1 935.

7 R oose v elt re co gniz ed t h e i n here n t t e n sio n b etw een u nch eck ed i n div id ualis m a n d t h e need s o f c o m munity ; a s p re sid en t, h e c am e d ow n r e p eate d ly o n t h e s id e o f th e l a tte r. “ O nly t h ro ugh t h e s u bm erg in g o f i n div id ual d esir e s i n to u nse lf is h an d p ra ctic al c o opera tio n c an c iv iliz atio n g ro w ,” h e t o ld a n a u die n ce i n G re en Bay , W is c o nsin , i n A ugust 1 934.

8 A ddre ssin g a g ath erin g o f N atio nal Reco very A dm in is tr a tio n c o de a u th oritie s t h at s a m e y ear, R oose v elt a rg ued th at t h e U .S . h ad g otte n i ts e lf i n to t h e “ d if fic u lt a n d d an gero us s itu atio n” i t fa ced i n t h e b le ak w in te r o f 1 932–1933, “ d ue t o t h e g en era l a ttitu de, ‘ E very man f o r h im se lf ; t h e d ev il t a k e t h e h in dm ost.’ ” 9 I n a s p eech i n L os A ngele s in 1 935, t h e p re sid en t r e cast l ib era lis m b y l in kin g i t t o “ h um an c o opera tio n”:

“T he f a ith o f a l ib era l,” h e d ecla re d , “ is p ro fo und b elie f n ot o nly i n t h e cap acitie s o f i n div id ual m en a n d w om en , b ut a ls o i n t h e e ffe ctiv en ess o f peo ple h elp in g e ach o th er.” 10 This f a ith i n c o opera tio n— to geth er w ith t h e a ssu m ptio n t h at A m eric an s had h arm onio us i n te re sts — had s h ap ed N ew D eal a p pro ach es t o t h e e co nom ic cris is e v er s in ce R oose v elt’ s i n au gura tio n i n M arc h 1 933. T he p re sid en t a n d his a id es r e p eate d ly w ork ed t o s h ow f a rm ers a n d i n dustr ia l l a b ore rs t h at t h ey need ed o ne a n oth er’s p ro ducts a n d p urc h asin g p ow er.

11 N ew D eale rs sh unned s o lu tio ns a im ed a t s p ecif ic e th nic a n d r a cia l g ro ups e v en a s t h ey so ught t o a d m in is te r f e d era l p ro gra m s e v en han ded ly . W hen H aro ld I c k es tr a v ele d t o A tla n ta i n O cto ber 1 934 t o d ed ic ate t h e f ir s t l o w -c o st h ousin g pro je ct f o r b la ck s, h e d id n ot s in gle o ut J im C ro w f o r d en uncia tio n. I n ste ad , he d ecla re d th at “ it i s f o r t h e e co nom ic b en efit o f t h e w hole c o untr y f o r a ll div is io ns o f i t t o b e p ro sp ero us.” 12 F D R e m plo yed p ara lle l l o gic w hen t w ic e veto in g t h e “ B onus B ill” t h at h ad p ro ved s u ch a s o urc e o f a n guis h t o H erb ert Hoover. “ T he H erc u le an t a sk o f t h e U nite d S ta te s G overn m en t t o day i s t o ta k e c are t h at i ts c itiz en s h av e t h e n ecessitie s o f l if e ,” h e e x pla in ed i n h is f ir s t messa g e v eto in g t h e b ill. “ W e a re s e ek in g h onestly a n d h onora b ly t o d o t h is , ir re sp ectiv e o f c la ss o r g ro up.” A lth ough a ll A m eric an s h onore d t h e a b le - bodie d v ete ra n s o f t h e G re at W ar, t h ey s h ould b e t r e ate d n o d if fe re n tly f ro m th eir f e llo w c itiz en s, h e a v erre d .

13 On t h is s u m mer n ig ht i n P hila d elp hia , F D R r e m in ded t h e g ath ere d t h ro ng —as w ell a s t h e m illio ns o f A m eric an s l is te n in g t o h is s p eech o n t h e r a d io — of t h eir s h are d i n te re sts . H e t h en w arn ed t h em t h at a ll w as n ot w ell i n t h e world . “ C lo uds o f s u sp ic io n, t id es o f i ll- w ill a n d i n to le ra n ce g ath er d ark ly i n man y p la ces,” h e d ecla re d . E ven i n t h e U .S ., “ th e r u sh o f m odern c iv iliz atio n its e lf h as r a is e d f o r u s n ew d if fic u ltie s, n ew p ro ble m s w hic h m ust b e s o lv ed if w e a re t o p re se rv e t o t h e U nite d S ta te s t h e p olitic al a n d e co nom ic f re ed om s fo r w hic h W ash in gto n a n d J e ffe rs o n p la n ned a n d f o ught.” 14 In t h us r e fe rrin g t o “ eco nom ic f re ed om s,” F D R a llu ded t o a n a d ditio nal th em e a t t h e c o re o f h is p olitic al p hilo so phy: t h e “ rig ht,” a s h e s a w i t, o f a ll Am eric an s t o a m easu re o f e co nom ic s e cu rity . R oose v elt s a w s u ch e co nom ic se cu rity — partic u la rly t h e r ig ht t o “ d ecen t h om es,” “ p ro ductiv e w ork ,” a n d “se cu rity a g ain st t h e h azard s a n d v ic is situ des o f l if e ”— as i n ex tr ic ab ly l in ked to f re ed om i ts e lf . “ I a m n ot f o r a r e tu rn t o t h at d efin itio n o f l ib erty u nder whic h f o r m an y y ears a f re e p eo ple w ere b ein g g ra d ually r e g im en te d i n to t h e se rv ic e o f t h e p riv ile g ed f e w ,” R oose v elt h ad d ecla re d i n a f ir e sid e c h at i n Sep te m ber 1 934. “ I p re fe r a n d I a m s u re y ou p re fe r t h at b ro ad er d efin itio n o f lib erty u nder w hic h w e a re m ovin g f o rw ard t o g re ate r f re ed om , t o g re ate r se cu rity f o r t h e a v era g e m an t h an h e h as e v er k now n b efo re i n t h e h is to ry o f Am eric a.” 15 I n e arly 1 941, F D R w ould l is t e co nom ic s e cu rity a s o ne o f t h e “fo ur e sse n tia l h um an f re ed om s.” B y t h en h e w ould c all i t s im ply “ fre ed om fro m w an t.” 16 Fam ilie s a n d s m all c o m munitie s, F D R b elie v ed , h ad o nce b een a b le t o pro vid e s u ch s e cu rity , b ut “ th e c o m ple x itie s o f g re at c o m munitie s a n d o f org an iz ed i n dustr y ”— th e “ ru sh o f m odern c iv iliz atio n” t o w hic h h e r e fe rre d in P hila d elp hia — mean t t h ey c o uld n o l o nger d o s o . E co nom ic s e cu rity , Roose v elt h ad a rg ued r e p eate d ly , c o uld n ow c o m e f ro m o nly o ne p la ce: “ th e activ e i n te re st o f t h e N atio n a s a w hole t h ro ugh g overn m en t.” 17 D urin g h is fir s t t e rm i n o ffic e, F D R h ad p ush ed t h ro ugh C ongre ss a w id e r a n ge o f pro gra m s d esig ned t o p ro vid e s u ch “ eco nom ic f re ed om .” T he N ew D eale rs had s e t u p w ork -re lie f p ro gra m s s u ch a s t h e C iv ilia n C onse rv atio n C orp s a n d th e W ork s P ro gre ss A dm in is tr a tio n. T hey h ad i n stitu te d a g ric u ltu ra l p ric e su pports , f e d era l guara n te es f o r b an k d ep osits a n d h om e m ortg ag es, a n d— with t h e p assa g e o f t h e S ocia l S ecu rity A ct— pen sio ns f o r t h e e ld erly . T he Ten nesse e V alle y A uth ority b ro ught i r rig atio n, e le ctr ic ity , j o bs, a n d t h e pro m is e o f p ro sp erity t o a l a rg e s w ath o f t h e r u ra l a n d i m poveris h ed S outh .

Fin ally , S ectio n 7 a o f t h e N atio nal I n dustr ia l R eco very A ct a n d t h e l a te r, more p ow erfu l W ag ner A ct g uara n te ed w ork ers ’ r ig hts t o o rg an iz e a n d barg ain c o lle ctiv ely . B oth m easu re s s tr e n gth en ed t h e a b ility o f o rg an iz ed la b or t o s e ek e co nom ic s e cu rity f o r i ts m em bers .

Such m oves t r ig gere d a b ack la sh . E co nom ic c o nse rv ativ es c h arg ed t h at th e a d m in is tr a tio n w as c o nsp ir in g t o s u bvert t h e C onstitu tio n a n d e sta b lis h so cia lis m , c o m munis m , o r e v en f a sc is m .

18 F D R a d m itte d t h at t h e m ean s h e pro pose d f o r p ro vid in g A m eric an s w ith s e cu rity w ere n ew , b ut h e s c o ffe d a t what h e c alle d t h e “ p ro phets o f c ala m ity .” 19 R oose v elt h ad l o ng a rg ued t h at dem ocra cy w as “ n ot a s ta tic t h in g” b ut r a th er w as “ an e v erla stin g m arc h ” t h at need ed t o e v olv e t o m eet c h an gin g s o cia l c o nditio ns.

20 T he C onstitu tio n’s fra m ers , h e b elie v ed , h ad a llo w ed f o r s u ch e v olu tio n b y d ra ftin g a d ocu m en t th at m ad e p ossib le “ d ra stic c h an ges i n t h e m eth ods a n d f o rm s a n d f u nctio ns of g overn m en t w ith out d estr o yin g t h e b asic p rin cip le s.” 21 I n a f ir e sid e c h at deliv ere d i n J u ne 1 934, R oose v elt h ad c o m pare d t h e N ew D eal t o t h e re n ovatio n o f t h e o ld E xecu tiv e O ffic e B uild in g t h en u nderw ay : j u st a s t h e gra n d o ld b uild in g w as b ein g e q uip ped w ith m odern e le ctr ic al w ir in g a n d plu m bin g, s o , t o o, t h e N ew D eal w as u pdatin g t h e f e d era l g overn m en t w hile keep in g i ts b asic p urp ose s i n ta ct. “ A ll t h at w e d o s e ek s t o f u lf ill t h e h is to ric tr a d itio ns o f t h e A m eric an p eo ple ,” F D R h ad s a id t h en . “ O th er N atio ns m ay sa crif ic e d em ocra cy f o r t h e t r a n sito ry s tim ula tio n o f o ld a n d d is c re d ite d au to cra cie s. W e a re r e sto rin g c o nfid en ce a n d w ell- b ein g u nder t h e r u le o f t h e peo ple t h em se lv es.” 22 N ow , i n P hila d elp hia , F D R r e tu rn ed t o t h e s a m e th em e; h e t o ld h is a u die n ce t h at h e w as p urs u in g t h e i d eals o f W ash in gto n an d J e ffe rs o n b y o ffe rin g a n u pdate d v ers io n o f t h e A m eric an w ay o f l if e .

Hav in g t h us i m plic itly d efe n ded h is p olic ie s, F D R w en t a s te p f u rth er. H e su ggeste d t h at e co nom ic s e cu rity — “eco nom ic f re ed om ,” i n h is w ord s— was an e sse n tia l u nderp in nin g o f A m eric an s’ p olitic al r ig hts a n d i n deed o f dem ocra cy i ts e lf . T em pora rily j e ttis o nin g h is r h eto ric o f s h are d v alu es, h e su ggeste d t h at t h ose p olitic al f re ed om s w ere i n cre asin gly b ein g t h re ate n ed b y a p ow erfu l e co nom ic m in ority .

In 1 776 a n d t h e R ev olu tio n t h at f o llo w ed , t h e p re sid en t e x pla in ed , Am eric an s h ad s o ught a n d w on t h eir f re ed om f ro m “ th e t y ra n ny o f a p olitic al au to cra cy .” I n t h e i n te rv en in g y ears , h ow ev er, “ m an ’s i n ven tiv e g en iu s re le ase d n ew f o rc es i n o ur l a n d w hic h r e o rd ere d t h e l iv es o f o ur p eo ple .” Mach in ery , r a ilr o ad s, s te am , e le ctr ic ity , t h e t e le g ra p h, t h e r a d io , m ass pro ductio n, a n d mass d is tr ib utio n h ad “ co m bin ed t o b rin g f o rw ard a n ew civ iliz atio n” b ut a ls o n ew p ro ble m s f o r “ th ose w ho s o ught t o r e m ain f re e.” “O ut o f t h is m odern c iv iliz atio n,” F D R d ecla re d , “ eco nom ic r o yalis ts c arv ed new d ynastie s.” T his “ n ew i n dustr ia l d ic ta to rs h ip ,” h e s a id , s h if tin g meta p hors , c o ntr o lle d t h e h ours m en a n d w om en w ork ed , t h e w ag es t h ey re ceiv ed , l a b or c o nditio ns, f a m ily s a v in gs, p ric es f o r f a rm p ro ducts , a n d cap ita l. N o o ne e x cep t t h e r o yalis ts t h em se lv es w ere i m mune: w ork ers , fa rm ers , s m all b usin essm en a n d m erc h an ts , e v en “ h onest a n d p ro gre ssiv e- min ded m en o f w ealth ,” h ad a ll f o und t h em se lv es u nder t h e h eel o f t h is n ew “d esp otis m .” 23 This d ev elo pm en t e n dan gere d m ore t h an A m eric an s’ e co nom ic w ell- bein g. “ F or t o o m an y o f u s t h e p olitic al e q uality w e o nce h ad w on w as mean in gle ss i n t h e f a ce o f e co nom ic i n eq uality ,” t h e p re sid en t d ecla re d . “ F or to o m an y o f u s l if e w as n o l o nger f re e; l ib erty n o l o nger r e al; m en c o uld n o lo nger f o llo w t h e p urs u it o f h ap pin ess.” A gain st s u ch “ eco nom ic t y ra n ny,” Am eric an c itiz en s “ co uld a p peal o nly t o t h e o rg an iz ed p ow er o f Govern m en t.” I n e le ctin g R oose v elt a n d t h e N ew D eale rs i n 1 932, t h e p ublic had d one j u st t h at.

24 But t h is s m all c liq ue o f i n dustr ia lis ts a n d t h eir c ro nie s h ad c h alle n ged t h e govern m en t’ s a b ility t o t a k e a ctio n. “ T he r o yalis ts o f t h e e co nom ic o rd er hav e c o nced ed t h at p olitic al f re ed om w as t h e b usin ess o f G overn m en t, b ut th ey h av e m ain ta in ed t h at e co nom ic s la v ery w as n obody’s b usin ess,” F D R arg ued . “ T hey g ra n te d t h at t h e G overn m en t c o uld p ro te ct t h e c itiz en i n h is rig ht t o v ote , b ut t h ey d en ie d t h at t h e G overn m en t c o uld d o a n yth in g t o pro te ct t h e c itiz en i n h is r ig ht t o w ork a n d h is r ig ht t o l iv e.” P ara p hra sin g Lin co ln , t h e p re sid en t c o ntin ued , “ T oday w e s ta n d c o m mitte d t o t h e pro positio n t h at f re ed om i s n o h alf -a n d-h alf a ffa ir . I f t h e a v era g e c itiz en i s guara n te ed e q ual o pportu nity i n t h e p ollin g p la ce, h e m ust h av e e q ual opportu nity i n t h e m ark et p la ce.” T he A m eric an w ay o f l if e , F D R s u ggeste d , en co m passe d n ot o nly p olitic al d em ocra cy b ut t h e m easu re o f e co nom ic se cu rity r e q uir e d t o m ak e p olitic al d em ocra cy m ean in gfu l. I t w as u p t o t h e fe d era l g overn m en t t o e n su re b oth .

25 In f o cu sin g o n s u ch “ eco nom ic r o yalis ts ,” F D R w as h eark en in g b ack t o a ric h s tr a in i n A m eric an p olitic al l a n guag e a n d t h ought: p ro gre ssiv is m . I n t h e open in g d ecad es o f t h e t w en tie th c en tu ry , P ro gre ssiv e h is to ria n s s u ch a s Vern on P arrin gto n, F re d eric k J a ck so n T urn er, a n d C harle s B eard h ad c ast Am eric an h is to ry a s a n o ngoin g s tr u ggle b etw een “ th e p eo ple ” a n d “ th e in te re sts .” “ B eh in d t h e p eo ple s to od v ir tu e, d em ocra cy , a n d a n i d eal r e p ublic , while b eh in d t h e i n te re sts s to od a lie n m onopolis ts a sso cia te d w ith t h e e v ils o f Euro pe, a ris to cra cy , a n d c ap ita lis m ,” w rite s h is to rio gra p her D av id N oble .

“In ex ora b ly , p ro gre ss w as p ush ed f o rw ard b y t h e b attle b etw een g ood a n d ev il u nfo ld in g i n A m eric a.” 26 A s im ila r “ p ro gre ssiv e e th os” — positin g “ a dualis tic str u ggle b etw een a d em ocra tic i n su rg en cy a n d u n-A m eric an monopolis ts ” — an im ate d n um ero us s o cia l a n d p olitic al m ovem en ts i n t h e l a te nin ete en th a n d e arly t w en tie th c en tu rie s.

27 In P hila d elp hia , F D R c alle d t h e d om estic s tr u ggle b ein g w ag ed b y h is ad m in is tr a tio n “ a w ar f o r t h e s u rv iv al o f d em ocra cy .” I n p art, t h is r e fle cte d th e p ro portio ns o f t h e e co nom ic c ris is : i f m en a n d w om en w ere n ot g iv en a measu re o f s e cu rity , i f t h ey c o uld n ot f e ed a n d s h elte r t h eir f a m ilie s, t h ey mig ht p ro ve w illin g t o s u rre n der e v en t h eir p olitic al r ig hts . I n t h e c o nte x t o f a dia tr ib e a g ain st “ eco nom ic r o yalis ts ,” h ow ev er, t h e p hra se t o ok o n a d ded sig nif ic an ce, h ig hlig htin g t h e p re sid en t’ s d efin itio n o f d em ocra cy i ts e lf . T hat defin itio n e m phasiz ed a b ove a ll m ajo rita ria n r u le — th e r u le , t h ro ugh govern m en t a n d e le cte d l e ad ers , o f t h e c o m mon m an . M en s u ch a s T hom as Je ffe rs o n, A ndre w J a ck so n, A bra h am L in co ln , a n d T heo dore R oose v elt k new “th at t h e m ajo rity o fte n m ak es m is ta k es,” R oose v elt w ould t e ll a n a u die n ce i n Ja n uary 1 938. “ B ut t h ey b elie v ed p assio nate ly t h at r u le b y a s m all m in ority unfa ilin gly m ak es w ors e m is ta k es.” 28 T he B ill o f R ig hts , F D R a rg ued i n an oth er s p eech , w as “ p ut i n to t h e C onstitu tio n n ot o nly t o p ro te ct a g ain st in to le ra n ce o f m ajo ritie s, b ut t o p ro te ct m ajo ritie s a g ain st e n th ro nem en t o f min oritie s.” 29 This v ie w o f A m eric an d em ocra cy s e rv ed w ell a p re sid en t w ho h ad w on tw o s w eep in g e le cto ra l m an date s, b ut i t w as n ot s im ply u tilita ria n . F D R’s fa ith i n t h e a b ility o f “ th e p eo ple ” t o m ak e s o und d ecis io ns— lik e h is b elie f th at t h e f e d era l g overn m en t w as o blig ate d t o e n su re t h at a ll A m eric an s w ere fre e f ro m w an t— was d eep ly r o ote d . H is t ir a d es a g ain st e co nom ic r o yalis ts , by c o ntr a st, w ere m ore p ra g m atic . T em pera m en ta lly , F D R a lw ay s p re fe rre d to s tr e ss t h e harm ony o f A m eric an s’ i n te re sts , t o l e ad A m eric an s i n a u nite d cam paig n a g ain st a c o m mon f o e. T he r e cessio n o f 1 937, R oose v elt’ s i ll- fa te d co urt- p ack in g s c h em e, a n d g ro w in g t h re ats o f w ar a b ro ad c h an ged t h e pre sid en t’ s c alc u la tio n i n t h e c lo sin g y ears o f t h e d ecad e, n ecessita tin g a gra d ual r a p pro ch em en t w ith t h e i n dustr ia l e lite s h e h ad f o r a t im e d en ounced .

FD R’s h ars h a n tib usin ess r h eto ric p eak ed d urin g t h e 1 936 p re sid en tia l cam paig n a n d f a d ed t h ere afte r. T here w ere o th ers , h ow ev er, w ho e x te n ded th is v is io n o f A m eric a b oth i n c o nte n t a n d c h ro nolo gy.

In dustr ia l U nio n is ts a n d T heir Allie s The p re sid en cy a n d t h e a g en cie s o f t h e N ew D eal g av e F D R a n u nm atc h ed podiu m f o r a rtic u la tin g h is v ers io n o f t h e A m eric an W ay . B ut a s t h e 1 930s wore o n, R oose v elt’ s v is io n w as i n cre asin gly c o m ple m en te d a n d c h alle n ged by o th ers . T o t h e p re sid en t’ s l e ft, a m ore r a d ic al i n te rp re ta tio n o f t h e n atio n’s his to ry a n d c o re v alu es e m erg ed f ro m i n dustr ia l l a b or a n d s o cia lis t c ir c le s.

Alth ough t h is i n te rp re ta tio n f re q uen tly c o nverg ed w ith R oose v elt’ s — partic u la rly o n t h e n eed f o r a n a ctiv is t g overn m en t t o h elp e n su re w ork ers ’ eco nom ic s e cu rity — it p aid g re ate r a tte n tio n t o w ork pla ce p ow er a n d w as more c o nsis te n t i n i ts p ortr a y al o f A m eric an h is to ry a s a b attle b etw een “ th e peo ple ” a n d u n-A m eric an c ap ita lis t “ in te re sts .” T his r a d ic al A m eric an is m cast A m eric an w ork ers a n d u nio n o rg an iz ers a s t h e h ero es o f a n o ngoin g str u ggle t o s a v e t h e e n dan gere d r e p ublic f ro m “ in dustr ia l T orie s.” T he cen te rp ie ce o f t h is p ro gre ssiv e v is io n w as “ in dustr ia l d em ocra cy ”— a r e cip e fo r e x te n din g m ajo rita ria n d em ocra cy f ro m t h e p olitic al i n to t h e e co nom ic are n a.

As G ary G ers tle h as s u ggeste d , t h e r o ots o f “ in su rg en t A m eric an is m ” l a y in t h e 1 920s. T he c o nse rv ativ e A m eric an iz atio n c am paig ns o f t h at d ecad e se v ere ly w eak en ed b oth l a b or a n d t h e l e ft, b ut t h ey a ls o p ro m pte d m an y ra d ic als a n d l a b or o rg an iz ers t o “ re d efin e t h eir p olitic s i n a w ay t h at f it[ te d ] Am eric an p olitic al d is c o urs e .” D urin g t h e 1 920s, m en s u ch a s V ito Marc an to nio , W alte r a n d V ic to r R eu th er, J o hn L . L ew is , S id ney H illm an , a n d A. J . M uste s e iz ed o n A m eric an s y m bols a n d s ta te d v alu es a n d d ep lo yed th em i n t h e b attle f o r w ork ers ’ r ig hts . M ean w hile , S ocia lis ts s u ch a s H arry Laid le r a n d N orm an T hom as a tte m pte d t o r e g ain l e g itim acy i n t h e w ak e o f th e B ols h ev ik R ev olu tio n b y r e d efin in g t h eir a im s i n A m eric an t e rm s. A s Unite d M in e W ork ers p re sid en t J o hn L ew is w ro te i n h is 1 925 b ook The Min er’s F ig ht f o r A m eric a n S ta ndard s , “ T he s o lu tio n o f m ost o f t h e pro ble m s o f A m eric an l if e c an b e f o und i n a r e tu rn t o f ir s t p rin cip le s— a re asse rtio n i n p ra ctic e o f t h e r u le s l a id d ow n b y t h e F ath ers o f t h e Rep ublic .” 30 Still, r a d ic al v ers io ns o f “ A m eric an is m ” r e m ain ed o n t h e m arg in s o f U .S .

politic al d is c o urs e i n to t h e e arly 1 930s. B ut a s t h e D ep re ssio n w ore o n, unders c o rin g t h e g ap b etw een A m eric an d re am s a n d A m eric an r e alitie s, le ftis ts a n d l a b or o rg an iz ers i n cre asin gly s e iz ed o n i t t o m otiv ate n ew ly politic iz ed — an d i n m an y c ase s, n ew ly A m eric an iz ed — work ers . I n 1 932, org an iz ers o f t h e N atio nal U nem plo yed L eag ue c h ose J u ly 4 th w eek en d f o r th eir f o undin g c o nven tio n a n d c alle d t h eir c en tr a l d ocu m en t “ T he D ecla ra tio n of W ork ers ’ a n d F arm ers ’ R ig hts .” T he f o llo w in g y ear, S ocia lis ts g ath ere d fo ur t h ousa n d u nem plo yed o r d is sa tis fie d w ork ers a n d D ep re ssio n-p in ch ed fa rm ers i n W ash in gto n a t a C ontin en ta l C ongre ss f o r E co nom ic Reco nstr u ctio n. T he d ele g ate s, d ra w n f ro m “ co m mitte es o f c o rre sp onden ce,” decla re d i n dep en den ce f ro m a p ro fit s y ste m t h at h ad “ en th ro ned e co nom ic an d f in an cia l k in gs … m ore p ow erfu l, m ore i r re sp onsib le , a n d m ore dan gero us t o h um an r ig hts t h an t h e p olitic al k in gs w hom t h e f a th ers overth re w .” 31 I n W is c o nsin , P ro gre ssiv e P arty f o under Philip L a F olle tte decla re d t h at “ lib era lis m i s n oth in g b ut a s o rt o f m ilk -a n d-w ate r t o le ra n ce.… I belie v e i n a f u ndam en ta l a n d b asic c h an ge. I t h in k a c o opera tiv e s o cie ty base d o n A m eric an t r a d itio ns i s i n ev ita b le .” 32 E ven t h e U .S . C om munis t Party a fte r 1 935 d ecla re d i ts e lf t o b e t h e c h am pio n o f “ tw en tie th -c en tu ry Am eric an is m .” 33 Such i n div id uals a n d o rg an iz atio ns m ad e u p t h e l e ft w in g o f t h e N ew Deal c o alitio n. I n deed , s o m e w ith in t h e a d m in is tr a tio n i ts e lf s u bsc rib ed t o sim ila r v ie w s. I n a 1 936 a rtic le i n Scrib ner’s e n title d “ T he S earc h f o r a n Am eric an W ay ,” A gric u ltu re S ecre ta ry H en ry A . W alla ce a rg ued t h at Am eric an s n eed ed t o a ch ie v e “ u nity i n d iv ers ity ” b y “ ev olv in g a c o ncep t o f th e g en era l w elf a re g ro unded i n b oth p olitic al a n d e co nom ic d em ocra cy .” T o do t h is , A m eric an s n eed ed t o r e co gniz e t h at t h e n atio n h ad m atu re d eco nom ic ally — th at “ certa in t y pes o f e co nom ic l ib erty … c an not b e t o le ra te d an y m ore t h an a u to m obile d riv ers c an b e a llo w ed t o d is o bey a r e d l ig ht.” While W alla ce d id n ot r e je ct c ap ita lis m o ut o f h an d, h e a rg ued t h at Am eric an s n eed ed t o p la ce m ore e m phasis o n “ co opera tio n, a s d is tin guis h ed fro m f re e c o m petitio n.” T hus f a r, h e s o unded m uch l ik e t h e p re sid en t h e se rv ed . B ut W alla ce c o ntin ued :

The o nly w ay i n w hic h d em ocra cy c an s u rv iv e t h e l o gic al o nsla u ght o f t h e dic ta to r-s ta te a sp ect o f C om munis m a n d F asc is m i s t o d ev elo p t h e g en uin e co opera tiv e i d ea t o t h e l im it. P ro ducers ’ c o opera tiv es a re n ot e n ough. F or t h e most p art t h ey m ere ly t a k e t h e p la ce o f m id dle m en , a n d … t h ey d o n ot h av e an y v ery p ro fo und e ffe ct o n t h e p eo ple w hom t h ey s e rv e. T he c o opera tiv e way o f l if e m ust p erv ad e t h e c o m munity , a n d t h is m ean s t h ere m ust b e co nsu m ers ’ c o opera tiv es a s w ell a s p ro ducers ’ c o opera tiv es, a n d u ltim ate ly in dustr ia l c o opera tiv es. T o l iv e h ap pily i n a c o opera tiv e s o cie ty t a k es a n en tir e ly d if fe re n t a ttitu de o f m in d f ro m t h at r e q uir e d i n a s o cie ty w here f re e co m petitio n i s t h e d om in atin g r u le .

34 Walla ce’s v ers io n o f t h e A m eric an W ay w as h ard ly c o m munis m . S till, i n i ts im plic atio ns f o r m utu alis m a n d w ork er c o ntr o l, i t w en t f a r b ey ond t h e re fo rm s i n stitu te d u nder t h e N ew D eal.

It w as t h e C IO , h ow ev er, t h at d id m ore t h an a n y o th er g ro up d urin g t h e la te 1 930s a n d e arly 1 940s t o p ublic iz e, p artic u la rly t o w ork ers , a m ore ra d ic al u nders ta n din g o f t h e n atio n’s h is to ry a n d c o re v alu es.

35 T he C IO ’s vers io n o f “ A m eric an is m ” r e v olv ed a ro und t h e n otio n o f “ in dustr ia l dem ocra cy ,” a n i d ea t h at h ad f ir s t e m erg ed i n t h e U .S . d urin g t h e 1 890s a n d cau ght f ir e d urin g t h e l a b or s tr u ggle s t h at f o llo w ed W orld W ar I . E m bra ced by P ro gre ssiv e r e fo rm ers , l a b or l e ad ers , s o cia lis ts , a n d e v en s o m e l ib era l busin ess l e ad ers , t h e t e rm mean t m ark ed ly d if fe re n t t h in gs t o d if fe re n t peo ple . T o s o m e, i t s ig nale d a s o cia l c o m pact i n w hic h w ork ers a n d m an ag ers would s h are p ow er w ith in t h e o vera rc h in g f ra m ew ork o f c ap ita lis m , p erh ap s th ro ugh c o lle ctiv e b arg ain in g. T o o th ers , i t “ p ro m is e d a n e n d t o h ie ra rc h y, cen tr a liz ed a u th ority , a n d t h e d eg ra d in g f ra g m en ta tio n o f s k ills .” T o s till oth ers , “ in dustr ia l d em ocra cy ” m ean t t h e s p re ad o f p ro ducers ’ c o opera tiv es or s o cia lis m i n A m eric an c lo th es.

36 The v ie w s o f t h e C IO ’s f o under a n d f ir s t p re sid en t J o hn L ew is , a n d t h us of t h e e arly C IO , w ere d eep ly i n flu en ced b y t h ose o f a o ne-tim e a cad em ic eco nom is t n am ed W . J e tt L au ck .

37 L au ck b eg an w ork in g f o r L ew is a n d t h e Unite d M in e W ork ers i n t h e 1 920s a n d q uic k ly b ecam e o ne o f t h e l a b or le ad er’s c lo se st a d vis o rs . D urin g t h e 1 930s, h e d ra fte d “ alm ost a ll [ o f] Lew is ’s m ajo r a d dre sse s a n d p ublic atio ns.” I n t h e e arly y ears o f t h e N ew Deal, L au ck a ls o a d vis e d F D R o n e co nom ic i s su es, a n d h e h as b een c re d ite d with h elp in g s e cu re t h e i n clu sio n o f t h e u nio n-p ro te ctin g S ectio n 7 a i n t h e Natio nal I n dustr ia l R eco very A ct.

38 As L au ck s a w i t, p olitic al d em ocra cy “ in i ts m odern s e n se ” b eg an i n t h e Am eric an c o lo nie s i n 1 776. T he e sta b lis h m en t o f t h e r e p ublic “ u pon dem ocra tic p rin cip le s a n d r ig hts o f p ers o nal a n d c iv il l ib erty ” w as n ot acco m pan ie d b y “ cla ss w arfa re ” s in ce “ p olitic ally a n d s o cia lly , a n d i n t h e hold in g o f p ro perty , t h ere w ere f e w d is tin ctio ns i n A m eric a a t t h at t im e.” 39 But s u bse q uen t e co nom ic a n d f in an cia l d ev elo pm en ts — partic u la rly t h e In dustr ia l R ev olu tio n a n d t h e e x cesse s o f d ecad es l ik e t h e 1 920s— had pro duced a c o ncen tr a tio n o f w ealth a n d f in an cia l p ow er t h at n ow fu ndam en ta lly t h re ate n ed t h e n atio n’s p olitic al a n d s o cia l o rd er. “ A c ab al o f ban kers a n d f in an cie rs ‘ w ork in g o ut i ts o bje ctiv es s ile n tly , i n vis ib ly , a n d with out o ffic ia l r e co gnitio n’ h ad c o m e t o d om in ate t h e A m eric an e co nom y.” In 1 929, t h is p lu to cra cy h ad p lu nged t h e U .S . i n to e co nom ic c h ao s. M ore th an t h e e co nom y w as i n d an ger, L au ck a rg ued . “ In t h e e ffo rt t o s h ie ld th em se lv es f ro m p ublic s c ru tin y a n d r e g ula tio n, t h e ‘ K in gs o f M oney a n d Lord s o f F in an ce’ w ere p erv ertin g t h e C onstitu tio n a n d t h e B ill o f R ig hts , co rru ptin g t h e p olitic al p ro cesse s, a n d r e g im en tin g t h e p eo ple . T hey w ould sto p a t n oth in g l e ss t h an ‘ T ory R ev olu tio n.’ ” A s i f t h at w ere n ’t e n ough, t h e au to cra tic p olic ie s o f A m eric a’s f in an cia l a n d c o rp ora te l e ad ers w ere nurtu rin g “ d estr u ctiv e r a d ic alis m ,” w hic h t h re ate n ed t o u nderm in e t h e politic al a ch ie v em en ts o f t h e R ev olu tio n.

40 If L au ck a n d L ew is ’s r e te llin g o f A m eric an h is to ry s o unded m uch l ik e FD R’s d urin g t h e 1 936 p re sid en tia l c am paig n, t h eir p re sc rip tio n f o r t h e natio n’s f u tu re p ush ed w ell b ey ond h is . R oose v elt h ad g re at f a ith i n t h e wis d om o f “ th e p eo ple ” a s e x erc is e d t h ro ugh t h eir e le cte d r e p re se n ta tiv es, an d h e c alle d f o r “ fre ed om ” i n b oth t h e p olitic al a n d e co nom ic a re n as. H is vis io n o f dem ocra cy , h ow ev er, w as a lw ay s m ore l im ite d . A lth ough F D R h as ofte n b een p ortr a y ed a s “ th e p atr o n o f l a b or’s a w ak en in g,” h e w as “ a r a th er dif fid en t c h am pio n” o f u nio ns. F D R b elie v ed t h at t h e b est w ay t o i m pro ve work ers ’ l iv es, t o e n su re t h eir f re ed om f ro m w an t, w as b y r e ly in g o n govern m en t r e g ula tio n— by p assin g p en sio n, u nem plo ym en t, a n d w ag e-a n d- hour l a w s. H e w as a t b est a l u kew arm s u pporte r o f c o lle ctiv e b arg ain in g rig hts , a n d h e t h re w h is s u pport b eh in d t h e p iv ota l W ag ner A ct o nly bela te d ly .

41 Lew is , L au ck , a n d t h eir c o m patr io ts i n t h e C IO w en t f u rth er, c o nte n din g th at t h e o nly w ay t o s to p t h e f o rc es o f r e actio n a n d s a v e t h e R ep ublic w as b y ex te n din g d em ocra cy f ro m t h e p olitic al t o t h e e co nom ic a re n a. I n h is 1 926 book, Politic a l a nd I n dustr ia l D em ocra cy, 1 776–1926 , L au ck h ad a rg ued t h at em plo yees s h ould p artic ip ate i n c o rp ora te m an ag em en t t h ro ugh m an ag em en t- la b or c o m mitte es a n d e m plo yee o w ners h ip o f c o m mon s to ck .

42 W ith in t h e in dustr ia l l a b or m ovem en t, t h e p re cis e m ean in g o f “ in dustr ia l d em ocra cy ” was a s u bje ct o f i n te n se c o nte n tio n d urin g t h e l a te 1 930s a n d 1 940s, b ut a ll vers io ns p ro m is e d w ork ers a t l e ast a m easu re o f e m pow erm en t o n t h e s h op flo or. F or s o m e, “ in dustr ia l d em ocra cy ” m ean t u nio n r e p re se n ta tio n a n d t h e sy ste m o f c o lle ctiv e b arg ain in g o ver w ag es, h ours , a n d w ork in g c o nditio ns se t u p b y t h e W ag ner A ct. F or o th ers , i t i m plie d t h at w ork ers s h ould h av e a voic e i n “ th eir e m plo yers ’ p ric in g a n d i n vestm en t d ecis io ns.” 43 A s L au ck wro te t o L ew is i n a 1 935 m em o, i n dustr ia l u nio nis m w as a n “ ep och -m ak in g cru sa d e f o r h um an ity a n d d em ocra cy .” 44 In t h e l a te 1 930s, t h ese i d eas f ille d t h e p ag es o f C IO n ew sp ap ers a n d ech oed t h ro ugh t h e s p eech es o f C IO o ffic ia ls , m an y o f w hic h w ere r e p rin te d or b ro ad cast b y u nio n-s p onso re d r a d io . E dito ria ls a n d c arto ons i n t h e CIO New s p ortr a y ed i n dustr ia l u nio nis ts a s c h am pio ns o f d em ocra cy , d efe n din g Am eric an v alu es f ro m “ eco nom ic r o yalis ts ” a n d “ T ory e m plo yers ” w ho w ere ben t o n i m posin g “ au to cra tic r u le o ver t h eir w ork ers .” 45 A c o lu m n b y t h e CIO p ublic is t L en D e C au x, h ead lin ed “ W an te d , M ore P au l R ev ere s!” a rg ued th at “ h om e-g ro w n A m eric an t o rie s a re t r y in g t o d o t o t h eir c o untr y w hat Kin g G eo rg e I II a n d a ll h is B ritis h t o rie s f a ile d t o d o. T he g en era l i d ea o f t h e Am eric an t o rie s s e em s t o b e t h at d em ocra cy a n d f re ed om a re b unk; a n d t h at th e l o w er c la sse s s h ould b e k ep t d ow n b y a j u dic io us m ix tu re o f s ta rv atio n an d c la ss l e g is la tio n.” D e C au x w arn ed t h at “ th e l ib ertie s a n d t h e v ery liv elih ood o f m illio ns o f A m eric an s a re i n s e rio us d an ger t o day ” a n d t h at “o nly t h e l a b or p re ss c o nvey s a n y r e al c all o f w arn in g t o p atr io tic Am eric an s.” 46 As t h is c o lu m n s u ggests , C IO o rg an iz ers — an d w ork ers t h em se lv es— were q uic k t o i n voke t h e a u th ority o f A m eric a’s p atr io tic p an th eo n. S tr ik ers fre q uen tly c arrie d A m eric an f la g s a n d l ik en ed t h eir o pponen ts t o t r a ito ro us “T orie s.” T he CIO N ew s h ig hlig hte d t h e p ro -la b or c re d en tia ls o f A m eric an s ra n gin g f ro m t h e r a d ic al p am phle te er T hom as P ain e t o t h e a b olitio nis t a n d fe m in is t L ucre tia M ott.

47 B ut i t w as t h e o ld r a il- s p litte r a n d c h am pio n o f “fre e l a b or” A be L in co ln w hom C IO o ffic ia ls m ost f re q uen tly i n voked . T he CIO p am phle t The R ig ht t o S tr ik e— Keysto ne o f L ib erty f e atu re d a q uote f ro m Lin co ln o n i ts c o ver: “ T han k G od w e h av e a c o untr y w here w ork in g m en hav e t h e r ig ht t o s tr ik e.” A “ L ab or F acts ” f e atu re i n t h e CIO N ew s n ote d t h at when a g en era l s e n t U nio n s o ld ie rs t o r e p la ce s tr ik in g p rin te rs i n S t. L ouis i n 1864, L in co ln q uic k ly r e calle d t h e t r o ops t o d uty a n d d ecla re d t h at h e h ad n o in te n tio n o f i n te rfe rin g. A nd a n a rtic le e x pla in in g i n dustr ia l u nio nis m n ote d th at C IO p re sid en t J o hn L . L ew is s h are d L in co ln ’s b ir th day . C IO o ffic ia ls were a ls o f o nd o f p ara p hra sin g L in co ln ’s G etty sb urg A ddre ss. I n 1 938, Lew is t o ld t h e f ir s t n atio nal c o nven tio n o f t h e C IO t h at “ th ere h as b een b orn in A m eric a a n ew , m odern l a b or m ovem en t d ed ic ate d t o t h e p ro positio n t h at all w ho l a b or a re e n title d t o e q uality o f o pportu nity , t h e r ig ht t o o rg an iz e, t h e rig ht t o p artic ip ate i n t h e b ountie s a n d t h e b le ssin gs o f t h is c o untr y a n d o ur govern m en t.” T w o y ears l a te r, L en D e C au x w ro te t h at “ o ur i d ea o f a ‘ n ew bir th o f f re ed om ’ i s a n e x pan sio n o f c o lle ctiv e b arg ain in g a n d i n dustr ia l dem ocra cy .” 48 If C IO o ffic ia ls m ad e f re q uen t r e fe re n ce t o L in co ln a n d o th er n atio nal hero es, t h ey a ls o t r ie d r e p eate d ly t o l in k t h e l a b or s tr u ggle t o o th er r ig hts a n d valu es t h at A m eric an s, p artic u la rly t h eir w ork in g-c la ss c o nstitu en ts , h eld dear. T he CIO N ew s r e p rin te d e x te n siv e e x cerp ts o f a s p eech b y t h e c h air m an of t h e N atio nal L ab or R ela tio ns B oard i n w hic h , e ch oin g F D R, h e d ecla re d th at t h e W ag ner A ct r e p re se n te d a “ n ew l ib erty ” c o m para b le i n i ts sig nif ic an ce t o t h e “ an cie n t l ib ertie s” e n sh rin ed i n t h e B ill o f R ig hts . “ In deed , th e c o nstitu tio nal l ib ertie s o f f re ed om o f s p eech , p re ss a n d a sse m bly , c o uld not, i n t h eir a sp ects m ost i m porta n t t o w ork in g p eo ple , b e e n jo yed u ntil t h is new l ib erty w as c re ate d ,” h e d ecla re d . A c arto on p ublis h ed i n t h e n ew sp ap er in 1 939 s h ow ed t h e h am mer o f “ B ig B usin ess” u sin g t h e c h is e l o f “ W ag ner Act A m en dm en ts ” t o b re ak t h e “ L ab or” l in k i n t h e c h ain o f d em ocra cy — a ch ain w hose o th er l in ks i n clu ded “ F re e S peech ,” “ C hurc h ,” “ S ch ool,” a n d “Y our O rg an iz atio n.” “ If y ou w eak en o r d estr o y t h e p ro te ctio n o f o ne l in k i n th e c h ain o f d em ocra cy , e ach o f t h e o th ers a re s u ccessiv ely a n d e asily destr o yed !” t h e c ap tio n w arn ed ( fig ure 2 .1 ).

49 CIO o ffic ia ls m ost o fte n u se d t h e m ajo rita ria n l a n guag e o f “ d em ocra cy ” to c ap tu re t h eir a g en da, b ut t h ey s o m etim es i n voked “ lib erty ” a n d “ fre ed om ” as w ell. T he f re ed om t h ey c alle d f o r b oth r e in fo rc ed a n d e x te n ded F D R’s notio n o f “ fre ed om f ro m w an t.” “ T he l ib erty w e s e ek i s d if fe re n t” f ro m t h at so ught b y i n dustr ia lis ts , d ecla re d J o hn L ew is i n h is r e p ort t o t h e 1 938 C IO co nven tio n. “ It i s l ib erty f o r c o m mon p eo ple — fre ed om f ro m e co nom ic bondag e, f re ed om to r e g ain a g ain s o m e h um an i n itia tiv e, f re ed om t h at a ris e s fro m e co nom ic s e cu rity , a n d h um an s e lf -re sp ect.” I n a c o lu m n i n t h e CIO New s , L en D e C au x e ch oed t h ese s e n tim en ts , p ain tin g “ a v ery d efin ite a n d co ncre te p ic tu re o f w hat f re ed om m ean s t o m illio ns o f A m eric an w ork in g peo ple t o day . I t m ean s i n t h e f ir s t p la ce a f re ed om w hic h i s o fte n o verlo oked by h ig h-fa lu tin ’ l ib era ls — fre ed om f ro m l o w w ag es, i n to le ra b le s p eed -u ps, la y offs a n d i n se cu rity .” 50 Fig u re 2 .1 .

T his c arto on a p peare d i n t h e CIO N ew s o n 1 7 A pril 1 939. N ote its e m phasis o n t h e w ord “ d em ocra cy ,” a s w ell a s i ts a tte m pt t o l in k org an iz ed l a b or t o o th er i n stitu tio ns a n d v alu es t h at A m eric an s p riz ed (c o urte sy o f t h e A FL -C IO ; r e p ro duced b y t h e W is c o nsin H is to ric al S ocie ty ).

In o rd er t o a ch ie v e s u ch f re ed om s, h ow ev er, w ork ers h ad t o b e f re e t o org an iz e, a n d t h is i n t u rn r e q uir e d t h e f re ed om s o f s p eech , p re ss, a n d asse m bly . T hus, C IO o ffic ia ls a n d o rg an iz ers p ut p artic u la r e m phasis o n t h e fre ed om s g uara n te ed b y t h e F ir s t A m en dm en t, f re q uen tly p ortr a y in g w ork ers as t h e c h am pio ns o f t h e B ill o f R ig hts . ( T hey w ere a id ed i n m ak in g t h is arg um en t b y t h e f in din gs o f a s p ecia l S en ate c o m mitte e, c h air e d b y Wis c o nsin S en ato r R obert M . L a F olle tte J r. T he c o m mitte e, f o rm ed i n J u ly 1936 t o i n vestig ate c o rp ora te v io la tio ns o f w ork ers ’ r ig hts , u nco vere d num ero us e p is o des o f c o rp ora te e sp io nag e, i n tim id atio n, a n d v io le n ce.) O n th e 1 51st a n niv ers a ry o f t h e B ill o f R ig hts , a c arto on i n t h e CIO N ew s s h ow ed th e m ig hty a rm o f t h e C IO d is p la y in g t h e F ir s t A m en dm en t t o a g ath erin g o f plu to cra tic e x ecu tiv es f ro m “ an ti- u nio n c o rp ora tio ns” s u ch a s F ord M oto r Com pan y a n d B eth le h em S te el; t e llin gly , t h e e x ecu tiv es w ere d ep ic te d i n t h e ta ilc o ats a n d t o p h ats o f G ild ed A ge r o bber b aro ns r a th er t h an i n t h e s u its worn b y t w en tie th -c en tu ry e x ecu tiv es. A n a cco m pan yin g c o lu m n c h arg ed th at F ord h ad d en ie d i ts e m plo yees t h e r ig ht t o s p eak a n d a sse m ble “ w ith out th e p re se n ce o f s p ie s a n d s to ol p ig eo ns” a n d h ad v io la te d f re ed om o f t h e pre ss b y p ro hib itin g t h e d is tr ib utio n o f u nio n l ite ra tu re .

51 J o hn T . J o nes, t h e CIO ’s l e g is la tiv e d ir e cto r, t o ld a 1 941 g ath erin g o f t h e F arm er-L ab or P arty i n Dulu th , M in neso ta , t h at “ th e d efe n se o f t h e d em ocra tic w ay o f l if e ” r e q uir e d defe n se o f s u ch b asic “ d em ocra tic f re ed om s” a s “ fre ed om o f t h ought, fre ed om o f t h e p re ss, f re ed om o f a sse m bly .” T hese “ d em ocra tic r ig hts ,” h e decla re d , “ are a tta ck ed e sp ecia lly b y t h ose w ho a re a fra id t h at t h e f u ll a n d vig oro us o pera tio n o f d em ocra cy w ill j e o pard iz e t h eir s p ecia l p ositio ns o f priv ile g e a n d p ow er.” 52 A s t h is s u ggests , t h e C IO , l ik e F D R i n t h e l a te 1 930s, cast t h e B ill o f R ig hts a b ove a ll a s a d ocu m en t s e cu rin g t h e r ig hts o f t h e majo rity f ro m a n u nsc ru pulo us m in ority .

Desp ite t h is e m phasis o n m ajo rity r ig hts , C IO o ffic ia ls w ere q uic k t o re m in d l is te n ers a n d r e ad ers t h at t h e o rg an iz atio n s to od f o r “ eq uality o f pro te ctio n t o a n y g ro up, a n y m in ority , a n y r e lig io n.” I n p art t h is r e fle cte d t h e re aliz atio n o f t h e C IO l e ad ers h ip t h at i n o rd er t o b uild a c la ss-b ase d n atio nal movem en t, t h ey w ould h av e t o f o ste r a “ cu ltu re o f u nity ” t h at c ro sse d e th nic , re lig io us, g eo gra p hic , a n d r a cia l l in es.

53 A t t h e s a m e t im e, i t e v in ced t h e effo rts o f t h e C IO l e ad ers h ip t o l in k t h eir a g en da t o e v en ts a b ro ad . A c arto on in t h e CIO N ew s i n N ovem ber 1 938 s h ow ed a m an r e p re se n tin g t h e C IO sta n din g s h ould er-to -s h ould er w ith F D R i n a d oorw ay l a b ele d “ A m eric an Dem ocra cy .” B earin g r if le s, t h e t w o m en f e n ded o ff a s w astik a-b ra n ded w olf th at c ir c le d t h e c arc asse s o f “ la b or u nio ns” a n d “ re lig io us a n d r a cia l min oritie s.” I n G erm an y, J o hn L ew is d ecla re d i n a s p eech t h e s a m e m onth , th e d estr u ctio n o f t h e l a b or m ovem en t p re ced ed t h e p ers e cu tio n o f J e w s. “ W e can not p re se rv e d em ocra cy here i n o ur c o untr y ,” h e a d ded , “ if w e e n co ura g e as a p eo ple t h e o verw helm in g t id al w av e o f c ritic is m , s la n der a n d a b use f o r an A m eric an i n stitu tio n l ik e t h e C IO t h at s ta n ds f o r t h e p ro te ctio n o f t h e priv ile g es o f a ll A m eric an s, w heth er t h ey b e g en tile s o r J e w s o r o f a n y c re ed or r e lig io n, o r a n y s c h ool o f t h ought t h at m ain ta in s i ts r e sp ect f o r o ur in stitu tio ns.” 54 Such a rg um en ts g re w m ore p ro nounced i n C IO r h eto ric a n d w ritin gs a s th e f a sc is t t h re at l o om ed e v er l a rg er o n t h e h oriz o n. T he t e rm “ T ory ” n ev er dis a p peare d f ro m t h e C IO ’s v ocab ula ry , b ut i n cre asin gly C IO o ffic ia ls lik en ed t h eir o pponen ts — ru th le ss e m plo yers , c o ngre ssio nal e n em ie s o f t h e Wag ner A ct, a n d t h e A FL ’s p re sid en t W illia m G re en , a m ong o th ers — to fa sc is ts , E uro pean d ic ta to rs , o r f if th c o lu m nis ts . C IO v ic e p re sid en t R eid Robin so n a d dre sse d a c o nven tio n o f t h e A m alg am ate d C lo th in g W ork ers j u st as F ra n ce w as c o lla p sin g i n J u ne 1 940. M an y A m eric an s b elie v ed t h at o nly tr a ito rs w ith in c o uld h av e c ata ly zed F ra n ce’s d ow nfa ll, a n d R obin so n t o ld h is lis te n ers t h at A m eric a h ad h ad i ts o w n f if th c o lu m n f o r a d ecad e: t h is c o lu m n, “o ppose d t o o ur d em ocra tic i n stitu tio ns,” w as “ m ad e u p o f t h e g ro up t h at belie v es t h at t h ey c an k eep A m eric an p eo ple i n t h e r o lls o f t h e u nem plo yed ,” Reid d ecla re d . L ate r t h at y ear, a p ic k et o uts id e a F ord p la n t c arrie d a s ig n re ad in g “ H itle ris m a n d F ord is m v ers u s A m eric an is m a n d t h e W ag ner A ct.” And w hen a n o ffic e m an ag er a t t h e Bir m in gham P ost t h re ate n ed t o d on h is Ala b am a s ta te g uard u nif o rm a n d f ir e o n t h ose s tr ik in g t h e p ap er, a CIO New s e d ito ria l c o m pare d h is l a n guag e t o t h at u se d b y “ F asc is t b ullie s” a n d “N azi s to rm t r o opers .” 55 The C IO w as h ard ly a lo ne i n t h e l a te 1 930s i n w arn in g a b out a d om estic fa sc is t t h re at. S till, i ts v oic e d id n ot g o u nch alle n ged . I n deed , e v en a s t h e C IO was e m erg in g a s a n i n dep en den t o rg an iz atio n, U .S . c o rp ora tio ns w ere gearin g u p f o r b attle t o d efin e t h e n atio n’s l e g itim ate v alu es. T hey t o o w ould in voke a n “ alie n ” i d eo lo gy t h at n ow t h re ate n ed A m eric a— to ta lita ria n is m — an d t h ey w ould u se i t t o h elp p opula riz e a n ew t e rm i n A m eric a’s p olitic al le x ic o n: “ fre e e n te rp ris e .” The N atio n al A sso cia tio n o f Man ufa ctu rers a n d C orp ora te Am eric a The r a p id ity w ith w hic h t h e w ord “ fre e e n te rp ris e ” e n te re d g en era l u sa g e i n th e l a te 1 930s i s s tu nnin g e v en b y t h e s ta n dard s o f p olitic al s p eech . A s l a te a s 1935, t h e Rea der’s G uid e t o P erio dic a l L ite ra tu re d id n ot h av e a n e n tr y f o r “fre e e n te rp ris e ”; a n d i n 1 937, i t w as s till r e fe rrin g r e ad ers t o “ la is se z-fa ir e .” The w ord s “ fre e” a n d “ en te rp ris e ” a p peare d s id e b y s id e i n t h e New Y ork Tim es j u st t h ir ty tim es b etw een 1 857 a n d 1 934, a n d m an y o f t h ose r e fe re n ces bore l ittle r e se m bla n ce t o w hat i s n ow m ean t b y t h e t e rm .

56 B y c o ntr a st, “ fre e en te rp ris e ,” u se d a s a s y nonym f o r t h e l e ss e v ocativ e “ p riv ate e n te rp ris e ,” ap peare d i n A m eric a’s p ap er-o f-re co rd 2 5 t im es i n 1 935, 1 14 t im es i n 1 937, an d 2 20 t im es i n 1 940. B y t h en , i t h ad b eco m e a s ta p le o f A m eric an s’ politic al v ocab ula ry .

The e m erg en ce o f t h e t e rm “ fre e e n te rp ris e ” d urin g t h ese y ears o w ed much t o t h e c h an gin g p olitic al s tr a te g ie s o f A m eric a’s c o rp ora te l e ad ers .

Som e b usin essm en , p artic u la rly t h ose a sso cia te d w ith t h e A m eric an L ib erty Leag ue, h ad a im ed t h eir r h eto ric al g uns a t t h e N ew D eal a s e arly a s 1 934. B y 1937, h ow ev er, t h e s c ale o f t h is e ffo rt h ad s h if te d d ra m atic ally . A ban donin g th eir h is to ric f o cu s o n p ro m otin g i n div id ual p ro ducts , l e g is la tiv e p olic ie s, o r co rp ora te i m ag es, U .S . c o rp ora tio ns f o r t h e f ir s t t im e j o in ed f o rc es i n a b ro ad - base d d efe n se o f l a is se z-fa ir e c ap ita lis m i n g en era l. I n a d vertis e m en ts , sy ndic ate d c o lu m ns, c arto ons, b ooks, r a d io s h ow s, a n d d ocu m en ta ry f ilm s, th e N atio nal A sso cia tio n o f M an ufa ctu re rs ( N AM ), t h e U .S . C ham ber o f Com merc e, a n d a h ost o f i n dustr ia l g ia n ts t r ie d t o c o nvin ce t h e A m eric an public t h at t h eir i n te re sts a n d t h ose o f t h e n atio n’s l a rg est c o rp ora tio ns w ere vir tu ally i n dis tin guis h ab le . P ain tin g a p ic tu re o f c la ss h arm ony a n d c o nsu m er pro sp erity — guara n te ed b y b usin ess, n ot b y g overn m en t— th ey d ubbed t h is im ag e “ th e A m eric an W ay .” I n vokin g t h e t e rm “ fre e e n te rp ris e ,” t h ey co unte re d m utu alis tic N ew D eal a n d C IO v is io ns o f t h e n atio n b y em phasiz in g i n div id ual r ig hts a n d t h e l ib erta ria n d im en sio ns o f “ fre ed om .” Am eric an i n dustr y ’s w illin gness t o c lo se r a n ks a n d u nderta k e s u ch a cam paig n r e fle cte d i ts c h an gin g d ia g nosis o f t h e p ro ble m b usin ess co nfro nte d . I n 1 934, t h e p re sid en t o f t h e U .S . C ham ber o f C om merc e h ad co m pla in ed a n grily t h at t h e g overn m en t w as i n t h e h an ds o f a n “ o rg an iz ed mob.” 57 A t t h at p oin t, h ow ev er, F D R w as s till t r y in g t o u se t h e N atio nal Reco very A dm in is tr a tio n t o c o -o pt c o rp ora te l e ad ers , a n d m an y o f t h ose le ad ers h oped t o d efe at h im a t t h e p olls . B y l a te 1 936, t h e s itu atio n l o oked very d if fe re n t. T he N ew D eal h ad v eere d s h arp ly t o t h e l e ft; a n d d esp ite a cam paig n o f l o bbyin g a n d f ro nta l a ssa u lts , i n dustr ia lis ts a n d t h eir a llie s h ad fa ile d m is e ra b ly i n t h eir e ffo rts t o d era il t h e W ag ner A ct, t h e S ocia l S ecu rity Act, t h e B an kin g A ct, t h e P ublic U tility H old in g C om pan y A ct, a n d t h e pre sid en t’ s t a x p ro gra m . C onsu m er a n d l a b or g ro ups, i n clu din g t h e C IO , were a tta ck in g c h eris h ed b usin ess p re ro gativ es. M ean w hile , t h e S en ate Com mitte e c h air e d b y R obert L a F olle tte J r., w as m ak in g h ead lin es w ith i ts ch arg es o f w id esp re ad c o rp ora te a b use . I n N ovem ber 1 936, F D R w on re ele ctio n i n a l a n dslid e, a id ed i n p art b y h is d en uncia tio n o f “ eco nom ic ro yalis ts .” To m an y i n t h e b usin ess w orld , a ll t h is s u ggeste d t h at a n ew s tr a te g y w as need ed — th at t h e p ro ble m b usin ess c o nfro nte d w as n ot s o m uch t h e N ew Deal sp ecif ic ally a s t h e A m eric an p ublic i n g en era l. “ T he p ublic d oes n ot unders ta n d i n dustr y , l a rg ely b ecau se i n dustr y i ts e lf h as m ad e n o r e al e ffo rt t o te ll i ts s to ry ,” N AM p re sid en t R obert L und h ad w arn ed a s e arly a s 1 933.

58 Now o th ers e ch oed t h at a sse ssm en t. A c o ntr ib uto r t o Public O pin io n Quarte rly a rg ued i n 1 937 t h at t h e “ o ld e asy r e lia n ce o n t h e p ro fe ssio nals o f politic s t o t e m per t h e t id es o f p opula r u nre st” h ad b eco m e “ u ntr u stw orth y.” Public r e la tio ns e x pert C arl B yoir w en t f u rth er, p re d ic tin g t h at u nle ss busin ess a cte d , “ th e w hole c ap ita lis t s y ste m ” c o uld s o on b e d estr o yed b y t h e “v olc an o” o f p ublic o pin io n. T he d ean o f C olu m bia ’s s c h ool o f j o urn alis m fo llo w ed F D R’s e x am ple i n l in kin g t h e s tr u ggle a t h om e t o w orld e v en ts .

“E very c itiz en i n t h e U nite d S ta te s t o day ,” h e d ecla re d i n 1 938, “ is partic ip atin g i n a w orld w ar o f i d eas. T his w ar m ay b e a s d estr u ctiv e o f pro perty r ig hts , i n div id ual f re ed om , i n stitu tio ns a n d f a m ily l if e a s a w ar in volv in g m ate ria l r e so urc es.” 59 But i f b usin ess w as t o d efe n d i ts e lf , i t h ad t o d o m ore t h an s im ply pro cla im i ts r ig hte o usn ess, c o m men ta to rs a g re ed : i t h ad t o e x pla in t o t h e public t h at t h eir i n te re sts a n d t h ose o f t h e b usin ess c o m munity w ere a lig ned .

“R ese arc h , m ass p ro ductio n, a n d l o w p ric es a re t h e o ffs p rin g o f b usin ess big ness” a n d i ts “ ju stif ic atio n,” a d vertis in g g uru B ru ce B arto n t o ld a g ro up o f man ufa ctu re rs i n 1 935. “ T his s to ry s h ould b e t o ld … j u st a s c o ntin uously a s th e p eo ple a re t o ld t h at I v ory S oap f lo ats o r t h at c h ild re n c ry f o r C asto ria .” 60 Ban k p re sid en t T hom as B oush all t o ld a g ro up o f s o uth ern b usin essm en i n a wid ely r e p rin te d s p eech t h at “ th e A m eric an p eo ple a n d A m eric an b usin ess hav e t h e s a m e g en era l c o ncep t o f w hat w e m ean b y t h e p hra se ‘ T he Am eric an W ay .’ ” T he p ro ble m , h e a rg ued , w as t h at “ th e p eo ple ” d id n ot re aliz e t h is . B usin ess n eed ed “ to g iv e a v ery c le ar d efin itio n w hen w e r e fe r t o ‘T he A m eric an W ay ’” a n d t o m ak e c le ar t o A m eric an c itiz en s t h at b usin ess to o “ h as t h e s a m e c o ncep t a n d g iv es t h e s a m e d efin itio n.” 61 In cre asin gly , c o rp ora te e x ecu tiv es s ta rte d t o a ct o n s u ch a d vic e. I n t h e la te 1 930s, e n te rp ris e s r a n gin g f ro m G oodyear a n d G en era l E le ctr ic t o t h e Alu m in um C om pan y o f A m eric a a n d I n te rn atio nal B usin ess M ach in es b eg an ru nnin g a d vertis e m en ts i n m ag azin es a n d n ew sp ap ers d efe n din g t h e “A m eric an e co nom ic s y ste m .” L arg e p riv ate u tilitie s b ack ed a n O re g on- base d n ew s s e rv ic e t h at d is tr ib ute d l ith ogra p hed e d ito ria ls t o s o m e t w elv e th ousa n d d aily a n d w eek ly n ew sp ap ers i n s m all t o w ns a cro ss t h e c o untr y .

Chase N atio nal B an k, t o geth er w ith f o rty -fiv e a ffilia te s, s p onso re d a “b usin ess f o ru m s p ic ed w ith o rc h estr a l s e le ctio ns” t h at w as b ro ad cast F rid ay ev en in gs o ver f ir s t t h e C BS a n d t h en t h e N BC r a d io n etw ork . G en era l M oto rs la u nch ed o ne o f t h e l a rg est p ublic r e la tio ns c am paig ns— pla cin g f o ur-c o lo r ad s i n m ass m ag azin es s u ch a s t h e Satu rd ay E ven in g P ost , p ro ducin g docu m en ta rie s, a n d s p onso rin g th e a n nual “ S oap B ox D erb y” r a ces u nder t h e slo gan “ It’ s t h e S oap B ox D erb y a g ain st t h e s o ap -b ox o ra to rs .” D urin g t h e week ly “ G en era l M oto rs S ym phony H our,” t h e “ V oic e o f G en era l M oto rs ” offe re d s o und b ite s o n e m plo ym en t, w ag e l e v els , a n d “ th e A m eric an s y ste m of f re e o pportu nity , f re e i n itia tiv e, f re e c o m petitio n.” G M ’s “ P ara d e o f Pro gre ss,” a t r a v elin g s a lu te t o t h at A m eric an s y ste m , l o gged t w en ty th ousa n d m ile s t o urin g t h e U .S . i n 1 936.

62 All o f t h ese e ffo rts r e fle cte d t h e r is e o ver t h e p re v io us t w o d ecad es o f t h e new f ie ld o f p ublic r e la tio ns. A s S tu art E w en h as s h ow n, t h e i d ea o f m old in g public o pin io n— of “ en gin eerin g c o nse n t” — em erg ed i n t h e U .S . i n t h e 1 910s an d 1 920s. D urin g t h e P ro gre ssiv e e ra , c o rp ora te s p okesm en a n d g overn m en t offic ia ls h ad r e acte d t o j o urn alis tic m uck ra k ers b y o ffe rin g f a cts a n d r a tio nal arg um en ts . D urin g W orld W ar I , h ow ev er, t h e W ils o n a d m in is tr a tio n t r ie d t o co unte r w id esp re ad i s o la tio nis t s e n tim en t b y f o rm in g t h e C om mitte e o n Public I n fo rm atio n ( C PI). T he c re atio n o f t h e C PI, o r C re el C om mitte e a s i t was o fte n c alle d , r e fle cte d a g ro w in g a w are n ess o f “ p ublic o pin io n” a m ong politic al a n d b usin ess e lite s: t h e c o m mitte e s o ught t o “ m obiliz e a n d c h an nel popula r e n th usia sm ” f o r t h e w ar b y m ars h alin g s p eak ers a n d p ro ducin g pro pag an dis tic a d s, p oste rs , a n d f ilm s. A fte r t h e w ar, t h e g ro w in g i n flu en ce of S ig m und F re u d f u rth er u nderm in ed t h e f a ith o f m an y e lite s i n a r a tio nal public . I n t h e 1 920s, E dw ard B ern ay s, w ho w as F re u d’s n ep hew a s w ell a s a fo ot s o ld ie r i n t h e C PI, h elp ed f o und t h e f ie ld o f p ublic r e la tio ns b y su ggestin g t h at c o rp ora te l e ad ers a n d o th er e lite s c o uld d is c re etly m an ip ula te public e m otio ns u sin g s lo gan s, s y m bols , a n d i m ag es.

63 I n t h e 1 920s, m an y co rp ora tio ns l a tc h ed o nto t h e n ew t e ch niq ues i n a n e ffo rt t o b urn is h t h eir co rp ora te i m ag es. I n t h e l a te 1 930s, t h ey t u rn ed t h eir p ublic r e la tio ns d olla rs to t h e t a sk o f s a lv ag in g “ fre e e n te rp ris e ” i ts e lf .

In t h eir e ffo rts t o s e ll t h eir v ie w s t o t h e A m eric an p ublic , c o rp ora tio ns mad e e x te n siv e u se o f r a d io — a v eh ic le t h at r e ach ed e v en t h ose w ho c o uld n’t re ad . I n f a ct, d urin g t h e 1 930s, b usin ess l e ad ers p io neere d t h e u se o f dra m atiz atio n s u btly t o i n str u ct A m eric an s o n p olitic al v alu es w ith out so undin g s h rill. ( D ev elo pin g t h is t a ctic i n t h e r e alm s o f r a d io a n d s p onso re d motio n p ic tu re s, t h ey e v en tu ally c arrie d i t t o t e le v is io n a s w ell.) 64 N o pro gra m b ette r e x em plif ie s i n dustr y ’s c re atio n o f a “ u sa b le ” p ast t h ro ugh dra m a t h an Cava lc a de o f A m eric a , a w eek ly r a d io a n th olo gy l a u nch ed b y E .

I. D uP ont d e N em ours & C o. i n O cto ber 1 935. D uP ont, a m ajo r m unitio ns man ufa ctu re r, h ad b een i n vestig ate d b y t h e S en ate ’s N ye C om mitte e t h e pre v io us y ear, a n d D uP ont e x ecu tiv es, t o geth er w ith t h eir c o lle ag ues a t Gen era l M oto rs , w ere s o m e o f t h e m ost a ctiv e a n d i n flu en tia l m em bers o f t h e Lib erty L eag ue.

Cava lc a de o f A m eric a c o nsis te d o f h alf -h our d ra m atiz atio ns of w hat a c o m pan y pre ss r e le ase c alle d “ little -k now n b ut a u th en tic i n cid en ts in A m eric an h is to ry .” “ In sp ir a tio nal i n t y pe,” t h e p re ss r e le ase c o ntin ued , “th e t r e atm en t o ffe rs a n ew a n d a b so rb in g a p pro ach t o h is to ry , t h e i n cid en ts bein g r e en acte d s o a s t o e m phasiz e t h e q ualitie s o f A m eric an c h ara cte r w hic h hav e b een r e sp onsib le f o r t h e b uild in g o f t h is c o untr y .” 65 B y t h e e arly 1 940s, DuP ont e stim ate d t h at s ix m illio n p eo ple l is te n ed t o t h e s h ow e ach w eek , a n d it e n su re d t h e p ro gra m ’s c o ntin uin g i m pact b y o ffe rin g r e co rd in gs t o s c h ools an d c o lle g es f o r c la ssro om u se .

66 Each s h ow b eg an w ith a s h ort “ an nouncem en t” s tr e ssin g “ th e a p plic atio n of c h em is tr y t o h um an n eed s [ a n d] s h ow in g h ow t h e c h em is t’ s a rt h as co ntr ib ute d t o t h e c o m fo rt a n d h ap pin ess o f p eo ple i n a ll w alk s o f l if e .” 67 B ut th e s h ow ’s i n str u ctio n w en t f a r b ey ond c h em is tr y . T his c an c le arly b e s e en i n an e p is o de o n J a n e A ddam s t h at w as b ro ad cast i n M ay 1 940, f iv e y ears a fte r Addam s’s d eath a n d f if ty y ears a fte r t h e f o undin g o f H ull H ouse . T he b rie f ep is o de, w hic h s ta rre d H ele n H ay es i n t h e t itle r o le , f o llo w ed J a n e f ro m h er ch ild hood t o h er a ccep ta n ce o f t h e N obel P eace P riz e; h ow ev er, t h e d ra m atic te n sio n— an d m ost o f t h e p lo t— re v olv ed a ro und a “ little -k now n” a n d a lm ost certa in ly f ic tio nal e v en t d urin g J a n e’s l if e a t H ull H ouse . A s t h e Cava lc a de sc rip tw rite rs t o ld t h e s to ry , J a n e’s a ctiv is m o n b eh alf o f f e m ale w ork ers a n d te n em en t d w elle rs a n ta g oniz ed a l o cal s w eats h op o w ner a n d a n I ris h w ard boss, w ho b oth w orrie d t h at s h e w as g iv in g i m mig ra n ts “ id eas … i d eas [ th at] ain ’t d oin g u s n o g ood.” T he t w o m en p la n te d a n a rtic le i n t h e l o cal p ap er, ch arg in g J a n e w ith “ m ed dlin g” i n t h e a ffa ir s o f w ork in g p eo ple a n d g ettin g work ers f ir e d a s a r e su lt. A m ob, e n ra g ed b y t h e a rtic le , a tta ck ed a n d ra n sa ck ed H ull H ouse . D esp era te a n d f in an cia lly s tr a p ped , J a n e t u rn ed t o t h e Man ufa ctu re rs A sso cia tio n f o r h elp . A lth ough s h e w as i n itia lly r e b uffe d — a fe w m em bers r a n t h e k in d o f s w eats h op J a n e d ep lo re d — a m an ufa ctu re r w ho gre w u p i n t h e H ull H ouse n eig hborh ood s o ught h er o ut a fte r t h e m eetin g a n d pre se n te d h er w ith a h an dfu l o f l a rg e c h eck s. “ B y t h e t im e I g et t h ro ugh,” h e to ld h er “ ev ery decen t b usin ess m an i n C hic ag o— an d t h ere a re a l o t o f t h em —is g oin g t o b e r o otin g f o r y ou.… Then w e’ll s ta rt o n t h e p olitic ia n s.” 68 The m essa g es o f t h is e p is o de w ere c le ar. A lth ough b usin ess, l ik e a n y fie ld , h ad a f e w b ad a p ple s, m ost m an ufa ctu re rs w ere h onora b le , e v en gen ero us, m en . I n f a ct, s o m e h ad g ro w n u p i n i m mig ra n t n eig hborh oods th em se lv es a n d, b y e m bra cin g t h e “ A m eric an W ay ,” h ad m ad e e n ough money t o h an d o ut l a rg e c h eck s. T he s a m e c o uld n ot b e s a id o f p olitic ia n s, partic u la rly D em ocra ts s u ch a s t h e I ris h w ard b oss i n t h e d ra m a o r ( b y im plic atio n) t h e m an y w ho s u pporte d t h e N ew D eal. I n t h e e n d, man ufa ctu re rs , n ot p olitic ia n s, w ere t h e w ork in g p eo ple ’s t r u e f rie n ds. T his vers io n o f h is to ry m ay h av e b een o nly lo ose ly r o ote d i n r e ality , b ut i t w as desig ned t o a p peal b oth t o m id dle -c la ss A m eric an s a n d t o s tr iv in g e th nic work ers w ho m ig ht t u ne i n Cava lc a de o n t h eir r a d io d ia ls .

Corp ora tio ns s u ch a s D uP ont a n d G en era l M oto rs r e ach ed m illio ns o f Am eric an s w ith t h eir a d vertis e m en ts , s p onso re d e v en ts , a n d r a d io p ro gra m s.

But b y t h e m id -1 930s, s o m e i n dustr ia lis ts a n d b usin ess p undits h ad co nclu ded t h at a m ore c o ord in ate d e ffo rt t o r e sh ap e p ublic a ttitu des w as calle d f o r. W hen t h e e d ito rs o f M cG ra w -H ill, p ublis h ers o f Busin ess W eek an d o th er t r a d e p ublic atio ns, s u rv ey ed v ario us i n dustr ie s i n t h e w ak e o f FD R’s 1 936 l a n dslid e, t h ey f o und t h at c o m pan ie s’ l a ck o f a g re em en t o n t h e defin itio n a n d g oal o f p ublic r e la tio ns l e ft e m plo yees a n d c o m munitie s “b ew ild ere d a n d c o nfu se d b y t h e e ffo rts i n dustr y w as m ak in g t o t e ll i ts s to ry an d t o d efe n d i ts e lf .” C astin g i ts e lf a s i n dustr y ’s s a v io r, M cG ra w -H ill b eg an co nductin g “ P ublic R ela tio ns F oru m s” i n m ajo r c itie s a ro und t h e c o untr y t o help “ g iv e i n dustr y a c o m mon a p pro ach t o t h e p ro ble m .” 69 Alth ough M cG ra w -H ill, t h e U .S . C ham ber o f C om merc e, a n d o th er org an iz atio ns e n te re d t h e f ra y , t h e N atio nal A sso cia tio n o f M an ufa ctu re rs (N AM ) q uic k ly e m erg ed a s t h e c en tr a l v eh ic le b eh in d b usin ess’s c o ord in ate d effo rt i n t h e l a te 1 930s t o r e d efin e A m eric a’s p olitic al c u ltu re . F ounded i n 1895, t h e N AM h ad l o ng u se d p ublic ity t o c o m bat u nio nis m a n d t o “ co ntr o l natio nal q uestio ns o f i m porta n ce t o m an ufa ctu re rs .” B ut t h e c am paig n t h e asso cia tio n l a u nch ed i n t h e m id -1 930s w as u niq ue b oth f o r i ts s c o pe a n d f o r its e ffo rts t o c o urt, r a th er t h an c h astis e , t h e p ublic . I n 1 934, f o llo w in g t h e ta k eo ver o f t h e N AM b y a g ro up o f c o nse rv ativ e i n dustr ia lis ts , t h e org an iz atio n’s n ew p re sid en t t a p ped W alte r W eis e n burg er, a c o m bativ e e x - jo urn alis t a n d f o rm er e x ecu tiv e o f t h e S t. L ouis C ham ber o f C om merc e, t o head t h e p ublic r e la tio ns e ffo rt. W eis e n burg er a n d h is s ta ff w ork ed c lo se ly with t w o n ew ly f o rm ed c o m mitte es o f i n dustr y e x ecu tiv es: o ne c h arg ed w ith overs e ein g t h e c am paig n, a n d a s e co nd f o rm ed t o r a is e m oney f o r t h e cru sa d e.

70 The N AM ’s c am paig n d id n ot g et o ff t h e g ro und i m med ia te ly ; b ut b y 1937, i t w as w ell u nderw ay . T hat y ear, t h e N AM s p en t n early $ 800,0 00 o n i ts in fo rm atio n p ro gra m , a n d i t r e ceiv ed a n oth er $ 3.2 5 m illio n i n i n -k in d donatio ns o f n ew sp ap er a n d o utd oor a d vertis in g s p ace a n d f re e r a d io t im e.

71 (T he a sso cia tio n’s b udgets c o ntin ued t o e sc ala te t h ro ughout t h e d ecad e.) Usin g t h at m oney , t h e N AM ’s p ublic r e la tio ns s ta ff t r a n sla te d i n dustr y ’s messa g e i n to w hat W alte r W eis e n burg er b oaste d w as “ ev ery m ed ia o f p ublic in fo rm atio n”: n ew sp ap er a rtic le s, o p-e d p ie ces a n d c arto ons; f ilm s tr ip s, new sre els , a n d m ovie s h orts ; d ir e ct m ail c am paig ns; m ag azin e, n ew sp ap er, an d b illb oard a d vertis in g; p oste rs a n d d is p la y s f o r s c h ools , f a cto rie s, a n d sto re w in dow s; “p ay ro ll s tu ffe rs ” a n d c lip sh eets f o r p la n t p ublic atio ns; r a d io pro gra m s; a s p eak er’s b ure au ; b um per s tic k ers ; a n d p am phle ts f o r u se i n sc h ools a n d l o cal l ib ra rie s. S om e o f t h is m ate ria l w as t r a n sla te d i n to G erm an , Hungaria n , S w ed is h , P olis h , I ta lia n , a n d Y id dis h , c le arly i n dic atin g t h at t h e org an iz atio n w as t r y in g t o r e ach i m mig ra n t w ork ers a s w ell a s t h e E nglis h - sp eak in g m id dle c la ss. T he N AM ’s I n dustr ia l P re ss S erv ic e d is tr ib ute d n ew s sto rie s, e d ito ria ls , a n d p re m atte d c o m ic s tr ip s t o o ne-q uarte r o f t h e new sp ap ers i n t h e n atio n, i n clu din g m an y s m all w eek ly , d aily , a n d f o re ig n- la n guag e p ap ers t h at u se d t h e m ate ria l t o f ill s p ace w ith out m en tio nin g i ts so urc e. L ik ew is e , h undre d s o f r a d io s ta tio ns a cro ss t h e c o untr y b ro ad cast t h e fif te en -m in ute d ra m a Am eric a n F am ily R obin so n e ach w eek , w ith out in dic atin g t h at t h ey h ad r e ceiv ed i t gra tis f ro m t h e N AM .

72 While t h e N AM ’s p ublic r e la tio ns s ta ff f o cu se d o n p ro ducin g t h is a rra y o f mate ria l, t h ey r e lie d o n a v ast n etw ork o f l o cal c o m mitte es t o d is tr ib ute i t.

Adoptin g a t a ctic p io neere d b y G eo rg e C re el a n d t h e f e d era l C PI d urin g World W ar I , t h e N AM u rg ed i ts m em bers t o s e t u p S pecia l C om mitte es o n Public I n fo rm atio n i n t h eir c o m munitie s. I d eally , t h ese c o m mitte es w ould b e co m pose d o f m en w ho w ere “ k now n t o b e i n te re ste d i n t h is s u bje ct,” h ad “ th e co nta cts t o r a is e m oney ,” w ere w illin g t o “ g iv e s o m e t im e t o s ittin g d ow n with e d ito rs , m in is te rs , f o re ig n l a n guag e g ro ups, h ead s o f w om en ’s c lu bs, etc .,” a n d w ere “ in flu en tia l e n ough t o m ak e t h eir w eig ht f e lt w ith new sp ap ers , r a d io s ta tio ns a n d o th er b usin ess p eo ple w ith in t h e t o w n.” T hese co m mitte es w ould o rg an iz e “ civ ic p ro gre ss” m eetin gs a n d s p eak in g en gag em en ts , d is tr ib ute t h e N AM ’s p ro pag an da l o cally , a n d r a is e f u nds f o r th e a sso cia tio n’s a d vertis in g c am paig n.

73 In p re p arin g i ts “ in fo rm atio n” m ate ria ls , t h e N AM s ta ff s tr o ve t o a v oid defe n siv en ess. I n ste ad , i t p re se n te d A m eric an i n dustr y a s a “ co ura g eo us, pro gre ssiv e f o rc e” a n d e m phasiz ed t h e s e lf -in te re st o f t h ose t o w hom i t dir e cte d i ts m essa g e.

74 A lth ough N AM p ro pag an da c o vere d a r a n ge o f th em es— th e “ m ir a cle s” o f i n dustr ia l r e se arc h , t h e “ sh are d ” b urd en o f h ig h ta x es, t h e “ m yth ” t h at m ach in es e lim in ate d j o bs— its b otto m l in e w as a lw ay s th e s a m e: t h e “ A m eric an s y ste m ” h ad r e su lte d i n a s ta n dard o f l iv in g f o r a ll Am eric an s t h at, e v en i n t h e w ors t o f t im es, w as t h e e n vy o f t h e w orld . I n poste rs , p am phle ts , s p eech es, a n d b illb oard s, t h e N AM r e p eate d ly d ro ve hom e t h e m essa g e t h at A m eric an s h ad h ig her w ag es, s h orte r w ork in g h ours , an d m ore c ars , r a d io s, r e frig era to rs , a n d h om es p er c ap ita t h an a n y o th er natio n a ro und t h e g lo be. B y 1 937, t h e N AM h ad s e ttle d o n a p hra se t h at cap tu re d t h e f a m ily -c en te re d l if e sty le t h is a b undan ce s u ppose d ly m ad e possib le : t h e “ A m eric an W ay o f L if e .” 75 The N AM ’s p ublic ity b litz t h us c o -o pte d a n d r e d ep lo yed t h e n otio n o f eco nom ic s e cu rity — fre ed om f ro m w an t— th at w as c en tr a l t o t h e p olitic s o f both t h e N ew D eal a n d t h e C IO . F D R h ad a rg ued t h at o nly t h e f e d era l govern m en t c o uld p ro vid e s u ch s e cu rity a n d t h at, a s t h e e m bodim en t o f t h e will o f a m ajo rity o f t h e p eo ple , i t h ad a c le ar o blig atio n t o d o s o . T he C IO wen t e v en f u rth er, d en ouncin g b usin essm en a s t r a ito ro us T orie s a n d dem an din g m ore p ow er f o r l a b or i n t h e w ork pla ce. T he N AM v eh em en tly re je cte d b oth n otio ns, i n t h e p ro cess o ffe rin g i ts o w n d efin itio ns o f s u ch c o re Am eric an v alu es a s “ fre ed om ” a n d “ d em ocra cy .” Where as l e ft l ib era ls i n t h e N ew D eal a n d t h e C IO a ssu m ed t h at w ork ers an d t h eir e m plo yers o fte n h ad c o m petin g i n te re sts , t h e N AM b uilt i ts s o cia l an d p olitic al v is io n a ro und t h e n otio n o f s o cia l h arm ony. A cco rd in g t o N AM mate ria ls , t h e i n te re sts o f i n dustr ia lis ts w ere v ir tu ally i n dis tin guis h ab le f ro m th ose o f o th er A m eric an s. “ O ne n eed n ot t h in k v ery d eep ly t o u nders ta n d t h at th e i n te re st o f l a b or a n d b usin ess— th at i s t o s a y , t h e e m plo yer— are id en tic al,” r e ad o ne i te m t h at t h e N AM s u pplie d t o f a cto ry p ublic atio ns i n early 1 938. “ In t h e l o ng r u n t h eir i n te re sts d o c o in cid e b ecau se t h ey a re b oth parts o f t h e s a m e s y ste m .” 76 O ver a n d o ver, t h e N AM e m phasiz ed t h at “ w ag e an d s a la ry w ork ers ” o w ned p ro perty ( h om es, c ars , s to ck s, s a v in gs a cco unts , an d i n su ra n ce p olic ie s), t h at c o nditio ns f o r U .S . l a b or h ad i m pro ved m ark ed ly over t h e d ecad es, a n d t h at t o w ns a n d e m plo yees b en efite d w hen b usin ess d id well. A nd l ik e b oth F D R a n d t h e C IO , t h ey t u rn ed f re q uen tly t o A bra h am Lin co ln f o r s u pport: “ T here i s n o p erm an en t c la ss o f h ir e d l a b ore rs a m ongst us,” a n oth er N AM -a u th ore d a rtic le q uote d L in co ln a s s a y in g. “ T w en ty -fiv e years a g o I w as a h ir e d l a b ore r. T he h ir e d l a b ore r o f y este rd ay l a b ors o n h is ow n a cco unt t o day , a n d w ill h ir e o th ers t o l a b or f o r h im t o m orro w .” 77 L ik e th e Cava lc a de e p is o de o n J a n e A ddam s, t h is a rtic le p la y ed t o w ork ers ’ dre am s o f s o cia l m obility .

Perh ap s t h e m ost e x te n ded e x plic atio n o f t h is v ie w c am e i n a s e rie s o f a d s carry in g t h e s lo gan “ P ro sp erity D wells W here H arm ony R eig ns,” w hic h t h e NAM p la ced i n n ew sp ap ers a ro und t h e c o untr y i n 1 937. S om e o f t h e a d s, undoubtly a im ed a t m em bers o f t h e m id dle c la ss, s tr e sse d t h e d ep en den ce o f hom e p ric es, s m all b usin esse s, a n d c ity s e rv ic es o n i n dustr y ’s p ay ro ll. O th ers re m in ded w ork ers o f t h e b en efits a n d o pportu nitie s t h ey g le an ed f ro m t h e Am eric an s y ste m . O ne h aile d t h e “ lo yal p artn ers h ip ” b etw een w ork ers , cap ita l, a n d m an ag em en t t h at h ad m ad e t h e “ av era g e w ork m an ’s l o t” f a r bette r t h an t h at o f h is c o unte rp arts a ro und t h e w orld . A noth er s h ow ed a work er o n s te el s c affo ld in g w av in g t o a n e x ecu tiv e i n a c h au ffe u re d lim ousin e: “ I k new him w hen h e p ush ed a w heelb arro w ,” t h e w ork er s a id .

The f in al a d , a im ed i n p art a t f ir s t- a n d s e co nd-g en era tio n A m eric an s, b are ly re fe rre d t o b usin ess at a ll. B esid e a p ic tu re o f t h e S ta tu e o f L ib erty , b old le tte rin g d em an ded “ Are Y ou a n A m eric an C itiz en ?” “ A T R U E A m eric an … must b e a n A m eric an c itiz en n ot a lo ne b y a ccid en t o f b ir th o r p riv ile g e o f natu ra liz atio n,” t h e c o py c o ntin ued :

He m ust b e a n A m eric an c itiz en a t h eart, p ro ud o f h is h erita g e o f l ib erty a n d opportu nity — willin g t o a ccep t t h e d uty o f c itiz en sh ip t o p ro te ct A m eric an id eals .… Today m an y i n flu en ces a re a t w ork t o d estr o y t h e r e al v alu e o f y our citiz en sh ip . T hey p re ach v io le n ce a s o ppose d t o r e aso n. T hey s tr iv e t o pit c la ss a g ain st c la ss— to g ain a d van ta g e f o r t h e f e w w ith out r e g ard f o r th e w elf a re o f t h e m an y.… T hey u nderm in e t h e s p ir it o f c o -o pera tio n an d t e am work a m ong a ll g ro ups o n w hic h t h is n atio n h as b een b uilt.

Their s u ccess w ould s p ell t h e e v en tu al b re ak dow n o f a ll t h at h as m ad e Am eric a m ean “ o pportu nity ” f o r m illio ns.

“T hese i n flu en ces,” t h e a d c o nclu ded , “ C A N N OT s u cceed w here A m eric an s are a w ak e t o t h eir d uty a s c itiz en s. A RE Y OU A N A M ER IC A N CIT IZ EN ?” 78 T he a d c le arly s u ggeste d t h at a n yone w ho d id n ot f o ste r “te am work a m ong a ll g ro ups” — an yone w ho w ork ed t o f o m en t c la ss u nre st— was n ot a t r u e A m eric an .

The i n sid io us “ in flu en ces” t o w hic h t h is a d p oin te d w ere c le arly n ot “eco nom ic r o yalis ts ” o r “ in dustr ia l T orie s.” B usin essm en , i n t h e N AM ’s sc h em a, w ere c u sto dia n s o f t h e p eo ple ’s i n te re sts . T he g re at d an ger c am e fro m a n o verw een in g g overn m en t t h at t r a m ple d o n t h e r ig hts a n d p riv ile g es of i ts c itiz en s, i n t h e p ro cess u nderm in in g t h e p ro sp erity t h at o nly b usin ess co uld p ro duce. “ When w e g iv e a ny G overn m en t i n cre a sin g p ow er t o r e g ula te our d aily l iv es w e a re g iv in g a w ay o ne o f t h e m ost s a cre d l ib ertie s a ny Am eric a n c itiz e n c a n p osse ss ,” o ne N AM l e afle t w arn ed . “ G overn m en ts lo ve pow er! D on’t g iv e any G overn m en t t h e r ig ht t o d ic ta te where y ou s h all w ork , when y ou s h all w ork a n d what y our w ag es s h all b e!” 79 A n N AM b ookle t en title d The A m eric a n W ay r e in fo rc ed t h is m essa g e, d is tin guis h in g b etw een tw o k in ds o f g overn m en t: “ o ne i n w hic h t h e c itiz en i s s u pre m e a n d t h e govern m en t o bey s h is w ill; t h e o th er i n w hic h t h e s ta te i s s u pre m e a n d co ntr o ls t h e c itiz en .” I m plic itly c o ntr a stin g t h e U .S . a p pro ach t o t h at o f to ta lita ria n s ta te s, t h e b ookle t l e ft l ittle d oubt w hic h w as, a n d s h ould r e m ain , th e A m eric an W ay .

80 As s u ch a d s a n d p am phle ts s u ggest, N AM s ta ffe rs , l ik e N ew D eale rs a n d in dustr ia l u nio nis ts , c ast A m eric an c itiz en sh ip a s, a b ove a ll, a m atte r o f sh are d v alu es. T he v alu es t h ey h ig hlig hte d , h ow ev er, d if fe re d s h arp ly f ro m th ose c h am pio ned b y F D R a n d t h e C IO . W hile F D R s tr e sse d m ajo rita ria n ru le , em bodie d i n t h e f e d era l g overn m en t, t h e N AM h aile d i n div id ual lib ertie s a n d t h e l im its o n g overn m en t g uara n te ed b y t h e B ill o f R ig hts . W hile th e C IO c alle d f o r i n dustr ia l dem ocra cy , w hic h i m plie d a n e x te n sio n o f majo rity r u le i n to t h e e co nom ic a re n a, t h e N AM s tr e sse d fr e ed om o f opportu nity . T he v ario us d efin itio ns c o nverg ed o nly o n f re ed om f ro m w an t.

Not s u rp ris in gly , t h e N AM f o ught a n u phill b attle . I ts p ortr a y al o f busin ess a s t h e g uara n to r o f p ro sp erity w ork ed o nly i f i t o verlo oked t h e ra v ag es o f t h e c o ntin uin g D ep re ssio n; t h is e x pla in s t h e N AM ’s t e n den cy i n th e l a te 1 930s t o b ack date s ta tis tic s t o 1 929. S en ato r R obert M . L a F olle tte ’s Com mitte e o n C iv il L ib ertie s i n vestig ate d t h e p ro pag an da o nsla u ght a s p art of a l a rg er p ro be i n to t h e u nio n-b ustin g a ctiv itie s o f c o rp ora te A m eric a, a n d th e CIO N ew s r e p rin te d s o m e o f t h e c o m mitte e’s f in din gs. M an y o th er Am eric an s w ere r e m in ded o f t h e s tr a in ed n ote i n t h e c am paig n b y p ic tu re s ta k en b y s o m e o f t h e d ecad e’s m ost a b le d ocu m en ta ry p hoto gra p hers :

Marg are t B ourk e-W hite ’s f a m ous s h ot o f b la ck f lo od v ic tim s l in ed u p i n fro nt o f a n N AM b illb oard i n L ouis v ille , K en tu ck y, f ir s t a p peare d i n Fortu ne mag azin e i n 1 937.

Nev erth ele ss, b y e arly 1 939, t h e N AM b elie v ed i t w as m ak in g p ro gre ss.

In 1 937, t h e C IO h ad i n tr o duced a n ew t a ctic — th e s it- d ow n s tr ik e— in i ts cam paig n a g ain st G en era l M oto rs . A lth ough t h e t a ctic b ro ught t h e a u to m ak er to i ts k nees, s p re ad in g s it- d ow n s tr ik es b eg an t o u nderm in e m id dle -c la ss su pport f o r t h e l a b or m ovem en t. A ro und t h e s a m e t im e, F D R t r ie d t o c o unte r Supre m e C ourt a n ta g onis m t o t h e N ew D eal w ith a d is a str o us p la n t o “ p ack ” th e c o urt. R oose v elt’ s t r a n sp are n tly p olitic al p ro posa l b ack fir e d b ad ly , ero din g h is s ta tu re e v en a m ong m an y D em ocra ts a n d N ew D eal s u pporte rs .

81 The f u ll i m pact o f t h ese d ev elo pm en ts w as n ot f e lt i m med ia te ly ; b ut b y Marc h 1 939, W alte r W eis e n burg er c o uld r e p ort t h at p ublic o pin io n h ad sh if te d t o t h e r ig ht. M ean w hile , t h e e co nom ic d ow ntu rn o f 1 937 a n d 1 938, dubbed b y s o m e t h e “ R oose v elt R ecessio n,” h elp ed t h e N AM c am paig n i n ir o nic w ay s. S ch ools a n d c o lle g es, s tr a p ped f o r f u nds, u se d t h e a sso cia tio n’s You a nd I n dustr y p am phle ts a s t e x tb ooks. N ew sp ap ers e ag er f o r e co nom ic new s s n ap ped u p c o lu m ns a n d o th er m ate ria ls p ro vid ed gra tis b y t h e N AM .

And a d ro p-o ff i n c o rp ora te b illb oard a d vertis in g o pen ed m ore d onate d s p ace fo r t h e N AM ’s A m eric an W ay c am paig n. “ W e f e el t h at t h e c o nditio n h as ch an ged f ro m a s itu atio n i n w hic h w e a re a s e lle r, t r y in g t o f o rc e o ur p ro duct, in to w hat y ou m ig ht c all a b uyer’s m ark et,” W eis e n burg er r e p orte d w ith obvio us s a tis fa ctio n. “ T his o ffe rs o ne o f t h e g re ate st o pportu nitie s t h is asso cia tio n h as.” 82 Weis e n burg er’s o ptim is m w as n ot b ase d o n d om estic e v en ts a lo ne. B y early 1 939, r is in g t e n sio ns i n E uro pe g av e n ew r e so nan ce t o s e v era l o f t h e NAM ’s l o ng-s ta n din g t h em es. W ith m ore a tte n tio n f o cu se d a b ro ad , t h e NAM ’s e ffo rt t o co ntr a st t h e A m eric an W ay t o f o re ig n l iv in g s ta n dard s se em ed l e ss l a b ore d t h an i t h ad i n t h e p ast. N ew s r e p orts o n g overn m en t in itia tiv es i n G erm an y, I ta ly , a n d J a p an p ro vid ed a p ow erfu l b ack dro p f o r NAM a tta ck s o n t h e g ro w th o f f e d era l p ow er i n t h e U .S . A bove a ll, in te rn atio nal t e n sio ns a n d n ew s r e p orts f ro m G erm an y m ad e d is c o rd a t h om e se em i n cre asin gly w orris o m e t o m an y i n t h e U .S . I n J a n uary , o ne N AM sp eak er l in ked t h e a sso cia tio n’s a d vocacy o f c o opera tio n a n d h arm ony dir e ctly t o e v en ts a b ro ad . “ I a m p ro ud t o s a y t h at i n dustr y h as m ad e i ts s ta rt to w ard s e sta b lis h in g t h is c o untr y ’s f ir s t l in e o f d efe n se — harm ony b etw een all g ro ups i n o ur e co nom y,” F ulle r B arn es, a n e x ecu tiv e o f t h e A sso cia te d Sprin g C om pan y, t o ld s tu den ts a n d f a cu lty a t H artf o rd T heo lo gic al S em in ary .

“If i n dustr y ’s g ood f a ith a n d g ood r e aso nin g i n t h is r e sp ect c an b e m atc h ed by o th er g ro ups, w e n eed n ot f e ar t h e t id es o f h ate a n d m ad ness t h at h av e sw ep t o th er l a n ds.” 83 T hat s a m e m onth , t h e N AM l a u nch ed a n ew b illb oard cam paig n w ith t h e s lo gan “ L et’ s A ll W ork T ogeth er— It’ s a n O ld A m eric an Custo m .” “ D ic ta to rs h ip s b re ed o n m is u nders ta n din gs b etw een g ro ups a n d cla sse s,” a n i te m s e n t t o p la n t p ublic atio ns e x pla in ed . “ T hey c an n ev er pre v ail h ere a s l o ng a s w e h av e a u nite d A m eric a.” 84 Tw o e v en ts i n t h e l a te s u m mer a n d e arly f a ll o f 1 939 g av e n ew e n erg y t o th e N AM c am paig n. N ew s o f t h e N azi- S ovie t p act i n l a te A ugust g av e cre d en ce t o t h e a rg um en t t h at f a sc is m a n d c o m munis m w ere r e ally o ne a n d th e s a m e— th at b oth w ere i n f a ct “ to ta lita ria n is m .” A f e w w eek s l a te r, t h e outb re ak o f w ar i n E uro pe r a is e d t h e s ta k es f o r a ll A m eric an s. “ N ow e v en ts ab ro ad o ffe r a d ra m atic b ack -d ro p a g ain st w hic h t h e t r u e v alu e o f t h e Am eric an W ay c an b e m easu re d ,” a s ta ff m em o e x ulte d i n t h e f a ll o f 1 939.

“A m eric an is m , t h e A m eric an s y ste m a n d a ll t h at t h ey s ta n d f o r h av e b een s e t off i n b old r e lie f. A s t h ey s u rv ey w ar-to rn E uro pe, a s t h ey s e e t h e s p re ad o f dic ta to rs h ip s a n d t h e r u th le ss s u ppre ssio n o f r ig hts a n d f re ed om s a s co m monpla ce h ere a s t h e a ir w e b re ath e a n d a s t h ey s e e C om munis m , Nazis m a n d F asc is m r e v eale d a s o ne a n d t h e s a m e i d eo lo gy, t h e A m eric an peo ple a re i n a m ood t o r e co gniz e a n d c o unt t h eir b le ssin gs.” 85 If t h e w ar i n E uro pe o pen ed o pportu nitie s f o r t h e N AM c am paig n, i t a ls o calle d f o r a s h if t i n e m phasis . I n t h e l a te 1 930s, N AM o ffic ia ls a n d o th er co rp ora te l e ad ers h ad b eg un t e n ta tiv ely u sin g t h e t e rm “ fre e e n te rp ris e ”— in pla ce o f t h e l e ss r e so nan t “ la is se z-fa ir e ” o r “ p riv ate e n te rp ris e ”— in a n e ffo rt to l in k t h eir e co nom ic a g en da t o t h e o ne v alu e t h at v ir tu ally a ll A m eric an s held d ear. N ow N AM s ta ffe rs u rg ed t h em t o t a k e a f u rth er s te p . “ F re e en te rp ris e [ w ill n ot] b e s a v ed a s t h e r e su lt o f a p peals i n t h e n am e o f f re e en te rp ris e a lo ne,” t h e s ta ff m em o a rg ued . “ D em ocra cy a n d i ts p re se rv atio n are t h e i n te re st o f e v ery p atr io tic A m eric an t o day ,” i t c o ntin ued : “ T he p ublic must b e c o nvin ced t h at fre e e n te rp ris e i s a s m uch a n i n div is ib le p art o f dem ocra cy a n d t h e s o urc e o f a s m an y b le ssin gs a n d b en efits a s a re o ur o th er fre ed om s o f s p eech , p re ss a n d r e lig io n.” I f t h e N AM ’s p ro gra m “ can em phasiz e e ffe ctiv ely t h e i n se p ara b ility o f ‘ d em ocra cy ’ a n d ‘ fre e e n te rp ris e ,’ it m ay w ell b e t h at t h e w av e o f e n th usia sm a n d s u pport f o r t h e f o rm er w ill carry t h e l a tte r t o u npre ced en te d h eig hts i n p ublic e ste em .” 86 This n otio n o f h itc h in g i n dustr y ’s e co nom ic a g en da t o A m eric a’s p olitic al valu es w as n ot e n tir e ly n ew i n l a te 1 939. B oth F D R a n d t h e C IO h ad l in ked th eir e co nom ic v is io ns t o p olitic al r ig hts ; a n d i n e arly 1 938, R ay m ond M ole y had r e co m men ded t h at b usin ess d o l ik ew is e . M ole y , w ho h ad r e sig ned f ro m FD R’s B ra in T ru st a n d b eco m e a n a d vocate f o r A m eric an b usin ess, c alle d o n co rp ora te l e ad ers t o “ ag ain a n d a g ain m ak e i t c le ar t h at o ur e co nom ic s y ste m an d o ur p olitic al s y ste m a re e sse n tia lly o pposite s id es o f t h e s a m e c o in .” 87 I n his J a n uary 1 939 H artf o rd s p eech , t h e N AM s p eak er F ulle r B arn es h ad in voked “ th e t h re efo ld b asis o f o ur A m eric an w ay o f l if e — re lig io us f re ed om , priv ate e n te rp ris e a n d r e p re se n ta tiv e d em ocra cy .” T he N AM ’s r a d io d ra m a Am eric a n F am ily R obin so n h ad e x perim en te d w ith t h e s a m e t h em es t h at su m mer.

88 Nev erth ele ss, t h e e m phasis o n d em ocra cy i n l a te 1 939 a n d 1 940 p ose d a ch alle n ge t o N AM s ta lw arts . T he a sso cia tio n’s p re sid en t, H . W . P re n tis J r., an d m an y o th er N AM m em bers w ere w ary o f t h e t e rm , i n l a rg e p art b ecau se its m ajo rita ria n o verto nes h ad b een u se d b y P re sid en t R oose v elt a n d o th ers t o ju stif y t h e N ew D eal.

89 I n a d s, p atte rn s p eech es, a n d o th er m ate ria ls , t h e NAM w as a lw ay s c are fu l t o r e fe r t o “ re p re se n ta tiv e d em ocra cy ” o r s im ply t o “p olitic al f re ed om .” The N AM a d opte d t h is a p pro ach a g ain i n t h e w in te r o f 1 939–1940, w hen it l a u nch ed a m ajo r n ew e ffo rt t h at b ecam e k now n a s t h e “ T rip od o f Fre ed om ” c am paig n. T he N AM ’s p re sid en t, H . W . P re n tis J r., e x pla in ed t h e pre m is e b eh in d t h e c am paig n i n a s p eech t o m an ufa ctu re rs i n A pril 1 940. T he “tr ip od o f h um an f re ed om ,” P re n tis t o ld h is a u die n ce, h ad t h re e l e g s:

“re p re se n ta tiv e d em ocra cy ,” “ civ il a n d r e lig io us l ib ertie s,” a n d “ eco nom ic fre ed om , t h e i n stitu tio n o f p riv ate e n te rp ris e .” “ T hro ughout t h e a g es, t h ese in stitu tio ns h av e g one h an d i n h an d,” h e c o ntin ued . “ T hey a re i n se p ara b le .

When o ne g oes, a ll g o.” T hen , b orro w in g a n a rg um en t f ro m t h e i n te rfa ith movem en t, h e e x pla in ed , “ T he s a m e b asic c o ncep t u nderlie s t h em a ll— a re lig io us c o ncep t c o m mon t o P ro te sta n tis m , R om an C ath olic is m a n d J u dais m alik e, t h e s a cre d ness o f t h e i n div id ual.” 90 If f re ed om ’s t h re e f o undatio ns w ere i n se p ara b le , “ fre e p riv ate e n te rp ris e ” was t h e m ost v uln era b le e le m en t i n t h e t r io , P re n tis a rg ued . “ E ven t h e Com munis t a n d F asc is t a n d S ocia lis t g ro ups a m ong u s p ra te a b out t h eir dev otio n to r e p re se n ta tiv e d em ocra cy a n d i n sis t u pon t h e p re se rv atio n o f c iv il an d r e lig io us l ib ertie s, a t l e ast s o l o ng a s t h ey t h em se lv es a re n ot i n p ow er,” he d ecla re d . “ T he a tta ck a lw ay s i s a g ain st t h at o th er l e g o f t h e t r ip od, eco nom ic f re ed om .” P re n tis a rg ued t h at “ n atio nal e co nom ic p la n nin g” in ev ita b ly l e d t o t h e e ro sio n o f b oth p olitic al d em ocra cy a n d c iv il l ib ertie s, sin ce p la n ners w ere r e q uir e d t o c o ntr o l a ll “ o pin io n-fo rm in g” a g en cie s t h at mig ht t h ro w “ m onkey -w re n ch es i n to t h eir c are fu lly l a id p la n s” : “ In o th er word s, u nder n atio nal e co nom ic p la n nin g, y ou w ould h av e h ere e v en tu ally ju st w hat y ou s e e i n t h e d ic ta to r-c o ntr o lle d c o untr ie s o f E uro pe t o day : t h e su ppre ssio n o f a ll t e ach in g e x cep t t h at w hic h i s i n l in e w ith t h e g en era l i d eas of t h e g overn m en t c en so rs h ip o f t h e p re ss; t h e e n d o f f re ed om o f e x pre ssio n; an d t h e d estr u ctio n o f r e lig io us l ib erty .” 91 Fig u re 2 .2 .

T his N atio nal A sso cia tio n o f M an ufa ctu re rs b illb oard i n Dubuque, I o w a, t e stif ie s t o t h e b usin ess c o m munity ’s g ro w in g u se o f t h e te rm “ fre e e n te rp ris e ” i n t h e l a te 1 930s. T he a d w as p art o f t h e “ T rip od o f Fre ed om ” c am paig n l a u nch ed b y t h e N AM i n t h e w in te r o f 1 939–40 i n a n effo rt t o c o nnect w hat h ad o nce b een c alle d “ p riv ate e n te rp ris e ” t o o th er tr e asu re d A m eric an f re ed om s ( L ib ra ry o f C ongre ss L C -D IG -fs a -8 a0 5396). This q uote s u ggests o ne o f t h e r e aso ns t h at t h e N AM d eem ed t h e “ tr ip od of f re ed om ” i m ag ery s o u se fu l. A n N AM p oll, p ro bab ly c o nducte d i n 1 940, sh ow ed t h at 9 6 p erc en t o f A m eric an s b elie v ed t h at t h e a b olitio n o f r e lig io us fre ed om w ould v io la te t h eir p ers o nal l ib ertie s, a n d 9 0 p erc en t f e lt th e s a m e ab out f re ed om o f s p eech . B y c o ntr a st, o nly 7 1 p erc en t b elie v ed t h at t h e opera tio n o f p riv ate b usin ess w as a b asic A m eric an r ig ht, a n d 4 0 p erc en t th ought t h e r ig ht t o s tr ik e w as a f u ndam en ta l l ib erty .

92 T he N AM b elie v ed th at t h e t r ip od o f f re ed om s h ad “ re m oved o ur o bje ctiv es f ro m t h e s e lf is h cate g ory ” a n d l in ked u nfe tte re d “ fre e e n te rp ris e ” t o o th er v alu es t h at Am eric an s c le arly h eld i n g re ate r e ste em .

93 Thro ughout 1 940 a n d 1 941, t h e N AM t r u m pete d t h e t r ip od o f f re ed om s in e v ery a v aila b le f o ru m . N AM b illb oard s h ig hlig hte d A m eric a’s fu ndam en ta l f re ed om s ( fig ure 2 .2 ) a s d id p am phle ts , b ro ch ure s, a n d t h e Am eric a n F am ily R obin so n r a d io s h ow .

Prim er f o r A m eric a ns , a s e v en ty - se v en -p ag e p am phle t d esig ned f o r c itiz en sh ip s tu dy b y w om en ’s g ro ups, bro ke d ow n t h e “ A m eric an W ay ” i n to t h re e c o nstitu en t p arts : “ p riv ile g e o f se lf -e x pre ssio n,” “ rig ht o f s e lf -g overn m en t,” a n d “ o pportu nity o f f re e en te rp ris e .” T he h ero o f a n N AM m ovie s h ort d re am ed t h at h e w as a n atto rn ey c alle d u pon t o d efe n d t h e A m eric an w ay o f l if e . H e s u m moned witn esse s w ho t e stif ie d t o t h e n atio n’s d iv ers e f re ed om s a n d m ate ria l ab undan ce, t h en d ra m atiz ed h is c o nclu din g a rg um en t w ith t h e u se o f a s m all tr ip od.

94 These i n te rtw in ed f re ed om s, a cco rd in g t o t h e N AM , c o nstitu te d t h e r ig hts an d p riv ile g es A m eric an s e n jo yed ; a t t h e s a m e t im e, t h eir e n jo ym en t d efin ed th e A m eric an . “ T o b e a n A m eric an — does i t m ean a n yth in g?” a n a rtic le writte n b y t h e N AM ’s s ta ff f o r u se i n p la n t p ublic atio ns b eg an . “ A m eric an s,” th e a rtic le c o ntin ued , “ in clu de p eo ple o f m an y r a ces a n d r e lig io ns— man y way s o f t h in kin g, w ork in g, a n d l iv in g.” W hat m ad e t h ese d iv ers e i n div id uals Am eric an s? N ot s im ply t h eir r e sid en cy “ w ith in … c erta in b oundarie s y ou fin d o n a m ap .” N o, t h e a rtic le c o nclu ded , t h ey w ere A m eric an s b ecau se t h ey co uld w ors h ip , a sso cia te , s p eak , r e ad , a n d t r a v el a s t h ey w is h ed ; b ecau se t h ey co uld j o in p olitic al p artie s a n d v ote f re ely f o r a g overn m en t “ w hose a u th ority is l im ite d ”; b ecau se t h ey c o uld c h oose t h eir o w n o ccu patio n, s p en d a n d s a v e earn in gs a s t h ey w is h ed , a n d o w n a n d u se p ro perty w ith a m in im um o f outs id e i n te rfe re n ce. “ T o b e a n A m eric an ,” t h e a rtic le d ecla re d , w as t o b e “ a fre e m em ber o f o ne o f t h e f re est s o cie tie s o n e arth ,” a “ civ iliz atio n” b uilt o n “th e f u ndam en ta l p rin cip le … t h at t h e i n div id ual m atte rs .” 95 The N AM ’s e m phasis o n i n div id ual f re ed om — lik e i ts e m phasis o n t h e dan gers o f a n o verw een in g g overn m en t a n d t h e n eed f o r “ te am work a m ong all g ro ups” i n A m eric an s o cie ty — co ntr a ste d s h arp ly w ith t h e v is io n o f Am eric an is m o ffe re d b y b oth t h e C IO a n d N ew D eale rs . A lth ough n eith er t h e CIO n or F D R n eg le cte d i n div id ual f re ed om , b oth p ut t h eir f a ith i n majo rita ria n d em ocra cy a n d s a w t h e g re ate st d an ger t o A m eric a c o m in g f ro m a s e lf is h a n d p ow erfu l m in ority . I n dustr ia l u nio nis ts a ls o h ig hlig hte d t h e fu ndam en ta l in eq uality b etw een l a b or a n d c ap ita l, a n i n eq uality t h at w ould need t o b e r e d re sse d b efo re t r u e “ te am work ” w ould b e p ossib le . S om e o f t h e NAM ’s a rg um en ts , h ow ev er, r e so nate d w ith a d if fe re n t g ro up— th e m otle y co lle ctio n o f “ in te rg ro up” a ctiv is ts w ho i n t h e y ears i m med ia te ly p re ced in g World W ar I I s o ught t o d ep lo y a n A m eric an W ay t o d efu se r is in g t e n sio ns am ong A m eric a’s e th nic , r e lig io us, a n d r a cia l s u bgro ups. CH APT ER 3 In S ea rch o f C om mon G ro u nd O n J a n uary 2 1, 1 939, G eo rg e K au fm an a n d M oss H art’ s p la y , The A m eric a n W ay , c o m men ced a n e ig ht- m onth r u n a t N ew Y ork ’s R ock efe lle r C en te r. T he t w o m en w ere b est k now n f o r t h eir l ig hth earte d c o m ed ie s, b ut t h is w as a m elo dra m atic e p ic .

The A m eric a n W ay t o ld t h e l if e s to ry o f M artin G unth er, a f ic tio nal G erm an c ab in etm ak er w ho i m mig ra te d t o M ap le to n, O hio , b ecau se h e w as d ete rm in ed t o s e e h is c h ild re n g ro w u p i n a f re e c o untr y . M artin l e arn ed E nglis h a n d b eg an a b re ath ta k in g r is e u p t h e t o w n’s e co nom ic a n d s o cia l l a d der, t r a n sfo rm in g h is s m all s h op i n to a f lo uris h in g f a cto ry . H is f a ith i n h is a d opte d c o untr y , h ow ev er, t r a n sc en ded e co nom ic s u ccess: e v en t h e l o ss o f h is f a cto ry d urin g t h e D ep re ssio n d id n ot s h ak e M artin ’s f a ith i n t h e A m eric an W ay ( fig ure 3 .1 ).

Martin ’s g ra n dso n, K arl, w as l e ss c o nvin ced o f h is c o untr y ’s m erits .

E m bitte re d b y h is f a m ily ’s f in an cia l l o sse s a n d h is o w n i n ab ility t o f in d a j o b, K arl w as r e cru ite d b y a n u nnam ed o rg an iz atio n c le arly m odele d o n t h e G erm an A m eric an B und. W hen M artin t r ie d t o d is su ad e h is g ra n dso n f ro m j o in in g t h e g ro up, B undis ts b eat t h e e ld erly i m mig ra n t t o d eath . T his v io le n t a ct f in ally c o nverte d h is m ourn in g g ra n dso n, a n d i n t h e p la y ’s f in al m om en ts , M artin w as g iv en a h ero ’s f u nera l. E ulo giz ed a s a t r u e A m eric an , h e w as h aile d a s a m an w ho “ liv ed i n t o le ra n ce a n d i n p eace a m ong h is n eig hbors ” a n d w ho d ie d f ig htin g f o r t h e f re ed om “ w hic h h e f e lt g av e m ean in g t o l if e .” 1 Kau fm an a n d H art’ s p la y m ig ht h av e g iv en s o m e s o la ce t o t h e b usin essm en c lu ste re d a ro und t h e N AM ; a fte r a ll, i ts h ero w as a f a cto ry o w ner w ho w as b elo ved b y h is n eig hbors a n d w hose l if e s to ry o ffe re d p ers o nal p ro of o f t h e a b ility o f A m eric an s t o t r a n sc en d c la ss b oundarie s. T he p la y ’s p rin cip al c o ntr ib utio n t o t h e d ecad e’s d is c u ssio n o f A m eric a’s i d en tity a n d c o re v alu es, how ev er, l a y e ls e w here . A lth ough t h e p la y n ev er m en tio ned H itle r o r t h e B undis ts b y n am e, i ts m essa g e w as c le ar: t h e “ A m eric an W ay ” was t h e w ay o f i m mig ra n ts w ho h ad f lo uris h ed u nder f re ed om a n d l e arn ed t o liv e t o geth er b y r e sp ectin g t h eir f e llo w m an . I f a G erm an -A m eric an C hris tia n co uld b e m urd ere d b y B undis ts f o r h is b elie f i n t o le ra n ce a n d i n div id ual fre ed om , t h en N azis m a n d t h e b ig otr y i t e m bodie d w ere a t h re at, n ot o nly t o Je w s, b ut t o a ll w ho s u bsc rib ed t o t h e A m eric an W ay .

Fig u re 3 .1 .

T his s c en e o f E llis I s la n d a p peare d i n G eo rg e K au fm an a n d M oss Hart’ s 1 939 m elo dra m a The A m eric a n W ay . T he p la y s u ggeste d t h at t h e “A m eric an w ay ” w as t h e w ay o f i m mig ra n ts w ho h ad f lo uris h ed u nder fre ed om a n d l e arn ed t o l iv e t o geth er b y r e sp ectin g t h eir f e llo w m an ( B illy Rose T heatr e D iv is io n, T he N ew Y ork P ublic L ib ra ry f o r t h e P erfo rm in g Arts , A sto r, L en ox a n d T ild en F oundatio ns).

As K au fm an a n d H art’ s p la y s u ggeste d , e ffo rts t o d efin e a u nif y in g Am eric an W ay i n t h e y ears i m med ia te ly p re ced in g U .S . e n tr y i n to W orld War I I w ere n ot l im ite d t o d is c u ssio ns o f t h e n atio n’s p olitic al e co nom y. I n th e l a te 1 930s a n d e arly 1 940s, a g ro w in g n um ber o f o pin io n m old ers a rg ued th at a d is tin ctiv e— in deed d efin in g— fe atu re o f A m eric an l if e w as t h e a b ility of d iv ers e i n div id uals t o l iv e t o geth er h arm onio usly . C astin g A m eric a a s t h e arc h ety pe o f “ u nity w ith in d iv ers ity ,” i n te lle ctu als , f e d era l o ffic ia ls , a n d a n arra y o f c iv ic g ro ups e m phasiz ed t h e n atio n’s d iv ers e d em ogra p hic s tr a n ds, portr a y ed “in te rg ro up” h ostility a s a n a lie n i m port, a n d s u ggeste d t h at a deep ly r o ote d i d eo lo gic al c o nse n su s m ad e o th er f o rm s o f p lu ra lis m p ossib le . Effo rts t o h ig hlig ht A m eric a’s d em ogra p hic d iv ers ity , a s w ell a s t o re co ncile t h at d iv ers ity w ith t h e n eed f o r n atio nal u nity , s tr e tc h ed b ack a t le ast t o 1 782 w hen J . H ecto r S t. J o hn d e C rè v eco eu r p en ned h is f a m ous Lette rs f r o m a n A m eric a n F arm er . I n deed , A m eric a’s “ v arie ty ” h ad o fte n been s e en a s “ an i n vio la b le s ig n o f n atio nal e x cep tio nalis m .” 2 S till, t h e s c o pe an d s c ale o f e ffo rts t o c h am pio n c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m — an d t o c u rb c u ltu ra l pre ju dic e— in t h e l a te 1 930s w ere s ta rtlin g, p artic u la rly i n l ig ht o f A m eric a’s re cen t p ast. W ell i n to t h e 1 920s, p ro m in en t i n te lle ctu als a n d o th er p ow erfu l elite s h ad w arn ed a g ain st t h e “ m ongre liz atio n” o f t h e n atio n, v oic in g a f e ar th at f u ele d t h e e u gen ic s m ovem en t, i m mig ra tio n r e str ic tio ns, a n d a r e su rg en t Ku K lu x K la n . B y t h e l a te 1 930s, t h e t e n or o f t h is n atio nal d is c u ssio n h ad sh if te d d ra m atic ally . I n te lle ctu als a n d c iv ic l e ad ers n ow h aile d A m eric a’s div ers e e th nic , r e lig io us, a n d s o m etim es r a cia l s tr a in s a n d a rg ued t h at t h e U.S . h ad d ev elo ped “ th e h ig hest, m ost m atu re c o ncep t o f h um an r e la tio ns y et dev is e d .” 3 E xis tin g o rg an iz atio ns s u ch a s t h e C om mon C ouncil f o r A m eric an Unity ( C CA U) a n d t h e N atio nal C onfe re n ce o f C hris tia n s a n d J e w s ( N CCJ) re d ouble d t h eir e ffo rts t o p ro m ote i n te rg ro up h arm ony a s k ey a sp ects o f t h e Am eric an W ay . N ew o rg an iz atio ns— th e C ouncil A gain st I n to le ra n ce, t h e Com mitte e f o r N atio nal M ora le , t h e C ouncil f o r D em ocra cy , t h e I n stitu te f o r Am eric an D em ocra cy , a n d m an y o th ers — sp ra n g u p d urin g t h ese y ears t o pro m ote s im ila r a g en das.

4 A c o m ple x a rra y o f d ev elo pm en ts a b ro ad a n d a t h om e s p urre d t h ese effo rts t o b oth s p otlig ht a n d t a m e A m eric an d iv ers ity . D urin g t h e l a te 1 930s, U.S . p olitic al o bse rv ers f re q uen tly j u xta p ose d t h e A m eric an W ay w ith “to ta lita ria n is m ,” a n ew ly c o in ed t e rm u se d t o c ap tu re t h e s h are d e v ils o f fa sc is m a n d c o m munis m . S in ce a c o erc ed a n d h om ogen eo us u nity w as o ne o f th ese e v ils , t h e t o ta lita ria n t h re at m ad e a ccep ta n ce o f d iv ers ity a lm ost a defin itio n o f d em ocra cy .

5 C astin g A m eric an v arie ty i n e th nocu ltu ra l t e rm s pro ved p olitic ally e asie r t h an i t h ad b een i n t h e p ast, i n p art b ecau se o f t h e cla m p-d ow n o n i m mig ra tio n t o t h e U .S . i n t h e 1 920s. T he r e str ic tiv e le g is la tio n o f t h at d ecad e e ffe ctiv ely t o ok i m mig ra tio n o ff t h e t a b le a s a su bje ct o f n atio nal d eb ate a n d h aste n ed t h e a ccu ltu ra tio n o f e th nic co m munitie s. I n s o d oin g, i t m ad e d ecla ra tio ns o f c u ltu ra l d iv ers ity l e ss th re ate n in g.

If g lo bal d ev elo pm en ts t h us p ro m pte d m an y A m eric an s t o e q uate dem ocra cy w ith v arie ty , t h ey a ls o u nders c o re d t h e d an gers o f u nch eck ed dif fe re n ce. I n te lle ctu als a n d c iv ic l e ad ers b elie v ed t h at w arrin g f a ctio ns h ad underm in ed n atio nal m ora le i n G erm an y a n d F ra n ce, p av in g t h e w ay f o r t h e politic al a n d m ilita ry t r iu m ph o f f a sc is ts . A t t h e s a m e t im e, U .S . n ew sp ap ers , mag azin es, an d n ew sre els w ere f ille d w ith s to rie s a b out m urd ero us c la sh es both b etw een a n d w ith in e th nic a n d n atio nal g ro ups. I n 1 937, f o r i n sta n ce, t h e New Y ork T im es o pen ed t h e y ear w ith r e p orts o f v ir u le n t a n ti- S em itis m i n Germ an y a n d E aste rn E uro pe t h at w as t h re ate n in g t o t u rn “ th e r e cu rre n t Je w is h t r a g ed y” i n t h at p art o f t h e w orld i n to “ a f in al d is a ste r o f t r u ly h is to ric mag nitu de.” I n A pril, t h e p ap er r e p orte d t h e t e rro r b om bin g o f t h e a n cie n t Basq ue c ity o f G uern ic a b y G erm an b om bers a llie d w ith S pan is h n atio nalis ts ; an d i n S ep te m ber, i t t o ld r e ad ers t h at S ovie t p urg es h ad m ad e t h e p re v io us tw elv e m onth s “ th e b lo odie st s in ce t h e e arly y ears o f t h e B ols h ev is t [ s ic ] re v olu tio n.” D ecem ber b ro ught n ew s o f t h e J a p an ese “ ra p e” o f t h e Natio nalis t C hin ese c ap ita l a t N an kin g— a t h re e-w eek o rg y o f r a p e, t o rtu re , beh ead in g, b ay onetin g, a n d m ach in e-g unnin g t h at l e ft a s m an y a s t h re e hundre d t h ousa n d C hin ese d ead .

6 A nd t h at w as o nly 1 937.

In t h is c o nte x t, t h e U .S . l o oked t o m an y A m eric an a n d f o re ig n o bse rv ers lik e a c o sm opolita n h av en ; t h e g en era lly i n clu siv e e th os o f t h e N ew D eal only s tr e n gth en ed t h is p erc ep tio n.

7 A t t h e s a m e t im e, m an y o f t h ose w ho haile d A m eric an p lu ra lis m a n d t o le ra n ce w ere d riv en i n p art b y f e ar— fe ar th at t h e U .S ., t o o, m ig ht s u ccu m b t o t h e h atr e d s r a v ag in g o th er l a n ds.

Am eric a h ad a l o ng h is to ry o f n ativ is m , r a cis m , a n d r e lig io us i n to le ra n ce, a n d th e D ep re ssio n o nly f u ele d s u ch s e n tim en ts i n s o m e q uarte rs . M ore o ver, ris in g t e n sio ns b etw een n atio ns i n E uro pe a n d A sia h ad t r ig gere d w hat t h e im mig ra n t w rite r L ouis A dam ic c alle d a “ p ow erfu l b ack w ash o f g ro up fe elin gs o r n atio nal e m otio ns” w ith in A m eric a’s e th nic c o m munitie s. “ T he cle av ag es a m ong t h e v ario us g ro ups [ in A m eric a] a re d eep en in g,” A dam ic warn ed o m in ously i n a s p eech h e d eliv ere d w id ely i n 1 939 a n d 1 940.

“G ro ups a re p ullin g a p art i n to v ario us c o rn ers , a w ay f ro m o ne a n oth er.” 8 Such f e ars m ean t t h at n early a ll o f t h ose w ho e m phasiz ed A m eric a’s plu ra lis t m ak eu p i n t h e y ears i m med ia te ly p re ced in g W orld W ar I I y oked div ers ity t ig htly t o c o nse n su s.

9 B y e m phasiz in g t h e n atio n’s d em ogra p hic varie ty , t h ey s o ught t o d is tin guis h t h e U .S . f ro m t o ta lita ria n “ o th ers ” a n d t o mak e e th nic , r e lig io us, a n d r a cia l m in oritie s f e el a t h om e i n t h e n atio n. B y co nvin cin g A m eric an s o f d iv ers e b ack gro unds t h at t h ey s h are d f u ndam en ta l belie fs , o pin io n m old ers s o ught t o a v ert c h ao s a n d i n to le ra n ce a n d t o str e n gth en n atio nal m ora le . B y d ecla rin g t h at A m eric a w as a n atio n o f d iv ers e in div id uals b ound b y c o nse n su s, t h ey s o ught t o c all s u ch a n atio n i n to b ein g an d t o p ro vid e a n e x am ple f o r t h e w orld .

The f a ct t h at v arie d i n div id uals a n d g ro ups c ast A m eric a a s a d iv ers e natio n u nif ie d b y c erta in c o re b elie fs s h ould n ot o bsc u re k ey d if fe re n ces i n th e w ay t h ey r e ck oned b oth p lu ra lis m a n d c o nse n su s. S om e c ast A m eric a a s a “n atio n o f i m mig ra n ts ” — or m ore b ro ad ly a “ n atio n o f n atio ns” — unite d b y th e s e cu la r E nlig hte n m en t v alu es e n sh rin ed i n t h e D ecla ra tio n o f In dep en den ce a n d t h e U .S . C onstitu tio n. M em bers o f t h e b urg eo nin g in te rfa ith m ovem en t, h ow ev er, e m phasiz ed r e lig io us r a th er t h an e th nic div ers ity a n d s a w i n s h are d s p ir itu al b elie fs t h e s o urc e o f t h e n atio n’s co m mon g ro und. S om e a n tir a cis t s o cia l s c ie n tis ts , n ota b ly i n clu din g Marg are t M ead , e m phasiz ed A m eric an s’ i m mig ra n t past b ut f o cu se d o n t h e assim ila tin g p ow er o f A m eric an c u ltu re . R esu rre ctin g t h e n otio n o f “ n atio nal ch ara cte r,” t h ey s o ught t o r e co ncile t h e t e n sio n b etw een u nity a n d d iv ers ity by s h ow in g t h at A m eric an s o f d iv ers e o rig in s i n te rn aliz ed c erta in k ey v alu es.

Such d if fe re n ces m atte re d . A n A m eric a p ic tu re d a s a “ n atio n o f im mig ra n ts ” i m plic itly l e ft o ut b oth A m eric an I n dia n s a n d b la ck s. E ven t h ose who a d vocate d t h e b ro ad er “ n atio n o f n atio ns” f o rm ula tio n o fte n f a ile d t o re co gniz e t h e u niq ue h is to ry a n d c h alle n ges c o nfro nte d b y b la ck A m eric an s.

Portr a y als o f t h e n atio n a s “ P ro te sta n t- C ath olic -J e w is h ” s id este p ped i s su es o f eth nic a n d r a cia l d iv ers ity a n d e x clu ded a th eis ts , s e cu la r h um an is ts , a n d oth ers w ho d id n ot s u bsc rib e t o o ne o f t h ese t h re e m ajo r f a ith s. M arg are t Mead s a w p ro lo nged i n to le ra n ce a s i m ped in g t h e d ev elo pm en t o f a s h are d “n atio nal c h ara cte r.” T hus, h er v is io n o f t h e n atio n e x clu ded b oth p erp etr a to rs an d v ic tim s o f r a cis m .

Bey ond a ll t h is l o om ed l a rg er q uestio ns o f c o m ity a n d j u stic e. I f a fu ndam en ta l a g re em en t o n v alu es— an i d eo lo gic al c o nse n su s— was a necessa ry p re co nditio n f o r h arm oniz in g d iv ers e g ro ups, t h en w hat w as t h e co nte n t o f t h at c o nse n su s a n d w ho c o ntr o lle d i ts b oundarie s? S hould “to le ra n ce” ( o r e v en “ accep ta n ce”) e x te n d t o c o nse rv ativ e b usin essm en ? T o co m munis ts a n d o th ers o n t h e l e ft? T o b ig ots ? T o t h ose w ho c o ndem ned ra cia l b ig otr y b ut m ad e n o m ove t o d is m an tle s e g re g atio n? I n s h ort, d id t h e Am eric an W ay m ean g re ate r eq uality f o r p eo ple o f a ll b ack gro unds o r s im ply gre ate r civ ility w ith in t h e c o nte x t o f t h e e co nom ic a n d s o cia l s ta tu s q uo? A s Am eric an s d eb ate d t h ese i s su es i n t h e l a te 1 930s a n d e arly 1 940s, t h e para m ete rs o f d iv ers ity a n d c o nse n su s— th e l im its o f u nity a n d i n clu sio n— becam e c o nte ste d t e rra in .

Lou is A dam ic a n d t h e “ N atio n o f Natio n s” A ppro ach In t h e f a ll o f 1 939 a n d t h e s p rin g o f 1 940, t h e S lo ven ia n -A m eric an j o urn alis t Louis A dam ic t o ure d t h e U .S ., l e ctu rin g t o s o m e o ne h undre d a u die n ces ab out h is n ew p ro je ct, a m assiv e a tte m pt t o r e w rite A m eric an h is to ry i n a w ay th at w ould i n te g ra te “ P ly m outh R ock a n d E llis I s la n d.” E ven a h undre d y ears earlie r, he a rg ued , “ th e p eo ple o f t h is c o untr y w ere l a rg ely d eriv ed f ro m Brita in ” a n d w ere f o r t h e m ost p art A nglo -S ax on a n d P ro te sta n t. ( A dam ic ack now le d ged t h e p re se n ce o f “ g re at n um bers ” o f N eg ro es a n d I n dia n s b ut arg ued t h at f o r v ario us r e aso ns b oth g ro ups w ere s e en a s “ o uts id e t h e pro cesse s o f A m eric an c u ltu re .” ) A c en tu ry o f i m mig ra tio n h ad c h an ged t h at pic tu re . “ In t h e l a st h undre d y ears , 3 8,0 00,0 00 i m mig ra n ts c am e o ver; 24,0 00,0 00 i n t h e l a st f if ty y ears ,” A dam ic w ro te . “ A nd t h e m ajo rity o f t h em were n on-A nglo -S ax ons a n d n on-P ro te sta n ts , a n d w ere n ot v ery c lo se ly atta ch ed t o t h e a ttitu de t o l if e c alle d P urita n is m .” T his s h if t h ad n ot b een re fle cte d i n t h e n atio n’s h is to ric al n arra tiv e o r i ts s e n se o f n atio nal i d en tity .

Adam ic p ro pose d t o c h an ge t h at. H e w ould w rite “ an i n te lle ctu al- e m otio nal sy nth esis o f o ld a n d n ew A m eric a; o f t h e M ay flo w er a n d t h e s te era g e; o f t h e New E ngla n d w ild ern ess a n d t h e s o cia l- e co nom ic j u ngle o f t h e c ity s lu m s an d t h e f a cto ry s y ste m ; o f t h e L ib erty B ell a n d t h e S ta tu e o f L ib erty .” “ T he old A m eric an D re am n eed s t o b e i n te rla ced w ith t h e i m mig ra n ts ’ e m otio ns a s th ey s a w t h e S ta tu e o f L ib erty ,” h e d ecla re d . “ T he t w o m ust b e m ad e i n to o ne sto ry .” 10 Adam ic w as a l o gic al i n div id ual t o u nderta k e s u ch a p ro je ct. H e h ad em ig ra te d f ro m t h e A ustr o -H ungaria n E m pir e a t t h e a g e o f f if te en , l e arn ed Englis h i n N ew Y ork C ity n ig ht s c h ools , a n d b eco m e a n A m eric an c itiz en while s e rv in g i n t h e a rm y d urin g W orld W ar I . D urin g t h e 1 920s a n d e arly 1930s, h e h ad w ork ed a s a W est C oast j o urn alis t, b efrie n din g s u ch a ctiv is t write rs a s C are y M cW illia m s a n d U pto n S in cla ir a n d e sta b lis h in g h is re p uta tio n a s a r a d ic al d em ocra t w hose a lle g ia n ce l a y w ith t h e l e ft w in g o f th e N ew D eal c o alitio n. A dam ic ’s e arly w ork f o cu se d o n c la ss a n d l a b or is su es, b ut h is t h ir d b ook, a b est- s e llin g a cco unt o f h is r e tu rn t o S lo ven ia a fte r a t w en ty -y ear a b se n ce, s ig nale d a s h if t i n e m phasis . I n t h e m id -1 930s, Adam ic b eg an p ublic iz in g h is “ P ly m outh R ock a n d E llis I s la n d” p ro je ct th ro ugh l e ctu re t o urs a n d a l e n gth y q uestio nnair e d ubbed t h e “ B ro ad sid e.” H e so lic ite d l e tte rs f ro m i m mig ra n ts , t h eir c h ild re n , a n d “ O ld S to ck ” A m eric an s ab out t h eir e x perie n ces i n a n d v ie w s o f t h e U .S . D ra w in g o n t h e t h ousa n ds o f re sp onse s h e r e ceiv ed , A dam ic p ublis h ed f o ur w id ely a ccla im ed b ooks betw een 1 940 a n d 1 945 t h at b ecam e k now n c o lle ctiv ely a s t h e “ N atio n o f Natio ns” s e rie s.

11 Adam ic w as p erh ap s t h e m ost v is ib le s p okesp ers o n f o r a v is io n o f Am eric a t h at b eg an t o g ain w id e a ccep ta n ce i n t h e l a te 1 930s— a v is io n t h at cast t h e U .S . a s a “ n atio n o f i m mig ra n ts ” o r, i n t h e w ord s t h at A dam ic borro w ed f ro m W alt W hitm an , a s a “ n atio n o f n atio ns.” D urin g t h ese y ears , pio neers o f i n te rc u ltu ra l e d ucatio n d is tr ib ute d m ate ria ls o n d iv ers e e th nic a n d ra cia l g ro ups t o t e ach ers a cro ss t h e c o untr y i n a n a tte m pt t o p ro m ote c ro ss- cu ltu ra l u nders ta n din g.

12 T he S ta tu e o f L ib erty , w hic h f o r d ecad es h ad b een se en a s a n em ble m o f U .S . i n dep en den ce a n d “ F ra n co -A m eric an f rie n dsh ip ,” was r e cast a s a b eaco n “ to t h e h uddle d m asse s o f t h e O ld W orld .” 13 T he Ju stic e D ep artm en t l a u nch ed “ I A m a n A m eric an D ay ” t o h onor n ew ly natu ra liz ed c itiz en s, r e in fo rc in g i ts m essa g e o f u nity a n d d iv ers ity w ith b oth a ra d io p ro gra m a n d a b ook o f t h e s a m e n am e.

14 M ean w hile , “ B alla d f o r Am eric an s,” a r o usin g c an ta ta c o m pose d f o r a F ed era l T heatr e P ro je ct r e v ue, cele b ra te d “ an I ris h , N eg ro , J e w is h , I ta lia n , F re n ch a n d E nglis h , S pan is h , Russia n , C hin ese , P olis h , S co tc h , H ungaria n , L itv ak , S w ed is h , F in nis h , Can ad ia n , G re ek a n d T urk , a n d C zech a n d d ouble C zech A m eric an .” W ritte n by J o hn L a T ouch e a n d E arl R obin so n, b oth m em bers o f w hat M ic h ael Den nin g h as c alle d t h e “ C ultu ra l F ro nt,” t h e s o ng w as p opula riz ed i n l a te 1939 b y t h e g re at b la ck b ass P au l R obeso n. B y 1 940, M GM h ad s n ap ped i t up f o r a m ovie , s c h ool c h oru se s w ere p erfo rm in g i t a cro ss t h e c o untr y , a n d both t h e R ep ublic an a n d C om munis t p artie s u se d i t i n t h eir n atio nal co nven tio ns.

15 “B alla d f o r A m eric an s” a ls o b ecam e a t h em e s o ng o f t h e “ A m eric an Com mon” a t t h e 1 940 N ew Y ork W orld ’s F air .

16 W hen t h e S ovie t U nio n with dre w f ro m t h e f a ir i n t h e w ak e o f t h e N azi- S ovie t p act, e x positio n desig ners d ecid ed t o u se t h e n ew ly o pen ed s p ace t o “ d em onstr a te a n i d ea dia m etr ic ally o ppose d t o t h e p ro pag an da o f t h e t o ta lita ria n s ta te s,… [n am ely ] th at A m eric a’s g re atn ess s p rin gs f ro m t h e f re e a n d d em ocra tic i n stitu tio ns th at a llo w h er i n div id ual c itiz en s a n d c u ltu ra l g ro ups t o p urs u e h ap pin ess i n th eir o w n d if fe rin g w ay s.” F air o rg an iz ers a llo w ed d if fe re n t e th nic g ro ups t o ta k e o ver t h e A m eric an C om mon f o r a n e v en in g, a d ay o r a w eek , a n d t o u se th e b an d s h ell, a u dito riu m , a n d m ark etp la ce t o “ g iv e i ts o w n d is tin ctiv e ‘c o untr y f a ir ’ w ith i ts o w n o ld -w orld b azaars a n d f ie sta s.” A s i ts n am e su ggeste d , h ow ev er, t h e A m eric an C om mon u ltim ate ly h aile d d iv ers ity i n t h e co nte x t o f n atio nal u nity . T he S ta rs a n d S tr ip es t o w ere d o ver t h e C om mon o n a “ L ib erty P ole ,” a n d e ach d ay e n ded w ith w hat o rg an iz ers c alle d a “ b rillia n t patr io tic g ath erin g.” “ H ere ,” o ne p ublic ity r e le ase i n to ned , “ w ill b e A m eric a in i ts r ic h est m in gle d t r a d itio ns. H ere w ill b e t h e m ost d ir e ct a n d p ow erfu l an sw er t o t h e d ic ta to rs w ho w ould m old a ll p eo ple s i n to t h e s a m e r ig id patte rn .” 17 As t h is q uote s u ggests , t h e c ele b ra tio n o f A m eric a’s d iv ers e e th nic s tr a in s in t h e l a te 1 930s a n d e arly 1 940s i n p art r e fle cte d s im ply a n ew t w is t o n a n old t r a d itio n: i n vokin g A m eric an d iv ers ity t o a rg ue f o r n atio nal ex cep tio nalis m . M an y l ib era l i n te lle ctu als , g overn m en t o ffic ia ls , a n d c iv ic le ad ers a ls o b elie v ed t h at a m ore i n clu siv e v is io n o f t h e n atio n w as e sse n tia l to c em en tin g n atio nal u nity a n d p ro te ctin g p olitic al d em ocra cy d urin g a t im e of i n te rn atio nal p eril. A dam ic a n d o th ers w orrie d a b out t h e p hysic al a n d psy ch ic e ffe ct o f i n te rg ro up h ostility o n t h e i n div id uals w ho w ere i ts t a rg ets .

“N ot a f e w o ld sto ck A m eric an s g o o n b elie v in g t h ey a re o n t h e i n sid e t r a ck of a p atte rn o f c iv iliz atio n a n d c u ltu re w hic h w as f ix ed l o ng a g o, o nce a n d f o r all,” A dam ic d ecla re d . T his O ld S to ck p re ju dic e, a g gra v ate d b y t h e e co nom ic pre ssu re s o f t h e D ep re ssio n, k ep t A m eric a’s n ew est a rriv als f ro m i d en tif y in g with A m eric a, h e b elie v ed : “ W hen t h ey s a y ‘ A m eric an s,’ t h ey d on’t m ean th em se lv es.” S uch p re ju dic e o nly r e in fo rc ed O ld W orld l o yaltie s, ex acerb atin g t e n sio ns a m ong e th nic g ro ups t h at h ad e m erg ed a s a r e su lt o f hostilitie s a b ro ad . B oth o ld a n d n ew A m eric an s, A dam ic w arn ed , w ere “b eco m in g u nhooked f ro m t h e c o untr y ’s e x pan siv e a n d c re ativ e i m puls e s, fro m t h e A m eric an D re am .” 18 As A dam ic s e t a b out a d dre ssin g t h ese p ro ble m s, h is p ro je ct q uic k ly f o und in stitu tio nal s u pport. T he F ore ig n L an guag e I n fo rm atio n S erv ic e ( F L IS ) h ad em erg ed f ro m t h e f e d era l C om mitte e o n P ublic I n fo rm atio n d urin g W orld War I a n d h ad w ork ed f o r m ore t h an t w o d ecad es t o s o lv e t h e “ im mig ra n t pro ble m ” b y “ ed ucatin g a w ay t h e m is u nders ta n din g a n d i g nora n ce” t h at pla g ued b oth t h e f o re ig n a n d n ativ e b orn ; i t d id t h is l a rg ely b y d is p en sin g tr a n sla te d b ulle tin s t o t h e f o re ig n-la n guag e p re ss. I n t h e l a te 1 920s, t h e F L IS had f a lle n o n h ard t im es, b ut t h e r is e o f H itle r a n d g ro w in g t e n sio ns i n Euro pe d urin g t h e f o llo w in g d ecad e r e su sc ita te d t h e o rg an iz atio n. T he F L IS ’s dir e cto r, R ead L ew is , w as i n tr ig ued w ith A dam ic ’s n otio n t h at a m ore ex pan siv e u nders ta n din g o f A m eric a’s p ast a n d s h are d v alu es c o uld i m pro ve th e m ora le o f s e co nd-g en era tio n A m eric an s a n d d efu se r e lig io us a n d e th nic te n sio ns l ik e t h ose h e s a w e m an atin g f ro m E uro pe. I n t h e m id -1 930s h e re cru ite d t h e y oung w rite r t o h elp r e o rg an iz e t h e a g en cy a n d b ro ad en i ts man date . T he F L IS a n d A dam ic ’s “ N atio n o f N atio ns” p ro je ct a ls o g arn ere d sig nif ic an t f in an cia l s u pport f ro m t h e C arn eg ie C orp ora tio n. E nerg iz ed b y a new s e n se o f p urp ose , A dam ic a n d L ew is r e n am ed t h e o rg an iz atio n t h e Com mon C ouncil f o r A m eric an U nity ( C CA U) a n d l a u nch ed a “ little mag azin e” t h ey e n title d Com mon G ro und . O n t h e e v e o f W orld W ar I I, t h ey ste ere d t h e C CA U i n to t h e f o re fro nt o f a h ost o f l ib era l g ro ups t h at p re ach ed natio nal i d eo lo gic al u nity a s a n a n tid ote t o d eep en in g r e lig io us, r a cia l, a n d eth nic d iv id es.

19 Adam ic , t h e C CA U, a n d t h eir a llie s o n t h e l ib era l l e ft c ritic iz ed t h e n otio n of a h om ogen ous a n d s ta tic A m eric an c u ltu re a n d i n ste ad e n co ura g ed ap pre cia tio n f o r t h e c o ntr ib utio ns o f e th nic a n d r a cia l g ro ups t o A m eric a’s “cu ltu re i n t h e m ak in g.” A t t h e s a m e t im e, t h ey r e je cte d t h e e th nocu ltu ra l esse n tia lis m e m bra ced b y t h e f ir s t a d vocate o f c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m , H ora ce Kalle n . W ritin g i n a n e ra o f m ass i m mig ra tio n a n d r e p re ssiv e Am eric an iz atio n c am paig ns, K alle n s a w e th nic g ro up c o nsc io usn ess a s a bulw ark a g ain st d is c rim in atio n. T hus, h e e n vis io ned t h e U .S . a s a l o ose ly lin ked f e d era tio n o f r e la tiv ely s ta b le e th nic n atio nalitie s.

20 T w o d ecad es l a te r, in t h e m id st o f t h e gre at i m mig ra tio n i n te rre g num , t h e e d ges o f A m eric a’s eth nic e n cla v es h ad b eg un t o b lu r. M ore i m porta n t, A dam ic , t h e C CA U, a n d man y o th er l ib era ls a n d l e ftis ts h ad c o m e t o s e e e th nocu ltu ra l i d en tity a s a double -e d ged s w ord : i t c o uld e n ric h A m eric an c u ltu re a n d p ro vid e a te m pora ry s o urc e o f s u pport f o r i n div id uals a s t h ey m erg ed “ o rg an ic ally ” i n to th e n atio n, b ut r ig id g ro up l o yaltie s c o uld a ls o f a n t h e f la m es o f p re ju dic e t h at were r a v ag in g E uro pe a n d t h re ate n in g t h e U .S . a s w ell.

21 In f a ct, A dam ic a rg ued t h at t h e U .S . s h ould “ in vite d iv ers ity ” p re cis e ly becau se t h is w as t h e b est w ay t o f re e in div id uals f ro m t h e v ic e-lik e g rip o f eth nic p asts a n d “ to p ro duce u nity i n a d em ocra tic c o untr y .” S uppre ssio n o f div ers ity , A dam ic a rg ued , w ould t e n d t o m ak e c u ltu ra l g ro ups a sh am ed a n d defe n siv e, d riv in g t h em i n to “ th e c o ncen tr a tio n-c am p-lik e f o re ig n s e ctio ns an d g hetto s a n d r e str ic te d r e sid en tia l d is tr ic ts .” I n vitin g d iv ers ity , b y c o ntr a st, “w ill e n co ura g e m ovem en t a n d d is p ers a l, a t t h e s a m e t im e t h at i t w ill w ork fo r h arm ony a n d f u sio n,” A dam ic w ro te . “ In vitin g d iv ers ity b rin gs o ut t h e basic s a m en ess o f p eo ple , j u st a s t h e o pposite r e su lts o nly i n m ore a n d sh arp er d if fe re n ces.” 22 As t h is f in al l in e s u ggests , t h e “ u nity i n d iv ers ity ” t h at A dam ic h oped t o cre ate r e ste d u ltim ate ly o n h is p ro positio n t h at i n div id ual A m eric an s, whate v er t h eir b ack gro und, s h are d a c o m mon s e t o f v alu es a n d a sp ir a tio ns.

Adam ic a rg ued i n h is o ft- d eliv ere d “ P ly m outh R ock a n d E llis I s la n d” l e ctu re th at b oth “ o ld s to ck ” A m eric an s a n d t h ose w hose a n cesto rs h ad a rriv ed m ore re cen tly h ad b een p ro pelle d b y a “ su rg e t o w ard f re ed om ” a n d t h at b oth su bsc rib ed t o t h e “ A m eric an D re am .” T his d re am w as “ a m atte r m ostly o f fa ith i n t h e h um an i n div id ual a n d t h e c o ncep ts o f l ib erty , f ra te rn ity a n d eq uality , o f g en era l w elf a re a n d d em ocra cy w hic h w ere s ta te d o r e m bodie d i n th e D ecla ra tio n o f I n dep en den ce a n d t h e C onstitu tio n.” 23 T his e m phasis o n sh are d b elie fs a n d v alu es a ls o p erm eate d Com mon G ro und . “ N ev er h as i t been m ore i m porta n t t h at w e b eco m e i n te llig en tly a w are o f t h e g ro und Am eric an s o f v ario us s tr a in s h av e i n c o m mon,” t h e e d ito rs d ecla re d i n t h e open in g i s su e, “ th at w e s in k o ur t a p r o ots d eep i n to i ts r ic h a n d v arie d cu ltu ra l p ast a n d a tta in r a tio nal s ta b ility i n p la ce o f e m otio nal h yste ria ; t h at we r e aw ak en t h e o ld A m eric an D re am , t h e d re am w hic h , i n i ts p ow erfu l em phasis o n t h e f u ndam en ta l w orth a n d d ig nity o f e v ery h um an b ein g, c an b e a b ond o f u nity n o t o ta lita ria n a tta ck c an b re ak .” 24 Thus, f o r a ll t h eir c ele b ra tio n o f e th nocu ltu ra l d iv ers ity , A dam ic a n d t h e CCA U p ut t h eir g re ate st h opes f o r a j u st a n d h arm onio us s o cie ty i n t h e v alu es sh are d b y f re e i n div id uals w ith in t h e c o nte x t o f t h e A m eric an n atio n. T he Am eric an D re am , A dam ic a rg ued , h ad m an y s o urc es, a n d i ts a p peal w as pote n tia lly u niv ers a l. “ A t i ts b est, A m eric an is m i s n obody’s m onopoly , b ut a hap py c o ncen tr a te o f s o m e o f t h e h ig hest a sp ir a tio ns a n d t e n den cie s o f hum an ity a t i ts b est n early e v ery w here a t o ne t im e o r a n oth er,” A dam ic wro te . “ It i s , a m ong o th er t h in gs, a m ovem en t a w ay f ro m p rim itiv e r a cis m , fe ar a n d n atio nalis m , a n d h erd i n stin cts a n d m en ta lity ; a m ovem en t t o w ard fre ed om , c re ativ en ess, a u niv ers a l o r p an -h um an c u ltu re .” 25 S in ce A dam ic belie v ed t h at t h e U .S . b est e x em plif ie d t h ese “ u niv ers a l” E nlig hte n m en t- deriv ed v alu es, h is w ritin g o fte n t o ok o n a c ele b ra to ry t o ne. “ A m eric a … em bodie s t h e h ig hest, m ost m atu re c o ncep t o f h um an r e la tio ns y et d ev is e d ,” he a rg ued i n a 1 943 a rtic le . “ T he u npre ced en te d s c o pe o f t h is e x perim en t i n liv in g t o geth er w ith r e la tiv ely l ittle f ric tio n h as g iv en t h e U nite d S ta te s a uniq ue s ta tu s. T o m illio ns o f t h e o ppre sse d t h ro ughout t h e w orld ‘ A m eric a’ i s a m ag ic n am e; i t i s p ara d is e c o m e t r u e o n e arth .” 26 Such a d ula tio n m ig ht n ot s e em s u rp ris in g c o m in g f ro m s o m e o f t h e m ore co nse rv ativ e v oic es w ho e m bra ced t h e “ n atio n o f i m mig ra n ts ” p ara d ig m .

Adam ic , h ow ev er, o pen ly a d vocate d r a cia l e q uality a n d e co nom ic j u stic e a n d was a s ta lw art o f t h e P opula r F ro nt. H is w ritin gs i n t h e l a te 1 930s a n d e arly 1940s p ut l e ss e m phasis o n c la ss i s su es t h an d id h is e arlie r w ork ; s till h e arg ued i n 1 938 t h at A m eric a’s p hilo so phy o f g overn m en t “ b asic ally a n d gen era lly … h as n o q uarre l w ith t h e i d eal o f C om munis m , w hic h i s esse n tia lly t h e i d eal o f e q uality .” 27 I n t h e s a m e a rtic le i n w hic h h e e x to lle d Am eric a a s a n e arth ly p ara d is e , A dam ic a ck now le d ged t h at “ w e a re s till ham pere d b y p re ju dic e, b y x en ophobia , r a cis m , i s o la tio nis m , a n d ‘ c la ss’ dis tin ctio ns.” 28 I n a p riv ate l e tte r w ritte n i n e arly 1 939, A dam ic n ote d t h at h e was a n A m eric an , “ b ut d is p le ase d w ith m uch i n p re se n t d ay A m eric a a n d passio nate o nly i n m y f e elin g o r i d ea t h at w e h av e a c h an ce h ere t o c re ate a n am azin g c u ltu re a n d c iv iliz atio n.” 29 As t h is f in al q uote s u ggests , A dam ic r e co ncile d h is c o nflic tin g v ie w s b y ad optin g a n a p pro ach o fte n a ttr ib ute d t o G unnar M yrd al’ s f a m ous 1 944 s tu dy of r a ce r e la tio ns, An A m eric a n D ile m ma . L ik e M yrd al a n d m an y o th er lib era ls a n d l e ftis ts i n t h e l a te 1 930s a n d e arly 1 940s, A dam ic d is tin guis h ed —alw ay s p riv ate ly a n d s o m etim es i n h is p ublic s p eech es a n d w ritin gs— betw een t h e A m eric a h e s a w a n d t h e A m eric a t h at w as b eco m in g.

30 “ T he Unite d S ta te s i s n ot a n yth in g f in is h ed a n d p erfe ct, b ut a p ro cess i n n um ero us way s a n d r e sp ects ,” A dam ic a rg ued i n t h e s p eech h e g av e t o a u die n ces aro und t h e c o untr y . “ T he r o ad a h ead i s l o ng, a n d … w e h av e t o b e p atie n t.” Adam ic w as o ptim is tic t h at A m eric an s w ere m ovin g i n t h e r ig ht d ir e ctio n. I n str e ssin g t h eir c o re b elie fs a n d c o m mon v alu es, h ow ev er, h e w as n ot s im ply cele b ra tin g t h e p ath h is f e llo w c itiz en s h ad t a k en ; h e w as t r y in g i n ste ad t o nudge t h em d ow n t h e l o ng r o ad a h ead .

Bla ck A m eric an s g en era lly a p pla u ded s o m e a sp ects o f A dam ic ’s ap pro ach — partic u la rly h is e q uatio n o f A m eric an is m w ith i n div id ual f re ed om an d e q uality a n d h is j u dgm en t t h at A m eric a’s a b ility t o s o lv e “ th e N eg ro questio n” w ould b e t h e “ u ltim ate t e st” o f i ts c iv iliz atio n.

31 S om e, h ow ev er, ch alle n ged h is o ptim is tic t o ne. “ T he N eg ro t e ach er i s e x pecte d t o t e ach Am eric an d em ocra cy j u st a s t h e w hite t e ach er d oes. B ut t h is i d ealis m d oes not e x is t,” a b la ck t e ach er f ro m N orth C aro lin a w ro te i n A pril 1 940 i n re sp onse t o A dam ic ’s q uestio nnair e . “ T he s tu den t s o on d is c o vers t h e f a lla cy of t h is l e sso n. D oors o f o pportu nity a re c lo se d i n h is f a ce. H e i s c ru sh ed i n more w ay s t h an o ne.” C ould t h e p eo ple o f t h e U nite d S ta te s a ffo rd t o c ritic iz e Germ an y “ fo r c ru sh in g t h e J e w s,” t h e t e ach er a sk ed , “ w hen p eo ple i n Am eric a w ill h an g N eg ro es u p t r e es a n d c u t o ff p arts o f t h eir b odie s f o r so uven ir s ? ” 32 What t h is a n d o th er b la ck A m eric an s w ere q uestio nin g w as A dam ic ’s ju dgm en t t h at t h e “ N eg ro P ro ble m ” w as s im ply “ a s e ctio n o f t h e A m eric an Pro ble m w hic h i n volv es a ll o f u s, w hite a n d b la ck , o ld -s to ck w hite f o lk a n d peo ple o f r e cen t- im mig ra n t s to ck s.” 33 A dam ic b elie v ed t h is s o f e rv en tly t h at when t h e w hite p hila n th ro pis t A nso n P help s S to kes a p pro ach ed h im i n 1 935 ab out p la n s b ein g h atc h ed b y W . E . B . D uB ois a n d o th ers f o r a n Encyclo ped ia o f t h e N eg ro , A dam ic b ru sq uely s u ggeste d t h at t h ey a b an don th e i d ea. “ T he N eg ro m illio ns a re p art o f t h e U nite d S ta te s, n ot s e p ara te f ro m it,” h e w ro te S to kes, “ an d I f e el t h at t h ey b elo ng, a lo ng w ith t h e I n dia n s, Yan kees, t h e D utc h , a n d t h e m ore r e cen t i m mig ra n t s tr a in s, i n a c o m ple te ra cia l e n cy clo ped ia , w hic h w ill t e ll u s— th e p eo ple o f t h e U nite d S ta te s: a ll o f us— who w e a re , w hat w e h av e i n u s, e tc .” A dam ic w as n ot a lo ne i n t h is vie w . I n h is d is p ute w ith S to kes a n d D uB ois , A dam ic s u ccessfu lly s o ught t h e su pport o f t h e “ y oung T urk s” a t H ow ard U niv ers ity , i n clu din g e co nom is t Abra m H arris , p olitic al s c ie n tis t R alp h B unch e, a n d s o cio lo gis t E . F ra n klin Fra zie r.

34 T his g ro up o f y oung r a d ic al s c h ola rs f e rv en tly o ppose d w hat t h ey sa w a s t h e “ ra ce c h au vin is m ” o f D uB ois a n d h is a llie s a n d i n ste ad p la ced th eir h opes f o r b la ck a d van ce a n d d im in is h ed r a ce p re ju dic e i n i n te rra cia l unio nis m .

35 Adam ic ’s r e fu sa l t o d is tin guis h s h arp ly b etw een t h e e x perie n ce o f b la ck s an d o th er A m eric an s w as s h are d b y m ost w hite s w ho c ele b ra te d t h e n atio n’s cu ltu ra l d iv ers ity o n t h e e v e o f W orld W ar I I. T hose w ho o rc h estr a te d t h e era ’s p ublic d is p la y s o f c u ltu ra l p lu ra lis m — govern m en t o ffic ia ls , in te rc u ltu ra l e d ucato rs , r a d io s c rip tw rite rs , a n d t h e h ead s o f o rg an iz atio ns l ik e th e C CA U, t h e I n te rn atio nal I n stitu te s, a n d t h e W orld F air ’s “ A m eric an Com mon”— did n ot a lw ay s s h are A dam ic ’s r a d ic al p olitic s, b ut t h ey gen era lly c ele b ra te d t h e h is to ry o f t h e n atio n’s d iv ers e p eo ple s a n d o fte n em phasiz ed t h e “ g if ts ” t h at e ach h ad c o ntr ib ute d t o t h e n atio nal c u ltu re .

36 Bla ck A m eric an s w ere i n se rte d in to t h is p an oply o f p ro gre ss, o fte n w ith out fu ll r e co gnitio n o f t h eir v ery d if fe re n t h is to ry a n d t h e u niq ue c h alle n ges with in A m eric an s o cie ty t h at t h ey c o ntin ued t o f a ce.

The d ile m mas t h is p ose d f o r b la ck A m eric an s w ere c le arly a p pare n t i n Adam ic ’s p ortr a y al o f t h e “ F estiv al o f N atio ns” s ta g ed b y t h e S t. P au l In te rn atio nal I n stitu te i n A pril 1 939. I n p re p ara tio n f o r t h e a n nual e v en t, t h e city a u dito riu m “ w as t r a n sfo rm ed i n to a m ark et s q uare i n a c o m posite O ld World c ity o f a b out t h e y ear 1 850, w hen m odern i m mig ra tio n t o A m eric a beg an i n e arn est.” W ith t h e h elp o f a l o cal a rc h ite ct, t h e e d ges o f t h e v ast sp ace w ere t r a n sfo rm ed t o s u ggest “ th e a rc h ite ctu re o f t w o d ozen E uro pean an d A sia tic c o untr ie s.” P artic ip an ts — in clu din g b la ck s, w ho h ad b een i n vite d fo r t h e f ir s t t im e t o t a k e p art— were s u ppose d t o d on t h e c o stu m es t h at t h eir an cesto rs m ig ht h av e w orn a ro und 1 850.

37 This d elig hte d m ost m em bers o f t h e c ity ’s e th nic c o m munitie s, b ut i t pose d a p ro ble m f o r b la ck s. I n t h e l a te 1 930s, m an y b la ck A m eric an s w ere re lu cta n t t o c all a tte n tio n t o t h eir A fric an h erita g e. S outh ern r a cis ts s u ch a s Mis sis sip pi s e n ato r T heo dore B ilb o w ere a ctiv ely p ro m otin g p la n s t o s h ip Am eric an b la ck s t o A fric a, b y f o rc e i f n ecessa ry .

38 M ore o ver, t h e c o ntin en t’ s re sid en ts w ere r e g ard ed a s i n ep t, c o rru pt, a n d s a v ag e b y n early a ll w hite s a n d ev en m an y p ro gre ssiv e b la ck s. T he a ttitu des o f m an y b la ck A m eric an s s ta rte d to c h an ge i n 1 935, w ith t h e I ta lia n i n vasio n o f E th io pia . S till, t h e e v olu tio n was g ra d ual.

39 W hen t h e C ouncil A gain st I n to le ra n ce i n 1 942 d is tr ib ute d th ousa n ds o f c la ssro om w all m ap s c h artin g A m eric a’s p opula tio n b y c o untr y of o rig in ( e .g . “ Ire la n d,” “ S w ed en ,” e tc .) , b la ck s w ere t h e o nly g ro up n ot id en tif ie d g eo gra p hic ally . O n t h e a d vic e o f W alte r W hite , e x ecu tiv e s e cre ta ry of t h e N atio nal A sso cia tio n f o r t h e A dvan cem en t o f C olo re d P eo ple (N AACP), t h e C ouncil u se d “ N eg ro ” i n ste ad o f “ A fric a.” 40 For b la ck A m eric an s, s u ch c o ncern s c le arly c o m plic ate d t h e r e q uest t h at th ey d on h is to ric ally a p pro pria te a ttir e . I n a n y c ase , i n 1 850— th e d ate c h ose n by t h e o rg an iz ers o f t h e S t. P au l f e stiv al— th e a n cesto rs o f m ost b la ck Am eric an s w ere n ot i n A fric a b ut i n c h ain s. “ T he N eg ro g ro up d id n ot w an t to r e m in d a n yone o f t h eir a n cestr a l s la v ery ,” A dam ic n ote d . “ T hey p re fe rre d co nte m pora ry c lo th es— bla ck c h oir r o bes o r s ta rc h ed w hite j a ck ets a n d ap ro ns.” 41 T his c le arly d is tu rb ed A dam ic , w ho b elie v ed t h at f e elin gs o f in fe rio rity w ere a s g re at a b arrie r t o d em ocra tic u nity a s f e elin gs o f su perio rity . “ W hate v er o ne’s b ack gro und, o ne s h ould n ot b e a sh am ed o f i t, re g ard le ss o f a n y p re ju dic e a g ain st i t,” h e w ro te . “ S ham e o f t h at s o rt i s dam ag in g t o c h ara cte r a n d i n ner m ak e-u p, a n d i t t e n ds t o t u rn o ne i n to a neg ativ e p ers o n o utw ard ly .” 42 H ap pily , i n A dam ic ’s a cco unt, “ afte r s e ein g oth er g ro ups i n p easa n t a n d g hetto co stu m es, t h e l e ad er o f t h e N eg ro g ro up ap peare d i n t h e ‘ A m eric an s A ll’ p ro cessio n i n w hat s h e c alle d h er ‘ m am my clo th es.’ S he h ad s h ed h er d efe n siv e i n fe rio rity a n d f o r t h e f ir s t t im e r e ally accep te d h er o w n b ack gro und.” A dam ic h aile d t h e f e stiv al a s a n e x am ple o f “u nity w ith in d iv ers ity ” t h at t h e e n tir e n atio n m ig ht e m ula te .

43 The l e ad er o f t h e “ N eg ro g ro up” a t t h e S t. P au l f e stiv al m ay h av e b een willin g t o d on “ m am my c lo th es,” b ut m an y o th er b la ck A m eric an s w ere unders ta n dab ly r e lu cta n t t o c ele b ra te t h eir h erita g e a s c h atte l. T his w as ap pare n t w hen t h e F ed era l R ad io P ro je ct o f t h e U .S . O ffic e o f E ducatio n dev elo ped a t w en ty -s ix -p art r a d io s e rie s e n title d Am eric a ns A ll— Im mig ra nts All t o b e b ro ad cast o ver m ore t h an o ne h undre d C BS-a ffilia te d r a d io s ta tio ns in l a te 1 938 a n d 1 939. T he a g en cy h ir e d G ilb ert S eld es, a c ritic , n ovelis t, a n d pla y w rig ht a sso cia te d w ith t h e P opula r F ro nt, t o w rite t h e s c rip t f o r t h e pro ductio n. ( A lth ough A dam ic d id n ot i n itia te Am eric a ns A ll , h e s e rv ed a s one o f i ts a d vis o rs .) T he s e rie s w as d esig ned t o s h ore u p d em ocra tic n atio nal unity b y m ak in g n ativ is m a n d o th er f o rm s o f i n to le ra n ce s e em u npatr io tic .

Gen era l e p is o des t o ld t h e s to ry o f t h e m in glin g a n d i n te g ra tio n o f p eo ple s i n Am eric a a n d t h e d is a p peara n ce o f s o cia l a n d c u ltu ra l d iv is io ns. S ubse q uen t pro gra m s f o cu se d o n a s in gle o uts ta n din g a ttr ib ute — fo r i n sta n ce, t h e Scan din av ia n “ g if t f o r c o opera tio n”— th at e ach g ro up h ad c o ntr ib ute d t o Am eric an c u ltu re . T he s h ow o n “ T he N eg ro ” f o llo w ed t h is g en era l p atte rn , em phasiz in g a m ong o th er t h in gs t h e h is to ry o f b la ck w ork ers i n b oth t h e South a n d N orth . S eld es h ad i n co rp ora te d s o m e s u ggestio ns m ad e b y W . E .

B. D uB ois a n d A la in L ock e. N ev erth ele ss, w hen t w o o ffic ia ls i n t h e NAACP’s N ew Y ork o ffic e r e ad t h e s c rip t, t h ey c o m pla in ed t h at i t s tr e sse d “u nduly t h e s la v e p erio d a n d t h e N eg ro a s a w ork er.” “ T his s c rip t r e ad s l ik e a his to ry o f t h e p ro gre ss o f w hite p eo ple u sin g t h e l a b or a n d t a le n ts o f Neg ro es,” t h ey w ro te . “ It d oes n ot r e ad l ik e t h e h is to ry a n d p ro gre ss o f t h e Neg ro h im se lf .” T he s h ow w as w ritte n t o c o nclu de w ith a n A fric an s o ng a n d th e N eg ro N atio nal A nth em , “ L if t E very V oic e a n d S in g,” b oth s u ng b y t h e re n ow ned b la ck b arito ne J u le s B le d so e. J u st b efo re a ir tim e, h ow ev er, t h e music al d ir e cto r s c ra tc h ed t h e s c h ed ule d l in eu p a n d s u bstitu te d a s o ng en title d “ B la ck B oy.” T he s u bstitu tio n h orrif ie d b la ck l is te n ers i n clu din g Lock e, w ho c alle d t h e s o ng a “ m am my i n te rp ola tio n.” L ock e a n d o th ers pers u ad ed C BS o ffic ia ls t o r e re co rd t h e f in al f if te en m in ute s o f t h e p ro gra m so t h at w ax r e co rd in gs s e n t t o s c h ools a n d l ib ra rie s w ould n’t c arry t h e s o ng.

44 These t w o e p is o des— th e S t. P au l “ F estiv al o f N atio ns” a n d t h e Am eric a ns A ll— Im mig ra nts A ll r a d io s e rie s— su ggest t h e t e n sio ns t h at ex is te d o ver p ortr a y als o f u nity a n d p lu ra lis m b oth w ith in t h e b la ck co m munity a n d b etw een m an y b la ck s a n d s y m path etic w hite s, e v en t h ose i n th e P opula r F ro nt. F or in sta n ce, o rg an iz ers o f t h e W orld F air ’s A m eric an Com mon w an te d t o u se “ B alla d f o r A m eric an s” — th e s o ng p opula riz ed b y Pau l R obeso n— durin g N eg ro W eek . M em bers o f t h e N eg ro A cto rs ’ G uild did n ot w an t t h e s o ng u se d , b ecau se “ it w as n ot w ritte n b y a N eg ro .” T hey arg ued t h at b la ck c o m pose rs h ad d if fic u lty g ettin g a u die n ces o r a rtis ts t o in te rp re t t h eir w ork s, w hile m ost b la ck i n te rp re te rs u se d m usic w ritte n b y peo ple w ho w ere n ’t b la ck . T hey w ere u ltim ate ly o verru le d , a n d “ B alla d f o r Am eric an s” c lo se d t h e N eg ro W eek p ro gra m .

45 Man y b la ck A m eric an s t h us r e sis te d t h e s p ecif ic v is io n o f “ u nity w ith in div ers ity ” p ut f o rw ard b y l ib era l a n d l e ftis t w hite s s u ch a s A dam ic .

Nev erth ele ss, s o m e s a w i n t h is p re w ar d is c o urs e a n o pportu nity t o p urs u e what B arb ara S av ag e h as c alle d “ a p olitic s o f i n clu sio n.” 46 ( T hey a ls o re co gniz ed t h at i t c o uld c o nta in a n i m plic it l o yalty t e st: T he o rg an iz ers o f t h e New Y ork W orld ’s F air , f o r i n sta n ce, d ecla re d t h at t h e p urp ose o f t h e Am eric an C om mon w as t o “ m ak e l o yalty t o o ur c o untr y t h e o nly t e st o f Chris tia n o r J e w , w hite o r b la ck , n ativ e o r f o re ig n b orn .” 47 ) R ath er t h an cele b ra tin g t h eir y ears i n s la v ery , m an y b la ck s a d opte d a n a p pro ach u se d b y th e f o rm er s la v e a n d a b olitio nis t F re d eric k D ougla ss i n t h e l a te n in ete en th cen tu ry : t h ey p re se n te d t h em se lv es a s t h e q uin te sse n tia l t e st o f A m eric an dem ocra cy a n d u rg ed A m eric an s t o l iv e u p t o t h eir i d eals . A s L aw re n ce Red dic k , t h e c u ra to r o f t h e N ew Y ork P ublic L ib ra ry ’s S ch om burg Colle ctio n, w ro te i n a s o uven ir p ro gra m d is tr ib ute d d urin g t h e A m eric an Com mon’s N eg ro W eek , “ T he g re ate st g if t o f t h e N eg ro t o A m eric a” w as th at “ in o ne w ay o r t h e o th er h e h as s to od i n e v ery h is to ric p erio d, a s a t e st o f th e s in cerity , t h e r e al r e ality o f t h e p re ach m en ts o f d em ocra cy .” “ A nd s o to day ,” R ed dic k c o ntin ued , th e d riv e f o r l ib erty , s e cu rity a n d f o r e q uality o f o pportu nity i s a b ro ad str u ggle b y a n d f o r t h e c o m mon m an . S in ce t h e N eg ro , h is to ric ally , h as b orn e th e b ru nt o f t h ese s o cia l d en ia ls , h e, p erh ap s, m ore t h an a n y o th er, ap pre cia te s t h e v alu e a n d m ean in g o f t h em a ll. T he A m eric an D re am i s t h e dre am o f t h e N eg ro . T he d re am o f t h e N eg ro i s t h e d re am o f a n A m eric a whic h g uara n te es, i n t h e w ord s o f D ougla ss, “ all r ig hts f o r a ll.” 48 As R ed dic k ’s w ord s s u ggest, t h e v is io n o f p lu ra lis tic u nity a n d i n div id ual fre ed om p ro m ote d b y A dam ic a n d m an y o th ers i n t h e l a te 1 930s a n d 1 940s offe re d a n o pen in g t o b la ck s, w hic h s o m e t r ie d t o a p pro pria te . U ltim ate ly , how ev er, t h is c o nse n su al v is io n o f t h e n atio n l a rg ely o verlo oked t h e en tr e n ch ed p ro ble m s o f r a cia l i n eq uality .

In te rfa it h U nit y a s t h e “ A m eric a n Way” In l a te M ay 1 939, a s L ouis A dam ic w as p re p arin g f o r h is “ P ly m outh R ock an d E llis I s la n d” l e ctu re t o ur, a g ro up o f p ro m in en t N ew Y ork ers — in clu din g su ch B ro ad w ay l e g en ds a s H ele n H ay es a n d I rv in g B erlin — gath ere d a t t h e Cen te r T heatr e b efo re t h e m atin ee p erfo rm an ce o f K au fm an a n d H art’ s p la y The A m eric a n W ay . T hey a sse m ble d t o c o nfe r o n t h e t w o s ta rs o f t h e s h ow , Fre d eric M arc h a n d h is w if e , F lo re n ce E ld rid ge, t h e “ b ad ge o f t o le ra n ce” aw ard ed b y t h e N ew Y ork R ound T ab le o f t h e N atio nal C onfe re n ce o f Chris tia n s a n d J e w s ( N CCJ). I n p re se n tin g t h e a w ard , H ele n H ay es w arn ed ag ain st “ atte m pts t o i m port i n to t h is c o untr y d is c rim in atio ns a n d h ostilitie s th at h av e p re v aile d i n o th er l a n ds.” “ T here i s n o r o om i n t h is c o untr y f o r r a ce hatr e d o r r e lig io us i n to le ra n ce,” s h e d ecla re d . “ H ere w e b elie v e t h at a m an has a r ig ht t o b e j u dged o n h is o w n m erit a n d s h ould n ot h av e t o b e s u bje cte d to a n y d is a b ilitie s w hats o ev er o n t h e g ro und o f h is r a cia l o rig in o r r e lig io us fa ith .” 49 Both K au fm an a n d H art’ s p la y a n d H ay es’s s p eech e m phasiz ed a p oin t mad e r e p eate d ly b y L ouis A dam ic a n d m an y o th er a d vocate s o f t h e “ n atio n of n atio ns” a p pro ach i n t h e l a te 1 930s: b ig otr y a n d i n to le ra n ce o f v ario us ty pes w ere f u ndam en ta lly i n co m patib le w ith t h e A m eric an W ay . A dam ic a n d th e C CA U a ck now le d ged t h e e x is te n ce o f r a cis m a n d n ativ is m i n t h e U .S ., but t h ey d is c o unte d t h e c en tr a lity o f s u ch u gly “ -is m s” t o A m eric an c u ltu re by e m phasiz in g A m eric an s’ l o fty — an d p re su m ab ly s h are d — id eals .

Mean w hile , t h e N CCJ a n d i ts a llie s c ast “ ra ce h atr e d ” a n d “ re lig io us in to le ra n ce” a s a lie n i m ports , i n te rlo pers o n A m eric an s h ore s. A m eric an s were u nite d , b oth A dam ic a n d m em bers o f t h e i n te rfa ith m ovem en t a rg ued , by c erta in s h are d b elie fs , c h ie f a m ong t h em t h eir s u pport f o r t h e f re ed om a n d dig nity o f t h e i n div id ual. T he s im ila ritie s b etw een t h e C CA U a n d N CCJ ap pro ach es m ay b e g lim pse d i n t h e f a ct t h at A dam ic l ik ely b orro w ed t h e nam e f o r h is n ew m ag azin e, Com mon G ro und , f ro m a b ook b y t h e s a m e nam e p ublis h ed i n 1 938 b y a l e ad in g m em ber o f t h e i n te rfa ith m ovem en t.

50 If m em bers o f t h e i n te rfa ith m ovem en t a n d t h ose l ik e A dam ic w ho pic tu re d t h e U .S . p rim arily a s a “ n atio n o f n atio ns” b oth p la ced p lu ra lis m with in t h e c o nte x t o f a c iv ic c o nse n su s, t h ey d if fe re d i n o th er k ey w ay s.

While A dam ic a n d h is a llie s h ig hlig hte d t h e n atio n’s e th nic a n d r a cia l div ers ity , t h e i n te rfa ith m ovem en t p ortr a y ed A m eric an p lu ra lis m a s a b ove a ll re lig io us. T he “ b ad ge o f t o le ra n ce” p re se n te d t o M arc h a n d E ld rid ge b y t h e NCCJ s h ow ed t h re e h an ds c la sp ed b efo re t h e S ta tu e o f L ib erty a n d w as desc rib ed b y t h e New Y ork T im es a s “ sy m bolic o f t h e U nity o f A m eric an Pro te sta n ts , C ath olic s a n d J e w s fo r d em ocra cy , f re ed om a n d b ro th erh ood.” 51 Rab bi M orris L azaro n, t h e i n te rfa ith l e ad er w hose b ook l ik ely i n sp ir e d Adam ic , c alle d f o r r e co gnitio n o f t h e “ co m mon g ro und” s h are d b y A m eric an Pro te sta n ts , C ath olic s, a n d J e w s.

52 L azaro n h im se lf h elp ed p io neer a v is io n of A m eric an “ u nity w ith in d iv ers ity ” t h at w ould b eco m e c o m monpla ce i n Am eric a o ver t h e n ex t t w o d ecad es: t h e “ to le ra n ce t r io .” I n l a te 1 933, h e jo in ed a P re sb yte ria n m in is te r a n d a C ath olic p rie st o n a t h re e-m onth , t w en ty - six -s ta te “ p ilg rim ag e o f u nders ta n din g” s p onso re d b y t h e N CCJ.

53 B y t h e l a te 1930s, t h e N CCJ w as d is p atc h in g “ to le ra n ce t r io s” — co m pris e d o f c le rg ym en or p ro m in en t l a y m en f ro m e ach r e lig io n— to s c h ools , c o lle g es, a n d c iv ic fo ru m s a ro und t h e c o untr y . T hey p re ach ed a v is io n o f r e lig io us p lu ra lis m with in a c iv ic c o nse n su s, w hic h t h e N CCJ d ubbed “ th e A m eric an W ay .” 54 If r e lig io n, i n t h e N CCJ’s v ie w , w as t h e c h ie f r e p osito ry o f A m eric an plu ra lis m , i t w as a ls o t h e s o urc e o f t h e n atio n’s c iv ic c o nse n su s. T he N CCJ was p erh ap s t h e m ost v is ib le a rm o f a g ro w in g m ovem en t a m ong i n te lle ctu als an d c iv ic l e ad ers i n t h e l a te 1 930s t h at a rg ued t h at r e lig io us v alu es, r a th er th an t h e s e cu la r v alu es o f t h e E nlig hte n m en t, p ro vid ed t h e c ru cia l underp in nin g f o r A m eric an d em ocra cy .

55 R elig io n— sp ecif ic ally t h e b elie f i n “th e F ath erh ood o f G od a n d t h e B ro th erh ood o f M an ”— “is t h e f o undatio n o f tr u e d em ocra cy ,” d ecla re d t h e N CCJ’s J e w is h c o ch air m an i n a s p eech deliv ere d i n 1 936 o r 1 937. H e a d ded t h at “ th e f e elin g t h at a s w e a re b ro th ers an d h av e t h e s a m e f a th er [ m ean s] w e m ust s tr iv e f o r t h e g re ate st g ood f o r all.” 56 A n N CCJ p re ss r e le ase f ro m F eb ru ary 1 940 r e ite ra te d t h is a rg um en t, re in fo rc in g a n d e x te n din g t h e a n alo gy o f f a m ily : “ T he d em ocra tic i n stitu tio ns by w hic h w e l iv e a re f o unded o n a g re at r e lig io us i n sig ht, t h at u nder t h e Fath erh ood o f G od w e a re a ll b ro th ers a n d s is te rs … a n d a ll o f u s n eed in g a ll th e r e st o f u s t o m ak e t h e f a m ily c o m ple te .” 57 The N CCJ f re q uen tly h aile d A m eric a’s h erita g e o f r e lig io us f re ed om , callin g i t t h e n atio n’s “ m ost s ig nif ic an t c o ntr ib utio n … t o t h e t h eo ry a n d pra ctic e o f g overn m en t.” 58 T his w as n ot, h ow ev er, a n e n dors e m en t o f ath eis m o r e v en s e cu la r h um an is m . R ath er, t h e N CCJ c h am pio ned t h e n otio n, ju st e m erg in g i n t h e l a te 1 930s, o f a “ Ju deo -C hris tia n t r a d itio n.” 59 Pro te sta n ts , C ath olic s, a n d J e w s, t h e o rg an iz atio n a rg ued , s h are d o ne s p ir itu al valu e e sse n tia l t o a n y d em ocra cy — th e b elie f t h at e v ery i n div id ual h as “ an in vio la b le p ers o nal d ig nity a s a c h ild o f o ur o ne F ath er.” T his b elie f, i n t u rn , le d t o t h e “ re lig io us v alu es o f l ib erty , j u stic e a n d f ra te rn ity h an ded d ow n t o us b y e arlie r g en era tio ns o f A m eric an s.” N ow , h ow ev er, t h ese v alu es w ere “b ein g u nderm in ed ,” t h e N CCJ w arn ed . “ E m otio nal a p peals t o P ro te sta n ts , Cath olic s a n d J e w s t o h ate e ach o th er a re b ein g m ad e b y t h ose w ho w ould b e ty ra n ts o ver u s a ll.” 60 This v ie w o f A m eric a’s h erita g e a n d v alu es c le arly m in im iz ed t h e natio n’s h is to ry o f r e lig io us i n to le ra n ce a n d d ow npla y ed r e al t h eo lo gic al dif fe re n ces b etw