sports reading-for tom mutunga

In tr o ductio n to

IN TE R CO LLEG IA TE A TH LETIC S In tr o d uctio n t o

IN TER CO LLEG IA T E A T H LETIC S

Edite d b y

ED DIE C O M EA U X

A ll r ig hts r e se rv ed . P ub lis h ed 2 015

P rin te d i n th e U nite d S ta te s o f A meric a o n a cid -fr e e p ap er

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

J o hns H opkin s U niv ers ity P re ss

2 715 N orth C harle s S tr e et

B alti m ore , M ary la nd 2 1218-4 363

w ww.p re ss.j h u.e d u

L ib ra ry o f C ongre ss C ata lo gin g-in -P ub lic ati o n D ata

I n tr o ducti o n to I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s / e d ite d b y E ddie C om eaux.

pages c m

In clu d es b ib lio gra p hic al r e fe re nces a nd i n d ex.

IS B N 9 78-1 -4 214-1 661-8 ( H ard co ver : a cid -fr e e p ap er) — I S B N 1 -4 214-1 661-1 ( H ard co ver :

a cid -fr e e p ap er) — I S B N 9 78-1 -4 214-1 662-5 ( P ap erb ack : a cid -fr e e p ap er) — I S B N 1 -4 214-1 662-X

( P ap erb ack : a cid -fr e e p ap er) — I S B N 9 78-1 -4 214-1 663-2 ( E le ctr o nic ) — I S B N 1 -4 214-1 663-8

( E le ctr o nic ) 1 . C olle ge s p orts — Unite d S ta te s. 2 . C olle ge s p orts — Unite d S ta te s—

M anagem ent. I . C om eaux, E ddie , 1 973–

GV351.I 6 7 2 015

796.0 4’3 — dc2 3 2 014029353

A c ata lo g r e co rd f o r th is b ook i s a v aila b le f r o m th e B riti s h L ib ra ry .

S pecia l d is c o unts a re a va ila ble f o r b ulk p urc h ase s o f t h is b ook. F or m ore i n fo rm atio n, p le a se c o nta ct S pecia l

S ale s a t 4 10-5 16-6 936 o r

sp ecia ls a le s@ pre ss.j h u.e d u

J o hns H opkin s U niv ers ity P re ss u se s e nv ir o nm enta lly f r ie nd ly b ook m ate ria ls , i n clu d in g r e cycle d te xt p ap er th at i s

c o m pose d o f a t l e ast 3 0 p erc ent p ost- c o nsu m er w aste , w henev er p ossib le . CO NTE N TS

Pre fa ce

1 PA RT O NE

. H is to ric a l A naly sis , G overn ance a nd L eadersh ip , a nd E th ic s

CH APT ER 1

. F ro m S ports P age to F ro nt P age: I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s a nd A meric an H ig her E ducati o n

Jo hn R . T helin

CH APT ER 2

. O rg aniz a ti o n a nd G overn ance o f th e N CA A

Ja m es S atte rfie ld

CH APT ER 3

. L ead ers h ip i n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s

Molly O tt a nd E va n B ate s

CH APT ER 4

. E th ic al I s su es i n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s: P urp ose A chie v ed o r C halle nged ?

Angela L um pkin

2 PA RT T W O

. T heore tic a l P ersp ectiv es o n H ig her E duca tio n a nd A th le tic s

CH APT ER 5

. T heo re ti c al T enets o f H ig her E ducati o n a nd C olle ge A th le te s

Letic ia O se g uera a nd A llis o n G old ste in

3 PA RT T H REE

. T he C olle ge A th le te E xperie nce

CH APT ER 6

. T oday’s C olle ge A th le te

Jo y G asto n G ayle s

CH APT ER 7

. M VP: P re d ic to rs o f F our-Y ear T ra nsfe r f o r C om munity C olle ge A th le te s

David H orto n J r

CH APT ER 8

. I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s C lim ate : E ffe cts o n S tu d ents , F aculty , a nd A dm in is tr a to rs

Ja net H . L aw re n ce a nd J o n L . M cN aughta n

4 PA RT F O UR

. T he B usin ess E nte rp ris e o f C olle ge A th le tic s

CH APT ER 9

. T axati o n o f C olle ge S ports : P olic ie s a nd C ontr o vers ie s

Andre w Z im balis t

CH APT ER 1 0

. C olle ge S ports S pend in g D ecis io ns a nd th e A cad em ic M is sio n

Rodney F ort

CH APT ER 1 1

. T he B usin ess M odel o f I n te rc o lle gia te S ports : T he H av es a nd H av e-N ots

Sco tt H ir k o a nd K yle V . S w eitz e r

CH APTE R 1 2

. M illio nair e C olle ge C oaches a nd th e S cho ols T hat P ay T hem

Murra y S perb er a nd V in cen t M in ja re s

5 PA RT F IV E

. T he S ig nif ic a nce o f R ace a nd E th nic it y I s su es

CH APT ER 1 3

. C ro ss-R acia l I n te ra cti o n o f D iv is io n I A th le te s: T he C am pus C lim ate f o r D iv ers ity

Eddie C om ea ux a nd M arc ia V . F uen te s

CH APT ER 1 4

. T he M is e d ucati o n o f A fr ic an A meric an M ale C olle ge A th le te s

Jo hn N . S in ger

CH APT ER 1 5

. F or C olo re d G ir ls W ho H av e C onsid ere d B la ck F em in is t T ho ught W hen F em in is t D is c o urs e a nd T itl e

IX W ere n’t E no ugh Robin L . H ughes

CH APT ER 1 6

. C onfe re nce R ealig nm ent a nd th e D em is e o f th e A cad em ic M is sio n

Earl S m ith a nd A ngela J . H atte ry

6 PA RT S IX

. G ender E quit y a nd C om plia nce I s su es

CH APT ER 1 7

. E ffe cts o f T itl e I X o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 1 972–2012

Nancy L ough

CH APT ER 1 8

. K ey C ase L aw a nd L egis la ti o n S hap in g W om en’s O pportu nity i n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s

Jen nife r L ee H offm an, J a cq uelin e M cD ow ell, a nd V aly n cia R aphael

CH APT ER 1 9

. T itl e I X C om plia nce a nd I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s

Barb ara O sb orn e

CH APT ER 2 0

. B arrie rs to L ead ers h ip f o r W om en i n C olle ge A th le ti c s

Erin E . B uzu vis

7 PA RT S E VEN

. N CAA a nd M em ber I n stit u tio n P olic y C once rn s

CH APT ER 2 1

. C olle ge A th le te s’ R ig hts

Elle n J . S ta uro w sk y

CH APT ER 2 2

. R ecru iti n g i n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s

B. D avid R id path

CH APT ER 2 3

. I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s a nd A mate uris m

Billy H aw kin s, A sh le y R . B aker, a nd V elin a B . B ra ckeb usc h

CH APT ER 2 4

. F re ed om s L ost: E xp lo rin g S ocia l M ed ia P olic ie s i n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s

Eric M . S nyd er

CH APT ER 2 5

. T he A th le te a nd U niv ers ity C ontr a ctu al R ela ti o nsh ip

Tim oth y D avis

8 PA RT E IG H T

. T he A ca dem ic R efo rm M ovem ent

CH APT ER 2 6

. T he D ile m ma o f A cad em ic S up port f o r C olle ge A th le te s: A dvis in g to th e A PR

Dere k V an R heen en

CH APT ER 2 7

. C olle ge A th le te s i n R ev enue a nd N onre v enue S ports : L anguage, C ultu re , I d enti ty

C. K eith H arris o n a nd S co tt B ukste in

CH APT ER 2 8

. B est P ra cti c es i n C are er T ra nsiti o n P ro gra m min g f o r C olle ge A th le te s

Kris tin a M . N ava rro

EPIL O GUE

. T he C hangin g L and sc ap e o f A th le ti c s i n A meric an H ig her E ducati o n

Eddie C om ea ux

In d ex PR EFA CE

I n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s h av e r e ceiv ed g ro w in g a tte nti o n f r o m th e h ig her e d ucati o n r e se arc h c o m munity . I n 2 005 th e

R ese arc h F ocus o n E ducati o n a nd S port S pecia l I n te re st G ro up o f th e A meric an E ducati o nal R ese arc h A sso cia ti o n

w as e sta b lis h ed to p ro vid e a f o ru m f o r th e p re se nta ti o n, d is c ussio n, a nd e nco ura gem ent o f r e se arc h a nd c riti c al

t h o ught o n th e i n te rfa ce o f a th le ti c s a nd A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n. S in ce th en, a b ody o f w ork h as e m erg ed a nd a n

i n cre asin g n um ber o f r e sp ecte d h ig her e d ucati o n s c ho la rs h av e b een e ngaged i n e m pir ic al r e se arc h to e xam in e

c ro ssc utti n g i s su es i n th is a re a. A t th e s a m e ti m e a g ro w in g n um ber o f s tu d ents h av e e nro lle d i n u nd erg ra d uate a nd

g ra d uate p ro gra m s i n a th le ti c a d m in is tr a ti o n, h ig her e d ucati o n o r s tu d ent a ffa ir s , s p ort m anagem ent, s p ort s tu d ie s, a nd

s p ort l e ad ers h ip , a nd q uite f r e q uentl y th ese p ro gra m s o ffe r r e le v ant c o urs e s i n th e a re a o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s.

Surp ris in gly , th ere h as b een n o f o und ati o nal te xtb ook f o r th e s tu d y o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i n h ig her e d ucati o n.

T hus, i n str u cto rs h av e h ad to r e ly o n c o urs e p ackets , w hic h c an b e q uite c um bers o m e to c o m pile , a nd b ooks th at o ffe r

a n i n co m ple te u nd ers ta nd in g o f th is to pic al a re a. B oth th e h eig hte ned e nth usia sm f o r th e s tu d y o f i n te rc o lle gia te

a th le ti c s i n A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n a nd th e a b se nce o f a c o m pre hensiv e a nd p re v ailin g te achin g to ol to

c o nso lid ate b ase lin e k no w le d ge i n th is a re a h av e c re ate d th e n eed f o r th is e d ite d v olu m e.

In tr o ductio n t o I n te rc o lle g ia te A th le tic s

i s p ra cti c al a nd p arti c ula rly s u ita b le f o r th o se w ho s e ek to e nhance

t h eir u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s l a nd sc ap e. T his te xtb ook i s i n te nd ed f o r u p per-le v el u nd erg ra d uate

a nd g ra d uate s tu d ents , th o ugh s c ho la rs , te achers , p ra cti ti o ners , a th le ti c a d m in is tr a to rs , a nd a d vocate s o f

i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s w ill a ls o f in d i t e sse nti a l. T he b ook i s a rra nged i n to 2 8 c hap te rs th at c o ver a w id e r a nge o f

t o pic s. I t i s n o t e xhausti v e, b ut th e e d ito r b elie v es th at c urre nt c o ncern s, c halle nges, a nd th em es o f r e le v ance to

h ig her e d ucati o n r e se arc hers a nd p ra cti ti o ners a re c erta in ly w ell a d dre sse d .

The te xt i s o rg aniz e d i n to e ig ht p arts th at d esc rib e th e f o und ati o ns a nd o vera rc hin g s tr u ctu re s a nd c o nd iti o ns th at

s h ap e a th le ti c s a nd h ig her e d ucati o n ( H is to ric al A naly sis , G overn ance a nd L ead ers h ip , a nd E th ic s; T heo re ti c al

P ers p ecti v es o n H ig her E ducati o n a nd A th le ti c s; T he B usin ess E nte rp ris e o f C olle ge A th le ti c s), th e w ays th at c o lle ge

a th le te s e xp erie nce l ife o n c am pus ( T he C olle ge A th le te E xp erie nce; T he S ig nific ance o f R ace a nd E th nic ity I s su es;

G end er E quity a nd C om plia nce I s su es), a nd th e c urre nt a nd f u tu re p olic y c o nte xt o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s ( N CA A

a nd M em ber I n sti tu ti o n P olic y C oncern s; T he A cad em ic R efo rm M ovem ent) . E ach o f th e 2 8 c hap te rs i n clu d es

s p ecia l f e atu re s s u ch a s a l is t o f k ey te rm s, r e fle cti o ns f r o m a n a th le ti c s s ta keho ld er, a r e le v ant c ase s tu d y, a nd

q uesti o ns f o r d is c ussio n. T hese s p ecia l f e atu re s a re i d eal f o r u se a s th e b asis o f f u rth er c o nv ers a ti o n i n th e c la ssro om

s e tti n g.

Adopte rs o f th is te xtb ook w ill f in d th at th e c o nte nt ta kes th e f o rm o f d is ti n cti v e e xp ert v oic es i n th e f ie ld . A s

m ore s c ho la rs a nd p ra cti ti o ners tu rn th eir a tte nti o n to th is i m porta nt to pic , w e g ain a n e v en g re ate r u nd ers ta nd in g o f

h o w c entr a l th is to pic i s to th e f u tu re o f p osts e co nd ary e d ucati o n. T he c hap te rs th at f o llo w d elv e i n to s o m e c o m ple x

i s su es, s h ed din g n ew l ig ht a s w ell a s p re se nti n g u niq ue o pportu niti e s f o r th e f u tu re s tu d y o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s

i n A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n.

I o w e a tr e m end ous d eb t to m any p eo ple f o r th eir c o ntr ib uti o ns to th e d esig n o f th is v olu m e. W ith o ut th eir a ssis ta nce,

I w ould n o t h av e c o m ple te d th is p ro je ct— or e v en s ta rte d i t. I w is h to a ckno w le d ge th e w ork s o f p io neerin g s c ho la rs

w ho p av ed th e w ay f o r e m pir ic al s c ho la rs h ip o n th e i n te rp la y o f a th le ti c s a nd A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n. I a ls o

s in cere ly th ank th e a uth o rs w ho a gre ed to p arti c ip ate i n th is v olu m e a nd f o r th eir th o ughtf u l a nd p ain sta kin g

c o ntr ib uti o ns. I t h as b een a p le asu re to w ork w ith a ll o f y o u. A s w ell, I a m b le sse d w ith a n a m azin g e d ito ria l te am a t

J o hns H opkin s U niv ers ity P re ss, a nd I th ank th e p re ss f o r i ts s u p port a nd e nco ura gem ent th ro ugho ut th e d ev elo pm ent

a nd p ro ducti o n o f th is te xt. F in ally , I c o nti n ue to l e arn a nd b e i n sp ir e d m y f a m ily , f r ie nd s, s tu d ents , a nd c o lle agues

a nd th ank th em f o r h elp in g to s h ap e th is v olu m e. 1 PA RT O NE

His to ric a l A naly sis , G overn an ce a n d L ea d ersh ip , a n d E th ic s

T his f ir s t s e cti o n o f th e b ook s e ts th e s ta ge f o r e xam in in g th e i n te rp la y o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd A meric an

hig her e d ucati o n. I n

chap te r 1

, J o hn T helin o ffe rs a b rie f h is to ric al a cco unt o f c o lle ge s p orts c o vera ge i n th e n ati o nal

med ia to d em onstr a te i ts i n flu ence i n A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n. I n p arti c ula r, h e h ig hlig hts th e c o vera ge o f m ajo r

cham pio nsh ip g am es i n th e r e v enue-g enera ti n g s p orts o f f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all, th e e p is o dic p re ss c o vera ge

of p ro ble m s a sso cia te d w ith th e c o m merc ia liz a ti o n a nd f in ances o f a th le ti c p ro gra m s, a nd p ub lic iz e d s c and als

in v olv in g i m pro prie ti e s o f s ta keho ld ers , i n clu d in g c o lle ge a th le te s, c o aches, a nd a d m in is tr a to rs . J a m es S atte rfie ld

co vers th e N CA A’s o rg aniz a ti o nal a nd g o vern ance s tr u ctu re i n

chap te r 2

. H e s u m mariz e s th e o rg aniz a ti o nal s tr u ctu re ,

ro le , a nd f u ncti o n o f th e N CA A, i n clu d in g th e r u le -m akin g p ro cess a nd p rin cip le s o f c o nd uct, a nd o ffe rs a n o verv ie w

of th e N CA A d iv is io nal g o vern ance s tr u ctu re . T hen, i n

chap te r 3

, M olly O tt a nd E van B ate s d is c uss s ta keho ld er

gro up s’ o fte n-c o m peti n g i n te re sts a nd p rio riti e s w ith r e gard to i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd d esc rib e th e i m plic ati o ns

of l e ad ers h ip — by p re sid ent, a th le ti c d ir e cto r, f a culty , a nd c o ach— fo r th e w ell- b ein g o f c o lle ge a th le te s. I n

chap te r

4 , th e f in al c hap te r i n p art o ne, A ngela L um pkin e xam in es e th ic al i s su es i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, w ith p arti c ula r

atte nti o n to th e N CA A’s a m ate uris m i d eals . S he e xp lo re s i ts m and ate d u se o f th e l a b el

stu den t- a th le te

, th e c la sh

betw een th e e d ucati o nal m odel a nd b usin ess m odel i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, a nd th e p ote nti a l f in ancia l

exp lo ita ti o n o f f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yers . L um pkin c o nclu d es w ith 1 0 r e co m mend ati o ns to r e co nnect

in te rc o lle gia te a th le te s to th e N CA A’s e sp ouse d v alu es. T aken to geth er, th ese c hap te rs p ro vid e i m porta nt c o nte xt f o r

th e s e cti o ns th at f o llo w .

C H APTER

F R O M S P O RTS P A G E t o F R O NT P A G E

I n te rc o lle g ia te A th le tic s a nd A m eric a n H ig her E duca tio n

J oh n R . T helin

K EY T ER M S

in te rc o lle gia te a th le tic s

ath le te

co lle ge c o ach es

Natio nal C olle gia te A th le tic A sso cia tio n ( N CAA)

Footb all B ow l S ubdiv is io n ( F B S)

Knig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le tic s

W hile a s o urc e o f i m med ia te d aily n ew s, i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i s a ls o a s o urc e o f h is to ry i n o ur o w n ti m e. T his

d ual c hara cte r a nd c o ntr ib uti o n to A meric an s o cie ty c an b e i llu str a te d b y c o nsid erin g a c o re s a m ple o f c o lle ge s p orts

c o vera ge i n th e n ati o nal m ed ia f r o m 2 013. D urin g th e f ir s t tw o w eeks o f J a nuary , f o ur d is ti n ct b ut r e la te d e v ents

m ad e h ead lin e n ew s n ati o nw id e. F ir s t, o n J a nuary 7 e v ery n ew sp ap er g av e f r o nt- p age c o vera ge to th e U niv ers ity o f

A la b am a’s tr iu m ph o ver N otr e D am e f o r th e n ati o nal c o lle ge f o otb all c ham pio nsh ip ( B is h o p, 2 013). T hen c am e a

s u ccessio n o f o th er s to rie s, a ls o p ro m in ent, b ut l e ss o bvio us a nd n o t a t a ll p re d ic ta b le . M oody’s r e p orte d th at m ore

c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s i n th e U nite d S ta te s s u ffe re d l o w ere d b ond r a ti n gs b ecause th eir f in ancia l c o nd iti o n w as

c o nti n uin g to d ete rio ra te ( M arti n , 2 013). N ext, th e D elta C ost P ro je ct a t A meric an I n sti tu te s f o r R ese arc h i n

W ash in gto n, D .C ., r e le ase d a n ati o nal r e p ort w ith th e d ra m ati c n ew s th at c am pus s p end in g p er a th le te w as f a r m ore

t h an s p end in g p er “ re gula r” s tu d ent— as m uch a s s ix ti m es m ore i n s o m e c o nfe re nces, s u ch a s th e S outh easte rn

C onfe re nce ( D esro chers , 2 013; L ew in , 2 013; W olv erto n, 2 013a). F in ally , N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n

( N CA A) o ffic ia ls a nno unced a t th eir a nnual c o nfe re nce i n D alla s o n J a nuary 1 2 th at th ey w ere e nd in g s p onso rs h ip

a nd f u nd in g o f th eir s c ho la rly c o llo quiu m a nd j o urn al d ealin g w ith th e s tu d y o f c o lle ge s p orts ( W olv erto n, 2 013b).

These f o ur e v ents c o m pre sse d w ith in a f e w d ays i llu str a te h o w to day i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s c an q uic kly j u m p

f r o m th e s p orts p age to th e f r o nt p age. E ven th o ugh th ese c urre nt e v ents a re v ola ti le a nd n ew sw orth y, th ey a re n o t

n ew . T he n et r e su lt i s a r ic h c o re s a m ple o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd th e m ed ia a tte nti o n i t c o m mand s. A n

i m porta nt

im plic ati o n f o r th is a nth o lo gy i s th at th o se w ho w ork w ith a nd s tu d y i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a re h eir s to a

d is ti n cti v e tr a d iti o n i n th e U nite d S ta te s i n w hic h o ur i n fo rm ati o n a nd i m ages a b out h ig her e d ucati o n a re s h ap ed i n

l a rg e m easu re b y c o lle ge s p orts . T he u nd erly in g th esis o f th is c hap te r i s th at th ere i s a l o ng A meric an h erita ge,

s tr e tc hin g b ack i n to th e l a te n in ete enth c entu ry , th at h as f r e q uentl y a nd r e p eate d ly c ata p ulte d v ars ity a th le ti c p ro gra m s

a nd c hara cte rs f r o m th e s p orts p age to th e f r o nt p age.

S P O RTS P A G ES A N D T H E T R AN SF O RM AT IO N O F M ED IA C O VER AG E

W e te nd to ta ke f o r g ra nte d p erv asiv e m ed ia c o vera ge o f c o lle ge s p orts . I n f a ct, i t w as n o t a n i n ev ita b le d ev elo pm ent

b ut o ne th at h ad tw o r e q uir e m ents : f ir s t, w hat h is to ria n D anie l B oors ti n h as c alle d a “ gra p hic s r e v olu ti o n” i n w hic h

t h e n ew te chno lo gy o f th e l a te n in ete enth c entu ry a llo w ed f o r f a st, l a rg e-v olu m e p ub lic ati o n o f h ig h-q uality

n ew sp ap ers th at i n clu d ed p ho to gra p hs ( B oors ti n , 1 961, p p. 1 81–238); a nd , s e co nd , m ass c ir c ula ti o n a nd a

r e ad ers h ip c o m pose d o f k no w le d geab le f o llo w ers . O n c lo se r i n sp ecti o n o ne f in d s th at i t h as b een a n a cq uir e d s k ill

a nd h ab it. W illia m O ria rd ’s ( 1 993) c la ssic w ork ,

Rea din g F ootb all

, d ocum ents i n d eta il h o w i n no vati o ns i n p rin ti n g and d is tr ib uti n g n ew sp ap ers i n th e 1 880s c o m bin ed w ith e xp and in g l ite ra cy a m ong A meric ans to p ro duce a n ew ,

enth usia sti c r e ad in g a ud ie nce: k no w le d geab le , l o yal s p orts f a ns. I t w as, a cco rd in g to h is to ria n a nd l ite ra ry a naly st

Oria rd , n o l e ss th an th e s to ry o f “ H ow th e P opula r P re ss C re ate d a n A meric an S pecta cle ” ( O ria rd , 1 993). E ven

th o ugh c re ati o n o f th e d aily “ sp orts p age” w as a s u ccessfu l i n no vati o n i n A meric an j o urn alis m , th e m ost r e m ark ab le

dev elo pm ent w as th at p ub lis h ers a nd e d ito rs w ere o pportu nis ti c a nd f r e q uentl y m oved c o vera ge o f a b ig c o lle ge

fo otb all r iv alr y to th e f r o nt p age, o fte n f o r s e v era l d ays p rio r to a g am e— a s tr a te gy i n te nd ed to s e ll n ew sp ap ers a nd

ti c kets . A nd , i t w ork ed , to th e d elig ht o f a th le ti c d ir e cto rs , c o aches, a nd c o lle ge p re sid ents .

All th is c hanged — or, a t l e ast, w as i n te rru p te d — on O cto ber 2 4, 1 929, w hen o nce a gain c o lle ge s p orts m ad e th e

fr o nt p age o f e v ery d aily n ew sp ap er. T he d iffe re nce w as th at th e h ead lin es d id n o t p ro cla im a b out f o otb all s c o re s

su ch a s th at M ic hig an h ad d efe ate d I llin o is o r th at Y ale tr iu m phed o ver P rin ceto n. R ath er, th e b ig n ew s w as th at th e

Carn egie F ound ati o n f o r th e A dvancem ent o f T eachin g ( C FA T) h ad r e le ase d i ts c o m pre hensiv e, d eta ile d s tu d y o f th e

org aniz a ti o n a nd c o ntr o l o f c o lle ge s p orts , w hic h c o nclu d ed th at c o lle ge a nd u niv ers ity p re sid ents n eed ed to p ro vid e

th e l e ad ers h ip to r e sto re i n te grity to v ars ity s p orts p ro gra m s th at h ad b eco m e m ir e d i n p ro fe ssio nalis m a nd

co m merc ia lis m . S ho rtl y th ere afte r, p re sid ents a t s e v era l p ro m in ent u niv ers iti e s f u m ed a nd b lu ste re d th at th e C FA T

re p ort a uth o r, H ow ard J . S av age, h ad m is re p re se nte d

th eir

u niv ers ity , h ad m is q uo te d f ig ure s, o r m is re p re se nte d

docum ents a nd d ata a b out

th eir

p arti c ula r, b elo ved a th le ti c p ro gra m . A uth o r H ow ard S av age c alm ly r e sp ond ed w ith

docum enta ti o n o n e v ery d is p ute d c la im .

He s to od b y e v ery f in d in g h e h ad r e p orte d , a nd n o o ne ( in clu d in g

co m pla in in g u niv ers ity p re sid ents ) s u ccessfu lly r e fu te d o r d era ile d h is d ata o r d is c ussio n ( S av age, 1 929; T helin ,

1994, p p. 1 3–37).

The C arn egie F ound ati o n r e p ort s e t i n to m oti o n a s u ccessio n o f p ub lic iz e d c riti c al a naly se s b y f o und ati o ns a nd

ed ucati o nal g ro up s th at p ers is t to th is d ay. T hey m ake f o r g o od r e ad in g. A nd , i m porta nt f o r th is b ook, th ey m anage to

make th e f r o nt p age. T he c o ro lla ry i s th at th ey m ere ly p unctu ate th e a v ala nche o f f r o nt- p age a nd s p orts -p age n ew s

ab out c ham pio nsh ip s a nd v ic to rie s. O n th e o ne h and , m any o f th e r e p orts d eal w ith s c and als a nd a b use s, i n v olv in g

su ch to pic s a s tr a nsc rip ts , g ra d es, c o urs e s, a nd a cad em ic e lig ib ility . O n th e o th er h and , i n th e p ast 3 0 y ears s e v era l

hav e r a is e d q uesti o ns a b out b ro ad p olic y i s su es, s u ch a s th e e ffic acy a nd p ro prie ty o f th e f in ancia l m odel e m bra ced

by m ost v ars ity s p orts p ro gra m s.

RO OTS O F T H E N CAA

One i n te re sti n g c o nse q uence o f th e s u sta in ed e ffo rts a t r e gula ti o n a nd r e fo rm i s th at th e N CA A i s th e o rg aniz a ti o n th at

co lle ge s p orts f a ns l o ve to h ate . A r e cent p ro m in ent e xam ple i s J o e N ocera ’s ( 2 012) c o lu m n c la im in g th at c harg es o f

ra cia l b ia s a re y et a no th er “ b lo w to th e N CA A’s i n te grity .” A dd to th is th e c riti c is m s th at th e N CA A h as b een

“arro gant,” “ arb itr a ry ,” a nd “ auto cra ti c ” i n i ts p enalti e s l e v ie d a gain st s o m e a th le ti c p ro gra m s. I ts c o m merc ia l

su ccess h as l e d to i ts c hara cte riz a ti o n a s a “ carte l” a nd “ m ono poly ” th at i s “ hyp ocriti c al” i n i ts c o nd uct o f c o lle ge

sp orts . G iv en a ll th is o utr a ge, o ne w ond ers , H ow d id th e N CA A g et th is w ay? T he a nsw er i s th at th is h ap pened s ix ty

years a go w hen c o lle ge s p orts w ere m ir e d i n s c and als th at d om in ate d n ew sp ap er h ead lin es a nd e v en b efu d dle d th e

Unite d S ta te s C ongre ss. B y a ccid ent a nd l u ck, th e N CA A w as s e le cte d to b e th e r e gula to r o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s.

The N CA A w as a n u nlik ely c and id ate f o r th is r o le . I n 1 951 i t w as a s m all o rg aniz a ti o n h o use d i n a s in gle s u ite o f

a C hic ago o ffic e b uild in g. I ts m ain w ork w as to p ro m ote s e le cte d s p orts . I ts p re m ie r e v ent— th e N CA A c o lle ge

bask etb all c ham pio nsh ip s— had to s h are p re sti g e a nd p ub lic ity w ith th e N ati o nal I n v ita ti o nal T ourn am ent. I n 1 948 th e

dir e cto r o f th e N CA A p ers u ad ed c o lle ge p re sid ents a nd a th le ti c d ir e cto rs to a d opt a c o de o f c o nd uct f o r a th le te s a nd

fin ancia l a id , b ut th e e nsu in g r e sis ta nce to a nd r id ic ule o f th e r e gula ti o ns p ro m pte d th e N CA A to r e tr e at f r o m

dev elo pin g— or e nfo rc in g— nati o nal s ta nd ard s ( L aw re nce, 1 987).

Colle ge s p orts l ite ra lly w ere o ut o f c o ntr o l a fte r W orld W ar I I. Z ealo us a lu m ni a nd b ooste r c lu b s m ad e p aym ents

to r e cru it o uts ta nd in g h ig h s c ho ol a th le te s. C onfe re nce c o m mis sio ners h ad n eith er th e p ow er n o r th e d esir e to c urb

th e m ost f la gra nt a b use s o f c o m merc ia lis m a nd r e cru iti n g. T he C om mis sio ner o f th e P acific C oast C onfe re nce w as

unusu al b ecause h e w as v ig ila nt i n d ocum enti n g “ slu sh f u nd s” a nd p la ced f o ur p ro gra m s o n p ro bati o n, m akin g th em

in elig ib le f o r th e f a m ous ( a nd l u cra ti v e) R ose B ow l. F or a j o b w ell d one h e w as f ir e d , a nd th e c o nfe re nce w as

dis so lv ed . M any u niv ers ity p re sid ents tu rn ed a d eaf e ar to r e fo rm a s th ey e nco ura ged th eir a m biti o us c o aches to

build a w in nin g te am th at a ttr a cte d l a rg e c ro w ds a nd s ta te w id e a d ula ti o n ( T helin , 1 994, p p. 9 8–127).

CASE S T U DY

The I v y L ea gu e The I v y L eague w as f o und ed a s a n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c c o nfe re nce i n 1 954 b y th e p re sid ents o f e ig ht h is to ric

in sti tu ti o ns— Harv ard , Y ale , P rin ceto n, B ro w n, C olu m bia , C orn ell, D artm outh , a nd P ennsy lv ania . T he i m petu s f o r

th is o rg aniz a ti o nal i n no vati o n w as a c o lle cti v e c o m mitm ent a m ong th ese a cad em ic ally p re sti g io us i n sti tu ti o ns to

cre ate a c o nfe re nce th at e nco ura ged i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s e xcelle nce w ith in th e b ound arie s o f e d ucati o nal

prio riti e s. S pecific ally , th is m eant th at th ese i n sti tu ti o ns w ould n o t a w ard a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s o r a llo w f o otb all

te am s to c o m pete i n p osts e aso n b ow l c o m peti ti o n. I n a d diti o n to th ese c o nstr a in ts , th e c o nfe re nce— offic ia lly k no w n

as T he I v y G ro up — main ta in ed c o m mitm ents to h av in g s p orts r e m ain i n te gra l to c am pus l ife . M em ber i n sti tu ti o ns

were r e q uir e d to h av e a f o otb all te am . A nd I v y L eague i n sti tu ti o ns d em onstr a te d a c o m mitm ent to a b ro ad a rra y o f

vars ity s p orts — offe rin g c o m peti ti o n a nd c ham pio nsh ip s i n 3 3 s p orts e ach y ear.

The I v y L eague s ta rte d c o nfe re nce c o m peti ti o n i n 1 956. A lth o ugh th e c o nfe re nce c ele b ra te d i ts f ifti e th

anniv ers a ry s e v en y ears a go , s p orts w rite rs a nd th e g enera l p ub lic o fte n m is ta kenly th in k th e c o nfe re nce i s m uch

old er. T he e xp la nati o n i s th at th e te rm “ Iv y L eague” w as u se d i n fo rm ally a s l o ng a s a c entu ry a go . A nd , i ts m em ber

in sti tu ti o ns th at b and ed to geth er i n 1 954 w ere , i n d eed , th e n ati o nally d om in ant a th le ti c p ro gra m s i n th e l a te n in ete enth

and e arly tw enti e th c entu rie s. A g ro up o f s tu d ent e d ito rs c alle d f o r c re ati o n o f a n “ Iv y L eague” i n 1 937, a lth o ugh th is

did n o t r e ach f r u iti o n.

An i m porta nt h is to ric al r e m in d er i s th at th e c re ati o n o f th e I v y L eague i n 1 954 w as a d ir e ct c o unte r to th e

unp re ced ente d e xcesse s a nd a b use s o f c o lle ge s p orts i n th e y ears i m med ia te ly f o llo w in g W orld W ar I I. O ne

in sti tu ti o n th at s o ught i n clu sio n i n th e p ro pose d I v y L eague— th e U niv ers ity o f P ennsy lv ania — was a c ase i n p oin t a s

it i n v oked i ts h is to ric a cad em ic r o ots f r o m th e c o lo nia l e ra w hile a t th e s a m e ti m e r e ly in g o n a n a lu m ni s lu sh f u nd ,

aggre ssiv e r e cru iti n g ta cti c s, g enero us a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s, a nd th e w aiv in g o f tr a d iti o nal a d m is sio ns r e q uir e m ents

to f ie ld a f o otb all s q uad th at c o m pete d a gain st ( a nd o fte n tr iu m phed o ver) s u ch l a rg e s ta te u niv ers iti e s a s M ic hig an

and O kla ho m a i n th e l a te 1 940s a nd e arly 1 950s. T he o th er s e v en u niv ers ity p re sid ents o f th e p ro pose d I v y L eague

warn ed th e p re sid ent o f th e U niv ers ity o f P ennsy lv ania th at i t w ould n o t b e i n v ite d to j o in th e c o nfe re nce u nle ss i t

end ed i ts p ra cti c es a nd p olic ie s o f o vere m phasis o n r e cru iti n g a nd p ro m oti n g f o otb all a nd o th er s p orts . T he l ite ra l

and f ig ura ti v e r e su lt w as th at P enn d id p enance— and w as a llo w ed to j o in th e I v y L eague.

Durin g i ts i n iti a l y ears o f c o nfe re nce p la y th e I v y L eague o fte n w as th e o bje ct o f r id ic ule b y s p orts w rite rs a nd b y

fa ns a nd a lu m ni a t n ati o nally d om in ant f o otb all a nd b ask etb all p ro gra m s. F ro m 1 985 to 2 010, u nd er th e l e ad ers h ip o f

Executi v e D ir e cto r J e ffr e y O rle ans, th e I v y L eague d em onstr a te d r e p eate d ly th at e xcelle nce i n a th le ti c s a nd

acad em ic s f o r m en a nd w om en w as c o m pati b le n o t o nly w ith in a n i n sti tu ti o n b ut a ls o w ith in th e s a m e i n d iv id ual—

th e g enuin e a th le te .

The a b use s i n c o lle ge s p orts w ere s o a la rm in g th at th e U nite d S ta te s C ongre ss w as a sk ed to c re ate a f e d era l

re gula to ry a gency. B ecause C ongre ss w as r e lu cta nt to i n te rv ene i n to h ig her e d ucati o n o n a ny i s su e, i t f ir s t s o ught to

hav e a cad em ic l e ad ers o vers e e th e r e fo rm o f c o lle ge s p orts . C ongre ss u rg ed c o lle ges to l e ad th e w ay th ro ugh th e

nati o nal o rg aniz a ti o n o f p re sid ents , th e A meric an C ouncil o n E ducati o n ( A CE). O ver th e c o urs e o f a tw o-y ear d eb ate

in th e e arly 1 950s, A CE d elib era ti o ns s ta lle d , a s s o m e p re sid ents s q uab ble d w ith a th le ti c d ir e cto rs a nd c o aches o ver

what th e p la ce o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s s h o uld b e. W hen n o a gre em ents w ith in th e r a nks o f u niv ers ity p re sid ents

co uld b e r e ached a b out th e b ala nce o f a cad em ic s a nd a th le ti c s, d is c ussio ns r e ached a s ta le m ate .

Desp era te to e nd th e i m passe , C ongre ss g av e u p o n th e A CE a nd a sk ed th e N CA A to b e th e r e gula to ry b ody. E ven

th o ugh f o otb all w as th e d om in ant s p ecta to r s p ort, i t w as m en’s b ask etb all th at p ro vid ed th e c ru cia l te st c ase f o r th e

NCA A’s n ew w atc hd og m and ate . T he U niv ers ity o f K entu cky w as a t c ente r c o urt a lo ng w ith th e C ity C olle ge o f N ew

York , B ra d le y U niv ers ity , a nd L ong I s la nd U niv ers ity b ecause o f c harg es th at s o m e p la yers w ere i n v olv ed i n th e

poin t s h av in g s c and al a t to urn am ents h eld i n M ad is o n S quare G ard en i n N ew Y ork C ity . T he N CA A p ro hib ite d a ny

mem ber i n sti tu ti o n f r o m p la yin g a gain st K entu cky, p ro m pti n g th e s c ho ol to c ancel i ts 1 952–1953 v ars ity s c hed ule .

This s e nt a m essa ge n ati o nw id e to a th le ti c d ir e cto rs , c o aches, a nd p re sid ents th at th e N CA A h ad th e n ecessa ry

str e ngth to m ake ( o r b re ak) h ig h-p ro file p ro gra m s. W hen i t c o m es to th e b ro ad p ow ers e njo yed b y th e N CA A to day, i t

is i m porta nt to n o te th at w ith o ut th e U niv ers ity o f K entu cky th ere w ould b e n o N CA A.

Beyo nd r e gula ti o ns a nd p enalti e s, th ere w as a no th er o verlo oked p art o f th e N CA A’s e v entu al s ta tu re : i t w as a b le

to b eco m e a c o m merc ia l s u ccess b ecause i ts m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns g ra nte d i t c o ntr o l o ver te le v is in g c o lle ge g am es.

Colle ges h ad r e ad ily tu rn ed o ver te le v is io n a uth o rity to th e N CA A i n 1 948 i n h o pes th at th e N CA A’s r e str ic ti o ns o n

liv e b ro ad cast w ould e ra se th e th re at th at p ote nti a l ti c ket b uyers w ould s ta y a w ay f r o m f o otb all s ta d iu m s i n f a v or o f

watc hin g g am es o n T V. T hat tr a nsfe r o f p ow er f r o m th e i n d iv id ual c o lle ges a nd c o nfe re nces to th e N CA A w as d one

willin gly a nd n o t s e en a s c o ntr o vers ia l o r c o nflic te d i n 1 950. B y 1 960, h o w ev er, w hen c o lle ge f o otb all e njo yed b oth

re co rd -s e tti n g ti c ket s a le s a nd te le v is io n b ro ad cast r e v enues, th e N CA A h ad c o nso lid ate d b oth i ts a uth o rity a nd pro fita b ility — alo ng w ith i ts e xclu siv e r e gula to ry p ow er o ver i n sti tu ti o nal c o nd uct o f s p orts .

What i s h ard to i m agin e to day i s th at a s l a te a s 1 980 th e N CA A h ad th e a uth o rity to r e str ic t te le v is in g c o lle ge

fo otb all to a to ta l o f e ig ht g am es p er w eekend , f u rth er c o nfin ed to a f o rm ula o f tw o g am es i n e ach o f f o ur r e gio ns. I t

co uld d o th is b ecause th e N CA A i s a n u nusu al o rg aniz a ti o n th at h ad a cq uir e d th e p ow er to

both

p unis h a nd p ro m ote

pro gra m s. T he c o nflic ti n g p rio riti e s o f c o m merc ia lis m a nd a m ate uris m i n c o lle ge s p orts w ere j o in ed . B ut a n

im porta nt r e m in d er i s th at th e N CA A i s a

vo lu nta ry

a sso cia ti o n. A c o lle ge d oes h av e th e r ig ht to l e av e a nd f o rm n ew

co opera ti v e a llia nces i n tu ne w ith i ts o w n a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c v alu es.

Secessio n f r o m th e N CA A, h o w ev er, i s u nlik ely b ecause m any ( p erh ap s m ost) g ain a g re at d eal f r o m N CA A

mem bers h ip d esp ite c o m pla in ts a nd g ru m blin g f r o m s o m e p re sid ents f r o m ti m e to ti m e. W hat h ad f a lle n i n to p la ce

was a d is c ern ib le p atte rn o f a p ro lo nged p erio d o f f r o nt- p age h ead lin es a b out c ham pio nsh ip c o lle ge te am s

in te rs p ers e d p erio dic ally — ab out e v ery d ecad e— with a n e q ually b old h ead lin e a b out c o rru p ti o n. T he r e su lt w as a

melo dra m a i n w hic h s u sta in ed p ub lic c heers w ere i n te rs p ers e d w ith p ub lic o utr a ge— and th en w ith a r e su m pti o n o f

cheers . R efo rm i n iti a ti v es a ttr a cte d a f lu rry o f a tte nti o n, b ut o n b ala nce A meric ans— and m ost c o lle ge

pre sid ents —

re ally d id l ik e b ig -ti m e s p orts a nd w ere f ic kle i n a tte m pts to a d dre ss p ro ble m s i n a ny g enuin e m anner.

FR O M R EFO RM S T O R EG ULAT IO NS

One i r o ny o f N CA A r e gula ti o n i s th e s o urc e o f m any c o m pla in ts . A r e curre nt a necd ote d ep ic ts a p re sid ent o r c o ach

or l e gis la to r a t a p re ss c o nfe re nce h o ld in g u p a c o py o f th e N CA A h and book a nd r e gula ti o ns. U su ally th e i m plic ati o n

is th at i t i s l a rg e a nd u nw ie ld y a nd o fte n d eals w ith s o m e a rc ane r u le i n te rp re ta ti o n. A d is ti n ct a nd i m porta nt

criti c is m i s th at a n i n v esti g ati o n’s r e su lt— fo r e xam ple , a n a th le te i s f o rb id den to r e ceiv e m oney f o r a ir fa re h o m e to a

fu nera l o r s o m e o th er s ig nific ant f a m ily e v ent— is u nre aso nab le a nd p etty . W hat th ese s ta te m ents o f p ub lic o utr a ge

ofte n o m it, h o w ev er, i s th at s u ch d eta ile d r e gula ti o ns a nd r e str ic ti o ns h av e c o m e a b out l e ss f r o m s e rio us c o ncern b y

acad em ic l e ad ers a nd f a culty a nd m ore f r o m a nger a nd j e alo usy o f o th er c o aches w ho f e ar th at a r e negad e c o ach h as

gain ed a n a d vanta ge. T he r e su lt h as b een a n a th le ti c s a rm s r a ce.

Giv en th is p atte rn a nd e nv ir o nm ent, a l a nd m ark e v ent w as th e 1 991 r e p ort b y th e K nig ht C om mis sio n o n th e

Futu re o f A th le ti c s ( K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 1 991). L ed b y C re ed B la ck, f o rm er p ub lis h er o f

th e

Lexin gto n ( K y.) H era ld L ea der

w ho h ad g ain ed f a m e a nd i n fa m y f o r s p onso rin g a P ulitz e r P riz e – w in nin g s e rie s

ab out th e e xcesse s o f th e b ask etb all p ro gra m i n h is h o m eto w n a t th e U niv ers ity o f K entu cky, th e K nig ht R ep ort p ut a

sp otl ig ht o n th e c all f o r n ati o nw id e r e fo rm . O n o ne l e v el i ts e m phasis w as o n s tu d ents — sp ecific ally , r e sto rin g a

co m mitm ent to a th le te s a s s tu d ents . O n a no th er l e v el, i t w as a b out p re sid ents — urg in g p re sid ents o f c o lle ges a nd

univ ers iti e s to c la im th eir r ig htf u l r o le a s l e ad ers a nd e d ucato rs w ho d id n o t n ecessa rily d efe r to c haris m ati c

co aches, p ow erfu l a th le ti c d ir e cto rs , a nd a lu m ni b ooste rs a nd d ono rs . I t r e se m ble d a r e su rre cti o n o f th e 1 929

Carn egie F ound ati o n r e p ort, w ith a d ded a tte nti o n o n s u ggesti o ns f o r s o lu ti o ns a nd s tr a te gie s. T o m ain ta in i n flu ence,

pre ssu re , a nd p ub lic v is ib ility , th e K nig ht F ound ati o n C om mis sio n e sta b lis h ed a n i n fo rm ati v e w eb site , w hile

co nti n uin g to r e le ase w ell- d ocum ente d r e p orts f r o m ti m e to ti m e. I ts 2 010 r e p ort, f o r e xam ple , s h o w ed th e a la rm in g

fin d in g f r o m b oth s u rv ey a nd b ud get d ata th at m ost c o lle ge a nd u niv ers ity p re sid ents c o nced ed th at p re sid ents h ad

lo st c o ntr o l o f s p end in g o n c o lle ge s p orts ( K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 2 010; O ria rd , 2 009).

TH E M IX ED B LESSIN G S O F C O LLEG E S P O RTS P U BLIC IT Y

One r e curre nt j u sti fic ati o n f o r b ig -ti m e, w in nin g c o lle ge s p orts i s th at i t b rin gs p ub lic ity to th e e nti r e u niv ers ity . T his

is tr u e, a lth o ugh s o m eti m es w ith a n u nexp ecte d tw is t. I n 2 006 A ub urn U niv ers ity w as f e atu re d i n a f r o nt- p age s to ry o f

th e

New Y o rk T im es

—unusu al g iv en th at th e p re p ond era nce o f A ub urn ’s p re ss a nd m ed ia c o vera ge

is s ta te w id e a nd

re gio nal. T his n ati o nal s to ry d id , i n d eed , b rin g to geth er a cad em ic s a nd a th le ti c s, w hic h m ig ht s u ggest a b est- c ase

sc enario f o r c o lle ge s p orts ’ h alo e ffe ct a nd m ulti p lie r e ffe ct to e nhance i n sti tu ti o nal p re sti g e. U nfo rtu nate ly th e n ew s

was n o t g o od: a cco rd in g to th e r e p orte r, e ach y ear m ore th an 6 0 A ub urn s tu d ents ( m ost o f th em v ars ity a th le te s,

esp ecia lly f o otb all p la yers ) h ad e nro lle d i n a n i n d ep end ent- s tu d y c o urs e s p onso re d b y o ne p ro fe sso r i n th e s o cio lo gy

dep artm ent ( T ham el, 2 006). V aria ti o ns o n th is th em e a p pearin g i n s m alle r n ati o nal s y nd ic ate d a rti c le s i n clu d ed

sto rie s a b out U CLA f o otb all p la yers w ho r e ceiv ed p ark in g p erm its a llo w in g th em to p ark i n “ d is a b le d o nly ” p ark in g

and th e U niv ers ity o f G eo rg ia b ask etb all c o ach w ho ta ught a c re d it c o urs e o n P rin cip le s a nd T heo rie s o f C oachin g, a

co urs e w ho se e nro lle es i n clu d ed s o m e o f h is o w n v ars ity p la yers .

Many o f th ese g ard en-v arie ty a rti c le s a re ta nta m ount to p etty l a rc enie s w ho se r e p orts s h o w u p o n th e l o cal p olic e

blo tte r. I n c o ntr a st, th ere a re l a nd m ark s to rie s th at s ta nd o ut a nd e nd ure w hen c o lle ge s p orts h av e i m plic ati o ns f o r th e la rg er f a b ric , th e g o vern ance o f h ig her e d ucati o n. O ne e xam ple w ould i n clu d e th e n ew s c o vera ge a t P ennsy lv ania

Sta te U niv ers ity f r o m 2 011 th ro ugh 2 013, e m anati n g f r o m c harg es ( a nd c o nv ic ti o ns) o f c hild a b use i n v olv in g a c o ach.

Beyo nd s u ch s p ecific s, th is s to ry r a is e d f u nd am enta l c o ncern s a b out th e r o le o f b ig -ti m e s p orts i n u niv ers ity

go vern ance a nd th e r e sp onsib iliti e s o f i ts p re sid ent a nd tr u ste es. I t p ro vid ed a n a le rt to a ll u niv ers ity p re sid ents a nd

board s. L ong a fte r h ead lin e s to rie s o n th e f r o nt p age r e tu rn ed to th e s p orts p ages, c o lu m nis ts s u ch a s J o e N ocera o f

th e

New Y o rk T im es

h av e d ev ote d s u sta in ed a tte nti o n to q uesti o ns a b out th e N CA A a nd b ig -ti m e s p orts , s u ggesti n g

th at th e f u nd am enta l l e gal a nd p olic y q uesti o ns r a is e d i n iti a lly c an b e a c o nti n uin g s to ry i n c o lu m ns a nd o p-e d p ie ces.

How d o r e se arc hers a nd s c ho la rly a naly sts b est m ake s e nse o f th ese h is to ric al p atte rn s w ith th eir s p ik es,

vacilla ti o ns, a nd f lu ctu ati o ns? F ir s t, d ra m ati c a nd s u b sta nti v e r e p orts h av e p ow er to e lic it s tr o ng r e sp onse a t th e

mom ent, b ut th is i s n o t a r e lia b le o r c erta in s o urc e o f r e fo rm b ecause th e c o ncern s d is sip ate , a nd th e p ath to r e fo rm i s

no t c le ar. T he N CA A i s th e l ik ely s o urc e o f r e fo rm b ecause i t i s th e m ajo r b ody o f r e gula ti o n, b ut th is p ossib ility i s

ofte n tr u m ped b y th e N CA A’s a d diti o nal r o le a s th e p ro m ote r o f c o lle ge s p orts .

Ano th er m iti g ati n g f a cto r i s th at th e N CA A te nd s n o t to i n tr u d e i n to th e i n te rn al o pera ti o ns a nd d ecis io ns o f a

mem ber i n sti tu ti o n, s u ch a s i ts s p end in g o n c o lle ge s p orts a s p art o f to ta l i n sti tu ti o n p olic ie s a nd p ra cti c es. T he

NCA A m ay r e q uir e a s a c o nd iti o n o f D iv is io n I A m em bers h ip th at a n i n sti tu ti o n o ffe r a l a rg e n um ber o f s p orts f o r

men a nd w om en a nd th at i ts f o otb all te am s h o w c erta in a tta in m ents i n a tte nd ance. B ut th ese a re c ate go ric al a nd

th em ati c r e q uir e m ents a nd n o t r e ally c o nnecte d to a n i n sti tu ti o n’s a p pro pria ti o ns a nd a llo cati o ns. T he N CA A r e q uir e s

a D iv is io n I A p ro gra m to b e s e lf- s u p porti n g, a nd h ere o ne m ig ht e xp ect th is to b e a s ta nd ard o f s e lf- s u ffic ie ncy f r o m ,

fo r e xam ple , e d ucati o nal a nd g enera l f u nd s o f a u niv ers ity . T he s a lie nt d eta il i s th at a n i n sti tu ti o n c an d em onstr a te th at

it h as a s e lf- s u p porti n g a th le ti c p ro gra m th ro ugh v ario us r e v enue s tr e am s, i n clu d in g m and ato ry s tu d ent f e es o r

tr a nsfe rs f r o m th e f in ancia l a id o ffic e to th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent. A n a th le ti c d ep artm ent m ay b e r e q uir e d to p ro vid e

su b sta nti a l a cad em ic s u p port

se rv ic es f o r a th le te s, b ut th ere i s n o N CA A r e str ic ti o n o n h av in g th e n ecessa ry f u nd in g

co m in g f r o m th e p ro vost’ s o ffic e, w hic h m ay h av e d ra w n th ese r e so urc es f r o m tu iti o n r e v enues o f th e g enera l s tu d ent

body.

These a llo w ances— and d efe re nce to i n sti tu ti o nal a uto no m y a nd i n te rn al a llo cati o ns— will b e c ru cia l i n th e

tw enty -fir s t c entu ry b ecause th e c um ula ti v e p atte rn f o r m any d ecad es h as b een th at o nly a f e w m ajo r a th le ti c

pro gra m s s h o w th at th ey c an o pera te y ear a fte r y ear i n th e b la ck. O ne m ig ht e xp ect th at a r a ti o nal o rg aniz a ti o nal

re sp onse w ould b e to r e d uce o r e v en e lim in ate th o se p ro gra m s o r s u b pro gra m s th at l o se m oney. T hat i s u nlik ely to

hap pen.

Why a re th ese f in ancia l tr e nd s a nd s u b sid ie s w orth y o f “ fr o nt p age” c o vera ge? I t i s a r e sid ual o f th e p ers is te nt

nati o nal ( a nd f r o nt- p age) a tte nti o n g iv en to r is in g c o lle ge c o sts — and , f r o m th e p oin t o f v ie w o f s tu d ents a s

co nsu m ers , r is in g c o lle ge p ric e ( T helin , 2 013). T here s e em s to b e a d is c o nnect o r a v oid ance th at a t m any

univ ers iti e s th e g enera l s tu d ent— or s tu d ent b ody— is f a cin g a n i n cre ase i n tu iti o n a nd f e es i n p art b ecause e ach y ear

a g ro w in g d olla r a m ount ( a nd g ro w in g p erc enta ge) i s tr a nsfe rre d a w ay f r o m e d ucati o nal p ro gra m s a nd to w ard

ath le ti c p ro gra m s. T his w as o ne i m plic ati o n o f b oth th e D elta C ost P ro je ct o f 2 013 a nd th e e arlie r 2 009–2010 r e p ort

pub lis h ed b y th e K nig ht C om mis sio n. T he to ne o f c auti o n a nd c o ncern w as a ffir m ed b y J e ff O rle ans, e xecuti v e

dir e cto r e m eritu s o f th e I v y G ro up , i n h is k eyno te a d dre ss a t th e N CA A c o llo quiu m i n J a nuary 2 013 ( O rle ans, 2 013).

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

Am os A lo n zo S ta gg

Amos A lo nzo S ta gg i s p ro m in ent a m ong p io neerin g c o lle ge f o otb all c o aches a nd p la yers . H e w as e le cte d to th e

co lle ge f o otb all h all o f f a m e p rim arily o n th e b asis o f h is c o ntr ib uti o ns f o r h av in g c o ached a t th e U niv ers ity o f

Chic ago f r o m 1 892 to 1 932— with 2 42 v ic to rie s, 1 1 2 l o sse s, a nd 2 7 ti e s. T his i n clu d ed s e llo ut c ro w ds a nd s e v en

Big T en c ham pio nsh ip s, th e l a st c o m in g i n 1 924. S ta gg r e ti r e d f r o m th e U niv ers ity o f C hic ago i n 1 932 a nd w ent o n to

co ach i n C alifo rn ia a t th e C olle ge o f th e P acific f o r 1 4 y ears . S in ce h is d eath i n 1 965 a t th e a ge o f 1 02 h e h as b een

re v ere d . H e m ad e i n no vati o ns i n h o w f o otb all w as p la yed . S ta gg h as b een c re d ite d w ith i n tr o ducin g th e ta cklin g

dum my, th e r e v ers e , m an i n m oti o n p la ys, th e l a te ra l p ass, th e p osti n g o f n um bers o n u nifo rm s, a nd th e e nd -o f- s e aso n

pra cti c e o f a w ard in g v ars ity l e tte rs to p la yers .

Sta gg’s r e co rd a s a w in nin g f o otb all c o ach h as i r o nic ally te nd ed to o vers h ad ow h is l e gacy f o r m akin g th e c o lle ge

co ach a nd a th le ti c d ir e cto r a d om in ant— and o fte n d om in eerin g— ro le i n A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n. B eyo nd h is

pla yin g a nd c o achin g o n th e f ie ld , h e r e m ain s i n flu enti a l to day f o r h is i n no vati o ns i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n, p ro m oti o n,

co m merc ia liz a ti o n, a nd f u nd in g o f c o lle ge s p orts . H e c o m bin ed f o otb all c o ach a nd d ir e cto r o f th e D ep artm ent o f Physic al C ultu re . T his w as a c o ncentr a ti o n o f p ow er i n w hic h h e l ite ra lly “ re p orte d to h im se lf.” B y o ur s ta nd ard s

to day, i t c o nsti tu te s b oth a c o nflic t o f i n te re st a nd a n o vere m phasis o n s p orts a t th e e xp ense o f a cad em ic s. A no th er

achie v em ent, p erh ap s i n su lti n g to a cad em ic v alu es, w as th at a lo ng w ith h is r o le a s a c ele b rity c o ach h e g ain ed a

fa culty a p poin tm ent w ith te nure . T he p re sid ent o f th e u niv ers ity a llo w ed h im to b yp ass c o nv enti o nal b ud geti n g

pro ced ure s r e q uir e d o f o th er u niv ers ity d ep artm ents . S ta gg r e p orte d d ir e ctl y to th e B oard o f T ru ste es a nd p io neere d

fu nd ra is in g f r o m th e C hic ago b usin ess c o m munity . A s d ir e cto r o f a th le ti c s h e d ev is e d n um ero us s o urc es o f r a is in g

money a nd g ain in g p ub lic ity f o r h is te am s. H e h ad th e U niv ers ity o f C hic ago h o st I llin o is s ta te c ham pio nsh ip

to urn am ents i n tr a ck a nd f ie ld a nd o th er s p orts . W ith in th e u niv ers ity c o m munity , h e k ep t a c lo se e ye o n f a ciliti e s a nd

fu nd in g— he e v en r a is e d r e v enues b y c harg in g f a culty a nd s ta ff i f th ey w is h ed to p la y o n u niv ers ity te nnis c o urts .

Such l ic ense p ro vid ed o pportu niti e s f o r s p end in g a nd r e cru iti n g w ith o ut th e d is tr a cti o ns o f i n te rfe re nce o r o vers ig ht.

He w as a n o rg aniz a ti o nal g eniu s w ho s e t th e p re ced ent a nd c re ate d th e m old f o r th e p ow erfu l, a uto no m ous

in te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c p ro gra m w ith in a u niv ers ity c am pus. F or b ette r a nd w ors e , h ig her e d ucati o n s ti ll l iv es w ith

his l e gacy e v en i n to th e tw enty -fir s t c entu ry .

TH E C O NFLU EN CE O F A C AD EM IC L EA D ER S A N D A T H LETIC S I S SU ES

Are a cad em ic l e ad ers l is te nin g? D esp ite th e p re p ond era nce o f s o berin g d ata , s o m e u niv ers ity b oard s a nd p re sid ents

pers is t i n th e p urs u it o f b ig -ti m e f o otb all e xcelle nce a s a s o urc e o f i n sti tu ti o nal l e v era ge. A n i n cre d ib le c o in cid ence

with th e D elta C ost P ro je ct R ep ort w as th e D ecem ber 2 9, 2 012,

New Y o rk T im es

f e atu re a rti c le o n th e U niv ers ity o f

Massa chuse tts , A mhers t a nd i ts d ecis io n to e nhance th e p ro gra m f o r F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n ( F B S) e lig ib ility a nd

parti c ip ati o n ( P ennin gto n, 2 012). T he n ew c hancello r, a cco rd in g to th e

New Y o rk T im es

r e p orte r, s u p porte d th e

decis io n to p urs u e F B S s ta tu s a s a “ re aso nab le c alc ula te d r is k .” H e e la b ora te d , “ If m anaged p ro perly , w e w ill c o m e

out b ette r f o r i t … T here a re r is k s to a cad em ic i n v estm ents , to o. W hen w e b uild a n ew r e se arc h c ente r, i t i s w ith th e

ho pe o f a ttr a cti n g m ore r e se arc h g ra nts . S o th at i s a r is k . I t i s i m porta nt to k eep i n m in d th at th e to ta l a th le ti c s b ud get

is 4 p erc ent o f o ur e xp end itu re s.”

This p ub lic e xp la nati o n a nd j u sti fic ati o n b y th e c hancello r o f th e U niv ers ity o f M assa chuse tts r a is e s s e v era l

questi o ns f o r p olic y a nd p ra cti c e. F ir s t, b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts h av e a d ub io us r e co rd i n d em onstr a ti n g th at th ey c an

be “ m anaged p ro perly .” S eco nd , to e xp la in a w ay th e s p orts i n v estm ent b ecause i t i s “ o nly 4 p erc ent o f th e to ta l

univ ers ity b ud get” i s f la w ed . T hat i s a l a rg e p erc enta ge a nd a l o t o f d olla rs . I f a u niv ers ity h as a n a nnual b ud get o f

$1.5 b illio n, th en i ts a th le ti c d ep artm ent w ould h av e a n o pera ti n g b ud get o f a b out $ 60 m illio n p er a cad em ic y ear. I ts

re la ti v ely l a rg e s iz e b eco m es m ore e v id ent i f, f o r e xam ple , i t i s c o m pare d to th e e xp ense s o f m ajo r a cad em ic u nits o n

cam pus, s u ch a s a C olle ge o f E ngin eerin g o r a C olle ge o f A rts a nd S cie nces.

Consid er th e a ctu al n um bers f o r th e c ase o f th e U niv ers ity o f K entu cky— a f la gsh ip s ta te u niv ers ity w ith a to ta l

enro llm ent o f a b out 2 5,0 00 s tu d ents . I t i s a r e se arc h u niv ers ity k no w n a s “ R 1,” s ig nify in g a c o m mitm ent to P h.D .

pro gra m s a nd s p onso re d f e d era l r e se arc h g ra nts . I t a ls o h as a m ed ic al c ente r a nd te achin g h o sp ita l. I ts to ta l a nnual

opera ti n g b ud get w as a b out $ 2.1 b illio n i n 2 011 –2012. T he i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s b ud get w as a b out $ 80 m illio n—

slig htl y b elo w th e 4 % s ta nd ard . I n c o ntr a st, th e C olle ge o f A rts a nd S cie nces ( th e a cad em ic u nit w ith th e l a rg est

enro llm ent) h as a n a nnual b ud get o f a b out $ 68 m illio n; th e C olle ge o f B usin ess, $ 32 m illio n; th e

Colle ge o f

Agric ultu re , i n clu d in g i ts s ta te w id e e xte nsio n p ro gra m s a nd i n sti tu te s, $ 149 m illio n; a nd th e C olle ge o f E ngin eerin g,

$37 m illio n.

In s u m , th is b ud geta ry a naly sis s h o w s th at a b ig -ti m e a th le ti c s b ud get te nd s to s u rp ass th e b ud get o f m ost o f th e

in d iv id ual m ajo r a cad em ic u nits th at o ffe r c o urs e s a nd d egre e p ro gra m s. S pend in g o n a cad em ic p ro gra m s w as

in cre asin g a t a r a te l o w er th an th at f o r a th le ti c p ro gra m s. F urth erm ore , th e e arly tw enty -fir s t c entu ry i s n o t a v ery

go od ti m e f o r a sp ir in g i n sti tu ti o ns to a tte m pt to r a tc het u p th eir s p end in g o n r e se arc h i n sti tu te s; th ese te nd to b e i ll-

fa te d , m oney l o sin g v entu re s f o r th o se u niv ers iti e s n o t m em bers o f th e A sso cia ti o n o f A meric an U niv ers iti e s. F in ally ,

a d ecis io n b y th e b oard o f tr u ste es to a llo cate r e so urc es to a n a cad em ic u nit i s m ark ed ly d iffe re nt f r o m a c o m mitm ent

to a th le ti c s f o r th e b asic r e aso n th at a cad em ic p ro gra m s a re c entr a l to th e i n sti tu ti o nal m is sio n w hile th e a th le ti c

dep artm ent i s n o t.

CO NCLU SIO N

Even i n th e s e le ct c ir c le o f u niv ers iti e s w ith l u cra ti v e i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts p ro gra m s, o ne m ay f in d i n th e e arly

tw enty -fir s t c entu ry th at th e p ro verb ia l g o ld en g o ose m ay l a y a n e gg. S pecific ally , th e m ove b y b ig c o nfe re nces ( s u ch

as T he B ig T en a nd th e S outh east C onfe re nce a nd s o m e i n sti tu ti o ns ( n o ta b ly th e U niv ers ity o f T exas) to c re ate th eir ow n te le v is io n n etw ork s a nd p ackages o fte n i s h aile d a s a n ew m odel f o r c o lle ge s p orts f in ancin g. B ut th is

im med ia te s o urc e o f r e v enue m ay b e d ra in in g a nd d ysfu ncti o nal o ver th e l o ng h aul. N ote th at a lr e ad y i n th e g re ate r

Los A ngele s a re a m ark et, c ab le te le v is io n p ro vid ers r e q uir e s u b sc rib ers to p ay f o r a s p orts p ackage a s p art o f th eir

bund le , w heth er th ey w ant i t o r n o t. A t s o m e p oin t, th ere w ill b e s a tu ra ti o n i n v ie w ers a nd a d verti s e rs f o r c o lle ge

sp orts . A lr e ad y o ne f in d s i n D ecem ber th at m any o f th e c o lle ge f o otb all b ow l g am es y ear a fte r y ear s u ffe r l o w

atte nd ance w ith v ast s e cti o ns o f e m pty s e ats a nd l o w T V r a ti n gs. O nly th e b ig gest g am es, u su ally p la yed a nd

bro ad cast i n J a nuary , a re a n e xcep ti o n to th is g enera l r u le .

The r e sid ual i n fe re nce i s th at i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i n th e tw enty -fir s t c entu ry c alls o ut f o r r e fo rm s th at a re n o

le ss th an a “ N ew D eal” i n b oth th e c o nd uct a nd th e f in ancin g o f th is d is ti n cti v ely A meric an e nte rp ris e . T he h is to ric

move f r o m th e s p orts p age to th e f r o nt p age i n cre asin gly w ill a d d s o berin g n ew s to th e h ead lin es a nno uncin g th e

cele b ra ti o n o f c ham pio nsh ip te am s.

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

H as th ere e v er b een a g o ld en a ge o f c o lle ge s p orts i n w hic h a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c s v alu es w ere i n a p pro pria te

bala nce? I f s o , w hen a nd w here d o y o u th in k th is h as ta ken p la ce?

I n c o ntr a st to th e f ir s t q uesti o n, i s th ere a n e ra i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s w hen e xcesse s a nd a b use s o f

co m merc ia lis m a nd o vere m phasis w ere m ost r a m pant?

W hat i s th e a p pro pria te p la ce a nd r o le o f th e a th le ti c d ir e cto r i n th e o rg aniz a ti o nal c hart, g o vern ance, a nd c ultu re

of a c o lle ge o r u niv ers ity c am pus? G iv e e xam ple s w here y o u th in k th is b ala nce i s f u lfille d r e aso nab ly w ell, a nd

pro vid e e xam ple s w here i t i s s e rio usly o ff c o urs e .

Refe re n ces

Bis h o p, G . ( 2 013, J a nuary 8 ). A ll A la b am a i n ti tl e g am e: A la b am a 4 2, N otr e D am e 1 4.

New Y o rk T im es

, p . A 1.

Boors ti n , D . ( 1 961).

The i m age: A g uid e t o p se u do e ven ts i n A m eric a .

N ew Y ork : H arp er a nd R ow .

Desro chers , D . M . ( 2 013).

Aca dem ic s p en din g v ersu s a th le tic s p en din g: W ho w in s?

W ash in gto n, D C: D elta C ost

Pro je ct o f th e A sso cia ti o n o f I n sti tu te s f o r R ese arc h.

Knig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s. ( 1 991).

Keep in g f a ith w ith t h e s tu den t- a th le te

. C harlo tte , N C:

Knig ht F ound ati o n.

———. ( 2 010).

Resto rin g t h e b ala nce: D olla rs, v a lu es a nd t h e f u tu re o f c o lle g e s p orts

. M ia m i, F L: K nig ht

Found ati o n.

Law re nce, P . R . ( 1 987).

Unsp orts m anlik e c o nduct: T he N atio nal C olle g ia te A th le tic A sso cia tio n a nd t h e b usin ess

of c o lle g e f o otb all

. N ew Y ork : P ra eger.

Leste r, R . ( 1 995).

Sta gg’s U niv ersity : T he r is e , d eclin e, a nd f a ll o f b ig -tim e f o otb all a t C hic a go

. U rb ana:

Univ ers ity o f I llin o is P re ss.

Lew in , T . ( 2 013, J a nuary 1 6). A t m any to p p ub lic u niv ers iti e s, i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts c o m es a t a n a cad em ic p ric e.

New Y o rk T im es

, p . A 1.

Marti n , A . ( 2 013, J a nuary 1 6). M oody’s g iv es c o lle ges a n egati v e g ra d e.

New Y o rk T im es

, p . A 1.

Nocera , J . ( 2 012, N ovem ber 1 9). R ace a nd th e N CA A.

New Y o rk T im es

, p . A 25.

Oria rd , M . ( 1 993).

Rea din g f o otb all: H ow t h e p opula r p re ss c re a te d a n A m eric a n s p ecta cle

. C hap el H ill:

Univ ers ity o f N orth C aro lin a P re ss.

———. ( 2 009).

Bow le d o ver: B ig -tim e c o lle g e f o otb all f r o m t h e s ix tie s t o t h e B C S e ra

. C hap el H ill: U niv ers ity o f

North C aro lin a P re ss.

Orle ans, J . ( 2 013, J a nuary 1 6).

The e ffe cts o f t h e e co nom ic m odel o f c o lle g e s p ort o n a th le te e d uca tio nal

exp erie n ce

. P ap er p re se nte d a t th e N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n S cho la rly C ollo quiu m , G ra p ev in e,

Texas.

Pennin gto n, B . ( 2 012, D ecem ber 2 9). B ig d re am , r u d e a w akenin g.

New Y o rk T im es

, p . B 1.

Sav age. H . J . ( 1 929).

Am eric a n c o lle g e a th le tic s

. N ew Y ork : C arn egie F ound ati o n f o r th e A dvancem ent o f T eachin g,

Bulle ti n N um ber T w enty -T hre e.

Tham el, P . ( 2 006, J u ly 1 4). T op g ra d es a nd n o c la ss ti m e f o r A ub urn p la yers .

New Y o rk T im es

, p . A 1.

Thelin , J . R . ( 1 994).

Gam es c o lle g es p la y: S ca ndal a nd r e fo rm i n i n te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic s

. B alti m ore : J o hns Hopkin s U niv ers ity P re ss.

———. ( 2 013).

The r is in g c o sts o f h ig her e d uca tio n

. S anta B arb ara : A BC C LIO .

Wolv erto n, B . ( 2 013a, J a nuary 1 6). R ep ort d esc rib es b ig g ap s i n a th le ti c v s. a cad em ic s p end in g.

Chro nic le o f

Hig her E duca tio n

, p . A 1.

Wolv erto n, B . ( 2 013b, J a nuary 1 6). N CA A w ith d ra w s f in ancia l s u p port f o r i ts s c ho la rly c o llo quiu m .

Chro nic le o f

Hig her E duca tio n

, p . A 1.

C H APTER

O RG ANIZ A TIO N a n d G OVER NANCE o f t h e N CAA

J am es S atte rfie ld

K EY T ER M S

org aniz atio n

govern ance

co nduct

mem bersh ip

T he o rg aniz a ti o n w e k no w to day a s th e N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n ( N CA A) i s th e p olic y a rm f o r a

w id e r a nge o f s p orts , s c ho ols , a nd o rg aniz a ti o ns th ro ugho ut N orth A meric a. Y et th e N CA A a s i t e xis ts to day i s th e

o ffs p rin g o f th e e arly c hao ti c a nd h o m ic id al o rg aniz a ti o n w ith w hic h f o otb all b egan ( C ro w le y, 2 006). A s th e U nite d

S ta te s w as ta kin g s h ap e i n th e e arly p ost– C iv il W ar e ra , A meric a w as a ls o e xp erie ncin g a g ro w in g i n te re st i n th e

g am e o f f o otb all. I n 1 873 th e I n te rc o lle gia te F ootb all A sso cia ti o n ( IF A ) w as c re ate d , a nd i t w as th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s

r u le c hanges to th e e arly g am e th at b egan th e tr a nsiti o n f r o m a s p ort r e se m blin g s o ccer to o ne b ein g p la yed m ore l ik e

r u gb y, a r o ugher, m ore p hysic al s p ort ( C ro w le y, 2 006). T he f ir s t- e v er c ham pio nsh ip f o otb all g am e w as h eld i n N ew

Y ork C ity i n 1 876 ( M orris , 2 004). I ts p opula rity r e ached n ew h eig hts b y 1 878 w hen a to ta l o f 4 ,0 00 p eo ple c am e to

w atc h th e Y ale -P rin ceto n g am e ( L in d quis t, 2 006). A lth o ugh th e f u ncti o n o f th e I F A a p peare d to b e s tr o ng i n iti a lly ,

s c ho ols b egan d ro ppin g f o otb all, w hic h w eakened th e o rg aniz a ti o n, r e nd erin g i t o bso le te b y th e 1 890s ( C ro w le y,

2 006; M orris , 2 004). T he I F A w as f o llo w ed b y th e b rie f e xis te nce o f th e A meric an F ootb all R ule s C om mitte e

( A FR C). D esp ite f u rth er r u le c hanges, th e g am e w as s ti ll b ru ta l, a nd th e c o m ple xity a sso cia te d w ith c o ntr o llin g th e

g am e g re w , a s d id i ts f a n b ase a nd th e i n sti tu ti o nal d esir e to w in .

These e arly a sso cia ti o ns w ere l a rg ely c o ntr o lle d b y s tu d ents a nd d id v ery l ittl e to c urb th e v io le nce a nd b ru ta lity

t h at h ad c o m e to b e a sso cia te d w ith th e g am e. T he d eath s c ause d b y f o otb all c aught th e a tte nti o n o f P re sid ent

T heo dore R oose v elt. R oose v elt h ad a tr u e r e sp ect f o r f o otb all, a s h e b elie v ed i n th e v ir tu e o f th e g am e a nd th e v alu es

h e b elie v ed i t

ta ught ( W atte rs o n, 2 000). B y 1 905, th e v io le nce h ad n o w r e ached a p oin t w here tu rn in g a b lin d e ye

w ould h av e b een i r re sp onsib le . P re sid ent R oose v elt h o ste d a m eeti n g a t th e W hite H ouse w ith r e p re se nta ti v es f r o m

m ajo r f o otb all p ro gra m s to d is c uss th e r u le s o f th e g am e.

Alth o ugh P re sid ent R oose v elt’ s p ro pose d c hanges w ere m et w ith m uch r e sis ta nce f r o m s o m e c o lle ge p re sid ents ,

h e c o nv in ced th e A FR C a nd th e n ew ly f o rm ed r u le s c o m mitte e w ith in th e N ati o nal F ootb all C onfe re nce o f

U niv ers iti e s a nd C olle ges to f o rm a j o in t c o m mitte e. A s a r e su lt, a n ew e xecuti v e c o m mitte e w as e v entu ally f o rm ed

t o d ev elo p a c o nsti tu ti o n a nd b yla w s to h elp s ta nd ard iz e f o otb all a cro ss th e c o untr y . U lti m ate ly , th is l e d to th e f ir s t

o rg aniz e d c o nv enti o n, h eld i n D ecem ber o f 1 906, a nd a d opti o n o f th e n am e T he I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n,

w hic h w as c hanged to th e N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n ( N CA A) i n 1 910 ( C ro w le y, 2 006; S m ith , 2 000).

R O LE A N D F U NCTIO N O F T H E N CAA

A fte r th e e sta b lis h m ent o f w hat w e k no w to day a s th e N CA A, i t s ti ll to ok y ears f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n to g ain th e p ow er

t o r e sh ap e th e c ultu re w ith in th e a d m in is tr a ti o n o f c o lle gia te a th le ti c s. T he o rig in al c o nsti tu ti o n o utl in ed th at

a cti v iti e s “ sh all b e m ain ta in ed o n a n e th ic al p la ne i n k eep in g w ith th e d ig nity a nd h ig h p urp ose o f e d ucati o n”

( N CA A.o rg

). T he i d ea o f th e N CA A a cti n g a s a c entr a l a uth o rity o ver a ll a th le ti c p ro gra m s w as d is c usse d d urin g th e

a sso cia ti o n’s i n fa ncy; h o w ev er, th e n o ti o n w as r e je cte d , a nd th e r e sp onsib ility o f e nfo rc in g s ta nd ard s w as l e ft to th e

i n sti tu ti o ns th ro ugh w hat w as c alle d h o m e r u le ( P ie rc e, 1 909). I t to ok n early 5 0 y ears f o r th e N CA A to d ev elo p a diffe re nt p ers p ecti v e o n r u le e nfo rc em ent.

The N CA A’s o pera ti o n i s v ery d iffe re nt f r o m i ts o rig in al i n cep ti o n. N ot o nly a re th ere a re m ore c o lle ges a nd

univ ers iti e s i n N orth A meric a to day, b ut th ey a ls o a re m ore e xp ensiv e to o pera te a nd a tte nd a nd o ffe r m ore

opportu niti e s f o r s p ort p arti c ip ati o n. T here a re a ls o l a w s g o vern in g th e e q uita b le i m ple m enta ti o n o f s p orts o n

co lle ge c am puse s f o r m en a nd w om en. A s s u ch, th e

NCAA D iv is io n I M anual

( 2 012a) h as n in e f u nd am enta l p urp ose s

th at h elp i t g o vern , o utl in ed a s f o llo w s:

T o i n iti a te , s ti m ula te a nd i m pro ve i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s p ro gra m s f o r s tu d ent- a th le te s a nd to p ro m ote a nd

dev elo p e d ucati o n l e ad ers h ip , p hysic al f itn ess, a th le ti c s e xcelle nce a nd a th le ti c s p arti c ip ati o n a s r e cre ati o nal

purs u it

T o u p ho ld th e p rin cip le o f i n sti tu ti o nal c o ntr o l o f, a nd r e sp onsib ility f o r, a ll i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts i n c o nfo rm ity

with th e c o nsti tu ti o n a nd b yla w s o f th is A sso cia ti o n

T o e nco ura ge i ts m em bers to a d opt e lig ib ility r u le s to c o m ply w ith s a ti s fa cto ry s ta nd ard s o f s c ho la rs h ip ,

sp orts m ansh ip a nd a m ate uris m

T o f o rm ula te , c o pyrig ht, a nd p ub lis h r u le s o f p la y g o vern in g i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s

T o p re se rv e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c r e co rd s

T o s u p erv is e th e c o nd uct o f, a nd to e sta b lis h e lig ib ility s ta nd ard s f o r, r e gio nal a nd n ati o nal a th le ti c e v ents u nd er

th e a usp ic es o f th is A sso cia ti o n

T o c o opera te w ith o th er a m ate ur a th le ti c s o rg aniz a ti o ns i n p ro m oti n g a nd c o nd ucti n g n ati o nal a nd i n te rn ati o nal

ath le ti c e v ents

T o l e gis la te , th ro ugh b yla w s o r b y r e so lu ti o n o f a C onv enti o n, u p on a ny s u b je ct o f g enera l c o ncern to th e

mem bers r e la te d to th e a d m in is tr a ti o n o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s

T o s tu d y i n g enera l a ll p hase s o f c o m peti ti v e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd e sta b lis h s ta nd ard s w here b y th e

co lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s o f th e U nite d S ta te s c an m ain ta in th eir a th le ti c s p ro gra m s o n a h ig h l e v el ( p . 1 )

These s p ecific p urp ose s a re r o ote d i n w hat th e N CA A c alls a f u nd am enta l p olic y. T he N CA A p olic y s ta te s, “ T he

co m peti ti v e a th le ti c s p ro gra m s o f m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns a re d esig ned to b e a v ita l p art o f th e e d ucati o nal s y ste m . A

basic p urp ose o f th is A sso cia ti o n i s to m ain ta in i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a s a n i n te gra l p art o f th e e d ucati o nal

pro gra m a nd th e a th le te a s a n i n te gra l p art o f th e s tu d y b ody a nd , b y s o d oin g, r e ta in a c le ar l in e o f d em arc ati o n

betw een i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd p ro fe ssio nal s p orts ” ( p . 1 ). T ogeth er, th ese n in e p urp ose s a nd th e f u nd am enta l

polic y o f th e N CA A e sta b lis h a n o pera ti n g s ta nd ard . I t i s th e r e su lt o f th ese tw o g uid in g p rin cip le s f r o m w hic h a ll

oth er r e gula to ry a sp ects a re d eriv ed a nd th us h elp to f o rm th e b asis o f th e N CA A p rin cip le s o f c o nd uct.

NCAA P R IN CIP LES F O R C O NDUCT O F I N TER CO LLEG IA T E A T H LETIC S

The N CA A e sta b lis h ed 1 6 P rin cip le s o f C ond uct. T he p re m is e o f th ese p rin cip le s i s to h elp to g uid e m em ber

in sti tu ti o ns i n th e g o vern ance a nd a d m in is tr a ti o n o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. T he f ir s t i s th e

Prin cip le o f I n stitu tio nal

Contr o l a nd R esp onsib ility

. W ith in th is p rin cip le , th ere a re tw o s u b prin cip le s: R esp onsib ility o f C ontr o l a nd S co pe

of R esp onsib ility . T he R esp onsib ility o f C ontr o l i s r o ote d i n th e o rig in al i d ea o f h o m e r u le , b ut n o t f r o m th e

pers p ecti v e o f a th le ti c p ro gra m s e sta b lis h in g th eir o w n r u le s. T his r u le e sta b lis h es c o ntr o l a nd r e sp onsib ility w ith in

th e m em ber i n sti tu ti o n to c o m ply w ith a ll o f th e r u le s a nd r e gula ti o ns o f th e N CA A. T hro ugh th e S co pe o f

Resp onsib ility p rin cip le , th e N CA A e sta b lis h es a cco unta b ility a t th e m em ber l e v el f o r th e c o nd uct o f i ts a th le ti c

pers o nnel.

The

Prin cip le o f S tu den t- A th le te W ell- B ein g

i s i n p la ce to h elp p ro te ct th e w elfa re o f s tu d ent a th le te s b oth

ed ucati o nally a nd p hysic ally . T his p rin cip le i s m ad e

up o f s ix s u b prin cip le s: ( a ) O vera ll E ducati o nal E xp erie nce; ( b )

Cultu ra l D iv ers ity a nd G end er E quity ; ( c ) H ealth a nd S afe ty ; ( d ) S tu d ent- A th le te a nd C oach R ela ti o nsh ip ; ( e )

Fair n ess, O penness, a nd H onesty ; a nd ( f) S tu d ent- A th le te I n v olv em ent. T his p rin cip le i s v ita l to th e o vera ll

pro sp erity o f th e a th le te a nd th e e nv ir o nm ent i n w hic h h e o r s h e p arti c ip ate s.

The

Prin cip le o f G en der E quity

i s th e th ir d p rin cip le a nd i s r o ote d i n th e l a w T itl e I X p asse d i n 1 972. I ts

su b prin cip le s— Com plia nce w ith F ed era l a nd S ta te L egis la ti o n, N CA A L egis la ti o n, a nd G end er B ia s— help g ro und

th is p rin cip le w ith in th e w ork in gs o f th e N CA A. S in ce m ost D iv is io n I i n sti tu ti o ns r e ceiv e s o m e f o rm o f f e d era l a id , it i s u p to th e i n sti tu ti o n to m ain ta in c o m plia nce w ith th e f e d era l a nd s ta te l a w s p erta in in g to g end er e q uity . H ow ev er,

it i s e q ually i m porta nt f o r th e N CA A n o t to e m bra ce l e gis la ti o n th at w ould h in d er th e a b ility o f th e i n sti tu ti o ns to

co m ply w ith g end er e q uity l a w s ( N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a).

Today, d is h o nesty a nd u neth ic al c o nd uct i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s s e em to o ccur m ore f r e q uentl y . W hile th e

NCA A c anno t c o ntr o l i n d iv id ual b ehav io r, i t c an c erta in ly m ake a s ta te m ent o n i ts p ositi o n a nd h av e d one s o th ro ugh

th e

Prin cip le o f S ports m ansh ip a nd E th ic a l C onduct

. T he b asic te net o f th is p rin cip le i s m akin g s u re th at a th le ti c

pro gra m s m ain ta in p olic ie s i n s p orts m ansh ip a nd e th ic al c o nd uct th at a re c o nsis te nt w ith th e e d ucati o nal m is sio n a nd

go als o f th e i n sti tu ti o n ( N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a).

Over th e y ears , a cad em ic s ta nd ard s f o r a th le te s h av e c hanged to h elp e nsu re a c le ar a nd c o nsis te nt p ath to w ard

gra d uati o n f o r s tu d ent a th le te s. T he

Prin cip le o f S ound A ca dem ic S ta ndard s

h elp s s a fe guard th at th e a d m is sio n,

acad em ic s ta nd in g, a nd a cad em ic p ro gre ss a re c o nsis te nt w ith th e o vera ll p olic ie s i n th e n o nath le te g enera l

popula ti o n. C olle ge a th le te s a re r e q uir e d to e nro ll a s f u ll- ti m e s tu d ents a nd m ust c o m ple te 4 0% o f th eir d egre e

re q uir e m ents b y th e e nd o f th eir s e co nd y ear o f a th le ti c e lig ib ility , 6 0% b y th e e nd o f th eir th ir d y ear o f a th le ti c

elig ib ility , a nd 8 0% b y th e e nd o f th eir a th le ti c e lig ib ility ( S atte rfie ld , C ro ft, G odfr e y, & F lin t, 2 010).

Most o rg aniz a ti o ns h av e a n o nd is c rim in ati o n p olic y, a nd th e N CA A i s n o d iffe re nt. T he

Prin cip le o f

Nondis c rim in atio n

i s i n p la ce to e nsu re th e “ re sp ect f o r a nd s e nsiti v ity to th e d ig nity o f e v ery p ers o n” ( N CA A

Div is io n I , 2 012a, p . 4 ). H ow ev er, i t i s th e r e sp onsib ility o f th e m em ber i n sti tu ti o n to d ev elo p a nd m ain ta in p olic ie s

re gard in g n o nd is c rim in ati o n. N ev erth ele ss, h av in g p olic ie s i n p la ce d oes n o t m ean th e N CA A o r m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns

are i m mune to l a w su its . I n f a ct, a g end er e q uity l a w su it f ile d i n 2 009 b y m em bers o f th e Q uin nip ia c U niv ers ity

wom en’s v olle yb all te am a rg ued th at i t w as b ein g d is c rim in ate d a gain st b ecause th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent w as

elim in ati n g w om en’s v olle yb all i n f a v or o f c o m peti ti v e c heerle ad in g. I n 2 010 th e U .S . D is tr ic t C ourt i s su ed a n

in ju ncti o n a gain st Q uin nip ia c U niv ers ity , r u lin g th at c heerle ad in g d id n o t m eet th e s ta nd ard o f a s p ort a s i t p erta in ed

to T itl e I X . T he l a w su it w as u lti m ate ly s e ttl e d i n 2 013 w ith Q uin nip ia c U niv ers ity a gre ein g to k eep a ll o f i ts c urre nt

wom en’s te am s, to a d d s c ho la rs h ip s, a nd to i m pro ve f a ciliti e s f o r i ts f e m ale a th le te s (

Bie d ig er v . Q uin nip ia c

Univ ersity

, 2 009).

The N CA A a ls o h as a s ta nd ard r e la te d d iv ers ity p olic y c alle d th e

Prin cip le o f D iv ersity w ith in G overn ance

Str u ctu re s

, w hic h w ork s to a d dre ss i s su es o f g end er a nd e th nic d iv ers ity w ith in th e v ario us N CA A d iv is io nal

str u ctu re s. T o h elp m ove to w ard a m ore i n clu siv e a nd r e p re se nta ti v e N CA A, th e M in o rity O pportu niti e s a nd I n te re sts

Com mitte e a nd th e C om mitte e o n W om en’s A th le ti c s s p ecific ally a d dre ss i s su es r e la te d to d iv ers ity w ith in i ts

str u ctu re . T he N CA A a ls o h as a n I n clu sio n O vers ig ht C om mitte e th at c o m pris e d m em bers o f th e M in o rity

Opportu niti e s C om mitte e a nd th e C om mitte e o n W om en’s A th le ti c s th at h elp to m ain ta in a c hecks-a nd -b ala nce s y ste m

(N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a).

CASE S T U DY

Mou nta in V ie w U niv ersit y : A C ase o f G en der E quit y

Mounta in V ie w U niv ers ity i s a n ew p ro vis io nally a ccep te d C anad ia n u niv ers ity th at h as e nte re d th e N CA A u nd er th e

10-y ear p ilo t p ro gra m . I n p re p ara ti o n f o r e nte rin g th e N CA A, M ounta in V ie w a d ded c o m peti ti v e m en’s f e ncin g b ut

did n o t a d d a ny n ew w om en’s s p orts p ro gra m s. T his a ngere d a l o t o f w om en, a nd d urin g a m en’s b ask etb all g am e

se v era l w om en p ro te ste d th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent’ s r e fu sa l to i m med ia te ly a d d w om en’s s p orts , c iti n g th e N CA A’s

co m mitm ent to T itl e I X . W hen a p pro ached b y a l o cal te le v is io n s ta ti o n, M ounta in V ie w ’s a th le ti c d ir e cto r, B re nt

Tanner, s a id , “ M ounta in V ie w s u p ports a ll i ts c o m peti ti v e a nd c lu b s p ort a th le te s, a nd e v en th o ugh o ur m en’s s p orts

outn um ber o ur w om en’s s p orts , w e a lr e ad y h av e a g end er e q uity p olic y i n p la ce th at g ets a t th e s p ir it o f T itl e I X s o

we d on’t n eed to c o ncern o urs e lv es w ith th e A meric an i d ea o f m en a nd w om en c o m peti ti v e s p ort p ro porti o nality .”

This r e sp onse d id n o t g o o ver w ell w ith A meric an u niv ers iti e s s c hed ule d to p la y M ounta in V ie w a nd s p ark ed s o m e

pro te st b y A meric an w om en’s g ro up s a t s o m e a th le ti c e v ents . T anner r e sp ond ed a gain b y p ub lic iz in g a c ap ita l

cam paig n to r a is e m oney to u p date s o m e a th le ti c s f a ciliti e s a nd c o m mis sio ned a s e lf- s tu d y to e xp lo re th e p ossib ility

of a d din g n ew w om en’s s p orts p ro gra m s. H ow ev er, th e d am age w as a lr e ad y d one. T hre e m onth s l a te r B re nt T anner

was f ir e d , a nd a n ew a th le ti c d ir e cto r w as h ir e d , b ut n o n ew w om en’s s p orts w ere i m med ia te ly a d ded .

NCA A r u le s i n fr a cti o ns c o m mitte d b y i n sti tu ti o ns o r a th le te s th em se lv es h av e r e ceiv ed c o nsid era b le p ub lic

atte nti o n. M any p eo ple a re f a m ilia r w ith th e v ery p ub lic d is p la y o f th e P enn S ta te U niv ers ity f o otb all s c and al o r th e

co llo quia l te rm “ d eath p enalty ” i m pose d o n th e S outh ern M eth o dis t U niv ers ity f o otb all i n th e m id -1 980s. T he Prin cip le o f R ule s C om plia nce

i s a k ey e le m ent o f th e w ork a sso cia te d w ith th e o pera ti o ns o f th e N CA A. W ith in th is

prin cip le , th ere a re th re e s u b prin cip le s: R esp onsib ility o f th e I n sti tu ti o n, R esp onsib ility o f th e A sso cia ti o n, a nd

Penalty f o r N onco m plia nce. T he N CA A h o ld s e ach m em ber i n sti tu ti o n r e sp onsib le f o r a ny n o nco m plia nce r e la te d

matte r a nd e xp ects e ach m em ber i n sti tu ti o n to b e f o rth rig ht i n r e p orti n g p ote nti a l n o nco m plia nce i s su es to th e N CA A.

The N CA A a ls o a ssis ts e ach m em ber i n sti tu ti o n i n r e achin g f u ll c o m plia nce ( N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a). T he i s su es

of n o nco m plia nce c an v ary f r o m s m all i n fr a cti o ns l ik e a n a ccid enta l p ho ne c all to a h ig h s c ho ol s o pho m ore o r a

majo r i n fr a cti o n l ik e p ayin g a th le te s. I t i s c o nsid ere d a d vanta geo us f o r a n a th le ti c d ep artm ent to r e p ort a n a lle ged

vio la ti o n to th e N CA A i n o rd er to c o rre ct s itu ati o ns b efo re th ey d ev elo p i n to a m ajo r i n fr a cti o n.

There h as b een a tr e m end ous a m ount o f d is c ussio n o ver th e y ears r e gard in g a m ate uris m i n s p orts . S om e b elie v e

th e a m ount o f m oney g enera te d b y f o otb all b ow l g am es a nd th e N CA A D iv is io n I B ask etb all C ham pio nsh ip c o up le d

with th e N CA A’s p ers p ecti v e o n a m ate uris m i s c arte l- lik e b ehav io r ( K ahn, 2 007). N ev erth ele ss, th e N CA A’s

Prin cip le o f A m ate u ris m

i s c le ar. I t v ie w s a th le te p arti c ip ati o n a s a n a v ocati o n a nd th us s h o uld b e i n su la te d f r o m

pro fe ssio nal tr a p pin gs. T he i d ea o f th is s p ecific p rin cip le c an b e tr a ced b ack to th e e arly b egin nin gs o f f o otb all w hen

many f o otb all p ro gra m s u se d “ rin gers ” l ik e J a m es H ogan, a f o otb all p la yer a t Y ale i n th e e arly tw enti e th c entu ry .

Hogan n o t o nly h ad h is tu iti o n p aid b ut w as a ls o g iv en a ll o f th e p ro fits f r o m g am e-d ay p ro gra m s a le s a nd a

co m mis sio n f r o m th e A meric an T obacco C om pany o n e v ery p ack o f c ig are tte s s o ld i n th e c ity o f N ew H av en

(C ro w le y, 2 006). I s su es w ith p ro fe ssio nalis m s u ch a s th is g iv e c re d ence to th e N CA A’s s ta nce o n a m ate uris m i n

in te rc o lle gia te s p orts . T he J a m es H ogan s itu ati o n a t Y ale a ls o h elp s s h ed l ig ht o n th e N CA A’s

Prin cip le o f

Com petitiv e E quity

The r e cru itm ent p ro cess o f s o m e a th le te s i n s o m e r e gard h as ta ken o n a l ife o f i ts o w n, p arti c ula rly i n th e r e v enue

sp orts o f f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all. F or s o m e r e cru its i t h as b eco m e c usto m ary to a nno unce th eir c o lle ge

decis io n i n f r o nt o f th e n ati o nal m ed ia . A lth o ugh th e r e cru iti n g p ro cess h as b eco m e h ig h s ta kes, th e

Prin cip le

Govern in g R ecru itin g

i s b ase d o n th e i d ea th at th e e d ucati o nal i n te re st o f th e a th le te s a nd th e i n sti tu ti o n m atc h. T his

prin cip le i s a ls o i n p la ce to h elp i n sti tu ti o ns r e m em ber to p ro te ct s tu d ents f r o m i n te rn al a nd e xte rn al p re ssu re s th at

co uld i n fr in ge u p on th eir a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c e nd eav ors ( N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a).

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

A D re a m N ot Y et R ea liz e d

Gary M orris i s a f o rm er s ta nd out f o otb all p la yer a t N orfo lk S ta te U niv ers ity i n N orfo lk , V ir g in ia , w here h e p la yed

wid e r e ceiv er f r o m 1 987 to 1 990. L ik e a l o t o f c o lle ge f o otb all p la yers , G ary w ante d to c arry h is p assio n f o r th e

gam e o f f o otb all i n to c o achin g. A fte r p la yin g f o r a c o up le o f y ears i n th e C anad ia n F ootb all L eague ( C FL), G ary

cam e b ack to V ir g in ia a nd b egan te achin g h ig h s c ho ol. H e h elp ed o ut th e l o cal h ig h s c ho ol f o otb all te am b ut th at

pro ved n o t to b e e no ugh. G ary l o nged f o r th e b ig l ig hts o f c o lle ge f o otb all.

A c hance e nco unte r l e d h im to b eco m e a p art o f th e p ro cess o f e sta b lis h in g a f o otb all p ro gra m a t G eo rg e M aso n

Univ ers ity . W hile G eo rg e M aso n h ad n o te am , th e i n sti tu ti o nal d esir e w as th ere . G ary o nce to ld m e “ th e f a ct th at I a m

a p art o f s o m eth in g to ta lly n ew a nd w ill h elp ta ke i t f r o m c lu b f o otb all to N CA A D iv is io n I f o otb all i s b ette r th an

win nin g th e C FL G re y C up .” G eo rg e M aso n s ta rte d p la yin g c lu b f o otb all i n 1 993. G ary c o ached a f e w y ears b ut

le arn ed q uic kly i t ta kes m ore th an d esir e f o r a s c ho ol to tr a nsiti o n f r o m c lu b to N CA A D iv is io n I f o otb all. G eo rg e

Maso n e v entu ally d ecid ed n o t to p urs u e th e p ro cess o f e sta b lis h in g a n N CA A D iv is io n I f o otb all p ro gra m , b ut i t h as

parti c ip ate d i n th e S eab oard C onfe re nce, w in nin g c ham pio nsh ip s i n 2 000, 2 001, 2 003, 2 004, a nd 2 005.

Gary i s n o w a p ub lic s c ho ol a d m in is tr a to r a t a l o cal h ig h s c ho ol. I r e centl y s p oke w ith h im a nd a sk ed w heth er h e

mis se s c o achin g a nd i s d is a p poin te d th at G eo rg e M aso n d id n o t f o llo w th ro ugh w ith i ts p la ns. H e h as n o r e gre ts .

Lookin g b ack o n h is ti m e th ere , h e j u st w is h es h e u nd ers to od th e N CA A p ro cess b ette r s o h e c o uld h av e h elp ed th e

sc ho ol m ake th e tr a nsiti o n s o oner.

In a s im ila r v ein , th e i d ea o f p ro te cti n g a th le te s f r o m i n te rn al a nd e xte rn al p re ssu re s i s th e

Prin cip le G overn in g

Elig ib ility

. S im ply p ut, th is p rin cip le i s c o nstr u cte d to a ssu re th at a th le te s m ain ta in a n a cad em ic s ta nd ard th at w ill

move th em to w ard g ra d uati o n.

Over ti m e, th e c o st to a tte nd c o lle ge h as i n cre ase d e xp onenti a lly . T he s y ste m o f f in ancia l a id a w ard ed to c o lle ge

ath le te s h as b een a ro und i n s o m e f a sh io n s in ce p la yers l ik e W alte r C am p a nd J a m es H ogan o f Y ale i n th e e arly

tw enti e th c entu ry . H ow ev er, p ayin g p la yers o r p ro vid in g o th er ty p es o f f in ancia l p erk s b lu rs th e l in e b etw een

pro fe ssio nal a nd a m ate ur s p orts . W hat th e N CA A’s

Prin cip le G overn in g F in ancia l A id

s e eks to d o i s a llo w a th le te s to r e ceiv e s o m e f in ancia l a ssis ta nce p aid o ut b y th e i n sti tu ti o n w hile a d herin g to th e a sso cia ti o n’s p ers p ecti v e o n

am ate uris m .

One m ig ht th in k th e i d ea o f p la yin g a c o lle ge s p ort a s r o m anti c , r e ap ed w ith g lo ry , a nd e nd le ss b enefits ; h o w ev er,

it i s i m porta nt n o t to d is re gard th e ti m e c o m mitm ent a nd e ffo rt to b ala nce th e d ual r o le s o f s tu d ent a nd a th le te . T he

Prin cip le o f G overn in g P la yin g a nd P ra ctic e S ea so ns

i n d em nifie s a th le te s i n a w ay th at r e d uces i n te rfe re nce th at

may h in d er th e q uality o f th eir e d ucati o nal e xp erie nce ( N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a).

In te rc o lle gia te s p orts h av e s o m e o f th e m ost w atc hed e v ents a nd c ham pio nsh ip s i n A meric an s p orts to day. E very

year, c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s c o m pete f o r c ham pio nsh ip s th at c an b rin g th eir i n sti tu ti o ns f in ancia l w in d fa lls a nd

in sta nt n am e r e co gniti o n. M any o f th ese c ham pio nsh ip s a re s p onso re d b y o rg aniz a ti o ns o uts id e th e r e alm o f c o lle ges

and u niv ers iti e s. T o h elp a th le ti c d ep artm ents g o vern th is l e v el o f p la y, th e N CA A h as th e

Prin cip le G overn in g

Posts e a so n C om petitio n a nd C onte sts S ponso re d b y N on-c o lle g ia te O rg aniz a tio ns

. T he c o re o f th is p rin cip le i s to

ensu re f a ir n ess a m ong i n sti tu ti o nal c o m peti to rs a nd to m ain ta in th e a p pro pria te l e v el o f p ro te cti o n f r o m a th le te

exp lo ita ti o n.

Fin ally , th e

Prin cip le G overn in g t h e E co nom y o f A th le tic s P ro gra m O pera tio n

h o ld s a th le ti c p ro gra m s

acco unta b le f o r th eir f is c al m anagem ent a nd h ealth . T he N CA A e xp ects a th le ti c p ro gra m s to o pera te i n a j u d ic io us

manner th at a llo w s f o r a p pro pria te a nd s u ita b le c o m peti ti o n. T he N CA A h o ld s th is p rin cip le , a s w ell a s a ll o f i ts

prin cip le s, i n e arn estn ess b ecause i t v alu es th e o pportu nity o f a th le ti c c o m peti ti o n a nd e d ucati o nal e xp erie nces.

MEM BER SH IP A N D D IV IS IO NS

The N CA A h as th re e s p ecific d iv is io ns a p tl y c la ssifie d D iv is io n I , D iv is io n I I, a nd D iv is io n I II a nd th re e

mem bers h ip c ate go rie s: a cti v e, c o nfe re nce, a nd a ffilia te d (

Tab le 2 .1

). I n D iv is io n I th ere a re 3 47 m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns

and 1 67,0 89 a th le te s, w hile D iv is io n I I i n clu d es 3 15 p ro gra m s a nd 1 07,9 41 a th le te s, a nd D iv is io n I II c o m pris e s 4 46

pro gra m s a nd 1 78,4 41 a th le te s ( N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012b; N CA A D iv is io n I I, 2 012b; N CA A D iv is io n I II, 2 012b).

TA BLE

2 .1

NCA A M em bers h ip s a n d D iv is io ns

The N CA A D iv is io n I m em bers h ip l e v el r e ceiv es th e m ost p ub lic a tte nti o n. T his m em bers h ip l e v el c o nsis ts o f

fo ur-y ear r e gio nally a ccre d ite d i n sti tu ti o ns. T o m ain ta in th e D iv is io n I m em bers h ip s ta tu s a n i n sti tu ti o n m ust m eet a nd

main ta in a ll o f th e m em bers h ip r e q uir e m ents o r f a ce d iv is io n r e cla ssific ati o n ( N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012b).

With in th e r a nks o f D iv is io n I I a th le ti c p ro gra m s, th ere a re s o m e s lig ht v aria ti o ns i n m em bers h ip a s c o m pare d to

oth er d iv is io nal c la ssific ati o ns. W hile th e m em bers h ip l e v els a cti v e, c o nfe re nce, a nd a ffilia te d , a s w ell a s th e ath le ti c s c o nso rti u m , a re th e s a m e f o r a ll d iv is io ns, th e m ajo r d is ti n cti o ns a t th e D iv is io n I I l e v el a re th at tw o-y ear

co lle ges m ay p arti c ip ate a nd th e m em bers h ip c ate go rie s n o w i n clu d e a p ro vis io nal m em ber a nd p ro vis io nal

co nfe re nce m em ber s ta tu s. L ik ew is e , a t th e D iv is io n I I l e v el th e N CA A h as d ev elo ped a 1 0-y ear p ilo t p ro gra m to

in clu d e C anad ia n i n sti tu ti o ns. A lth o ugh p ro vis io nal m em bers r e ceiv e a ll th e d ocum enta ti o n a nd p ub lic ati o ns th at

acti v e m em bers r e ceiv e, th e p ro vis io nal s ta tu s i s a p re re q uis ite f o r a cti v e m em ber s ta tu s. C onfe re nce p ro vis io nal

mem bers h ip i s s im ila r i n th at i t i s a p re re q uis ite to c o nfe re nce m em bers h ip ; h o w ev er, a p ro vis io nal c o nfe re nce m ust

hav e a m in im um o f s ix f o ur-y ear o r tw o-y ear i n sti tu ti o ns to b e c o nsid ere d f o r p ro vis io nal c o nfe re nce s ta tu s.

Div is io n I II a th le ti c p ro gra m s a re a m ajo r p art o f th e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c r e p re se nta ti o n ( A th le ti c

Scho la rs h ip s, 2 013). E ven th o ugh D iv is io n I II a th le ti c p ro gra m s d o n o t a w ard a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s i n th e w ay o f

tu iti o n a nd f e es, r o om , b oard , a nd r e q uir e d c o urs e -re la te d b ooks, i n sti tu ti o ns c an p ro vid e a cad em ic s c ho la rs h ip s.

Desp ite th e i n ab ility to p ro vid e a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s, D iv is io n I II a th le ti c p ro gra m s h av e th e l a rg est n um ber o f

mem ber s c ho ols ( N CA A D iv is io n I II, 2 012b).

Div is io n I II N CA A m em bers h ip h as th e s a m e m em bers h ip c ate go rie s a s D iv is io n I I b ut o ffe rs d is ti n cti o n b y

ad din g a p ro bati o nary s ta tu s a nd a r e str ic te d s ta tu s to th e c la ssific ati o n. W hile th e c o nfe re nce m em bers h ip i s th e

sa m e, D iv is io n I II c o nfe re nce m em bers m ust h av e a m in im um o f s e v en c o lle ges o r u niv ers iti e s a nd d ete rm in e a

co nfe re nce c ham pio n i n a t l e ast o ne s p ort.

NCAA O RG AN IZ AT IO NAL S T R UCTU RE A N D D IV IS IO N I S T R UCTU RE

There a re tw o s tr u ctu re s th at h elp o rg aniz e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s w ith in th e N CA A: th e N CA A d iv is io nal s tr u ctu re

th at g o vern s a th le ti c s i n D iv is io n I , I I, a nd I II, a nd th e N CA A g o vern ance s tr u ctu re i ts e lf. T he D iv is io n I s tr u ctu re i s

div id ed i n to f iv e l e v els . A t th e f ir s t l e v el i s th e B oard o f D ir e cto rs . W ith i ts 1 8 m em bers , th e B oard o f D ir e cto rs i s

centr a l to th e o rg aniz a ti o nal s tr u ctu re a nd f e ed s o ut to s tr u ctu re a nd f lo w s to th e C om mitte e o n I n fr a cti o ns, I n fr a cti o ns

Appeals C om mitte e, P re sid enti a l A dvis o ry G ro up , a nd th e C om mitte e o n A cad em ic P erfo rm ance. T he s e co nd l e v el

is th e L ead ers h ip C ouncil a nd L egis la ti v e C ouncil. T his l e v el h as a d ir e ct l in e o f r e p ort to th e B oard o f D ir e cto rs .

The th ir d l e v el c o nsis ts o f th e c o m mitte es th at f lo w f r o m th e L ead ers h ip a nd L egis la ti v e C ouncil. F ro m b oth th e

Lead ers h ip C ouncil a nd th e L egis la ti v e C ouncil th e c o m mitte es a re : ( a ) M in o rity O pportu niti e s a nd I n te re st

Com mitte e, ( b ) C om mitte e o n S ports m ansh ip a nd E th ic al C ond uct, ( c ) S tu d ent- A th le te A dvis o ry C om mitte e, a nd ( d )

Com mitte e o n W om en’s A th le ti c s. H ow ev er, th e ( a ) L egis la ti v e R ev ie w /In te rp re ta ti o ns C om mitte e, ( b )

Sub co m mitte e o n A th le ti c s C erti fic ati o n, a nd ( c ) C om mitte e o n S tu d ent A th le te R ein sta te m ent f lo w o nly f r o m

th e

Legis la ti v e C ouncil. T he f o urth l e v el i s th e c ab in et l e v el. A t th is l e v el th e L ead ers h ip C ouncil h and le s a ll p olic y

is su es a nd th e L egis la ti v e C ouncil h and le s a ll l e gis la ti v e i s su es. T he l a st l e v el i s th e s p ecific c ab in ets : ( a )

Cham pio nsh ip s/S ports M anagem ent C ab in et, ( b ) A dm in is tr a ti v e C ab in et, ( c ) A cad em ic C ab in et, ( d ) A w ard s

Benefits , E xp ense s, a nd F in ancia l A id C ab in et, ( e ) A mate uris m C ab in et, a nd ( f) th e R ecru iti n g a nd A th le ti c s

Pers o nnel I s su es C ab in et; w ith th e e xcep ti o n o f th e A w ard s B enefits , E xp ense s, a nd F in ancia l A id C ab in et a nd th e

Recru iti n g a nd A th le ti c s P ers o nnel I s su es C ab in et, e ach c ab in et h as s p ecific c o m mitte es r e p orti n g to th e c ab in et.

The g o vern ance s tr u ctu re o f th e N CA A i s b ro ken d ow n i n to d iffe re nt c o m mitte es a nd c o uncils w ith e ach h av in g

its o w n m em bers h ip a nd r e sp onsib iliti e s. T he f ir s t l e v el i s A sso cia ti o n W id e C om mitte es a nd th e E xecuti v e

Com mitte e. E xte nd in g d ow n f r o m th e E xecuti v e C om mitte e a re th e D iv is io n I B oard o f D ir e cto rs , a nd th e D iv is io n I I

and I II P re sid ent’ s C ouncil. A t th e D iv is io n I l e v el th e B oard o f D ir e cto rs a ls o e xte nd s d ow n to th e D iv is io n I

Lead ers h ip a nd L egis la ti v e C ouncils ; h o w ev er, a t th e D iv is io n I I a nd I II l e v els th ey e xte nd d ow n to M anagem ent

Councils ( s e e A ppend ix es 2 .A , 2 .B , 2 .C , a nd 2 .D f o r o rg aniz a ti o nal c harts ).

NCAA P O W ER F IV E S T R UCTU RE

In th e s u m mer o f 2 014, th e N CA A a d opte d th e P ow er F iv e, a n ew p olic y th at g iv es th e 6 5 s c ho ols i n th e A CC, B ig

Ten, B ig 1 2, S E C , a nd P ac-1 2 th e a b ility to c re ate s o m e o f th eir o w n r u le s th at a re a sso cia te d w ith th e l e gis la ti o n a nd

voti n g r ig hts f o r a th le te s. T he N CA A b elie v es c o nfe re nces a nd th e s c ho ols i n th ese c o nfe re nces a re a b le to p ro vid e

gre ate r r e so urc es to a th le te s, s u ch a s s ti p end s, e xp and ed m ed ic al c o vera ge, a nd s o m e b enefits to f a m ilie s to a tte nd

gam es.

The n ew s tr u ctu re d oes, h o w ev er, i m pact th e D iv is io n I b oard c o nfig ura ti o n a t th e D iv is io n I l e v el. T here a re

no w 1 0 p re sid ents i n th e f o otb all b ow l s u b div is io n a nd f iv e p re sid ents i n th e f o otb all c ham pio nsh ip s u b div is io n, o ne

ath le ti c d ir e cto r, o ne s e nio r w om en’s a th le ti c d ir e cto r, o ne f a culty a th le ti c s r e p re se nta ti v e, a nd o ne a th le te . T he n ew

str u ctu re a ls o g iv es w eig hte d v oti n g i n c o nfe re nces a nd i s b ro ken d ow n a s s u ch: 3 7.5 % f o r th e P ow er 5 c o nfe re nces; 18.8 % to th e f iv e p re sid ents i n th e F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n; 3 7.5 % f o r th e F ootb all C ham pio n S ub div is io n

Div is io n I n o n f o otb all c o nfe re nces; 3 .1 % f o r c o lle ge a th le te s; a nd 3 .1 % f o r f a culty a th le ti c s r e p re se nta ti v es

(H osic k, 2 014). O ne o f th e m ost i m porta nt a sp ects o f th is n ew p olic y i s f o r th e f ir s t ti m e a th le te s w ill h av e a v ote i n

what a ffe cts th eir l iv es.

NCAA O RG AN IZ AT IO NAL S T R UCTU RE A N D D IV IS IO N I I A N D I II S T R UCTU RES

The o rg aniz a ti o nal c o m ple xiti e s b etw een D iv is io n I a nd I I a re s im ply n o t th e s a m e. T here a re p rim arily tw o l e v els i n

th e D iv is io n I I o rg aniz a ti o nal s tr u ctu re , w hic h

actu ally f lo w s u p w ard to p re se nt m ore o f a g ra ssro ots l e ad ers h ip

sty le . T he b otto m l e v el c o nta in s n in e c o m mitte es: ( a ) D iv is io n I I A cad em ic R eq uir e m ents C om mitte e, ( b ) D iv is io n I I

Cham pio nsh ip C om mitte e, ( c ) D iv is io n I I C om mitte e o n I n fr a cti o ns, ( d ) D iv is io n I I C om mitte e f o r L egis la ti v e R elie f,

(e ) D iv is io n I I C om mitte e o n S tu d ent- A th le te R ein sta te m ent, ( f) D iv is io n I I L egis la ti o n C om mitte e, ( g ) D iv is io n I I

Mem bers h ip C om mitte e, ( h ) D iv is io n I I N om in ati o n C om mitte e, a nd ( i) th e D iv is io n I I S tu d ent- A th le te A dvis o ry

Com mitte e. T hey f lo w u p w ard to th e D iv is io n I I A dm in is tr a ti v e C om mitte e, a D iv is io n I I M anagem ent C ouncil, a nd

a D iv is io n I I P la nnin g a nd F in ance C om mitte e w ith th e P re sid ent’ s C ouncil a t th e to p. T he D iv is io n I II s tr u ctu re i s

alm ost th e s a m e a s D iv is io n I I; h o w ev er, a t th e b otto m i t h as a n e xtr a c o m mitte e c alle d th e D iv is io n I II S tr a te gic

Pla nnin g a nd F in ance C om mitte e a nd th ese c o m mitte es o nly f lo w u p w ard to a D iv is io n I II M anagem ent C ouncil, a n

Adm in is tr a ti v e C om mitte e, a nd a D iv is io n I II P re sid ent’ s C ouncil o n to p ( s e e A ppend ix es 2 .E , 2 .F , 2 .G , a nd 2 .H f o r

org aniz a ti o nal c harts ).

CO NCLU SIO N

Fro m th e f ir s t d eath p enalty s a ncti o n, i m pose d o n th e S outh ern M eth o dis t U niv ers ity f o otb all te am i n th e 1 980s, to th e

sw eep in g s c ho la rs h ip c ancella ti o ns, v acate d w in s, a nd f is c al o blite ra ti o n o f P ennsy lv ania S ta te U niv ers ity f o otb all,

ju stl y o r u nju stl y , th e N CA A h as ta ken a f a ir a m ount o f s c ru ti n y o ver ti m e. O ne th in g i s c erta in , A meric a’s a nd th e

world ’s i n te re sts i n i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts a re c erta in ly h ere to s ta y. A s ti m e g o es o n, th e N CA A w ill h av e to b eco m e

a g re ate r v oic e i n th e d is c ussio n o f a th le ti c r e fo rm s a nd p erh ap s l o ose n i ts s tr o ng h o ld o n a m ate uris m to a d ju st to a

more m ark et- d riv en c o lle ge a th le te .

Appendix 2 .A . N CAA D iv is io n I I L egis la tiv e P ro ce ss Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I I, 2 012a, p . 4 6.

Appendix 2 .B . N CAA D iv is io n I II L egis la tiv e P ro ce ss

Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I II, 2 012a, p . 4 0.

Appendix 2 .C . N CAA D iv is io n I O rg aniz atio nal S tr u ctu re Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a, p . 2 5.

Appendix 2 .D . N CAA D iv is io n I G overn ance S tr u ctu re

Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a, p . 2 6.

Appendix 2 .E . N CAA D iv is io n I I O rg aniz atio nal S tr u ctu re Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I I, 2 012a, p . 3 0.

Appendix 2 .F . N CAA D iv is io n I I G overn ance S tr u ctu re

Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I I, 2 012a, p . 3 1.

Appendix 2 .G . N CAA D iv is io n I II O rg aniz atio nal S tr u ctu re

Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I II, 2 012a, p . 2 4.

Appendix 2 .H . N CAA D iv is io n I II G overn ance S tr u ctu re Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I II, 2 012a, p . 2 5.

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

W ith D iv is io n I II h av in g th e l a rg est n um ber o f s c ho ols p arti c ip ati n g i n s p orts p ro gra m s, w ould i t b e a d vanta geo us

fo r th e N CA A to e nco ura ge D iv is io n I II m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns to m ove i n to D iv is io n I I c o m peti ti o n?

W hat m ig ht b e th e i m plic ati o ns o f a llo w in g i n d iv id ual i n sti tu ti o ns th em se lv es to d ete rm in e th e N CA A e lig ib ility o f

th eir a th le te s?

I n w hat w ays d o y o u b elie v e i n sti tu ti o ns h av e m oved a w ay f r o m th e N CA A’s i d ea o f r e cru iti n g a th le te s w ith

ed ucati o nal i n te re st th at m atc h th at o f th e i n sti tu ti o n?

Refe re n ces

Ath le ti c S cho la rs h ip s. ( 2 013).

Natio nal l e tte r o f i n te n t

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caa.o rg /w ps/w cm /c o nnect/ n li/n li/d ocum ent+ lib ra ry /a th le ti c + sc ho la rs h ip

Bie d ig er v . Q uin nip ia c U niv ers ity , 3 C .V . 6 21 ( C onn. D is t. C t. 2 009).

Cro w le y, J . N . ( 2 006). T he N CA A’s f ir s t c entu ry : I n th e a re na.

NCAA P ublic a tio ns

. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N ati o nal

Colle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n.

Hosic k, M . ( 2 014). S tu d ent- a th le te s w ill v ote a t e v ery g o vern ance l e v el. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caa.o rg /a b out/ r e so urc es/m ed ia -c ente r/n ew s/b oard -a d opts -n ew -d iv is io n-i- s tr u ctu re

Kahn, L . M . ( 2 007). C arte l b ehav io r a nd a m ate uris m i n c o lle ge s p orts .

Jo urn al o f E co nom ic P ersp ectiv es, 2 1

(1 ),

209–226.

Lin d quis t, D . C . ( 2 006). “ L ocati n g” th e n ati o n: F ootb all g am e d ay a nd A meric an d re am s i n c entr a l O hio .

Jo urn al o f

Am eric a n F olk lo re , 1 1 9

, 4 44–488.

Morris , P . S . ( 2 004, N ovem ber). F ootb all i n th e U SA : A meric an c ultu re a nd th e w orld ’s g am e. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://h o m ep age.s m c.e d u/m orris _ pete /r e so urc es/P ap ers -a nd -P re se nta ti o ns/fo otb allin th eusa .p df

NCA A D iv is io n I . ( 2 012a).

2012–13 N CAA D iv is io n I m anual

. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c

Asso cia ti o n.

———. ( 2 012b). N CA A D iv is io n I M em bers h ip R ep ort. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N CA A P ub lic ati o ns.

———. ( 2 013). F acts & F ig ure s. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caa.o rg /w ps/w cm /c o nnect/ p ub lic /n caa/d iv is io ni/d i+ fa cts + and + fig ure s

NCA A D iv is io n I I. ( 2 012a).

2012–13 N CAA D iv is io n I I m anual

. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N CA A P ub lic ati o ns.

———. ( 2 012b). N CA A D iv is io n I I M em bers h ip R ep ort. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N CA A P ub lic ati o ns.

NCA A D iv is io n I II. ( 2 012a).

2012–13 N CAA D iv is io n I II m anual

. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N CA A P ub lic ati o ns. ———. ( 2 012b). N CA A D iv is io n I II M em bers h ip R ep ort. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N CA A P ub lic ati o ns.

Pie rc e, P . E . ( 1 909, J a nuary 2 ). P ro ceed in gs f r o m

The T hir d A nnual C onven tio n o f t h e I n te rc o lle g ia te A th le tic

Asso cia tio n o f t h e U nite d S ta te s ( I A AU S)

. N ew Y ork .

Satte rfie ld , J . W ., C ro ft, C ., G odfr e y, M ., & F lin t, A . ( 2 010). A cad em ic p ro gre ss r e p orts : L ead ers h ip i m plic ati o ns

fo r c o lle ge b ask etb all c o aches.

Aca dem ic L ea dersh ip J o urn al, 8

(2 ), 1 .

Sm ith , R . K . ( 2 000). A b rie f h is to ry o f th e N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n’s r o le i n r e gula ti n g

in te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s.

Marq uette S ports L aw R evie w , 9

(1 ), A rti c le 5 .

Watte rs o n, J . S . ( 2 000).

Colle g e f o otb all: H is to ry, s p ecta cle , c o ntr o versy

. B alti m ore : J o hns H opkin s U niv ers ity

Pre ss.

C H APTER

L EA DER SH IP i n I N TE R CO LLEG IA TE A TH LETIC S

M olly O tt a n d E va n B ate s

K EY T ER M S

le adersh ip

pre sid ents

ath le tic d ir e cto rs

fa cu lt y

co ach es

M anagem ent l ite ra tu re d efin es a s ta keho ld er a s “ any g ro up o r i n d iv id ual w ho c an a ffe ct o r i s a ffe cte d b y th e

a chie v em ent o f th e f ir m ’s o bje cti v es” ( F re em an, 2 010, p . 2 5).

The s ta keho ld er c o ncep t i s a u se fu l w ay to d esc rib e a nd u nd ers ta nd l e ad ers h ip i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s,

b ecause n o s in gle g ro up c la im s f u ll r e sp onsib ility f o r th e p olic ie s a nd p ra cti c es o f i n d iv id ual p ro gra m s ( S m ith ,

1 988). I n ste ad , a h o st o f f a cti o ns j o ckeys to a ffe ct ( a nd , a t ti m es, d eny a cco unta b ility f o r) th e a cti v iti e s a nd o utc o m es

o f c o lle ge s p orts .

This c hap te r o ffe rs a n o verv ie w o f k ey s ta keho ld er g ro up s th at ta ke p art i n th e l e ad ers h ip o f i n te rc o lle gia te

a th le ti c s. O ur f o cus i s p rim arily a t th e c am pus l e v el a nd c o nsid ers th e r o le s o f p re sid ents , a th le ti c d ir e cto rs , f a culty ,

a nd c o aches. F or e ach g ro up , w e b egin b y d is c ussin g i ts s p ecific r o le s, i n te re sts , a nd p rio riti e s r e la te d to th eir

i n sti tu ti o n’s a th le ti c p ro gra m s. A c entr a l te net o f s ta keho ld er th eo ry i s th at g ro up i n te re sts o fte n c o nflic t ( F re em an,

2 010). C oaches a nd f a culty , f o r i n sta nce, m ay e m phasiz e d iffe re nt v alu es w hen m akin g l e ad ers h ip d ecis io ns.

M ore o ver, g ro up i n te re sts c an b e i n te rn ally h ete ro geneo us ( W olfe & P utl e r, 2 002). P erh ap s O ly m pic s p ort c o aches

h av e d is ti n cti v e p rio riti e s f r o m th o se l e ad in g r e v enue-g enera ti n g te am s. F or s ta keho ld ers , u nd ers ta nd in g o ne

a no th er’s i n te re sts h elp s to c ra ft s tr a te gie s f o r w ork in g to geth er ( F re em an, 2 010). F or h ig her e d ucati o n p ra cti ti o ners ,

s c ho la rs , a nd o bse rv ers o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, u nd ers ta nd in g th e e xte nt to w hic h l e ad ers ’ i n te re sts c o nv erg e a nd

d iv erg e o ffe rs i n sig ht i n to th e “ p eculia r i n sti tu ti o n” o f c o lle ge s p orts ( T helin , 1 994).

Sta keho ld er th eo ry a ls o s u ggests th at th e r o le s o f k ey s ta keho ld er g ro up s c o nnect w ith h o w a n o rg aniz a ti o n

o pera te s a nd a chie v es i ts

desir e d g o als . A p rim ary p urp ose o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c d ep artm ents i s to s u p port th e

a cad em ic , s o cia l, a nd p hysic al d ev elo pm ent o f a th le te s ( W ard & H ux, 2 011 ), a nd i n th e w ord s o f C ovell a nd B arr

( 2 001), “ It i s th e i d ea o f th e s tu d ent- a th le te th at i s c entr a l to th e e nti r e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c e nte rp ris e ” ( p . 4 17).

T here fo re , w e e nd o ur d is c ussio n o f e ach s ta keho ld er g ro up b y c o nsid erin g th e i m plic ati o ns o f i ts l e ad ers h ip f o r

c o lle ge a th le te w ell- b ein g. W e c o nclu d e th e c hap te r w ith a b rie f s u m mary o f th e c o m peti n g a nd o fte n c o ntr a d ic to ry

s ta kes c o nfr o nti n g th ese a th le ti c l e ad ers ( E stl e r & N els o n, 2 005).

P R ESID EN TS

R ole s, I n te re sts , a n d P rio rit ie s

H is to ric ally , c o lle ge p re sid ents a p pro ached i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s w ith “ a s tr a te gy o f a v oid ance a nd

a cco m modati o n” ( T helin , 1 994, p . 9 ), d ele gati n g p ro gra m l e ad ers h ip a nd d ecis io n m akin g to a th le ti c d ir e cto rs a nd

c o aches. Y et i n th e 1 980s, a s e rie s o f g am blin g, d ru g u se , p oin t- s h av in g, a nd p la yer p aym ent s c and als , c o up le d w ith

o ngo in g c o ncern s a b out a cad em ic i n te grity a nd f in ances, p re cip ita te d n ati o nal e ffo rts to m ake th e l e ad ers h ip r o le o f

p re sid ents m ore e xp lic it ( S m ith , 2 003). T he K nig ht F ound ati o n’s C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s’ “ O ne- Plu s-T hre e P la n” c alle d f o r p re sid ents to a ssu m e a uth o rity a t th e c am pus a nd n ati o nal l e v els , e sp ecia lly p erta in in g to

acad em ic i n te grity , f in ancia l i n te grity , a nd th e i n d ep end ent c erti fic ati o n o f a th le ti c p ro gra m s ( K nig ht C om mis sio n o n

In te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 1 991). T he K nig ht C om mis sio n p ro posa l u sh ere d i n a m ore u nifo rm m odel o f p re sid enti a l

le ad ers h ip . T oday, m ost c o nfe re nces a re h ead ed b y a n e xecuti v e b ody c o m pris e d o f th eir m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns’

pre sid ents ( Q uarte rm an, 1 998); p re sid enti a l c o m mitte es l e ad th e N CA A, N AIA , a nd N JC A A; a nd th e N CA A’s

Byla w 2 .1 .1 a ssig ns th e p re sid ent u lti m ate r e sp onsib ility f o r i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s o n h is o r h er c am pus.

Lead in g a c o lle ge o r u niv ers ity i s a c o m ple x u nd erta kin g, a nd , i n r e ality , p re sid ents a re l a rg ely u nin v olv ed i n

day-to -d ay a th le ti c s d ecis io ns ( D ud ers ta d t, 2 003). T heir c o ntr a cts r a re ly m enti o n r e sp onsib iliti e s p erta in in g to

overs ig ht o f a th le ti c s ( W olv erto n & W ells , 2 012). N ot e v en th e c o ntr a ct o f R odney E rik so n, w ho a ssu m ed th e

pre sid ency o f P enn S ta te a fte r G ra ham S panie r w as te rm in ate d f o llo w in g a s e x-a b use s c and al c ente re d i n th e f o otb all

pro gra m , s ta te d e xp ecta ti o ns e xp lic itl y p erta in in g to a th le ti c l e ad ers h ip . Y et, a s th e P enn S ta te – S panie r e xam ple

illu str a te s, a s p orts s c and al c an ta ke d ow n a p re sid ency a nd h av e m ajo r r e p uta ti o nal a nd e co no m ic r e p erc ussio ns f o r

th e e nti r e i n sti tu ti o n ( J o nes, 2 013). S tu d ie s s h o w th at p re sid ents a t a ll l e v els , f r o m th e F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n

(F B S)

to tw o-y ear c o lle ges, a re c o ncern ed a b out th e e th ic s o f th eir c am pus a th le ti c p ro gra m s ( B aile y & L ittl e to n,

1991; W illia m s & P ennin gto n, 2 008). A void in g s c and al a nd m ain ta in in g i n te grity , o n th e p la yin g f ie ld a s w ell a s i n

th e c la ssro om , a re m ajo r p rio riti e s f o r a ll c o lle ge p re sid ents .

While a th le ti c s c and als m ig ht d am age a n i n sti tu ti o n’s s ta nd in g, p re sid ents a ls o b elie v e th at a w ell- ru n p ro gra m

garn ers p ositi v e a tte nti o n a nd o ffe rs r e p uta ti o nal b enefits th at c an b e u se d s tr a te gic ally to m eet b ro ad er o bje cti v es

(D ud ers ta d t, 2 003). J a m es D anko , w ho b ecam e B utl e r U niv ers ity ’s p re sid ent i n 2 011 , to ld a n i n te rv ie w er th at

Butl e r’s m en’s b ask etb all te am s u ccess c o ntr ib ute d to h is i n te re st i n th e p ositi o n: “ I’ m a b ra nd -b uild er, l o okin g f o r a

pla ce th at’ s r e ad y to b urs t o n th e n ati o nal s c ene. B ask etb all g av e B utl e r a c o m ponent th at w as v ery h elp fu l i n m akin g

th at d ecis io n f o r m e” ( S cho enfe ld , 2 013, p ara . 4 1). A s a lr e ad y n o te d , p re sid enti a l c o ntr a cts ty p ic ally d o n o t s ta te

re sp onsib iliti e s s p ecific to a th le ti c s, a lth o ugh th ey e m phasiz e f is c al m anagem ent a nd f u nd ra is in g m ore g enera lly

(W olv erto n & W ells , 2 012). A th le ti c s i s a p rim ary m eans f o r p re sid ents to m ain ta in a lu m ni r e la ti o ns a nd s o lic it

donati o ns ( H ese l & P erk o , 2 010).

Pre sid ents b elie v e a th le ti c s c an e nco ura ge d onati o ns, b ut th ey a re a ls o c o ncern ed a b out f in ancin g th e e nte rp ris e

in i ts e nti r e ty ( O ria rd , 2 009). A 2 009 s tu d y c o nd ucte d b y th e K nig ht C om mis sio n i n d ic ate d th at m ost F B S p re sid ents

exp re ss p essim is m a b out th eir o w n a b iliti e s to c o ntr o l c o sts ( e .g ., c o aches’ s a la rie s, f a ciliti e s, n um ber o f p ers o nnel

em plo yed i n th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent) , a s w ell a s a m biv ale nce a b out th e l o ng-te rm s u sta in ab ility o f th eir p ro gra m s

(H ese l & P erk o , 2 010). M ore th an 8 0% a gre ed th ere s h o uld b e m ore tr a nsp are ncy a ro und o pera ti n g a nd c ap ita l

exp end itu re s.

Im plic a tio n s o f P re sid en tia l L ea d ersh ip

Pre sid ents a tte nd s p orti n g e v ents a nd a th le ti c s r e cep ti o ns, b ut th ey r a re ly d ev elo p r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith i n d iv id ual

ath le te s ( D ud ers ta d t, 2 003). I n ste ad , p re sid ents i m pact th e a th le te e xp erie nce i n d ir e ctl y , th ro ugh th eir w ork w ith th e

ath le ti c d ir e cto r ( A D), tr u ste es, a nd o th er to p a d m in is tr a to rs to s h ap e th e p ro gra m ’s s tr u ctu re , c ultu re , a nd d ir e cti o n.

A p re sid ent h o pin g to s tr e ngth en a th le te s’ a cad em ic e xp erie nces m ig ht, f o r i n sta nce, d ir e ct th e A D to d esig n c o aches’

co ntr a cts to m ore h eav ily r e w ard te am c la ssro om p erfo rm ance r e la ti v e to w in -lo ss r e co rd s ( C om eaux, 2 013). A t

most s c ho ols , th e a th le ti c d ir e cto r r e p orts d ir e ctl y to th e p re sid ent, a nd a cco rd in g to f o rm er U niv ers ity o f M ic hig an

pre sid ent J a m es D ud ers ta d t ( 2 003), “ th e s e le cti o n a nd s u p port o f a s tr o ng a th le ti c d ir e cto r [ is ] o ne o f a p re sid ent’ s

most i m porta nt ta sk s” ( p . 6 1). T he p re sid ent a nd a th le ti c d ir e cto r s h o uld s h are a n u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e a th le ti c

pro gra m v alu es a nd o penly c o m munic ate a b out m ajo r d ecis io ns. H ow ev er, o n c am puse s w here th e p re sid ent ta kes a

more l a is se z-fa ir e a p pro ach to a th le ti c s o vers ig ht, th is l e ad ers h ip v oid w ill b e f ille d b y th e a th le ti c d ir e cto r. I f th e

pre sid ent d oes n o t c le arly c o m munic ate h is o r h er p rio riti e s, th o se o f th e a th le ti c d ir e cto r w ill ta ke p re ced ence

(D ud ers ta d t, 2 003).

AT H LETIC D IR EC TO RS

Role s, I n te re sts , a n d P rio rit ie s

The A D i s th e to p e xecuti v e o r m anager d ir e ctl y r e sp onsib le f o r th e d ay-to -d ay o pera ti o ns o f a n i n te rc o lle gia te

pro gra m . H is to ric ally , m ost A Ds w ere c urre nt o r f o rm er h ead c o aches. H ow ev er, th e e sc ala ti n g l e gal a nd f in ancia l

sta kes o f c o lle ge s p orts h as b een a cco m panie d b y a s h ift i n A D b ackgro und s a nd s k ill s e ts . C oachin g e xp erie nce re m ain s c o m mon, b ut u niv ers iti e s a re i n cre asin gly p rio riti z in g b usin ess l e ad ers h ip a nd m anagem ent e xp erti s e g ain ed

fr o m a cad em ic a s w ell a s f o r-p ro fit s e tti n gs ( T ra cy & W oody, 2 011 ).

Regard le ss o f w heth er a p ro gra m i s a m em ber o f N CA A D iv is io n I , I I, o r I II o r a no th er a sso cia ti o n, th e r a nge o f

ta sk s a sso cia te d w ith b ein g a c o nte m pora ry c o lle ge A D i s e xte nsiv e. A Ds o vers e e p ro gra m f in ances, o fte n

nego ti a ti n g c o ntr a cts w ith c o rp ora te s p onso rs o r m ed ia , m anagin g c ap ita l p ro je cts , s u p erv is in g ti c ket s a le s, h and lin g

lic ensin g d eals a nd m erc hand is e d is tr ib uti o n, a nd c ulti v ati n g a lu m ni a nd b ooste r d onati o ns. A Ds ty p ic ally h ir e

co aches i n c o nsu lta ti o n w ith th e p re sid ent o r b oard o f tr u ste es; f o r f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all a t b ig -ti m e

pro gra m s, th is d ecis io n i s e sp ecia lly h ig h-s ta kes s in ce h und re d s o f m illio ns o f d olla rs a re a sso cia te d w ith th e

perfo rm ance o f th ese te am s ( B elz e r, 2 013). I n a d diti o n to th e c o aches, A Ds s u p erv is e a s ta ff th at c an n um ber i n th e

hund re d s. B eyo nd th eir d ep artm ent, A Ds a re a k ey l ia is o n to th e c am pus c o m munity , i n clu d in g s tu d ents , p are nts ,

fa culty , a nd a lu m ni, a s w ell a s w ith e xte rn al s ta keho ld ers , i n clu d in g o th er A Ds, th eir c o nfe re nce, a nd th eir

asso cia ti o n ( B urto n & H agan, 2 007). T hey a ls o m onito r p ro gra m c o m plia nce w ith i n sti tu ti o nal, c o nfe re nce, a nd

asso cia ti o n r e q uir e m ents a s w ell a s s ta te a nd f e d era l l a w s.

Of th ese r e sp onsib iliti e s, m ost s c ho la rs a gre e th at th e h ig hest p rio rity f o r D iv is io n I a th le ti c d ir e cto rs to day i s to

genera te r e v enues ( D ud ers ta d t, 2 003; G erd y, 1 997). O ne a th le ti c a d m in is tr a to r a t a m ajo r p ro gra m to ld H offm an

(2 011 ), “ A Ds d o tw o th in gs. T hey r a is e m oney a nd m anage p eo ple ” ( p . 1 8). A Ds h av e a p ers o nal s ta ke i n th eir

pro gra m ’s f in ancia l s u ccess, a s th eir c o ntr a cts a nd c o m pensa ti o n a re ty p ic ally a sso cia te d w ith p ro gra m r e v enues

(M arb urg er, i n p re ss). I t f o llo w s th at A Ds w ill f o cus o n s p orts th at h av e th e p ote nti a l to g enera te r e v enue. I n a s tu d y

of F B S A D c o m pensa ti o n i n 2 010–2011 , M arb urg er ( in p re ss) f o und th at e arn ed b onuse s w ere c o rre la te d w ith th e

fo otb all te am ’s o n-fie ld p erfo rm ance b ut n o t w ith a ny o th er s p ort o r w ith a th le te s’ a cad em ic a chie v em ents . H e

co nclu d ed th at “ an A D h as a v este d i n centi v e to d ev ote m ore ti m e a nd m oney to w ard b uild in g a s u ccessfu l f o otb all

pro gra m th an o th er a lte rn ati v e e nd eav or” ( p . 1 1 ). T his o fte n l e ad s A Ds to p la ce m ore e m phasis o n a th le ti c s u ccess

fo r r e v enue g enera ti n g s p orts c o m pare d to n o nre v enue O ly m pic s p orts ( C ooper & W eig ht, 2 011 ).

Ath le ti c d ir e cto rs w ho se p ro gra m s a re o uts id e o f th e F B S a re m ore l ik ely to s tr e ss e d ucati o nal r a th er th an

co m merc ia lly o rie nte d v alu es. W hen a sk ed b y C ooper a nd W eig ht ( 2 012) to c hara cte riz e th eir o rg aniz a ti o n’s

prio riti e s, D iv is io n I II A Ds i d enti fie d a s m ost e sse nti a l e nsu rin g th at a th le te s h av e a v alu ab le c o lle ge e xp erie nce

both o n a nd o ff th e f ie ld . A ls o h ig hly v alu ed w ere a cad em ic e xcelle nce i n th e c la ssro om , e nsu rin g h ealth a nd s a fe ty

of a th le ti c s ta keho ld ers , a nd d ev elo pin g a c ultu re th at c o ntr ib ute s to th e c am pus’s b ro ad er e d ucati o nal m is sio n. T hat

is n o t to s a y th at b ud gets o r w in nin g l a ck p rio rity — fis c al r e sp onsib ility r a nked s ix th o f e le v en v alu es, a nd a th le ti c

excelle nce r a nked s e v enth — but th ey a re r e la ti v ely l e ss i m porta nt c o m pare d to b ig -ti m e p ro gra m s.

CASE S T U DY

Bin gh am to n U niv ersit y

Bin gham to n U niv ers ity ( B U), p art o f th e S ta te U niv ers ity o f N ew Y ork s y ste m , i s c o nsis te ntl y r a nked a m ong th e to p

50 p ub lic u niv ers iti e s n ati o nw id e a nd k no w n f o r i ts s e le cti v ity . B U a ls o h as a l a rg e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c p ro gra m .

In 1 995 B U’s I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s B oard p ro pose d th e u niv ers ity m ove f r o m D iv is io n I II to D iv is io n I . T he

Faculty S enate , c o ncern ed a b out f in ancia l c o sts a s w ell a s th e u niv ers ity ’s a cad em ic r e p uta ti o n, v ote d a gain st th e

pro posa l. B U p re sid ent L ois D eF le ur d ecid ed i n f a v or o f th e tr a nsiti o n d esp ite th e f a culty o ppositi o n. T o j o in

Div is io n I , B U p ro vid ed th e N CA A w ith a s e lf- s tu d y r e p ort e xp la in in g i ts a d m is sio ns p ro cess, w hic h a ssig ned

decis io ns to A dm is sio ns O ffic e p ro fe ssio nals i n c o nsu lta ti o n w ith th e F aculty A th le ti c R ep re se nta ti v e a nd p ro vost,

assu rin g th at o nly a th le te s l ik ely to g ra d uate w ould b e a d m itte d ( K aye, 2 010).

BU b ecam e a f u ll m em ber o f D iv is io n I i n 2 001–2002 a nd to ok s e v era l a cti o ns to b ols te r i ts m en’s b ask etb all

te am . T he u niv ers ity o pened a $ 33.1 m illio n a re na i n 2 004. T hre e y ears l a te r, th e p re sid ent a nd a th le ti c d ir e cto r

(A D) r e m oved th e h ead c o ach, w ho se s e v en-y ear r e co rd w as 9 2-1 08 d esp ite g ra d uati n g 7 9% o f h is p la yers . S oon

afte r h is r e p la cem ent, K ev in B ro ad us, w as h ir e d , th e

New Y o rk T im es

p ub lis h ed a c riti c al a rti c le a b out B ro ad us’s

re cru iti n g p ra cti c es a s a n a ssis ta nt a t G eo rg eto w n U niv ers ity , ta rg eti n g s tu d ents w ith f a ilin g g ra d es a t u naccre d ite d

pre p ara to ry s c ho ols . N oneth ele ss, th e p re sid ent a nd A D e xp re sse d s tr o ng s u p port f o r C oach B ro ad us ( K aye, 2 010).

In h is f ir s t y ear, C oach B ro ad us ta rg ete d r e cru its w ith w eak a cad em ic r e co rd s a nd p ast b ehav io ra l m is c o nd uct.

BU’s A dm is sio ns O ffic e o bje cte d , b ut th e b ask etb all s ta ff a nd A D T hir e r i n te rv ened ( c o ntr a ry to th e a d m is sio ns

pro cess o utl in ed i n th e s e lf- s tu d y), n o ti n g th at th e r e cru its m et th e N CA A’s m in im um s ta nd ard s f o r a d m is sio n. T he

FA R, w ho w as a p poin te d b y P re sid ent D eF le ur o n th e A D’s r e co m mend ati o n w hen C oach B ro ad us a rriv ed a t B U,

als o s u p porte d a d m itti n g th e s tu d ents ( K aye, 2 010). The n ext s e aso n, th e

New Y o rk T im es

p ub lis h ed a no th er a rti c le , d eta ilin g th e d im in is h ed a d m is sio ns s ta nd ard s

and a lle gin g th at a th le ti c a d m in is tr a to rs p re ssu re d f a culty to m odify th eir a tte nd ance p olic ie s a nd r a is e g ra d es f o r

pla yers ( T ham el, 2 009). O ff- c o urt i n cid ents i n v olv in g f ig hts , d ru gs/a lc o ho l, a nd th eft w ere a ls o p art o f th e

Tim es

sto ry . N oneth ele ss, th e te am w on th e 2 009 A meric a E ast C onfe re nce ( A EC ) c ham pio nsh ip a nd q ualifie d f o r th e

NCA A to urn am ent. T he p re sid ent a nd A D c o m munic ate d to o th er c o aches th at th ey e xp ecte d m ore A EC

cham pio nsh ip s f r o m a ll B U te am s, a nd d is c ussio ns e nsu ed a b out m ore f le xib ility to r e cru it ta le nte d a th le te s.

Fro m th e s ta rt o f C oach B ro ad us’s te nure , A Ds a nd p re sid ents o f o th er A EC m em ber s c ho ols w ere c o ncern ed th at

th e B U p ro gra m w as h av in g a d ele te rio us e ffe ct o n th e c o nfe re nce’s c ultu re a nd r e p uta ti o n. I n m eeti n gs w ith th ese

co lle agues a nd th e c o nfe re nce c o m mis sio ner, B U’s p re sid ent a nd A D v ehem entl y d efe nd ed th eir c o ach a nd h is

pla yers ( K aye, 2 010).

In S ep te m ber 2 009, tw o b ask etb all te am m em bers w ere f o und i n p osse ssio n o f m ariju ana i n s e p ara te i n cid ents .

Days l a te r, f o ur p la yers u se d a s to le n d eb it c ard to p urc hase m erc hand is e . T he n ext w eek, a p la yer w as a rre ste d f o r

se llin g c o cain e, a n i n cid ent c hara cte riz e d b y B U i n sid ers a s th e “ ti p pin g p oin t” ( K aye, 2 010). A D T hir e r i n str u cte d

Coach B ro ad us to r e m ove th e f iv e p la yers i n v olv ed f r o m th e te am .

The S U N Y c hancello r’s o ffic e i m med ia te ly o rd ere d a n i n d ep end ent i n v esti g ati o n, a nd th e f a llo ut w as s u b sta nti a l.

Pre sid ent D eF le ur f o rc ed A D T hir e r’s r e sig nati o n. C oach B ro ad us w as s u sp end ed , a nd h is c o ntr a ct w as b ought o ut.

The F A R w as r e m oved f r o m h er p ositi o n. P re sid ent D eF le ur, w ho h eld h er p ositi o n s in ce 1 990, r e ti r e d . A lth o ugh th e

NCA A d id n o t i d enti fy a ny m ajo r v io la ti o ns a sso cia te d w ith th e i n cid ents , th e m en’s b ask etb all te am s tr u ggle d a nd ,

over th e n ext f o ur s e aso ns, f in is h ed w ith r e co rd s o f 1 3-1 8, 8 -2 3, 2 -2 9, a nd 3 -2 7 ( T ham el, 2 012).

Im plic a tio n s o f A th le tic D ir e cto r L ea d ersh ip

Sev era l s tu d ie s i n d ic ate th at a n A D’s l e ad ers h ip a ffe cts h o w th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent a s a n o rg aniz a ti o n f u ncti o ns

(B ra nch, 1 990; K ih l, L eb erm an, & S chull, 2 010; S co tt, 1 999). I n a n e xam in ati o n o f th e c hanges i n a D iv is io n I

ath le ti c d ep artm ent th at o ccurre d w hen a n ew A D w as h ir e d , P eachey a nd B urto n ( 2 012) c o nclu d ed :

When M ark , th e n ew a th le tic d ir e cto r, a rriv ed , h e in stille d a c u lt u re b ase d o n tr u st, a cco unta b ilit y , c o m munic atio n a n d

re la tio nsh ip s. H e a ls o in stit u te d a n ew c o re p hilo so phy th at f o cu se d o n p uttin g th e a th le te f ir s t, c allin g o n a ll s ta ff to m ak e

decis io ns b ase d u pon w hat w as in th e b est in te re sts o f th e a th le te . M ark f e lt th at w hile w in nin g w as im porta n t, it w as

se co ndary to c re atin g a p osit iv e s tu den t- a th le te e xp erie n ce. T his w as a c o ncep tu al s h if t f ro m th e p rio r r e gim e, a n d f ro m

th e d om in an t lo gic in th e f ie ld o f D iv is io n I in te rc o lle gia te a th le tic s, w hic h a d vocate s f o r th e im porta n ce o f w in nin g a s a

metr ic . ( p . 1 74)

The A D s h ap es th e c ultu re a nd c lim ate o f h is o r h er d ep artm ent ( S chro ed er, 2 010) a nd h as c o nsid era b le d is c re ti o n

over p olic ie s a nd p ra cti c es th at c an s u p port a th le te s’ p hysic al, m enta l, a nd s o cia l d ev elo pm ent, s u ch a s a cad em ic

su p port s e rv ic es a nd l ife -s k ill p ro gra m s ( K am uso ko & P em berto n, 2 011 ).

FA C ULT Y

Role s, I n te re sts , a n d P rio rit ie s

Most c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s o pera te u nd er a m odel o f d ecis io n m akin g r e fe rre d to a s “ sh are d g o vern ance,” s u ch

th at p re sid ents a nd a d m in is tr a to rs w ork i n c o nsu lta ti o n w ith f a culty to s e t p olic ie s, d efin e s tr a te gie s, a nd a llo cate

re so urc es. A c entr a l g o vern ance r e sp onsib ility o f f a culty i s to u p ho ld a cad em ic s ta nd ard s a nd v alu es a cro ss e v ery

are a o f th eir i n sti tu ti o n, i n clu d in g i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. N oneth ele ss, a th le ti c s i s j u st o ne o f m any g o vern ance

is su es v yin g f o r p ro fe sso rs ’ a tte nti o n. A 2 007 s u rv ey o f f a culty a t 2 3 F B S u niv ers iti e s i n d ic ate d th at m ost b elie v ed

ath le ti c s w as a r e la ti v ely l o w p rio rity f o r th eir c am pus g o vern ance g ro up s ( L aw re nce, H end ric ks, & O tt, 2 007).

Among th e 1 1 a re as i d enti fie d a s m ore p re ssin g c o ncern s w ere r e so urc es f o r r e se arc h, g ra d uate a nd u nd erg ra d uate

pro gra m s;

fa culty s a la rie s, b enefits , a nd p ers o nnel p olic ie s; th e f in ancia l h ealth o f th eir i n sti tu ti o ns; a nd r a cia l/g end er

eq uity . T hese f in d in gs d o n o t n ecessa rily s u ggest th at f a culty l a ck i n te re st i n a th le ti c s ( L aw re nce & O tt, 2 013), b ut

certa in ly th ey h av e a m yria d o f i s su es c o nfr o nti n g th em .

Tho ugh a l o w o vera ll p rio rity , r e se arc h s h o w s th at m ost f a culty m em bers a re c o ncern ed a b out th e a cad em ic

in te grity o f th eir c am pus a th le ti c p ro gra m s. T hey a ls o e m phasiz e th e i m porta nce o f a th le te a cad em ic e xp erie nces,

so cia l- m ora l c iti z e nsh ip d ev elo pm ent, a nd p hysic al w ell- b ein g ( T ra il & C hella d ura i, 2 000). T he a v era ge p ro fe sso r

does n o t a ssig n m uch i m porta nce to a th le ti c p ro gra m g o als th at a re f a rth er r e m oved f r o m h is o r h er i n sti tu ti o n’s acad em ic m is sio n, s u ch a s te am w in -lo ss r e co rd s, w in nin g c ham pio nsh ip s, a th le ti c s a s a s o urc e o f e nte rta in m ent, o r

usin g i n te rc o lle gia te p ro gra m s a s a m eans f o r th e U nite d S ta te s to d ev elo p i ts O ly m pic s p orts a nd c o m pete o n a

glo bal l e v el ( T ra il & C hella d ura i, 2 000; W olfe & P utl e r, 2 002).

Pro fe sso rs s e rv e i n s e v era l f o rm al l e ad ers h ip r o le s r e la te d to th e g o vern ance o f th eir c am pus i n te rc o lle gia te

pro gra m s. A ll N CA A, N AIA , a nd N JC A A m em bers a re r e q uir e d to a p poin t a f a culty a th le ti c s r e p re se nta ti v e ( F A R)

(R id path & A bney, 2 012). T he f u ll r a nge o f F A R r e sp onsib iliti e s v arie s f r o m c am pus to c am pus, b ut N CA A F A Rs

re p ort th at th e l a rg est p ro porti o n o f th eir ti m e i s s p ent o n a cad em ic i s su es, i n clu d in g m onito rin g a nd c erti fy in g a th le te

elig ib ility a s s e t b y a sso cia ti o n, c o nfe re nce, a nd i n sti tu ti o nal r e q uir e m ents , a s w ell a s p ro vid in g c o unse l w hen

ath le te s e xp erie nce a cad em ic p ro ble m s ( F ulk s, 2 008). F A Rs a ls o a ssis t w ith c o m plia nce a cti v iti e s, s u ch a s

in v esti g ati n g r u le s v io la ti o ns, c o nd ucti n g c o aches’ c erti fic ati o ns, a nd e xecuti n g w aiv ers a nd a p peals .

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

Facu lt y L ea d ersh ip

We a sk ed a f o rm er B ig 1 0 f a cu lty a th le tic s r e p re se n ta tiv e t o r e fle ct o n w hat f a cu lty l e a dersh ip c a n a cco m plis h

with r e sp ect t o i n te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic s

We h av e a lm ost z e ro i n flu ence o n m oney i s su es. I n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i s a h uge f in ancia l j u ggern aut. I f o ught th e

tw elfth f o otb all g am e a nd I tr ie d to ta lk e v ery b ody, i n clu d in g [ th e u niv ers ity p re sid ent] i n to v oti n g a gain st i t. T here

are a d oze n r e aso ns w hy w e s h o uld n’t h av e a tw elfth f o otb all g am e. I l o st th at b ig ti m e, a nd i t w as f o r f in ancia l

re aso ns. A f o otb all w eekend h ere i s $ 4 m illio n, a nd th e u niv ers ity n eed ed th e $ 4 m illio n. T here w asn ’t a n e asy

alte rn ate w ay o f g etti n g th at m oney. F ootb all f u nd s o ur o th er p ro gra m s h ere . S o th at w as i t.

Anyth in g b earin g d ir e ctl y o n a cad em ic s, l ik e m is se d c la ss ti m e a nd a d m is sio ns, s h o uld c le arly b e s e t b y f a culty ,

perio d. T ho se tw o th in gs s tr ik e a t th e c o re o f th e i n te grity o f a th le ti c s— th e k id s a re i n c la ss, a nd th ey’v e g o t r e al

stu d ents a t th at i n sti tu ti o n. F aculty s h o uld h av e h uge i n flu ence o n th e n um ber o f p re sid enti a l a d m its a nd th e g uid elin es

th at a re u se d f o r a d m itti n g a th le te s. A t a l o t o f i n sti tu ti o ns th at’ s b ehin d th e s c enes, a nd n o body k no w s e xactl y h o w i t

hap pens.

Getti n g i n fo rm ati o n to f a culty o n c ru cia l i s su es l ik e a d m is sio ns i s a to ugh n ut to c ra ck. A no th er p la ce f o r s u nsh in e

th at’ s i m porta nt i s a th le te m ajo rs . O n m ost c am puse s, f a culty h av e n o i d ea w here th e a th le te s a re , w heth er th ey’re

majo rin g i n , a s f a culty th in k, b ask et w eav in g. I l o bbie d [ m y A D] f o r th e tr a nsp are ncy o n m ajo rs . H e d id n’t w ant to d o

it. T he r e aso n w as n o t th at h e w as a fr a id o f th e d ata , b ut h e w as a fr a id o f th e p re ss. O ne o f th e g re ate st w orrie s o f a ny

AD i s th at th e m ed ia w ill ta ke h o ld o f a l ittl e n ugget o f i n fo rm ati o n a nd tw is t i t a nd e nd u p g etti n g n egati v e h ead lin es

fo r a w eek. I s a id , d on’t w orry a b out i t; w e n eed to h av e i t o ut th ere . T here ’s m ore to g ain b y s u n s h in in g o n th is th an

to h av e f a culty s p re ad in g r u m ors a b out w here w e’re p utti n g o ur a th le te s. I ’ v e b een r e p orti n g to th e f a culty s e nate o n

ath le te m ajo rs f o r s ix y ears n o w , a nd i t’ s g o ne f in e. T ra nsp are ncy o ver a cad em ic s i s a b ig i s su e th at’ s i m porta nt to

fa culty .

The m ost p ro m in ent f a culty l e ad ers h ip p ositi o n i s th e F A R, b ut o th er p ro fe sso rs a re a ls o i n v olv ed i n a th le ti c s

go vern ance. T ho ugh n o t r e q uir e d b y th e N CA A, m ost i n sti tu ti o ns h av e a c am pus a th le ti c s b oard c o m pris in g f a culty ,

ad m in is tr a to rs , s tu d ents , a nd a lu m ni th at a d vis e th e a th le ti c d ir e cto r o r p re sid ent. T he N CA A ( 2 012) m and ate s th at i f

an a th le ti c s b oard e xis ts , m ost o f i ts m em bers m ust b e a cad em ic a d m in is tr a to rs a nd f a culty . S om e b oard s a re a

sta nd in g c o m mitte e o f th e i n sti tu ti o n’s f a culty s e nate , w hile o th er c am puse s h av e a s e p ara te s u b co m mitte e o f th eir

fa culty s e nate d ed ic ate d to a th le ti c s ( G erd y, 1 997). C am pus a th le ti c b oard s a nd f a culty s e nate s o fte n m onito r d ata

re la te d to a th le te a d m is sio ns, a cad em ic p ro gre ss, a nd g ra d uati o n a nd r e v ie w i n sti tu ti o nal p olic ie s p erta in in g to th e

ath le te e xp erie nce s u ch a s p ra cti c e a nd tr a v el s c hed ule s ( N ic ho ls , C orrig an, & H ard in , 2 011 ).

The r o le o f f a culty l e ad ers h ip i n a th le ti c s i s p rim arily a d vis o ry r a th er th an i n a d ir e ct d ecis io n-m akin g c ap acity

(C lo tf e lte r, 2 011 ; D ud ers ta d t, 2 003). A 2 010 s u rv ey b y th e C oaliti o n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s f o und th at w hen

majo r a th le ti c s d ecis io ns a re m ad e ( e .g ., h ir in g o f k ey p ers o nnel, c hanges i n s p orts , i n iti a ti o n o f c ap ita l p ro je cts ),

fa culty s e nate l e ad ers a re c o nsu lte d a t o nly 1 9% o f F B S u niv ers iti e s ( N ic ho ls e t a l., 2 011 ). A ppro xim ate ly h alf o f th e

sc ho ols i n clu d e c am pus a th le ti c s b oard s i n s u ch c o nv ers a ti o ns, w hile 6 8% c o nfe r w ith th e F A R. A nd w hile r e se arc h

su ggests th at F A Rs g enera lly f e el s a ti s fie d w ith th eir a b ility to e nsu re a cad em ic i n te grity a nd s u p port a th le te s o n th eir

cam puse s ( F ulk s, 2 008), s o m e f a culty i n c am pus l e ad ers h ip p ositi o ns h av e b een c riti c iz e d f o r b ein g o verly

perm is siv e to th e d em and s o f a th le ti c a d m in is tr a to rs a nd c o aches w ho h av e l ittl e r e gard f o r a cad em ic s ( L aw re nce e t al., 2 007).

Im plic a tio n s o f F acu lt y L ea d ersh ip

Littl e r e se arc h e xis ts e xam in in g c o lle ge a th le te r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith f a culty i n th e f o rm al g o vern ance r o le s j u st

desc rib ed ( i.e ., F A Rs, a th le ti c s b oard s, s e nate c o m mitte es), b ut r e alis ti c ally , e ach p ro gra m h as o nly o ne o r

so m eti m es tw o F A Rs b ut o fte n h und re d s o f a th le te s. F or m ost a th le te s, th eir m ost f r e q uent c o nta ct w ith p ro fe sso rs

co m es th ro ugh th eir c o urs e s. W hile s o m e p erc eiv e th at th eir i n str u cto rs u nfa ir ly s te re o ty p e th em o n th eir s ta tu s a s

ath le te s ( S im ons, B osw orth , F ujita , & J e nse n, 2 007), s e v era l s tu d ie s d em onstr a te th at m ost a re s a ti s fie d w ith th eir

in te ra cti o ns w ith f a culty ( K am uso ko & P em berto n, 2 011 ; W illia m s, C olle s, & A lle n, 2 010). C olle ge a th le te s

ty p ic ally i d enti fy th eir c o aches a nd p ro fe ssio nal a cad em ic a d vis o rs a s th e s tr o ngest i n flu ences o n th eir a cad em ic

exp erie nces ( B ell, 2 009), b ut th ey a ls o c re d it f a culty

fo r e nco ura gin g th eir a cad em ic a sp ir a ti o ns a nd o ffe rin g c are er

ad vic e ( M arti n , H arris o n, & B ukste in , 2 010). T hese r e la ti o nsh ip s m ay tr a nsla te d ir e ctl y i n to a cad em ic s u ccess.

Rese arc h b y H arris o n, C om eaux, a nd P le cha ( 2 006), C om eaux a nd H arris o n ( 2 006), a nd C om eaux a nd H arris o n

(2 007) d em onstr a te s th at a th le te s w ho se p ro fe sso rs c halle nged th em i n te lle ctu ally , e nco ura ged g ra d uate s c ho ol, a nd

su p porte d th eir p ro fe ssio nal g o als h av e h ig her G PA s d urin g c o lle ge c o m pare d to a th le te s w ho se i n te ra cti o ns w ith

fa culty a re m in im al.

CO AC H ES

Role s, I n te re sts , a n d P rio rit ie s

Most o bse rv ers a nd s c ho la rs a gre e th at c o lle ge c o aches’ to p p rio rity i s to w in g am es ( G erd y, 1 997). C oaches a re

more l ik ely to b e d is m is se d w hen th eir te am s l o se ( H olm es, 2 011 ; M ix o n & T re v in o , 2 004), a nd th e te rm s s e t o ut i n

th eir c o ntr a cts m ost h eav ily r e w ard te am s’ o n-fie ld p erfo rm ance r e la ti v e to o th er c rite ria , s u ch a s a cad em ic

perfo rm ance, a th le te b ehav io r, r e cru it q uality , r e v enue p erfo rm ance, o r a th le te s a ti s fa cti o n ( C unnin gham & D ix o n,

2003; P utl e r & W olfe , 1 999; W ils o n & B urk e, 2 013). F or e xam ple , W ils o n a nd B urk e ( 2 013) o bse rv ed th at 4 2 o ut o f

45 D iv is io n I m en’s b ask etb all c o aches h ad i n centi v e c la use s f o r a th le ti c p erfo rm ance, w hile o nly 2 8 h ad a cad em ic -

re la te d i n centi v e c la use s. C olle ge a th le te s a re o fte n a w are o f th is r e w ard s tr u ctu re a nd i ts l ik ely e ffe ct o n th eir

co aches’ p rio riti e s. A n a th le te f r o m th e U niv ers ity o f C alifo rn ia , B erk ele y to ld M arti n , H arris o n, a nd B ukste in

(2 010), L et’ s b e r e al. T hese c o aches a re h ere to w in f o otb all g am es. T hey g et h and sh akes f o r m akin g s u re th at w e

gra d uate , b ut g et p aid m illio ns o f d olla rs f o r h av in g w in nin g s e aso ns. I t’ s a ll a b out th e m oney” ( p . 2 88). E ven o uts id e

of r e v enue g enera ti n g s p orts a t m ajo r p ro gra m s, c o aches a re p re ssu re d to s u cceed o n th e p la yin g f ie ld . I n a c ase

stu d y o f a p riv ate D iv is io n I I s c ho ol’s v alu es, N ite ( 2 012) q uo te s th e h ead w om en’s b ask etb all c o ach, “ I m ean, i t

co m es d ow n to i t ( w in s a nd l o sse s) a nd y o u k no w , th at i s m y j o b. O ur j o b i s to w in g am es” ( p . 9 ).

Yet to s u cceed o n th e p la yin g f ie ld , c o lle ge c o aches m ust a ls o e nco ura ge a th le te s’ a cad em ic s u ccess. C om peti ti v e

asso cia ti o ns e sta b lis h b ase lin e l e v els o f th e te am m em bers ’ p ro gre ss to w ard th eir d egre es, a nd w hen g o als a re n o t

met, p enalti e s m ay i n clu d e r e d uced p ra cti c e h o urs , c o m peti ti o n p enalti e s, c o achin g s u sp ensio ns, f in ancia l a id

re d ucti o ns, o r o th er m em bers h ip r e str ic ti o ns. I n d iv id ual a th le te s w ho d o n o t m eet m in im um g ra d e p oin t a v era ge o r

co urs e p assa ge r a te s m ay b e d ecla re d i n elig ib le to p la y. S uch s a ncti o ns c o uld e asily i m pair a te am ’s o n-fie ld

perfo rm ance, s o to e nsu re th eir te am s m ake a d eq uate a cad em ic p ro gre ss, c o aches m ay m onito r c la ss a tte nd ance a nd

stu d y h alls , r e q uest p ro gre ss r e p orts f r o m f a culty , a nd a d vis e a th le te s o n a cad em ic m ajo r a nd c o urs e c ho ic es ( A dle r

& A dle r, 1 991). S tu d ie s s h o w th at c o aches a ls o u se a cad em ic s s tr a te gic ally a s a r e cru iti n g to ol th at e sp ecia lly

ap peals to p are nts ( B ell, 2 009; M arti n e t a l., 2 010; R id path , 2 006).

Many c o aches r e co gniz e th e v alu e o f e arn in g a c o lle ge d egre e f o r th eir a th le te s’ l o nger-te rm s u ccess. I n r e sp onse

to a K nig ht C om mis sio n p oll, 9 3% o f N CA A D iv is io n I c o aches s a id “ m akin g s u re s tu d ent- a th le te s g et a n e d ucati o n”

sh o uld b e th e p rim ary g o al o f a b ig -ti m e a th le ti c p ro gra m ( L ou H arris & A sso cia te s, 1 990). T his m essa ge r e so nate s

with th e m ajo rity o f a th le te s. T he N CA A’s 2 010 S C O RE s u rv ey i n d ic ate d th at 6 9% o f a th le te s b elie v ed th eir c o aches

id enti fie d g ra d uati o n a s a h ig h p rio rity ( B ro w n, 2 011 ). A s tu d y o f D iv is io n I f o otb all p la yers ’ a cad em ic e xp erie nces

by B ell ( 2 009) i n d ic ate d th at c o aches w ere v ery h o nest w ith a th le te s a b out th eir c hances o f p la yin g p ro fe ssio nally

and e m phasiz e d th e i m porta nce o f d egre e c o m ple ti o n i n p re p arin g m ost f o r a p ost- c o lle ge c are er.

Im plic a tio n s o f C oach es’ L ea d ersh ip

Colle ge a th le te s a ssig n a h ig h p rio rity to h av in g s o und r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith th eir c o aches ( W ang, C hen, & J i, 2 004). Acco rd in g to th e N CA A’s 2 010 G OALS s u rv ey o f a lm ost 2 0,0 00 a th le te s, m ore th an h alf c ho se to a tte nd th eir

in sti tu ti o n p rim arily b ecause o f th e h ead c o ach f o r th eir s p ort ( P etr , P ask us, & M ir a nd a, 2 011 ). C oaches c o nti n ue to

be a n i m mense p re se nce th ro ugho ut th e c o lle ge e xp erie nce; N CA A D iv is io n I , I I, a nd I II a th le te s r e p ort s p end in g

betw een 2 9 to 4 3 h o urs p er w eek o n a th le ti c a cti v iti e s i n -s e aso n ( P etr e t a l., 2 011 ). F or m any a th le te s, th is

ded ic ati o n r e su lts i n th e d ev elo pm ent o f m eanin gfu l r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith th eir c o aches. R ese arc h s h o w s th at c o aches’

le ad ers h ip i s a sso cia te d w ith a th le te s’ s a ti s fa cti o n w ith th eir e xp erie nces i n th eir s p ort ( A oyagi, C ox & M cG uir e ,

2008). M ore o ver, a th le te s w ho c hara cte riz e th eir c o aches i n p ositi v e te rm s r e p ort h av in g h ig her l e v els o f a cad em ic

su ccess ( M eno n, L oya, & R ankin , 2 012).

Not a ll c o aches h av e a p ositi v e i m pact o n th eir a th le te s’ w ell- b ein g. I n th e 2 010 N CA A G OALS s u rv ey, a th le te s

were a sk ed to n am e th e o ne th in g th at th ey w ould m ost l ik e to c hange a b out th eir c o lle gia te e xp erie nce, a nd 1 1 % o f

re sp ond ents i d enti fie d s o m e a sp ect r e la te d to c o achin g ( P etr e t a l., 2 011 ). C olle ge a th le te s d esc rib e p oor c o aches i n

te rm s o f s p ort- re la te d k no w le d ge, th at i s , a n i n ab ility to i m part m enta l, ta cti c al, o r te chnic al s k ills , a s w ell a s

bro ad er f a ilu re s to p ro vid e e m oti o nal s u p port, e ffe cti v ely i m part “ life l e sso ns,” a nd r o le -m odel s tr o ng c hara cte r

(G earity , 2 011 , 2 012). I n r e sp onse , a th le te s f e el th at th eir c o gniti v e s k ills a re i n hib ite d ( e .g ., th ey a re d is tr a cte d , h av e

se lf- d oub ts , l a ck m oti v ati o n), a nd te am d ynam ic s m ay s u ffe r ( G earity & M urra y, 2 011 ). A ls o , w hen c o aches a re

overly c riti c al o r p la ce i n te nse p re ssu re o n th eir te am s to p erfo rm , a th le te s h av e a h ig her l ik elih o od o f b urn in g o ut

(G ould & W hitl e y, 2 009).

Even f o r th o se a th le te s w ho r e p ort a p ositi v e r e la ti o nsh ip w ith th eir c o aches, s o m e o bse rv ers e xp re ss c o ncern

th at c o aches’ r o le s c an b eco m e o uts iz e d . I n th eir f o ur-y ear s tu d y o f a D iv is io n I m en’s b ask etb all te am , A dle r a nd

Adle r ( 1 991) d esc rib ed h o w c o aches n o t o nly c o ntr o lle d p la yers ’ d ev elo pm ent a s a th le te s b ut a ls o e xerte d a s tr o ng

in flu ence o ver th eir a cad em ic a nd s o cia l a cti v iti e s, p rio riti e s, a nd r e la ti o nsh ip s, u lti m ate ly n arro w in g th eir c o lle ge

exp erie nce to b e p rim arily a th le ti c -fo cuse d .

More o ver, i n th e N CA A D iv is io ns I a nd I I, w here s c ho la rs h ip s a re

aw ard ed f o r a th le ti c a b ility , c o aches d ecid e o n a n a nnual b asis to r e new o r r e v oke th eir a th le te s’ a id . S om e c riti c s

opin e th is g iv es c o aches to o m uch p ow er, c o m pellin g a th le te s to p arti c ip ate i n “ o pti o nal” o ff- s e aso n w ork o uts o r

te am -re la te d ta sk s ( S perb er, 2 000). G erd y ( 2 006) a d vis e s th at w hile c o aches a re n atu ra lly a n i n flu enti a l p re se nce i n

th eir c o lle ge e xp erie nce, a th le te s s h o uld b e e nco ura ged to s e ek a d diti o nal c o unse l o uts id e th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent

fr o m f a m ily , f r ie nd s, a nd f a culty .

CO NCLU SIO N

Lead in g a n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c p ro gra m i n v olv es m ulti p le s ta keho ld er g ro up s w ith s o m eti m es c o m peti n g

in te re sts . P re sid ents a re p rim arily i n te re ste d i n h o w a th le ti c s c an c o ntr ib ute to i n sti tu ti o nal o bje cti v es, n am ely i ts

pote nti a l to e nhance th e s c ho ol’s o vera ll r e p uta ti o n a nd c ulti v ate d ono rs . Y et p re sid ents a ls o a re c o ncern ed th at a

poorly r u n a th le ti c p ro gra m c an b e r e p uta ti o nally a nd f in ancia lly c o stl y . A th le ti c d ir e cto rs , e sp ecia lly th o se m anagin g

majo r p ro gra m s, a re f o cuse d o n g enera ti n g r e v enues to s u p port th e e nte rp ris e . A t s m alle r i n sti tu ti o ns, A Ds p la ce

re la ti v ely s tr o nger e m phasis o n e d ucati o nal v alu es a nd th e a th le te e xp erie nce. T he to p p rio rity f o r c o aches a t a ll

le v els i s to a chie v e s u ccess o n th e p la yin g f ie ld , th o ugh m ost a ls o s u p port th eir p la yers ’ a cad em ic s u ccess a nd s tr e ss

th e i m porta nce o f g ra d uati o n. F aculty m em bers a re i n te re ste d c hie fly i n e nsu rin g th e a cad em ic i n te grity o f th eir

in sti tu ti o ns a nd s u p porti n g s tu d ents ’ e d ucati o nal e xp erie nces. W hile th ere a re m any i n sta nces w here th e l e ad ers h ip o f

pre sid ents , a th le ti c d ir e cto rs , c o aches, a nd f a culty h as e nhanced a th le te s’ w ell- b ein g, th is i s n o t a lw ays th e c ase .

Colle ge s p orts to day f a ce m any c halle nges, n o t th e l e ast o f w hic h i s h o w to n ego ti a te th e d iv erg in g p rio riti e s a nd

in te re sts o f c am pus l e ad ers h ip g ro up s.

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

I n th e c ase o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, s h o uld e ach o f th e l e ad ers h ip s ta keho ld ers d is c usse d i n th is c hap te r h av e

eq ual c o nsid era ti o n, o r a re th ere i n sta nces w here c erta in g ro up s s h o uld h av e m ore a uth o rity o r i m porta nce th an

oth ers ?

R ese arc h s u ggests th at th e r e w ard s y ste m f o r i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c l e ad ers h as a b earin g o n th eir p rio riti e s. H ow

mig ht th e c urre nt s tr u ctu re b e m odifie d to m ore s tr o ngly e m phasiz e c o lle ge a th le te w ell- b ein g?

New Y o rk T im es

c o lu m nis t J o e N ocera ( 2 013) a rg ues th at “ b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts i s a s e rio us b usin ess th at h as to

be m anaged b y b usin ess e xecuti v es w ho h av e a n e xp erti s e i n s p orts m anagem ent” ( p . A 23). D o y o u a gre e w ith th is

asse rti o n? Note

1 . F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n ( F B S) i s a d esig nati o n th at a p plie s to D iv is io n I ( D I) s c ho ols w ith v ars ity

in te rc o lle gia te f o otb all p ro gra m s c o m peti n g n ati o nally f o r a n o pportu nity to p arti c ip ate i n a s e rie s o f p osts e aso n

bow l g am es. F B S s c ho ols m ust m eet s p ecific N CA A r e gula ti o ns r e gard in g a th le te s c ho la rs h ip s a nd h o m e f o otb all

gam e a tte nd ance ( N CA A, 2 012).

Refe re n ces

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, 1 54–178.

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co lle gia te l e v el.

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(2 ), 1 77–200.

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su p port s e rv ic es.

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, 2 11 –233.

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in centi v es f o r a th le ti c a nd a cad em ic te am p erfo rm ance b etw een 2 009 a nd 2 012.

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fr o m

http ://c hro nic le .c o m /a rti c le /W ho s-in -C harg e-o f- S ports -/1 34046/

C H APTER

E TH IC AL I S SU ES i n I N TE R CO LLEG IA TE A TH LETIC S

P urp ose A ch ie ved o r C halle n ged ?

A ngela L um pkin

K EY T ER M S

am ate uris m

stu dent-a th le te

aca dem ic s u cce ss

co m merc ia lis m

re co m mendatio ns

T he N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n’s ( N CA A) p urp ose i s “ to m ain ta in i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a s a n

i n te gra l p art o f th e e d ucati o nal p ro gra m a nd th e a th le te a s a n i n te gra l p art o f th e s tu d ent b ody a nd , b y s o d oin g, r e ta in

a c le ar l in e o f d em arc ati o n b etw een i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd p ro fe ssio nal s p orts ” ( N CA A, 2 012–2013, p . 1 ).

A mong i ts e sse nti a l p rin cip le s h av e b een i n sti tu ti o nal c o ntr o l a nd r e sp onsib ility , s tu d ent- a th le te w elfa re ,

s p orts m ansh ip a nd e th ic al c o nd uct, s o und a cad em ic s ta nd ard s, r u le s c o m plia nce, a m ate uris m , e lig ib ility , a nd

f in ancia l a id ( N CA A, 2 012–2013). T his c hap te r f o cuse s o n e th ic al i s su es a sso cia te d w ith a nd p ote nti a lly th re ate nin g

t h ese p rin cip le s.

Unlik e i n o th er c o untr ie s, h ig her e d ucati o n i n th e U nite d S ta te s s p onso rs i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts te am s, c o nte nd in g

t h at a th le ti c c o m peti ti o ns e nhanced s tu d ents ’ e d ucati o nal e xp erie nces. S elf- d is c ip lin e, te am w ork , r e sp onsib ility ,

c o m mitm ent, l e arn in g h o w to l e ad a nd f o llo w , c hara cte r d ev elo pm ent, a nd l e arn in g l ife l e sso ns a re v alu es b enefiti n g

c o lle ge a th le te s to ute d b y N CA A r e p re se nta ti v es, c o lle ge p re sid ents , a th le ti c a d m in is tr a to rs , a nd c o aches. H ow ev er,

w hile m ost p eo ple b elie v e a th le te s’ c o lle gia te e xp erie nces a re e nric hed th ro ugh s p orts c o m peti ti o ns, o th ers q uesti o n

w heth er e th ic al m is c o nd uct a nd m is p la ced p rio riti e s th re ate ned p ositi v e o utc o m es.

Num ero us j u sti fic ati o ns h av e b een a d vanced f o r w hy c o lle ges s h o uld s p onso r c o m peti ti v e s p orts te am s. T om a

( 1 999) s ta te s th at h ig h-p ro file i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s s e rv e a s e ffe cti v e to ols f o r e xte rn al r e la ti o ns b y h elp in g s h ap e

f a v ora b le i n sti tu ti o nal i d enti ti e s a nd s ta tu s. M arq uee f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all te am s, h e s u ggests , g arn er s u p port

f r o m m ajo r d ono rs a nd a nnual f u nd c o ntr ib uto rs , g ain i n cre ase d

le gis la ti v e a p pro pria ti o ns, a nd a ttr a ct p ro sp ecti v e

s tu d ents . I n cre ase d s ta te a p pro pria ti o ns, c la im A le xand er a nd K ern ( 2 010), a ccru e p rim arily to i n sti tu ti o ns w ith

w in nin g f o otb all o r m en’s b ask etb all te am s c o m peti n g a t th e h ig hest c o m peti ti v e l e v el.

Marti n ez, S ti n so n, K ang, a nd J u b env ille ( 2 010) i n th eir m eta -a naly sis o f 3 0 y ears o f e m pir ic al s tu d ie s a b out

i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s r e p ort a s m all, b ut s ig nific ant, i n flu ence o n i n sti tu ti o nal f u nd ra is in g, e sp ecia lly r e la ti v e to

s u ccess i n f o otb all i n i n sti tu ti o ns c o m peti n g a t th e h ig hest l e v el. A le xand er a nd K ern ( 2 010) a gre e w ith M arti n ez e t

a l. ( 2 010) th at s u ccess i n b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts i n cre ase s p ub lic a w are ness, a ffo rd s p ric ele ss a d verti s in g, a nd

e nhances i n sti tu ti o nal p re sti g e w hile p ro vid in g o pportu niti e s f o r g ain in g f in ancia l s u p port f r o m d ono rs a nd

p oliti c ia ns. I n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, D esro chers ( 2 013) a d ds, “ p ro vid e n o nfin ancia l b enefits th at a re i m porta nt to

i n sti tu ti o ns, s u ch a s c am pus s p ir it, n am e r e co gniti o n, a nd r e p uta ti o n” ( p . 2 ). B ut, s h e c auti o ns, th e b enefits a sso cia te d

w ith a p plic ati o ns, e nro llm ents , o r f u nd ra is in g a re m odest a nd o fte n s h o rt- liv ed b onuse s l in ked w ith c ham pio nsh ip

s e aso ns. F ra nk ( 2 004) e m phasiz e s th at h is e xam in ati o n o f e m pir ic al l ite ra tu re r e v eale d l ittl e , i f a ny, s y ste m ati c

i m pact o n a cad em ic q uality o f f r e sh m en; a nd , i f a lu m ni g iv in g a nd s u ccess i n b ig -ti m e c o lle ge a th le ti c s w ere r e la te d ,

t h is o ccurre d i n o nly a f e w i n sti tu ti o ns w ith s m all a nd tr a nsito ry e ffe cts . C ounte rin g th ese p ositi v es o f w hate v er

m agnitu d e, n um ero us u neth ic al a cti o ns a sso cia te d w ith c o lle ge s p orts th re ate n th eir p opula rity a nd s ta tu s. Univ ers ity p re sid ents q uesti o n w heth er i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s d is to rt th e i d eal o f s p orts f o r s p orts ’ s a ke a nd

warp th e v alu es o f th e a cad em y ( N CA A, 2 006). N um ero us e th ic al c o ncern s a nd N CA A r u le v io la ti o ns c iti n g l a ck o f

in sti tu ti o nal c o ntr o l i n r e cent y ears , s u ch a s a t th e U niv ers ity o f S outh ern C alifo rn ia , U niv ers ity o f M ia m i, O hio S ta te

Univ ers ity , U niv ers ity o f N orth C aro lin a, R utg ers U niv ers ity , P ennsy lv ania S ta te U niv ers ity , a nd O kla ho m a S ta te

Univ ers ity , h av e e lic ite d p ub lic i r e a nd i m plic ate d g o vern in g b oard s a nd p re sid ents f o r n o t e xerc is in g r e sp onsib le

fid ucia ry a nd o pera ti o nal o vers ig ht o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c p ro gra m s.

Rep orts i n 2 009 a nd 2 012 i s su ed b y th e A sso cia ti o n o f G overn in g B oard s o f U niv ers iti e s a nd C olle ges ( A GB)

call f o r e sta b lis h m ent a nd m ain te nance o f h ig her s ta nd ard s o f i n te grity , tr u st, a nd a cco unta b ility . S pecific ally th e

AGB i n sis ts o n a th le ti c d ep artm ent c o ngru ence w ith e ach i n sti tu ti o n’s a cad em ic m is sio n a nd v alu es, a cad em ic

achie v em ent o f a th le te s, a nd c o m plia nce w ith n ati o nal, c o nfe re nce, a nd i n sti tu ti o nal p olic ie s a nd r u le s. G re en,

Ja sc hik , a nd L ed erm an ( 2 012) s u rv eyed c o lle ge p re sid ents a nd r e p orte d th eir a gre em ent o r d is a gre em ent w ith

se v era l k ey s ta te m ents d ealin g w ith i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. A cro ss a ll th re e N CA A d iv is io ns, 7 5% a gre ed o r

str o ngly a gre ed w ith th is s ta te m ent: “ C olle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s s p end w ay to o m uch m oney o n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c

pro gra m s.” M ore th an tw o-th ir d s ( 6 7.8 % ) a gre ed /s tr o ngly a gre ed w ith “ T he a th le ti c s c and als o f th e p ast y ear h av e

hurt th e r e p uta ti o n o f a ll h ig her e d ucati o n, n o t j u st th e i n sti tu ti o ns i n v olv ed .” N early h alf ( 4 8.2 % ) a gre ed /s tr o ngly

agre ed w ith th is s ta te m ent: “ S cand als a re i n ev ita b le i n b ig -ti m e c o lle ge a th le ti c s.” P ossib ly m ost d is c o ncerti n g w as

only 1 3.1 % a gre ed o r s tr o ngly

agre ed w ith “ T he p re sid ents o f b ig -ti m e a th le ti c p ro gra m s a re i n c o ntr o l o f th eir

pro gra m s” ( p . 1 5).

Calls f o r g re ate r i n sti tu ti o nal c o ntr o l a nd i n te grity s u ggest a ll i s n o t w ell w ith i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. E sp ouse d

valu es i n to o m any c ase s h av e b een r e p la ced b y e th ic al m is c o nd uct d riv en b y i n cessa nt q uests f o r v ic to rie s a nd

re v enues. F or th is c hap te r’s e xam in ati o n o f e th ic al i s su es i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, I s e le cte d f o ur p ro vocati v e

are as f o r i n v esti g ati o n. F ir s t, a nd p ossib ly m ost c o ntr o vers ia l, i s w heth er th e N CA A’s s ta unch a d here nce to

am ate uris m i s e sse nti a l to th e e nte rp ris e o f c o lle ge s p orts ? S eco nd , i n extr ic ab ly l in ked w ith a m ate uris m h as b een th e

NCA A’s i n sis te nce u p on r e fe rrin g to p la yers a s

stu den t- a th le te s

, e v en th o ugh th is l a b el s e em s e sp ecia lly i n ane a nd

arc haic g iv en th e n um ber o f h o urs d ed ic ate d b y a th le te s to th eir s p orts . T hir d , e v en th o ugh l e arn in g a nd a cad em ic

su ccess r e m ain h ig her e d ucati o n’s m is sio n, i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s m ay h av e s u p pla nte d a n e d ucati o nal m odel w ith a

busin ess m odel l e ad in g to e th ic al m is c o nd uct a nd e ro sio n i n a cad em ic a chie v em ent. F ourth , i n cre ase d

co m merc ia liz a ti o n d ue to th e m illio ns o f d olla rs a sso cia te d w ith c o lle ge s p orts , a lo ng w ith p ossib le f in ancia l

exp lo ita ti o n o f f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yers , m ay c hara cte riz e a n u nsu sta in ab le a rm s r a ce a nd w in nin g-a t-

any-c o st e th o s d estr u cti v e to th e v alu es o f e v ery o ne i n v olv ed . T en r e co m mend ati o ns a re p ro vid ed i n th e f in al s e cti o n

of th is c hap te r to o ffe r h o pe f o r e lim in ati n g m ost o f th e u neth ic al c o nd uct c urre ntl y n egati v ely a ffe cti n g th e m ora l

valu es p ote nti a lly a sso cia te d w ith i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s.

HYPO CRIS Y O F A M AT EU RIS M ?

The N CA A’s b ed ro ck p rin cip le o f a m ate uris m w as f o und ed o n th e B riti s h u p per-c la ss b elie f th at a m ate urs w ho

pla yed s p orts f o r e njo ym ent s h o uld n o t c o m pete a gain st l o w er-c la ss o pponents w ho w ere p aid to p la y. T his

nin ete enth -c entu ry p ers p ecti v e h eld i n v io la te th at r e ceiv in g m oneta ry c o m pensa ti o n ta in te d s p orts . R efle cti n g th is

Briti s h a m ate ur i d eal, th e N CA A’s f ir s t d efin iti o n o f a m ate uris m i n 1 916 d esc rib ed a n a m ate ur a s “ o ne w ho

parti c ip ate s i n c o m peti ti v e p hysic al s p orts o nly f o r th e p le asu re , a nd th e p hysic al, m enta l, m ora l a nd s o cia l b enefits

deriv ed th ere fr o m ” ( Z im balis t & S ack, 2 013, p . 3 ). I n d esc rib in g a m ate ur s p orts , D av is ( 1 994) c la im s c o lle ge

ath le te s a re a d m ir e d f o r e xhib iti n g v alu es l ik e s e lfle ssn ess, d ev oti o n, s a crific e, a nd p urity s im ila r to h o w u p per-c la ss

Briti s h m ale s w ere v ie w ed . Y et, g iv en th e m oney a sso cia te d w ith c o lle ge s p orts p la yed a t th e h ig hest c o m peti ti v e

le v el, D av is c o nclu d es a m ate uris m i s o utd ate d a nd v acuo us. A ddin g to th is , B ra nch ( 2 011 ), i n h is r iv eti n g e xp osé o f

th e m yth o f a m ate uris m i n c o lle ge s p orts , e m phasiz e s th at “ it’ s th at tw o o f th e n o ble p rin cip le s o n w hic h th e N CA A

ju sti fie s i ts e xis te nce — ‘ a m ate uris m ’ a nd th e ‘ s tu d ent- a th le te ’ — a re c ynic al h o axes, l e galis ti c c o nfe cti o ns

pro pagate d b y th e u niv ers iti e s s o th ey c an e xp lo it th e s k ills a nd f a m e o f y o ung a th le te s” ( p . 8 2). Y et, th e N CA A’s

prin cip le o f a m ate uris m r e m ain s u neq uiv ocal:

CASE S T U DY

Build in g R ela tio n sh ip s w it h t h e P are n ts o f C olle g e F ootb all a n d M en ’s B ask etb all P la yers

Som eti m es d urin g th e te le cast o f c o lle ge f o otb all o r m en’s b ask etb all g am es th e c am era s h o w s p are nts c heerin g f o r th eir s o ns. M ost o th er p are nts , h o w ev er, a re n o t p re se nt e v en th o ugh m any w ould l ik e to b e b ut s im ply c o uld n o t

affo rd i t. W hile th e N CA A a llo w s p la yers to r e ceiv e f o ur ti c kets ( a ctu ally n am es o n a l is t s in ce p la yers i n th e p ast

hav e s o ld th eir ti c kets , w hic h v io la te d N CA A r u le s) to h o m e g am es, i t p re clu d es c o lle ges f r o m p ayin g th e tr a v el

exp ense s o f p are nts to w atc h th eir s o ns p la y. T his c ase s tu d y d esc rib es a c re ati v e, y et i n d ir e ct, w ay to r e w ard

fo otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yers b y s u ggesti n g h o w a th le ti c d ep artm ents c o uld b e a llo w ed to p ro vid e a ll-

exp ense s-p aid tr ip s f o r p are nts ( o r tw o a d ult r e la ti v es o f h is c ho ic e) f o r e v ery f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yer

to o ne r e gula r s e aso n h o m e a nd o ne r e gula r s e aso n a w ay g am e.

Pare nts o f c o lle ge f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yers m ay n o t h av e a tte nd ed c o lle ge o r p la yed c o lle ge s p orts ,

whic h m eans th ey d o n o t f u lly u nd ers ta nd o r a p pre cia te th e e xp erie nces o f th eir s o ns. T his i n clu d es th e ti m e

co m mitm ents f o r p ra cti c es, tr a v el, a nd c o m peti ti o ns, a cad em ic e xp ecta ti o ns, a nd p hysic al to ll o f b ein g a c o lle ge

ath le te . S pend in g a d ay o n c am pus, a tte nd in g a h o m e g am e, tr a v elin g to a n a w ay g am e, a nd s p end in g ti m e w ith s o ns

and th eir te am mate s c o uld h elp b rid ge th is g ap . A dditi o nally , h av in g o pportu niti e s to a tte nd tw o o f th eir s o ns’ g am es

would h elp r e m unera te a th le te s w ith o ut v io la ti n g th e N CA A’s p rin cip le o f a m ate uris m .

Every f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yer w ould b e a llo w ed to i n v ite h is p are nts to c ho ose o ne h o m e a nd o ne

aw ay g am e to a tte nd a nd p ro vid e th ese d ate s to h is d ir e cto r o f f o otb all o r b ask etb all o pera ti o ns. F or h o m e g am es,

pare nts w ould b e p ro vid ed tr a nsp orta ti o n to a nd f r o m th eir h o m es to th e a ir p ort, h o te l, o r c am pus, i n v ite d to p re gam e

and p ostg am e te am m eals , a nd p ro vid ed a te am j e rs e y w ith h is o r h er s o n’s n um ber a nd n am e. O n th e f ie ld o r c o urt

prio r to h o m e g am es, p are nts w ould h av e p ho to gra p hs ta ken w ith th eir s o ns, w hic h w ould b e f r a m ed a nd g iv en to

th em . F or a w ay g am es, p are nts w ould b e i n v ite d to c am pus to tr a v el o n th e b us o r a ir p la ne w ith th e te am , r id e to a nd

fr o m l o cati o ns w ith th e te am , b e h o use d a t th e te am h o te l, e at m eals w ith s o ns a nd th eir te am mate s, a nd h av e ti c kets

to th e g am e.

Stu den t- a th le te s s h all b e a m ate u rs in a n in te rc o lle gia te s p ort, a n d th eir p artic ip atio n s h ould b e m otiv ate d p rim arily b y

ed ucatio n a n d b y th e p hysic al, m en ta l a n d s o cia l b en efit s to b e d eriv ed . S tu den t p artic ip atio n in in te rc o lle gia te a th le tic s is

an a v ocatio n, a n d s tu den t- a th le te s s h ould b e p ro te cte d f ro m e xp lo it a tio n b y p ro fe ssio nal a n d c o m merc ia l e n te rp ris e s.

(N CAA, 2 012–2013, p . 4 )

Not s o , c la im s Z im balis t a nd S ack ( 2 013), w ho c o nclu d e th at th e N CA A m ain ta in s a n “ id io sy ncra ti c , c hangin g,

fr e q uentl y a rb itr a ry , a nd o fte n i llo gic al d efin iti o n o f a m ate uris m ” ( p . 7 ). E m phati c ally , B ra nch ( 2 011 ) q uesti o ns th e

cla im m ad e b y m any f a ns th at p ayin g a th le te s w ould d estr o y th e “ in te grity a nd a p peal o f c o lle ge s p orts ” ( p . 8 3).

Amate uris m , D av is ( 1 995) c o nte nd s, “ p erp etu ate s a f a ls e m odel w hic h f a ils to c o m port w ith th e p re se nt d ay s o cia l,

eco no m ic a nd l e gal r e aliti e s o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s” ( p . 6 21).

Unab le to e lim in ate p aym ents to a th le te s, th e N CA A i n 1 956 a p pro ved a w ard in g f o ur-y ear g ra nts -in -a id b ase d o n

ath le ti c a b ility to tr y to l im it p aym ents to o nly

tu iti o n, f e es, r o om , a nd b oard ( O ria rd , 2 009). S im ulta neo usly , th e

NCA A p ro cla im ed g ra nts -in -a id d id n o t c o nsti tu te “ p ay f o r p la y.” A ls o , to s h elte r i n sti tu ti o ns f r o m p ote nti a l w ork ers ’

co m pensa ti o n c la im s, th e N CA A m and ate d f o ur-y ear g ra nts -in -a id th at c o uld n o t b e r e d uced o r c ancele d o n th e b asis

of a n a th le te ’s c o ntr ib uti o n to te am s u ccess, i n ju ry , o r d ecis io n n o t to p arti c ip ate ( Z im balis t & S ack, 2 013). T hese

cav eats d is a p peare d a t th e 1 973 N CA A c o nv enti o n, w hen m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns e ffe cti v ely c ast a sid e th is m odel o f

am ate uris m b y r e p la cin g f o ur-y ear w ith o ne-y ear g ra nts -in -a id , a d e f a cto c hange f r o m

stu den t- a th le te

ath le te -

stu den t

The i s su e b ecam e n o t w heth er a th le te s s h o uld b e p aid b ecause th ey w ere a lr e ad y r e ceiv in g p ay th ro ugh g ra nts -in -

aid , a lb eit w ith in th e c o nstr a in ts i m pose d b y th e N CA A. R ath er, th e i s su e w as h o w m uch a th le te s s h o uld b e

co m pensa te d f o r th eir a th le ti c p erfo rm ances. L im ita ti o ns o f w hat a th le te s r e ceiv ed b ase d o n th eir a th le ti c ta le nts

tr e ate d th em d iffe re ntl y th an s tu d ents w ho w ere m usic ia ns, a rti s ts , o r p ho to gra p hers w ho c o uld p ro fit f r o m th eir

ta le nts . P ers is te ntl y , th o ugh, th e N CA A a d here d to a rg uab ly a s e lf- s e rv in g d efin iti o n o f a m ate uris m a nd e v en a d ded a

pub lic r e la ti o ns m aste rp ie ce.

MYTH O F T H E S T U DEN T-A T H LETE?

When th e N CA A i n iti a lly p erm itte d a w ard in g g ra nts -in -a id , E xecuti v e D ir e cto r W alte r B yers i n v ente d th e l a b el

stu den t- a th le te

a nd f ir m ly p la nte d i t i n th e E nglis h l e xic o n th ro ugh th e m ed ia ’s e xte nsiv e u se o f th is l a b el a t h is

in sis te nce. “ W e c ra fte d th e te rm s tu d ent- a th le te , a nd s o on i t w as e m bed ded i n a ll N CA A r u le s a nd i n te rp re ta ti o ns a s a

mand ate d s u b sti tu te f o r s u ch w ord s a s p la yers a nd a th le te s” ( B yers , 1 995, p . 6 9). S ta uro w sk y a nd S ack ( 2 005)

exp ose th is c alc ula te d p lo y f o r w hat i t w as: The te rm s tu den t- a th le te d id n ot e m erg e b ecau se it w as s o m eh ow ju dged to b e m ore p re cis e th an th e p hra se c o lle ge

ath le te o r b ecau se a th le te s th em se lv es p re fe rre d th e te rm … W hen v ie w ed in it s h is to ric al c o nte xt, th e te rm s tu den t- a th le te

dis c lo se s a g re at d eal a b out th e p olit ic s o f th e N CAA a n d r a is e s im porta n t q uestio ns a b out th e u ncrit ic al u se o f

id eo lo gic ally b ia se d te rm s. ( p . 1 05)

In ste ad o f b ein g s tu d ent- a th le te s, S ta uro w sk y a nd S ack ( 2 005) i llu str a te h o w th ey a re a th le te s f ir s t a nd f o re m ost:

th e o ne-y ear g ra nt- in -a id l im ita ti o n, w hic h r e nd ers a th le te s m ostl y p ow erle ss a nd v oic ele ss; c o aches’ e xp ecta ti o ns

th at a th le te s w ho w ant p la yin g ti m e w ould e ngage i n w ork o uts e xceed in g N CA A’s m axim um s i n n um ber o f h o urs

sp ent i n c o ach-d ir e cte d a cti v iti e s ( i.e ., 4 h o urs p er d ay a nd 2 0 h o urs p er w eek w ith o ne d ay o ff p er w eek d urin g th e

se aso n; m axim um o f 8 h o urs p er w eek i n th e o ff- s e aso n); r e q uir e m ents to r e p eate d ly m is s c la sse s f o r p ra cti c es,

co m peti ti o ns, a nd a sso cia te d tr a v el; a nd l im ite d l ik elih o od o f g ra d uati n g. T he tw in p illa rs o f a m ate uris m a nd th e

la b el s tu d ent- a th le te h av e u nd erg ir d ed th e te nuo us f o und ati o n u p on w hic h th e N CA A-g o vern ed i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le te s h av e o pera te d f o r m ore th an a c entu ry . I n th e m id st o f m ed ia e xp osé s a b out u neth ic al c o nd uct s m earin g

th e

in te grity o f h ig her e d ucati o n, r e fo rm ers l ik e B ra nch ( 2 011 ) h av e c alle d f o r e lim in ati o n o f th e h yp ocris y o f th ese tw o

ho axes.

In a d diti o n to th e e th ic al i s su es a sso cia te d w ith a m ate uris m a nd th e p ub lic r e la ti o ns l a b el o f s tu d ent- a th le te , o th er

questi o nab ly e th ic al p ra cti c es h av e i n clu d ed a d m is sio n o f m any h ig h p ro file a th le te s w ho s u b se q uentl y f a ile d to

gra d uate a nd c lu ste rin g o f a th le te s i n to m ajo rs a nd c o urs e s u se d to k eep th em e lig ib le .

AC AD EM IC I N TEG RIT Y O R A C AD EM IC E XPLO IT A T IO N?

The p ote nti a l f o r e xp lo ita ti o n b egan e arly w hen p ro sp ecti v e a th le te s w ho d id n o t m eet m in im um a cad em ic

re q uir e m ents b ecam e s p ecia l a d m its , th us p ote nti a lly s e tti n g th em u p to f a il a cad em ic ally . O nce a d m itte d , m any o f

th ese a th le te s w ere e nro lle d i n c o urs e s ta ught b y a th le te -fr ie nd ly i n str u cto rs a nd c lu ste re d i n l e ss d em and in g m ajo rs

(D onno r, 2 005). I n r e sp onse to c riti c is m s a b out th e a b se nce o f a cad em ic s ta nd ard s, th e N CA A o ver th e y ears p asse d

se v era l a cad em ic m in im a a s a d m is sio n r e q uir e m ents f o r p ro sp ecti v e a th le te s. A dditi o nally , to tr y to k eep a th le te s

and a cad em ic s u p port p ers o nnel f r o m f o cusin g o n e lig ib ility , th e N CA A r e q uir e d a th le te s to d ecla re m ajo rs p rio r to

th e b egin nin g o f th eir th ir d y ears o f e nro llm ent a nd a nnually m ake s a ti s fa cto ry p ro gre ss to w ard th eir d egre es.

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

Facu lt y A th le tic s R ep re se n ta tiv e’s P ersp ectiv e

Dr. S usa n M . S ta gg-W illia m s, a p ro fe sso r o f c hem ic al a nd p etr o le um e ngin eerin g, s e rv es a s f a culty a th le ti c s

re p re se nta ti v e ( F A R) f o r th e U niv ers ity o f K ansa s ( K U). H er p rim ary r e sp onsib iliti e s f o cus o n p ro m oti n g a th le te

well- b ein g, f o ste rin g a cad em ic i n te grity , a nd w ork in g to e nsu re i n sti tu ti o nal c o ntr o l o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s.

Serv in g a s F A R a ls o i n clu d es r e p re se nta ti v e a nd l e gis la ti v e d uti e s to th e B ig 1 2 C onfe re nce a nd N CA A a nd o pen

co lla b ora ti o n a nd c o m munic ati o n w ith th e c hancello r, a th le ti c d ir e cto r, a nd a th le ti c d ep artm ent s ta ff.

Dr. S ta gg-W illia m s b elie v es th e ti m e d em and s p la ced o n a th le te s a re th e b ig gest c halle nges f a cin g i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c s. T hese y o ung a d ults m ust a d ro itl y b ala nce p ra cti c es, te am m eeti n gs, s tr e ngth a nd c o nd iti o nin g w ork o uts ,

co m peti ti o ns, a nd tr a v el w ith th eir a cad em ic r e q uir e m ents . R ath er th an s e aso nal, th ese ti m e d em and s h av e b eco m e

year-ro und a nd a re f u rth er e xacerb ate d b ecause o f th e g eo gra p hic b ro ad enin g o f c o nfe re nce r e alig nm ents .

Because o f i ts m is sio n o r c o re v alu es b ase d o n a c o m mitm ent to a th le te s’ w ell- b ein g a nd th eir a cad em ic s u ccess,

th e K U a th le ti c d ep artm ent o pera te s S tu d ent- A th le te S up port S erv ic es th at o ffe rs a cad em ic c o unse lin g a nd tu to rin g

se rv ic es to h elp a th le te s m anage ti m e a nd b ala nce a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c p erfo rm ance d em and s. A s F A R, S ta gg-

Willia m s w ork s w ith a f a culty , s ta ff, a nd s tu d ent c o m mitte e i n m onito rin g th e a cad em ic p ro gre ss r a te s o f e ach te am a s

well a s th e g ra d uati o n s u ccess r a te s o f a ll K U a th le te s.

Dr. S ta gg-W illia m s w ork s w ith c o m plia nce s ta ff m em bers i n th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent to e nsu re th e n um ber o f

ho urs a th le te s s p end i n c o unta b le a th le ti c ally r e la te d a cti v iti e s c o m ply w ith N CA A b yla w s. T he ti m e e ach a th le te

volu nta rily s p end s o n a th le ti c ally r e la te d a cti v iti e s i s n o t tr a cked . K U a th le ti c s p olic y l im its th e n um ber o f d ays p er

se m este r a n a th le te c an b e a b se nt f r o m s c ho ol f o r tr a v el a nd c o m peti ti o n to 1 0 d ays e xclu siv e o f c o nfe re nce o r

NCA A c ham pio nsh ip s. T he a th le ti c d ir e cto r a fte r c o nsu lta ti o n w ith F A R c an m ake e xcep ti o ns to th is p olic y.

Begun i n 2 004, th e A cad em ic P ro gre ss R ate ( A PR ) r e q uir e s te am s i n D iv is io n I to s c o re a t o r a b ove a m in im um sc o re o r f a ce i n cre asin gly o nero us p enalti e s w hen a th le te s f a il to g ra d uate o r l e av e c o lle ge b ecause o f p oor

acad em ic p erfo rm ances. B ecause g ra d uati o n r a te s p ub lis h ed b y th e f e d era l g o vern m ent i n clu d e a th le te s w ho tr a nsfe r

to o th er i n sti tu ti o ns o r d ro p o ut o f c o lle ge, i n 2 004 th e N CA A d ev elo ped th e G ra d uate S uccess R ate ( G SR ).

The A PR a nd G SR , h o w ev er, h av e r a is e d e th ic al c o ncern s. W hile i n sti tu ti o ns w ith f e w er f in ancia l r e so urc es

str u ggle to c o m ply w ith A PR r e q uir e m ents , a th le ti c d ep artm ents b enefiti n g f r o m th e l a rg esse o f te le v is io n r ig hts f e es

hav e u se d c re ati v e s tr a te gie s to m anage th eir te am s’ A PR s to a v oid p enalti e s a nd n egati v e p ub lic ity , a cco rd in g to

Gurn ey a nd S outh all ( 2 012). F or e xam ple , th ey c la im d ep artm ents p ay h und re d s o f th o usa nd s o f d olla rs to c la ss

checkers , tu to rs , a nd a cad em ic a d vis o rs to h elp k eep a th le te s e lig ib le , a nd o fte n a th le te s u se s e le cti v ely i d enti fie d

su m mer c o urs e s to r a is e th eir G PA s. G urn ey a nd S outh all ( 2 012) a ls o a rg ue th at th e N CA A, r a th er th an u se

gra d uati o n r a te s p ub lis h ed b y th e f e d era l g o vern m ent, to ut th e h ig her g ra d uati o n p erc enta ges o f th e G SR w hile

dis re gard in g d oub le d ig it n egati v e g ra d uati o n g ap s b etw een f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yers i n D iv is io n I a nd

th e i n sti tu ti o nal s tu d ent p opula ti o n, a s w ell a s th e f a ilu re o f m any A fr ic an A meric an a th le te s o n th ese te am s to

gra d uate .

In th e N CA A’s G ro w th , O pportu niti e s, A sp ir a ti o ns, a nd L earn in g o f S tu d ents i n C olle ge ( G OALS) s tu d y, a th le te s

acro ss a ll th re e d iv is io ns r e p orte d th at th e a v era ge n um ber o f h o urs s p ent p er w eek i n -s e aso n o n a th le ti c s i n 2 010 f a r

exceed ed th e m axim um a llo w ed i n c o ach-d ir e cte d a cti v iti e s ( B ro w n, 2 011 ). T he m ost h o urs s p ent e ngaged i n

ath le ti c -re la te d a cti v iti e s i n D iv is io n I o ccurre d i n th ese s p orts : F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n ( F B S) f o otb all ( 4 3.3 );

base b all ( 4 2.1 ); F ootb all C ham pio nsh ip S ub div is io n ( F C S) f o otb all ( 4 1.6 ); m en’s b ask etb all ( 3 9.2 ); a nd w om en’s

bask etb all ( 3 7.6 ) ( p ara . 2 3). A th le te s c o m peti n g i n D iv is io ns I I a nd I II s p ent f e w er h o urs th an th ese b ut s ti ll

exceed ed th e N CA A m axim um o f 2 0 h o urs . M ost f o otb all, m en’s b ask etb all, a nd b ase b all a th le te s i n D iv is io ns I a nd

II s ta te d th ey s p ent a s m uch o r m ore ti m e o n a th le ti c s d urin g th e o ff- s e aso n. D ata f r o m th is G OALS s tu d y a ls o

re v eale d D iv is io n I w om en’s b ask etb all, m en’s b ask etb all, a nd b ase b all p la yers m is se d a n a v era ge o f 2 .5 c la sse s p er

week f o r a th le ti c s ( N CA A, 2 011 , p ara . 2 1).

These e xam ple s s ig nal p ote nti a lly e gre gio us e th ic al i s su es p erv ad in g i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd b om bard in g

acad em ic i n te grity . I n ev ita b ly , th e d riv in g f o rc es f o r u neth ic al a cti o ns a re f in ancia l r e w ard s a sso cia te d w ith w in nin g.

EXC ESSIV E C O M MER CIA LIS M ?

Calla han ( 2 004) s ta te s, “ T he y aw nin g g ap b etw een w in ners a nd l o se rs i s a ls o h av in g a l e th al e ffe ct o n p ers o nal

in te grity . I n a s o cie ty w here w in ners w in b ig ger th an e v er

befo re a nd l o se rs a re p unis h ed m ore h ars h ly … m ore a nd

more p eo ple w ill d o

anyth in g

to b e a w in ner” ( p . 6 9). N ow here i s th is tr u er th an w hen d esc rib in g i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c s. B ed fo rd ( 2 007) i d enti fie s c o m merc ia liz a ti o n, u niv ers ity i n v olv em ent i n p ro vid in g e nte rta in m ent, d am age to

th e i n te grity o f h ig her e d ucati o n, e xp lo ita ti o n o f a th le te s, a nd h arm to n o nath le te s a s p ro ble m s a sso cia te d w ith

in te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. E xam ple s o f i n cre asin g c o m merc ia lis m , B ed fo rd e m phasiz e d ,

can b e f o und e v ery w here f ro m th e a d vertis in g p la ste re d o ver s p orts v en ues’ in stit u tio nal im ages to th e lic en sin g a n d lo go

deals u niv ers it ie s s ig n w it h a p pare l c o m pan ie s a n d p ro ducers o f v ario us s p orts tr in kets to th e p re d ato ry b eh av io r o f s p orts

agen ts , to th e h ype a n d s e n sa tio nalis m g en era te d b y s p orts a gen ts , to th e b esto w al o f c ele b rit y s ta tu s u pon s e le ct c o lle ge

ath le te s a n d c o ach es, to th e p re ssu re to s c h ed ule e v en ts e v ery n ig h t o f th e w eek to f ill th e s c h ed ule s f o r th e in cre asin g

num ber o f s p orts n etw ork s. ( p . 9 )

As p ro fit m axim iz a ti o n b eco m es a lm ost a ll- c o nsu m in g, u neth ic al a cti o ns s k yro cket.

Desro chers ( 2 013) i d enti fie s s tr ik in g d iffe re nces b etw een s p end in g a m ong D iv is io n I i n sti tu ti o ns o n a th le te s a nd

acad em ic s p end in g p er s tu d ent a s a no th er m ajo r e th ic al i s su e. I n i n sti tu ti o ns c o m peti n g i n th e F B S, m ed ia n a cad em ic

sp end in g p er f u ll- ti m e e q uiv ale nt ( F T E) s tu d ent w as $ 13,6 28, w hile th e m ed ia n a th le ti c e xp end itu re p er a th le te w as

$91,9 36. I n th e F C S, th e m ed ia n e xp end itu re s w ere $ 11 ,7 69 p er F T E s tu d ent a nd $ 36,6 65 p er a th le te ; i n D iv is io n I

with o ut f o otb all th ese d iffe re nces w ere $ 11 ,8 61 p er F T E s tu d ent a nd $ 39,2 01 p er a th le te . D esro chers c o nclu d es s u ch

fin ancia l d is p ariti e s s h o uld l e ad p ub lic i n sti tu ti o ns to r e exam in e th eir s p end in g p rio riti e s. P re sid ents o f i n sti tu ti o ns

co m peti n g i n th e F B S q uesti o ned th e s u sta in ab ility a nd f a ir n ess o f s u b sid iz in g p ro gra m s b enefiti n g o nly a th le te s

th ro ugh s tu d ent f e es a nd i n cre ase d i n sti tu ti o nal r e so urc es ( K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 2 009).

Kahn ( 2 007) c la im s th e N CA A o pera te s a s a c arte l b y l im iti n g p aym ents to a th le te s a nd r e str ic ti n g th eir o utp ut,

in clu d in g c o llu siv e r e str ic ti o ns o n p aym ents to a th le te s, r o ste r s iz e , p la yer m obility ( e .g ., tr a nsfe r r u le s), r e cru iti n g

exp ense s, a nd o utp ut ( n um ber o f g am es). D onno r ( 2 005) a nd K ahn ( 2 007) s u ggest a d is c rim in ato ry i n eq uity b ecause

most r e v enue-p ro ducin g a th le te s w ere A fr ic an A meric ans, w hile th e r e v enues th ey p ro duce m ostl y b enefit m id dle -

and u p per-c la ss w hite s tu d ents th ro ugh g ra nts -in -a id th ey r e ceiv ed a nd f in ancin g o f n o nre v enue p ro ducin g te am s s u ch as c re w a nd s w im min g.

CO NCLU SIO N

A w in ner-ta ke-a ll s y ste m p erm eate s c o lle ge s p orts a nd th re ate ns th eir e th ic al f o und ati o ns. L ofty v alu es h av e b een

re p la ced b y g am esm ansh ip to c ir c um vent th e r u le s, tr a sh ta lk in g a nd ta unti n g h av e e sc ala te d , a th le te s h av e b ra ckete d

th eir m ora lity u sin g g am e r e aso nin g w hile i g no rin g m ora l v alu es, m ora l c allo usn ess, o r th e a b se nce

of c o ncern f o r

oth ers ’ w elfa re , a nd r a ti o naliz a ti o ns h av e a tte m pte d to m ake u neth ic al a cti o ns s e em d efe nsib le . W in nin g-a t- a ny-c o sts

ju sti fie s u se o f th ese p lo ys. T o h elp a d dre ss th ese u neth ic al a cti o ns, 1 0 r e co m mend ati o ns f o r c hange a re s u ggeste d :

1. E nd th e m yth a nd h yp ocris y o f a m ate uris m b y a ckno w le d gin g “ p ay f o r p la y” h as e xis te d f o r d ecad es a s w ell a s

elim in ate th e d is in genuo us u se o f th e l a b el s tu d ent- a th le te .

2. R eq uir e o ne-y ear r e sid ency f o r a th le ti c e lig ib ility f o r f r e sh m en a nd tr a nsfe r s tu d ents s o a cad em ic e lig ib ility i s

base d o n a n a th le te ’s c o lle gia te a cad em ic p erfo rm ance, th ere b y e lim in ati n g s p ecia l a d m is sio ns f o r r e cru ite d

ath le te s w ho d id n o t m eet i n sti tu ti o nal a d m is sio n r e q uir e m ents .

3. A w ard f o ur-y ear g ra nts -in -a id , w hic h c o ver th e f u ll c o st o f a tte nd ance, to r e d uce th e c o ntr o l c o aches h av e o ver

ath le te s a nd l e sse n p re ssu re o n th em .

4. E lim in ate a cad em ic c o urs e s a nd m ajo rs u se d b y a th le te s p rim arily to m ain ta in e lig ib ility a nd p ro vid e a cad em ic

su p port s e rv ic es to a ll s tu d ents u nd er th e a usp ic es o f th e o ffic e o f a cad em ic a ffa ir s , n o t p ro gra m s s o le ly f o r

ath le te s a d m in is te re d b y a th le ti c d ep artm ents .

5. L im it s p orts s e aso ns to o ne a cad em ic te rm , r e d uce th e n um ber o f c o m peti ti o ns, a nd a llo w a th le te s to m is s n o

more th an o ne c la ss p er w eek a nd e ig ht c la sse s p er a cad em ic te rm f o r a th le ti c c o m peti ti o n a nd a sso cia te d tr a v el,

while f o rb id din g th e s c hed ulin g o f a th le ti c c o m peti ti o ns a nd a sso cia te d tr a v el, i n clu d in g f o r c o nfe re nce, r e gio nal,

and n ati o nal to urn am ents a nd c ham pio nsh ip s, d urin g f in al e xam s.

6. R eq uir e a m in im um 5 0% g ra d uati o n r a te o f a ll p la yers b efo re e ach te am c an q ualify f o r a c o nfe re nce

cham pio nsh ip a nd o th er p osts e aso n c o m peti ti o n a nd w ith ho ld f o r a p erio d o f f iv e y ears o ne g ra nt- in -a id f o r e ach

ath le te w ho d oes n o t g ra d uate w ith in s ix y ears .

7. A llo w a th le te s to tr a nsfe r a nd c o m pete i m med ia te ly .

8. S eek a p arti a l a nti tr u st e xem pti o n to p erm it s e tti n g a c eilin g o n s a la rie s o f h ead c o aches a nd a ssis ta nt c o aches i n

fo otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all a s w ell a s a th le ti c d ir e cto rs ’ s a la rie s a nd b an c o aches f r o m r e ceiv in g i n co m e f r o m

co rp ora te s p onso rs a nd o th er th ir d p arti e s f o r a cti v iti e s a sso cia te d w ith th eir c o achin g p ositi o ns.

9. R ecla im f r o m c o m merc ia l i n te re sts c o ntr o l o ver w hen ( lo cati o n a nd ti m e) g am es a re p la yed .

10. E lim in ate c o rp ora te s ig nage a nd a d verti s in g f r o m f a ciliti e s a nd s p orts e q uip m ent u se d i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s

and p ro hib it a th le te s f r o m w earin g c o rp ora te tr a d em ark s a nd l o go s o n te am u nifo rm s a nd o th er a th le ti c -is su ed

clo th in g.

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

W hat a re th e d esir e d o utc o m es th at j u sti fy w hy i n sti tu ti o ns o f h ig her e d ucati o n s h o uld s p onso r i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c p ro gra m s, a nd f r o m a n e th ic al p ers p ecti v e, w hy a re th ese o utc o m es b ein g o r n o t b ein g a cco m plis h ed ?

H ow a nd w hy a re a m ate uris m a nd th e a sso cia te d c la im th at a th le te s a re s tu d ents f ir s t e sse nti a l o r n o t e sse nti a l to

th e e xis ti n g g o vern ance s tr u ctu re o f th e N CA A a nd o pera ti o n o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s?

H ow a re a d m is sio n r e q uir e m ents , a cad em ic e lig ib ility , p ro gre ss to w ard e arn in g d egre es, c la ss a tte nd ance, ti m e

co m mitm ents to a th le ti c s, a nd g ra d uati o n e xp ecta ti o ns f o r c o lle ge a th le te s, e sp ecia lly f o otb all a nd m en’s

bask etb all p la yers , v io la te d , a nd h o w w ould y o u r e co m mend e lim in ati n g a ny e xp lo ita ti o n a sso cia te d w ith e ach o f

th ese ?

Refe re n ces Ale xand er, D . L ., & K ern , W . ( 2 010). D oes a th le ti c s u ccess g enera te l e gis la ti v e l a rg ess f r o m s p orts -c ra ze d

re p re se nta ti v es? T he i m pact o f a th le ti c s u ccess o n s ta te a p pro pria ti o ns to c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s.

In te rn atio nal

Jo urn al o f S port F in ance, 5

, 2 53–267.

Asso cia ti o n o f G overn in g B oard s o f U niv ers iti e s a nd C olle ges. ( 2 009). A GB s ta te m ent o n b oard r e sp onsib iliti e s f o r

in te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s g enera l o vers ig ht r e sp onsib iliti e s. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://a gb .o rg /s ite s/a gb .o rg /file s/u 1 525/A GBSta te m ent_ A th le ti c s_ fin al.p df

———. ( 2 012). T ru st, a cco unta b ility , a nd i n te grity : B oard r e sp onsib iliti e s f o r i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. R etr ie v ed

fr o m

http ://a gb .o rg /s ite s/a gb .o rg /file s/K nig htR ep ort.p df

Bed fo rd , R . D . ( 2 007). T he c o lle ge s p orts r e fo rm m ovem ent: R efr a m in g th e “ ed uta in m ent” i n d ustr y .

Socio lo gic a l

Quarte rly , 4 8

, 1 –28.

Bra nch, T . ( 2 011 ). T he s h am e o f c o lle ge s p orts .

Atla ntic M onth ly , 3 08

(3 ), 8 0–11 0.

Bro w n, G . ( 2 011 ). S eco nd G OALS s tu d y e m phasiz e s c o ach i n flu ence. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caa.o rg /w ps/w cm /c o nnect/ p ub lic /N CA A/R eso urc es/L ate st+ N ew s/2 011 /J a nuary /S eco nd + G OALS+stu d y+ em phasiz e s+ co ach+ in flu ence

Byers , W ., w ith C . H am mer. ( 1 995).

Unsp orts m anlik e c o nduct: E xp lo itin g c o lle g e a th le te s

. A nn A rb or: U niv ers ity

of M ic hig an P re ss.

Calla han, D . ( 2 004).

The c h ea tin g c u ltu re : W hy m ore A m eric a ns a re d oin g w ro ng t o g et a hea d.

O rla nd o, F L:

Harc o urt.

Dav is , T . ( 1 994). I n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s: C om peti n g m odels a nd c o nflic ti n g r e aliti e s.

Rutg ers L aw J o urn al, 2 5

269–327.

———. ( 1 995). T he m yth o f th e s u p ers p ad e: T he p ers is te nce o f r a cis m i n c o lle ge a th le ti c s.

Ford ham U rb an L aw

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, 6 15–698.

Desro chers , D . M . ( 2 013). A cad em ic s p end in g v ers u s a th le ti c s p end in g. W ash in gto n, D C: A meric an I n sti tu te s f o r

Rese arc h. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://c hro nic le .c o m /b lo gs/p la yers /file s/2 013/0 1/d elta co st.p df

Donno r, J . K . ( 2 005). T ow ard s a n i n te re st- c o nv erg ence i n th e e d ucati o n o f A fr ic an A meric an f o otb all s tu d ent-

ath le te s i n m ajo r c o lle ge s p orts .

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(1 ), 4 5–67.

Fra nk, R . H . ( 2 004). C halle ngin g th e m yth : A r e v ie w o f th e l in ks a m ong c o lle ge a th le ti c s u ccess, s tu d ent q uality , a nd

donati o ns. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.r e ad th eho ok.c o m /file s/o ld /b lo g/w p-

co nte nt/ u p lo ad s/2 009/0 3/2 004_kcia _ fr a nk_ re p ort.p df

Gre en, K . C ., J a sc hik , S ., & L ed erm an, D . ( 2 012). T he

In sid e H ig her E d

s u rv ey o f c o lle ge a nd u niv ers ity p re sid ents .

Retr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.g o ogle .c o m /u rl?

sa = t& rc t= j& q= & esrc = s& fr m =1& so urc e= w eb & cd = 1& ved = 0C Cw QFjA A& url= http % 3A % 2F % 2F w ww.i n sid ehig here d .c o m % 2F dow nlo ad % 2F % 3F file % 3D 2012IH Epre sid ents su rv ey.p df& ei= FU M 3U vv3L K XT2Q XftI G YBg& usg = A FQ jC N HxgF d0B D dT Q Lhzy 2 _JtZ X kX 2zd Iw &sig 2 = l1 kM hahyanT io 5V T9Z oW ZA & bvm =bv.5 2164340,d .b 2I

Gurn ey, G . S ., & S outh all, R . M . ( 2 012). C olle ge s p orts ’ b ait a nd s w itc h. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://m .e sp n.g o .c o m /g enera l/s to ry ?sto ry Id = 8248046

Kahn, L . M . ( 2 007). C arte l b ehav io r a nd a m ate uris m i n c o lle ge s p orts .

Jo urn al o f E co nom ic P ersp ectiv es, 2 1

(1 ),

209–226.

Knig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s. ( 2 009).

Quantita tiv e a nd q ualita tiv e r e se a rc h w ith f o otb all b ow l

su bdiv is io n u niv ersity p re sid en ts o n t h e c o sts a nd f in ancin g o f i n te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic s

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.k nig htc o m mis sio n.o rg /in d ex.p hp ?o pti o n= co m _co nte nta nd vie w =arti c le and id = 71and Ite m id = 36

Marti n ez, J . M ., S ti n so n, J . L ., K ang, M ., & J u b env ille , C . B . ( 2 010). I n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd i n sti tu ti o nal

fu nd ra is in g: A m eta -a naly sis .

Sport M ark etin g Q uarte rly , 1 9

, 3 6–47.

Nati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n. ( 2 006). T he s e co nd -c entu ry i m pera ti v es P re sid enti a l l e ad ers h ip —

In sti tu ti o nal a cco unta b ility . R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caap ub lic ati o ns.c o m /p ro ductd ow nlo ad s/P T F092.p df

———. ( 2 011 ). S um mary o f f in d in gs f r o m th e 2 010 G OALS a nd S C O RE s tu d ie s o f th e s tu d ent- a th le te e xp erie nce.

Retr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caa.o rg /w ps/w cm /c o nnect/ p ub lic /n caa/p dfs /2 011 /s u m mary + of+ fin d in gs+ fr o m +th e+ 2010+ go als + and + sc o re + stu d ie s+ of+ th e+ stu d ent+ ath le te + exp erie nce

———. ( 2 012–2013).

2012–13 N CAA D iv is io n I m anual

. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c

Asso cia ti o n.

Oria rd , M . ( 2 009).

Bow le d o ver: B ig -tim e c o lle g e f o otb all f r o m t h e s ix tie s t o t h e B C S e ra .

C hap el H ill: U niv ers ity

of N orth C aro lin a P re ss.

Sack, A . L ., & S ta uro w sk y, E . J . ( 1 998).

Colle g e a th le te s f o r h ir e : T he e vo lu tio n a nd l e g acy o f t h e N CAA’s a m ate u r

myth

. W estp ort, C T: P ra eger.

Sta uro w sk y, E . J ., & S ack, A . L . ( 2 005). R eco nsid erin g th e u se o f th e te rm s tu d ent- a th le te i n a cad em ic r e se arc h.

Jo urn al o f S port M anagem en t, 1 9

, 1 03–11 6. Tom a, J . D . ( 1 999). T he c o lle gia te i d eal a nd th e to ols o f e xte rn al r e la ti o ns: T he u se s o f h ig h-p ro file i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c s.

New D ir e ctio ns f o r H ig her E duca tio n, 1 05

(1 ), 8 1–90.

Zim balis t, A ., & S ack, A . ( 2 013). T ho ughts o n a m ate uris m , th e O ’B anno n c ase a nd th e v ia b ility o f c o lle ge s p ort.

Retr ie v ed f r o m

http ://th ed ra kegro up .o rg /2 013/0 4/1 0/d ra ke-g ro up -re p ort- o banno n-a m ate uris m -a nd -th e-v ia b ility -

of- c o lle ge-s p ort/ 2 PA RT T W O

Theo re tic a l P ersp ectiv es o n H ig h er E duca tio n a n d A th le tic s

T he s tu d y o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s ta kes p la ce i n v ario us c o nte xts , a nd i t i s c o nd ucte d w ith in a d iv ers ity o f

fr a m ew ork s. I n

chap te r 5

, L eti c ia O se guera a nd A llis o n G old ste in e xp lo re a v arie ty o f th eo re ti c al p ers p ecti v es a nd

dis c uss w hy th ey a re u se fu l f o r th e s tu d y o f h ig her e d ucati o n a nd i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. T hey s u m mariz e d iffe re nt

cla sse s o f th eo ry u se d to s tu d y a nd u nd ers ta nd c o lle ge s tu d ents , w ith a s p ecia l f o cus o n s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent th eo rie s

and h o w th ey h av e b een a p plie d to c o lle ge a th le te s. O se guera a nd G old ste in a ls o d is c uss c o lle ge i m pact m odels ,

criti c al th eo ry , o rg aniz a ti o nal th eo ry , a nd a c am pus c lim ate f r a m ew ork . T his p art d em onstr a te s th at th e th eo re ti c al

pers p ecti v es w e c ho ose to e m plo y f o r th e s tu d y o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s g enera lly i n flu ence o ur a p pro aches to

analy sis , i n clu d in g th e k in d s o f q uesti o ns w e a sk a nd th e f o cus o f o ur e xp lo ra ti o n.

C H APTER

T H EO RETIC AL T E N ETS o f H IG HER E D UCATIO N a n d C O LLEG E

A TH LETE S

L etic ia O se g u era a n d A llis o n G old ste in

K EY T ER M S

co lle ge a th le te s

stu dent d evelo pm ent t h eory

ca m pus c lim ate

crit ic a l t h eory

ca m pus e nvir o nm ents

H av in g th eo re ti c al l e nse s to u nd ers ta nd th e c o lle ge a th le te e xp erie nce a nd th e g enera l a th le ti c e nte rp ris e i s u se fu l to

e nsu re h ealth y d ev elo pm enta l p ro cesse s o f a th le te s a nd to u nd ers ta nd a th le ti c s a s a n o rg aniz a ti o n a nd a th le te s w ith in

a g iv en o rg aniz a ti o n. T his c hap te r o ffe rs a r a ti o nale f o r th e s tu d y o f th eo ry , a ssu m pti o ns g uid in g th eo ry , a nd h o w

t h eo ry c an b e a p plie d to a th le te s i n h ig her e d ucati o n. P ark er ( 1 977) w ro te n early 4 0 y ears a go th at “ th e d ile m ma w e

h av e d esc rib ed r e q uir e s th at w e c ho ose b etw een a b str a ct, s im plifie d m odels o f r e ality w hic h a re r e se arc hab le a nd

t h e c o ncre te , c o m ple x r e ality i n w hic h w e a ct” ( p . 4 21). A th eo ry i s a w ay o f u nd ers ta nd in g a p arti c ula r p heno m eno n.

F orm al th eo rie s a re g enera te d to d esc rib e th e i n te rre la ti o nsh ip s o f c o nstr u cts . W hile f o rm al th eo ry i s m eant to h elp

e xp la in th e p heno m eno n u nd er i n v esti g ati o n, w e a ls o u se i n fo rm al th eo ry i n e v ery d ay l ife . I n fo rm al th eo ry h as b een

d efin ed b y P ark er ( 1 977) a s “ th e b ody o f c o m mon k no w le d ge th at a llo w s u s to m ake i m plic it c o nnecti o ns a m ong

e v ents a nd p ers o ns i n o ur e nv ir o nm ent a nd u p on w hic h w e a ct i n e v ery d ay l ife ” ( p . 4 20). U nfo rtu nate ly , th ere i s n o

w ay to k no w i f o ur p erc ep ti o ns a re a ccura te . T hey c an b e b ase d o n f o rm al tr a in in g b ut a re l ik ely th e r e su lt o f

p ers o nal i n te ra cti o ns, e xp erie nces, a nd v alu es a m asse d o ver ti m e. T heo ry c an a ls o b e u nd ers to od a s c o gniti v e m ap s

o r m enta l r e p re se nta ti o ns o f h o w to h elp s tu d ents m ake s e nse o f a nd e xp la in th eir e xp erie nces a nd s o cia l i n te ra cti o ns

w ith th e e nv ir o nm ent th at h elp g uid e p ro fe ssio nal a cti o n. T heo ry h elp s s tu d ent a nd a cad em ic a ffa ir s p ro fe ssio nals

w ho w ork w ith a th le te s b ette r u nd ers ta nd th e m ulti p le a sp ects o f d ev elo pm ent th at o ccur.

Form al, v alid ate d th eo ry a llo w s u s to a p pro ach o ur w ork m ore r e fle cti v ely . W e c an m ore s y ste m ati c ally g auge

a nd a sse ss th e p heno m eno n

we a re e xp erie ncin g. A no th er w ay to u nd ers ta nd th eo ry i s to c o nsid er a p ara d ig m . G ub a

( 1 990) d efin es a p ara d ig m a s a n “ in te rp re ti v e f r a m ew ork , a b asic s e t o f b elie fs th at g uid es a cti o n” ( p . 1 7).

P ara d ig m s g uid e th eo ry a nd r e se arc h, y et G ub a a nd L in co ln ( 1 994) r e m in d u s th at p ara d ig m s a re b elie fs a nd th ey a re

s u b je ct to h um an e rro r. A s c o nstr u cti o ns o f o ur r e ality , p ara d ig m s c an n ev er b e p ro ved , b ut th ey a re u se fu l i n

u nd ers ta nd in g a nd m akin g s e nse o f l iv ed r e aliti e s. U sin g th is d efin iti o n, w e e sta b lis h th at th eo ry i s u se fu l to g uid e o ur

w ork a nd i n te ra cti o ns o n c o lle ge c am puse s, b ut i n d iv id ual e xp erie nces m ay n o t a lw ays “ fit” w ith a v alid ate d

t h eo re ti c al f r a m ew ork .

Dep end in g o n th e th eo ry , th ere a re s e le cte d a ssu m pti o ns th at g uid e u nd ers ta nd in gs o f l iv ed r e aliti e s. R eality

a ssu m pti o ns a re o n a c o nti n uum . F or e xam ple , p ositi v is m a ssu m es a n o bje cti v e r e ality th at i s ti m e a nd c o nte xt f r e e.

C riti c al th eo ry a ssu m es th ere i s a r e ality , b ut i t i s i n flu enced b y s o cia l, p oliti c al, e co no m ic , e th nic , a nd g end er-

r e la te d f a cto rs . C riti c al th eo ris ts a tte m pt to r a is e c o nsc io usn ess o r c o rre ct i n ju sti c es a b out th e w ay th eo rie s h av e

b een f o rm ula te d . A dditi o nally , s o cia l c o nstr u cti v is ts /in te ra cti o nalis ts v ie w r e ality a s r e la ti v e— th ere i s n o s in gle

r e ality o r tr u th ; r e ality i s b ase d o n s p ecific e xp erie nces, a nd p erc ep ti o ns c an c hange o ver ti m e. B ecause o f th e

p ers o nal n atu re o f s o cia l c o nstr u cti o ns, th ey c an b e i d enti fie d o nly th ro ugh i n te ra cti o ns b etw een th e r e se arc her a nd

p arti c ip ant, w hic h s u ggests th e i n v esti g ato rs a nd r e se arc h a re l in ked ( E vans, F orn ey, G uid o, P atto n, & R enn, 2 010, pp. 1 8–19). A s w e a p ply th e f o rth co m in g th eo rie s to a th le te s, w e d o s o w ith s e nsiti v ity to a nd a n a w are ness o f th e

re se arc her’s p ers p ecti v e, a s i t m ay h av e i m plic ati o ns f o r th e d esig n o r i n te rp re ta ti o n o f th e p heno m eno n u nd er

in v esti g ati o n.

IN TER CO LLEG IA T E A T H LETES: R AT IO NALE F O R S T U DEN T D EV ELO PM EN T

FO CUS

Colle gia te a th le te s a re r e q uir e d to s u ccessfu lly m anage m ulti p le r o le s w ith in h ig her e d ucati o n. T anta m ount to th e

prio rity p la ced o n a th le ti c s u ccess, s tu d ents ’ a cad em ic a chie v em ent h as r e ceiv ed c o nsid era b le s c ho la rly a tte nti o n

(e .g ., C om eaux & H arris o n, 2 011 ; G asto n-G ayle s & H u, 2 009). W ith th e s u p port o f c o aches, f a culty , p eers , a nd

ad m in is tr a ti o n, a th le te s m ust f in d w ays to s tr ik e a b ala nce b etw een th eir s p ort’ s d em and s, a d ju stm ent to c o lle ge l ife ,

and a cad em ic o blig ati o ns. I f u nsu ccessfu l, m any i n sti tu ti o ns h av e r e p erc ussio ns i n p la ce th at c o uld h in d er s tu d ents ’

ath le ti c p arti c ip ati o n a nd , p ote nti a lly , a ffilia ti o n w ith th e i n sti tu ti o n. G iv en th e o verw helm in g r e ality o f a n a th le te ’s

ro le a s a “ stu d ent,” w e f o cus h eav ily o n s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent i s su es to e nab le h ig her e d ucati o n i n sti tu ti o ns to c re ate

more c o nd uciv e l e arn in g e xp erie nces f o r a th le te s g uid ed b y th e c urre nt l ite ra tu re .

In o rd er to b ette r u nd ers ta nd th e e xp erie nces o f a th le te s, w e m ust f o cus o n th eir s tu d ent i n v olv em ent, th eir

affilia ti o n w ith a th le ti c o rg aniz a ti o ns, a nd th e b ro ad er c am pus e nv ir o nm ent. W e o pen b ro ad ly w ith th eo ry a s i t

ap plie s to tr a d iti o nally a ged c o lle ge p opula ti o ns a nd th eo rie s d esig ned e xp lic itl y w ith a n a th le te f o cus. W e a im

outl in e th e l a rg er g ro up in gs o f th eo ry , f o cusin g p rim arily o n s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent a nd c o lle ge i m pact m odels . N ext,

we i n tr o duce c riti c al th eo ry , o utl in in g s p ecific th eo rie s u nd er th is g enera l c ate go ry . W e th en o ffe r a n o verv ie w o f a

cam pus c lim ate m odel d ev elo ped w ith c o lle ge a th le te s i n m in d , f o llo w ed b y a b rie f d is c ussio n o f o rg aniz a ti o nal

th eo ry a s i t a p plie s to a th le ti c s a s a n o rg aniz a ti o n o n a c o lle ge c am pus.

ST U DEN T D EV ELO PM EN T T H EO RY A N D S T U DEN T E XPER IE N CES

We c ho se to s itu ate th e s tu d ent e xp erie nce i n tw o w id ely u se d a nd c o m pre hensiv e h ig her e d ucati o n te xts . E vans e t

al.’ s

Stu den t D evelo pm en t i n C olle g e

( 2 010) o rg aniz e s m ajo r th eo re ti c al a p pro aches to u nd ers ta nd in g c o lle ge

stu d ent d ev elo pm ent, w hile P asc are lla a nd T ere nzin i’s

How C olle g e A ffe ct S tu den ts

( 2 005) p ro duces a l ite ra tu re

sy nth esis d eta ilin g h o w c o lle ge i m pacts s tu d ent e xp erie nces a nd o utc o m es. B oth g ro up s p re se nt a r a nge o f th eo re ti c al

ap pro aches, a nd w e a d ap t p orti o ns o f th eir o rg aniz a ti o n f o r th is c hap te r.

Dev elo pm ent c an b e d efin ed a s a s e t o f th eo rie s th at g uid es th e w ork o f s tu d ent a ffa ir s p ro fe ssio nals , d esc rib in g

ho w s tu d ents c hange a nd g ro w d urin g c o lle ge, a nd w hat a cti v iti e s o r e xp erie nces b est i n flu ence th at g ro w th ( E vans e t

al., 2 010, p p. 6 –7). W e p rim arily f o llo w E vans e t a l.’ s s c hem a, w hic h o rg aniz e s c la sse s o f s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent

th eo ry i n to f o und ati o nal th eo rie s, i n te gra ti v e th eo rie s, a nd s o cia l i d enti ty th eo rie s. B ecause o f s p ace l im ita ti o ns, w e

offe r a b ro ad o rg aniz a ti o n o f s e le cte d th eo rie s a nd m ay o m it d is c ussio n o n s o m e th eo rie s r e le v ant to a th le te s.

Fou ndatio n al S tu den t D evelo p m en t T heo rie s

We b egin w ith s e m in al s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent th eo rie s. M ost o f w hat i s r e v ie w ed i n th is s e cti o n i s b ase d o n th e e arly

work s o f th ese th eo ris ts . S cho la rs f o r m any d ecad es s in ce h av e b uilt u p on a nd r e fin ed th ese n o w f o und ati o nal

th eo rie s i n th eir w ork w ith c o lle ge s tu d ents . W e d esc rib e th e b asic te nets o f e ach th eo ry a nd i n clu d e r e se arc h a s i t

ap plie s to c o lle ge a th le te s.

Psyc h oso cia l T heo ry

Psy cho so cia l th eo rie s e xam in e h o w i n d iv id uals a cco m plis h s p ecific d ev elo pm enta l ta sk s. T hey e xam in e i m porta nt

is su es o f p eo ple ’s l iv es, s u ch a s h o w th ey a ge a nd m atu re . T hese th eo rie s h elp p ro fe ssio nals u nd ers ta nd h o w s tu d ents

make s e nse o f d efin in g th em se lv es a s i n d iv id uals , d ete rm in e w hat th ey w ant to a cco m plis h i n l ife , a nd i n te ra ct a nd

re la te to o th ers . S cho la rs m ost o fte n i d enti fie d w ith p sy cho so cia l th eo rie s i n clu d e E rik so n ( 1 968) a nd C hic kerin g a nd

Reis se r ( 1 993). E rik so n c o ntr ib ute d th e e p ig eneti c p rin cip le d esc rib in g s e q uenti a l a nd a ge-re la te d b io lo gic al a nd

psy cho lo gic al d ev elo pm ent a nd a ls o h o w a n i n d iv id ual’s e nv ir o nm ent h elp s to s h ap e

th ese c hanges. E rik so n

diffe re nti a te d i n d iv id uals b y p hase s b ase d o n th eir a ges, i m porta nt e v ents , a nd o utc o m es. H e c ate go riz e d

ad ole sc ence ( 1 2 to 1 8 y ears o f a ge) a s a ti m e w here te enagers b egin to d ev elo p th eir o w n p ers o nal i d enti ti e s,

fo llo w ed s h o rtl y th ere afte r b y y o ung a d ulth o od, w here th e o utc o m e o f d ev elo pin g s tr o ng r e la ti o nsh ip s i s a chie v ed . Id enti ty f o rm ati o n d urin g th is ti m e i s n ecessa ry , a nd a l a ck o f p ro per tr a nsiti o n c o uld l e ad to r o le c o nfu sio n. M uch o f

th e l ite ra tu re o n i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent i s f o und ed o n th ese p rin cip le s, a s tr a d iti o nal c o lle ge s tu d ents a re l ik ely to f a ll

with in th ese tw o p hase s.

Chic kerin g a nd R eis se r’s S ev en V ecto rs b uild o n E rik so n’s w ork . T he s e v en v ecto rs r e p re se nt e v er-c hangin g,

unid ir e cti o nal d im ensio ns o f i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent a nd i n clu d e a chie v in g c o m pete nce, m anagin g e m oti o ns, m ovin g

th ro ugh a uto no m y to w ard i n te rd ep end ence, d ev elo pin g m atu re i n te rp ers o nal r e la ti o nsh ip s, e sta b lis h in g i d enti ty ,

dev elo pin g p urp ose , a nd d ev elo pin g i n te grity ( C hic kerin g & R eis se r, 1 993). P sy cho so cia l th eo rie s a re u se fu l

work in g w ith s tu d ents a s w ell a s a th le te s, o ffe rin g i d eas o n h o w s u ccessfu l s tu d ents c o pe w ith c hanges th at o fte n

occur d urin g th e c o lle ge y ears . W hile a th le te s’ e xp erie nces c re ate c halle nges th at a re u niq ue to th eir i n d iv id ual

popula ti o n, th ese th eo rie s s ti ll a p ply a nd h elp u s b ette r u nd ers ta nd th e v ario us s ta ges o f i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent

exp erie nced b y s tu d ents d urin g c o lle ge. H arris ( 2 003) a p plie d C hic kerin g a nd R eis se r’s v ecto rs to h elp g uid e

ath le ti c tr a in ers i n n av ig ati n g i n ju re d s tu d ents ’ d ev elo pm ent. T ra in ers c an u se C hic kerin g a nd R eis se r’s v ecto rs to

pre d ic t h o w s tu d ents w ill r e sp ond a t th e o nse t o f i n ju ry a nd w hat s u p port th ey w ill n eed to s u ccessfu lly r e hab ilita te

(H arris , 2 003). T hese s e m in al th eo rie s h ig hlig ht th e i m porta nce o f b uild in g r e la ti o nsh ip s d urin g th e f o rm ati o n o f

id enti ty .

Cogn itiv e -S tr u ctu ra l T heo ry

Cogniti v e-s tr u ctu ra l th eo rie s a re r o ote d i n th e w ork o f P ia get ( 1 952) a nd e xam in e th e i n te lle ctu al d ev elo pm ent o f

co lle ge s tu d ents . T hese th eo rie s f o cus o n h o w s tu d ents p ro cess i n fo rm ati o n, r e aso n, a nd m ake s e nse o f th eir

exp erie nces. T he m in d i s th o ught to h av e s tr u ctu re s o r s ta ges th at “ act a s s e ts o f a ssu m pti o ns b y w hic h p ers o ns a d ap t

to a nd o rg aniz e th eir e nv ir o nm ents ” ( E vans e t a l., 2 010, p . 4 3). T hese s tr u ctu re s a re th e f ilte rs o f h o w w e p erc eiv e

and e v alu ate o ur e xp erie nces a nd h o w s o cia l i n te ra cti o ns c an a ssis t s tu d ents to d ev elo p th eir d ecis io n-m akin g h ab its .

Most c o nsid er P erry ( 1 968) a s th e f o und ati o nal th eo ris t o f c o lle ge s tu d ents ’ i n te lle ctu al d ev elo pm ent. M ora l

re aso nin g i s a ttr ib ute d to K ohlb erg ( 1 976), w hic h w as l a te r r e fin ed b y R est, N arv aez, B eb eau, a nd T ho m a ( 1 999).

Gillig an ( 1 982/1 993) c halle nged th e m ale -d om in ate d i n te lle ctu al th eo ry d ev elo pm ent a nd i n tr o duced g end ere d m ora l

re aso nin g a nd a n e th ic o f c are . B ele nky, C lin chy, G old berg er, a nd T aru le ( 1 986) a d vanced a w om en’s w ay o f

kno w in g, a nd B axte r-M ago ld a ( 1 992) i n tr o duced g end ere d m eanin g m akin g i n c o lle ge. O th er n o ta b le th eo ris ts i n th is

fa m ily i n clu d e K in g a nd K itc hener ( 1 994), w ho e xam in ed “ ill- s tr u ctu re d p ro ble m s” ( E vans e t a l., 2 010, p . 4 5) o r

ho w s tu d ents r e aso n w hen th ere i s n o c le ar s o lu ti o n to a d ile m ma. T his i s

esp ecia lly a p plic ab le to a th le te s, a s

How ard -H am ilto n a nd W att ( 2 001) n o te d th e h ig hly s tr u ctu re d a nd r u le -d riv en e nv ir o nm ent o f c o lle ge s p orts m ay

pre v ent s tu d ents f r o m b ein g c halle nged to d ev elo p th eir o w n u nd ers ta nd in gs a nd v alu es. B y a p ply in g a nd

und ers ta nd in g c o gniti v e d ev elo pm ent th eo rie s’ r e la ti o nsh ip to a th le te s, p ro fe ssio nals w ork in g w ith th is p opula ti o n

can a ssis t th em to p ro cess i n fo rm ati o n a nd b ette r u nd ers ta nd h o w s tu d ents r a ti o naliz e th eir a cti o ns, b ehav io rs , a nd

in te ra cti o ns w ith o th ers .

Experie n tia l L ea rn in g

Learn in g s ty le th eo rie s d esc rib e h o w i n d iv id uals a p pro ach l e arn in g. A mong th e m ost w id ely u se d , K olb ’s ( 1 984)

work w as b orn o ut o f a n i n te re st i n a cad em ic c ultu re s a nd w hat a re as w ould b e th e b est f it f o r p arti c ula r s tu d ents . H e

desc rib es l e arn in g a s a c yclic al p ro cess c o nsis ti n g o f f o ur s ta ges “ w here b y k no w le d ge i s c re ate d th ro ugh th e

tr a nsfo rm ati o n o f e xp erie nce” ( p . 3 8) a nd l e arn in g s ty le a s a “ hab itu al w ay o f r e sp ond in g to a l e arn in g e nv ir o nm ent”

(E vans e t a l., 2 010, p . 1 39). T he f o ur l e arn in g s ty le s i n clu d e c o nv erg in g, o r th o se w ho se s tr e ngth s a re p ro ble m

so lv in g a nd d ecis io n m akin g; d iv erg in g s tr e ngth s a re i m agin ati v e a b iliti e s, a w are ness o f m eanin g a nd v alu es, a nd

genera ti n g a nd a naly zin g a lte rn ati v es; a ssim ila ti n g s tr e ngth s a re i n i n d ucti v e r e aso nin g, c re ati n g th eo re ti c al m odels ,

and i n te gra ti n g o bse rv ati o n; a nd a cco m modati n g s tr e ngth s a re c arry in g o ut p la ns a nd a d ap ti n g to c hange ( K olb , 1 984,

pp. 7 8–79). K olb ( 2 000) s tr e sse d th at l e arn in g s ty le s c an c hange a nd a re n o t s ta ti c i n n atu re . L earn in g s ty le s a re

in flu enced b y th e d em and s o f th e i m med ia te e nv ir o nm ent a nd a re i n d iv id ual i n n atu re . K in g ( 2 003) h as a ls o d one

exte nsiv e w ork o n l e arn in g s ty le th eo rie s. I n r e la ti o n to a th le te s, th ere i s n o o ne-s iz e -fits -a ll a p pro ach; a th le te s

dem onstr a te a v arie ty o f d iffe re nt l e arn in g s ty le s. I n str u cto rs , a d vis o rs , a nd c o aches s h o uld b e p re p are d to w ork w ith

and h elp s tu d ents i d enti fy th eir i n d iv id ual s ty le s, l e arn te chniq ues f o r n av ig ati n g o th er s ty le s, a nd w ork to m eet th e

need s o f d iv ers e l e arn ers ( P erk in s, 2 010). U nd ers ta nd in g h o w i n d iv id uals p ro cess i n fo rm ati o n c an h elp

pro fe ssio nals d esig n p ro gra m s w ith i n d iv id ual l e arn in g s tr e ngth s i n m in d .

In te g ra tiv e T heo rie s One o f th e c riti c is m s o f th e th eo rie s a nd th eo ris ts d esc rib ed i n th e f o und ati o nal s e cti o n i s th at th ey s e p ara te

dev elo pm enta l p ro cesse s i n to d is c re te c ate go rie s. N ew i n te gra ti v e c la sse s o f th eo rie s a ckno w le d ge th e i n te rs e cti o n

of m ulti p le a sp ects o f th e p ers o nality a nd e nv ir o nm ent th at c o ntr ib ute to c hange.

Eco lo gic a l T heo ry

The f ir s t s e t i n clu d es e co lo gic al m odels , o r th e r e la ti o nsh ip th at th e p ers o n h as w ith th e e nv ir o nm ent. E vans e t a l.

(2 010) o ffe r th re e ty p es o f e co lo gic al m odels : h um an

eco lo gy, o r th e i n te ra cti o n o f h um ans a nd th eir e nv ir o nm ent;

dev elo pm enta l e co lo gy, a p sy cho lo gic al a p pro ach th at e xam in es h o w th e e nv ir o nm ent i n flu ences d ev elo pm ent; a nd

cam pus e co lo gy, w hic h f o cuse s o n th e i n te ra cti o n w ith th e s tu d ent a nd th e c am pus e nv ir o nm ent. H um an e co lo gy

exp la in s h o w h um ans n eed to a d ap t to a n e nv ir o nm ent th at e xis te d b efo re th em a nd w ill e xis t a fte r th em ( B ub olz &

Sonta g, 1 993). D ev elo pm enta l e co lo gy m odel p io neer, B ro nfe nb re nner ( 1 979), a d vanced th e e q uati o n D =

f ( B * E ):

dev elo pm ent i s a f u ncti o n o f th e i n te ra cti o n o f th e p ers o n a nd th e e nv ir o nm ent. H is m odel a d vanced th e c o ncep ts o f

pro cess, p ers o n, c o nte xt, a nd ti m e a nd r e p re se nts th e i n te ra cti o n o f th ese f o ur c o m ponents to p ro m ote o r i n hib it

dev elo pm ent a nd i s o fte n u se d to s tu d y p eer c ultu re s. C am pus e co lo gy i s th e i n te rs e cti o n o f h um an a nd d ev elo pm enta l

eco lo gy e xcep t i t i s f o cuse d o n th e s p ecia liz e d c o nte xt o f th e c am pus e nv ir o nm ent a nd w as i n tr o duced b y B annin g

and K ais e r ( 1 974). U sin g c am pus e co lo gy, B re nner a nd S w anik ( 2 007) f o und th at a th le te s w ere s ig nific antl y m ore

lik ely to r e p ort h ig h-ris k d rin kin g th an th eir n o nath le te p eers w hen s u rv eyed d urin g th eir n o nco m peti ti v e s e aso ns. T he

in cre ase i n u nstr u ctu re d ti m e a nd d ecre ase i n g uid ance d urin g o ff- s e aso ns i s o ne e xp la nati o n f o r th is f in d in g. C am pus

eco lo gy m odels c an h elp i n fo rm h o w e nv ir o nm ents c an b e s tr u ctu re d to m eet d esir e d d ev elo pm enta l o utc o m es.

Tra n sitio n T heo ry

A s e co nd i n te gra ti v e th eo ry a p plic ab le to a th le te s i s tr a nsiti o n th eo ry . T ra nsiti o n c an b e d efin ed a s “ any e v ent, o r

no n-e v ent, th at r e su lts i n c hanged r e la ti o nsh ip s, r o uti n es, a ssu m pti o ns, a nd r o le s” ( G oodm an, S chlo ssb erg , &

And ers o n, 2 006, p . 3 3). T ra nsiti o n i n clu d es ty p e, c o nte xt, a nd i m pact. T yp es c o m es i n th re e f o rm s: a nti c ip ate d

tr a nsiti o ns, w hic h p re d ic ta b ly o ccur s u ch a s m ovin g f r o m h ig h s c ho ol v ars ity a th le ti c te am to c o lle ge a th le ti c s;

unanti c ip ate d tr a nsiti o ns o r th o se th at a re n o t s c hed ule d s u ch a s a c are er-e nd in g i n ju ry ; a nd n o nev ents o r e v ents th at

are e xp ecte d to o ccur b ut d o n o t h ap pen ( e .g ., y o u a re e xp ecti n g to p la y p ro fe ssio nal s p orts b ut a re n o t s e le cte d o r

dra fte d ). C onte xt r e fe rs to o ne’s r e la ti o nsh ip to th e tr a nsiti o n a nd th e s e tti n g w here i t o ccurs . I m pact i s th e d egre e to

whic h th e tr a nsiti o n a ffe cts o ne’s d aily l ife . S chlo ssb erg ’s T ra nsiti o n T heo ry ( 1 989) i n tr o duced th e te rm s o f

movin g

movin g t h ro ugh

, a nd

movin g o ut

a nd i s a u se fu l th eo ry i n r e la ti o n to a th le te s a nd th eir e xp erie nces m ovin g

th ro ugh c o lle ge a s th e th eo ry e xam in es w hat “ co nsti tu te s a tr a nsiti o n, d iffe re nt f o rm s o f tr a nsiti o n, th e tr a nsiti o n

pro cess, a nd th e f a cto rs th at i n flu ence tr a nsiti o ns” ( E vans e t a l., 2 010, p . 2 14). S om e s c ho la rs w ork in g w ith a th le te s

ofte n d esc rib e th e p ro cess o f tr a nsiti o nin g f r o m a c o lle ge a th le te i d enti ty to l ife w ith o ut s p ort ( s e e H arris o n &

Law re nce, 2 004; M ore la nd -B is h o p, 2 009). W hen c o m pare d to p eers w ho m ay n o t i d enti fy a s s tr o ngly w ith th eir

ath le ti c r o le s, s tu d ents w ith h ig her a th le ti c i d enti ti e s a re r e p orte d to tr a nsiti o n to n o nath le te w ith g re ate r e ase a s th ey

re p ort e xcite m ent a b out e xp erie ncin g c o lle ge a s a tr a d iti o nal s tu d ent. S ti ll, th ese c o lle ge a th le te s’ tr a nsiti o ns o ut o f

sp ort a re o fte n a cco m panie d b y a l o ss o f i d enti ty , m oti v ati o n, s tr u ctu re , a nd s o cia l n etw ork ( M ore la nd -B is h o p,

2009). G oodm an e t a l. ( 2 006) e xte nd ed tr a nsiti o n th eo ry to i n clu d e f a cto rs th at a ffe ct th e a b ility to c o pe w ith

tr a nsiti o ns a nd i n tr o duced th e f o ur S s: s itu ati o ns, s e lf, s u p port, a nd s tr a te gie s. T his l is t c o uld i n clu d e c o unse lin g f o r

ath le te s a fte r te rm in ati n g th eir s p ort.

Socia l I d en tit y T heo ry

Colle ge a llo w s s tu d ents to b egin to c ulti v ate a nd n av ig ate th ro ugh th eir m ulti p le i d enti ti e s. T he a p plic ati o n o f i d enti ty

dev elo pm ent th eo rie s a re r e le v ant to a th le te s, a s th ey h elp u s to b ette r u nd ers ta nd th e s tu d ents a s i n d iv id uals a nd th e

pers o nal g ro w th a nd d ev elo pm ent th ey a re e xp erie ncin g. W hile n o tw o s tu d ents a re l ik ely to e nd ure i d enti c al

dev elo pm ent, th ese th eo rie s p ro vid e a f o und ati o n f o r u nd ers ta nd in g a nd s u p porti n g s tu d ents . S ocia l i d enti ty i s su es i n

th e m ain str e am U nite d S ta te s h av e th eir r o ots i n th e c iv il r ig hts m ovem ent o f th e 1 960s. D urin g th e 1 970s a nd 1 980s,

we w itn esse d a g ro w th i n s c ho la rs th eo riz in g a b out s o cia l i d enti ty i s su es, i n clu d in g r a ce, e th nic ity , s e xual i d enti ty ,

and g end er. T he 1 990s w itn esse d a d diti o nal s c ho la rs h ip i n m ulti p le s o cia l i d enti ty f r a m ew ork s a nd b y th e e arly

tw enty -fir s t c entu ry , i s su es o f p ow er, p riv ile ge, a nd o ppre ssio n m ad e th eir w ay to th e f o re fr o nt o f s tu d ent

dev elo pm ent th eo ry . W e s h are a b rie f o verv ie w o f th e m ain s o cia l i d enti ti e s th at a ris e o n c o lle ge a th le ti c te am s b ut

re co gniz e o th er s a lie nt i d enti ty i s su es th at m ay s u rfa ce s u ch a s a b ility o r “ ab le is m ” p riv ile ge ( E vans & H errio tt, 2009) o r C hris ti a n p riv ile ge ( S chlo sse r, 2 003).

Racia l/E th nic I d en tity D eve lo pm en t

Race a nd r a cia liz e d a naly se s a re o ne o f th e m ost h ig hly d is c usse d to pic s i n c o lle ge a th le ti c s. R acia l a nd e th nic

id enti ti e s s im ila rly f in d th eir w ay i n to th e s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent l ite ra tu re . W hile r a ce a nd e th nic ity a re o fte n u se d

in te rc hangeab ly , th ey r e p re se nt d iffe re nt c o nstr u cts a nd th eo ris ts ty p ic ally d is ti n guis h r a cia l i d enti ty m odels a s th o se

th at f r a m e i d enti ty i n r e la ti o n to th e d om in ant g ro up ’s s ta tu s a nd p ositi o n f r o m e th nic i d enti ty m odels th at te nd to

deta il h o w c ultu ra l c hara cte ris ti c s a re a cq uir e d a nd m ain ta in ed ( E vans e t a l., 2 010; H elm s, 1 996). I n th e l a te 1 970s,

Atk in so n, M orte n, a nd S ue ( 1 979) i n tr o duced th e m in o rity i d enti ty m odel, w hic h w as r e v is e d a nd r e nam ed b y S ue

and S ue i n 2 003 a s th e r a cia l a nd c ultu ra l i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent m odel ( R CID ). T he R CID i n clu d es f iv e s ta ges th at

desc rib e h o w s tu d ents o f c o lo r v ie w th em se lv es i n r e la ti o n to w hite s tu d ents . T he R CID h as s e rv ed a s th e

gro und w ork f o r m odels th at e xam in e th e r a cia liz e d e xp erie nces o f s tu d ents i n clu d in g N ati v e A meric an ( H ors e ,

2005), A sia n ( K im , 2 001), b la ck ( C ro ss & F hagen-S m ith , 2 001), L ati n a/o ( F erd m an & G alle go s, 2 001), a nd w hite

(H elm s, 1 995) s tu d ent i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent. M ulti r a cia l i d enti ty f r a m ew ork s a re a ls o m akin g th eir w ay i n to s tu d ent

dev elo pm ent l ite ra tu re ( s e e R enn, 2 004).

In c o ntr a st, e th nic i d enti ty f r a m es e xam in e h o w s tu d ents “ und ers ta nd th e i m plic ati o ns o f th eir e th nic ity a nd m ake

decis io ns a b out i ts r o le i n th eir l iv es”

(P hin ney, 1 993, p . 6 4). P hin ney ( 1 993) p ro pose d th at u nd ers ta nd in g e th nic

id enti ty w as c riti c al f o r p ositi v e s e lf- c o ncep ts a m ong s tu d ents o f c o lo r a nd i d enti fie d a th re e-s ta ge m odel w here

stu d ents m ove f r o m h av in g th eir e th nic i d enti ty u nexam in ed to e th nic i d enti ty a chie v em ent w here s tu d ents e sta b lis h a

health y i d enti ty s ta tu s a nd a ccep t th eir o w n a nd o th ers ’ i d enti ty s im ila riti e s a nd d iffe re nces. O th er e th nic i d enti ty

fr a m ew ork s i n clu d e T orre s’s ( 2 003) m odel o f H is p anic i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent o r I b ra him , O hnis h i, a nd S and hu’s

(1 997) S outh A sia n i d enti ty m odel a nd c halle nge e arlie r l im ite d c o ncep ti o ns th at e th nic m in o riti e s d esir e to b e

sim ila r to w hite p eo ple . W hite e th nic i d enti ty m odels a re a ls o b ein g d ev elo ped ( H elm s, 1 996).

The f r a m ew ork s a re i m porta nt f o r c o lle ge a th le ti c te am s a s s tu d ents a re l ik ely w ork in g th ro ugh h o w th eir o w n

ra cia l o r e th nic i d enti ty i n flu ences th e p erc ep ti o ns o th ers h av e f o r th eir p erfo rm ance b oth i n th e c la ssro om a nd w ith in

th eir s p ort. B ru ein g, A rm str o ng, a nd P asto re ( 2 005) d em onstr a te th e r o le i d enti ty p la ys i n A fr ic an A meric an f e m ale

ath le te s’ e xp erie nces. H av in g m ulti p le o verla p pin g m arg in aliz e d i d enti ti e s, th ese s tu d ents o fte n f in d th eir v oic es

sile nced a nd th eir i d enti ti e s u nd erre p re se nte d i n s p ort. T hese f r a m ew ork s c an b e a p plie d to s tu d ents o f v ary in g

id enti ti e s to h elp u nd ers ta nd th eir e xp erie nces, a nd h elp i n fo rm p ra cti c es a im ed a t s u p porti n g th eir i d enti ty

dev elo pm ent ( B ru enin g e t a l., 2 005; L aw re nce, 2 005; S in ger, 2 005).

Sex u al I d en tity a n d G en der I d en tity D eve lo pm en t

Ano th er g ro up o f th eo rie s r e le v ant to a th le te s a re th eo rie s o n s e xual i d enti ty a nd g end er i d enti ty . I t i s i m porta nt to

cla rify th at s e xual i d enti ty m odels r e fe r to m ore th an j u st s e xual a cti v ity a nd i n clu d e th e “ em oti o nal, l ife sty le , a nd

politi c al a sp ects o f l ife ” ( E vans e t a l., 2 010, p . 3 07). O ne o f th e f ir s t l e sb ia n, g ay, b is e xual ( L G B) i d enti ty m odels

was C ass’s ( 1 996) m odel o f s e xual o rie nta ti o n i d enti ty f o rm ati o n. T he s ix s ta ges o f d ev elo pm ent r a nge f r o m m in im al

aw are ness to a n i n te gra ti o n o f th e l e sb ia n o r g ay s e lf w ith o th er a sp ects o f th e s e lf, i n clu d in g h o w o th ers v ie w th e

se lf. A lte rn ati v e m odels b ette r i n co rp ora te th e r o le o f c o nte xtu al i n flu ences o n d ev elo pm ent a nd c halle nge th e n o ti o n

th at a ccep ta nce o f s e lf i s n ecessa rily e q uate d w ith a cti v is m ( F assin ger & M ille r, 1 997). O th er p ro m in ent th eo ris ts o n

id enti ty d ev elo pm ent i n clu d e D ’A ugelli’s ( 1 994) m odel o f l e sb ia n, g ay, a nd b is e xual d ev elo pm ent th at i n tr o duced a

life -s p an m odel, w hic h r e co gniz e s th at p eo ple ’s i d enti ti e s a re s h ap ed b y th e c o nte xt o f ti m e. C unnin gham ( 2 012) u se s

essa ys a nd s to rie s f r o m a cti v is ts , c o aches, a nd s c ho la rs to e xp lo re a th le te s’ e xp erie nces n av ig ati n g s e xual i d enti ti e s.

By h ig hlig hti n g th e v ario us i s su es f a ced b y a th le te s th ro ugh th e l e ns o f d iffe re nt c o nsti tu ents , C unnin gham o ffe rs

pote nti a l s tr a te gie s to i n cre ase s e xual i d enti ty i n clu siv eness w ith in a th le ti c e nv ir o nm ents . T oday, th eo ris ts a re a ls o

exam in in g h ete ro se xuality a nd n o rm s ( W orth in gto n, S av oy, D illo n, & V ern aglia , 2 002). I t i s i m porta nt to b ette r

und ers ta nd h o w to w ork w ith a nd s u p port s tu d ents to e xp lo re th eir o w n s e xual i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent i n h ealth y a nd

dev elo pm enta l w ays ( C unnin gham , 2 012; W olf- W end el, T om a, & M orp hew , 2 001).

Gend ere d i d enti ti e s d iffe r f r o m o ne’s s e xual o rie nta ti o n a nd r e fe r to n o rm s a nd s o cia liz a ti o n o f p arti c ula r

gend ers . W hile s e x i s ty p ic ally c o nsid ere d a b io lo gic al c o nstr u ct, g end er i s v ie w ed a s a c ultu ra lly c o nstr u cte d

co ncep t s h ap ed b y h o w m en a nd w om en s h o uld b ehav e. W hile s e x a nd g end er a re c lo se ly r e la te d , o ne c anno t a ssu m e

gend er i d enti ty i s b ase d o n s e x a lo ne. C onte m pora ry d ev elo pm enta l th eo ry a ls o r e co gniz e s tr a nsg end er i d enti ty , w hen

gend er i d enti ty d iffe rs f r o m s e x a sc rip ti o n ( B ilo deau, 2 009). M uch w ork i s l e ft to b e d one i n th is a re a. Colle g e A th le te I d en tity D eve lo pm en t

The b ulk o f r e se arc h o n c o lle ge a th le te s f o cuse s o n h o w p arti c ip ati o n a ffe cts e d ucati o nal o utc o m es. A th le ti c i d enti ty

is d efin ed a s th e e xte nt to w hic h a p ers o n i d enti fie s w ith th e r o le o f a n a th le te ( B re w er, v an R aalte , & L in d er, 1 993).

One s h o rtc o m in g o f a th le te i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent i s th at r a th er th an a ckno w le d ge th e m ulti d im ensio nal a sp ects o f

ath le te s’ r e sp ecti v e i d enti ti e s, th e l ite ra tu re c o ncern in g i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts m ost o fte n d ep ic ts a th le te s a s n av ig ati n g

only tw o w orld s a s th ey s tr iv e to s u cceed b oth o n th e p la yin g f ie ld a s a th le te s a nd i n th e c la ssro om a s s tu d ents ( A dle r

& A dle r, 1 991; P ers o n & L eN oir, 1 997). B re w er e t a l. ( 1 993) a ckno w le d ge th e “ m ulti d im ensio nal s e lf- c o ncep t” o f

ath le ti c i d enti ty a nd d ev elo ped th e A th le ti c I d enti ty M easu re m ent S cale ( A IM S) to m easu re b oth th e s tr e ngth a nd

exclu siv ity o f a th le ti c i d enti ty . T he A IM S i s o ne o f th e m ost w id ely u se d a nd c ite d i n str u m ents f o r a sse ssin g a th le ti c

id enti ty .

It i s n o t s u rp ris in g th at, a s a r e su lt o f th eir s o cia l i n te ra cti o ns, d em and in g tr a in in g s c hed ule s, a nd d iffe rin g v alu es,

ath le te s o fte n d ev elo p a s tr o ng s a lie nt a th le ti c i d enti ty ( A dle r & A dle r, 1 991). T he c halle nge e xis ts w hen s tu d ents ’

id enti ti e s a s a th le te s s ig nific antl y o vers h ad ow th eir o th er i d enti ti e s; o r w hen a l ife e v ent ( e .g ., a n i n ju ry o r

te rm in ati o n o f a th le ti c i n v olv em ent) f o rc es s tu d ents to r e co nsid er th eir i d enti ti e s. C olle ge a th le te s e nte r c o lle ge w ith

sim ila r a cad em ic a sp ir a ti o ns to th eir p eers , b ut a s s tu d ents b eco m e m ore i n v este d i n th eir a th le ti c r o le s, th ey o fte n

fin d th em se lv es u nab le to m eet th eir p re v io usly h ig h a cad em ic a sp ir a ti o ns w hile f u lfillin g th eir a th le ti c

re sp onsib iliti e s. T his s o m eti m es r e su lts i n p rio riti z in g o ne r o le o ver th e o th er ( A dle r & A dle r, 1 991). S tr o nger

sa lie nce o f th eir i d enti ti e s a s a th le te s p uts th em a t r is k o f n egle cti n g th eir s tu d ent i d enti ty ( A dle r & A dle r, 1 991).

Stu d ents w ith s tr o ng a th le ti c i d enti ti e s a ls o r u n th e r is k o f p sy cho lo gic al o bsta cle s i n th e e v ent o f i n ju ry o r tr a nsiti o n

aw ay f r o m th eir a th le ti c c are ers ( B re w er e t a l., 1 993).

By u nd ers ta nd in g th e i m plic ati o ns o f th is r e se arc h, w e c an b ette r u nd ers ta nd s tu d ents ’ e xp erie nces, a nd u se th e

opportu nity to m in im iz e th e p ote nti a l n egati v e e ffe cts s tu d ents m ay f a ce. A s tr o ng s a lie nt a th le ti c i d enti ty i s

acco m panie d b y m any p ositi v e a ttr ib ute s: o pportu nity f o r a th le ti c s k ill d ev elo pm ent, g re ate r u nd ers ta nd in g o f s e lf-

id enti ty , a nd a c o m mitm ent to p erfo rm ance ( B re w er e t a l., 1 993). S im ila rly , a s tr o ng s tu d ent i d enti ty i s a cco m panie d

by m any r e w ard s, i n clu d in g r e te nti o n, p ers o nal d ev elo pm ent, a nd d riv e f o r a cad em ic a chie v em ent ( E vans e t a l.,

2010). S om e o f th e c halle nges th at i m pact th e r o le s s tu d ents i d enti fy w ith i n clu d e s o cia liz a ti o n,

ti m e c o m mitm ents ,

re sp onsib iliti e s, a nd p sy cho so cia l d ev elo pm ent. T heo ry c an b e u se d to b ette r i n fo rm p ra cti c es th at d ir e ctl y i m pact

th ese s tu d ents . S tu d ent s e rv ic es o ffic es m ay o ffe r ti m e m anagem ent w ork sh o ps a im ed s p ecific ally to w ard c o lle ge

ath le te s to h elp th em b ette r n av ig ate th eir v ario us c o m mitm ents . W e m ove n o w to a r e v ie w o f m odels u se d to

und ers ta nd h o w th e e nv ir o nm ent a ffe cts th e c o lle ge a th le te e xp erie nce.

Colle g e I m pact M od els

The s e co nd m ajo r s e ts o f th eo rie s r e v ie w ed i n th is c hap te r a re c o lle ge i m pact m odels o r th eo rie s. C olle ge i m pact

models “ em phasiz e c hange a sso cia te d w ith th e c hara cte ris ti c s o f th e i n sti tu ti o ns s tu d ents a tte nd … o r w ith th e

exp erie nces s tu d ents h av e w hile e nro lle d ” ( P asc are lla & T ere nzin i, 2 005, p . 1 8). P asc are lla a nd T ere nzin i ( 2 005)

sh o w th at th ere i s a ti m e d im ensio n th at c an b e a p plie d to u nd ers ta nd in g th e g ro w th , c hange, a nd d ev elo pm ent o f

co lle ge s tu d ents — one s e m este r, a fte r th e f ir s t c o lle ge y ear, a fte r e xp osu re to a p arti c ula r p ro gra m , a nd a fte r e xp osu re

to f o ur y ears o f c o lle ge, w hic h a ls o s h o uld b e a cco unte d f o r w hen e xam in in g a th le te e xp erie nces. W e p re se nt th e

most s a lie nt c o lle ge i m pact m odels f o und i n h ig her e d ucati o n s c ho la rs h ip .

Astin ’s I -E -O M odel

Asti n ’s I - E -O m odel ( 1 977, 1 991) a nd th eo ry o f i n v olv em ent ( 1 984) p osit th at to u nd ers ta nd th e i m pact o f th e c o lle ge

env ir o nm ent, o ne m ust a ls o u nd ers ta nd th e s tu d ent’ s c hara cte ris ti c s u p on e ntr a nce to c o lle ge. T he “ I” r e fe rs to th e

in p uts o r s tu d ents ’ b ackgro und a b iliti e s a nd d is p ositi o ns, th e “ E ” i s th e e nv ir o nm ent to w hic h th e s tu d ent i s e xp ose d

durin g c o lle ge, ( e .g ., f a culty , p eers , a nd d iv ers e v ie w s), a nd “ O ” i s th e o utc o m e o f c o lle ge o r w hat th e c o lle ge h o pes

to p ro duce o r d ev elo p i n s tu d ents . I n clu d ed i n th e I - E -O m odel i s th at s tu d ents g et o ut o f c o lle ge p ro porti o nally to

what th ey p ut i n to th e c o lle ge e xp erie nce. A sti n ’s f r a m ew ork h as b een w id ely u se d a s a c o ncep tu al g uid e i n

desig nin g s tu d ie s r e la te d to th e i m pact o f c o lle ge o n s tu d ents , a cco unti n g f o r th e c hara cte ris ti c s o f s tu d ents b efo re

th ey e nte re d c o lle ge. S ee C om eaux ( 2 005) f o r u ti lity o f th e I - E -O m odel o n c o lle ge a th le te s.

Tin to ’s T heo ry o f S tu den t D ep artu re One o f th e m ost w id ely u se d f r a m ew ork s o n th e d ecis io n o f s tu d ents to r e m ain e nro lle d i n o r d ep art f r o m c o lle ge i s

Tin to ’s ( 1 993) s tu d ent d ep artu re th eo ry . T his th eo ry p osits th at s tu d ents e nte r c o lle ge w ith p arti c ula r g o als a nd

in sti tu ti o nal c o m mitm ents , w hic h a re i n flu enced b y th eir b ackgro und a nd a cad em ic p re p ara ti o n. E xte rn al f a cto rs s u ch

as f a m ily o r w ork o blig ati o ns a ls o a ffe ct d ecis io ns. S tu d ents ’ i n iti a l c o m mitm ents i n flu ence th eir a b ility to b e

so cia lly o r a cad em ic ally i n te gra te d i n to c o lle ge. I f s tu d ents f a il to b eco m e a cad em ic ally o r s o cia lly i n te gra te d , th ey

ris k l e av in g c o lle ge b efo re c o m ple ti o n. T his th eo ry c an b e u se fu l i n w ork w ith c o lle ge

ath le te s to u nd ers ta nd i n w hat

su b cultu re s th ey n eed to a cad em ic ally a nd s o cia lly i n te gra te to s u ccessfu lly c o m ple te c o lle ge.

Nora ’s S tu den t E ngagem en t M odel

The th ir d c o lle ge i m pact m odel w e r e v ie w i s a m odel o f s tu d ent e ngagem ent. N ora ( 2 002) i d enti fie s c o lle ge

exp erie nces th at h elp s tu d ents to a ccultu ra te i n to th e c am pus c ultu re . T his m odel d ra w s o n T in to ’s w ork b ut d esc rib es

ho w v alid ati n g a nd m ento rin g e xp erie nces f r o m f a culty a nd s ta ff i n flu ence s tu d ents ’ c o m mitm ent, e ngagem ent, a nd

se nse o f b elo ngin g to th e c am pus. T he m odel a ls o i n clu d es i n te rm ed ia te o utc o m es o f c o lle ge a s a r e su lt o f m eanin gfu l

engagem ent s u ch a s v alu in g d iv ers ity a nd k no w le d ge o f g lo bal i s su es. T his w ork c an b e u se fu l i n w ork in g w ith

ath le te s b ecause i t a ckno w le d ges th o se s ta ff m em bers th at e nco ura ge a w ell- ro und ed a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c

exp erie nce.

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

Fro m t h e C la ssr o om t o t h e P la yin g F ie ld : H ow R ese a rc h I n fo rm s H ea lt h y S tu den t

Develo p m en t

Susa n R ankin i s a f o rm er D iv is io n I c o ach a nd r e ti r e d a sso cia te p ro fe sso r o f h ig her e d ucati o n a t th e P ennsy lv ania

Sta te U niv ers ity . W ith m ore th an th ir ty y ears o f p ro fe ssio nal e xp erie nce i n fo rm in g o ur d is c ussio n, D r. R ankin o ffe re d

her p ers p ecti v e o n w hy th ere i s a n i n cre ase d n eed to u nd ers ta nd th eo ry w hen w ork in g w ith c o lle ge a th le te s. D r.

Rankin o pened b y s ta ti n g th at h is to ric ally c o aches’ e d ucati o nal tr a in in g w as i n e d ucati o n, s o th ey e nte re d th e

co achin g p ro fe ssio n w ith s o m e u nd ers ta nd in g o f b asic h um an d ev elo pm ent th eo ry . I n cre asin gly c o aches’ a re h ailin g

fr o m c o m munic ati o ns a nd b usin ess b ackgro und s a nd th us m ay n o t h av e b een i n tr o duced to h um an d ev elo pm ent th eo ry .

Additi o nally , th ey m ay h av e a l im ite d u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e b re ad th o f s c ho la rs h ip a v aila b le o n h o w s tu d ents

exp erie nce c o lle ge. T oday, c o aches e xp ect th at a th le ti c a d vis o rs o r c o unse lin g s ta ff w ill a ssis t a th le te s w ith th eir

acad em ic a nd p ers o nal d ev elo pm ent, b ut r e se arc h s u ggests th at a th le te s p re fe r to ta lk to th eir c o aches. H ence, s o m e

exp osu re to th eo ry o n h o w s tu d ents f r o m v ario us s o cia l i d enti ti e s e xp erie nce c o lle ge c an a ssis t c o aches w ith a b ette r

und ers ta nd in g o f h o w w ell a th le te s f r o m d iffe re nt b ackgro und s w ill tr a nsiti o n to a nd a d ju st to c o lle ge.

When a d dre ssin g th e r o le o f f a culty i n a th le te s’ l iv es, D r. R ankin e xp la in ed th at f a culty n ecessa rily n eed to

und ers ta nd th e ti m e d em and s o f a th le te s. F aculty s h o uld o ffe r s o m e f le xib ility w ith th eir a th le te s a nd b e p ro acti v e

with a th le te s a nd th eir d ev elo pm ent. D r. R ankin s h are d th at e ach s e m este r s h e m et w ith a th le te s i n h er c o urs e s a nd

work ed th ro ugh th e c la ss s y lla b us a nd th eir c o m peti ti o n s c hed ule . S he e xp la in ed th at i t i s n o t th at a th le te s c anno t o r

will n o t d o th e r e q uir e d w ork ; i t i s j u st th at th eir s c hed ule s m ay r e q uir e s o m e f le xib ility o n th e f a culty m em ber’s p art

with r e gard to te sts a nd a ssig nm ents . S he a d vocate s f o r th e u se o f tr a in in g f o r f a culty i n a th le ti c i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent,

em phasis o n a th le te s u ccess m odels , a nd a tte nti o n to th e e ffe cts o f c am pus c lim ate s o n th e a th le te e xp erie nce. D esp ite

sc ho la rs h ip th at i n d ic ate s th at p ositi v e s tu d ent- fa culty i n te ra cti o ns f o r a th le te s r e su lt i n g re ate r c la ssro om e ngagem ent

and s tr o ng a cad em ic c la ssro om s u ccess, s te re o ty p es a nd p oor p erc ep ti o ns o f a th le te s p ers is t a nd th ese m ay c re ate

ro ad blo cks to a th le te s u ccess. O vera ll, D r. R ankin ’s w ork w ith a th le te s a s a f o rm er c o ach a nd c o lle ge p ro fe sso r

exp la in s th at k no w le d ge o f th e c o lle ge a th le te e xp erie nce b ut e v en c o lle ge s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent m ore g enera lly c an

help g uid e th e i n te ra cti o ns a nd e xp ecta ti o ns b etw een c o aches a nd p la yers a nd f a culty a nd th eir s tu d ents .

Com ea u x a n d H arris o n ’s C on cep tu al M odel o f A ca dem ic S uccess f o r S tu den t- A th le te s

One c o m pre hensiv e c o lle ge i m pact f r a m ew ork a d vanced s p ecific ally f o r c o lle ge a th le te s i s C om eaux a nd H arris o n’s

(2 011 ) c o ncep tu al m odel o f a cad em ic s u ccess f o r s tu d ent- a th le te s. T he m odel a d ds to th e p re v io usly

und erre se arc hed a re a o f f a cto rs th at i n flu ence c o lle ge a th le te a cad em ic s u ccess. T he m odel c o nta in s f o ur s ta ges:

pre co lle ge ( fa m ily b ackgro und , e d ucati o nal e xp erie nces, p re p ara ti o n, a nd i n d iv id ual a ttr ib ute s); i n iti a l c o m mitm ents

(g o al, s p ort, a nd i n sti tu ti o nal c o m mitm ent) ; c o lle ge e nv ir o nm ent f a cto rs ( s o cia l a nd a cad em ic s y ste m s); a nd co m mitm ents ( g o al, s p ort, a nd i n sti tu ti o nal c o m mitm ent) . T he s ta ges o utl in e p re v ailin g f o rc es i n s tu d ent m atr ic ula ti o n

and p re se nt a f r a m ew ork f o r u nd ers ta nd in g s tu d ents ’ a cad em ic s u ccess. T he m odel s u ggests th at b oth i n d iv id ual

exp erie nces a nd i n te ra cti o ns w ith in th eir c o lle ge e nv ir o nm ent p la y a p re d om in ant r o le i n a th le te s’ a cad em ic s u ccess.

Concep tu al m odels a re p arti c ula rly u se fu l i n p ro vid in g a c le are r l e ns to v ie w th e v ario us i n flu ences o n s tu d ent

matr ic ula ti o n. S ta ff a nd a d m in is tr a to rs c an u se th is m odel to g uid e i n te rv enti o ns a nd p ro gra m s, h elp in g a th le te s

ap pro pria te ly n av ig ate e ach o f th e s ta ges e v id enced to p ro m ote m atr ic ula ti o n.

CRIT IC AL T H EO RY

Stu d ent d ev elo pm ent th eo ry a nd c o lle ge i m pact m odels s e ek to d esc rib e a nd u nd ers ta nd i n d iv id ual s tu d ent

exp erie nces. C riti c al th eo rie s g o b eyo nd u nd ers ta nd in g p ow er b ut a ls o c riti q ue h o w p ow er o pera te s i n s o cie ty .

Criti c al th eo ry s e eks to i d enti fy , a naly ze , u nd ers ta nd , a nd tr a nsfo rm o ppre ssiv e s tr u ctu ra l a nd c ultu ra l a sp ects o f

so cie ty th at m ain ta in m arg in al s ta tu se s o f g ro up s. C riti c al th eo ry i s p rim arily r o ote d i n s o cio lo gy b ut h as b een u se d to

stu d y s p ort ( E itz e n & S age, 2 009). W e h ig hlig ht th re e m ain c riti c al th eo rie s u se d i n th e s tu d y o f s p ort: h egem ony

th eo ry , f e m in is t th eo ry , a nd c riti c al r a ce th eo ry . H egem ony th eo ry ( S age, 1 998) e v alu ate s p ow er a nd d om in ance i n

so cie ty a nd “ se nsiti z e s u s to th e r o le d om in ant g ro up s p la y i n A meric an g o vern m ent, e co no m ic s y ste m , m ass m ed ia ,

ed ucati o n, a nd s p ort i n m ain ta in in g a nd p ro m oti n g th eir i n te re sts ” ( p . 1 0). T his th eo ry c an b e u se d to u nd ers ta nd h o w

co lle ge a th le ti c s r e la te s to th e p ro ducti o n a nd c o ntr o l o f r e so urc es ( W his e nant, P ed ers e n, & O beno ur, 2 002).

Fem in is t th eo ry i s u se fu l i n e xam in in g a th le te s a nd c o lle ge a th le ti c s. H is to ric ally , f e m in is t th eo ry m ad e tw o b asic

assu m pti o ns: th at p eo ple ’s e xp erie nces a re g end ere d a nd th at b ecause w om en h av e b een d ev alu ed i n m any c o nte xts ,

th ere i s a n eed to c hange th o se c o nd iti o ns. T oday, f e m in is t th eo rie s g o b eyo nd m ale v ers u s f e m ale o ppre ssio n a nd

ro le s a nd “ em phasiz e th e n eed to c halle nge s e xis m , r a cis m , c o lo nia lis m , c la ss, a nd o th er f o rm s o f i n eq ualiti e s i n th e

re se arc h p ro cess” ( N ap le s, 2 003, p . 1 3). F em in is t th eo ry i s u se fu l i n th e s tu d y o f c o lle ge a th le ti c s to b ette r

und ers ta nd i n eq uiti e s s u ch a s f u nd in g, i n d iv id ual p la yer e xp erie nces, h ir in g o f c o aches a nd s e nio r a th le ti c

ad m in is tr a to rs , a nd o th er r e la te d a v enues to f o re fr o nt p ow er r e la ti o ns ( B ru enin g e t a l., 2 005). F in ally , c riti c al r a ce

th eo ry ( C RT) a ckno w le d ges th e n eed to e m phasiz e r a ce i n r e se arc h a nd d oes s o u nap olo geti c ally . C RT i s a

fr a m ew ork u se d to u nd ers ta nd h o w r a ce a nd r a cis m i m pact s tr u ctu re s, p ro cesse s, a nd d is c o urs e s w ith in a n

ed ucati o nal c o nte xt. C RT c halle nges th e d om in ant th eo re ti c al p ara d ig m s th at o ffe r d efic it u nd ers ta nd in gs o f th e

ed ucati o nal a b ility o f s tu d ents o f c o lo r o r a th le te s o f c o lo r ( C om eaux, 2 010; D onno r, 2 005; S in ger, 2 005). C RT i n

ed ucati o n a ls o th eo riz e s a nd e xam in es th at p la ce w here r a cis m i n te rs e cts w ith o th er f o rm s o f d is c rim in ati o n, s u ch a s

se xis m a nd c la ssis m . C RT i s tr a nsd is c ip lin ary a nd d ra w s o n m any o th er s c ho ols a nd m eth o ds o f p ro gre ssiv e

sc ho la rs h ip . C RT a tte m pts to l in k th eo ry w ith p ra cti c e, s c ho la rs h ip w ith te achin g, a nd th e a cad em y w ith th e

co m munity ( S olo rz a no & D elg ad o-B ern al, 2 001). T oday, s c ho la rs h av e e xp and ed u p on c riti c al r a ce th eo ry to

exam in e s p ecific p opula ti o ns a nd a re f u rth er d ev elo pin g C RT s u ch a s L atC rit, T rib alC rit, W hite C rit, A sia nC rit,

QueerC rit, a nd F em Crit to n am e a f e w .

CASE S T U DY

Navig atin g M ult ip le I d en tit ie s: T he A pplic a tio n o f T heo ry t o P ra ctic e

You a re th e a cad em ic c o ord in ato r r e sp onsib le f o r e nsu rin g th e s u ccess o f c o lle ge a th le te s. Y ou a re a ssig ned to w ork

with th e w om en’s b ask etb all a nd w om en’s g ym nasti c s te am s. Y our c o lle ague w ork s w ith m en’s w re stl in g a nd m en’s

base b all. Y ou b oth w ork p rim arily w ith f ir s t- y ear s tu d ents b ut a ls o w ork w ith r e tu rn in g c o lle ge a th le te s w ho h av e n o t

been a b le to s e cure a G PA o f 3 .0 o r a b ove ( th e g ra d e p oin t a v era ge n eed ed f o r a th le te s w ho a re n o t w ork in g w ith a n

acad em ic c o ord in ato r). Y ou j u st to ok a c la ss a b out s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent th eo rie s a nd c am pus c lim ate , a nd y o u f e el

co nfid ent a p ply in g y o ur k no w le d ge to a ssis t a th le te s w ith th eir a cad em ic s a nd n av ig ati o n o f th eir i d enti ti e s a nd th e

cam pus e nv ir o nm ent. Y our c o lle ague w ork in g w ith m en’s te am s i s s tr u gglin g w ith h o w to a d vis e a y o ung m an w ho i s

questi o nin g h is s e xual o rie nta ti o n. S he a ls o a sk ed y o u f o r a d vic e o n h o w y o u w ork w ith s tu d ents w ho d o n o t s e em to

be a cad em ic ally s u ccessfu l.

More o ver, th e i s su e o f r a cia l i n se nsiti v ity h as b een h eig hte ned o n y o ur c am pus a fte r a f r a te rn ity h o ste d a p arty

dep ic ti n g A sia n a nd P acific I s la nd er p opula ti o ns n egati v ely . S ev era l c urre nt a th le te s a re m em bers o f th is f r a te rn ity

and a lo ng w ith i ts s is te r s o ro rity , h av e a h is to ry o f i n iti a ti n g a th le te s a s m em bers . H ow m ig ht y o u u se y o ur k no w le d ge

of s tu d ent i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent to s u p port th e a th le te s d urin g th is ti m e a nd w hat a d vic e c an y o u p ro vid e y o ur

co lle ague to h elp h er w ork w ith th o se s tu d ents u nd er h er s u p erv is io n? CAM PU S C LIM AT E

Mem bers o f d iffe re nt s o cia l g ro up s e xp erie nce c am pus c lim ate d iffe re ntl y d ep end in g o n g ro up m em bers h ip a nd

gro up s ta tu s ( R ankin & R easo n, 2 005). P ositi v e c am pus c lim ate s c o ntr ib ute to s tu d ents ’ a cad em ic p erfo rm ance,

so cia l a d ju stm ent, a nd i n te rp ers o nal s k ill d ev elo pm ent, w hile n egati v e c am pus c lim ate s a d vers e ly a ffe ct

th o se

outc o m es, p arti c ula rly f o r g ro up s w ith m arg in aliz e d s o cia l i d enti ti e s. C am pus c lim ate i s d efin ed a s th e “ curre nt

atti tu d es, b ehav io rs a nd s ta nd ard s a nd p ra cti c es o f e m plo yees a nd s tu d ents o f a n i n sti tu ti o n” ( R ankin & R easo n,

2008, p . 2 64).

Base d o n w ork b y S m ith e t a l. ( 1 997), R ankin ( 2 003), a nd R ankin a nd R easo n ( 2 008), th e s tu d ent- a th le te c lim ate

co ncep tu al f r a m ew ork ( R ankin e t a l., 2 011 ) w as o ne o f th e f ir s t s tu d ie s to c o m pre hensiv ely e xp lo re th e p erc ep ti o ns

and e xp erie nces o f c o lle ge a th le te s w ith r e gard to c am pus c lim ate . T his f r a m ew ork s u ggests th at i n d iv id ual a nd

in sti tu ti o nal c hara cte ris ti c s d ir e ctl y i n flu ence h o w a th le te s e xp erie nce c lim ate a nd a v arie ty o f e d ucati o nal o utc o m es

uniq ue to a th le te s. A t th e s a m e ti m e, a th le te s’ e xp erie nces o f c lim ate c an a ls o i n flu ence th ese e d ucati o nal o utc o m es.

Hig hlig hte d v aria b le s i n clu d e d em ogra p hic c hara cte ris ti c s ( e .g ., r a ce, g end er), c hara cte ris ti c s u niq ue to a th le te s

(e .g ., s p ort a ffilia ti o n), a nd c hara cte ris ti c s u niq ue to th e a rra y o f p arti c ip ati n g i n sti tu ti o ns ( e .g ., d iv is io nal

cla ssific ati o n). C lim ate c o nstr u cts i n clu d e m easu re s o f a th le te s’ e xp erie nces, a tti tu d es, p erc ep ti o ns, a nd r e p orts o f

in sti tu ti o nal a cti o ns r e le v ant to th e c am pus, a th le ti c d ep artm ent, a nd te am c lim ate s. T he o utc o m e m easu re s i n clu d ed

acad em ic s u ccess, a th le ti c i d enti ty , a nd a th le ti c s u ccess. T he a uth o rs f o und e v id ence o f th e e ffe ct o f p ositi v e c lim ate s

on c o lle ge a th le te s’ o utc o m es i n th e s tu d y.

ORG AN IZ AT IO NAL T H EO RY: C O LLEG E A T H LETIC S A N D C ULT U RE

In m any w ays, u nd ers ta nd in g th e a th le ti c o rg aniz a ti o n a s a n e nte rp ris e i s j u st a s i m porta nt a s u nd ers ta nd in g th e

stu d ent w ith in i t; th ese o rg aniz a ti o ns p la y a p re d om in ant r o le i n i n sti tu ti o nal c ultu re a nd s u ccess, a nd o fte n h av e

deep ly e m bed ded h is to rie s th at d ic ta te th e w ays i n w hic h th e u nits — and i n m any c ase s, th e i n sti tu ti o ns— fu ncti o n

(C la rk , 1 972). T his s e cti o n p ro vid es a m odest i n tr o ducti o n to a th le ti c s a s a n o rg aniz a ti o n a nd th e th eo rie s th at c an b e

ap plie d to a th le ti c o rg aniz a ti o ns a s a n e nte rp ris e .

The s tu d y o f o rg aniz a ti o ns r e fe rs to th e e nv ir o nm ent, s tr a te gie s, g o als , w ork , a nd f o rm al a nd i n fo rm al s tr u ctu re s

pre se nt i n o rg aniz a ti o ns ( S co tt & D av is , 2 007). S co tt a nd D av is ( 2 007) a sse rt th at v ario us a sp ects o f m em bers h ip

in flu ence o rg aniz a ti o ns, i n clu d in g i n d iv id uals ’ n eed s a nd th eir d em ogra p hic s. T he l ite ra tu re o n o rg aniz a ti o nal th eo ry

allo w s u s to a sse ss th e u niq ue c ultu re s p re se nt i n th ese c o lle gia te a th le ti c o rg aniz a ti o ns a nd h o w th o se c ultu re s a ffe ct

th e s tu d ents i n v olv ed . O rg aniz a ti o ns a re c o m ple x s tr u ctu re s; th ere fo re , s tu d yin g th e w ays o rg aniz a ti o ns a re f r a m ed

and o pera te c an b e u se fu l, b ecause i t p ro vid es i n fo rm ati o n o n w hat w ork s o r d oes n o t i n a chie v in g o utc o m es.

Org aniz a ti o nal th eo ry a llo w s u s to u nd ers ta nd l e ad ers h ip , e nact c hange, o r c re ate n ew tr a d iti o ns w ith in a u nit

(B olm an & D eal, 2 008; C la rk , 1 972). U se fu l o rg aniz a ti o nal th eo rie s f o r th e s tu d y o f s p ort a nd i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c s s p ecific ally i n clu d e B olm an a nd D eal’s ( 1 991) m ulti - fr a m e p ers p ecti v e; P elle d ’s ( 1 996) i n te rv enin g

pro cess th eo ry ; B arn ey’s ( 1 991) o r R ic hard ’s ( 2 000) r e so urc e-b ase d th eo ry .

Sack ( 2 009) i d enti fie d th re e c o ncep tu al m odels th at g uid e th e c o ntr a sti n g v ie w s a sso cia te d w ith c o lle ge a th le ti c s

while e xp lo rin g th e i s su es a nd a ssu m pti o ns p re v ale nt i n b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts . T he f ir s t, i n te lle ctu al e liti s m , r e fe rs

to th e a rg um ent th at c o lle ge a th le ti c s r e p re se nts a n egati v e f o rc e i n h ig her e d ucati o n. S om e r e fo rm ers a re c o ncern ed

with th e th re at p re se nte d b y a th le ti c s to a cad em ic v alu es, e sp ecia lly th e r e so urc es a llo cate d to a th le ti c p ro gra m s th at

co uld o th erw is e s u p port e d ucati o nal n eed s. T he s e co nd , a cad em ic c ap ita lis m , e m phasiz e s th e b enefits o f th e

co m merc ia lis m o f c o lle ge a th le ti c s a nd th e w ays i n w hic h a th le ti c s a lig n w ith th e i n sti tu ti o n’s m is sio ns a nd v alu es.

Fin ally , th e a th le ti c r ig hts m odel a d vocate s f o r th e r ig hts o f c o lle ge a th le te s, c o nti n ually p osin g q uesti o ns a b out

stu d ents ’ e d ucati o nal a nd f in ancia l a id o pportu niti e s ( S ack, 2 009). S ack’s c o ncep tu al m odels a re u se fu l i n e xp lo rin g

th e v ario us a ssu m pti o ns i n sti tu ti o ns a nd a th le te s r e gula rly n av ig ate .

Additi o nal th eo ry te xtb ooks a nd r e la te d w ork to u nd ers ta nd s p ort i n clu d e C oakle y a nd D unnin g’s

Handbook o f

Sport S tu die s

( 2 000); E itz e n a nd S age’s

Socio lo gy o f N orth A m eric a n S port

( 2 009); S chro ed er’s m odel f o r

asse ssin g o rg aniz a ti o nal c ultu re ( 2 010); a nd G iu lia no tti ’s

Sport a nd M odern T heo ris ts

( 2 004).

CO NCLU SIO N

Colle ge a th le te s p osse ss v ario us i d enti ti e s, a ffilia ti o ns, c halle nges, a nd o pportu niti e s th at s h ap e th e w ay i n w hic h

th ey a p pro ach b oth th eir a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c e xp erie nces. P ro fe ssio nals w ork in g i n h ig her e d ucati o n s h o uld

exerc is e s e nsiti v ity to th e c o m ple x n eed s o f a th le te s. K no w le d ge a nd th eo ry o f th e m ulti p le f a cets o f a th le te s’ id enti ti e s c an e q uip s c ho la rs a nd p ra cti ti o ners w ith m ore n uanced u nd ers ta nd in gs o f d iv ers e a th le te e xp erie nces.

Theo ry o n c o lle ge a th le te s a nd c o lle ge a th le ti c s, w hile g ro w in g, s ti ll h as m any a re as r ip e f o r a d diti o nal r e se arc h a nd

im pro ved u nd ers ta nd in gs.

Colle ge a th le te s i n te ra ct w ith i n d iv id uals i n m any d iffe re nt e nv ir o nm ents , f r o m c o aches a nd a th le ti c d ir e cto rs to

fa culty a nd a d m in is tr a to rs . E ach p ro fe ssio nal h as th e o pportu nity to a ssis t s tu d ents i n th eir l e arn in g a nd e ngagem ent,

and w hen p ossib le , c o lla b ora ti o n a nd c o m munic ati o n a m ong th ese v ario us i n d iv id uals i s b enefic ia l. W hile i t m ay b e

challe ngin g to e nco ura ge d iffe re nt g ro up s to f o ste r c o lla b ora ti o n, th e o utc o m e i s o ne th at i s b enefic ia l f o r b oth th e

stu d ent a nd th e i n sti tu ti o n: a s tu d ent’ s g o als a nd a chie v em ent w ill b eco m e m ore a lig ned w ith th e i n sti tu ti o n’s g o als .

Fro m a n i d enti ty s ta nd poin t, th is c o lla b ora ti o n w ill a ls o l ik ely m in im iz e th e r o le c o nfu sio n th at a th le te s e xp erie nce.

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

W hat i s th eo ry , a nd w hy i s i t i m porta nt to th e s tu d y o f c o lle ge a th le te s a nd a th le ti c o rg aniz a ti o ns?

I d enti fy s p ecific ti m es i n a n a th le te ’s c o lle ge e xp erie nce w hen th eo ry m ig ht b e p arti c ula rly u se fu l. W hat th eo ry

mig ht b e u se fu l i n n av ig ati n g th at e xp erie nce, a nd h o w w ould y o u a p ply i t i n y o ur w ork w ith s tu d ents ?

I f y o u d ev elo ped a th eo re ti c al m odel f o r c o lle ge a th le te e xp erie nces, w hat o utc o m e w ould y o u f o cus o n a nd w hat

are as w ould y o u i n clu d e i n y o ur f r a m ew ork ?

Refe re n ces

Adle r, P . A ., & A dle r, P . ( 1 991).

Backb oard s a nd b la ckb oard s: C olle g es a nd r o le e n gulfm en t

. N ew Y ork : C olu m bia

Univ ers ity P re ss.

Asti n , A . W . ( 1 977).

Four c ritic a l y ea rs: E ffe cts o f c o lle g e o n b elie fs , a ttitu des, a nd k n ow le d ge

. S an F ra ncis c o :

Jo sse y-B ass, 1 977.

———. ( 1 984). S tu d ent i n v olv em ent: A d ev elo pm enta l th eo ry f o r h ig her e d ucati o n.

Jo urn al o f c o lle g e s tu den t

perso nnel, 2 5

, 2 97–308.

———. ( 1 991).

Asse ssm en t f o r e xcelle n ce: T he p hilo so phy a nd p ra ctic e o f a sse ssm en t a nd e va lu atio n i n h ig her

ed uca tio n.

N ew Y ork : A meric an C ouncil o n E ducati o n/M acm illa n.

Atk in so n, D . R ., M orte n, G ., & S ue, D . W . ( 1 979).

Counse lin g A m eric a n m in oritie s: A c ro ss-c u ltu ra l p ersp ectiv e

Dub uq ue, I A : W illia m C . B ro w n.

Bannin g, J . H ., & K ais e r, L . ( 1 974). A n e co lo gic al p ers p ecti v e a nd m odel f o r c am pus d esig n.

The P erso nnel a nd

Guid ance J o urn al, 5 2

, 3 70–375.

Barn ey, J . ( 1 991). F ir m r e so urc es a nd s u sta in ed c o m peti ti v e a d vanta ge.

Jo urn al o f M anagem en t

(1 ), 9 9–120.

Baxte r M ago ld a, M . B . ( 1 992).

Know in g a nd r e a so nin g i n c o lle g e: G en der-re la te d p atte rn s i n s tu den ts ’

in te lle ctu al d evelo pm en t

. S an F ra ncis c o : J o sse y-B ass.

Bele nky, M . F ., C lin chy, B . M ., G old berg er, N . F ., & T aru le , J . M . ( 1 986).

Wom en ’s w ays o f k n ow in g

. N ew Y ork :

Basic B ooks.

Bilo deau, B . L . ( 2 009).

Gen deris m : T ra nsg en der s tu den ts , b in ary s y ste m s, a nd h ig her e d uca tio n

. S aarb rü cken,

Germ any: V D M V erla g.

Bolm an, L . G ., & D eal, T . E . ( 1 991). L ead ers h ip a nd m anagem ent e ffe cti v eness: A m ulti fr a m e, m ulti s e cto r a naly sis .

Hum an R eso urc e M anagem en t, 3 0

, 5 09–534.

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Jo urn al o f C olle g e S tu den t D evelo pm en t, 4 2

465–479.

Worth in gto n, R . L ., S av oy, H . B ., D illo n, F . R ., & V ern aglia , E . R . ( 2 002). H ete ro se xual i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent a

multi d im ensio nal m odel o f i n d iv id ual a nd s o cia l i d enti ty .

Counse lin g P sy ch olo gis t, 3 0

, 4 96–531. 3 PA RT T H REE

The C olle g e A th le te E xp erie n ce

B oth c o lle ge a th le te s a nd th eir n o nath le te p eers a re f a ced w ith s tr e sse s a nd e xp ecta ti o ns i n th e a cad em ic a nd s o cia l

env ir o nm ent, b ut c o lle ge a th le te s a ls o e nco unte r tr e m end ous s p ort d em and s th at c re ate s u b sta nti a l c halle nges to th e

quality o f th eir c o lle ge e xp erie nce. I n

chap te r 6

, J o y G asto n G ayle s s k etc hes th e c o lle ge e xp erie nce o f D iv is io n I

ath le te s a nd s u m mariz e s s o m e o f th e m ost c o m mon c halle nges th ey e nco unte r. C om munity c o lle ge a th le te s— a

criti c ally i m porta nt s tu d ent g ro up th at i s o fte n u nd erre se arc hed a nd o verlo oked i n A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n— are

th e f o cus o f

chap te r 7

. D av id H orto n J r. e xam in es th eir e xp erie nces, w ith a p arti c ula r f o cus o n p re d ic to rs o f f o ur-

year tr a nsfe r f o r a th le te s. I n

chap te r 8

, J a net L aw re nce a nd J o n M cN aughta n h ig hlig ht i s su es a sso cia te d w ith th e

co ncep tu aliz a ti o n a nd a sse ssm ent o f c am pus c lim ate a s i t r e la te s to i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s m ore g enera lly . T hey

dev elo p a c o ncep ti o n o f th e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s c lim ate a nd u se i t to a ncho r a d is c ussio n o f i ts e ffe cts o n

in d iv id ual b ehav io r ( e .g ., c o lle ge a th le te s) a nd o rg aniz a ti o nal p erfo rm ance.

C H APTER

T O DAY ’S C O LLEG E A TH LETE

J oy G asto n G ayle s

K EY T ER M S

co lle ge a th le te s

in te rc o lle gia te a th le tic s

hig her e duca tio n

ath le te s o n D iv is io n I c a m puse s

W hen d esc rib in g th e e xp erie nces o f a th le te s o n D iv is io n I c o lle ge c am puse s, m ost s c ho la rs c o m pare a th le te s to

n o nath le te s ( S im ons, V an R heenen, & C ovin gto n, 1 999; W att & M oore , 2 001). S uch a c o m paris o n i llu m in ate s th e

u niq ue w ays i n w hic h p arti c ip ati o n i n c o lle ge s p orts i m pacts a th le te s a nd th e a d diti o nal r e sp onsib iliti e s a nd

r e q uir e m ents th at m ust b e m anaged f o r s u ccess i n th e c la ssro om a nd o n th e f ie ld o r c o urt. I n a d diti o n to ta kin g

c la sse s, a th le te s m ust m ain ta in a cad em ic e lig ib ility r e q uir e m ents , ta ke a f u ll l o ad o f c la sse s, m ake p ro gre ss to w ard

d egre e c o m ple ti o n e ach y ear, p ra cti c e, tr a v el, c o m pete , a tte nd s tu d y h all, s u sta in i n ju rie s, a nd m anage th e

p sy cho lo gic al s tr e ss o f w in nin g a nd l o sin g ( C aro din e, A lm ond , & G ra tto , 2 001). A lth o ugh a th le te s m ake a c o nsc io us

c ho ic e to e nd ure th ese a d diti o nal c halle nges, s u ch e xp erie nces s e t th em a p art f r o m th eir p eers a nd r e q uir e s u p port

f r o m th e u niv ers ity a nd a th le ti c d ep artm ent i n o rd er a chie v e s u ccess b oth o n th e f ie ld a nd i n th e c la ssro om .

Many o f th e w ays i n w hic h th e e xp erie nces o f a th le te s a re u niq ue c o m pare d to th eir n o nath le te p eers a re a r e su lt

o f th e r u le s a nd r e gula ti o ns d esig ned to g o vern a nd c o ntr o l c o lle ge s p orts . T he N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c

A sso cia ti o n ( N CA A), th e a th le ti c c o nfe re nce to w hic h th e i n sti tu ti o n b elo ngs, a nd th e c o lle ge o r u niv ers ity h av e

r e gula ti o ns i n p la ce to w hic h a th le te s m ust a d here i n o rd er to p arti c ip ate i n c o lle ge s p orts e ach y ear. T he r u le s a nd

r e gula ti o ns a re d esig ned to e nsu re th at a th le te s m ake p ro gre ss to w ard th eir d egre e a nd m ain ta in a f a ir a nd e q uita b le

p la y a cro ss i n sti tu ti o ns w ith in th e N CA A.

Colle ge a th le te s w ho d esir e to c o m pete i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s m ust g o th ro ugh th e N CA A E lig ib ility C ente r

( fo rm erly k no w n a s th e

NCA A I n iti a l- E lig ib ility C le arin gho use ). I n iti a l e lig ib ility r e q uir e s th at a th le te s g ra d uate

f r o m h ig h s c ho ol a nd e arn a m in im um g ra d e p oin t a v era ge a nd te st s c o re b ase d o n a s lid in g s c ale . F or e xam ple ,

u nd er th e c urre nt r u le s a n a th le te w ith a h ig h s c ho ol g ra d e p oin t a v era ge o f 2 .0 m ust h av e a S A T s c o re o f 1 010 o r a

c um ula ti v e A CT s c o re o f 8 6. T he r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een g ra d e p oin t a v era ge a nd te st s c o re i s i n v erte d , s u ch th at

l o w er g ra d e p oin t a v era ges r e q uir e h ig her te st s c o re s. I n 2 016 th e s lid in g s c ale f o r i n iti a l e lig ib ility w ill c hange f o r

a th le te s a t D iv is io n I i n sti tu ti o ns. I n o rd er to c o m pete a s a f r e sh m an i n c o lle ge, a th le te s w ill b e r e q uir e d to e arn a 2 .3

g ra d e p oin t a v era ge i n c o re c o urs e s. F urth er, a th le te s m ust s u ccessfu lly c o m ple te 1 0 o f th e 1 6 to ta l r e q uir e d c o re

c o urs e s b efo re th e s ta rt o f th eir s e nio r y ear o f h ig h s c ho ol a nd 7 o f th e 1 0 c o urs e s m ust b e i n s c ie nce, m ath em ati c s,

a nd E nglis h . T he s lid in g s c ale f o r te st s c o re s a nd G PA w ill i n cre ase . F or e xam ple , a S A T s c o re o f 8 20 w ill r e q uir e a

g ra d e p oin t a v era ge o f 2 .5 i n c o re c o urs e s. H ig h s c ho ol a th le te s w ho d o n o t m eet th e i n iti a l e lig ib ility s ta nd ard s

c anno t c o m pete a s a f r e sh m an. C olle ge a th le te s n o t i n c o m plia nce w ill b e a llo w ed to p ra cti c e a nd r e ceiv e a th le ti c

g ra nt- in -a id . I f n o nelig ib le a th le te s a re s u ccessfu l i n th eir f ir s t a cad em ic te rm , th ey m ay c o nti n ue to p ra cti c e d urin g

t h eir f r e sh m an y ear o f c o lle ge.

Scho la rs h ip a th le te s a re r e q uir e d to a tte nd c o lle ge f u ll- ti m e i n o rd er to p arti c ip ate . O n m ost c am puse s th is

e q uate s to ta kin g 1 2 h o urs ( fo ur c la sse s) p er s e m este r. T o m ake s u re s tu d ents m ain ta in 1 2 h o urs a cad em ic a d vis o rs

o fte n s c hed ule a th le te s f o r 1 5 to 1 8 c re d it h o urs i n th e e v ent th at th e s tu d ent n eed s to d ro p a c la ss i n w hic h h e o r s h e

i s p erfo rm in g p oorly . I n a d diti o n to ta kin g a f u ll l o ad o f c la sse s, th ere a re g ra d e p oin t a v era ge r e q uir e m ents th at

a th le te s m ust m eet i n o rd er to p arti c ip ate e ach s e m este r. I n g enera l, a th le te s c anno t f a ll b elo w a g ra d e p oin t a v era ge of 2 .0 .

Colle ge a th le te s a re a ls o u niq ue b ecause th ey h av e to b ala nce th e d em and s o f a cad em ic r e q uir e m ents w ith

pra cti c in g a nd c o m peti n g i n th eir s p ort. T he N CA A m and ate s a th le ti c d ep artm ents to p ro vid e a cad em ic s u p port a nd

co unse lin g s e rv ic es f o r a th le te s. S up port s e rv ic es s u ch a s tu to rin g, s u p ple m enta l i n str u cti o n, c o m pute r l a b s, a nd

co urs e s u p plie s m ust b e p ro vid ed to h elp a th le te s s u cceed i n th e c la ssro om . I n a d diti o n, N CA A r u le s s ta te th at

ath le te s a re n o t a llo w ed to p ra cti c e m ore th an 2 0 h o urs p er w eek; h o w ev er, r e p orts i n d ic ate th at s o m e a th le te s

pra cti c e m ore th an 4 0 h o urs p er w eek o n a v era ge, v olu nte erin g th eir ti m e to r e v ie w g am e ta p es a nd c o nd iti o n f o r

th eir s p ort ( W olv erto n, 2 008).

CH ALLEN G ES F O R A T H LETES A N D H IG HER E D UCAT IO N

The m any r u le s a nd r e gula ti o ns, p re ssu re s, a nd s c ru ti n y a sso cia te d w ith i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i n h ig her e d ucati o n

hav e c re ate d c halle nges f o r a th le te s a nd h ig her e d ucati o n i n sti tu ti o ns. R ep orts o f s c and als i n v olv in g a cad em ic a nd

so cia l m is c o nd uct i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s f lo od th e m ed ia e ach y ear. T he a ccusa ti o ns a nd i n cid ents h av e

in cre ase d i n s e v erity o ver th e y ears , a nd th ese s c and als b rin g s h am e to th e i n sti tu ti o n a nd s p ark d is tr u st w ith in th e

co m munity . S om e o f th e m ajo r c halle nges

co ncern in g a th le te w elfa re i n clu d e a cad em ic p erfo rm ance a nd g ra d uati o n

ra te s, b ala ncin g a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c ta sk s, a nd th e p ay-fo r-p la y i s su e.

Aca d em ic P erfo rm an ce a n d G ra d uatio n R ate s

The 1 980s r e p re se nts a p erio d o f i n cre ase d c o ncern a b out a cad em ic s ta nd ard s a nd p erfo rm ance f o r a th le te s. I t w as

th e f ir s t ti m e th at th e N CA A e nfo rc ed r e gula ti o ns f o r a cad em ic p erfo rm ance th at w ere a ctu ally a d here d to b y m em ber

in sti tu ti o ns. P ro positi o n 4 8 a nd th e S tu d ent R ig ht to K no w A ct a re tw o m ajo r r e fo rm e ffo rts th at s e t th e f o und ati o n f o r

acad em ic s ta nd ard s.

NCA A m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns h av e r e p orte d g ra d uati o n r a te s s in ce th e m id -1 980s u nd er th e S tu d ent R ig ht to K no w

Act, w hic h r e q uir e s th at h ig her e d ucati o n i n sti tu ti o ns m ake p ub lic g ra d uati o n r a te d ata a s w ell a s d ata o n c rim e

sta ti s ti c s s o th at s tu d ents c an m ake i n fo rm ed d ecis io ns a b out th e i n sti tu ti o ns th ey d esir e to a tte nd . T he l a te st

gra d uati o n r a te d ata s h o w th at a th le te s g ra d uate a t h ig her r a te s c o m pare d to s tu d ents i n th e g enera l p opula ti o n

(C hris ti a nso n, 2 012). I n 2 012 th e N CA A r e p orte d th at a th le te s w ho e nte re d a s f r e sh m en d urin g th e 2 004–2005

acad em ic y ear g ra d uate d a t a r a te o f 8 1% . T he N CA A a ls o r e p orte d th at i n 2 012 a th le te s i n f o otb all a nd m en’s

bask etb all s h o w ed r e m ark ab le i m pro vem ent c o m pare d to p ast y ears . M en’s b ask etb all p la yers g ra d uate d a t 7 4% , a

6-p oin t i n cre ase f r o m th e p re v io us e nte rin g c la ss. F urth er, f o otb all p la yers h ad a g ra d uati o n r a te o f 7 0% , 1 -p oin t

in cre ase o ver th e p re v io us e nte rin g c la ss. M ore o ver, a cro ss a n 1 1 -y ear p erio d o f d ata c o lle cti o n g ra d uati o n r a te s f o r

men’s b ask etb all i n cre ase d 2 1 p erc enta ge p oin ts a nd g ra d uati o n r a te s f o r f o otb all p la yers i n cre ase d 7 p erc enta ge

poin ts .

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

Pay-fo r-P la y: A M ora l D ile m ma

Darin M oss i s th e d ir e cto r f o r c o m plia nce a t B ig T im e U niv ers ity , U SA . B ig T im e U niv ers ity i s o ne o f th e to p l a nd -

gra nt u niv ers iti e s i n th e c o untr y w ith h ig hly r a nked a th le ti c p ro gra m s f o r th e m ajo rity o f th e 1 4 s p orts o ffe re d . T he

bask etb all p ro gra m h as c lin ched tw o n ati o nal c ham pio nsh ip s i n th e p ast 7 y ears a nd i s r a nked n um ber 1 i n th e

co untr y . D arin h as w ork ed i n c o m plia nce f o r 1 0 y ears . H e s p ent th e f ir s t f e w y ears o f h is c are er w ork in g i n

co m plia nce a t th e N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n b efo re b eco m in g th e c o m plia nce d ir e cto r a t B ig T im e

Univ ers ity . D urin g h is ti m e a t th e N CA A h e w ork ed i n i n v esti g ati o ns a nd i s v ery f a m ilia r w ith th e r u le s a nd

re gula ti o ns, i n fr a cti o ns, a nd p enalti e s a sso cia te d w ith b re akin g th e r u le s.

Work in g a t B ig T im e U niv ers ity , D arin u nd ers ta nd s th at s tu d ents a re u nd er a g re at d eal o f p re ssu re to m anage

th eir a ffa ir s b oth o n a nd o ff th e p la yin g f ie ld . A t th e b egin nin g o f e v ery a cad em ic y ear D arin a nd h is s ta ff m eet w ith

all a th le te s b y s p ort to r e m in d th em o f th e r u le s a nd r e gula ti o ns a sso cia te d w ith p arti c ip ati n g i n i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c s. S om e o f th e m ajo r i s su es f o r a th le te s i n h ig h-p ro file s p orts a re a ccep ti n g g ifts f r o m a gents , b ooste rs , a nd

oth ers i n th e c o m munity . T he N CA A i s v ery s tr ic t c o ncern in g a th le te s a ccep ti n g m oneta ry g ifts , m akin g d eals w ith

agents , a nd a cad em ic m is c o nd uct.

The p ay-fo r-p la y i s su e i s o ne th at D arin s tr u ggle s w ith . O n o ne h and , B ig T im e U niv ers ity g enera te s l a rg e s u m s of r e v enue l a rg ely b ase d o n th e a th le ti c p ro w ess o f a th le te s. Y et a th le te s d o n o t r e ceiv e a d ir e ct s h are o f th e p ro fit f o r

th eir l a b or. M ore o ver, D arin k no w s th at s o m e o f th e m ost ta le nte d p la yers c o m e f r o m p oor b ackgro und s w here th e

fa m ilie s o f a th le te s i n h ig h-p ro file s p orts a re d ep end in g o n th eir l o ved o ne to “ go p ro .” H ow ev er, w hile th e a th le te s

are c o m peti n g a t th e c o lle ge l e v el, th ey d o n o t h av e e no ugh m oney to c o ver d aily l iv in g e xp ense s, s u ch a s w ash in g

clo th es, g o in g to th e m ovie s, o r b uyin g a b us ti c ket h o m e f o r th e h o lid ays.

The a sso cia te d p re ss r e centl y i n te rv ie w ed D arin a b out th is i s su e a s B ig T im e U niv ers ity i s c urre ntl y u nd er

in v esti g ati o n f o r a lle gati o ns o f u niv ers ity b ask etb all p la yers a ccep ti n g m oney f r o m b ooste rs . D arin M oss to ld th e

Asso cia te d P re ss th at p ay-fo r-p la y i s a m ajo r i s su e p la guin g c o lle ge s p orts . A s c o m merc ia lis m a nd r e v enue

genera ti o n i n cre ase w ith o ut c o nsid era ti o n o f th e o vera ll w ell- b ein g o f a th le te s, m is c o nd uct a nd s c and als i n v olv in g

ru le i n fr a cti o ns w ill c o nti n ue to e sc ala te a nd b urd en h ig her e d ucati o n i n sti tu ti o ns.

Scho la rs a nd c riti c s h av e q uesti o ned w hy th e g ra d uati o n r a te d ata r e p orte d b y th e N CA A a re s o h ig h ( S outh all,

Eckard , N agel, & H ale , 2 012). O ne o f th e m ajo r r e aso ns w hy th e d ata v ary s o w id ely i s b ecause th e N CA A a nd th e

fe d era l g o vern m ent u se d iffe re nt m etr ic s y ste m s. T he N CA A d ev elo ped th e G ra d uati o n S uccess R ate ( G SR ) to b ette r

acco unt f o r tr a nsfe r s tu d ents w ho l e av e th e i n sti tu ti o n i n g o od s ta nd in g. T hus, o utg o in g tr a nsfe r s tu d ents i n g o od

sta nd in g a re i n clu d ed i n th e r e ceiv in g i n sti tu ti o ns c o ho rt o f a th le te s. T he c urre nt G SR i s b ase d o n f o ur c o ho rts o f

ente rin g c la sse s f r o m 2 002 to 2 006. T he G SR r e p orte d b y th e N CA A i s u su ally a b out 2 0 p erc enta ge p oin ts h ig her

th an th e r a te r e p orte d b y th e f e d era l g o vern m ent, w hic h e xclu d es tr a nsfe r s tu d ents f r o m th e c alc ula ti o n ( S te in b ach,

2012). U sin g th e F ed era l G ra d uati o n R ate , a th le te s w ho e nte re d i n 2 005 g ra d uate d a t a r a te o f 6 5% , tw o p erc enta ge

poin ts h ig her th an s tu d ents i n th e g enera l p opula ti o n d id . A no th er r e aso n w hy th e G SR i s h ig her th an th e F ed era l

Gra d uati o n R ate i s th at f o r th e f ir s t ti m e I v y L eague i n sti tu ti o ns w ere i n clu d ed i n th e c alc ula ti o ns. I t i s i m porta nt to

no te th at I v y L eague i n sti tu ti o ns a re n o t l ik e o th er D iv is io n I i n sti tu ti o ns b ecause th ey d o n o t a w ard a th le ti c

sc ho la rs h ip s.

With o ut p ro bin g a ny f u rth er, th e f a ct th at g ra d uati o n r a te s h av e i n cre ase d , p arti c ula rly f o r h ig h-p ro file s p orts , i s

go od n ew s. H ow ev er, f u rth er e xam in ati o n o f g ra d uati o n d ata u nm ask s m ajo r d iffe re nces i n a cad em ic p erfo rm ance

and s u ccessfu l d egre e c o m ple ti o n. F or e xam ple , d is a ggre gati n g g ra d uati o n r a te s b y r a ce a nd e th nic ity s h o w s m ajo r

dis p ariti e s. A cco rd in g to th e G SR , A fr ic an A meric an a th le te s g ra d uate d a t a r a te o f 5 4% . A lth o ugh th is r e p re se nts a n

in cre ase o f 1 9% o ver ti m e, th e r a te s ti ll l a gs b ehin d s tu d ents i n th e g enera l p opula ti o n. M ore a la rm in g i s th at A fr ic an

Americ an m ale s g ra d uate d a t a r a te o f 4 9% — an i n cre ase o f 1 6 p oin ts o ver ti m e. H ow ev er, l ik e A fr ic an A meric an

fe m ale s th is r a te l a gs b ehin d th e a v era ge r a te f o r a ll A fr ic an A meric an a th le te s a nd s tu d ents i n th e g enera l

popula ti o n. A fr ic an A meric an f e m ale a th le te s, h o w ev er, a re f a rin g w ell g ra d uati n g a t a r a te o f 6 4% , w hic h i s o n p ar

with th e a v era ge g ra d uati o n f o r a th le te s i n th e g enera l s tu d ent p opula ti o n.

Bala n cin g A ca d em ic s a n d A th le tic s

Perh ap s o ne o f th e m ost c halle ngin g a nd s tr e ssfu l ta sk s f a ced b y a th le te s i s th e a ct o f b ala ncin g a cad em ic , a th le ti c s,

and s o cia l d em and s ( A dle r & A dle r, 1 991; C om eaux

& H arris o n, 2 011 ; G asto n-G ayle s, 2 004; S im ons, V an R heenen,

& C ovin gto n, 1 999). O n m ost d ays a th le te s w ake u p e arly , ta ke a f u ll d ay o f c la sse s, a tte nd p ra cti c e, e at d in ner, a nd

th en g o to s tu d y h all. B y th e ti m e s tu d y h all i s o ver l a te i n th e e v enin g i t i s ti m e to r e st a nd p re p are to d o i t a ll o ver

again th e n ext d ay. S uch a r ig id s c hed ule l e av es l im ite d ti m e f o r s o cia l a cti v iti e s a nd i n s o m e c ase s n o t e no ugh ti m e

to m eet w ith p ro fe sso rs d urin g o ffic e h o urs a nd tu to rs f o r s u p ple m enta l i n str u cti o n. M ore o ver, b ala ncin g a cad em ic

and a th le ti c d em and s c an b e e v en m ore s tr e nuo us f o r a th le te s w ho e nte r c o lle ge a cad em ic ally u nd erp re p are d .

Scho la rs h av e s tu d ie d th e c halle nges a th le te s f a ce b ala ncin g a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c r o le s a nd r e sp onsib iliti e s.

Adle r a nd A dle r ( 1 991) c o nd ucte d o ne o f th e f ir s t s tu d ie s o n th e to pic u sin g e th no gra p hic te chniq ues to s tu d y th e

bask etb all te am a t a m ajo r D iv is io n I i n sti tu ti o n. O vera ll th ey f o und th at th e m ale b ask etb all p la yers i n th e s tu d y h ad

hig h a sp ir a ti o ns to w ard a cad em ic p erfo rm ance i n c o lle ge; h o w ev er, th e d em and s o f p arti c ip ati n g i n th eir s p ort l e d to

overin v olv em ent i n a th le ti c s a s e arly a s th e f ir s t a nd s e co nd s e m este r o f th eir c o lle ge c are er. A dle r a nd A dle r c o in ed

th e te rm

ro le e n gulfm en t

to c hara cte riz e a th le te s w ho b ecam e o verin v olv ed w ith a th le ti c d em and s a nd a s a r e su lt

dev ote d l ittl e ti m e to a cad em ic a nd s o cia l e xp erie nces d urin g c o lle ge.

A m ajo r p ro ble m r e su lti n g f r o m o verin v olv em ent i n a th le ti c s i s i s o la ti o n f r o m th e g enera l s tu d ent b ody. C riti c s

hav e a rg ued th at a th le te s f o rm a s e p ara te s u b cultu re o n c o lle ge c am puse s th at i s o la te s th em f r o m th e s tu d ent b ody a nd

im pacts th e e xte nt to w hic h th ey b enefit f r o m th e c o lle ge e xp erie nce i n w ays s im ila r to th eir p eers ( B ow en & L ev in ,

2003; S hulm an & B ow en, 2 001). P arh am ’s ( 1 993) s tu d y o n th e e xp erie nces o f a th le te s s u p ports th at th ey h av e

diffic ulty b ala ncin g a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c ta sk s a nd e xp erie nce s o cia l i s o la ti o n f r o m s p end in g s o m uch ti m e i n th e ath le ti c d om ain . T he s tu d y a ls o f o und th at a th le te s e xp erie nce m enta l a nd e m oti o nal s tr e ss f r o m d ealin g w ith th e

pre ssu re s o f w in nin g a nd l o sin g a nd m anagin g r e la ti o nsh ip s a m ong c o m peti n g g ro up s, s u ch a s c o aches, f r ie nd s, a nd

fa m ily . P arh am c o nclu d ed th at th e d em and s o f b ala ncin g s o m any s tr e sso rs m ake th e a th le te p opula ti o n v uln era b le to

oth er i s su es, s u ch a s l o w er g ain s i n l e arn in g a nd p ers o nal d ev elo pm ent.

Oth er s tu d ie s h av e e xam in ed th e i s su e o f b ala ncin g a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c d em and s u sin g m oti v ati o n th eo ry . I t i s

quite n atu ra l f o r a th le te s to e nte r c o lle ge h ig hly m oti v ate d i n th e a th le ti c d om ain b ecause th e u niv ers ity r e cru its a nd

aw ard s s c ho la rs h ip s b ase d o n a th le ti c ta le nt. T he p ro ble m i s w hen s tu d ents e nte r th e u niv ers ity w ith o ut th e s a m e

le v el o f m oti v ati o n i n th e a cad em ic d om ain . L ack o f a cad em ic m oti v ati o n s e em s to b e m ost p ro ble m ati c f o r h ig h-

pro file a th le te s ( G asto n-G ayle s, 2 004; S im ons, V an R heenen, & C ovin gto n, 1 999). G asto n-G ayle s ( 2 004) d ev elo ped

a s c ale to m easu re a th le te s’ m oti v ati o n to w ard s p orts a nd a cad em ic s a nd f o und th at w hat m atte re d m ost i n te rm s o f

acad em ic p erfo rm ance w as th e e xte nt to w hic h a th le te s w ere m oti v ate d a cad em ic ally . H av in g h ig h a sp ir a ti o ns to

excel i n th e a th le ti c d om ain d id n o t i n flu ence a cad em ic p erfo rm ance; h o w ev er, l a ck o f a cad em ic m oti v ati o n,

re gard le ss o f a th le ti c m oti v ati o n, h ad a n egati v e i n flu ence o n a cad em ic s.

Oth er s tu d ie s h av e e xam in ed m oti v ati o n u sin g s e lf- w orth th eo ry to u nd ers ta nd d iffe re nces i n m oti v ati o n f o r th e

stu d ent a th le te p opula ti o n. S im ons, V an R heenen, a nd C ovin gto n ( 1 999) e xam in ed a chie v em ent m oti v ati o n f o r

ath le te s u sin g s e lf- w orth th eo ry a nd f o und th at m ost a th le te s i n r e v enue s p orts w ere f a ilu re a v oid ers — moti v ate d to

achie v e s u ccess i n o ne d om ain w hile a v oid in g f a ilu re i n a no th er. M ore o ver, f a ilu re a v oid ers a re c hara cte riz e d b y

atti tu d es a nd b ehav io rs th at r e su lt i n l o w a cad em ic p erfo rm ance s u ch a s u se o f s e lf- h and ic ap pin g e xcuse s, l o w

acad em ic s e lf- w orth , h ig her p ro ble m l e v els i n r e ad in g a nd s tu d yin g, a nd l e ss i n tr in sic m oti v ati o n.

When a th le te s p la ce to o m uch e m phasis i n th e a th le ti c d om ain a nd b eco m e i s o la te d f r o m th e s tu d ent b ody, th e

questi o n i s r a is e d a s to w heth er a th le te s b enefit f r o m th e c o lle ge e xp erie nce s im ila r to th eir n o nath le te p eers . T he

id ea th at a th le te s m ake u p a s e p ara te s u b cultu re o n c o lle ge c am puse s l e ad s to d is c ussio n a b out p ossib le n egati v e

co nse q uences o f p arti c ip ati n g i n c o lle ge s p orts . G ayle s a nd H u ( 2 009) e xam in ed th e a th le te e xp erie nce u sin g n ati o nal

data f r o m th e N CA A a nd f o und th at a th le te s i n te ra cte d w ith p eers o th er th an a th le te s m ore c o m monly th an a ny o th er

fo rm o f e ngagem ent m easu re d i n th e s tu d y. H ow ev er, a th le te s p arti c ip ate d i n s tu d ent o rg aniz a ti o ns l e ast f r e q uentl y . I n

ad diti o n, i n te ra cti n g w ith p eers o th er th an te am mate s w as o ne o f th e m ost i n flu enti a l f a cto rs i n o utc o m es s u ch a s

pers o nal s e lf- c o ncep t a nd l e arn in g a nd c o m munic ati o n s k ills . A u niq ue f in d in g i n th is s tu d y, h o w ev er, w as th at th ese

effe cts w ere m ore b enefic ia l f o r a th le te s i n l o w -p ro file o r O ly m pic s p orts . M ore i n v esti g ati o n i s n eed ed to

und ers ta nd w hat f a cto rs m atte r r e la ti v e to c o gniti v e a nd a ffe cti v e g ain s f o r a th le te s i n h ig h-p ro file s p orts .

Pay-fo r-P la y

The d eb ate o ver w heth er to c o m pensa te a th le te s f o r th eir p arti c ip ati o n i n c o lle ge s p orts i s a g ro w in g a re a o f c o ncern

fo r i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd h ig her e d ucati o n. C olle ge a th le te s, p arti c ula rly th o se w ho p arti c ip ate i n r e v enue

sp orts s u ch a s f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all, g enera te l a rg e s u m s o f r e v enue f o r a th le ti c d ep artm ents ; y et a th le te s d o

no t r e ceiv e a ny s h are o f th e p ro fit f r o m th e r e v enue th ey h elp g enera te . F urth er, a th le ti c d ep artm ents g enera te r e v enue

fr o m m erc hand is e s a le s u sin g th e n um ber a nd i m age o f h ig h-p ro file a th le te s.

Com merc ia lis m a sso cia te d w ith c o lle ge s p orts i s a g ro w in g p ro ble m th at i n sti tu ti o ns w ill h av e to a d dre ss i n th e

near f u tu re . A s c o m merc ia lis m i n cre ase s i n th e f o rm o r te le v is io n c o ntr a cts , ti c ket s a le s, h ig h-s a la ry c o aches, a nd

ad verti s in g e nd ors e m ents , s o d oes th e p re ssu re to p ro duce w in nin g te am s a nd g enera te r e v enue. O ver th e y ears ,

case s o f a cad em ic a nd s o cia l m is c o nd uct h av e i n cre ase d i n f r e q uency a nd s e v erity . F urth er, th e c o m merc ia liz e d

valu es o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s r u n c o ntr a ry to th e g o als a nd v alu es o f h ig her e d ucati o n i n sti tu ti o ns. I n sti tu ti o ns o f

hig her e d ucati o n w ill n eed to f ig ure o ut th e p ro per r o le a nd f u ncti o n o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i n h ig her e d ucati o n

and ta ke s te p s to a lig n th e v alu es a nd g o als o f e d ucati n g s tu d ents to th e g o als a nd v alu es a sso cia te d w ith p arti c ip ati o n

in c o lle ge s p orts .

CASE S T U DY

Pay-fo r-P la y

The p ay-fo r-p la y i s su e i s p re d ic ate d o n th e q uesti o n o f w heth er a th le te s s h o uld r e ceiv e m oneta ry c o m pensa ti o n f o r

th eir p arti c ip ati o n i n c o lle ge s p orts . T he c o m merc ia lis m a sso cia te d w ith c o lle ge s p orts h as i n cre ase d e xp onenti a lly

over th e y ears a nd i n sti tu ti o ns g enera te m illio ns o f d olla rs a nnually f r o m te le v is io n c o ntr a cts , ti c ket s a le s,

to urn am ents , a nd a d verti s in g d eals . A t th e h eart o f th e p ay-fo r-p la y i s su e i s th e te nsio n b etw een th e f a ct th at a th le ti c dep artm ents g enera te l a rg e s u m s o f r e v enue a nd th e i n d iv id uals r e sp onsib le f o r g enera ti n g th e r e v enue d o n o t r e ceiv e

a d ir e ct s h are o f th e p ro fit. I n f a ct, a th le te s r e p re se nt th e o nly s ta keho ld ers w ho d o n o t r e ceiv e a d ir e ct s h are o f th e

pro fit.

Som e h av e a rg ued th at c o lle ge a th le te s d o r e ceiv e p aym ent i n th e f o rm o f a n a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip . H ow ev er,

oth ers h av e q uesti o ned i f $ 40,0 00 to $ 50,0 00 o ver a to ta l o f 4 y ears i s e q uiv ale nt to th e b illio ns o f d olla rs g enera te d

annually b y a th le ti c d ep artm ents . M ore o ver, i f a th le te s i n h ig h-p ro file s p orts a re n o t s u ccessfu lly g ra d uati n g f r o m

co lle ge, th en i s th e p ro m is e o f e arn in g a c o lle ge d egre e e no ugh to c o m pensa te a th le te s f o r th eir l a b or?

In sti tu ti o ns o f h ig her e d ucati o n a d here to th e p rin cip le o f a m ate uris m a s i t a llo w s f o r a p eculia r i n sti tu ti o n s u ch a s

co lle ge s p orts to e xis t w ith in h ig her e d ucati o n i n sti tu ti o ns ( T helin , 2 012). C om pensa ti n g a th le te s d ir e ctl y w ould g o

again st th e v alu es a nd p rin cip le s o f h ig her e d ucati o n a nd w ould c hange th e f a ce o f c o lle ge s p orts a s w e k no w i t.

Questi o ns a b out h o w m uch a th le te s s h o uld b e p aid , s h o uld a ll a th le te s r e ceiv e th e s a m e a m ount, s h o uld a ll a th le te s b e

paid o r j u st a th le te s i n r e v enue-p ro ducin g s p orts a re s o m e o f th e q uesti o ns th at w ill h av e to b e a d dre sse d i f s u ch a

polic y w ere e nacte d .

The N CA A r e co gniz e s th e a cad em ic , f in ancia l, a nd s o cia l p re ssu re s f a ced b y c o lle ge a th le te s b ut r e m ain s s tr ic tl y

again st c o m pensa ti n g a th le te s f o r p arti c ip ati o n i n th e c o lle ge s p orts . T he c o lle gia te m odel d ate s b ack to th e 1 950s

and i m plie s th at a th le te s a re a ls o s tu d ents ( n o t e m plo yees o f th e i n sti tu ti o n). T he N CA A r e centl y p asse d l e gis la ti o n

fo r i n sti tu ti o ns to a w ard a th le te s u p to $ 2,0 00 o ver th e c o st o f a tte nd ance. H ow ev er, th is l e gis la ti o n w as p ut o n h o ld

because a th le ti c d ep artm ents c o m pla in ed th at th ey d id n o t h av e e no ugh r e v enue to d o s o . F urth er a th le te s a re a llo w ed

to w ork n o m ore th an 2 0 h o urs p er w eek a nd c anno t b e c o m pensa te d m ore th an $ 2,0 00 b eyo nd th e c o st o f a tte nd ance.

Alth o ugh th is w ould a llo w a th le te s to e arn a d diti o nal m oney f o r d aily l iv in g e xp ense s, w ork in g a p art- ti m e j o b

fu rth er c o m plic ate s th e i s su e o f b ala ncin g a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c d em and s.

About 3 00 a th le te s p arti c ip ati n g i n h ig h-p ro file s p orts a cro ss s e v era l D iv is io n I i n sti tu ti o ns r e centl y f ile d a l a w

su it a gain st th e N CA A f o r r ig hts a nd r o yalti e s a sso cia te d w ith m ark eti n g j e rs e ys w ith p la yers ’ n am es a nd n um bers o n

th em . C olle ge a th le te s f e el th at th ey s h o uld b enefit f r o m a d verti s in g a nd m erc hand is e s a le s th at u se th eir n am es a nd

num bers . T he l a w su it i n d ic ate s th at th ey w ant d ir e ct c o m pensa ti o n f o r a nd r ig hts to m erc hand is e s a le s.

The N CA A h as ta ken a f ir m s ta nce a gain st p ay-fo r-p la y a nd h as h eld tr u e to th e a m ate ur s ta tu s o f c o lle ge s p orts .

A f e w r e fo rm e ffo rts th at a d dre ss th e p ay-fo r-p la y i s su e h av e b een a p pro ved , b ut th e N CA A h as m ad e c le ar th at th e

measu re s ta ken a re n o t a f o rm o f p ay-fo r-p la y. I n th e 1 990s th e N CA A a llo w ed a th le te s to w ork n o m ore th an 2 0

ho urs p er w eek a nd e arn n o m ore th an $ 2,0 00 a b ove th e c o st o f tu iti o n. I n 2 011 th e N CA A a ls o a p pro ved a r u le

allo w in g a th le ti c d ep artm ents to a d d u p to $ 2,0 00 a b ove th e c o st o f tu iti o n to a th le ti c g ra nt- in -a id f o r a th le te s i n a n

effo rt to c lo se th e g ap b etw een tu iti o n a nd f e es a nd th e f u ll c o st o f a tte nd ance. B ecause o f c o m pla in ts f r o m a th le ti c

dep artm ents a cro ss th e c o untr y , th e N CA A h as s in ce ta b le d th e r u le u nti l a s o lu ti o n i s r e ached c o ncern in g h o w

ath le ti c

dep artm ents c an a ffo rd to i n cre ase s c ho la rs h ip s f o r a th le te s. T he f o llo w in g q uesti o ns r e m ain :

Sho uld a th le te s b e c o m pensa te d b eyo nd a th le ti c g ra nt- in -a id , a nd w hat d oes th is m ean f o r i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s

on c o lle ge c am puse s?

CO NCLU SIO N

Alth o ugh th ere a re m any c halle nges a nd p ro ble m s w ith c o lle ge s p orts o n c o lle ge c am puse s, i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s

se rv es a u niq ue p urp ose th at s h o uld n o t b e o verlo oked . I f g o vern ed a nd c o ntr o lle d p ro perly , i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s

can s e rv e a s a b rid ge th at c o nnects th e u niv ers ity to th e c o m munity , p ro vid e o pportu niti e s f o r s tu d ents to r e ceiv e a

quality e d ucati o n a nd d ev elo p c hara cte r, a nd u nite th e c am pus c o m munity a ro und a c o m mon g o al. R efo rm a gend as

le d b y g ro up s s u ch a s th e K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s a nd T he D ra ke G ro up c all f o r b ette r

alig nm ent b etw een th e v alu es a nd g o als a nd i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd i n sti tu ti o ns o f h ig her e d ucati o n. F or

exam ple , a r e cent K nig ht C om mis sio n R ep ort ( 2 010) e nti tl e d

Resto rin g t h e B ala nce

c alls f o r g re ate r tr a nsp are ncy

co ncern in g s p end in g i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, p utti n g i n to p la ce p ra cti c es th at l e ad to m akin g a cad em ic s a p rio rity ,

main ta in in g th e a m ate ur s ta tu s o f c o lle ge s p orts , a nd tr e ati n g a th le te s a s s tu d ents f ir s t. A t th e h eart o f a ll r e fo rm

effo rts s h o uld b e th e w elfa re o f th e s tu d ent a th le te . P olic y r e co m mend ati o ns a nd r u le c hanges m ust c o nsid er w hat i s

in th e b est i n te re st o f s tu d ents a nd h o w c an w e b ette r e d ucate a nd s u p port th e a th le te p opula ti o n i n w ays th at s u p port

th e m is sio n o f h ig her e d ucati o n i n sti tu ti o ns.

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N 1.

W hat a re s o m e o f th e m ajo r i s su es f a cin g i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i n A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n to day?

D o y o u th in k th at a th le te s a t D iv is io n I i n sti tu ti o ns s h o uld b e p aid f o r th eir p arti c ip ati o n i n i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c s? W hy o r w hy n o t?

W hat a re th e p ro s a nd c o ns f o r i n sti tu ti o ns o f h ig her e d ucati o n c o ncern in g p ayin g a th le te s f o r p arti c ip ati n g i n

in te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s?

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Adju ste d g ra duatio n g ap r e p ort: N CAA

Div is io n-I f o otb all

. C hap el H ill, N C: C olle ge S port R ese arc h I n sti tu te .

Ste in b ach, P . ( 2 012). R eco rd N CA A g ra d uati o n r a te s d on’t te ll th e w ho le s to ry . R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.a th le ti c b usin ess.c o m /G overn in g-B odie s/r e co rd -n caa-g ra d uati o n-ra te s-d on-t- te ll- th e-w ho le -s to ry .h tm l

Thelin , J . R . ( 2 012). C olle ge a th le ti c s: C onti n uity a nd c hange o ver f o ur c entu rie s. I n G . S . M cC le lla n, C . K in g, & D .

L. R ockey,

The h andbook o f c o lle g e a th le tic s a nd r e cre a tio n a dm in is tr a tio n

( p p. 3 –20). S an F ra ncis c o : J o sse y-

Bass.

Watt, S . K ., & M oore , J . L . ( 2 001). W ho a re s tu d ent a th le te s? I n M . F . H ow ard -H am ilto n & S . K . W atts ( E ds.) ,

Stu d ent s e rv ic es f o r a th le te s,

New d ir e ctio ns f o r s tu den t s e rv ic es

, 9 3, 7 –18. S an F ra ncis c o : J o sse y-B ass.

Wolv erto n, B . ( 2 008). A th le te s’ h o urs r e new d eb ate o ver c o lle ge s p orts .

Chro nic le o f H ig her E duca tio n, 5 4

(2 0),

A1.

C H APTER

M VP

P re d ic to rs o f F our-Y ea r T ra nsfe r fo r C om munit y C olle g e A th le te s

D avid H orto n J r.

K EY T ER M S

co m munit y c o lle ge

stu dent s u cce ss

fo ur-y ear t r a nsfe r

ath le te s

I n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i s a p opula r s tu d ent a cti v ity a t c o m munity c o lle ges, e sp ecia lly a t i n sti tu ti o ns s itu ate d i n r u ra l

l o cale s. A ppro xim ate ly 6 0% o f a ll p ub lic c o m munity c o lle ges i n th e U nite d S ta te s s p onso r a t l e ast o ne v ars ity

a th le ti c te am ( C asta ñ ed a, K ats in as, & H ard y, 2 006; K is sin ger & M ille r, 2 007). B etw een th e th re e m ajo r a th le ti c s

g o vern in g a sso cia ti o ns f o r c o m munity c o lle ges ( C alifo rn ia C om munity C olle ge C om mis sio n o n A th le ti c s, N ati o nal

J u nio r C olle ge A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n, a nd N orth w est A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n o f C om munity C olle ges), m ore th an 7 5,0 00

i n d iv id uals a nnually p arti c ip ate . A t r u ra lly l o cate d i n sti tu ti o ns a th le te s c an c o m pose a s m uch a s 2 2% o f th e to ta l f u ll-

t i m e e nro lle d s tu d ent p opula ti o n ( C asta ñ ed a e t a l., 2 006). T ho ugh m uch r e se arc h h as b een c o nd ucte d o n c o m munity

c o lle ge s tu d ents , l ittl e i s k no w n a b out a th le te s o r th e f a cto rs th at i m pact th eir a cad em ic e xp erie nces ( H orto n, 2 009;

K is sin ger & M ille r, 2 007). S pecific ally , w hat i s n o t f u lly u nd ers to od i s th e i m pact o f a th le ti c p arti c ip ati o n o n

s tu d ents ’ a cad em ic e xp erie nces.

The o bje cti v e o f th e l a rg er s tu d y f r o m w hic h th is c hap te r w as d eriv ed w as to te st e m pir ic ally th e e ffe ct o f

a th le ti c p arti c ip ati o n a nd i n sti tu ti o nal a nd i n d iv id ual f a cto rs o n th e a cad em ic p erfo rm ance o f c o m munity c o lle ge

a th le te s. T his c hap te r i s i n te nd ed to a nsw er th e f o llo w in g tw o q uesti o ns: T o w hat e xte nt d o th e a cad em ic e xp erie nces

o f a th le te s d iffe r f r o m th eir n o nath le te p eers ; a nd w hat e ffe ct d o a cad em ic p erfo rm ance a nd i n d iv id ual, p re co lle ge

a nd i n sti tu ti o nal c hara cte ris ti c s h av e o n f o ur-y ear tr a nsfe r f o r a th le te s, c o m pare d to th eir n o nath le te p eers ?

A T H LETIC S A T T H E C O M MUNIT Y C O LLEG E

A th le ti c s a t c o m munity c o lle ges p ro vid e m any b enefits to s tu d ents , i n sti tu ti o ns, a nd th e c o m muniti e s th ey s e rv e. F or

i n sta nce, a th le ti c s p ro vid e s tu d ents w ith a tr u e c o lle gia te e xp erie nce, c o ntr ib ute to th e i n sti tu ti o n’s e ffo rts to r e cru it a

m ore d iv ers e s tu d ent b ody, a nd a d dre ss th e m is sin g m ale p heno m eno n ( B ush , C asta ñ ed a, H ard y, & K ats in as, 2 009).

I n sti tu ti o ns a ls o b enefit f r o m i n cre ase d e nro llm ent o f n o nsc ho la rs h ip a th le te s th at h av e b een r e cru ite d b y o th er

i n sti tu ti o ns th at d o n o t p erm it a th le ti c a id ( C asta ñ ed a, e t a l., 2 006). I n th eir 2 012 s tu d y, B arre no a nd T ra ut e xam in ed

f a cto rs th at i n flu ence i n d iv id uals to c ho ose to a tte nd a c o m munity c o lle ge. T he a uth o rs f o und th at f e m ale a nd b la ck

s tu d ents i n g enera l w ere m ore l ik ely th an th eir p eers to b e i n flu enced to a tte nd a c o m munity c o lle ge b ecause o f th e

a v aila b ility o f a th le ti c te am s a nd s p orts . A th le ti c p ro gra m s a re a ls o l ik ely to h av e a p ositi v e i m pact o n th e l o cal

e co no m y ( M cC ullo ugh, 2 000). F or c o lle ge a th le te s, a th le ti c s i s a v ia b le w ay to g ain a ccess to h ig her e d ucati o n,

e sp ecia lly f o r s tu d ents o f c o lo r a nd th o se f r o m m in im al to m odest f in ancia l m eans ( H orto n, 2 011 ). P arti c ip ati o n, i n

m any s ta te s, a ls o a ffo rd s s tu d ents a ccess to a th le ti c a id , w hic h h elp s w ith tu iti o n c o sts , a nd s u b sta nti a lly p ro vid es

u p w ard s o cia l m obility f o r s tu d ents th ro ugh d egre e a tta in m ent, f o ur-y ear tr a nsfe r, o r j o b p la cem ent ( H aw kin s, 1 999).

S TA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E The I m porta n ce o f C olla b ora tio n in t h e B est I n te re st o f C olle g e A th le te s

Chris to pher M . M ullin i s th e p ro gra m d ir e cto r f o r p olic y a naly sis a t th e A meric an A sso cia ti o n o f C om munity

Colle ges ( A ACC). I n th is c ap acity , h is c hie f r e sp onsib ility i s to p ro vid e a naly sis a nd s u p porti n g d ata to g uid e a nd

enhance A ACC’s a d vocacy e ffo rts w hile a ls o p la yin g a c entr a l r o le i n s h ap in g A ACC’s l o ng-te rm f e d era l p olic y

agend a. H e e arn ed a P h.D . i n H ig her E ducati o n A dm in is tr a ti o n a t th e U niv ers ity o f F lo rid a i n 2 008.

Mullin ’s w ork , e sp ecia lly a p olic y b rie f f o cuse d o n th e i s su e o f tr a nsfe r, n o te s th at th e r e se arc h l ite ra tu re o n

tr a nsfe r s tu d ent s u ccess i s v arie d . H e a ls o n o te s th at r a re ly d oes th e r e se arc h a ckno w le d ge th at s u ccess f o r s tu d ents

post- tr a nsfe r m ay b e d ue i n p art to th e a cti o ns o f th e r e ceiv in g i n sti tu ti o n. W hen u nacco unte d f o r, i n sti tu ti o nal i n acti o n

sk ew s c o m paris o ns b etw een th e e xp erie nces o f th o se w ho i n iti a lly e nro ll i n f o ur-y ear c o lle ges a nd th o se w ho s ta rt a t

co m munity c o lle ges. P ut i n a no th er c o nte xt, a te am c anno t w in a r e la y r a ce i f s u b se q uent r u nners d ro p th e b ato n.

A r e al i n eq uity e xis ts f o r c o m munity c o lle ge a th le te s, w ho n o w , a s th e r e su lt o f p olic y c hanges b y th e N ati o nal

Colle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n ( N CA A), m ust h av e a h ig her c o lle ge g ra d e p oin t a v era ge to tr a nsfe r a nd p arti c ip ate

in D iv is io n I a th le ti c s th an th o se s tu d ents w ho tr a nsfe r l a te ra lly . T he d ata to j u sti fy th e d ecis io n a re s e v ere ly l im ite d ,

th eir l e giti m acy q uesti o nab le , a nd th e i m pact o n c o m munity c o lle ge a th le te s— esp ecia lly s tu d ents o f c o lo r— is

su b sta nti a l.

ST U DEN T S U CCESS A N D T R AN SF ER

Thro ugho ut th e h ig her e d ucati o n l ite ra tu re d iv ers e e xam ple s c an b e f o und o f v ary in g c rite ria th at h av e b een u se d to

defin e tr a nsfe r, i d enti fy p ossib le tr a nsfe r s tu d ents , a nd c alc ula te s tu d ent tr a nsfe r r a te s. I n g enera l, th e te rm tr a nsfe r

enco m passe s v ario us tr a nsiti o ns s tu d ents a re l ik ely to m ake b etw een i n sti tu ti o ns a nd i n sti tu ti o nal ty p es ( J o nes-W hite ,

Rad cliffe , H uesm an, & K ello gg, 2 010). O ne o f th e m ost s tu d ie d a nd p erh ap s m ost u nd ers to od f o rm o f tr a nsfe r i s

lin ear tr a nsfe r. I n th is l in ear f o rm th e c o m munity c o lle ge s e rv es a s th e e ntr y p oin t to h ig her e d ucati o n f o r s tu d ents

who w is h to e v entu ally e arn a b achelo rs d egre e ( T ow nse nd , 2 002). B erk ner, H orn , a nd C lu ne ( 2 000) s u ggest th e

tr a nsiti o n f r o m c o m munity c o lle ge to a f o ur-y ear i n sti tu ti o n i s o ne o f th e m ost i m porta nt f o rm s o f tr a nsfe r, “ b ecause

its s u ccess ( o r f a ilu re ) i s c entr a l to m any d im ensio ns o f s ta te h ig her e d ucati o n p erfo rm ance, i n clu d in g a ccess, e q uity ,

affo rd ab ility , c o st e ffe cti v eness, d egre e p ro ducti v ity , a nd q uality ” ( p . 3 ). F or th e p urp ose s o f th is s tu d y, f o ur-y ear

tr a nsfe rs w ere d efin ed a s a ny f u ll- ti m e f ir s t- ti m e ( F T FT ) e nro lle d s tu d ent w ho a tte nd ed a c o m munity c o lle ge a nd

la te r e nro lle d i n a f o ur-y ear c o lle ge o r u niv ers ity ( R om ano & W is n ie w sk i, 2 003).

TH EO RETIC AL A PPR O AC H T O E XA M IN IN G C O LLEG E A T H LETE S U CCESS

With in th e c o nte xt o f th is s tu d y, a s tu d ent’ s d ecis io n to p arti c ip ate i n a th le ti c s a t th e c o lle gia te l e v el a nd a n

in sti tu ti o n’s r o le i n p ro vid in g a ccess to h ig her e d ucati o n a nd a w ard in g a th le ti c ally r e la te d f in ancia l a id to a th le te s

are v ie w ed a s i n v estm ents i n h um an c ap ita l. T he b asic te nets o f h um an c ap ita l th eo ry i n clu d e th e b enefit o f

in v estm ents i n a cti v iti e s th at i n cre ase j o b-s p ecific s k ills a nd a cad em ic c re d enti a ls th at g enera te i n co m e f o r f u tu re

benefit ( B ecker, 1 964, 1 993). H um an c ap ita l th eo ry v ie w s i n cre ase s i n j o b-s p ecific tr a in in g a nd a cad em ic

cre d enti a ls a s c ap ita l th at y ie ld s h ig her w ages, o pportu niti e s f o r p ers o nal a nd p ro fe ssio nal a d vancem ent, a nd u p w ard

so cia l a nd e co no m ic m obility ( B ecker, 1 964, 1 993; B la ug, 1 976). B ecker ( 1 964) p rim arily f o cuse d o n th e e co no m ic

re tu rn th at i n cre ase d e d ucati o n y ie ld s o ver a n i n d iv id ual’s l ife ti m e, c o m pare d to r e tu rn s f o r th o se w ho c ho ose n o t to

in v est i n a d diti o nal e d ucati o n b eyo nd h ig h s c ho ol o r s p ecia liz e d j o b tr a in in g. T he i n te rn al r a te o f r e tu rn to c o sts

asso cia te d w ith p arti c ip ati o n i n h ig her e d ucati o n o r o th er tr a in in g o pportu niti e s i s q uanti fie d b y th e n et d iffe re nce

betw een i n v estm ent c o sts ( i.e ., f o rg o ne e arn in g, e xp ense s f o r tu iti o n, b ooks, a nd o th er s u p plie s) a nd f u tu re g ain s i n

in co m e ( B ecker, 1 964; P ern a, 2 006).

Parti c ip ati n g i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s r e q uir e s a s u b sta nti a l c o m mitm ent o n b ehalf o f th e a th le te . C om eaux

(2 011 ) a sse rts th at “ stu d ent- a th le te s d ev ote m ore th an 4 0 h o urs a w eek to s p ort- re la te d a cti v iti e s, n o t to m enti o n th e

menta l f a ti g ue, p hysic al e xhausti o n, a nd n aggin g i n ju rie s th at a cco m pany th o se w ho p arti c ip ate i n c o lle ge s p orts ” ( p .

75). A cro ss th e U nite d S ta te s, tw o-y ear i n sti tu ti o ns a llo cate n early $ 50 m illio n a nnually f o r a th le ti c ally r e la te d

fin ancia l a id . T he d esir e d a nd u lti m ate

pro duct o f th is i n v estm ent, I a rg ue, i s th e s tu d ents ’ s u ccessfu l c o m ple ti o n o f a

cre d enti a l a t a c o m munity c o lle ge, a ccum ula ti o n o f to ols a nd s k ills n ecessa ry to e nte r th e w ork f o rc e, o r th e

opportu nity to f u rth er th eir a cad em ic s tu d ie s a t a f o ur-y ear i n sti tu ti o n. A cco rd in gly , th is s tu d y e xp lo re s th e i m pact a nd

pro duct o f th is i n v estm ent. RESE A R CH D ESIG N

Data f o r th is s tu d y w ere p ro vid ed b y th e F lo rid a D ep artm ent o f E ducati o n’s P K -2 0 E ducati o n D ata W are ho use

(E D W ) a nd C om munity C olle ge a nd T echnic al C ente r M IS ( C CTC M IS ). T he E D W h as b een th e s in gle r e p osito ry o f

stu d ent- le v el d ata f o r p ub lic s e co nd ary s c ho ols , c o m munity c o lle ges, c are er a nd te chnic al e d ucati o n i n sti tu ti o ns,

ad ult e d ucati o n, a nd f o ur-y ear i n sti tu ti o ns s in ce 1 996 ( H anse n, 2 006). F or th e p urp ose s o f th is s tu d y, a s tu d ent w as

deem ed “ acad em ic ally s u ccessfu l” i f h e o r s h e tr a nsfe rre d to a f o ur-y ear i n sti tu ti o n w ith in a m axim um o f 1 1

se m este rs . A s s u ch, a m axim um o f 1 1 s e m este rs w as s e t a s th e p ara m ete r f o r th is s tu d y o w in g to l im ita ti o ns i n th e

av aila b ility o f d ata r e gard in g th e d is b urs e m ent o f a th le ti c ally r e la te d a id to s tu d ents i n th e s ta te o f F lo rid a b efo re th e

2003–2004 a cad em ic y ear. I n sti tu ti o nal l e v el d ata f r o m th e N ati o nal C ente r o n E ducati o n S ta ti s ti c s I n te gra te d

Posts e co nd ary E ducati o n D ata S yste m ( IP E D S) 2 005 s u rv ey w ere a ls o i n co rp ora te d i n th e p re se nt a naly sis .

Sam plin g

The i n sti tu ti o nal s a m ple c o nsis te d o f tw o-y ear i n sti tu ti o ns w ith in th e F lo rid a c o m munity c o lle ge s y ste m th at

sp onso re d a th le ti c p ro gra m s a nd te am s d urin g th e 2 004–2005 a cad em ic y ear. A t th e ti m e o f th is s tu d y F lo rid a’s

co m munity c o lle ge s y ste m c o nsis te d o f 2 8 i n sti tu ti o ns. B ecause o f th e p re ced in g c rite ria , th re e i n sti tu ti o ns a nd

stu d ents w ho m atr ic ula te d a t o ne o f th ese th re e i n sti tu ti o ns w ere e xclu d ed f r o m th is a naly sis . F iv e a d diti o nal

in sti tu ti o ns a nd s tu d ents a tte nd in g th ese i n sti tu ti o ns w ere a ls o e xclu d ed b ecause o f m is sin g d ata . S tu d ents i n clu d ed i n

th e n o nath le te a nd a th le te s a m ple s w ere l im ite d to i n d iv id uals w ho b egan th eir a cad em ic s tu d ie s a t 1 o f 2 0

in sti tu ti o ns i n th e s ta te th at s p onso re d i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, a nd w ho w ere e nro lle d f u ll- ti m e ( e nro lle d i n 1 2 c re d it

ho urs o r m ore d urin g th e 2 004 f a ll te rm ) a nd m em bers o f 2 004–2005 s tu d ent c o ho rt. T he a th le te s a m ple w as l im ite d

to s tu d ents i n th e 2 004–2005 c o ho rt w ho w ere a w ard ed a th le ti c ally r e la te d a id d urin g a t l e ast o ne a cad em ic te rm

durin g th eir e nro llm ent.

Meth od olo gy

The p re lim in ary d ata a naly sis s ta ge i n clu d ed d esc rip ti v e a naly sis a nd i n d ep end ent

t -te sts . F in d in gs f r o m th is s ta ge

are d is c usse d a lo ngsid e th e d is c ussio n o f i n d ep end ent a nd d ep end ent v aria b le s p ro vid ed i n th e n ext s e cti o n. T he

se co nd s te p o f d ata

analy sis e m plo yed l o gis ti c r e gre ssio n m eth o ds to e xp lo re th e e ffe ct o f s e le cte d v aria b le s o n f o ur-

year tr a nsfe r p ro pensity f o r a th le te s a nd n o nath le te s tu d ents . W ith in h ig her e d ucati o n r e se arc h, l o gis ti c r e gre ssio n i s

th e p re fe rre d s ta ti s ti c al m eth o d w hen d ev elo pin g s ta ti s ti c al m odels th at i n co rp ora te d ic ho to m ous d ep end ent

varia b le s, s u ch a s p ers is te nce, tr a nsfe r, m ajo r a nd d egre e a tta in m ent, a nd b oth d ic ho to m ous a nd c o nti n uo us

in d ep end ent v aria b le s ( C ab re ra , 1 994).

In d ep end ent v aria b le s i n th e r e gre ssio n m odels w ere p la ced i n b lo cks a nd a d ded i n s u ccessio n to th e b ase lin e

models . T he b ase lin e e q uati o n f o r m odel I ( a ll s tu d ents ) i n clu d ed th e g ro up o f v aria b le s r e p re se nti n g s tu d ent

backgro und c hara cte ris ti c s: Y

1 = β

0 +β

1 (A th le ti c s ta tu s)+ β

2 (R ace) + β

3 (G end er) + β

3 (S E S) + ε

1 , w here Y

1 r e p re se nts

fo ur-y ear tr a nsfe r, β

j th e c o effic ie nt, a nd ε

1 th e c o nsta nt o r e rro r te rm . T he b ase lin e e q uati o n f o r m odel I I ( a th le te s)

in clu d ed s im ila r b ackgro und c hara cte ris ti c s a s f o und i n m odel I b ut w as ta ilo re d to th e a th le te s a m ple . S pecific ally ,

in m odel I I, a th le te s ta tu s w as r e p la ced w ith s p orts te am p arti c ip ati o n i n o rd er to c ap tu re th e e ffe ct o f a th le ti c te am

parti c ip ati o n. T he r e gre ssio n m odel w as r e p re se nte d a s f o llo w s: Y

1 = β

0 + β

1 (S port) + β

2 (R A CE) + β

3 (G end er) +

4 (S E S)+ ε

1 , w here Y

1 r e p re se nts f o ur-y ear tr a nsfe r, β

j th e c o effic ie nt, a nd ε

1 th e c o nsta nt o r e rro r te rm .

In dep en den t V aria b le s a n d D esc rip tiv e S ta tis tic s

In d ep end ent v aria b le s w ere p la ced i n g ro up s ( i.e ., a th le te s ta tu s, s p orts te am p arti c ip ati o n, i n d iv id ual b ackgro und

chara cte ris ti c s, p re co lle ge c hara cte ris ti c s, a cad em ic e xp erie nce, a nd i n sti tu ti o nal c hara cte ris ti c s). C olle ge a th le te

sta tu s w as a b in ary v aria b le b ase d o n th e a w ard o f a th le ti c ally r e la te d f in ancia l a id a nd w as u se d to i d enti fy a th le te s

in th e s tu d ent s a m ple . T he s a m ple i n clu d ed 5 68 a th le te s. S ports te am p arti c ip ati o n i n co rp ora te d th re e b in ary

varia b le s, w hic h i n clu d ed b ask etb all ( n = 1 73), b ase b all ( n = 1 49), a nd g o lf, s o ccer, s o ftb all, s w im min g/d iv in g,

te nnis , a nd v olle yb all ( n = 2 46). G olf, s o ccer, s w im min g/d iv in g, te nnis , a nd v olle yb all w ere c o m bin ed i n th e o rig in al

data se t r e ceiv ed f r o m E D W , a nd th us w ere c o m bin ed i n to o ne b in ary v aria b le . T he l a tte r g ro up w as s e le cte d a s th e

re fe re nce g ro up i n r e gre ssio n m odel I I o w in g to a h ig h c o ncentr a ti o n o f e th nic m ajo rity s tu d ents r e p re se nte d o n th ese

sp orts te am s.

Tab le 7 .1

i llu str a te s te am p arti c ip ati o n b y r a ce. In d iv id ual b ackgro und c hara cte ris ti c s c o nsis te d o f r a ce, g end er, a nd s o cio eco no m ic s ta tu s ( S E S). B ecause o f a

lo w r e p re se nta ti o n o f a th le te s f r o m A sia n o r P acific I s la nd er ( 1 .1 % ), H is p anic ( 6 .4 % ), a nd A meric an I n d ia n ( 0 .2 % )

ra cia l/e th nic g ro up s, a d um my v aria b le f o r r a ce w as c re ate d w here 0 = w hite a nd 1 = s tu d ents o f c o lo r. W hite

stu d ents c o m pose d 5 9.2 % ( n = 8 ,6 46) o f th e n o nath le te s tu d ent s a m ple a nd 6 1.7 % ( n = 3 45) o f a th le te s a m ple .

Stu d ents w ith m is sin g d ata f o r r a ce/e th nic ity w ere e xclu d ed f r o m a naly sis . G end er w as c o ded w ith m ale s s e rv in g a s

th e r e fe re nce g ro up . G end er w as r e p orte d f o r a to ta l o f 1 5,4 57 s tu d ents ( n o nath le te a nd a th le te s c o m bin ed ). F em ale

stu d ents h ad th e h ig hest r e p re se nta ti o n a cro ss s a m ple s. S pecific ally , 6 1% ( n = 9 ,0 87) o f n o nath le te s a nd 5 6.1 % ( n =

317) o f a th le te s w ere f e m ale .

To e xp lo re th e i m pact o f S E S o n s tu d ent s u ccess, a p ro xy v aria b le b ase d o n th e r e ceip t o f a P ell G ra nt w as

cre ate d . P ell G ra nts a re n eed -b ase d a w ard s g iv en to u nd erg ra d uate a nd p ostb accala ure ate s tu d ents f r o m l o w -in co m e

backgro und s a tte nd in g p ub lic a nd p ro prie ta ry c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s ( U .S . D ep artm ent o f E ducati o n, 2 009). F or

cla ssific ati o n p urp ose s th at w ere b ase d o n th e c rite ria f o r r e ceiv in g a P ell G ra nt, g ra nt r e cip ie nts w ere c la ssifie d a s

lo w S E S; s tu d ents i n th e s a m ple th at d id n o t r e ceiv e g ra nt a id w ere c la ssifie d a s h ig h S E S. L ow -S E S s tu d ents to ta le d

68% o f a ll s tu d ents . W hen d elin eate d b y a th le ti c s ta tu s, 6 9% ( 1 0,3 07) o f n o nath le te s tu d ents a nd 3 6% ( 2 07) o f

ath le te s w ere c ate go riz e d a s l o w S E S.

TA BLE

7 .1

Cro ssta b s f o r S port P artic ip atio n b y R ace/E th nic ity

A d um my v aria b le w as c re ate d to c ap tu re th e i m pact o f ti m e e la p se d b etw een h ig h s c ho ol c o m ple ti o n a nd c o lle ge

entr a nce, w here 0 = s tu d ents th at e nte re d c o lle ge w ith in o ne c ale nd ar y ear o f r e ceip t o f th eir h ig h s c ho ol d ip lo m a a nd

1 = s tu d ents th at d ela yed e ntr y f o r m ore th an o ne c ale nd ar y ear. A ppro xim ate ly 5 9% ( n = 8 ,7 76) o f n o nath le te

stu d ents e nro lle d i n c o lle ge w ith in o ne y ear. A s u b sta nti a lly h ig her p erc enta ge o f a th le te s ( 8 9% ) e nro lle d i n c o lle ge

with in a y ear.

Lev el o f c o lle ge r e ad in ess i s o f p arti c ula r i m porta nce to th e c o nv ers a ti o n o f s tu d ent s u ccess i n g enera l, a nd th e

dis c ussio n o f a th le te s m ore s p ecific ally a s l ittl e i s k no w n a b out i ts i m pact o n a th le te s. A cco rd in gly , a d um my

varia b le w as c o nstr u cte d f o r c o lle ge r e ad in ess u sin g a m ulti p le -s te p p ro cess. F ir s t, s tu d ent s c o re s f o r th e A CT w ere

co nv erte d to S A T s c o re s u sin g th e “ A CT/S A T C onv ers io n T ab le ” p ro vid ed b y

The P rin ceto n R evie w

. N ext, s tu d ent

sc o re s f r o m th e C olle ge P la cem ent T est ( C PT ) w ere c o nv erte d to S A T s c o re s u sin g th e F lo rid a D ep artm ent o f

Educati o n “ R em ed ia l C uto ff S co re ta b le ” ( F lo rid a D ep artm ent o f E ducati o n, 2 005). T he ta b le w as u se d to d ete rm in e

stu d ents ’ a cad em ic r e ad in ess f o r c o lle ge-le v el m ath , r e ad in g, a nd w riti n g, w here 0 = c o lle ge r e ad y a nd 1 = n o t

co lle ge r e ad y. A dditi o nally , a c ate go ric al v aria b le w as c re ate d th at w as b ase d o n th e n um ber o f c o nte nt a re as

re m ed ia ti o n w here w as n eed ed . T his v aria b le w as c o ded a s 0 = i f n o r e m ed ia ti o n w as n eed ed , 1 = r e m ed ia ti o n i n

one c o nte nt a re a w as n ecessa ry , 2 = r e m ed ia ti o n i n tw o c o nte nt a re as w as r e q uir e d , a nd 3 = r e m ed ia ti o n w as

necessa ry i n r e ad in g, w riti n g, a nd m ath . O nly 3 6% o f a ll s tu d ents ( a th le te s a nd n o nath le te s c o m bin ed ) w ere c o lle ge

re ad y i n a ll th re e c o nte nt a re as. T w enty -s ix p erc ent o f a ll s tu d ents r e q uir e d r e m ed ia ti o n i n a t l e ast o ne c o nte nt a re a,

18.6 % i n tw o c o nte nt a re as, a nd 1 9.1 % i n a ll th re e c o nte nt a re as. TA BLE

7 .2

Analy sis o f M ean G PA f o r A th le te s a n d N onath le te S tu den ts

Stu d ents ’ a cad em ic e xp erie nces w ere o pera ti o naliz e d u sin g th re e c o nti n uo us v aria b le s ( o vera ll G PA , c o urs e

cre d it h o urs e nro lle d , a nd c o urs e c re d it h o urs e arn ed ). S tu d ents ’ c um ula ti v e G PA s w ere c alc ula te d f r o m tr a nsc rip t

data o bta in ed f r o m E D W .

Tab le 7 .2

p re se nts

t -te sts f o r c o m paris o ns c o nd ucte d f o r G PA b etw een s tu d ents a nd

ath le te s, a nd g ro up s o f a th le te s a nd n o nath le te s, a nd w as b ase d o n r a ce, g end er, a nd S E S. C olle ge a th le te s h ad a

mean G PA o f 2 .5 9 c o m pare d to n o nath le te s tu d ents , w ho h ad a m ean G PA o f 2 .2 9. T hese d iffe re nces b etw een a th le te s

and n o nath le te s w ere f o und to b e s ig nific antl y d iffe re nt. M ore o ver, a th le te s e nro lle d i n a nd e arn ed m ore c re d it h o urs

per s e m este r th an n o nath le te s tu d ents . S pecific ally , a th le te s e nro lle d i n 1 2.5 3 c re d it h o urs a nd e arn ed 1 0.0 8 c re d it

ho urs p er s e m este r. I n c o m paris o n, n o nath le te s e nro lle d i n 9 .0 0 c re d it h o urs a nd e arn ed 6 .1 8 c re d it h o urs ( S D =

3.6 9) p er s e m este r.

A c ate go ric al v aria b le w as c re ate d to r e p re se nt i n sti tu ti o ns l o cate d i n s u b urb an, u rb an, a nd r u ra l g eo gra p hic

lo cale s. D um my v aria b le s w ere th en c re ate d f o r e ach c ate go ry w ith s u b urb an i n sti tu ti o ns s e rv in g a s th e r e fe re nce

gro up . I n sti tu ti o n’s f u ll- ti m e-e q uiv ale nt ( F T E) e nro llm ent s iz e p ro vid ed a no th er i n d ex i n w hic h to e xam in e th e i m pact

of i n sti tu ti o nal c hara cte ris ti c s o n s tu d ent s u ccess. I n sti tu ti o nal F T Es w ere c ate go riz e d a s s m all ( 5 00–1,9 99), m ed iu m

(2 ,0 00–4,9 99), l a rg e ( 5 ,0 00–9,9 99), a nd v ery l a rg e ( a t l e ast 1 0,0 00). C ate go ric al v aria b le s w ere r e co ded i n to th re e

se p ara te b in ary v aria b le s ( e .g ., 1 = s m all, 0 = m ed iu m , l a rg e, v ery l a rg e). L arg e i n sti tu ti o ns s e rv ed a s th e r e fe re nce

gro up . E le v en i n sti tu ti o ns ( 5 5% ) w ere c la ssifie d a s u rb an, f o ur ( 2 0% ) a s r u ra l, a nd th e r e m ain in g i n sti tu ti o ns a s

su b urb an, a cco rd in g to I P E D S d efin iti o ns. T en ( 5 0% ) o f th e i n clu d ed i n sti tu ti o ns h ad a n e nro llm ent s iz e o f 1 0,0 00

FT E o r m ore , a nd f iv e ( 2 5% ) b etw een 2 ,0 00 a nd 4 ,9 99, a nd tw o i n sti tu ti o ns h ad a n e nro llm ent s iz e b etw een 2 00 a nd

1,9 99 F T Es.

FIN DIN G S

Fin d in gs f r o m th is s tu d y a re d is c usse d i n te rm o f o dds-ra ti o s (

Exp

( β )), w hic h r e p re se nt th e o dds c hange f o r a o ne-

unit c hange i n th e p re d ic to r f a cto r w hen a ll o th er p re d ic to r v aria b le s i n th e e q uati o n a re h eld a t a c o nsta nt v alu e

(P eng, S o, S ta ge, & S t. J o hn, 2 002). A dditi o nally , p ro bab ility v alu es, a no th er te rm c o m monly u se d th ro ugho ut th is

chap te r, a re u se d to e xp la in th e l ik elih o od o f a n e v ent o ccurrin g f o r o ne d esig nate d g ro up o ver a no th er g ro up a nd a re

dis c usse d w ith in th is s e cti o n a s a p erc enta ge (

Exp

( β ) × 1 00) o r d ecim al v alu e (

Exp

( β ) = .4 69). F or i n sta nces w here

re su lts a re d is c usse d f o r c o nti n uo us v aria b le s ( i.e ., G PA a nd c re d it h o urs e arn ed ), th e o dds-ra ti o s o f tr a nsfe r

occurrin g w ere c alc ula te d a t d iffe re nt v alu es o f th e c o nti n uo us v aria b le , u sin g th e f o llo w in g f o rm ula :

where , β

1 i s th e c o effic ie nt’ s b eta w eig ht,

χ a nd i s th e s e le cte d v alu e o f th e i n d ep end ent c o nti n uo us v aria b le . B oth

model I a nd m odel I I w ere s ig nific ant a t

p < 0 .0 01. M odel I ( a ll s tu d ents ) c o rre ctl y p re d ic te d f o ur-y ear tr a nsfe r f o r

98.4 % o f th e s tu d ents i n th e s a m ple s a nd m odel I I ( a th le te s) c o rre ctl y p re d ic te d 9 7.3 % .

Tab le 7 .3

p re se nts a n

illu str a ti o n o f f in d in gs f r o m th e r e gre ssio n a naly se s.

Reg re ssio n M od el I : A ll S tu den ts Nin e v aria b le s i n m odel I w ere f o und to b e s ig nific ant p re d ic to rs o f f o ur-y ear tr a nsfe r ( a th le te s ta tu s, g end er, S E S,

dela yed e ntr y to c o lle ge, m ath r e ad in ess, w riti n g r e ad in ess, G PA , c re d it h o urs e arn ed , a nd i n sti tu ti o nal e nro llm ent

siz e [ la rg e]). C olle ge a th le te s a nd s tu d ents f r o m l o w S E S w ere f o und to b e l e ss l ik ely to tr a nsfe r. F em ale s w ere

fo und to b e n early tw o ti m es m ore l ik ely th an m ale s to tr a nsfe r. P re co lle ge c hara cte ris ti c s h ad a s ig nific ant i m pact o n

tr a nsfe r. S pecific ally , s tu d ents w ho d ela yed e ntr y to h ig her e d ucati o n b eyo nd o ne y ear a nd th o se w ho w ere n o t

co lle ge r e ad y i n m ath o r w riti n g w ere l e ss l ik ely to tr a nsfe r. M ore o ver, s tu d ents ’ a cad em ic e xp erie nces w ere a ls o

hig hly s ig nific ant p re d ic to rs o f f o ur-y ear tr a nsfe r f o r f ir s t- ti m e s tu d ents . A s w ould b e e xp ecte d , s tu d ents w ho

main ta in ed h ig her G PA s a nd th o se w ho e arn ed m ore c re d it h o urs p er s e m este r w ere m ore l ik ely th an th eir p eers to

tr a nsfe r. L astl y , o nly o ne f a cto r w ith in i n sti tu ti o nal c hara cte ris ti c s, e nro llm ent s iz e ( la rg e), w as f o und to i m pact

tr a nsfe r.

Reg re ssio n M od el I I: C olle g e A th le te s

Only th re e f a cto rs w ere f o und to b e s ig nific ant i n m odel I I ( g end er, G PA , a nd s p orts te am p arti c ip ati o n). F em ale s

were n early 1 4% m ore l ik ely th an m ale s to tr a nsfe r to a f o ur-y ear i n sti tu ti o n. W hen h o ld in g a ll o th er p re d ic to r

varia b le s c o nsta nt, a th le te s’ G PA s w ere h ig hly s ig nific ant. F or e xam ple , a th le te s w ith a m ean G PA o f 3 .3 0 w ere

fo und to b e 2 6 ti m es m ore l ik ely to tr a nsfe r th an s tu d ents w ith a 2 .3 0 a v era ge G PA . W hen c o nsid erin g s p ecific s p ort

parti c ip ati o n, s tu d ents w ho p arti c ip ate d i n b ase b all w ere l e ss l ik ely to tr a nsfe r th an s tu d ents p arti c ip ati n g i n g o lf,

so ccer, s o ftb all, s w im min g/d iv in g, te nnis , a nd v olle yb all.

TA BLE

7 .3

Lik elih ood o f F our- Y ear T ra n sfe r b y I n div id ual a n d I n stitu tio nal F acto rs

CO NCLU SIO N

Conti n ued r e se arc h o n c o m munity c o lle ges, s tu d ent s u ccess, a nd f o ur-y ear tr a nsfe r m ore s p ecific ally , h as b ro ad

im plic ati o ns f o r h ig her e d ucati o n. A s th e r is in g c o st o f c o lle ge c o nti n ues to b e d eb ate d , a th le ti c s a nd a th le te s

co nti n ue to b e a n e asy ta rg et a s m any s ta keho ld ers i n th e a cad em ic c o m munity h o ld a th le ti c s p arti a lly r e sp onsib le f o r

th ese r is in g c o sts . G ain in g a b ette r u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e i m pact a th le ti c s p la ys i n a th le te s’ a cad em ic s u ccess i s o f

utm ost i m porta nce i n th ese ti m es. T w o m ain i s su es r e gard in g a th le te s a nd a th le ti c s w ere a d dre sse d i n th is s tu d y. Fir s t, d iffe re nces i n i n d iv id ual c hara cte ris ti c s, p re co lle ge c hara cte ris ti c s, a nd th e a cad em ic e xp erie nces o f a th le te s

and n o nath le te s tu d ents w ere a d dre sse d . S eco nd , th e i m pact o f r is k s f a cto rs a s p re d ic to r o f a cad em ic s u ccess f o r

ath le te s, a nd f o r s e le ct r a cia l, g end er, a nd S E S s u b gro up s w as te ste d .

The ti tl e o f th is c hap te r i s “ M VPs: P re d ic to rs o f F our-Y ear T ra nsfe r f o r C om munity C olle ge A th le te s.” T he ti tl e

MVP, m ost v alu ab le p la yer, i s g iv en to a p ers o n w ho h as th e g re ate st i n str u m enta l v alu e to w ard th e g o al o f w in nin g.

It i s c le ar w hic h f a cto rs s ta nd a b ove th e r e st i n m akin g a th le te s a t c o m munity c o lle ges th e M VPs. I n s u m , f in d in gs

co rro bora te p re v io us r e se arc h th at w om en a re m ore l ik ely to b e s u ccessfu l th an m en; a nd s tu d ents w ho e xhib it

positi v e a cad em ic b ehav io rs , s u ch a s e arn in g a m ajo rity o f th e c re d it h o urs th ey a tte m pt a nd m ain ta in in g a t l e ast a

“B ” G PA a re l ik ely to tr a nsfe r. F urth erm ore , s tu d ents w ho e nte r c o lle ge u nd erp re p are d a nd th o se f r o m l o w

so cio eco no m ic b ackgro und s a re l e ss l ik ely to b e s u ccessfu l w ith i n sti tu ti o nal i n te rv enti o n.

One p ra cti c e e m plo yed b y a th le ti c p ro gra m s a t c o m munity c o lle ges i s to r e cru it s tu d ents f r o m d is a d vanta ged

so cio eco no m ic o r a cad em ic b ackgro und s to a tte nd a nd p arti c ip ate i n s p onso re d s p orts a t th eir i n sti tu ti o n. M any

la m ent th at s u ch i n sti tu ti o nal p ra cti c es d o m ore h arm th an g o od to s tu d ents . I t a p pears , h o w ev er, th at o ne’s d ecis io n

to p arti c ip ate i n a th le ti c s a nd th e i n sti tu ti o n’s i n v estm ent i n s tu d ents b y p ro vid in g c o lle ge a ccess d oes p ositi v ely

im pact o utc o m es a t th e c o m munity c o lle ge l e v el. A s B ecker ( 1 964; 1 993) s u ggeste d , o pportu niti e s to e arn a cad em ic

cre d enti a ls a nd j o b s p ecific s k ills a ffo rd i n d iv id uals h ig her w ages, o pportu niti e s f o r p ers o nal a nd p ro fe ssio nal

ad vancem ent, a nd u p w ard s o cia l a nd e co no m ic m obility . S pecific ally , f in d in gs i n d ic ate th at s e v era l p re d ic to rs th at

hav e b een f o und i n p re v io us r e se arc h ( e .g ., C ris p & N ora , 2 010; D ougherty & K ie nzl, 2 006) to n egati v ely a ffe ct

stu d ents ’ a b ility to b e s u ccessfu l a t c o m munity c o lle ges d o n o t s im ila rly a ffe ct a th le te s. T hese f in d in gs s u ggest th at

in sti tu ti o ns s h o uld g iv e c re d ence to th e f a ct th at a th le ti c s m ay n o t o nly p ro vid e a ccess to h ig her e d ucati o n b ut a ls o

se rv e a s a n i m petu s f o r s tu d ents to e xcel i n th eir a cad em ic s tu d ie s.

Desp ite th e m atu ra ti o n o f r e se arc h o n s tu d ent o utc o m es, f e w s tu d ie s h av e e xam in ed th ese o r o th er f a cto rs a nd

th eir i m pact o n a th le te s’ a cad em ic p erfo rm ance. T his i s e sp ecia lly s u rp ris in g c o nsid erin g th at m any h av e l o ng a rg ued

th at c o lle gia te a th le te s a re a t- ris k s tu d ents , l e ss l ik ely to c o m ple te a c o lle ge d egre e, a nd i n clin ed to p erfo rm a t a

lo w er l e v el a cad em ic ally th an th eir n o nath le te p eers . A s d eb ate s h av e tr a nsp ir e d th ro ugho ut th e h ig her e d ucati o n

co m munity a nd w ith in p oliti c al c ir c le s r e gard in g d egre e c o m ple ti o n a nd f o ur-y ear tr a nsfe r r a te s f o r c o m munity

co lle ge s tu d ents , s o m e o f th ese d eb ate s h av e c ente re d o n th e p ara d oxic al e xp ecta ti o ns p la ced o n i n sti tu ti o ns to

main ta in o pen a ccess w hile a ls o p ro ducin g l a rg e q uanti ti e s o f a cad em ic ally p re p are d s tu d ents .

CASE S T U DY

Usin g D ata t o S upport C olle g e A th le te S uccess

Tra v is C ounty C olle ge ( T C C) i s a p ub lic tw o-y ear i n sti tu ti o n l o cate d i n a l a rg e u rb an c ity i n th e s ta te o f M ary la nd .

TC C o ffe rs l o w -c o st, s ta te -s u p porte d e d ucati o nal p ro gra m s to i n d iv id uals f r o m w ith in i ts s e rv ic e d is tr ic t, a cro ss th e

sta te o f M ary la nd , a nd a f e w o ut- o f- s ta te a nd i n te rn ati o nal s tu d ents . T C C o ffe rs 1 07 a ccre d ite d a cad em ic p ro gra m s

le ad in g to a n A sso cia te s o f A rts ( A .A .) , A sso cia te s o f S cie nce ( A .S .) o r A sso cia te s o f A pplie d S cie nce ( A .A .S .) .

Tra v is C ounty C olle ge a nnually s e rv es m ore th an 3 0,0 00 f u ll- ti m e a nd p art- ti m e s tu d ents . T hre e-q uarte rs o f a ll

stu d ents c o m mute , a re a d ult l e arn ers , o r a tte nd o nly p art- ti m e. T ho ugh v ie w ed a s a c o m mute r c am pus, T C C d oes

main ta in f o ur r e sid ence h alls o n c am pus w ith s p ace to c o m fo rta b ly h o use 5 50 s tu d ents . M ostl y a th le te s a nd o ut- o f-

sta te a nd i n te rn ati o nal s tu d ents r e sid e o n c am pus.

TC C s p onso rs s ix w om en’s ( s o ccer, b ask etb all, c heerle ad in g, v olle yb all, s o ftb all, a nd tr a ck) a nd f o ur m en’s

(b ase b all, b ask etb all, s o ccer, a nd tr a ck) s p orts . M ost a th le te s a t T C C r e ceiv e p arti a l a th le ti c a id to c o ver th eir tu iti o n

and f e es, b ooks, m eals , a nd o n-c am pus o r o ff- c am pus l iv in g e xp ense s. T he a th le ti c p ro gra m h as b een v ery s u ccessfu l

over th e p ast d ecad e. T he m en’s b ask etb all a nd b ase b all a nd w om en’s b ask etb all a nd v olle yb all te am s h av e w on a

to ta l o f e ig ht n ati o nal c ham pio nsh ip s o ver th e p ast f iv e y ears .

Tra v is C ounty C olle ge c urre ntl y h as a n o vera ll th re e-y ear g ra d uati o n r a te o f 1 5% ( fu ll- ti m e, f ir s t- ti m e, a nd

degre e- o r c erti fic ate -s e ekin g u nd erg ra d uate s). M ore th an 6 0% o f n ew s tu d ents i n te nd to g ra d uate o r tr a nsfe r to a

fo ur-y ear i n sti tu ti o n, b ut f e w a ctu ally c o m ple te o ne o r b oth w ith in th re e y ears . D r. C la ir e J a ckso n, p re sid ent o f T C C,

has r e centl y r e fo cuse d h er a tte nti o n o n d ev elo pin g p ro gra m s a nd s e rv ic es to i n cre ase th e n um ber o f s tu d ents th at

le av e th e i n sti tu ti o n w ith a c erti fic ate o r a sso cia te s d egre e. S pecific ally , s h e i s i n te re ste d i n g ain in g a b ette r

und ers ta nd in g o f h o w a th le te s h av e h is to ric ally p erfo rm ed a t th e i n sti tu ti o n.

You h av e j u st b een p ro m ote d to v ic e p re sid ent f o r s tu d ent a ffa ir s a nd d ir e cto r o f a th le ti c s. I n th is p ositi o n y o u

hav e b een ta sk ed w ith p utti n g to geth er a p la n f o r c o lle cti n g, r e p orti n g, a nd u ti liz in g d ata o n a th le ti c s to m ake in fo rm ed d ecis io ns a b out th e f u tu re d ir e cti o n o f a th le ti c s a t y o ur i n sti tu ti o n. Y our s p ecific g o al i s to b ette r u nd ers ta nd

ho w a th le te s a re p erfo rm in g a nd to f in d w ays to i n cre ase g ra d uati o n a nd tr a nsfe r r a te s f o r th is p arti c ula r g ro up . T he

pre sid ent w ould l ik e to h av e a d ra ft o f y o ur p la n w ith in tw o w eeks.

Questio ns t o C onsid er

1. W hat i n fo rm ati o n o r d ata w ould y o u n eed to a cco m plis h th e g iv en ta sk a nd h o w w ould y o u o bta in th is i n fo rm ati o n

giv en th e c ultu re o f y o ur i n sti tu ti o n i s n o t o ne th at s u p ports c o lle cti n g th is ty p e o f d ata ?

2. Y ou h av e b een a sk ed to p ut i n p la ce a s y ste m to m easu re th e s u ccess o f a th le te s a t y o ur i n sti tu ti o n, w here th ere h as

nev er b een s u ch a s y ste m i n p la ce. W hat s tr a te gie s w ould y o u e m plo y to c o nv ey th e i m porta nce o f c o lle cti n g d ata

and to g et s u p port a nd b uy-in f r o m th e c o lle ge c o m munity ( e .g ., c o aches, o th er a d m in is tr a to rs , a nd s ta ff) ?

Giv en th e g ap i n h ig her e d ucati o n l ite ra tu re o n a th le ti c s a nd a th le te s a t c o m munity c o lle ges, a d diti o nal r e se arc h i s

esse nti a l. T he f o llo w in g l is t p ro vid es u nd erg ra d uate a nd g ra d uate s tu d ents to pic s th at c an s e rv e a s a g uid e f o r f u tu re

in v esti g ati o n.

B est p ra cti c es f o r a d vis in g a th le te s a t c o m munity c o lle ges

I m pact o f n ew e lig ib ility r e q uir e m ent f o r i n te rn ati o nal s tu d ents ( A rti c le V , s e ct. 3 c) o n th e r e cru itm ent o f

in te rn ati o nal s tu d ents b y s p orts a nd r e gio n

C urric ula r a nd c o -c urric ula r e xp erie nces o f a th le te s w ho a tte nd a nd p arti c ip ate i n a th le ti c s a t h is to ric ally b la ck

tw o-y ear c o lle ges

T re nd a naly sis o f b ig -ti m e s p orts p ro gra m ’s r e cru itm ent o f c o m munity c o lle ge a th le te s: H av e l a rg e a th le ti c s

pro gra m s c hanged r e cru itm ent p ra cti c es i n r e cent y ears ? W hic h f a cto rs h av e i m pacte d th ese p ra cti c es?

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

C om munity c o lle ges a nd a th le ti c s g o vern in g b oard s d o n o t c o lle ct o r r e p ort d ata o n a th le te s w ith th e s a m e

fr e q uency o r r ig o r a s th eir f o ur-y ear c o unte rp arts . A cco rd in gly , w hat c rite ria s h o uld c o m munity c o lle ges u se to

measu re a nd e v alu ate th e a cad em ic p erfo rm ance o f th eir a th le te s?

W hat ty p es o f s u p port p ro gra m s o r c am pus s e rv ic es w ould b e b enefic ia l f o r c o m munity c o lle ges to d ev elo p o r

enhance th e s u ccess o f a th le te s? W hat a re s o m e c halle nges c o m munity c o lle ges w ould n eed to o verc o m e i n o rd er

to i m ple m ent th ese n ew o r e nhanced p ro gra m s a nd s e rv ic es?

I n w hat s p ecific w ays c an a th le ti c s p ro gra m s a t c o m munity c o lle ges i n v olv e f a culty a nd s ta ff to s u p port th e

acad em ic s u ccess o f a th le te s?

Refe re n ces

Barre no , Y ., & T ra ut, C . A . ( 2 012). S tu d ent d ecis io ns to a tte nd p ub lic tw o-y ear c o m munity c o lle ges.

Com munity

Colle g e J o urn al o f R ese a rc h a nd P ra ctic e, 3 6

, 8 63–871.

Becker, G . S . ( 1 964). H um an c ap ita l: A th eo re ti c al a nd e m pir ic al a naly sis , w ith s p ecia l r e fe re nce to e d ucati o n. N ew

York : N ati o nal B ure au o f E co no m ic R ese arc h, C olu m bia U niv ers ity P re ss.

———. ( 1 993).

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( 3 rd

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and a th le ti c s. I n L . S . H aged orn & D . H orto n J r. ( E ds.) ,

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( V ol. 1 47, p p. 5 –

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( V ol. 1 0, p p. 2 25–256). N ew Y ork : A gath o n P re ss.

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, 1 75–

194.

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backgro und i n tr a nsfe r f r o m c o m munity c o lle ges.

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, 4 52–487.

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Rep ort f o r t h e F lo rid a c o m munity c o lle g e s y ste m

. T alla hasse e,

FL: F lo rid a D ep artm ent o f E ducati o n.

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http ://ir e p p.s ta nfo rd .e d u/d ocum ents /G DF/S T U D IE S/1 5-H anse n/1 5-H anse n(3 -0 7).p df

Haw kin s, B . ( 1 999). B la ck s tu d ent a th le te s a t p re d om in antl y w hite N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n D iv is io n

I i n sti tu ti o ns a nd p atte rn s o f o sc illa ti n g m ig ra nt l a b ore rs .

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(1 ), 1 –9.

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& D . H orto n J r. ( E ds.) ,

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( V ol. 1 47, p p. 1 5–27). S an F ra ncis c o : J o sse y-

Bass.

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HBCUs. I n R . T . P alm er a nd J . L . W ood ( E ds.) ,

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( p p.

138–147). N ew Y ork : R outl e d ge, T aylo r a nd F ra ncis .

Jo nes-W hite , D . R ., R ad cliffe , P . M ., H uesm an, R . L ., J r., & K ello gg, J . P . ( 2 010). R ed efin in g s tu d ent s u ccess:

Apply in g d iffe re nt m ulti n o m ia l r e gre ssio n te chniq ues f o r th e s tu d y o f s tu d ent g ra d uati o n a cro ss i n sti tu ti o ns o f

hig her e d ucati o n.

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, 1 54–174.

Kis sin ger, D . B ., & M ille r, M . T . ( 2 007). P ro file o f c o m munity c o lle ge a th le te s i n s e le cte d s p orts .

Com munity

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lo ca l e co nom y

( U np ub lis h ed d octo ra l d is se rta ti o n). T exas A & M U niv ers ity .

Peng, C . J ., S o, T . H ., S ta ge, F . K ., & S t. J o hn, E . P . ( 2 002). T he u se a nd i n te rp re ta ti o n o f l o gis ti c r e gre ssio n i n h ig her

ed ucati o n J o urn als : 1 988–1999.

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, 2 59–293.

Pern a, L . W . ( 2 006). S tu d yin g c o lle ge a ccess a nd c ho ic e: A p ro pose d c o ncep tu al m odel. I n J . C . S m art ( E d.) ,

Handbook f o r T heo ry a nd R ese a rc h

( p p. 9 9–157). N ew Y ork : S prin ger.

Rom ano , R . M ., a nd W is n ie w sk i, M . ( 2 003) T ra ckin g c o m munity c o lle ge tr a nsfe rs u sin g n ati o nal s tu d ent

cle arin gho use d ata ( C H ER I W ork in g P ap er # 36). R etr ie v ed f r o m C orn ell U niv ers ity , I L R S cho ol s ite :

http ://d ig ita lc o m mons.i lr.c o rn ell.e d u/c heri/1 6/

Tow nse nd , B . K . ( 2 002). T ra nsfe r r a te s: A p ro ble m ati c c rite rio n f o r m easu rin g th e c o m munity c o lle ge. I n T . B ers a nd

H. C alh o un ( E ds.) ,

Next s te p s f o r t h e c o m munity c o lle g e

( p p. 1 3–23). N ew D ir e cti o ns f o r C om munity C olle ges,

No. 1 1 7. S an F ra ncis c o : J o sse y-B ass.

U.S . D ep artm ent o f E ducati o n ( 2 009).

Fed era l P ell g ra nt p ro gra m

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

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C H APTER

I N TE R CO LLEG IA TE A TH LETIC S C LIM ATE

E ffe cts o n S tu den ts , F acu lty , a nd A dm in is tr a to rs

J an et H . L aw re n ce a n d J on L . M cN au gh ta n

K EY T ER M S

clim ate

cu lt u re

ath le te s

so cia l is o la tio n

fa cu lt y

adm in is tr a to rs

T here ’s a s a yin g i n N ew E ngla nd , “ If y o u d on’t l ik e th e w eath er, w ait a m in ute !” D esp ite y ears o f r e se arc h i n

n o nacad em ic s e tti n gs, c o ncep ti o ns o f o rg aniz a ti o nal c lim ate c o nti n ue to v ary — ju st l ik e th e w eath er ( D ic kso n,

R esic k, & H anges, 2 006; M ora n & V olk w ein , 1 992). B ecause th e s p ort m anagem ent l ite ra tu re d ra w s h eav ily o n

o rg aniz a ti o nal r e se arc h, w e b egin w ith a b rie f o verv ie w o f c o ncep tu al a nd m easu re m ent i s su es r e le v ant to s tu d ie s o f

i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s c lim ate ( IA C).

W HAT I S I N TER CO LLEG IA T E A T H LETIC S C LIM AT E?

O rg aniz a ti o nal c lim ate r e se arc h e nco m passe s s e v era l b ra nches o f i n q uir y i n to p eo ple s’ p erc ep ti o ns o f th eir

e nv ir o nm ents ( S chneid er, E hrh art, & M acey, 2 013). B ro ad ly s p eakin g, th e f o cus i s o n th e c o gniti v e r e p re se nta ti o ns o f

o rg aniz a ti o nal c o nd iti o ns ( e .g ., g o als , p olic ie s, p ra cti c es, p ro ced ure s, p ro cesse s) th at i n d iv id uals c o nstr u ct a nd th at

g uid e th eir b ehav io r ( D ic kso n e t a l., 2 006). H ig her e d ucati o n r e se arc hers d efin e c am pus c lim ate a s th e p erc ep ti o ns

o f a c o lle ge o r u niv ers ity th at c o nsti tu ents ( e .g ., s tu d ents , f a culty , a d m in is tr a to rs , a lu m ni, b oard s) d ev elo p th ro ugh

t h eir i n te ra cti o ns a nd a s th ey s tr iv e to i n te rp re t e v ents a t th eir i n sti tu ti o n ( A lle n, 2 003; M ora n & V olk w ein , 1 988).

W hile o rg aniz a ti o nal c ultu re i s c o ncep tu ally s im ila r to c lim ate , a nd th e tw o c o ncep ts a re s o m eti m es c o nfla te d

( K uenzi & S chm in ke, 2 009), th ey a re th eo re ti c ally d is ti n ct. O rg aniz a ti o nal c ultu re i s th e “ sh are d b asic a ssu m pti o ns,

v alu es, a nd b elie fs th at c hara cte riz e a s e tti n g a nd a re ta ught to n ew co m ers a s th e p ro per w ay to th in k a nd f e el,

c o m munic ate d b y th e m yth s a nd s to rie s p eo ple

te ll a b out h o w th e o rg aniz a ti o n c am e to b e th e w ay i t i s a s i t s o lv ed

p ro ble m s a sso cia te d w ith e xte rn al a d ap ta ti o n a nd i n te rn al i n te gra ti o n” ( S chneid er e t a l., 2 013, p . 3 62). T hese

a ssu m pti o ns a re d eep ly h eld b elie fs th at g o vern b ehav io r, a f o rm o f ta cit k no w le d ge o r “ ta ken f o r g ra nte d r e ality ”

( M ora n & V olk w ein , 1 992, p . 3 9).

Both o rg aniz a ti o nal c lim ate a nd c ultu re h elp p eo ple m ake s e nse o f th eir e nv ir o nm ents . H ow ev er, c ultu re e v olv es

s lo w ly a nd i s b ase d o n a k no w n h is to ry o f c o nsid era b le d ura ti o n. C lim ate f o rm s m ore r a p id ly a nd i n r e sp onse to

s itu ati o nal c o nti n gencie s, s u ch a s c hanges i n p ers o nnel, f in ances, o r p olic ie s. W here as, c ultu re i s a n e nd urin g

o rg aniz a ti o nal c hara cte ris ti c , a v ie w o f r e ality th at i s “ em bed ded i n a k in d o f c o lle cti v e c o nsc io usn ess th at e xis ts

q uite a p art f r o m [ in d iv id ual p erc ep ti o ns]” ( M ora n & V olk w ein , 1 988, p . 3 71), o rg aniz a ti o nal c lim ate c an d iffe r

a cro ss i n d iv id uals a nd c am pus s u b gro up s d ep end in g o n th eir e xp erie nces. C onse q uentl y , m ulti p le c lim ate s m ay e xis t

w ith in a s in gle o rg aniz a ti o n ( K uenzi & S chm in ke, 2 009; S chneid er e t a l., 2 013). R etu rn in g to th e e arlie r e xam ple o f

N ew E ngla nd w eath er, c lim ate i s a kin to h ik ers ’ s u b je cti v e i n te rp re ta ti o ns o f c urre nt e nv ir o nm enta l c o nd iti o ns, w hic h

v ary a cro ss i n d iv id uals . C ultu re i s a nalo go us to th e a ccum ula te d k no w le d ge a b out w eath er th at i s g enera lly a ssu m ed to b e tr u e a nd i n flu ences a ll th e h ik ers ’ i n te rp re ta ti o ns.

A f u ll d is c ussio n o f th e th eo re ti c al a nd m easu re m ent i s su es r e la te d to o rg aniz a ti o nal c lim ate i s b eyo nd th e s c o pe

of th is c hap te r. H ow ev er, s e v era l c o ncern s a re g erm ane to th e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s l ite ra tu re . O ne k ey th eo re ti c al

is su e i s c ap tu re d i n d eb ate s a b out th e m ulti le v el n atu re o f o rg aniz a ti o nal c lim ate , w heth er i t i s a n i n d iv id ual, g ro up ,

or o rg aniz a ti o nal p heno m eno n. D oes i t e xis t o nly i n th e m in d s o f i n d iv id uals , a s a r e su lt o f p ers o nal e ffo rts to

und ers ta nd p arti c ula r s itu ati o ns? I s i t a g ro up a ttr ib ute r e p re se nti n g a c o m mon s e t o f b elie fs a b out e nv ir o nm enta l

co nd iti o ns th at i s c o -c o nstr u cte d th ro ugh i n te ra cti o ns? O r i s c lim ate a d is ti n ct o rg aniz a ti o nal f e atu re th at m em bers

co m pre hend a s th ey r e p eate d ly e xp erie nce th e s a m e e nv ir o nm enta l c o nd iti o ns ( e .g ., p olic ie s a nd p ra cti c es) ( K uenzi

& S chm in ke, 2 009; M ora n & V olk w ein , 1 992)?

Answ ers to th ese q uesti o ns g uid e th e m easu re m ent o f o rg aniz a ti o nal c lim ate i n n o nacad em ic a nd a cad em ic

se tti n gs. S om e p ro xie s c o nsis t o f a n

in div id ual’s p erc ep tio ns

o f c o nd iti o ns w ith in a n o rg aniz a ti o n o r i n th e e xte rn al

env ir o nm ent w ith in w hic h a n o rg aniz a ti o n i s s itu ate d . O th ers c o m bin e i n d iv id ual p erc ep ti o ns s ta ti s ti c ally ( e .g .,

clu ste r a naly sis ) o r d ra w to geth er th e p erc ep ti o ns o f o rg aniz a ti o nally d efin ed g ro up s ( e .g ., s tu d ents , f a culty ,

ad m in is tr a to rs ) to f o rm i n d ic ato rs o f

su bgro up p erc ep tio ns

. Y et o th ers a ggre gate i n d iv id ual d ata to c re ate a n i n d ex

re p re se nti n g th e

co lle ctiv e v ie w o f a ll o rg aniz a tio n m em bers

. T here i s l ittl e c o nse nsu s r e gard in g w hat l e v el o f

agre em ent c o nsti tu te s g ro up c o nse nsu s, w heth er c lim ate i s v alu e n eutr a l o r h as p ositi v e a nd n egati v e v ale nces, i f th e

re fe re nce p oin t i s a s p ecific f a cet ( e .g ., s u p porti v eness) o r m ulti p le a sp ects o f c lim ate ( e .g ., s u p porti v eness,

co m munic ati o n), a nd w hat c o nte xtu al a nd i n d iv id ual c hara cte ris ti c s a cco unt f o r d iffe re nces i n c lim ate p erc ep ti o ns

betw een a nd w ith in g ro up s ( D ic kso n e t a l., 2 006; K uenzi & S chm in ke, 2 009).

These d is p ariti e s i n th e c o ncep tu aliz a ti o n a nd m easu re m ent o f c lim ate p erm eate th e r e se arc h o n i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c s a nd c o m plic ate th e ta sk o f i n te gra ti n g th is b ody o f w ork . I A C c an b e a n a th le te ’s p erc ep ti o n o f p ro fe sso rs ’

tr e atm ent o f a th le te s a nd n o nath le te s ( e .g ., S im mons, B osw orth , F ujita , & J e nse n, 2 007); a n i n d ex r e p re se nti n g a

co m mon g ro up p erc ep ti o n, f o r e xam ple , a th le ti c d ir e cto rs ’ o pin io ns a b out th e v alu ed c hara cte ris ti c s o f r e v enue a nd

no nre v enue g enera ti n g s p orts ( e .g ., C ooper & W eig ht, 2 011 ); o r a l is t o f f e atu re s th at r e se arc hers d ev elo p a nd

re sp ond ents r a nk o rd er ( e .g ., T ra il & C hella d ura i, 2 002). W here as a s tr ic t d efin iti o n o f I A C i n clu d es c am pus

co nsti tu ents ’ p erc ep ti o ns o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s o n th eir o w n c am puse s ( e .g ., L aw re nce, H end ric ks, & O tt, 2 007),

many i n q uir ie s a sk p eo ple a b out th eir b elie fs r e gard in g i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i n g enera l. F or e xam ple , p eo ple

asse ss th e i m porta nce o f w in nin g a th le ti c e v ents a nd o th er o utc o m es i n h yp oth eti c al s itu ati o ns ( e .g ., P utl e r & W olfe ,

1999). S om eti m es th e p re se nce o f a h ig h-p ro file te am l ik e f o otb all i s u se d to r e p re se nt th e a th le ti c d im ensio n o f

cam pus c lim ate ( e .g ., W arn er, S hap ir o , D ix o n, R id in ger, & H arris o n, 2 011 ). C ontr o ls o n c o nte xtu al v aria b le s, s u ch a s

NCA A D iv is io n, a nd s o cio dem ogra p hic v aria b le s, s u ch a s f a culty g o vern ance e xp erie nce a nd s tu d ents ’ r a ce a nd

gend er, a ls o v ary ( e .g ., E ngstr o m , S ed la cek, & M cE w en, 1 995; K uga, 1 996; W eav er, 2 010).

While w e a ckno w le d ge th e i s su es r a is e d i n r e v ie w s o f o rg aniz a ti o nal c lim ate r e se arc h, w e d efin e th e I A C

bro ad ly to i n clu d e th e p erc ep ti o ns o f a n i n d iv id ual, s u b gro up m em bers ( e .g ., s tu d ents , f a culty , a d m in is tr a to rs ), o r a ll

cam pus c o nsti tu ents r e gard in g th e g o als , p olic ie s, a nd p ra cti c es r e la te d to c o lle ge s p orts d ev elo ped a s th ey i n te rp re t

ev ents p rim arily a t th eir o w n u niv ers ity . T he d efin iti o n e m phasiz e s th e s u b je cti v e n atu re o f I A C b ut a ssu m es th ese

orie nta ti o ns to a th le ti c s a re i n flu enced b y e xte rn al e nv ir o nm enta l f a cto rs , s u ch a s r e gio nal n o rm s a nd N CA A

div is io nal p olic ie s a nd p ra cti c es; i n te rn al f a cto rs , s u ch a s c am pus m is sio n, r e so urc es, a nd c ultu re ; a nd i n d iv id ual

diffe re nces i n s o cio dem ogra p hic c hara cte ris ti c s a nd o rg aniz a ti o nal r o le s ( B axte r, M arg av io , & L am bert, 1 996). B y

way o f i llu str a ti o n, i m agin e tw o i n d iv id uals a t th e s a m e u niv ers ity , o ne e m plo yed b y a th le ti c s a nd th e o th er b y a n

acad em ic d ep artm ent. B oth u nd ers ta nd th at th eir c am pus c ultu re v alu es w in nin g a th le ti c c o nte sts ; th ey h av e h eard th e

le gend s p asse d d ow n th ro ugh g enera ti o ns. N oneth ele ss, g iv en th e c o nte xts i n w hic h th ey i n te ra ct, th ey m ay d iffe r i n

wheth er th ey b elie v e w in nin g a th le ti c e v ents i s a l e giti m ate c am pus g o al a nd h o w th ey p erc eiv e th e p olic ie s a nd

pra cti c es i m ple m ente d to a chie v e th is g o al.

What a re th e k ey f e atu re s o f I A C? H is to ric al a cco unts a nd r e fo rm r e p orts s u ggest a k ey c o m ponent o f I A C i s th e

in sti tu ti o nal e m phasis g iv en to s e le ct g o als : w in nin g r e co rd s, c o m merc ia liz a ti o n, b ra nd in g, a m ate uris m , b ro ad -b ase d

stu d ent p arti c ip ati o n i n s p orts , a ccess to c o lle ge, a nd a cad em ic s u ccess ( F lo w ers , 2 007; T helin , 1 994). B axte r e t a l.

(1 996) c o nclu d e c am pus c o nsti tu ents ty p ic ally f a ll i n to o ne o f tw o g ro up s d ep end in g o n w heth er th ey b elie v e

am ate uris m a nd a cad em ic s o r c o m merc ia liz a ti o n a nd p ro fe ssio naliz a ti o n o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a re p rim ary

go als .

Eig ht d is ti n ct a sp ects o f I A C e m erg e f r o m q uanti ta ti v e s tu d ie s: g o als , p olic ie s, a nd p ra cti c es r e la te d to c o lle ge

ath le te s’ e d ucati o n ( e .g ., a cad em ic a nd s o cia l/e th ic al

dev elo pm ent) , c o lle ge a th le te s’ h ealth ( e .g ., s u b sta nce a b use ),

cam pus i m age/v is ib ility ( e .g ., b ra nd in g), g o vern ance ( e .g ., d ecis io n m akin g), w in nin g ( e .g ., r e co rd s),

re v enue/c o m merc ia liz a ti o n ( e .g ., c o sts a nd p ro fits , p ro fe ssio naliz a ti o n o f a th le te s), e nte rta in m ent v alu e ( e .g ., m ed ia in te re st) , a nd e th ic s ( e .g ., c o m plia nce, p olic y e q uity , a tte nti o n to d iv ers ity ) ( C ooper & W eig ht, 2 011 ; F in k, P asto re , &

Rie m er, 2 003; M aho ny, H um s, & R ie m er, 2 002; P utl e r & W olfe , 1 999; S chro ed er, 2 010; T ra il & C hella nd ura i,

2000). T he d is c ussio n th at f o llo w s s u m mariz e s s tu d ie s o f a d m in is tr a to r, f a culty , a nd s tu d ent p erc ep ti o ns a nd

behav io rs r e la te d to th ese d im ensio ns o f I A C.

PER CEIV ED I A C E FFEC TS O N A D M IN IS T R AT O RS

Giv en q uesti o ns r a is e d b y r e fo rm ers a nd th e p re ss ( E stl e r & N els o n, 2 005; M org an, 2 008; P in e, 2 010), w e f o cus o n

co lle ge p re sid ents ’ a nd a th le ti c a d m in is tr a to rs ’ v ie w s o f c am pus v is ib ility , r e v enue, g o vern ance, a nd e th ic s.

Cam pus A dm in is tr a to rs

Cam pu s V is ib ility

Sin ce th e b egin nin g o f i n te rc o lle gia te c o m peti ti o n, p re sid ents h av e u se d a th le ti c s a s a m ark eti n g ta cti c ( F lo w ers ,

2007). S om e a d m in is tr a to rs s ti ll b elie v e j o in in g a th le ti c c o nfe re nces w ith p eer i n sti tu ti o ns, o r o nes th ey w ould l ik e

to a sso cia te w ith , w ill e le v ate th eir u niv ers iti e s’ s ta nd in gs ( C unnin gham & A sh le y, 2 001). H ow ev er, p re sid ents ’

perc ep ti o ns v ary ( D ud ers ta d t, 2 000; W illia m s & P ennin gto n, 2 006).

The s p ort m anagem ent l ite ra tu re i s r e p le te w ith i n q uir ie s i n to th e r o le o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i n c am pus

“b ra nd in g”— th e s tr a te gic u se o f m ed ia to c re ate a u niv ers ity i m age th at i t w ants g ro up s to r e co gniz e ( B ouchet &

Hutc hin so n, 2 010; B ra nd , 2 006; K in g & S la ughte r, 2 004). D esp ite e m pir ic al e v id ence i n d ic ati n g w in nin g s p orts

te am s d o n o t n ecessa rily c o ntr ib ute to th ese o utc o m es ( F ulk s, 2 011 ; Z im balis t, 2 010), a k ey a ssu m pti o n i s i m ages th at

in co rp ora te i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a chie v e c am pus g o als l ik e i n cre asin g s tu d ent a p plic ati o ns, s tr e ngth enin g

re la ti o nsh ip s w ith s ta te l e gis la to rs , a nd a ttr a cti n g g ifts ( A le xand er & K ern , 2 010). R ese arc hers f in d “ b ra nd in g”

assu m pti o ns p ro m pt a d m in is tr a ti v e d ecis io ns s u ch a s th e r e cla ssific ati o n o f a th le ti c p ro gra m s a nd l a rg e f in ancia l

in v estm ents i n a th le ti c s ( B ouchet & H utc hin so n, 2 010; W eav er, 2 010).

Gove rn an ce a n d R eve n ue

Few l a rg e-s c ale e m pir ic al s tu d ie s a re c o nd ucte d w ith s itti n g p re sid ents , a nd m ost te nd to f o cus o n l e ad ers o f N CA A

Div is io n I F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n ( F B S) s c ho ols . O ne h ig hlig hts p re sid ents ’ p erc ep ti o ns o f th e g o vern ance a nd

fin ancia l a sp ects o f I A C ( K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 2 009). M ost w ere a w are o f th e

“in sid io us” d iv id e b etw een a th le ti c s a nd a cad em ic s a nd a lle ged c o nflic ts b etw een

ath le ti c g o als a nd i n sti tu ti o nal

mis sio ns b ut f e lt th eir p ow er to g o vern a th le ti c s o n th eir o w n c am puse s i s d im in is h ed b y l u cra ti v e c o ntr a cts w ith

exte rn al o rg aniz a ti o ns. T w o-th ir d s w ere c o nv in ced th at th ey c an c o nti n ue th eir c urre nt l e v els o f o pera ti o n b ut w ere

unsu re th at o th er F B S i n sti tu ti o ns h av e th e f in ances. D esp ite th ese c ir c um sta nces, p re sid ents h eld f a st to th e b elie f

th at p arti c ip ati o n b rin gs ta ngib le ( fin ancia l) a nd i n ta ngib le ( s e nse o f c o m munity , v is ib ility ) b enefits to th eir

cam puse s. T he r e p ort c o nclu d es th at “

perso nal e xp erie n ce

( e m phasis a d ded ) p la ys a m uch m ore p ow erfu l r o le i n

defin in g p re sid ents ’ a tti tu d es to w ard a th le ti c s th an d o th e r e su lts o f [ e m pir ic al] s tu d ie s” ( p . 1 3).

Eth ic s

Alth o ugh p re sid ents f e el th ey h av e l ittl e c o ntr o l o ver th e “ ath le ti c s a rm s r a ce,” c ase s tu d ie s s u ggest th ey p la y

im porta nt r o le s i n s e tti n g p ositi v e e th ic al a nd e d ucati o nal c lim ate s. A p re sid ent’ s s tr o ng p ositi o n, c o m munic ate d

th ro ugh h is c harg e to a c o m mitte e, e lim in ate d a n o ffe nsiv e a th le ti c m asc o t ( E aste r & L eo ni, 2 009). A dm in is tr a to rs

help ed e sta b lis h a n e nv ir o nm ent th at s u p ports a cad em ic a chie v em ent a m ong a th le te s a t h is to ric ally b la ck c o lle ges

and u niv ers iti e s ( H BCUs) ( C harlto n, 2 011 ).

Ath le tic A dm in is tr a to rs

Criti c s o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a sse rt c o aches c are m ost a b out w in nin g, a nd a th le ti c d ir e cto rs a b out g enera ti n g

re v enue ( T ela nd er, 1 989). H ow ev er, s tu d ie s s h o w th at a th le ti c d ep artm ent s ta ff m em bers a tte nd to m ulti p le a sp ects o f

IA C.

Edu ca tio n Adm in is tr a to rs a t o ne N CA A D iv is io n I i n sti tu ti o n r a te d th e s u ccessfu ln ess o f h yp oth eti c al a th le ti c d ep artm ents

(P utl e r & W olfe , 1 999). W in -lo ss r e co rd s, a th le te g ra d uati o n r a te s, v io la ti o ns o f r e gula ti o ns, h o m e g am e a tte nd ance,

gend er e q uity , n um ber o f i n te rc o lle gia te te am s, a nd a th le ti c d ep artm ent f in ances w ere m anip ula te d . A cro ss s c enario s,

ath le ti c a d m in is tr a to rs ’ a sse ssm ents o f s u ccess g av e m ore w eig ht to e d ucati o n f a cto rs . R ese arc hers f in d , h o w ev er,

th e g ro w in g e m phasis o n w in nin g f o ste rs a cad em ic f r a ud ( P ow ers , 2 007). T o k eep p la yers e lig ib le , c o aches a nd

ath le ti c s ta ff g am e th e s y ste m u sin g ta cti c s l ik e a cad em ic c lu ste rin g, p la cin g a th le te s i n s e le ct m ajo rs ( C hris ty ,

Seifr ie d , & P asto re , 2 008; M arti n & C hris ty , 2 010.

Reve n ue

Alth o ugh D iv is io n I F B S p re sid ents b elie v e th ey w ill h av e s u ffic ie nt r e v enue, th ey r e p ort th ey m ay n eed to

dis c o nti n ue c erta in v ars ity s p orts to c o nta in c o sts ( K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 2 009). T his

dile m ma r a is e s q uesti o ns a b out a th le ti c a d m in is tr a to rs ’ b elie fs th at d riv e d ecis io n m akin g ( C ooper & W eig ht, 2 011 ).

CASE S T U DY

Supportin g C olle g e A th le te s

Carl h ad b een th e a th le ti c d ir e cto r f o r a lm ost f iv e y ears . T he u niv ers ity h ad 1 5 D iv is io n I a th le ti c p ro gra m s a nd

re centl y j o in ed a n ew c o nfe re nce th at w ould s a v e th e u niv ers ity m oney o n tr a v el c o sts , e nhance c o m ple ti o n, a nd

ho pefu lly o pen u p s o m e n ew r e v enue o pportu niti e s. D esp ite a ll o f th e g o od th in gs th at h ad h ap pened d urin g h is

te nure , C arl s a t a t h is d esk c o ncern ed a nd f r u str a te d . H e h ad j u st r e ceiv ed a no th er e m ail f r o m a n a nxio us a th le te w ho

had j u st g o tte n th e f o llo w in g e m ail f r o m a f a culty m em ber:

Dear M s. S m it h ,

You a re m ore th an w elc o m e to e n ro ll in m y c la ss b ut I w ould a d vis e a gain st it . A th le te s h av e n ev er, a n d lik ely w ill n ev er,

do w ell in m y c la ss. I h av e a s tr ic t a tte n dan ce p olic y a n d I h av e a h ard tim e b elie v in g th at y ou w ill b e a b le to s u cceed .

Sin cere ly ,

Dr. A nders e n

This w as n o t th e f ir s t e m ail l ik e th is th at J a na S m ith , o ne o f th e g ym nasts , h ad r e ceiv ed . C arl d ecid ed i t w as ti m e

to v is it w ith J a na. T hey e m aile d b ack a nd f o rth , a nd C arl f in ally s e t a n a p poin tm ent w ith h er f o r l a te r th at w eek.

When th ey g o t to geth er th ey ta lk ed a b out J a na’s e xp erie nce a t th e u niv ers ity .

CA RL:

J a na, th is i s th e th ir d p ro fe sso r th at y o u r e ceiv ed a n e m ail l ik e th is f r o m . W hy d o y o u th in k th ey a re s o

co ncern ed a b out y o ur a b ility to s u cceed ?

JA NA:

I th in k i t’ s b ecause I a m a n e ngin eerin g m ajo r. M ost o f th e m ath p ro fe sso rs d on’t h av e m any a th le te s i n th eir

up per d iv is io n c la sse s, s o th ey d on’t th in k I c an h and le th e w ork lo ad o n to p o f m y h ecti c s c hed ule .

CA RL:

D o y o u th in k i t i s o nly b ecause y o u a re a n a th le te ?

JA NA:

O h y eah. I o nly s e nt y o u th ese e m ails b ecause I w ante d y o u to k no w h o w f a culty v ie w a th le te s. I h ear th in gs

lik e th is a ll th e ti m e, a nd , h o nestl y , I ’ m a b out r e ad y to c hange m y m ajo r.

CA RL:

A re th ere m any f a culty m em bers o ut th ere w ho a re c o ncern ed w ith h o w a th le te s p erfo rm i n th eir c la sse s?

JA NA:

M ore th an y o u w ould th in k. I k no w o th er a th le te s w ho c hanged th eir m ajo rs o r to ok c o urs e s f r o m m ore “ ath le te

fr ie nd ly ” f a culty j u st to l o w er th eir s tr e ss.

CA RL:

A re f a culty th e o nly o nes w ho v erb aliz e th ese c o ncern s?

JA NA:

N o. M y a cad em ic a d vis o r a ls o to ld m e th at I c o uld h av e a h ard ti m e f in is h in g m y d egre e i n th e f o ur y ears o f m y

sc ho la rs h ip . H e to ld m e th at I w ould b e b ette r o ff to ta ke s o m eth in g l e ss ti m e i n te nsiv e. I a ls o h av e h ad m y

co aches te ll m e th at I n eed to f o cus m ore o n i m pro vin g m y g am e. T hey w ould n ev er te ll m e to n o t f o cus o n

sc ho ol, b ut s ti ll I ’ m g etti n g th e m essa ge.

Carl’s c o nv ers a ti o n w ith J a na r a is e d s e v era l q uesti o ns f o r h im . I t a p peare d th at J a na w as e xp erie ncin g a c am pus

th at w as n o t c o nd uciv e to h er s u ccess a s a n e ngin eerin g m ajo r. H e w ond ere d h o w m any o th er a th le te s s h are d h er

perc ep ti o ns a nd h ad j u st g iv en u p a nd c hanged th eir m ajo r o r n o t ta ken th e c la sse s th ey l o ved b ecause th ey d id n o t

fe el s u p porte d . Questi o ns to C onsid er

1. W hat a d vic e d o y o u th in k C arl s h o uld g iv e to J a na?

2. H ow d o y o u th in k C arl s h o uld f o llo w u p th is c o nv ers a ti o n?

Senio r m em bers o f a th le ti c d ep artm ents i n N CA A D iv is io n I i n sti tu ti o ns i d enti fie d f e atu re s o f r e v enue-p ro ducin g

and n o nre v enue s p orts th at th ey v alu e ( C ooper & W eig ht, 2 011 ). E xem pla ry s p orts m ansh ip d urin g c o m peti ti o n a nd

in d iv id ual a nd te am a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c s u ccess w ere h ig hly r a nked f e atu re s o f b oth . S tr o ng

re la ti o nsh ip s b etw een

co aches a nd a d m in is tr a to rs a nd c o m munity i n v olv em ent w ere v alu ed c hara cte ris ti c s o f n o nre v enue s p orts o nly . F an

su p port, r e v enue p ro ducti o n, a nd f u nd ra is in g w ere i m porta nt c hara cte ris ti c s o f r e v enue-p ro ducin g s p orts o nly .

Adm in is tr a to rs f r o m F B S s c ho ols a ssig ned s ig nific antl y g re ate r v alu e to a th le ti c s u ccess, f a n s u p port, r e v enue

pro ducti o n, a nd f u nd ra is in g.

Eth ic s

The p erc eiv ed f a ir n ess o f p olic ie s a nd p ra cti c es i s a n i m porta nt a sp ect o f I A C ( H um s & C hella d ura i, 1 994). P atr ic k,

Maho ney, a nd P etr o sk o ( 2 008) e xam in ed h o w s e nio r w om en a d m in is tr a to rs a nd a th le ti c d ep artm ent d ir e cto rs a cro ss

all N CA A D iv is io ns r a te d th e f a ir n ess o f r e so urc e a llo cati o n d ecis io ns. T hey w ere g iv en f o ur s c enario s: tw o w ere

situ ati o ns w here c am pus f u nd s i n cre ase d ( b ecause o f g ifts o r g o od s e aso ns a m ong r e v enue-p ro ducin g s p orts ), a nd

tw o w ere s itu ati o ns w here f u nd s d ecre ase d ( b ecause o f c am pus-w id e c uts o r p oor s e aso ns a m ong r e v enue-p ro ducin g

sp orts ). A cro ss s c enario s, f e m ale s p re fe rre d d ecis io ns th at p ro vid ed f o r e q ual d is tr ib uti o n a cro ss s p orts . M ale s

ra nked o pti o ns a s m ost f a ir w hen a llo cati o ns w ere b ase d o n o pera ti n g c o sts . A dm in is tr a to rs f r o m N CA A D iv is io n I

in sti tu ti o ns w ere m ore l ik ely to th in k d ecis io ns b ase d o n r e v enue p ro ducti o n a nd th e c o sts o f c o m peti n g w ere f a ir e st.

Sin ce th e p assa ge o f T itl e I X , m any a th le ti c p olic ie s a nd p ra cti c es h av e g arn ere d a tte nti o n ( A gath e & B illin gs,

2000), a m ong th em th e p erc eiv ed e q uity o f c are er o pportu niti e s ( S arto re & C unnin gham , 2 006). A k ey q uesti o n i s

wheth er I A C, p arti c ula rly i n D iv is io n I s c ho ols , c o nstr a in s a d vancem ent a m ong w om en a nd m in o riti e s. W om en o fte n

desc rib e a n I A C th at f a v ors C aucasia n m ale s, n o ti n g th e s e le cti o n c rite ria f o r a th le ti c d ir e cto rs e m phasiz e

exp erie nces a s to p-le v el s ta ff, w ith f u nd ra is in g, a nd w ith m anagem ent o f f o otb all c o aches. H offm an ( 2 011 ) e xp la in s

th at s e nio r a sso cia te te am s r a re ly i n clu d e m ore th an o ne w om an, a nd h ence v alu ed e xp erie nces a re m ore a v aila b le to

men.

PER CEIV ED I A C E FFEC TS O N F A C ULT Y

Faculty m em bers , f o r th e m ost p art, v alu e a cad em ic s a nd a m ate uris m o ver th e c o m merc ia liz a ti o n a nd

pro fe ssio naliz a ti o n o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s ( B axte r e t a l., 1 996). T hey b elie v e a th le ti c p ro gra m s s h o uld

em phasiz e s tu d ents ’ a cad em ic a nd s o cia l- m ora l d ev elo pm ent a nd s u p port p olic ie s d esig ned to a chie v e th ese g o als

(e .g ., G PA s ta nd ard s f o r e lig ib ility ). T hey d is lik e p ra cti c es c ate rin g to m ed ia a nd a th le ti c p erfo rm ance ( e .g .,

ad ju sti n g c o m peti ti o ns to f it w ith T V s c hed ule s, a w ard in g a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s) ( T ra il & C hella d ura i, 2 000).

Acad em ic -o rie nte d s itu ati o ns w here m ale a th le te s a p pear to b e p riv ile ged a s c o m pare d to s tu d ents i n g enera l ( e .g .,

when th o se w ith l o w er S A T s c o re s w ere a d m itte d ) e v oke a nger ( E ngstr o m e t a l., 1 995).

While th ey p rio riti z e th e f it b etw een a cad em ic m is sio n a nd i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, f a culty v ie w s a re n o t

ho m ogeneo us. P ro fe sso rs ’ c hara cte riz a ti o ns o f th e p olic ie s, p ra cti c es, a nd a th le te b ehav io r o n th eir o w n F B S

cam puse s v arie s i n r e la ti o n to e xp erie nces te achin g a th le te s a nd s e rv in g o n g o vern ance c o m mitte es ( L aw re nce e t a l.,

2007). A naly se s r e v eal d is c re p ancie s b etw een f a culty m em bers w ho b elie v e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i s n o t

in te gra te d w ith in th eir c am puse s a nd p re sid ents w ho s e e a th le ti c s a s i n te gra l to th eir c am pus b ra nd ( L aw re nce & O tt,

2013). H ow ev er, m ost th in k th at a th le ti c s a re tr e ate d d iffe re ntl y f r o m a cad em ic d ep artm ents ; th e e nte rta in m ent

in d ustr y e xerc is e s u nd ue i n flu ence o ver d ecis io ns; a th le ti c s i s a l o w -p rio rity f a culty g o vern ance i s su e; f o otb all a nd

bask etb all p la yers a re n o t a d eq uate ly c o m pensa te d ; a nd ti m e d em and s o n a th le te s a re e sc ala ti n g.

PER CEIV ED I A C E FFEC TS O N S T U DEN TS

Many r e se arc hers h av e a sk ed h o w c o lle ges a ffe ct s tu d ents ( A sti n , 1 999; K uh, 1 995; P asc are lla & T ere nzin i, 2 005).

They f in d th at s tu d ents e ngage w ith th eir c am pus c o m muniti e s i n d iffe re nt w ays, th at h o w th ey s p end th eir ti m e l e ad s to d iffe re nt o utc o m es, a nd th at e ngagem ent i s o fte n a ffe cte d b y p erc eiv ed c lim ate ( e .g ., C ab re ra , N ora , T ere nzin i,

Pasc are lla , & H aged orn , 1 999; H urta d o & C arte r, 1 997; M ars h & K le itm an, 2 002).

As r e gard s I A C, th e p erc ep ti o ns a nd a cti o ns o f i n d iv id uals w ho s e lf- id enti fy a s a th le te s, n o nath le te s, o r f a ns a re

ofte n c o m pare d ( e .g ., C lo pto n, 2 008a; Y opyk & P re nti c e, 2 005). S tu d ie s c o ntr a sti n g a th le te s a nd n o nath le te s y ie ld

co nflic ti n g r e su lts ( M eno n, L oya, & R ankin , 2 012). U m bach, P alm er, K uh, a nd H annah ( 2 006) f o und a th le te s a re

more a cad em ic ally e ngaged a nd m ore l ik ely to b elie v e th eir c am puse s p ro vid e a cad em ic a nd s o cia l s u p port.

Pasc are lla , B ohr, N ora , a nd T ere nzin i ( 1 995) s h o w ed p arti c ip ati o n i n a th le ti c s w as n egati v ely a sso cia te d w ith

acad em ic e ngagem ent i n th e f ir s t y ear. W ith in th e n o nath le te s u b gro up , c o m paris o ns o f f a ns a nd n o nfa ns a re c o m mon

(C lo pto n, 2 008b). S tu d ents w ho r e gula rly a tte nd f o otb all g am es a re m ore p ositi v e a b out th eir i m pact o n s tu d ents ’

se nse o f c am pus c o m munity ( W arn er e t a l., 2 011 ). F ans b elie v e w in nin g r e co rd s e nhance p ub lic p erc ep ti o ns o f th eir

cam pus, b ut s tu d ents i n g enera l d o n o t ( C lo pto n & F in ch, 2 012).

Diffe re nces b etw een a th le te s a nd n o nath le te s a nd a m ong s u b gro up s o f n o nath le te s a re i n fo rm ati v e a cro ss a r a nge

of i s su es. H ow ev er, g iv en a th le ti c d ep artm ents r e sp onsib iliti e s f o r a th le te s, th e f o cus h ere i s o n th eir c lim ate

perc ep ti o ns a nd b ehav io r. I n p arti c ula r, a th le te b elie fs a b out f o ur a sp ects o f I A C: a th le te e d ucati o n, w in nin g, a th le te

health , a nd e th ic s.

Colle g e A th le te E duca tio n

Acad em ic c halle nges a ris e b ecause o f s tr u ctu ra l f e atu re s o f c o lle ge s p orts , p arti c ula rly i n te nsiv e p ra cti c e a nd

co m peti ti o n s c hed ule s ( W att & M oore , 2 001). B ecause

ath le te s f in d i t d iffic ult to s c hed ule g ro up w ork w ith

no nath le te s, th ey o fte n f o rm g ro up s w ith te am mate s a nd f a il to a cq uir e i m porta nt i n fo rm ati o n p re se nte d w hen th ey a re

tr a v elin g. H ow ev er, p ub lis h ed i n q uir ie s f o cus l a rg ely o n th e d is p ara gin g i m ages o f c la ssro om e nv ir o nm ents th at

ath le te s c o gniti v ely c o nstr u ct. M any r e p ort th ey i n te rn aliz e n egati v e r e m ark s f a culty m em bers o r f e llo w s tu d ents

make a nd th at th ey c o m e to b elie v e th ey w ill a lw ays b e v ie w ed a s a cad em ic ally i n ep t, r e gard le ss o f th eir a b ility

(S im ons, B osw orth , F ujita , & J e nse n, 2 007). O ne a th le te ( m ale ) e xp la in ed : “ If a p ro fe sso r k no w s y o u a re a n a th le te ,

yo u a re a ssu m ed to b e s tu p id .” A dle r a nd A dle r ( 1 991) s u ggest th at r e p eate d n egati v e i n te ra cti o ns c o m bin e w ith

ath le ti c d ep artm ent p ra cti c es to u nd erm in e a th le te s’ a cad em ic p erfo rm ance. I n iti a lly , m em bers o f a m en’s b ask etb all

te am w ere o pti m is ti c a b out th eir a cad em ic c are ers a nd e xp ecte d to g ra d uate . H ow ev er, o ver f o ur y ears , c o aches

mad e m ost o f th eir a cad em ic d ecis io ns. P la yers h ad l ittl e i n te ra cti o n w ith f a culty , c am e to f e el c o aches w ould c are

fo r th em a cad em ic ally , b ecam e d eta ched f r o m a cad em ic s, a nd f a ile d to g ra d uate .

Clim ate p erc ep ti o ns, h o w ev er, c an v ary a m ong a th le te s ( M ele nd ez, 2 006). C om pare d to i n d iv id uals i n “ lo w -

pro file s p orts ,” th o se i n “ hig h-p ro file ” s p orts ( e .g ., f o otb all a nd b ask etb all) r e p ort m ore p ositi v e r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith

co aches a nd c la im th at th ese i n te ra cti o ns c o ntr ib ute m ore th an r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith te am a cad em ic a d vis o rs to th eir

acad em ic p erfo rm ance ( M eno n e t a l., 2 012). R acia l s u b gro up s’ p erc ep ti o ns o f a cad em ic s u p port d iffe r ( C om eaux &

Harris o n, 2 007). W ith in a n ati o nal s a m ple , a fte r c o ntr o llin g f o r p re co lle ge c hara cte ris ti c s, w hite a th le te s m ore

fr e q uentl y th an th eir b la ck p eers s a id th ey b enefite d f r o m th eir i n te ra cti o ns w ith f a culty , a nd w ith in th e s a m e te am ,

perc ep ti o ns o f I A C v arie d b y r a ce ( B eam on & B ell, 2 006).

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

The L on elin ess o f B ein g P art o f a T ea m

When I w as p la yin g h ig h s c ho ol b ask etb all, I n ev er f e lt th e a m ount o f p re ssu re th at I f e el p la yin g i n c o lle ge. I t i s n ’t

th e p re ssu re to p erfo rm w ell o r w in g am es. I h av e a lw ays f e lt th at. I f e el l ik e e v ery o ne e xp ects d iffe re nt th in gs f r o m

me, a nd I c an’t b e w hat a ll o f th em w ant m e to b e. C oaches tr e at y o u l ik e th ey o w n y o u b ecause y o u h av e a

sc ho la rs h ip , a nd e v en th o ugh w e k eep b ein g to ld th at a cad em ic s c o m e f ir s t, w e a re s ti ll e xp ecte d to m ake b ask etb all

our to p p rio rity . I c an’t m is s a p ra cti c e o r te am m eeti n g n o m atte r h o w s h o rt o r “ no t m and ato ry ” i t m ay b e. M y

pro fe sso rs tr e at m e d iffe re ntl y f r o m o th er s tu d ents . I t d oesn ’t m atte r h o w I p erfo rm i n c la ss: I w ill a lw ays b e a n

ath le te to th em f ir s t a nd s tu d ent s e co nd . O th er s tu d ents ( n o nath le te s) a ls o j u st d on’t u nd ers ta nd w hat i t i s l ik e w hen

yo u w ork o ver 2 0 h o urs a w eek f o r y o ur s c ho la rs h ip a nd s ti ll s tr u ggle f in ancia lly to m ake e nd s m eet. T hey th in k w e

hav e w ay m ore m oney th an w e a ctu ally d o. T he w ay I a m tr e ate d m akes i t d iffic ult to m ake r e al f r ie nd s o uts id e o f th e

te am o r o th er a th le te s. I a lw ays th o ught b ein g a n a th le te i n c o lle ge w ould m ake m e p opula r. I g uess i n s o m e w ays i t

has: n o o ne e v er f o rg ets w hat I d o, b ut n o o ne r e ally k no w s w ho I a m . T o th e o th er s tu d ents , I a m a nd a lw ays w ill b e

an a th le te . H onestl y , i t i s v ery i s o la ti n g. Win nin g a n d C om merc ia liz a tio n

The g ro w in g e m phasis o n te am s ta nd in gs a nd th e c o m merc ia liz a ti o n o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s c o ntr ib ute to h ig her

le v els o f s tr e ss ( K im ball & F re ysin ger, 2 003) a nd s o cia l i s o la ti o n a m ong a th le te s ( B ro ughto n & N eyer, 2 001;

Rie m er, B eal, & S chro ed er, 2 000; T om a, W olf- W end el, & M orp hew , 2 001). H ig h e xp ecta ti o ns r e su lt i n l o nger

pra cti c es, m ore te am m eeti n gs, w eig ht tr a in in g s e ssio ns, r e q uir e d s tu d y h alls , a nd te am b uild in g s o cia l o uti n gs. E ach

of th ese a cti v iti e s a ls o s e p ara te s a th le te s f r o m n o nath le te s. L is a , a te nnis p la yer, c ap tu re s th e c lim ate p erc ep ti o ns o f

many: “ I r e ally l ik e m y te nnis te am a nd I r e ally l ik e f r ie nd sh ip s w ith th em b ut I s p end s o m uch ti m e p la yin g te nnis a nd

weig ht tr a in in g a nd r u nnin g a nd c la sse s … w e a re l ik e s u ch a c lo se d g ro up ” ( R ie m er e t a l., 2 000).

Colle g e A th le te s’ H ea lt h

Colle ge a th le te s o fte n f o rm e go i d enti ti e s b ase d o n h o w th ey p erfo rm i n th eir s p ort ( H arris , 1 993), a nd th ere i s a r is k

to th eir h ealth i f s e lf- w orth i s ti e d e xclu siv ely to th eir a th le ti c a b ility ( H ow ard -H am ilto n & S in a, 2 001). C olle ge

ath le te s’ s e lf- im age c an i n te ra ct w ith p erfo rm ance e xp ecta ti o ns th at u nd erlie th eir f in ancia l a ssis ta nce a nd h eig hte n

str e ss ( M aza no v, H uyb ers , & C onno r, 2 011 ). S tr e ss, i n tu rn , a ffe cts th eir o pin io ns a b out w heth er th e u se o f

perfo rm ance-e nhancin g d ru gs i s a ccep ta b le ( S m ith e t a l., 2 010). C olle ge a th le te s a re m ore l ik ely to u se d ru gs i f th ey

belie v e th ey w ill h elp th em w in , o r i f th eir s c ho la rs h ip o r s p onso rs h ip i s ti e d to p erfo rm ance ( M aza no v e t a l., 2 011 ).

Alc o ho l a b use a nd e ati n g d is o rd ers a re a ls o p re v ale nt ( L is h a & S ussm an, 2 010; J u hn, 2 003; M illm an & R oss,

2003; N els o n & W echsle r, 2 001). H ow ev er, l in ks to I A C a re u ncle ar. D oum as, T urris i, a nd W rig ht ( 2 006) p osit

unhealth y b ehav io rs m ay a lr e ad y b e i n gra in ed i n a th le te s b efo re th ey a rriv e a nd a re n o t d ue to c o lle ge e nv ir o nm ents .

Marte ns, D am s-O ’C onno r, a nd B eck, ( 2 006) c la im th at s u b sta nce a b use c an b e a ttr ib ute d to a th le te s’ h ig h-ris k -ta kin g

pers o naliti e s. D oum as e t a l. ( 2 006) p ro pose s th at s o cia l i s o la ti o n l e ad s to a lc o ho l c o nsu m pti o n w here as G ro ssb ard

et a l. ( 2 008) b elie v e a s tr o ng a ttr a cti o n to o ne’s te am i n cre ase s a lc o ho l a nd m ariju ana u se .

Eth ic s

Ath le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s d em ocra ti z e h ig her e d ucati o n, f a cilita ti n g i n te ra cti o ns b etw een s tu d ents w ith d iffe re nt s o cia l

and e th nic b ackgro und s ( D ud ers ta d t, 2 000; S chulm an & B ow en, 2 001). H ow ev er, a th le te s o fte n e nco unte r o vert

ra cis m d urin g th e r e cru itm ent p ro cess. A c ase s tu d y o f O le M is s d esc rib es c am pus tr a d iti o ns a nd c ele b ra ti o ns th at

min o rity s tu d ents b elie v e h av e n egati v e r a cia l o verto nes a nd e xp la in s h o w th ese p erc ep ti o ns i n flu enced th eir c o lle ge

cho ic es ( F ond re n, 2 010). T he s tu d y a ls o r a is e s q uesti o ns a b out th e e th ic s o f a th le ti c d ep artm ent a nd b ooste r

pra cti c es th at u se a r iv al c am pus’s r a cia l c lim ate a s a r e cru iti n g to ol.

CO NCLU SIO N

Our b rie f o verv ie w o f th e l ite ra tu re u nd ers c o re s b oth th e v aria b ility o f c lim ate p erc ep ti o ns a ro und i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c s a nd th e p ro fo und e ffe cts th ey c an h av e o n b ehav io r. C am pus l e ad ers ’ o rie nta ti o ns to w ard i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c s s h ap e th eir b ud get d ecis io ns, f a culty b elie fs i n flu ence th e p ositi o ns th ey ta ke r e gard in g th e p la ce o f

in te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i n h ig her e d ucati o n, a nd a th le te s’ c lim ate p erc ep ti o ns i n flu ence h o w th ey e ngage th e b ro ad er

cam pus c o m munity . A t th e s a m e ti m e, m ix ed a nd o fte n-c o nflic ti n g s tu d y f in d in gs h ig hlig ht th e n eed to c o nsid er

diffe re nces i n c am pus c o nte xts a nd i n d iv id ual e xp erie nces th at i n fo rm th ese s u b je cti v e i n te rp re ta ti o ns o f

in te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s g o als , p olic ie s, a nd p ra cti c es.

Why, th en, m ig ht c am pus a d m in is tr a to rs b e i n te re ste d i n I A C? P erh ap s th e u niv ers ity g o vern in g b oard w ond ers

ho w i n te gra l i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts a re to c am pus l ife . O r th e c hie f a cad em ic o ffic er m ay w ant to k no w i f p erc eiv ed

acad em ic c lu ste rin g o f a th le te s a ffe cts c am pus-w id e j u d gm ents a b out th e q uality o f p arti c ula r d egre e p ro gra m s. A n

ath le ti c d ep artm ent d ir e cto r m ay s e ek to u nd ers ta nd th e p ers p ecti v es o f c am pus a d vis o ry g ro up m em bers s o th at h e o r

sh e c an a nti c ip ate d iffe re nt p ositi o ns a nd c ra ft e ffe cti v e a rg um ents i n s u p port o f a p arti c ula r d ecis io n o pti o n.

Kno w in g th e p ers p ecti v es o f s ta ff i n o th er c am pus d ep artm ents c an h elp s e nio r w om en a d m in is tr a to rs i n iti a te a nd

su sta in c o nv ers a ti o ns a b out c o ord in ati n g a nd i m pro vin g s u p port f o r a th le te s.

We h av e i d enti fie d m any c riti c al f e atu re s o f c am pus I A C a nd f a cto rs i n te rn al a nd e xte rn al to a u niv ers ity th at m ay

sh ap e i t. T he n o ti o n o f I A C th at w e p ro pose p ro vid es i n sig hts i n to w hy c am pus c o nsti tu ents r e sp ond d iffe re ntl y to

esta b lis h ed a th le ti c d ep artm ent g o als , p olic ie s, a nd p ra cti c es. I t a ls o o ffe rs a w ay to s tr u ctu re d is c ussio ns o f

pro pose d c hanges. H ow ev er, w e r e co gniz e th e l im ita ti o ns o f o ur f r a m ew ork a nd e nco ura ge r e ad ers to c riti q ue i t a nd build a s tr o nger c o ncep tu aliz a ti o n.

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

W hat a re y o ur p ers o nal b elie fs a b out th e g o als o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s to day? W hat p olic ie s a nd p ra cti c es d o

yo u th in k f a cilita te a nd d etr a ct f r o m th e a tta in m ent o f th ese g o als ?

C onsid er a p ro pose d p olic y c hange a t y o ur u niv ers ity o r c o lle ge. W hat p ote nti a lly d iffe re nt r e sp onse s to th is

pro posa l m ig ht f o llo w f r o m p eo ple ’s p erc ep ti o ns o f y o ur c am pus’s i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s c lim ate ?

A s a n a d m in is tr a to r i n a n a th le ti c d ep artm ent, w hat s te p s c an y o u ta ke to p ositi o n y o urs e lf to te st th e i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c s c lim ate p rio r to r e co m mend in g c hanges i n p olic ie s a nd p ra cti c es?

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In te rn atio nal

Jo urn al o f S port F in ance, 5

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Willia m s, M . R ., & P ennin gto n, K . ( 2 006). C om munity C olle ge P re sid ents ’ P erc ep ti o ns o f I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s.

Com munity C olle g e E nte rp ris e , 1 2

(2 ), 9 1–104.

Yopyk, D . J . A ., & P re nti c e, D . A . ( 2 005). A m I a n a th le te o r s tu d ent? I d enti ty s a lie nce a nd s te re o ty p e th re at i n

stu d ent- a th le te s.

Basic & A pplie d S ocia l P sy ch olo gy, 2 7

, 3 29–336.

Zim balis t, A . ( 2 010). D olla r d ile m mas d urin g th e d ow ntu rn : A f in ancia l c ro ssro ad s f o r c o lle ge s p orts .

Jo urn al o f

In te rc o lle g ia te S port, 3

, 1 11 –124. 4 PA RT F O UR

The B usin ess E nte rp ris e o f C olle g e A th le tic s

C onsid era b le a tte nti o n h as b een g iv en to th e c hangin g a nd c o m ple x c o nte xt o f c o lle gia te a th le ti c s, w here b usin ess

pra cti c es a nd i n cre asin g c o m merc ia lis m c an c o m pro m is e th e m is sio n a nd p hilo so phy o f h ig her e d ucati o n. I n

chap te r

9 , A nd re w Z im balis t o utl in es th e n atu re o f th e ta x p riv ile ges e njo yed b y th e m ulti b illio n-d olla r i n d ustr y o f c o lle ge

sp orts a nd r e v ie w s th e b asis i n th e ta x l a w s f o r th is f a v ora b le tr e atm ent.

Chap te r 1 0

, b y R odney F ort, e xp lo re s

Div is io n I c o lle ge a th le ti c s s p end in g a nd th e d egre e to w hic h i t i s c o nsis te nt w ith th e f u nd am enta l a cad em ic m is sio n

of c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s. N ext, i n

chap te r 1 1

, S co tt H ir k o a nd K yle S w eitz e r d is c uss th e b usin ess m odel i n N CA A

Div is io n I a th le ti c s, i n tu rn c o nsid erin g th e “ hav es” a nd th e “ hav e-n o ts ” i n m ajo r c o lle ge s p orts . T hey a ls o o utl in e

se v era l a lte rn ati v es f o r r e fo rm in g th e c urre nt b usin ess m odel. I n

chap te r 1 2

, M urra y S perb er a nd V in cent M in ja re s

desc rib e th e q uesti o nab le n atu re o f i n v esti n g m illio ns o f d olla rs i n c o aches a nd th e e ffe cts o f th is p ra cti c e o n th e

univ ers ity ’s m is sio n. L ik ew is e , th ey h ig hlig ht th e w ays i n w hic h m illio nair e c o aches e m phasiz e te am p erfo rm ance

and w in nin g o ver th e a cad em ic a nd p ers o nal n eed s o f th eir c o lle ge a th le te s.

C H APTER

T A XATIO N o f C O LLEG E S P O RTS

P olic ie s a nd C ontr o versie s

A ndre w Z im balis t

K EY T ER M S

unre la te d b usin ess in co m e t a xatio n

fu nctio nally r e la te d

deductib le d onatio n

ta x-e xem pt b onds

501(c )(3 )

priv ate in ure m ent

O n O cto ber 2 , 2 006, U .S . H ouse W ays a nd M eans C om mitte e c hair m an B ill T ho m as s e nt N ati o nal C olle gia te

A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n ( N CA A) p re sid ent M yle s B ra nd a l o ng l e tte r q uesti o nin g w hy th e N CA A a nd i n te rc o lle gia te

a th le ti c s s h o uld b e a b le to r e ta in th eir p le th o ra o f ta x p riv ile ges. T ho m as p oin te d ly i n q uir e d h o w th e

h yp erc o m merc ia liz e d a cti v iti e s o f D iv is io n I a th le ti c s s u p porte d th e ta x-e xem pt e d ucati o nal m is sio n o f U .S . c o lle ges

a nd u niv ers iti e s. T his c hap te r s e eks to u nd ers ta nd th is i s su e, b oth f r o m th e p ers p ecti v e o f ta x l a w a nd f r o m th at o f

p ub lic p olic y.

Befo re o ne c an m eanin gfu lly a nsw er th e q uesti o n o f w hy i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s s h o uld h av e ta x p riv ile ges, i t i s

n ecessa ry to u nd ers ta nd w hat th o se p riv ile ges a re a s w ell a s th e l e gal b asis f o r th em . T here a re th re e p rin cip le a re as

o f ta x p riv ile ges f o r c o lle ge s p orts :

1. T he a b ility f o r d ono rs to d ed uct 8 0% o f “ co ntr ib uti o ns” to a th le ti c d ep artm ents th at a re r e q uir e d f o r th em to b e

ab le to p urc hase s e aso n’s ti c kets to e ith er f o otb all o r m en’s b ask etb all g am es

2. T he a b ility o f c o lle ge s p orts p ro gra m s to i s su e f a cility b ond s, w hic h h as ta x-e xem pt i n te re st to th e h o ld ers

3. T he a b ility to a v oid ta xati o n o n a cti v iti e s th at a re u nre la te d to th e p urp ose o f th e ta x e xem pti o n h eld b y U .S .

co lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s

T hese ta x p riv ile ges a re b ase d o n a b ro ad er ta x e xem pti o n th at i s a ffo rd ed U .S . c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s. T he

e xem pti o n, i n tu rn , i s b ase d f o r

public u niv ersitie s

o n th e a ssu m pti o n th at th e s ta te i s p ro vid in g a s e rv ic e th at m ay

o th erw is e h av e to b e p ro duced b y th e f e d era l g o vern m ent a nd f o r

priv a te u niv ersitie s

o n th e a ssu m pti o n th at

e d ucati o n i s a

pub lic g o od w ho se d ev elo pm ent p ro m ote s th e g enera l w elfa re a nd f u ncti o nin g o f o ur d em ocra ti c

g o vern m ent. P ub lic u niv ers iti e s, a s s ta te e nte rp ris e s, a re a uto m ati c ally e xem pt, w hile p riv ate u niv ers iti e s f a ll u nd er

t h e 5 01(c )(3 ) c ate go ry th at p ro vid es e xem pti o n f o r c harita b le , n o np ro fit o rg aniz a ti o ns. I n 1 976 th e U .S . C ongre ss

p asse d a n a m end m ent to 5 01(c )(3 ) th at e xp lic itl y c la ssifie d th e p ro m oti o n o f a m ate ur s p orts a s a c harita b le a cti v ity .

H ence, th e N CA A w as a b le to o bta in 5 01(c )(3 ) s ta tu s a nd th ere fo re i s c o vere d b y th e ta x e xem pti o n, a s a re p riv ate

u niv ers iti e s a nd c o lle ges. A cco rd in g to I n te rn al R ev enue S erv ic e ( IR S) c o de, h o w ev er, b oth p ub lic a nd p riv ate

n o np ro fit u niv ers iti e s a re e xp lic itl y m ad e s u b je ct to u nre la te d b usin ess i n co m e ta xati o n ( U BIT ); a nd , a s w e s h all s e e,

s o m e k ey q uesti o ns i n c o nnecti o n to th e U BIT a ris e a b out th e r e la ti o nsh ip o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s to th e

e d ucati o nal m is sio n o f u niv ers iti e s th at f o rm th e b asis f o r th e f r e q uentl y h eard c all f o r c o lle ge s p orts to b e ta xed . DED UCTIB IL IT Y F O R D O NAT IO NS

Let u s n o w c o nsid er th e th re e ta x p riv ile ges th at b enefit i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. M ost o f th e 1 24 s c ho ols i n th e

Footb all B ow l S ub div is io n ( F B S, f o rm erly D I - A ) i n 2 013 r e q uir e th eir s u p porte rs a nd f a ns to m ake a s iz a b le

donati o n to th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent i n o rd er to b e a b le to p urc hase s e aso n’s ti c kets to th e h o m e g am es o f th e s c ho ol’s

fo otb all o r b ask etb all te am . O ne o f th e f ir s t s c ho ols to d o th is w as th e U niv ers ity o f T exas i n th e e arly 1 980s.

How ev er, i n 1 984, T exas g o t s o m e b ad n ew s f r o m th e I R S. T he I R S r u le d th at s in ce th ese “ d onati o ns” to th e

univ ers ity w ere a p aym ent f o r p urc hasin g p art o f a ti c ket f o r th eir p ers o nal e njo ym ent, th ey w ould n o t b e d ed ucti b le

(a s a g ift to a c harita b le o rg aniz a ti o n). F ortu nate ly f o r th e T exas a th le ti c d ep artm ent, i t h ad s o m e p ow erfu l f r ie nd s. I n

parti c ula r, i ts a lu m nus U .S . r e p re se nta ti v e J a ke P ic kle h ap pened to b e a m em ber o f th e H ouse W ays a nd M eans

Com mitte e. H e w ro te a b ill, c o sp onso re d b y U .S . s e nato r f r o m L ouis ia na R usse ll L ong, th at s ti p ula te d 1 00% o f th e

pre ti c ket “ co ntr ib uti o ns” w as ta x d ed ucti b le f o r f a ns b uyin g ti c kets to th e U niv ers ity o f T exas a nd L ouis ia na S ta te

Univ ers ity f o otb all g am es ( D exheim er, 2 007; E ic helb erg er & B ab co ck, 2 012). O th er s c ho ols q uic kly p ic ked u p o n

th e f a v oriti s m a nd l o bbie d f o r th e p ro vis io n to b e m ad e g enera l. I n 1 988, th e U .S . C ongre ss o blig ed , p assin g a b ill

th at m ad e 8 0% o f a ll s u ch ti c ket “ d onati o ns” d ed ucti b le f o r a ll u niv ers iti e s ( G aul, 2 012).

When C ongre ss p asse d th is d ed ucti b ility p ro vis io n, i t w as e sti m ate d th at i t w ould c o st th e U .S . T re asu ry $ 0.5

millio n a nnually . I n 2 012

Blo om berg N ew s

m ad e o pen-re co rd r e q uests o f F B S s c ho ols , b ut o nly 3 4 o f th e 1 20 F B S

sc ho ols a t th e ti m e r e sp ond ed w ith d ata o n th e d onati o ns c o lle cte d i n o rd er to p urc hase s e aso n’s ti c kets . O hio S ta te

Univ ers ity c o lle cte d th e m ost, w ith $ 38.7 m illio n, f o llo w ed b y L SU w ith $ 38.0 m illio n a nd T exas w ith $ 33.9 m illio n,

and th e 3 4 s c ho ols to geth er c o lle cte d $ 467.2 m illio n. A t 8 0% d ed ucti b ility , th is a m ounte d to $ 373.8 m illio n; a nd , a t a

to p ta x r a te o f 3 9.6 % , th is a m ounte d to i n d iv id ual ta x s a v in gs

(o r c o st to th e f e d era l g o vern m ent) o f $ 148 m illio n.

And th is s u m r e fe rs to o nly 3 4 s c ho ols . T here a re 1 24 F B S s c ho ols a nd 3 40 D iv is io n I s c ho ols ( E ic helb erg er &

Bab co ck, 2 012).

It s e em s r e aso nab le to v ie w th ese u p fr o nt “ co ntr ib uti o ns” a s s im ila r to p erm anent s e at l ic ense s ( P SLs) th at a re

so ld b y p ro fe ssio nal s p orts te am s. P SL a re e sse nti a lly th e f ir s t p art o f a tw o-p art ta riff to p urc hase a s e aso n’s ti c ket:

th e to ta l m ark et p ric e o f th e ti c ket i s th e p ro ra te d P SL ( o r “ co ntr ib uti o n”) p lu s th e n o m in al ti c ket p ric e. F or a ny g iv en

to ta l m ark et ti c ket p ric e, u niv ers ity a th le ti c d ep artm ents c an i n cre ase th eir ti c ket r e v enue b y i n cre asin g th e f ir s t p art

of th e ta riff a nd l o w erin g th e s e co nd p art. B y r a is in g th e f ir s t p art, th e n et ( a fte r ta x) ti c ket p ric e to th e f a n i s l o w er

and , h ence, th e u niv ers ity c an s e ll m ore ti c kets o r c harg e a h ig her f in al p ric e. T here i s n o c o nceiv ab le e co no m ic o r

effic ie ncy j u sti fic ati o n f o r th e f e d era l g o vern m ent to s a crific e ta x r e v enues i n o rd er to s u b sid iz e th e p urc hase o f

se aso n ti c kets ( a lm ost e nti r e ly b y h ig her-in co m e i n d iv id uals ) f o r b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orti n g e v ents . T o th e e xte nt th at

th ere a re a ncilla ry b enefits f r o m s u ch a p olic y, th ese c o uld b e o bta in ed th ro ugh a m ore d ir e ct a p pro ach.

IS SU AN CE O F T A X-E XEM PT B O NDS F O R F A C IL IT Y C O NST R UCTIO N

Ath le ti c d ep artm ents i n e ith er p ub lic o r n o np ro fit, p riv ate u niv ers iti e s a re a b le , th ro ugh th eir s c ho ols , to f in ance

fa cility c o nstr u cti o n o r r e no vati o n th ro ugh th e i s su ance o f b ond s, th e i n te re st o n w hic h i s ta x-e xem pt to i ts h o ld ers .

Bond b uyers a re g enera lly h ig h-in co m e i n d iv id uals . C onsid er th e f o llo w in g e xam ple . I f a b ond b uyer, i n th e h ig hest

39.6 % ta x b ra cket, b uys a n o nexem pt c o rp ora te b ond , w ith , s a y, a 7 % i n te re st r a te , th e n et ( a fte r ta x) i n te re st r a te i s

4.2 3% . F or a ta x-e xem pt b ond to b e c o m peti ti v e w ith th is c o rp ora te b ond , th e i n te re st w ould h av e to b e o nly 4 .2 3%

(o r l o w er, g iv en th at th ere m ay a ls o b e a n e xem pti o n f r o m s ta te i n co m e ta x.) I n th is e xam ple , a b ond to f in ance th e

co nstr u cti o n o r r e no vati o n o f a c o lle ge f o otb all s ta d iu m w ould s a v e 2 .7 2% , w hic h o n a $ 200 m illio n b ond , a m ounts

to a $ 5.4 4 m illio n a nnual s a v in g o n th e b ond ’s d eb t s e rv ic e, o r a y early f e d era l s u b sid y to th e s ta d iu m o f $ 5.4 4

millio n.

Sin ce 1 995, U .S . u niv ers iti e s h av e s p ent m ore th an $ 30 b illio n o n s p orts f a ciliti e s. M any o bse rv ers b elie v e th ere

is a n a rm s’ r a ce a m ong s c ho ols , w here in th e f o rc es o f c o m peti ti o n p ush th ese e xp end itu re s o n m odern iz e d s tr u ctu re s,

re p le te w ith l u xury b oxes, c lu b s e ati n g, s ig nage b oard s, r e sta ura nts , a nd m ore . T he f e d era l s u b sid y e nco ura ges th is

la v is h s p end in g.

Giv en th at a u niv ers ity ’s ta x-e xem pt s ta tu s i s m eant to u nd erw rite i ts c entr a l p urp ose o f e d ucati o n, th ere i s a

le giti m ate q uesti o n o f w heth er th e h yp erc o m merc ia liz e d b usin ess o f b ig -ti m e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i s s u ffic ie ntl y

re la te d to th is c entr a l p urp ose to j u sti fy e xte nd in g th e e xem pti o n to th e c o nstr u cti o n o f s p orts s ta d iu m s, a re nas,

tr a in in g f a ciliti e s, a nd tu to rin g b uild in gs f o r a th le te s.

In h is 2 006 l e tte r to th e U .S . C ongre ss, N CA A p re sid ent M yle s B ra nd w ro te : “ A th le ti c s f a ciliti e s, s ta te -o f- th e-a rt

or o th erw is e , a re n ecessa ry f o r th e s u p port o f th e a cti v ity f o r w hic h th ere i s a ta x e xem pti o n. T hese f a ciliti e s, o fte n

paid f o r th ro ugh b ond s o r c harita b le c o ntr ib uti o ns, a ls o g enera te r e v enue th at o ffs e ts th e o pera ti o nal c o st o f a th le ti c s th at m ig ht n o t o th erw is e b e p ro vid ed th ro ugh i n sti tu ti o nal f u nd s.” I f, h o w ev er, th ese f a ciliti e s g enera te s u ffic ie nt

fu nd s to j u sti fy th e i n v estm ent i n th em , th en th ere i s n o r e aso n f o r th e f e d era l g o vern m ent to s u b sid iz e th em . I n th e

end , th e m odern s ta d iu m s a nd a re nas r a is e th e r e v enue l e v el o f b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts . S in ce th ere a re n o

sto ckho ld ers to p ro fit f r o m s u ccessfu l s p orts p ro gra m s a nd a th le te s a re n o t r e m unera te d b eyo nd th e b asic g ra nt- in -

aid , a s u b sta nti a l p art o f th e a d diti o nal r e v enue f lo w s to th e c o aches a nd a d m in is tr a to rs o f th e s y ste m . T hus, c riti c s

ask : W hy s h o uld th e ta xp ayer b e c alle d u p on to s u p port f a ncy f a ciliti e s f o r c o lle ge s p orts ?

AV O ID AN CE O F U BIT L EV IE S

When a p ub lic o r n o np ro fit i n sti tu ti o n s e ts u p i ts o w n c o m merc ia l e nte rp ris e , th e n et i n co m e o f th is o pera ti o n m ay b e

su b je ct to ta xati o n. T his p rin cip le w as e sta b lis h ed b y th e U BIT l e gis la ti o n p asse d b y th e U .S . C ongre ss i n 1 950.

Befo re 1 950, a nd d ati n g b ack to a S up re m e C ourt d ecis io n i n 1 924, c harita b le e nti ti e s w ere p erm itte d to r u n a

co m merc ia l b usin ess a nd n o t h av e to p ay ta xes o n i ts p ro fits i f th e p ro fits w ere u se d to s u p port th e e nti ti e s’ c harita b le

acti v iti e s. I n 1 950, h o w ev er, o ut o f c o ncern th at s u ch b usin esse s w ould h av e a n u nfa ir c o m peti ti v e a d vanta ge o ver

in d ep end ent b usin esse s p ro ducin g th e s a m e p ro duct o r s e rv ic e a nd th at th e p olic y r e d uced g o vern m ent ta x r e v enues,

Congre ss e nacte d th e U BIT . I n 2 004, th e g o vern m ent c o lle cte d m ore th an $ 192 m illio n i n U BIT r e v enue f r o m 5 01(3 )

(c ) e nti ti e s. T his c o lle cti o n w as b ase d o n r e p orte d g ro ss i n co m e o f $ 5.5 b illio n, c o nsti tu ti n g a ta x r a te o f o nly 3 .5 % .

The l o w r a te i s a p ro duct o f th e 5 01(c )(3 ) e nti ti e s’ a b ility to s h ift r e v enues a nd c o sts to l o w er th e ta xab le i n co m e o f

th eir u nre la te d e nti ti e s ( C olo m bo, 2 010).

Und ers ta nd in g h o w th e U BIT a p plie s to b ig -ti m e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i s n o t a s im ple m atte r a nd , l ik e m uch o f

th e l a w , i s s u b je ct to i n te rp re ta ti o n. T he b asic c rite rio n i s w heth er o r n o t th e c o m merc ia l e nti ty ’s o utp ut i s

fu ncti o nally r e la te d to a nd i n f u rth era nce o f th e b asic m is sio n o f th e c harity ( in th is c ase , e ith er e d ucati o n o r th e

pro vis io n o f a m ate ur s p orts ), a nd I R S i n te rp re ta ti o n o f th is c rite rio n o ver th e y ears h as te nd ed to b e n arro w . F or

in sta nce, i n 1 968 th e I R S r u le d a h o sp ita l’s c harita b le p urp ose w as p ro vid in g h ealth c are to th e p ati e nts i n th e

ho sp ita l; a cco rd in gly , a p harm acy w ith in th e h o sp ita l th at p ro vid ed d ru gs to p ati e nts i n th e h o sp ita l w as f u ncti o nally

re la te d to th e c harita b le p urp ose , b ut th e s a le o f d ru gs to th e g enera l p ub lic b y s u ch a p harm acy w as n o t. I n 1 973 th e

IR S r u le d th at th e s a le o f s c ie nce b ooks i n a n a rt m use um b ooksto re w as s u b je ct to U BIT b ut th e s a le o f

re p ro ducti o ns o r p ostc ard s w as n o t. I n th e c o nte xt o f th e u niv ers ity , a T re asu ry D ep artm ent

re gula ti o n s ti p ula te s th at

“th e p re se nta ti o n o f … d ra m a a nd m usic e v ents c o ntr ib ute s i m porta ntl y to th e o vera ll e d ucati o nal a nd c ultu ra l

fu ncti o n o f th e u niv ers ity ” a nd , h ence, i s n o t s u b je ct to U BIT ( C olo m bo, 2 010). F ollo w in g th is l o gic , a c ase c an b e

mad e to th e T re asu ry to a p ply th e s a m e r e aso nin g to i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s.

CASE S T U DY

NYU a n d C . F . M uelle r C o.

In 1 946, th e o w ner o f th e r e no w ned C . F . M uelle r C o. p asse d a w ay. T hro ugh a v arie ty o f p ers o nal c o nnecti o ns, th e

enti r e c o m pany w as m ad e a v aila b le f o r p urc hase to th e N YU L aw S cho ol a t th e h eav ily d is c o unte d p ric e o f $ 3.5

millio n, a lo ng w ith a l o w -in te re st l o an. U nd er th e L aw S cho ol’s o w ners h ip , th e c o m pany f lo uris h ed a nd th e l o an w as

paid o ff a fte r s o m e 2 0 y ears . B y 1 975, o ut o f th e L aw S cho ol’s to ta l b ud get o f $ 9 m illio n, a lm ost o ne-th ir d c am e

fr o m th e p ro fits o f i ts p asta c o m pany. T he f a ct th at M uelle r’s p ro fits w ent u nta xed w as n o t o verlo oked b y o th er p asta

co m panie s. T hey p re ssu re d C ongre ss to l e v el th e p la yin g f ie ld , w hic h i t d id w ith th e U BIT l a w o f 1 950.

Muelle r’s s u ccess m et w ith a no th er o bsta cle . T he r e st o f N YU w as i n d ir e f in ancia l s tr a its , r u nnin g a n o pera ti n g

defic it o f $ 4.4 m illio n d urin g 1 974–1975 a nd w as p ro je cte d to g ro w i n th e c o m in g y ears . N YU b egan a n a uste rity

pla n th at i n clu d ed s e llin g o ff i ts u nd erg ra d uate c am pus i n th e n o rth B ro nx. T he l a w s c ho ol b elie v ed th at i ts o w n

health w as ti e d to th at o f th e u niv ers ity a nd , u lti m ate ly , w as p ers u ad ed to s e ll i ts M uelle r o pera ti o n a nd , i n e xchange

fo r g re ate r l a w s c ho ol b ud geta ry a uto no m y, to s h are th e p ro ceed s w ith th e u niv ers ity o n a 5 9/4 1 b asis . T he c o m pany

was s o ld i n 1 976 f o r $ 11 5 m illio n, f o r a c ap ita l g ain o f o ver $ 11 0 m illio n ( B ro oks, 1 977).

The I R S b rie fly c o nte m pla te d ta xin g te le v is io n r e v enues i n i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts b ack i n 1 977, b ut r e v ers e d

its e lf, a nd i n 1 980 r u le d th at T V r e v enues w ere n o t s u b je ct to U BIT ( C olo m bo, 2 010). I n 1 991 th e I R S r u le d th at

co rp ora te a d verti s in g/s p onso rs h ip r e v enue i n c o lle ge s p orts w as s u b je ct to U BIT , b ut i n 1 997 C ongre ss v ote d to

exem pt s u ch i n co m e f r o m U BIT p ro vid ed th at i t w as n o t c o m para ti v e a nd p ro m oti o nal i n n atu re .

T hus, C oca-C ola

co uld h av e a s ig n a t th e C am p R and all S ta d iu m i n M ad is o n, W is c o nsin , th at s im ply s ta te d “ C oke” o r “ C oca-C ola Sup ports B ad gers ’ F ootb all,” b ut i t c o uld n o t h av e a ta x e xem pt s ig n th at s ta te d “ C oke I s N o. 1 ” o r “ N oth in g B eats

Coke f o r S ati s fy in g R efr e sh m ent.”

S im ila rly , b uyin g n am in g r ig hts to a f a cility d oes n o t i n v olv e e xp lic it p ro m oti o n

and i s e xem pt f r o m U BIT T axati o n.

Curre nt l a w a ls o e xclu d es a ll p assiv e i n co m e f r o m U BIT , s u ch a s r o yalty o r l ic ensin g i n co m e f r o m th e s a le o f

lo go s, i m ages, o r g am e h ig hlig hts . I n 2 005 l ic ensin g a nd r o yalty r e v enue i n c o lle ge s p orts w as e sti m ate d a t $ 203

millio n ( W eis b ro d, B allo u, & A sc h, 2 008).

For a n e nti ty to r e ta in i ts 5 01(c )(3 ) s ta tu s a nd , h ence, i ts e lig ib ility to r e m ain ta x e xem pt, i t m ust a ls o m eet c erta in

lim ita ti o ns. O ne s u ch l im ita ti o n i s th at th ere c an b e n o “ p riv ate i n ure m ent,” o r s ip ho nin g o f s u rp lu s to th e b enefit o f

an e m plo yee o f th e e nti ty . I n o rd er to m eet th is s ta nd ard i t i s r e q uir e d th at e m plo yees b e p aid a f a ir, m ark et- b ase d

co m pensa ti o n f o r th eir s e rv ic es. T he q uesti o n h as b een r a is e d a b out th e h ig h s a la rie s o f h ead c o aches o f D iv is io n I

fo otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all te am s a nd w heth er th ese c o nsti tu te p riv ate i n ure m ent.

Ano th er l im ita ti o n i s th at th ere c an b e n o “ p riv ate b enefit.” P riv ate b enefit r e fe rs to a n o uts id er to a 5 01(c )(3 )

org aniz a ti o n g ain in g e xcessiv ely f r o m i ts r e la ti o nsh ip w ith th e c harita b le e nti ty , w heth er o r n o t th e p aym ent i s a t a

mark et r a te . C onsid er h o w th e N FL a nd th e N BA g ain e xcessiv ely f r o m th e d ev elo pm ent a nd p ro m oti o n o f p la yers i n

co lle ge s p orts . I n b ase b all, th e a v era ge m ajo r l e ague te am s p end s r o ughly $ 25 m illio n o n p la yer d ev elo pm ent w ith in

its m in o r l e ague s y ste m s, w hile th e N BA’s d ev elo pm ent l e ague e xp ense s a re d im in uti v e, a nd th e N FL h as n o m in o r

le ague o r d ev elo pm ent s y ste m . I n th is w ay, c o lle ge s p orts s e rv e a s a m in o r l e ague a nd d ev elo pm ent s y ste m f o r th e

NBA a nd N FL, w ith th e a d ded b onus th at D iv is io n I te am s g et e no ugh m ed ia c o vera ge s o th at th e p la yers c o m e to th e

pro s w ith s u b sta nti a l p ub lic r e su m es a nd n o to rie ty .

Fin ally , i t i s a p pro pria te to i n q uir e w heth er a p ply in g U BIT to c o lle ge s p orts w ould m ake a d iffe re nce. I f c o lle ge

ath le ti c d ep artm ents c an s h ift c o sts a nd b enefits a m ong v ario us c o lle ge d ep artm ents ( e .g ., b uild in gs a nd g ro und s,

dance, m usic , d in in g s e rv ic es, g enera l a d m in is tr a ti o n) a nd th ere b y a v oid s h o w in g a ny n et i n co m e; o r i f th ere i s tr u ly

no n et i n co m e i n m ost p ro gra m s a nyw ay, w ould i t m atte r i f c o lle ge s p orts w ere s u b je ct to a n i n co m e ta x? T he s h o rt

answ er i s th at U BIT l a w a ls o c o nta in s a f r a gm enta ti o n p rin cip le th at a llo w s th e I R S to v ie w th e s e p ara te p arts o f a

501(c )(3 ) e nti ty i n d ep end entl y . T hus, i n th eo ry a t l e ast, th e I R S c o uld c o nsid er n et i n co m e f r o m f o otb all, b ask etb all,

or c o rp ora te s p onso rs h ip s, e v en th o ugh th e e nti r e a th le ti c d ep artm ent d id n o t g enera te a s u rp lu s. W e tu rn n o w to

co nsid er th e d eb ate a ro und th is a fo re m enti o ned q uesti o n.

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

Myle s B ra n d, F orm er N CAA P re sid en t

The N CA A o rg aniz e s i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. I ts o ffic ers a nd e m plo yees b enefit w hen c o lle ge s p orts f lo uris h

eco no m ic ally . T he p re sid ent o f th e N CA A i s a s ta keho ld er i n th e s y ste m . B etw een 2 002 a nd 2 009, M yle s B ra nd w as

th e a sso cia ti o n’s p re sid ent.

In N ovem ber 2 006, M yle s B ra nd w ro te a 2 5-p age r e sp onse to th e q uesti o ns o f U .S . R ep re se nta ti v e B ill T ho m as

of C alifo rn ia a b out w hy th e N CA A a nd i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s m erit th e ta x p riv ile ges th ey e njo y. A mong B ra nd ’s

co m ments , h e w ro te : “ T he l e sso ns l e arn ed o n th e f o otb all f ie ld o r m en’s b ask etb all c o urt a re n o l e ss i n v alu e o r

im porta nce to th o se a th le te s th an th e o nes l e arn ed o n th e h o ckey r in k o r s o ftb all d ia m ond — n o r, f o r th at m atte r, th an

th o se l e arn ed i n th eate r, d ance, m usic , j o urn alis m o r o th er n o n-c la ssro om e nv ir o nm ents .” A t a g enera l l e v el, f e w

would d is a gre e w ith th is a sse rti o n. C riti c s, h o w ev er, w ould a sk w heth er th e c o m merc ia liz a ti o n o f c o lle ge s p orts i s

co ngru ent w ith th e e d ucati o nal g o als to w hic h B ra nd a llu d es.

Bra nd a ls o w ro te : “ If th e e d ucati o nal p urp ose o f c o lle ge b ask etb all c o uld b e p re se rv ed o nly b y d enyin g th e r ig ht

to te le cast th e e v ents , s tu d ents , u niv ers ity f a culty a nd s ta ff, a lu m ni, th e i n sti tu ti o ns o f h ig her e d ucati o n th em se lv es a nd

ev en th e A meric an ta xp ayer w ould u lti m ate ly l o se . T he s c ale o f p opula rity a nd th e m ed ia a tte nti o n g iv en to f o otb all

and m en’s b ask etb all d o n o t f o rfe it f o r th o se tw o s p orts th e e d ucati o n p urp ose f o r w hic h th ey e xis t.” H ere B ra nd

su ggests th at l im iti n g c o m merc ia liz a ti o n w ould n o t p ro m ote e d ucati o nal g o als , b ut i t w ould r e d uce th e c o nsu m er a nd

fin ancia l b enefits o f b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts .

JO IN IN G T H E D EB AT E

Both a t a te chnic al l e v el r e gard in g th e d eta ils o f ta x p olic y a nd a t a p oliti c al o r p hilo so phic al l e v el, a f u nd am enta l

questi o n i s w heth er c o m merc ia liz e d i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i s f u ncti o nally r e la te d to th e e d ucati o nal m is sio n o f U .S . co lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s. O n th e o ne h and , i t c an b e a rg ued th at e ngagem ent i n c o lle ge s p orts b y s tu d ents p ro vid es a

sa lu ta ry b ala ncin g o f a n o th erw is e l a rg ely c ere b ra l a nd s e d enta ry l ife sty le . P arti c ip ati o n i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s

als o c an h elp a th le te s d ev elo p c o nstr u cti v e p ers o nality tr a its , i n clu d in g th e d ev elo pm ent o f l e ad ers h ip s k ills ,

te am w ork , te nacity , g o od ti m e m anagem ent, a nd p ositi v e s e lf- e ste em . T hese q ualiti e s o f c o lle ge s p orts a p pear to b e

fu ncti o nally r e la te d to th e e d ucati o nal m is sio n o f c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s a nd , i n d eed , to p ro vid e a n i m porta nt

co m ple m ent to h elp c re ate a w ell- ro und ed a nd h ealth y c o lle ge e xp erie nce.

On th e o th er h and , i t c an b e a rg ued th at th ese p ositi v e a ttr ib ute s a p ply to c o lle ge s p orts i n i n tr a m ura l f o rm o r i n

th e l e ss c o m merc ia liz e d f o rm o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s o f D iv is io ns I I a nd I II. B ut a t th e h ig hly c o m merc ia liz e d

le v el o f D iv is io n I , a nd p arti c ula rly F B S, th e ti m e d em and s o n th e a th le te s, th e i n tr u siv e, te le v is io n-d riv en

sc hed ulin g o f g am es, th e f r e q uent a nd i n cre asin gly d is ta nt tr a v el, th e l o w erin g o f a d m is sio ns a nd c la ssro om

sta nd ard s, th e tr a nsfo rm ati o n o f c o lle ge c ultu re , th e i n centi v es to tr a nsg re ss N CA A r u le s, a nd th e o uts iz e d p aym ents

to th e f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all h ead c o aches a ll d etr a ct f r o m th e c entr a l c harita b le a nd e d ucati o nal p urp ose o f

th e u niv ers ity .

The U .S . C ongre ssio nal B ud get O ffic e ( C BO ) c o nd ucte d a s tu d y i n M ay 2 009 th at c o nsid ere d th is i s su e, f in d in g

th at 8 2.3 % o f th e r e v enues f o r F B S c o lle ge s p orts c am e f r o m c o m merc ia l s o urc es. T his s h are f e ll to 2 8.8 % i n F C S

and to 2 7.9 % i n D iv is io n I w ith o ut f o otb all. F or u niv ers iti e s a s a w ho le , th is s h are w as o nly 1 0.9 % , e xclu d in g

ho sp ita ls a nd a th le ti c s ( C ongre ssio nal B ud get O ffic e, 2 009). T he i m plic ati o n o f th e C BO f in d in g i s th at b ig -ti m e

co lle ge s p orts o pera te i n a d is ti n ct f a sh io n f r o m h ig her e d ucati o n g enera lly a nd , th us, c o uld l o gic ally b e g iv en a

diffe re nt ta x s ta tu s.

The N CA A h as j u sti fie d th e c o m merc ia l g ro w th o f F B S f o otb all a nd D iv is io n I b ask etb all, i n p art, o n th e g ro und s

th at th e s u rp lu s g enera te d b y th ese s p orts h elp s to f u nd d oze ns o f n o nre v enue s p orts f o r b oth m en a nd w om en. A fte r

all, i n 1 976 C ongre ss e xp lic itl y d eno m in ate d th e p ro m oti o n o f a m ate ur s p orts to b e a c harita b le a cti v ity , a nd th e

re v enue f r o m b ig -ti m e s p orts a p pears to b e h elp in g to f u nd th ese a m ate ur te am s.

Criti c s p oin t to s e v era l p ro ble m s w ith th is a rg um ent. F ir s t, a cco rd in g to th e 2 012 R ev enue a nd E xp ense s R ep ort

of th e N CA A, o nly a b out o ne-fifth o f th e f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all te am s i n D iv is io n I g enera te a n o pera ti n g

su rp lu s. D urin g th e a cad em ic y ear 2 010–2011 , 6 8 o f 1 20 F B S f o otb all te am s r e p orte d a n o pera ti n g s u rp lu s, a nd , o f

th ese te am s, th e m ed ia n s u rp lu s w as $ 10.2 6 m illio n. A ls o d urin g 2 010–2011 , 6 6 F B S b ask etb all te am s r e p orte d a

su rp lu s, w ith a m ed ia n s u rp lu s o f $ 3.3 6 m illio n. I n F C S, f a r f e w er p ro gra m s o pera te i n th e b la ck: d urin g 2 010–2011 ,

only 2 o f 1 22

fo otb all te am s g enera te d a n o pera ti n g s u rp lu s, a nd o nly 8 o f 1 21 b ask etb all te am s h ad a s u rp lu s. I n

Div is io n I w ith o ut f o otb all, o nly 5 o f 9 6 m en’s b ask etb all te am s g enera te d a s u rp lu s. S o, th e f ir s t o bse rv ati o n i s th at

most D iv is io n I s c ho ols d o n o t g enera te a n o pera ti n g s u rp lu s i n e ith er f o otb all o r m en’s b ask etb all, a nd , h ence, i n

th ese s c ho ols , th e b ig -ti m e s p orts d etr a ct f r o m th e f u nd s a v aila b le f o r th e p ro m oti o n o f th e n o nre v enue s p orts .

Seco nd , e v en i n th o se p ro gra m s w here th ere i s a n o pera ti n g s u rp lu s i n f o otb all o r m en’s b ask etb all, th e a ctu al

fin ancia l p ic tu re i s l e ss s a nguin e. W hen c ap ita l e xp ense s ( e .g ., d eb t s e rv ic e o n f o otb all s ta d iu m s, b ask etb all a re nas,

tu to rin g b uild in gs, o r tr a in in g f a ciliti e s) a nd a d m in is tr a ti v e o verh ead ( e .g ., a p ro r a ta c harg e f o r th e s c ho ol

pre sid ent’ s ti m e s p ent o n f o otb all) a re i n clu d ed , th e a ctu al s u rp lu s g enera te d i s e ith er d im in is h ed g re atl y o r

no nexis te nt. I n a s tu d y f o r th e N CA A, J o nath an a nd P ete r O rs za g ( 2 005) e sti m ate d th at th e a v era ge F B S p ro gra m h ad

yearly c ap ita l e xp ense s o f m ore th an $ 20 m illio n.

Thir d , e v en i n th o se f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p ro gra m s w here a tr u e s u rp lu s i s g enera te d a nd s o m e o f th is

su rp lu s i s m eanin gfu lly tr a nsfe rre d to s u p port th e n o nre v enue s p orts , th ere i s s ti ll e v id ence o f s u b sta nti a l s ip ho nin g o f

th e s u rp lu s. C onsid er th e s u p port g iv en to e xo rb ita nt s a la rie s o f th e h ead c o aches o f f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all

te am s, th eir a ssis ta nt c o aches, th e a th le ti c d ir e cto rs , a nd th e c o nfe re nce c o m mis sio ners . W hile th e N CA A a nd o th ers

hav e a tte m pte d to j u sti fy th ese e le v ate d l e v els o f c o m pensa ti o n o n th e b asis o f m ark et c o m peti ti o n, th e u nd erly in g

mark et f o rc es a re a rti fic ia lly c re ate d . H ence, th ere i s g o od r e aso n to b elie v e th at th ese s a la rie s c o nsti tu te p riv ate

in ure m ent th at c o uld d is q ualify a th le ti c d ep artm ents f r o m 5 01(c )(3 ) tr e atm ent.

PR IV A T E I N UREM EN T A N D T H E C O M PEN SA T IO N F O R H EA D C O AC H ES A N D

OTH ER S

Today, th ere a re m ore th an 1 00 c o lle ge f o otb all c o aches w ith c o m pensa ti o n p ackages e xceed in g $ 1 m illio n; th ere a re

more th an a d oze n e xceed in g $ 3 m illio n, a nd s e v era l e xceed $ 4 o r $ 5 m illio n i n m oneta ry c o m pensa ti o n a lo ne. M en’s

bask etb all c o aches’ c o m pensa ti o n p ackages a re s im ila r; i n d eed , th e h ig hest p aid b ask etb all c o aches g enera lly o utd o

th eir f o otb all c o unte rp arts . D urin g th e 2 011 c ale nd ar y ear, D uke’s c o ach K rz y ze w sk i e arn ed n early $ 9.7 m illio n

(B erk o w itz , 2 013). L ouis v ille ’s R ic k P iti n o e arn ed $ 7.5 m illio n d urin g th e a cad em ic y ear 2 010–2011 ( U pto n, 2011 ).

In 2 009 th e U niv ers ity o f K entu cky a gre ed to p ay J o hn C alip ari a g uara nte ed $ 31.6 5 m illio n ( p lu s i n centi v es)

over e ig ht y ears . T hese f ig ure s e xclu d e b onuse s a s w ell a s e xte nsiv e p erq uis ite s, i n clu d in g f r e e u se o f c ars , h o usin g

su b sid ie s, c o untr y c lu b m em bers h ip s, p riv ate j e t s e rv ic e, e xcep ti o nally g enero us s e v era nce p ackages, a nd m ore . T he

co aches a ls o h av e h and so m e o pportu niti e s to e arn o uts id e i n co m e v ia a p pare l o r s n eaker e nd ors e m ents , th e l e ctu re

cir c uit, s u m mer c am ps o n c am pus, a nd b ook c o ntr a cts . F or s o m e c o aches’ c o ntr a cts , th e b uyo ut i s th e m ost

lu cra ti v e

ele m ent: f o rm er N otr e D am e h ead f o otb all c o ach, C harlie W eis , i s e njo yin g a n early $ 19 m illio n b uyo ut a fte r h is

re le ase , e v en th o ugh h e i s c urre ntl y e m plo yed a s th e U niv ers ity o f K ansa s h ead c o ach ( H am ilto n, 2 013).

Not s u rp ris in gly , a ssis ta nt c o aches h av e a ls o e xp erie nced a n e xp lo sio n i n th eir p ay p ackages i n r e cent y ears . F or

in sta nce, T ennesse e l u re d i ts n ew d efe nsiv e c o ord in ato r i n 2 009, M onte K iffin , w ith a $ 1.2 m illio n s a la ry , a

$300,0 00 b onus f o r s ta yin g th ro ugh th e e nd o f th e r e gula r s e aso n, u p to a no th er $ 100,0 00 i n i n centi v es, a nd th e u se o f

tw o c ars . T he a v era ge s a la ry f o r th e n in e a ssis ta nt f o otb all c o aches a t T ennesse e w as $ 369,0 00 i n 2 009.

USA T o day

id enti fie d m ore th an 1 00 a ssis ta nt c o aches i n th e F B S w ho r e ceiv ed o ver $ 250,0 00 i n b ase c o m pensa ti o n i n 2 009.

Bob S to ops, O kla ho m a’s h ead f o otb all c o ach, i s g uara nte ed $ 4.3 m illio n i n 2 009, a nd h is n in e a ssis ta nts e arn ed

nearly $ 2.5 m illio n b efo re b onuse s. A la b am a a nd L SU a ls o b oaste d $ 6 m illio n-p lu s f o r s ta ff c o m pensa ti o n ( W ie b erg ,

2009).

Ath le ti c d ir e cto rs a nd c o nfe re nce c o m mis sio ners a re a ls o w ealth y b enefic ia rie s o f th e s y ste m . A cco rd in g to th e

USA T o day

A th le ti c D ir e cto r S ala ry D ata b ase , i n 2 012–2013, th ere w ere e ig ht c o lle ge a th le ti c d ir e cto rs w ho e arn ed

guara nte ed p ay o ver $ 1 m illio n, o ne o f w ho m e arn ed m ore th an $ 3 m illio n. B onuse s r a n a s h ig h a s $ 760,0 00 a nd

were p aid o n to p o f th e g uara nte ed s a la rie s. T here i s a c le ar p atte rn f o r s c ho ols w ith h ig her c o ach c o m pensa ti o n to

als o h av e h ig her a th le ti c d ir e cto r c o m pensa ti o n.

Confe re nce c o m mis sio ners e arn e v en m ore . L arry S co tt, th e P ac-1 2 c o m mis sio ner, e arn ed $ 3.1 m illio n i n

cale nd ar y ear 2 011 , w hile J im D ela ney, c o m mis sio ner o f th e B ig 1 0, e arn ed $ 2.8 m illio n a nd M ik e S liv e o f th e S E C

pulle d d ow n $ 1.6 m illio n.

This p atte rn b egan l o ng a go . B ack i n 1 924, C ente nary C olle ge i n S hre v ep ort, L ouis ia na, th e n ati o n’s f ir s t l ib era l

arts c o lle ge w est o f th e M is sis sip pi, w as d enie d a ccre d ita ti o n b y th e S outh ern A sso cia ti o n o f C olle ges a nd S cho ols

because th e s c ho ol p la ced a n “ und ue e m phasis o n a th le ti c s.” T he p rim ary e v id ence o f C ente nary ’s m is p la ced

prio riti e s b y th e S outh ern A sso cia ti o n w as th at th e c o lle ge p aid i ts f o otb all c o ach m ore th an i t p aid i ts c o lle ge

pre sid ent. T he n ext y ear th e f o otb all c o ach w as g o ne, a nd th e c o lle ge g ain ed a ccre d ita ti o n ( J o hnso n, 2 008).

The l e gend ary h ead f o otb all c o ach a t th e U niv ers ity o f A la b am a ( 1 958–1982), B ear B ry ant, a d here d to a f ir m

polic y o f a lw ays k eep in g h is s a la ry $ 1 b elo w th at o f th e s c ho ol p re sid ent. B ry ant b elie v ed th at i t w as s y m bolic ally

im porta nt f o r th e u niv ers ity p re sid ent to b e p aid m ore th an th e h ead f o otb all c o ach ( B arra , 2 005).

Defe nd ers o f th e m ulti m illio n-d olla r h ead c o aches’ s a la rie s o fte n a rg ue th at c o aches’ c o m pensa ti o n p ackages a re

driv en b y m ark et f o rc es. T his m ay b e tr u e, b ut w hat d riv es th e m ark et f o rc es? T he m ark et f o r c o aches i s s u sta in ed b y

se v era l a rti fic ia l f a cto rs : ( a ) th ere i s n o c o m pensa ti o n p aid to th e a th le te s; ( b ) i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts b enefit f r o m

su b sta nti a l ta x p riv ile ges; ( c ) th ere a re n o s h are ho ld ers d em and in g d iv id end d is tr ib uti o ns o r h ig her p ro fits to b ols te r

sto ck p ric es; ( d ) a th le ti c d ep artm ents a re n o uris h ed b y u niv ers ity a nd s ta te w id e f in ancia l s u p port; a nd ( e ) c o aches’

sa la rie s a re n ego ti a te d b y a th le ti c d ir e cto rs w ho se o w n w orth r is e s w ith th e s a la rie s o f th eir e m plo yees.

In a n o rm al c o m peti ti v e m ark et, c o lle ge f o otb all c o aches w ould n o t b e g etti n g c o m pensa te d a lm ost a t th e s a m e

le v el a s N FL c o aches. D urin g th e 2 011 –2012 s e aso n, th e h ig hest p aid N FL c o ach w as B ill B elic hic k o f th e P atr io ts

at $ 7.5 m illio n, a nd th e te nth -h ig hest- p aid c o ach w as A nd y R eid o f th e E agle s a t $ 5.5 m illio n ( W eir, 2 012). T he to p

32 c o lle ge f o otb all p ro gra m s g enera te r e v enues i n th e $ 40–90 m illio n r a nge; th e a v era ge N FL te am g enera te s a ro und

$270 m illio n. T he s a m e l o gic a p plie s to th e N BA a nd i ts c o aches. D urin g 2 011 –2012, th e to p p aid N BA c o ach w as

Doc R iv ers o f th e C elti c s a t $ 7 m illio n ( n early $ 3 m illio n b elo w M ik e K rz y ze w sk i’s c o m pensa ti o n a t D uke), a nd th e

te nth h ig hest p aid w as S co tt S kile s o f th e B ucks a t $ 4.5 m illio n ( V an R ip er, 2 012). T he r e v enue r a nge f o r th e 3 0 to p

co lle ge b ask etb all te am s i s $ 15–40 m illio n, w hile th e a v era ge N BA te am g enera te s $ 130 m illio n.

If th ere w ere a r u le th at c o lle ge h ead c o aches c o uld b e p aid n o m ore th an th re e ti m es a s m uch a s th e a v era ge

sa la ry o f a f u ll p ro fe sso r, i t w ould n o t a ffe ct th e q uality o f c o achin g o r th e l e v el o f i n te rc o lle gia te c o m peti ti o n. T his

is b ecause th e n ext b est a lte rn ati v e f o r to p c o lle ge c o aches ( th e r e se rv ati o n w age) i s l ik ely to b e w ell b elo w th is

le v el— perh ap s c o achin g i n D iv is io n I I o r I II, o r i n h ig h s c ho ol, a nd e arn in g b etw een $ 20,0 00 a nd $ 100,0 00, w ith o ut

perk s. A nyth in g a b ove th e r e se rv ati o n w age i s w hat e co no m is ts c all e co no m ic r e nt. E co no m ic r e nt d oes n o t a ffe ct th e

allo cati o n o f r e so urc es. T hus, th e a rg um ent th at c o lle ge c o aches’ c o m pensa ti o n p ackages a p pear to c o nsti tu te p riv ate

in ure m ent a p pears to b e s tr o ng. CO NCLU SIO N

In th is c hap te r I h av e p re se nte d th e n atu re o f th e ta x p riv ile ges e njo yed b y c o lle ge s p orts a nd r e v ie w ed th e b asis i n

th e ta x l a w s f o r th is f a v ora b le tr e atm ent. T he f o und ati o n f o r th ese p riv ile ges i s th e f a ct th at a th le ti c d ep artm ents a re

ho use d w ith in p ub lic c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s o r w ith in p riv ate u niv ers iti e s w hic h a re c o nsid ere d 5 01(c )(3 ) e nti ti e s.

Because i t i s n o t c le ar th at th e a cti v ity o f b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts i s f u ncti o nally r e la te d to th e p urp ose o f th e

univ ers ity ( e d ucati o n) o r to th e p ro m oti o n o f a m ate ur s p orts , a nd b ecause th ere i s a c o m pellin g a rg um ent th at th ere i s

priv ate i n ure m ent a nd p ossib ly p riv ate b enefit i n th e o pera ti o n o f b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts , th ere i s a c ase to b e m ad e

th at c o lle ge s p orts d o n o t d ese rv e f a v ora b le tr e atm ent. T he I R S h as a tte m pte d to c ap tu re s o m e ta x r e v enue f r o m p arts

of th e i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts b usin ess, b ut i t h as b acked o ff a s a r e su lt o f e ith er p oliti c al p re ssu re o r n ew l e gis la ti o n.

We h av e a ls o s e en th at s o m e b elie v e th at tr y in g to ta x c o lle ge s p orts i s a p ap er ti g er. T hat i s , e v en i f th e I R S o r

th e U .S . C ongre ss d ecid ed to ta x th e n et i n co m e o f c o lle ge s p orts , a th le ti c d ep artm ents w ould f in d a w ay to

manip ula te th eir b ooks to s h o w n o p ro fit. W hile e ffo rts a t m anip ula ti o n m ay o ccur, a cco unti n g r u le s c o uld l im it th is

ab ility . F urth er, i f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s w ere s u b je cte d to th e U BIT , th en a cti v iti e s l ik e c o rp ora te s p onso rs h ip s

co uld b e tr e ate d a s s e p ara te e nti ti e s u nd er th e f r a gm enta ti o n p rin cip le . T he d ir e ct c o sts o f o bta in in g c o rp ora te

sp onso rs h ip s a re m in im al a nd i t w ould b e d iffic ult to h id e th e n et i n co m e g enera te d .

Furth er, I e xam in ed th e p olic y to a llo w s e at p urc hase rs to d ed uct f r o m th eir ta xab le i n co m e 8 0% o f th e

“d onati o n” o r d ow n p aym ent o n th eir s e aso n’s ti c kets . F or th e b ette r s e ats , th e r e q uir e d “ d onati o n” o fte n e xceed s

$10,0 00 p er y ear p er s e at, a nd s o m e s c ho ols e arn te ns o f m illio ns o f d olla rs a nnually f r o m th ese “ d onati o ns” a nd th e

go vern m ent l o se s o ut o n h und re d s o f m illio ns o f d olla rs o f ta x r e v enue.

Fin ally , th ere i s th e i s su e o f w heth er a th le ti c d ep artm ents s h o uld b e a llo w ed to u se th e u niv ers ity ’s ta x-e xem pt

bond in g p riv ile ges, e sp ecia lly i f th eir a cti v ity i s j u d ged n o t to b e f u ncti o nally r e la te d to th e s c ho ol’s e d ucati o nal

mis sio n. I t a p pears th at th is b ond in g p riv ile ge h as o nly e nco ura ged a n a rm s’ r a ce to b uild b ig ger a nd b ette r a th le ti c

fa ciliti e s, f o is ti n g m ajo r f u nd in g c o sts o f h und re d s o f m illio ns o f d olla rs o n s c ho ols th ro ugho ut th e c o untr y .

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

W hy d id C ongre ss p ass th e U BIT l a w i n 1 950?

D o y o u th in k th at i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i s f u ncti o nally r e la te d to th e m is sio n o f th e u niv ers ity ?

D o y o u b elie v e th at th e N FL a nd N BA e njo y e xcessiv e b enefits f r o m th e o pera ti o n o f b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts ?

Note s

1 . I n th e s a m e b ill, C ongre ss l ifte d th e p re v io us $ 150 m illio n l im it o n ta x-e xem pt b ond s f o r c o lle ge f a cility

co nstr u cti o n.

2 . T he N CA A e sti m ate d th at i n 2 004–2005 c o rp ora te s p onso rs h ip p aym ents to c o lle ge a th le ti c p ro gra m s to ta le d

$275 m illio n.

3 . S om eti m es i t i s a rg ued th at a th le ti c s d ep artm ents s u p port th e o vera ll e d ucati o nal m is sio n o f th e u niv ers ity b y

genera ti n g a s u rp lu s, w hic h i s th en tr a nsfe rre d to th e u niv ers ity ’s c entr a l b ud get. W hile i t a p pears to b e tr u e th at a

hand fu l o f d ep artm ents tr a nsfe r a m odest s u rp lu s to th eir u niv ers ity ’s c entr a l f u nd , i n a ll b ut a d oze n o r s o o f th e 3 40

Div is io n I s c ho ols th ere i s a d efic it ( w hen p ro perly a cco unte d ) i n th e a th le ti c s d ep artm ent. I n 2 010–2011 , th e m ed ia n

FB S s c ho ol a th le ti c d ep artm ent r a n a n o pera ti n g d efic it o f $ 10.3 m illio n, a cco rd in g to th e N CA A’s o w n f ig ure s, a nd

th is w as b efo re th e c o nsid era ti o n o f c ap ita l a nd i n d ir e ct e xp ense s. F urth er, s o m eti m es i t i s c la im ed th at a s tr o ng

ath le ti c s p ro gra m s a ttr a ct s tu d ent a p plic ati o ns a nd i n cre ase d onati o ns to th e s c ho ol. W hile th is i s a c o m plic ate d

matte r to a sse ss, s u ffic e i t to s ta te th e s c ho la rly e v id ence o n e ach i s a m big uo us a t b est.

4 . I n 2 012, i n 4 1 o f th e 5 0 s ta te s, a h ead c o ach o f a c o lle ge f o otb all o r b ask etb all te am w as th e h ig hest p aid p ub lic

em plo yee i n th e s ta te .

Refe re n ces

Barra , A . ( 2 005).

The l a st c o ach : A l ife o f P aul “ B ea r” B ry a nt

. N ew Y ork : W . W . N orto n P re ss. R etr ie v ed f r o m

www.b lo om berg .c o m Berk o w itz , S . ( 2 013, M ay 1 6). D uke’s K rz y ze w sk i c re d ite d w ith $ 9.7 m illio n i n p ay f o r 2 011 .

USA T o day

. R etr ie v ed

fr o m

www.u sa to day.c o m

Bra nd , M . ( 2 006). R esp onse to s u rv ey l e tte r to N CA A r e . ta x e xem pt s ta tu s. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n acua.o rg /d ocum ents /N CA ALette r_ TaxE xem pt_ R esp onse to H ouse W aysM eansC m te .p df

Bro oks, J . ( 1 977, D ecem ber 2 6). T he l a w s c ho ol a nd th e n o odle f a cto ry .

New Y o rk er

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

www.n ew yo rk er.c o m

Colo m bo, J . ( 2 010). T he N CA A, ta x e xem pti o n a nd c o lle ge a th le ti c s.

Univ ersity o f I llin ois L aw R evie w , 1 09

, 1 11 .

Congre ssio nal B ud get O ffic e. ( 2 009, M ay).

Ta x p re fe re n ces f o r c o lle g ia te s p orts

. C ongre ss o f th e U nite d S ta te s.

Rep ort f r o m th e C ongre ssio nal B ud get O ffic e.

Dexheim er, E . ( 2 007, O cto ber 1 ). S om e q uesti o n ta x b re aks th at h elp f ill c o ffe rs .

Austin A m eric a n-S ta te sm an

Retr ie v ed f r o m

www.s ta te sm an.c o m

Eic helb erg er, C ., & B ab co ck, C . ( 2 012, O cto ber 2 5). F ootb all- ti c ket ta x b re ak h elp s c o lle ges g et m illio ns.

Blo om berg

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

www.b lo om berg .c o m

Gaul, G . ( 2 012, O cto ber 1 8). C olle ge f o otb all g ets ta x b re aks.

McC la tc h y

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

www.m ccla tc hyd c.c o m

Ham ilto n, B . ( 2 013, M ay 2 3). N otr e D am e W eis ’ b uyo ut m ay a p pro ach $ 19 m illio n.

Chic a go T rib une.

R etr ie v ed

fr o m

www.c hic ago tr ib une.c o m

Jo hnso n, J . ( 2 008, S ep te m ber 4 ). T he s u ic id e s e aso n.

Shre vep ort T im es

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

www.s h re v ep ortti m es.c o m

Ors za g, J . M ., & O rs za g, P . R . ( 2 005).

The e m pir ic a l e ffe cts o f c o lle g ia te a th le tic s: A n u pdate .

I n d ia nap olis :

Nati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n.

Upto n, J . ( 2 011 , M ay 1 9). S ala ry a naly sis : N CCA to urn am ent c o aches c ash in g i n .

USA T o day

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

www.u sa to day.c o m

Van R ip er, T . ( 2 012, M ay 1 5). T he h ig hest p aid c o aches i n s p orts .

Forb es

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

www.f o rb es.c o m

Weir, T . ( 2 012, M ay 1 6). B ill B elic hic k to ps F orb es l is t o f 1 0 b est- p aid c o aches.

USA T o day

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

www.u sa to day.c o m

Weis b ro d, B ., B allo u, J ., & A sc h, E . ( 2 008).

Mis sio n a nd m oney: U ndersta ndin g t h e U niv ersity

. C am brid ge:

Cam brid ge U niv ers ity P re ss.

Wie b erg , S . ( 2 009, N ovem ber 1 0). T op a ssis ta nts c o m mand b ig p ay.

USA T o day

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

www.u sa to day.c o m

C H APTER

1 0

C O LLEG E S P O RTS S P E N DIN G D EC IS IO NS a n d t h e A CADEM IC

M IS SIO N

R od ney F ort

K EY T ER M S

sp orts s p endin g

univ ersit y a dm in is tr a to rs

ath le tic d ir e cto rs

adm in is tr a tiv e g oals

T he tw o m ain th em es i n th is c hap te r a re th e a p pro ach u niv ers iti e s ta ke to c o lle ge s p orts , w hic h e xp lic itl y d ocum ents

c o lle ge a th le ti c s s p end in g; a nd th e d egre e to w hic h th is s p end in g i s c o nsis te nt w ith th e f u nd am enta l m is sio n o f

A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n. B oth to pic s a re f u nd am enta l to a n u nd ers ta nd in g o f c o lle ge s p orts o utc o m es.

The u niv ers ity a p pro ach to a th le ti c s i s d em onstr a te d w ith a f a ir ly g enera l d esc rip ti v e m odel o f h ie ra rc hic al

o vers ig ht u sin g c o ncep ts m ain ly f r o m e co no m ic s. T he m odel i s b ase d o n w ell- u se d “ p rin cip al- a gent” ( P A ) l o gic

a p plie d to c o lle ge s p orts . T his g enera l m odel h elp s m ake s e nse o f s p end in g d ata th at a re s o c o nfu sin g to m any

o bse rv ers o f th e c o lle ge s p orts s c ene.

This c hap te r d oes n o t c o ver e v ery th in g. F ir s t, w hat f o llo w s i s p re tty m uch r e str ic te d to “ b ig -ti m e” c o lle ge s p orts ;

l o w er N CA A d iv is io ns m ay h av e s im ila r

qualita tiv e

r e su lts b ut s u re ly w ill h av e d iffe re nt

quantita tiv e

r e su lts .

S eco nd , to pic a nd s p ace c o nstr a in ts a ls o a llo w o nly c urs o ry c o vera ge o f th e r e m ain in g h ie ra rc hy; c o nfe re nce

o rg aniz a ti o ns, l ik e th e S outh easte rn ( S E C ) o r B ig T en, a nd th e N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n ( N CA A) a re

n o te d o nly i n p assin g.

Wheth er o bse rv ed s p end in g i s c o nsis te nt w ith th e f u nd am enta l a cad em ic m is sio n o f th e u niv ers ity i s a c ru cia l

q uesti o n th at e co no m ic a sse ssm ent c an o nly i n fo rm , n o t d ecid e. A s w ith a ll p olic y i s su es, th e d ete rm in ati o n o f th e

l e v el o f a ny p ub lic s p end in g g o es h and i n h and w ith th e d ete rm in ati o n o f j u st w hat i t i s th at th e s p end er d esir e s. A nd

t h at i s a tr u ly d iffic ult q uesti o n, d ese rv in g o f e xte nsiv e tr e atm ent, b ecause th ere a re s o m any d iffe re nt s p end ers w ith

s o m any d iffe re nt a m biti o ns f o r u niv ers iti e s.

Univ ers iti e s, b y th eir v ery n atu re a nd b ecause th ey a re a ll a t l e ast p artl y p ub lic ly f u nd ed , s h o uld a lw ays b e

e ngaged i n th e e xerc is e o f a sse ssin g b oth th eir c ho se n p urp ose s a nd h o w th ey a re s p end in g m oney to w ard th o se

p urp ose s. T hat d is c ussio n w ill a lw ays b e b est s e rv ed b y

le ss

r h eto ric ,

p ro cess r e co gniti o n, a nd

d ata -

d riv en a naly sis .

U NIV ER SIT Y A D M IN IS T R AT O RS A N D T H EIR A T H LETIC D IR EC TO RS

W hile th ere w ill b e v aria ti o ns, th e g enera lly d esc rip ti v e m odel o f u niv ers ity a d m in is tr a to rs ( U A s) a nd th eir a th le ti c

d ir e cto rs ( A Ds) th at i s p re se nte d i n th is s e cti o n b orro w s h eav ily f r o m m y te xtb ook ( F ort, 2 011 , c hap . 1 3) a nd f r o m

m y b ook w ith e co no m is t J a so n W in fr e e ( F ort & W in fr e e, 2 013, c hap . 2 ). R em em ber th e l im ita ti o ns o f th e

p re se nta ti o n; w hile b oth o pera te i n th eir u niv ers ity s tr u ctu re , th eir c o nfe re nce s tr u ctu re , a nd a s m em bers o f th e

N CA A, U A s a nd A Ds i n th e “ m ic ro ” l o ok p re se nte d i n th is c hap te r a re c o nsid ere d o nly i n l ig ht o f th eir e v entu al

u niv ers ity i n te ra cti o n.

The f ir s t th in g to o bse rv e a b out th ese r e la ti o nsh ip s i s th at b oth th e l e v el o f c o m pete nce a nd th e l e v el o f

e xp erie nce o f U A s a nd A Ds a re e m pir ic al i s su es, d ir e ctl y o bse rv ab le , a nd n o t th e s u b je ct o f a ssu m pti o ns b efo re th e

f a ct. A ll U A s a nd A Ds “ co m e u p th ro ugh th e r a nks” a nd s a ti s fy q uite s tr in gent v ers io ns o f w hat s o cia l s c ie nti s ts r e fe r to a s “ se le cti o n m echanis m s.” Y ears o f tr a in in g a nd e xp erie nce, i n a n e xtr e m ely c o m peti ti v e e m plo ym ent a re a, a re

pre re q uis ite s f o r b oth U A s a nd A Ds. S o th ere n eed b e n o p re su m pti o n th at U A s a nd A Ds a re i n ep t o r n aiv e.

The s e co nd p art o f o ur d esc rip ti v e m odel i s a n a ssu m pti o n th at i s h ard ly c o ntr o vers ia l: a ll a cto rs p urs u e th eir

ow n s e lf- in te re st. U A s a nd A Ds c are a b out th eir i n co m e a nd u p w ard c are er m obility . I n th e c o nte xt o f th eir

env ir o nm ent, e nhanced w elfa re o f U A s a nd A Ds d ep end s u p on th e p erfo rm ance o f th eir r e sp ecti v e o rg aniz a ti o ns.

Note th at a n e xtr e m ely i m porta nt p ossib ility p re se nts i ts e lf h ere . T here m ay b e a re as o f c o nflic t b etw een th e s e lf-

in te re ste d p urs u its o f U A s a nd th e s e lf- in te re ste d p urs u its o f A Ds. I n th e o pera ti o nal e nv ir o nm ent o f th e u niv ers ity ,

th e w elfa re o f U A s d ep end s o n th e p erfo rm ance o f a ll o f th e u nits o n c am pus a lo ng w ell- k no w n d im ensio ns—

re se arc h, te achin g, a nd s e rv ic e. T he a b ility o f U A s to o verc o m e c o nflic ts w ith th eir A Ds w ill d ep end o n tw o th in gs:

th e n et v alu e o f i n d ep end ent a cti o n to A Ds a nd th e c o sts o f m onito rin g to U A s.

This i s th e “ p rin cip al- a gent” s e tti n g th at i s w ell k no w n to e co no m is ts : n am ely , U A s a re “ p rin cip als ” to th eir

univ ers ity “ agents .” T he a gents a re a cad em ic l e ad ers l ik e c o lle ge d eans a nd n o nacad em ic l e ad ers l ik e A Ds. T he

pre sid ent o f th e u niv ers ity ( m ost ty p ic ally , b ut w ith s o m e e xcep ti o ns) c o ntr o ls th e A D’s e m plo ym ent a nd p ay s u b je ct

to m ark et f o rc es a nd d oes h is o r h er l e v el b est to m onito r th e p erfo rm ance o f th e A D s u b je ct to th e c o sts o f d oin g s o .

Alo ng th is w ell- k no w n l in e o f P A

re aso nin g, U A s h av e e v ery i n centi v e to c re ate a nd m anage m eth o ds o f o vers ig ht

th at h arn ess th e s e lf- in te re ste d b ehav io r o f A Ds to th e e nhancem ent o f U A w elfa re .

All w ell a nd g o od, b ut w hat d o th ese o bse rv ati o ns s o f a r s u ggest a b out h o w U A s w ill a ctu ally o rg aniz e th eir

acad em ic a nd o th er u nits o n c am pus? T he a nsw er i s th at U A s, o ver th e h is to ry o f u niv ers iti e s, h av e o rg aniz e d

diffe re nt u niv ers ity f u ncti o ns i n to s e p ara te d ep artm ents , w ith a n o vers ig ht s tr u ctu re f r o m d ep artm ent, to c o lle ge, to

UA s, f o r tw o r e aso ns. F ir s t, p eo ple i n a ll u nits o n c am pus g enera te th e l a rg est to ta l o utp ut w hen th ey a re a ll a b le to

purs u e th eir c o m para ti v e a d vanta ges a lo ng th e l in es o f r e se arc h, te achin g, a nd s e rv ic e. S eco nd , th is ty p e o f

hie ra rc hic al o rg aniz a ti o n f a cilita te s m onito rin g o f th e v ario us u nits g iv en th e c o sts o f d oin g s o .

Giv en th at th e m onito rin g p ro ble m f o r U A s i s e sse nti a lly s im ila r a cro ss i ts d ep artm ents , i t i s n o w ond er th at a ll

units a t th e u niv ers ity , i n clu d in g th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent, a re s im ila rly s tr u ctu re d . ( A t a f e w u niv ers iti e s, a th le ti c

dep artm ents a re s e p ara te e nti ti e s r e p orti n g d ir e ctl y to a n o vers ig ht b oard a nd th e b oard o f r e gents , b ut th is i s s ti ll

overs ig ht.) I n a th le ti c d ep artm ents , a ll o f th e a ssis ta nt c o aches i n a g iv en s p ort a re s p ecia lis ts i n d iffe re nt a re as, j u st

lik e i n d iv id ual f a culty m em bers a re o n th e a cad em ic s id e ( e .g ., i n f o otb all, s tr e ngth a nd c o nd iti o nin g, p ositi o n

co aches, o ffe nsiv e a nd d efe nsiv e c o ord in ato rs ). T hese s p ecia lis ts a re o rg aniz e d u nd er th e h ead c o ach s im ila r to a n

acad em ic d ep artm ent a nd i ts c hair.

Then, th e c o lle cti o n o f s p orts i s o rg aniz e d i n to th e l a rg er u nit, th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent. T o k eep th e a nalo gy tr u ly

co m ple te , w e c o uld r e fe r to th is a s th e “ sc ho ol o f a th le ti c s,” s in ce, a t th e to p o f th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent, th e A D i s th e

eq uiv ale nt o f a n a cad em ic d ean ( a t l e ast i n te rm s o f o vers ig ht a nd a uth o rity ). T here a re a sso cia te A Ds to h and le th e

day-to -d ay o pera ti o ns o f th e d ep artm ent, f r e ein g th e A D to e ngage i n f u nd ra is in g a nd e xte rn al r e la ti o ns f o r th e

ath le ti c d ep artm ent. T he A D a nsw ers to th e p re sid ent ( ra th er th an th e p ro vost o n th e a cad em ic s id e) a nd u p th e l a d der

to th e r e gents a nd g o vern o r.

Som e c la im th at A Ds h av e th e p ow er o ver U A s i n th is r e la ti o nsh ip , a b elie f th at e ngend ers th e v ie w th at th e

ath le ti c d ep artm ent ta il w ags th e u niv ers ity d og. I t s e em s to th em th at A Ds g et w hate v er r e so urc es th ey w ant a nd

sh o uld b e p re d ic te d to r u n a m ok a t ti m es to th e c o m ple te e m barra ssm ent o f U A s. T hese o bse rv ers p oin t to th e m ost

hein o us o f e p is o des a s c ase s i n p oin t. O ne e xam ple w as b ehav io r i n th e S outh ern M eth o dis t U niv ers ity a th le ti c

co m munity ( a ll th e w ay u p to th e g o vern o r) th at l e d to th e “ d eath p enalty ” i n 1 987. T he m ost r e cent e xam ple w as

behav io r a t P enn S ta te U niv ers ity i n 2 011 th at l e d to s e v ere r e str ic ti o ns i n 2 012 a s w ell a s th e f ir in g o f r e v ere d c o ach

Jo e P ate rn o a nd th e r e sig nati o n o f p re sid ent G ra ham S panie r a nd s o m e o f h is s ta ff.

Fro m th e p ers p ecti v e o f th e g enera l d esc rip ti v e m odel, i n ste ad , a ll o f th is i s e xp la in ed i n te rm s o f th e c hances f o r

overs ig ht f a ilu re . I n te re sti n gly , a s l o ng a s o vers ig ht i s c o stl y , th e m odel a llo w s th at s o m eti m es A Ds w ill c re ate

situ ati o ns c o unte r to th e b est i n te re sts o f U A s. D ep end in g o n th e o pportu nity c o st o f m onito rin g ti m e a nd r e so urc es,

min o r p ro ble m s w ith o vers ig ht s h o uld b e e xp ecte d o ccasio nally , a nd i n o nly r a re s itu ati o ns w ill e xtr e m e e xam ple s

lik e S outh ern M eth o dis t a nd P enn S ta te

occur. B ut th is s h o uld a ll b e ta ken i n to ta lity , a nd i t a p pears th at i n g enera l th e

overs ig ht m eth o ds f u ncti o n s a ti s fa cto rily .

CASE S T U DY

The F ailu re o f O versig h t a t P en n S ta te

The c hild a b use s e x s c and al th at e ngulfe d a n e nti r e a d m in is tr a ti o n a t P enn S ta te i n 2 011 i s w ell k no w n a nd i n str u cti v e fo r th o se p ly in g p rin cip al- a gent m odels o f c o lle ge s p orts . F orm er P enn S ta te d efe nsiv e c o ord in ato r J e rry S and usk y

was a rre ste d i n N ovem ber 2 011 o n n um ero us c o unts o f c hild s e xual a b use a lle ged ( a t th at ti m e) to h av e o ccurre d

fr o m 1 994 to 2 009, i n clu d in g i n cid ents o n c am pus. S and usk y w as f o und g uilty o f a ll b ut a f e w o f th e c harg es a nd i s

se rv in g 3 0–60 y ears i n p ris o n. B ut th is i s o nly th e b egin nin g o f th e m atte r f r o m th e p rin cip al- a gent p ers p ecti v e.

An i n v esti g ati o n c o m mis sio ned b y th e P enn S ta te g o vern in g b oard , c o nd ucte d b y f o rm er F B I d ir e cto r L ouis

Fre eh, f o und th at P enn S ta te p re sid ent G ra ham S panie r, l e gend ary h ead c o ach J o e P ate rn o , a th le ti c d ir e cto r T im

Curle y, a nd v ic e p re sid ent f o r f in ance G ary S chultz h ad a ll k no w n a b out S and usk y’s b ehav io r s in ce 1 998. T he r e p ort

als o n am ed th em c o m plic it i n f a ilin g to d is c lo se th eir k no w le d ge a nd ta ke p ro per a cti o n. A ll b ut P ate rn o , n o w

decease d , h av e b een o rd ere d to s ta nd tr ia l o n c o ver-u p a ccusa ti o ns. T he N CA A a ls o i m pose d s w eep in g s a ncti o ns o n

th e P enn S ta te a th le ti c d ep artm ent j u st s h o rt o f th e “ d eath p enalty ” a nd th e u niv ers ity r e m ain s u nd er i n v esti g ati o n b y

th e D ep artm ent o f E ducati o n.

All o f th is p ro ves i m porta ntl y i n str u cti v e f r o m th e p ers p ecti v e o f a p rin cip al- a gent m odel o f c o lle ge s p orts . I t i s

th e e sse nce o f s u ch a m odel th at o vers ig ht d esig n w ill n o t b e f o olp ro of; s o m e a b ility to p urs u e i n d ep end ent

obje cti v es w ill b e e njo yed b y a gents a s l o ng a s o vers ig ht i s c o stl y . T he c halle nge f o r p rin cip als i n th is s itu ati o n i s to

min im iz e b oth th e c hances f o r o vers ig ht f a ilu re a nd th e c o nse q uences.

If i t w ere j u st a m atte r o f c atc hin g p ro ble m s, th e P enn S ta te o vers ig ht d esig n, ty p ic al o f c o lle ge s p orts , a ctu ally

work ed q uite w ell. S and usk y’s b ehav io r w as o bse rv ed , r e p orte d , a nd a p pare ntl y m oved u p th e c hain o f c o m mand

fr o m a n a ssis ta nt c o ach, to th e h ead c o ach, to th e A D a nd V P f o r f in ance ( in c harg e o f th e U niv ers ity P olic e), a nd

fin ally a ll th e w ay to th e u niv ers ity p re sid ent. B ut o nce a t th is l e v el, o vers ig ht e v entu ally f a ile d . F or w hate v er r e aso n

—so m e s a id i n ep tn ess, o th ers s a id p anic , a nd s ti ll o th ers b la m ed i t o n “ sp orts c ultu re ”— neith er d eniz e ns o f th e

ath le ti c d ep artm ent n o r u niv ers ity a d m in is tr a to rs to ok th e a cti o n d ic ta te d b y l a w i n s u ch a s itu ati o n. O n th e w ho le ,

th en, o vers ig ht i n th is i n sta nce f a ile d m is e ra b ly .

While o vers ig ht f a ilu re s a re a f a ct o f l ife i n p rin cip al- a gent s itu ati o ns, i t i s c le ar th at th ere a re a v arie ty o f o th er

fa cto rs th at c o ntr ib ute to th e d egre e o f o vers ig ht f a ilu re a nd th e c o nse q uences. I n th e P enn S ta te c ase , th e w elfa re o f

univ ers ity a d m in is tr a to rs ( th e p re sid ent a nd V P o f f in ance) w as to o c lo se ly i n te rtw in ed w ith th at o f th e a th le ti c

dep artm ent. A dm in is tr a to rs a p pare ntl y d ecid ed th at p ro te cti n g th e v aunte d p ositi o n o f P enn S ta te a th le ti c s w as w orth

th e p ote nti a l c o sts o f a tte m pti n g to c o ver u p S and usk y’s b ehav io r. W hile S and usk y’s d eed s w ere tr a gic e no ugh, th e

ensu in g i m pacts o n P enn S ta te U niv ers ity w ere th e r e su lt o f b asic o vers ig ht f a ilu re .

If A Ds d o n o t c o ntr ib ute to U A g o als , o r i f th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent b eco m es c o stl y to th e u niv ers ity i n

em barra ssin g w ays, th en U A s d o h av e r e co urs e . F or o ne, a ll b ut a h and fu l o f a th le ti c d ep artm ents r e ceiv e a b ud get

allo cati o n f r o m U A s c o m monly r e fe rre d to a s “ in sti tu ti o nal s u p port.” A nd w hat U A s g iv e th ey c an a ls o ta ke a w ay:

bud get a llo cati o ns to th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent c an s im ply b e r e d uced . A nd th ey h av e d one s o r e p eate d ly th ro ugh th e

his to ry o f c o lle ge s p orts . U A s c an a ls o ta ke a m uch m ore d ra m ati c a cti o n f a m ilia r to a ll w ho f o llo w c o lle ge s p orts :

AD f ir in gs o r f o rc ed r e sig nati o ns a re c o m mon p ra cti c e.

And th en th ere a re i n te re sti n g c urre nt a nd h is to ric al o bse rv ati o ns w here a th le ti c d ep artm ents a re s im ply c lo se d

dow n a lto geth er b y U A s. O ne h is to ric al e xam ple i s th e e lim in ati o n o f th e s to rie d f o otb all p ro gra m a t th e U niv ers ity

of C hic ago . R ecentl y , U A s a t N orth easte rn U niv ers ity ( th e H usk ie s) c ut i ts f o otb all p ro gra m i n N ovem ber 2 009, a nd

UA s a t H ofs tr a U niv ers ity ( th e F ly in g D utc hm en) f o llo w ed s u it th e n ext m onth . S o th ere n eed b e n o p re su m pti o n th at

ADs a ct c o m ple te ly i n d ep end entl y .

The b asic s o f th e d esc rip ti v e m odel s o f a r a re p ortr a yed i n

Fig ure 1 0.1

. S erv ic es f r o m a ll a re as o f th e u niv ers ity

flo w o ut, u nd er th e th re e m ajo r h ead in gs o f r e se arc h, te achin g, a nd s e rv ic e, a nd m oney a nd p oliti c al s u p port c o m e

back to U A s. I n tu rn , h ie ra rc hic ally , th ro ugh d eans a nd d ir e cto rs , i n clu d in g

ath le tic

d ir e cto rs , U A s a llo cate r e w ard s

back to d ep artm ents . D eans a nd A Ds a re r e w ard ed w hen th ey c o ntr ib ute to U A g o als a nd p unis h ed w hen th ey d o n o t

(a lw ays a r e la ti v e s ta te m ent— re w ard s c o uld j u st b e s m alle r).

As w ith a ll th in gs, n o t a ll d ep artm ents a re e q ually a d ep t a t e ach o f th e r e se arc h, te achin g, a nd s e rv ic e a re as a nd

an e ffe cti v e o rg aniz a ti o nal s tr u ctu re w ould a llo w th e p urs u it o f c o m para ti v e a d vanta ge. A mong a cad em ic

dep artm ents , s o m e a re m ore a b out te achin g a nd o th ers a re m ore a b out r e se arc h. C om pare d to a cad em ic d ep artm ents ,

th e m ix i s d iffe re nt s ti ll f o r th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent. W hile a th le ti c d ep artm ents d o n o t a ctu ally c re ate r e se arc h

agend as o r i n iti a te r e se arc h, th ey d o p arti c ip ate i n r e se arc h, e sp ecia lly i n s p ort m ed ic in e ( re centl y , i n th e a sse ssm ent

of c o ncussio n m echanic s a nd th eir i m pacts o n p la yers ). T hus, th eir r e se arc h “ m is sio n” i s r a th er r e se arc h c o opera ti o n.

Even m ore c le arly , th ere i s te achin g a nd s e rv ic e

perfo rm ed b y th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent. A th le ti c tr a in in g s tu d ents h o ne

th eir s k ills o n c o lle ge a th le te s, a nd th e a th le te s th em se lv es o fte n b eco m e te achers o f th eir s p ort ( c o aches). A v ery fe w c o nti n ue o n i n th eir s p ort a t th e p ro fe ssio nal l e v el ( a p ara lle l h ere w ould b e w ith th e f in e a rts ).

Fig ure 1 0.1 .

U niv ers ity A dm in is tr a to rs a nd th e V alu es o f C am pus H ie ra rc hy.

Som e a cad em ic d ep artm ents a ls o h av e a s e rv ic e-e nte rta in m ent c o ntr ib uti o n, b ut i t i s h ere th at a th le ti c

dep artm ents tr u ly s h in e. M em bers o f th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent, f r o m th e A D th ro ugh th e a sso cia te A Ds, o n d ow n to

co aches a nd a ssis ta nts , a nd f in ally th e a th le te s th em se lv es, p ro vid e e nte rta in m ent s e rv ic es. S tu d ents h av e d em and ed

and e njo yed th ese e nte rta in m ent s e rv ic es p ra cti c ally s in ce u niv ers iti e s w ere f o rm ed . M ore i m porta nt, th ese

ente rta in m ent s e rv ic es a re a ls o e njo yed b y m illio ns o f o th ers th ro ugho ut s o cie ty . S om e o f th em a re b ooste rs w ho th en

als o c o ntr ib ute r e so urc es to th eir f a v orite u niv ers ity . U A s s e e th ese a s r e so urc es th at c o ntr ib ute to th e p urs u it o f th eir

ow n g o als o f r e se arc h, te achin g, a nd s e rv ic e.

Acad em ic d ep artm ents i n d eed c o ntr ib ute to th e U A g o als o f r e se arc h, te achin g, a nd s e rv ic e (

Fig ure 1 0.1

Ath le ti c d ep artm ents a ls o g enera te r e so urc es u se d to a chie v e U A g o als . P art o f th e v alu e c o m es b ack th ro ugh tu iti o n

dolla rs p aid o n th e p art o f s c ho la rs h ip a th le te s b y th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent. I n a d diti o n, o th er v alu es a ccru e to th e r e st

of th e u niv ers ity , b eyo nd th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent b otto m l in e. T hese a re ty p ic ally g ro up ed a s f o llo w s ( F ort &

Win fr e e, 2 013, c hap . 3 ):

G re ate r g iv in g b y a lu m ni a nd o th er b ooste rs to th e g enera l u niv ers ity f u nd

A l a rg er a nd b ette r s e t o f s tu d ent a p plic ants

F av ora b le g enera l b ud get tr e atm ent b y l e gis la to rs

B ette r f a culty a nd a d m in is tr a to rs

V alu e a d ded to a th le te s, m any o f w ho w ould n o t b e a t th e u niv ers ity w ith o ut a th le ti c s

Thus, w e g et a no th er i m plic ati o n o f th e m odel:

The v a lu e o f t h e A D ’s e ffo rts w ill b e f o und i n p la ces o th er t h an t h e

ath le tic d ep artm en t b otto m l in e

One f in al o bse rv ati o n o n th e m onito rin g p ro ble m r o und s o ut th e i m plic ati o ns o f th is g enera l d esc rip ti v e th eo ry . I n

th e s a m e w ay th at U A s a re f le xib le i n te rm s o f f a cilita ti n g th e c o m para ti v e a d vanta ges o f u nits o n c am pus

(c o ntr ib uti o ns v ary b y r e se arc h, te achin g, a nd s e rv ic e), th ey a ls o a llo w A Ds m ore f le xib ility o ver r e v enues th an

ty p ic ally d eans o f a cad em ic d ep artm ents a re a llo w ed . B ut th ere i s a v alid e co no m ic r e aso n w hy A Ds a re a llo w ed

th is f le xib ility . W hile i t i s e asie r to o bse rv e a th le ti c d ep artm ent s u ccess th an a cad em ic d ep artm ent s u ccess, th ere i s

much m ore f lu ctu ati o n i n th e f o rm er th an i n th e l a tte r. F or a th le ti c d ep artm ents , th ere c an b e l ittl e d is a gre em ent i n th e

fin al ta lly o f w in s a nd l o sse s, b ut j u st w hic h y ear th e d ep artm ent w ill e njo y g re at s u ccess i s m uch m ore u ncerta in th an

in th e a cad em ic p art o f th e u niv ers ity . As a r e su lt o f th is f lu ctu ati o n, U A s f in d th at a th le ti c d ep artm ents a re m ost v alu ab le i f A Ds a re a llo w ed to s p end

th e u nexp ecte d m oney th ey m ig ht g enera te

durin g s u ccessfu l y ears . A cad em ic d eans d o n o t h av e th is d is c re ti o n. T hey

dete rm in e th e n eed s o f th eir d ep artm ents , p ut th em to geth er i n a b ud get r e q uest, a nd tu rn i t o ver to th e u niv ers ity

ad m in is tr a ti o n. I f s p end in g i s l o w er o r r e v enues a re g re ate r th an a nti c ip ate d , U A s r e ta in c o ntr o l o ver a ny p ositi v e

bala nce.

Com bin ed w ith th e r e su lt o f th e i n sti tu ti o nal d esig n d esc rib ed e arlie r, a r e aso nab le c o nclu sio n i s : “

In stitu tio nal

su pport” t o a th le tic s i s n ot a s u bsid y, i t i s a n i n cen tiv e r e w ard

, a nd

it s h ould b e e xp ecte d t h at s p en din g w ould

alw ays r is e t o m eet r e ven ues

BIG -T IM E C O LLEG E S P O RTS S P EN DIN G

Rath er th an j u st l o okin g a t s p end in g r e su lts a s a s im ple m easu re d s ta ti s ti c , th ere i s a ls o a n o pportu nity to s e ek

und ers ta nd in g o f th o se o utc o m es u sin g th e i m plic ati o ns o f a d esc rip ti v e m odel. ( F or a d esc rip ti o n o f th e d ata s o urc es

on c o lle ge s p orts r e v enues a nd e xp ense s, s e e F ort & W in fr e e, 2 013, c hap . 1 ).

The V alu e o f t h e A D ’s E ffo rts I s N ot J u st in t h e A th le tic D ep artm en t B otto m L in e

Fort a nd W in fr e e ( 2 013, c hap . 3 ) a sse ss th e w ork i n th e l ite ra tu re th at e sti m ate s th e v alu es a cro ss th e u niv ers ity

genera te d b y a th le ti c s b ut n o t f o und o n th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent’ s b otto m l in e. T yp ic ally , th ese v alu es a re s m all b ut

sta ti s ti c ally d ete cta b le . T hey th en g o o n to s h o w th at l o okin g o nly a t th e a b so lu te s iz e o f th e v alu es g enera te d b y th e

ath le ti c d ep artm ent to th e r e st o f th e u niv ers ity c anno t b e th e e nd o f th e e co no m ic s to ry . T he r e st o f th e e co no m ic

sto ry o f th e v alu es c re ate d f o r U A s b y c o lle ge s p orts b egs th e q uesti o n: D o U A s g et th eir m oney’s w orth f r o m th eir

in v estm ent i n c o lle ge s p orts ?

The f ir s t th in g to n o ti c e i s th at th e s iz e o f th e i n v estm ent i n a th le ti c s b y U A s, c o m pare d to th e r e st o f th e

in v estm ents th ey m ake a cro ss th e e nti r e u niv ers ity , i s r e ally q uite s m all. H ere i s a n e asy c o m paris o n f o r 2 012, th e

most r e cent a ggre gate d ata r e p orte d th ro ugh th e N CA A ( F ulk s, 2 013). T he m ed ia n o f r e p orte d g enera te d r e v enues,

th at i s , n o t i n clu d in g i n sti tu ti o nal s u p port, i s $ 40.6 m illio n. T he m ed ia n o f to ta l r e p orte d r e v enues f r o m a ll s o urc es,

th at i s , i n clu d in g i n sti tu ti o nal s u p port, i s $ 56.0 m illio n. S im ple s u b tr a cti o n s h o w s th at i n sti tu ti o nal s u p port a t th e

med ia n i s a b out $ 15.4 m illio n, o r a ro und 2 6% o f to ta l r e v enues. R est a ssu re d th at th is $ 15.4 m illio n m ed ia n

in v estm ent i s a v ery s m all p erc enta ge o f th e “ m ed ia n” u niv ers ity to ta l b ud get. S o, w hile th e c o nclu sio n f r o m th e

lite ra tu re i s th at th e v alu es g enera te d b y c o lle ge s p orts a re s m all, s o i s th e i n v estm ent m ad e i n a th le ti c s c o m pare d to

th e i n v estm ent d ecis io ns m ad e b y U A s a cro ss a ll o f th e u nits a t th eir u niv ers ity .

On th e q uesti o n o f th e r e tu rn o n th is s m all i n v estm ent, F ort a nd W in fr e e ( 2 013, c hap . 3 ) o ffe r th e f o llo w in g

in sig ht. F or th e m ost r e cent p ub lic ly a v aila b le d ata a t th e l e v el o f i n d iv id ual i n sti tu ti o ns, 2 010–2011 , th e s m alle st

ath le ti c d ep artm ent b ud get w as a t W ash in gto n S ta te U niv ers ity . T he to ta l 2 010–2011 W ash in gto n S ta te b ud get

was

$843.7 m illio n, a nd th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent b ud get w as $ 40.6 m illio n. B ut i t i s n o t th e e nti r e a th le ti c s b ud get th at i s o f

in te re st— UA s e arn th eir r e tu rn o n j u st th e p art th at th ey i n v est, th at i s , “ in sti tu ti o nal s u p port.” T hat i n v estm ent w as

$9.9 m illio n a t W ash in gto n S ta te , a tr u ly tr iv ia l 1 .2 % o f th e to ta l u niv ers ity b ud get. N ow , 7 3% o f th at $ 9.9 m illio n

in v estm ent, o r $ 7.2 m illio n, c am e b ack d ir e ctl y to th e u niv ers ity f r o m th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent to c o ver a th le ti c

sc ho la rs h ip s. I f, i n a d diti o n to th at $ 7.2 m illio n, th ere w ere o nly a no th er $ 3.2 m illio n g enera te d i n o th er v alu es

acro ss th e r e st o f th e u niv ers ity , th en U A s a t W ash in gto n S ta te w ould e arn a 5 % r e tu rn o n th eir i n v estm ent. A nd th at

$3.2 m illio n w ould b e a s m all a m ount i n d eed to f in d i n th e u niv ers ity to ta l b ud get o f $ 843.7 m illio n, j u st 0 .3 8% .

Fort a nd W in fr e e a ls o p ro vid e th e s a m e c o m paris o n f o r th e m ed ia n-s iz e d a th le ti c s b ud get a t th e U niv ers ity o f

North C aro lin a a nd f o r th e l a rg est b ud get d ep artm ent, th e U niv ers ity o f T exas. T he r e su lts th ere w ere s im ply s ta rtl in g

in te rm s o f th e r e tu rn e arn ed o n th e i n v estm ent i n th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent b y U A s. B ut th e m ain p oin t i s th at

in v estm ents a re s m all, r e tu rn s a re to o, b ut th e p erc enta ge r e tu rn i s q uite h ealth y.

Not a S ubsid y b ut a n I n cen tiv e

The d esc rip ti v e m odel te lls u s th at A Ds w ill a lw ays s p end a ll th at th ey g et; r e v enues w ill e q ual e xp ense s. T o p ut i t a

bit m ore p re cis e ly , th e c o rre la ti o n b etw een r e v enues a nd s p end in g s h o uld b e u nity . A nd th is c o m paris o n s h o uld

in clu d e

all r e ven ues

, i n clu d in g th e i n v estm ent b y U A s. F urth er, b ud get d efic its c an o ccasio nally o ccur i n th e r e al

world f o r th e u su al r e aso ns o f m is ta kes u nd er u ncerta in ty , b ut th ey c anno t p ers is t. A fte r a ll, b ud get d efic its u nd er th e

desc rip ti v e m odel s e rv e n o body’s b est i n te re st. S o, w hat d o th e d ata s a y? Our i n sig ht c o m es f r o m th e N CA A’s o w n r e p ort o f a nnual o pera ti n g r e v enues a nd e xp ense s ( F ulk s, 2 013).

(E xam in in g a nnual o pera ti o ns i g no re s c ap ita l, th at i s , f a ciliti e s s p end in g, b ut n o t e v ery th in g c an b e c o vere d i n a

sin gle c hap te r; th e s tu d ent i s r e fe rre d to O rs za g a nd O rs za g [ 2 005a, 2 005b].)

Fig ure 1 0.2

c o m bin es th e d ata f r o m

th o se N CA A r e p orts f o r F B S a th le ti c d ep artm ents ( F ort, 2 010, a ls o p ro duced a f ig ure l ik e th is i n a p re se nta ti o n a t th e

NCA A C onv enti o n i n 2 009). T he f ir s t th in g to o bse rv e i n

Fig ure 1 0.2

i s th e s te ad y i n cre ase i n b oth r e v enues a nd

exp end itu re s o ver ti m e. T he r e al ( a d ju ste d f o r i n fla ti o n) a nnual g ro w th r a te s i n th e m ed ia n o f r e p orte d r e v enues a nd

th e m ed ia n o f r e p orte d s p end in g w ere b oth 4 .6 % ( q uite l a rg e r e la ti v e to th e ty p ic al r e al g ro w th r a te i n th e e co no m y

at l a rg e). T he s e co nd th in g to n o ti c e i s th at s p end in g r is e s o ver ti m e to m eet r is in g r e v enue. F or f u lly 5 0 y ears ,

med ia n r e p orte d r e v enues e q ual o r e xceed m ed ia n r e p orte d s p end in g, c o nsis te nt w ith th e i m plic ati o n o f th e

desc rip ti v e m odel. P utti n g j u st a l ittl e m ore p re cis io n to i t, a t th e m ed ia n o f r e v enues a nd th e m ed ia n o f s p end in g, th e

co rre la ti o n b etw een r e v enues a nd e xp ense s i s 0 .9 95. E sse nti a lly , th e “ m ed ia n” a th le ti c d ep artm ent h as e njo yed

tr e m end ous r e v enue g ro w th a nd s p ent e v ery d olla r.

Fig ure 1 0.2

s h o w s o nly a b it o f a v aria ti o n o n th is s a m e th em e f o r th e d ep artm ents r e p orti n g th e l a rg est r e v enues

and e xp ense s to th e N CA A ( th e f o rm er h av e b een

re p orte d o nly s in ce 1 985). F ir s t, th e r e al a nnual g ro w th r a te i n th e

la rg est r e p orte d s p end in g i s 5 .8 % ( a nd e sse nti a lly th e s a m e a t 5 .5 % f o r r e v enues). A gain , th is r a te i s q uite l a rg e

re la ti v e to th e ty p ic al r e al g ro w th r a te i n th e e co no m y a nd a ls o r e la ti v e to th e g ro w th r a te f o r th e m ed ia n p ro gra m

re p orts . S eco nd , f o r f u lly 2 5 y ears , r e v enues e q ual o r e xceed s p end in g, a gain , c o nsis te nt w ith th e p re d ic ti o n o f th e

desc rip ti v e m odel. A no th er i n te re sti n g c o m paris o n c o ncern s th e c o rre la ti o n, a b it l o w er 0 .9 46 f o r th e l a rg est r e p orts .

Unlik e th eir m ed ia n c o unte rp arts , th e l a rg est a th le ti c d ep artm ents d o n o t s p end e v ery th in g th ey b rin g i n . W e k no w th at

th e o bse rv ed s u rp lu s a m ounts ty p ic ally g o to a th le ti c d ep artm ent e nd ow ment f u nd s f o r f u tu re c o nstr u cti o n p ro je cts .

Fig ure 1 0.2 .

F B S O pera ti n g R ev enues a nd E xp ense s ( 2 009). T R = to ta l r e v enue; T E = to ta l e xp ense s. (

Sourc e:

Calc ula te d f r o m th e d ata i n F ulk s ( 2 011 ).

Note :

L arg est R ep orte d T ota l R ev enue o m its 2 006 b ecause th e r e p ort th at

year i s j u st n o t b elie v ab le ( $ 260.7 m illio n $ 2009). U pon i n q uir y b y th e a uth o r, th e N CA A r e sp ond ed th at a

parti c ula rly l a rg e g ift to th at p ro gra m w as r e sp onsib le . B ut g ifts a re n o t o pera ti o ns s o th e f ig ure o m its th is a no m aly .)

Of c o urs e , th is i s o nly p art o f th e s to ry . T hey m ay b e d oin g i t e ffe cti v ely , b ut a re U A s c ho osin g th e

rig ht l e vel

o f

co lle ge s p orts a cti v ity ? W e n o w tu rn to th at q uesti o n.

IS S P O RTS S P EN DIN G C O NSIS T EN T W IT H A C AD EM IC M IS SIO N?

Eco no m ic ally , i t a p pears th e r e tu rn s, a ls o s m all, g enera te a r e aso nab le r e tu rn o n th at i n v estm ent. B ut i s e v en th is

sm all l e v el s o m eho w th e “ rig ht” l e v el? A nd h ere s im ple e co no m ic l e sso ns e nd . I n th e p olic y a re na, a ll c o ncern ed

will h av e th eir o pin io n a nd r ig htf u lly s o , s in ce u niv ers iti e s h o ld a s p ecia l p la ce i n s o cie ty ( a nd m ost o f th em a re a t

le ast p artl y p ub lic ly f u nd ed ). T he r e m ain d er o f th e c hap te r a sk s, “ W hat i s a m odern u niv ers ity e xp ecte d to d o i n th e fir s t p la ce a nd h o w i s i t to c o ver th e c o sts o f d oin g s o ?”

Fig ure 1 0.1

d eta ile d w hat u niv ers iti e s d o— re se arc h, te achin g, a nd s e rv ic e. R ese arc h i s p re tty s tr a ig htf o rw ard ,

and w e w ill n o t s p end m uch m ore ti m e o n th is o ne. R ev enues to d o r e se arc h c o m e i n th e f o rm o f l e gis la ti v e b ud get

allo cati o ns a nd , m ore i m porta ntl y , o uts id e r e se arc h g ra nts a nd c o ntr a cts . C ontr o vers ie s a ris e o ccasio nally o ver th e

ty p es o f r e se arc h d one a t u niv ers iti e s ( a r e cent e xam ple i s s te m c ell r e se arc h) b ut n o t o ver th e i d ea th at o ne o f th eir

fu nd am enta l a cad em ic m is sio ns i s to d o r e se arc h i n th e f ir s t p la ce.

Teachin g, a t f ir s t b lu sh , a ls o s e em s s tr a ig htf o rw ard . U nd erg ra d uate a nd g ra d uate s tu d ents a re e xp ose d to v arie ti e s

of th o ught p ro cesse s, tr a in ed to d o p arti c ula rly

challe ngin g v ocati o nal a cti v iti e s, a nd a ls o a llo w ed th e f r e ed om to

exp lo re i s su es o n th eir o w n. B ut th e u niv ers ity m is sio n h ere i s n o t s o s im ple a s j u st p ro vid in g f a culty , c la ssro om s,

la b s, a nd a f o ru m . T he u nd erg ra d uate a nd g ra d uate “ co lle ge e xp erie nce” i s m ulti d im ensio nal; o ne d im ensio n i s

stu d ents d em and to b e e nte rta in ed .

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

Refle ctio n s o n M an agin g C olle g e S ports

Ja m es D ud ers ta d t i s a p ast p re sid ent o f th e U niv ers ity o f M ic hig an ( 1 988–1996). H e w as a n ucle ar e ngin eer o f

re no w n a nd d ean o f th e E ngin eerin g S cho ol a t M ic hig an b efo re ta kin g th e p ost, s o h e i s c le arly a c ap ab le a nd

in te llig ent p ers o n. I n h is b ook

In te rc o lle g ia te A th le tic s a nd t h e A m eric a n U niv ersity : A U niv ersity P re sid en t’s

Persp ectiv e

( 2 003), h e s h are s h is i n sig hts i n to m anagin g b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts a t o ne o f th e n ati o n’s p re m ie re

acad em ic a nd a th le ti c i n sti tu ti o ns.

The b ook o ffe rs a n i n te re sti n g p ers p ecti v e s in ce D ud ers ta d t’ s s to ry i s o fte n c ast i n te rm s o f r e la ti v e r is k — th e

med ic al s c ho ol c an th re ate n th e i n sti tu ti o n f in ancia lly , w hile th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent c an th re ate n i ts i n te grity a nd

re p uta ti o n. H e n o te s th at a th le ti c d ir e cto rs a nd c o aches l o ng f o r a uto no m y b ut s im ply c anno t h av e i t. S uch a uto no m y

(q uo ti n g f r o m th e i n tr o ducti o n) “ is a p re sc rip ti o n f o r d is a ste r i n th e c o m ple x p oliti c al e nv ir o nm ent o f th e

co nte m pora ry u niv ers ity .” H e a ls o n o te s th at, d esp ite th ese p ote nti a l p ro ble m s a nd c o m ple xiti e s, th ere i s a p la ce f o r

sp orts o n c am pus ( a lth o ugh h e l a m ents th eir o verc o m merc ia liz a ti o n). M ost i m porta ntl y , h e p uts h is f in ger r ig ht o n th e

main p oin ts b ehin d th is c hap te r. D ud ers ta d t c le arly s ta te s a nd e num era te s th at th e c ause o f a ny i lln ess f o und , a nd th e

re m ed y a s w ell, l ie s w ith in th e i n sti tu ti o ns g o vern in g c o lle ge s p orts . H e i s q uite s p ecific th at i t i s u niv ers ity

ad m in is tr a to rs , a t th eir o w n i n sti tu ti o ns a nd th ro ugh b oth th eir a th le ti c c o nfe re nces a nd th eir m em bers h ip i n th e

NCA A, w ho b ear p rim ary r e sp onsib ility f o r c o lle ge s p orts o utc o m es.

Dud ers ta d t p ulls n o p unches a nd f r e ely a d m its th at th ere c an b e p ro ble m s w ith c o lle ge s p orts . B ut i n th e s a m e

bre ath h e i s q uic k to p oin t o ut th at th e c ulp rit i s n o t r e ally a m biti o us c o aches, o r th o ughtl e ss g re ed y a th le te s, o r

sin gle -m in d ed a th le ti c d ir e cto rs . T o b la m e th em i s to i g no re th e f a ct th at m ost p eo ple i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a re

peo ple o f i n te grity tr y in g to d o th eir b est to s u cceed w ith in th e r u le s. I n a d diti o n, to b la m e th em d is tr a cts a tte nti o n

fr o m th e tr u e s o urc e o f a ny r e m ed ia ti o n— go vern in g b oard s a nd u niv ers ity p re sid ents .

Orig in ally , s tu d ents w ante d to p arti c ip ate i n s p orts , a nd u niv ers iti e s q uic kly f ig ure d o ut h o w to m ake i t a v aila b le

to th em s a fe ly . I n th e m odern c o nte xt, s tu d ents p arti c ip ate i n i n tr a m ura l s p orts a nd a s f a ns o f s p orts p la yed a t a h ig her

le v el th an th ey c an p la y th em se lv es. O nce, s tu d ent- fa ns s im ply w ore r a cco on c o ats , s a ng “ B oola B oola ,” c heere d ,

and w av ed p ennants . N ow s tu d ent- fa ns p ay 2 4-h o ur T V a nd s o cia l m ed ia a tte nti o n to th eir c o lle ge te am s. O n th is

dim ensio n a t l e ast, s p orts s p end in g i s i n k eep in g w ith th e a cad em ic m is sio n— stu d ents w ant s p orts .

The r e ad er a t th is p oin t a lm ost c erta in ly s a ys to h im se lf o r h ers e lf, a ll w ell a nd g o od b ut s u re ly n ati o nal T V

bro ad casts w ith i m mense r ig hts f e es g o b eyo nd th e r e q uir e m ent to e nte rta in s tu d ents ? F air e no ugh, b ut l e t’ s l o ok

clo se r a t th e p ro vis io n o f e nte rta in m ent b y u niv ers iti e s. U niv ers iti e s p ro vid e a v arie ty o f e nte rta in m ent s e rv ic es

und er th e a cad em ic u m bre lla , f r o m g uest l e ctu re s o n a r a nge o f to pic s to f in e a rts e nte rta in m ent n o t o th erw is e

pro vid ed b y p riv ate p ro m ote rs . B ut th ey a ls o h o st p opula r s u p ers ta rs p ro m ote d p riv ate ly b ut h o ste d i n p ub lic

univ ers ity f a ciliti e s s im ply f o r th e n o to rie ty — fo r e xam ple , D ra ke’s a p peara nce a t th e U niv ers ity o f T exas, A rlin gto n,

and K e$ ha’s a t S outh ern M eth o dis t U niv ers ity .

So i t i s w ith b ig -ti m e s p orts . T hey a re a no th er d em and o n th e u niv ers ity b y c lie nte le th at c o ntr ib ute m oney a nd

su p port, c o lle cte d b y U A s a lo ng th e s e rv ic e d im ensio n, th at f u rth er i ts r e se arc h, te achin g, a nd s e rv ic e g o als . T he

bin d in g n atu re o f l o ng-te rm a lu m ni a nd o th er b ooste r r e la ti o ns m akes th e p ro vis io n o f s p orts e nte rta in m ent a s e rv ic e

th at p ays i n c urre ncy i m porta nt to U A s. I t i s , th en, q uite i n k eep in g w ith th e a cad em ic m is sio n th at th ese ty p es o f

se rv ic es a ls o a re p ro vid ed . But o bse rv in g th at th e p ro vis io n o f s e rv ic es i s i n k eep in g w ith th e a cad em ic m is sio n s ti ll d oes n o t s e ttl e th e i s su e

of w heth er th ese e nte rta in m ent o ffe rin gs o ccur a t th e “ rig ht” l e v el. S o l e t’ s g et to th e h eart o f th e c riti c is m th at th e

atte nti o n p aid to a th le ti c s i s o verb lo w n, a lm ost a lw ays c o up le d w ith s k ep ti c is m o ver i ts a cad em ic c o ntr ib uti o n. T he

dom in ant a rg um ent g o es th at s p orts p ull s tu d ents a w ay f r o m th eir s tu d ie s w ith o ut a d din g a nyth in g a cad em ic ally

le giti m ate . B ut to w hat e xte nt i s th at s im ply a n o bse rv ati o n a b out th e p arti c ula r n ic he th at s p orts h as b een d riv en to a t

th e u niv ers ity r a th er th an a n i n v ita ti o n to o pen d is c ussio n a b out th e a cad em ic l e giti m acy o f c o lle ge s p orts ?

CO NCLU SIO N

By a nd l a rg e, o vers ig ht i n th e p rin cip al- a gent r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een U A s a nd th eir A Ds p ro duces b enefits th at a p pear

to b e w orth th e d olla r i n v estm ent. A s w ith a ny o vers ig ht s y ste m , th ere w ill b e f a ilu re s. M ost a re s m all. C ata str o phic

re su lts l ik e th o se a t S M U a nd P enn S ta te h av e b een f e w a nd f a r b etw een. B ut w heth er th e a tte nti o n to c o lle ge s p orts

is a t th e r ig ht l e v el i s a c o m ple x i s su e th at c an o nly b e i n fo rm ed ,

no t s o lv ed , b y th e a p plic ati o n o f e co no m ic l o gic a nd

data a naly sis . A s w ith e v ery th in g a t th e u niv ers ity , th e l e v el o f a tte nti o n a nd r e so urc es d ev ote d to c o lle ge s p orts i s

dese rv in g o f c are fu l c o nsid era ti o n. T hat d is c ussio n i n th e p olic y c o m munity c o ncern ed w ith u niv ers iti e s w ill a lw ays

be b est s e rv ed b y l e ss r h eto ric , m ore p ro cess r e co gniti o n, a nd m ore d ata -d riv en a naly sis . U sin g m odels l ik e th e o ne

pre se nte d h ere i s a g o od s te p i n th at d ir e cti o n.

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

W hat i s a “ p rin cip al- a gent” m odel i n g enera l? ( Y ou m ay w is h to c o nsu lt a n e co no m ic s te xtb ook.) W hat i s th e

fu nd am enta l s o urc e o f th e te nsio n b etw een th e p rin cip al a nd h is o r h er a gent( s )? H ow d oes th e p rin cip al h arn ess

th e p urs u it o f a gent s e lf- in te re st to b e c o nsis te nt w ith h is o r h er o w n o bje cti v es? I s th ere a n “ o pti m al l e v el” o f

fa ilu re i n th e d esig ns o f th e p rin cip al? W hy?

R ath er th an th e p rin cip al- a gent/ o vers ig ht m odel p re se nte d i n th is c hap te r, o th er o bse rv ers s u ggest th at th e a th le ti c

dep artm ent i s th e ta il th at w ags th e u niv ers ity d og. F in d a n e xam ple o f th is “ ta il w aggin g th e d og” b elie f i n th e

popula r m ed ia a nd e xp la in th e s a m e o utc o m e u sin g th e c o lle ge s p orts p rin cip al- a gent m odel i n th is c hap te r. W hic h

is m ore c o nv in cin g to y o u?

W hy c an e co no m ic s n o t a nsw er th e q uesti o n o f w heth er s p ort s p end in g i s c o nsis te nt w ith th e a cad em ic m is sio ns o f

univ ers iti e s? H ow d oes e co no m ic s i n fo rm th is q uesti o n?

Refe re n ces

Dud ers ta d t, J . J . ( 2 003).

In te rc o lle g ia te A th le tic s a nd t h e A m eric a n U niv ersity .

A nn A rb or: U niv ers ity o f M ic hig an

Pre ss.

Fort, R . ( 2 010). A n e co no m ic l o ok a t th e s u sta in ab ility o f F B S a th le ti c d ep artm ents .

Jo urn al o f I n te rc o lle g ia te

Sport, 3

, 3 –21.

———. ( 2 011 ).

Sports e co nom ic s

( 3 rd e d .) . U pper S ad dle R iv er, N J: P re nti c e H all.

Fort, R ., & W in fr e e, J . ( 2 013).

15 s p orts m yth s a nd w hy t h ey’re w ro ng

. S ta nfo rd : S ta nfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss.

Fulk s, D . L . ( 2 013).

2004–2012 N CAA r e ven ues a nd e xp en se s: N CAA D iv is io n I i n te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic p ro gra m s

re p ort

. N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caap ub lic ati o ns.c o m /p ro ductd ow nlo ad s/2 012R ev E xp .p df

Knig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s. ( 2 009). Q uanti ta ti v e a nd q ualita ti v e r e se arc h w ith f o otb all b ow l

su b div is io n u niv ers ity p re sid ents o n th e c o sts a nd f in ancin g o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s: R ep ort o f f in d in gs a nd

im plic ati o ns. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.k nig htc o m mis sio nm ed ia .o rg /im ages/P re sid ent_ S urv ey_ F IN AL.p df

Ors za g, J . M ., & O rs za g, P . R . ( 2 005a).

The p hysic a l c a pita l s to ck u se d i n c o lle g ia te a th le tic s

. N ati o nal C olle gia te

Ath le ti c A sso cia ti o n. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caa.o rg /w ps/p orta l/n caaho m e?

WCM _G LO BA L_C O NTEX T=/n caa/n caa/r e se arc h/fin ancia l_ re se arc h.h tm l

———. ( 2 005b).

The e m pir ic a l e ffe cts o f c o lle g ia te a th le tic s: A n u pdate

. N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c

Asso cia ti o n. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caa.o rg /w ps/p orta l/n caaho m e?

WCM _G LO BA L_C O NTEX T=/n caa/n caa/r e se arc h/fin ancia l_ re se arc h.h tm l

C H APTER

1 1

T H E B USIN ESS M ODEL o f I N TE R CO LLEG IA TE S P O RTS

T he H aves a nd H ave-N ots

S co tt H ir k o a n d K yle V . S w eit z e r

K EY T ER M S

Big F iv e

Bow l C ham pio nsh ip S erie s A uto m atic Q ualif ie r ( B C S A Q )

explo it a tio n

Flu tie e ffe ct

re venue-p ro ducin g s p ort

su bsid y

I n 1 984 c o lle ge f o otb all f a ns w ould r a re ly w atc h th eir a lm a m ate r p la y f o otb all o n te le v is io n m ore th an tw ic e p er

y ear. B ut l e ad ers a t th e U niv ers ity o f O kla ho m a ( O U) a nd th e U niv ers ity o f G eo rg ia ( U G A) b elie v ed th ey c o uld e arn

m ore m oney a nd e xp osu re b y h av in g th eir te am s o n te le v is io n m ore f r e q uentl y . O U a nd U G A s u ed th e o rg aniz a ti o n o f

w hic h th ey w ere m em bers , th e N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n ( N CA A), w hic h o w ned th e r ig hts to p ut

c o lle ge f o otb all o n te le v is io n ( L ee, 2 012). T he f o otb all p ow ers w on th e c ase b efo re th e U .S . S up re m e C ourt, s ta rti n g

t h e “ arm s r a ce” o f m assiv e s p end in g a nd r e v enues i n c o lle ge s p orts . T here w as a p ro pheti c m om ent b efo re th e c o urt.

I n h is d is se nt, J u sti c e B yro n W hite n o te d th at s ig nific ant r e v enues f r o m te le v is in g f o otb all m ay c hange c o lle ge s p orts :

“ N CA A’s te le v is io n p la n s e em s e m in entl y r e aso nab le [ b ecause i t] f o ste rs th e g o al o f a m ate uris m b y s p re ad in g

r e v enues a m ong th e v ario us s c ho ols a nd r e d ucin g th e f in ancia l i n centi v es to w ard p ro fe ssio nalis m ” (

NCAA v .

O kla hom a B oard o f R eg en ts

, 1 984).

Colle ge f o otb all to day i s f a r c lo se r to p ro fe ssio nalis m th an i n 1 984. S in ce

NCAA v . O kla hom a

, th e m oney th e

m ed ia g iv es th e b ig -ti m e f o otb all p ow ers h as i n cre ase d e xp onenti a lly . F or i n sta nce, i n 1 984 th e B ig T en c o nfe re nce

e arn ed a p pro xim ate ly $ 4.8 m illio n a nnually f r o m A BC te le v is io n ( S ie gfr ie d & B urb a, 2 003) c o m pare d to $ 232

m illio n f r o m s e v era l m ed ia p artn ers i n 2 011 ( K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 2 011 ). A s o f 2 013, th e

r e v enue th e “ B ig F iv e” a th le ti c c o nfe re nces w ith a uto m ati c q ualific ati o n i n to th e f o otb all B ow l C ham pio nsh ip

S erie s

( B CS) w ill m ake o ver th e l ife o f th eir te le v is io n c o ntr a cts i s p ro je cte d a t n early $ 21 b illio n ( D osh 2 012;

K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 2 011 ; S m ith & O ura nd , 2 013). I n o th er w ord s,

mem bers h ip i n a B ig

F iv e c o nfe re nce w ith a ccess to B CS g am es i s l u cra ti v e a nd p re sti g io us.

This c hap te r d is c usse s th e b usin ess m odel i n N CA A D iv is io n I a th le ti c s. W e i llu str a te tw o w ays to c o nsid er th e

“ hav es” v ers u s “ hav e-n o ts ” i n m ajo r c o lle ge s p orts . F ir s t: th e “ hav es” a re u niv ers iti e s w ith a

co m merc ia l

a th le ti c s

s p end in g m odel b ecause o f a ccess to m ajo r r e v enues th at h elp p ay f o r th eir a th le ti c p ro gra m s. T he “ hav e-n o ts ” a re

s c ho ols w ith a

su bsid iz a tio n

a th le ti c s s p end in g m odel b ecause th ey p ay f o r a th le ti c s p rim arily f r o m o th er f u nd in g

s o urc es ( e .g ., s tu d ent f e es, g enera l f u nd tr a nsfe rs , o r o th er s o urc es d iv erte d f r o m a cad em ic s p end in g). T he i n te nt o f

t h e “ hav es” (

co m merc ia l

) i s to b e th e b est. T he i n te nt o f th e “ hav e-n o ts ” (

su bsid iz a tio n

) i s to b e p erc eiv ed a s b ein g

i n th e s a m e l e ague a s th e b est. S eco nd : th e “ hav es” a re th e a th le ti c te am s c o nsid ere d m ajo r r e v enue s o urc es ( th e

“ re v enue s p orts ” ), s p ecific ally f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all. T he “ hav e-n o ts ” a re a ll o f th e o th er n o nre v enue s p orts ,

m any o f w hic h a re r e fe rre d to a s O ly m pic s p orts , a ll o f w hic h a re f u nd ed i n p art b y th e r e v enue g enera te d b y th e

f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all te am s. W heth er o ne l o oks f ir s t a t th e i n sti tu ti o ns o r s e co nd a t th e te am s, a d ic ho to m y

e xis ts i n b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts p rim arily b ecause o f th e m oney b ein g g enera te d b y A meric a’s p assio n f o r f o otb all

a nd m en’s b ask etb all. It i s i m porta nt to n o te th at o nly a f e w o f th e “ hav es” a ctu ally m ake a p ro fit f r o m a th le ti c s. W hat i s c o ncern in g i s

th e i n cre d ib le s p end in g o n a th le ti c s, i n a d diti o n to c o nfe re nce s h ifti n g, a s i n sti tu ti o ns tr y to b eco m e o ne o f th e

“hav es” a nd r e ceiv e a l a rg er s h are o f m ajo r c o nfe re nce m ed ia c o ntr a cts a nd f o otb all r e v enue.

Even th o ugh a th le ti c s i s e xp ensiv e, a nd m ost a th le ti c d ep artm ents f a il to g enera te e no ugh m oney to p ay th eir

co sts , s c ho ols s ti ll i n v est i n a th le ti c te am s to b oost s c ho ol p rid e a nd i d enti ty ( T om a, 2 003). O ne o f th e b est e xam ple s

occurre d , c o in cid enta lly , i n 1 984. B osto n C olle ge ( B C) q uarte rb ack D oug F lu ti e c o m ple te d a d esp era ti o n to uchd ow n

pass o n th e l a st p la y o f th e g am e to d efe at d efe nd in g n ati o nal c ham pio n U niv ers ity o f M ia m i o n n ati o nal te le v is io n.

The m ed ia a tte nti o n f r o m th e v ic to ry , c o m bin ed w ith B C’s s u b se q uent s ig nific ant i n cre ase i n a d m is sio ns

ap plic ati o ns, c am e to b e k no w n a s th e “ F lu ti e e ffe ct.”

The p ro phecy f r o m J u sti c e W hite i n 1 984 h as p ro ved a ccura te . C onsid er th e m oney r a is e d a nd s h are d b y th e

“hav es,” w hic h a re th e r o ughly 6 0 i n sti tu ti o ns i n th e B ig F iv e a th le ti c c o nfe re nces w ith m ajo r f o otb all p ro gra m s a nd

access to h uge f o otb all a nd b ask etb all m ed ia r e v enues. T he a m ount r a is e d b y th e “ hav es” i s m assiv e c o m pare d to th e

money r a is e d b y th e “ hav e-n o ts ,” w hic h a re th e r o ughly o th er 2 90 m em bers o f N CA A D iv is io n I w ith a m in im al

sh are o f N CA A m en’s b ask etb all c ham pio nsh ip m ed ia r e v enue.

The m oney g enera te d i n b ig -ti m e a th le ti c s a ls o r a is e s q uesti o ns a b out w heth er th o se c re ati n g th e p ro duct, th e

co lle ge a th le te s, r e ceiv e p ro per c o m pensa ti o n. A th le ti c s’ i m positi o n o n th e a cad em ic m is sio n o f h ig her e d ucati o n

ra is e s c o ncern s a b out th e f u tu re r o le o f c o lle ge s p orts . S cho la rs h av e c hro nic le d h o w c o lle ges u se f o otb all a nd

bask etb all p la yers b y p rio riti z in g a th le ti c s o ver th e a th le te s’ a cad em ic a nd p ers o nal w ell- b ein g i n o rd er to w in f o r

old a lm a m ate r ( S ack & S ta uro w sk y, 1 998;

Sperb er, 2 000). I n r e tu rn f o r f u ll o r p arti a l a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s th at h elp

pay f o r th eir e d ucati o n, a th le te s a t th e m ost c o m peti ti v e l e v el m ay d ecre ase th eir o pportu nity to l e arn , a nd s o m e

enco unte r d eb ilita ti n g i n ju rie s. B e i t g re ate r p ub lic ity to th e i n sti tu ti o n, e nhanced r e v enues f r o m m ore s tu d ent

ap plic ati o ns, e nhanced d onati o ns to a th le ti c s f r o m w in nin g, o r j u st b ein g th e b est o n th e p la yin g f ie ld , e ach o f th ese

te nets c re ate g re ate r d is p arity b etw een th o se w ho “ hav e” a nd th o se w ho “ hav e n o t.”

ABO UT T H E M ONEY

The n o ti o n th at c o lle ges m ake m oney f r o m th eir a th le ti c p ro gra m i s d eb ata b le , a nd i t d ep end s o n h o w o ne m easu re s

th e d olla rs a nd w hat i s i n clu d ed i n th e c o unt. F ew a th le ti c p ro gra m s b re ak e v en f r o m th eir a th le ti c -re la te d i n co m e

vers u s w hat th ey s p end o n a th le ti c s. A lm ost a ll c o lle ge a th le ti c p ro gra m s l o se m oney a nd r e ceiv e s o m e f o rm o f

su b sid y f r o m s tu d ent f e es, s ta te g o vern m ent, o r th e i n sti tu ti o n’s g enera l f u nd s, e v en i n N CA A D iv is io n I ( B erk o w itz ,

Upto n, & B ra d y, 2 013).

The d is p arity b etw een a th le ti c -re la te d e xp end itu re s a nd r e v enues m anife sts i ts e lf i n v ario us w ays, o fte n to th e

detr im ent o f s tu d ents . F orm er U niv ers ity o f M ic hig an p re sid ent J a m es D ud ers ta d t ( 2 003) n o te d : “ If w e i llu m in ate

hid den c o sts a nd s u b sid ie s, w e f in d th at a ll i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s b urd en th e u niv ers ity w ith c o nsid era b le c o sts ,

so m e f in ancia l, s o m e i n te rm s o f th e a tte nti o n r e q uir e d o f u niv ers ity l e ad ers h ip , s o m e i n te rm s o f th e i m pact to th e

re p uta ti o n a nd i n te grity o f th e u niv ers ity , a nd s o m e m easu re d o nly i n th e i m pact o n s tu d ents a nd s ta ff” ( p . 1 46).

Consid er th e e xp ense s a nd r e v enues o f 2 28 p ub lic N CA A D iv is io n I i n sti tu ti o ns i n 2 012. W hen o ne s u b tr a cts

exp ense s f r o m g enera te d r e v enue ( m oney e arn ed f r o m a th le ti c s w ith n o s u b sid y), o nly 1 9 a th le ti c p ro gra m s e arn ed

more m oney th an th ey s p ent. S tu d ent f e es, m oney f r o m a s c ho ol’s g enera l f u nd , o r o th er f in ancia l s u p port w as

re q uir e d to p ay th e a th le ti c s e xp ense s a t 2 09 o f th e 2 28 D iv is io n I p ub lic c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s. I n 2 012 a ll

Div is io n I i n sti tu ti o ns s p ent m ore th an $ 2.1 b illio n b eyo nd g enera te d r e v enue to p ay f o r a th le ti c s (

USA T o day

, 2 013).

Tab le 1 1 .1

d is p la ys th e p rim ary e xp ense a nd r e v enue c ate go rie s a m ong N CA A D iv is io n I a th le ti c p ro gra m s.

EXPEN SE S

Colle ge a th le ti c p ro gra m s o pera te a f in ancia l m odel i n w hic h c o sts a re r e la ti v ely f ix ed f o r p la nnin g p urp ose s, s u ch

as c o ach a nd s ta ff s a la rie s, a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s, te am tr a v el, a nd f a ciliti e s m ain te nance. T he i n sti tu ti o ns w ith th e

wealth ie st a th le ti c p ro gra m s ( “ hav es” ) te nd to s p end m ore m oney o n f a ciliti e s a nd c o achin g s a la rie s, th us d riv in g u p

th e c o st a nd m akin g i t l e ss a ffo rd ab le f o r th e “ hav e-n o ts ” to c o m pete .

The a th le ti c g o vern in g b ody ( e .g ., N CA A, N ati o nal A sso cia ti o n f o r I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s [ N AIA ], N ati o nal

Ju nio r C olle ge A th le ti c s A sso cia ti o n [ N JC A A]) a nd

div is io nal l e v el i n w hic h a n i n sti tu ti o n c o m pete s a re p artl y w hat

driv es th e c o st. F or e xam ple , th e N CA A r e q uir e s c erta in s ta nd ard s th at e ach s c ho ol m ust f o llo w a s a m em ber, s u ch a s

th e n um ber o f s p orts a n i n sti tu ti o n m ust s p onso r, e sp ecia lly i f th e i n sti tu ti o n a w ard s a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s. T he N CA A

als o l im its th e n um ber o f s c ho la rs h ip s a s c ho ol c an o ffe r i n e ach p arti c ula r s p ort f o r th e p urp ose o f c re ati n g a m ore eq ual p la yin g e nv ir o nm ent— oth erw is e s c ho ols w ith m ore m oney w ould o ffe r m ore s c ho la rs h ip s. H ow ev er, b ecause

sc ho la rs h ip s a re a m ong th e m ost e xp ensiv e c o sts , n o t a ll i n sti tu ti o ns p ro vid e th e f u ll n um ber o f a llo w ab le a th le ti c

sc ho la rs h ip s i n a ll th eir s p orts .

TA BLE

1 1 .1

Most S ig n if ic an t D riv ers o f E xp en ditu re s a n d R ev en ues in C olle g e S ports

EXPE N DIT U RES

REV EN UES

Sala rie s

Tic ket s a le s

Ath le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s

Guara nte es*

Tra v el a nd r e cru iti n g

Payo uts f r o m b ow ls a nd to urn am ents

Equip m ent, s u p plie s, m ed ic in e

Tele v is io n

In su ra nce

Corp ora te s p onso rs h ip s, a d verti s in g, l ic ensin g

Legal, p ub lic r e la ti o ns, a d m in is tr a ti v e

Unearn ed r e v enues

Cap ita l e xp end itu re s ( d eb t s e rv ic e a nd m ain te nance)

Booste r c lu b d onati o ns S tu d ent f e es a nd a sse ssm ents

Sta te o r o th er g o vern m ent s u p port H id den u niv ers ity

su b sid ie s

Sourc es

: D ud ers ta d t ( 2 003); K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s ( 2 013a, 2 013b), N CA A ( 2 013a).

*N CA A F in ancia l R ep ort f o rm s d efin e g uara nte es a s “ re v enue r e ceiv ed f r o m p arti c ip ati o n i n a w ay g am es” ( N CA A,

2013a, p . 1 1 ).

While N CA A D iv is io n I f o otb all i s th e m ost p ro fita b le s p ort, i t i s a ls o th e m ost e xp ensiv e. I t r e q uir e s th e g re ate st

num ber o f p arti c ip ants . I t r e q uir e s th e g re ate st n um ber o f c o aches a nd s u p port s ta ff. F ootb all’s p arti c ip ati o n n um bers

mean m ore e xp ense s f o r a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s, s ta ff s a la rie s a nd b enefits , a nd tr a v el c o sts f o r a w ay c o nte sts . F ootb all

als o n ecessita te s th e g re ate st e xp ense i n f a ciliti e s, s u ch a s a s ta d iu m , p ra cti c e, a nd tr a in in g. F ootb all a ls o h as th e

most s ig nific ant N CA A r e q uir e m ents to b e a m em ber o f th e m ost c o m peti ti v e d iv is io n, D iv is io n I - F B S ( F ootb all

Bow l S ub div is io n): s c ho ols m ust o ffe r f o otb all a m ong a t l e ast 1 6 s p orts ( e ig ht a ll- fe m ale ), d ra w m ore th an 1 5,0 00

actu al o r p aid a tte nd ance p er f o otb all c o nte st, s c hed ule a t l e ast 6 0% o f f o otb all g am es a gain st f e llo w F B S

opponents , a nd p ay f o r a t l e ast 7 6 f o otb all s c ho la rs h ip s ( N CA A B yla w 2 0.9 .7 ) ( N CA A, 2 012). F ootb all a ls o

driv es

th e b ulk o f o th er c o sts f o r a th le ti c d ep artm ents , s u ch a s m ark eti n g a nd m ed ia r e la ti o ns ( D ud ers ta d t, 2 003).

In sti tu ti o ns a cco unt f o r th e d eb t to p ay f o r a th le ti c s f a ciliti e s d iffe re ntl y . A s a n e xam ple , “ hav e n o t” a th le ti c

pro gra m s m ay r e ly m ore o n f a ciliti e s u se d b y a ll s tu d ents , n o t j u st a th le te s. T hese a th le ti c p ro gra m s m ay n o t r e p ort

th e d eb t o n th o se f a ciliti e s. S om e o f th e “ hav e” a th le ti c p ro gra m s o w n th eir f a ciliti e s a nd f u lly a cco unt f o r th eir d eb t.

Som e s c ho ols m ay ta ke o n m ore d eb t to b uild b ette r f a ciliti e s to b e m ore c o m peti ti v e i n a s p ort. F or i n sta nce, i n 2 012

Div is io n I s c ho ols r e p orte d to th e N CA A a th le ti c s d eb t r a ngin g f r o m a s l ittl e a s n o th in g f o r th e l e ast w ealth y a th le ti c

pro gra m s to m ore th an $ 200 m illio n f o r th e w ealth ie st p ro gra m s ( S m ith , 2 013). T he e xte nt to w hic h th e s u ccess o f a

te am i s d ue to n ew f a ciliti e s h as n o t b een w ell d ete rm in ed . I n sti tu ti o ns m ust o fte n h elp to p ay th e d eb t o uts id e o f w hat

th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent c an p ay.

When i t c o m es to e xp ense s, l e v el o f c o m peti ti o n m atte rs l ittl e . A s a p erc enta ge o f th e o vera ll a th le ti c s b ud get,

most i n sti tu ti o ns p ay a b out th e s a m e f o r s p ecific n eed s to r u n a c o lle ge s p orts p ro gra m .

Fig ure 1 1 .1

p ro vid es a n

und ers ta nd in g o f th e c o sts b y c ate go riz in g i n sti tu ti o ns a cco rd in g to th e l e v el o f a th le ti c c o m peti ti o n a s w ell a s th e

siz e o f th eir a th le ti c s e xp ense b ud get. D iv id in g F B S i n to q uarti le s f u rth er d em onstr a te s e xp ense s b y th e s iz e o f

ath le ti c s b ud gets w ith in th e m ost c o m peti ti v e d iv is io n. A s s ta te d e arlie r, c o achin g a nd a d m in is tr a ti v e s a la rie s,

sc ho la rs h ip s, te am tr a v el, a nd f a ciliti e s a re f ix ed c o sts to w hat th e m ark et d em and s. T here fo re , th e a m ount a th le ti c

pro gra m s p ay to c o m pensa te c o aches a s a p erc enta ge o f th eir o vera ll b ud get i s r e la ti v ely th e s a m e a t th e w ealth ie st pro gra m s s u ch a s th e U niv ers ity o f F lo rid a ( s e e Q uarti le 1 ) a s a t th e m uch l e ss w ealth y p ro gra m s, s u ch a s C entr a l

Mic hig an U niv ers ity ( s e e Q uarti le 4 ). C osts f o r f a ciliti e s a nd g am e tr a v el a re s im ila r. T he p erc enta ge o f s c ho la rs h ip

co sts p re d ic ta b ly v arie s b y th e s iz e o f th e a th le ti c s b ud get: s in ce s c ho la rs h ip s a re f ix ed , th e l a rg er th e o vera ll

ath le ti c s b ud get, th e l e ss s c ho la rs h ip s a re a p erc enta ge o f th e b ud get.

REV EN UES

Unlik e e xp end itu re s, c erta in r e v enue s o urc es a re v aria b le a nd d ep end p artl y o n th e s u ccess o f th e te am s. T hese

re v enue s o urc es i n clu d e ti c ket s a le s, a p peara nces i n f o otb all b ow l g am es o r th e N CA A m en’s b ask etb all to urn am ent,

lic ensin g r e v enue, a nd d onati o ns ( D ud ers ta d t, 2 003; K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 2 013).

Fig ure

11 .2

c ate go riz e s a th le ti c s r e v enues th e s a m e w ay a s i n

Fig ure 1 1 .1

, d em onstr a ti n g a s ta rk r e ality o f th e d iffe re nce

betw een th e “ hav es” a nd th e “ hav e-n o ts .” T ic ket s a le s f o r th e “ hav es” ( th e to p tw o F B S q uarti le s) c o m e m ain ly f r o m

fo otb all a nd b ask etb all a tte nd ance i n h uge s ta d iu m s a nd a re nas th at c o m mand h ig h ti c ket p ric es. F und ra is in g a nd

oth er c o ntr ib uti o ns f o r th e “ hav es” c o m e f r o m m assiv e a lu m ni b ase s a nd s e llin g s e at l ic ense s f o r ti c kets , w hic h f a ns

can d ed uct o n th eir ta x r e tu rn s.

Where t h e M on ey G oes...

Dis tr ib utio n o f A th le tic E xp en dit u re s f o r D iv is io n I I n stit u tio n s, 2 010

Fig ure 1 1 .1 .

E xp ense s f o r P ub lic A th le ti c s P ro gra m s i n N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 010. (

Data S ourc e:

U SA T oday’s N CA A

Ath le ti c s F in ance D ata b ase ( 2 013);

Sourc e:

K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s ( 2 012a; 2 012b); f r o m

www.k nig htc o m mis sio n.o rg

The “ hav es” a ls o c o m mand l a rg e r e v enues f r o m m ed ia r ig hts , p rim arily c o nfe re nce te le v is io n p ackages a nd

multi m ed ia o pportu niti e s. T he i n flu ence o f f o otb all te le v is io n c o vera ge, p rim arily th ro ugh th e c re ati o n o f th e B CS

and c o nfe re nce te le v is io n p ackages, a llo w ed s o m e o f th e l e sse r-k no w n i n sti tu ti o ns i n f o otb all to b eco m e a m ong th e

nati o n’s m ost c o m peti ti v e p ro gra m s. I n 2 009–2010, B CS a uto m ati c q ualify in g c o nfe re nces r e ceiv ed 8 2% o f th e $ 155

millio n B CS b ow l r e v enue ( N CA A, 2 012). F urth erm ore , m em ber s c ho ols o f th e B ig F iv e c o nfe re nces ( w ith a ccess

to th e B CS) a re th e “ hav es” b ecause s u ch m ed ia c o vera ge a llo w s th em to r e cru it h ig her-le v el a th le ti c p ro sp ects f r o m

hig h s c ho ol; th us, th e b ette r a th le ti c ta le nt o f th e B ig F iv e w id ens i ts g ap b etw een th e “ hav e-n o ts ,” w hic h a re n o t

mem bers o f th e B CS. B ig F iv e c o nfe re nce a th le ti c p ro gra m s a re th e w ealth ie st ( s e e Q uarti le s 1 a nd 2 ), g enera ti n g

75% to 8 0% o f th e r e v enue n ecessa ry to p ay th eir e xp ense s.

By c o ntr a st, F B S s c ho ols i n th e b otto m tw o q uarti le s a s w ell a s th o se a t D iv is io n I F ootb all C ham pio nsh ip

Sub div is io n ( F C S) a nd D iv is io n I n o n-fo otb all s c ho ols r e ceiv ed r o ughly 5 0% to 8 0% o f th eir r e v enue f r o m e ith er

go vern m ent o r i n sti tu ti o nal f u nd in g ( s u ch a s s tu d ent f e es o r o th er p aym ents f r o m th e u niv ers ity ’s g enera l f u nd ).

Where t h e M on ey G oes...

Sou rc es o f A th le tic B udget R even ue f o r D iv is io n I I n stit u tio n s, 2 010 Fig ure 1 1 .2 .

R ev enues f o r P ub lic A th le ti c s P ro gra m s i n N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 010. (

Data S ourc e:

U SA T oday’s

NCA A C olle ge A th le ti c s F in ancia l D ata b ase ( 2 013);

Sourc e:

K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s

(2 012a, 2 012b); f r o m

www.k nig htc o m mis sio n.o rg

The d iffe re nces i n r e v enue i n

Fig ure 1 1 .2

s h o w h o w th e w ealth ie st “ hav e” p ro gra m s g enera te r e v enues th at a re

no t a v aila b le to th e “ hav e-n o ts .” T he m ajo rity o f c o lle ge a th le ti c p ro gra m s r e ly o n s tu d ent f e es, i n sti tu ti o nal s u p port,

and g o vern m ent s u p port a s th eir p rim ary s o urc e o f r e v enue. S uch d iffe re nces d riv e th e “ hav e-n o ts ” to s p end m ore

money f r o m th ese n o nath le ti c s r e so urc es to k eep u p , th us e sc ala ti n g th e “ arm s r a ce.”

CO NFER EN CE A N D D IV IS IO N M OVEM EN T

Desp ite th e w ell- d ocum ente d r e ality th at a th le ti c p ro gra m s a re r a re ly s e lf- s u sta in in g, s c ho ols i n l e ss c o m peti ti v e

div is io ns ( D iv is io n I I, D iv is io n I - F C S) d ecid e to m ove u p to m ore c o m peti ti v e d iv is io ns ( D iv is io n I , D iv is io n I -

FB S). W ith in D iv is io n I - F B S, s c ho ols i n l e sse r-k no w n c o nfe re nces m ove i n to b ette r-k no w n l e agues. M any

in sti tu ti o nal l e ad ers a ssu m e th at d esp ite th e c o st, s u ch a n u p w ard m ove i n a th le ti c s ta tu s w ill r e su lt i n i n cre ase d

pub lic ity a nd n o to rie ty f o r th e i n sti tu ti o n a s a w ho le

(K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 2 009; T om a,

2003). H ow ev er, i t i s d eb ata b le th at n o to rie ty f r o m a th le ti c l e ad s to a “ F lu ti e e ffe ct” o f i n cre ase d a d m is sio ns o f

stu d ents w ho a re n o t a th le te s, i n clu d in g m ore o ut- o f- s ta te s tu d ents ( O rs za g & O rs za g, 2 005).

Confe re nce r e alig nm ent i n c o lle ge a th le ti c s i s d ue to s c ho ols ’ d esir in g to m ove to m ore p re sti g io us, g re ate r

re v enue-g enera ti n g c o nfe re nces. T hese m ore p ro sp ero us c o nfe re nces ty p ic ally w elc o m e th e i n sti tu ti o ns th at a re

bette r e sta b lis h ed a th le ti c ally a nd m ore m ark eta b le i n o rd er to g arn er a l a rg er te le v is io n m ark et. F or e xam ple , th e

Univ ers ity o f M ary la nd a t C olle ge P ark , w hic h i n 2 012 d ecid ed to m ove f r o m th e A tl a nti c C oast to th e B ig T en, c ite d

its n eed to h av e g re ate r s u sta in ab ility f r o m e xte nsiv e m ed ia d olla rs ( J o hnso n, 2 012). I n tu rn , c o nfe re nces th at h av e

had m em ber s c ho ols l e av e d ecid e to r a id l e sse r-e sta b lis h ed c o nfe re nces i n o rd er to r e ta in s o m e o f th eir m ark et s h are

and m ain ta in th eir te le v is io n c o ntr a cts ( M cM urp hy & O ’N eil, 2 012).

In 2 005 th e U niv ers ity o f L ouis v ille , R utg ers U niv ers ity , a nd th e U niv ers ity o f S outh F lo rid a j o in ed th e B ig E ast

Confe re nce, w hic h h ad i ts o w n te le v is io n c o ntr a ct a nd g re ate r f o otb all r e v enues a s a m em ber o f th e B CS. O ver ti m e,

th ese i n sti tu ti o ns r e aliz e d i n cre ase d r e v enues to th e p oin t th ey b ecam e p erc eiv ed b y th e p ub lic a s m em bers o f th e

“hav es.” W hile th e B ig E ast i s a n i n d ic ato r o f h o w te le v is io n h as c hanged f o otb all s in ce th e 1 990s ( O ria rd , 2 009),

th e s u ccess f r o m b ig m ed ia m oney a ls o s p elle d i ts d em is e , a s i ts f o otb all te am s s tr u ggle d w hile i ts m en’s b ask etb all

te am s s u cceed ed . F ro m 1 989 to 2 013, B ig E ast m em bers s p orte d a m ed io cre 8 -7 r e co rd i n B CS f o otb all b ow l

gam es. I n m en’s b ask etb all, B ig E ast m em bers h ad 1 1 F in al F our a p peara nces a nd 5 n ati o nal c ham pio ns. H ow ev er,

co lle ge f o otb all d riv es th e m ed ia ’s i n te re st a nd f in ancia l i n v estm ent. B ecause o f th e m ed io cre f o otb all s u ccess, th e

se v en s u ccessfu l m en’s b ask etb all p ro gra m s a t p riv ate , C ath o lic m em ber s c ho ols ( i.e ., P ro vid ence C olle ge,

Marq uette U niv ers ity , D eP aul U niv ers ity , G eo rg eto w n U niv ers ity , S eto n H all U niv ers ity , S t. J o hn’s U niv ers ity , a nd

Villa no va U niv ers ity ) d ecid ed to p art w ays a nd c re ate a n ew B ig E ast. T he r e m ain in g F B S f o otb all s c ho ols f o rm ed

th eir o w n c o nfe re nce, th e A meric an A th le ti c C onfe re nce, b ut l o st th eir s ta tu s to a uto m ati c ally q ualify to p arti c ip ate i n

BCS b ow l g am es. T he l o ss i n B CS s ta tu s l e d to a s ig nific ant d ecre ase i n th e a m ount f r o m m ed ia c o ntr a cts : f r o m

$10.3 m illio n a nnually p er i n sti tu ti o n a s a B ig E ast m em ber to $ 1.8 m illio n p er y ear p er s c ho ol a s a n A meric an

Ath le ti c m em ber. T he n ew B ig E ast, m ad e u p o f o nly th e C ath o lic b ask etb all p ow ers , w ill e arn $ 3 m illio n p er y ear (M cM urp hy, 2 013). F B S m em bers w ith a ccess to th e B CS h av e r e p eate d ly s w itc hed c o nfe re nces to c hase

sig nific antl y m ore m oney f r o m te le v is in g f o otb all (

Tab le 1 1 .2

TA BLE

1 1 .2

Exp ecte d A nnual L on g-T erm I n cre a se o f M ed ia C on tr a ctu al R even ue ( in m illio n s) t o

Ath le tic s a s a R esu lt o f C on fe re n ce S hif ts in to a “ B ig F iv e” C on fe re n ce ( a n nou nced s h if ts

betw een 2 010 a n d 2 012)

CASE S T U DY

It I s E xp en siv e t o C hase t h e H aves

We p ro vid e r e v enue a nd e xp ense d ata f r o m th re e i n sti tu ti o ns to d em onstr a te th e c o st o f tr y in g to b eco m e a “ hav e.”

We c ho se th e U niv ers ity o f T exas, S an A nto nio ( U TSA ), th e U niv ers ity o f M assa chuse tts , A mhers t ( U M ass), a nd

Bois e S ta te U niv ers ity b ecause e ach s w itc hed i ts a th le ti c a ffilia ti o n ( c o m peti ti v e d iv is io n o r a th le ti c c o nfe re nce)

afte r 2 010. T he m ost r e cent y ear ( 2 011 –2012) a nd th e m ost d is ta nt y ear ( 2 004–2005) o f a v aila b le d ata a re p re se nte d

Tab le 1 1 .3

Betw een 2 005 a nd 2 012, m ore a th le te s p arti c ip ate d a t e ach i n sti tu ti o n, w hic h r e q uir e d m ore m oney ( p arti c ula rly

at U TSA , w hic h a d ded f o otb all, th e s p ort w ith th e m ost p arti c ip ants a nd s c ho la rs h ip s). T he s tu d ent p opula ti o n

in cre ase d b etw een 1 0 a nd 1 2% a t e ach o f th e th re e i n sti tu ti o ns. D urin g th e s a m e p erio d, th e a v era ge s iz e o f th e

und erg ra d uate p opula ti o n a cro ss a ll N CA A D iv is io n I i n sti tu ti o ns i n cre ase d b y 1 0% ( U .S . D ep artm ent o f E ducati o n,

IP E D S, 2 013), d im in is h in g a p ote nti a l “ F lu ti e e ffe ct.” I n o th er w ord s, th e u nd erg ra d uate p opula ti o n l ik ely w ould

hav e g ro w n a b out th e s a m e r e gard le ss o f c hange i n a th le ti c c o nfe re nce o r d iv is io n. A th le ti c e xp end itu re s a ls o

in cre ase d s ig nific antl y , e v en a fte r a d ju sti n g f o r i n fla ti o n ( 1 76% a t U TSA , 3 6% a t U M ass, 1 1 8% a t B ois e ).

UTSA g enera te d $ 1.8 m illio n m ore i n ti c ket s a le s i n 2 012 th an i n 2 005. F ootb all w as p la yed i n th e A la m odom e,

av era gin g 2 9,2 26 p aid a tte nd ees p er g am e ( N CA A, 2 013b), l e ad in g th e W este rn A th le ti c C onfe re nce. H ow ev er, th e

$4.3 m illio n i n cre ase i n ti c ket s a le s, c o ntr ib uti o ns, a nd c o nfe re nce r e v enues d id n o t c o ver th e $ 13.6 m illio n i n cre ase

in e xp ense s. T he $ 13.6 m illio n s u b sid y i n 2 012 p rim arily c o vere d th e d iffe re nce.

UM ass’s m ove i n to th e “ hav e-n o t” M id -A meric an C onfe re nce ( M AC) c re ate d m ore r e v enue, p rim arily d ue to a

$24 m illio n s u b sid y. U M ass s tr u ggle d to m eet th e N CA A’s f o otb all a tte nd ance r e q uir e m ent, w ith a n a v era ge o f

10,9 01 p aid a tte nd ees i n 2 012 ( N CA A, 2 013b). W hile ti c ket s a le s a nd d onati o ns i n cre ase d , a th le ti c s r e lie d o n 8 2%

of i ts b ud get f r o m th e s c ho ol’s g enera l f u nd , s tu d ent f e es, a nd s ta te g o vern m ent. U M ass a th le ti c s g enera te d o nly 1 8%

of i ts r e v enue. T he r a ti o nale f o r th e m ove w as p ro vid ed b y U M ass a th le ti c d ir e cto r, J o hn M cC utc heo n: “ It’ s g o in g to

ta ke f o ur o r f iv e y ears to s e e a c hange f o r u s. B ut a f o otb all te am w ith a n ati o nal p ro file c an h av e tr a nsfo rm in g e ffe cts

on a u niv ers ity ” ( P ennin gto n, 2 012). Fro m 2 005 to 2 012, a p air o f B CS f o otb all b ow l a p peara nces h elp ed b oost B ois e S ta te ’s a th le ti c s p re sti g e a nd

re v enue, d oub lin g i ts a nnual ti c ket s a le s to $ 8.3 m illio n a nd i n cre asin g y early d onati o ns b y n early 3 00% . H ow ev er,

th e e xp ense s to b eco m e a “ hav e” c o st th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent a n a d diti o nal $ 25 m illio n e ach y ear. G enera te d

re v enues f r o m b eco m in g a “ hav e” w ere f a r l e ss th an th e e xp ense . T o p ay f o r th e c o sts , th e i n sti tu ti o n i n cre ase d i ts

su b sid ie s b y $ 4 m illio n.

TA BLE

1 1 .3

Sele ct R even ue a n d E xp en se D ata R ep orte d b y T hre e N CAA D iv is io n I -F B S I n stit u tio n s in

2005 a n d 2 012

Tra nsiti o nin g f r o m a l o w er d iv is io n to D iv is io n I , p arti c ula rly to th e F B S, r e q uir e s a l a rg e i n cre ase i n a th le ti c s

exp end itu re s. W hile u niv ers ity a nd c o nfe re nce a d m in is tr a to rs n ego ti a te , i n sti tu ti o nal r iv alr ie s a re s o m eti m es l o st, th e

genera l s tu d ent b ody m ay p ay m ore i n s tu d ent f e es, a nd c o lle ge a th le te s m ay m is s a n i n cre asin g n um ber o f c la sse s

ow in g to i n cre ase d tr a v el. A cad em ic s s e em to i n cre asin gly ta ke a b ack s e at to a th le ti c s a s s c ho ols s w itc h to

co nfe re nces th at a re g eo gra p hic ally a s tr e tc h.

WHAT A BO UT T H E C O LLEG E A T H LETES?

His to ric ally , th e i n cre ase i n r e v enue a nd e xp osu re i n c o lle ge a th le ti c s l e d th e N CA A to c re ate r u le s th at p la ced th e

co rp ora te n eed s o f c o m merc ia l s p ort o ver th e a cad em ic n eed s o f a th le te s ( S ack & S ta uro w sk y, 1 998). M any r e fe r to

th is a s a n e xp lo ita ti o n o f

ath le te s to b enefit c o lle ge a th le ti c p ro gra m s. A n e xam ple i s a llo w in g f r e sh m en to c o m pete

in ste ad o f e nsu rin g th eir f ir s t y ear i s m ore f o cuse d o n a cclim ati n g th em se lv es to c o lle ge. A nd m any e q uate a th le ti c

sc ho la rs h ip s to e m plo ym ent c o ntr a cts . S ack a nd S ta uro w sk y ( 1 998) a nd Z im balis t ( 2 001) a rg ue c o lle ge a th le te s a re

em plo yees o f th eir i n sti tu ti o ns, n o t a m ate urs . S uch c riti c s b elie v e th e N CA A c o nti n ues to p erp etu ate th e a m ate ur m yth

fo r th e N CA A’s o w n b enefit, p rim arily to p re se rv e i ts n o np ro fit ( a nd ta x-e xem pt) s ta tu s. H ow ev er, c o nsid er th e

dic ho to m y o f th e “ hav es” a nd “ hav e-n o ts ” i n d is c ussio ns a b out a m ate ur a th le te s. T he e xp lo ita ti o n o f c o lle ge a th le te s

to b enefit a th le ti c p ro gra m s i s a lm ost e xclu siv ely r e la te d to N CA A D iv is io n I - F B S f o otb all a nd D iv is io n I m en’s

bask etb all b ecause o f th e a m ount o f m oney g enera te d b y th ese tw o s p orts ( s e e

Tab le 1 1 .3

). T hus, th e d ic ho to m y o f th e

“hav es” a nd “ hav e-n o ts ” a t th e i n sti tu ti o nal l e v el ( b ig -ti m e D iv is io n I ) i s a ls o r e aliz e d a t th e c o lle ge a th le te l e v el

(th o se i n f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all) .

Keep in g a th le te s e lig ib le to c o m pete i s a to p p rio rity f o r i n sti tu ti o ns, p arti c ula rly i n th e r e v enue-g enera ti n g s p orts

of f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all. T he ty p ic al m odel i s f o r N CA A D iv is io n I a th le ti c d ep artm ents to h ir e a cad em ic

co unse lo rs to w ork w ith a th le te s to h elp th em m ain ta in e lig ib ility . T hese c o unse lo rs h elp a th le te s c ho ose c o urs e s i n

whic h th ey a re m ost l ik ely to s u cceed , a nd w hic h a re l e ast l ik ely to i n te rfe re w ith p ra cti c e ti m es. M any c o unse lo rs

als o m onito r a th le te s’ g ra d es a nd c heck th at a th le te s a re a tte nd in g th eir s c hed ule d c la sse s. S om e w ealth y p ro gra m s

sp end m illio ns o f d olla rs o n a th le te a cad em ic c ente rs e q uip ped w ith c o m pute rs a nd w ork sta ti o ns a v aila b le o nly to

ath le te s ( W olv erto n, 2 008). M eanw hile , d esp ite th e

acad em ic n ecessity o f c o lle ge a th le te s to a tte nd c la ss, th e n um ber

of f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all g am es o n w eeknig hts h as i n cre ase d d ra m ati c ally o ver th e p ast s e v era l y ears , w ith

gam es o n te le v is io n p ra cti c ally e v ery n ig ht o f th e w eek. M ore w eeknig ht g am es f o rc es a th le te s to m is s m ore ti m e i n

th e c la ssro om .

In a d diti o n, th ere a re m any te le v is e d b ask etb all to urn am ents d urin g h o lid ay b re aks. S om e s c ho ols c o m pete i n

to urn am ents l o cate d f a r f r o m th eir c am pus. T he to urn eys m ay b enefit a s c ho ol’s i m age b ut r e su lt i n m is se d c la ss ti m e

fo r a th le te s, w hic h i s tr o ub lin g c o nsid erin g th at te le v is io n n etw ork s m ark et th ese to urn am ents i n o rd er to m ake m oney

fr o m c o m merc ia ls . L ik ew is e , i f a n i n sti tu ti o n q ualifie s to p arti c ip ate i n a p osts e aso n m en’s o r w om en’s b ask etb all

to urn am ent, th e c o nte sts m ay n o t f a ll d urin g s p rin g b re ak. I n N CA A D iv is io n I , a ll c o nfe re nces b ut o ne ( Iv y L eague) co nd uct b oth a m en’s a nd a w om en’s b ask etb all to urn am ent a t th e c o nclu sio n o f th e r e gula r s e aso n. C onfe re nce

to urn am ents a re h eld s o le ly f o r th e p urp ose o f g enera ti n g m ore r e v enue, w hic h i s w hy i n sti tu ti o ns a gre e to

parti c ip ate . T o h elp i n cre ase v ie w ers h ip a nd g uara nte e a te le v is io n ti m e s lo t, a ll D iv is io n I c o nfe re nces

mand ate th e

win ner o f th eir c o nfe re nce to urn am ent i s g uara nte ed to r e p re se nt th eir c o nfe re nce i n th e N CA A to urn am ent. T he

win ner o f th e m onth s-lo ng r e gula r s e aso n i s p ro vid ed n o s u ch g uara nte e ( e v en i f th e c o nfe re nce’s r e gula r s e aso n

cham pio n i s u nd efe ate d ). C onfe re nce p osts e aso n to urn am ents r e su lt i n e v en m ore m is se d c la ss ti m e f o r a th le te s.

Nota b ly , th e I v y L eague d oes n o t h av e p osts e aso n c o nfe re nce b ask etb all to urn am ents b ecause o f i ts a cad em ic m is sio n

in f a v or o f th e b est i n te re sts o f th e a th le te s.

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

For M ic h ig an , W in nin g C an N ever M ea n “ A t A ny C ost”

Andre a F is c h er N ew m an h as s e rv ed o n t h e U niv ersity o f M ic h ig an B oard o f R eg en ts s in ce 1 994, i n clu din g h er

ele ctio n f o r a s e co nd t e rm a s c h air i n 2 013. T his p ersp ectiv e f r a m es N ew m an’s t h oughts o n t h e e co nom ic a nd

fin ancia l l a ndsc a pe o f b ig -tim e c o lle g e a th le tic s.

As a g o vern in g b oard , o ur p rim ary r e sp onsib ility i s to p ro te ct a nd a d vance th e a cad em ic e nv ir o nm ent f o r o ur

stu d ents a nd f a culty . N o c o lle ge s tu d ent, o r c o lle ge a th le te , s h o uld e v er b e a “ hav e-n o t.” M ic hig an’s e ig ht m em bers

of i ts B oard o f R egents ta ke s e rio usly th e o vers ig ht o f th e r e so urc es r a is e d a nd s p ent f o r o ur 2 9-s p ort a th le ti c

pro gra m … O ur j o b i s to k eep th e b ar r a is e d h ig h— no t o n w in nin g a t a ny c o st, b ut w ith v ig ila nce to w in w ith

in te grity a nd w ith th e s tu d ent e xp erie nce a t th e c o re o f o ur d ecis io n-m akin g.

In te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i s a s o urc e o f e no rm ous p rid e a t o ur u niv ers ity . Y es, o ur a th le ti c p ro gra m i s o ne o f th e

fe w th at i s e nti r e ly s e lf- s u sta in in g. W e ta ke p rid e f r o m th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent s h arin g s o m e o f i ts r e v enues w ith th e

univ ers ity to s u p port s tu d ent s c ho la rs h ip s a nd to w ard r e no vati o n o f r e cre ati o nal s p orts f a ciliti e s. T his i s p art o f a

sh are d u niv ers ity u nd ers ta nd in g th at a th le ti c a cti v iti e s c anno t ta ke a w ay f r o m th e a cro ss-th e-b oard e xcelle nce th at

defin es th e U niv ers ity o f M ic hig an.

Ath le ti c s i s su es c an a ls o ta ke u p i m mense e nerg y w ith r is k to i n sti tu ti o nal r e p uta ti o n. B ut th e s a m e k in d o f

overs ig ht i s n ecessa ry i n o ur r e se arc h a re na, a nd o ur e no rm ous h ealth c are o pera ti o n. I n sti tu ti o nal l e ad ers m ust b e

co nsc io us o f th e p ote nti a l f o r h arm . W hen s o m eth in g g o es w ro ng, b e o pen, h o nest, b ut s w ift i n r e sp onse .

NCA A r e fo rm s a re n ecessa ry a nd i m porta nt d ue to th e tr e m end ous p re ssu re s i n to day’s c hangin g w orld . I f o ur

guid in g p rin cip le s a re s tu d ent- c ente re d , w e c an a d dre ss “ hav e/h av e-n o t” i s su es a cro ss m any d im ensio ns i n clu d in g

fin ancia l r e so urc es a nd a cad em ic s u ccess. P re v io us N CA A r e fo rm s r e su lte d i n g re ate r a cad em ic p ro gre ss f o r o ur

co untr y ’s v ars ity a th le te s. W hen o ur g o vern in g b oard s a nd p re sid ents s e t th e b ar h ig h a nd a sso cia te w ith o th er l ik e-

min d ed i n sti tu ti o ns, w e c an a d dre ss m odern -d ay v uln era b iliti e s w hile p re se rv in g a c heris h ed i n te rc o lle gia te

tr a d iti o n.

A s w itc h i n a th le ti c c o nfe re nce a ffilia ti o n m ay a ls o i m pact th e l iv es o f a th le te s. O fte n, th e s w itc h r e su lts i n a

sc ho ol c o m peti n g a gain st te am s l o cate d m uch f a rth er a w ay c o m pare d to o ld c o nfe re nce f o es, w hic h s o m eti m es

re su lts i n a th le te s m is sin g m ore c la ss ti m e th an p re v io usly . O nce a gain , th e d ic ho to m y b etw een th e “ hav es” a nd th e

“hav e-n o ts ” c o m es i n to p la y, a s s c ho ols d ecid e to s w itc h c o nfe re nces to e arn p ote nti a lly g re ate r p ub lic ity a nd

re v enue f r o m th e “ hav e” te am s o f f o otb all o r m en’s b ask etb all, w ith o ut c o nsid era ti o n o f th e “ hav e-n o t” a th le te s i n th e

oth er 1 4 o r m ore s p orts a t th e s c ho ol.

CO NCLU SIO N

This c hap te r i s p rim arily a b out i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a t th e N CA A D iv is io n I l e v el. I t i s w orth n o ti n g th at

dis c ussio ns o f m akin g a p ro fit f r o m c o lle ge a th le ti c s a re p ra cti c ally n o nexis te nt i n N CA A D iv is io ns I I a nd I II, th e

NAIA , a nd a t tw o-y ear i n sti tu ti o ns. T hese i n sti tu ti o ns n ev er m ake a p ro fit o n th eir a th le ti c p ro gra m s. H ow ev er, i n

NCA A D iv is io n I , th e a m ount o f m oney o n b oth th e e xp end itu re a nd r e v enue s id es o f th e l e d ger p re cip ita te th e

dis c ussio n o f p ro fits , p ayin g p la yers , a nd i n sti tu ti o nal s u b sid ie s. T he r e v enue g enera te d v ia m ed ia c o ntr a cts a nd

ti c ket s a le s i n f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all, a nd th e s p end in g o n c o aches’ s a la rie s, i s p heno m enal i n s iz e . T he

sa la rie s o f f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all c o aches o fte n f a r e xceed th o se o f f a culty s a la rie s a t m any N CA A D iv is io n I

sc ho ols , b ut n o t a t s c ho ols i n N CA A D iv is io ns I I a nd I II, th e N AIA , a nd j u nio r c o lle ges. Sim ila r to i n te rs c ho la sti c a th le ti c s a t th e K –12 l e v el, m any w ould a rg ue th at th e p urp ose o f a n e d ucati o nal

in sti tu ti o n h av in g a n a th le ti c p ro gra m i s to e nhance th e e d ucati o nal e xp erie nce o f th e s tu d ent a nd to b oost i n sti tu ti o nal

id enti ty a nd s c ho ol p rid e, n o t to m ake a p ro fit. I n sti tu ti o ns s h o uld i n v esti g ate i f th eir s p end in g o n a th le ti c s i s i n l in e

with th eir e d ucati o nal m is sio n. D ecis io n m akers a t “ hav e-n o t” D iv is io n I s c ho ols s h o uld c riti c ally a sk i f th e c urre nt

fin ancia l m odel i s w orth th e e xp ense , p arti c ula rly a s i t r e la te s to w heth er th e b enefit i s f o r a ll a th le te s a nd f o r th e

enti r e u niv ers ity . F ro m th e c o nte xt o f th ese p ers p ecti v es, th ere a re s e v era l a lte rn ati v es to th e e xp ensiv e f in ancia l

model th at p its th e “ hav es” v ers u s th e “ hav e-n o ts ” :

1. I n sti tu ti o ns, o r th e N CA A, c an d ecid e n o t to p erm it f in ancia l a id ( s c ho la rs h ip s) b ase d o n a th le ti c a b ility . R ath er,

base f in ancia l a id s tr ic tl y o n n eed , a s

it i s f o r m ost o th er s tu d ents , a nd a s i t i s i n N CA A D iv is io n I II. M any o f th e

nati o n’s m ost ta le nte d h ig h s c ho ol p ro sp ects i n f o otb all a nd m en’s a nd w om en’s b ask etb all, a s w ell a s i n o th er

sp orts , c o m e f r o m f a m ilie s o f l o w er s o cio eco no m ic s ta tu s a nd a re c ate go riz e d a s “ need y” i n f in ancia l a id te rm s.

This m ove w ould h elp l o w er th e e sc ala ti n g c o sts o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a s s c ho la rs h ip s w ould n o t b e

aw ard ed to th o se s tu d ents w ho c an a ffo rd c o lle ge a nd p la y s p orts . A n eed -b ase d a id p olic y w ould h elp r e in fo rc e

th e a m ate ur m odel o f c o lle ge s p orts . L ik ew is e , d oin g a w ay w ith m erit- b ase d a id m ay h elp i n sti ll i n c o lle ge

ath le te s th at th eir p rim ary c o ncern m ust b e a cad em ic s r a th er th an a th le ti c s.

2. R ein sta te th e r u le th at f r e sh m en a re i n elig ib le f o r c o m peti ti o n. F re sh m en c o uld p ra cti c e w ith th e te am , a nd

re ceiv e a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s, b ut th ey w ould n o t b e a llo w ed to c o m pete i n i n te rc o lle gia te c o nte sts u nti l th eir

se co nd y ear. T his p ro pose d m odel w ould a llo w f r e sh m en to b ette r a d ju st to th e c o lle gia te e nv ir o nm ent a nd c o uld

im pro ve th eir a cad em ic s ta nd in g.

3. R ed uce th e n um ber o f f o otb all s c ho la rs h ip s i n D iv is io n I - F B S f r o m 8 5. F or i n sta nce, D iv is io n I - F C S a llo w s o nly

63 s c ho la rs h ip s a nd N ati o nal F ootb all L eague p ro fe ssio nal r o ste rs h av e o nly 5 3 p la yers . T he s ig nific ant c o st

sa v in gs f r o m f e w er s c ho la rs h ip s w ould a ls o b ette r a lig n a th le ti c d ep artm ents w ith f e d era l T itl e I X r e q uir e m ents

of e q ual o pportu nity f o r b oth m ale a nd f e m ale a th le te s.

4. L ead ers a t c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s s h o uld l im it th eir a th le ti c s s p end in g to a s e t p erc enta ge o f th e o vera ll b ud get

at th eir s c ho ol. L im iti n g s p end in g w ould f o rc e a th le ti c d ep artm ents to m ake d ecis io ns o n c o achin g s a la rie s,

num ber o f c o aches, s c ho la rs h ip c o sts , f a ciliti e s, tr a v el, a nd o th er n eed s m ore i n l in e w ith e xp ense s i n o th er a re as

of th e i n sti tu ti o n.

5. D o n o t a llo w p arti c ip ati o n i n a ny p re se aso n o r p osts e aso n to urn am ents b eyo nd N CA A-s a ncti o ned c ham pio nsh ip

to urn am ents . L im iti n g g am e ti m e b eyo nd th e r e gula r s e aso n w ould g iv e a th le te s m ore ti m e to s tu d y, w ould r e d uce

exp ense s to tr a v el, a nd p ote nti a lly w ould r e d uce th e i n te re st o f “ hav e-n o ts ” to a tte m pt to c lim b th e l a d der to b e a

“hav e” a nd p arti c ip ate i n p re sti g io us to urn am ents .

6. A s a d vocate d b y th e K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s ( 2 001, 2 010), a ll c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s

parti c ip ati n g i n a th le ti c s a s a n N CA A m em ber s h o uld m ake th eir f in ances p ub lic , a s a re m ost d ep artm ents i n

hig her e d ucati o n i n sti tu ti o ns. P ub lic iz in g a th le ti c s f in ances c an h elp m ed ia a nd e xte rn al s ta keho ld ers to s c ru ti n iz e

ath le ti c s’ p ro fits a nd l o sse s, h o ld d ecis io n m akers a cco unta b le , a nd h elp to f u rth er e ngage i n a d is c ussio n o n th e

co st a nd b enefits o f a th le ti c s i n h ig her e d ucati o n.

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

I s th e e xp erie nce f o r th o se a th le te s i n r e v enue-p ro ducin g s p orts d iffe re nt f r o m th e e xp erie nce i n o th er s p orts ?

Sho uld i t b e?

I s th e p urp ose o f a th le ti c s i n c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s d iffe re nt f r o m th at i n h ig h s c ho ols ? I f s o , s h o uld i t b e?

Lik ew is e , i s th e p urp ose o f a th le ti c s i n N CA A D iv is io n I d iffe re nt f r o m th at i n D iv is io n I I, D iv is io n I II, N AIA , o r

tw o-y ear c o lle ges? I f s o , s h o uld i t b e?

S ho uld th e g enera l s tu d ent b ody s u b sid iz e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c p ro gra m s a s i s c urre ntl y th e c ase a t th e m ajo rity

of i n sti tu ti o ns? W hy o r w hy n o t?

Note

1 . T he B ig F iv e c o nfe re nces a re A tl a nti c C oast ( A CC), B ig 1 0, B ig 1 2, P acific 1 2, a nd S outh easte rn ( S E C ) (K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 2 011 ).

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Berk o w itz , S ., U pto n, J ., & B ra d y, E . ( 2 013, J u ly 1 ). M ost N CA A D iv is io n I a th le ti c d ep artm ents ta ke s u b sid ie s.

USA T o day

Dosh , K . ( 2 012). C olle ge T V r ig hts d eals u nd erg o m akeo vers .

ESPN .c o m

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

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Dud ers ta d t, J . J . ( 2 003).

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persp ectiv e

. A nn A rb or: U niv ers ity o f M ic hig an P re ss.

Jo hnso n, J . ( 2 012, N ovem ber 2 6). U -M d. p re sid ent: B ig T en m ove d elib era te .

Wash in gto n P ost

Knig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s. ( 2 001).

A c a ll t o a ctio n: R eco nnectin g c o lle g e s p orts t o h ig her

ed uca tio n

. M ia m i, F L: K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s.

———. ( 2 009).

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Mia m i: J o hn S . a nd J a m es L . K nig ht F ound ati o n.

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ESP N

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Ors za g, J . M ., & O rs za g, P . R . ( 2 005).

The p hysic a l c a pita l s to ck u se d i n c o lle g ia te a th le tic s

. I n d ia nap olis , I N :

Nati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n.

Pennin gto n, B . ( 2 012, D ecem ber 2 9). B ig d re am , r u d e a w akenin g.

New Y o rk T im es

Sack, A . L ., & S ta uro w sk y, E . J . ( 1 998).

Colle g e a th le te s f o r h ir e : T he e vo lu tio n a nd l e g acy o f t h e N CAA’s a m ate u r

myth

. W estp ort, C T: P ra eger.

Sie gfr ie d , J ., & B urb a, M . ( 2 003).

The c o lle g e f o otb all a sso cia tio n t e le vis io n b ro adca st c a rte l

. N ash v ille , T N :

Vand erb ilt U niv ers ity .

Sm ith , M . ( 2 013, J a nuary 2 8). A t T ennesse e, B ig o ra nge b attl e s r e d i n k.

Sports B usin ess J o urn al

Sm ith , M ., & O ura nd , J . ( 2 013, M ay 6 –12). W ith n ew s w agger, A CC m oves a head o n n etw ork .

Sports B usin ess

Jo urn al

Sperb er, M . ( 2 000).

Beer a nd c ir c u s: H ow b ig -tim e c o lle g e s p orts i s c rip plin g u nderg ra duate e d uca tio n

. N ew

York : H enry H olt.

Tom a, J . D . ( 2 003).

Footb all u : S pecta to r s p orts i n t h e l ife o f t h e A m eric a n u niv ersity

. A nn A rb or: U niv ers ity o f

Mic hig an P re ss. USA T oday. ( 2 013). N CA A c o lle ge a th le ti c s f in ancia l d ata b ase . R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.u sa to day.c o m /s p orts /c o lle ge/s c ho ols /fin ances/

U.S . D ep artm ent o f E ducati o n N ati o nal C ente r f o r E ducati o n S ta ti s ti c s. ( IP E D S). ( 2 013). I n te gra te d p osts e co nd ary

ed ucati o n d ata s y ste m . R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://n ces.e d .g o v/ip ed s/d ata cente r

U.S . D ep artm ent o f E ducati o n O ffic e o f P osts e co nd ary E ducati o n. ( E A DA). ( 2 013). T he e q uity i n a th le ti c s d ata

analy sis c utti n g to ol. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://o pe.e d .g o v/a th le ti c s/

Wolv erto n, B . ( 2 008, S ep te m ber 5 ). R is e i n f a ncy a cad em ic c ente rs f o r a th le te s r a is e s q uesti o ns i n f a ir n ess.

Chro nic le o f H ig her E duca tio n

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://c hro nic le .c o m /a rti c le /R is e -in -F ancy-A cad em ic -

Cente rs /1 3493/

Zim balis t, A . ( 2 001).

Unpaid p ro fe ssio nals : C om merc ia lis m a nd c o nflic t i n b ig -tim e c o lle g e s p orts

. P rin ceto n, N J:

Prin ceto n U niv ers ity P re ss.

C H APTER

1 2

M IL LIO NAIR E C O LLEG E C O ACH ES a n d t h e S C H OOLS T H AT P A Y

T H EM

M urra y S perb er a n d V in cen t M in ja re s

K EY T ER M S

co ach es’ c o m pensa tio n

co ach es’ p rio rit ie s

hig her e duca tio n f in ance s

NCAA a th le te s

ath le tic d epartm ent m is sio ns

T w enty -fiv e y ears a go , o ne o f th e a uth o rs o f th is c hap te r, M urra y S perb er, c o nd ucte d r e se arc h o n c o aches’

c o m pensa ti o n f o r h is b ook,

Colle g e S ports I n c.: T he A th le tic D ep artm en t v ersu s t h e U niv ersity

( 1 990). S perb er

( 1 990) n o te d th at J a ckie S herrill, h ead f o otb all c o ach a t T exas A & M , r e ceiv ed $ 267,0 00, a nd R ic k P iti n o , th e h ead

m en’s b ask etb all c o ach a t th e U niv ers ity o f K entu cky a t th e ti m e, m ad e r o ughly $ 850,0 00 ( b ecause o f th e m ulti fa cete d

c o ntr a cts g iv en to c o aches, n ailin g d ow n e xact n um bers i s o fte n d iffic ult) .

To d ate , S herrill h as l o ng-re ti r e d f r o m c o achin g; h o w ev er b oth N ic k S ab an o f th e U niv ers ity o f A la b am a,

T usc alo osa a nd M ack B ro w n o f th e U niv ers ity o f T exas, A usti n r e ceiv e m ore th an $ 5 m illio n a y ear, a nd 1 2 h ead

f o otb all c o aches m ake m ore th an $ 3 m illio n ( D eR am us e t a l., 2 013). R ic k P iti n o , c urre ntl y h ead m en’s b ask etb all

c o ach a t th e U niv ers ity o f L ouis v ille , e arn s c lo se to $ 5 m illio n a nnually ( B erk o w itz , U pto n, D ougherty , & D urk in ,

2 013). I n fla ti o n i n th e U .S . e co no m y h as o ccurre d i n th e p ast 2 5 y ears , b ut i n n o w ay d oes i t c o m e c lo se to th e

i n cre ase i n p ay f o r c o lle ge f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all c o aches i n th at ti m e s p an. A nd th e i n cre ase h as g o ne f a r

b eyo nd th e c harm ed c ir c le o f s ta r c o aches l ik e S ab an a nd P iti n o .

Sperb er ( 1 990) p oin te d o ut th at a s lig ht m ajo rity o f N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n D iv is io n I f o otb all

a nd m en’s b ask etb all c o aches to pped $ 100,0 00 a y ear, a nd a f e w w ere o ver $ 200,0 00. I n c o ntr a st, i n 2 011 ,

j o urn alis ts f o und th at th e a v era ge f o r th e c urre nt e q uiv ale nt o f a D iv is io n I h ead f o otb all c o ach w as $ 1.4 7 m illio n

( B is h o p, 2 011 ), a nd a b re akd ow n o f th e a nnual i n co m e o f th e 2 013 N CA A M en’s B ask etb all T ourn am ent c o aches

r e v eale d 3 6 o ver $ 1 m illio n, a s w ere s o m e c o aches w ho se te am s d id n o t m ake th e to urn am ent ( B erk o w itz e t a l.,

2 013). Fig ure 1 2.1 .

Y our S ta te ’s H ig hest P aid P ub lic E m plo yee. ( C ourte sy o f R eub en F is c her-B aum a nd

Dead sp in .c o m

Coaches’ l a rg e p ay p ackages o ccur w ith in th e c o nte xt o f th e e no rm ous f in ancia l c o nstr a in ts u p on th e u niv ers iti e s

th at p ay th e c o aches, r a is in g th e i s su e o f w heth er c o aches’ h ig h a nnual c o m pensa ti o n i s j u sti fie d o r n o t ( s e e

fig . 1 2.1

CO AC H ES’ C O M PEN SA T IO N W IT H IN T H E C O NTEXT O F H IG HER E D UCAT IO N

EC O NO M IC S

One o f th e m ost i m porta nt f in d in gs i n S perb er ( 1 990) w as th at m ost N CA A a th le ti c d ep artm ents , c o ntr a ry to p opula r

belie f, o pera te a t d efic its ; m ore o ver, th e s tu d ie d s c ho ols c o vere d th eir a nnual c o lle ge s p orts d efic its w ith f u nd s th at

co uld h av e b een a llo cate d to a cad em ic u nits a s w ell a s to f in ancia l a id f o r s tu d ents . S in ce th at ti m e, m any s tu d ie s,

in clu d in g s o m e d one b y th e N CA A, h av e tr a cked a nd u p date d a th le ti c d ep artm ent d efic its ( S perb er, 2 008).

Rese arc hers , u sin g f r e ed om -o f- in fo rm ati o n ( F O I) l a w s to o bta in u niv ers ity f in ancia l r e co rd s, d re w th e c o nnecti n g

lin e b etw een

co aches’ p ay a nd a th le ti c d ep artm ent d efic its : “ A mong p ub lic s c ho ols i n th e N CA A’s to p-le v el

Div is io n I , c o aches’ c o m pensa ti o n i s n o w th e b ig gest h it o n th e b ud get” ( B erk o w itz , U pto n, M cC arth , & G illu m ,

2010a, p ara . 5 ). I n a ll p ro bab ility , th e s a m e s itu ati o n o ccurs a t p riv ate s c ho ols i n b ig -ti m e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s,

but r e se arc hers c anno t u se th e F O I l a w s to s e e th eir n um bers .

If h ig her e d ucati o n i n sti tu ti o ns w ere w ond erfu lly w ealth y, p ossib ly th ey c o uld a ffo rd a ll th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent

defic its . H ow ev er, m ost p ub lic a nd m any p riv ate u niv ers iti e s h av e b een i n d ir e f in ancia l s h ap e f o r m any y ears ,

ra ttl in g th e ti n c up i n f r o nt o f u nsy m path eti c l e gis la to rs a nd o th er g o vern m ent o ffic ia ls , s k ep ti c al ta xp ayers , a nd

ungenero us f o und ati o ns a nd o th er p ote nti a l d ono rs . T he 2 008 s to ck m ark et c ra sh a nd s u b se q uent m ajo r r e cessio n

gre atl y e xacerb ate d th e p ro ble m .

In 2 013 M oody’s , th e f in ancia l r a ti n g a gency, c alle d th e e co no m ic s itu ati o n i n h ig her e d ucati o n “ b le ak” ( T ro op,

2013) a nd p re d ic te d a “ glo om y f u tu re ,” p arti c ula rly f o r p ub lic u niv ers iti e s ( K eld erm an, 2 013). T hat y ear, J e ff

Orle ans, a f o rm er d ir e cto r o f th e I v y L eague a th le ti c g ro up a nd a p ro ponent o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, to ld a n

aud ie nce a t th e N CA A C onv enti o n th at, i n h ig her e d ucati o n to day, th ere i s a “ new s ta tu s q uo o f f in ancia l w eakness”

(W olv erto n, 2 013, p ara . 6 ).

Yet b ig -ti m e c o lle ge f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all c o aches h av e c o nti n ued to r e ceiv e th eir f a b ulo us d eals . W hen,

in 2 011 , O hio S ta te U niv ers ity s ig ned f o otb all c o ach U rb an M eyer to a $ 4 m illio n d olla r a nnual p ackage, a n

im porta nt j o urn alis t n o te d th at “ th e b ig b usin ess o f c o lle ge f o otb all i s u nd ete rre d b y th e n ati o n’s b ro ad er e co no m ic

woes o r b y c o ncern a b out th e p ro m in ence o f s p orts o n c am pus” ( B is h o p, 2 011 , p ara . 1 ).

A s y m bol o f th at p ro m in ence i s th e d is c re p ancy b etw een c o aches’ p ay a nd th e s a la rie s o f f a culty m em bers .

Vario us s tu d ie s h av e o ffe re d th e n um bers : f o r e xam ple , T sits o s a nd N ix o n ( 2 012) p oin te d o ut th at i n 2 005–2006, th e

av era ge s a la ry o f f u ll p ro fe sso rs a t D iv is io n I - A F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n s c ho ols w as $ 101,7 74 a nd th e a v era ge

pay f o r f o otb all c o aches a t th ese s c ho ols w as o ver $ 900,0 00. A f e w y ears l a te r, a r e se arc her p ro vid ed a g ra p h

sh o w in g h ead f o otb all c o aches’ p ay a v era gin g o ver $ 1 m illio n v ers u s $ 95,1 99 f o r te nure d m ale p ro fe sso rs ( fu ll a nd

asso cia te s); u nte nure d e arn ed a n a v era ge o f $ 70,0 05, a nd g ra d uate s tu d ent a ssis ta nts , o n a v era ge, m ad e $ 17,7 84

(R am pell, 2 008). B ig -ti m e f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all c o aches h av e l o ng a v era ged te n ti m es m ore i n p ay th an te nure d f a culty , a nd w ell o ver tw enty ti m es m ore th an g ra d uate s tu d ent a ssis ta nts — who , i n f a ct, d o th e b ulk o f

co lle ge te achin g a nd g ra d in g ( S perb er, 2 000). E ven a ssis ta nt f o otb all a nd b ask etb all c o aches a s w ell a s h ead

wom en’s b ask etb all c o aches r e ceiv e p ay p ackages w orth m any ti m es m ore th an th o se o f a cad em ic p ers o nnel

(B erk o w itz & U pto n, 2 011 a).

AR E C O AC H ES W ORTH T H EIR H UG E P A Y P A C K AG ES?

If w e p ut a sid e th e p hilo so phic al q uesti o ns o f w heth er a u niv ers ity s h o uld p ay i ts a th le ti c c o aches m uch m ore th an i ts

te achers a nd r e se arc hers , a nd f o cus o n th e n arro w e co no m ic q uesti o ns o f th e s u p ply a nd d em and f o r a nd p ro ducti o n

re su lts o f

co aches, w e d is c o ver s o m e s u rp ris in g a nsw ers . W e c an b egin b y a sk in g: D oes th e l a b or m ark et f o r c o aches

ju sti fy th e l u cra ti v e s a la rie s?

A l o ngti m e N CA A D iv is io n I m en’s b ask etb all c o ach, S onny S m ith , d esc rib ed b ig -ti m e c o lle ge c o achin g a s “ a

make-it- w hile -y o u-c an th in g. Y ou c an b e r e p la ced a t th e d ro p o f a h at. I f I q uit to m orro w , th ere ’d b e th re e h und re d

nam es i n th e r in g” ( a s c ite d i n S perb er, 1 990, p . 1 50). I n d eed , f o r e v ery o pen c o lle ge c o achin g p ositi o n, th ere a re

many q ualifie d c and id ate s: c o aches w ho h av e s u cceed ed a t th e s a m e l e v el; c o aches w ith e xcelle nt r e co rd s a t l o w er

le v els a nd r e ad y to m ove u p ; a nd a l a rg e n um ber o f s u ccessfu l a ssis ta nt c o aches w illin g a nd a b le to ta ke a h ead

co achin g p ositi o n. M ost i m porta ntl y , m ost o f th ese c o achin g c and id ate s w ould b e w illin g to w ork f o r f a r l e ss th an th e

millio n-p lu s d olla rs th at th e w in nin g c and id ate w ill c urre ntl y r e ceiv e. O n th e o th er h and , u niv ers iti e s h ir e f a culty a nd

oth er p ers o nnel a cco rd in g to s u p ply a nd d em and . A nd th e r e aso n th at u niv ers ity f a culty i n E nglis h m ake f a r l e ss th an

fa culty i n th e B usin ess S cho ol a nd a sso cia te d f ie ld s i s th e h uge s u p ply o f E nglis h i n str u cto rs a nd th e r e la ti v ely

sm alle r n um ber o f b usin ess f a culty . B ut p ay p ackages f o r a th le ti c c o aches d efy th ese b asic e co no m ic r u le s.

Tsits o s a nd N ix o n ( 2 012) i n a n a rti c le , “ T he S ta r W ars A rm s R ace i n C olle ge A th le ti c s: C oaches’ P ay a nd

Ath le ti c P ro gra m S ta tu s,” a rg ued th at s c ho ols “ fe el c o m pelle d to s p end ‘ w hate v er i t ta kes’ to h ir e a nd r e ta in c o aches

with r e co rd s o r p ro sp ects o f m ajo r s u ccess” b ecause s c ho ols b elie v e th at o ffe rin g a c o ach a h uge p ay p ackage i s “ th e

ulti m ate k ey to c o m peti ti v e s u ccess,” th at i s , w in nin g ( p . 7 1).

To e m phasiz e w in nin g, a lm ost e v ery s c ho ol i n clu d es b onus i n centi v es i n a h ead f o otb all a nd b ask etb all c o ach’s

co ntr a ct. F or e xam ple , A la b am a’s N ic k S ab an r e ceiv es $ 75,0 00 i f h is te am p la ys i n th e S E C C ham pio nsh ip a nd

$50,0 00 i f th ey w in . L ik ew is e , S ab an m akes $ 11 0,0 00 i f h is te am p la ys i n th e B CS C ham pio nsh ip g am e a nd

$200,0 00 i f th ey w in ( B erk o w itz & U pto n, 2 012b). B ut e v en m id -m ajo r f o otb all c o aches h av e b onus c la use s. K ent

Sta te ’s D arre ll H aze l e arn ed $ 5,0 00 f o r a M AC D iv is io n C ham pio nsh ip , $ 10,0 00 f o r a b ow l g am e a p peara nce, a nd

$5,0 00 f o r e ach v ic to ry o ver a F B S o pponent ( B erk o w itz & U pto n, 2 012b). A nd i f a m id -m ajo r c o ach c o lle cts a ll h is

bonuse s, i t i s l ik ely th at h e w ill a ttr a ct h ig her r a nked s c ho ols w ho a re w illin g to o ffe r m uch l a rg er p ay p ackages ( in

2013, P urd ue h ir e d D arre ll H aze ll a t a s ig nific antl y l a rg er s a la ry a nd b onuse s th an h e e arn ed a t K ent S ta te ).

But d o n ew c o aches w in a nd a ctu ally e arn th eir h uge p ay c o m pensa ti o n? T sits o s a nd N ix o n ( 2 012) to ok th e

co ho rt o f “ to p-p aid f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all c o aches” ( p p. 7 3–74) a nd f o llo w ed th eir te am s th ro ugh s ix s e aso ns

(s ta rti n g i n 2 003), m easu rin g th eir s u ccess o r f a ilu re i n te rm s o f “ ra nkin gs a nd m obility i n to a nd o ut o f th e [ m ed ia ’s ]

‘T op 2 5’ te am s” ( p . 7 5).

In te rm s o f “ sh o rt- te rm m obility ”— movin g i n to th e T op 2 5 w ith in a y ear o r tw o o f th e n ew h ir e ’s ta kin g c harg e—

only 1 6% o f te am s i n b oth f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all a cco m plis h ed th is f o r 2 003–2007, a nd 2 4% a nd 2 8%

fo r

2007–2011 . H ow ev er, m ost n ew , h ig hly p aid c o aches a chie v ed “ no s h o rt- te rm c hange,” th at i s , th ey e ith er to ok o ver

te am s a lr e ad y i n th e T op 2 5 a nd s ta yed th ere o r n ev er g o t th ere : f o r 2 003–2007, 6 4% o f f o otb all a nd 6 8% o f m en’s

bask etb all te am s d id n o t c hange s ta tu s, a nd f o r 2 007–2011 , 5 6% a nd 5 2% . B ut th e n ew s f o r s c ho ols b eco m es e v en

more d ep re ssin g w ith th e s ta ti s ti c th at f o r a ll th e y ears s tu d ie d a nd f o r th e tw o s p orts , 2 0% o f th e n ew h ir e s p ro duced

te am s w ith “ sh o rt- te rm d ow nw ard m obility ,” th at i s , th ey g o t w ors e o r d ro pped o ut o f th e T op 2 5.

Oth er s tu d ie s r e v eal s im ila r r e su lts . P ete r O rs za g, n o w a W hite H ouse e co no m ic a d vis o r, w as i n v olv ed i n tw o o f

th em ( 2 005, 2 009). R ecentl y , A dle r, B erry , a nd D oherty ( 2 013) c o nd ucte d a l a rg e l o ngitu d in al s tu d y c o m parin g te am s

with n ew h ir e s to th o se th at d id n o t m ake a c hange a t th e to p. T ra ckin g 1 20 F B S p ro gra m s f r o m 1 997 th ro ugh 2 010,

Adle r a nd c o lle agues ( 2 013) f o und th at “ a to ta l o f 2 63 [ h ead c o achin g] c hanges o ccur i n o ur d ata s e t, a ffe cti n g

fo otb all p ro gra m s a t 1 1 5 u niv ers iti e s” ( p . 3 ).

The r e su lts c o ntr a d ic te d th e s p orts c lic hé th at f ir in g a l o sin g c o ach i s a lw ays n ecessa ry . A dle r, B erry , a nd

Doherty ( 2 013) f o und th at s c ho ols w ith l o sin g te am s th at d id n o t c hange th eir c o aches h ad w on-lo ss r e co rd s f o r th e

fo llo w in g s e aso ns— and f o r m any s e aso ns— sim ila r to th o se s c ho ols w ith l o sin g te am s th at h ir e d n ew h ead c o aches.

In a d diti o n, th e s c ho ols th at d id n o t c hange c o aches s a v ed l o ts o f m oney. M ore o ver, “ am ong te am s w here e ntr y

co nd iti o ns a p pear to b e m ost f a v ora b le ” f o r s h o rt- te rm a nd l o ng-te rm m obility , “ th e c ho ic e to r e p la ce l e ad ers h ip i s detr im enta l, r a th er th an h elp fu l, to te am p erfo rm ance” ( p . 4 ). A dle r a nd c o lle agues p oin te d o ut: “ T he s ig nific ant c o sts

univ ers iti e s ty p ic ally i n cur b y c ho osin g to r e p la ce a h ead f o otb all c o ach, s u ggest th at u niv ers iti e s s h o uld b e c auti o us

in th eir d ecis io n to d is c harg e th eir c o ach f o r p erfo rm ance r e aso ns” ( p . 2 8).

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

An A dm in is tr a to r W ho Q uestio n ed t h e C olle g e S ports S yste m

As a sso cia te c hancello r a t U niv ers ity o f C alifo rn ia , B erk ele y f o r m ore th an 2 5 y ears , J o hn C um min s m ain ta in ed

overs ig ht o f th e c am pus’s a th le ti c d ep artm ent. I n th e m id -2 000s, C um min s p la yed a k ey r o le i n th e a d m in is tr a ti o n’s

re sp onse to r a p id g ro w th i n a th le ti c d ep artm ent s p end in g o n c o achin g s a la rie s. T he f o llo w in g q uo ta ti o n i s f r o m a

pers o nal c o m munic ati o n f r o m C um min s, J u ne 2 8, 2 013:

Begin nin g in 2 001, n ew A th le tic D ir e cto r S te v e G la d sto ne v ow ed to c h an ge th e a th le tic s c u lt u re a t C al “ so th at w e c an

win .” O ne o f h is f ir s t m ajo r d ecis io ns w as to h ir e a n ew f o otb all c o ach : J e ff T ed fo rd . W here as p rio r a d m in is tr a tio ns w ere

unw illin g to p ay a c o ach m ore th an a p ro fe sso r, G la d sto ne w as n ot. T ed fo rd ’s f ir s t c o ntr a ct in 2 001 w as f o r $ 600,0 00

plu s in cen tiv es a n d, b y 2 012, T ed fo rd ’s p ack age ( u nder n ew A th le tic D ir e cto r S an dy B arb er) g re w to m ore th an $ 2

millio n p er y ear. F or C um min s, th e s u bse q uen t h ig h p ay f o r a c o ach m atc h ed th e p hilo so phy o f th e n ew C han cello r a t

th e tim e. D esp it e th e C al a d m in is tr a tio n’s s p en din g m illio ns to “ su bsid iz e” d efic it s in a th le tic s p en din g, th e C han cello r

ap pro ved th e c o ach ’s p ack age b ecau se “ fo otb all w as th e k ey to f u ndin g a s u ccessfu l [ a th le tic s] o pera tio n.”

How ev er, C um min s a nd h is f e llo w a d m in is tr a to rs c o uld n o t e sc ap e th e p re ssu re to b ala nce th e a th le ti c s b ud get.

Giv en B erk ele y’s a cad em ic r e p uta ti o n, m any o f th em q uesti o ned “ ath le ti c s’ p riv ile ged s ta tu s i n th e u niv ers ity ,” w ith

“angst a b out” c o aches’ h ig h p ay ( th e n ew m en’s b ask etb all c o ach, M ik e M ontg o m ery , a ls o r e ceiv ed a $ 1 m illio n-p lu s

package). C um min s b elie v ed th at th e b est w ay f o rw ard w as to o pen th e a th le ti c s b ud get to c am pus f a culty .

His to ric ally , th e b ud get w as v ery ti g htl y h eld , a nd th e f a culty d id n o t k no w i ts d eta ils . C um min s f e lt th at o penin g th e

bud get w as a n e ffo rt to “ re in i n s p end in g o n a th le ti c s a nd to h o pe th at th e u niv ers ity c o m es to a c o nse nsu s” o n th e

is su e.

Cum min s’s p ush p ro ved f a te fu l. B y 2 009, i n th e m id st o f d ra sti c s ta te c uts to h ig her e d ucati o n, a w ork in g g ro up o f

pro fe sso rs d ra fte d a f a culty r e so lu ti o n d em and in g c uts i n a th le ti c s s p end in g. T he r e su lt: th e d ecis io n to te rm in ate f iv e

sp orts , a nd s p ecific p la ns to b ala nce th e a th le ti c s b ud get. P riv ate d onati o ns l a te r s a v ed th e f iv e te am s, b ut th e b ud get

pla ns r e m ain i n p la ce.

But l ik e l o sin g g am ble rs w ho k eep d oub lin g d ow n, u niv ers iti e s k eep p ayin g m ore to h ir e n ew c o aches. F or th e

past f e w y ears , r e se arc hers h av e tr a cked th e p ay p ackages o ffe re d to n ew c o aches; th e ti tl e s o f th eir a rti c le s o utl in e

th e s itu ati o n: “ S ala rie s R is in g f o r N ew C olle ge F ootb all C oaches” ( B erk o w itz & U pto n, 2 012a); a nd “ P ay R is e s Y et

Again f o r C olle ge F ootb all’s N ew H ir e s” ( B erk o w itz & U pto n, 2 013b).

Berk o w itz a nd U pto n ( 2 011 c) h av e a ls o tr a cked th e i n cre asin g p ay r a is e s f o r a ssis ta nt c o aches i n f o otb all a nd

men’s b ask etb all. I n 2 011 th ey d ecla re d , “ M ajo r c o lle ge f o otb all a ssis ta nt c o aches n o w h av e s o m eth in g o n th eir

bosse s: th eir p ay i s i n cre asin g f a ste r” ( p ara . 1 ). T hey p oin te d o ut th at “ 2 3 a ssis ta nts w ere m akin g a t l e ast $ 500,0 00

th is s e aso n a nd 4 8 m akin g a t l e ast $ 400,0 00” ( p ara . 9 ). B y 2 013, th ese s a m e r e se arc hers i n d ic ate d th at “ co lle ge

fo otb all a ssis ta nts [ a re ] s e ein g s a la rie s s u rg e” e v en m ore th an i n th e p ast, a nd th ey c alc ula te d th at th e a v era ge p ay f o r

an a ssis ta nt w as “ ro ughly $ 200,0 00” ( B erk o w itz & U pto n, 2 013a, p ara . 1 ).

Setti n g th e p ace w as n ati o nal c ham pio n A la b am a, a nd b ecause “ T he T id e” h ad w on th re e o f th e l a st f o ur n ati o nal

cham pio nsh ip s, i t i s th e s c ho ol m ost i m ita te d i n c o lle ge f o otb all. I n 2 013 i t r a is e d i ts d efe nsiv e c o ord in ato r to $ 1.2 8

millio n a y ear, i ts o ffe nsiv e c o ord in ato r to $ 680,0 00, a nd th e p ay o f f o ur o th er a ssis ta nts to b etw een $ 300,0 00 a nd

$400,0 00 e ach ( S carb oro ugh, 2 013). A la b am a a ls o l e d th e w ay i n h ir in g a ssis ta nts b eyo nd th e n in e f u ll- ti m e a llo w ed

by th e N CA A. C allin g th e e xtr a s “ su p port s ta ff,” “ analy sts ,” a nd o th er v ague ti tl e s, th e s c ho ol n o w h as tw enty -fo ur

sp ecia lis ts to a ssis t th e r e gula r c o achin g s ta ff i n “ p la yer p ers o nnel” ( m ain ly r e cru iti n g), “ fo otb all a naly sis ”

(a naly zin g th e c urre nt te am a nd o pponents ), “ str e ngth a nd c o nd iti o nin g,” “ v id eo ,” a nd v ario us o th er f o otb all p ro gra m

acti v iti e s ( M and el & S ta p le s, 2 013). A la b am a p aid th ese 2 4 a ssis ta nts a to ta l o f $ 1.6 m illio n i n s a la ry : th at a v era ges

to $ 66,6 66, b ut s o m e e arn ed m ore th an $ 100,0 00 ( M and el & S ta p le s, 2 013). A s l o ng a go a s 2 007, o ne o bse rv er

no te d th at s o m e “ su p port s ta ff” f o otb all r e cru ite rs i n th e S E C e arn ed m ore th an $ 200,0 00 a y ear ( A dam s, 2 007).

Colle ge b ask etb all h as f e w er a ssis ta nt c o aches th an f o otb all d oes; th e N CA A a llo w s th re e b ask etb all a ssis ta nt

co aches a nd tw o g ra d uate s tu d ent a ssis ta nts . B ut h ead b ask etb all c o aches— men a nd w om en— hav e c re ate d m any “su p port s ta ff” p ositi o ns. A lm ost a ll b ig -ti m e p ro gra m s h av e s ta ff f o r “ b ask etb all o pera ti o ns” ( in clu d in g r e cru iti n g),

“p erfo rm ance e nhancem ent” ( a ssis ti n g th e s tr e ngth c o ach), “ b ask etb all te chno lo gy” ( a ssis ti n g th e v id eo ta p e g uys),

and “ p la yer p ers o nnel” ( o fte n a e up hem is m f o r b ab y-s itti n g th e p la yers , a m ong o th er ta sk s). I n cre asin gly , th e to ta l

num ber o f b ask etb all a ssis ta nts i s g re ate r th an th e to ta l n um ber o f v ars ity p la yers ( B ra nch, 2 013). B erk o w itz a nd

co lle agues h av e a ls o s h o w n th at th e r e gula r b ask etb all a ssis ta nts a v era ge w ell o ver s ix f ig ure s a y ear i n e arn in gs a nd

th e s u p port s ta ff p ers o nnel d oes v ery w ell ( B erk o w itz e t a l., 2 013).

CO AC H ES’ P A Y A N D U NIV ER SIT Y A N D A T H LETIC D EPA RTM EN T M IS SIO NS

Ofte n c o lle ge p re sid ents a nd a th le ti c d ir e cto rs j u sti fy th e h ig h p ay o f th eir a th le ti c c o aches b y c la im in g th at b ig -ti m e

co lle ge f o otb all a nd b ask etb all a re b usin esse s s im ila r to th e e nte rta in m ent i n d ustr y . A nd j u st a s m ovie a nd te le v is io n

sta rs r e ceiv e h uge p ay p ackages, s o s h o uld th e o ngo in g s ta rs o f c o lle ge s p orts , th e c o aches. T his f r a nk a d m is sio n o f

co m merc ia lis m h as w orrie d s o m e e d ucato rs . W hile M yle s B ra nd w as p re sid ent o f th e N CA A, h e ta lk ed a b out th e

need f o r m em ber s c ho ols to “ ensu re th at th eir c o m merc ia l a cti v iti e s r e la te d to a th le ti c s a lig n w ith th e u niv ers ity ’s

ed ucati o nal m is sio n” ( B ra nd , 2 006). U nfo rtu nate ly , th is i s e asie r s a id th an p ra cti c ed , a nd B ra nd a d m itte d th at “ th ere

is n o a lg o rith m o r s e t o f r u le s th at w ould … a uto m ati c ally d ete rm in e w heth er a c o m merc ia l a cti v ity ”— offe rin g a

co ach m illio ns o f d olla rs i s a p rim e e xam ple — ”is c o nsis te nt w ith th e v alu es o f h ig her e d ucati o n” a nd a u niv ers ity ’s

mis sio n ( B ra nd , 2 006).

The r e se arc h f o r th is c hap te r i n clu d ed e xam in in g th e m is sio n s ta te m ents o f m any u niv ers iti e s i n b ig -ti m e c o lle ge

sp orts , a s w ell a s th e m is sio n s ta te m ents o f th eir a th le ti c d ep artm ents ; u nfo rtu nate ly , m ayb e i n te nti o nally o n th e p art

of th e u niv ers iti e s, th e r e se arc hers f o und n o th in g th at c o uld a p ply to th e h ig h s a la rie s o f c o aches. Q uite o bvio usly ,

univ ers iti e s a nd th eir a th le ti c d ep artm ents d o n o t w ant to e ngage th is s u b je ct, a nd s o , f in ally , r e se arc hers h av e to

le av e i t to th e p ub lic to d ecid e th is q uesti o n.

How ev er, th e m is sio n s ta te m ents o f a th le ti c d ep artm ents d o d is c uss th e r o le o f c o aches i n th e f o rm ati o n o f th eir

ath le te s. S ta nfo rd U niv ers ity i s ty p ic al, p arti c ula rly i n i ts u se o f i n fla te d r h eto ric to s ta te i ts h ig h-m in d ed i d eals . I t

fu lfills i ts a th le ti c d ep artm ent m is sio n “ b y h ir in g a nd r e ta in in g th e b est c o aches a nd s ta ff m em bers a v aila b le a nd

arm in g th em w ith th e to ols to a chie v e a t th e h ig hest l e v el … [ a nd ] b y f o ste rin g a nd n urtu rin g a c o achin g … s ta ff th at

is c o m mitte d to te achin g w ith i n te grity a nd a m biti o n a nd th at p erfo rm s i n a m anner w hic h i s c o nsis te nt w ith th e

acad em ic p rio riti e s o f S ta nfo rd U niv ers ity ” ( S ta nfo rd U niv ers ity , 2 012, p ara . 1 ). A ll o f th e m is sio n s ta te m ents

pro cla im ed h ig h i d eals s im ila r to S ta nfo rd ’s , b ut w hat o ccurs w hen th ese i d eals c o llid e w ith th e r e ality o f

co nte m pora ry b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts ?

CO AC H IN G P R IO RIT IE S I N A C LIM AT E O F A ST R O NO M IC AL S A LA R IE S

An i n cre asin g b ody o f r e se arc h i n d ic ate s th at c o aches’ e xtr e m ely h ig h p ay a nd th e p re ssu re to w in c re ate s a c lim ate

where th ey h av e to f o cus th eir a th le te s m ain ly o n s p orts p erfo rm ance a nd s e co nd arily o n a cad em ic a nd p ers o nal

co ncern s. C oaches a lw ays ta lk a b out s p orts a s c hara cte r b uild in g, b ut th e d aily r e ality o f b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts

in d ic ate s l ittl e ti m e f o r th is a cti v ity . A s L yle ( 2 002) a sse rts , a c o ach’s p ote nti a l to s u p port a n a th le te ’s a cad em ic a nd

pers o nal g ro w th i s i n v ers e ly p ro porti o nal to th e p re ssu re o n th e c o ach to w in .

No r e se arc her d is p ute s th e f a ct th at c o aches w ork v ery l o ng h o urs e v ery d ay o f th e w eek. I n a d diti o n to te am

acti v iti e s, i n clu d in g p ra cti c es a nd g am es, th e c o ntr a ct o f a c urre nt b ig -ti m e f o otb all a nd b ask etb all c o ach r e q uir e s

him o r h er to s p end ti m e i n a cti v iti e s to b uild th e p ro gra m a nd a ls o a llo w s ti m e to a ccum ula te p ers o nal p ro fit. T he

tw o e le m ents o fte n i n te rtw in e: p aid a nd u np aid m ed ia s h o w s a nd i n te rv ie w s; s p eech m akin g to a nd a p peara nces a t

vario us g ro up s, b oth o fte n p ers o nally l u cra ti v e; e nd ors in g p ro ducts o f s p onso rs o f th e a th le ti c p ro gra m a s w ell a s

pro ducts f o r h is o r h er o w n p ro fit; w ork in g w ith a nd f o r a p pare l a nd e q uip m ent c o m panie s th at p ro vid e i n sti tu ti o nal

eq uip m ent; c o nd ucti n g s u m mer c am ps a nd s p orts c lin ic s f o r i n sti tu ti o nal o r p ers o nal p ro fit; a nd f u nd ra is in g a nd m any

oth er ta sk s o n b ehalf o f th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent a nd c harita b le o rg aniz a ti o ns a nd f o r p ers o nal g ain ( G entr y &

Ale xand er, 2 011 ).

Where as th e tw enti e th -c entu ry i d eal f o r c o lle ge c o aches i n clu d ed b ein g te achers , a d vis o rs , a nd f a th er f ig ure s f o r

all o f th eir a th le te s, i n th e tw enty -fir s t c entu ry , a h ead c o ach’s m ulti tu d e o f a cti v iti e s a nd r e sp onsib iliti e s u nd erm in e

his o r h er a v aila b ility f o r tr a d iti o nal d uti e s.

Big -ti m e c o aches d ev ote p ain sta kin g a tte nti o n to w ork th at d ir e ctl y i m pro ves th eir te am ’s c hances to w in . M ore

th an e v er, th ey d o s o th ro ugh r e cru iti n g f u tu re p la yers , a nd th e i n te nse c o m peti ti o n f o r to p ta le nt n o w r e q uir e s a

co ach’s y ear-ro und c o m mitm ent to i t. F eld m an ( 2 007) p ro file s th is p heno m eno n w ith th e f o otb all te am a t th e Univ ers ity o f M is sis sip pi, a s c ho ol w here , a cco rd in g to h ead c o ach E d O rg ero n, “ R ecru iti n g i s n ’t s o m e k in d o f

heav y-d uty h o bby, i t’ s m y l ife sty le ” ( p . 1 ). O ne b ig -ti m e c o ach l a m ente d , “ W e d on’t c o ach a nym ore … T his j o b i s n ’t

ab out c o achin g. I t’ s a b out a cq uir in g ta le nt” ( O ’N eil, 2 010, p . 1 ). B ut a cq uir in g th at ta le nt c o m es a t a p ric e: i t ta kes

ti m e a nd e nerg y a w ay f r o m c urre nt a th le te s w ho m th e c o ach h as a lr e ad y b ro ught to c am pus. A s o ne h ead c o ach

ad m its , “ Y ou w alk i n to a l iv in g r o om a nd p ro m is e a m oth er th at y o u’ll b e th ere f o r h er s o n, a nd a s s o on a s th ey g et o n

cam pus, y o u’re g o ne” ( O ’N eil, 2 010, p . 2 ).

Colle ge a th le te r e sp onse s to a N CA A s tu d y ( 2 011 ) r e in fo rc e th e l o gic o f c o aches’ p la cin g s u ch a h ig h p rio rity o n

re cru iti n g. T w o-th ir d s o f D iv is io n I m en’s b ask etb all a nd f o otb all p la yers a gre ed o r s tr o ngly a gre ed th at th e

re cru iti n g p ro cess, p arti c ula rly th eir r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith th e r e cru iti n g c o aches, i m pacte d th eir c o lle ge c ho ic e

decis io n. O nly a m in o rity o f m en’s b ask etb all p la yers a gre ed o r s tr o ngly a gre ed th at th ey w ould h av e a tte nd ed th eir

parti c ula r s c ho ol i f a d iffe re nt h ead c o ach w ere th ere . T hese d ata r e in fo rc e th e a necd ota l e v id ence th at m any e lite

pro sp ects s ig n w ith th e a th le ti c p ro gra m a nd c o achin g s ta ff th at c an b est h elp th em to a chie v e th eir d re am o f

beco m in g a p ro fe ssio nal a th le te .

Coaches f u lly u nd ers ta nd th at th ey m ust s p end e no rm ous a m ounts o f ti m e r e cru iti n g th ese “ b lu e c hip ” p ro fe ssio nal

pro sp ects , e v en i f, i n c o lle ge b ask etb all, th ey m ay h av e th em f o r a s f e w a s o ne y ear o f th eir f o ur y ears o f p la yin g

elig ib ility . A s U niv ers ity o f K ansa s m en’s b ask etb all c o ach B ill S elf s a ys, “ B otto m l in e, I d on’t k no w a nyb ody w ho

would n o t w ant to r e cru it g uys w ho a re g o od e no ugh to p la y i n th e l e ague [ N BA ]. G uara nte ed . T hey w in ” f o r y o u

(P ris b ell, 2 013, p ara . 6 ).

CASE S T U DY

The G ood , t h e B ad , a n d t h e U gly o f a M ult im illio n air e C olle g e C oach

When U rb an M eyer s ig ned a c o ntr a ct i n 2 011 to b eco m e h ead f o otb all c o ach a t O hio S ta te U niv ers ity , h is f a m ily

ask ed h im to a ls o s ig n a c o ntr a ct w ith th em . N ik ki M eyer ( 2 012), h is e ld est d aughte r, c ra fte d a l is t d em and in g th at

Meyer n o t ta ke th e O SU j o b u nle ss, a m ong o th er th in gs, h e “ eat th re e m eals a d ay, s le ep w ith th e c ell p ho ne o n s ile nt

… [ a nd ] a nsw er h is d aughte rs ’ c alls n o m atte r w hat h e i s d oin g.” H er d em and s w ere i n sp ir e d b y th e n egati v es o f h er

fa th er’s y ears a s h ead c o ach a t th e U niv ers ity o f F lo rid a: w ork -life i m bala nce, i n su rm ounta b le p re ssu re , i ll h ealth ,

and a th le te m is c o nd uct. U rb an M eyer’s s to ry i n d ic ate s th e r e ality th at s u rro und s b ig -ti m e c o aches i n h ig her

ed ucati o n.

In h is te nure a t F lo rid a, 2 005–2010, M eyer a chie v ed o uts ta nd in g s u ccess, c o m pilin g a 6 5-1 5 w in -lo ss r e co rd th at

in clu d ed tw o S E C c ham pio nsh ip s, tw o B CS N ati o nal C ham pio nsh ip s, a H eis m an T ro phy w in ner, a nd 2 6 N FL d ra ft

pic ks. W ith o ut q uesti o n, M eyer b enefite d f in ancia lly a lo ng th e w ay. H e o rig in ally s ig ned a s ix -y ear, $ 14 m illio n

dolla r c o ntr a ct b ut l a te r g ain ed a s e v en-y ear e xte nsio n w orth $ 24 m illio n.

How ev er, M eyer h as o penly a ckno w le d ged th e d is a str o us e ffe ct th at h is c o achin g i n te nsity h ad o n h is f a m ily a nd

his h ealth w hile a t F lo rid a: “ I w as a lw ays f e arfu l I w ould b eco m e ‘ T hat G uy,’ th e g uy w ho h ad r e gre t. Y eah, w e w on

a c o up le o f c ham pio nsh ip s, b ut I n ev er s a w m y k id s g ro w u p . Y eah, w e b eat G eo rg ia a c o up le o f ti m es, b ut I r u in ed

my m arria ge” ( T ho m pso n, 2 012). F or M eyer, th e e ffe cts w ere s e v ere . H e l o st 3 5 p ound s i n h is f in al s e aso n, w as

ho sp ita liz e d f o r r e currin g c hest p ain , a nd r e ti r e d n o t o nce, b ut tw ic e.

Questi o ns a ls o s u rro und M eyer’s r o le i n th e l iv es o f h is a th le te s. W hile T im T eb ow g enera te d a ccla im f o r M eyer

as a n A cad em ic A ll- A meric an, o th ers w ere l e ss s u ccessfu l. I n l ig ht o f th e v ery p ub lic m urd er c harg es a gain st f o rm er

Flo rid a ti g ht e nd A aro n H ern and ez, M eyer h as c o m e u nd er s c ru ti n y f o r h is p la yers ’ c o nd uct d urin g h is ti m e i n

Gain esv ille . A

New Y o rk T im es

r e p ort f o und th at b etw een 2 005 a nd 2 010, 3 1 F lo rid a f o otb all p la yers w ere a rre ste d

(B is h o p, 2 013). M eyer h as d efle cte d c riti c is m b y r e fe rrin g to h is a cad em ic ally s u ccessfu l a th le te s, h is a nnual

co ntr ib uti o ns to th e c o m munity , a nd h is e ffo rts to m ento r tr o ub le d te am m em bers , i n clu d in g H ern and ez.

Noneth ele ss, r e v ela ti o ns f r o m M eyer’s ti m e a t F lo rid a s u ggest th e r e ality o f e xcep ti o nally s u ccessfu l c o lle ge

co aches: w in , n o m atte r th e c o sts . S t. L ouis R am s c o rn erb ack J a no ris J e nkin s— a s ta r o n th e G ato rs u nd er M eyer b ut

re m oved f r o m th e te am b ecause o f m ulti p le a rre sts b y M eyer’s s u ccesso r— offe re d a r e v ealin g c o m ment: “ If C oach

Meyer w ere s ti ll c o achin g [ a t F lo rid a], I ’ d s ti ll b e p la yin g f o r th e G ato rs … C oach M eyer k no w s w hat i t ta kes to

win ” ( B is h o p, 2 013).

Alo ng w ith f u ll- ti m e r e cru iti n g, c o aches e ngage i n a n e xhausti v e e ffo rt to p re p are f o r g am es. W hile D iv is io n I

fo otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yers r e p ort s p end in g m ore th an 4 0 h o urs p er w eek i n -s e aso n o n th eir s p ort,

co achin g s ta ffs o fte n d oub le th at n um ber. A cco unts o f c o ach b urn o ut, s u ch a s U rb an M eyer’s a t th e U niv ers ity o f Flo rid a, r e v eal a h yp erc o m peti ti v e c ultu re w ith c o aches w ork in g a s m uch a s 1 00 h o urs i n a w eek, w atc hin g v id eo o f

th eir te am a nd o pponents i n to th e e arly m orn in g, a nd s le ep in g i n th eir o ffic es.

And w hat a re th e c o nse q uences o f th e c o ach’s b ehav io r o n th e g ro w th a nd w ell- b ein g o f a th le te s? I n a n N CA A

su rv ey ( 2 011 ), o ne-th ir d o f m en’s b ask etb all p la yers a gre e o r s tr o ngly a gre e th at th eir c o ach “ p ut th em d ow n” i n f r o nt

of o th ers . R oughly o ne-h alf o f m en’s b ask etb all a nd f o otb all p la yers a d m it th at w in nin g w as m ore i m porta nt th an

sp orts m ansh ip . A nd , s ig nific antl y , m ore th an h alf o f D iv is io n I m en’s

bask etb all p la yers d o n o t a gre e th at th eir h ead

co ach c o uld b e tr u ste d . T he r e cent f ir in g o f R utg ers U niv ers ity m en’s b ask etb all c o ach M ik e R ic e f o r v erb ally a nd

physic ally a b usin g h is p la yers o ffe rs a d is tu rb in g r e m in d er o f th e r e ality o f th ese a th le te e xp erie nces.

When R ic e’s tr e atm ent o f h is p la yers b ecam e p ub lic k no w le d ge, tw o R utg ers f a culty m em bers , B elin d a

Edm ond so n a nd B ery l S atte r ( 2 013), i s su ed a s ta te m ent, i n f a ct, a h eartf e lt p le a, f o r s a nity i n c o lle ge s p orts . T hey

wro te :

Public u niv ers it ie s … a re n ot [ c o rp ora te ] s p orts f ra n ch is e s. T hey a re n ot d ysfu nctio nal f a m ilie s in w hic h th e p ow erfu l c an

ab use th e le ss p ow erfu l. A s f a cu lt y m em bers , w e w ere d eep ly d is m ay ed to le arn th at s o m e R utg ers U niv ers it y

ad m in is tr a to rs h ad k now n f o r m onth s a b out M ik e R ic e J r. a n d h is a ssis ta n t c o ach ’s p hysic al a n d v erb al a b use o f s tu den t

ath le te s, y et r e m ain ed s ile n t. H om ophobic s lu rs a n d p hysic al a b use te ach s tu den ts a d efo rm ed v ers io n o f a th le tic

masc u lin it y . ( p ara . 1 )

The R utg ers p ro fe sso rs w ere r e fe rrin g to th e s c ho ol p re sid ent’ s a nd a th le ti c d ir e cto r’s a w are ness o f R ic e’s b ehav io r

and d oin g v ery l ittl e a b out i t. O f c o urs e , th ese w ere th e o ffic ia ls w ho h ad h ir e d R ic e a t ty p ic ally h ig h p ay a nd h ad

to le ra te d h is b ehav io r. ( R ic e h ad a m ed io cre w in -lo ss r e co rd ; a nd th is i s n o t s u rp ris in g c o nsid erin g th e r e se arc h w e

hav e c ite d .)

CO NCLU SIO N

The M ik e R ic e c ase a t R utg ers c an s e rv e a s a s y m bol f o r m uch th at h as g o ne w ro ng i n b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts . T he

eno rm ous a nd u nju sti fie d p ay p ackages g iv en to c o aches h av e s p aw ned a w in -a t- a ll- c o sts m enta lity a nd h av e m ain ly

benefite d th e c o aches th em se lv es a nd th e s m all c o ho rt o f p la yers w ho a ctu ally m ake i t to th e p ro fe ssio nal l e agues.

Far to o m any o f th e o th er a th le te s f e el th at th ey h av e h ad n egati v e a th le ti c e xp erie nces i n c o lle ge a nd a ls o d id n o t

re ceiv e m uch o f a n e d ucati o n.

Fin ally , f o r a ll i ts g litte r a nd a p pare nt w ealth , b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts f a ce s e rio us s y ste m ic p ro ble m s. I f th e

re su lt o f th e c urre nt l a w su it b ro ught b y f o rm er U CLA a th le te E d O ’B anno n a gain st th e N CA A m oves th e c o urts to

allo w o pen p ro fe ssio nalis m i n c o lle ge s p orts , th en th e c urre nt s y ste m w ill c ru m ble a nd i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s w ill

clo se ly r e se m ble p ro fe ssio nal s p orts . C oaches w ill s ti ll h av e l a rg e p ay p ackages b ut s o w ill m any p la yers . A t th at

poin t, u niv ers iti e s w ill h av e to d ecid e w heth er th ey w ant to f u nd v ery e xp ensiv e a nd m ain ly m oney-lo sin g

pro fe ssio nal f r a nchis e s o r g o to a g enuin ely a m ate ur-b ase d s y ste m r e se m blin g th e c urre nt N CA A D iv is io n I II. T he

past 2 5 y ears i n c o lle ge s p orts h av e b een f a sc in ati n g; th e f u tu re m ig ht b e e v en m ore i n te re sti n g.

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

I s i t f a ir to c o m pare th e p ay o f h ead f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all c o aches to th at o f u niv ers ity f a culty a nd o th er

te achers ? I f y es, w hy? I f n o , w hy n o t?

A cco rd in g to th e r e se arc h c ite d i n th is c hap te r, w hen a s c ho ol h ir e s a n ew c o ach, h o w w ell d oes th e te am o f th at

co ach d o?

I s th e h ig h p ay o f a ssis ta nt c o aches j u sti fie d ? I f y es, w hy? I f n o , w hy n o t?

Refe re n ces

Adam s, R . ( 2 007, J a nuary 6 ). T he n ew b ig s h o ts o f th e g rid ir o n: T op r e cru ite rs a re n o w th e s u b je ct o f b id din g w ars .

Wall S tr e et J o urn al

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Adle r, E . S ., B erry , M . J ., & D oherty , D . ( 2 013). P ush in g “ re se t” : T he c o nd iti o nal e ffe cts o f c o achin g r e p la cem ents

on c o lle ge f o otb all p erfo rm ance.

Socia l S cie n ce Q uarte rly , 9 4

(1 ), 1 –28.

http ://o nlin elib ra ry .w ile y.c o m /d oi/1 0.1 111 /j.1 540-6 237.2 012.0 0929.x /a b str a ct Berk o w itz , S ., & U pto n, J . ( 2 011 a, A pril 4 ). S ala rie s d ra m ati c ally r is e f o r to p w om en’s b ask etb all c o aches.

USA

To day

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://u sa to day3 0.u sa to day.c o m /s p orts /c o lle ge/w om ensb ask etb all/2 011 -0 4-0 4-c o aches-

sa la rie s-in cre ase _ N .h tm

———. ( 2 011 b, D ecem ber 1 9). A ub urn , L SU , A la b am a, T exas a m ong h ig hest- p aid s ta ffs .

USA T o day

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fr o m

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package/5 2123650/1

———. ( 2 011 c, D ecem ber 2 1). A ssis ta nts o utp ace b osse s i n r a is e s.

USA T o day

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://u sa to day3 0.u sa to day.c o m /s p orts /c o lle ge/fo otb all/s to ry /2 011 -1 2-1 9/c o lle ge-a ssis ta nt- s a la rie s-

package/5 2123650/1

———. ( 2 012a, J a nuary 1 6). S ala rie s r is in g f o r n ew c o lle ge f o otb all c o aches.

USA T o day

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://u sa to day3 0.u sa to day.c o m /s p orts /c o lle ge/fo otb all/s to ry /2 012-0 1-1 6/C olle ge-fo otb all- c o aches-

co m pensti o n/5 2602734/1

———. ( 2 012b, N ovem ber 2 7). W hic h c o aches i n B CS c o nte nti o n h av e th e b est b onuse s.

USA T o day

. R etr ie v ed

fr o m

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———. ( 2 013a, J u ne 2 4). C olle ge f o otb all a ssis ta nts s e ein g s a la rie s s u rg e.

USA T o day

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

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———. ( 2 013b, J u ly 1 ). P ay r is e s y et a gain f o r c o lle ge f o otb all’s n ew c o achin g h ir e s.

USA T o day

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sa la ry d ata b ase .

USA T o day

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Berk o w itz , S ., U pto n, J ., M cC arth y, M ., & G illu m , J . ( 2 010a, A pril 1 2). R is in g s a la rie s o f c o aches f o rc e s c ho ols to

se ek b ud get p atc hes.

USA T o day

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———. ( 2 010b, O cto ber 6 ). H ow s tu d ent f e es q uie tl y b oost c o lle ge s p orts .

USA T o day

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Bra nd , M . ( 2 006, A pril 2 4). C om merc ia lis m c o ntr o lle d w hen a cti v ity a lig ns w ith m is sio n.

NCAA N ew s

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fr o m

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%2B 4-2 4-0 6% 2B ncaa% 2B new s.h tm l

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millio n.h tm l? p agew ante d = all& _r= 0

———. ( 2 013, J u ly 6 ). H ern and ez a m ong m any w ho f o und tr o ub le a t F lo rid a i n th e M eyer y ears .

New Y o rk T im es

Retr ie v ed f r o m

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assis ta nts .h tm l? p agew ante d = all

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Ble a ch er R ep ort

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Chro nic le o f

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Exa m in in g t h e s tu den t- a th le te e xp erie n ce t h ro ugh t h e

NCAA G OALS a nd S C O RE s tu die s

. S lid es f r o m th e 2 011 N CA A C onv enti o n. R etr ie v ed f r o m

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2007 d ata

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ESP N .c o m

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Henry H olt.

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. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://c hro nic le .c o m /b lo gs/b otto m lin e/n ear-te rm -o utl o ok-is -b le ak-fo r-a ll- o f-

hig her-e d ucati o n-m oodys-s a ys/

Tsits o s, W ., & N ix o n, H ., I I ( 2 012). T he s ta r w ars a rm s r a ce i n c o lle ge a th le ti c s: C oaches’ p ay a nd a th le ti c p ro gra m

sta tu s.

Jo urn al o f S port & S ocia l I s su es, 3 6

, 6 8–88.

Upto n, J ., G illu m , J ., & B erk o w itz S . ( 2 012, A pril 1 2). R is in g s a la rie s o f c o aches f o rc e c o lle ges to s e ek b ud get

patc h.

USA T o day

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://u sa to day3 0.u sa to day.c o m /s p orts /c o lle ge/m ensb ask etb all/2 010-0 4-0 1-

co aches-s a la rie s-c o ver_ N .h tm

Wolv erto n, B . ( 2 013, J a nuary 1 7). I n ti m e o f b ud get a uste rity , a th le ti c s p ro gra m s n eed a r e se t.

Chro nic le o f H ig her

Educa tio n

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://c hro nic le .c o m /b lo gs/p la yers /in -a uste re -ti m es-a th le ti c s-p ro gra m s-n eed -a - re se t/ 3 2403 5 PA RT F IV E

The S ig n if ic a n ce o f R ace a n d E th nic it y I s su es

R ace a nd e th nic ity h av e r a is e d i m porta nt i s su es i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, a nd s c ho la rs h av e e m plo yed a w id e r a nge

of f r a m ew ork s a nd th eo re ti c al p ers p ecti v es to s tu d y th eir e ffe cts . I n

chap te r 1 3

, E ddie C om eaux a nd M arc ia F uente s

in tr o duce a nd s u m mariz e d iv ers ity -re la te d r e se arc h o n c o lle ge a th le te s a nd th eir n o nath le te p eers a nd p la ce th e

fin d in gs w ith in a f r a m ew ork f o r u nd ers ta nd in g c am pus r a cia l c lim ate . T hey o ffe r s tr a te gie s th at c o aches a nd s tu d ent

affa ir s p ro fe ssio nals c an u se to f o ste r i n te ra cti o n a cro ss d iv ers e r a cia l g ro up s i n o rd er to p ro m ote a th le te s’ r a cia l

und ers ta nd in g a nd p lu ra lis ti c p ers p ecti v es. I n

chap te r 1 4

, J o hn S in ger e m plo ys a c riti c al r a ce th eo ry f r a m ew ork to

dis c uss h o w s o cie ta l, o rg aniz a ti o nal, a nd i n d iv id ual- le v el f a cto rs c o ntr ib ute to th e m is e d ucati o n o f A fr ic an A meric an

male a th le te s a t p re d om in antl y w hite i n sti tu ti o ns o f h ig her e d ucati o n. R obin H ughes e xp lo re s th e e xp erie nces o f

Afr ic an A meric an f e m ale c o lle ge a th le te s i n

chap te r 1 5

, g iv in g s p ecia l a tte nti o n to th e i n te rs e cti o nality o f r a ce a nd

gend er. I n

chap te r 1 6

, E arl S m ith a nd A ngela H atte ry p ro vid e a n o verv ie w o f c o nfe re nce r e alig nm ent, th e m oti v es

and c halle nges o f c o nfe re nce e xp ansio n p la ns a m ong v ario us N CA A d iv is io n I c o nfe re nces, a nd th e p ote nti a l i m pact

of e xp ansio n o n A fr ic an A meric an m ale a th le te s.

C H APTER

1 3

C RO SS-R ACIA L I N TE R ACTIO N o f D IV IS IO N I A TH LETE S

T he C am pu s C lim ate f o r D iv ersity

E ddie C om ea u x a n d M arc ia V . F uen te s

K EY T ER M S

co lle ge a th le te s

cro ss-r a cia l in te ra ctio n

ca m pus c lim ate

ca m pus r a ce r e la tio ns

div ersit y

S ev era l r e cent d em ogra p hic a nd s o cia l tr e nd s p ro vid e th e s ti m ulu s f o r h ig her e d ucati o n i n sti tu ti o ns to p re p are

s tu d ents to l e ad a nd c o m pete i n a n i n cre asin gly c o m ple x a nd d iv ers e s o cie ty . F ir s t, th e n um ber o f r a cia l a nd e th nic

“ m in o rity ” i n d iv id uals i n th e U nite d S ta te s i n cre ase d f r o m 8 6.9 m illio n to 1 11 .9 m illio n b etw een 2 000 a nd 2 010

( U .S . C ensu s B ure au, 2 011 ). S eco nd , th e l a nd m ark S up re m e C ourt d ecis io ns i n

Gra tz v . B ollin ger

( 2 003) a nd

Gutte r

v . B ollin ger

( 2 003) p ro vid ed i n centi v es f o r c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s to d ev elo p a uth enti c ally r e sp onsiv e

i n te rv enti o n s tr a te gie s th at c o uld m ake th e m ost e ffe cti v e u se o f d iv ers e c am pus l e arn in g e nv ir o nm ents . T hir d , th e

b usin ess c o m munity h as a ffir m ed th e n eed f o r c ro ss-c ultu ra lly c o m pete nt c o lle ge g ra d uate s w ith th e a b ility to l e ad i n

a g lo bal s o cie ty o r a “ p lu ra lity n ati o n” ( B ik so n & L aw , 1 994). I n l ig ht o f th ese tr e nd s, i t i s c le ar th at th e e xte nt to

w hic h c o lle ge s tu d ents w ho i n te ra ct a cro ss d iv ers e r a cia l g ro up s c an d ev elo p c o gniti v e, i n tr a p ers o nal, a nd

i n te rp ers o nal s k ills th at p re p are th em to v ie w th e w orld f r o m s o m eo ne e ls e ’s p ers p ecti v e, to le ra te o th ers w ith

d iffe re nt b elie fs , a nd n ego ti a te c o ntr o vers ia l i s su es w ith c o nv ic ti o n w ill b e c riti c ally i m porta nt ( N ew man, C outu rie r,

& S curry , 2 004).

Most d iv ers ity -re la te d s tu d ie s h av e f o cuse d p rim arily o n s tu d ents i n th e g enera l p opula ti o n, w hic h l im its o ur

u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e c ro ss-ra cia l i n te ra cti o ns D iv is io n I a th le te s e xp erie nce a nd th e r e su lti n g b enefits o f d iv ers ity . I t

i s i m porta nt to h av e th is d is c ussio n w ith D iv is io n I a th le te s a s th e p opula ti o n o f i n te re st b ecause th eir c o lle ge

e xp erie nces ty p ic ally d iffe r i n i m porta nt w ays f r o m th o se o f th e g enera l s tu d ent p opula ti o n ( W att & M oore , 2 001).

T his p opula ti o n o f s tu d ents i s a d diti o nally o f i n te re st b ecause o f e v id ence th at s u ggests i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c te am s

m ay p ro vid e a n i d eal e nv ir o nm ent f o r p ositi v e i n te rg ro up r e la ti o ns w ith d iv ers e te am mate s. E xta nt r e se arc h a nd

a necd ota l e v id ence s u ggest D iv is io n I a th le te s a re l ik ely to h av e m ore f r e q uent i n te ra cti o ns w ith d iv ers e s tu d ent

g ro up s th an th eir n o nath le te p eers ( B ro w n, B ro w n, J a ckso n, S elle rs , & M anuel, 2 003; P otu to & O ’H anlo n, 2 007). I n

f a ct, a th le te s te nd to c o nsti tu te a u niq ue a nd h ig hly d iv ers e s u b se t o f m ost s tu d ent p opula ti o ns i n th e h ig her e d ucati o n

c o m munity , w hic h a llo w s th em c o nta ct w ith d iv ers e te am mate s. T hey o fte n l iv e, e at, a nd s o cia liz e to geth er a nd a re

s o m eti m es e v en tr a cked i n to th e s a m e m ajo rs , a ll o f w hic h e nhance th eir c hances f o r c ro ss-ra cia l i n te ra cti o n w ith

e ach o th er ( B ro w n e t a l., 2 003). L ik ew is e , c o lle ge c o aches i n te am s p orts e nco ura ge th eir a th le te s to b uild te am

c hem is tr y a nd c o hesio n, to f o cus o n c o m monaliti e s a nd s h are d g o als , a nd to l o ok b eyo nd r a cia l/e th nic d iffe re nces i n

o rd er to a chie v e d esir a b le o utc o m es ( B ro w n e t a l., 2 003). C oaches m ay e v en g o a s f a r a s to s a y th at th ey w ill n o t

t o le ra te th e e xis te nce o f a r a cia lly h o sti le te am e nv ir o nm ent.

This c hap te r e xp lo re s th e c ro ss-ra cia l e xp erie nces o f D iv is io n I a th le te s a t p re d om in antl y w hite i n sti tu ti o ns

( P W Is ). A d eep er u nd ers ta nd in g o f th eir e xp erie nces c an h av e a s ig nific ant i m pact o n th e s p ecific i n te rv enti o n

s tr a te gie s th at c an e ngage a nd r e -e ngage a th le te s i n r a cia lly d iv ers e l e arn in g e nv ir o nm ents . I n th is c hap te r w e a sse rt

t h at, b eyo nd u nd ers ta nd in g th e c ro ss-ra cia l e xp erie nces o f a th le te s, i t i s i m porta nt to c o m pre hensiv ely d ed uce ele m ents o f th e b ro ad c am pus c lim ate th at c an s h ap e th e q uality o f th ese e xp erie nces.

We b egin b y s y nth esiz in g th e d iv ers ity -re la te d r e se arc h o n c o lle ge a th le te s a nd th eir n o nath le te p eers . T hen,

dra w in g f r o m a nd e xp and in g u p on th e w ork o f H urta d o, M ile m , C la yto n-P ed ers o n, a nd A lle n ( 1 998), w e d is c uss a

fr a m ew ork f o r u nd ers ta nd in g th e c am pus r a cia l c lim ate i n o rd er to e xp la in h o w d im ensio ns o f th e i n sti tu ti o nal

co nte xt c an i n flu ence th e q uality o f c o lle ge a th le te s’ e xp erie nces. F in ally , w e c o nclu d e w ith s u ggesti o ns f o r c o ncre te

in te rv enti o n s tr a te gie s a nd c o -c urric ula r a cti v iti e s th at, i n l ig ht o f th e d iv ers ity -re la te d r e se arc h a nd c am pus c lim ate

fr a m ew ork , c o aches a nd s tu d ent a ffa ir s p ro fe ssio nals c an e m plo y to f o ste r i n te ra cti o n a cro ss d iv ers e r a cia l g ro up s

with th e g o al o f p ro m oti n g r a cia l u nd ers ta nd in g f o r c o lle ge a th le te s.

RESE A R CH O N T H E E D UCAT IO NAL B EN EFIT S O F D IV ER SIT Y

Only a f e w s tu d ie s h av e s o ught to e xp lo re th e i m pact o f c ro ss-ra cia l i n te ra cti o n a m ong c o lle ge a th le te s. B ro w n e t a l.

(2 003), f o r e xam ple , u se d d ata p ro vid ed b y w hite a th le te s d urin g th eir f ir s t s e m este rs a t 2 4 p re d om in antl y w hite

co lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s a nd f o und a s ig nific ant r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een th eir c o nta ct w ith b la ck te am mate s a nd r a cia l

atti tu d es. I m porta ntl y , th e r e la ti o nsh ip v arie d b y ty p e o f s p ort p la yed ; w hite a th le te s w ho p la yed te am s p orts w ith a

hig her p erc enta ge o f b la ck te am mate s r e p orte d m ore p ositi v e a tti tu d es to w ard b la cks i n g enera l, a s c o m pare d to

white a th le te s w ho p la yed i n d iv id ual s p orts . A no th er s tu d y s u rv eyed a th le te s f r o m 1 8 D iv is io n

I u niv ers iti e s, i n p art

to u nd ers ta nd th e e xte nt to w hic h th ey h ad r ic h m ulti c ultu ra l e xp erie nces ( P otu to & O ’H anlo n, 2 007). O vera ll, th e

re se arc h s tu d y i n d ic ate d 6 0.5 % o f a th le te s r e p orte d th eir a th le ti c p arti c ip ati o n h ad s ig nific antl y c o ntr ib ute d to th eir

und ers ta nd in g o f p eo ple o f r a cia l o r e th nic b ackgro und s d iffe re nt f r o m th eir o w n. M ore o ver, 7 9% r e p orte d th eir

to le ra nce f o r p eo ple o f o th er r a ces o r b ackgro und s w as p ositi v e.

Build in g o n th e w ork o f J a yakum ar ( 2 008), C om eaux ( 2 013a) e xam in ed th e e xte nt to w hic h c ro ss-ra cia l

in te ra cti o n i n flu enced p ostc o lle ge p lu ra lis ti c o rie nta ti o n a nd l e ad ers h ip s k ills f o r D iv is io n I w hite a th le te g ra d uate s,

and th e d egre e to w hic h e ngagem ent e ffe cts w ere c o nd iti o nal o n th eir p re co lle ge n eig hb orh o ods. T he a uth o r s u rv eyed

310 w hite a th le te c o lle ge g ra d uate s r e p re se nti n g 1 6 D iv is io n I F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n c o nfe re nces. T he f in d in gs

su ggest c ro ss-ra cia l i n te ra cti o n d urin g c o lle ge h ad c o nti n uin g b enefits o n p lu ra lis ti c o rie nta ti o n a nd l e ad ers h ip s k ills

fo r w hite a th le te s f r o m r a cia lly d iv ers e n eig hb orh o ods, a nd l o ng-te rm e ffe cts o n l e ad ers h ip s k ills f o r w hite a th le te s

fr o m s e gre gate d p re co lle ge n eig hb orh o ods.

While th e l ite ra tu re e xam in in g th e i n flu ence o f c ro ss-ra cia l i n te ra cti o n s p ecific ally f o r c o lle ge a th le te s m ay b e

in co m ple te , th e g ro w in g b ody o f r e se arc h r e la te d to th e g enera l s tu d ent p opula ti o n, i n clu siv e o f a th le te s, c an p ro vid e

ad diti o nal i n sig ht. S cho la rs h av e f o und i n cre asin g th e n um ber o f s tu d ents o f c o lo r o n c am pus a llo w s f o r h ig her l e v els

of c ro ss-ra cia l i n te ra cti o n a m ong c o lle ge p eers ( e .g ., C hang, 1 999; S aenz, N gai, & H urta d o, 2 007), i n clu d in g

in te rra cia l f r ie nd sh ip s ( A nto nio , 2 001). T w o d ecad es o f s o cia l s c ie nce r e se arc h h av e l in ked e ngagem ent w ith

div ers e p eers , w hic h r a cia lly d iv ers e s tu d ent b odie s m ake p ossib le , to a r a nge o f d esir a b le c o lle ge o utc o m es ( e .g .,

Asti n , 1 993; H urta d o, 2 001; J a yakum ar, 2 008).

Num ero us s tu d ie s d em onstr a te q uality c ro ss-ra cia l i n te ra cti o ns, b oth i n sid e a nd o uts id e th e c la ssro om , a re

asso cia te d w ith p ositi v e l e arn in g o utc o m es, i n clu d in g c o lle ge s a ti s fa cti o n ( A sti n , 1 993; C hang, 1 999), l e ad ers h ip

sk ills a nd c ultu ra l a w are ness ( A nto nio , 2 001; A sti n , 1 993), c riti c al th in kin g s k ills ( G urin , 1 999), a nd h ig her l e v els o f

positi v e a cad em ic a nd s o cia l s e lf- c o ncep t ( C hang, 1 999; G urin , D ey, H urta d o, & G urin 2 002). O th er s tu d ie s h av e

sh o w n a p ositi v e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een h ig her l e v els o f c ro ss-ra cia l i n te ra cti o n a nd c iv ic i n te re st ( G urin e t a l., 2 002;

Hurta d o, 2 001), c o gniti v e d ev elo pm ent ( A sti n , 1 993; G urin e t a l., 2 002), a nd p lu ra lis ti c o rie nta ti o n o r s tu d ents ’

th in kin g a nd s o cia l i n te ra cti o n s k ills i n a n i n cre asin gly d iv ers e s o cie ty ( J a yakum ar, 2 008). T hus, a s th is b ody o f

lite ra tu re c o nti n ues to g ro w , i t i s b eco m in g e v id ent th at th ere a re i m porta nt e d ucati o nal b enefits a sso cia te d w ith a

ra cia lly d iv ers e s tu d ent b ody.

CAM PU S R AC IA L C LIM AT E F O R A T H LETES

Curre nt s tu d ie s a re e nco ura gin g, b ut th ey a ls o r e m in d u s, a s A llp ort ( 1 954) n o te d n early s ix d ecad es a go , th at c erta in

co nd iti o ns f a cilita te th e ty p e o f i n te rg ro up c o nta ct th at c an l e sse n r a cia l p re ju d ic e. I n o th er w ord s, w hile i t i s

in cre asin gly e v id ent

th at th ere a re u niq ue b enefits a sso cia te d w ith a r a cia lly d iv ers e s tu d ent b ody, th ese p ositi v e

effe cts a re c o nti n gent u p on th e s p ecific n atu re o f th e i n te ra cti o ns ( C hang, D enso n, S aenz, & M is a 2 006; G urin e t a l.,

2002). T here fo re , i n o rd er to f a cilita te o ur u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e c ro ss-ra cia l e xp erie nces o f D iv is io n I a th le te s, i t i s

im porta nt to i d enti fy f a cto rs th at c o ntr ib ute to a m ore p ositi v e c am pus c lim ate . W hile i n cre asin g th e p ro porti o n o f

no nw hite s tu d ents o n c am pus i s n ecessa ry a nd i m porta nt, s c ho la rs c o nte nd th at i t i s i n su ffic ie nt f o r f o ste rin g a su p porti v e c am pus e nv ir o nm ent o r f o r m axim iz in g th e b enefits a sso cia te d w ith d iv ers ity ( H urta d o e t a l., 1 998).

There a re i n te rre la te d c halle nges o r f o rc es th at c o nfr o nt s tu d ents i n d iv ers e l e arn in g e nv ir o nm ents , a nd th ese c an

in flu ence th e q uality o f c am pus e xp erie nces a nd e d ucati o nal o utc o m es. T hus, i n sti tu ti o ns th at d o n o t a cco unt f o r o th er

asp ects o f th e c am pus r a cia l c lim ate a re l ik ely to i n cre ase o ppositi o n a nd h o sti lity a m ong r a cia l g ro up s ( H urta d o e t

al., 1 998).

To u nd ers ta nd th ese i n sti tu ti o nal f o rc es, w e d ra w f r o m th e e m pir ic al f r a m ew ork d ev elo ped b y H urta d o a nd

co lle agues ( 1 998), w hic h d esc rib es a n i n sti tu ti o n’s c lim ate f o r r a cia l/e th nic d iv ers ity . F our i n te rre la te d e le m ents

sh ap e th e c am pus r a cia l c lim ate : c o m positi o nal d iv ers ity ,

th e l e v el o f r a cia l d iv ers ity i n a s tu d ent b ody;

psy cho lo gic al c lim ate , d efin ed b y p erc ep ti o ns a nd a tti tu d es b etw een g ro up s; b ehav io ra l c lim ate , th e q uanti ty a nd

quality o f i n te rg ro up r e la ti o ns; a nd th e i n sti tu ti o n’s h is to ric al l e gacy o f e xclu sio n o f r a cia l/e th nic g ro up s, h is to ry th at

co nti n ues to p erp etu ate i n eq uity a cro ss r a cia l l in es ( H urta d o e t a l., 1 998). L ate r, M ile m , D ey, a nd W hite ( 2 004)

in clu d ed a f ifth d im ensio n o f c lim ate : o rg aniz a ti o nal/s tr u ctu ra l, w hic h “ re p re se nts th e o rg aniz a ti o nal a nd s tr u ctu ra l

asp ects o f c o lle ges a nd th e w ays i n w hic h b enefits f o r s o m e g ro up s b eco m e e m bed ded i n to th ese o rg aniz a ti o nal a nd

str u ctu ra l p ro cesse s” ( M ile m , C hang, & A nto nio , 2 005, p . 1 8). F or th e p urp ose s o f th is c hap te r, w e p rim arily f o cus

on th re e e le m ents o f th e i n sti tu ti o n’s c lim ate f o r r a cia l/e th nic d iv ers ity — co m positi o nal d iv ers ity ,

org aniz a ti o nal/s tr u ctu ra l a sp ects , a nd p sy cho lo gic al c lim ate . F or th is c hap te r, c o m positi o nal d iv ers ity i s

co ncep tu aliz e d a s th e n um eric al r e p re se nta ti o n o f r a cia l/e th nic m in o rity a th le te s a cro ss te am s p orts . I n a d diti o n, th e

org aniz a ti o nal/s tr u ctu ra l a sp ect i s r e la te d to th e l im ite d a ccess a nd u nd erre p re se nta ti o n o f m in o rity f o otb all c o aches

(o r e xclu sio nary h ir in g p ra cti c es) a t F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n s c ho ols . F in ally , p sy cho lo gic al c lim ate i n v olv es th e

exte nt to w hic h a th le te s te nd to p erc eiv e g ro up r e la ti o n a nd d is c rim in ato ry a cts b y m em bers o f th e c am pus

co m munity , w hic h c an h av e a s ig nific ant i m pact o n th e l ik elih o od o f d iv ers e i n te ra cti o ns.

In flu en ce o f C om posit io n al D iv ersit y

As d esc rib ed e arlie r i n th e c hap te r, i t i s w ell d ocum ente d th at i n cre asin g c o m positi o nal d iv ers ity o n c o lle ge

cam puse s i s a n i m porta nt s te p i n p ro vid in g s tu d ents w ith m ore o pportu niti e s f o r i n te rra cia l i n te ra cti o ns a nd

im pro vin g th e c lim ate ( e .g ., A nto nio , 2 001; C hang e t a l., 2 006). F or e xam ple , H urta d o a nd c o lle agues ( 1 998)

asse rte d th at w hen c am puse s l a ck d iv ers e e nv ir o nm ents , th e d om in ant o r m ajo rity s tu d ent g ro up w ill l ik ely s h ap e

vario us f o rm s o f i n te ra cti o n a nd l im it i ts o w n c hances o f b enefiti n g

fr o m i n te ra cti o ns w ith s tu d ents o f d iffe re nt r a ces.

Hurta d o a nd c o lle agues ( 1 998) a ls o r e p orte d th at w hen c am puse s l a ck c o m positi o nal d iv ers ity , u nd erre p re se nte d

stu d ent g ro up s te nd to b e v ie w ed a s to kens.

The r e le v ance o f th ese f in d in gs to a th le te s i s e v id ent w hen w e c o nsid er th e d em ogra p hic s o f c o lle ge a th le ti c s.

Acco rd in g th e N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n’s ( N CA A) r a ce a nd e th nic ity r e p ort ( 2 010), w hite a th le te s

co nsti tu te a d is p ro porti o nate n um ber o f p arti c ip ants i n c erta in te am s p orts : l a cro sse f o r m en ( 9 0.2 % ) a nd w om en

(9 0% ); w om en’s f ie ld h o ckey ( 8 6.5 % ); b ase b all ( 8 3.4 % ); s w im min g/d iv in g f o r m en ( 8 3.7 % ) a nd w om en ( 8 5.8 % );

ro w in g f o r m en ( 8 2.9 % ) a nd w om en ( 8 1.7 % ); a nd w ate r p olo f o r m en ( 7 9.5 % ) a nd w om en ( 7 7% ). A s a r e su lt, th ese

stu d ents h av e f e w er o pportu niti e s i n th e a th le ti c r e alm to e xchange v ie w s w ith s tu d ents o f o th er r a ces, p arti c ula rly

when th ey d ev ote m ore th an f o rty h o urs p er w eek to s p ort- re la te d a cti v iti e s ( W olv erto n, 2 008). A l a ck o f r a cia l

div ers ity c an h eig hte n r a cia l te nsio n a m ong te am mate s, l e nd in g s u p port to th e a fo re m enti o ned w ork o f B ro w n a nd

co lle agues ( 2 003). T hus, i n cre asin g th e r a cia l d iv ers ity o f p arti c ip ants i n c erta in te am s p orts h as th e p ote nti a l to

enhance o pportu nity f o r i n te rg ro up c o nta ct a nd , i m porta ntl y , f o r d esir a b le o utc o m es.

Org an iz a tio n al/ S tr u ctu ra l D im en sio n o f C lim ate

The r a cia l a nd e th nic r e p re se nta ti o n o f h ead c o aches i n m ajo r c o lle ge f o otb all h as r e ceiv ed p ub lic a nd s c ho la rly

atte nti o n ( e .g ., L ap chic k, A njo rin , & N ic kers o n, 2 012; W alk er, 2 005). S pecific ally , c o ncern s h av e b een r a is e d a b out

th e l o w n um ber o f b la ck f o otb all c o aches. I n th e 2 012 s e aso n, b la cks m ad e u p r o ughly 4 6% o f c o lle ge f o otb all

pla yers a t F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n ( F B S) s c ho ols , y et th ey m ad e u p j u st 1 2% o f h ead c o aches i n th is s p ort. A nd ,

acco rd in g to L ynch ( 2 013), “ o nly 3 12 o f 1 ,0 18 o f c o lle ge f o otb all a ssis ta nt c o aches a re B la ck, a nd o nly 3 1 o f 2 55

offe nsiv e a nd d efe nsiv e c o ord in ato rs a re A fr ic an-A meric an.” F B S s c ho ols h av e a h is to ric al l e gacy o f e xclu sio n,

hir in g a d is p ro porti o nate n um ber o f w hite c o aches w hile d enyin g a ccess a nd o pportu niti e s to d ese rv in g b la ck

co aches ( A gyem ang & D eL orm e, 2 010; S agas & C unnin gham , 2 005).

In l a rg e m easu re , c o aches a re c entr a l f ig ure s i n th e l iv es o f a th le te s, a nd c o nse q uentl y s h ap e th eir a cad em ic ,

so cia l, a nd a th le ti c p rio riti e s ( J a yakum ar & C om eaux, 2 011 ). I t a p pears , th en, th at th e c o lle ge e xp erie nces o f no nw hite f o otb all a th le te s a t F B S s c ho ols a re i n flu enced to a s ig nific ant d egre e b y w hite m ale s ( s e e L ap chic k e t a l.,

2012). F urth er, w hen r a cia l/e th nic m in o rity f o otb all c o aches a re n o t a p pro pria te ly r e p re se nte d a t th ese s c ho ols , i t

may g iv e n o nw hite a th le te s th e i m pre ssio n th at th e c am pus c lim ate i s n o t s u p porti v e o r i n clu siv e o f th ese

ra cia l/e th nic g ro up s.

The P sy ch olo gic a l E le m en t o f t h e C lim ate

The p sy cho lo gic al e le m ent o f th e c am pus r a cia l c lim ate f r a m ew ork s p eaks to th e i m porta nce o f i n d iv id ual

perc ep ti o ns a nd a tti tu d es. E vid ence r e v eals s tu d ents f r o m d iffe re nt r a cia l/e th nic b ackgro und s te nd to v ie w i n te rg ro up

re la ti o ns o n c am pus a nd

in sta nces o f r a cis m d iffe re ntl y ( H urta d o e t a l., 1 998). S tu d ie s a ffir m a th le te s e xp erie nce th e

cam pus c lim ate d iffe re ntl y d ep end in g o n th eir r a ce/e th nic ity , s e x, a nd s p ort ( S im ons, B osw orth , F ujita , & J e nse n,

2007; C om eaux, 2 012). P erc ep tu al d iffe re nces c an l e ad to v ary in g l e v els o f s o cia l i n te gra ti o n a nd i n sti tu ti o nal

co m mitm ent. F or e xam ple , s tu d ents w ho p erc eiv e a h o sti le a nd d is c rim in ato ry c am pus r a cia l c lim ate a re l e ss l ik ely

to f e el c o nnecte d w ith th e i n sti tu ti o n ( L ocks, H urta d o, B ow man, & O se guera , 2 008).

While n um ero us s tu d ie s h av e a d dre sse d g enera l s tu d ent p erc ep ti o ns o f c am pus r a cia l c lim ate , th ere i s a g ro w in g

body o f r e la te d w ork o n a th le te s. S tu d ie s r e v eal th at th e c am pus c lim ate c an b e p erc eiv ed a s q uite h o sti le ,

parti c ula rly f o r b la ck a th le te s ( e .g ., B ru enin g, A rm str o ng, & P asto re , 2 005; C om eaux, 2 012; S im ons e t a l., 2 007;

Sin ger, 2 005). F or e xam ple , B ru enin g e t a l. ( 2 005) q ualita ti v ely e xam in ed th e c o lle cti v e e xp erie nces o f b la ck f e m ale

Div is io n I s tu d ents i n th e c o lle ge c o m munity , a nd th eir f in d in gs i n d ic ate d th at c o lle cti v ely th e m ass m ed ia , c o aches,

ath le ti c a d m in is tr a to rs , a nd o th er a th le te s a ll p la yed a r o le i n v ir tu ally i g no rin g th e e xp erie nces o f th ese p arti c ip ants ,

th ere b y s ile ncin g th em . M ore r e centl y , C om eaux ( 2 012) u se d a q ualita ti v e s u rv ey to e xp lo re 1 22 a th le te s’

perc ep ti o ns o f d is c rim in ato ry a cts b y p ro fe sso rs a nd o th er s tu d ents a t a D iv is io n I u niv ers ity . T he m ajo rity o f

re sp ond ents r e p orte d e ith er p ositi v e o r n eutr a l e xp erie nces w ith o th er c am pus c o m munity m em bers , b ut a s m all

num ber d esc rib ed i n sta nces w here p ro fe sso rs a nd o th er s tu d ents q uesti o ned th eir i n te lle ctu al a b iliti e s, a cad em ic

moti v ati o n, o r tr e atm ent b y th e u niv ers ity . I n s h o rt, i t a p pears th at f o r a th le te s g enera lly — and b la ck m ale a nd f e m ale

ath le te s m ore s p ecific ally — th e c am pus e nv ir o nm ent i s , to a s ig nific ant d egre e, u nw elc o m in g, u nsu p porti v e,

alie nati n g, a nd r a cia lly h o sti le .

IN TER VEN TIO N S T R AT EG IE S F O R C O AC H ES A N D S T U DEN T A FFA IR S

PR O FESSIO NALS

It i s c le ar f r o m th e l ite ra tu re th at a th le te s h av e p arti c ula r e xp erie nces th at c an b oth i m pro ve a nd i m ped e th eir a b ility

to e ngage i n p ositi v e c ro ss-ra cia l i n te ra cti o ns. I n th is s e cti o n, w e p ro pose s e v era l i n te rv enti o n s tr a te gie s f o r c o aches,

stu d ent a ffa ir s p ro fe ssio nals , a nd o th ers w ho d esir e to i m pro ve th e i n te ra cti o n a nd c o m munic ati o n o f a th le te s a cro ss

ra cia l g ro up s. T hese p ro pose d s tr a te gie s a re a lig ned w ith th e i d eas w e h av e p re se nte d i n th e e arlie r s e cti o ns o f th e

chap te r.

Asse ssm en t o f T ea m , A th le tic D ep artm en t, a n d C am pus C lim ate

An i m porta nt f ir s t s te p i n a ny e ffe cti v e i n te rv enti o n s tr a te gy d esig ned to i m pro ve th e c ro ss-ra cia l e xp erie nces o f

ath le te s i s a c o m pre hensiv e a sse ssm ent o f th e c lim ate o f th e a th le ti c te am s, a th le ti c d ep artm ent, a nd b ro ad er c am pus

co m munity . F ew , i f a ny, a th le ti c d ep artm ents h ir e p ers o nnel o r i n d ep end ent r e se arc hers to a sse ss th e c lim ate , b ut

th ere i s n o b ette r ti m e th an n o w . A tte nti o n s h o uld b e g iv en to th e f r a m ew ork

dev elo ped b y H urta d o a nd c o lle agues

(1 998), w ith a p arti c ula r f o cus o n th e a sse ssm ent o f th e c o m positi o nal d iv ers ity , a n a th le ti c d ep artm ent’ s

org aniz a ti o nal/s tr u ctu ra l d im ensio n, a nd th e p sy cho lo gic al c lim ate th at s e ts th e to ne f o r th e b ro ad er c am pus r a cia l

clim ate . A d eep er u nd ers ta nd in g o f th ese e le m ents w ill h elp s ta keho ld ers w ith in a th le ti c d ep artm ents m ake p re cis e

obse rv ati o ns a b out a nd r e co m mend ati o ns f o r a th le ti c te am s, th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent, th e c am pus c o m munity , a nd

in d iv id ual s ta keho ld ers .

For e xam ple , th ro ugh f o cus g ro up s o r ta rg ete d i n te rv ie w s w ith v ario us c am pus s ta keho ld ers ( in clu d in g a th le te s),

ath le ti c d ep artm ent p ers o nnel c an c o lle ct r ic h d ata th at w ill i d enti fy s tr e ngth s a nd p ro ble m a re as a s w ell a s i n cre ase

th eir o w n a nd o th ers ’ a w are ness a b out s p ecific c am pus c o nd iti o ns th at i m pact a th le te s. L ik ew is e , s u ch d ata w ill

enab le s ta keho ld ers i n a th le ti c d ep artm ents to m ove b eyo nd a necd ota l e v id ence a nd to o ffe r f e ed back a nd p ra cti c al

so lu ti o ns th at e nhance a th le te s’ c am pus e xp erie nce. W ith o ut p ro per a sse ssm ent, p ra cti ti o ners i n a cad em ic s u p port

cente rs a re l e ss l ik ely to b e f u lly a w are o f th e ty p es a nd m agnitu d e o f a cad em ic a nd p ers o nal i s su es th at a th le te s enco unte r. M ore o ver, th ey a re l e ss l ik ely to r e sp ond to th ese i s su es i n m eanin gfu l w ays. I n th e a b se nce o f a sse ssm ent

data , p ra cti ti o ners g enera lly r e ly o n a ssu m pti o ns a nd i n s o m e c ase s d ev elo p i n te rn aliz e d b ia se s a b out a th le te s th at

to o o fte n p re se nt th em th ro ugh a d efic it l e ns ( C om eaux, 2 013b). A d efic it- m in d ed p ers p ecti v e m ay i n clu d e a ttr ib uti n g

diffe re nces i n e d ucati o nal o utc o m es f o r a th le te s g enera lly a nd b la ck a th le te s s p ecific ally to c ultu ra l s te re o ty p es, l o w

co gniti v e a b ility , o r a l a ck o f m oti v ati o n o n th eir p art ( S im ons e t a l., 2 007).

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

Ken ny D on ald so n , A ssis ta n t D ir e cto r o f A ca d em ic S erv ic es a t t h e U niv ersit y o f C alif o rn ia ,

Los A ngele s ( U CLA )

Fro m h is p ers p ecti v e a s c o ord in ato r o f a cad em ic s u p port s e rv ic es f o r th e B ru in s’ m en’s a nd w om en’s b ask etb all

te am s, D onald so n d is c usse d th e c ro ss-ra cia l i n te ra cti o ns o f th ese a th le te s. H e e xp la in ed th at m ost 1 7-, 1 8-, a nd 1 9-

year-o ld s s e ek a c o m fo rt z o ne i n c o lle ge w ith r e sp ect to th eir e ngagem ent w ith p eers . W hat a th le te s d eem

co m fo rta b le i n c o lle ge i s l a rg ely d ic ta te d b y th eir h ig h s c ho ol e xp erie nces. I n o th er w ord s, th e h ig h s c ho ol c o nte xt

matte rs ; a th le te s w ho a tte nd ed h ig hly s e gre gate d h ig h s c ho ols m ay h av e a h ard ti m e c o m in g to U CLA w here te am

co m positi o ns ( c o m positi o nal r a cia l d iv ers ity ) a re d iffe re nt, w here as te am mate s w ho c am e f r o m l e ss s e gre gate d h ig h

sc ho ols a re l ik ely to h av e a n e asie r tr a nsiti o n.

The d egre e to w hic h a th le te s f e el c o m fo rta b le i n th eir n ew c o lle ge p eer g ro up i s r e fle cte d i n th eir l e v el o f

engagem ent w ith d iffe re nt- ra ce p eers o ff th e c o urt. F or e xam ple , A fr ic an A meric an b ask etb all p la yers te nd to f in d a

co m munity w ith A fr ic an A meric an a th le te s o n o th er te am s. R acia l c liq ues, th us, f o rm w hen th ere a re e no ugh n um bers

to h av e o ne; th is d ynam ic i s e sp ecia lly s a lie nt a m ong A fr ic an A meric an a th le te s. T he s a fe p eer s p ace a nd c o m munity

Afr ic an A meric an a th le te s s e ek m ay a ls o b e l in ked to th e e xtr e m e u nd erre p re se nta ti o n o f A fr ic an A meric an

und erg ra d uate m ale s tu d ents o n th e U CLA c am pus ( 3 .3 3% i n co m in g f a ll 2 012) j u xta p ose d w ith a h ig h r e p re se nta ti o n

of A fr ic an A meric an m ale a th le te s i n th e r e v enue-g enera ti n g s p orts o f b ask etb all a nd f o otb all ( 4 8.8 % , a s c ite d i n

Harp er, W illia m s, & B la ckm an, 2 013), s ta ti s ti c s th at D onald so n h as p re se nte d to h is s ta ff c o lle agues.

Thus, w hile b ask etb all a nd f o otb all te am s b rin g a r a cia lly d iv ers e p eer g ro up to geth er, th is l e v el o f c ro ss-ra cia l

in te ra cti o n m ay n o t tr a nsla te o ff th e f ie ld . D onald so n th eo riz e s th at A fr ic an A meric an a th le te s ( lik e d iffe re nt r a ce

peers ) “ hav e f r e q uent i n te ra cti o ns w ith r a cia lly d iv ers e te am mate s b ecause o f s h are d e xp erie nces, i .e ., a th le ti c s a nd

ofte n b ein g to geth er i n c lo se q uarte rs . T hey o fte n tr a v el, s h o w er a nd c o m pete to geth er s o i n a w ay, th ey a re f o rc ed to

in te ra ct w ith ( e ach o th er). I t’ s n o t a lw ays g enuin e o r d eep , b ut ( e ngagem ent) i s n ecessa ry to b uild a b ond a s

te am mate s. H ow ev er, o ff th e f ie ld , th at s h are d e xp erie nce i s n ’t n ecessa rily th ere , m any ti m es b ecause o f p re ju d ic e o r

ste re o ty p es th at e xis t o n b oth s id es o f th e r a cia l f e nce, w heth er r e al o r a ssu m ed .” In o rd er to a d dre ss th e c ulti v ati o n o f

an e nv ir o nm ent th at i s w elc o m in g a nd s a fe f o r e v ery o ne i n th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent, s tu d ents a nd s ta ff, D onald so n l e d

th e c re ati o n o f th e D iv ers ity A d H oc C om mitte e a t U CLA . D onald so n a ls o c o ord in ate d w ith th e I n te rg ro up R ela ti o ns

Pro gra m a t U CLA to p ro vid e a f a cilita te d w ork sh o p, i n th e n ear f u tu re , f o r i n co m in g B ru in s’ m en’s a nd w om en’s

bask etb all te am s. D onald so n b elie v es m ore i n te rg ro up d ia lo gue i s n eed ed i n sid e a nd o uts id e o f th e c la ssro om , o n

and o ff th e c o urt, a nd th e a th le ti c s ta ff n eed s to p ro vid e th e e nv ir o nm ent a nd e nco ura gem ent f o r th is to o ccur.

Asse ssm ent d ata s h o uld b e s h are d w ith k ey a th le ti c l e ad ers a nd th e b ro ad er a cad em ic c o m munity . I n th is w ay, th e

ath le ti c d ep artm ent c an d em onstr a te tr a nsp are ncy, w hic h, i n tu rn , l e ad s to g re ate r tr u st f r o m s ta keho ld ers o f th e

cam pus c o m munity a nd b eyo nd . F urth er, th is a p pro ach e nab le s c am pus u nits to c o lle cti v ely s tr a te giz e w ays to

opti m iz e d iv ers e l e arn in g e nv ir o nm ents f o r a th le te s a nd p ro vid e d ir e cti o n f o r f u tu re i n q uir y .

Develo p in g D iv ersit y C om pete n cy a m on g S ta keh old ers

Colle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s h av e a n o blig ati o n to p re p are a th le ti c l e ad ers f o r th e r e aliti e s th ey w ill e nco unte r. I n th e

co nte xt o f s te ad y r a cia l/e th nic d em ogra p hic s h ifts o ver th e p ast d ecad e, c o aches a nd s tu d ent a ffa ir s p ro fe ssio nals

need o ngo in g p ro fe ssio nal tr a in in g to d ev elo p k no w le d ge a nd b ehav io r c o m pete ncie s th at a llo w th em to e ffe cti v ely

re sp ond to th e c halle nges a nd o pportu niti e s p ose d b y th e p re se nce o f s o cio cultu ra l d iv ers ity ( o r l a ck th ere o f) w ith in

ath le ti c o rg aniz a ti o ns. W ith th is f o cuse d p re p ara ti o n, th ey w ill b e b ette r e q uip ped to e ngage a nd r e -e ngage a r a cia lly

div ers e g ro up o f a th le te s i n a w ay th at l e ad s to p ositi v e o utc o m es. In cre a se d C om posit io n al D iv ersit y

A c riti c al s te p to w ard i m