sports reading-for tom mutunga

In tr o ductio n to

IN TE R CO LLEG IA TE A TH LETIC S In tr o d uctio n t o

IN TER CO LLEG IA T E A T H LETIC S

Edite d b y

ED DIE C O M EA U X

A ll r ig hts r e se rv ed . P ub lis h ed 2 015

P rin te d i n th e U nite d S ta te s o f A meric a o n a cid -fr e e p ap er

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

J o hns H opkin s U niv ers ity P re ss

2 715 N orth C harle s S tr e et

B alti m ore , M ary la nd 2 1218-4 363

w ww.p re ss.j h u.e d u

L ib ra ry o f C ongre ss C ata lo gin g-in -P ub lic ati o n D ata

I n tr o ducti o n to I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s / e d ite d b y E ddie C om eaux.

pages c m

In clu d es b ib lio gra p hic al r e fe re nces a nd i n d ex.

IS B N 9 78-1 -4 214-1 661-8 ( H ard co ver : a cid -fr e e p ap er) — I S B N 1 -4 214-1 661-1 ( H ard co ver :

a cid -fr e e p ap er) — I S B N 9 78-1 -4 214-1 662-5 ( P ap erb ack : a cid -fr e e p ap er) — I S B N 1 -4 214-1 662-X

( P ap erb ack : a cid -fr e e p ap er) — I S B N 9 78-1 -4 214-1 663-2 ( E le ctr o nic ) — I S B N 1 -4 214-1 663-8

( E le ctr o nic ) 1 . C olle ge s p orts — Unite d S ta te s. 2 . C olle ge s p orts — Unite d S ta te s—

M anagem ent. I . C om eaux, E ddie , 1 973–

GV351.I 6 7 2 015

796.0 4’3 — dc2 3 2 014029353

A c ata lo g r e co rd f o r th is b ook i s a v aila b le f r o m th e B riti s h L ib ra ry .

S pecia l d is c o unts a re a va ila ble f o r b ulk p urc h ase s o f t h is b ook. F or m ore i n fo rm atio n, p le a se c o nta ct S pecia l

S ale s a t 4 10-5 16-6 936 o r

sp ecia ls a le s@ pre ss.j h u.e d u

J o hns H opkin s U niv ers ity P re ss u se s e nv ir o nm enta lly f r ie nd ly b ook m ate ria ls , i n clu d in g r e cycle d te xt p ap er th at i s

c o m pose d o f a t l e ast 3 0 p erc ent p ost- c o nsu m er w aste , w henev er p ossib le . CO NTE N TS

Pre fa ce

1 PA RT O NE

. H is to ric a l A naly sis , G overn ance a nd L eadersh ip , a nd E th ic s

CH APT ER 1

. F ro m S ports P age to F ro nt P age: I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s a nd A meric an H ig her E ducati o n

Jo hn R . T helin

CH APT ER 2

. O rg aniz a ti o n a nd G overn ance o f th e N CA A

Ja m es S atte rfie ld

CH APT ER 3

. L ead ers h ip i n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s

Molly O tt a nd E va n B ate s

CH APT ER 4

. E th ic al I s su es i n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s: P urp ose A chie v ed o r C halle nged ?

Angela L um pkin

2 PA RT T W O

. T heore tic a l P ersp ectiv es o n H ig her E duca tio n a nd A th le tic s

CH APT ER 5

. T heo re ti c al T enets o f H ig her E ducati o n a nd C olle ge A th le te s

Letic ia O se g uera a nd A llis o n G old ste in

3 PA RT T H REE

. T he C olle ge A th le te E xperie nce

CH APT ER 6

. T oday’s C olle ge A th le te

Jo y G asto n G ayle s

CH APT ER 7

. M VP: P re d ic to rs o f F our-Y ear T ra nsfe r f o r C om munity C olle ge A th le te s

David H orto n J r

CH APT ER 8

. I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s C lim ate : E ffe cts o n S tu d ents , F aculty , a nd A dm in is tr a to rs

Ja net H . L aw re n ce a nd J o n L . M cN aughta n

4 PA RT F O UR

. T he B usin ess E nte rp ris e o f C olle ge A th le tic s

CH APT ER 9

. T axati o n o f C olle ge S ports : P olic ie s a nd C ontr o vers ie s

Andre w Z im balis t

CH APT ER 1 0

. C olle ge S ports S pend in g D ecis io ns a nd th e A cad em ic M is sio n

Rodney F ort

CH APT ER 1 1

. T he B usin ess M odel o f I n te rc o lle gia te S ports : T he H av es a nd H av e-N ots

Sco tt H ir k o a nd K yle V . S w eitz e r

CH APTE R 1 2

. M illio nair e C olle ge C oaches a nd th e S cho ols T hat P ay T hem

Murra y S perb er a nd V in cen t M in ja re s

5 PA RT F IV E

. T he S ig nif ic a nce o f R ace a nd E th nic it y I s su es

CH APT ER 1 3

. C ro ss-R acia l I n te ra cti o n o f D iv is io n I A th le te s: T he C am pus C lim ate f o r D iv ers ity

Eddie C om ea ux a nd M arc ia V . F uen te s

CH APT ER 1 4

. T he M is e d ucati o n o f A fr ic an A meric an M ale C olle ge A th le te s

Jo hn N . S in ger

CH APT ER 1 5

. F or C olo re d G ir ls W ho H av e C onsid ere d B la ck F em in is t T ho ught W hen F em in is t D is c o urs e a nd T itl e

IX W ere n’t E no ugh Robin L . H ughes

CH APT ER 1 6

. C onfe re nce R ealig nm ent a nd th e D em is e o f th e A cad em ic M is sio n

Earl S m ith a nd A ngela J . H atte ry

6 PA RT S IX

. G ender E quit y a nd C om plia nce I s su es

CH APT ER 1 7

. E ffe cts o f T itl e I X o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 1 972–2012

Nancy L ough

CH APT ER 1 8

. K ey C ase L aw a nd L egis la ti o n S hap in g W om en’s O pportu nity i n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s

Jen nife r L ee H offm an, J a cq uelin e M cD ow ell, a nd V aly n cia R aphael

CH APT ER 1 9

. T itl e I X C om plia nce a nd I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s

Barb ara O sb orn e

CH APT ER 2 0

. B arrie rs to L ead ers h ip f o r W om en i n C olle ge A th le ti c s

Erin E . B uzu vis

7 PA RT S E VEN

. N CAA a nd M em ber I n stit u tio n P olic y C once rn s

CH APT ER 2 1

. C olle ge A th le te s’ R ig hts

Elle n J . S ta uro w sk y

CH APT ER 2 2

. R ecru iti n g i n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s

B. D avid R id path

CH APT ER 2 3

. I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s a nd A mate uris m

Billy H aw kin s, A sh le y R . B aker, a nd V elin a B . B ra ckeb usc h

CH APT ER 2 4

. F re ed om s L ost: E xp lo rin g S ocia l M ed ia P olic ie s i n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s

Eric M . S nyd er

CH APT ER 2 5

. T he A th le te a nd U niv ers ity C ontr a ctu al R ela ti o nsh ip

Tim oth y D avis

8 PA RT E IG H T

. T he A ca dem ic R efo rm M ovem ent

CH APT ER 2 6

. T he D ile m ma o f A cad em ic S up port f o r C olle ge A th le te s: A dvis in g to th e A PR

Dere k V an R heen en

CH APT ER 2 7

. C olle ge A th le te s i n R ev enue a nd N onre v enue S ports : L anguage, C ultu re , I d enti ty

C. K eith H arris o n a nd S co tt B ukste in

CH APT ER 2 8

. B est P ra cti c es i n C are er T ra nsiti o n P ro gra m min g f o r C olle ge A th le te s

Kris tin a M . N ava rro

EPIL O GUE

. T he C hangin g L and sc ap e o f A th le ti c s i n A meric an H ig her E ducati o n

Eddie C om ea ux

In d ex PR EFA CE

I n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s h av e r e ceiv ed g ro w in g a tte nti o n f r o m th e h ig her e d ucati o n r e se arc h c o m munity . I n 2 005 th e

R ese arc h F ocus o n E ducati o n a nd S port S pecia l I n te re st G ro up o f th e A meric an E ducati o nal R ese arc h A sso cia ti o n

w as e sta b lis h ed to p ro vid e a f o ru m f o r th e p re se nta ti o n, d is c ussio n, a nd e nco ura gem ent o f r e se arc h a nd c riti c al

t h o ught o n th e i n te rfa ce o f a th le ti c s a nd A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n. S in ce th en, a b ody o f w ork h as e m erg ed a nd a n

i n cre asin g n um ber o f r e sp ecte d h ig her e d ucati o n s c ho la rs h av e b een e ngaged i n e m pir ic al r e se arc h to e xam in e

c ro ssc utti n g i s su es i n th is a re a. A t th e s a m e ti m e a g ro w in g n um ber o f s tu d ents h av e e nro lle d i n u nd erg ra d uate a nd

g ra d uate p ro gra m s i n a th le ti c a d m in is tr a ti o n, h ig her e d ucati o n o r s tu d ent a ffa ir s , s p ort m anagem ent, s p ort s tu d ie s, a nd

s p ort l e ad ers h ip , a nd q uite f r e q uentl y th ese p ro gra m s o ffe r r e le v ant c o urs e s i n th e a re a o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s.

Surp ris in gly , th ere h as b een n o f o und ati o nal te xtb ook f o r th e s tu d y o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i n h ig her e d ucati o n.

T hus, i n str u cto rs h av e h ad to r e ly o n c o urs e p ackets , w hic h c an b e q uite c um bers o m e to c o m pile , a nd b ooks th at o ffe r

a n i n co m ple te u nd ers ta nd in g o f th is to pic al a re a. B oth th e h eig hte ned e nth usia sm f o r th e s tu d y o f i n te rc o lle gia te

a th le ti c s i n A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n a nd th e a b se nce o f a c o m pre hensiv e a nd p re v ailin g te achin g to ol to

c o nso lid ate b ase lin e k no w le d ge i n th is a re a h av e c re ate d th e n eed f o r th is e d ite d v olu m e.

In tr o ductio n t o I n te rc o lle g ia te A th le tic s

i s p ra cti c al a nd p arti c ula rly s u ita b le f o r th o se w ho s e ek to e nhance

t h eir u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s l a nd sc ap e. T his te xtb ook i s i n te nd ed f o r u p per-le v el u nd erg ra d uate

a nd g ra d uate s tu d ents , th o ugh s c ho la rs , te achers , p ra cti ti o ners , a th le ti c a d m in is tr a to rs , a nd a d vocate s o f

i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s w ill a ls o f in d i t e sse nti a l. T he b ook i s a rra nged i n to 2 8 c hap te rs th at c o ver a w id e r a nge o f

t o pic s. I t i s n o t e xhausti v e, b ut th e e d ito r b elie v es th at c urre nt c o ncern s, c halle nges, a nd th em es o f r e le v ance to

h ig her e d ucati o n r e se arc hers a nd p ra cti ti o ners a re c erta in ly w ell a d dre sse d .

The te xt i s o rg aniz e d i n to e ig ht p arts th at d esc rib e th e f o und ati o ns a nd o vera rc hin g s tr u ctu re s a nd c o nd iti o ns th at

s h ap e a th le ti c s a nd h ig her e d ucati o n ( H is to ric al A naly sis , G overn ance a nd L ead ers h ip , a nd E th ic s; T heo re ti c al

P ers p ecti v es o n H ig her E ducati o n a nd A th le ti c s; T he B usin ess E nte rp ris e o f C olle ge A th le ti c s), th e w ays th at c o lle ge

a th le te s e xp erie nce l ife o n c am pus ( T he C olle ge A th le te E xp erie nce; T he S ig nific ance o f R ace a nd E th nic ity I s su es;

G end er E quity a nd C om plia nce I s su es), a nd th e c urre nt a nd f u tu re p olic y c o nte xt o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s ( N CA A

a nd M em ber I n sti tu ti o n P olic y C oncern s; T he A cad em ic R efo rm M ovem ent) . E ach o f th e 2 8 c hap te rs i n clu d es

s p ecia l f e atu re s s u ch a s a l is t o f k ey te rm s, r e fle cti o ns f r o m a n a th le ti c s s ta keho ld er, a r e le v ant c ase s tu d y, a nd

q uesti o ns f o r d is c ussio n. T hese s p ecia l f e atu re s a re i d eal f o r u se a s th e b asis o f f u rth er c o nv ers a ti o n i n th e c la ssro om

s e tti n g.

Adopte rs o f th is te xtb ook w ill f in d th at th e c o nte nt ta kes th e f o rm o f d is ti n cti v e e xp ert v oic es i n th e f ie ld . A s

m ore s c ho la rs a nd p ra cti ti o ners tu rn th eir a tte nti o n to th is i m porta nt to pic , w e g ain a n e v en g re ate r u nd ers ta nd in g o f

h o w c entr a l th is to pic i s to th e f u tu re o f p osts e co nd ary e d ucati o n. T he c hap te rs th at f o llo w d elv e i n to s o m e c o m ple x

i s su es, s h ed din g n ew l ig ht a s w ell a s p re se nti n g u niq ue o pportu niti e s f o r th e f u tu re s tu d y o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s

i n A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n.

I o w e a tr e m end ous d eb t to m any p eo ple f o r th eir c o ntr ib uti o ns to th e d esig n o f th is v olu m e. W ith o ut th eir a ssis ta nce,

I w ould n o t h av e c o m ple te d th is p ro je ct— or e v en s ta rte d i t. I w is h to a ckno w le d ge th e w ork s o f p io neerin g s c ho la rs

w ho p av ed th e w ay f o r e m pir ic al s c ho la rs h ip o n th e i n te rp la y o f a th le ti c s a nd A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n. I a ls o

s in cere ly th ank th e a uth o rs w ho a gre ed to p arti c ip ate i n th is v olu m e a nd f o r th eir th o ughtf u l a nd p ain sta kin g

c o ntr ib uti o ns. I t h as b een a p le asu re to w ork w ith a ll o f y o u. A s w ell, I a m b le sse d w ith a n a m azin g e d ito ria l te am a t

J o hns H opkin s U niv ers ity P re ss, a nd I th ank th e p re ss f o r i ts s u p port a nd e nco ura gem ent th ro ugho ut th e d ev elo pm ent

a nd p ro ducti o n o f th is te xt. F in ally , I c o nti n ue to l e arn a nd b e i n sp ir e d m y f a m ily , f r ie nd s, s tu d ents , a nd c o lle agues

a nd th ank th em f o r h elp in g to s h ap e th is v olu m e. 1 PA RT O NE

His to ric a l A naly sis , G overn an ce a n d L ea d ersh ip , a n d E th ic s

T his f ir s t s e cti o n o f th e b ook s e ts th e s ta ge f o r e xam in in g th e i n te rp la y o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd A meric an

hig her e d ucati o n. I n

chap te r 1

, J o hn T helin o ffe rs a b rie f h is to ric al a cco unt o f c o lle ge s p orts c o vera ge i n th e n ati o nal

med ia to d em onstr a te i ts i n flu ence i n A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n. I n p arti c ula r, h e h ig hlig hts th e c o vera ge o f m ajo r

cham pio nsh ip g am es i n th e r e v enue-g enera ti n g s p orts o f f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all, th e e p is o dic p re ss c o vera ge

of p ro ble m s a sso cia te d w ith th e c o m merc ia liz a ti o n a nd f in ances o f a th le ti c p ro gra m s, a nd p ub lic iz e d s c and als

in v olv in g i m pro prie ti e s o f s ta keho ld ers , i n clu d in g c o lle ge a th le te s, c o aches, a nd a d m in is tr a to rs . J a m es S atte rfie ld

co vers th e N CA A’s o rg aniz a ti o nal a nd g o vern ance s tr u ctu re i n

chap te r 2

. H e s u m mariz e s th e o rg aniz a ti o nal s tr u ctu re ,

ro le , a nd f u ncti o n o f th e N CA A, i n clu d in g th e r u le -m akin g p ro cess a nd p rin cip le s o f c o nd uct, a nd o ffe rs a n o verv ie w

of th e N CA A d iv is io nal g o vern ance s tr u ctu re . T hen, i n

chap te r 3

, M olly O tt a nd E van B ate s d is c uss s ta keho ld er

gro up s’ o fte n-c o m peti n g i n te re sts a nd p rio riti e s w ith r e gard to i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd d esc rib e th e i m plic ati o ns

of l e ad ers h ip — by p re sid ent, a th le ti c d ir e cto r, f a culty , a nd c o ach— fo r th e w ell- b ein g o f c o lle ge a th le te s. I n

chap te r

4 , th e f in al c hap te r i n p art o ne, A ngela L um pkin e xam in es e th ic al i s su es i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, w ith p arti c ula r

atte nti o n to th e N CA A’s a m ate uris m i d eals . S he e xp lo re s i ts m and ate d u se o f th e l a b el

stu den t- a th le te

, th e c la sh

betw een th e e d ucati o nal m odel a nd b usin ess m odel i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, a nd th e p ote nti a l f in ancia l

exp lo ita ti o n o f f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yers . L um pkin c o nclu d es w ith 1 0 r e co m mend ati o ns to r e co nnect

in te rc o lle gia te a th le te s to th e N CA A’s e sp ouse d v alu es. T aken to geth er, th ese c hap te rs p ro vid e i m porta nt c o nte xt f o r

th e s e cti o ns th at f o llo w .

C H APTER

F R O M S P O RTS P A G E t o F R O NT P A G E

I n te rc o lle g ia te A th le tic s a nd A m eric a n H ig her E duca tio n

J oh n R . T helin

K EY T ER M S

in te rc o lle gia te a th le tic s

ath le te

co lle ge c o ach es

Natio nal C olle gia te A th le tic A sso cia tio n ( N CAA)

Footb all B ow l S ubdiv is io n ( F B S)

Knig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le tic s

W hile a s o urc e o f i m med ia te d aily n ew s, i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i s a ls o a s o urc e o f h is to ry i n o ur o w n ti m e. T his

d ual c hara cte r a nd c o ntr ib uti o n to A meric an s o cie ty c an b e i llu str a te d b y c o nsid erin g a c o re s a m ple o f c o lle ge s p orts

c o vera ge i n th e n ati o nal m ed ia f r o m 2 013. D urin g th e f ir s t tw o w eeks o f J a nuary , f o ur d is ti n ct b ut r e la te d e v ents

m ad e h ead lin e n ew s n ati o nw id e. F ir s t, o n J a nuary 7 e v ery n ew sp ap er g av e f r o nt- p age c o vera ge to th e U niv ers ity o f

A la b am a’s tr iu m ph o ver N otr e D am e f o r th e n ati o nal c o lle ge f o otb all c ham pio nsh ip ( B is h o p, 2 013). T hen c am e a

s u ccessio n o f o th er s to rie s, a ls o p ro m in ent, b ut l e ss o bvio us a nd n o t a t a ll p re d ic ta b le . M oody’s r e p orte d th at m ore

c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s i n th e U nite d S ta te s s u ffe re d l o w ere d b ond r a ti n gs b ecause th eir f in ancia l c o nd iti o n w as

c o nti n uin g to d ete rio ra te ( M arti n , 2 013). N ext, th e D elta C ost P ro je ct a t A meric an I n sti tu te s f o r R ese arc h i n

W ash in gto n, D .C ., r e le ase d a n ati o nal r e p ort w ith th e d ra m ati c n ew s th at c am pus s p end in g p er a th le te w as f a r m ore

t h an s p end in g p er “ re gula r” s tu d ent— as m uch a s s ix ti m es m ore i n s o m e c o nfe re nces, s u ch a s th e S outh easte rn

C onfe re nce ( D esro chers , 2 013; L ew in , 2 013; W olv erto n, 2 013a). F in ally , N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n

( N CA A) o ffic ia ls a nno unced a t th eir a nnual c o nfe re nce i n D alla s o n J a nuary 1 2 th at th ey w ere e nd in g s p onso rs h ip

a nd f u nd in g o f th eir s c ho la rly c o llo quiu m a nd j o urn al d ealin g w ith th e s tu d y o f c o lle ge s p orts ( W olv erto n, 2 013b).

These f o ur e v ents c o m pre sse d w ith in a f e w d ays i llu str a te h o w to day i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s c an q uic kly j u m p

f r o m th e s p orts p age to th e f r o nt p age. E ven th o ugh th ese c urre nt e v ents a re v ola ti le a nd n ew sw orth y, th ey a re n o t

n ew . T he n et r e su lt i s a r ic h c o re s a m ple o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd th e m ed ia a tte nti o n i t c o m mand s. A n

i m porta nt

im plic ati o n f o r th is a nth o lo gy i s th at th o se w ho w ork w ith a nd s tu d y i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a re h eir s to a

d is ti n cti v e tr a d iti o n i n th e U nite d S ta te s i n w hic h o ur i n fo rm ati o n a nd i m ages a b out h ig her e d ucati o n a re s h ap ed i n

l a rg e m easu re b y c o lle ge s p orts . T he u nd erly in g th esis o f th is c hap te r i s th at th ere i s a l o ng A meric an h erita ge,

s tr e tc hin g b ack i n to th e l a te n in ete enth c entu ry , th at h as f r e q uentl y a nd r e p eate d ly c ata p ulte d v ars ity a th le ti c p ro gra m s

a nd c hara cte rs f r o m th e s p orts p age to th e f r o nt p age.

S P O RTS P A G ES A N D T H E T R AN SF O RM AT IO N O F M ED IA C O VER AG E

W e te nd to ta ke f o r g ra nte d p erv asiv e m ed ia c o vera ge o f c o lle ge s p orts . I n f a ct, i t w as n o t a n i n ev ita b le d ev elo pm ent

b ut o ne th at h ad tw o r e q uir e m ents : f ir s t, w hat h is to ria n D anie l B oors ti n h as c alle d a “ gra p hic s r e v olu ti o n” i n w hic h

t h e n ew te chno lo gy o f th e l a te n in ete enth c entu ry a llo w ed f o r f a st, l a rg e-v olu m e p ub lic ati o n o f h ig h-q uality

n ew sp ap ers th at i n clu d ed p ho to gra p hs ( B oors ti n , 1 961, p p. 1 81–238); a nd , s e co nd , m ass c ir c ula ti o n a nd a

r e ad ers h ip c o m pose d o f k no w le d geab le f o llo w ers . O n c lo se r i n sp ecti o n o ne f in d s th at i t h as b een a n a cq uir e d s k ill

a nd h ab it. W illia m O ria rd ’s ( 1 993) c la ssic w ork ,

Rea din g F ootb all

, d ocum ents i n d eta il h o w i n no vati o ns i n p rin ti n g and d is tr ib uti n g n ew sp ap ers i n th e 1 880s c o m bin ed w ith e xp and in g l ite ra cy a m ong A meric ans to p ro duce a n ew ,

enth usia sti c r e ad in g a ud ie nce: k no w le d geab le , l o yal s p orts f a ns. I t w as, a cco rd in g to h is to ria n a nd l ite ra ry a naly st

Oria rd , n o l e ss th an th e s to ry o f “ H ow th e P opula r P re ss C re ate d a n A meric an S pecta cle ” ( O ria rd , 1 993). E ven

th o ugh c re ati o n o f th e d aily “ sp orts p age” w as a s u ccessfu l i n no vati o n i n A meric an j o urn alis m , th e m ost r e m ark ab le

dev elo pm ent w as th at p ub lis h ers a nd e d ito rs w ere o pportu nis ti c a nd f r e q uentl y m oved c o vera ge o f a b ig c o lle ge

fo otb all r iv alr y to th e f r o nt p age, o fte n f o r s e v era l d ays p rio r to a g am e— a s tr a te gy i n te nd ed to s e ll n ew sp ap ers a nd

ti c kets . A nd , i t w ork ed , to th e d elig ht o f a th le ti c d ir e cto rs , c o aches, a nd c o lle ge p re sid ents .

All th is c hanged — or, a t l e ast, w as i n te rru p te d — on O cto ber 2 4, 1 929, w hen o nce a gain c o lle ge s p orts m ad e th e

fr o nt p age o f e v ery d aily n ew sp ap er. T he d iffe re nce w as th at th e h ead lin es d id n o t p ro cla im a b out f o otb all s c o re s

su ch a s th at M ic hig an h ad d efe ate d I llin o is o r th at Y ale tr iu m phed o ver P rin ceto n. R ath er, th e b ig n ew s w as th at th e

Carn egie F ound ati o n f o r th e A dvancem ent o f T eachin g ( C FA T) h ad r e le ase d i ts c o m pre hensiv e, d eta ile d s tu d y o f th e

org aniz a ti o n a nd c o ntr o l o f c o lle ge s p orts , w hic h c o nclu d ed th at c o lle ge a nd u niv ers ity p re sid ents n eed ed to p ro vid e

th e l e ad ers h ip to r e sto re i n te grity to v ars ity s p orts p ro gra m s th at h ad b eco m e m ir e d i n p ro fe ssio nalis m a nd

co m merc ia lis m . S ho rtl y th ere afte r, p re sid ents a t s e v era l p ro m in ent u niv ers iti e s f u m ed a nd b lu ste re d th at th e C FA T

re p ort a uth o r, H ow ard J . S av age, h ad m is re p re se nte d

th eir

u niv ers ity , h ad m is q uo te d f ig ure s, o r m is re p re se nte d

docum ents a nd d ata a b out

th eir

p arti c ula r, b elo ved a th le ti c p ro gra m . A uth o r H ow ard S av age c alm ly r e sp ond ed w ith

docum enta ti o n o n e v ery d is p ute d c la im .

He s to od b y e v ery f in d in g h e h ad r e p orte d , a nd n o o ne ( in clu d in g

co m pla in in g u niv ers ity p re sid ents ) s u ccessfu lly r e fu te d o r d era ile d h is d ata o r d is c ussio n ( S av age, 1 929; T helin ,

1994, p p. 1 3–37).

The C arn egie F ound ati o n r e p ort s e t i n to m oti o n a s u ccessio n o f p ub lic iz e d c riti c al a naly se s b y f o und ati o ns a nd

ed ucati o nal g ro up s th at p ers is t to th is d ay. T hey m ake f o r g o od r e ad in g. A nd , i m porta nt f o r th is b ook, th ey m anage to

make th e f r o nt p age. T he c o ro lla ry i s th at th ey m ere ly p unctu ate th e a v ala nche o f f r o nt- p age a nd s p orts -p age n ew s

ab out c ham pio nsh ip s a nd v ic to rie s. O n th e o ne h and , m any o f th e r e p orts d eal w ith s c and als a nd a b use s, i n v olv in g

su ch to pic s a s tr a nsc rip ts , g ra d es, c o urs e s, a nd a cad em ic e lig ib ility . O n th e o th er h and , i n th e p ast 3 0 y ears s e v era l

hav e r a is e d q uesti o ns a b out b ro ad p olic y i s su es, s u ch a s th e e ffic acy a nd p ro prie ty o f th e f in ancia l m odel e m bra ced

by m ost v ars ity s p orts p ro gra m s.

RO OTS O F T H E N CAA

One i n te re sti n g c o nse q uence o f th e s u sta in ed e ffo rts a t r e gula ti o n a nd r e fo rm i s th at th e N CA A i s th e o rg aniz a ti o n th at

co lle ge s p orts f a ns l o ve to h ate . A r e cent p ro m in ent e xam ple i s J o e N ocera ’s ( 2 012) c o lu m n c la im in g th at c harg es o f

ra cia l b ia s a re y et a no th er “ b lo w to th e N CA A’s i n te grity .” A dd to th is th e c riti c is m s th at th e N CA A h as b een

“arro gant,” “ arb itr a ry ,” a nd “ auto cra ti c ” i n i ts p enalti e s l e v ie d a gain st s o m e a th le ti c p ro gra m s. I ts c o m merc ia l

su ccess h as l e d to i ts c hara cte riz a ti o n a s a “ carte l” a nd “ m ono poly ” th at i s “ hyp ocriti c al” i n i ts c o nd uct o f c o lle ge

sp orts . G iv en a ll th is o utr a ge, o ne w ond ers , H ow d id th e N CA A g et th is w ay? T he a nsw er i s th at th is h ap pened s ix ty

years a go w hen c o lle ge s p orts w ere m ir e d i n s c and als th at d om in ate d n ew sp ap er h ead lin es a nd e v en b efu d dle d th e

Unite d S ta te s C ongre ss. B y a ccid ent a nd l u ck, th e N CA A w as s e le cte d to b e th e r e gula to r o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s.

The N CA A w as a n u nlik ely c and id ate f o r th is r o le . I n 1 951 i t w as a s m all o rg aniz a ti o n h o use d i n a s in gle s u ite o f

a C hic ago o ffic e b uild in g. I ts m ain w ork w as to p ro m ote s e le cte d s p orts . I ts p re m ie r e v ent— th e N CA A c o lle ge

bask etb all c ham pio nsh ip s— had to s h are p re sti g e a nd p ub lic ity w ith th e N ati o nal I n v ita ti o nal T ourn am ent. I n 1 948 th e

dir e cto r o f th e N CA A p ers u ad ed c o lle ge p re sid ents a nd a th le ti c d ir e cto rs to a d opt a c o de o f c o nd uct f o r a th le te s a nd

fin ancia l a id , b ut th e e nsu in g r e sis ta nce to a nd r id ic ule o f th e r e gula ti o ns p ro m pte d th e N CA A to r e tr e at f r o m

dev elo pin g— or e nfo rc in g— nati o nal s ta nd ard s ( L aw re nce, 1 987).

Colle ge s p orts l ite ra lly w ere o ut o f c o ntr o l a fte r W orld W ar I I. Z ealo us a lu m ni a nd b ooste r c lu b s m ad e p aym ents

to r e cru it o uts ta nd in g h ig h s c ho ol a th le te s. C onfe re nce c o m mis sio ners h ad n eith er th e p ow er n o r th e d esir e to c urb

th e m ost f la gra nt a b use s o f c o m merc ia lis m a nd r e cru iti n g. T he C om mis sio ner o f th e P acific C oast C onfe re nce w as

unusu al b ecause h e w as v ig ila nt i n d ocum enti n g “ slu sh f u nd s” a nd p la ced f o ur p ro gra m s o n p ro bati o n, m akin g th em

in elig ib le f o r th e f a m ous ( a nd l u cra ti v e) R ose B ow l. F or a j o b w ell d one h e w as f ir e d , a nd th e c o nfe re nce w as

dis so lv ed . M any u niv ers ity p re sid ents tu rn ed a d eaf e ar to r e fo rm a s th ey e nco ura ged th eir a m biti o us c o aches to

build a w in nin g te am th at a ttr a cte d l a rg e c ro w ds a nd s ta te w id e a d ula ti o n ( T helin , 1 994, p p. 9 8–127).

CASE S T U DY

The I v y L ea gu e The I v y L eague w as f o und ed a s a n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c c o nfe re nce i n 1 954 b y th e p re sid ents o f e ig ht h is to ric

in sti tu ti o ns— Harv ard , Y ale , P rin ceto n, B ro w n, C olu m bia , C orn ell, D artm outh , a nd P ennsy lv ania . T he i m petu s f o r

th is o rg aniz a ti o nal i n no vati o n w as a c o lle cti v e c o m mitm ent a m ong th ese a cad em ic ally p re sti g io us i n sti tu ti o ns to

cre ate a c o nfe re nce th at e nco ura ged i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s e xcelle nce w ith in th e b ound arie s o f e d ucati o nal

prio riti e s. S pecific ally , th is m eant th at th ese i n sti tu ti o ns w ould n o t a w ard a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s o r a llo w f o otb all

te am s to c o m pete i n p osts e aso n b ow l c o m peti ti o n. I n a d diti o n to th ese c o nstr a in ts , th e c o nfe re nce— offic ia lly k no w n

as T he I v y G ro up — main ta in ed c o m mitm ents to h av in g s p orts r e m ain i n te gra l to c am pus l ife . M em ber i n sti tu ti o ns

were r e q uir e d to h av e a f o otb all te am . A nd I v y L eague i n sti tu ti o ns d em onstr a te d a c o m mitm ent to a b ro ad a rra y o f

vars ity s p orts — offe rin g c o m peti ti o n a nd c ham pio nsh ip s i n 3 3 s p orts e ach y ear.

The I v y L eague s ta rte d c o nfe re nce c o m peti ti o n i n 1 956. A lth o ugh th e c o nfe re nce c ele b ra te d i ts f ifti e th

anniv ers a ry s e v en y ears a go , s p orts w rite rs a nd th e g enera l p ub lic o fte n m is ta kenly th in k th e c o nfe re nce i s m uch

old er. T he e xp la nati o n i s th at th e te rm “ Iv y L eague” w as u se d i n fo rm ally a s l o ng a s a c entu ry a go . A nd , i ts m em ber

in sti tu ti o ns th at b and ed to geth er i n 1 954 w ere , i n d eed , th e n ati o nally d om in ant a th le ti c p ro gra m s i n th e l a te n in ete enth

and e arly tw enti e th c entu rie s. A g ro up o f s tu d ent e d ito rs c alle d f o r c re ati o n o f a n “ Iv y L eague” i n 1 937, a lth o ugh th is

did n o t r e ach f r u iti o n.

An i m porta nt h is to ric al r e m in d er i s th at th e c re ati o n o f th e I v y L eague i n 1 954 w as a d ir e ct c o unte r to th e

unp re ced ente d e xcesse s a nd a b use s o f c o lle ge s p orts i n th e y ears i m med ia te ly f o llo w in g W orld W ar I I. O ne

in sti tu ti o n th at s o ught i n clu sio n i n th e p ro pose d I v y L eague— th e U niv ers ity o f P ennsy lv ania — was a c ase i n p oin t a s

it i n v oked i ts h is to ric a cad em ic r o ots f r o m th e c o lo nia l e ra w hile a t th e s a m e ti m e r e ly in g o n a n a lu m ni s lu sh f u nd ,

aggre ssiv e r e cru iti n g ta cti c s, g enero us a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s, a nd th e w aiv in g o f tr a d iti o nal a d m is sio ns r e q uir e m ents

to f ie ld a f o otb all s q uad th at c o m pete d a gain st ( a nd o fte n tr iu m phed o ver) s u ch l a rg e s ta te u niv ers iti e s a s M ic hig an

and O kla ho m a i n th e l a te 1 940s a nd e arly 1 950s. T he o th er s e v en u niv ers ity p re sid ents o f th e p ro pose d I v y L eague

warn ed th e p re sid ent o f th e U niv ers ity o f P ennsy lv ania th at i t w ould n o t b e i n v ite d to j o in th e c o nfe re nce u nle ss i t

end ed i ts p ra cti c es a nd p olic ie s o f o vere m phasis o n r e cru iti n g a nd p ro m oti n g f o otb all a nd o th er s p orts . T he l ite ra l

and f ig ura ti v e r e su lt w as th at P enn d id p enance— and w as a llo w ed to j o in th e I v y L eague.

Durin g i ts i n iti a l y ears o f c o nfe re nce p la y th e I v y L eague o fte n w as th e o bje ct o f r id ic ule b y s p orts w rite rs a nd b y

fa ns a nd a lu m ni a t n ati o nally d om in ant f o otb all a nd b ask etb all p ro gra m s. F ro m 1 985 to 2 010, u nd er th e l e ad ers h ip o f

Executi v e D ir e cto r J e ffr e y O rle ans, th e I v y L eague d em onstr a te d r e p eate d ly th at e xcelle nce i n a th le ti c s a nd

acad em ic s f o r m en a nd w om en w as c o m pati b le n o t o nly w ith in a n i n sti tu ti o n b ut a ls o w ith in th e s a m e i n d iv id ual—

th e g enuin e a th le te .

The a b use s i n c o lle ge s p orts w ere s o a la rm in g th at th e U nite d S ta te s C ongre ss w as a sk ed to c re ate a f e d era l

re gula to ry a gency. B ecause C ongre ss w as r e lu cta nt to i n te rv ene i n to h ig her e d ucati o n o n a ny i s su e, i t f ir s t s o ught to

hav e a cad em ic l e ad ers o vers e e th e r e fo rm o f c o lle ge s p orts . C ongre ss u rg ed c o lle ges to l e ad th e w ay th ro ugh th e

nati o nal o rg aniz a ti o n o f p re sid ents , th e A meric an C ouncil o n E ducati o n ( A CE). O ver th e c o urs e o f a tw o-y ear d eb ate

in th e e arly 1 950s, A CE d elib era ti o ns s ta lle d , a s s o m e p re sid ents s q uab ble d w ith a th le ti c d ir e cto rs a nd c o aches o ver

what th e p la ce o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s s h o uld b e. W hen n o a gre em ents w ith in th e r a nks o f u niv ers ity p re sid ents

co uld b e r e ached a b out th e b ala nce o f a cad em ic s a nd a th le ti c s, d is c ussio ns r e ached a s ta le m ate .

Desp era te to e nd th e i m passe , C ongre ss g av e u p o n th e A CE a nd a sk ed th e N CA A to b e th e r e gula to ry b ody. E ven

th o ugh f o otb all w as th e d om in ant s p ecta to r s p ort, i t w as m en’s b ask etb all th at p ro vid ed th e c ru cia l te st c ase f o r th e

NCA A’s n ew w atc hd og m and ate . T he U niv ers ity o f K entu cky w as a t c ente r c o urt a lo ng w ith th e C ity C olle ge o f N ew

York , B ra d le y U niv ers ity , a nd L ong I s la nd U niv ers ity b ecause o f c harg es th at s o m e p la yers w ere i n v olv ed i n th e

poin t s h av in g s c and al a t to urn am ents h eld i n M ad is o n S quare G ard en i n N ew Y ork C ity . T he N CA A p ro hib ite d a ny

mem ber i n sti tu ti o n f r o m p la yin g a gain st K entu cky, p ro m pti n g th e s c ho ol to c ancel i ts 1 952–1953 v ars ity s c hed ule .

This s e nt a m essa ge n ati o nw id e to a th le ti c d ir e cto rs , c o aches, a nd p re sid ents th at th e N CA A h ad th e n ecessa ry

str e ngth to m ake ( o r b re ak) h ig h-p ro file p ro gra m s. W hen i t c o m es to th e b ro ad p ow ers e njo yed b y th e N CA A to day, i t

is i m porta nt to n o te th at w ith o ut th e U niv ers ity o f K entu cky th ere w ould b e n o N CA A.

Beyo nd r e gula ti o ns a nd p enalti e s, th ere w as a no th er o verlo oked p art o f th e N CA A’s e v entu al s ta tu re : i t w as a b le

to b eco m e a c o m merc ia l s u ccess b ecause i ts m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns g ra nte d i t c o ntr o l o ver te le v is in g c o lle ge g am es.

Colle ges h ad r e ad ily tu rn ed o ver te le v is io n a uth o rity to th e N CA A i n 1 948 i n h o pes th at th e N CA A’s r e str ic ti o ns o n

liv e b ro ad cast w ould e ra se th e th re at th at p ote nti a l ti c ket b uyers w ould s ta y a w ay f r o m f o otb all s ta d iu m s i n f a v or o f

watc hin g g am es o n T V. T hat tr a nsfe r o f p ow er f r o m th e i n d iv id ual c o lle ges a nd c o nfe re nces to th e N CA A w as d one

willin gly a nd n o t s e en a s c o ntr o vers ia l o r c o nflic te d i n 1 950. B y 1 960, h o w ev er, w hen c o lle ge f o otb all e njo yed b oth

re co rd -s e tti n g ti c ket s a le s a nd te le v is io n b ro ad cast r e v enues, th e N CA A h ad c o nso lid ate d b oth i ts a uth o rity a nd pro fita b ility — alo ng w ith i ts e xclu siv e r e gula to ry p ow er o ver i n sti tu ti o nal c o nd uct o f s p orts .

What i s h ard to i m agin e to day i s th at a s l a te a s 1 980 th e N CA A h ad th e a uth o rity to r e str ic t te le v is in g c o lle ge

fo otb all to a to ta l o f e ig ht g am es p er w eekend , f u rth er c o nfin ed to a f o rm ula o f tw o g am es i n e ach o f f o ur r e gio ns. I t

co uld d o th is b ecause th e N CA A i s a n u nusu al o rg aniz a ti o n th at h ad a cq uir e d th e p ow er to

both

p unis h a nd p ro m ote

pro gra m s. T he c o nflic ti n g p rio riti e s o f c o m merc ia lis m a nd a m ate uris m i n c o lle ge s p orts w ere j o in ed . B ut a n

im porta nt r e m in d er i s th at th e N CA A i s a

vo lu nta ry

a sso cia ti o n. A c o lle ge d oes h av e th e r ig ht to l e av e a nd f o rm n ew

co opera ti v e a llia nces i n tu ne w ith i ts o w n a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c v alu es.

Secessio n f r o m th e N CA A, h o w ev er, i s u nlik ely b ecause m any ( p erh ap s m ost) g ain a g re at d eal f r o m N CA A

mem bers h ip d esp ite c o m pla in ts a nd g ru m blin g f r o m s o m e p re sid ents f r o m ti m e to ti m e. W hat h ad f a lle n i n to p la ce

was a d is c ern ib le p atte rn o f a p ro lo nged p erio d o f f r o nt- p age h ead lin es a b out c ham pio nsh ip c o lle ge te am s

in te rs p ers e d p erio dic ally — ab out e v ery d ecad e— with a n e q ually b old h ead lin e a b out c o rru p ti o n. T he r e su lt w as a

melo dra m a i n w hic h s u sta in ed p ub lic c heers w ere i n te rs p ers e d w ith p ub lic o utr a ge— and th en w ith a r e su m pti o n o f

cheers . R efo rm i n iti a ti v es a ttr a cte d a f lu rry o f a tte nti o n, b ut o n b ala nce A meric ans— and m ost c o lle ge

pre sid ents —

re ally d id l ik e b ig -ti m e s p orts a nd w ere f ic kle i n a tte m pts to a d dre ss p ro ble m s i n a ny g enuin e m anner.

FR O M R EFO RM S T O R EG ULAT IO NS

One i r o ny o f N CA A r e gula ti o n i s th e s o urc e o f m any c o m pla in ts . A r e curre nt a necd ote d ep ic ts a p re sid ent o r c o ach

or l e gis la to r a t a p re ss c o nfe re nce h o ld in g u p a c o py o f th e N CA A h and book a nd r e gula ti o ns. U su ally th e i m plic ati o n

is th at i t i s l a rg e a nd u nw ie ld y a nd o fte n d eals w ith s o m e a rc ane r u le i n te rp re ta ti o n. A d is ti n ct a nd i m porta nt

criti c is m i s th at a n i n v esti g ati o n’s r e su lt— fo r e xam ple , a n a th le te i s f o rb id den to r e ceiv e m oney f o r a ir fa re h o m e to a

fu nera l o r s o m e o th er s ig nific ant f a m ily e v ent— is u nre aso nab le a nd p etty . W hat th ese s ta te m ents o f p ub lic o utr a ge

ofte n o m it, h o w ev er, i s th at s u ch d eta ile d r e gula ti o ns a nd r e str ic ti o ns h av e c o m e a b out l e ss f r o m s e rio us c o ncern b y

acad em ic l e ad ers a nd f a culty a nd m ore f r o m a nger a nd j e alo usy o f o th er c o aches w ho f e ar th at a r e negad e c o ach h as

gain ed a n a d vanta ge. T he r e su lt h as b een a n a th le ti c s a rm s r a ce.

Giv en th is p atte rn a nd e nv ir o nm ent, a l a nd m ark e v ent w as th e 1 991 r e p ort b y th e K nig ht C om mis sio n o n th e

Futu re o f A th le ti c s ( K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 1 991). L ed b y C re ed B la ck, f o rm er p ub lis h er o f

th e

Lexin gto n ( K y.) H era ld L ea der

w ho h ad g ain ed f a m e a nd i n fa m y f o r s p onso rin g a P ulitz e r P riz e – w in nin g s e rie s

ab out th e e xcesse s o f th e b ask etb all p ro gra m i n h is h o m eto w n a t th e U niv ers ity o f K entu cky, th e K nig ht R ep ort p ut a

sp otl ig ht o n th e c all f o r n ati o nw id e r e fo rm . O n o ne l e v el i ts e m phasis w as o n s tu d ents — sp ecific ally , r e sto rin g a

co m mitm ent to a th le te s a s s tu d ents . O n a no th er l e v el, i t w as a b out p re sid ents — urg in g p re sid ents o f c o lle ges a nd

univ ers iti e s to c la im th eir r ig htf u l r o le a s l e ad ers a nd e d ucato rs w ho d id n o t n ecessa rily d efe r to c haris m ati c

co aches, p ow erfu l a th le ti c d ir e cto rs , a nd a lu m ni b ooste rs a nd d ono rs . I t r e se m ble d a r e su rre cti o n o f th e 1 929

Carn egie F ound ati o n r e p ort, w ith a d ded a tte nti o n o n s u ggesti o ns f o r s o lu ti o ns a nd s tr a te gie s. T o m ain ta in i n flu ence,

pre ssu re , a nd p ub lic v is ib ility , th e K nig ht F ound ati o n C om mis sio n e sta b lis h ed a n i n fo rm ati v e w eb site , w hile

co nti n uin g to r e le ase w ell- d ocum ente d r e p orts f r o m ti m e to ti m e. I ts 2 010 r e p ort, f o r e xam ple , s h o w ed th e a la rm in g

fin d in g f r o m b oth s u rv ey a nd b ud get d ata th at m ost c o lle ge a nd u niv ers ity p re sid ents c o nced ed th at p re sid ents h ad

lo st c o ntr o l o f s p end in g o n c o lle ge s p orts ( K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 2 010; O ria rd , 2 009).

TH E M IX ED B LESSIN G S O F C O LLEG E S P O RTS P U BLIC IT Y

One r e curre nt j u sti fic ati o n f o r b ig -ti m e, w in nin g c o lle ge s p orts i s th at i t b rin gs p ub lic ity to th e e nti r e u niv ers ity . T his

is tr u e, a lth o ugh s o m eti m es w ith a n u nexp ecte d tw is t. I n 2 006 A ub urn U niv ers ity w as f e atu re d i n a f r o nt- p age s to ry o f

th e

New Y o rk T im es

—unusu al g iv en th at th e p re p ond era nce o f A ub urn ’s p re ss a nd m ed ia c o vera ge

is s ta te w id e a nd

re gio nal. T his n ati o nal s to ry d id , i n d eed , b rin g to geth er a cad em ic s a nd a th le ti c s, w hic h m ig ht s u ggest a b est- c ase

sc enario f o r c o lle ge s p orts ’ h alo e ffe ct a nd m ulti p lie r e ffe ct to e nhance i n sti tu ti o nal p re sti g e. U nfo rtu nate ly th e n ew s

was n o t g o od: a cco rd in g to th e r e p orte r, e ach y ear m ore th an 6 0 A ub urn s tu d ents ( m ost o f th em v ars ity a th le te s,

esp ecia lly f o otb all p la yers ) h ad e nro lle d i n a n i n d ep end ent- s tu d y c o urs e s p onso re d b y o ne p ro fe sso r i n th e s o cio lo gy

dep artm ent ( T ham el, 2 006). V aria ti o ns o n th is th em e a p pearin g i n s m alle r n ati o nal s y nd ic ate d a rti c le s i n clu d ed

sto rie s a b out U CLA f o otb all p la yers w ho r e ceiv ed p ark in g p erm its a llo w in g th em to p ark i n “ d is a b le d o nly ” p ark in g

and th e U niv ers ity o f G eo rg ia b ask etb all c o ach w ho ta ught a c re d it c o urs e o n P rin cip le s a nd T heo rie s o f C oachin g, a

co urs e w ho se e nro lle es i n clu d ed s o m e o f h is o w n v ars ity p la yers .

Many o f th ese g ard en-v arie ty a rti c le s a re ta nta m ount to p etty l a rc enie s w ho se r e p orts s h o w u p o n th e l o cal p olic e

blo tte r. I n c o ntr a st, th ere a re l a nd m ark s to rie s th at s ta nd o ut a nd e nd ure w hen c o lle ge s p orts h av e i m plic ati o ns f o r th e la rg er f a b ric , th e g o vern ance o f h ig her e d ucati o n. O ne e xam ple w ould i n clu d e th e n ew s c o vera ge a t P ennsy lv ania

Sta te U niv ers ity f r o m 2 011 th ro ugh 2 013, e m anati n g f r o m c harg es ( a nd c o nv ic ti o ns) o f c hild a b use i n v olv in g a c o ach.

Beyo nd s u ch s p ecific s, th is s to ry r a is e d f u nd am enta l c o ncern s a b out th e r o le o f b ig -ti m e s p orts i n u niv ers ity

go vern ance a nd th e r e sp onsib iliti e s o f i ts p re sid ent a nd tr u ste es. I t p ro vid ed a n a le rt to a ll u niv ers ity p re sid ents a nd

board s. L ong a fte r h ead lin e s to rie s o n th e f r o nt p age r e tu rn ed to th e s p orts p ages, c o lu m nis ts s u ch a s J o e N ocera o f

th e

New Y o rk T im es

h av e d ev ote d s u sta in ed a tte nti o n to q uesti o ns a b out th e N CA A a nd b ig -ti m e s p orts , s u ggesti n g

th at th e f u nd am enta l l e gal a nd p olic y q uesti o ns r a is e d i n iti a lly c an b e a c o nti n uin g s to ry i n c o lu m ns a nd o p-e d p ie ces.

How d o r e se arc hers a nd s c ho la rly a naly sts b est m ake s e nse o f th ese h is to ric al p atte rn s w ith th eir s p ik es,

vacilla ti o ns, a nd f lu ctu ati o ns? F ir s t, d ra m ati c a nd s u b sta nti v e r e p orts h av e p ow er to e lic it s tr o ng r e sp onse a t th e

mom ent, b ut th is i s n o t a r e lia b le o r c erta in s o urc e o f r e fo rm b ecause th e c o ncern s d is sip ate , a nd th e p ath to r e fo rm i s

no t c le ar. T he N CA A i s th e l ik ely s o urc e o f r e fo rm b ecause i t i s th e m ajo r b ody o f r e gula ti o n, b ut th is p ossib ility i s

ofte n tr u m ped b y th e N CA A’s a d diti o nal r o le a s th e p ro m ote r o f c o lle ge s p orts .

Ano th er m iti g ati n g f a cto r i s th at th e N CA A te nd s n o t to i n tr u d e i n to th e i n te rn al o pera ti o ns a nd d ecis io ns o f a

mem ber i n sti tu ti o n, s u ch a s i ts s p end in g o n c o lle ge s p orts a s p art o f to ta l i n sti tu ti o n p olic ie s a nd p ra cti c es. T he

NCA A m ay r e q uir e a s a c o nd iti o n o f D iv is io n I A m em bers h ip th at a n i n sti tu ti o n o ffe r a l a rg e n um ber o f s p orts f o r

men a nd w om en a nd th at i ts f o otb all te am s h o w c erta in a tta in m ents i n a tte nd ance. B ut th ese a re c ate go ric al a nd

th em ati c r e q uir e m ents a nd n o t r e ally c o nnecte d to a n i n sti tu ti o n’s a p pro pria ti o ns a nd a llo cati o ns. T he N CA A r e q uir e s

a D iv is io n I A p ro gra m to b e s e lf- s u p porti n g, a nd h ere o ne m ig ht e xp ect th is to b e a s ta nd ard o f s e lf- s u ffic ie ncy f r o m ,

fo r e xam ple , e d ucati o nal a nd g enera l f u nd s o f a u niv ers ity . T he s a lie nt d eta il i s th at a n i n sti tu ti o n c an d em onstr a te th at

it h as a s e lf- s u p porti n g a th le ti c p ro gra m th ro ugh v ario us r e v enue s tr e am s, i n clu d in g m and ato ry s tu d ent f e es o r

tr a nsfe rs f r o m th e f in ancia l a id o ffic e to th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent. A n a th le ti c d ep artm ent m ay b e r e q uir e d to p ro vid e

su b sta nti a l a cad em ic s u p port

se rv ic es f o r a th le te s, b ut th ere i s n o N CA A r e str ic ti o n o n h av in g th e n ecessa ry f u nd in g

co m in g f r o m th e p ro vost’ s o ffic e, w hic h m ay h av e d ra w n th ese r e so urc es f r o m tu iti o n r e v enues o f th e g enera l s tu d ent

body.

These a llo w ances— and d efe re nce to i n sti tu ti o nal a uto no m y a nd i n te rn al a llo cati o ns— will b e c ru cia l i n th e

tw enty -fir s t c entu ry b ecause th e c um ula ti v e p atte rn f o r m any d ecad es h as b een th at o nly a f e w m ajo r a th le ti c

pro gra m s s h o w th at th ey c an o pera te y ear a fte r y ear i n th e b la ck. O ne m ig ht e xp ect th at a r a ti o nal o rg aniz a ti o nal

re sp onse w ould b e to r e d uce o r e v en e lim in ate th o se p ro gra m s o r s u b pro gra m s th at l o se m oney. T hat i s u nlik ely to

hap pen.

Why a re th ese f in ancia l tr e nd s a nd s u b sid ie s w orth y o f “ fr o nt p age” c o vera ge? I t i s a r e sid ual o f th e p ers is te nt

nati o nal ( a nd f r o nt- p age) a tte nti o n g iv en to r is in g c o lle ge c o sts — and , f r o m th e p oin t o f v ie w o f s tu d ents a s

co nsu m ers , r is in g c o lle ge p ric e ( T helin , 2 013). T here s e em s to b e a d is c o nnect o r a v oid ance th at a t m any

univ ers iti e s th e g enera l s tu d ent— or s tu d ent b ody— is f a cin g a n i n cre ase i n tu iti o n a nd f e es i n p art b ecause e ach y ear

a g ro w in g d olla r a m ount ( a nd g ro w in g p erc enta ge) i s tr a nsfe rre d a w ay f r o m e d ucati o nal p ro gra m s a nd to w ard

ath le ti c p ro gra m s. T his w as o ne i m plic ati o n o f b oth th e D elta C ost P ro je ct o f 2 013 a nd th e e arlie r 2 009–2010 r e p ort

pub lis h ed b y th e K nig ht C om mis sio n. T he to ne o f c auti o n a nd c o ncern w as a ffir m ed b y J e ff O rle ans, e xecuti v e

dir e cto r e m eritu s o f th e I v y G ro up , i n h is k eyno te a d dre ss a t th e N CA A c o llo quiu m i n J a nuary 2 013 ( O rle ans, 2 013).

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

Am os A lo n zo S ta gg

Amos A lo nzo S ta gg i s p ro m in ent a m ong p io neerin g c o lle ge f o otb all c o aches a nd p la yers . H e w as e le cte d to th e

co lle ge f o otb all h all o f f a m e p rim arily o n th e b asis o f h is c o ntr ib uti o ns f o r h av in g c o ached a t th e U niv ers ity o f

Chic ago f r o m 1 892 to 1 932— with 2 42 v ic to rie s, 1 1 2 l o sse s, a nd 2 7 ti e s. T his i n clu d ed s e llo ut c ro w ds a nd s e v en

Big T en c ham pio nsh ip s, th e l a st c o m in g i n 1 924. S ta gg r e ti r e d f r o m th e U niv ers ity o f C hic ago i n 1 932 a nd w ent o n to

co ach i n C alifo rn ia a t th e C olle ge o f th e P acific f o r 1 4 y ears . S in ce h is d eath i n 1 965 a t th e a ge o f 1 02 h e h as b een

re v ere d . H e m ad e i n no vati o ns i n h o w f o otb all w as p la yed . S ta gg h as b een c re d ite d w ith i n tr o ducin g th e ta cklin g

dum my, th e r e v ers e , m an i n m oti o n p la ys, th e l a te ra l p ass, th e p osti n g o f n um bers o n u nifo rm s, a nd th e e nd -o f- s e aso n

pra cti c e o f a w ard in g v ars ity l e tte rs to p la yers .

Sta gg’s r e co rd a s a w in nin g f o otb all c o ach h as i r o nic ally te nd ed to o vers h ad ow h is l e gacy f o r m akin g th e c o lle ge

co ach a nd a th le ti c d ir e cto r a d om in ant— and o fte n d om in eerin g— ro le i n A meric an h ig her e d ucati o n. B eyo nd h is

pla yin g a nd c o achin g o n th e f ie ld , h e r e m ain s i n flu enti a l to day f o r h is i n no vati o ns i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n, p ro m oti o n,

co m merc ia liz a ti o n, a nd f u nd in g o f c o lle ge s p orts . H e c o m bin ed f o otb all c o ach a nd d ir e cto r o f th e D ep artm ent o f Physic al C ultu re . T his w as a c o ncentr a ti o n o f p ow er i n w hic h h e l ite ra lly “ re p orte d to h im se lf.” B y o ur s ta nd ard s

to day, i t c o nsti tu te s b oth a c o nflic t o f i n te re st a nd a n o vere m phasis o n s p orts a t th e e xp ense o f a cad em ic s. A no th er

achie v em ent, p erh ap s i n su lti n g to a cad em ic v alu es, w as th at a lo ng w ith h is r o le a s a c ele b rity c o ach h e g ain ed a

fa culty a p poin tm ent w ith te nure . T he p re sid ent o f th e u niv ers ity a llo w ed h im to b yp ass c o nv enti o nal b ud geti n g

pro ced ure s r e q uir e d o f o th er u niv ers ity d ep artm ents . S ta gg r e p orte d d ir e ctl y to th e B oard o f T ru ste es a nd p io neere d

fu nd ra is in g f r o m th e C hic ago b usin ess c o m munity . A s d ir e cto r o f a th le ti c s h e d ev is e d n um ero us s o urc es o f r a is in g

money a nd g ain in g p ub lic ity f o r h is te am s. H e h ad th e U niv ers ity o f C hic ago h o st I llin o is s ta te c ham pio nsh ip

to urn am ents i n tr a ck a nd f ie ld a nd o th er s p orts . W ith in th e u niv ers ity c o m munity , h e k ep t a c lo se e ye o n f a ciliti e s a nd

fu nd in g— he e v en r a is e d r e v enues b y c harg in g f a culty a nd s ta ff i f th ey w is h ed to p la y o n u niv ers ity te nnis c o urts .

Such l ic ense p ro vid ed o pportu niti e s f o r s p end in g a nd r e cru iti n g w ith o ut th e d is tr a cti o ns o f i n te rfe re nce o r o vers ig ht.

He w as a n o rg aniz a ti o nal g eniu s w ho s e t th e p re ced ent a nd c re ate d th e m old f o r th e p ow erfu l, a uto no m ous

in te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c p ro gra m w ith in a u niv ers ity c am pus. F or b ette r a nd w ors e , h ig her e d ucati o n s ti ll l iv es w ith

his l e gacy e v en i n to th e tw enty -fir s t c entu ry .

TH E C O NFLU EN CE O F A C AD EM IC L EA D ER S A N D A T H LETIC S I S SU ES

Are a cad em ic l e ad ers l is te nin g? D esp ite th e p re p ond era nce o f s o berin g d ata , s o m e u niv ers ity b oard s a nd p re sid ents

pers is t i n th e p urs u it o f b ig -ti m e f o otb all e xcelle nce a s a s o urc e o f i n sti tu ti o nal l e v era ge. A n i n cre d ib le c o in cid ence

with th e D elta C ost P ro je ct R ep ort w as th e D ecem ber 2 9, 2 012,

New Y o rk T im es

f e atu re a rti c le o n th e U niv ers ity o f

Massa chuse tts , A mhers t a nd i ts d ecis io n to e nhance th e p ro gra m f o r F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n ( F B S) e lig ib ility a nd

parti c ip ati o n ( P ennin gto n, 2 012). T he n ew c hancello r, a cco rd in g to th e

New Y o rk T im es

r e p orte r, s u p porte d th e

decis io n to p urs u e F B S s ta tu s a s a “ re aso nab le c alc ula te d r is k .” H e e la b ora te d , “ If m anaged p ro perly , w e w ill c o m e

out b ette r f o r i t … T here a re r is k s to a cad em ic i n v estm ents , to o. W hen w e b uild a n ew r e se arc h c ente r, i t i s w ith th e

ho pe o f a ttr a cti n g m ore r e se arc h g ra nts . S o th at i s a r is k . I t i s i m porta nt to k eep i n m in d th at th e to ta l a th le ti c s b ud get

is 4 p erc ent o f o ur e xp end itu re s.”

This p ub lic e xp la nati o n a nd j u sti fic ati o n b y th e c hancello r o f th e U niv ers ity o f M assa chuse tts r a is e s s e v era l

questi o ns f o r p olic y a nd p ra cti c e. F ir s t, b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts h av e a d ub io us r e co rd i n d em onstr a ti n g th at th ey c an

be “ m anaged p ro perly .” S eco nd , to e xp la in a w ay th e s p orts i n v estm ent b ecause i t i s “ o nly 4 p erc ent o f th e to ta l

univ ers ity b ud get” i s f la w ed . T hat i s a l a rg e p erc enta ge a nd a l o t o f d olla rs . I f a u niv ers ity h as a n a nnual b ud get o f

$1.5 b illio n, th en i ts a th le ti c d ep artm ent w ould h av e a n o pera ti n g b ud get o f a b out $ 60 m illio n p er a cad em ic y ear. I ts

re la ti v ely l a rg e s iz e b eco m es m ore e v id ent i f, f o r e xam ple , i t i s c o m pare d to th e e xp ense s o f m ajo r a cad em ic u nits o n

cam pus, s u ch a s a C olle ge o f E ngin eerin g o r a C olle ge o f A rts a nd S cie nces.

Consid er th e a ctu al n um bers f o r th e c ase o f th e U niv ers ity o f K entu cky— a f la gsh ip s ta te u niv ers ity w ith a to ta l

enro llm ent o f a b out 2 5,0 00 s tu d ents . I t i s a r e se arc h u niv ers ity k no w n a s “ R 1,” s ig nify in g a c o m mitm ent to P h.D .

pro gra m s a nd s p onso re d f e d era l r e se arc h g ra nts . I t a ls o h as a m ed ic al c ente r a nd te achin g h o sp ita l. I ts to ta l a nnual

opera ti n g b ud get w as a b out $ 2.1 b illio n i n 2 011 –2012. T he i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s b ud get w as a b out $ 80 m illio n—

slig htl y b elo w th e 4 % s ta nd ard . I n c o ntr a st, th e C olle ge o f A rts a nd S cie nces ( th e a cad em ic u nit w ith th e l a rg est

enro llm ent) h as a n a nnual b ud get o f a b out $ 68 m illio n; th e C olle ge o f B usin ess, $ 32 m illio n; th e

Colle ge o f

Agric ultu re , i n clu d in g i ts s ta te w id e e xte nsio n p ro gra m s a nd i n sti tu te s, $ 149 m illio n; a nd th e C olle ge o f E ngin eerin g,

$37 m illio n.

In s u m , th is b ud geta ry a naly sis s h o w s th at a b ig -ti m e a th le ti c s b ud get te nd s to s u rp ass th e b ud get o f m ost o f th e

in d iv id ual m ajo r a cad em ic u nits th at o ffe r c o urs e s a nd d egre e p ro gra m s. S pend in g o n a cad em ic p ro gra m s w as

in cre asin g a t a r a te l o w er th an th at f o r a th le ti c p ro gra m s. F urth erm ore , th e e arly tw enty -fir s t c entu ry i s n o t a v ery

go od ti m e f o r a sp ir in g i n sti tu ti o ns to a tte m pt to r a tc het u p th eir s p end in g o n r e se arc h i n sti tu te s; th ese te nd to b e i ll-

fa te d , m oney l o sin g v entu re s f o r th o se u niv ers iti e s n o t m em bers o f th e A sso cia ti o n o f A meric an U niv ers iti e s. F in ally ,

a d ecis io n b y th e b oard o f tr u ste es to a llo cate r e so urc es to a n a cad em ic u nit i s m ark ed ly d iffe re nt f r o m a c o m mitm ent

to a th le ti c s f o r th e b asic r e aso n th at a cad em ic p ro gra m s a re c entr a l to th e i n sti tu ti o nal m is sio n w hile th e a th le ti c

dep artm ent i s n o t.

CO NCLU SIO N

Even i n th e s e le ct c ir c le o f u niv ers iti e s w ith l u cra ti v e i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts p ro gra m s, o ne m ay f in d i n th e e arly

tw enty -fir s t c entu ry th at th e p ro verb ia l g o ld en g o ose m ay l a y a n e gg. S pecific ally , th e m ove b y b ig c o nfe re nces ( s u ch

as T he B ig T en a nd th e S outh east C onfe re nce a nd s o m e i n sti tu ti o ns ( n o ta b ly th e U niv ers ity o f T exas) to c re ate th eir ow n te le v is io n n etw ork s a nd p ackages o fte n i s h aile d a s a n ew m odel f o r c o lle ge s p orts f in ancin g. B ut th is

im med ia te s o urc e o f r e v enue m ay b e d ra in in g a nd d ysfu ncti o nal o ver th e l o ng h aul. N ote th at a lr e ad y i n th e g re ate r

Los A ngele s a re a m ark et, c ab le te le v is io n p ro vid ers r e q uir e s u b sc rib ers to p ay f o r a s p orts p ackage a s p art o f th eir

bund le , w heth er th ey w ant i t o r n o t. A t s o m e p oin t, th ere w ill b e s a tu ra ti o n i n v ie w ers a nd a d verti s e rs f o r c o lle ge

sp orts . A lr e ad y o ne f in d s i n D ecem ber th at m any o f th e c o lle ge f o otb all b ow l g am es y ear a fte r y ear s u ffe r l o w

atte nd ance w ith v ast s e cti o ns o f e m pty s e ats a nd l o w T V r a ti n gs. O nly th e b ig gest g am es, u su ally p la yed a nd

bro ad cast i n J a nuary , a re a n e xcep ti o n to th is g enera l r u le .

The r e sid ual i n fe re nce i s th at i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i n th e tw enty -fir s t c entu ry c alls o ut f o r r e fo rm s th at a re n o

le ss th an a “ N ew D eal” i n b oth th e c o nd uct a nd th e f in ancin g o f th is d is ti n cti v ely A meric an e nte rp ris e . T he h is to ric

move f r o m th e s p orts p age to th e f r o nt p age i n cre asin gly w ill a d d s o berin g n ew s to th e h ead lin es a nno uncin g th e

cele b ra ti o n o f c ham pio nsh ip te am s.

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

H as th ere e v er b een a g o ld en a ge o f c o lle ge s p orts i n w hic h a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c s v alu es w ere i n a p pro pria te

bala nce? I f s o , w hen a nd w here d o y o u th in k th is h as ta ken p la ce?

I n c o ntr a st to th e f ir s t q uesti o n, i s th ere a n e ra i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s w hen e xcesse s a nd a b use s o f

co m merc ia lis m a nd o vere m phasis w ere m ost r a m pant?

W hat i s th e a p pro pria te p la ce a nd r o le o f th e a th le ti c d ir e cto r i n th e o rg aniz a ti o nal c hart, g o vern ance, a nd c ultu re

of a c o lle ge o r u niv ers ity c am pus? G iv e e xam ple s w here y o u th in k th is b ala nce i s f u lfille d r e aso nab ly w ell, a nd

pro vid e e xam ple s w here i t i s s e rio usly o ff c o urs e .

Refe re n ces

Bis h o p, G . ( 2 013, J a nuary 8 ). A ll A la b am a i n ti tl e g am e: A la b am a 4 2, N otr e D am e 1 4.

New Y o rk T im es

, p . A 1.

Boors ti n , D . ( 1 961).

The i m age: A g uid e t o p se u do e ven ts i n A m eric a .

N ew Y ork : H arp er a nd R ow .

Desro chers , D . M . ( 2 013).

Aca dem ic s p en din g v ersu s a th le tic s p en din g: W ho w in s?

W ash in gto n, D C: D elta C ost

Pro je ct o f th e A sso cia ti o n o f I n sti tu te s f o r R ese arc h.

Knig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s. ( 1 991).

Keep in g f a ith w ith t h e s tu den t- a th le te

. C harlo tte , N C:

Knig ht F ound ati o n.

———. ( 2 010).

Resto rin g t h e b ala nce: D olla rs, v a lu es a nd t h e f u tu re o f c o lle g e s p orts

. M ia m i, F L: K nig ht

Found ati o n.

Law re nce, P . R . ( 1 987).

Unsp orts m anlik e c o nduct: T he N atio nal C olle g ia te A th le tic A sso cia tio n a nd t h e b usin ess

of c o lle g e f o otb all

. N ew Y ork : P ra eger.

Leste r, R . ( 1 995).

Sta gg’s U niv ersity : T he r is e , d eclin e, a nd f a ll o f b ig -tim e f o otb all a t C hic a go

. U rb ana:

Univ ers ity o f I llin o is P re ss.

Lew in , T . ( 2 013, J a nuary 1 6). A t m any to p p ub lic u niv ers iti e s, i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts c o m es a t a n a cad em ic p ric e.

New Y o rk T im es

, p . A 1.

Marti n , A . ( 2 013, J a nuary 1 6). M oody’s g iv es c o lle ges a n egati v e g ra d e.

New Y o rk T im es

, p . A 1.

Nocera , J . ( 2 012, N ovem ber 1 9). R ace a nd th e N CA A.

New Y o rk T im es

, p . A 25.

Oria rd , M . ( 1 993).

Rea din g f o otb all: H ow t h e p opula r p re ss c re a te d a n A m eric a n s p ecta cle

. C hap el H ill:

Univ ers ity o f N orth C aro lin a P re ss.

———. ( 2 009).

Bow le d o ver: B ig -tim e c o lle g e f o otb all f r o m t h e s ix tie s t o t h e B C S e ra

. C hap el H ill: U niv ers ity o f

North C aro lin a P re ss.

Orle ans, J . ( 2 013, J a nuary 1 6).

The e ffe cts o f t h e e co nom ic m odel o f c o lle g e s p ort o n a th le te e d uca tio nal

exp erie n ce

. P ap er p re se nte d a t th e N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n S cho la rly C ollo quiu m , G ra p ev in e,

Texas.

Pennin gto n, B . ( 2 012, D ecem ber 2 9). B ig d re am , r u d e a w akenin g.

New Y o rk T im es

, p . B 1.

Sav age. H . J . ( 1 929).

Am eric a n c o lle g e a th le tic s

. N ew Y ork : C arn egie F ound ati o n f o r th e A dvancem ent o f T eachin g,

Bulle ti n N um ber T w enty -T hre e.

Tham el, P . ( 2 006, J u ly 1 4). T op g ra d es a nd n o c la ss ti m e f o r A ub urn p la yers .

New Y o rk T im es

, p . A 1.

Thelin , J . R . ( 1 994).

Gam es c o lle g es p la y: S ca ndal a nd r e fo rm i n i n te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic s

. B alti m ore : J o hns Hopkin s U niv ers ity P re ss.

———. ( 2 013).

The r is in g c o sts o f h ig her e d uca tio n

. S anta B arb ara : A BC C LIO .

Wolv erto n, B . ( 2 013a, J a nuary 1 6). R ep ort d esc rib es b ig g ap s i n a th le ti c v s. a cad em ic s p end in g.

Chro nic le o f

Hig her E duca tio n

, p . A 1.

Wolv erto n, B . ( 2 013b, J a nuary 1 6). N CA A w ith d ra w s f in ancia l s u p port f o r i ts s c ho la rly c o llo quiu m .

Chro nic le o f

Hig her E duca tio n

, p . A 1.

C H APTER

O RG ANIZ A TIO N a n d G OVER NANCE o f t h e N CAA

J am es S atte rfie ld

K EY T ER M S

org aniz atio n

govern ance

co nduct

mem bersh ip

T he o rg aniz a ti o n w e k no w to day a s th e N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n ( N CA A) i s th e p olic y a rm f o r a

w id e r a nge o f s p orts , s c ho ols , a nd o rg aniz a ti o ns th ro ugho ut N orth A meric a. Y et th e N CA A a s i t e xis ts to day i s th e

o ffs p rin g o f th e e arly c hao ti c a nd h o m ic id al o rg aniz a ti o n w ith w hic h f o otb all b egan ( C ro w le y, 2 006). A s th e U nite d

S ta te s w as ta kin g s h ap e i n th e e arly p ost– C iv il W ar e ra , A meric a w as a ls o e xp erie ncin g a g ro w in g i n te re st i n th e

g am e o f f o otb all. I n 1 873 th e I n te rc o lle gia te F ootb all A sso cia ti o n ( IF A ) w as c re ate d , a nd i t w as th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s

r u le c hanges to th e e arly g am e th at b egan th e tr a nsiti o n f r o m a s p ort r e se m blin g s o ccer to o ne b ein g p la yed m ore l ik e

r u gb y, a r o ugher, m ore p hysic al s p ort ( C ro w le y, 2 006). T he f ir s t- e v er c ham pio nsh ip f o otb all g am e w as h eld i n N ew

Y ork C ity i n 1 876 ( M orris , 2 004). I ts p opula rity r e ached n ew h eig hts b y 1 878 w hen a to ta l o f 4 ,0 00 p eo ple c am e to

w atc h th e Y ale -P rin ceto n g am e ( L in d quis t, 2 006). A lth o ugh th e f u ncti o n o f th e I F A a p peare d to b e s tr o ng i n iti a lly ,

s c ho ols b egan d ro ppin g f o otb all, w hic h w eakened th e o rg aniz a ti o n, r e nd erin g i t o bso le te b y th e 1 890s ( C ro w le y,

2 006; M orris , 2 004). T he I F A w as f o llo w ed b y th e b rie f e xis te nce o f th e A meric an F ootb all R ule s C om mitte e

( A FR C). D esp ite f u rth er r u le c hanges, th e g am e w as s ti ll b ru ta l, a nd th e c o m ple xity a sso cia te d w ith c o ntr o llin g th e

g am e g re w , a s d id i ts f a n b ase a nd th e i n sti tu ti o nal d esir e to w in .

These e arly a sso cia ti o ns w ere l a rg ely c o ntr o lle d b y s tu d ents a nd d id v ery l ittl e to c urb th e v io le nce a nd b ru ta lity

t h at h ad c o m e to b e a sso cia te d w ith th e g am e. T he d eath s c ause d b y f o otb all c aught th e a tte nti o n o f P re sid ent

T heo dore R oose v elt. R oose v elt h ad a tr u e r e sp ect f o r f o otb all, a s h e b elie v ed i n th e v ir tu e o f th e g am e a nd th e v alu es

h e b elie v ed i t

ta ught ( W atte rs o n, 2 000). B y 1 905, th e v io le nce h ad n o w r e ached a p oin t w here tu rn in g a b lin d e ye

w ould h av e b een i r re sp onsib le . P re sid ent R oose v elt h o ste d a m eeti n g a t th e W hite H ouse w ith r e p re se nta ti v es f r o m

m ajo r f o otb all p ro gra m s to d is c uss th e r u le s o f th e g am e.

Alth o ugh P re sid ent R oose v elt’ s p ro pose d c hanges w ere m et w ith m uch r e sis ta nce f r o m s o m e c o lle ge p re sid ents ,

h e c o nv in ced th e A FR C a nd th e n ew ly f o rm ed r u le s c o m mitte e w ith in th e N ati o nal F ootb all C onfe re nce o f

U niv ers iti e s a nd C olle ges to f o rm a j o in t c o m mitte e. A s a r e su lt, a n ew e xecuti v e c o m mitte e w as e v entu ally f o rm ed

t o d ev elo p a c o nsti tu ti o n a nd b yla w s to h elp s ta nd ard iz e f o otb all a cro ss th e c o untr y . U lti m ate ly , th is l e d to th e f ir s t

o rg aniz e d c o nv enti o n, h eld i n D ecem ber o f 1 906, a nd a d opti o n o f th e n am e T he I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n,

w hic h w as c hanged to th e N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n ( N CA A) i n 1 910 ( C ro w le y, 2 006; S m ith , 2 000).

R O LE A N D F U NCTIO N O F T H E N CAA

A fte r th e e sta b lis h m ent o f w hat w e k no w to day a s th e N CA A, i t s ti ll to ok y ears f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n to g ain th e p ow er

t o r e sh ap e th e c ultu re w ith in th e a d m in is tr a ti o n o f c o lle gia te a th le ti c s. T he o rig in al c o nsti tu ti o n o utl in ed th at

a cti v iti e s “ sh all b e m ain ta in ed o n a n e th ic al p la ne i n k eep in g w ith th e d ig nity a nd h ig h p urp ose o f e d ucati o n”

( N CA A.o rg

). T he i d ea o f th e N CA A a cti n g a s a c entr a l a uth o rity o ver a ll a th le ti c p ro gra m s w as d is c usse d d urin g th e

a sso cia ti o n’s i n fa ncy; h o w ev er, th e n o ti o n w as r e je cte d , a nd th e r e sp onsib ility o f e nfo rc in g s ta nd ard s w as l e ft to th e

i n sti tu ti o ns th ro ugh w hat w as c alle d h o m e r u le ( P ie rc e, 1 909). I t to ok n early 5 0 y ears f o r th e N CA A to d ev elo p a diffe re nt p ers p ecti v e o n r u le e nfo rc em ent.

The N CA A’s o pera ti o n i s v ery d iffe re nt f r o m i ts o rig in al i n cep ti o n. N ot o nly a re th ere a re m ore c o lle ges a nd

univ ers iti e s i n N orth A meric a to day, b ut th ey a ls o a re m ore e xp ensiv e to o pera te a nd a tte nd a nd o ffe r m ore

opportu niti e s f o r s p ort p arti c ip ati o n. T here a re a ls o l a w s g o vern in g th e e q uita b le i m ple m enta ti o n o f s p orts o n

co lle ge c am puse s f o r m en a nd w om en. A s s u ch, th e

NCAA D iv is io n I M anual

( 2 012a) h as n in e f u nd am enta l p urp ose s

th at h elp i t g o vern , o utl in ed a s f o llo w s:

T o i n iti a te , s ti m ula te a nd i m pro ve i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s p ro gra m s f o r s tu d ent- a th le te s a nd to p ro m ote a nd

dev elo p e d ucati o n l e ad ers h ip , p hysic al f itn ess, a th le ti c s e xcelle nce a nd a th le ti c s p arti c ip ati o n a s r e cre ati o nal

purs u it

T o u p ho ld th e p rin cip le o f i n sti tu ti o nal c o ntr o l o f, a nd r e sp onsib ility f o r, a ll i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts i n c o nfo rm ity

with th e c o nsti tu ti o n a nd b yla w s o f th is A sso cia ti o n

T o e nco ura ge i ts m em bers to a d opt e lig ib ility r u le s to c o m ply w ith s a ti s fa cto ry s ta nd ard s o f s c ho la rs h ip ,

sp orts m ansh ip a nd a m ate uris m

T o f o rm ula te , c o pyrig ht, a nd p ub lis h r u le s o f p la y g o vern in g i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s

T o p re se rv e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c r e co rd s

T o s u p erv is e th e c o nd uct o f, a nd to e sta b lis h e lig ib ility s ta nd ard s f o r, r e gio nal a nd n ati o nal a th le ti c e v ents u nd er

th e a usp ic es o f th is A sso cia ti o n

T o c o opera te w ith o th er a m ate ur a th le ti c s o rg aniz a ti o ns i n p ro m oti n g a nd c o nd ucti n g n ati o nal a nd i n te rn ati o nal

ath le ti c e v ents

T o l e gis la te , th ro ugh b yla w s o r b y r e so lu ti o n o f a C onv enti o n, u p on a ny s u b je ct o f g enera l c o ncern to th e

mem bers r e la te d to th e a d m in is tr a ti o n o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s

T o s tu d y i n g enera l a ll p hase s o f c o m peti ti v e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd e sta b lis h s ta nd ard s w here b y th e

co lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s o f th e U nite d S ta te s c an m ain ta in th eir a th le ti c s p ro gra m s o n a h ig h l e v el ( p . 1 )

These s p ecific p urp ose s a re r o ote d i n w hat th e N CA A c alls a f u nd am enta l p olic y. T he N CA A p olic y s ta te s, “ T he

co m peti ti v e a th le ti c s p ro gra m s o f m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns a re d esig ned to b e a v ita l p art o f th e e d ucati o nal s y ste m . A

basic p urp ose o f th is A sso cia ti o n i s to m ain ta in i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a s a n i n te gra l p art o f th e e d ucati o nal

pro gra m a nd th e a th le te a s a n i n te gra l p art o f th e s tu d y b ody a nd , b y s o d oin g, r e ta in a c le ar l in e o f d em arc ati o n

betw een i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd p ro fe ssio nal s p orts ” ( p . 1 ). T ogeth er, th ese n in e p urp ose s a nd th e f u nd am enta l

polic y o f th e N CA A e sta b lis h a n o pera ti n g s ta nd ard . I t i s th e r e su lt o f th ese tw o g uid in g p rin cip le s f r o m w hic h a ll

oth er r e gula to ry a sp ects a re d eriv ed a nd th us h elp to f o rm th e b asis o f th e N CA A p rin cip le s o f c o nd uct.

NCAA P R IN CIP LES F O R C O NDUCT O F I N TER CO LLEG IA T E A T H LETIC S

The N CA A e sta b lis h ed 1 6 P rin cip le s o f C ond uct. T he p re m is e o f th ese p rin cip le s i s to h elp to g uid e m em ber

in sti tu ti o ns i n th e g o vern ance a nd a d m in is tr a ti o n o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. T he f ir s t i s th e

Prin cip le o f I n stitu tio nal

Contr o l a nd R esp onsib ility

. W ith in th is p rin cip le , th ere a re tw o s u b prin cip le s: R esp onsib ility o f C ontr o l a nd S co pe

of R esp onsib ility . T he R esp onsib ility o f C ontr o l i s r o ote d i n th e o rig in al i d ea o f h o m e r u le , b ut n o t f r o m th e

pers p ecti v e o f a th le ti c p ro gra m s e sta b lis h in g th eir o w n r u le s. T his r u le e sta b lis h es c o ntr o l a nd r e sp onsib ility w ith in

th e m em ber i n sti tu ti o n to c o m ply w ith a ll o f th e r u le s a nd r e gula ti o ns o f th e N CA A. T hro ugh th e S co pe o f

Resp onsib ility p rin cip le , th e N CA A e sta b lis h es a cco unta b ility a t th e m em ber l e v el f o r th e c o nd uct o f i ts a th le ti c

pers o nnel.

The

Prin cip le o f S tu den t- A th le te W ell- B ein g

i s i n p la ce to h elp p ro te ct th e w elfa re o f s tu d ent a th le te s b oth

ed ucati o nally a nd p hysic ally . T his p rin cip le i s m ad e

up o f s ix s u b prin cip le s: ( a ) O vera ll E ducati o nal E xp erie nce; ( b )

Cultu ra l D iv ers ity a nd G end er E quity ; ( c ) H ealth a nd S afe ty ; ( d ) S tu d ent- A th le te a nd C oach R ela ti o nsh ip ; ( e )

Fair n ess, O penness, a nd H onesty ; a nd ( f) S tu d ent- A th le te I n v olv em ent. T his p rin cip le i s v ita l to th e o vera ll

pro sp erity o f th e a th le te a nd th e e nv ir o nm ent i n w hic h h e o r s h e p arti c ip ate s.

The

Prin cip le o f G en der E quity

i s th e th ir d p rin cip le a nd i s r o ote d i n th e l a w T itl e I X p asse d i n 1 972. I ts

su b prin cip le s— Com plia nce w ith F ed era l a nd S ta te L egis la ti o n, N CA A L egis la ti o n, a nd G end er B ia s— help g ro und

th is p rin cip le w ith in th e w ork in gs o f th e N CA A. S in ce m ost D iv is io n I i n sti tu ti o ns r e ceiv e s o m e f o rm o f f e d era l a id , it i s u p to th e i n sti tu ti o n to m ain ta in c o m plia nce w ith th e f e d era l a nd s ta te l a w s p erta in in g to g end er e q uity . H ow ev er,

it i s e q ually i m porta nt f o r th e N CA A n o t to e m bra ce l e gis la ti o n th at w ould h in d er th e a b ility o f th e i n sti tu ti o ns to

co m ply w ith g end er e q uity l a w s ( N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a).

Today, d is h o nesty a nd u neth ic al c o nd uct i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s s e em to o ccur m ore f r e q uentl y . W hile th e

NCA A c anno t c o ntr o l i n d iv id ual b ehav io r, i t c an c erta in ly m ake a s ta te m ent o n i ts p ositi o n a nd h av e d one s o th ro ugh

th e

Prin cip le o f S ports m ansh ip a nd E th ic a l C onduct

. T he b asic te net o f th is p rin cip le i s m akin g s u re th at a th le ti c

pro gra m s m ain ta in p olic ie s i n s p orts m ansh ip a nd e th ic al c o nd uct th at a re c o nsis te nt w ith th e e d ucati o nal m is sio n a nd

go als o f th e i n sti tu ti o n ( N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a).

Over th e y ears , a cad em ic s ta nd ard s f o r a th le te s h av e c hanged to h elp e nsu re a c le ar a nd c o nsis te nt p ath to w ard

gra d uati o n f o r s tu d ent a th le te s. T he

Prin cip le o f S ound A ca dem ic S ta ndard s

h elp s s a fe guard th at th e a d m is sio n,

acad em ic s ta nd in g, a nd a cad em ic p ro gre ss a re c o nsis te nt w ith th e o vera ll p olic ie s i n th e n o nath le te g enera l

popula ti o n. C olle ge a th le te s a re r e q uir e d to e nro ll a s f u ll- ti m e s tu d ents a nd m ust c o m ple te 4 0% o f th eir d egre e

re q uir e m ents b y th e e nd o f th eir s e co nd y ear o f a th le ti c e lig ib ility , 6 0% b y th e e nd o f th eir th ir d y ear o f a th le ti c

elig ib ility , a nd 8 0% b y th e e nd o f th eir a th le ti c e lig ib ility ( S atte rfie ld , C ro ft, G odfr e y, & F lin t, 2 010).

Most o rg aniz a ti o ns h av e a n o nd is c rim in ati o n p olic y, a nd th e N CA A i s n o d iffe re nt. T he

Prin cip le o f

Nondis c rim in atio n

i s i n p la ce to e nsu re th e “ re sp ect f o r a nd s e nsiti v ity to th e d ig nity o f e v ery p ers o n” ( N CA A

Div is io n I , 2 012a, p . 4 ). H ow ev er, i t i s th e r e sp onsib ility o f th e m em ber i n sti tu ti o n to d ev elo p a nd m ain ta in p olic ie s

re gard in g n o nd is c rim in ati o n. N ev erth ele ss, h av in g p olic ie s i n p la ce d oes n o t m ean th e N CA A o r m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns

are i m mune to l a w su its . I n f a ct, a g end er e q uity l a w su it f ile d i n 2 009 b y m em bers o f th e Q uin nip ia c U niv ers ity

wom en’s v olle yb all te am a rg ued th at i t w as b ein g d is c rim in ate d a gain st b ecause th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent w as

elim in ati n g w om en’s v olle yb all i n f a v or o f c o m peti ti v e c heerle ad in g. I n 2 010 th e U .S . D is tr ic t C ourt i s su ed a n

in ju ncti o n a gain st Q uin nip ia c U niv ers ity , r u lin g th at c heerle ad in g d id n o t m eet th e s ta nd ard o f a s p ort a s i t p erta in ed

to T itl e I X . T he l a w su it w as u lti m ate ly s e ttl e d i n 2 013 w ith Q uin nip ia c U niv ers ity a gre ein g to k eep a ll o f i ts c urre nt

wom en’s te am s, to a d d s c ho la rs h ip s, a nd to i m pro ve f a ciliti e s f o r i ts f e m ale a th le te s (

Bie d ig er v . Q uin nip ia c

Univ ersity

, 2 009).

The N CA A a ls o h as a s ta nd ard r e la te d d iv ers ity p olic y c alle d th e

Prin cip le o f D iv ersity w ith in G overn ance

Str u ctu re s

, w hic h w ork s to a d dre ss i s su es o f g end er a nd e th nic d iv ers ity w ith in th e v ario us N CA A d iv is io nal

str u ctu re s. T o h elp m ove to w ard a m ore i n clu siv e a nd r e p re se nta ti v e N CA A, th e M in o rity O pportu niti e s a nd I n te re sts

Com mitte e a nd th e C om mitte e o n W om en’s A th le ti c s s p ecific ally a d dre ss i s su es r e la te d to d iv ers ity w ith in i ts

str u ctu re . T he N CA A a ls o h as a n I n clu sio n O vers ig ht C om mitte e th at c o m pris e d m em bers o f th e M in o rity

Opportu niti e s C om mitte e a nd th e C om mitte e o n W om en’s A th le ti c s th at h elp to m ain ta in a c hecks-a nd -b ala nce s y ste m

(N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a).

CASE S T U DY

Mou nta in V ie w U niv ersit y : A C ase o f G en der E quit y

Mounta in V ie w U niv ers ity i s a n ew p ro vis io nally a ccep te d C anad ia n u niv ers ity th at h as e nte re d th e N CA A u nd er th e

10-y ear p ilo t p ro gra m . I n p re p ara ti o n f o r e nte rin g th e N CA A, M ounta in V ie w a d ded c o m peti ti v e m en’s f e ncin g b ut

did n o t a d d a ny n ew w om en’s s p orts p ro gra m s. T his a ngere d a l o t o f w om en, a nd d urin g a m en’s b ask etb all g am e

se v era l w om en p ro te ste d th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent’ s r e fu sa l to i m med ia te ly a d d w om en’s s p orts , c iti n g th e N CA A’s

co m mitm ent to T itl e I X . W hen a p pro ached b y a l o cal te le v is io n s ta ti o n, M ounta in V ie w ’s a th le ti c d ir e cto r, B re nt

Tanner, s a id , “ M ounta in V ie w s u p ports a ll i ts c o m peti ti v e a nd c lu b s p ort a th le te s, a nd e v en th o ugh o ur m en’s s p orts

outn um ber o ur w om en’s s p orts , w e a lr e ad y h av e a g end er e q uity p olic y i n p la ce th at g ets a t th e s p ir it o f T itl e I X s o

we d on’t n eed to c o ncern o urs e lv es w ith th e A meric an i d ea o f m en a nd w om en c o m peti ti v e s p ort p ro porti o nality .”

This r e sp onse d id n o t g o o ver w ell w ith A meric an u niv ers iti e s s c hed ule d to p la y M ounta in V ie w a nd s p ark ed s o m e

pro te st b y A meric an w om en’s g ro up s a t s o m e a th le ti c e v ents . T anner r e sp ond ed a gain b y p ub lic iz in g a c ap ita l

cam paig n to r a is e m oney to u p date s o m e a th le ti c s f a ciliti e s a nd c o m mis sio ned a s e lf- s tu d y to e xp lo re th e p ossib ility

of a d din g n ew w om en’s s p orts p ro gra m s. H ow ev er, th e d am age w as a lr e ad y d one. T hre e m onth s l a te r B re nt T anner

was f ir e d , a nd a n ew a th le ti c d ir e cto r w as h ir e d , b ut n o n ew w om en’s s p orts w ere i m med ia te ly a d ded .

NCA A r u le s i n fr a cti o ns c o m mitte d b y i n sti tu ti o ns o r a th le te s th em se lv es h av e r e ceiv ed c o nsid era b le p ub lic

atte nti o n. M any p eo ple a re f a m ilia r w ith th e v ery p ub lic d is p la y o f th e P enn S ta te U niv ers ity f o otb all s c and al o r th e

co llo quia l te rm “ d eath p enalty ” i m pose d o n th e S outh ern M eth o dis t U niv ers ity f o otb all i n th e m id -1 980s. T he Prin cip le o f R ule s C om plia nce

i s a k ey e le m ent o f th e w ork a sso cia te d w ith th e o pera ti o ns o f th e N CA A. W ith in th is

prin cip le , th ere a re th re e s u b prin cip le s: R esp onsib ility o f th e I n sti tu ti o n, R esp onsib ility o f th e A sso cia ti o n, a nd

Penalty f o r N onco m plia nce. T he N CA A h o ld s e ach m em ber i n sti tu ti o n r e sp onsib le f o r a ny n o nco m plia nce r e la te d

matte r a nd e xp ects e ach m em ber i n sti tu ti o n to b e f o rth rig ht i n r e p orti n g p ote nti a l n o nco m plia nce i s su es to th e N CA A.

The N CA A a ls o a ssis ts e ach m em ber i n sti tu ti o n i n r e achin g f u ll c o m plia nce ( N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a). T he i s su es

of n o nco m plia nce c an v ary f r o m s m all i n fr a cti o ns l ik e a n a ccid enta l p ho ne c all to a h ig h s c ho ol s o pho m ore o r a

majo r i n fr a cti o n l ik e p ayin g a th le te s. I t i s c o nsid ere d a d vanta geo us f o r a n a th le ti c d ep artm ent to r e p ort a n a lle ged

vio la ti o n to th e N CA A i n o rd er to c o rre ct s itu ati o ns b efo re th ey d ev elo p i n to a m ajo r i n fr a cti o n.

There h as b een a tr e m end ous a m ount o f d is c ussio n o ver th e y ears r e gard in g a m ate uris m i n s p orts . S om e b elie v e

th e a m ount o f m oney g enera te d b y f o otb all b ow l g am es a nd th e N CA A D iv is io n I B ask etb all C ham pio nsh ip c o up le d

with th e N CA A’s p ers p ecti v e o n a m ate uris m i s c arte l- lik e b ehav io r ( K ahn, 2 007). N ev erth ele ss, th e N CA A’s

Prin cip le o f A m ate u ris m

i s c le ar. I t v ie w s a th le te p arti c ip ati o n a s a n a v ocati o n a nd th us s h o uld b e i n su la te d f r o m

pro fe ssio nal tr a p pin gs. T he i d ea o f th is s p ecific p rin cip le c an b e tr a ced b ack to th e e arly b egin nin gs o f f o otb all w hen

many f o otb all p ro gra m s u se d “ rin gers ” l ik e J a m es H ogan, a f o otb all p la yer a t Y ale i n th e e arly tw enti e th c entu ry .

Hogan n o t o nly h ad h is tu iti o n p aid b ut w as a ls o g iv en a ll o f th e p ro fits f r o m g am e-d ay p ro gra m s a le s a nd a

co m mis sio n f r o m th e A meric an T obacco C om pany o n e v ery p ack o f c ig are tte s s o ld i n th e c ity o f N ew H av en

(C ro w le y, 2 006). I s su es w ith p ro fe ssio nalis m s u ch a s th is g iv e c re d ence to th e N CA A’s s ta nce o n a m ate uris m i n

in te rc o lle gia te s p orts . T he J a m es H ogan s itu ati o n a t Y ale a ls o h elp s s h ed l ig ht o n th e N CA A’s

Prin cip le o f

Com petitiv e E quity

The r e cru itm ent p ro cess o f s o m e a th le te s i n s o m e r e gard h as ta ken o n a l ife o f i ts o w n, p arti c ula rly i n th e r e v enue

sp orts o f f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all. F or s o m e r e cru its i t h as b eco m e c usto m ary to a nno unce th eir c o lle ge

decis io n i n f r o nt o f th e n ati o nal m ed ia . A lth o ugh th e r e cru iti n g p ro cess h as b eco m e h ig h s ta kes, th e

Prin cip le

Govern in g R ecru itin g

i s b ase d o n th e i d ea th at th e e d ucati o nal i n te re st o f th e a th le te s a nd th e i n sti tu ti o n m atc h. T his

prin cip le i s a ls o i n p la ce to h elp i n sti tu ti o ns r e m em ber to p ro te ct s tu d ents f r o m i n te rn al a nd e xte rn al p re ssu re s th at

co uld i n fr in ge u p on th eir a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c e nd eav ors ( N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a).

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

A D re a m N ot Y et R ea liz e d

Gary M orris i s a f o rm er s ta nd out f o otb all p la yer a t N orfo lk S ta te U niv ers ity i n N orfo lk , V ir g in ia , w here h e p la yed

wid e r e ceiv er f r o m 1 987 to 1 990. L ik e a l o t o f c o lle ge f o otb all p la yers , G ary w ante d to c arry h is p assio n f o r th e

gam e o f f o otb all i n to c o achin g. A fte r p la yin g f o r a c o up le o f y ears i n th e C anad ia n F ootb all L eague ( C FL), G ary

cam e b ack to V ir g in ia a nd b egan te achin g h ig h s c ho ol. H e h elp ed o ut th e l o cal h ig h s c ho ol f o otb all te am b ut th at

pro ved n o t to b e e no ugh. G ary l o nged f o r th e b ig l ig hts o f c o lle ge f o otb all.

A c hance e nco unte r l e d h im to b eco m e a p art o f th e p ro cess o f e sta b lis h in g a f o otb all p ro gra m a t G eo rg e M aso n

Univ ers ity . W hile G eo rg e M aso n h ad n o te am , th e i n sti tu ti o nal d esir e w as th ere . G ary o nce to ld m e “ th e f a ct th at I a m

a p art o f s o m eth in g to ta lly n ew a nd w ill h elp ta ke i t f r o m c lu b f o otb all to N CA A D iv is io n I f o otb all i s b ette r th an

win nin g th e C FL G re y C up .” G eo rg e M aso n s ta rte d p la yin g c lu b f o otb all i n 1 993. G ary c o ached a f e w y ears b ut

le arn ed q uic kly i t ta kes m ore th an d esir e f o r a s c ho ol to tr a nsiti o n f r o m c lu b to N CA A D iv is io n I f o otb all. G eo rg e

Maso n e v entu ally d ecid ed n o t to p urs u e th e p ro cess o f e sta b lis h in g a n N CA A D iv is io n I f o otb all p ro gra m , b ut i t h as

parti c ip ate d i n th e S eab oard C onfe re nce, w in nin g c ham pio nsh ip s i n 2 000, 2 001, 2 003, 2 004, a nd 2 005.

Gary i s n o w a p ub lic s c ho ol a d m in is tr a to r a t a l o cal h ig h s c ho ol. I r e centl y s p oke w ith h im a nd a sk ed w heth er h e

mis se s c o achin g a nd i s d is a p poin te d th at G eo rg e M aso n d id n o t f o llo w th ro ugh w ith i ts p la ns. H e h as n o r e gre ts .

Lookin g b ack o n h is ti m e th ere , h e j u st w is h es h e u nd ers to od th e N CA A p ro cess b ette r s o h e c o uld h av e h elp ed th e

sc ho ol m ake th e tr a nsiti o n s o oner.

In a s im ila r v ein , th e i d ea o f p ro te cti n g a th le te s f r o m i n te rn al a nd e xte rn al p re ssu re s i s th e

Prin cip le G overn in g

Elig ib ility

. S im ply p ut, th is p rin cip le i s c o nstr u cte d to a ssu re th at a th le te s m ain ta in a n a cad em ic s ta nd ard th at w ill

move th em to w ard g ra d uati o n.

Over ti m e, th e c o st to a tte nd c o lle ge h as i n cre ase d e xp onenti a lly . T he s y ste m o f f in ancia l a id a w ard ed to c o lle ge

ath le te s h as b een a ro und i n s o m e f a sh io n s in ce p la yers l ik e W alte r C am p a nd J a m es H ogan o f Y ale i n th e e arly

tw enti e th c entu ry . H ow ev er, p ayin g p la yers o r p ro vid in g o th er ty p es o f f in ancia l p erk s b lu rs th e l in e b etw een

pro fe ssio nal a nd a m ate ur s p orts . W hat th e N CA A’s

Prin cip le G overn in g F in ancia l A id

s e eks to d o i s a llo w a th le te s to r e ceiv e s o m e f in ancia l a ssis ta nce p aid o ut b y th e i n sti tu ti o n w hile a d herin g to th e a sso cia ti o n’s p ers p ecti v e o n

am ate uris m .

One m ig ht th in k th e i d ea o f p la yin g a c o lle ge s p ort a s r o m anti c , r e ap ed w ith g lo ry , a nd e nd le ss b enefits ; h o w ev er,

it i s i m porta nt n o t to d is re gard th e ti m e c o m mitm ent a nd e ffo rt to b ala nce th e d ual r o le s o f s tu d ent a nd a th le te . T he

Prin cip le o f G overn in g P la yin g a nd P ra ctic e S ea so ns

i n d em nifie s a th le te s i n a w ay th at r e d uces i n te rfe re nce th at

may h in d er th e q uality o f th eir e d ucati o nal e xp erie nce ( N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a).

In te rc o lle gia te s p orts h av e s o m e o f th e m ost w atc hed e v ents a nd c ham pio nsh ip s i n A meric an s p orts to day. E very

year, c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s c o m pete f o r c ham pio nsh ip s th at c an b rin g th eir i n sti tu ti o ns f in ancia l w in d fa lls a nd

in sta nt n am e r e co gniti o n. M any o f th ese c ham pio nsh ip s a re s p onso re d b y o rg aniz a ti o ns o uts id e th e r e alm o f c o lle ges

and u niv ers iti e s. T o h elp a th le ti c d ep artm ents g o vern th is l e v el o f p la y, th e N CA A h as th e

Prin cip le G overn in g

Posts e a so n C om petitio n a nd C onte sts S ponso re d b y N on-c o lle g ia te O rg aniz a tio ns

. T he c o re o f th is p rin cip le i s to

ensu re f a ir n ess a m ong i n sti tu ti o nal c o m peti to rs a nd to m ain ta in th e a p pro pria te l e v el o f p ro te cti o n f r o m a th le te

exp lo ita ti o n.

Fin ally , th e

Prin cip le G overn in g t h e E co nom y o f A th le tic s P ro gra m O pera tio n

h o ld s a th le ti c p ro gra m s

acco unta b le f o r th eir f is c al m anagem ent a nd h ealth . T he N CA A e xp ects a th le ti c p ro gra m s to o pera te i n a j u d ic io us

manner th at a llo w s f o r a p pro pria te a nd s u ita b le c o m peti ti o n. T he N CA A h o ld s th is p rin cip le , a s w ell a s a ll o f i ts

prin cip le s, i n e arn estn ess b ecause i t v alu es th e o pportu nity o f a th le ti c c o m peti ti o n a nd e d ucati o nal e xp erie nces.

MEM BER SH IP A N D D IV IS IO NS

The N CA A h as th re e s p ecific d iv is io ns a p tl y c la ssifie d D iv is io n I , D iv is io n I I, a nd D iv is io n I II a nd th re e

mem bers h ip c ate go rie s: a cti v e, c o nfe re nce, a nd a ffilia te d (

Tab le 2 .1

). I n D iv is io n I th ere a re 3 47 m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns

and 1 67,0 89 a th le te s, w hile D iv is io n I I i n clu d es 3 15 p ro gra m s a nd 1 07,9 41 a th le te s, a nd D iv is io n I II c o m pris e s 4 46

pro gra m s a nd 1 78,4 41 a th le te s ( N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012b; N CA A D iv is io n I I, 2 012b; N CA A D iv is io n I II, 2 012b).

TA BLE

2 .1

NCA A M em bers h ip s a n d D iv is io ns

The N CA A D iv is io n I m em bers h ip l e v el r e ceiv es th e m ost p ub lic a tte nti o n. T his m em bers h ip l e v el c o nsis ts o f

fo ur-y ear r e gio nally a ccre d ite d i n sti tu ti o ns. T o m ain ta in th e D iv is io n I m em bers h ip s ta tu s a n i n sti tu ti o n m ust m eet a nd

main ta in a ll o f th e m em bers h ip r e q uir e m ents o r f a ce d iv is io n r e cla ssific ati o n ( N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012b).

With in th e r a nks o f D iv is io n I I a th le ti c p ro gra m s, th ere a re s o m e s lig ht v aria ti o ns i n m em bers h ip a s c o m pare d to

oth er d iv is io nal c la ssific ati o ns. W hile th e m em bers h ip l e v els a cti v e, c o nfe re nce, a nd a ffilia te d , a s w ell a s th e ath le ti c s c o nso rti u m , a re th e s a m e f o r a ll d iv is io ns, th e m ajo r d is ti n cti o ns a t th e D iv is io n I I l e v el a re th at tw o-y ear

co lle ges m ay p arti c ip ate a nd th e m em bers h ip c ate go rie s n o w i n clu d e a p ro vis io nal m em ber a nd p ro vis io nal

co nfe re nce m em ber s ta tu s. L ik ew is e , a t th e D iv is io n I I l e v el th e N CA A h as d ev elo ped a 1 0-y ear p ilo t p ro gra m to

in clu d e C anad ia n i n sti tu ti o ns. A lth o ugh p ro vis io nal m em bers r e ceiv e a ll th e d ocum enta ti o n a nd p ub lic ati o ns th at

acti v e m em bers r e ceiv e, th e p ro vis io nal s ta tu s i s a p re re q uis ite f o r a cti v e m em ber s ta tu s. C onfe re nce p ro vis io nal

mem bers h ip i s s im ila r i n th at i t i s a p re re q uis ite to c o nfe re nce m em bers h ip ; h o w ev er, a p ro vis io nal c o nfe re nce m ust

hav e a m in im um o f s ix f o ur-y ear o r tw o-y ear i n sti tu ti o ns to b e c o nsid ere d f o r p ro vis io nal c o nfe re nce s ta tu s.

Div is io n I II a th le ti c p ro gra m s a re a m ajo r p art o f th e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c r e p re se nta ti o n ( A th le ti c

Scho la rs h ip s, 2 013). E ven th o ugh D iv is io n I II a th le ti c p ro gra m s d o n o t a w ard a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s i n th e w ay o f

tu iti o n a nd f e es, r o om , b oard , a nd r e q uir e d c o urs e -re la te d b ooks, i n sti tu ti o ns c an p ro vid e a cad em ic s c ho la rs h ip s.

Desp ite th e i n ab ility to p ro vid e a th le ti c s c ho la rs h ip s, D iv is io n I II a th le ti c p ro gra m s h av e th e l a rg est n um ber o f

mem ber s c ho ols ( N CA A D iv is io n I II, 2 012b).

Div is io n I II N CA A m em bers h ip h as th e s a m e m em bers h ip c ate go rie s a s D iv is io n I I b ut o ffe rs d is ti n cti o n b y

ad din g a p ro bati o nary s ta tu s a nd a r e str ic te d s ta tu s to th e c la ssific ati o n. W hile th e c o nfe re nce m em bers h ip i s th e

sa m e, D iv is io n I II c o nfe re nce m em bers m ust h av e a m in im um o f s e v en c o lle ges o r u niv ers iti e s a nd d ete rm in e a

co nfe re nce c ham pio n i n a t l e ast o ne s p ort.

NCAA O RG AN IZ AT IO NAL S T R UCTU RE A N D D IV IS IO N I S T R UCTU RE

There a re tw o s tr u ctu re s th at h elp o rg aniz e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s w ith in th e N CA A: th e N CA A d iv is io nal s tr u ctu re

th at g o vern s a th le ti c s i n D iv is io n I , I I, a nd I II, a nd th e N CA A g o vern ance s tr u ctu re i ts e lf. T he D iv is io n I s tr u ctu re i s

div id ed i n to f iv e l e v els . A t th e f ir s t l e v el i s th e B oard o f D ir e cto rs . W ith i ts 1 8 m em bers , th e B oard o f D ir e cto rs i s

centr a l to th e o rg aniz a ti o nal s tr u ctu re a nd f e ed s o ut to s tr u ctu re a nd f lo w s to th e C om mitte e o n I n fr a cti o ns, I n fr a cti o ns

Appeals C om mitte e, P re sid enti a l A dvis o ry G ro up , a nd th e C om mitte e o n A cad em ic P erfo rm ance. T he s e co nd l e v el

is th e L ead ers h ip C ouncil a nd L egis la ti v e C ouncil. T his l e v el h as a d ir e ct l in e o f r e p ort to th e B oard o f D ir e cto rs .

The th ir d l e v el c o nsis ts o f th e c o m mitte es th at f lo w f r o m th e L ead ers h ip a nd L egis la ti v e C ouncil. F ro m b oth th e

Lead ers h ip C ouncil a nd th e L egis la ti v e C ouncil th e c o m mitte es a re : ( a ) M in o rity O pportu niti e s a nd I n te re st

Com mitte e, ( b ) C om mitte e o n S ports m ansh ip a nd E th ic al C ond uct, ( c ) S tu d ent- A th le te A dvis o ry C om mitte e, a nd ( d )

Com mitte e o n W om en’s A th le ti c s. H ow ev er, th e ( a ) L egis la ti v e R ev ie w /In te rp re ta ti o ns C om mitte e, ( b )

Sub co m mitte e o n A th le ti c s C erti fic ati o n, a nd ( c ) C om mitte e o n S tu d ent A th le te R ein sta te m ent f lo w o nly f r o m

th e

Legis la ti v e C ouncil. T he f o urth l e v el i s th e c ab in et l e v el. A t th is l e v el th e L ead ers h ip C ouncil h and le s a ll p olic y

is su es a nd th e L egis la ti v e C ouncil h and le s a ll l e gis la ti v e i s su es. T he l a st l e v el i s th e s p ecific c ab in ets : ( a )

Cham pio nsh ip s/S ports M anagem ent C ab in et, ( b ) A dm in is tr a ti v e C ab in et, ( c ) A cad em ic C ab in et, ( d ) A w ard s

Benefits , E xp ense s, a nd F in ancia l A id C ab in et, ( e ) A mate uris m C ab in et, a nd ( f) th e R ecru iti n g a nd A th le ti c s

Pers o nnel I s su es C ab in et; w ith th e e xcep ti o n o f th e A w ard s B enefits , E xp ense s, a nd F in ancia l A id C ab in et a nd th e

Recru iti n g a nd A th le ti c s P ers o nnel I s su es C ab in et, e ach c ab in et h as s p ecific c o m mitte es r e p orti n g to th e c ab in et.

The g o vern ance s tr u ctu re o f th e N CA A i s b ro ken d ow n i n to d iffe re nt c o m mitte es a nd c o uncils w ith e ach h av in g

its o w n m em bers h ip a nd r e sp onsib iliti e s. T he f ir s t l e v el i s A sso cia ti o n W id e C om mitte es a nd th e E xecuti v e

Com mitte e. E xte nd in g d ow n f r o m th e E xecuti v e C om mitte e a re th e D iv is io n I B oard o f D ir e cto rs , a nd th e D iv is io n I I

and I II P re sid ent’ s C ouncil. A t th e D iv is io n I l e v el th e B oard o f D ir e cto rs a ls o e xte nd s d ow n to th e D iv is io n I

Lead ers h ip a nd L egis la ti v e C ouncils ; h o w ev er, a t th e D iv is io n I I a nd I II l e v els th ey e xte nd d ow n to M anagem ent

Councils ( s e e A ppend ix es 2 .A , 2 .B , 2 .C , a nd 2 .D f o r o rg aniz a ti o nal c harts ).

NCAA P O W ER F IV E S T R UCTU RE

In th e s u m mer o f 2 014, th e N CA A a d opte d th e P ow er F iv e, a n ew p olic y th at g iv es th e 6 5 s c ho ols i n th e A CC, B ig

Ten, B ig 1 2, S E C , a nd P ac-1 2 th e a b ility to c re ate s o m e o f th eir o w n r u le s th at a re a sso cia te d w ith th e l e gis la ti o n a nd

voti n g r ig hts f o r a th le te s. T he N CA A b elie v es c o nfe re nces a nd th e s c ho ols i n th ese c o nfe re nces a re a b le to p ro vid e

gre ate r r e so urc es to a th le te s, s u ch a s s ti p end s, e xp and ed m ed ic al c o vera ge, a nd s o m e b enefits to f a m ilie s to a tte nd

gam es.

The n ew s tr u ctu re d oes, h o w ev er, i m pact th e D iv is io n I b oard c o nfig ura ti o n a t th e D iv is io n I l e v el. T here a re

no w 1 0 p re sid ents i n th e f o otb all b ow l s u b div is io n a nd f iv e p re sid ents i n th e f o otb all c ham pio nsh ip s u b div is io n, o ne

ath le ti c d ir e cto r, o ne s e nio r w om en’s a th le ti c d ir e cto r, o ne f a culty a th le ti c s r e p re se nta ti v e, a nd o ne a th le te . T he n ew

str u ctu re a ls o g iv es w eig hte d v oti n g i n c o nfe re nces a nd i s b ro ken d ow n a s s u ch: 3 7.5 % f o r th e P ow er 5 c o nfe re nces; 18.8 % to th e f iv e p re sid ents i n th e F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n; 3 7.5 % f o r th e F ootb all C ham pio n S ub div is io n

Div is io n I n o n f o otb all c o nfe re nces; 3 .1 % f o r c o lle ge a th le te s; a nd 3 .1 % f o r f a culty a th le ti c s r e p re se nta ti v es

(H osic k, 2 014). O ne o f th e m ost i m porta nt a sp ects o f th is n ew p olic y i s f o r th e f ir s t ti m e a th le te s w ill h av e a v ote i n

what a ffe cts th eir l iv es.

NCAA O RG AN IZ AT IO NAL S T R UCTU RE A N D D IV IS IO N I I A N D I II S T R UCTU RES

The o rg aniz a ti o nal c o m ple xiti e s b etw een D iv is io n I a nd I I a re s im ply n o t th e s a m e. T here a re p rim arily tw o l e v els i n

th e D iv is io n I I o rg aniz a ti o nal s tr u ctu re , w hic h

actu ally f lo w s u p w ard to p re se nt m ore o f a g ra ssro ots l e ad ers h ip

sty le . T he b otto m l e v el c o nta in s n in e c o m mitte es: ( a ) D iv is io n I I A cad em ic R eq uir e m ents C om mitte e, ( b ) D iv is io n I I

Cham pio nsh ip C om mitte e, ( c ) D iv is io n I I C om mitte e o n I n fr a cti o ns, ( d ) D iv is io n I I C om mitte e f o r L egis la ti v e R elie f,

(e ) D iv is io n I I C om mitte e o n S tu d ent- A th le te R ein sta te m ent, ( f) D iv is io n I I L egis la ti o n C om mitte e, ( g ) D iv is io n I I

Mem bers h ip C om mitte e, ( h ) D iv is io n I I N om in ati o n C om mitte e, a nd ( i) th e D iv is io n I I S tu d ent- A th le te A dvis o ry

Com mitte e. T hey f lo w u p w ard to th e D iv is io n I I A dm in is tr a ti v e C om mitte e, a D iv is io n I I M anagem ent C ouncil, a nd

a D iv is io n I I P la nnin g a nd F in ance C om mitte e w ith th e P re sid ent’ s C ouncil a t th e to p. T he D iv is io n I II s tr u ctu re i s

alm ost th e s a m e a s D iv is io n I I; h o w ev er, a t th e b otto m i t h as a n e xtr a c o m mitte e c alle d th e D iv is io n I II S tr a te gic

Pla nnin g a nd F in ance C om mitte e a nd th ese c o m mitte es o nly f lo w u p w ard to a D iv is io n I II M anagem ent C ouncil, a n

Adm in is tr a ti v e C om mitte e, a nd a D iv is io n I II P re sid ent’ s C ouncil o n to p ( s e e A ppend ix es 2 .E , 2 .F , 2 .G , a nd 2 .H f o r

org aniz a ti o nal c harts ).

CO NCLU SIO N

Fro m th e f ir s t d eath p enalty s a ncti o n, i m pose d o n th e S outh ern M eth o dis t U niv ers ity f o otb all te am i n th e 1 980s, to th e

sw eep in g s c ho la rs h ip c ancella ti o ns, v acate d w in s, a nd f is c al o blite ra ti o n o f P ennsy lv ania S ta te U niv ers ity f o otb all,

ju stl y o r u nju stl y , th e N CA A h as ta ken a f a ir a m ount o f s c ru ti n y o ver ti m e. O ne th in g i s c erta in , A meric a’s a nd th e

world ’s i n te re sts i n i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts a re c erta in ly h ere to s ta y. A s ti m e g o es o n, th e N CA A w ill h av e to b eco m e

a g re ate r v oic e i n th e d is c ussio n o f a th le ti c r e fo rm s a nd p erh ap s l o ose n i ts s tr o ng h o ld o n a m ate uris m to a d ju st to a

more m ark et- d riv en c o lle ge a th le te .

Appendix 2 .A . N CAA D iv is io n I I L egis la tiv e P ro ce ss Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I I, 2 012a, p . 4 6.

Appendix 2 .B . N CAA D iv is io n I II L egis la tiv e P ro ce ss

Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I II, 2 012a, p . 4 0.

Appendix 2 .C . N CAA D iv is io n I O rg aniz atio nal S tr u ctu re Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a, p . 2 5.

Appendix 2 .D . N CAA D iv is io n I G overn ance S tr u ctu re

Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I , 2 012a, p . 2 6.

Appendix 2 .E . N CAA D iv is io n I I O rg aniz atio nal S tr u ctu re Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I I, 2 012a, p . 3 0.

Appendix 2 .F . N CAA D iv is io n I I G overn ance S tr u ctu re

Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I I, 2 012a, p . 3 1.

Appendix 2 .G . N CAA D iv is io n I II O rg aniz atio nal S tr u ctu re

Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I II, 2 012a, p . 2 4.

Appendix 2 .H . N CAA D iv is io n I II G overn ance S tr u ctu re Sourc e:

N CA A D iv is io n I II, 2 012a, p . 2 5.

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

W ith D iv is io n I II h av in g th e l a rg est n um ber o f s c ho ols p arti c ip ati n g i n s p orts p ro gra m s, w ould i t b e a d vanta geo us

fo r th e N CA A to e nco ura ge D iv is io n I II m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns to m ove i n to D iv is io n I I c o m peti ti o n?

W hat m ig ht b e th e i m plic ati o ns o f a llo w in g i n d iv id ual i n sti tu ti o ns th em se lv es to d ete rm in e th e N CA A e lig ib ility o f

th eir a th le te s?

I n w hat w ays d o y o u b elie v e i n sti tu ti o ns h av e m oved a w ay f r o m th e N CA A’s i d ea o f r e cru iti n g a th le te s w ith

ed ucati o nal i n te re st th at m atc h th at o f th e i n sti tu ti o n?

Refe re n ces

Ath le ti c S cho la rs h ip s. ( 2 013).

Natio nal l e tte r o f i n te n t

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caa.o rg /w ps/w cm /c o nnect/ n li/n li/d ocum ent+ lib ra ry /a th le ti c + sc ho la rs h ip

Bie d ig er v . Q uin nip ia c U niv ers ity , 3 C .V . 6 21 ( C onn. D is t. C t. 2 009).

Cro w le y, J . N . ( 2 006). T he N CA A’s f ir s t c entu ry : I n th e a re na.

NCAA P ublic a tio ns

. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N ati o nal

Colle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n.

Hosic k, M . ( 2 014). S tu d ent- a th le te s w ill v ote a t e v ery g o vern ance l e v el. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caa.o rg /a b out/ r e so urc es/m ed ia -c ente r/n ew s/b oard -a d opts -n ew -d iv is io n-i- s tr u ctu re

Kahn, L . M . ( 2 007). C arte l b ehav io r a nd a m ate uris m i n c o lle ge s p orts .

Jo urn al o f E co nom ic P ersp ectiv es, 2 1

(1 ),

209–226.

Lin d quis t, D . C . ( 2 006). “ L ocati n g” th e n ati o n: F ootb all g am e d ay a nd A meric an d re am s i n c entr a l O hio .

Jo urn al o f

Am eric a n F olk lo re , 1 1 9

, 4 44–488.

Morris , P . S . ( 2 004, N ovem ber). F ootb all i n th e U SA : A meric an c ultu re a nd th e w orld ’s g am e. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://h o m ep age.s m c.e d u/m orris _ pete /r e so urc es/P ap ers -a nd -P re se nta ti o ns/fo otb allin th eusa .p df

NCA A D iv is io n I . ( 2 012a).

2012–13 N CAA D iv is io n I m anual

. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c

Asso cia ti o n.

———. ( 2 012b). N CA A D iv is io n I M em bers h ip R ep ort. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N CA A P ub lic ati o ns.

———. ( 2 013). F acts & F ig ure s. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caa.o rg /w ps/w cm /c o nnect/ p ub lic /n caa/d iv is io ni/d i+ fa cts + and + fig ure s

NCA A D iv is io n I I. ( 2 012a).

2012–13 N CAA D iv is io n I I m anual

. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N CA A P ub lic ati o ns.

———. ( 2 012b). N CA A D iv is io n I I M em bers h ip R ep ort. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N CA A P ub lic ati o ns.

NCA A D iv is io n I II. ( 2 012a).

2012–13 N CAA D iv is io n I II m anual

. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N CA A P ub lic ati o ns. ———. ( 2 012b). N CA A D iv is io n I II M em bers h ip R ep ort. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N CA A P ub lic ati o ns.

Pie rc e, P . E . ( 1 909, J a nuary 2 ). P ro ceed in gs f r o m

The T hir d A nnual C onven tio n o f t h e I n te rc o lle g ia te A th le tic

Asso cia tio n o f t h e U nite d S ta te s ( I A AU S)

. N ew Y ork .

Satte rfie ld , J . W ., C ro ft, C ., G odfr e y, M ., & F lin t, A . ( 2 010). A cad em ic p ro gre ss r e p orts : L ead ers h ip i m plic ati o ns

fo r c o lle ge b ask etb all c o aches.

Aca dem ic L ea dersh ip J o urn al, 8

(2 ), 1 .

Sm ith , R . K . ( 2 000). A b rie f h is to ry o f th e N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n’s r o le i n r e gula ti n g

in te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s.

Marq uette S ports L aw R evie w , 9

(1 ), A rti c le 5 .

Watte rs o n, J . S . ( 2 000).

Colle g e f o otb all: H is to ry, s p ecta cle , c o ntr o versy

. B alti m ore : J o hns H opkin s U niv ers ity

Pre ss.

C H APTER

L EA DER SH IP i n I N TE R CO LLEG IA TE A TH LETIC S

M olly O tt a n d E va n B ate s

K EY T ER M S

le adersh ip

pre sid ents

ath le tic d ir e cto rs

fa cu lt y

co ach es

M anagem ent l ite ra tu re d efin es a s ta keho ld er a s “ any g ro up o r i n d iv id ual w ho c an a ffe ct o r i s a ffe cte d b y th e

a chie v em ent o f th e f ir m ’s o bje cti v es” ( F re em an, 2 010, p . 2 5).

The s ta keho ld er c o ncep t i s a u se fu l w ay to d esc rib e a nd u nd ers ta nd l e ad ers h ip i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s,

b ecause n o s in gle g ro up c la im s f u ll r e sp onsib ility f o r th e p olic ie s a nd p ra cti c es o f i n d iv id ual p ro gra m s ( S m ith ,

1 988). I n ste ad , a h o st o f f a cti o ns j o ckeys to a ffe ct ( a nd , a t ti m es, d eny a cco unta b ility f o r) th e a cti v iti e s a nd o utc o m es

o f c o lle ge s p orts .

This c hap te r o ffe rs a n o verv ie w o f k ey s ta keho ld er g ro up s th at ta ke p art i n th e l e ad ers h ip o f i n te rc o lle gia te

a th le ti c s. O ur f o cus i s p rim arily a t th e c am pus l e v el a nd c o nsid ers th e r o le s o f p re sid ents , a th le ti c d ir e cto rs , f a culty ,

a nd c o aches. F or e ach g ro up , w e b egin b y d is c ussin g i ts s p ecific r o le s, i n te re sts , a nd p rio riti e s r e la te d to th eir

i n sti tu ti o n’s a th le ti c p ro gra m s. A c entr a l te net o f s ta keho ld er th eo ry i s th at g ro up i n te re sts o fte n c o nflic t ( F re em an,

2 010). C oaches a nd f a culty , f o r i n sta nce, m ay e m phasiz e d iffe re nt v alu es w hen m akin g l e ad ers h ip d ecis io ns.

M ore o ver, g ro up i n te re sts c an b e i n te rn ally h ete ro geneo us ( W olfe & P utl e r, 2 002). P erh ap s O ly m pic s p ort c o aches

h av e d is ti n cti v e p rio riti e s f r o m th o se l e ad in g r e v enue-g enera ti n g te am s. F or s ta keho ld ers , u nd ers ta nd in g o ne

a no th er’s i n te re sts h elp s to c ra ft s tr a te gie s f o r w ork in g to geth er ( F re em an, 2 010). F or h ig her e d ucati o n p ra cti ti o ners ,

s c ho la rs , a nd o bse rv ers o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, u nd ers ta nd in g th e e xte nt to w hic h l e ad ers ’ i n te re sts c o nv erg e a nd

d iv erg e o ffe rs i n sig ht i n to th e “ p eculia r i n sti tu ti o n” o f c o lle ge s p orts ( T helin , 1 994).

Sta keho ld er th eo ry a ls o s u ggests th at th e r o le s o f k ey s ta keho ld er g ro up s c o nnect w ith h o w a n o rg aniz a ti o n

o pera te s a nd a chie v es i ts

desir e d g o als . A p rim ary p urp ose o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c d ep artm ents i s to s u p port th e

a cad em ic , s o cia l, a nd p hysic al d ev elo pm ent o f a th le te s ( W ard & H ux, 2 011 ), a nd i n th e w ord s o f C ovell a nd B arr

( 2 001), “ It i s th e i d ea o f th e s tu d ent- a th le te th at i s c entr a l to th e e nti r e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c e nte rp ris e ” ( p . 4 17).

T here fo re , w e e nd o ur d is c ussio n o f e ach s ta keho ld er g ro up b y c o nsid erin g th e i m plic ati o ns o f i ts l e ad ers h ip f o r

c o lle ge a th le te w ell- b ein g. W e c o nclu d e th e c hap te r w ith a b rie f s u m mary o f th e c o m peti n g a nd o fte n c o ntr a d ic to ry

s ta kes c o nfr o nti n g th ese a th le ti c l e ad ers ( E stl e r & N els o n, 2 005).

P R ESID EN TS

R ole s, I n te re sts , a n d P rio rit ie s

H is to ric ally , c o lle ge p re sid ents a p pro ached i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s w ith “ a s tr a te gy o f a v oid ance a nd

a cco m modati o n” ( T helin , 1 994, p . 9 ), d ele gati n g p ro gra m l e ad ers h ip a nd d ecis io n m akin g to a th le ti c d ir e cto rs a nd

c o aches. Y et i n th e 1 980s, a s e rie s o f g am blin g, d ru g u se , p oin t- s h av in g, a nd p la yer p aym ent s c and als , c o up le d w ith

o ngo in g c o ncern s a b out a cad em ic i n te grity a nd f in ances, p re cip ita te d n ati o nal e ffo rts to m ake th e l e ad ers h ip r o le o f

p re sid ents m ore e xp lic it ( S m ith , 2 003). T he K nig ht F ound ati o n’s C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s’ “ O ne- Plu s-T hre e P la n” c alle d f o r p re sid ents to a ssu m e a uth o rity a t th e c am pus a nd n ati o nal l e v els , e sp ecia lly p erta in in g to

acad em ic i n te grity , f in ancia l i n te grity , a nd th e i n d ep end ent c erti fic ati o n o f a th le ti c p ro gra m s ( K nig ht C om mis sio n o n

In te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 1 991). T he K nig ht C om mis sio n p ro posa l u sh ere d i n a m ore u nifo rm m odel o f p re sid enti a l

le ad ers h ip . T oday, m ost c o nfe re nces a re h ead ed b y a n e xecuti v e b ody c o m pris e d o f th eir m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns’

pre sid ents ( Q uarte rm an, 1 998); p re sid enti a l c o m mitte es l e ad th e N CA A, N AIA , a nd N JC A A; a nd th e N CA A’s

Byla w 2 .1 .1 a ssig ns th e p re sid ent u lti m ate r e sp onsib ility f o r i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s o n h is o r h er c am pus.

Lead in g a c o lle ge o r u niv ers ity i s a c o m ple x u nd erta kin g, a nd , i n r e ality , p re sid ents a re l a rg ely u nin v olv ed i n

day-to -d ay a th le ti c s d ecis io ns ( D ud ers ta d t, 2 003). T heir c o ntr a cts r a re ly m enti o n r e sp onsib iliti e s p erta in in g to

overs ig ht o f a th le ti c s ( W olv erto n & W ells , 2 012). N ot e v en th e c o ntr a ct o f R odney E rik so n, w ho a ssu m ed th e

pre sid ency o f P enn S ta te a fte r G ra ham S panie r w as te rm in ate d f o llo w in g a s e x-a b use s c and al c ente re d i n th e f o otb all

pro gra m , s ta te d e xp ecta ti o ns e xp lic itl y p erta in in g to a th le ti c l e ad ers h ip . Y et, a s th e P enn S ta te – S panie r e xam ple

illu str a te s, a s p orts s c and al c an ta ke d ow n a p re sid ency a nd h av e m ajo r r e p uta ti o nal a nd e co no m ic r e p erc ussio ns f o r

th e e nti r e i n sti tu ti o n ( J o nes, 2 013). S tu d ie s s h o w th at p re sid ents a t a ll l e v els , f r o m th e F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n

(F B S)

to tw o-y ear c o lle ges, a re c o ncern ed a b out th e e th ic s o f th eir c am pus a th le ti c p ro gra m s ( B aile y & L ittl e to n,

1991; W illia m s & P ennin gto n, 2 008). A void in g s c and al a nd m ain ta in in g i n te grity , o n th e p la yin g f ie ld a s w ell a s i n

th e c la ssro om , a re m ajo r p rio riti e s f o r a ll c o lle ge p re sid ents .

While a th le ti c s c and als m ig ht d am age a n i n sti tu ti o n’s s ta nd in g, p re sid ents a ls o b elie v e th at a w ell- ru n p ro gra m

garn ers p ositi v e a tte nti o n a nd o ffe rs r e p uta ti o nal b enefits th at c an b e u se d s tr a te gic ally to m eet b ro ad er o bje cti v es

(D ud ers ta d t, 2 003). J a m es D anko , w ho b ecam e B utl e r U niv ers ity ’s p re sid ent i n 2 011 , to ld a n i n te rv ie w er th at

Butl e r’s m en’s b ask etb all te am s u ccess c o ntr ib ute d to h is i n te re st i n th e p ositi o n: “ I’ m a b ra nd -b uild er, l o okin g f o r a

pla ce th at’ s r e ad y to b urs t o n th e n ati o nal s c ene. B ask etb all g av e B utl e r a c o m ponent th at w as v ery h elp fu l i n m akin g

th at d ecis io n f o r m e” ( S cho enfe ld , 2 013, p ara . 4 1). A s a lr e ad y n o te d , p re sid enti a l c o ntr a cts ty p ic ally d o n o t s ta te

re sp onsib iliti e s s p ecific to a th le ti c s, a lth o ugh th ey e m phasiz e f is c al m anagem ent a nd f u nd ra is in g m ore g enera lly

(W olv erto n & W ells , 2 012). A th le ti c s i s a p rim ary m eans f o r p re sid ents to m ain ta in a lu m ni r e la ti o ns a nd s o lic it

donati o ns ( H ese l & P erk o , 2 010).

Pre sid ents b elie v e a th le ti c s c an e nco ura ge d onati o ns, b ut th ey a re a ls o c o ncern ed a b out f in ancin g th e e nte rp ris e

in i ts e nti r e ty ( O ria rd , 2 009). A 2 009 s tu d y c o nd ucte d b y th e K nig ht C om mis sio n i n d ic ate d th at m ost F B S p re sid ents

exp re ss p essim is m a b out th eir o w n a b iliti e s to c o ntr o l c o sts ( e .g ., c o aches’ s a la rie s, f a ciliti e s, n um ber o f p ers o nnel

em plo yed i n th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent) , a s w ell a s a m biv ale nce a b out th e l o ng-te rm s u sta in ab ility o f th eir p ro gra m s

(H ese l & P erk o , 2 010). M ore th an 8 0% a gre ed th ere s h o uld b e m ore tr a nsp are ncy a ro und o pera ti n g a nd c ap ita l

exp end itu re s.

Im plic a tio n s o f P re sid en tia l L ea d ersh ip

Pre sid ents a tte nd s p orti n g e v ents a nd a th le ti c s r e cep ti o ns, b ut th ey r a re ly d ev elo p r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith i n d iv id ual

ath le te s ( D ud ers ta d t, 2 003). I n ste ad , p re sid ents i m pact th e a th le te e xp erie nce i n d ir e ctl y , th ro ugh th eir w ork w ith th e

ath le ti c d ir e cto r ( A D), tr u ste es, a nd o th er to p a d m in is tr a to rs to s h ap e th e p ro gra m ’s s tr u ctu re , c ultu re , a nd d ir e cti o n.

A p re sid ent h o pin g to s tr e ngth en a th le te s’ a cad em ic e xp erie nces m ig ht, f o r i n sta nce, d ir e ct th e A D to d esig n c o aches’

co ntr a cts to m ore h eav ily r e w ard te am c la ssro om p erfo rm ance r e la ti v e to w in -lo ss r e co rd s ( C om eaux, 2 013). A t

most s c ho ols , th e a th le ti c d ir e cto r r e p orts d ir e ctl y to th e p re sid ent, a nd a cco rd in g to f o rm er U niv ers ity o f M ic hig an

pre sid ent J a m es D ud ers ta d t ( 2 003), “ th e s e le cti o n a nd s u p port o f a s tr o ng a th le ti c d ir e cto r [ is ] o ne o f a p re sid ent’ s

most i m porta nt ta sk s” ( p . 6 1). T he p re sid ent a nd a th le ti c d ir e cto r s h o uld s h are a n u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e a th le ti c

pro gra m v alu es a nd o penly c o m munic ate a b out m ajo r d ecis io ns. H ow ev er, o n c am puse s w here th e p re sid ent ta kes a

more l a is se z-fa ir e a p pro ach to a th le ti c s o vers ig ht, th is l e ad ers h ip v oid w ill b e f ille d b y th e a th le ti c d ir e cto r. I f th e

pre sid ent d oes n o t c le arly c o m munic ate h is o r h er p rio riti e s, th o se o f th e a th le ti c d ir e cto r w ill ta ke p re ced ence

(D ud ers ta d t, 2 003).

AT H LETIC D IR EC TO RS

Role s, I n te re sts , a n d P rio rit ie s

The A D i s th e to p e xecuti v e o r m anager d ir e ctl y r e sp onsib le f o r th e d ay-to -d ay o pera ti o ns o f a n i n te rc o lle gia te

pro gra m . H is to ric ally , m ost A Ds w ere c urre nt o r f o rm er h ead c o aches. H ow ev er, th e e sc ala ti n g l e gal a nd f in ancia l

sta kes o f c o lle ge s p orts h as b een a cco m panie d b y a s h ift i n A D b ackgro und s a nd s k ill s e ts . C oachin g e xp erie nce re m ain s c o m mon, b ut u niv ers iti e s a re i n cre asin gly p rio riti z in g b usin ess l e ad ers h ip a nd m anagem ent e xp erti s e g ain ed

fr o m a cad em ic a s w ell a s f o r-p ro fit s e tti n gs ( T ra cy & W oody, 2 011 ).

Regard le ss o f w heth er a p ro gra m i s a m em ber o f N CA A D iv is io n I , I I, o r I II o r a no th er a sso cia ti o n, th e r a nge o f

ta sk s a sso cia te d w ith b ein g a c o nte m pora ry c o lle ge A D i s e xte nsiv e. A Ds o vers e e p ro gra m f in ances, o fte n

nego ti a ti n g c o ntr a cts w ith c o rp ora te s p onso rs o r m ed ia , m anagin g c ap ita l p ro je cts , s u p erv is in g ti c ket s a le s, h and lin g

lic ensin g d eals a nd m erc hand is e d is tr ib uti o n, a nd c ulti v ati n g a lu m ni a nd b ooste r d onati o ns. A Ds ty p ic ally h ir e

co aches i n c o nsu lta ti o n w ith th e p re sid ent o r b oard o f tr u ste es; f o r f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all a t b ig -ti m e

pro gra m s, th is d ecis io n i s e sp ecia lly h ig h-s ta kes s in ce h und re d s o f m illio ns o f d olla rs a re a sso cia te d w ith th e

perfo rm ance o f th ese te am s ( B elz e r, 2 013). I n a d diti o n to th e c o aches, A Ds s u p erv is e a s ta ff th at c an n um ber i n th e

hund re d s. B eyo nd th eir d ep artm ent, A Ds a re a k ey l ia is o n to th e c am pus c o m munity , i n clu d in g s tu d ents , p are nts ,

fa culty , a nd a lu m ni, a s w ell a s w ith e xte rn al s ta keho ld ers , i n clu d in g o th er A Ds, th eir c o nfe re nce, a nd th eir

asso cia ti o n ( B urto n & H agan, 2 007). T hey a ls o m onito r p ro gra m c o m plia nce w ith i n sti tu ti o nal, c o nfe re nce, a nd

asso cia ti o n r e q uir e m ents a s w ell a s s ta te a nd f e d era l l a w s.

Of th ese r e sp onsib iliti e s, m ost s c ho la rs a gre e th at th e h ig hest p rio rity f o r D iv is io n I a th le ti c d ir e cto rs to day i s to

genera te r e v enues ( D ud ers ta d t, 2 003; G erd y, 1 997). O ne a th le ti c a d m in is tr a to r a t a m ajo r p ro gra m to ld H offm an

(2 011 ), “ A Ds d o tw o th in gs. T hey r a is e m oney a nd m anage p eo ple ” ( p . 1 8). A Ds h av e a p ers o nal s ta ke i n th eir

pro gra m ’s f in ancia l s u ccess, a s th eir c o ntr a cts a nd c o m pensa ti o n a re ty p ic ally a sso cia te d w ith p ro gra m r e v enues

(M arb urg er, i n p re ss). I t f o llo w s th at A Ds w ill f o cus o n s p orts th at h av e th e p ote nti a l to g enera te r e v enue. I n a s tu d y

of F B S A D c o m pensa ti o n i n 2 010–2011 , M arb urg er ( in p re ss) f o und th at e arn ed b onuse s w ere c o rre la te d w ith th e

fo otb all te am ’s o n-fie ld p erfo rm ance b ut n o t w ith a ny o th er s p ort o r w ith a th le te s’ a cad em ic a chie v em ents . H e

co nclu d ed th at “ an A D h as a v este d i n centi v e to d ev ote m ore ti m e a nd m oney to w ard b uild in g a s u ccessfu l f o otb all

pro gra m th an o th er a lte rn ati v e e nd eav or” ( p . 1 1 ). T his o fte n l e ad s A Ds to p la ce m ore e m phasis o n a th le ti c s u ccess

fo r r e v enue g enera ti n g s p orts c o m pare d to n o nre v enue O ly m pic s p orts ( C ooper & W eig ht, 2 011 ).

Ath le ti c d ir e cto rs w ho se p ro gra m s a re o uts id e o f th e F B S a re m ore l ik ely to s tr e ss e d ucati o nal r a th er th an

co m merc ia lly o rie nte d v alu es. W hen a sk ed b y C ooper a nd W eig ht ( 2 012) to c hara cte riz e th eir o rg aniz a ti o n’s

prio riti e s, D iv is io n I II A Ds i d enti fie d a s m ost e sse nti a l e nsu rin g th at a th le te s h av e a v alu ab le c o lle ge e xp erie nce

both o n a nd o ff th e f ie ld . A ls o h ig hly v alu ed w ere a cad em ic e xcelle nce i n th e c la ssro om , e nsu rin g h ealth a nd s a fe ty

of a th le ti c s ta keho ld ers , a nd d ev elo pin g a c ultu re th at c o ntr ib ute s to th e c am pus’s b ro ad er e d ucati o nal m is sio n. T hat

is n o t to s a y th at b ud gets o r w in nin g l a ck p rio rity — fis c al r e sp onsib ility r a nked s ix th o f e le v en v alu es, a nd a th le ti c

excelle nce r a nked s e v enth — but th ey a re r e la ti v ely l e ss i m porta nt c o m pare d to b ig -ti m e p ro gra m s.

CASE S T U DY

Bin gh am to n U niv ersit y

Bin gham to n U niv ers ity ( B U), p art o f th e S ta te U niv ers ity o f N ew Y ork s y ste m , i s c o nsis te ntl y r a nked a m ong th e to p

50 p ub lic u niv ers iti e s n ati o nw id e a nd k no w n f o r i ts s e le cti v ity . B U a ls o h as a l a rg e i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c p ro gra m .

In 1 995 B U’s I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s B oard p ro pose d th e u niv ers ity m ove f r o m D iv is io n I II to D iv is io n I . T he

Faculty S enate , c o ncern ed a b out f in ancia l c o sts a s w ell a s th e u niv ers ity ’s a cad em ic r e p uta ti o n, v ote d a gain st th e

pro posa l. B U p re sid ent L ois D eF le ur d ecid ed i n f a v or o f th e tr a nsiti o n d esp ite th e f a culty o ppositi o n. T o j o in

Div is io n I , B U p ro vid ed th e N CA A w ith a s e lf- s tu d y r e p ort e xp la in in g i ts a d m is sio ns p ro cess, w hic h a ssig ned

decis io ns to A dm is sio ns O ffic e p ro fe ssio nals i n c o nsu lta ti o n w ith th e F aculty A th le ti c R ep re se nta ti v e a nd p ro vost,

assu rin g th at o nly a th le te s l ik ely to g ra d uate w ould b e a d m itte d ( K aye, 2 010).

BU b ecam e a f u ll m em ber o f D iv is io n I i n 2 001–2002 a nd to ok s e v era l a cti o ns to b ols te r i ts m en’s b ask etb all

te am . T he u niv ers ity o pened a $ 33.1 m illio n a re na i n 2 004. T hre e y ears l a te r, th e p re sid ent a nd a th le ti c d ir e cto r

(A D) r e m oved th e h ead c o ach, w ho se s e v en-y ear r e co rd w as 9 2-1 08 d esp ite g ra d uati n g 7 9% o f h is p la yers . S oon

afte r h is r e p la cem ent, K ev in B ro ad us, w as h ir e d , th e

New Y o rk T im es

p ub lis h ed a c riti c al a rti c le a b out B ro ad us’s

re cru iti n g p ra cti c es a s a n a ssis ta nt a t G eo rg eto w n U niv ers ity , ta rg eti n g s tu d ents w ith f a ilin g g ra d es a t u naccre d ite d

pre p ara to ry s c ho ols . N oneth ele ss, th e p re sid ent a nd A D e xp re sse d s tr o ng s u p port f o r C oach B ro ad us ( K aye, 2 010).

In h is f ir s t y ear, C oach B ro ad us ta rg ete d r e cru its w ith w eak a cad em ic r e co rd s a nd p ast b ehav io ra l m is c o nd uct.

BU’s A dm is sio ns O ffic e o bje cte d , b ut th e b ask etb all s ta ff a nd A D T hir e r i n te rv ened ( c o ntr a ry to th e a d m is sio ns

pro cess o utl in ed i n th e s e lf- s tu d y), n o ti n g th at th e r e cru its m et th e N CA A’s m in im um s ta nd ard s f o r a d m is sio n. T he

FA R, w ho w as a p poin te d b y P re sid ent D eF le ur o n th e A D’s r e co m mend ati o n w hen C oach B ro ad us a rriv ed a t B U,

als o s u p porte d a d m itti n g th e s tu d ents ( K aye, 2 010). The n ext s e aso n, th e

New Y o rk T im es

p ub lis h ed a no th er a rti c le , d eta ilin g th e d im in is h ed a d m is sio ns s ta nd ard s

and a lle gin g th at a th le ti c a d m in is tr a to rs p re ssu re d f a culty to m odify th eir a tte nd ance p olic ie s a nd r a is e g ra d es f o r

pla yers ( T ham el, 2 009). O ff- c o urt i n cid ents i n v olv in g f ig hts , d ru gs/a lc o ho l, a nd th eft w ere a ls o p art o f th e

Tim es

sto ry . N oneth ele ss, th e te am w on th e 2 009 A meric a E ast C onfe re nce ( A EC ) c ham pio nsh ip a nd q ualifie d f o r th e

NCA A to urn am ent. T he p re sid ent a nd A D c o m munic ate d to o th er c o aches th at th ey e xp ecte d m ore A EC

cham pio nsh ip s f r o m a ll B U te am s, a nd d is c ussio ns e nsu ed a b out m ore f le xib ility to r e cru it ta le nte d a th le te s.

Fro m th e s ta rt o f C oach B ro ad us’s te nure , A Ds a nd p re sid ents o f o th er A EC m em ber s c ho ols w ere c o ncern ed th at

th e B U p ro gra m w as h av in g a d ele te rio us e ffe ct o n th e c o nfe re nce’s c ultu re a nd r e p uta ti o n. I n m eeti n gs w ith th ese

co lle agues a nd th e c o nfe re nce c o m mis sio ner, B U’s p re sid ent a nd A D v ehem entl y d efe nd ed th eir c o ach a nd h is

pla yers ( K aye, 2 010).

In S ep te m ber 2 009, tw o b ask etb all te am m em bers w ere f o und i n p osse ssio n o f m ariju ana i n s e p ara te i n cid ents .

Days l a te r, f o ur p la yers u se d a s to le n d eb it c ard to p urc hase m erc hand is e . T he n ext w eek, a p la yer w as a rre ste d f o r

se llin g c o cain e, a n i n cid ent c hara cte riz e d b y B U i n sid ers a s th e “ ti p pin g p oin t” ( K aye, 2 010). A D T hir e r i n str u cte d

Coach B ro ad us to r e m ove th e f iv e p la yers i n v olv ed f r o m th e te am .

The S U N Y c hancello r’s o ffic e i m med ia te ly o rd ere d a n i n d ep end ent i n v esti g ati o n, a nd th e f a llo ut w as s u b sta nti a l.

Pre sid ent D eF le ur f o rc ed A D T hir e r’s r e sig nati o n. C oach B ro ad us w as s u sp end ed , a nd h is c o ntr a ct w as b ought o ut.

The F A R w as r e m oved f r o m h er p ositi o n. P re sid ent D eF le ur, w ho h eld h er p ositi o n s in ce 1 990, r e ti r e d . A lth o ugh th e

NCA A d id n o t i d enti fy a ny m ajo r v io la ti o ns a sso cia te d w ith th e i n cid ents , th e m en’s b ask etb all te am s tr u ggle d a nd ,

over th e n ext f o ur s e aso ns, f in is h ed w ith r e co rd s o f 1 3-1 8, 8 -2 3, 2 -2 9, a nd 3 -2 7 ( T ham el, 2 012).

Im plic a tio n s o f A th le tic D ir e cto r L ea d ersh ip

Sev era l s tu d ie s i n d ic ate th at a n A D’s l e ad ers h ip a ffe cts h o w th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent a s a n o rg aniz a ti o n f u ncti o ns

(B ra nch, 1 990; K ih l, L eb erm an, & S chull, 2 010; S co tt, 1 999). I n a n e xam in ati o n o f th e c hanges i n a D iv is io n I

ath le ti c d ep artm ent th at o ccurre d w hen a n ew A D w as h ir e d , P eachey a nd B urto n ( 2 012) c o nclu d ed :

When M ark , th e n ew a th le tic d ir e cto r, a rriv ed , h e in stille d a c u lt u re b ase d o n tr u st, a cco unta b ilit y , c o m munic atio n a n d

re la tio nsh ip s. H e a ls o in stit u te d a n ew c o re p hilo so phy th at f o cu se d o n p uttin g th e a th le te f ir s t, c allin g o n a ll s ta ff to m ak e

decis io ns b ase d u pon w hat w as in th e b est in te re sts o f th e a th le te . M ark f e lt th at w hile w in nin g w as im porta n t, it w as

se co ndary to c re atin g a p osit iv e s tu den t- a th le te e xp erie n ce. T his w as a c o ncep tu al s h if t f ro m th e p rio r r e gim e, a n d f ro m

th e d om in an t lo gic in th e f ie ld o f D iv is io n I in te rc o lle gia te a th le tic s, w hic h a d vocate s f o r th e im porta n ce o f w in nin g a s a

metr ic . ( p . 1 74)

The A D s h ap es th e c ultu re a nd c lim ate o f h is o r h er d ep artm ent ( S chro ed er, 2 010) a nd h as c o nsid era b le d is c re ti o n

over p olic ie s a nd p ra cti c es th at c an s u p port a th le te s’ p hysic al, m enta l, a nd s o cia l d ev elo pm ent, s u ch a s a cad em ic

su p port s e rv ic es a nd l ife -s k ill p ro gra m s ( K am uso ko & P em berto n, 2 011 ).

FA C ULT Y

Role s, I n te re sts , a n d P rio rit ie s

Most c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s o pera te u nd er a m odel o f d ecis io n m akin g r e fe rre d to a s “ sh are d g o vern ance,” s u ch

th at p re sid ents a nd a d m in is tr a to rs w ork i n c o nsu lta ti o n w ith f a culty to s e t p olic ie s, d efin e s tr a te gie s, a nd a llo cate

re so urc es. A c entr a l g o vern ance r e sp onsib ility o f f a culty i s to u p ho ld a cad em ic s ta nd ard s a nd v alu es a cro ss e v ery

are a o f th eir i n sti tu ti o n, i n clu d in g i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. N oneth ele ss, a th le ti c s i s j u st o ne o f m any g o vern ance

is su es v yin g f o r p ro fe sso rs ’ a tte nti o n. A 2 007 s u rv ey o f f a culty a t 2 3 F B S u niv ers iti e s i n d ic ate d th at m ost b elie v ed

ath le ti c s w as a r e la ti v ely l o w p rio rity f o r th eir c am pus g o vern ance g ro up s ( L aw re nce, H end ric ks, & O tt, 2 007).

Among th e 1 1 a re as i d enti fie d a s m ore p re ssin g c o ncern s w ere r e so urc es f o r r e se arc h, g ra d uate a nd u nd erg ra d uate

pro gra m s;

fa culty s a la rie s, b enefits , a nd p ers o nnel p olic ie s; th e f in ancia l h ealth o f th eir i n sti tu ti o ns; a nd r a cia l/g end er

eq uity . T hese f in d in gs d o n o t n ecessa rily s u ggest th at f a culty l a ck i n te re st i n a th le ti c s ( L aw re nce & O tt, 2 013), b ut

certa in ly th ey h av e a m yria d o f i s su es c o nfr o nti n g th em .

Tho ugh a l o w o vera ll p rio rity , r e se arc h s h o w s th at m ost f a culty m em bers a re c o ncern ed a b out th e a cad em ic

in te grity o f th eir c am pus a th le ti c p ro gra m s. T hey a ls o e m phasiz e th e i m porta nce o f a th le te a cad em ic e xp erie nces,

so cia l- m ora l c iti z e nsh ip d ev elo pm ent, a nd p hysic al w ell- b ein g ( T ra il & C hella d ura i, 2 000). T he a v era ge p ro fe sso r

does n o t a ssig n m uch i m porta nce to a th le ti c p ro gra m g o als th at a re f a rth er r e m oved f r o m h is o r h er i n sti tu ti o n’s acad em ic m is sio n, s u ch a s te am w in -lo ss r e co rd s, w in nin g c ham pio nsh ip s, a th le ti c s a s a s o urc e o f e nte rta in m ent, o r

usin g i n te rc o lle gia te p ro gra m s a s a m eans f o r th e U nite d S ta te s to d ev elo p i ts O ly m pic s p orts a nd c o m pete o n a

glo bal l e v el ( T ra il & C hella d ura i, 2 000; W olfe & P utl e r, 2 002).

Pro fe sso rs s e rv e i n s e v era l f o rm al l e ad ers h ip r o le s r e la te d to th e g o vern ance o f th eir c am pus i n te rc o lle gia te

pro gra m s. A ll N CA A, N AIA , a nd N JC A A m em bers a re r e q uir e d to a p poin t a f a culty a th le ti c s r e p re se nta ti v e ( F A R)

(R id path & A bney, 2 012). T he f u ll r a nge o f F A R r e sp onsib iliti e s v arie s f r o m c am pus to c am pus, b ut N CA A F A Rs

re p ort th at th e l a rg est p ro porti o n o f th eir ti m e i s s p ent o n a cad em ic i s su es, i n clu d in g m onito rin g a nd c erti fy in g a th le te

elig ib ility a s s e t b y a sso cia ti o n, c o nfe re nce, a nd i n sti tu ti o nal r e q uir e m ents , a s w ell a s p ro vid in g c o unse l w hen

ath le te s e xp erie nce a cad em ic p ro ble m s ( F ulk s, 2 008). F A Rs a ls o a ssis t w ith c o m plia nce a cti v iti e s, s u ch a s

in v esti g ati n g r u le s v io la ti o ns, c o nd ucti n g c o aches’ c erti fic ati o ns, a nd e xecuti n g w aiv ers a nd a p peals .

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

Facu lt y L ea d ersh ip

We a sk ed a f o rm er B ig 1 0 f a cu lty a th le tic s r e p re se n ta tiv e t o r e fle ct o n w hat f a cu lty l e a dersh ip c a n a cco m plis h

with r e sp ect t o i n te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic s

We h av e a lm ost z e ro i n flu ence o n m oney i s su es. I n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s i s a h uge f in ancia l j u ggern aut. I f o ught th e

tw elfth f o otb all g am e a nd I tr ie d to ta lk e v ery b ody, i n clu d in g [ th e u niv ers ity p re sid ent] i n to v oti n g a gain st i t. T here

are a d oze n r e aso ns w hy w e s h o uld n’t h av e a tw elfth f o otb all g am e. I l o st th at b ig ti m e, a nd i t w as f o r f in ancia l

re aso ns. A f o otb all w eekend h ere i s $ 4 m illio n, a nd th e u niv ers ity n eed ed th e $ 4 m illio n. T here w asn ’t a n e asy

alte rn ate w ay o f g etti n g th at m oney. F ootb all f u nd s o ur o th er p ro gra m s h ere . S o th at w as i t.

Anyth in g b earin g d ir e ctl y o n a cad em ic s, l ik e m is se d c la ss ti m e a nd a d m is sio ns, s h o uld c le arly b e s e t b y f a culty ,

perio d. T ho se tw o th in gs s tr ik e a t th e c o re o f th e i n te grity o f a th le ti c s— th e k id s a re i n c la ss, a nd th ey’v e g o t r e al

stu d ents a t th at i n sti tu ti o n. F aculty s h o uld h av e h uge i n flu ence o n th e n um ber o f p re sid enti a l a d m its a nd th e g uid elin es

th at a re u se d f o r a d m itti n g a th le te s. A t a l o t o f i n sti tu ti o ns th at’ s b ehin d th e s c enes, a nd n o body k no w s e xactl y h o w i t

hap pens.

Getti n g i n fo rm ati o n to f a culty o n c ru cia l i s su es l ik e a d m is sio ns i s a to ugh n ut to c ra ck. A no th er p la ce f o r s u nsh in e

th at’ s i m porta nt i s a th le te m ajo rs . O n m ost c am puse s, f a culty h av e n o i d ea w here th e a th le te s a re , w heth er th ey’re

majo rin g i n , a s f a culty th in k, b ask et w eav in g. I l o bbie d [ m y A D] f o r th e tr a nsp are ncy o n m ajo rs . H e d id n’t w ant to d o

it. T he r e aso n w as n o t th at h e w as a fr a id o f th e d ata , b ut h e w as a fr a id o f th e p re ss. O ne o f th e g re ate st w orrie s o f a ny

AD i s th at th e m ed ia w ill ta ke h o ld o f a l ittl e n ugget o f i n fo rm ati o n a nd tw is t i t a nd e nd u p g etti n g n egati v e h ead lin es

fo r a w eek. I s a id , d on’t w orry a b out i t; w e n eed to h av e i t o ut th ere . T here ’s m ore to g ain b y s u n s h in in g o n th is th an

to h av e f a culty s p re ad in g r u m ors a b out w here w e’re p utti n g o ur a th le te s. I ’ v e b een r e p orti n g to th e f a culty s e nate o n

ath le te m ajo rs f o r s ix y ears n o w , a nd i t’ s g o ne f in e. T ra nsp are ncy o ver a cad em ic s i s a b ig i s su e th at’ s i m porta nt to

fa culty .

The m ost p ro m in ent f a culty l e ad ers h ip p ositi o n i s th e F A R, b ut o th er p ro fe sso rs a re a ls o i n v olv ed i n a th le ti c s

go vern ance. T ho ugh n o t r e q uir e d b y th e N CA A, m ost i n sti tu ti o ns h av e a c am pus a th le ti c s b oard c o m pris in g f a culty ,

ad m in is tr a to rs , s tu d ents , a nd a lu m ni th at a d vis e th e a th le ti c d ir e cto r o r p re sid ent. T he N CA A ( 2 012) m and ate s th at i f

an a th le ti c s b oard e xis ts , m ost o f i ts m em bers m ust b e a cad em ic a d m in is tr a to rs a nd f a culty . S om e b oard s a re a

sta nd in g c o m mitte e o f th e i n sti tu ti o n’s f a culty s e nate , w hile o th er c am puse s h av e a s e p ara te s u b co m mitte e o f th eir

fa culty s e nate d ed ic ate d to a th le ti c s ( G erd y, 1 997). C am pus a th le ti c b oard s a nd f a culty s e nate s o fte n m onito r d ata

re la te d to a th le te a d m is sio ns, a cad em ic p ro gre ss, a nd g ra d uati o n a nd r e v ie w i n sti tu ti o nal p olic ie s p erta in in g to th e

ath le te e xp erie nce s u ch a s p ra cti c e a nd tr a v el s c hed ule s ( N ic ho ls , C orrig an, & H ard in , 2 011 ).

The r o le o f f a culty l e ad ers h ip i n a th le ti c s i s p rim arily a d vis o ry r a th er th an i n a d ir e ct d ecis io n-m akin g c ap acity

(C lo tf e lte r, 2 011 ; D ud ers ta d t, 2 003). A 2 010 s u rv ey b y th e C oaliti o n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s f o und th at w hen

majo r a th le ti c s d ecis io ns a re m ad e ( e .g ., h ir in g o f k ey p ers o nnel, c hanges i n s p orts , i n iti a ti o n o f c ap ita l p ro je cts ),

fa culty s e nate l e ad ers a re c o nsu lte d a t o nly 1 9% o f F B S u niv ers iti e s ( N ic ho ls e t a l., 2 011 ). A ppro xim ate ly h alf o f th e

sc ho ols i n clu d e c am pus a th le ti c s b oard s i n s u ch c o nv ers a ti o ns, w hile 6 8% c o nfe r w ith th e F A R. A nd w hile r e se arc h

su ggests th at F A Rs g enera lly f e el s a ti s fie d w ith th eir a b ility to e nsu re a cad em ic i n te grity a nd s u p port a th le te s o n th eir

cam puse s ( F ulk s, 2 008), s o m e f a culty i n c am pus l e ad ers h ip p ositi o ns h av e b een c riti c iz e d f o r b ein g o verly

perm is siv e to th e d em and s o f a th le ti c a d m in is tr a to rs a nd c o aches w ho h av e l ittl e r e gard f o r a cad em ic s ( L aw re nce e t al., 2 007).

Im plic a tio n s o f F acu lt y L ea d ersh ip

Littl e r e se arc h e xis ts e xam in in g c o lle ge a th le te r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith f a culty i n th e f o rm al g o vern ance r o le s j u st

desc rib ed ( i.e ., F A Rs, a th le ti c s b oard s, s e nate c o m mitte es), b ut r e alis ti c ally , e ach p ro gra m h as o nly o ne o r

so m eti m es tw o F A Rs b ut o fte n h und re d s o f a th le te s. F or m ost a th le te s, th eir m ost f r e q uent c o nta ct w ith p ro fe sso rs

co m es th ro ugh th eir c o urs e s. W hile s o m e p erc eiv e th at th eir i n str u cto rs u nfa ir ly s te re o ty p e th em o n th eir s ta tu s a s

ath le te s ( S im ons, B osw orth , F ujita , & J e nse n, 2 007), s e v era l s tu d ie s d em onstr a te th at m ost a re s a ti s fie d w ith th eir

in te ra cti o ns w ith f a culty ( K am uso ko & P em berto n, 2 011 ; W illia m s, C olle s, & A lle n, 2 010). C olle ge a th le te s

ty p ic ally i d enti fy th eir c o aches a nd p ro fe ssio nal a cad em ic a d vis o rs a s th e s tr o ngest i n flu ences o n th eir a cad em ic

exp erie nces ( B ell, 2 009), b ut th ey a ls o c re d it f a culty

fo r e nco ura gin g th eir a cad em ic a sp ir a ti o ns a nd o ffe rin g c are er

ad vic e ( M arti n , H arris o n, & B ukste in , 2 010). T hese r e la ti o nsh ip s m ay tr a nsla te d ir e ctl y i n to a cad em ic s u ccess.

Rese arc h b y H arris o n, C om eaux, a nd P le cha ( 2 006), C om eaux a nd H arris o n ( 2 006), a nd C om eaux a nd H arris o n

(2 007) d em onstr a te s th at a th le te s w ho se p ro fe sso rs c halle nged th em i n te lle ctu ally , e nco ura ged g ra d uate s c ho ol, a nd

su p porte d th eir p ro fe ssio nal g o als h av e h ig her G PA s d urin g c o lle ge c o m pare d to a th le te s w ho se i n te ra cti o ns w ith

fa culty a re m in im al.

CO AC H ES

Role s, I n te re sts , a n d P rio rit ie s

Most o bse rv ers a nd s c ho la rs a gre e th at c o lle ge c o aches’ to p p rio rity i s to w in g am es ( G erd y, 1 997). C oaches a re

more l ik ely to b e d is m is se d w hen th eir te am s l o se ( H olm es, 2 011 ; M ix o n & T re v in o , 2 004), a nd th e te rm s s e t o ut i n

th eir c o ntr a cts m ost h eav ily r e w ard te am s’ o n-fie ld p erfo rm ance r e la ti v e to o th er c rite ria , s u ch a s a cad em ic

perfo rm ance, a th le te b ehav io r, r e cru it q uality , r e v enue p erfo rm ance, o r a th le te s a ti s fa cti o n ( C unnin gham & D ix o n,

2003; P utl e r & W olfe , 1 999; W ils o n & B urk e, 2 013). F or e xam ple , W ils o n a nd B urk e ( 2 013) o bse rv ed th at 4 2 o ut o f

45 D iv is io n I m en’s b ask etb all c o aches h ad i n centi v e c la use s f o r a th le ti c p erfo rm ance, w hile o nly 2 8 h ad a cad em ic -

re la te d i n centi v e c la use s. C olle ge a th le te s a re o fte n a w are o f th is r e w ard s tr u ctu re a nd i ts l ik ely e ffe ct o n th eir

co aches’ p rio riti e s. A n a th le te f r o m th e U niv ers ity o f C alifo rn ia , B erk ele y to ld M arti n , H arris o n, a nd B ukste in

(2 010), L et’ s b e r e al. T hese c o aches a re h ere to w in f o otb all g am es. T hey g et h and sh akes f o r m akin g s u re th at w e

gra d uate , b ut g et p aid m illio ns o f d olla rs f o r h av in g w in nin g s e aso ns. I t’ s a ll a b out th e m oney” ( p . 2 88). E ven o uts id e

of r e v enue g enera ti n g s p orts a t m ajo r p ro gra m s, c o aches a re p re ssu re d to s u cceed o n th e p la yin g f ie ld . I n a c ase

stu d y o f a p riv ate D iv is io n I I s c ho ol’s v alu es, N ite ( 2 012) q uo te s th e h ead w om en’s b ask etb all c o ach, “ I m ean, i t

co m es d ow n to i t ( w in s a nd l o sse s) a nd y o u k no w , th at i s m y j o b. O ur j o b i s to w in g am es” ( p . 9 ).

Yet to s u cceed o n th e p la yin g f ie ld , c o lle ge c o aches m ust a ls o e nco ura ge a th le te s’ a cad em ic s u ccess. C om peti ti v e

asso cia ti o ns e sta b lis h b ase lin e l e v els o f th e te am m em bers ’ p ro gre ss to w ard th eir d egre es, a nd w hen g o als a re n o t

met, p enalti e s m ay i n clu d e r e d uced p ra cti c e h o urs , c o m peti ti o n p enalti e s, c o achin g s u sp ensio ns, f in ancia l a id

re d ucti o ns, o r o th er m em bers h ip r e str ic ti o ns. I n d iv id ual a th le te s w ho d o n o t m eet m in im um g ra d e p oin t a v era ge o r

co urs e p assa ge r a te s m ay b e d ecla re d i n elig ib le to p la y. S uch s a ncti o ns c o uld e asily i m pair a te am ’s o n-fie ld

perfo rm ance, s o to e nsu re th eir te am s m ake a d eq uate a cad em ic p ro gre ss, c o aches m ay m onito r c la ss a tte nd ance a nd

stu d y h alls , r e q uest p ro gre ss r e p orts f r o m f a culty , a nd a d vis e a th le te s o n a cad em ic m ajo r a nd c o urs e c ho ic es ( A dle r

& A dle r, 1 991). S tu d ie s s h o w th at c o aches a ls o u se a cad em ic s s tr a te gic ally a s a r e cru iti n g to ol th at e sp ecia lly

ap peals to p are nts ( B ell, 2 009; M arti n e t a l., 2 010; R id path , 2 006).

Many c o aches r e co gniz e th e v alu e o f e arn in g a c o lle ge d egre e f o r th eir a th le te s’ l o nger-te rm s u ccess. I n r e sp onse

to a K nig ht C om mis sio n p oll, 9 3% o f N CA A D iv is io n I c o aches s a id “ m akin g s u re s tu d ent- a th le te s g et a n e d ucati o n”

sh o uld b e th e p rim ary g o al o f a b ig -ti m e a th le ti c p ro gra m ( L ou H arris & A sso cia te s, 1 990). T his m essa ge r e so nate s

with th e m ajo rity o f a th le te s. T he N CA A’s 2 010 S C O RE s u rv ey i n d ic ate d th at 6 9% o f a th le te s b elie v ed th eir c o aches

id enti fie d g ra d uati o n a s a h ig h p rio rity ( B ro w n, 2 011 ). A s tu d y o f D iv is io n I f o otb all p la yers ’ a cad em ic e xp erie nces

by B ell ( 2 009) i n d ic ate d th at c o aches w ere v ery h o nest w ith a th le te s a b out th eir c hances o f p la yin g p ro fe ssio nally

and e m phasiz e d th e i m porta nce o f d egre e c o m ple ti o n i n p re p arin g m ost f o r a p ost- c o lle ge c are er.

Im plic a tio n s o f C oach es’ L ea d ersh ip

Colle ge a th le te s a ssig n a h ig h p rio rity to h av in g s o und r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith th eir c o aches ( W ang, C hen, & J i, 2 004). Acco rd in g to th e N CA A’s 2 010 G OALS s u rv ey o f a lm ost 2 0,0 00 a th le te s, m ore th an h alf c ho se to a tte nd th eir

in sti tu ti o n p rim arily b ecause o f th e h ead c o ach f o r th eir s p ort ( P etr , P ask us, & M ir a nd a, 2 011 ). C oaches c o nti n ue to

be a n i m mense p re se nce th ro ugho ut th e c o lle ge e xp erie nce; N CA A D iv is io n I , I I, a nd I II a th le te s r e p ort s p end in g

betw een 2 9 to 4 3 h o urs p er w eek o n a th le ti c a cti v iti e s i n -s e aso n ( P etr e t a l., 2 011 ). F or m any a th le te s, th is

ded ic ati o n r e su lts i n th e d ev elo pm ent o f m eanin gfu l r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith th eir c o aches. R ese arc h s h o w s th at c o aches’

le ad ers h ip i s a sso cia te d w ith a th le te s’ s a ti s fa cti o n w ith th eir e xp erie nces i n th eir s p ort ( A oyagi, C ox & M cG uir e ,

2008). M ore o ver, a th le te s w ho c hara cte riz e th eir c o aches i n p ositi v e te rm s r e p ort h av in g h ig her l e v els o f a cad em ic

su ccess ( M eno n, L oya, & R ankin , 2 012).

Not a ll c o aches h av e a p ositi v e i m pact o n th eir a th le te s’ w ell- b ein g. I n th e 2 010 N CA A G OALS s u rv ey, a th le te s

were a sk ed to n am e th e o ne th in g th at th ey w ould m ost l ik e to c hange a b out th eir c o lle gia te e xp erie nce, a nd 1 1 % o f

re sp ond ents i d enti fie d s o m e a sp ect r e la te d to c o achin g ( P etr e t a l., 2 011 ). C olle ge a th le te s d esc rib e p oor c o aches i n

te rm s o f s p ort- re la te d k no w le d ge, th at i s , a n i n ab ility to i m part m enta l, ta cti c al, o r te chnic al s k ills , a s w ell a s

bro ad er f a ilu re s to p ro vid e e m oti o nal s u p port, e ffe cti v ely i m part “ life l e sso ns,” a nd r o le -m odel s tr o ng c hara cte r

(G earity , 2 011 , 2 012). I n r e sp onse , a th le te s f e el th at th eir c o gniti v e s k ills a re i n hib ite d ( e .g ., th ey a re d is tr a cte d , h av e

se lf- d oub ts , l a ck m oti v ati o n), a nd te am d ynam ic s m ay s u ffe r ( G earity & M urra y, 2 011 ). A ls o , w hen c o aches a re

overly c riti c al o r p la ce i n te nse p re ssu re o n th eir te am s to p erfo rm , a th le te s h av e a h ig her l ik elih o od o f b urn in g o ut

(G ould & W hitl e y, 2 009).

Even f o r th o se a th le te s w ho r e p ort a p ositi v e r e la ti o nsh ip w ith th eir c o aches, s o m e o bse rv ers e xp re ss c o ncern

th at c o aches’ r o le s c an b eco m e o uts iz e d . I n th eir f o ur-y ear s tu d y o f a D iv is io n I m en’s b ask etb all te am , A dle r a nd

Adle r ( 1 991) d esc rib ed h o w c o aches n o t o nly c o ntr o lle d p la yers ’ d ev elo pm ent a s a th le te s b ut a ls o e xerte d a s tr o ng

in flu ence o ver th eir a cad em ic a nd s o cia l a cti v iti e s, p rio riti e s, a nd r e la ti o nsh ip s, u lti m ate ly n arro w in g th eir c o lle ge

exp erie nce to b e p rim arily a th le ti c -fo cuse d .

More o ver, i n th e N CA A D iv is io ns I a nd I I, w here s c ho la rs h ip s a re

aw ard ed f o r a th le ti c a b ility , c o aches d ecid e o n a n a nnual b asis to r e new o r r e v oke th eir a th le te s’ a id . S om e c riti c s

opin e th is g iv es c o aches to o m uch p ow er, c o m pellin g a th le te s to p arti c ip ate i n “ o pti o nal” o ff- s e aso n w ork o uts o r

te am -re la te d ta sk s ( S perb er, 2 000). G erd y ( 2 006) a d vis e s th at w hile c o aches a re n atu ra lly a n i n flu enti a l p re se nce i n

th eir c o lle ge e xp erie nce, a th le te s s h o uld b e e nco ura ged to s e ek a d diti o nal c o unse l o uts id e th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent

fr o m f a m ily , f r ie nd s, a nd f a culty .

CO NCLU SIO N

Lead in g a n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c p ro gra m i n v olv es m ulti p le s ta keho ld er g ro up s w ith s o m eti m es c o m peti n g

in te re sts . P re sid ents a re p rim arily i n te re ste d i n h o w a th le ti c s c an c o ntr ib ute to i n sti tu ti o nal o bje cti v es, n am ely i ts

pote nti a l to e nhance th e s c ho ol’s o vera ll r e p uta ti o n a nd c ulti v ate d ono rs . Y et p re sid ents a ls o a re c o ncern ed th at a

poorly r u n a th le ti c p ro gra m c an b e r e p uta ti o nally a nd f in ancia lly c o stl y . A th le ti c d ir e cto rs , e sp ecia lly th o se m anagin g

majo r p ro gra m s, a re f o cuse d o n g enera ti n g r e v enues to s u p port th e e nte rp ris e . A t s m alle r i n sti tu ti o ns, A Ds p la ce

re la ti v ely s tr o nger e m phasis o n e d ucati o nal v alu es a nd th e a th le te e xp erie nce. T he to p p rio rity f o r c o aches a t a ll

le v els i s to a chie v e s u ccess o n th e p la yin g f ie ld , th o ugh m ost a ls o s u p port th eir p la yers ’ a cad em ic s u ccess a nd s tr e ss

th e i m porta nce o f g ra d uati o n. F aculty m em bers a re i n te re ste d c hie fly i n e nsu rin g th e a cad em ic i n te grity o f th eir

in sti tu ti o ns a nd s u p porti n g s tu d ents ’ e d ucati o nal e xp erie nces. W hile th ere a re m any i n sta nces w here th e l e ad ers h ip o f

pre sid ents , a th le ti c d ir e cto rs , c o aches, a nd f a culty h as e nhanced a th le te s’ w ell- b ein g, th is i s n o t a lw ays th e c ase .

Colle ge s p orts to day f a ce m any c halle nges, n o t th e l e ast o f w hic h i s h o w to n ego ti a te th e d iv erg in g p rio riti e s a nd

in te re sts o f c am pus l e ad ers h ip g ro up s.

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

I n th e c ase o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, s h o uld e ach o f th e l e ad ers h ip s ta keho ld ers d is c usse d i n th is c hap te r h av e

eq ual c o nsid era ti o n, o r a re th ere i n sta nces w here c erta in g ro up s s h o uld h av e m ore a uth o rity o r i m porta nce th an

oth ers ?

R ese arc h s u ggests th at th e r e w ard s y ste m f o r i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c l e ad ers h as a b earin g o n th eir p rio riti e s. H ow

mig ht th e c urre nt s tr u ctu re b e m odifie d to m ore s tr o ngly e m phasiz e c o lle ge a th le te w ell- b ein g?

New Y o rk T im es

c o lu m nis t J o e N ocera ( 2 013) a rg ues th at “ b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts i s a s e rio us b usin ess th at h as to

be m anaged b y b usin ess e xecuti v es w ho h av e a n e xp erti s e i n s p orts m anagem ent” ( p . A 23). D o y o u a gre e w ith th is

asse rti o n? Note

1 . F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n ( F B S) i s a d esig nati o n th at a p plie s to D iv is io n I ( D I) s c ho ols w ith v ars ity

in te rc o lle gia te f o otb all p ro gra m s c o m peti n g n ati o nally f o r a n o pportu nity to p arti c ip ate i n a s e rie s o f p osts e aso n

bow l g am es. F B S s c ho ols m ust m eet s p ecific N CA A r e gula ti o ns r e gard in g a th le te s c ho la rs h ip s a nd h o m e f o otb all

gam e a tte nd ance ( N CA A, 2 012).

Refe re n ces

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, 1 54–178.

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co lle gia te l e v el.

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(2 ), 1 77–200.

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su p port s e rv ic es.

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, 2 11 –233.

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in centi v es f o r a th le ti c a nd a cad em ic te am p erfo rm ance b etw een 2 009 a nd 2 012.

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fr o m

http ://c hro nic le .c o m /a rti c le /W ho s-in -C harg e-o f- S ports -/1 34046/

C H APTER

E TH IC AL I S SU ES i n I N TE R CO LLEG IA TE A TH LETIC S

P urp ose A ch ie ved o r C halle n ged ?

A ngela L um pkin

K EY T ER M S

am ate uris m

stu dent-a th le te

aca dem ic s u cce ss

co m merc ia lis m

re co m mendatio ns

T he N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n’s ( N CA A) p urp ose i s “ to m ain ta in i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a s a n

i n te gra l p art o f th e e d ucati o nal p ro gra m a nd th e a th le te a s a n i n te gra l p art o f th e s tu d ent b ody a nd , b y s o d oin g, r e ta in

a c le ar l in e o f d em arc ati o n b etw een i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd p ro fe ssio nal s p orts ” ( N CA A, 2 012–2013, p . 1 ).

A mong i ts e sse nti a l p rin cip le s h av e b een i n sti tu ti o nal c o ntr o l a nd r e sp onsib ility , s tu d ent- a th le te w elfa re ,

s p orts m ansh ip a nd e th ic al c o nd uct, s o und a cad em ic s ta nd ard s, r u le s c o m plia nce, a m ate uris m , e lig ib ility , a nd

f in ancia l a id ( N CA A, 2 012–2013). T his c hap te r f o cuse s o n e th ic al i s su es a sso cia te d w ith a nd p ote nti a lly th re ate nin g

t h ese p rin cip le s.

Unlik e i n o th er c o untr ie s, h ig her e d ucati o n i n th e U nite d S ta te s s p onso rs i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts te am s, c o nte nd in g

t h at a th le ti c c o m peti ti o ns e nhanced s tu d ents ’ e d ucati o nal e xp erie nces. S elf- d is c ip lin e, te am w ork , r e sp onsib ility ,

c o m mitm ent, l e arn in g h o w to l e ad a nd f o llo w , c hara cte r d ev elo pm ent, a nd l e arn in g l ife l e sso ns a re v alu es b enefiti n g

c o lle ge a th le te s to ute d b y N CA A r e p re se nta ti v es, c o lle ge p re sid ents , a th le ti c a d m in is tr a to rs , a nd c o aches. H ow ev er,

w hile m ost p eo ple b elie v e a th le te s’ c o lle gia te e xp erie nces a re e nric hed th ro ugh s p orts c o m peti ti o ns, o th ers q uesti o n

w heth er e th ic al m is c o nd uct a nd m is p la ced p rio riti e s th re ate ned p ositi v e o utc o m es.

Num ero us j u sti fic ati o ns h av e b een a d vanced f o r w hy c o lle ges s h o uld s p onso r c o m peti ti v e s p orts te am s. T om a

( 1 999) s ta te s th at h ig h-p ro file i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s s e rv e a s e ffe cti v e to ols f o r e xte rn al r e la ti o ns b y h elp in g s h ap e

f a v ora b le i n sti tu ti o nal i d enti ti e s a nd s ta tu s. M arq uee f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all te am s, h e s u ggests , g arn er s u p port

f r o m m ajo r d ono rs a nd a nnual f u nd c o ntr ib uto rs , g ain i n cre ase d

le gis la ti v e a p pro pria ti o ns, a nd a ttr a ct p ro sp ecti v e

s tu d ents . I n cre ase d s ta te a p pro pria ti o ns, c la im A le xand er a nd K ern ( 2 010), a ccru e p rim arily to i n sti tu ti o ns w ith

w in nin g f o otb all o r m en’s b ask etb all te am s c o m peti n g a t th e h ig hest c o m peti ti v e l e v el.

Marti n ez, S ti n so n, K ang, a nd J u b env ille ( 2 010) i n th eir m eta -a naly sis o f 3 0 y ears o f e m pir ic al s tu d ie s a b out

i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s r e p ort a s m all, b ut s ig nific ant, i n flu ence o n i n sti tu ti o nal f u nd ra is in g, e sp ecia lly r e la ti v e to

s u ccess i n f o otb all i n i n sti tu ti o ns c o m peti n g a t th e h ig hest l e v el. A le xand er a nd K ern ( 2 010) a gre e w ith M arti n ez e t

a l. ( 2 010) th at s u ccess i n b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts i n cre ase s p ub lic a w are ness, a ffo rd s p ric ele ss a d verti s in g, a nd

e nhances i n sti tu ti o nal p re sti g e w hile p ro vid in g o pportu niti e s f o r g ain in g f in ancia l s u p port f r o m d ono rs a nd

p oliti c ia ns. I n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, D esro chers ( 2 013) a d ds, “ p ro vid e n o nfin ancia l b enefits th at a re i m porta nt to

i n sti tu ti o ns, s u ch a s c am pus s p ir it, n am e r e co gniti o n, a nd r e p uta ti o n” ( p . 2 ). B ut, s h e c auti o ns, th e b enefits a sso cia te d

w ith a p plic ati o ns, e nro llm ents , o r f u nd ra is in g a re m odest a nd o fte n s h o rt- liv ed b onuse s l in ked w ith c ham pio nsh ip

s e aso ns. F ra nk ( 2 004) e m phasiz e s th at h is e xam in ati o n o f e m pir ic al l ite ra tu re r e v eale d l ittl e , i f a ny, s y ste m ati c

i m pact o n a cad em ic q uality o f f r e sh m en; a nd , i f a lu m ni g iv in g a nd s u ccess i n b ig -ti m e c o lle ge a th le ti c s w ere r e la te d ,

t h is o ccurre d i n o nly a f e w i n sti tu ti o ns w ith s m all a nd tr a nsito ry e ffe cts . C ounte rin g th ese p ositi v es o f w hate v er

m agnitu d e, n um ero us u neth ic al a cti o ns a sso cia te d w ith c o lle ge s p orts th re ate n th eir p opula rity a nd s ta tu s. Univ ers ity p re sid ents q uesti o n w heth er i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s d is to rt th e i d eal o f s p orts f o r s p orts ’ s a ke a nd

warp th e v alu es o f th e a cad em y ( N CA A, 2 006). N um ero us e th ic al c o ncern s a nd N CA A r u le v io la ti o ns c iti n g l a ck o f

in sti tu ti o nal c o ntr o l i n r e cent y ears , s u ch a s a t th e U niv ers ity o f S outh ern C alifo rn ia , U niv ers ity o f M ia m i, O hio S ta te

Univ ers ity , U niv ers ity o f N orth C aro lin a, R utg ers U niv ers ity , P ennsy lv ania S ta te U niv ers ity , a nd O kla ho m a S ta te

Univ ers ity , h av e e lic ite d p ub lic i r e a nd i m plic ate d g o vern in g b oard s a nd p re sid ents f o r n o t e xerc is in g r e sp onsib le

fid ucia ry a nd o pera ti o nal o vers ig ht o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c p ro gra m s.

Rep orts i n 2 009 a nd 2 012 i s su ed b y th e A sso cia ti o n o f G overn in g B oard s o f U niv ers iti e s a nd C olle ges ( A GB)

call f o r e sta b lis h m ent a nd m ain te nance o f h ig her s ta nd ard s o f i n te grity , tr u st, a nd a cco unta b ility . S pecific ally th e

AGB i n sis ts o n a th le ti c d ep artm ent c o ngru ence w ith e ach i n sti tu ti o n’s a cad em ic m is sio n a nd v alu es, a cad em ic

achie v em ent o f a th le te s, a nd c o m plia nce w ith n ati o nal, c o nfe re nce, a nd i n sti tu ti o nal p olic ie s a nd r u le s. G re en,

Ja sc hik , a nd L ed erm an ( 2 012) s u rv eyed c o lle ge p re sid ents a nd r e p orte d th eir a gre em ent o r d is a gre em ent w ith

se v era l k ey s ta te m ents d ealin g w ith i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. A cro ss a ll th re e N CA A d iv is io ns, 7 5% a gre ed o r

str o ngly a gre ed w ith th is s ta te m ent: “ C olle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s s p end w ay to o m uch m oney o n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c

pro gra m s.” M ore th an tw o-th ir d s ( 6 7.8 % ) a gre ed /s tr o ngly a gre ed w ith “ T he a th le ti c s c and als o f th e p ast y ear h av e

hurt th e r e p uta ti o n o f a ll h ig her e d ucati o n, n o t j u st th e i n sti tu ti o ns i n v olv ed .” N early h alf ( 4 8.2 % ) a gre ed /s tr o ngly

agre ed w ith th is s ta te m ent: “ S cand als a re i n ev ita b le i n b ig -ti m e c o lle ge a th le ti c s.” P ossib ly m ost d is c o ncerti n g w as

only 1 3.1 % a gre ed o r s tr o ngly

agre ed w ith “ T he p re sid ents o f b ig -ti m e a th le ti c p ro gra m s a re i n c o ntr o l o f th eir

pro gra m s” ( p . 1 5).

Calls f o r g re ate r i n sti tu ti o nal c o ntr o l a nd i n te grity s u ggest a ll i s n o t w ell w ith i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. E sp ouse d

valu es i n to o m any c ase s h av e b een r e p la ced b y e th ic al m is c o nd uct d riv en b y i n cessa nt q uests f o r v ic to rie s a nd

re v enues. F or th is c hap te r’s e xam in ati o n o f e th ic al i s su es i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s, I s e le cte d f o ur p ro vocati v e

are as f o r i n v esti g ati o n. F ir s t, a nd p ossib ly m ost c o ntr o vers ia l, i s w heth er th e N CA A’s s ta unch a d here nce to

am ate uris m i s e sse nti a l to th e e nte rp ris e o f c o lle ge s p orts ? S eco nd , i n extr ic ab ly l in ked w ith a m ate uris m h as b een th e

NCA A’s i n sis te nce u p on r e fe rrin g to p la yers a s

stu den t- a th le te s

, e v en th o ugh th is l a b el s e em s e sp ecia lly i n ane a nd

arc haic g iv en th e n um ber o f h o urs d ed ic ate d b y a th le te s to th eir s p orts . T hir d , e v en th o ugh l e arn in g a nd a cad em ic

su ccess r e m ain h ig her e d ucati o n’s m is sio n, i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s m ay h av e s u p pla nte d a n e d ucati o nal m odel w ith a

busin ess m odel l e ad in g to e th ic al m is c o nd uct a nd e ro sio n i n a cad em ic a chie v em ent. F ourth , i n cre ase d

co m merc ia liz a ti o n d ue to th e m illio ns o f d olla rs a sso cia te d w ith c o lle ge s p orts , a lo ng w ith p ossib le f in ancia l

exp lo ita ti o n o f f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yers , m ay c hara cte riz e a n u nsu sta in ab le a rm s r a ce a nd w in nin g-a t-

any-c o st e th o s d estr u cti v e to th e v alu es o f e v ery o ne i n v olv ed . T en r e co m mend ati o ns a re p ro vid ed i n th e f in al s e cti o n

of th is c hap te r to o ffe r h o pe f o r e lim in ati n g m ost o f th e u neth ic al c o nd uct c urre ntl y n egati v ely a ffe cti n g th e m ora l

valu es p ote nti a lly a sso cia te d w ith i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s.

HYPO CRIS Y O F A M AT EU RIS M ?

The N CA A’s b ed ro ck p rin cip le o f a m ate uris m w as f o und ed o n th e B riti s h u p per-c la ss b elie f th at a m ate urs w ho

pla yed s p orts f o r e njo ym ent s h o uld n o t c o m pete a gain st l o w er-c la ss o pponents w ho w ere p aid to p la y. T his

nin ete enth -c entu ry p ers p ecti v e h eld i n v io la te th at r e ceiv in g m oneta ry c o m pensa ti o n ta in te d s p orts . R efle cti n g th is

Briti s h a m ate ur i d eal, th e N CA A’s f ir s t d efin iti o n o f a m ate uris m i n 1 916 d esc rib ed a n a m ate ur a s “ o ne w ho

parti c ip ate s i n c o m peti ti v e p hysic al s p orts o nly f o r th e p le asu re , a nd th e p hysic al, m enta l, m ora l a nd s o cia l b enefits

deriv ed th ere fr o m ” ( Z im balis t & S ack, 2 013, p . 3 ). I n d esc rib in g a m ate ur s p orts , D av is ( 1 994) c la im s c o lle ge

ath le te s a re a d m ir e d f o r e xhib iti n g v alu es l ik e s e lfle ssn ess, d ev oti o n, s a crific e, a nd p urity s im ila r to h o w u p per-c la ss

Briti s h m ale s w ere v ie w ed . Y et, g iv en th e m oney a sso cia te d w ith c o lle ge s p orts p la yed a t th e h ig hest c o m peti ti v e

le v el, D av is c o nclu d es a m ate uris m i s o utd ate d a nd v acuo us. A ddin g to th is , B ra nch ( 2 011 ), i n h is r iv eti n g e xp osé o f

th e m yth o f a m ate uris m i n c o lle ge s p orts , e m phasiz e s th at “ it’ s th at tw o o f th e n o ble p rin cip le s o n w hic h th e N CA A

ju sti fie s i ts e xis te nce — ‘ a m ate uris m ’ a nd th e ‘ s tu d ent- a th le te ’ — a re c ynic al h o axes, l e galis ti c c o nfe cti o ns

pro pagate d b y th e u niv ers iti e s s o th ey c an e xp lo it th e s k ills a nd f a m e o f y o ung a th le te s” ( p . 8 2). Y et, th e N CA A’s

prin cip le o f a m ate uris m r e m ain s u neq uiv ocal:

CASE S T U DY

Build in g R ela tio n sh ip s w it h t h e P are n ts o f C olle g e F ootb all a n d M en ’s B ask etb all P la yers

Som eti m es d urin g th e te le cast o f c o lle ge f o otb all o r m en’s b ask etb all g am es th e c am era s h o w s p are nts c heerin g f o r th eir s o ns. M ost o th er p are nts , h o w ev er, a re n o t p re se nt e v en th o ugh m any w ould l ik e to b e b ut s im ply c o uld n o t

affo rd i t. W hile th e N CA A a llo w s p la yers to r e ceiv e f o ur ti c kets ( a ctu ally n am es o n a l is t s in ce p la yers i n th e p ast

hav e s o ld th eir ti c kets , w hic h v io la te d N CA A r u le s) to h o m e g am es, i t p re clu d es c o lle ges f r o m p ayin g th e tr a v el

exp ense s o f p are nts to w atc h th eir s o ns p la y. T his c ase s tu d y d esc rib es a c re ati v e, y et i n d ir e ct, w ay to r e w ard

fo otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yers b y s u ggesti n g h o w a th le ti c d ep artm ents c o uld b e a llo w ed to p ro vid e a ll-

exp ense s-p aid tr ip s f o r p are nts ( o r tw o a d ult r e la ti v es o f h is c ho ic e) f o r e v ery f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yer

to o ne r e gula r s e aso n h o m e a nd o ne r e gula r s e aso n a w ay g am e.

Pare nts o f c o lle ge f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yers m ay n o t h av e a tte nd ed c o lle ge o r p la yed c o lle ge s p orts ,

whic h m eans th ey d o n o t f u lly u nd ers ta nd o r a p pre cia te th e e xp erie nces o f th eir s o ns. T his i n clu d es th e ti m e

co m mitm ents f o r p ra cti c es, tr a v el, a nd c o m peti ti o ns, a cad em ic e xp ecta ti o ns, a nd p hysic al to ll o f b ein g a c o lle ge

ath le te . S pend in g a d ay o n c am pus, a tte nd in g a h o m e g am e, tr a v elin g to a n a w ay g am e, a nd s p end in g ti m e w ith s o ns

and th eir te am mate s c o uld h elp b rid ge th is g ap . A dditi o nally , h av in g o pportu niti e s to a tte nd tw o o f th eir s o ns’ g am es

would h elp r e m unera te a th le te s w ith o ut v io la ti n g th e N CA A’s p rin cip le o f a m ate uris m .

Every f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yer w ould b e a llo w ed to i n v ite h is p are nts to c ho ose o ne h o m e a nd o ne

aw ay g am e to a tte nd a nd p ro vid e th ese d ate s to h is d ir e cto r o f f o otb all o r b ask etb all o pera ti o ns. F or h o m e g am es,

pare nts w ould b e p ro vid ed tr a nsp orta ti o n to a nd f r o m th eir h o m es to th e a ir p ort, h o te l, o r c am pus, i n v ite d to p re gam e

and p ostg am e te am m eals , a nd p ro vid ed a te am j e rs e y w ith h is o r h er s o n’s n um ber a nd n am e. O n th e f ie ld o r c o urt

prio r to h o m e g am es, p are nts w ould h av e p ho to gra p hs ta ken w ith th eir s o ns, w hic h w ould b e f r a m ed a nd g iv en to

th em . F or a w ay g am es, p are nts w ould b e i n v ite d to c am pus to tr a v el o n th e b us o r a ir p la ne w ith th e te am , r id e to a nd

fr o m l o cati o ns w ith th e te am , b e h o use d a t th e te am h o te l, e at m eals w ith s o ns a nd th eir te am mate s, a nd h av e ti c kets

to th e g am e.

Stu den t- a th le te s s h all b e a m ate u rs in a n in te rc o lle gia te s p ort, a n d th eir p artic ip atio n s h ould b e m otiv ate d p rim arily b y

ed ucatio n a n d b y th e p hysic al, m en ta l a n d s o cia l b en efit s to b e d eriv ed . S tu den t p artic ip atio n in in te rc o lle gia te a th le tic s is

an a v ocatio n, a n d s tu den t- a th le te s s h ould b e p ro te cte d f ro m e xp lo it a tio n b y p ro fe ssio nal a n d c o m merc ia l e n te rp ris e s.

(N CAA, 2 012–2013, p . 4 )

Not s o , c la im s Z im balis t a nd S ack ( 2 013), w ho c o nclu d e th at th e N CA A m ain ta in s a n “ id io sy ncra ti c , c hangin g,

fr e q uentl y a rb itr a ry , a nd o fte n i llo gic al d efin iti o n o f a m ate uris m ” ( p . 7 ). E m phati c ally , B ra nch ( 2 011 ) q uesti o ns th e

cla im m ad e b y m any f a ns th at p ayin g a th le te s w ould d estr o y th e “ in te grity a nd a p peal o f c o lle ge s p orts ” ( p . 8 3).

Amate uris m , D av is ( 1 995) c o nte nd s, “ p erp etu ate s a f a ls e m odel w hic h f a ils to c o m port w ith th e p re se nt d ay s o cia l,

eco no m ic a nd l e gal r e aliti e s o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s” ( p . 6 21).

Unab le to e lim in ate p aym ents to a th le te s, th e N CA A i n 1 956 a p pro ved a w ard in g f o ur-y ear g ra nts -in -a id b ase d o n

ath le ti c a b ility to tr y to l im it p aym ents to o nly

tu iti o n, f e es, r o om , a nd b oard ( O ria rd , 2 009). S im ulta neo usly , th e

NCA A p ro cla im ed g ra nts -in -a id d id n o t c o nsti tu te “ p ay f o r p la y.” A ls o , to s h elte r i n sti tu ti o ns f r o m p ote nti a l w ork ers ’

co m pensa ti o n c la im s, th e N CA A m and ate d f o ur-y ear g ra nts -in -a id th at c o uld n o t b e r e d uced o r c ancele d o n th e b asis

of a n a th le te ’s c o ntr ib uti o n to te am s u ccess, i n ju ry , o r d ecis io n n o t to p arti c ip ate ( Z im balis t & S ack, 2 013). T hese

cav eats d is a p peare d a t th e 1 973 N CA A c o nv enti o n, w hen m em ber i n sti tu ti o ns e ffe cti v ely c ast a sid e th is m odel o f

am ate uris m b y r e p la cin g f o ur-y ear w ith o ne-y ear g ra nts -in -a id , a d e f a cto c hange f r o m

stu den t- a th le te

ath le te -

stu den t

The i s su e b ecam e n o t w heth er a th le te s s h o uld b e p aid b ecause th ey w ere a lr e ad y r e ceiv in g p ay th ro ugh g ra nts -in -

aid , a lb eit w ith in th e c o nstr a in ts i m pose d b y th e N CA A. R ath er, th e i s su e w as h o w m uch a th le te s s h o uld b e

co m pensa te d f o r th eir a th le ti c p erfo rm ances. L im ita ti o ns o f w hat a th le te s r e ceiv ed b ase d o n th eir a th le ti c ta le nts

tr e ate d th em d iffe re ntl y th an s tu d ents w ho w ere m usic ia ns, a rti s ts , o r p ho to gra p hers w ho c o uld p ro fit f r o m th eir

ta le nts . P ers is te ntl y , th o ugh, th e N CA A a d here d to a rg uab ly a s e lf- s e rv in g d efin iti o n o f a m ate uris m a nd e v en a d ded a

pub lic r e la ti o ns m aste rp ie ce.

MYTH O F T H E S T U DEN T-A T H LETE?

When th e N CA A i n iti a lly p erm itte d a w ard in g g ra nts -in -a id , E xecuti v e D ir e cto r W alte r B yers i n v ente d th e l a b el

stu den t- a th le te

a nd f ir m ly p la nte d i t i n th e E nglis h l e xic o n th ro ugh th e m ed ia ’s e xte nsiv e u se o f th is l a b el a t h is

in sis te nce. “ W e c ra fte d th e te rm s tu d ent- a th le te , a nd s o on i t w as e m bed ded i n a ll N CA A r u le s a nd i n te rp re ta ti o ns a s a

mand ate d s u b sti tu te f o r s u ch w ord s a s p la yers a nd a th le te s” ( B yers , 1 995, p . 6 9). S ta uro w sk y a nd S ack ( 2 005)

exp ose th is c alc ula te d p lo y f o r w hat i t w as: The te rm s tu den t- a th le te d id n ot e m erg e b ecau se it w as s o m eh ow ju dged to b e m ore p re cis e th an th e p hra se c o lle ge

ath le te o r b ecau se a th le te s th em se lv es p re fe rre d th e te rm … W hen v ie w ed in it s h is to ric al c o nte xt, th e te rm s tu den t- a th le te

dis c lo se s a g re at d eal a b out th e p olit ic s o f th e N CAA a n d r a is e s im porta n t q uestio ns a b out th e u ncrit ic al u se o f

id eo lo gic ally b ia se d te rm s. ( p . 1 05)

In ste ad o f b ein g s tu d ent- a th le te s, S ta uro w sk y a nd S ack ( 2 005) i llu str a te h o w th ey a re a th le te s f ir s t a nd f o re m ost:

th e o ne-y ear g ra nt- in -a id l im ita ti o n, w hic h r e nd ers a th le te s m ostl y p ow erle ss a nd v oic ele ss; c o aches’ e xp ecta ti o ns

th at a th le te s w ho w ant p la yin g ti m e w ould e ngage i n w ork o uts e xceed in g N CA A’s m axim um s i n n um ber o f h o urs

sp ent i n c o ach-d ir e cte d a cti v iti e s ( i.e ., 4 h o urs p er d ay a nd 2 0 h o urs p er w eek w ith o ne d ay o ff p er w eek d urin g th e

se aso n; m axim um o f 8 h o urs p er w eek i n th e o ff- s e aso n); r e q uir e m ents to r e p eate d ly m is s c la sse s f o r p ra cti c es,

co m peti ti o ns, a nd a sso cia te d tr a v el; a nd l im ite d l ik elih o od o f g ra d uati n g. T he tw in p illa rs o f a m ate uris m a nd th e

la b el s tu d ent- a th le te h av e u nd erg ir d ed th e te nuo us f o und ati o n u p on w hic h th e N CA A-g o vern ed i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le te s h av e o pera te d f o r m ore th an a c entu ry . I n th e m id st o f m ed ia e xp osé s a b out u neth ic al c o nd uct s m earin g

th e

in te grity o f h ig her e d ucati o n, r e fo rm ers l ik e B ra nch ( 2 011 ) h av e c alle d f o r e lim in ati o n o f th e h yp ocris y o f th ese tw o

ho axes.

In a d diti o n to th e e th ic al i s su es a sso cia te d w ith a m ate uris m a nd th e p ub lic r e la ti o ns l a b el o f s tu d ent- a th le te , o th er

questi o nab ly e th ic al p ra cti c es h av e i n clu d ed a d m is sio n o f m any h ig h p ro file a th le te s w ho s u b se q uentl y f a ile d to

gra d uate a nd c lu ste rin g o f a th le te s i n to m ajo rs a nd c o urs e s u se d to k eep th em e lig ib le .

AC AD EM IC I N TEG RIT Y O R A C AD EM IC E XPLO IT A T IO N?

The p ote nti a l f o r e xp lo ita ti o n b egan e arly w hen p ro sp ecti v e a th le te s w ho d id n o t m eet m in im um a cad em ic

re q uir e m ents b ecam e s p ecia l a d m its , th us p ote nti a lly s e tti n g th em u p to f a il a cad em ic ally . O nce a d m itte d , m any o f

th ese a th le te s w ere e nro lle d i n c o urs e s ta ught b y a th le te -fr ie nd ly i n str u cto rs a nd c lu ste re d i n l e ss d em and in g m ajo rs

(D onno r, 2 005). I n r e sp onse to c riti c is m s a b out th e a b se nce o f a cad em ic s ta nd ard s, th e N CA A o ver th e y ears p asse d

se v era l a cad em ic m in im a a s a d m is sio n r e q uir e m ents f o r p ro sp ecti v e a th le te s. A dditi o nally , to tr y to k eep a th le te s

and a cad em ic s u p port p ers o nnel f r o m f o cusin g o n e lig ib ility , th e N CA A r e q uir e d a th le te s to d ecla re m ajo rs p rio r to

th e b egin nin g o f th eir th ir d y ears o f e nro llm ent a nd a nnually m ake s a ti s fa cto ry p ro gre ss to w ard th eir d egre es.

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

Facu lt y A th le tic s R ep re se n ta tiv e’s P ersp ectiv e

Dr. S usa n M . S ta gg-W illia m s, a p ro fe sso r o f c hem ic al a nd p etr o le um e ngin eerin g, s e rv es a s f a culty a th le ti c s

re p re se nta ti v e ( F A R) f o r th e U niv ers ity o f K ansa s ( K U). H er p rim ary r e sp onsib iliti e s f o cus o n p ro m oti n g a th le te

well- b ein g, f o ste rin g a cad em ic i n te grity , a nd w ork in g to e nsu re i n sti tu ti o nal c o ntr o l o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s.

Serv in g a s F A R a ls o i n clu d es r e p re se nta ti v e a nd l e gis la ti v e d uti e s to th e B ig 1 2 C onfe re nce a nd N CA A a nd o pen

co lla b ora ti o n a nd c o m munic ati o n w ith th e c hancello r, a th le ti c d ir e cto r, a nd a th le ti c d ep artm ent s ta ff.

Dr. S ta gg-W illia m s b elie v es th e ti m e d em and s p la ced o n a th le te s a re th e b ig gest c halle nges f a cin g i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c s. T hese y o ung a d ults m ust a d ro itl y b ala nce p ra cti c es, te am m eeti n gs, s tr e ngth a nd c o nd iti o nin g w ork o uts ,

co m peti ti o ns, a nd tr a v el w ith th eir a cad em ic r e q uir e m ents . R ath er th an s e aso nal, th ese ti m e d em and s h av e b eco m e

year-ro und a nd a re f u rth er e xacerb ate d b ecause o f th e g eo gra p hic b ro ad enin g o f c o nfe re nce r e alig nm ents .

Because o f i ts m is sio n o r c o re v alu es b ase d o n a c o m mitm ent to a th le te s’ w ell- b ein g a nd th eir a cad em ic s u ccess,

th e K U a th le ti c d ep artm ent o pera te s S tu d ent- A th le te S up port S erv ic es th at o ffe rs a cad em ic c o unse lin g a nd tu to rin g

se rv ic es to h elp a th le te s m anage ti m e a nd b ala nce a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c p erfo rm ance d em and s. A s F A R, S ta gg-

Willia m s w ork s w ith a f a culty , s ta ff, a nd s tu d ent c o m mitte e i n m onito rin g th e a cad em ic p ro gre ss r a te s o f e ach te am a s

well a s th e g ra d uati o n s u ccess r a te s o f a ll K U a th le te s.

Dr. S ta gg-W illia m s w ork s w ith c o m plia nce s ta ff m em bers i n th e a th le ti c d ep artm ent to e nsu re th e n um ber o f

ho urs a th le te s s p end i n c o unta b le a th le ti c ally r e la te d a cti v iti e s c o m ply w ith N CA A b yla w s. T he ti m e e ach a th le te

volu nta rily s p end s o n a th le ti c ally r e la te d a cti v iti e s i s n o t tr a cked . K U a th le ti c s p olic y l im its th e n um ber o f d ays p er

se m este r a n a th le te c an b e a b se nt f r o m s c ho ol f o r tr a v el a nd c o m peti ti o n to 1 0 d ays e xclu siv e o f c o nfe re nce o r

NCA A c ham pio nsh ip s. T he a th le ti c d ir e cto r a fte r c o nsu lta ti o n w ith F A R c an m ake e xcep ti o ns to th is p olic y.

Begun i n 2 004, th e A cad em ic P ro gre ss R ate ( A PR ) r e q uir e s te am s i n D iv is io n I to s c o re a t o r a b ove a m in im um sc o re o r f a ce i n cre asin gly o nero us p enalti e s w hen a th le te s f a il to g ra d uate o r l e av e c o lle ge b ecause o f p oor

acad em ic p erfo rm ances. B ecause g ra d uati o n r a te s p ub lis h ed b y th e f e d era l g o vern m ent i n clu d e a th le te s w ho tr a nsfe r

to o th er i n sti tu ti o ns o r d ro p o ut o f c o lle ge, i n 2 004 th e N CA A d ev elo ped th e G ra d uate S uccess R ate ( G SR ).

The A PR a nd G SR , h o w ev er, h av e r a is e d e th ic al c o ncern s. W hile i n sti tu ti o ns w ith f e w er f in ancia l r e so urc es

str u ggle to c o m ply w ith A PR r e q uir e m ents , a th le ti c d ep artm ents b enefiti n g f r o m th e l a rg esse o f te le v is io n r ig hts f e es

hav e u se d c re ati v e s tr a te gie s to m anage th eir te am s’ A PR s to a v oid p enalti e s a nd n egati v e p ub lic ity , a cco rd in g to

Gurn ey a nd S outh all ( 2 012). F or e xam ple , th ey c la im d ep artm ents p ay h und re d s o f th o usa nd s o f d olla rs to c la ss

checkers , tu to rs , a nd a cad em ic a d vis o rs to h elp k eep a th le te s e lig ib le , a nd o fte n a th le te s u se s e le cti v ely i d enti fie d

su m mer c o urs e s to r a is e th eir G PA s. G urn ey a nd S outh all ( 2 012) a ls o a rg ue th at th e N CA A, r a th er th an u se

gra d uati o n r a te s p ub lis h ed b y th e f e d era l g o vern m ent, to ut th e h ig her g ra d uati o n p erc enta ges o f th e G SR w hile

dis re gard in g d oub le d ig it n egati v e g ra d uati o n g ap s b etw een f o otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all p la yers i n D iv is io n I a nd

th e i n sti tu ti o nal s tu d ent p opula ti o n, a s w ell a s th e f a ilu re o f m any A fr ic an A meric an a th le te s o n th ese te am s to

gra d uate .

In th e N CA A’s G ro w th , O pportu niti e s, A sp ir a ti o ns, a nd L earn in g o f S tu d ents i n C olle ge ( G OALS) s tu d y, a th le te s

acro ss a ll th re e d iv is io ns r e p orte d th at th e a v era ge n um ber o f h o urs s p ent p er w eek i n -s e aso n o n a th le ti c s i n 2 010 f a r

exceed ed th e m axim um a llo w ed i n c o ach-d ir e cte d a cti v iti e s ( B ro w n, 2 011 ). T he m ost h o urs s p ent e ngaged i n

ath le ti c -re la te d a cti v iti e s i n D iv is io n I o ccurre d i n th ese s p orts : F ootb all B ow l S ub div is io n ( F B S) f o otb all ( 4 3.3 );

base b all ( 4 2.1 ); F ootb all C ham pio nsh ip S ub div is io n ( F C S) f o otb all ( 4 1.6 ); m en’s b ask etb all ( 3 9.2 ); a nd w om en’s

bask etb all ( 3 7.6 ) ( p ara . 2 3). A th le te s c o m peti n g i n D iv is io ns I I a nd I II s p ent f e w er h o urs th an th ese b ut s ti ll

exceed ed th e N CA A m axim um o f 2 0 h o urs . M ost f o otb all, m en’s b ask etb all, a nd b ase b all a th le te s i n D iv is io ns I a nd

II s ta te d th ey s p ent a s m uch o r m ore ti m e o n a th le ti c s d urin g th e o ff- s e aso n. D ata f r o m th is G OALS s tu d y a ls o

re v eale d D iv is io n I w om en’s b ask etb all, m en’s b ask etb all, a nd b ase b all p la yers m is se d a n a v era ge o f 2 .5 c la sse s p er

week f o r a th le ti c s ( N CA A, 2 011 , p ara . 2 1).

These e xam ple s s ig nal p ote nti a lly e gre gio us e th ic al i s su es p erv ad in g i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd b om bard in g

acad em ic i n te grity . I n ev ita b ly , th e d riv in g f o rc es f o r u neth ic al a cti o ns a re f in ancia l r e w ard s a sso cia te d w ith w in nin g.

EXC ESSIV E C O M MER CIA LIS M ?

Calla han ( 2 004) s ta te s, “ T he y aw nin g g ap b etw een w in ners a nd l o se rs i s a ls o h av in g a l e th al e ffe ct o n p ers o nal

in te grity . I n a s o cie ty w here w in ners w in b ig ger th an e v er

befo re a nd l o se rs a re p unis h ed m ore h ars h ly … m ore a nd

more p eo ple w ill d o

anyth in g

to b e a w in ner” ( p . 6 9). N ow here i s th is tr u er th an w hen d esc rib in g i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c s. B ed fo rd ( 2 007) i d enti fie s c o m merc ia liz a ti o n, u niv ers ity i n v olv em ent i n p ro vid in g e nte rta in m ent, d am age to

th e i n te grity o f h ig her e d ucati o n, e xp lo ita ti o n o f a th le te s, a nd h arm to n o nath le te s a s p ro ble m s a sso cia te d w ith

in te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. E xam ple s o f i n cre asin g c o m merc ia lis m , B ed fo rd e m phasiz e d ,

can b e f o und e v ery w here f ro m th e a d vertis in g p la ste re d o ver s p orts v en ues’ in stit u tio nal im ages to th e lic en sin g a n d lo go

deals u niv ers it ie s s ig n w it h a p pare l c o m pan ie s a n d p ro ducers o f v ario us s p orts tr in kets to th e p re d ato ry b eh av io r o f s p orts

agen ts , to th e h ype a n d s e n sa tio nalis m g en era te d b y s p orts a gen ts , to th e b esto w al o f c ele b rit y s ta tu s u pon s e le ct c o lle ge

ath le te s a n d c o ach es, to th e p re ssu re to s c h ed ule e v en ts e v ery n ig h t o f th e w eek to f ill th e s c h ed ule s f o r th e in cre asin g

num ber o f s p orts n etw ork s. ( p . 9 )

As p ro fit m axim iz a ti o n b eco m es a lm ost a ll- c o nsu m in g, u neth ic al a cti o ns s k yro cket.

Desro chers ( 2 013) i d enti fie s s tr ik in g d iffe re nces b etw een s p end in g a m ong D iv is io n I i n sti tu ti o ns o n a th le te s a nd

acad em ic s p end in g p er s tu d ent a s a no th er m ajo r e th ic al i s su e. I n i n sti tu ti o ns c o m peti n g i n th e F B S, m ed ia n a cad em ic

sp end in g p er f u ll- ti m e e q uiv ale nt ( F T E) s tu d ent w as $ 13,6 28, w hile th e m ed ia n a th le ti c e xp end itu re p er a th le te w as

$91,9 36. I n th e F C S, th e m ed ia n e xp end itu re s w ere $ 11 ,7 69 p er F T E s tu d ent a nd $ 36,6 65 p er a th le te ; i n D iv is io n I

with o ut f o otb all th ese d iffe re nces w ere $ 11 ,8 61 p er F T E s tu d ent a nd $ 39,2 01 p er a th le te . D esro chers c o nclu d es s u ch

fin ancia l d is p ariti e s s h o uld l e ad p ub lic i n sti tu ti o ns to r e exam in e th eir s p end in g p rio riti e s. P re sid ents o f i n sti tu ti o ns

co m peti n g i n th e F B S q uesti o ned th e s u sta in ab ility a nd f a ir n ess o f s u b sid iz in g p ro gra m s b enefiti n g o nly a th le te s

th ro ugh s tu d ent f e es a nd i n cre ase d i n sti tu ti o nal r e so urc es ( K nig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s, 2 009).

Kahn ( 2 007) c la im s th e N CA A o pera te s a s a c arte l b y l im iti n g p aym ents to a th le te s a nd r e str ic ti n g th eir o utp ut,

in clu d in g c o llu siv e r e str ic ti o ns o n p aym ents to a th le te s, r o ste r s iz e , p la yer m obility ( e .g ., tr a nsfe r r u le s), r e cru iti n g

exp ense s, a nd o utp ut ( n um ber o f g am es). D onno r ( 2 005) a nd K ahn ( 2 007) s u ggest a d is c rim in ato ry i n eq uity b ecause

most r e v enue-p ro ducin g a th le te s w ere A fr ic an A meric ans, w hile th e r e v enues th ey p ro duce m ostl y b enefit m id dle -

and u p per-c la ss w hite s tu d ents th ro ugh g ra nts -in -a id th ey r e ceiv ed a nd f in ancin g o f n o nre v enue p ro ducin g te am s s u ch as c re w a nd s w im min g.

CO NCLU SIO N

A w in ner-ta ke-a ll s y ste m p erm eate s c o lle ge s p orts a nd th re ate ns th eir e th ic al f o und ati o ns. L ofty v alu es h av e b een

re p la ced b y g am esm ansh ip to c ir c um vent th e r u le s, tr a sh ta lk in g a nd ta unti n g h av e e sc ala te d , a th le te s h av e b ra ckete d

th eir m ora lity u sin g g am e r e aso nin g w hile i g no rin g m ora l v alu es, m ora l c allo usn ess, o r th e a b se nce

of c o ncern f o r

oth ers ’ w elfa re , a nd r a ti o naliz a ti o ns h av e a tte m pte d to m ake u neth ic al a cti o ns s e em d efe nsib le . W in nin g-a t- a ny-c o sts

ju sti fie s u se o f th ese p lo ys. T o h elp a d dre ss th ese u neth ic al a cti o ns, 1 0 r e co m mend ati o ns f o r c hange a re s u ggeste d :

1. E nd th e m yth a nd h yp ocris y o f a m ate uris m b y a ckno w le d gin g “ p ay f o r p la y” h as e xis te d f o r d ecad es a s w ell a s

elim in ate th e d is in genuo us u se o f th e l a b el s tu d ent- a th le te .

2. R eq uir e o ne-y ear r e sid ency f o r a th le ti c e lig ib ility f o r f r e sh m en a nd tr a nsfe r s tu d ents s o a cad em ic e lig ib ility i s

base d o n a n a th le te ’s c o lle gia te a cad em ic p erfo rm ance, th ere b y e lim in ati n g s p ecia l a d m is sio ns f o r r e cru ite d

ath le te s w ho d id n o t m eet i n sti tu ti o nal a d m is sio n r e q uir e m ents .

3. A w ard f o ur-y ear g ra nts -in -a id , w hic h c o ver th e f u ll c o st o f a tte nd ance, to r e d uce th e c o ntr o l c o aches h av e o ver

ath le te s a nd l e sse n p re ssu re o n th em .

4. E lim in ate a cad em ic c o urs e s a nd m ajo rs u se d b y a th le te s p rim arily to m ain ta in e lig ib ility a nd p ro vid e a cad em ic

su p port s e rv ic es to a ll s tu d ents u nd er th e a usp ic es o f th e o ffic e o f a cad em ic a ffa ir s , n o t p ro gra m s s o le ly f o r

ath le te s a d m in is te re d b y a th le ti c d ep artm ents .

5. L im it s p orts s e aso ns to o ne a cad em ic te rm , r e d uce th e n um ber o f c o m peti ti o ns, a nd a llo w a th le te s to m is s n o

more th an o ne c la ss p er w eek a nd e ig ht c la sse s p er a cad em ic te rm f o r a th le ti c c o m peti ti o n a nd a sso cia te d tr a v el,

while f o rb id din g th e s c hed ulin g o f a th le ti c c o m peti ti o ns a nd a sso cia te d tr a v el, i n clu d in g f o r c o nfe re nce, r e gio nal,

and n ati o nal to urn am ents a nd c ham pio nsh ip s, d urin g f in al e xam s.

6. R eq uir e a m in im um 5 0% g ra d uati o n r a te o f a ll p la yers b efo re e ach te am c an q ualify f o r a c o nfe re nce

cham pio nsh ip a nd o th er p osts e aso n c o m peti ti o n a nd w ith ho ld f o r a p erio d o f f iv e y ears o ne g ra nt- in -a id f o r e ach

ath le te w ho d oes n o t g ra d uate w ith in s ix y ears .

7. A llo w a th le te s to tr a nsfe r a nd c o m pete i m med ia te ly .

8. S eek a p arti a l a nti tr u st e xem pti o n to p erm it s e tti n g a c eilin g o n s a la rie s o f h ead c o aches a nd a ssis ta nt c o aches i n

fo otb all a nd m en’s b ask etb all a s w ell a s a th le ti c d ir e cto rs ’ s a la rie s a nd b an c o aches f r o m r e ceiv in g i n co m e f r o m

co rp ora te s p onso rs a nd o th er th ir d p arti e s f o r a cti v iti e s a sso cia te d w ith th eir c o achin g p ositi o ns.

9. R ecla im f r o m c o m merc ia l i n te re sts c o ntr o l o ver w hen ( lo cati o n a nd ti m e) g am es a re p la yed .

10. E lim in ate c o rp ora te s ig nage a nd a d verti s in g f r o m f a ciliti e s a nd s p orts e q uip m ent u se d i n i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s

and p ro hib it a th le te s f r o m w earin g c o rp ora te tr a d em ark s a nd l o go s o n te am u nifo rm s a nd o th er a th le ti c -is su ed

clo th in g.

QUEST IO NS F O R D IS C USSIO N

W hat a re th e d esir e d o utc o m es th at j u sti fy w hy i n sti tu ti o ns o f h ig her e d ucati o n s h o uld s p onso r i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c p ro gra m s, a nd f r o m a n e th ic al p ers p ecti v e, w hy a re th ese o utc o m es b ein g o r n o t b ein g a cco m plis h ed ?

H ow a nd w hy a re a m ate uris m a nd th e a sso cia te d c la im th at a th le te s a re s tu d ents f ir s t e sse nti a l o r n o t e sse nti a l to

th e e xis ti n g g o vern ance s tr u ctu re o f th e N CA A a nd o pera ti o n o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s?

H ow a re a d m is sio n r e q uir e m ents , a cad em ic e lig ib ility , p ro gre ss to w ard e arn in g d egre es, c la ss a tte nd ance, ti m e

co m mitm ents to a th le ti c s, a nd g ra d uati o n e xp ecta ti o ns f o r c o lle ge a th le te s, e sp ecia lly f o otb all a nd m en’s

bask etb all p la yers , v io la te d , a nd h o w w ould y o u r e co m mend e lim in ati n g a ny e xp lo ita ti o n a sso cia te d w ith e ach o f

th ese ?

Refe re n ces Ale xand er, D . L ., & K ern , W . ( 2 010). D oes a th le ti c s u ccess g enera te l e gis la ti v e l a rg ess f r o m s p orts -c ra ze d

re p re se nta ti v es? T he i m pact o f a th le ti c s u ccess o n s ta te a p pro pria ti o ns to c o lle ges a nd u niv ers iti e s.

In te rn atio nal

Jo urn al o f S port F in ance, 5

, 2 53–267.

Asso cia ti o n o f G overn in g B oard s o f U niv ers iti e s a nd C olle ges. ( 2 009). A GB s ta te m ent o n b oard r e sp onsib iliti e s f o r

in te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s g enera l o vers ig ht r e sp onsib iliti e s. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://a gb .o rg /s ite s/a gb .o rg /file s/u 1 525/A GBSta te m ent_ A th le ti c s_ fin al.p df

———. ( 2 012). T ru st, a cco unta b ility , a nd i n te grity : B oard r e sp onsib iliti e s f o r i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. R etr ie v ed

fr o m

http ://a gb .o rg /s ite s/a gb .o rg /file s/K nig htR ep ort.p df

Bed fo rd , R . D . ( 2 007). T he c o lle ge s p orts r e fo rm m ovem ent: R efr a m in g th e “ ed uta in m ent” i n d ustr y .

Socio lo gic a l

Quarte rly , 4 8

, 1 –28.

Bra nch, T . ( 2 011 ). T he s h am e o f c o lle ge s p orts .

Atla ntic M onth ly , 3 08

(3 ), 8 0–11 0.

Bro w n, G . ( 2 011 ). S eco nd G OALS s tu d y e m phasiz e s c o ach i n flu ence. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caa.o rg /w ps/w cm /c o nnect/ p ub lic /N CA A/R eso urc es/L ate st+ N ew s/2 011 /J a nuary /S eco nd + G OALS+stu d y+ em phasiz e s+ co ach+ in flu ence

Byers , W ., w ith C . H am mer. ( 1 995).

Unsp orts m anlik e c o nduct: E xp lo itin g c o lle g e a th le te s

. A nn A rb or: U niv ers ity

of M ic hig an P re ss.

Calla han, D . ( 2 004).

The c h ea tin g c u ltu re : W hy m ore A m eric a ns a re d oin g w ro ng t o g et a hea d.

O rla nd o, F L:

Harc o urt.

Dav is , T . ( 1 994). I n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s: C om peti n g m odels a nd c o nflic ti n g r e aliti e s.

Rutg ers L aw J o urn al, 2 5

269–327.

———. ( 1 995). T he m yth o f th e s u p ers p ad e: T he p ers is te nce o f r a cis m i n c o lle ge a th le ti c s.

Ford ham U rb an L aw

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, 6 15–698.

Desro chers , D . M . ( 2 013). A cad em ic s p end in g v ers u s a th le ti c s p end in g. W ash in gto n, D C: A meric an I n sti tu te s f o r

Rese arc h. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://c hro nic le .c o m /b lo gs/p la yers /file s/2 013/0 1/d elta co st.p df

Donno r, J . K . ( 2 005). T ow ard s a n i n te re st- c o nv erg ence i n th e e d ucati o n o f A fr ic an A meric an f o otb all s tu d ent-

ath le te s i n m ajo r c o lle ge s p orts .

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(1 ), 4 5–67.

Fra nk, R . H . ( 2 004). C halle ngin g th e m yth : A r e v ie w o f th e l in ks a m ong c o lle ge a th le ti c s u ccess, s tu d ent q uality , a nd

donati o ns. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.r e ad th eho ok.c o m /file s/o ld /b lo g/w p-

co nte nt/ u p lo ad s/2 009/0 3/2 004_kcia _ fr a nk_ re p ort.p df

Gre en, K . C ., J a sc hik , S ., & L ed erm an, D . ( 2 012). T he

In sid e H ig her E d

s u rv ey o f c o lle ge a nd u niv ers ity p re sid ents .

Retr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.g o ogle .c o m /u rl?

sa = t& rc t= j& q= & esrc = s& fr m =1& so urc e= w eb & cd = 1& ved = 0C Cw QFjA A& url= http % 3A % 2F % 2F w ww.i n sid ehig here d .c o m % 2F dow nlo ad % 2F % 3F file % 3D 2012IH Epre sid ents su rv ey.p df& ei= FU M 3U vv3L K XT2Q XftI G YBg& usg = A FQ jC N HxgF d0B D dT Q Lhzy 2 _JtZ X kX 2zd Iw &sig 2 = l1 kM hahyanT io 5V T9Z oW ZA & bvm =bv.5 2164340,d .b 2I

Gurn ey, G . S ., & S outh all, R . M . ( 2 012). C olle ge s p orts ’ b ait a nd s w itc h. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://m .e sp n.g o .c o m /g enera l/s to ry ?sto ry Id = 8248046

Kahn, L . M . ( 2 007). C arte l b ehav io r a nd a m ate uris m i n c o lle ge s p orts .

Jo urn al o f E co nom ic P ersp ectiv es, 2 1

(1 ),

209–226.

Knig ht C om mis sio n o n I n te rc o lle gia te A th le ti c s. ( 2 009).

Quantita tiv e a nd q ualita tiv e r e se a rc h w ith f o otb all b ow l

su bdiv is io n u niv ersity p re sid en ts o n t h e c o sts a nd f in ancin g o f i n te rc o lle g ia te a th le tic s

. R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.k nig htc o m mis sio n.o rg /in d ex.p hp ?o pti o n= co m _co nte nta nd vie w =arti c le and id = 71and Ite m id = 36

Marti n ez, J . M ., S ti n so n, J . L ., K ang, M ., & J u b env ille , C . B . ( 2 010). I n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s a nd i n sti tu ti o nal

fu nd ra is in g: A m eta -a naly sis .

Sport M ark etin g Q uarte rly , 1 9

, 3 6–47.

Nati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c A sso cia ti o n. ( 2 006). T he s e co nd -c entu ry i m pera ti v es P re sid enti a l l e ad ers h ip —

In sti tu ti o nal a cco unta b ility . R etr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caap ub lic ati o ns.c o m /p ro ductd ow nlo ad s/P T F092.p df

———. ( 2 011 ). S um mary o f f in d in gs f r o m th e 2 010 G OALS a nd S C O RE s tu d ie s o f th e s tu d ent- a th le te e xp erie nce.

Retr ie v ed f r o m

http ://w ww.n caa.o rg /w ps/w cm /c o nnect/ p ub lic /n caa/p dfs /2 011 /s u m mary + of+ fin d in gs+ fr o m +th e+ 2010+ go als + and + sc o re + stu d ie s+ of+ th e+ stu d ent+ ath le te + exp erie nce

———. ( 2 012–2013).

2012–13 N CAA D iv is io n I m anual

. I n d ia nap olis , I N : N ati o nal C olle gia te A th le ti c

Asso cia ti o n.

Oria rd , M . ( 2 009).

Bow le d o ver: B ig -tim e c o lle g e f o otb all f r o m t h e s ix tie s t o t h e B C S e ra .

C hap el H ill: U niv ers ity

of N orth C aro lin a P re ss.

Sack, A . L ., & S ta uro w sk y, E . J . ( 1 998).

Colle g e a th le te s f o r h ir e : T he e vo lu tio n a nd l e g acy o f t h e N CAA’s a m ate u r

myth

. W estp ort, C T: P ra eger.

Sta uro w sk y, E . J ., & S ack, A . L . ( 2 005). R eco nsid erin g th e u se o f th e te rm s tu d ent- a th le te i n a cad em ic r e se arc h.

Jo urn al o f S port M anagem en t, 1 9

, 1 03–11 6. Tom a, J . D . ( 1 999). T he c o lle gia te i d eal a nd th e to ols o f e xte rn al r e la ti o ns: T he u se s o f h ig h-p ro file i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c s.

New D ir e ctio ns f o r H ig her E duca tio n, 1 05

(1 ), 8 1–90.

Zim balis t, A ., & S ack, A . ( 2 013). T ho ughts o n a m ate uris m , th e O ’B anno n c ase a nd th e v ia b ility o f c o lle ge s p ort.

Retr ie v ed f r o m

http ://th ed ra kegro up .o rg /2 013/0 4/1 0/d ra ke-g ro up -re p ort- o banno n-a m ate uris m -a nd -th e-v ia b ility -

of- c o lle ge-s p ort/ 2 PA RT T W O

Theo re tic a l P ersp ectiv es o n H ig h er E duca tio n a n d A th le tic s

T he s tu d y o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s ta kes p la ce i n v ario us c o nte xts , a nd i t i s c o nd ucte d w ith in a d iv ers ity o f

fr a m ew ork s. I n

chap te r 5

, L eti c ia O se guera a nd A llis o n G old ste in e xp lo re a v arie ty o f th eo re ti c al p ers p ecti v es a nd

dis c uss w hy th ey a re u se fu l f o r th e s tu d y o f h ig her e d ucati o n a nd i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s. T hey s u m mariz e d iffe re nt

cla sse s o f th eo ry u se d to s tu d y a nd u nd ers ta nd c o lle ge s tu d ents , w ith a s p ecia l f o cus o n s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent th eo rie s

and h o w th ey h av e b een a p plie d to c o lle ge a th le te s. O se guera a nd G old ste in a ls o d is c uss c o lle ge i m pact m odels ,

criti c al th eo ry , o rg aniz a ti o nal th eo ry , a nd a c am pus c lim ate f r a m ew ork . T his p art d em onstr a te s th at th e th eo re ti c al

pers p ecti v es w e c ho ose to e m plo y f o r th e s tu d y o f i n te rc o lle gia te a th le ti c s g enera lly i n flu ence o ur a p pro aches to

analy sis , i n clu d in g th e k in d s o f q uesti o ns w e a sk a nd th e f o cus o f o ur e xp lo ra ti o n.

C H APTER

T H EO RETIC AL T E N ETS o f H IG HER E D UCATIO N a n d C O LLEG E

A TH LETE S

L etic ia O se g u era a n d A llis o n G old ste in

K EY T ER M S

co lle ge a th le te s

stu dent d evelo pm ent t h eory

ca m pus c lim ate

crit ic a l t h eory

ca m pus e nvir o nm ents

H av in g th eo re ti c al l e nse s to u nd ers ta nd th e c o lle ge a th le te e xp erie nce a nd th e g enera l a th le ti c e nte rp ris e i s u se fu l to

e nsu re h ealth y d ev elo pm enta l p ro cesse s o f a th le te s a nd to u nd ers ta nd a th le ti c s a s a n o rg aniz a ti o n a nd a th le te s w ith in

a g iv en o rg aniz a ti o n. T his c hap te r o ffe rs a r a ti o nale f o r th e s tu d y o f th eo ry , a ssu m pti o ns g uid in g th eo ry , a nd h o w

t h eo ry c an b e a p plie d to a th le te s i n h ig her e d ucati o n. P ark er ( 1 977) w ro te n early 4 0 y ears a go th at “ th e d ile m ma w e

h av e d esc rib ed r e q uir e s th at w e c ho ose b etw een a b str a ct, s im plifie d m odels o f r e ality w hic h a re r e se arc hab le a nd

t h e c o ncre te , c o m ple x r e ality i n w hic h w e a ct” ( p . 4 21). A th eo ry i s a w ay o f u nd ers ta nd in g a p arti c ula r p heno m eno n.

F orm al th eo rie s a re g enera te d to d esc rib e th e i n te rre la ti o nsh ip s o f c o nstr u cts . W hile f o rm al th eo ry i s m eant to h elp

e xp la in th e p heno m eno n u nd er i n v esti g ati o n, w e a ls o u se i n fo rm al th eo ry i n e v ery d ay l ife . I n fo rm al th eo ry h as b een

d efin ed b y P ark er ( 1 977) a s “ th e b ody o f c o m mon k no w le d ge th at a llo w s u s to m ake i m plic it c o nnecti o ns a m ong

e v ents a nd p ers o ns i n o ur e nv ir o nm ent a nd u p on w hic h w e a ct i n e v ery d ay l ife ” ( p . 4 20). U nfo rtu nate ly , th ere i s n o

w ay to k no w i f o ur p erc ep ti o ns a re a ccura te . T hey c an b e b ase d o n f o rm al tr a in in g b ut a re l ik ely th e r e su lt o f

p ers o nal i n te ra cti o ns, e xp erie nces, a nd v alu es a m asse d o ver ti m e. T heo ry c an a ls o b e u nd ers to od a s c o gniti v e m ap s

o r m enta l r e p re se nta ti o ns o f h o w to h elp s tu d ents m ake s e nse o f a nd e xp la in th eir e xp erie nces a nd s o cia l i n te ra cti o ns

w ith th e e nv ir o nm ent th at h elp g uid e p ro fe ssio nal a cti o n. T heo ry h elp s s tu d ent a nd a cad em ic a ffa ir s p ro fe ssio nals

w ho w ork w ith a th le te s b ette r u nd ers ta nd th e m ulti p le a sp ects o f d ev elo pm ent th at o ccur.

Form al, v alid ate d th eo ry a llo w s u s to a p pro ach o ur w ork m ore r e fle cti v ely . W e c an m ore s y ste m ati c ally g auge

a nd a sse ss th e p heno m eno n

we a re e xp erie ncin g. A no th er w ay to u nd ers ta nd th eo ry i s to c o nsid er a p ara d ig m . G ub a

( 1 990) d efin es a p ara d ig m a s a n “ in te rp re ti v e f r a m ew ork , a b asic s e t o f b elie fs th at g uid es a cti o n” ( p . 1 7).

P ara d ig m s g uid e th eo ry a nd r e se arc h, y et G ub a a nd L in co ln ( 1 994) r e m in d u s th at p ara d ig m s a re b elie fs a nd th ey a re

s u b je ct to h um an e rro r. A s c o nstr u cti o ns o f o ur r e ality , p ara d ig m s c an n ev er b e p ro ved , b ut th ey a re u se fu l i n

u nd ers ta nd in g a nd m akin g s e nse o f l iv ed r e aliti e s. U sin g th is d efin iti o n, w e e sta b lis h th at th eo ry i s u se fu l to g uid e o ur

w ork a nd i n te ra cti o ns o n c o lle ge c am puse s, b ut i n d iv id ual e xp erie nces m ay n o t a lw ays “ fit” w ith a v alid ate d

t h eo re ti c al f r a m ew ork .

Dep end in g o n th e th eo ry , th ere a re s e le cte d a ssu m pti o ns th at g uid e u nd ers ta nd in gs o f l iv ed r e aliti e s. R eality

a ssu m pti o ns a re o n a c o nti n uum . F or e xam ple , p ositi v is m a ssu m es a n o bje cti v e r e ality th at i s ti m e a nd c o nte xt f r e e.

C riti c al th eo ry a ssu m es th ere i s a r e ality , b ut i t i s i n flu enced b y s o cia l, p oliti c al, e co no m ic , e th nic , a nd g end er-

r e la te d f a cto rs . C riti c al th eo ris ts a tte m pt to r a is e c o nsc io usn ess o r c o rre ct i n ju sti c es a b out th e w ay th eo rie s h av e

b een f o rm ula te d . A dditi o nally , s o cia l c o nstr u cti v is ts /in te ra cti o nalis ts v ie w r e ality a s r e la ti v e— th ere i s n o s in gle

r e ality o r tr u th ; r e ality i s b ase d o n s p ecific e xp erie nces, a nd p erc ep ti o ns c an c hange o ver ti m e. B ecause o f th e

p ers o nal n atu re o f s o cia l c o nstr u cti o ns, th ey c an b e i d enti fie d o nly th ro ugh i n te ra cti o ns b etw een th e r e se arc her a nd

p arti c ip ant, w hic h s u ggests th e i n v esti g ato rs a nd r e se arc h a re l in ked ( E vans, F orn ey, G uid o, P atto n, & R enn, 2 010, pp. 1 8–19). A s w e a p ply th e f o rth co m in g th eo rie s to a th le te s, w e d o s o w ith s e nsiti v ity to a nd a n a w are ness o f th e

re se arc her’s p ers p ecti v e, a s i t m ay h av e i m plic ati o ns f o r th e d esig n o r i n te rp re ta ti o n o f th e p heno m eno n u nd er

in v esti g ati o n.

IN TER CO LLEG IA T E A T H LETES: R AT IO NALE F O R S T U DEN T D EV ELO PM EN T

FO CUS

Colle gia te a th le te s a re r e q uir e d to s u ccessfu lly m anage m ulti p le r o le s w ith in h ig her e d ucati o n. T anta m ount to th e

prio rity p la ced o n a th le ti c s u ccess, s tu d ents ’ a cad em ic a chie v em ent h as r e ceiv ed c o nsid era b le s c ho la rly a tte nti o n

(e .g ., C om eaux & H arris o n, 2 011 ; G asto n-G ayle s & H u, 2 009). W ith th e s u p port o f c o aches, f a culty , p eers , a nd

ad m in is tr a ti o n, a th le te s m ust f in d w ays to s tr ik e a b ala nce b etw een th eir s p ort’ s d em and s, a d ju stm ent to c o lle ge l ife ,

and a cad em ic o blig ati o ns. I f u nsu ccessfu l, m any i n sti tu ti o ns h av e r e p erc ussio ns i n p la ce th at c o uld h in d er s tu d ents ’

ath le ti c p arti c ip ati o n a nd , p ote nti a lly , a ffilia ti o n w ith th e i n sti tu ti o n. G iv en th e o verw helm in g r e ality o f a n a th le te ’s

ro le a s a “ stu d ent,” w e f o cus h eav ily o n s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent i s su es to e nab le h ig her e d ucati o n i n sti tu ti o ns to c re ate

more c o nd uciv e l e arn in g e xp erie nces f o r a th le te s g uid ed b y th e c urre nt l ite ra tu re .

In o rd er to b ette r u nd ers ta nd th e e xp erie nces o f a th le te s, w e m ust f o cus o n th eir s tu d ent i n v olv em ent, th eir

affilia ti o n w ith a th le ti c o rg aniz a ti o ns, a nd th e b ro ad er c am pus e nv ir o nm ent. W e o pen b ro ad ly w ith th eo ry a s i t

ap plie s to tr a d iti o nally a ged c o lle ge p opula ti o ns a nd th eo rie s d esig ned e xp lic itl y w ith a n a th le te f o cus. W e a im

outl in e th e l a rg er g ro up in gs o f th eo ry , f o cusin g p rim arily o n s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent a nd c o lle ge i m pact m odels . N ext,

we i n tr o duce c riti c al th eo ry , o utl in in g s p ecific th eo rie s u nd er th is g enera l c ate go ry . W e th en o ffe r a n o verv ie w o f a

cam pus c lim ate m odel d ev elo ped w ith c o lle ge a th le te s i n m in d , f o llo w ed b y a b rie f d is c ussio n o f o rg aniz a ti o nal

th eo ry a s i t a p plie s to a th le ti c s a s a n o rg aniz a ti o n o n a c o lle ge c am pus.

ST U DEN T D EV ELO PM EN T T H EO RY A N D S T U DEN T E XPER IE N CES

We c ho se to s itu ate th e s tu d ent e xp erie nce i n tw o w id ely u se d a nd c o m pre hensiv e h ig her e d ucati o n te xts . E vans e t

al.’ s

Stu den t D evelo pm en t i n C olle g e

( 2 010) o rg aniz e s m ajo r th eo re ti c al a p pro aches to u nd ers ta nd in g c o lle ge

stu d ent d ev elo pm ent, w hile P asc are lla a nd T ere nzin i’s

How C olle g e A ffe ct S tu den ts

( 2 005) p ro duces a l ite ra tu re

sy nth esis d eta ilin g h o w c o lle ge i m pacts s tu d ent e xp erie nces a nd o utc o m es. B oth g ro up s p re se nt a r a nge o f th eo re ti c al

ap pro aches, a nd w e a d ap t p orti o ns o f th eir o rg aniz a ti o n f o r th is c hap te r.

Dev elo pm ent c an b e d efin ed a s a s e t o f th eo rie s th at g uid es th e w ork o f s tu d ent a ffa ir s p ro fe ssio nals , d esc rib in g

ho w s tu d ents c hange a nd g ro w d urin g c o lle ge, a nd w hat a cti v iti e s o r e xp erie nces b est i n flu ence th at g ro w th ( E vans e t

al., 2 010, p p. 6 –7). W e p rim arily f o llo w E vans e t a l.’ s s c hem a, w hic h o rg aniz e s c la sse s o f s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent

th eo ry i n to f o und ati o nal th eo rie s, i n te gra ti v e th eo rie s, a nd s o cia l i d enti ty th eo rie s. B ecause o f s p ace l im ita ti o ns, w e

offe r a b ro ad o rg aniz a ti o n o f s e le cte d th eo rie s a nd m ay o m it d is c ussio n o n s o m e th eo rie s r e le v ant to a th le te s.

Fou ndatio n al S tu den t D evelo p m en t T heo rie s

We b egin w ith s e m in al s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent th eo rie s. M ost o f w hat i s r e v ie w ed i n th is s e cti o n i s b ase d o n th e e arly

work s o f th ese th eo ris ts . S cho la rs f o r m any d ecad es s in ce h av e b uilt u p on a nd r e fin ed th ese n o w f o und ati o nal

th eo rie s i n th eir w ork w ith c o lle ge s tu d ents . W e d esc rib e th e b asic te nets o f e ach th eo ry a nd i n clu d e r e se arc h a s i t

ap plie s to c o lle ge a th le te s.

Psyc h oso cia l T heo ry

Psy cho so cia l th eo rie s e xam in e h o w i n d iv id uals a cco m plis h s p ecific d ev elo pm enta l ta sk s. T hey e xam in e i m porta nt

is su es o f p eo ple ’s l iv es, s u ch a s h o w th ey a ge a nd m atu re . T hese th eo rie s h elp p ro fe ssio nals u nd ers ta nd h o w s tu d ents

make s e nse o f d efin in g th em se lv es a s i n d iv id uals , d ete rm in e w hat th ey w ant to a cco m plis h i n l ife , a nd i n te ra ct a nd

re la te to o th ers . S cho la rs m ost o fte n i d enti fie d w ith p sy cho so cia l th eo rie s i n clu d e E rik so n ( 1 968) a nd C hic kerin g a nd

Reis se r ( 1 993). E rik so n c o ntr ib ute d th e e p ig eneti c p rin cip le d esc rib in g s e q uenti a l a nd a ge-re la te d b io lo gic al a nd

psy cho lo gic al d ev elo pm ent a nd a ls o h o w a n i n d iv id ual’s e nv ir o nm ent h elp s to s h ap e

th ese c hanges. E rik so n

diffe re nti a te d i n d iv id uals b y p hase s b ase d o n th eir a ges, i m porta nt e v ents , a nd o utc o m es. H e c ate go riz e d

ad ole sc ence ( 1 2 to 1 8 y ears o f a ge) a s a ti m e w here te enagers b egin to d ev elo p th eir o w n p ers o nal i d enti ti e s,

fo llo w ed s h o rtl y th ere afte r b y y o ung a d ulth o od, w here th e o utc o m e o f d ev elo pin g s tr o ng r e la ti o nsh ip s i s a chie v ed . Id enti ty f o rm ati o n d urin g th is ti m e i s n ecessa ry , a nd a l a ck o f p ro per tr a nsiti o n c o uld l e ad to r o le c o nfu sio n. M uch o f

th e l ite ra tu re o n i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent i s f o und ed o n th ese p rin cip le s, a s tr a d iti o nal c o lle ge s tu d ents a re l ik ely to f a ll

with in th ese tw o p hase s.

Chic kerin g a nd R eis se r’s S ev en V ecto rs b uild o n E rik so n’s w ork . T he s e v en v ecto rs r e p re se nt e v er-c hangin g,

unid ir e cti o nal d im ensio ns o f i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent a nd i n clu d e a chie v in g c o m pete nce, m anagin g e m oti o ns, m ovin g

th ro ugh a uto no m y to w ard i n te rd ep end ence, d ev elo pin g m atu re i n te rp ers o nal r e la ti o nsh ip s, e sta b lis h in g i d enti ty ,

dev elo pin g p urp ose , a nd d ev elo pin g i n te grity ( C hic kerin g & R eis se r, 1 993). P sy cho so cia l th eo rie s a re u se fu l

work in g w ith s tu d ents a s w ell a s a th le te s, o ffe rin g i d eas o n h o w s u ccessfu l s tu d ents c o pe w ith c hanges th at o fte n

occur d urin g th e c o lle ge y ears . W hile a th le te s’ e xp erie nces c re ate c halle nges th at a re u niq ue to th eir i n d iv id ual

popula ti o n, th ese th eo rie s s ti ll a p ply a nd h elp u s b ette r u nd ers ta nd th e v ario us s ta ges o f i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent

exp erie nced b y s tu d ents d urin g c o lle ge. H arris ( 2 003) a p plie d C hic kerin g a nd R eis se r’s v ecto rs to h elp g uid e

ath le ti c tr a in ers i n n av ig ati n g i n ju re d s tu d ents ’ d ev elo pm ent. T ra in ers c an u se C hic kerin g a nd R eis se r’s v ecto rs to

pre d ic t h o w s tu d ents w ill r e sp ond a t th e o nse t o f i n ju ry a nd w hat s u p port th ey w ill n eed to s u ccessfu lly r e hab ilita te

(H arris , 2 003). T hese s e m in al th eo rie s h ig hlig ht th e i m porta nce o f b uild in g r e la ti o nsh ip s d urin g th e f o rm ati o n o f

id enti ty .

Cogn itiv e -S tr u ctu ra l T heo ry

Cogniti v e-s tr u ctu ra l th eo rie s a re r o ote d i n th e w ork o f P ia get ( 1 952) a nd e xam in e th e i n te lle ctu al d ev elo pm ent o f

co lle ge s tu d ents . T hese th eo rie s f o cus o n h o w s tu d ents p ro cess i n fo rm ati o n, r e aso n, a nd m ake s e nse o f th eir

exp erie nces. T he m in d i s th o ught to h av e s tr u ctu re s o r s ta ges th at “ act a s s e ts o f a ssu m pti o ns b y w hic h p ers o ns a d ap t

to a nd o rg aniz e th eir e nv ir o nm ents ” ( E vans e t a l., 2 010, p . 4 3). T hese s tr u ctu re s a re th e f ilte rs o f h o w w e p erc eiv e

and e v alu ate o ur e xp erie nces a nd h o w s o cia l i n te ra cti o ns c an a ssis t s tu d ents to d ev elo p th eir d ecis io n-m akin g h ab its .

Most c o nsid er P erry ( 1 968) a s th e f o und ati o nal th eo ris t o f c o lle ge s tu d ents ’ i n te lle ctu al d ev elo pm ent. M ora l

re aso nin g i s a ttr ib ute d to K ohlb erg ( 1 976), w hic h w as l a te r r e fin ed b y R est, N arv aez, B eb eau, a nd T ho m a ( 1 999).

Gillig an ( 1 982/1 993) c halle nged th e m ale -d om in ate d i n te lle ctu al th eo ry d ev elo pm ent a nd i n tr o duced g end ere d m ora l

re aso nin g a nd a n e th ic o f c are . B ele nky, C lin chy, G old berg er, a nd T aru le ( 1 986) a d vanced a w om en’s w ay o f

kno w in g, a nd B axte r-M ago ld a ( 1 992) i n tr o duced g end ere d m eanin g m akin g i n c o lle ge. O th er n o ta b le th eo ris ts i n th is

fa m ily i n clu d e K in g a nd K itc hener ( 1 994), w ho e xam in ed “ ill- s tr u ctu re d p ro ble m s” ( E vans e t a l., 2 010, p . 4 5) o r

ho w s tu d ents r e aso n w hen th ere i s n o c le ar s o lu ti o n to a d ile m ma. T his i s

esp ecia lly a p plic ab le to a th le te s, a s

How ard -H am ilto n a nd W att ( 2 001) n o te d th e h ig hly s tr u ctu re d a nd r u le -d riv en e nv ir o nm ent o f c o lle ge s p orts m ay

pre v ent s tu d ents f r o m b ein g c halle nged to d ev elo p th eir o w n u nd ers ta nd in gs a nd v alu es. B y a p ply in g a nd

und ers ta nd in g c o gniti v e d ev elo pm ent th eo rie s’ r e la ti o nsh ip to a th le te s, p ro fe ssio nals w ork in g w ith th is p opula ti o n

can a ssis t th em to p ro cess i n fo rm ati o n a nd b ette r u nd ers ta nd h o w s tu d ents r a ti o naliz e th eir a cti o ns, b ehav io rs , a nd

in te ra cti o ns w ith o th ers .

Experie n tia l L ea rn in g

Learn in g s ty le th eo rie s d esc rib e h o w i n d iv id uals a p pro ach l e arn in g. A mong th e m ost w id ely u se d , K olb ’s ( 1 984)

work w as b orn o ut o f a n i n te re st i n a cad em ic c ultu re s a nd w hat a re as w ould b e th e b est f it f o r p arti c ula r s tu d ents . H e

desc rib es l e arn in g a s a c yclic al p ro cess c o nsis ti n g o f f o ur s ta ges “ w here b y k no w le d ge i s c re ate d th ro ugh th e

tr a nsfo rm ati o n o f e xp erie nce” ( p . 3 8) a nd l e arn in g s ty le a s a “ hab itu al w ay o f r e sp ond in g to a l e arn in g e nv ir o nm ent”

(E vans e t a l., 2 010, p . 1 39). T he f o ur l e arn in g s ty le s i n clu d e c o nv erg in g, o r th o se w ho se s tr e ngth s a re p ro ble m

so lv in g a nd d ecis io n m akin g; d iv erg in g s tr e ngth s a re i m agin ati v e a b iliti e s, a w are ness o f m eanin g a nd v alu es, a nd

genera ti n g a nd a naly zin g a lte rn ati v es; a ssim ila ti n g s tr e ngth s a re i n i n d ucti v e r e aso nin g, c re ati n g th eo re ti c al m odels ,

and i n te gra ti n g o bse rv ati o n; a nd a cco m modati n g s tr e ngth s a re c arry in g o ut p la ns a nd a d ap ti n g to c hange ( K olb , 1 984,

pp. 7 8–79). K olb ( 2 000) s tr e sse d th at l e arn in g s ty le s c an c hange a nd a re n o t s ta ti c i n n atu re . L earn in g s ty le s a re

in flu enced b y th e d em and s o f th e i m med ia te e nv ir o nm ent a nd a re i n d iv id ual i n n atu re . K in g ( 2 003) h as a ls o d one

exte nsiv e w ork o n l e arn in g s ty le th eo rie s. I n r e la ti o n to a th le te s, th ere i s n o o ne-s iz e -fits -a ll a p pro ach; a th le te s

dem onstr a te a v arie ty o f d iffe re nt l e arn in g s ty le s. I n str u cto rs , a d vis o rs , a nd c o aches s h o uld b e p re p are d to w ork w ith

and h elp s tu d ents i d enti fy th eir i n d iv id ual s ty le s, l e arn te chniq ues f o r n av ig ati n g o th er s ty le s, a nd w ork to m eet th e

need s o f d iv ers e l e arn ers ( P erk in s, 2 010). U nd ers ta nd in g h o w i n d iv id uals p ro cess i n fo rm ati o n c an h elp

pro fe ssio nals d esig n p ro gra m s w ith i n d iv id ual l e arn in g s tr e ngth s i n m in d .

In te g ra tiv e T heo rie s One o f th e c riti c is m s o f th e th eo rie s a nd th eo ris ts d esc rib ed i n th e f o und ati o nal s e cti o n i s th at th ey s e p ara te

dev elo pm enta l p ro cesse s i n to d is c re te c ate go rie s. N ew i n te gra ti v e c la sse s o f th eo rie s a ckno w le d ge th e i n te rs e cti o n

of m ulti p le a sp ects o f th e p ers o nality a nd e nv ir o nm ent th at c o ntr ib ute to c hange.

Eco lo gic a l T heo ry

The f ir s t s e t i n clu d es e co lo gic al m odels , o r th e r e la ti o nsh ip th at th e p ers o n h as w ith th e e nv ir o nm ent. E vans e t a l.

(2 010) o ffe r th re e ty p es o f e co lo gic al m odels : h um an

eco lo gy, o r th e i n te ra cti o n o f h um ans a nd th eir e nv ir o nm ent;

dev elo pm enta l e co lo gy, a p sy cho lo gic al a p pro ach th at e xam in es h o w th e e nv ir o nm ent i n flu ences d ev elo pm ent; a nd

cam pus e co lo gy, w hic h f o cuse s o n th e i n te ra cti o n w ith th e s tu d ent a nd th e c am pus e nv ir o nm ent. H um an e co lo gy

exp la in s h o w h um ans n eed to a d ap t to a n e nv ir o nm ent th at e xis te d b efo re th em a nd w ill e xis t a fte r th em ( B ub olz &

Sonta g, 1 993). D ev elo pm enta l e co lo gy m odel p io neer, B ro nfe nb re nner ( 1 979), a d vanced th e e q uati o n D =

f ( B * E ):

dev elo pm ent i s a f u ncti o n o f th e i n te ra cti o n o f th e p ers o n a nd th e e nv ir o nm ent. H is m odel a d vanced th e c o ncep ts o f

pro cess, p ers o n, c o nte xt, a nd ti m e a nd r e p re se nts th e i n te ra cti o n o f th ese f o ur c o m ponents to p ro m ote o r i n hib it

dev elo pm ent a nd i s o fte n u se d to s tu d y p eer c ultu re s. C am pus e co lo gy i s th e i n te rs e cti o n o f h um an a nd d ev elo pm enta l

eco lo gy e xcep t i t i s f o cuse d o n th e s p ecia liz e d c o nte xt o f th e c am pus e nv ir o nm ent a nd w as i n tr o duced b y B annin g

and K ais e r ( 1 974). U sin g c am pus e co lo gy, B re nner a nd S w anik ( 2 007) f o und th at a th le te s w ere s ig nific antl y m ore

lik ely to r e p ort h ig h-ris k d rin kin g th an th eir n o nath le te p eers w hen s u rv eyed d urin g th eir n o nco m peti ti v e s e aso ns. T he

in cre ase i n u nstr u ctu re d ti m e a nd d ecre ase i n g uid ance d urin g o ff- s e aso ns i s o ne e xp la nati o n f o r th is f in d in g. C am pus

eco lo gy m odels c an h elp i n fo rm h o w e nv ir o nm ents c an b e s tr u ctu re d to m eet d esir e d d ev elo pm enta l o utc o m es.

Tra n sitio n T heo ry

A s e co nd i n te gra ti v e th eo ry a p plic ab le to a th le te s i s tr a nsiti o n th eo ry . T ra nsiti o n c an b e d efin ed a s “ any e v ent, o r

no n-e v ent, th at r e su lts i n c hanged r e la ti o nsh ip s, r o uti n es, a ssu m pti o ns, a nd r o le s” ( G oodm an, S chlo ssb erg , &

And ers o n, 2 006, p . 3 3). T ra nsiti o n i n clu d es ty p e, c o nte xt, a nd i m pact. T yp es c o m es i n th re e f o rm s: a nti c ip ate d

tr a nsiti o ns, w hic h p re d ic ta b ly o ccur s u ch a s m ovin g f r o m h ig h s c ho ol v ars ity a th le ti c te am to c o lle ge a th le ti c s;

unanti c ip ate d tr a nsiti o ns o r th o se th at a re n o t s c hed ule d s u ch a s a c are er-e nd in g i n ju ry ; a nd n o nev ents o r e v ents th at

are e xp ecte d to o ccur b ut d o n o t h ap pen ( e .g ., y o u a re e xp ecti n g to p la y p ro fe ssio nal s p orts b ut a re n o t s e le cte d o r

dra fte d ). C onte xt r e fe rs to o ne’s r e la ti o nsh ip to th e tr a nsiti o n a nd th e s e tti n g w here i t o ccurs . I m pact i s th e d egre e to

whic h th e tr a nsiti o n a ffe cts o ne’s d aily l ife . S chlo ssb erg ’s T ra nsiti o n T heo ry ( 1 989) i n tr o duced th e te rm s o f

movin g

movin g t h ro ugh

, a nd

movin g o ut

a nd i s a u se fu l th eo ry i n r e la ti o n to a th le te s a nd th eir e xp erie nces m ovin g

th ro ugh c o lle ge a s th e th eo ry e xam in es w hat “ co nsti tu te s a tr a nsiti o n, d iffe re nt f o rm s o f tr a nsiti o n, th e tr a nsiti o n

pro cess, a nd th e f a cto rs th at i n flu ence tr a nsiti o ns” ( E vans e t a l., 2 010, p . 2 14). S om e s c ho la rs w ork in g w ith a th le te s

ofte n d esc rib e th e p ro cess o f tr a nsiti o nin g f r o m a c o lle ge a th le te i d enti ty to l ife w ith o ut s p ort ( s e e H arris o n &

Law re nce, 2 004; M ore la nd -B is h o p, 2 009). W hen c o m pare d to p eers w ho m ay n o t i d enti fy a s s tr o ngly w ith th eir

ath le ti c r o le s, s tu d ents w ith h ig her a th le ti c i d enti ti e s a re r e p orte d to tr a nsiti o n to n o nath le te w ith g re ate r e ase a s th ey

re p ort e xcite m ent a b out e xp erie ncin g c o lle ge a s a tr a d iti o nal s tu d ent. S ti ll, th ese c o lle ge a th le te s’ tr a nsiti o ns o ut o f

sp ort a re o fte n a cco m panie d b y a l o ss o f i d enti ty , m oti v ati o n, s tr u ctu re , a nd s o cia l n etw ork ( M ore la nd -B is h o p,

2009). G oodm an e t a l. ( 2 006) e xte nd ed tr a nsiti o n th eo ry to i n clu d e f a cto rs th at a ffe ct th e a b ility to c o pe w ith

tr a nsiti o ns a nd i n tr o duced th e f o ur S s: s itu ati o ns, s e lf, s u p port, a nd s tr a te gie s. T his l is t c o uld i n clu d e c o unse lin g f o r

ath le te s a fte r te rm in ati n g th eir s p ort.

Socia l I d en tit y T heo ry

Colle ge a llo w s s tu d ents to b egin to c ulti v ate a nd n av ig ate th ro ugh th eir m ulti p le i d enti ti e s. T he a p plic ati o n o f i d enti ty

dev elo pm ent th eo rie s a re r e le v ant to a th le te s, a s th ey h elp u s to b ette r u nd ers ta nd th e s tu d ents a s i n d iv id uals a nd th e

pers o nal g ro w th a nd d ev elo pm ent th ey a re e xp erie ncin g. W hile n o tw o s tu d ents a re l ik ely to e nd ure i d enti c al

dev elo pm ent, th ese th eo rie s p ro vid e a f o und ati o n f o r u nd ers ta nd in g a nd s u p porti n g s tu d ents . S ocia l i d enti ty i s su es i n

th e m ain str e am U nite d S ta te s h av e th eir r o ots i n th e c iv il r ig hts m ovem ent o f th e 1 960s. D urin g th e 1 970s a nd 1 980s,

we w itn esse d a g ro w th i n s c ho la rs th eo riz in g a b out s o cia l i d enti ty i s su es, i n clu d in g r a ce, e th nic ity , s e xual i d enti ty ,

and g end er. T he 1 990s w itn esse d a d diti o nal s c ho la rs h ip i n m ulti p le s o cia l i d enti ty f r a m ew ork s a nd b y th e e arly

tw enty -fir s t c entu ry , i s su es o f p ow er, p riv ile ge, a nd o ppre ssio n m ad e th eir w ay to th e f o re fr o nt o f s tu d ent

dev elo pm ent th eo ry . W e s h are a b rie f o verv ie w o f th e m ain s o cia l i d enti ti e s th at a ris e o n c o lle ge a th le ti c te am s b ut

re co gniz e o th er s a lie nt i d enti ty i s su es th at m ay s u rfa ce s u ch a s a b ility o r “ ab le is m ” p riv ile ge ( E vans & H errio tt, 2009) o r C hris ti a n p riv ile ge ( S chlo sse r, 2 003).

Racia l/E th nic I d en tity D eve lo pm en t

Race a nd r a cia liz e d a naly se s a re o ne o f th e m ost h ig hly d is c usse d to pic s i n c o lle ge a th le ti c s. R acia l a nd e th nic

id enti ti e s s im ila rly f in d th eir w ay i n to th e s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent l ite ra tu re . W hile r a ce a nd e th nic ity a re o fte n u se d

in te rc hangeab ly , th ey r e p re se nt d iffe re nt c o nstr u cts a nd th eo ris ts ty p ic ally d is ti n guis h r a cia l i d enti ty m odels a s th o se

th at f r a m e i d enti ty i n r e la ti o n to th e d om in ant g ro up ’s s ta tu s a nd p ositi o n f r o m e th nic i d enti ty m odels th at te nd to

deta il h o w c ultu ra l c hara cte ris ti c s a re a cq uir e d a nd m ain ta in ed ( E vans e t a l., 2 010; H elm s, 1 996). I n th e l a te 1 970s,

Atk in so n, M orte n, a nd S ue ( 1 979) i n tr o duced th e m in o rity i d enti ty m odel, w hic h w as r e v is e d a nd r e nam ed b y S ue

and S ue i n 2 003 a s th e r a cia l a nd c ultu ra l i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent m odel ( R CID ). T he R CID i n clu d es f iv e s ta ges th at

desc rib e h o w s tu d ents o f c o lo r v ie w th em se lv es i n r e la ti o n to w hite s tu d ents . T he R CID h as s e rv ed a s th e

gro und w ork f o r m odels th at e xam in e th e r a cia liz e d e xp erie nces o f s tu d ents i n clu d in g N ati v e A meric an ( H ors e ,

2005), A sia n ( K im , 2 001), b la ck ( C ro ss & F hagen-S m ith , 2 001), L ati n a/o ( F erd m an & G alle go s, 2 001), a nd w hite

(H elm s, 1 995) s tu d ent i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent. M ulti r a cia l i d enti ty f r a m ew ork s a re a ls o m akin g th eir w ay i n to s tu d ent

dev elo pm ent l ite ra tu re ( s e e R enn, 2 004).

In c o ntr a st, e th nic i d enti ty f r a m es e xam in e h o w s tu d ents “ und ers ta nd th e i m plic ati o ns o f th eir e th nic ity a nd m ake

decis io ns a b out i ts r o le i n th eir l iv es”

(P hin ney, 1 993, p . 6 4). P hin ney ( 1 993) p ro pose d th at u nd ers ta nd in g e th nic

id enti ty w as c riti c al f o r p ositi v e s e lf- c o ncep ts a m ong s tu d ents o f c o lo r a nd i d enti fie d a th re e-s ta ge m odel w here

stu d ents m ove f r o m h av in g th eir e th nic i d enti ty u nexam in ed to e th nic i d enti ty a chie v em ent w here s tu d ents e sta b lis h a

health y i d enti ty s ta tu s a nd a ccep t th eir o w n a nd o th ers ’ i d enti ty s im ila riti e s a nd d iffe re nces. O th er e th nic i d enti ty

fr a m ew ork s i n clu d e T orre s’s ( 2 003) m odel o f H is p anic i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent o r I b ra him , O hnis h i, a nd S and hu’s

(1 997) S outh A sia n i d enti ty m odel a nd c halle nge e arlie r l im ite d c o ncep ti o ns th at e th nic m in o riti e s d esir e to b e

sim ila r to w hite p eo ple . W hite e th nic i d enti ty m odels a re a ls o b ein g d ev elo ped ( H elm s, 1 996).

The f r a m ew ork s a re i m porta nt f o r c o lle ge a th le ti c te am s a s s tu d ents a re l ik ely w ork in g th ro ugh h o w th eir o w n

ra cia l o r e th nic i d enti ty i n flu ences th e p erc ep ti o ns o th ers h av e f o r th eir p erfo rm ance b oth i n th e c la ssro om a nd w ith in

th eir s p ort. B ru ein g, A rm str o ng, a nd P asto re ( 2 005) d em onstr a te th e r o le i d enti ty p la ys i n A fr ic an A meric an f e m ale

ath le te s’ e xp erie nces. H av in g m ulti p le o verla p pin g m arg in aliz e d i d enti ti e s, th ese s tu d ents o fte n f in d th eir v oic es

sile nced a nd th eir i d enti ti e s u nd erre p re se nte d i n s p ort. T hese f r a m ew ork s c an b e a p plie d to s tu d ents o f v ary in g

id enti ti e s to h elp u nd ers ta nd th eir e xp erie nces, a nd h elp i n fo rm p ra cti c es a im ed a t s u p porti n g th eir i d enti ty

dev elo pm ent ( B ru enin g e t a l., 2 005; L aw re nce, 2 005; S in ger, 2 005).

Sex u al I d en tity a n d G en der I d en tity D eve lo pm en t

Ano th er g ro up o f th eo rie s r e le v ant to a th le te s a re th eo rie s o n s e xual i d enti ty a nd g end er i d enti ty . I t i s i m porta nt to

cla rify th at s e xual i d enti ty m odels r e fe r to m ore th an j u st s e xual a cti v ity a nd i n clu d e th e “ em oti o nal, l ife sty le , a nd

politi c al a sp ects o f l ife ” ( E vans e t a l., 2 010, p . 3 07). O ne o f th e f ir s t l e sb ia n, g ay, b is e xual ( L G B) i d enti ty m odels

was C ass’s ( 1 996) m odel o f s e xual o rie nta ti o n i d enti ty f o rm ati o n. T he s ix s ta ges o f d ev elo pm ent r a nge f r o m m in im al

aw are ness to a n i n te gra ti o n o f th e l e sb ia n o r g ay s e lf w ith o th er a sp ects o f th e s e lf, i n clu d in g h o w o th ers v ie w th e

se lf. A lte rn ati v e m odels b ette r i n co rp ora te th e r o le o f c o nte xtu al i n flu ences o n d ev elo pm ent a nd c halle nge th e n o ti o n

th at a ccep ta nce o f s e lf i s n ecessa rily e q uate d w ith a cti v is m ( F assin ger & M ille r, 1 997). O th er p ro m in ent th eo ris ts o n

id enti ty d ev elo pm ent i n clu d e D ’A ugelli’s ( 1 994) m odel o f l e sb ia n, g ay, a nd b is e xual d ev elo pm ent th at i n tr o duced a

life -s p an m odel, w hic h r e co gniz e s th at p eo ple ’s i d enti ti e s a re s h ap ed b y th e c o nte xt o f ti m e. C unnin gham ( 2 012) u se s

essa ys a nd s to rie s f r o m a cti v is ts , c o aches, a nd s c ho la rs to e xp lo re a th le te s’ e xp erie nces n av ig ati n g s e xual i d enti ti e s.

By h ig hlig hti n g th e v ario us i s su es f a ced b y a th le te s th ro ugh th e l e ns o f d iffe re nt c o nsti tu ents , C unnin gham o ffe rs

pote nti a l s tr a te gie s to i n cre ase s e xual i d enti ty i n clu siv eness w ith in a th le ti c e nv ir o nm ents . T oday, th eo ris ts a re a ls o

exam in in g h ete ro se xuality a nd n o rm s ( W orth in gto n, S av oy, D illo n, & V ern aglia , 2 002). I t i s i m porta nt to b ette r

und ers ta nd h o w to w ork w ith a nd s u p port s tu d ents to e xp lo re th eir o w n s e xual i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent i n h ealth y a nd

dev elo pm enta l w ays ( C unnin gham , 2 012; W olf- W end el, T om a, & M orp hew , 2 001).

Gend ere d i d enti ti e s d iffe r f r o m o ne’s s e xual o rie nta ti o n a nd r e fe r to n o rm s a nd s o cia liz a ti o n o f p arti c ula r

gend ers . W hile s e x i s ty p ic ally c o nsid ere d a b io lo gic al c o nstr u ct, g end er i s v ie w ed a s a c ultu ra lly c o nstr u cte d

co ncep t s h ap ed b y h o w m en a nd w om en s h o uld b ehav e. W hile s e x a nd g end er a re c lo se ly r e la te d , o ne c anno t a ssu m e

gend er i d enti ty i s b ase d o n s e x a lo ne. C onte m pora ry d ev elo pm enta l th eo ry a ls o r e co gniz e s tr a nsg end er i d enti ty , w hen

gend er i d enti ty d iffe rs f r o m s e x a sc rip ti o n ( B ilo deau, 2 009). M uch w ork i s l e ft to b e d one i n th is a re a. Colle g e A th le te I d en tity D eve lo pm en t

The b ulk o f r e se arc h o n c o lle ge a th le te s f o cuse s o n h o w p arti c ip ati o n a ffe cts e d ucati o nal o utc o m es. A th le ti c i d enti ty

is d efin ed a s th e e xte nt to w hic h a p ers o n i d enti fie s w ith th e r o le o f a n a th le te ( B re w er, v an R aalte , & L in d er, 1 993).

One s h o rtc o m in g o f a th le te i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent i s th at r a th er th an a ckno w le d ge th e m ulti d im ensio nal a sp ects o f

ath le te s’ r e sp ecti v e i d enti ti e s, th e l ite ra tu re c o ncern in g i n te rc o lle gia te s p orts m ost o fte n d ep ic ts a th le te s a s n av ig ati n g

only tw o w orld s a s th ey s tr iv e to s u cceed b oth o n th e p la yin g f ie ld a s a th le te s a nd i n th e c la ssro om a s s tu d ents ( A dle r

& A dle r, 1 991; P ers o n & L eN oir, 1 997). B re w er e t a l. ( 1 993) a ckno w le d ge th e “ m ulti d im ensio nal s e lf- c o ncep t” o f

ath le ti c i d enti ty a nd d ev elo ped th e A th le ti c I d enti ty M easu re m ent S cale ( A IM S) to m easu re b oth th e s tr e ngth a nd

exclu siv ity o f a th le ti c i d enti ty . T he A IM S i s o ne o f th e m ost w id ely u se d a nd c ite d i n str u m ents f o r a sse ssin g a th le ti c

id enti ty .

It i s n o t s u rp ris in g th at, a s a r e su lt o f th eir s o cia l i n te ra cti o ns, d em and in g tr a in in g s c hed ule s, a nd d iffe rin g v alu es,

ath le te s o fte n d ev elo p a s tr o ng s a lie nt a th le ti c i d enti ty ( A dle r & A dle r, 1 991). T he c halle nge e xis ts w hen s tu d ents ’

id enti ti e s a s a th le te s s ig nific antl y o vers h ad ow th eir o th er i d enti ti e s; o r w hen a l ife e v ent ( e .g ., a n i n ju ry o r

te rm in ati o n o f a th le ti c i n v olv em ent) f o rc es s tu d ents to r e co nsid er th eir i d enti ti e s. C olle ge a th le te s e nte r c o lle ge w ith

sim ila r a cad em ic a sp ir a ti o ns to th eir p eers , b ut a s s tu d ents b eco m e m ore i n v este d i n th eir a th le ti c r o le s, th ey o fte n

fin d th em se lv es u nab le to m eet th eir p re v io usly h ig h a cad em ic a sp ir a ti o ns w hile f u lfillin g th eir a th le ti c

re sp onsib iliti e s. T his s o m eti m es r e su lts i n p rio riti z in g o ne r o le o ver th e o th er ( A dle r & A dle r, 1 991). S tr o nger

sa lie nce o f th eir i d enti ti e s a s a th le te s p uts th em a t r is k o f n egle cti n g th eir s tu d ent i d enti ty ( A dle r & A dle r, 1 991).

Stu d ents w ith s tr o ng a th le ti c i d enti ti e s a ls o r u n th e r is k o f p sy cho lo gic al o bsta cle s i n th e e v ent o f i n ju ry o r tr a nsiti o n

aw ay f r o m th eir a th le ti c c are ers ( B re w er e t a l., 1 993).

By u nd ers ta nd in g th e i m plic ati o ns o f th is r e se arc h, w e c an b ette r u nd ers ta nd s tu d ents ’ e xp erie nces, a nd u se th e

opportu nity to m in im iz e th e p ote nti a l n egati v e e ffe cts s tu d ents m ay f a ce. A s tr o ng s a lie nt a th le ti c i d enti ty i s

acco m panie d b y m any p ositi v e a ttr ib ute s: o pportu nity f o r a th le ti c s k ill d ev elo pm ent, g re ate r u nd ers ta nd in g o f s e lf-

id enti ty , a nd a c o m mitm ent to p erfo rm ance ( B re w er e t a l., 1 993). S im ila rly , a s tr o ng s tu d ent i d enti ty i s a cco m panie d

by m any r e w ard s, i n clu d in g r e te nti o n, p ers o nal d ev elo pm ent, a nd d riv e f o r a cad em ic a chie v em ent ( E vans e t a l.,

2010). S om e o f th e c halle nges th at i m pact th e r o le s s tu d ents i d enti fy w ith i n clu d e s o cia liz a ti o n,

ti m e c o m mitm ents ,

re sp onsib iliti e s, a nd p sy cho so cia l d ev elo pm ent. T heo ry c an b e u se d to b ette r i n fo rm p ra cti c es th at d ir e ctl y i m pact

th ese s tu d ents . S tu d ent s e rv ic es o ffic es m ay o ffe r ti m e m anagem ent w ork sh o ps a im ed s p ecific ally to w ard c o lle ge

ath le te s to h elp th em b ette r n av ig ate th eir v ario us c o m mitm ents . W e m ove n o w to a r e v ie w o f m odels u se d to

und ers ta nd h o w th e e nv ir o nm ent a ffe cts th e c o lle ge a th le te e xp erie nce.

Colle g e I m pact M od els

The s e co nd m ajo r s e ts o f th eo rie s r e v ie w ed i n th is c hap te r a re c o lle ge i m pact m odels o r th eo rie s. C olle ge i m pact

models “ em phasiz e c hange a sso cia te d w ith th e c hara cte ris ti c s o f th e i n sti tu ti o ns s tu d ents a tte nd … o r w ith th e

exp erie nces s tu d ents h av e w hile e nro lle d ” ( P asc are lla & T ere nzin i, 2 005, p . 1 8). P asc are lla a nd T ere nzin i ( 2 005)

sh o w th at th ere i s a ti m e d im ensio n th at c an b e a p plie d to u nd ers ta nd in g th e g ro w th , c hange, a nd d ev elo pm ent o f

co lle ge s tu d ents — one s e m este r, a fte r th e f ir s t c o lle ge y ear, a fte r e xp osu re to a p arti c ula r p ro gra m , a nd a fte r e xp osu re

to f o ur y ears o f c o lle ge, w hic h a ls o s h o uld b e a cco unte d f o r w hen e xam in in g a th le te e xp erie nces. W e p re se nt th e

most s a lie nt c o lle ge i m pact m odels f o und i n h ig her e d ucati o n s c ho la rs h ip .

Astin ’s I -E -O M odel

Asti n ’s I - E -O m odel ( 1 977, 1 991) a nd th eo ry o f i n v olv em ent ( 1 984) p osit th at to u nd ers ta nd th e i m pact o f th e c o lle ge

env ir o nm ent, o ne m ust a ls o u nd ers ta nd th e s tu d ent’ s c hara cte ris ti c s u p on e ntr a nce to c o lle ge. T he “ I” r e fe rs to th e

in p uts o r s tu d ents ’ b ackgro und a b iliti e s a nd d is p ositi o ns, th e “ E ” i s th e e nv ir o nm ent to w hic h th e s tu d ent i s e xp ose d

durin g c o lle ge, ( e .g ., f a culty , p eers , a nd d iv ers e v ie w s), a nd “ O ” i s th e o utc o m e o f c o lle ge o r w hat th e c o lle ge h o pes

to p ro duce o r d ev elo p i n s tu d ents . I n clu d ed i n th e I - E -O m odel i s th at s tu d ents g et o ut o f c o lle ge p ro porti o nally to

what th ey p ut i n to th e c o lle ge e xp erie nce. A sti n ’s f r a m ew ork h as b een w id ely u se d a s a c o ncep tu al g uid e i n

desig nin g s tu d ie s r e la te d to th e i m pact o f c o lle ge o n s tu d ents , a cco unti n g f o r th e c hara cte ris ti c s o f s tu d ents b efo re

th ey e nte re d c o lle ge. S ee C om eaux ( 2 005) f o r u ti lity o f th e I - E -O m odel o n c o lle ge a th le te s.

Tin to ’s T heo ry o f S tu den t D ep artu re One o f th e m ost w id ely u se d f r a m ew ork s o n th e d ecis io n o f s tu d ents to r e m ain e nro lle d i n o r d ep art f r o m c o lle ge i s

Tin to ’s ( 1 993) s tu d ent d ep artu re th eo ry . T his th eo ry p osits th at s tu d ents e nte r c o lle ge w ith p arti c ula r g o als a nd

in sti tu ti o nal c o m mitm ents , w hic h a re i n flu enced b y th eir b ackgro und a nd a cad em ic p re p ara ti o n. E xte rn al f a cto rs s u ch

as f a m ily o r w ork o blig ati o ns a ls o a ffe ct d ecis io ns. S tu d ents ’ i n iti a l c o m mitm ents i n flu ence th eir a b ility to b e

so cia lly o r a cad em ic ally i n te gra te d i n to c o lle ge. I f s tu d ents f a il to b eco m e a cad em ic ally o r s o cia lly i n te gra te d , th ey

ris k l e av in g c o lle ge b efo re c o m ple ti o n. T his th eo ry c an b e u se fu l i n w ork w ith c o lle ge

ath le te s to u nd ers ta nd i n w hat

su b cultu re s th ey n eed to a cad em ic ally a nd s o cia lly i n te gra te to s u ccessfu lly c o m ple te c o lle ge.

Nora ’s S tu den t E ngagem en t M odel

The th ir d c o lle ge i m pact m odel w e r e v ie w i s a m odel o f s tu d ent e ngagem ent. N ora ( 2 002) i d enti fie s c o lle ge

exp erie nces th at h elp s tu d ents to a ccultu ra te i n to th e c am pus c ultu re . T his m odel d ra w s o n T in to ’s w ork b ut d esc rib es

ho w v alid ati n g a nd m ento rin g e xp erie nces f r o m f a culty a nd s ta ff i n flu ence s tu d ents ’ c o m mitm ent, e ngagem ent, a nd

se nse o f b elo ngin g to th e c am pus. T he m odel a ls o i n clu d es i n te rm ed ia te o utc o m es o f c o lle ge a s a r e su lt o f m eanin gfu l

engagem ent s u ch a s v alu in g d iv ers ity a nd k no w le d ge o f g lo bal i s su es. T his w ork c an b e u se fu l i n w ork in g w ith

ath le te s b ecause i t a ckno w le d ges th o se s ta ff m em bers th at e nco ura ge a w ell- ro und ed a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c

exp erie nce.

STA KEH O LD ER P E R SP E C TIV E

Fro m t h e C la ssr o om t o t h e P la yin g F ie ld : H ow R ese a rc h I n fo rm s H ea lt h y S tu den t

Develo p m en t

Susa n R ankin i s a f o rm er D iv is io n I c o ach a nd r e ti r e d a sso cia te p ro fe sso r o f h ig her e d ucati o n a t th e P ennsy lv ania

Sta te U niv ers ity . W ith m ore th an th ir ty y ears o f p ro fe ssio nal e xp erie nce i n fo rm in g o ur d is c ussio n, D r. R ankin o ffe re d

her p ers p ecti v e o n w hy th ere i s a n i n cre ase d n eed to u nd ers ta nd th eo ry w hen w ork in g w ith c o lle ge a th le te s. D r.

Rankin o pened b y s ta ti n g th at h is to ric ally c o aches’ e d ucati o nal tr a in in g w as i n e d ucati o n, s o th ey e nte re d th e

co achin g p ro fe ssio n w ith s o m e u nd ers ta nd in g o f b asic h um an d ev elo pm ent th eo ry . I n cre asin gly c o aches’ a re h ailin g

fr o m c o m munic ati o ns a nd b usin ess b ackgro und s a nd th us m ay n o t h av e b een i n tr o duced to h um an d ev elo pm ent th eo ry .

Additi o nally , th ey m ay h av e a l im ite d u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e b re ad th o f s c ho la rs h ip a v aila b le o n h o w s tu d ents

exp erie nce c o lle ge. T oday, c o aches e xp ect th at a th le ti c a d vis o rs o r c o unse lin g s ta ff w ill a ssis t a th le te s w ith th eir

acad em ic a nd p ers o nal d ev elo pm ent, b ut r e se arc h s u ggests th at a th le te s p re fe r to ta lk to th eir c o aches. H ence, s o m e

exp osu re to th eo ry o n h o w s tu d ents f r o m v ario us s o cia l i d enti ti e s e xp erie nce c o lle ge c an a ssis t c o aches w ith a b ette r

und ers ta nd in g o f h o w w ell a th le te s f r o m d iffe re nt b ackgro und s w ill tr a nsiti o n to a nd a d ju st to c o lle ge.

When a d dre ssin g th e r o le o f f a culty i n a th le te s’ l iv es, D r. R ankin e xp la in ed th at f a culty n ecessa rily n eed to

und ers ta nd th e ti m e d em and s o f a th le te s. F aculty s h o uld o ffe r s o m e f le xib ility w ith th eir a th le te s a nd b e p ro acti v e

with a th le te s a nd th eir d ev elo pm ent. D r. R ankin s h are d th at e ach s e m este r s h e m et w ith a th le te s i n h er c o urs e s a nd

work ed th ro ugh th e c la ss s y lla b us a nd th eir c o m peti ti o n s c hed ule . S he e xp la in ed th at i t i s n o t th at a th le te s c anno t o r

will n o t d o th e r e q uir e d w ork ; i t i s j u st th at th eir s c hed ule s m ay r e q uir e s o m e f le xib ility o n th e f a culty m em ber’s p art

with r e gard to te sts a nd a ssig nm ents . S he a d vocate s f o r th e u se o f tr a in in g f o r f a culty i n a th le ti c i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent,

em phasis o n a th le te s u ccess m odels , a nd a tte nti o n to th e e ffe cts o f c am pus c lim ate s o n th e a th le te e xp erie nce. D esp ite

sc ho la rs h ip th at i n d ic ate s th at p ositi v e s tu d ent- fa culty i n te ra cti o ns f o r a th le te s r e su lt i n g re ate r c la ssro om e ngagem ent

and s tr o ng a cad em ic c la ssro om s u ccess, s te re o ty p es a nd p oor p erc ep ti o ns o f a th le te s p ers is t a nd th ese m ay c re ate

ro ad blo cks to a th le te s u ccess. O vera ll, D r. R ankin ’s w ork w ith a th le te s a s a f o rm er c o ach a nd c o lle ge p ro fe sso r

exp la in s th at k no w le d ge o f th e c o lle ge a th le te e xp erie nce b ut e v en c o lle ge s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent m ore g enera lly c an

help g uid e th e i n te ra cti o ns a nd e xp ecta ti o ns b etw een c o aches a nd p la yers a nd f a culty a nd th eir s tu d ents .

Com ea u x a n d H arris o n ’s C on cep tu al M odel o f A ca dem ic S uccess f o r S tu den t- A th le te s

One c o m pre hensiv e c o lle ge i m pact f r a m ew ork a d vanced s p ecific ally f o r c o lle ge a th le te s i s C om eaux a nd H arris o n’s

(2 011 ) c o ncep tu al m odel o f a cad em ic s u ccess f o r s tu d ent- a th le te s. T he m odel a d ds to th e p re v io usly

und erre se arc hed a re a o f f a cto rs th at i n flu ence c o lle ge a th le te a cad em ic s u ccess. T he m odel c o nta in s f o ur s ta ges:

pre co lle ge ( fa m ily b ackgro und , e d ucati o nal e xp erie nces, p re p ara ti o n, a nd i n d iv id ual a ttr ib ute s); i n iti a l c o m mitm ents

(g o al, s p ort, a nd i n sti tu ti o nal c o m mitm ent) ; c o lle ge e nv ir o nm ent f a cto rs ( s o cia l a nd a cad em ic s y ste m s); a nd co m mitm ents ( g o al, s p ort, a nd i n sti tu ti o nal c o m mitm ent) . T he s ta ges o utl in e p re v ailin g f o rc es i n s tu d ent m atr ic ula ti o n

and p re se nt a f r a m ew ork f o r u nd ers ta nd in g s tu d ents ’ a cad em ic s u ccess. T he m odel s u ggests th at b oth i n d iv id ual

exp erie nces a nd i n te ra cti o ns w ith in th eir c o lle ge e nv ir o nm ent p la y a p re d om in ant r o le i n a th le te s’ a cad em ic s u ccess.

Concep tu al m odels a re p arti c ula rly u se fu l i n p ro vid in g a c le are r l e ns to v ie w th e v ario us i n flu ences o n s tu d ent

matr ic ula ti o n. S ta ff a nd a d m in is tr a to rs c an u se th is m odel to g uid e i n te rv enti o ns a nd p ro gra m s, h elp in g a th le te s

ap pro pria te ly n av ig ate e ach o f th e s ta ges e v id enced to p ro m ote m atr ic ula ti o n.

CRIT IC AL T H EO RY

Stu d ent d ev elo pm ent th eo ry a nd c o lle ge i m pact m odels s e ek to d esc rib e a nd u nd ers ta nd i n d iv id ual s tu d ent

exp erie nces. C riti c al th eo rie s g o b eyo nd u nd ers ta nd in g p ow er b ut a ls o c riti q ue h o w p ow er o pera te s i n s o cie ty .

Criti c al th eo ry s e eks to i d enti fy , a naly ze , u nd ers ta nd , a nd tr a nsfo rm o ppre ssiv e s tr u ctu ra l a nd c ultu ra l a sp ects o f

so cie ty th at m ain ta in m arg in al s ta tu se s o f g ro up s. C riti c al th eo ry i s p rim arily r o ote d i n s o cio lo gy b ut h as b een u se d to

stu d y s p ort ( E itz e n & S age, 2 009). W e h ig hlig ht th re e m ain c riti c al th eo rie s u se d i n th e s tu d y o f s p ort: h egem ony

th eo ry , f e m in is t th eo ry , a nd c riti c al r a ce th eo ry . H egem ony th eo ry ( S age, 1 998) e v alu ate s p ow er a nd d om in ance i n

so cie ty a nd “ se nsiti z e s u s to th e r o le d om in ant g ro up s p la y i n A meric an g o vern m ent, e co no m ic s y ste m , m ass m ed ia ,

ed ucati o n, a nd s p ort i n m ain ta in in g a nd p ro m oti n g th eir i n te re sts ” ( p . 1 0). T his th eo ry c an b e u se d to u nd ers ta nd h o w

co lle ge a th le ti c s r e la te s to th e p ro ducti o n a nd c o ntr o l o f r e so urc es ( W his e nant, P ed ers e n, & O beno ur, 2 002).

Fem in is t th eo ry i s u se fu l i n e xam in in g a th le te s a nd c o lle ge a th le ti c s. H is to ric ally , f e m in is t th eo ry m ad e tw o b asic

assu m pti o ns: th at p eo ple ’s e xp erie nces a re g end ere d a nd th at b ecause w om en h av e b een d ev alu ed i n m any c o nte xts ,

th ere i s a n eed to c hange th o se c o nd iti o ns. T oday, f e m in is t th eo rie s g o b eyo nd m ale v ers u s f e m ale o ppre ssio n a nd

ro le s a nd “ em phasiz e th e n eed to c halle nge s e xis m , r a cis m , c o lo nia lis m , c la ss, a nd o th er f o rm s o f i n eq ualiti e s i n th e

re se arc h p ro cess” ( N ap le s, 2 003, p . 1 3). F em in is t th eo ry i s u se fu l i n th e s tu d y o f c o lle ge a th le ti c s to b ette r

und ers ta nd i n eq uiti e s s u ch a s f u nd in g, i n d iv id ual p la yer e xp erie nces, h ir in g o f c o aches a nd s e nio r a th le ti c

ad m in is tr a to rs , a nd o th er r e la te d a v enues to f o re fr o nt p ow er r e la ti o ns ( B ru enin g e t a l., 2 005). F in ally , c riti c al r a ce

th eo ry ( C RT) a ckno w le d ges th e n eed to e m phasiz e r a ce i n r e se arc h a nd d oes s o u nap olo geti c ally . C RT i s a

fr a m ew ork u se d to u nd ers ta nd h o w r a ce a nd r a cis m i m pact s tr u ctu re s, p ro cesse s, a nd d is c o urs e s w ith in a n

ed ucati o nal c o nte xt. C RT c halle nges th e d om in ant th eo re ti c al p ara d ig m s th at o ffe r d efic it u nd ers ta nd in gs o f th e

ed ucati o nal a b ility o f s tu d ents o f c o lo r o r a th le te s o f c o lo r ( C om eaux, 2 010; D onno r, 2 005; S in ger, 2 005). C RT i n

ed ucati o n a ls o th eo riz e s a nd e xam in es th at p la ce w here r a cis m i n te rs e cts w ith o th er f o rm s o f d is c rim in ati o n, s u ch a s

se xis m a nd c la ssis m . C RT i s tr a nsd is c ip lin ary a nd d ra w s o n m any o th er s c ho ols a nd m eth o ds o f p ro gre ssiv e

sc ho la rs h ip . C RT a tte m pts to l in k th eo ry w ith p ra cti c e, s c ho la rs h ip w ith te achin g, a nd th e a cad em y w ith th e

co m munity ( S olo rz a no & D elg ad o-B ern al, 2 001). T oday, s c ho la rs h av e e xp and ed u p on c riti c al r a ce th eo ry to

exam in e s p ecific p opula ti o ns a nd a re f u rth er d ev elo pin g C RT s u ch a s L atC rit, T rib alC rit, W hite C rit, A sia nC rit,

QueerC rit, a nd F em Crit to n am e a f e w .

CASE S T U DY

Navig atin g M ult ip le I d en tit ie s: T he A pplic a tio n o f T heo ry t o P ra ctic e

You a re th e a cad em ic c o ord in ato r r e sp onsib le f o r e nsu rin g th e s u ccess o f c o lle ge a th le te s. Y ou a re a ssig ned to w ork

with th e w om en’s b ask etb all a nd w om en’s g ym nasti c s te am s. Y our c o lle ague w ork s w ith m en’s w re stl in g a nd m en’s

base b all. Y ou b oth w ork p rim arily w ith f ir s t- y ear s tu d ents b ut a ls o w ork w ith r e tu rn in g c o lle ge a th le te s w ho h av e n o t

been a b le to s e cure a G PA o f 3 .0 o r a b ove ( th e g ra d e p oin t a v era ge n eed ed f o r a th le te s w ho a re n o t w ork in g w ith a n

acad em ic c o ord in ato r). Y ou j u st to ok a c la ss a b out s tu d ent d ev elo pm ent th eo rie s a nd c am pus c lim ate , a nd y o u f e el

co nfid ent a p ply in g y o ur k no w le d ge to a ssis t a th le te s w ith th eir a cad em ic s a nd n av ig ati o n o f th eir i d enti ti e s a nd th e

cam pus e nv ir o nm ent. Y our c o lle ague w ork in g w ith m en’s te am s i s s tr u gglin g w ith h o w to a d vis e a y o ung m an w ho i s

questi o nin g h is s e xual o rie nta ti o n. S he a ls o a sk ed y o u f o r a d vic e o n h o w y o u w ork w ith s tu d ents w ho d o n o t s e em to

be a cad em ic ally s u ccessfu l.

More o ver, th e i s su e o f r a cia l i n se nsiti v ity h as b een h eig hte ned o n y o ur c am pus a fte r a f r a te rn ity h o ste d a p arty

dep ic ti n g A sia n a nd P acific I s la nd er p opula ti o ns n egati v ely . S ev era l c urre nt a th le te s a re m em bers o f th is f r a te rn ity

and a lo ng w ith i ts s is te r s o ro rity , h av e a h is to ry o f i n iti a ti n g a th le te s a s m em bers . H ow m ig ht y o u u se y o ur k no w le d ge

of s tu d ent i d enti ty d ev elo pm ent to s u p port th e a th le te s d urin g th is ti m e a nd w hat a d vic e c an y o u p ro vid e y o ur

co lle ague to h elp h er w ork w ith th o se s tu d ents u nd er h er s u p erv is io n? CAM PU S C LIM AT E

Mem bers o f d iffe re nt s o cia l g ro up s e xp erie nce c am pus c lim ate d iffe re ntl y d ep end in g o n g ro up m em bers h ip a nd

gro up s ta tu s ( R ankin & R easo n, 2 005). P ositi v e c am pus c lim ate s c o ntr ib ute to s tu d ents ’ a cad em ic p erfo rm ance,

so cia l a d ju stm ent, a nd i n te rp ers o nal s k ill d ev elo pm ent, w hile n egati v e c am pus c lim ate s a d vers e ly a ffe ct

th o se

outc o m es, p arti c ula rly f o r g ro up s w ith m arg in aliz e d s o cia l i d enti ti e s. C am pus c lim ate i s d efin ed a s th e “ curre nt

atti tu d es, b ehav io rs a nd s ta nd ard s a nd p ra cti c es o f e m plo yees a nd s tu d ents o f a n i n sti tu ti o n” ( R ankin & R easo n,

2008, p . 2 64).

Base d o n w ork b y S m ith e t a l. ( 1 997), R ankin ( 2 003), a nd R ankin a nd R easo n ( 2 008), th e s tu d ent- a th le te c lim ate

co ncep tu al f r a m ew ork ( R ankin e t a l., 2 011 ) w as o ne o f th e f ir s t s tu d ie s to c o m pre hensiv ely e xp lo re th e p erc ep ti o ns

and e xp erie nces o f c o lle ge a th le te s w ith r e gard to c am pus c lim ate . T his f r a m ew ork s u ggests th at i n d iv id ual a nd

in sti tu ti o nal c hara cte ris ti c s d ir e ctl y i n flu ence h o w a th le te s e xp erie nce c lim ate a nd a v arie ty o f e d ucati o nal o utc o m es

uniq ue to a th le te s. A t th e s a m e ti m e, a th le te s’ e xp erie nces o f c lim ate c an a ls o i n flu ence th ese e d ucati o nal o utc o m es.

Hig hlig hte d v aria b le s i n clu d e d em ogra p hic c hara cte ris ti c s ( e .g ., r a ce, g end er), c hara cte ris ti c s u niq ue to a th le te s

(e .g ., s p ort a ffilia ti o n), a nd c hara cte ris ti c s u niq ue to th e a rra y o f p arti c ip ati n g i n sti tu ti o ns ( e .g ., d iv is io nal

cla ssific ati o n). C lim ate c o nstr u cts i n clu d e m easu re s o f a th le te s’ e xp erie nces, a tti tu d es, p erc ep ti o ns, a nd r e p orts o f

in sti tu ti o nal a cti o ns r e le v ant to th e c am pus, a th le ti c d ep artm ent, a nd te am c lim ate s. T he o utc o m e m easu re s i n clu d ed

acad em ic s u ccess, a th le ti c i d enti ty , a nd a th le ti c s u ccess. T he a uth o rs f o und e v id ence o f th e e ffe ct o f p ositi v e c lim ate s

on c o lle ge a th le te s’ o utc o m es i n th e s tu d y.

ORG AN IZ AT IO NAL T H EO RY: C O LLEG E A T H LETIC S A N D C ULT U RE

In m any w ays, u nd ers ta nd in g th e a th le ti c o rg aniz a ti o n a s a n e nte rp ris e i s j u st a s i m porta nt a s u nd ers ta nd in g th e

stu d ent w ith in i t; th ese o rg aniz a ti o ns p la y a p re d om in ant r o le i n i n sti tu ti o nal c ultu re a nd s u ccess, a nd o fte n h av e

deep ly e m bed ded h is to rie s th at d ic ta te th e w ays i n w hic h th e u nits — and i n m any c ase s, th e i n sti tu ti o ns— fu ncti o n

(C la rk , 1 972). T his s e cti o n p ro vid es a m odest i n tr o ducti o n to a th le ti c s a s a n o rg aniz a ti o n a nd th e th eo rie s th at c an b e

ap plie d to a th le ti c o rg aniz a ti o ns a s a n e nte rp ris e .

The s tu d y o f o rg aniz a ti o ns r e fe rs to th e e nv ir o nm ent, s tr a te gie s, g o als , w ork , a nd f o rm al a nd i n fo rm al s tr u ctu re s

pre se nt i n o rg aniz a ti o ns ( S co tt & D av is , 2 007). S co tt a nd D av is ( 2 007) a sse rt th at v ario us a sp ects o f m em bers h ip

in flu ence o rg aniz a ti o ns, i n clu d in g i n d iv id uals ’ n eed s a nd th eir d em ogra p hic s. T he l ite ra tu re o n o rg aniz a ti o nal th eo ry

allo w s u s to a sse ss th e u niq ue c ultu re s p re se nt i n th ese c o lle gia te a th le ti c o rg aniz a ti o ns a nd h o w th o se c ultu re s a ffe ct

th e s tu d ents i n v olv ed . O rg aniz a ti o ns a re c o m ple x s tr u ctu re s; th ere fo re , s tu d yin g th e w ays o rg aniz a ti o ns a re f r a m ed

and o pera te c an b e u se fu l, b ecause i t p ro vid es i n fo rm ati o n o n w hat w ork s o r d oes n o t i n a chie v in g o utc o m es.

Org aniz a ti o nal th eo ry a llo w s u s to u nd ers ta nd l e ad ers h ip , e nact c hange, o r c re ate n ew tr a d iti o ns w ith in a u nit

(B olm an & D eal, 2 008; C la rk , 1 972). U se fu l o rg aniz a ti o nal th eo rie s f o r th e s tu d y o f s p ort a nd i n te rc o lle gia te

ath le ti c s s p ecific ally i n clu d e B olm an a nd D eal’s ( 1 991) m ulti - fr a m e p ers p ecti v e; P elle d ’s ( 1 996) i n te rv enin g

pro cess th eo ry ; B arn ey’s ( 1 991) o r R ic hard ’s ( 2 000) r e so urc e-b ase d th eo ry .

Sack ( 2 009) i d enti fie d th re e c o ncep tu al m odels th at g uid e th e c o ntr a sti n g v ie w s a sso cia te d w ith c o lle ge a th le ti c s

while e xp lo rin g th e i s su es a nd a ssu m pti o ns p re v ale nt i n b ig -ti m e c o lle ge s p orts . T he f ir s t, i n te lle ctu al e liti s m , r e fe rs

to th e a rg um ent th at c o lle ge a th le ti c s r e p re se nts a n egati v e f o rc e i n h ig her e d ucati o n. S om e r e fo rm ers a re c o ncern ed

with th e th re at p re se nte d b y a th le ti c s to a cad em ic v alu es, e sp ecia lly th e r e so urc es a llo cate d to a th le ti c p ro gra m s th at

co uld o th erw is e s u p port e d ucati o nal n eed s. T he s e co nd , a cad em ic c ap ita lis m , e m phasiz e s th e b enefits o f th e

co m merc ia lis m o f c o lle ge a th le ti c s a nd th e w ays i n w hic h a th le ti c s a lig n w ith th e i n sti tu ti o n’s m is sio ns a nd v alu es.

Fin ally , th e a th le ti c r ig hts m odel a d vocate s f o r th e r ig hts o f c o lle ge a th le te s, c o nti n ually p osin g q uesti o ns a b out

stu d ents ’ e d ucati o nal a nd f in ancia l a id o pportu niti e s ( S ack, 2 009). S ack’s c o ncep tu al m odels a re u se fu l i n e xp lo rin g

th e v ario us a ssu m pti o ns i n sti tu ti o ns a nd a th le te s r e gula rly n av ig ate .

Additi o nal th eo ry te xtb ooks a nd r e la te d w ork to u nd ers ta nd s p ort i n clu d e C oakle y a nd D unnin g’s

Handbook o f

Sport S tu die s

( 2 000); E itz e n a nd S age’s

Socio lo gy o f N orth A m eric a n S port

( 2 009); S chro ed er’s m odel f o r

asse ssin g o rg aniz a ti o nal c ultu re ( 2 010); a nd G iu lia no tti ’s

Sport a nd M odern T heo ris ts

( 2 004).

CO NCLU SIO N

Colle ge a th le te s p osse ss v ario us i d enti ti e s, a ffilia ti o ns, c halle nges, a nd o pportu niti e s th at s h ap e th e w ay i n w hic h

th ey a p pro ach b oth th eir a cad em ic a nd a th le ti c e xp erie nces. P ro fe ssio nals w ork in g i n h ig her e d ucati o n s h o uld

exerc is e s e nsiti v ity to th e c o m ple x n eed s o f a th le te s. K no w le d ge a nd th eo ry o f th e m ulti p le f a cets o f a th le te s’ id enti ti e s c an e q uip s c ho la rs a nd p ra cti ti o ners w ith m ore n uanced u nd ers ta nd in gs o f d iv ers e a th le te e xp erie nces.

Theo ry o n c o lle ge a th le te s a nd c o lle ge a th le ti c s, w hile g ro w in g, s ti ll h as m any a re as r ip e f o r a d diti o nal r e se arc h a nd

im pro ved u nd ers ta nd in gs.

Colle ge a th le te s i n te ra ct w ith i n d iv id uals i n m any d iffe re nt e nv ir o nm ents , f r o m c o aches a nd a th le ti c d ir e cto rs to

fa culty a nd a d m in is tr a to rs . E ach p ro fe ssio nal h as th e o pportu nity to a ssis t s tu d ents i n th eir l e arn in g a nd e ngagem ent,

and w hen p ossib le , c o lla b ora ti o n a nd c o m munic ati o n a m ong th ese v ario us i n d iv id uals i s b enefic ia l. W hile i t m ay b e

challe ngin