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Cris is Com munic atio n Cris is Com munic atio n TH EO RY AND PR A CTIC E Ala n J a y Z are m ba 2009019485 Fir s t p ublis h ed 2 010 b y M .E . S harp e Publis h ed 2 015 b y R outle d ge 2 P ark S quare , M ilto n P ark , A bin gdon, O xon O X14 4 R N 711 T hir d A ven ue, N ew Y ork , N Y 1 0017 Routle d ge is a n im prin t o f th e T a ylo r & F ra ncis G ro up, a n in fo rm a b usin ess Copyrig ht © 2 010 T ay lo r & F ra n cis . A ll r ig hts r e se rv ed N o p art o f th is b ook m ay b e r e p rin te d o r r e p ro duced o r u tilis e d in a n y f o rm o r b y a n y e le ctr o nic , m ech an ic al, o r o th er m ean s, n ow k now n o r h ere afte r in ven te d , in clu din g p hoto co pyin g a n d r e co rd in g, o r in a n y in fo rm atio n s to ra g e o r r e tr ie v al s y ste m , w ith out p erm is sio n in w ritin g f ro m th e p ublis h ers .

N otic es N o r e sp onsib ility is a ssu m ed b y th e p ublis h er f o r a n y in ju ry a n d/o r d am ag e to p ers o ns o r p ro perty a s a m atte r o f p ro ducts l ia b ility , n eg lig en ce o r o th erw is e , o r f ro m a n y u se o f o pera tio n o f a n y m eth ods, p ro ducts , in str u ctio ns o r id eas c o nta in ed in th e m ate ria l h ere in .

P ra ctitio ners a n d r e se arc h ers m ust a lw ay s r e ly o n th eir o w n e x perie n ce a n d k now le d ge in e v alu atin g a n d u sin g a n y in fo rm atio n, m eth ods, c o m pounds, o r e x perim en ts d esc rib ed h ere in . I n u sin g s u ch in fo rm atio n o r m eth ods th ey s h ould b e m in dfu l o f th eir o w n s a fe ty a n d th e s a fe ty o f o th ers , in clu din g p artie s f o r w hom th ey h av e a p ro fe ssio nal r e sp onsib ility .

P ro duct o r c o rp ora te n am es m ay b e tr a d em ark s o r r e g is te re d tr a d em ark s, a n d a re u se d o nly f o r id en tif ic atio n a n d e x pla n atio n w ith out in te n t to in frin ge.

Lib ra ry o f C on gress C ata lo gin g-in -P ublic a tio n D a t a Z are m ba, A la n J a y.

C ris is c o m munic atio n : th eo ry a n d p ra ctic e / A la n J a y Z are m ba.

p. c m .

IS B N 9 78-0 -7 656-2 051-4 ( c lo th : a lk . p ap er) — IS B N 9 78-0 -7 656-2 052-1 ( p bk.: a lk . p ap er) 1. C om munic atio n in o rg an iz atio ns. 2 . C ris is m an ag em en t. I . T itle .

HD30.3 .Z 3694 2 009 658.4 ′5 — dc2 2 I S B N 1 3: 9 780765620521 ( p bk) I S B N 1 3: 9 780765620514 ( h bk) Ded ic atio n a n d A ck now le d gm en ts D ED IC AT IO N A th em e in th is b ook is th at an o rg an iz atio n u nder d ure ss w ould b e w is e to act an d co m munic ate re sp onsib ly , t o d o t h e r ig ht t h in g. C ris e s c an d era il o rg an iz atio ns a n d c au se t h em t o t e ete r. I n t h e t h ro es o f a s k id , o rg an iz atio ns s o m etim es d o th e w ro ng th in g in a s h orts ig hte d a tte m pt to g ain f ir m g ro und. S uch beh av io r is c o unte rp ro ductiv e. N ot o nly d oes it e x acerb ate th e c ris is , b ut th e e ffe cts o f d oin g th e w ro ng th in g bru is e s th e org an iz atio n an d cre ate s im ped im en ts fo r fu tu re gen era tio ns of org an iz atio nal ex ecu tiv es a n d e m plo yees.

When m y m oth er w as th re e, h er f a th er p eris h ed in a w ork -re la te d a ccid en t. S he e n dure d a n e m otio nal an d f in an cia l c ris is . S he c o uld h av e a ssu m ed a l if e o f v ic tim iz atio n o r a b an doned h er m ora l c o m pass f o r an e n tic in g e x ped ie n t o ne t h at p oin te d i n t h e w ro ng d ir e ctio n. B ut s h e d id n ot a n d n ev er l o st h er w ay. I t i s ap pro pria te t h en f o r t h is b ook t o b e d ed ic ate d t o m y m oth er, H ele n Z are m ba. I a m a d ir e ct b en efic ia ry o f her s tr e n gth .

A CK NO W LED G M EN TS I a m g ra te fu l to a n um ber o f p eo ple f o r th eir h elp w ith th is b ook. L ynn T ay lo r w as m y in itia l c o nta ct a t M.E . S harp e. S he w as en co ura g in g w hen I p ro pose d th e b ook, su pportiv e as w e to ok th e n ecessa ry pre lim in ary s te p s b efo re c o ntr a ctin g, a n d v ery p ro fe ssio nal a s m y d ev elo pm en ta l e d ito r o nce th e w ritin g pro cess beg an . Lynn w as accessib le , kin d, an d re sp onsiv e to m y in quir ie s th ro ughout. She m ad e su ggestio ns, p ro vid ed fe ed back , a n d in g en era l h elp ed m ak e th is b ook a s g ood a s it c o uld b e. K atie Cora sa n iti w ork ed w ith m e once th e m an usc rip t w as su bm itte d an d w as alw ay s co nsc ie n tio us, metic u lo us, a n d c arin g a s w e p re p are d t h e m an usc rip t f o r p ro ductio n.

Als o , I a m h ap py to h av e w ork ed w ith S ta cey V ic to r w ho s e rv ed a s p ro ductio n e d ito r f o r th e p ro je ct.

Anyone w ho h as p ublis h ed a b ook k now s th at o nce th e m an usc rip t h as b een s u bm itte d , th ere a re s e v era l necessa ry p ro ductio n s ta g es t h at m ust b e c o m ple te d b efo re t h e b ook g oes o ut f o r p rin tin g a n d p ublic atio n.

These p ro ductio n s te p s a re t im e c o nsu m in g a n d l a b orio us b oth f o r a n a u th or a n d f o r t h e p ro ductio n e d ito r.

I am g ra te fu l to S ta cey fo r h er w ork as w e m oved to w ard p ublic atio n. I am in deb te d to th e m an y pra ctitio ners w ho g av e u p th eir tim e to b e in te rv ie w ed fo r th e p ra ctitio ner p ers p ectiv e fe atu re o f th is book. S pecif ic ally I w an t to th an k E d K lo tz b ie r, C aro lin e S ap ie r, Ju lie H all, V in cen t L oporc h io , Jo e Lukas, S ue P hillip s, S te v e F ra n kel, a n d A la n B aro cas. In a d ditio n, a s p ecia l th an ks to L au ra R oss, J im Gold en , a n d C ra ig In gra h am fo r p uttin g m e in to uch w ith p eo ple w ho w ould b e a p pro pria te fo r th is fe atu re .

I a m g ra te fu l f o r t h e s u pport o f f rie n ds, c o lle ag ues a n d f a m ily w ho a sk ed m e a b out t h e p ro je ct, l is te n ed patie n tly w hen I d is c u sse d it in fa r m ore d eta il, n o d oubt, th an th ey w ere esp ecia lly in te re ste d , b ut nev erth ele ss en co ura g ed m e. S pecif ic th an ks to frie n ds P atr ic ia C am pbell, K en T uro w , K en B altin , Marg ie G la zer, H ele n G oodm an , C hery l C han dle r, a n d M arc ia a n d K en W eis s. A t N orth easte rn th an ks to Tom S heah an , C arl Z an gerl, E ric a H aag en so n, K ris tin M ulla n ey, M ark G ould , T om N ak ay am a, M urra y Form an , G re g G oodale , K um i S ilv a, S usa n P ic illo , C are y N ola n d, D av id M onje , T odd L each , N ic o le Mau ra n to nio , a n d C ra ig R oberts o n w ho m ay h av e f o rg otte n , b ut a t o ne tim e o r a n oth er a sk ed m e a b out th e w ritin g o f t h is b ook, o ffe re d t h eir e n co ura g em en t, a n d w is h ed m e w ell a s I w ork ed o n t h is p ro je ct.

I h av e w ritte n i n t h e p re fa ces t o m y o th er b ooks t h at I i m ag in e t h ere i s n ot m uch t h at i s m ore d if fic u lt th an l iv in g w ith a n a u th or w ho h as a d ead lin e. T hat r e m ark i s s till a p t. M y d ear c o m pan io n, D onna G lic k , has b een p atie n t w ith m e w hen I h av e b een ir rita b le , a n e d ito r w hen I n eed ed a n oth er s e t o f e y es, a n d su pportiv e w hen it m ust hav e been tr y in g to do so . I am gra te fu l as alw ay s fo r her in sig hts , unders ta n din g, a n d l o ve.

I am bey ond fo rtu nate to hav e been born to lo vin g pare n ts , an d th e bro th er of a brillia n t an d co m passio nate s ib lin g. I h av e b een , a m , a n d a lw ay s w ill b e a w are o f t h ese b le ssin gs. There a re lik ely o th ers w ho h av e h elp ed m e w ith th is b ook th at I ’v e f o rg otte n to n am e. F or a ll th ose who h av e p artic ip ate d e ith er w ith in sig hts o r ju st e m otio nal s u pport, th an k y ou fo r c o ntr ib utin g to th is pro duct.

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C onte n ts F OUNDATIO NS F O R C RIS IS C OM MUNIC ATIO N Chap te r i n a N uts h ell Sw eet S ix te en Pra ctic e a n d S im ula tio ns Apply t h e P rin cip le s Foundatio nal P la n ks Book S tr u ctu re a n d F eatu re s Chap te r F eatu re s Poin t/C ounte rp oin t Sum mary : A T oolb ox Pra ctitio ner P ers p ectiv e: E d K lo tz b ie r Exerc is e s a n d D is c u ssio n Q uestio ns Note s D EFIN IN G C RIS IS C OM MUNIC ATIO N Chap te r i n a N uts h ell Case 2 .1 : L ab S hoppin g Questio ns f o r A naly sis Defin in g C ris is C om munic atio n Apply t h e P rin cip le s Types o f C ris e s What D o C ris is C om munic atio ns D o?

Myth s A bout C ris is C om munic atio n Apply t h e P rin cip le s Key C ris is C om munic atio n T erm s Apply t h e P rin cip le s: T est Y ours e lf Cris is C om munic atio n a n d O rg an iz atio nal C om munic atio n Apply t h e P rin cip le s Poin t/C ounte rp oin t Sum mary : A T oolb ox Pra ctitio ner P ers p ectiv e: C aro lin e S ap rie l Exerc is e s a n d D is c u ssio n Q uestio ns Note s O RGANIZ A TIO NAL T HEO RY A ND C RIS IS C OM MUNIC ATIO N Chap te r i n a N uts h ell Case 3 .1 : A N ew S upers ta r Questio ns f o r A naly sis Pra ctic al T heo ry Syste m s T heo ry Cultu ra l T heo ry Apply t h e P rin cip le s Cla ssic al T heo ry Apply t h e P rin cip le s Hum an R eso urc es T heo ry Apply t h e P rin cip le s Chao s T heo ry 4.

Critic al T heo ry Apply t h e P rin cip le s Com munic atio n T heo ry Poin t/C ounte rp oin t Sum mary : A T oolb ox Exerc is e s a n d D is c u ssio n Q uestio ns Pra ctitio ner P ers p ectiv e: J u lie H all Note s P LA NNIN G F O R C RIS E S Chap te r i n a N uts h ell Case 4 .1 : T here M ust B e S om e M is ta k e In tr o ductio n — T im e t o F ix t h e R oof Foundatio ns: A void in g D en ia l; E th os a n d L eg itim acy Pro activ e P la n nin g: C om munic atio n I n fra str u ctu re Pro activ e P la n nin g: A pply S ta k eh old er T heo ry Apply t h e P rin cip le s: S ta k eh old er a n d I n ocu la tio n T heo ry Glo baliz atio n a n d E th nocen tr is m Ste p -b y-S te p C ris is P la n nin g Apply t h e P rin cip le s Apply t h e P rin cip le s Poin t/C ounte rp oin t Sum mary : A T oolb ox Pra ctitio ner P ers p ectiv e: A la n B aro cas Exerc is e s a n d D is c u ssio n Q uestio ns Note s R ESP O NDIN G T O C RIS E S Chap te r i n a N uts h ell Case 5 .1 : “ W hat W ould Y ou E xpect t h e C om pan y t o D o?” Questio ns f o r A naly sis In tr o ductio n Im ag e R esto ra tio n T heo ry Im ag e R esto ra tio n A ppro ach es Apply t h e P rin cip le s What A re t h e B est A ppro ach es?

What A re t h e B est A ppro ach es?

Why D o C ris is C om munic atio n R esp onse s F ail?

Poin t/C ounte rp oin t Sum mary : A T oolb ox Exerc is e s a n d D is c u ssio n Q uestio ns Case f o r A naly sis Note s E TH IC AL I SSU ES I N C RIS IS C OM MUNIC ATIO N Chap te r i n a N uts h ell Case 6 .1 : J e lly B ean s Questio ns f o r A naly sis Why D o E th ic al D ecis io ns A ffe ct C ris is C om munic atio n?

Apply t h e P rin cip le s The N orm aliz atio n o f D ev ia n ce Tra n sp are n cy, A m big uity , a n d C ris is C om munic atio n Sig nif ic an t C hoic e Eth ic s o f S cie n tif ic A rg um en t Apply t h e P rin cip le s 7.

Eth ic al B eh av io r a n d L eg al D ecis io n M ak in g Id en tif y in g F alla cie s Apply t h e P rin cip le s Poin t/C ounte rp oin t Sum mary : A T oolb ox Exerc is e s a n d D is c u ssio n Q uestio ns Pra ctitio ner P ers p ectiv e: S ue P hillip s Note s C RIS IS C OM MUNIC ATIO N T EA M S Chap te r i n a N uts h ell Case 7 .1 : F eelin gs o f B etr a y al a n d A nger Questio ns f o r A naly sis In tr o ductio n Valu es o f M eetin gs Prim ary a n d S eco ndary C onflic t Nonsu m mativ ity a n d M ultip le C au sa tio n Agen das a n d P ro cess Apply t h e P rin cip le s In te rv en tio ns Apply t h e P rin cip le s Mak in g I n te rv en tio ns W ork Exam in in g L ead ers h ip S ty le s Poin t/C ounte rp oin t Sum mary : A T oolb ox Pra ctitio ner P ers p ectiv e: J o e L ukas Exerc is e s a n d D is c u ssio n Q uestio ns Note s T RAIN IN G T H E S PO KESP E R SO N Chap te r i n a N uts h ell Case 8 .1 : M eetin g t h e P re ss Questio ns f o r A naly sis In tr o ductio n Mis c o ncep tio ns R eg ard in g S peak in g S kill Com munic atio n N ois e A G am e C oncep tu aliz atio n Red ucin g A nxie ty Audie n ce A naly sis Apply t h e P rin cip le s Sele ctin g a n A ppro pria te S peak in g S ty le Str u ctu rin g t h e M essa g e Apply t h e P rin cip le s Apply t h e P rin cip le s Ele m en ts o f D eliv ery Apply t h e P rin cip le s Poin t/C ounte rp oin t Sum mary : A T oolb ox Pra ctitio ner P ers p ectiv e: S te v e F ra n kel Exerc is e s a n d D is c u ssio n Q uestio ns Note s W HER E D O Y OU G O F R O M H ER E ?

Chap te r i n a N uts h ell Case 9 .1 : D is a ste r i n B hopal Questio ns f o r A naly sis In tr o ductio n Ris k C om munic atio n Valu es o f C ris is C om munic atio n?

Lead ers h ip a n d C ris is Apply t h e P rin cip le s Poin t/C ounte rp oin t Sum mary : A T oolb ox Exerc is e s a n d D is c u ssio n Q uestio ns Note s In dex About t h e A uth or Cris is Com munic atio n • •1 Foundatio n f o r C ris is C om munic atio n Chap te r in a N uts h ell Cris e s h ap pen . O rg an iz atio ns th at are ex cep tio nally p ro fita b le an d w ell m an ag ed can en co unte r su dden p ro ble m s th at m ay s ta g ger th eir e n te rp ris e . W hen c ris e s o ccu r, o rg an iz atio ns a re c o m pelle d to c o m munic ate t o v ario us a u die n ces. T he q uality o f t h ese c o m munic atio ns i s c ru cia l f o r t h e s u ccess of th e o rg an iz atio n. S lo ppy c o m munic atio n d urin g c ris e s c an p la g ue a n o rg an iz atio n rig ht o ut o f ex is te n ce. E ffe ctiv e co m munic atio n durin g th ese tim es can tr a n sfo rm pote n tia l dis a ste rs in to positiv e situ atio ns fo r a co m pan y. T here are a num ber of fo undatio nal pla n ks upon w hic h an unders ta n din g o f c ris is c o m munic atio n r e sts . T his c h ap te r d is c u sse s th ese f o undatio ns. I n a d ditio n, th e c h ap te r e x pla in s t h e s tr u ctu re o f t h e b ook a n d t h e f e atu re s o f e ach c h ap te r.

Specif ic ally , a t t h e e n d o f t h is c h ap te r, r e ad ers w ill b e a b le t o Id en tif y fiv e f u ndam en ta l p rin cip le s f o r e ffe ctiv e c ris is c o m munic atio ns.

Expla in t h e r e le v an ce o f t h ese p rin cip le s t o o rg an iz atio ns a n d o rg an iz atio nal h ealth .

S W EET SIX TEEN • O n M arc h 1 0, 2 008, t h e New Y o rk T im es p ublis h ed a n a rtic le t h at r o ck ed A lb an y, N ew Y ork . S oon t h e re st o f t h e c o untr y w as s im ila rly s tu nned . E llio t S pitz er t h e g overn or o f t h e s ta te o f N ew Y ork h ad r u n f o r offic e o n a re fo rm p la tf o rm d ed ic ate d to eth ic al acco unta b ility an d p le d ged to p urg e sc an dal fro m govern m en t a n d e ls e w here . W hen S pitz er s e rv ed a s a tto rn ey g en era l o f N ew Y ork in th e 1 990s h e h ad vow ed sim ila rly to b rin g an en d to co rru ptio n. O n th is M arc h d ay in 2 008, h ow ev er, n ew s sto rie s su ggeste d th at S pitz er h ad b een in volv ed in a ctiv itie s th at m an y p eo ple w ould c o nsid er v ery c o rru pt.

Spitz er, it s e em ed , h ad s p en t th ousa n ds o f d olla rs v is itin g a b ro th el in W ash in gto n D .C . I t w as n ot c le ar on t h is M arc h d ay w heth er t h e m oney s s p en t o n t h ese i n dulg en ces w ere f ro m t a x pay er d olla rs .

• O n J u ly 1 , 2 002, o ffic ia ls a t A m eric a W est w ere d um bfo unded a n d d azed b y th e n ew s th at tw o o f th eir p ilo ts w ere d eta in ed a t th e M ia m i a ir p ort. T he p ilo ts h ad b een sc h ed ule d to fly 1 24 p asse n gers acro ss th e co untr y to P hoen ix , A riz o na. H ow ev er, se cu rity p ers o nnel th ought th ese p ilo ts m ig ht b e in eb ria te d . T he a ir c ra ft w as t a x iin g o n t h e r u nw ay, w hen i t w as c alle d b ack . T he p ilo ts w ere p ulle d o ff t h e pla n e a n d e x am in ed . B oth f a ile d B re ath aly zer t e sts . A m eric a W est’s i m ag e, o f c o urs e , w as d am ag ed . T he co m pan y w as e m barra sse d . S ubse q uen tly , t h e a ir lin e w as h um ilia te d f u rth er w hen i t w as r e v eale d t h at a t le ast o ne o f t h e p ilo ts h ad a h is to ry o f a lc o hol a b use .

• Vir g in ia T ech U niv ers ity a n d a ll o f its s tu den ts , s ta ff, a lu m ni, a n d f a cu lty w ere d ev asta te d o n A pril 16, 2006, w hen a lu natic m an ia cally an d in dis c rim in ate ly kille d stu den ts an d pro fe sso rs on th e Bla ck sb urg , V ir g in ia cam pus. In th e early h ours o f th at h orrib le d ay th e d era n ged k ille r, a stu den t him se lf , h ad s h ot s tu den ts in a d orm ito ry . T he k ille r th en r e tu rn ed to h is o w n r o om . T w o h ours la te r h e burs t in to s e v era l c la ssro om s m urd erin g p ro fe sso rs , m ore s tu den ts , a n d th en h im se lf . S ubse q uen tly , th e univ ers ity w as c h astis e d b y a r e v ie w b oard f o r “ fa ilin g t o t a k e a ctio n t h at m ig ht h av e r e d uced t h e n um ber of c asu altie s, fa ilin g to ta k e n ote o f c erta in ‘re d fla g s.’ ” 1 T he sh oote r h ad a h is to ry o f p sy ch olo gic al pro ble m s a n d h ad p re v io usly b een a sk ed t o l e av e a c la ss b ecau se o f i n ap pro pria te b eh av io r.

• O n J a n uary 1 9, 2 004, H ow ard D ean , a p re sid en tia l a sp ir a n t, r e acte d w ild ly , a lm ost m an ia cally , t o h is lo ss in th e I o w a c au cu se s. D ean a p peare d to b e ju st a n otc h s h ort o f c ra zed a s h e a sse rte d h ow h e w ould fig ht o n, s o undin g l e ss l ik e a r e silie n t c am paig ner a n d m ore l ik e a d is tr a u ght, d is p ir ite d , i f n ot d em en te d lo se r. D ean ’s ra n t w as cap tu re d o n te le v is io n an d p la y ed re g ula rly o n n ew s re p orts . T he v id eo ta p e portr a y ed t h e c an did ate a s s o m eo ne w ho h ad l e ss t h an t h e r e q uis ite e q uan im ity t o l e ad a n atio n. O nce t h e fro nt- ru nner i n t h e p rim arie s, D ean s u bse q uen tly h ad t o b attle a t a rn is h ed i m ag e b ecau se o f w hat b ecam e know n a s th e “ D ean S cre am .” E ven tu ally , D ean ’s c an did acy lo st tr a ctio n, a n d J o hn K erry b ecam e th e Dem ocra tic c an did ate f o r p re sid en t.

• R eeb ok, a c o m pan y th at p rid es its e lf o n in novatio n a n d c u ttin g-e d ge c h ic , n am ed a n ew b ra n d o f sn eak er th e In cu bus.

T his w as a b ew ild erin g n am e c h oic e. T he w ord “ in cu bus” h as s e x ual c o nnota tio ns with w hic h R eeb ok, o ne a ssu m es, w ould p re fe r n ot t o b e a sso cia te d . A n i n cu bus, b y d efin itio n, i s a g host th at h as u nso lic ite d in tim ate r e la tio ns w ith a w om an w hile s h e is a sle ep . R eeb ok c la im ed to b e u naw are of th e m ean in g o f th e w ord w hen it w as c h ose n a s th e n am e fo r th e s h oe. T his c la im m ad e a u die n ces wonder a b out t h e i n te llig en ce, i n te rn al c o m munic atio n s tr u ctu re , a n d/o r c re d ib ility o f t h e c o m pan y.

• H urric an e K atr in a b la ste d in to N ew O rle an s, L ouis ia n a o n A ugust 2 9, 2 005, n early d estr o yin g th e city . R esid en ts w ere f o rc ed e ith er to r a ce a w ay f ro m n early e v ery th in g th ey o w ned o r s ta y a n d r is k th eir liv es a s th e d elu ge lite ra lly s w am ped th eir h om es a n d n eig hborh oods. P ro perty w as d estr o yed , f a m ilie s se p ara te d , c h ild re n w en t h ungry , a n d c o m pla in ts w ere e ars p littin g a s le ad ers in N ew O rle an s b ecam e in cen se d a t w hat w as p erc eiv ed t o b e a s lo w r e sp onse f ro m t h e f e d era l g overn m en t. C lo se t o 2 ,0 00 p eo ple peris h ed b ecau se o f K atr in a-re la te d d am ag e.

• K obe B ry an t, a b ask etb all p la y er f o r t h e L os A ngele s L ak ers , w as a ccu se d o f r a p in g a w om an h e m et while atte n din g a co nfe re n ce in A sp en , C olo ra d o. B ry an t co nte n ded th at th e 2004 en co unte r w as co nse n su al a n d p le ad ed n ot g uilty to th e c h arg es, b ut th e a ccu sa tio ns lin gere d a n d th e id ea th at B ry an t had b eh av ed in ap pro pria te ly g ain ed in te rn atio nal a tte n tio n. E ven tu ally th e c ase e n ded w ith a s e ttle m en t, but B ry an t’s i m ag e w as a ffe cte d w ell b ey ond t h e m oneta ry d am ag e r e su ltin g f ro m a l o ss i n e n dors e m en ts fro m M cD onald ’s a n d o th er c o m pan ie s. T here w ere th ose w ho c o nte n ded th at th e N atio nal B ask etb all Asso cia tio n a n d t h e L os A ngele s L ak ers h ad a ls o t a k en a h it i n t e rm s o f p re stig e.

• O n D ecem ber 5 , 2 002, a t th e h undre d th b ir th day c ele b ra tio n f o r r e tir in g S en ato r S tr o m T hurm ond, Sen ato r T re n t L ott o f M is sis sip pi m ad e a c o m men t t h at c re ate d a f ir e sto rm . I n 1 948, T hurm ond h ad b een th e p re sid en tia l n om in ee o f th e D ix ie cra t p arty . In 1 948, th e D ix ie cra ts h ad b ro ken aw ay fro m th e Dem ocra ts t o r u n o n a s e g - re g atio n p la tf o rm . A t t h e c ere m ony f o r T hurm ond, L ott r e m in ded a ll t h at t h e sta te o f M is sis sip pi h ad v ote d f o r th e D ix ie cra t c an did ate in 1 948. L ott c o m men te d , “ W e’re p ro ud o f it.

And if th e r e st o f th e c o untr y h ad f o llo w ed o ur le ad , w e w ould n’t h av e h ad a ll th ese p ro ble m s o ver a ll th ese y ears , e ith er.” 2 A fte r th e c ere m ony, L ott w as c h astis e d fo r w hat a p peare d to b e a c le arly ra cis t re m ark . Iro nic ally , six m onth s la te r w hen Thurm ond passe d aw ay, a w om an nam ed Essie M ae Wash in gto n-W illia m s su rfa ced . Soon it w as re v eale d th at W ash in gto n-W illia m s w as Thurm ond’s ille g itim ate A fric an -A m eric an d au ghte r. T hurm ond, a s ta u nch s e g re g atio nis t d urin g h is p olitic al c are er, nev er a ck now le d ged W ash in gto n-W illia m s w hen h e w as a liv e, b ut s u pporte d h er f in an cia lly th ro ughout his l if e .

• O n V ale n tin e’s D ay 2 008, Je tB lu e, a n a ir lin e th at h ad b eco m e th e d arlin g o f th e lo w -c o st flig ht in dustr y , e x perie n ced d is a ste r w hen a s n ow sto rm f o rc ed e x cru cia tin g d ela y s. A s p la n es s a t o n t h e r u nw ay fo r s e v era l h ours , p asse n gers a w aitin g ta k eo ff w ere tr a p ped u nab le to u se to ile t f a cilitie s a s th ey s te w ed on b oard , e sse n tia lly im pris o ned o n th e s tu ck v esse l. T he n atio nal p re ss th at re p orte d th e in cid en t w as ex co ria tin g in its c ritic is m . J e tB lu e e m plo yees b eg an to r e fe r to th e e v en t a s 2 /1 4 in th e s a m e w ay th at Am eric an s w ould re fe r to th e b in L ad en a tta ck s a s 9 /1 1 . F or J e tB lu e th e e x perie n ce w as, a s th e C EO su bse q uen tly s a id , “ p re tty h um ilia tin g.” 3 • T he f iv e-w eek p erio d b eg in nin g o n M onday S ep te m ber 1 5, 2 008, is o ne th at in vestm en t g ia n ts s u ch as F id elity I n vestm en ts i n B osto n a re u nlik ely t o f o rg et. R um ors h ad s ta rte d t h e w eek en d b efo re t h at t w o ven era b le fin an cia l in stitu tio ns, L eh m an B ro th ers a n d M errill L ynch , w ould so on d ecla re b an kru ptc y.

When th ese f e ars w ere r e aliz ed o n th at M onday a n d c o nco m ita n t c o ncern s r o ck ed W all S tr e et, th e s to ck mark et plu m mete d 500 poin ts . O n T uesd ay S ep te m ber 16, th e m ark et w en t dow n an oth er 400. O n Sep te m ber 2 9, t h e m ark et w en t d ow n a r e co rd 7 77 p oin ts . T hro ughout t h e f ir s t t h re e w eek s i n O cto ber t h e sto ck m ark et b obbed u p an d p lu nged d ow n cre atin g en orm ous an xie ty . In vesto rs in co m pan ie s lik e Fid elity b ecam e w orrie d a b out th e s e cu rity o f th eir f u nds. F id elity w as N OT a c o m pan y in je o pard y lik e Leh m an , b ut m an y c u sto m ers w ere n erv ous n oneth ele ss. W ould F id elity g o d ow n to o? W ere in vestm en ts sa fe ? B illio ns o f d olla rs w ere w ith dra w n fro m c o m pan ie s lik e F id elity to b e p la ced in b an ks w here , oste n sib ly , m oney w ould b e m ore s e cu re .

• F ood L io n, a g ro cery -s to re c h ain , w as m ortif ie d a fte r a n A BC s e g m en t o n Prim e-tim e L iv e s u ggeste d th at t h e c o m pan y e m plo yed u nsa n ita ry p ra ctic es i n i ts p re p ara tio n o f p ro ducts . T he p ro gra m t h at a ir e d o n Novem ber 5, 1992, su ggeste d th at th e co m pan y not only so ld pro ducts th at had been ta in te d , it delib era te ly a tte m pte d to m ask th e f la w s in th e f o ods to b e a b le to s e ll th e p ro ducts a s if th ey w ere n ot 1.

dam ag ed . N ot o nly w as F ood L io n’s im ag e ta rn is h ed , b ut th e A BC n etw ork ’s b eh av io r w as a ls o c alle d in to questio n. T he netw ork w as accu se d of em plo yin g uneth ic al jo urn alis tic te ch niq ues to gath er in fo rm atio n a b out F ood L io n. B oth t h e o bje ct o f t h e i n vestig atio n, F ood L io n, a n d t h e j o urn alis ts /n etw ork desc rib in g t h e o ffe n se w ere t a in te d b y t h e a lle g atio ns.

• P ro cte r a n d G am ble , a c o m pan y l o cate d i n C in cin nati, O hio , w as h ounded f o r y ears b y r u m ors t h at i t was so m eh ow e n gag ed in d ev il w ors h ip . A lo go o n th e b otto m o f its p ro ducts w as m is in te rp re te d a s su ggestin g a re la tio nsh ip b etw een th e co m pan y an d S ata n . T his d efa m ato ry (a n d w holly in accu ra te ) in fo rm atio n w as n ev erth ele ss p ro m ulg ate d , w hic h f o rc ed t h e c o m pan y t o r e act t o t h e r u m or.

• Shortly a fte r th e 2 008 s u m mer O ly m pic s, M ic h ael P help s, a s w im min g c h am pio n, w as p ic tu re d o n th e c o ver o f Sports Illu str a te d m ag azin e w ith h is re co rd -b re ak in g e ig ht O ly m pic g old m ed als d ra p ed aro und h is n eck . B y F eb ru ary 2 009, P help s h ad s e cu re d e n dors e m en t c o ntr a cts f ro m s e v era l c o m pan ie s t o help p ed dle th eir p ro ducts a n d s w eete n th e s w im mer’s p ers o nal tr e asu ry . I t w as th ere fo re c ala m ito us f o r both P help s a n d th ese c o m pan ie s w hen a B ritis h ta b lo id , New s o f th e W orld , p ublis h ed a p hoto gra p h o f Phelp s a t a p arty . T he p hoto c ap tu re d t h e e ig ht- tim e g old m ed alis t s m okin g m ariju an a f ro m a b ong p ip e.

The pic tu re , w hic h ap peare d in early 2009, w as ta k en in N ovem ber 2008, a fe w m onth s afte r th e Oly m pic s a n d O ly m pia n a ch ie v em en ts .

4 P help s w as a b le t o r e ta in h is e n dors e m en t c o ntr a ct w ith S ubw ay, th e s a n dw ic h c h ain , b ut l o st c o ntr a cts w ith o th er o rg an iz atio ns.

• J o hn L ak ia n , a c an did ate f o r t h e R ep ublic an n om in atio n f o r g overn or i n M assa ch use tts , w as s tu nned on A ugust 1 8, 1 982, w hen th e Bosto n G lo be ra n a s to ry e x posin g d ozen s o f fa ls e h oods th at a p pare n tly ap peare d in L ak ia n ’s c am paig n lite ra tu re . A m ong o th er th in gs, th e c an did ate w as a ccu se d o f ly in g a b out his e d ucatio nal b ack gro und, m ilita ry e x perie n ce, a n d p are n ts ’ h is to ry . H is l ite ra tu re , f o r e x am ple , c la im ed th at h e stu die d a t H arv ard U niv ers ity lo cate d in C am brid ge, M assa ch use tts . T he Bosto n G lo be artic le re p orte d th at L ak ia n a ctu ally o nly to ok a f e w c la sse s a t th e C am brid ge A dult E ducatio n C en te r. L ak ia n had b een c le arly a h ead in th e p rim ary r a ce w hen th e a rtic le a p peare d . H is n om in atio n h opes p lu m mete d afte r A ugust 1 8. E ven tu ally , h e d id n ot r e ceiv e h is p arty ’s n om in atio n.

• R upert M urd och , t h e m ed ia m ogul, w ho o w ns a m ong o th er n ew sp ap ers t h e New Y o rk P ost , is su ed a n ap olo gy on F eb ru ary 24, 2009. In th at day ’s is su e of th e pap er M urd och w ro te th at he w an te d to “p ers o nally a p olo giz e to a n y re ad er w ho fe lt o ffe n ded a n d e v en in su lte d .” T he is su e in q uestio n w as a carto on th at a p peare d in th e Post o n F eb ru ary 1 8, w hic h , a lle g ed ly , w as in te n ded to c ritic iz e P re sid en t Bara ck O bam a’s e co nom ic s tim ulu s p ack ag e. T he c arto on d re w o utr a g ed r e sp onse s f ro m r e ad ers b ecau se it c o m pare d th e a u th or o f th e le g is la tio n to a c h im pan zee— an a g eo ld d is p ara g in g r e fe re n ce to A fric an - Am eric an s. A fe w d ay s e arlie r a c h im pan zee th at h ad m au le d a w om an in C onnectic u t h ad b een p ut to death .

• T he c ity o f B osto n a n d th e s ta te o f M assa ch use tts w ere a lr e ad y e m barra sse d b y th e f a ilu re o f w hat was c alle d “ T he B ig D ig ” to s ta y w ith in its b udget. T he o vere x pen ditu re s w ere e n orm ous. T ale s o f p oor man ag em en t, friv olo us sp en din g, a n d sh oddy w ork h ad b eco m e p art o f th e u rb an le g en d n ot o nly in Bosto n b ut t h ro ughout t h e w orld . T he B ig D ig h ad b eco m e g ris t f o r m onolo gue r id ic u le o n t h e L ette rm an an d L en o p ro gra m s. E very one s e em ed to h av e a B ig D ig s to ry . S o th e h orrib le n ew s o n J u ly 1 0, 2 006, cre ate d a n e v en g re ate r h ead ach e th an it o th erw is e w ould h av e. O n th at n ig ht a la rg e p art o f a tu nnel’s ceilin g d ro pped a n d c ru sh ed a c ar tr a v elin g th ro ugh th e tu nnel. M ile n a D el V alle , a m oth er o f th re e, w as cru sh ed t o d eath .

These e v en ts h av e t h re e t h in gs i n c o m mon.

They r e p re se n te d a c ris is f o r a n o rg an iz atio n o r a n i n div id ual r e p re se n tin g a n o rg an iz atio n.

The e v en ts n eg ativ ely a ffe cte d th e im ag e th e o rg an iz atio ns a n d th e in div id uals h ad e n jo yed w ith th eir v ario us p ublic s.

The i n cid en ts c o m pelle d o rg an iz atio ns t o c o m munic ate e ffe ctiv ely w ith t h eir v ario us a u die n ces i n ord er t o r e sto re t h e i m ag es d am ag ed b y t h e c ris e s.

This b ook is a b out c o m munic atin g d urin g su ch c ris e s. C ris is c o m munic atio n in volv es p la n nin g fo r cris e s a n d r e sp ondin g to v ario us a u die n ces u nder w hat s o m etim es c an b e s e v ere p re ssu re . T he c h ap te rs th at fo llo w d esc rib e th e u nderly in g th eo rie s th at p erta in to c ris is c o m munic atio n a n d th e p ra ctic es th at can b e u tiliz ed b y t h ose w ho a re c o m pelle d t o c o m munic ate d urin g t im es o f c ris is . 1.

• • • • • • • • • • 2.

• • • • • • • • • • • • 3.

P RACTIC E A ND S IM ULATIO NS Stu dyin g re le v an t th eo rie s an d prin cip le s is a necessa ry ste p fo r th ose pre p arin g to be cris is co m munic ato rs . H ow ev er, e ffe ctiv e c ris is c o m munic atio n a ls o re q uir e s p ra ctic e a n d sim ula tio n. L ik e man y a ctiv itie s, k now in g how to d o s o m eth in g is n ot s u ffic ie n t e v en fo r th ose w ho h av e th e re q uis ite sk ills . C ris is c o m munic ato rs a n d s tu den ts o f c ris is c o m munic atio n s h ould b e a b le to d em onstr a te th at th ey c an a ctu ally d o w hat i t i s t h at t h ey d esc rib e h ow t o d o.

There fo re , s im ula tin g e v en ts a n d p ra ctic in g c o m munic atin g d urin g p re ssu re d s itu atio ns i s a n i m porta n t dim en sio n of cris is co m munic atio n pre p ara tio n. T hro ughout th e book you w ill fin d ex erc is e s th at ch alle n ge y ou to c o nsid er h ow y ou w ould c o m munic ate d urin g c ris e s a n d c h alle n ge y ou to d em onstr a te your s k ill i n t h ese s im ula te d s itu atio ns.

The f ir s t o f t h ese e x erc is e s a p pears b elo w .

Apply t h e P rin cip le s You h av e ju st re ad b rie f d esc rip tio ns o f s e v era l c ris e s. A ssu m e y ou re p re se n t th e o rg an iz atio n o r pers o n/s affe cte d b y th ese cris e s. H ow w ould y ou p ro ceed ? F or each o f th e sc en ario s ta k e th e fo llo w in g s te p s.

Id en tif y t h e t w o m ost i m porta n t a u die n ces. I n o th er w ord s, w hom m ust y ou c o nta ct b ecau se o f th e c ris is t h at h as o ccu rre d ? W hic h t w o g ro ups a re m ost s ig nif ic an t?

For e x am ple , c o nsid er t h e i n itia l s c en ario r e g ard in g f o rm er N ew Y ork S ta te g overn or E llio t Spitz er. B ey ond h is i m med ia te f a m ily , w ho a re S pitz er’s m ost i m porta n t a u die n ces? W ould t h ey be:

The c itiz en s o f t h e s ta te o f N ew Y ork ?

Mem bers o f t h e D em ocra tic N atio nal C om mitte e?

The o th er f o rty -n in e g overn ors i n t h e U nite d S ta te s?

Mem bers o f h is s ta ff?

Alb an y n ew s m ed ia ?

The a u th or o f t h e New Y o rk T im es a rtic le ?

The n atio nal n etw ork s?

The p eo ple w ho c o ntr o l t h e W eb s ite f o r t h e S ta te o f N ew Y ork ?

His l ie u te n an t g overn or?

Som e o th er g ro up?

Whic h o f t h ese w ould b e E llio t S pitz er’s t w o m ost s ig nif ic an t a u die n ces?

Write d ow n t h e s in gle m ost i m porta n t m essa g e y ou w ould n eed t o c o m munic ate t o e ach o f t h ese au die n ces.

Again , c o nsid er t h e S pitz er c ase . R ev ie w t h e a u die n ces y ou i d en tif ie d i n ( 1 ). W hat i s t h e m ost im porta n t m essa g e S pitz er n eed s t o r e la y t o e ach o f t h e a u die n ces? S hould i t b e:

An a p olo gy?

A s ta te m en t r e g ard in g h is d ev otio n t o h is f a m ily d esp ite t h is i n cid en t?

An e x pre ssio n o f e m barra ssm en t?

A m in im iz atio n o f t h e o ffe n se ?

An e n um era tio n o f h is a cco m plis h m en ts w hile g overn or?

A d is tin ctio n b etw een h is o ffe n se a n d m ore e g re g io us e rro rs o f o th er p ublic o ffic ia ls ?

A r e q uest f o r f o rg iv en ess?

A d en ia l o f t h e c h arg es?

An i m plic it o r e x plic it t h re at t o a n y p ers o n o r m ed ia s o urc e t h at d is c re d its h im ?

A c la im t h at l ik e a ll A m eric an s h e i s i n nocen t u ntil p ro ven g uilty ?

Som e o th er m essa g e?

Som e c o m bin atio n o f m essa g es?

Dete rm in e w hat m eth od o r m eth ods y ou w ould e m plo y t o r e la y t h ese m essa g es. • • • • • • • • • • • • In t h e p re v io us t w o p arts y ou h av e d ete rm in ed w ith whom y ou n eed t o c o m munic ate a n d what you w is h t o c o m munic ate . N ow c o nsid er how y ou w ill c o m munic ate t h e m essa g es. F or e ach messa g e y ou h av e i d en tif ie d i n S te p 2 t h at y ou d esir e t o r e la y t o e ach a u die n ce y ou i d en tif ie d i n Ste p 1 d ete rm in e w heth er S pitz er s h ould :

Post t h e m essa g e o n a W eb s ite ?

Mak e p ers o nal p hone c alls ?

Expre ss t h e m essa g e i n a b lo g?

Sen d a l e tte r t o e ach m em ber o f a p artic u la r a u die n ce?

Call a p re ss c o nfe re n ce a n d m ak e a s ta te m en t?

Tak e o ut a n a d vertis e m en t i n t h e New Y o rk T im es?

Ask 60 M in ute s f o r a n i n te rv ie w ?

Hold “ to w n m eetin gs” e ach d ay f o r a w eek i n N ew Y ork , B uffa lo , S yra cu se , R och este r, a n d Alb an y?

Hav e a s p okesp ers o n d eliv er t h e m essa g e i n a t e le v is e d a d dre ss?

Mak e a s p eech b efo re t h e N ew Y ork S ta te A sse m bly ?

Som e o th er m eth od?

Som e c o m bin atio n o f a p pro ach es?

Afte r y ou h av e c o m ple te d t h e S pitz er c ase , p erfo rm t h e s a m e t h re e s te p s f o r e ach o f t h e min ic ase s i n t h e s w eet s ix te en . W hen y ou h av e c o m ple te d t h is e x erc is e y ou w ill b eg in t o h av e a n unders ta n din g o f w hat c ris is c o m munic ato rs d o— an d s o m e o f t h e c h alle n ges o f e ffe ctiv e c ris is co m munic atio n.

F OUNDATIO NAL P LA NK S Robert F ulg hum p ublis h ed a v ery p opula r c o lle ctio n o f e ssa y s in th e m id -1 980s, w hic h h e title d All I Rea lly N eed t o K now I L ea rn ed i n K in derg arte n .

I t w as a n e n gag in g r e ad , s o m uch s o t h at t h e b ook i s s till in p rin t, o ver tw en ty y ears a fte r its in itia l p ublic atio n. It h as so ld o ver 6 m illio n c o pie s, a s m uch , I belie v e, f o r t h e w ay t h e t itle r e so nate d w ith c o nsu m ers a s f o r a n y s p ecif ic n uggets f o und i n t h e e ssa y s.

Fulg hum ’s im plic it a rg um en t is a s s im ple a s a n y o f th e k in derg arte n le sso ns. T he b asic s a n d b asis f o r lif e ’s c h alle n ges a n d c o m ple x itie s a re e x pla in ed t o u s a s c h ild re n when w e l e arn f u ndam en ta l t r u th s a b out how t o b eh av e a n d i n te ra ct w ith o th ers . I f t h ese t r u th s b eco m e e m bed ded i n o ur c o nsc io usn ess, t h en w hen co nfro nte d , i f n ot o verw helm ed , w ith w hat a p pear t o b e c o m ple x p ro ble m s, w e c an u se t h ese k in derg arte n le sso ns a s a c o m pass t h at w ill g uid e o ur b eh av io r a n d d ecis io n m ak in g.

One m ig ht a rg ue th at a ll y ou n eed to k now a b out c ris is c o m munic atio n c an b e s im ila rly d is tille d . A t th e c o nclu sio n o f t h is b ook y ou w ill b e f a m ilia r w ith c ase s, r e se arc h s tu die s, a n d r e co m men datio ns f ro m sc h ola rs a n d p ra ctitio ners w ho w ork i n t h e a re a o f c ris is c o m munic atio n. I t i s i m porta n t t o e x am in e t h ese case s, s tu die s, a n d c o unse l b ecau se c ris e s are m ultif a cete d . A ppro pria te c o m munic atio ns in p re p ara tio n fo r an d re sp onse to cris e s do re q uir e a n uan ced u nders ta n din g o f p rin cip le s. H ow ev er, th is n uan ced aw are n ess i s f o unded o n i n co ntr o vertib le a n d e sse n tia l t e n ets . F ulg hum a rg ues t h at a ll w e n eed t o k now i s what w e l e arn w hen w e a re c h ild re n , n ot b ecau se t h ere i s n ’t m ore s o phis tic ate d k now le d ge t o p ro cess, b ut becau se w ith out fu ndam en ta l unders ta n din gs w e can nev er re ally be in a positio n— or su ffic ie n tly “g ro unded ” to u se th e c o nte m pora ry m eta p hor— to p ro cess a d ditio nal in fo rm atio n a n d a ct a p pro pria te ly .

In te rn aliz in g fu ndam en ta l p rin cip le s c re ate s th e fo undatio n th at fa cilita te s th e d efa u ltin g to e ffe ctiv e decis io n m ak in g.

While I h ope y ou w ill r e ad t h e r e st o f t h e b ook t o g ain a n i n fo rm ed a n d c o m pre h en siv e u nders ta n din g of c ris is c o m munic atio n, o ne c o uld m ak e a n a rg um en t t h at t h e f u ndam en ta l p rin cip le s d esc rib ed b elo w — ju st lik e o ur k in derg arte n le sso ns— are a ll th at a n in te llig en t p ers o n re ally n eed s to k now in o rd er to ad dre ss cris e s. W e w ill re tu rn to so m e of th ese prin cip le s th ro ughout th e te x t fo r em phasis an d ela b ora tio n, a n d a s th ey re la te to c ase a n aly se s. B ut a s a fo undatio n a p pro pria te fo r a n in tr o ducto ry ch ap te r, a n d a s a s te p pin g-o ff p oin t, c o nsid er th ese fiv e im muta b le tr u th s a b out c ris is c o m munic atio n activ ity . 1. C RIS E S A RE I N EV IT A BLE . C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATO RS C A N A ND M UST A CK NOW LED GE T H E IN EV IT A BIL IT Y O F C RIS E S A ND P L A N F O R T H EM B EFO RE T H EY O CCU R It is s u rp ris in g to m e h ow o fte n I m eet M BA s tu den ts w ho te ll m e th at th eir c o m pan y d oes n ot h av e a cris is co m munic atio n pla n becau se th e natu re of th eir w ork re n ders cris is pla n nin g unnecessa ry .

Reg ard le ss o f t h e n atu re o f y our w ork , a t s o m e p oin t y our o rg an iz atio n o r y ou w ill f a ce a c ris is . I n s o m e in dustr ie s th e c h an ces o f f a cin g a c ris is m ig ht b e g re ate r th an in o th ers . H ow ev er, a ll o rg an iz atio ns c an an d w ill e x perie n ce a c ris is .

Som e p eo ple th in k o f c ris e s a s e v en ts th at a ffe ct la rg e o rg an iz atio ns s u ch a s f u el c o m pan ie s, a ir lin es, or la rg e n onpro fits . B ut e v ery o rg an iz atio n n o m atte r h ow la rg e o r s m all w ill f a ce c ris e s a n d h as to p la n fo r th at e v en tu ality . A g ro cery s to re m ay s e ll ta in te d g oods, a s ta tio nery fra n ch is e e m ay b e fa ced w ith sc re am in g p ro te sto rs b ecau se th e p ap er is n ot “ g re en ” e n ough, a lo cal sp orts c aste r m ay in ad verte n tly utte r a w ord t h at i s c o nsid ere d o ffe n siv e t o a l a rg e n um ber o f l is te n ers , a m ild -m an nere d e d ucato r m ay b e accu se d o f p la g ia riz in g a n a rtic le , a c h ain o f h air s ty lin g c o m pan ie s m ay b e e x pose d fo r h ir in g ille g al im mig ra n ts . A ny o rg an iz atio n o ne m ig ht c o nsid er c an h av e a c ris is t h at r e q uir e s p la n nin g.

In h is b ook, Yo u’d B ette r H ave a H ose I f Y o u W ant t o P ut O ut t h e F ir e , R en e H en ry w rite s, “ A ny C EO who b elie v es h e o r s h e i s i m mune f ro m a c ris is i s m ost v uln era b le … . E ven t h e c h urc h a n d M ic k ey M ouse hav e been under atta ck .” 5 Ste v e W ils o n, an oth er pra ctitio ner, title s th e fir s t ch ap te r of his cris is co m munic atio n b ook “ N ev er S ay N ev er.” 6 D r. A la n F rie d m an is q uote d m ak in g th e s a m e p oin t in th e in tr o ductio n t o t h e b ook Cris is i n O rg aniz a tio ns:

“ W e n eed t o g et p eo ple t o u nders ta n d t h at i n o ur s o cie ty , it’s n ot a q uestio n o f i f a c ris is w ill o ccu r d urin g y our c are er, i t’s w hen .” 7 Giv en th is r e ality , a ll o rg an iz atio ns n eed to ta k e p ro activ e s te p s to p re p are f o r th ese in ev ita b ilitie s. I n Chap te r 4 , w e d is c u ss w hat p ro activ e ste p s a n o rg an iz atio n sh ould ta k e, b ut a s a stu rd y fo undatio nal pla n k, o rg an iz atio nal w om en a n d m en m ust i n te rn aliz e t h e r e ality t h at a ll c o m pan ie s a re s u sc ep tib le a n d need t o p la n f o r t h e i n ev ita b le . I n deed , o ne b ook a b out c ris is c o m munic atio n i s s u btitle d , Pla nnin g f o r t h e In evita ble . 8 It m ay s e em i m possib le t o p la n f o r t h is k in d o f i n ev ita b ility . H ow c an y ou p re p are f o r s o m eth in g t h at i s lik ely to hav e uniq ue ch ara cte ris tic s? A s w e w ill se e, cris is co m munic ato rs can in deed pla n to co m munic ate f o r c ris e s b efo re t h ey o ccu r.

In su m , sin ce cris e s are in ev ita b le , co m munic atio n durin g cris e s can affe ct th e health of an org an iz atio n, a n d p la n nin g fo r c ris e s c an a ffe ct th e q uality o f c o m munic atio n d urin g th e c ris is , it is im pera tiv e t h at o rg an iz atio ns a n d c ris is c o m munic ato rs p re p are f o r t h em .

2. I N C A SE A FT ER C A SE , T R A NSPA REN T A ND H ONEST C O M MUNIC ATIO N H AS B EEN P R O VEN T O B E A KEY T O E FFE C TIV E C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATIO N For p ra g m atic a s w ell a s m ora l r e aso ns, a n o rg an iz atio n is c o m pelle d to b e h onest w hen c o m munic atin g with i ts s ta k eh old ers . D is h onesty i n t h e f o rm o f d elib era te o m is sio ns, d ecep tio n, a n d s tr a te g ic a m big uity are n ot o nly in ap pro pria te f ro m a n e th ic al p oin t o f v ie w . I n m ultip le c ase s, d uplic ity h as b een s h ow n to underm in e, n ot s u pport, t h e c ris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rt.

Read ers w ho c o m ple te th is b ook w ill d is c o ver m an y in sta n ces w hen a c o m pan y’s im med ia te r e actio n to c ris is w as to a tte m pt to d en y, c o ver u p, o r o th erw is e n ot b e tr a n sp are n t w ith its a u die n ces. O ver a n d over, re ad ers w ill s e e h ow th ese a tte m pts — re g ard le ss o f e th ic al c o nsid era tio ns— sim ply d id n ot w ork .

Evasiv e re sp onse s, d is in gen uous c o m munic atio ns, a m big uous re sp onse s, m ay h av e s h ort- te rm p ositiv e effe cts , b ut m ay w ell h av e lo ng -te rm n eg ativ e e ffe cts . W heth er th e c ase is p olitic al lik e th e W ate rg ate bre ak in , re la te d to a ir p la n e o r s p ace tr a v el lik e th e h orrif ic d is a ste rs o f th e C halle n ger a n d C olu m bia , med ic al l ik e D ow C orn in g’s c ris is w ith i ts b re ast i m pla n ts , i n dustr ia l l ik e U nio n C arb id e’s B hopal c ris is , or b ase d o n a n atu ra l d is a ste r s u ch a s H urric an e K atr in a— re g ard le ss o f t h e n atu re o f t h e c ris is , t h e r e su lts re p eate d ly p oin t t o t h e p ra g m atic w is d om o f t r a n sp are n cy.

Consid er a c o m men t b y P .M . K earn s i n t h e p ra ctitio ner j o urn al Com munic a tio n W orld , “ R em em ber th e rip ple e ffe ct. A d is a p poin te d o r d is g ru ntle d p ublic h as a lo ng m em ory . J u st a s th e c o ncen tr ic c ir c le s g o outw ard , v ast w av es o f p ote n tia l c u sto m ers a n d a llie s c an , a n d w ill, g o o ut o f th eir w ay to b oyco tt th e co m pan ie s w ho th ey p erc eiv e a re n ot o pen a n d c arin g. T hey ’ll p atr o niz e a n d re co m men d th e o nes w ho are .” 9 a.

3. W HEN I N D OUBT F O LLO W A G OLD EN -R U LE A PPR O ACH This th ir d p rin cip le is r e la te d to th e p rio r o ne. P hillip T om pkin s is a w ell- k now n s c h ola r in th e f ie ld o f org an iz atio nal co m munic atio n an d h as w ritte n tw o b ooks ex am in in g cris is co m munic atio n in cid en ts re la te d t o N ASA a n d t h e M ars h all S pace F lig ht C en te r in H unts v ille , A la b am a. T he a fo re m en tio ned S te v e Wils o n is a p ra ctitio ner w hose b ook, Rea l P eo ple , R ea l C ris e s , d is c u sse s c ris is c o m munic atio n f ro m th e pers p ectiv e o f a “ re al w orld ” c o nsu lta n t. B oth o f t h ese w rite rs i n dep en den tly d is c u ss t h e w is d om o f w hat each c alls a g old en r u le a p pro ach t o c ris is c o m munic atio n.

The g old en r u le a p pro ach a s it r e la te s to c ris is c o m munic atio n is s im ple . W hen c o m munic atin g w ith au die n ces a sk y ours e lf t h ese q uestio ns:

If y ou w ere a m em ber o f t h e p artic u la r a u die n ce What w ould y ou w an t t o k now ?

What w ould y ou n eed t o k now ?

How w ould y ou w an t t h e m essa g es c o m munic ate d t o y ou?

What c h an nels w ould n eed t o b e a v aila b le t o y ou i f y ou h ad f u rth er q uestio ns o r c o m men ts a b out th e c ris is ?

The S ch w an F ood C om pan y c ris is w ill b e d is c u sse d in m ore d eta il in Chap te r 5 , b ut it is a p pro pria te here to e x pla in th e f o llo w in g. T he S ch w an F ood C om pan y f a ced a c ris is w hen its f o od p ro ducts b ecam e ta in te d a n d c o nsu m ers o f i ts p ro ducts b ecam e i ll. A s y ou w ill s e e, t h e S ch w an F ood C om pan y, a s i t t u rn ed out, w as n ot r e ally r e sp onsib le f o r th e p ro ble m . T he p ro ble m c o st th em a g ood d eal o f m oney, b ut th ey co uld hav e— with so m e le g itim acy — cla im ed not to be lia b le or re sp onsib le . N ev erth ele ss, A lf re d Sch w an , t h e h ead o f t h e c o m pan y, d em an ded t h at a ll o f h is e m plo yees f o llo w a s in gle g uid in g r u le i n a ll of i ts c o m munic atio ns r e la te d t o t h e c ris is . H e t o ld h is e m plo yees t o a sk t h em se lv es t h is o ne q uestio n a n d mak e a ll d ecis io ns b ase d o n it. “ If y ou w ere a S ch w an c u sto m er, w hat w ould y ou e x pect th e c o m pan y to do?” S ch w an to ok a g old en ru le a p pro ach a n d a s th e sc h ola r T om pkin s, th e p ra ctitio ner W ils o n, a n d nearly e v ery o th er a u th or o n t h is t o pic h as s u ggeste d , a g old en r u le a p pro ach i s a f u ndam en ta lly w is e o ne when c o m munic atin g d urin g a c ris is .

4. A N O RG ANIZ ATIO N'S C U LT U RE C A N D ETER M IN E C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATIO N S U CCESS An o rg an iz atio n’s c u ltu re , w hic h h as b een c alle d a n o rg an iz atio n’s D NA, m ore th an a n y c o m munic atio n str a te g y, w ill dete rm in e th e su ccess of a cris is co m munic atio n pla n . Conse q uen tly , cre atin g a co m munic atio n p la n i n t h e a b se n ce o f a c u ltu re t h at w ill s u pport i ts e n actm en t i s a v alu ele ss a ctiv ity .

Som e c ase s a n d s tu die s d em onstr a te th at o rg an iz atio ns h av e p re p are d f o r c ris e s e ffe ctiv ely , b ut w hen fa ced w ith t h em t h e c u ltu re o f t h e o rg an iz atio n h as u nderm in ed i m ple m en ta tio n. I n t h e t h ro es o f a c ris is , a p la n to b e tr a n sp are n t m ay c o llid e w ith a ta cit o r e x plic it c u ltu ra l v alu e o f “ w in a t a ll c o sts ” o r “ p ro fit tr u m ps sa fe ty ” th at had been etc h ed in to th e co nsc io usn ess of th e org an iz atio n. It can be easy to ra tio naliz e d ecep tio n if th e co re o f y our en te rp ris e re sts o n p rin cip le s th at allo w fo r o m is sio ns an d delib era te a m big uity . T here is a n ir o ny h ere , b ecau se tr a n sp are n t c o m munic atio n te n ds to b e in th e b est in te re sts o f t h e o rg an iz atio n i n t h e l o ng r u n.

The n oto rio us c ase o f W orld C om , a n e n orm ously s u ccessfu l te le co m c o m pan y, is a s o berin g o ne. A s Cynth ia C ooper re p orts in her book, Extr a ord in ary C ir c u m sta nces: The Jo urn ey of a C orp ora te Whis tle b lo w er , w hile th ere m ay hav e been su perfic ia l ack now le d gm en t th at in te rn al co ntr o ls w ere im porta n t, th e org an iz atio nal cu ltu re at W orld C om overw helm ed an y in -p la ce pro cess fo r in te rn al asse ssm en t a n d s tr a ig ht s h ootin g. T he W orld C om c ase a n d o th ers s u pport th e c la im th at a c u ltu re th at co ndones duplic ity w ill be duplic ito us durin g cris e s desp ite a re co rd ed pro to co l th at is base d on tr a n sp are n cy. A m ore p ositiv e e x am ple i s t h e o fte n -c ite d T yle n ol c ase . T yle n ol d id n ot e v en h av e a c ris is co m munic atio n p la n in p la ce w hen th ey w ere c o nfro nte d w ith a s itu atio n th at in volv ed a p sy ch otic w ho was p la cin g c y an id e i n T yle n ol c ap su le s. H ow ev er, a c u ltu ra l v alu e w ith J o hnso n & J o hnso n w as t o d o t h e rig ht t h in g a n d t h ere fo re t h e c o m pan y d efa u lte d t o d oin g j u st t h at.

There fo re , n ouris h in g a n d n urtu rin g a c u ltu re th at is c o nduciv e to e ffe ctiv e c ris is c o m munic atio n is a pre lim in ary s te p w hen p la n nin g f o r t h e i n ev ita b le .

5. C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATIO N R EQ UIR ES T R A IN IN G A ND S K IL L S E TS T H AT E V EN B RIG HT E X EC U TIV ES MAY N OT P O SSE SS Peo ple c an l e arn t o b e e ffe ctiv e c o m munic ato rs i f t h ey a ck now le d ge t h ey h av e a n eed t o l e arn , b ut n ot a ll peo ple are natu ra lly sk ille d . K now in g w hat to co m munic ate does not guara n te e bein g ab le to co m munic ate w ell. C ris is c o m munic ato rs s h ould p ra ctic e, e sp ecia lly i f t h ey a re n ot i n here n tly s k ille d .

A C EO w ho is tr o tte d o ut to s p eak f o r a c o m pan y c an d o d am ag e d esp ite a n in te llig en t p la n . S tu den ts of co m munic atio n know th at ora lly co m munic ate d m essa g es can be underm in ed by poor deliv ery , co unte rp ro ductiv e b ody m otio ns, e v en in ap pro pria te fa cia l e x pre ssio ns a n d e y e c o nta ct. T he fo llo w in g ex cerp t p ro vid es an illu str a tio n. In Spea kin g O ut , L arry S peak es, th e p re ss sp okesp ers o n fo r fo rm er pre sid en t R onald R eag an , c o m men te d o n a s ta te m en t m ad e b y R eag an ’s s e cre ta ry o f s ta te G eo rg e S ch ultz afte r a n u nsu ccessfu l s u m mit m eetin g w ith t h e t h en S ovie t U nio n.

Sch ultz h ad g iv en u s a v ery u pbeat a n aly sis a n d h e tr ie d to so und u pbeat b efo re th e p re ss, u sin g w ord s lik e “m ag nif ic en t” to d esc rib e th e P re sid en t’s p erfo rm an ce a n d s ta tin g th at im porta n t a g re em en ts h ad b een a ch ie v ed .

But S ch ultz ’s b ody la n guag e a n d w ord s w ere tw o e n tir e ly d if fe re n t th in gs— an d h is ta lk w as tr a n sm itte d liv e to a huge a u die n ce b ack h om e, a s C BS a n d N BC in te rru pte d th eir S unday a fte rn oon p ro f o otb all g am es to p ut S ch ultz on. H e w as s o m ber, d ow nbeat, v ery d elib era te , s lo w o f s p eech , a n d tir e d . A s [ n ew sc aste r] S am D onald so n s a id , Sch ultz “ lo oked lik ed h is d og h ad ju st b een r u n o ver b y a tr u ck .” 10 Sim ila rly , w ritte n co m munic atio ns can be affe cte d by poor pro ofre ad in g, m is le ad in g se n te n ce str u ctu re , a n d e v en t h e f o nt s ty le u se d i n t h e m essa g e. W ell- c o nsid ere d m essa g es c an b e e m barra ssm en ts if w ritte n p oorly .

Effe ctiv e cris is co m munic atio n re q uir e s sk ill, tr a in in g, pra ctic e, an d sim ula tio n. In te llig en ce, know le d ge, an d ev en h um an ita ria n p re d is p ositio ns are lim ite d asse ts if p eo ple assig ned to artic u la te polic y a re i n ep t. T housa n ds o f y ears a g o, P eric le s c o m men te d , “ th ose w ho t h in k a n d c an not e x pre ss w hat th ey th in k a re a t th e s a m e le v el o f th ose w ho c an not th in k.” O rg an iz atio ns th at h av e p la n ned f o r c ris e s, are d ete rm in ed to b e tr a n sp are n t, in te n d to f o llo w th e c o m pass o f th e g old en r u le , a n d o pera te w ith in a cu ltu re th at is c o nsis te n t w ith th e c o m munic atio n p la n c an r u in th e e ffo rt b ecau se th ey “ can not e x pre ss what t h ey t h in k.” A s tu dy b y D av id G uth s u ggests th at o nly o ne-th ir d o f th e c o m pan ie s th at h av e c ris is c o m munic atio n pla n s r e g ula rly p ra ctic e o r c o nduct tr a in in g f o r th ose w ho a re r e q uir e d to c arry o ut th e p la n .

11 T ra in in g, pra ctic e, a n d s im ula tio n a re e sse n tia l f o r c ris is c o m munic atio n t o b e e ffe ctiv e.

Som e re ad ers m ay pro fit fro m th e use of acro nym s to help re m in d th em se lv es of fu ndam en ta l prin cip le s. R em em berin g t h e n eed f o r • S kill i n c ris is c o m munic atio n, • T ra n sp are n cy, • I nev ita b ility o f c ris e s a n d t h ere fo re t h e i m pera tiv e o f p re cris is p re p ara tio n, • C ultu re a n o rg an iz atio nal t h at w ill n ot u nderm in e t h e c ris is p la n , a n d • K now le d ge o f th e v alu e o f th e g old en ru le p rin cip le fo r cris is co m munic atio n m ay allo w th ese im porta n t p la n ks to ST IC K w ith y ou a s y ou re ad th ro ugh th is b ook a n d w hen y ou p la n fo r c ris e s a s org an iz atio nal w om en a n d m en .

B O OK S TR UCTU RE A ND F EATU RES An o bje ctiv e o f th is c h ap te r is to s tim ula te re ad er in te re st in th is s u bje ct b y b eg in nin g to s u ggest th e co ncern s o f t h e c ris is c o m munic ato r. I n t h e e ig ht s u bse q uen t c h ap te rs r e ad ers w ill b e e x pose d t o f a cets o f cris is c o m munic atio n s tu dy.

Chap te rs 2 a n d 3 p ro vid e d efin itio ns a n d th eo re tic al u nderp in nin gs f o r c ris is c o m munic atio n. I n th ese ch ap te rs , m yth s a b out c ris is c o m munic atio n a re p re se n te d a n d d is p elle d , te rm s u se d in th e la n guag e a n d re se arc h of cris is co m munic atio n are defin ed an d dis c u sse d , an d th eo rie s germ an e to cris is co m munic atio n a re e x pla in ed .

Chap te rs 4 an d 5 pre se n t co unse l perta in in g re sp ectiv ely to pro activ e an d re activ e cris is co m munic atio n a ctiv ity .

Chap te r 4 e x am in es h ow a n o rg an iz atio n c an p re p are f o r e v en ts y et t o o ccu r, a n d Chap te r 5 d is c u sse s a p pro ach es t o r e sp ondin g o nce a c ris is h as s u rfa ced .

Chap te r 6 d eals w ith t h e i m porta n t e th ic al c o nsid era tio ns a n d c h oic es c ris is c o m munic ato rs a re f o rc ed to m ak e. A s y ou w ill s e e, a ctin g e th ic ally in c ris is c o m munic atio n is n ot s o le ly a m ora l d ecis io n b ut is co nsid ere d a p ra g m atic d ecis io n a s w ell.

Much cris is co m munic atio n activ ity is done in te am s as oppose d to bein g han dle d by a sin gle re p re se n ta tiv e o f a n o rg an iz atio n.

Chap te r 7 e x am in es is su es r e la tin g to te am s a n d c ris is c o m munic atio n in t e rm s o f c o nflic ts , i n te rv en tio ns, a n d s p ecif ic r o le s o f c ris is c o m munic atio n t e am m em bers .

If an org an iz atio n co nsid ers cris is co m munic atio n activ ity im porta n t— an d it sh ould — it sh ould co nsid er h ow to tr a in s p okesp ers o ns to b e e ffe ctiv e w hen th ey a re a ctu ally p re sse d in to s e rv ic e to s p eak fo r th e o rg an iz atio n. A s w e h av e d is c u sse d , k now in g w hat to s a y is n ot s u ffic ie n t.

Chap te r 8 re fe rs to tr a in in g t e ch niq ues w hen s p eak in g t o t h e p re ss a n d o th er s ta k eh old ers .

In Chap te r 9 , w e d is c u ss s o m e o f t h e p ote n tia l b en efits o f c ris e s, e x am in e t h e r e la tio nsh ip o f l e ad ers h ip an d c o ura g e to c ris is e ffo rts , a n d re cap th e m ain p oin ts m ad e in th e te x t. A ls o in th is fin al c h ap te r, stu den ts a re c h alle n ged to c re ate a c ris is c o m munic atio n p la n fo r a n o rg an iz atio n w ith w hic h th ey a re affilia te d . • • • • • • • • • • • C HAPT ER F EATU RES In a d ditio n to th e re le v an t c o unse l fro m sc h ola rs a n d p ra ctitio ners , e ach c h ap te r in clu des a c ase fo r an aly sis a s w ell a s re fe re n ces to o th er c ase s th at a re m ad e to illu str a te p oin ts . T here is n o s h orta g e o f cris is c ase s a n d in e ach c h ap te r re ad ers a re c h alle n ged to e v alu ate th e q uality o f c o m munic atio n a s re fle cte d b y t h e b eh av io rs o f o rg an iz atio nal r e p re se n ta tiv es i n t im es o f c ris is .

Read ers w ill f in d th re e a d ditio nal f e atu re s in e ach c h ap te r. T he f ir s t is a n e x erc is e o r e x erc is e s c alle d “A pply t h e P rin cip le s.” T hese a re s im ila r t o t h e o ne p re se n te d p re v io usly i n t h is i n tr o ducto ry c h ap te r. T he se co nd f e atu re i s a n i n se rt c alle d “ P ra ctitio ner P ers p ectiv e.” S om e p ro fe ssio nal, e ith er a c o m munic atio n, co nsu lta n t, c u rre n t c o rp ora te c o m munic atio n o ffic er, c o m pan y e x ecu tiv e, la w yer, o r s o m e o th er p ers o n whose w ork is re la te d to c ris is c o m munic atio n p re se n ts h er o r h is p ers p ectiv es o n a n a sp ect o f c ris is co m munic atio n. T he th ir d is a P oin t/C ounte rp oin t c h alle n ge, w hic h p re ced es th e su m marie s fo r e ach ch ap te r. I n t h e P oin t/C ounte rp oin t, t w o p ositio ns a re p re se n te d t o t h e r e ad er. T he f ir s t i s c o nsis te n t w ith a poin t m ad e in th e c h ap te r. T he s e co nd is a c o unte ra rg um en t. R ead ers a re a sk ed to c o nsid er th e c o unse l an d t h e c o unte ra rg um en t a n d w rite a o ne-p ag e p ositio n p ap er i d en tif y in g t h eir p ositio n o n t h e i s su e.

Com munic atio n d urin g c ris e s c an a n d o fte n d oes h av e a s ig nif ic an t e ffe ct o n a n o rg an iz atio n’s h ealth .

Stu die s s u ggest th at p eo ple te n d to r e m em ber h ow a c o m pan y c o m munic ate s d urin g a c ris is a s m uch a s th ey r e m em ber th e c ris is its e lf . T he r e m ain in g c h ap te rs d esc rib e th eo rie s, p rin cip le s, a n d c ase s th at w ill help r e ad ers t o u nders ta n d t h e n uan ces o f e ffe ctiv e c ris is c o m munic atio n.

Poin t/C ou nte rp oin t Counse l— Tra n sp are n cy a n d h onesty a re c o rn ers to nes t o e ffe ctiv e c ris is c o m munic atio n effo rts . D ecep tio n a n d d uplic ity w ill e ro de t h e i m ag e o f a n o rg an iz atio n i n t h e l o ng r u n.

Counte ra rg um en t— This i s a n ic e c la im i n a f a ir y t a le . T he p ro ble m i s t h at t h e r e al w orld i s not a f a ir y t a le . C om pan ie s c an g o o ut o f b usin ess b ecau se o f c ris is . I f t r a n sp are n cy f a cilita te s th at d em is e , t h en t h e r ig ht t h in g f o r a n o rg an iz atio n t o d o, f o r i ts e m plo yees, i ts s to ck hold ers if a p plic ab le , a n d i ts c o m munity i s t o b e d is in gen uous. D o y ou r e ally w an t t o b e t r a n sp are n t i f it m ean s t h at w ork ers i n a n e n tir e t o w n w ill l o se t h eir j o bs?

Sum mary : A T oolb ox All o rg an iz atio ns f a ce c ris e s.

In t h e w ak e o f t h ese c ris e s, o rg an iz atio ns m ust c o m munic ate w ith a u die n ces i n sid e a n d outs id e t h e o rg an iz atio n.

Effe ctiv e c o m munic atio n c an r e d uce p ro ble m s r e la te d t o t h e c ris is . P oor c o m munic atio n c an mag nif y t h e p ro ble m .

Gen era l r e co m men datio ns f o r c ris is c o m munic ato rs i n clu de:

Pla n nin g f o r c ris is . O rg an iz atio ns c an a n tic ip ate c ris e s a n d b eg in t h eir c o m munic atio n activ ity p rio r t o t h e o nse t o f a n y c ris is .

Bein g t r a n sp are n t. C ris is c ase s s u ggest t h at t r a n sp are n t c o m munic atio n i s a w is e a p pro ach in t h e l o ng r u n i f n ot i n t h e i m med ia te f u tu re o f t h e o rg an iz atio n.

Usin g a m ora l c o m pass. F or p ra g m atic r e aso ns a s w ell a s e th ic al o nes, o rg an iz atio ns s h ould fo llo w a “ g old en r u le ” g uid in g p rin cip le i n c ris is c o m munic atio n.

Ack now le d gin g t h e i m porta n ce o f o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re . A n o rg an iz atio n’s c u ltu re c an su pport o r u nderm in e t h e c ris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rt.

Tra in in g a n d s im ula tio ns. S kill s e ts m ust c o m ple m en t a n y s tr a te g y f o r a c ris is co m munic atio n p la n t o w ork .

Exercis e s a n d D is c u ssio n Q uestio n s 1.

Whic h o f t h e f iv e p rin cip le s o f t h e S T IC K l is t s e em m ost i m porta n t t o y ou? W hat o rg an iz atio ns hav e y ou b een i n t o w hic h t h is p rin cip le w ould a p ply ?

Six te en m in i- c ase s w ere p re se n te d in th is ch ap te r. H ow m an y o f th ese d o y ou re m em ber re ad in g/h earin g a b out i n “ re al t im e,” t h at i s , w hen t h ey a ctu ally o ccu rre d ? H ow m an y h av e y ou re ad a b out i n t h e c o urs e o f s tu dyin g o r r e ad in g a b out t h em a fte r t h ey o ccu rre d ?

Of t h ose c ase s i d en tif ie d i n q uestio n ( 2 ), w hat w as y our i m med ia te r e actio n t o t h e c ris e s w hen you f ir s t h eard /r e ad a b out th em . F or e x am ple , d id y ou th in k th at J e tB lu e w as ir re sp onsib le , o r did y ou t h in k t h at J e tB lu e w as b ein g u nfa ir ly c ritic iz ed ?

Do y ou th in k th at o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re c an c h an ge d urin g c ris e s su ch th at th e c h an ge c an positiv ely a ffe ct th e c ris is e ffo rt? F or e x am ple , c an a c o m pan y th at v alu es th e b otto m lin e re aliz e t h e i m porta n ce o f h um an ita ria n c o ncern s d urin g a c ris is a n d d ev alu e t h e b otto m l in e t o en su re d oin g t h e “ rig ht t h in g.” Is t h ere a c ris is c o m munic atio n p la n a t y our u niv ers ity ? H ow i s i t c o m munic ate d i n te rn ally ?

P RACTIT IO NER P ER SP E C TIV E : E D K LO TZBIE R Ed K lo tz b ie r se rv ed o n M assa ch use tts G overn or M ic h ael D uka kis ’s sta ff w hen th e g overn or w as th e Dem ocra tic n om in ee fo r P re sid en t o f th e U nite d S ta te s in 1 988. In 1 986, M r. K lo tz b ie r w ork ed fo r Govern or D uka kis d urin g th e g overn or’s s u ccessfu l c a m paig n fo r re ele ctio n. M r. K lo tz b ie r h old s a la w deg re e a nd is c u rre n tly th e V ic e P re sid en t fo r S tu den t A ffa ir s a t N orth ea ste rn U niv ersity . P rio r to th is appoin tm en t, he was th e D ir e cto r fo r U niv ersity Com munic a tio ns at North ea ste rn . O ne of his re sp onsib ilitie s in vo lv es partic ip atin g on a co m mitte e th at pre p are s fo r and re sp onds to any org aniz a tio nal c ris e s .

There a re s e v era l f a cto rs t h at m ak e c ris is c o m munic ato rs e ffe ctiv e. F ir s t, y ou h av e t o p re p are . T here i s a n ex pre ssio n: Y ou f ix y our r o of o n a s u nny d ay. S im ila rly , t h e t im e t o d eal w ith a c ris is i s n ot w hen y ou a re in o ne, b ut b efo re y ou a re im mers e d . W e c an a n d h av e c re ate d te m pla te s tr a te g ie s f o r c ris e s. W e m ig ht dev elo p a t e m pla te s tr a te g y f o r a n atu ra l d is a ste r. W hen w e a re h it w ith s o m eth in g t h at i s s im ila r w e u se th e te m pla te . L et u s sa y w e d ev elo p a te m pla te str a te g y fo r a b liz zard . W e u se th e te m pla te fo r a hurric an e o r f lo od o r s o m eth in g e ls e t h at i s s im ila r.

Anoth er k ey to s u ccess is th at y ou h av e to k now y our s ta k eh old ers a n d m ust b e a b le to a ccess th em quic k ly . W e h av e l is ts o f o ur v ario us c o nstitu en cie s r e ad y s o t h at i n a n e m erg en cy w e c an s e n d a m essa g e out t o t h em i n sta n tly . A ls o , y ou h av e t o m ak e s u re y ou g et t h e m essa g e r ig ht. B y t h is I m ean y ou w an t t o mak e s u re th at y ou a re c le ar a b out th e fo ur o r fiv e th in gs y ou w an t to s a y, a n d s ta y o n m essa g e. Y our cris is te am h as to b e o n th e s a m e p ag e. W e in o ur c ris is te am w ork v ery c lo se ly to geth er d urin g c ris e s, an d t h ere fo re p rio r t o c ris is , w e w an t t o s p en d t im e t o geth er f o rm ally a n d i n fo rm ally i n o rd er t o d ev elo p re la tio nsh ip s a n d c h em is tr y t h at i s i n valu ab le d urin g c ris e s.

There i s n o r o om f o r d ecep tio n i n c ris is c o m munic atio n. Y our c re d ib ility i s s o i m porta n t t h at i t w ould be fo olis h fo r th at re aso n a lo ne to b e a n yth in g o th er th an tr a n sp are n t. T here m ay b e tim es w hen w e str a te g ic ally o m it s o m eth in g b ut t h at i s b ecau se w e w an t t o b e d ip lo m atic w ith c erta in s ta k eh old ers ; i t i s not f o r d ecep tio n. T o r e ta in i n fo rm atio n t o d eceiv e b y o m is sio n i s n ot w is e o r r ig ht.

A p ro ble m s o m e o rg an iz atio ns h av e d urin g c ris e s i s t h at t h ey f o rg et t h eir i n te rn al a u die n ces. Y ou m ust re m em ber y our i n te rn al a u die n ces. I g et m y m essa g es t o t h e i n te rn al a u die n ces b efo re t h e e x te rn al. I w an t th em t o a t l e ast k now I m ad e a n a tte m pt t o r e ach t h em b efo re t h ey r e ad s o m eth in g i n a n ew sp ap er.

What m ak es c ris is c o m munic a tio n a p pro ach es d if fe re n t in th e 2 1st c en tu ry th an in p rio r o nes is th e ra p id a d van ce o f te ch nolo gy a n d th e 2 4/7 m ed ia c o vera g e. W e h av e to k now h ow o ur c o nstitu en cie s g et in fo rm atio n a n d b e a w are o f t h e r e alitie s r e la te d t o h ow t h ey g et i n fo rm atio n.

N OTES 1.

h t t p : / / v t a p . c o m / w i k i t a p / d e t a i W t _ m a s s a c r e A V I K I 1 0 7 0 5 6 7 8 f o und o n J u ly 2 2, 2 009.

O rig in al c sp an v id eo h t t p : / / w w w . c - s p a n a r c h i v e s . o r g / l i b r a r y / i n d e x . p h p ? m a i n _ p a g e = p r o d u c t _ v i d - e o _ i n f o & p r o d u c - t s _ i d = 1 7 4 1 0 0 - l, J u ly 2 3, 2 009.

M ic h elin e M ay nard , “ A t Je tB lu e G ro w in g U p Is H ard to D o,” New Y o rk T im es , O cto ber 6 , 2 008, B usin ess Sectio n, p p. 1 , 1 2.

S to ry r e p orte d in th e Bosto n G lo be ( a s w ell a s in m an y o th er p la ces), F eb ru ary 2 , 2 009, p . c 2 .

R en e A . H en ry , Yo u ‘d B ette r H ave a H ose If Yo u W ant to P ut O ut th e F ir e (W in dso r, C A : G olly w obble r Pro ductio ns, 2 000), p . 2 .

S te v e W ils o n, Rea l P eo ple , R ea l C ris e s: A n I n sid e L ook a t C orp ora te C ris is C om munic a tio ns (W in ch esto r, V A :

Oak H ill P re ss, 2 002), p . 1 .

L au re n ce B arto n, Cris is in O rg aniz a tio ns I I ( C in cin nati, O H: S outh -W este rn , 2 001), p . 1 .

S te v en F in k, Cris is M anagem en t: P la nnin g fo r th e I n evita ble ( C in cin nati, O H: A uth ors G uild , 2 002).

P .M . K earn s, “ P ro te ct Y our C om pan y’s I m ag e,” Com munic a tio n W orld 1 5, n o. 7 ( A ugust- S ep te m ber 1 998): 4 3.

10.

L arry S peak es w ith R obert P ack , Spea kin g O ut: T he R ea gan P re sid en cy fr o m In sid e th e W hite H ouse (N ew York : A von B ooks, 1 988), p . 1 84.

11 .

D av id G uth , “ P ro activ e C ris is C om munic atio n,” Com munic a tio n W orld ( O cto ber 1 995): 1 2–15. • • • • •2 Defin in g C ris is C om munic atio n Chap te r in a N uts h ell While p eo ple m ay h av e a g en era l id ea o f w hat c ris is c o m munic atio n e n ta ils , s o m e in fo rm atio n a n d assu m ptio ns can be m is le ad in g. M is u nders ta n din gs an d m yth s can sk ew cris is co m munic atio n effo rts , dera il cris is co m munic ato rs , an d lim it th e effe ctiv en ess of an org an iz atio n’s cris is co m munic atio n p la n s. T his c h ap te r d efin es w hat i s m ean t b y a n o rg an iz atio nal c ris is , e x pla in s w hat cris is co m munic ato rs do, an d id en tif ie s key te rm s in th e la n guag e an d dis c o urs e of cris is co m munic atio n.

Specif ic ally , a t t h e e n d o f t h is c h ap te r, r e ad ers w ill b e a b le t o Defin e c ris is a n d c ris is c o m munic atio n.

Desc rib e t h e r e sp onsib ilitie s o f c ris is c o m munic ato rs .

Lis t s e v era l m yth s a b out c ris is c o m munic atio n a n d e x pla in w hy i n co m ple te u nders ta n din g w ill obstr u ct a n d d era il c ris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rts .

Dis c u ss how cris is co m munic atio n stu dy fits in to th e bro ad er su bje ct of org an iz atio nal co m munic atio n.

Expla in k ey t e rm s i n t h e l a n guag e o f c ris is c o m munic atio n.

C ASE 2 .1 : L AB S HOPPIN G Ja n uary 2 009 d id n ot m ark th e b eg in nin g o f a h ap py n ew y ear fo r th e P ean ut C orp ora tio n o f A m eric a (P C A ). In la te J a n uary th e c o m pan y w as fo rc ed to re call m an y o f its p ro ducts b ecau se th ey h ad b een fo und to c o nta in s a lm onella p ois o nin g. R ep orts in dic ate d th at o ver 5 00 p eo ple h ad b een ta k en ill b y th e outb re ak a n d 8 d eath s w ere a ttr ib ute d to th e to xin s. T he P C A fe lt c o m pelle d to “ v olu nta rily ” su sp en d opera tio ns in th eir p la n t in G eo rg ia a n d, s im ila rly , in e arly F eb ru ary “ v olu nta rily ” c lo se d th eir p la n t in Pla in vie w , T ex as.

Anytim e t h ere a re t a in te d f o odstu ffs a n d a p ro duct r e call, d am ag e i s d one t o t h e c o m pan y t h at p ro duces th e p ro duct. T he p ro ble m s f o r t h e P ean ut C orp ora tio n o f A m eric a, h ow ev er, w ere c o m pounded . N ot o nly did its p ro ducts c o nta in s a lm onella p ois o nin g, b ut a cco rd in g to a F ood a n d D ru g A dm in is tr a tio n ( F D A) re p ort, t h e c o m pan y k new t h at i ts p ro ducts w ere t a in te d b efo re i t d is tr ib ute d t h em .

In la te Ja n uary 2 009, th e F D A co nte n ded th at th e P ean ut C orp ora tio n o f A m eric a h ad te ste d its pro ducts as early as 2 007 an d d is c o vere d th e sa lm onella p ois o nin g. In ste ad o f sto ppin g p ro ductio n, how ev er, th e c o m pan y c o nducte d w hat is re fe rre d to a s “ la b s h oppin g.” T his m ean s th at th e P C A w as accu se d o f s e n din g i ts p ro ducts t o la b s u ntil t h ey c o uld o bta in a r e p ort t h at r e fle cte d a n eg ativ e t e st r e su lt.

Food in dustr y a n aly sts , a s w ell a s m ost c o nsu m ers , a rg ued th at th is w as c erta in ly n ot a p pro pria te f o r a fo od m an ufa ctu re r.

When in te rv ie w ed , T om my Irv in , G eo rg ia ’s ag ric u ltu re co m mis sio ner, sa id “T hey [th e P C A ] w ere tr y in g t o f in d a w ay t o c le ar t h eir p ro duct, s o t h ey c an s h ip t h eir p ro duct o ut.” H ow ev er, i f t w o r e p orts a re co ntr a d ic to ry — one p ositiv e a n d o ne n eg ativ e— th e p ro to co l i s t h at “ Y ou b elie v e t h e o ne t h at i s p ositiv e.” The c o m pan y’s p ro ced ure s w ere fu rth er b esm ir c h ed w hen th e F D A’s d ir e cto r o f th e C en te r fo r F ood Safe ty a n d A pplie d N utr itio n c o nte n ded t h at a n i n sp ectio n r e v eale d t h at “ n o s te p s h ad b een t a k en i n t e rm s of c le an in g o r c ro ss-c o nta m in atio n’ a fte r t h e s a lm onella w as f o und i n t h e p la n t.” 1 Rela te d co m pan ie s an d org an iz atio ns quic k ly so ught to dis ta n ce th em se lv es fro m th e Pean ut Corp ora tio n o f A m eric a an d is su e co m munic atio ns. O n th e A m eric an P ean ut C ouncil’s W eb site , a postin g re la y ed “ sh ock a n d d is m ay ” a t fin din gs th at re p ort th e P C A k now in gly re le ase d a p ro duct w ith pote n tia l sa lm onella c o nta m in atin g th e fo od su pply . P ean ut b utte r m ak ers S kip py, Jif , a n d P ete r P an co m men te d th at th eir b ra n ds d id n ot c o nta in a n y p ro ducts m ad e b y th e P C A . O n F eb ru ary 1 8,2 009, Skip py to ok o ut a m ultic o lo re d h alf -p ag e a d vertis e m en t in m ajo r n ew sp ap ers . A w hite b an ner h ead lin e ap peare d b old ly a g ain st a r e d b ack gro und. • • • • • • • • • • •S KIP PY P EA NUT B UTTER I S N O T P ART O F T H E P EA NUT R EC ALL 2 The s u perm ark et c h ain K ro ger i s su ed a r e call f o r c erta in f o ods m ad e w ith p ean ut p ro ducts t h at t h ey s to ck in th e K ro ger s to re s fo und in th ir ty -o ne s ta te s. T he F ed era l E m erg en cy M an ag em en t A gen cy is su ed a sta te m en t s a y in g t h at p ro ducts t h at w ere s e n t t o t o w ns r a v ag ed b y w eath er i n K en tu ck y a n d A rk an sa s m ay hav e c o nta in ed t a in te d P C A p ro ducts . T he U .S . g overn m en t s u sp en ded t h e P C A f ro m d oin g b usin ess w ith th e f e d era l g overn m en t f o r a t l e ast a y ear b ecau se o f t h e t r a n sg re ssio n.

In a w ritte n s ta te m en t, t h e P ean ut C om pan y o f A m eric a d en ie d t h at t h ey w ere “ la b s h oppin g” t o o bta in a n eg ativ e t e st r e su lt t h at w ould p erm it t h em t o s h op t h eir p ro duct. O n J a n uary 2 8, t h e c o m pan y r e le ase d a sta te m en t th at re ad , “ P C A c ate g oric ally d en ie s a n y a lle g atio ns th at th e C om pan y so ught fa v ora b le re su lts f ro m a n y l a b i n o rd er t o s h ip i ts p ro ducts .” On J a n uary 3 1, t h e c o m pan y p oste d t h e f o llo w in g s ta te m en t o n t h eir W eb s ite :

We a t P ean ut C orp ora tio n o f A m eric a e x pre ss o ur d eep est a n d m ost s in cere e m path y fo r th ose s ic k en ed in th e sa lm onella o utb re ak a n d th eir fa m ilie s. W e s h are th e p ublic ’s c o ncern a b out th e p ote n tia l c o nnectio n to P ean ut Corp ora tio n o f A m eric a’s p ro ducts .

Our to p p rio rity h as b een — an d w ill c o ntin ue to b e— to e n su re th e p ublic sa fe ty a n d to w ork p ro m ptly to re m ove all p ote n tia lly co nta m in ate d p ro ducts o ut o f th e m ark etp la ce. T o th at en d, w e h av e is su ed ex te n siv e re calls th at b ro ad ly e n co m pass p ote n tia lly c o nta m in ate d p ro duct.

We u nders ta n d th at th e m ed ia a n d p ublic a re e ag er to o bta in f a cts r e la te d to th at o utb re ak . P ean ut C orp ora tio n of A m eric a’s e m plo yees a n d a tto rn ey s a re d eep ly e n gag ed in th e p ro cess o f le arn in g a n d u nders ta n din g th e f a cts an d is su es h ere . W hen th ey are p re p are d to d is c u ss th ose fa cts , ad ditio nal in fo rm atio n w ill b e p ro vid ed as ap pro pria te . F or P ean ut C orp ora tio n to e n gag e in a n y d is c u ssio n o f th e f a cts a t th is p oin t is p re m atu re .

3 On F eb ru ary 4 , t h e c o m pan y i s su ed a n oth er s ta te m en t:

The P ean ut C orp ora tio n o f A m eric a c o ntin ues to b e d eep ly c o ncern ed a b out th ose w ho h av e b een a ffe cte d b y sa lm onella c o nta m in atio n in th e p ast w eek s. T he p ro duct r e calls is su ed b y o ur c o m pan y c o ntin ue to e x ped itio usly re m ove a ll p ote n tia lly h arm fu l p ro ducts fro m th e m ark etp la ce, in th e b est in te re st o f th e p ublic ’s h ealth a n d sa fe ty .

There h as b een a g re at d eal o f c o nfu sin g a n d m is le ad in g in fo rm atio n in th e m ed ia . W e w an t th e p ublic to k now th at th ere w ere re g ula r v is its a n d in sp ectio ns o f th e B la k ely fa cility b y fe d era l a n d sta te re g ula to rs in 2 008.

In dep en den t au dit an d fo od sa fe ty fir m s als o co nducte d cu sto m ary u nan nounced in sp ectio ns o f th e B la k ely fa cility in 2 008. O ne g av e th e p la n t an o vera ll “su perio r” ra tin g, an d th e o th er ra te d th e p la n t as “M eet o r Exceed s au dit ex pecta tio ns (A ccep ta b le -E xcelle n t) ” ra tin gs. U nfo rtu nate ly , d ue to th e n atu re o f th e o ngoin g in vestig atio ns, w e w ill n ot b e a b le to c o m men t f u rth er a b out th e f a cts r e la te d to th is m atte r a t th is tim e.

PC A is s e co nd to n obody in its d esir e to k now a ll th e fa cts , a n d o ur te am is w ork in g d ay a n d n ig ht to re call affe cte d p ro ducts a n d to c o m ple te its in vestig atio n.

4 The F ood a n d D ru g A dm in is tr a tio n a n nounced th at a c rim in al in vestig atio n h ad b een in itia te d a g ain st th e P ean ut C orp ora tio n o f A m eric a.

Questio n s f o r A naly sis How d o y ou t h in k t h e P C A h as a d dre sse d t h is c ris is ?

Could t h e P C A h av e d one a n yth in g p ro activ ely t o b e r e ad y f o r t h is c ris is ?

Will t h e c u ltu re o f t h e P C A b e a f a cto r i n t h e c ris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rt?

Should t h e P C A b e t r a n sp are n t i n i ts c o m munic atio ns?

Should t h e P C A f o llo w a g old en r u le a p pro ach ?

How w ould s k ill s e ts h elp o r s a b ota g e t h e c o m munic atio n e ffo rt i n t h is c ase ?

If y ou w ere a n e x ecu tiv e f o r t h e P ean ut C orp ora tio n o f A m eric a h ow w ould y ou p ro ceed ?

Apolo giz e t o t h e c o nsu m ers ?

Ple d ge t o c o nduct y our o w n i n vestig atio n?

Who w ould b e y our p rim ary a u die n ces?

What w ould y our m essa g es b e t o t h em ? • • • • • • • • • • • 1.

How w ould y ou g et y our m essa g es o ut t o t h ese g ro ups?

What o th er o rg an iz atio ns n eed t o c o m munic ate r e g ard in g t h e c ris is ?

Should t h e F D A c o ntin ue t o c o m munic ate t o s ta k eh old ers ?

The l o cal s u perm ark ets ?

Jif , S kip py, P ete r P an ?

Whic h o th ers ?

What s h ould t h ese o rg an iz atio ns e x pre ss a n d t o w hom s h ould t h ey r e la y t h eir m essa g es?

N OTES 1.

S ee w ww.c n n.c o m /2 009/H EA LT H /0 1/2 8/s a lm onella .o utb re ak /in dex .h tm l.

Bosto n G lo be , F eb ru ary 1 8, 2 009, p . A 12.

S ee w ww.p ean utc o rp .c o m /p df/S ta te m en t b y P C A 1 -3 1-0 9.p df.

S ee w ww.p ean utc o rp .c o m /p df/P C A S ta te m en t 0 2 0 4 0 9.p df.

D EFIN IN G C RIS IS C OM MUNIC ATIO N W HAT I S A C RIS IS ?

Is a f lo od i n t h e b ase m en t o f y our b usin ess a c ris is ? I f t h e C EO o f y our c o m pan y s u dden ly l e av es t o j o in a co m petin g f ir m , is th at a c ris is ? I f a lo ngtim e e m plo yee h as b een e x pose d a s a N azi s y m path iz er, d oes your o rg an iz atio n f a ce a c ris is ?

Unders ta n din g w hat th e w ord c ris is m ean s in th e c o nte x t o f c ris is c o m munic atio n is a n im porta n t in itia l s te p t o t a k e i n t h e s tu dy o f c ris is c o m munic atio n. C ris is h as b een d efin ed v ario usly b y r e se arc h ers , pra ctitio ners , an d co nsu lta n ts . Typic ally , how ev er, th ere are co m mon co m ponen ts in th ese m an y defin itio ns. L et u s c o nsid er f o ur o f t h ese d efin itio ns.

A c ris is i s “A m ajo r, u npre d ic ta b le e v en t t h at h as p ote n tia lly n eg ativ e r e su lts . T he e v en t a n d i ts a fte rm ath m ay sig nif ic an tly d am ag e a n o rg an iz atio n a n d i ts e m plo yees, p ro ducts , s e rv ic es, f in an cia l c o nditio n, a n d re p uta tio n.” 1 “A n e v en t th at r u ns th e r is k o f e sc ala tin g in in te n sity , c o uld f a ll u nder c lo se m ed ia o r g overn m en t sc ru tin y, in te rfe re s with norm al busin ess opera tio ns, je o pard iz es th e cu rre n t im ag e of an org an iz atio n, a n d d am ag es t h e f in an cia l h ealth o f a n o rg an iz atio n.” 2 “A n u npre d ic ta b le e v en t w hic h t h re ate n s i m porta n t o rg an iz atio nal v alu es a n d w hic h c re ate s p re ssu re fo r a t im ely r e sp onse r e q uir in g e ffe ctiv e c o m munic atio n.” 3 “A m ajo r o ccu rre n ce w ith a p ote n tia lly n eg ativ e o utc o m e a ffe ctin g a n o rg an iz atio n a s w ell a s its public s, s e rv ic es, p ro ducts , a n d o r g ood n am e.” 4 Little i n t h ese d efin itio ns o r i n t h e l e g io n o f o th ers i s a n tith etic al t o a n y o th er. T hey a re c le arly s im ila r, an d each o ne is d is tin ct b ecau se o f a n uan ced v aria tio n o r ad ditio n. L et u s co nsid er th e re cu rrin g ch ara cte ris tic s i n t h ese a n d o th er d efin itio ns o f c ris is .

Cris e s a re a ty pic al e v en ts t h at m ig ht b e p re d ic ta b le , b ut a re n ot e x pecte d w hen t h ey o ccu r.

F or e x am ple , w hile w e k now it is n ot im possib le th at k ey fig ure s in o ur o rg an iz atio n m ay ab ru ptly le av e th e c o m pan y, w e m ig ht s till b e s tu nned w hen w e r e ad th e r e sig natio n e -m ails . A n air lin e co m pan y is aw are th at h orrif ic accid en ts are p ossib le , b ut an y sp ecif ic in cid en t is an unpre d ic ta b le ab erra tio n. W e know th at hurric an es, an d bliz zard s, an d earth quak es are possib ilitie s, b ut e v en w ith a d van ced m ete o ro lo gic al te ch nolo gy th e m ag nitu de o f sto rm s c an 2.

• • • • • • • • 2.

• sta rtle u s.

Cris e s c an b e d am ag in g t o a n o rg an iz atio n o r i n div id uals w ith in t h e o rg an iz atio n.

A flo od m ay re su lt in th e lo ss o f in ven to ry a n d a n in ab ility to s a tis fy c u sto m ers w aitin g fo r pro ducts . T he d ep artu re o f a C EO m ay cau se a p re cip ito us d ro p in sto ck p ric es. C om munity aw are n ess t h at a l o cal c o m pan y h as h arb ore d a N azi i s l ik ely t o d am ag e r e la tio nsh ip s t h e c o m pan y en jo ys w ith i ts i n te rn al a n d e x te rn al c o m munitie s.

Fin ally , a c ris is c o m pels o rg an iz atio ns to c o m munic ate w ith v ario us a u die n ces in o rd er to lim it th e d am ag es t h at m ay b e c au se d b y c ris is . T he q uality o f t h ese c o m munic atio ns c an a m elio ra te o r ex acerb ate t h e s itu atio n.

If a n ew sp ap er re p orts th at a c ity o ffic ia l h as e m bezzle d fu nds, th en th e c ity m ust id en tif y au die n ces a n d c o m munic ate w ith th ese a u die n ces to r e d uce th e e ffe cts o f th e th eft. I f a c ity d oes not re sp ond o r re sp onds w ith a n a p pare n t la ck o f c o ncern , th e d am ag e re la te d to th e c ris is is mag nif ie d . B ecau se o f a s lo ppy c o m munic atio n e ffo rt, t h e r e p uta tio ns o f a ll c ity o ffic ia ls m ay b e su llie d . T hro ughout t h e n atio n, t h e c ity m ay e arn a r e p uta tio n a s a s h ad y m unic ip ality a n d b e s e en as a p la ce w here c o rru ptio n is to le ra te d . A c ris is c o m pels o rg an iz atio ns to a d dre ss a u die n ces to lim it a n d n ot m ag nif y n eg ativ e p erc ep tio ns.

Let us cap tu re th ese ch ara cte ris tic s in a re la tiv ely co ncis e defin itio n. W e defin e a cris is as an anom alo us even t th at m ay neg ativ ely affe ct an org aniz a tio n and re q uir e s effic ie n t org aniz a tio nal co m munic a tio n t o r e d uce t h e d am age r e la te d t o t h e e ven t.

If your univ ers ity ’s bask etb all te am lo se s a gam e you hav e no cris is in th e co nte x t of cris is co m munic atio n a lth ough m em bers m ay c o nsid er th e lo ss d ev asta tin g. I f th e te am ’s s ta r p la y er is in ju re d you d o n ot h av e a c ris is i n t h e c o nte x t o f c ris is c o m munic atio n, a lth ough s o m e p eo ple m ay w orry h ow t h e in ju ry w ill a ffe ct t h e r e v en ues a n d f o rtu nes o f t h e t e am .

How ev er, if it b eco m es k now n th at m em bers o f th e te am w ere s e llin g th eir c o m plim en ta ry tic k ets to sc alp ers , o r th e te am m em bers w ere c o nsp ir in g w ith g am ble rs to a lte r th e n atu ra l c o urs e o f th e g am es, th en y our u niv ers ity h as a c ris is . T his s itu atio n w ould b e a n a n om alo us e v en t. It w ould lik ely h av e a dam ag in g e ffe ct o n t h e b ask etb all p ro gra m , t h e u niv ers ity ’s s tu den ts , a n d t h e u niv ers ity ’s i m ag e, i f n ot i ts fin an cia l h ealth . T he illic it a ctiv itie s o f th e p la y ers w ould c o m pel u niv ers ity o ffic ia ls to c o m munic ate with v ario us a u die n ces i n o rd er t o r e d uce t h e e ffe cts o f t h e c ris is .

Apply t h e P rin cip le s For e ach o f t h e f o llo w in g t y pes o f o rg an iz atio ns, i d en tif y a n e v en t t h at w ould q ualif y a s a c ris is :

Dep artm en t s to re s u ch a s T arg et o r W al- M art Softw are c o m pan y Conven ie n ce s to re Delic ate sse n Public s c h ool Muse u m Public t r a n sp orta tio n s y ste m County g overn m en t What w ould b e y our p rim ary c o m munic atio n c h alle n ge i n e ach o f t h e e v en ts i d en tif ie d i n p art 1 of t h is e x erc is e ?

T YPE S O F C RIS E S Sev era l w rite rs h av e a tte m pte d to id en tif y c ate g orie s o f c ris e s. B elo w is a lis t o f th ese c ate g orie s w ith ex am ple s f o r e ach t y pe.

Natu ra l D is a ste r Hurric an e I k e d estr o ys c o m munitie s a s it w re ak s h av oc u pon to w ns in T ex as d urin g th e w eek en d o f • • • • • • • • • • • Sep te m ber 1 3–14, 2 008.

Man agem en t/E m plo yee M is c o n duct World C om e x ecu tiv es a re a ccu se d o f d elib era te ly p re se n tin g in accu ra te d ata a b out th e c o m pan y, whic h h as d ev asta tin g e ffe cts o n i n vesto rs a n d e m plo yees a t W orld C om i ts e lf .

Pro d uct T am perin g On S ep te m ber 15, 2008, C hin ese polic e arre st tw o bro th ers su sp ecte d of ad din g a dan gero us ch em ic al t o m ilk t h ey s o ld t o a c o m pan y t h at p ro duced i n fa n t f o rm ula . T w o b ab ie s d ie a n d m ore t h an 1,2 00 o th ers b eco m e i ll.

Meg a D am age The Exxo n V ald ez c ra sh es. T he o il it w as c arry in g s p ills in to p ris tin e w ate rs , d estr o yin g w ild lif e in Ala sk a.

Rum or A w id ow i s a g uest o n L arry K in g a n d c la im s t h at c ell p hone e ffe cts w ere t h e c au se o f h er h usb an d’s fa ta l c an cer. M oto ro la ’s s to ck d ro ps p re cip ito usly a s a r e su lt o f t h is u nsu bsta n tia te d c la im .

5 Tech nic a l B rea k dow n/A ccid en t The c ra sh o f c o m pute rs s to rin g i n fo rm atio n a b out a p plic an ts t o a u niv ers ity r e n ders p rio r a d m is sio ns decis io ns w orth le ss. T he u niv ers ity i s u naw are o f w ho h as b een a ccep te d a n d w ho h as b een r e je cte d .

Tech nic a l B rea k dow n/N ot E ntir ely A ccid en ta l In te l is c o m pelle d to r e call its c o m pute rs b ecau se o f a p ro ble m w ith a p ro gra m th at m is c alc u la te s num bers . T his p ro ble m i s a g gav ate d w hen i t i s r e v eale d t h at I n te l h ad b een a w are o f t h e p ro ble m a n d did n ot i m med ia te ly r e call t h e f la w ed p ro ducts .

Challe n ge Wal- M art i s c o nfro nte d b y a c o nsu m er g ro up t h at a rg ues t h at t h ere i s a “ h ig h p ric e f o r l o w c o st.” A movie is p ro duced w ith th at title an d th e p ro ducers arra n ge to h av e th e film sh ow n in v ario us lo catio ns.

Hum an E rro r Auto m obile tir e s a re d efe ctiv e. D riv in g f a ta litie s a re a ttr ib ute d to p ro ble m s w ith th e m an ufa ctu rin g of t h e p ro duct.

Work pla ce V io le n ce Aposta i w ork er i n E nid , O kla h om a, e n te rs t h e w ork pla ce a n d m urd ers c o w ork ers a t t h e f a cility .

6 W HAT D O C RIS IS C OM MUNIC ATO RS D O ?

Cris is c o m munic atio n in volv es id en tif y in g in te rn al a n d e x te rn al r e ceiv ers w ho m ust r e ceiv e in fo rm atio n durin g t im es o f c ris is . C ris is c o m munic ato rs c o nceiv e, c re ate , a n d d is se m in ate m essa g es t o t h ese i n te rn al an d e x te rn al r e ceiv ers , a n d p re p are t o r e ceiv e a n d r e sp ond t o f e ed back f ro m t h ese a u die n ces.

More s p ecif ic ally , c ris is c o m munic ato rs :

Prep are fo r c ris e s.

W hile c ris e s a re n ot n orm al e v en ts , o ne c an p re p are fo r th em b y d ev elo pin g re la tio nsh ip s w ith in te rn al a n d e x te rn al o rg an iz atio nal a u die n ces, a n tic ip atin g p ote n tia l c ris e s, a n d co nsid erin g, a h ead o f t im e, h ow t o a d dre ss t y pes o f c ris e s t h at c an b e a n tic ip ate d .

Id en tif y a u die n ces.

A n e ffe ctiv e c ris is c o m munic ato r c o nsid ers w ho n eed s to re ceiv e in fo rm atio n fro m t h e o rg an iz atio n d urin g t im es o f c ris is . T hese a u die n ces w ill b e e x te rn al t o t h e o rg an iz atio n a s well a s i n te rn al. F or e x am ple , i n e arly S ep te m ber 2 008, w hen H urric an e G usta v f o rc ed t h e c lo su re o f co m pan ie s in N ew O rle an s a n d a ll a lo ng th e G ulf C oast, c ris is c o m munic ato rs n eed ed to c o nsid er who w ith in th eir org an iz atio ns re q uir e d in fo rm atio n ab out em erg en cy pro ced ure s, an d w hic h su pplie rs , c u sto m ers , g overn m en t a g en cie s, a n d o th er e x te rn al a u die n ces n eed ed in fo rm atio n a b out • • • • th e s to rm .

Con ceiv e a n d c o n str u ct m essa ges t o b e c o m munic ate d t o a u die n ces. C ris is c o m munic ato rs i d en tif y units o f in fo rm atio n th at th ey w is h to r e la y to th e id en tif ie d a u die n ces. C om munic ato rs th en c re ate messa g es t h at a re c o m posite s o f t h ese u nits o f i n fo rm atio n. T he U niv ers ity o f L ouis ia n a a t M onro e, fo r e x am ple , r e ad yin g its e lf f o r H urric an e G usta v, h ad to in fo rm s tu den ts a b out c la ss c an cella tio ns an d te m pora ry h ousin g. T hese u nits o f in fo rm atio n— when c la ss w ould b e c an cele d , w here s tu den ts would be house d — had to be in co rp ora te d in to co m posite m essa g es th at ex pla in ed th e cris is pro ced ure s.

Sele ct th e m ed ia o r m ed iu m to b e u se d to r ela y in fo rm atio n .

A c ris is c o m munic ato r e v alu ate s meth ods f o r c o m munic atin g, a n d s e le cts th e b est m eth od f o r r e la y in g in fo rm atio n. W hat is th e b est way to c o nvey a m essa g e? S hould a r e p re se n ta tiv e d eliv er a s p eech ; h old a p re ss c o nfe re n ce; u se a so cia l n etw ork s u ch a s F aceb ook o r L in ked ln ; p ost a n otic e o n th e I n te rn et; p la ce a n a d vertis e m en t in a t r a d e m ag azin e? S hould a n e -m ail b e b la ste d t o a ll r e le v an t a u die n ces? S hould t h e o rg an iz atio n re q uest t im e o n a n i n te rv ie w p ro gra m t o p re se n t i ts p ers p ectiv es? T he b est m eth od w ill d ep en d o n a num ber o f f a cto rs , a m ong w hic h a re th e n atu re o f th e a u die n ce; th e c ris is its e lf ; th e o rg an iz atio n’s his to ry o f r e sp onsib ility d urin g cris is ; r e la tio nsh ip s th e o rg an iz atio n h as f o rm ed w ith th e a u die n ce prio r t o t h e c ris is ; a n d t h e n atu re o f t h e m essa g e c o nte n t.

Resp on d to fe ed back fro m in te rn al a n d e x te rn al a u die n ces d urin g c ris e s. C ris is c o m munic ato rs ack now le d ge, o r s h ould a ck now le d ge, th at a u die n ces w ill h av e q uestio ns a n d r e actio ns th at p erta in to t h e i n fo rm atio n g en era te d b y t h e o rg an iz atio n. C ris is c o m munic ato rs m ust b e p re p are d t o r e sp ond to t h e f e ed back f ro m t h ese i n te rn al a n d e x te rn al a u die n ces.

Evalu ate t h e s u ccess o f c ris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rts . A fte r th e im med ia te p ro ble m s r e la te d to th e cris is h av e p asse d , c ris is c o m munic ato rs m ust a sse ss th e e ffo rt, d is c u ss h ow th ey c o uld h av e b een more e ffe ctiv e, a n d r e co rd p la n s f o r a ctiv ity i f f a ced w ith s im ila r c ris e s i n t h e f u tu re .

M YTH S A BO UT C RIS IS C OM MUNIC ATIO N Eric D ezen hall a n d Jo hn W eb er’s 2 007 b ook Dam age C ontr o l is su btitle d Why E very th in g Y o u K now About C ris is M anagem en t I s W ro ng.

T heir s i s a p ecu lia r s u btitle . I t i s r e m ark ab ly p re su m ptu ous s in ce t h e pro noun, o ne a ssu m es, re fe rs to th e re ad er. It is a rro gan t fo r th e a u th ors to a ssu m e th at a ll re ad ers a re ig nora n t o r h av e b een m is g uid ed a n d t h at t h e l o ne b eare rs o f w is d om a re t h e a u th ors t h em se lv es. I n f a ct, re se arc h a n d c ase s tu die s d o n ot s u pport a ll o f t h e a u th ors ’ c la im s. N ev erth ele ss, D ezen hall a n d W eb er a re co rre ct w hen th ey s u ggest th at th ere a re m is c o ncep tio ns a b out h ow o rg an iz atio ns s h ould c o m munic ate durin g c ris e s. A r e v ie w o f h ow s o m e o rg an iz atio ns b eh av e d urin g c ris e s m ak es t h is p oin t w ell.

Org an iz atio ns h av e a d dre sse d c ris e s b y p re te n din g th at th ey w ill g o a w ay ; b y s to new allin g th e m ed ia ; by d en yin g w hat c o uld n ot p ossib ly b e p la u sib ly d en ie d ; a n d e v en b y a tte m ptin g to in tim id ate th ose castin g le g itim ate d oubts a b out th e c o m pan y’s c u lp ab ility . C om pan ie s h av e s a id , “ n o c o m men t” w hen co nfro nte d w ith c h alle n ges. T hey h av e a ssu m ed t h at t h ese t w o w ord s w ould a v oid c o m plic atio ns w hen i n fa ct t h e d efe n siv e p hra se h as d ug t h em i n d eep er. O rg an iz atio ns h av e a tte m pte d t o d is p la ce r e sp onsib ility on s o m e t h ir d p arty a ssu m in g t h at t h is w ill p ere m pto rily r e m ove g uilt, w hen i n f a ct s u ch c o m munic atio ns hav e r e d uced t h e r e sp ect a n d c re d ib ility t h e p ublic a ttr ib ute s t o t h ese s h orts ig hte d o rg an iz atio ns.

Mis c o ncep tio ns a b out c ris is c o m munic atio n a re p ro ble m atic n ot o nly b ecau se t h ey a re l o gic ally f la w ed but als o b ecau se th e in accu ra te n otio ns b eco m e flo orb oard s fo r co m munic atio n p la n s th at co uld n ot possib ly b e s u pporte d b y th e w arp ed f o undatio n f o r c o nstr u ctio n. I n ep t c o m munic atio ns b eco m e p art o f th e c ris is its e lf . L ik e c em en t c a k ed o n a f la t tir e , p oor c o m munic atio n b eh av io r c o m pounds th e o rig in al pro ble m . I n ste ad o f a t ir e t h at n eed s t o b e f ix ed , t h e c o m pan y n ow h as t o r e m ove t h e c em en t f ro m t h e t ir e to c le ar th e w ay fo r re p air. T o e x te n d th e m eta p hor, th e d riv ers o f th e c o m munic atio n p la n a re a t ris k becau se t h e p ro ble m s w ith t h e t ir e s c an c re ate a d ditio nal a ccid en ts .

Both re se arc h ers a n d p ra ctitio ners id en tif y sp ecif ic in sta n ces w hen th is c o m poundin g h as o ccu rre d .

They h av e a rg ued th at a u die n ces, in f a ct, m ay r e m em ber le ss a b out th e a ctu al c ris is in cid en ts a n d m ore ab out h ow a n o rg an iz atio n re sp onded to th e in cid en t. In th e c ase m ost fre q uen tly c ite d a s a p ositiv e ex am ple , J o hnso n & J o hnso n is re calle d m ore f o r h ow it c o m munic ate d in th e T yle n ol tr a g ed y th an f o r what actu ally occu rre d durin g th e cris is . Jo hnso n & Jo hnso n did hav e so m e ad van ta g es th at oth er co m pan ie s in c ris is d o n ot h av e. T hey w ere , in fa ct, n ot a t a ll re sp onsib le fo r th e tr a g ed y s o th at th eir im ag e re sto ra tio n effo rts did not hav e to ad dre ss perc ep tio ns of ir re sp onsib ility . N ev erth ele ss, th e co m munic atio n b eh av io r d urin g t h at c ris is i s w hat p eo ple r e m em ber, n ot t h e d eta ils o f w hat o ccu rre d . I n what i s o fte n i d en tif ie d a s a p oor a p pro ach t o c ris is c o m munic atio n, P re sid en t R ic h ard N ix on’s W ate rg ate sc an dal is re calle d m ore fo r h ow th e p re sid en t a n d h is a sso cia te s c o m munic ate d d urin g it th an fo r th e actu al b urg la ry . W ate rg ate i s s o n am ed b ecau se t h e b re ak -in t o ok p la ce a t t h e W ate rg ate a p artm en t/o ffic e co m ple x i n W ash in gto n D .C . B ut w hat W ate rg ate h as c o m e t o m ean i s t h e e n tir e ty o f e x ecu tiv e b eh av io rs carrie d o ut in a n a tte m pt to re d uce th e d am ag e p erta in in g to th e c ris is . In th is c ase , n early a ll o f th ese beh av io rs w ere co unte rp ro ductiv e to th e re aliz atio n of th e oste n sib le goal: th e ex onera tio n of th e pre sid en t. T ow ard th e e n d o f th e W ate rg ate c ris is , th e U nite d S ta te s H ouse o f R ep re se n ta tiv es J u dic ia ry Com mitte e v ote d to re co m men d to th e la rg er b ody th at th e p re sid en t b e im peach ed . T w o o f th e th re e artic le s o f im peach m en t re la te n ot p rim arily to th e b urg la ry , b ut to th e in appro pria te c o m munic a tio n beh avio r a fte r t h e b urg la ry .

7 Sin ce in effe ctiv e cris is co m munic atio n can ex acerb ate cris e s, an d sin ce th ese in effe ctiv e co m munic atio n e ffo rts m ay b e b ase d o n m is c o ncep tio ns, i t i s i m porta n t t o u nders ta n d f u lly n ot o nly w hat cris is c o m munic atio n is b ut a ls o w hat it is n ot. C onsid er th e f o llo w in g f iv e c o m mon m yth s a b out c ris is co m munic atio n.

M YTH 1 — C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATIO N I S S O LELY A R EA CTIV E A CTIV IT Y Cris is c o m munic atio n d oes, o f c o urs e , i n volv e r e sp ondin g t o c ris e s. H ow ev er, a s w e m en tio ned b rie fly i n Chap te r 1 , th e su ccessfu l c ris is c o m munic ato r c an p re p are fo r, a n d in so m e in sta n ces p re em pt, c ris e s becau se o f p ro activ e p la n nin g.

It m ak es s e n se th at o ne’s in itia l r e actio n to th in kin g a b out c ris is c o m munic atio n w ould b e to c o nsid er it a s a r e activ e e n te rp ris e . A c o m pan y h as a c ris is . W hat d oes i t d o t o r e sp ond? W hile t h is c o ncep tio n c an se em c o rre ct o r m ere ly b en ig nly s h orts ig hte d , i t i s n eith er. I t i s a ctu ally a n i n sid io us m is c o ncep tio n.

It is in sid io us b ecau se a re activ e c o ncep tu aliz atio n p re clu des ta k in g p re p ara to ry s te p s th at e n ab le a n org an iz atio n to c o m munic ate e ffe ctiv ely d urin g c ris is . F or e x am ple , r e la tio nsh ip s w ith s ta k eh old ers a re key fa cto rs in dete rm in in g th e su ccess of cris is co m munic atio n effo rts . Assu m in g th at cris is co m munic atio n is a re activ e en te rp ris e m ay m ean th at positiv e re la tio nsh ip s th at co uld hav e been dev elo ped b efo re an y cris is h av e n ot b een esta b lis h ed u ntil th ere is a cris is . It m ay ev en m ean th e co m pan y has dis re g ard ed so m e au die n ces an d th is dis re g ard has cre ate d neg ativ e re la tio nsh ip s.

Conse q uen tly a u die n ces th at m ay h av e b een in clin ed to b e s u pportiv e o r ju st r e cep tiv e d urin g a tim e o f cris is m ay b e n eith er. T hese a u die n ces m ig ht b e le ss in clin ed to b elie v e o rg an iz atio nal m essa g es th an th ey w ould h av e b een h ad cris is co m munic ato rs co nceiv ed o f cris is co m munic atio n as m ore th an a re activ e a ctiv ity .

On p ag e 1 5 y ou w ill s e e a n i n te rv ie w c o nducte d w ith E d K lo tz b ie r, w ho s e rv ed f o r y ears a s D ir e cto r o f Univ ers ity C om munic atio ns f o r N orth easte rn U niv ers ity . N ow Klo tz b ie r is th e v ic e p re sid en t f o r s tu den t affa ir s a t th e s c h ool. B efo re a ssu m in g h is u niv ers ity p osts , K lo tz b ie r c o m ple te d a la w d eg re e a n d a ls o work ed f o r G overn or M ic h ael D ukak is ’s 1 988 p re sid en tia l c am paig n. Y ou w ill n ote th at in th e in te rv ie w Klo tz b ie r r e p eate d ly m ak es t h e f o llo w in g c la im a b out c ris is c o m munic atio n a ctiv ity .

You f ix y our r o of o n a s u nny d ay.

Sim ila rly , N orm an A ugustin e, fo rm er L ock heed M artin ch air m an an d C EO , m ad e th e fo llo w in g co m men t: “ W hen p la n nin g f o r a c ris is , i t i s i n str u ctiv e t o r e call t h at N oah s ta rte d b uild in g t h e a rk b efo re it s ta rte d to r a in .” 8 C onceiv in g o f c ris is c o m munic atio n a s s o le ly a r e activ e a ctiv ity p re clu des p ro activ e pla n nin g.

M YTH 2 — C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATIO N I S S Y NONYM OUS W IT H M ED IA R ELATIO NS . T HE P R IM ARY ACTIV IT Y O F C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATO RS I N VOLV ES D EA LIN G W IT H T H E M ED IA What i s c o lle ctiv ely r e fe rre d t o a s “ th e m ed ia ”— te le v is io n a n d r a d io , n ew sp ap ers , m ag azin es, a n d i n t h e tw en ty -fir s t c en tu ry th e In te rn et— are v ery im porta n t p la y ers in c ris is c o m munic atio n. T he m ed ia a re im porta n t to c ris is c o m munic ato rs b ecau se th e m ed ia c an q uic k ly d is se m in ate in flu en tia l m essa g es to mass a u die n ces a n d a ls o b ecau se e x perie n ced c ris is c o m munic ato rs c an e n gag e th e m ed ia to a ctu ally assis t w ith t h e c ris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rt. T his w as e v id en ced i n a c ase t h at i n volv ed t h e s m all t o w n o f Ja sp er, T ex as. I n b rie f, th e to w n w as c o nfro nte d w ith a s e v ere im ag e p ro ble m b ecau se o f th e e g re g io us beh av io r o f s o m e o f its c itiz en s. T he to w n e m plo yed th e lo cal n ew sp ap er, th e Ja sp er N ew sb oy , a s a n a id in t h eir c ris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rt.

9 How ev er, t h e m ed ia a re n ot t h e o nly i m porta n t a u die n ce o r p la y er i n c ris is c o m munic atio n. T he m ed ia may n ot e v en b e t h e p rim ary a u die n ce i n a c ris is s itu atio n. T his i s o fte n m is u nders to od b y o rg an iz atio ns an d is r e fle cte d in c o m mon c ris is c o m munic atio n b eh av io r. P au ch an t a n d M itr o ff w rite c ritic ally , “ [th e] prio rity [o fte n ] is to g et g ood p re ss fro m a b ad s itu atio n ra th er th an re d uce th e im pact o f th e c ris is o n sta k eh old ers an d on th e en vir o nm en t.” 10 T he aw are n ess of sta k eh old ers oth er th an th e m ed ia w as so m eth in g A aro n F eu ers te in r e co gniz ed d urin g th e c h alle n ges s u rro undin g th e M aid en M ills c ase th at is desc rib ed o n p ag es 8 7–88. H e r e aliz ed a n d d em onstr a te d — wheth er b y s tr a te g y o r s im ply b ecau se o f h is ch ara cte r— th at th e lo cal co m munity an d th e w ork ers w ere th e p rim ary sta k eh old ers an d th e m ed ia re p re se n ta tiv es w ere s e co ndary s ta k eh old ers .

11 There a re a t le ast tw o re aso ns n ot to c o nsid er c ris is c o m munic atio n to b e sy nonym ous w ith m ed ia re la tio ns. T he f ir s t i s t h at c o nsid erin g t h e t w o a s s y nonym ous m ean s, i n ev ita b ly , t h at a n o rg an iz atio n w ill be ig norin g o th er k ey au die n ces w hen co nsid erin g th eir co m munic atio n effo rts . W hen V ir g in ia T ech fa ced i ts c ris is b ecau se o f t h e t r a g ic s h ootin gs o n i ts c am pus, i t d id i n deed h av e t o c o m munic ate w ith t h e med ia . H ow ev er, i t h ad o th er v ery i m porta n t a u die n ces. P are n ts o f s tu den ts , f rie n ds o f t h e v ic tim s, f a cu lty on c am pus, d orm ito ry d ir e cto rs , th e c o unse lin g c en te r a t th e s c h ool— all o f th ese a u die n ces w ere c ru cia l an d c are h ad t o b e t a k en t o e n su re t h at s e n sitiv e m essa g es w ere r e la y ed t o t h em . C onsid erin g t h e a u die n ce to b e t h e m ed ia w ould i n ev ita b ly r e le g ate t h ese o th er i m porta n t s ta k eh old ers t o m in or s ta tu s.

A s e co nd r e aso n to s e e m ed ia r e la tio ns a n d c ris is c o m munic atio n a s d is tin ct is th at if a n o rg an iz atio n defin es c ris is c o m munic atio n a n d m ed ia r e la tio ns s y nonym ously , i t m ig ht a ssu m e t h at it d oes n ot h ave a cris is u nle ss th e m ed ia b eco m e in vo lv ed .

T he r e su lts o f s u ch a p aro ch ia l c o ncep tio n c an b e c ata str o phic an d a re ir o nic . In cid en ts th at b ecam e m ed ia e v en ts m ig ht n ev er h av e b eco m e s u ch if th e o rg an iz atio n assu m ed it h ad a c ris is o n its h an ds re g ard le ss o f w heth er th e m ed ia w ere y et in volv ed . T he C ath olic Churc h h ad c ris e s w hen t h ey b ecam e a w are t h at c le rg y w ere a ctin g i n ap pro pria te ly . B y a ssu m in g t h ey d id not hav e a cris is until th e cris is becam e gris t fo r m ed ia ex posu re , th e C hurc h w as co m plic it in mag nif y in g i ts c ris is s itu atio ns.

A p ositiv e e x am ple o f a ck now le d gin g th e im porta n ce o f a u die n ces o th er th an th e m ed ia o ccu rre d ju st mom en ts b efo re I b eg an w ritin g t h is s e ctio n o f t h e b ook. I r e ceiv ed a n e -le tte r f ro m a u niv ers ity o ffic ia l in fo rm in g m e th at s tu den ts w ho h ad b een s tu dyin g a t a n oth er in stitu tio n a s p art o f a n e x ch an ge p ro gra m had b een h azed b y m em bers o f t h at c o opera tin g i n stitu tio n. I a m n ot, a t l e ast a s i t r e la te s t o t h is m atte r, a mem ber o f th e m ed ia , b ut a s a p ro fe sso r I a m a n im porta n t a u die n ce. M y u niv ers ity w as w is e to k now th at b efo re I h eard a n yth in g th ro ugh a f a st m ovin g in fo rm al n etw ork , o r b efo re a n y m ed ia o utle t s h ould publis h i n fo rm atio n a b out t h e e v en t, I s h ould b e a w are o f w hat t r a n sp ir e d , w hat a ctio ns t h e u niv ers ity h ad ta k en , a n d w hat s te p s th e u niv ers ity p la n ned to ta k e to e n su re th at s u ch a n e v en t d oes n ot r e cu r. I n th e day s fo llo w in g th e e-m ail, th e ev en t, in fa ct, gain ed lim ite d m ed ia ex posu re . N ev erth ele ss, m y org an iz atio n rig htf u lly a ck now le d ged th e im porta n ce o f c o m munic atin g to its fa cu lty a n d sta ff a s a n ex am ple o f e ffic ie n t c ris is c o m munic atio n.

M YTH 3 — C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATIO N I S A BO UT S PIN C O NTR O L . T HE J O B O F T H E C RIS IS CO M MUNIC ATO RS I S T O S PIN A N EG ATIV E S IT U ATIO N S O I T A PPE A RS T O B E A P O SIT IV E O NE My in te n tio n w as to title th is b ook, Spin nin g J u st M akes Y o u D iz zy : C ris is C om munic a tio n T heo ry a nd Pra ctic es.

In th e fin al a n aly sis w e d ecid ed to a b rid ge th e title a n d le av e o ut th e fir s t se v era l w ord s.

How ev er, t h e o rig in al i d ea f o r t h e t itle r e fle cts t h e c o rre ct p erc ep tio n o f w hat c ris is c o m munic atio n i s a n d is n ot. T he jo b o f th e c ris is c o m munic ato r is n ot to s p in a n d it is c o unte rp ro ductiv e to th in k o f c ris is co m munic atio n i n t h is w ay.

Spin nin g i s a t e rm t h at h as b eco m e a m eta p hor f o r t a k in g a r e ality a n d c h an gin g i t— sp in nin g i t s o t h at it w ill b e s e en f ro m a d if fe re n t v an ta g e p oin t. S pin nin g t h e e v en t m ay m ak e i t s e em t o b e s o m eth in g o th er th an w hat i t i s . T ak e a n eg ativ e e v en t a n d s p in i t a d if fe re n t w ay a n d i t m ay b eco m e a p ositiv e o ne— or s o cla im th e a d vocate s o f s p in nin g. T he e v en t is n o lo nger w hat it w as, b ut a m ore p ala ta b le a n d a ttr a ctiv e varia tio n.

If a s e n ato r i s a ccu se d o f t a k in g e x pen siv e j u nkets t o o th er c o untr ie s o n t a x pay er m oney, a s p in d octo r may a tte m pt t o p ortr a y t h e t r ip a s a f a ct- fin din g m is sio n i n te n ded t o d is c o ver w heth er e n erg y p la nnin g i n th ese o th er c o untr ie s c a n b e u se d to m odel a lte rn ativ e b eh avio rs in th is c o untr y, c o nse q uen tly s a vin g hard -w ork in g t a xp ayers’ m oney a t t h e f u el p um p.

The co lla p se o f a m utu al fu nd’s v alu e b ecau se o f fo olis h d ecis io ns b y a fu nd m an ag er is n ot a re fle ctio n o f i n co m pete n ce a t b est a n d c o rru ptio n a t w ors t w hen i t is s p un, but s u ggestiv e o f a n a ggre ssiv e appro ach to in vestin g th at h as, o ver th e lo ng ru n, re su lte d in g re a t p ro fits fo r a ll cu sto m ers o f th e fin ancia l i n stitu tio n.

It i s a m yth t o t h in k o f c ris is c o m munic atio n a n d c o m munic ato rs a s t h ose r e sp onsib le f o r s p in nin g. A s do th e o th er m yth s in th is s e ctio n, th is m is c o ncep tio n c an h av e h arm fu l e ffe cts e v en if th ese e ffe cts a re not in itia lly id en tif ie d . A c are fu l re ad in g o f th e s c h ola rly re se arc h c o nducte d o n c ris is c o m munic atio n ad vis e s p ra ctitio ners to a v oid s p in nin g. In a d ditio n, a c are fu l re ad in g o f b ooks a n d a rtic le s w ritte n b y pra ctitio ners s u ggests t h at s p in nin g i s h arm fu l t o a n o rg an iz atio n a n d t o t h e c ris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rt.

The a lm ost u niv ers a l c o nclu sio n b y a ll— pra ctitio ners a n d a cad em ic s a lik e— w ho h av e s tu die d c ase s in cris is c o m munic atio n is th at sp in nin g, in fa ct, d oes m ak e a n o rg an iz atio n d iz zy b ecau se in th e fin al an aly sis it dis o rie n ts th e org an iz atio n, m ak in g it dif fic u lt to se e cle arly th e cris is an d th e ro le of co m munic atio n d urin g i t. W e a d dre ss t h is i n g re ate r d eta il i n Chap te r 6 , w here w e d is c u ss a p hen om en on th at s o cio lo gis t D ia n e V au ghan h as c alle d t h e “ n orm aliz atio n o f d ev ia n ce.” It i s t h e k nee-je rk , u ned ucate d , o r f rig hte n ed m an ag ers w ho s it i n a w ar r o om a n d t r y t o p ut a p ositiv e sp in o n a n eg ativ e s itu atio n. A nd th ere a re m an y s u ch m an ag ers . W ilc o x, A ult, a n d A gee c o m men t th at org an iz atio ns h av e a te n den cy to “ d en y th at a c ris is e x is ts , r e fu se to a n sw er m ed ia q uestio ns, a n d r e sis t in volv em en t b y a p pro pria te g overn m en t a g en cie s.… [C om pan ie s re le ase ] p artia l, o fte n in accu ra te a n d dela y ed in fo rm atio n w hile c o ncealin g u nfa v ora b le f a cts .” 12 W illia m s a n d T re ad w ay w rite “ H onesty a n d open ness a b out t h e c ris is a lo ng w ith e v id en ce o f s in cere a tte m pts b y t h e o rg an iz atio n t o r e so lv e i t a re t h e key s t o e sta b lis h in g o r e n han cin g c re d ib ility w ith t h e p re ss a n d p ublic .” 13 There a re a t le ast tw o re aso ns w hy s p in nin g is in ap pro pria te . T he fir s t is th at s p in nin g is in here n tly uneth ic al. I t is a n a tte m pt to c o nfu se a n a u die n ce b y d is to rtin g r e ality . I h av e to d ate , n ev er m et a n yone who en jo ys b ein g d eceiv ed . I h av e n ev er h eard so m eo ne su ggest th at o nce d uped th ey ad m ir e d th e su bte rfu ge a n d th e d is se m ble r’s p ro w ess. It is w ro ng to s p in , s im ply b ecau se w e o urs e lv es d o n ot lik e bein g s p un.

The s e co nd r e aso n i s t h at, f ro m a p ra g m atic p ers p ectiv e, s p in nin g a ctu ally m ak es c ris is c o m munic atio n effo rts m ore d if fic u lt. T ru th ty pic ally d oes s u rfa ce a n d w hen tr u th is ju xta p ose d w ith s p un re ality , th e co m munic ato rs w ho a tte m pte d t o p re se n t t h e d is to rte d v ie w l o se c re d ib ility . A s w e w ill s e e, a n i m porta n t crite rio n f o r c ris is c o m munic atio n s u ccess is o rg an iz atio nal r e p uta tio n. R ep uta tio n is ty pic ally e n han ced by c an dor a n d d am ag ed b y d uplic ity . R ep uta tio n i s s u llie d b y t h e r e aliz atio n t h at d elib era te d ecep tio n w as pra ctic ed . In c o nte m pora ry s o cie ty w ith its b ro ad a ccess to th e In te rn et, c itiz en s a re n o lo nger p assiv e re ceiv ers ( to w hate v er e x te n t t h ey h ad b een o nly p assiv e r e ceiv ers ) o f i n fo rm atio n. C itiz en s c o ntr ib ute t o th e d is se m in atio n o f i n fo rm atio n b y b lo gs, p ostin gs o n W eb s ite s, a n d o th er m eth ods. W ith in m in ute s o f a politic ia n ’s s p eech , c o nsu m ers a re o ffe rin g t h eir c ritic is m s a n d q uestio nin g t h e h onesty o f t h e m essa g e.

Spin nin g m ak es y ou d iz zy. It is u neth ic al, a n d, ju st a s sig nif ic an tly , m ak es th e w ork o f th e c ris is co m munic ato r m uch m ore d if fic u lt in th e lo ng ru n. A g ood e x am ple o f a n o rg an iz atio n th at h as b een tr o uble d b y re p uta tio n a n d sp in nin g is N ASA . N ASA h as su ffe re d fo ur m ajo r c ris e s w ith th e A pollo , Hubble S pace T ele sc o pe, C halle n ger, an d C olu m bia d is a ste rs . In all o f th ese in sta n ces, N ASA m ad e sp in nin g-re la te d m is ta k es th at m ad e effo rts in su bse q uen t cris e s m ore d if fic u lt. In p artic u la r in th e Hubble c ase , t h e s p in nin g o f m essa g es c re ate d t h e c ris is i ts e lf .

There i s n o d oubt t h at s o m e c ris is c o m munic ato rs s p in . I t i s a m yth t o t h in k t h at s p in nin g i s w hat t h ese cris is c o m munic ato rs s h ould b e d oin g.

M YTH 4 — C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATIO N I N VOLV ES C O M MUNIC ATIN G O NLY T O E X TER N AL A UDIE N CES Even th ose w ho ack now le d ge th at m ed ia m em bers are n ot th e p rim ary au die n ce fo r co m munic atio n so m etim es assu m e th at cris is co m munic atio n is ab out public re la tio ns, th at is , ab out dealin g w ith ex te rn al p ublic s. W hile a n a ir lin e tr a g ed y r e q uir e s c o m munic atin g w ith v ic tim s’ f a m ilie s, o th er c arrie rs , air tr a ffic c o ntr o l o ffic ers , a n d tr a v el a g en cie s, it r e q uir e s c o m munic atin g to in te rn al a u die n ces a s w ell.

Pilo ts a n d te ch nic ia n s m ust b e m ad e a w are o f a n y n ew sa fe ty p olic ie s. S ta ff m ust b eco m e a w are o f co m pen sa tio n fo r fa m ilie s w ho h av e lo st lo ved o nes in th e tr a g ed y. In te rn al p ublic s n eed to b e m ad e • • •aw are o f ex te rn al co m munic atio n effo rts . In th e A m eric a W est case d esc rib ed b rie fly in Chap te r 1 , messa g es h ad to b e s e n t im med ia te ly to o th er p ilo ts th at (a ) d esc rib ed th e e v en t, (b ) id en tif ie d a z ero - to le ra n ce p olic y fo r s u ch b eh av io rs , (c ) e x pla in ed th e p unitiv e a ctio ns ta k en a g ain st th e p ilo ts , a n d (d ) artic u la te d new polic ie s in te n ded to en su re th at no oth er offe n ders w ork fo r th e air lin e. S im ila rly , sa le sp eo ple , flig ht atte n dan ts , an d se cu rity p ers o nnel w ho w ork ed fo r th e air lin e, an d o th er in te rn al sta k eh old ers n eed ed t o b e c o nta cte d .

While s o m e p eo ple w ho d eal w ith p ublic r e la tio ns a re a w are th at in te rn al p ublic s a re im porta n t, a n d while s o m e e x te rn al p ublic s a re c ru cia l t o e ffe ctiv e c ris is c o m munic atio n, i t i s e sse n tia l t o r e m em ber t h at cris is c o m munic atio n a d dre sse s i n te rn al a s w ell a s e x te rn al a u die n ces a n d t h at c ris is c o m munic ato rs m ust deal w ith in te rn al as w ell as ex te rn al public s. R ead ers w ill note th at se v era l pra ctitio ners in th e pra ctitio ner-p ers p ectiv e f e atu re o f t h e t e x t r e fe r t o t h e i m porta n ce o f a ck now le d gin g i n te rn al a u die n ces.

M YTH 5 — C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATIO N I S A L IN EA R A CTIV IT Y A c o m mon m is c o ncep tio n in a ll m atte rs re la te d to c o m munic atio n is th at c o m munic atio n is a lin ear activ ity . T hat is , th ere is a n a ssu m ptio n th at c o m munic atio n g oes o ne w ay — fro m se n der to re ceiv er.

Com munic atio n is a nonlin ear activ ity . R eceiv ers of in fo rm atio n m ore ofte n th an not re sp ond to messa g es th at a re s e n t to th em . T he p ro cess o f c o m munic atin g d oes n ot e n d o nce a m essa g e h as b een gen era te d .

The ed ito r of th e Jo urn al of E m plo yee C om munic a tio n once co m men te d th at th e defin itio n of co m munic atio n i s “ to g et i n y our h ead , w hat i s i n m y h ead .” W hile t h is m ay b e a g oal o f c o m munic atio n, an d o fte n th e g oal o f c ris is c o m munic ato rs , it is im porta n t to u nders ta n d th at re aliz in g th e g oal is n ot so le ly a f u nctio n o f g en era tin g a m essa g e. W hat s e ttle s a s a m essa g e r e ceiv ed i s a f u nctio n o f a n onlin ear pro cess o f r e actio n to th e o rig in al m essa g e a n d o ngoin g in te ra ctio n. A ll c o m munic ato rs — not ju st c ris is co m munic ato rs — are m is ta k en if th ey belie v e th at by vir tu e of se n din g a m essa g e, th e pro cess of co m munic atin g h as e n ded .

For ex am ple , p ra ctitio ners an d re se arc h ers co unse l sp okesp ers o ns n ot to sa y “n o co m men t” w hen co nfro nte d w ith q uestio ns a b out a c ris is . I t i s b ey ond s h orts ig hte d , a n d b ord ers o n t h e s tu pid ly f o olis h , t o assu m e th at b ecau se y ou s a y, “ N o c o m men t” a r e ceiv er w ill s im ply a b so rb th is m essa g e. P eo ple d o n ot ta k e i n m essa g es l ik e a b ulle t t o t h e c h est. R eceiv ers w ill n ot h ear, “ W e h av e n o c o m men t o n t h is m atte r” as “ T hey h av e n o c o m men t o n th is m atte r.” R eceiv ers w ill r e sp ond w ith a h ost o f s p ecu la tio ns, s u ch a s “P erh ap s th ey h av e s o m eth in g to h id e” o r “ T hey d o n ot h av e th eir a ct to geth er.” T here w ill lik ely b e fo llo w -u p q uestio ns i f n ot t o a p artic u la r s p okesp ers o n t h en t o o th ers w ho m ay b e p erc eiv ed b y r e ceiv ers as t h ose i n t h e k now .

Am eric a W est c o uld n ot a ssu m e th at b y s e n din g o ut a m essa g e to its r e g ula r c u sto m ers a ssu rin g th em th at th e p ilo ts h ad b een f ir e d , it h ad c o m fo rte d its p asse n gers a b out th eir s a fe ty . K obe B ry an t c o uld n ot decla re th at th e r e la tio nsh ip h e h ad in C olo ra d o w as c o nse n su al a n d c o nsid er th at th e m essa g e w ould b e co nsu m ed a s d esir e d . H ow ard D ean c o uld n ot a sse rt th at h is w ild re actio n to d efe at in Io w a w as a n ab erra tio n a n d th at h e w as r e ally a c alm in div id ual c ap ab le o f le ad in g th e n atio n. C om munic atio n is n ot lin ear. T here i s a b ack a n d f o rth t h at a ffe cts w hat i s i n te rn aliz ed b y s ta k eh old ers .

Apply t h e P rin cip le s Rev ie w t h e P ean ut C orp ora tio n o f A m eric a c ase t h at b eg in s t h is c h ap te r.

Whic h o f t h e f iv e m yth s j u st d is c u sse d c o uld d o t h e m ost d am ag e t o P C A i f i t a ssu m ed t h is myth t o b e a t r u th ? E xpla in .

Would a n y o f t h e o th er m yth s i n t h is s e ctio n d o s ig nif ic an t d am ag e i f t h ey w ere h eld b y t h e co m pan y t o b e t r u th s?

K EY C RIS IS C OM MUNIC ATIO N T ER M S In a d ditio n to d efin in g c ris is a n d c ris is c o m munic atio n, it is n ecessa ry a t th is p oin t to d efin e c erta in te rm s t h at r e g ula rly s u rfa ce w hen d is c u ssin g c ris is c o m munic atio n. A s i s t h e c ase i n m an y f ie ld s, j a rg on is u se d in th is a re a o f s tu dy. S om e o f th e te rm s id en tif ie d a n d d esc rib ed in th e p ag es th at f o llo w w ill b e more fa m ilia r to sc h ola rs th an pra ctitio ners , an d so m e m ay be m ore fa m ilia r to pra ctitio ners th an sc h ola rs . B ut a ll o f t h e t e rm s a re r e le v an t t o o th er s e ctio ns o f t h is b ook. T hese t e rm s a re a ls o i m porta n t t o know i f y ou p la n t o r e ad r e se arc h s tu die s i n c ris is c o m munic atio n o r i n te n d t o p urs u e a c are er i n t h is a re a.

S TA KEH OLD ER S In th e la n guag e o f c ris is c o m munic atio n, th e w ord “ sta k eh old er” re fe rs to th e a u die n ces w ho re ceiv e messa g es p erta in in g to c ris e s. T he w ord “ sta k eh old er” is u se d in ste ad o f “ au die n ce” to b e m ore p re cis e ab out th e ch ara cte ris tic s an d n atu re o f th e re ceiv ers . E ith er sta k eh old ers h av e a sta k e in th e is su es germ an e t o t h e c ris is o r t h e o rg an iz atio n w an ts t h ese r e ceiv ers t o h av e a s ta k e i n t h e o rg an iz atio n a n d t h e cris is . In te rn al sta k eh old ers are p eo ple w ith in th e fo cal sy ste m . In o th er w ord s, th ey are in sid e th e org an iz atio n th e c o nsu lta n t o r re se arc h er is e x am in in g. E xte rn al s ta k eh old ers a re p eo ple o uts id e o f th e fo cal s y ste m .

In th e K obe B ry an t c ase , in te rn al sta k eh old ers w ould in clu de m em bers o f th e L os A ngele s L ak ers bask etb all te am . E xte rn al sta k eh old ers w ould in clu de L ak ers ’ se aso n tic k eth old ers . If a fir e d am ag ed pro perty a n d a ffe cte d th e h ealth o f stu den ts in a d orm ito ry , th en in te rn al sta k eh old ers w ould in clu de stu den ts in th e d orm ito ry , th e h ead o f r e sid en tia l lif e , c am pus s e cu rity , a n d th e in fir m ary s ta ff. E xte rn al sta k eh old ers w ould in clu de lo cal fir e o ffic ia ls , re p re se n ta tiv es fro m th e b oard o f h ealth , p are n ts o f stu den ts in th e dorm ito rie s, pro sp ectiv e stu den ts at th e univ ers ity , an d co ntr a cto rs w ho in sta ll fir e pre v en tio n e q uip m en t.

S TA KEH OLD ER T H EO RY Sta k eh old er th eo ry re fe rs to th e a ssu m ptio n th at d urin g c ris e s th ere a re m ultip le s ta k eh old ers a n d e ach dis c re te gro up lik ely need s to re ceiv e dif fe re n t m essa g es. In his artic le , “C orp ora te Public s an d Rheto ric al S tr a te g y,” a d dre ssin g th e U nio n C arb id e B hopal tr a g ed y, I c e m ak es th is p oin t e x plic itly .

14 A messa g e i n te n ded f o r t h e B hopal r e ceiv ers w as i n ap pro pria te f o r U nio n C arb id e e m plo yees l o cate d i n t h e Unite d S ta te s. T he c o m pan y d id n ot a ck now le d ge th e m ultip le s ta k eh old ers th at w ould b e c o nsu m in g its messa g es. Ic e’s co nte n tio n is hard ly an is o la te d one. A 2007 artic le in th e Jo urn al of Applie d Com munic a tio n Rese a rc h , fo r ex am ple , dis c u sse s m arg in aliz ed public s w ho w ere ex clu ded fro m co nsid era tio n in th e e v en ts s u rro undin g H urric an e K atr in a.

15 W hen id en tif y in g s ta k eh old ers a ll in te rn al an d e x te rn al a u die n ces n eed t o b e c o nsid ere d a n d t h e a p pro pria te m essa g es f o r t h ese a u die n ces n eed t o b e cre ate d a n d d is se m in ate d .

Team mate s o f K obe B ry an t sh ould re ceiv e a m essa g e d if fe re n t fro m th at c o m munic ate d to se aso n tic k eth old ers o f th e L ak ers . T he id ea o f b la stin g a n e -m ail to a ll a ffe cte d in div id uals m ay b e c le arly in ap pro pria te to re ad ers s tu dyin g th is s u bje ct, b ut it is n ot a n u nco m mon p ra ctic e in c ris is s itu atio ns.

Sta k eh old er t h eo ry s u ggests t o c ris is c o m munic ato rs t h at a p re lim in ary s te p i n r e sp ondin g t o c ris e s i s t h e id en tif ic atio n o f a ll s ta k eh old ers a n d th en s e p ara tin g th ese p opula tio ns in to d is tin ct g ro ups th at n eed to re ceiv e d is c re te m essa g es.

Thus, in th e case o f a d orm ito ry fir e , a cris is co m munic atio n te am w ould b e u nw is e to id en tif y “stu den ts ” a s a g ro up o f sta k eh old ers . T he te am m ust id en tif y d is tin ct g ro ups o f stu den ts w ho a re to re ceiv e d is c re te m essa g es. T hose w ho l iv e i n t h e a ffe cte d d orm ito ry w ould g et o ne s e t o f m essa g es; t h ose who liv e in o th er d orm ito rie s a n oth er; s tu den ts w ho liv e o ff c am pus m ig ht re ceiv e a th ir d . W hile th e messa g es w ould lik ely c o nta in so m e sim ila r c o nte n t, th e m essa g es to e ach g ro up w ould b e d is tin ct, re fle ctin g t h e b asis o f s ta k eh old er t h eo ry : t h ere a re v ario us i n te rn al a n d e x te rn al p ublic s.

L EG IT IM ACY “L eg itim acy ” is a te rm use d ofte n in th e cris is co m munic atio n lite ra tu re . It re fe rs to sta k eh old er perc ep tio n o f a n o rg an iz atio n’s b eh av io r. “ T hre ats to o rg an iz atio nal le g itim acy o ccu r w hen p erc eiv ed re sp onsib ility a n d re sp onse a re n ot c o ngru en t.” 16 In o th er w ord s, w hen a n o rg an iz atio n is p erc eiv ed a s actin g a p pro pria te ly it is s e en a s le g itim ate ; w hen it is p erc eiv ed a s b eh av in g in ap pro pria te ly it lo se s le g itim acy.

If, fo r e x am ple , a n o rg an iz atio n is h onest in d ealin g w ith s ta k eh old ers ; c o m plie s w ith th e la w ; ta k es sa fe ty p re cau tio ns; p ric es fa ir ly ; a n d tr e ats its e m plo yees w ell, it is lik ely to m ain ta in a p erc ep tio n o f le g itim acy a m ong s ta k eh old ers . I f a n o rg an iz atio n o pera te s b ait- a n d-s w itc h o pera tio ns, p ro duces p ro ducts th at a re h ealth h azard s, a n d/o r a d vertis e s d ecep tiv ely , i t i s l ik ely t o l o se l e g itim acy. A n o rg an iz atio n d oes not h av e le g itim acy a s m uch a s le g itim acy is a ttr ib ute d to th em . S eeg er, S elln ow , a n d U lm er c o m men t, “h av in g a n oble p urp ose … is n o g uara n te e th at an o rg an iz atio n w ill b e p erc eiv ed as le g itim ate .” 17 Leg itim acy i s a n a ttr ib utio n, a f u nctio n o f p erc ep tio n.

18 Durin g cris e s fo r re aso ns re la te d to th e cris is its e lf or to co m munic atio ns ab out th e cris is , an org an iz atio n e ith er g ain s o r l o se s l e g itim acy. I f a c o m pan y i s n ot p re p are d f o r a p ow er o uta g e, r u ns o ut o f pro duct, s e rv es u nco oked m eat, h ir e s a n d h arb ors a s e x ual p re d ato r, th en p erc ep tio ns o f le g itim acy w ill ero de. T he o bje ctiv es o f c ris is c o m munic atio n a re t o r e sto re l e g itim acy w hen n ecessa ry a n d t o e n su re t h at a c o m pan y d oes n ot lo se le g itim acy in th ose in sta n ces w hen s ta k eh old ers a re te m pora rily w ith hold in g ju dgm en t.

In th e A m eric a W est case , sta k eh old ers m ig ht hav e w ondere d w heth er A m eric a W est had been vic tim iz ed b y i ts p ilo ts . H ow ev er, A m eric a W est l o st l e g itim acy t h e i n sta n t i t w as r e v eale d t h at o ne o f t h e pilo ts h ad a d ocu m en te d h is to ry o f a lc o hol a b use . P asse n gers c o uld re aso nab ly a ssu m e th at a n a ir lin e would b e e x tr a o rd in arily c are fu l n ot to h ir e p ilo ts w ho h ad s u bsta n ce a b use p ro ble m s. S in ce a p pare n tly Am eric a W est w as n ot s o c are fu l, t h ey l o st l e g itim acy i n t h e p arla n ce o f c ris is c o m munic atio n. I n a 2 004 artic le p ublis h ed in th e Jo urn al o f B usin ess C om munic a tio n , D ean c le arly a n d c o ncis e ly e x pla in s th e re sp onsib ility o f c ris is c o m munic ato rs in te rm s o f o rg an iz atio nal le g itim acy. “ T o c o unte r a n y lo ss o f le g itim acy, th e o rg an iz atio n m ust r e esta b lis h c o ngru en cy b etw een th e v alu es im plie d b y its a ctio ns a n d accep te d s o cia l n orm s.” 19 I MAGE R EST O RATIO N T H EO RY Im ag e r e sto ra tio n t h eo ry p osits t h at w hen a n o rg an iz atio n l o se s l e g itim acy i t c an r e sto re i ts i m ag e b y t h e use o f s y m bols . I n o th er w ord s, w hen o ne lo se s le g itim acy, s ta k eh old er p erc ep tio ns c an b e im pro ved o r re sto re d b y u sin g la n guag e to c o m munic ate m essa g es to a u die n ces. Im ag e re sto ra tio n th eo ry id en tif ie s se v era l d if fe re n t ty pes o f m essa g es th at c an b e e m plo yed to w ard th is e n d. T hese a p pro ach es in clu de den ia l, ap olo gy, atta ck , tr a n sc en den ce, bols te rin g, in tim id atio n, co rre ctiv e actio n, co m pen sa tio n, in gra tia tio n, m in im iz atio n, d is p la cem en t, m ortif ic atio n, c o m passio n, s u ffe rin g, a n d d if fe re n tia tio n. E ach of t h ese i m ag e r e sto ra tio n s tr a te g ie s i s d is c u sse d a n d e x pla in ed i n Chap te r 5 .

F OUR R S Rela tio nsh ip s, re p uta tio n, re sp onsib ility , an d re sp onse are fo ur varia b le s ex am in ed in cris is co m munic atio n re se arc h . T he fa ct th at re la tio nsh ip s a n d re p uta tio n a re c o nsid ere d s ig nif ic an t s u pports th e p ers p ectiv e t h at c ris is c o m munic atio n i s n ot s o le ly a r e activ e a ctiv ity .

Rela tio nsh ip s in th is co nte x t re fe r to th e co nnectio n betw een th e org an iz atio n an d its vario us sta k eh old ers . W hile t h ese r e la tio nsh ip s a re e sta b lis h ed o r e x is t p rio r t o a n y c ris is , t h ey a re s till v aria b le s th at a ffe ct c ris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rts .

Rep uta tio n r e fe rs to th e e x te n t to w hic h th e o rg an iz atio n is s e en a s le g itim ate . S im ila rly , r e p uta tio n is esta b lis h ed o r e x is ts p rio r to a n y c ris is a n d is s tr e n gth en ed o r ta rn is h ed o n th e b asis o f th e c ris is a n d cris is c o m munic atio n a ctiv ity .

Resp onsib ility r e fe rs to th e e x te n t to w hic h th e s ta k eh old ers c o nsid er th e o rg an iz atio n r e sp onsib le f o r th e c ris is . I f a m ad m an i n dis c rim in ate ly s h oots c o w ork ers , a ssu m in g t h at t h e p erp etr a to r h ad n o p re v io us men ta l h is to ry , th e o rg an iz atio n is n ot lik ely to b e se en a s re sp onsib le . H ow ev er, if a n oth er c o m pan y in dis c rim in ate ly h ir e s c rim in als w ith r e co rd s o f v io le n t a ctiv itie s th ey m ay b e c o nsid ere d ir re sp onsib le .

If a c o m pan y’s p ro duct i s d ela y ed b ecau se o f a n u nfo re se en b liz zard t h at c o m pan y i s n ot l ik ely t o b e s e en as ir re sp onsib le . H ow ev er, if a n o rg an iz atio n d oes n ot ta k e p re cau tio ns to s to p p ip es f ro m f re ezin g in a frig id c lim ate , t h en i t m ay b e p erc eiv ed a s r e sp onsib le f o r t r a n sp orta tio n d ela y s w hen p ip es b urs t a n d s h ut dow n a f a cto ry .

Resp onse , p re d ic ta b ly , r e fe rs t o h ow a c o m pan y h as r e sp onded t o t h e c ris is i n t e rm s o f i ts b eh av io r a n d co m munic atio n e ffo rts .

As is lik ely a p pare n t, e ach o f th ese v aria b le s c an a ffe ct th e o th ers . T he re p uta tio n a n o rg an iz atio n en jo ys m ay a ffe ct t h e r e la tio nsh ip s t h at a c o m pan y h as w ith i ts s ta k eh old ers . R ela tio nsh ip s m ay a ffe ct t h e ex te n t t o w hic h s ta k eh old ers w ill a ccep t a r e sp onse . T he e x te n t o f r e sp onsib ility f o r a c ris is w ill a ffe ct t h e natu re o f t h e r e sp onse . T he r e sp onse d urin g a c ris is w ill a ffe ct t h e r e p uta tio n a fte r t h e f a ct.

A TTR IB U TIO N T H EO RY Attr ib utio n th eo ry is b ase d o n th e a ssu m ptio n th at w hen a n e v en t o ccu rs , p eo ple n eed to o r te n d to attr ib ute c au se s a n d r e sp onsib ility f o r th e e v en ts to o th er in div id uals o r o rg an iz atio ns o r to th em se lv es.

“A ttr ib utio n th eo ry p osits th at p eo ple lo ok f o r th e c au se s o f e v en ts , e sp ecia lly u nex pecte d a n d n eg ativ e ev en ts .” 20 S in ce c ris is c o m munic atio n b y d efin itio n in volv es u nex pecte d e v en ts a n d s in ce th ese e v en ts ofte n h av e n eg ativ e e ffe cts , a ttr ib utio n t h eo ry i s r e le v an t t o c ris is c o m munic atio n s tu dy.

Tir e s e x plo de o n a u to m obile s a n d p eo ple a re i n ju re d . P eo ple w an t t o k now w ho i s a t f a u lt. I s i t F ord o r is i t F ir e sto ne w ho m ak es t h e t ir e s?

If a m en ta lly ill w ork er ra n dom ly sh oots co lle ag ues, sta k eh old ers w an t to know w heth er th e org an iz atio n is a cco unta b le so m eh ow fo r n ot m ak in g th e e n vir o nm en t sa fe . Is so m e p sy ch ia tr is t w ho cle are d t h e e m plo yee f o r w ork r e sp onsib le f o r c o nductin g a s u perfic ia l e x am in atio n?

A b liz zard p ara ly zes a c ity , le av in g ro ad s litte re d w ith c ars th at ra n o ut o f fu el, c re atin g g rid lo ck .

Citiz en s a tte m ptin g t o w alk m ile s t o t h eir h om es s u ccu m b t o e x posu re a n d p eris h . W as t h e c ity d ere lic t i n not a n tic ip atin g th e sto rm a n d m obiliz in g sn ow re m oval te am s? W ere th e d ow nto w n b usin ess o w ners re sp onsib le f o r n ot h av in g t h e f o re sig ht t o l e t w ork ers o ut e arly t o b eat t h e i n ev ita b le t r a ffic s n arl c au se d by t h e s n ow ? W ere t h e m ete o ro lo gis ts t o b la m e f o r p re d ic tin g a d ustin g w hen a b liz zard w as l o om in g?

In cris is co m munic atio n th e ap plic atio n o f attr ib utio n th eo ry affe cts h ow th e o rg an iz atio n sh ould atte m pt to r e sto re le g itim acy. I n o th er w ord s, a n o rg an iz atio n’s c o m munic atio n a p pro ach w ill d ep en d o n sta k eh old ers ’ a ttr ib utio ns o f r e sp onsib ility . T hre e f a cto rs th at a ffe ct a ttr ib utio n o f r e sp onsib ility in c ris is co m munic atio n a re s ta b ility , e x te rn al v ers u s i n te rn al c o ntr o l, a n d p ers o nal c o ntr o l.

S TA BIL IT Y “S ta b ility ” is a te rm th at h as a co unte rin tu itiv e m ean in g in th e la n guag e o f cris is co m munic atio n.

Sta b ility re fe rs to h ow fre q uen tly a n o rg an iz atio n h as c ris e s. T here fo re , a c o m pan y th at h as re g ula rly ex perie n ced c ris is p ro ble m s i s c o nsid ere d a c o m pan y w ith h ig h s ta b ility . T here i s a n o bvio us c o rre la tio n betw een r e p uta tio n a n d s ta b ility : th e g re ate r th e s ta b ility th e h ig her th e lik elih ood o f a w eak r e p uta tio n.

There is a ls o a c o rre la tio n b etw een s ta b ility a n d p erc ep tio n o f r e sp onsib ility . H ig her s ta b ility in cre ase s th e c h an ces t h at a n o rg an iz atio n w ill b e c o nsid ere d r e sp onsib le f o r a s u bse q uen t c ris is . F in ally , t h ere i s a co rre la tio n b etw een s ta b ility a n d t h e r e q uir e m en ts f o r r e sp onse s d urin g c ris e s: t h e h ig her t h e s ta b ility , t h e more c h alle n gin g t h e r e q uir e m en ts f o r c ris is c o m munic ato rs .

Sta b ility is an im porta n t fa cto r to co nsid er in cris is co m munic atio n. T he effe cts o f sta b ility are dis c u sse d in a 2 004 Jo urn al o f B usin ess C om munic a tio n a rtic le title d “ Im pact o f P ast C ris e s o n C urre n t Cris is C om munic atio n.” T he fir s t tw o s e n te n ces o f th e a rtic le s p eak to th e im porta n ce o f s ta b ility a s a cris is c o m munic atio n f a cto r.

On M onday M arc h 2 7,2 000, a d ead ly b la st r ip ped th ro ugh th e P hillip s P etr o le u m C om pan y f a cility in P asa d en a, Tex as. T hat d ay, P hillip s’s m an ag ers fa ced n ot ju st o ne c ris is , b ut th re e. N ew sp ap er re p orts m en tio ned a 1 989 ex plo sio n th at k ille d 2 3 w ork ers a n d a 1 999 in cid en t th at k ille d tw o w ork ers a n d in ju re d f o ur o th ers .

21 E XTER N AL V ER SU S I N TER N AL C O NTR O L These tw o p hra se s p erta in to w heth er a c ris is is c o ntr o lle d o r fu ele d b y s o m eo ne in sid e o r o uts id e th e org an iz atio n. A n e arth quak e is a n e x am ple o f a n e x te rn ally c o ntr o lle d c ris is . E m bezzlin g o f f u nds in a n org an iz atio n i s i n te rn ally c o ntr o lle d .

P ER SO NAL C O NTR O L This r e fe rs to w heth er a n a cto r in volv ed w ith th e c ris is c o uld h av e c o ntr o lle d th e e v en t. A n o rg an iz atio n th at d efra u ds i ts c lie n ts b y u sin g m oney s t o f u nd p ers o nal i n vestm en ts o r t o i n vest i n s o m e P onzi s c h em e, would h av e h ig h p ers o nal c o ntr o l o f th e c ris is . If p ip es b urs t in a fa cility b ecau se o f a ty pic ally c o ld te m pera tu re s, th ere w ould b e re la tiv ely lo w p ers o nal c o ntr o l. C oom bs a n d H olla d ay c o nducte d a s tu dy th at p ro ved , to th e e x te n t it n eed ed to b e p ro ven , th at a n in te rn al c ris is w ith h ig h p ers o nal c o ntr o l in a n org an iz atio n w ith h ig h s ta b ility w ould h av e to b e a d dre sse d u sin g d if fe re n t im ag e r e sto ra tio n te ch niq ues th an a c ris is w ith l o w s ta b ility t h at w as e x te rn al a n d h ad l o w l e v els o f p ers o nal c o ntr o l.

22 E MOTIO NAL S TA BIL IT Y Coca-C ola f a ced a c ris is i n J u ne 1 999 w hen c o nsu m ers i n B elg iu m b ecam e i ll a fte r d rin kin g t h e p ro duct.

A s tu dy b y V erb ek e, W im , a n d V an K en hove p ublis h ed i n t h e Jo urn al o f H ea lth C om munic a tio n d is c u sse d th e c o ncep t o f “ em otio nal s ta b ility ” i n t h eir a n aly sis o f t h e c ase .

23 The re se arc h ers co nje ctu re d th at th e p sy ch olo gic al v aria b le o f a sta k eh old er’s em otio nal sta b ility would a ffe ct h ow m uch in fo rm atio n th at sta k eh old er n eed ed . R eceiv ers w ith lo w e m otio nal sta b ility mig ht re je ct re assu rin g m essa g es fro m a c o m pan y; re q uir e m ore a u th ority -b ase d a ssu ra n ces; o r n eed in fo rm atio n fa ste r th an o th er g ro ups. T he re se arc h ers co nclu de, as m ig ht b e ex pecte d , th at fa st an d tr a n sp are n t c o m munic atio ns to lo w er e m otio nal sta b ility g ro ups is re co m men ded in sim ila r fo od a n d health s itu atio ns.

This does not su ggest th at hig h em otio nal sta b ility gro ups do not re q uir e fa st an d tr a n sp are n t co m munic atio n. R ath er it s im ply s u ggests th at th e n otio n o f e m otio nal s ta b ility is a v aria b le th at s h ould be c o nsid ere d . C ris is c o m munic ato rs w ith h ig h e m otio nal s ta b ility m ay n ot b e s u ffic ie n tly s e n sitiv e to th e fa ct th at oth ers m ay be le ss em otio nally sta b le . W hat ap pears to be unnecessa ry m ay w ell be necessa ry f o r t h ose h ungry t o b e c o m fo rte d a b out d is c o m fo rtin g n ew s.

C OUNTER FA CTU ALS An o bje ctiv e f o r c ris is c o m munic ato rs i s t o r e d uce c o unte rfa ctu als . I n l a y peo ple ’s t e rm s a c o unte rfa ctu al is a re actio n b y sta k eh old ers th at re fle cts th eir fe elin g th at a co m pan y co uld o r sh ould h av e d one so m eth in g d if fe re n tly a s it r e la te s to th e c ris is . H ad th ey d one s o m eth in g d if fe re n tly th e o utc o m e w ould hav e b een d if fe re n t.

These “ co uld a,” “ sh ould a,” a n d “ w ould a” r e actio ns a re a ll c o unte r to th e f a cts . T he f a cts a re th at th e co m pan y d id n ot d o w hat th e s ta k eh old er m ig ht th in k th e c o m pan y c o uld h av e d one. A n e ffe ctiv e c ris is co m munic atio n e ffo rt r e d uces s ta k eh old ers ’ c o nsid era tio n o f th ese c o unte rf a ctu als . A 2 004 s tu dy in th e Jo urn al o f B usin ess C om munic a tio n atte m pts to asse ss th e ex te n t o f co unte rfa ctu als o n th e b asis o f perc ep tio n o f r e sp onse , r e sp onsib ility , a n d r e p uta tio n f o r a n e v en t.

24 S LEEPE R E FFE C T The s le ep er e ffe ct is d esc rib ed in a 2 004 a rtic le b y L yon a n d C am ero n th at e x am in es th e e ffe cts o f p rio r re p uta tio n o n s u ccess o f a n o rg an iz atio n’s im med ia te r e sp onse to a c ris is . A s d is c u sse d in th e “ fo ur R ” se ctio n e arlie r, r e p uta tio n c an a ffe ct t h e s u ccess o f a n o rg an iz atio n’s r e sp onse . T he s le ep er e ffe ct s u ggests th at i n c erta in s itu atio ns t h e e ffe ct o f r e p uta tio n m ay b e s h ort t e rm . I f p ers o n A h as a w eak r e p uta tio n a n d mak es a c la im t h at t h e c au se o f X w as Y , a s ta k eh old er m ay d is m is s t h e v alid ity o f t h e c la im b ecau se o f what s h e o r h e k now s a b out A . H ow ev er, t h e s le ep er e ffe ct s u ggests t h at i n t im e s ta k eh old ers f o rg et w ho mad e th e c la im . T hey r e call th e c la im th at X w as c au se d b y Y , b ut f o rg et th e s o urc e. W hile th e s le ep er effe ct is o fte n id en tif ie d , L yon a n d C am ero n r a is e d oubts a b out its a p plic atio n in c ris is co m munic atio n sc en ario s. I n c la ssic p hra sin g f o r s c h ola rly r e se arc h , t h e a u th ors c o nclu de t h eir s tu dy b y a rg uin g, “ F ailu re to c o nsis te n tly f in d a n a b so lu te s le ep er e ffe ct r e p re se n te d b y a r is e i n p ers u asiv e i m pact o ver t im e c alle d in to q uestio n t h e r o bustn ess o f t h e s le ep er e ffe ct.” 25 SC CT/C LU ST ER IN G SC CT s ta n ds f o r S itu atio nal C ris is C om munic atio n T heo ry . I t h as b een a d van ced b y W . T im oth y C oom bs, a c ris is c o m munic atio n r e se arc h er. C oom bs s u ggests th at c ris e s c an b e c lu ste re d in to v ic tim , a ccid en ta l, an d i n te n tio nal g ro upin gs ( S ee Tab le 2 .1 , p ag e 4 5).

Cris e s i n t h e v ic tim c lu ste r w ould i n clu de n atu ra l d is a ste rs , p ro duct t a m perin g, r u m ors , a n d w ork pla ce vio le n ce. C ris e s in th e a ccid en ta l c lu ste r in clu de, fo r e x am ple , th e N ASA C olu m bia a ccid en t, w hic h occu rre d w hen a p ie ce o f th e sp ace v esse l b ro ke aw ay an d d am ag ed an oth er p ortio n o f th e v esse l.

In te n tio nal c ris e s o ccu r w hen a m an ag er e m bezzle s fu nds, s e x ually h ara sse s c o w ork ers , o r d elib era te ly allo w s c o st t o t r u m p s a fe ty s ta n dard s w hen m an ufa ctu rin g v eh ic le s. SC CT a rg ues th at o n th e b asis o f c lu ste rs , c ris is c o m munic ato rs c an u se im ag e r e sto ra tio n a p pro ach es th at h av e b een s h ow n to b e e ffe ctiv e f o r th ese c ris e s. A p ro ble m w ith S C CT is th at s e v era l f a cto rs in a cris is s itu atio n r e n der a n y in div id ual c ris is u niq ue. W hile it m ay b e p ossib le to c ate g oriz e a c ris is in a clu ste r, t o o m an y v aria b le s c an i n flu en ce t h e w is d om o f a p ply in g o ne o r a n oth er a p pro ach . T here fo re , t h e assu m ptio n th at c lu ste rin g c an a llo w fo r c o rre la te d rh eto ric al s tr a te g ie s h as v alu e a ssu m in g th at th ose who a p ply t h e t h eo ry a re a w are o f i ts l im ita tio ns.

I NST R U CTIN G I N FO RM ATIO N When a c ris is in volv es a h ealth r is k , o rg an iz atio ns n eed to c o m munic ate a b out h ow to a d dre ss th at r is k .

In fo rm atio n th at in str u cts a sta k eh old er ab out w here to g o in case o f a h urric an e, h ow to asc erta in wheth er a to xin h as affe cte d h im , w hat to d o if h is au to m obile ex hib its certa in te n den cie s, are all ex am ple s o f in str u ctin g in fo rm atio n. T he q uality o f in str u ctin g in fo rm atio n c an a ffe ct p erc ep tio ns o f le g itim acy a n d t h e o vera ll c ris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rt.

N UGGETS The w ord “ n uggets ” i s u se d b y p ra ctitio ners t o r e fe r t o s p ecif ic m essa g es t h at c ris is c o m munic ato rs w an t to c o nvey t o a u die n ces. I n s im ple t e rm s, a n ugget i s a v ita l p ie ce o f a m essa g e.

Cris is co m munic ato rs are en co ura g ed to id en tif y nuggets th at w ill be re la y ed to each gro up of sta k eh old ers a n d t o s ta y o n m essa g e w hen c o m munic atin g t o a u die n ces. F or e x am ple , w hen H ow ard D ean was f a ced w ith t h e f a llo ut f ro m t h e D ean S cre am , h e a n d h is c am paig n a sso cia te s h ad t o d ete rm in e w hat units o f in fo rm atio n h ad to b e re la y ed to in te rn al a n d e x te rn al s ta k eh old ers . W hen y ou c o m ple te d th e ex erc is e s a t th e b eg in nin g o f th e p re v io us c h ap te r y ou w ere e sse n tia lly id en tif y in g th e n uggets fo r th e Dean c ase a n d o th ers . A fte r th e n uggets a re d ete rm in ed , c ris is c o m munic ato rs c re ate messa g es th at a re mad e u p o f t h ese n uggets . S pokesp ers o ns a n d w rite rs a re u rg ed t o s ta y o n m essa g e, w hic h m ean s t o s ta te an d r e sta te t h e k ey u nits o f i n fo rm atio n— th e n uggets — when c o m munic atin g w ith s ta k eh old ers .

H ALO A ND V ELC RO E FFE C T The h alo e ffe ct is th e te n den cy f o r s o m e p ositiv e a ttr ib utio n o f a c o m pan y to r e m ain w ith th e c o m pan y su bse q uen tly . B ecau se o f its b eh av io r d urin g its c ris is , th e S ch w an F ood C om pan y h as e n jo yed a h alo effe ct. B ecau se o f th e T yle n ol c ase n early tw en ty -fiv e y ears a g o, J o hnso n & J o hnso n h as b een b le sse d with a n e n durin g h alo e ffe ct.

The V elc ro e ffe ct is th e te n den cy f o r n eg ativ e a ttr ib utio ns to s tic k to a c o m pan y b ecau se o f n eg ativ e perfo rm an ce h is to ry . A s C oom bs a n d H olla d ay w rite , “ A p erfo rm an ce h is to ry is lik e V elc ro ; it a ttr a cts an d s n ag s a d ditio nal r e p uta tio nal d am ag e.” 26 Perfo rm an ce h is to ry is d efin ed , p re d ic ta b ly , a s th e re sid ual o f p ast re la tio nsh ip s a n d th e q uality o f a co m pan y’s w ork . C om pan ie s th at h av e a n eg ativ e p erfo rm an ce h is to ry b ecau se o f h ig h s ta b ility o r o th er fa cto rs are attr ib ute d lo w le v els o f le g itim acy. T his p oor re la tio nsh ip h is to ry w ill, lik e V elc ro , sn ag gre ate r p erc ep tio ns o f c ris is re sp onsib ility in fu tu re c ris is c ase s. C onse q uen tly , a c o m pan y w ith p oor perfo rm an ce h is to ry i s l ik ely t o h av e g re ate r r e p uta tio nal d am ag e w hen f a ced w ith a c ris is b ecau se o f t h e Velc ro e ffe ct th an a n oth er c o m pan y f a ced w ith th e e x act s a m e c ris is , if th at o th er c o m pan y is e n jo yin g th e h alo e ffe ct.

S UPPO RTIN G B EH AV IO R A ND H ONORIN G T H E A CCO UNT Becau se o f a p ositiv e r e la tio nsh ip w ith a c o m pan y, s ta k eh old ers a re m ore l ik ely t o h onor t h e a cco unt t h an had th ere b een a n eg ativ e re la tio nsh ip . H onorin g th e a cco unt m ean s to b elie v e a n d a ccep t th e a cco unt.

Som etim es t h e r e la tio nsh ip b etw een s ta k eh old er a n d o rg an iz atio n i s s o g ood t h at t h e s ta k eh old er w ill a ct as a n a g en t o f th e c o m pan y a n d sp re ad th e n uggets in in fo rm al a n d fo rm al c o nvers a tio ns w ith o th er sta k eh old ers . D ev ote d p artis a n s m ay b e w illin g to h onor th e a cco unt o f a s e n ato r a ccu se d o f c h ic an ery an d a tte m pt t o s p re ad t h e i m ag e r e sto ra tio n a p pro ach es e m plo yed b y t h e s e n ato r’s o ffic e. T he v ery s a m e beh av io r e v id en ced b y a r e p re se n ta tiv e o f a r iv al’s p arty is n ot lik ely to e n jo y th e b en efits o f s u pportin g beh av io r n or s h ould s h e o r h e e x pect a n atu ra l h onorin g o f t h eir a cco unts . M ED IA R IC H NESS The p hra se “ m ed ia r ic h ness” r e fe rs to th e v alu e o f a p artic u la r m ed iu m a s a m eth od o f c o m munic atin g.

Som e m eth ods are ric h er th an oth ers , th at is , so m e m eth ods hav e a gre ate r ch an ce of effe ctiv ely co m munic atin g i n fo rm atio n.

Thre e fa cto rs dete rm in e th e ric h ness of a m ed iu m . T he fir s t is w heth er th e m ed iu m allo w s fo r im med ia te f e ed back . A f a ce-to -fa ce in te ra ctio n is c o nsid ere d r ic h er th an a m em ora n dum , a ssu m in g th at th e a u th or o f t h e m em ora n dum i s n ot p re se n t a t t h e t im e t h e r e ceiv er i s r e ad in g t h e m em ora n dum .

The se co nd crite rio n is th e av aila b ility of m ultip le co m munic atio n cu es. Audie n ces deco de co m munic atio ns. I t is e asie r to d eco de a m essa g e if in a d ditio n to w hate v er w ord s a re r e la y ed , th ere a re nonverb al co m ple m en ts th at h elp th e re ceiv er u nders ta n d th e m essa g e. W ord s can b e ita lic iz ed in a writte n m essa g e o r b old fa ced fo r e m phasis b ut th ese w ritte n c o m ple m en ts a re n ot a s v alu ab le a s th e multip le c o m munic atio n c u es p re se n t in fa ce-to -fa ce in te ra ctio ns. B ody m otio ns, h an d g estu re s, fa cia l ex pre ssio n, p hysic al d is ta n ce, t o uch in g b eh av io rs , e y e c o nta ct— all c o ntr ib ute t o w hate v er i s p erc eiv ed a s mean in gfu l b y a r e ceiv er.

The th ir d c rite rio n th at d ete rm in es m ed ia r ic h ness is th e a b ility to u se th e m ed iu m to p ers o naliz e th e messa g e. A b ro ad cast e -m ail c an not b e a s r ic h a s a t e le co nfe re n ce o r a p hone c all, o r a m eetin g w ith a f e w pers o ns.

R HETO RIC A L/P A RA UNGUAL S E N SIT IV IT Y A ND S PE EC H A CCO M MODATIO N T H EO RY Rheto ric h as b een d efin ed in s o m an y d iv ers e w ay s th at th e v ery n um ber o f d efin itio ns h as r e n dere d th e te rm d if fic u lt to u nders ta n d. F or o ur p urp ose s h ere w e c an d efin e rh eto ric a s th e s tu dy o f la n guag e o r oth er s y m bols a n d t h e a n aly sis o f h ow l a n guag e/s y m bols a re u se d t o c o nvey m ean in g.

Para la n guag e re fe rs to h ow o ne sa y s w hat o ne sa y s. A p ers o n w ho so unds le th arg ic a n d is b are ly au dib le is lik ely to c o nvey a d if fe re n t m essa g e w hen s h e s a y s “ I a m h av in g a g ood tim e” th an s o m eo ne whose v oic e r e fle cts e n th usia sm .

The p hra se “ rh eto ric al s e n sitiv ity ” m ean s th at la n guag e n eed s to b e s e n sitiv ely s e le cte d to m eet th e ex pecta tio ns of th e situ atio n an d th e au die n ce. R ep re se n ta tiv es m ay sp eak or w rite ab out “d am ag e co ntr o l” a n d b ecau se o f w ord c h oic e so und le ss c o ncern ed w ith th e v ic tim s o f th e sp illa g e a n d m ore co ncern ed w ith h ow t h e s p illa g e m ay a ffe ct t h e s to ck p ric e o f t h e o rg an iz atio n. S im ila rly , s p okesp ers o ns may u se h ig hly te ch nic al w ord s in ex pla in in g p ro ble m s. T he ch oic e o f la n guag e th en m ig ht n ot b e co m fo rtin g to c itiz en s w ho a re u nfa m ilia r w ith th e te rm s, m ay h av e lo w e m otio nal s ta b ility , a n d n eed to hear w ord s t h ey c an d eco de.

Para lin gual s e n sitiv ity r e fe rs t o c are i n h ow y ou s a y w hat y ou s a y. S pokesp ers o ns c an d esir e t o e x pre ss how t h eir o rg an iz atio n i s o n t h e c ase i n c le an in g u p a n i n dustr ia l w aste s p ill, b ut m ay s o und d is m is siv e o r co ndesc en din g b ecau se o f t o ne, r a te , a n d v olu m e o f s p eech .

Speech acco m modatio n th eo ry p osits th at p eo ple h av e a te n den cy to acco m modate th eir la n guag e becau se o f t h e a u die n ce w ith w hom t h ey a re s p eak in g. T his n eed s t o b e n ot o nly i n t e rm s o f w ord c h oic e but a ls o in te rm s o f sy nta x . F or e x am ple , a n e x tr e m e c ase o f sp eech a cco m modatio n o ccu rs w hen a pers o n w ho i s f lu en t i n a l a n guag e e m plo ys b ro ken l a n guag e w hen c o nvers in g w ith , f o r e x am ple , a f a m ily mem ber w ho sp eak s b ro ken E nglis h . A n e x ecu tiv e w ho c an d is c u ss p olic y q uite e lo quen tly w ith h er su bord in ate s fin ds h ers e lf co nju gatin g v erb s in co rre ctly o r p la cin g ad je ctiv es afte r n ouns w hen sh e sp eak s w ith her im mig ra n t gra n dpare n ts . Speech acco m modatio n th eo ry is le ss a str a te g y th an a phen om en on, b ut s p okesp ers o ns i n c ris is s itu atio ns n eed t o b e v ig ila n t a b out n ot b ein g s o a cco m modatin g in e ith er w ord c h oic e o r p ara lin gual b eh av io r a s to m is s r e la y in g th e n uggets th at h av e b een d ete rm in ed to b e e sse n tia l i n o rd er t o r e sto re o rg an iz atio nal l e g itim acy.

Apply t h e P rin cip le s: T est Y ou rse lf Again , r e v ie w th e c ase th at b eg in s th is c h ap te r r e g ard in g th e P ean ut C orp ora tio n o f A m eric a. E ach of t h e n in ete en t e rm s d esc rib ed i n d eta il a b ove a p pear i n a b ulle te d l is t b elo w . E ach o f t h e t e rm s c an be a p plie d to th e P ean ut C orp ora tio n o f A m eric a c ase . E xpla in th e re le v an ce o f th e te rm s to th is case . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Sta k eh old ers Sta k eh old er t h eo ry Leg itim acy Im ag e r e sto ra tio n t h eo ry Four R s Attr ib utio n t h eo ry Sta b ility Exte rn al v ers u s i n te rn al c o ntr o l Pers o nal c o ntr o l Em otio nal s ta b ility Counte rfa ctu als Sle ep er e ffe ct SC CT/C lu ste rin g In str u ctin g i n fo rm atio n Nuggets Halo a n d V elc ro e ffe ct Supportin g b eh av io r a n d h onorin g t h e a cco unt Med ia r ic h ness Rheto ric al/p ara lin gual s e n sitiv ity /s p eech a cco m modatio n t h eo ry C RIS IS C OM MUNIC ATIO N A ND O RG ANIZ ATIO NAL C OM MUNIC ATIO N Cris is c o m munic atio n i s a s u bcate g ory o f a b ro ad er a re a o f s tu dy c alle d “ o rg an iz atio nal c o m munic atio n.” Cours e s an d pro gra m s in org an iz atio nal co m munic atio n are ty pic ally offe re d in dep artm en ts calle d “C om munic atio n Stu die s” at co lle g es an d univ ers ity . A t so m e sc h ools , cu rric u la in org an iz atio nal co m munic atio n a re f o und i n c o lle g es o f b usin ess.

Org an iz atio nal c o m munic atio n i s a r e la tiv ely n ew f ie ld o f a cad em ic i n quir y . T he f ir s t t e x tb ook i n t h is are a w as w ritte n only so m e fo rty years ag o. O nly re cen tly — durin g th e past tw en ty years — hav e org an iz atio nal c o m munic atio n c o urs e s b eco m e sta p le s o f C om munic atio n S tu die s p ro gra m s. U ntil th e 1980s, it w as n ot a t a ll u nco m mon fo r s tu den ts in c o m munic atio n p ro gra m s to c o m ple te th eir d eg re es with out h av in g b een e x pose d t o a s in gle c o urs e i n o rg an iz atio nal c o m munic atio n.

W HAT I S O RG ANIZ ATIO NAL C O M MUNIC ATIO N ?

Sin ce o rg an iz atio nal co m munic atio n stu dy is re la tiv ely n ew , m an y p eo ple are u naw are o f w hat th e phra se , org aniz a tio nal c o m munic a tio n , m ean s. In co m in g stu den ts to u niv ers itie s so m etim es th in k th at org an iz atio nal c o m munic atio n re fe rs to h ow to o rg an iz e c o m munic atio ns. S om etim es p eo ple c o nfu se org an iz atio nal c o m munic atio n w ith p ublic r e la tio ns. O th ers a ssu m e t h at o rg an iz atio nal c o m munic atio n i s ab out m aste rin g t h e s k ill s e ts o f w ritin g a n d s p eak in g. O rg an iz atio nal c o m munic atio n stu dy c an a n d d oes in clu de p ublic re la tio ns a n d a n e ffe ctiv e c o m munic ato r in o rg an iz atio ns is a w are o f th e im porta n ce o f org an iz atio n f o r c o m munic atio n s u ccess. O rg an iz atio nal c o m munic atio n a ls o i n volv es a n e x am in atio n o f sk ill s e ts n ecessa ry f o r q uality c o m munic atio n.

How ev er, org an iz atio nal co m munic atio n stu dy is bro ad er an d m ore nuan ced th an th ese narro w perc ep tio ns. O rg an iz atio nal c o m munic atio n is th e s tu dy o f w hy a n d h ow o rg an iz atio ns s e n d a n d r e ceiv e in fo rm atio n in a co m ple x en vir o nm en t. Cris is co m munic atio n is a su bto pic of org an iz atio nal co m munic atio n th at e x am in es is su es p erta in in g to a s p ecif ic o rg an iz atio nal s itu atio n: c ris is . T hose w ho stu dy org an iz atio nal co m munic atio n ty pic ally ex am in e fo ur are as: co m munic atio n sk ill se ts , co m munic atio n c u ltu re a n d c lim ate , c o m munic atio n n etw ork s, a n d in fo rm atio n m an ag em en t. E ach o f th ese i s r e le v an t t o c ris is c o m munic atio n p ra ctitio ners a n d s tu den ts .

C OM MUNIC ATIO N S K IL L S E TS Org an iz atio nal m en a n d w om en h av e to b e a b le to sp eak , w rite , re ad , lis te n , a n d u se c o m munic atio n • • • • •te ch nolo gy. C ris is c o m munic ato rs m ust b e a d ep t i n e ach o f t h ese a re as w ith t h e a d ded d im en sio n o f b ein g pro fic ie n t u nder t im e p re ssu re s. C ris is c o m munic ato rs m ust d em onstr a te t h at t h ey can s p eak u nder p re ssu re , re sp ond e ffic ie n tly t o q uestio ns, write e ffic ie n tly , co nduct m eetin gs w ith c ris is c o m munic atio n t e am s a n d m em bers o f v ario us s ta k eh old er g ro ups, utiliz e n ew t e ch nolo gie s t o c o m ple m en t c o nven tio nally d is se m in ate d m essa g es, a n d l is te n mean in gfu lly t o f e ed back f ro m s ta k eh old ers .

C OM MUNIC ATIO N C U LT U RE A ND C LIM ATE Rese arc h ers in org an iz atio nal co m munic atio n ex am in e th e in te rd ep en den t re la tio nsh ip s betw een co m munic atio n a n d o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re a n d c lim ate . A s d is c u sse d in th e p re v io us c h ap te r, th is is a n ex tr a o rd in arily im porta n t a re a o f s tu dy fo r c ris is c o m munic ato rs . A c o m pan y’s c u ltu re c an re d uce th e ch an ces th at c ris e s w ill s u rfa ce o r in cre ase th e c h an ces th at p ro ble m s w ill f e ste r a n d b eco m e c ris e s. T he cu ltu re o f a n o rg an iz atio n c an f a cilita te q uality c o m munic atio n d urin g c ris is , b ut it a ls o c an u nderm in e th e b est o f p la n s. C ultu ra l t h eo ry i s d is c u sse d i n d eta il i n Chap te r 3 .

C OM MUNIC ATIO N N ETW ORK S In o rd er to d riv e fro m o ne p la ce to a n oth er, m oto ris ts n eed h ig hw ay s. W ith out In te rs ta te 9 0 o r o th er alte rn ate ro ute s, it w ould b e d if fic u lt to d riv e fro m B uffa lo to C le v ela n d. It w ould n ot m atte r w heth er moto ris ts d ro ve o ld C hev ro le ts o r sta te -o f-th e-a rt Cad illa cs, th ey w ould still h av e tr o uble g ettin g to Cle v ela n d b y c ar if th ere w ere n o v ia b le r o ute s. S im ila rly , o rg an iz atio ns r e q uir e r o ute s to f a cilita te th e tr a n sp orta tio n o f in fo rm atio n. O rg an iz atio ns m ust c re ate , c u lti v ate , a n d n ouris h th ese n etw ork s in o rd er to p erm it th e flo w o f in fo rm atio n. N etw ork s d o n ot re fe r to sp ecif ic m essa g es su ch a s a n in te ro ffic e mem o o r a b ro ad caste d e -m ail. T hese e x am ple s a re a n alo gous t o t h e C hev ro le ts a n d C ad illa cs t h at u se t h e hig hw ay s. T he netw ork s re fe r to th e hig hw ay s th em se lv es. T he netw ork s re fe r to th e ex is te n ce of nav ig ab le c h an nels th at p erm it th e u se o f c o m munic atio n m eth ods su ch a s in te ro ffic e m em os a n d e - mailin gs. A n o rg an iz atio n i s m ad e u p o f i n te rd ep en den t u nits . L in kin g o ne u nit t o a n oth er i s e sse n tia l f o r org an iz atio nal su ccess. O rg an iz atio nal co m munic atio n stu dy in volv es th e an aly sis of in te r- an d in tr a d ep artm en ta l n etw ork s, a n d n etw ork s t h at l in k s u bord in ate s t o s u perio rs .

It i s e sse n tia l d urin g t im es o f c ris is t h at t h ese n etw ork s e x is t a n d a re a v aila b le t o c ris is c o m munic ato rs .

If th ere is a n u rg en t n eed to g et in fo rm atio n to a c erta in in te rn al o r e x te rn al p opula tio n, a n o rg an iz atio n need s to h av e a n etw ork to tr a n sp ort th e m essa g es. D urin g a c ris is y ou d o n ot w an t to c o nstr u ct th e hig hw ay, y ou n eed t o d riv e o n i t.

I NFO RM ATIO N M ANAGEM EN T In fo rm atio n m an ag em en t r e fe rs to id en tif y in g w hat n eed s to b e c o m munic ate d w ith in o rg an iz atio ns a n d how to c o m munic ate w hat n eed s to b e c o m munic ate d m ost e ffic ie n tly . E sse n tia lly , w hat m essa g es d o peo ple n eed t o g et a n d h ow s h ould w e g et t h e i n fo rm atio n t o t h em ?

In fo rm atio n m an ag em en t id en tif ie s fiv e ch ara cte ris tic s of effic ie n tly co m munic ate d m essa g es.

Messa g es n eed t o b e a ccu ra te , c re d ib le , p ertin en t, t im ely , a n d c le ar. I n str u ctin g i n fo rm atio n, f o r e x am ple , is a l a b el f o r m essa g es d is se m in ate d d urin g a c ris is t h at i n volv es r is k . I f p eo ple h av e b eco m e s ic k d ue t o co nsu m ptio n o f a c o nta m in ate d f o od p ro duct, th en a n o rg an iz atio n h as to e x pla in to th e c o nsu m ers w hat to d o. T his i n fo rm atio n h as t o b e a ccu ra te , b elie v ab le , r e le v an t t o t h e a u die n ce, t im ely s o t h at t h e e ffe cts of i n gestio n d o n ot g et w ors e , a n d c le ar.

Apply t h e P rin cip le s It i s t h e j o b o f c ris is c o m munic ato rs t o p re p are f o r c ris e s a n d r e sp ond t o t h em . C onsid er t h e t h ir te en sc en ario s l is te d n ex t. F or e ach o ne 1.

• • • • • 1 .

2 .

3 .

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7 .

8 .

9 .

10.

11 .

12.

13.

Desc rib e w hat m ig ht h av e b een d one t o p re v en t t h e c ris is .

Assu m in g t h at t h e e v en t h as o ccu rre d , Id en tif y t h e t w o g ro ups o f i n te rn al a n d t w o g ro ups o f e x te rn al s ta k eh old ers w ho a re m ost im porta n t.

Id en tif y t h e t w o m ost i m porta n t u nits o f i n fo rm atio n t h at y ou w ould n eed t o r e la y t o t h ese au die n ces.

What w ould b e t h e a p pro pria te m eth od f o r c o m munic atin g t h is i n fo rm atio n?

Id en tif y t h e r e sp onse s y ou c o uld a n tic ip ate f ro m t h e s ta k eh old ers .

Suggest h ow y ou m ig ht r e act t o t h e p re d ic te d r e sp onse s.

13 S cen ario s Tw o e m plo yees a sse rt t h at t h ey h av e b een s e x ually h ara sse d a t w ork a n d i n te n d t o t a k e t h eir c ase to t h e m ed ia i f t h e s itu atio n i s n ot r e ctif ie d .

A c itiz en ’s g ro up b oyco tts /p ic k ets y our s to re b ecau se y our o rg an iz atio n h as d onate d m oney t o a n ab ortio n r ig hts g ro up.

It h as b een d ete rm in ed t h at a n i n te rn al a cco unta n t h as m an ip ula te d t h e i n co m e s ta te m en t a n d your d ecla re d p ro fits a re n ow i d en tif ie d a s b ogus.

Em plo yees h av e d ecla re d t h eir i n te n tio n t o s tr ik e b ecau se o f d em ean in g t r e atm en t b y t h eir em plo yers .

An a ccid en t r e la te d t o e q uip m en t a t y our p la n t h as k ille d s e v en w ork ers .

A b liz zard h as r e n dere d y our c o m pan y p ow erle ss a n d y ou c an not m eet o rd ers t h at c u sto m ers a re ex pectin g.

You w ill h av e t o c lo se o ne o f y our t h re e p la n t f a cilitie s, r e q uir in g t h e l a y off o f h undre d s o f work ers .

Sev era l e m plo yees c o m pla in o f i ll h ealth d ue t o n oxio us o dors t h at a re s o m eh ow e sc ap in g i n to th eir o ffic es.

Your c o m pan y i s m erg in g w ith a n oth er a n d e m plo yees a re f re ttin g a b out t h e i m plic atio ns f o r th eir w ork .

It t u rn s o ut t h at a n e m plo yee i s a p sy ch opath ; h e e n te rs y our o ffic e a n d r a n dom ly m urd ers f iv e em plo yees.

You a re a s u perin te n den t o f s c h ools . Y ou d is c o ver t h at a f o rty -y ear-o ld h ig h s c h ool E nglis h te ach er i s h av in g a c o nse n su al a ffa ir w ith a s o phom ore a t t h e h ig h s c h ool.

The F ed era l T ra d e C om mis sio n h as c o nta cte d y our o rg an iz atio n c la im in g t h at y our ad vertis e m en ts c o nta in f a u lty a n d m is le ad in g a d vertis in g.

It i s l a te O cto ber. I t i s r e v eale d t h at y our c an did ate f o r m ay or h as l is te d o n a r e su m e t h at h e h as a maste r’s d eg re e f ro m C orn ell U niv ers ity . H e h as n o s u ch d eg re e.

P RA CTIT IO NER S A ND A CA DEM IC S It i s c o m mon f o r p ers o ns t o d ra w a d is tin ctio n b etw een t h ose w ho s tu dy p hen om en a a n d t h ose w ho h av e to d eal w ith p hen om en a. A cad em ic s a re s o m etim es re fe rre d to d is p ara g in gly a s p eo ple w ho liv e in a n unre al w orld a n d o pera te i n w hat i s r e fe rre d t o a s a n i v ory t o w er. B y c o ntr a st, p ra ctitio ners a re s a id t o b e in t h e r e al w orld , h av e h an ds-o n e x perie n ce, a n d a re l e ss e n cu m bere d b y e th ere al n otio ns. T he p re v ailin g opin io n i s t h at, u nlik e a cad em ic s, p ra ctitio ners h av e a ctu ally e x perie n ced p hen om en a a n d a re t h us a w are of w hat a ctu ally o ccu rs a s o ppose d t o w hat s e q ueste re d a cad em ic s m ig ht c o nje ctu re .

As it re la te s to cris is co m munic atio n, h ow ev er, m ost p ra ctitio ners w ho h av e w ritte n ab out cris is co m munic atio n a n d m ost c ris is c o m munic atio n sc h ola rs p re ach fro m th e sa m e a lta r. T heir c o unse l is re m ark ab ly sim ila r. Stu dy afte r stu dy su pports th e w is d om of su ccessfu l cris is co m munic atio n pra ctitio ners . T his b ook w ill d esc rib e b oth t h e t h eo ry a n d p ra ctic e o f c ris is c o m munic atio n a n d s h ow h ow th eo ry p ro vid es t h e f o undatio n f o r p ra ctic e. A g ood d eal o f l ite ra tu re i n a cad em ic j o urn als d is c u sse s c ase s of c ris is c o m munic atio n. T his r e se arc h w ill b e p re se n te d o n t h e f o llo w in g p ag es a n d r e ad ers w ill s e e t h e re m ark ab le s im ila rity b etw een a cad em ic r e se arc h a n d t h e w ritin gs o f p ra ctitio ners o n t h e s u bje ct. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •The n ex t c h ap te r d is c u sse s t h e t h eo re tic al u nderp in nin gs o f c ris is c o m munic atio n.

Poin t/C ou nte rp oin t In t h is e x erc is e , t w o p ositio ns a re p re se n te d . T he f ir s t i s c o nsis te n t w ith a p oin t m ad e i n t h e c h ap te r.

The s e co nd i s a c o unte ra rg um en t. C onsid er t h e c o unse l a n d c o unte ra rg um en t. T hen w rite a o ne-p ag e positio n p ap er i d en tif y in g y our p ositio n o n t h e i s su e.

Counse l— Sta k eh old ers r e m em ber h ow y ou c o m munic ate a s m uch a s t h ey r e m em ber t h e c ris is its e lf .

Counte ra rg um en t— This i s a n otio n p ro m ulg ate d b y c ris is c o m munic atio n p ro fe ssio nals t o ad van ce t h eir c o nsu ltin g c are ers . T he A m eric an P ean ut C orp ora tio n w ill b e r e m em bere d becau se o f t h e c o nta m in atio n n ot b ecau se t h ey d en ie d t h at t h ey k new a b out i t. W orld C om ex ecu tiv es w ill b e r e m em bere d f o r t h eir f ra u d n ot f o r h ow t h ey c o m munic ate d r e g ard in g t h eir beh av io r. K obe w ill b e r e m em bere d f o r h is i n dis c re tio n n ot f o r h ow h e d id o r d id n ot co m munic ate a b out i t.

Sum mary : A T oolb ox In accu ra te c o ncep tio ns c an s k ew c ris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rts a n d r e su lt i n i n ad eq uate pla n nin g a n d i m ple m en ta tio n. A ccu ra te c o ncep tio ns i n clu de Cris is c o m munic atio n h as p ro activ e a s w ell a s r e activ e d im en sio ns.

Cris is c o m munic atio n i s n ot a b out s p in nin g r e ality . S pin nin g c an a ctu ally b e co unte rp ro ductiv e.

Cris is c o m munic atio n i n volv es i n te ra ctin g w ith i n te rn al a s w ell a s e x te rn al a u die n ces.

Cris is c o m munic atio n i s n ot s y nonym ous w ith m ed ia r e la tio ns. M an y n onm ed ia sta k eh old ers a re c ru cia l t o t h e c ris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rt.

Cris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rts d o n ot e n d o nce a m essa g e i s s e n t. C om munic ato rs m ust b e aw are o f t h e n onlin ear n atu re o f c o m munic atio n a n d b e r e ad y t o r e sp ond t o r e actio ns t o messa g es.

Cris is c o m munic ato rs s h ould b e f a m ilia r w ith t h e f o llo w in g t e rm s a n d c o ncep ts .

Attr ib utio n t h eo ry Counte rfa ctu als Em otio nal s ta b ility Exte rn al/in te rn al/p ers o nal c o ntr o l Four R s: r e la tio nsh ip s, r e p uta tio ns, r e sp onsib ility , r e sp onse Honorin g t h e a cco unt Im ag e r e sto ra tio n t h eo ry In str u ctin g i n fo rm atio n Leg itim acy Med ia r ic h ness Nuggets Para lin gual a n d r h eto ric al s e n sitiv ity SC CT/C lu ste rin g Sle ep er e ffe ct Speech a cco m modatio n t h eo ry Sta b ility Sta k eh old er t h eo ry Sta k eh old ers Supportin g b eh av io r Halo a n d V elc ro e ffe ct Cris is c o m munic atio n i s a d iv is io n o f o rg an iz atio nal c o m munic atio n s tu dy. O rg an iz atio nal co m munic atio n a d dre sse s • • • • Com munic atio n n etw ork s a n d n etw ork in g i n clu din g n ew s o cia l n etw ork t e ch nolo gy In fo rm atio n m an ag em en t Org an iz atio nal c lim ate a n d c u ltu re Com munic atio n s k ill s e ts P RACTIT IO NER P ER SP E C TIV E : C ARO LIN E S APR IE L Caro lin e S aprie l i s t h e f o under a nd M anagin g D ir e cto r o f C S& A, a s p ecia lis t r is k a nd c ris is a nd b usin ess co ntin uity m anagem en t c o nsu ltin g fir m w ith o ffic es in H ong K ong, th e U nite d K in gdom , B elg iu m , T he Neth erla nds, I ta ly , S in gapore , a nd t h e U nite d S ta te s. C aro lin e S aprie l h as o ver t w en ty y ea rs o f e xp erie n ce in r is k a nd c ris is m anagem en t w ork in g w ith m ultin atio nal o rg aniz a tio ns a cro ss i n dustr y s e cto rs g lo bally .

Prio r t o e sta blis h in g h er o w n c o nsu ltin g f ir m , C aro lin e S aprie l h eld s e n io r m anagem en t p ositio ns w ith a num ber o f i n te rn atio nal p ublic r e la tio ns f ir m s, i n clu din g T he R ow la nd C om pany a nd H ill & K now lto n.

Cris is c o m munic ato rs m ust re m em ber th at th ey w ill n ot b e a b le to c o ntr o l th e c ris is e v en ts , b ut c an certa in ly c o ntr o l th eir c re d ib ility b y r e m ain in g tr u th fu l th ro ug hout. I t is a ls o im porta n t to r e m em ber th e th re e F ’s : F ast, F re q uen t, a n d F actu al. T hese k ey s a re e sp ecia lly re le v an t d urin g th e e arly h ours o f th e cris is w hen e v ery one i s s c re am in g f o r i n fo rm atio n.

Substa n ce is c ru cia l. E m pty m essa g es w ill n ot w ork a n d c an e v en b e c o unte rp ro ductiv e. D en ia l a n d dow npla y in g e x acerb ate t h e i m pact o f t h e c ris is . “ K nee-je rk ” r e actio ns a re a ls o c o unte rp ro ductiv e. C ris is co m munic ato rs s h ould h old th e c o urs e a n d f o llo w th eir p la n . M an y a sp ects o f a c ris is a re o uts id e o f th e org an iz atio n’s c o ntr o l. F ocu sin g t h e e ffo rts o n t h ose a re as o f t h e c ris is a n d t h ose s ta k eh old ers t h at c an b e in flu en ced , a n d m onito rin g t h ose t h at c an not, w ill h elp o ptim iz e r e so urc es a n d k eep t h e t e am m otiv ate d .

An a p olo gy is re q uir e d a n d a p pro pria te w hen th ere is a c le ar c ase o f g uilt. H ow a n d w hen th is is ex pre sse d is v ery m uch d ep en den t o n th e c u ltu re /e n vir o nm en t w here th e c ris is is ta k in g p la ce (J a p an vers u s t h e U nite d S ta te s, f o r i n sta n ce). I n a ll c ase s, a h eartf e lt e x pre ssio n o f r e g re t f o r w hat i s h ap pen in g or h as h ap pen ed i s r e q uir e d . T his i s p artic u la rly c ritic al w hen t h ere a re v ic tim s o r w hen t h e e n vir o nm en t is g re atly a ffe cte d . T he e x pre ssio n a n d d em onstr a tio n o f r e sp onsib le b eh av io r, c are a n d o w ners h ip o f t h e pro ble m t h ro ughout t h e c ris is i s e sse n tia l, a n d w ill h elp p ro te ct r e p uta tio n.

An o rg an iz atio n c an a b so lu te ly p la n f o r c ris e s. B esid es h av in g a p la n i n p la ce t h at d esc rib es e sc ala tio n an d m obiliz atio n p ro ced ure s, a ssig ns c ris is c o m munic atio ns ro le s a n d re sp onsib ilitie s, a n d p ro vid es a s man y t e m pla te s a s p ra ctic al ( h old in g s ta te m en ts , Q & A’s , l o g s h eets , a n d s o o n), I b elie v e t h e b est w ay t o pre p are i s f o r t h e t e am t o p ra ctic e s ta k eh old er m ap pin g a n d s c en ario p la n nin g s k ills t h ro ugh t r a in in g a n d ex erc is e s. T oday ’s c ris e s a re in cre d ib ly c o m ple x , h ig hlig htin g th e in te rd ep en den ce o f s ta k eh old ers . T o le ad th eir o rg an iz atio ns th ro ugh a c ris is e ffe ctiv ely , c ris is te am s m ust u nders ta n d a n d b e a b le to m ap sta k eh old er b eh av io r a n d b uild s tr a te g ie s q uic k ly th ro ugh th e d ev elo pm en t o f “ w hat- if a n d w hat- n ex t” sc en ario s. F re q uen t a n d r e g ula r p ra ctic e i s n ecessa ry . T han kfu lly , c ris e s d o n ot o ccu r o fte n , s o i f t h e t e am waits f o r o ne b efo re p ra ctic in g, i t w ill b e r u sty a t b est a n d i n effe ctiv e a t w ors t w hen t h e t im e c o m es.

Lead ers h ip a n d o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re a re 1 00 p erc en t c ru cia l f o r th e s u ccessfu l c ris is c o m munic atio n effo rt. C ris is m an ag em en t a n d c o m munic atio n s h ould b e i n te g ra te d i n to c o rp ora te m an ag em en t s y ste m s, te ste d a n d m ain ta in ed v ery m uch lik e a lif e ja ck et— re ad y to b e d ep lo yed e ffe ctiv ely a t a n y tim e w hen need ed . R eg re tta b ly , d esp ite h av in g th e “ rig ht” c u ltu re , a n o rg an iz atio n’s c h an ge o f le ad ers h ip c an s h if t th e fo cu s of cris is pre p are d ness an d re sp onse fro m pro -a ctiv e to re activ e, an d th is is w hen th e org an iz atio n b eco m es m ore v uln era b le .

Tab le 2 .1 SC CT R eco m men datio n s f o r C ris is R esp on se S ele ctio n 1 . P ro vid e i n str u ctin g i n fo rm atio n t o a ll v ic tim s o r p ote n tia l v ic tim s i n t h e f o rm o f w arn in g a n d dir e ctio ns f o r p ro te ctin g t h em se lv es f ro m h arm .

2 . P ro vid e a d ju stin g i n fo rm atio n t o v ic tim s b y e x pre ssin g c o ncern f o r t h em a n d p ro vid in g c o rre ctiv e actio n w hen p ossib le . N ote : P ro vid in g i n str u ctin g a n d a d ju stin g i n fo rm atio n i s e n ough o f a r e sp onse fo r v ic tim c ris e s w ith n o c ris is h is to ry o r u nfa v ora b le p rio r r e p uta tio n. 1.

3 . U se d im in is h m en t s tr a te g ie s f o r a ccid en t c ris e s w hen t h ere i s n o c ris is h is to ry o r u nfa v ora b le p rio r re p uta tio n.

4 . U se d im in is h m en t s tr a te g ie s f o r v ic tim c ris e s w hen t h ere i s a c ris is h is to ry o r u nfa v ora b le p rio r re p uta tio n.

5 . U se r e b uild in g s tr a te g ie s f o r a ccid en t c ris e s w hen t h ere i s a c ris is h is to ry o r u nfa v ora b le p rio r re p uta tio n.

6 . U se r e b uild in g s tr a te g ie s f o r a n y p re v en ta b le c ris is .

7 . U se d en ia l s tr a te g ie s i n r u m or c ris e s.

8 . U se d en ia l s tr a te g ie s i n c h alle n ges w hen t h e c h alle n ge i s u nw arra n te d .

9 . U se c o rre ctiv e a ctio n ( a d ju stin g i n fo rm atio n) i n c h alle n ges w hen o th er s ta k eh old ers a re l ik ely t o su pport t h e c h alle n ge.

10. U se r e in fo rc in g s tr a te g ie s a s s u pple m en ts t o t h e o th er r e sp onse s tr a te g ie s.

11 . V ic tim ag e r e sp onse s tr a te g y s h ould o nly b e u se d w ith t h e v ic tim c lu ste r.

12. T o b e c o nsis te n t, d o n ot m ix d en ia l s tr a te g ie s w ith e ith er t h e d im in is h m en t o r r e b uild in g s tr a te g ie s.

13. D im in is h m en t a n d r e b uild in g s tr a te g ie s c an b e u se d i n c o m bin atio n w ith o ne a n oth er.

Sourc e:

W . Tim oth y C oom bs. 2007.

Ongoin g C ris is C om munic a tio ns: P la nnin g, M anagin g andR esp ondin g.

Thousa n d O ak s, C A : S ag e P ublic atio ns, p . 1 43.

Exercis e s a n d D is c u ssio n Q uestio n s Are c o unte rfa ctu als i n ev ita b le r e g ard le ss o f c ris is c o m munic atio n p la n nin g? D o s ta k eh old ers defa u lt t o c o nsid erin g a n d p ro posin g c o unte rfa ctu als ?

Of r e la tio nsh ip s, r e p uta tio ns, r e sp onsib ility , a n d r e sp onse , w hic h R i s t h e m ost s ig nif ic an t f o r t h e cris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rt? W hic h R w as t h e m ost s ig nif ic an t f o r t h e P C A ?

How s ig nif ic an t i s e m otio nal s ta b ility i n d ete rm in in g t h e a b ility o f s ta k eh old ers t o p erc eiv e messa g es?

Hav e y ou e v er e x perie n ced t h e s le ep er e ffe ct? H alo e ffe ct? V elc ro e ffe ct?

In y our e x perie n ce— of p ara lin gual a n d r h eto ric al s e n sitiv ity , w hic h c an h av e t h e m ore sig nif ic an t p ositiv e e ffe ct o n r e sto rin g l e g itim acy a m ong s ta k eh old ers ?

In y our e x perie n ce— of p ara lin gual a n d r h eto ric al s e n sitiv ity , w hic h c an h av e t h e m ore n eg ativ e effe ct w hen a g ro up m eets t o s o lv e a p ro ble m ?

N OTES 1 .

L au re n ce B arto n, Cris is in O rg aniz a tio ns: M anagin g a nd C om munic a tin g in th e H ea t o f C haos ( C in cin nati, O H:

South -W este rn , 1 993), p . 2 .

2 .

S te v en F in k, Cris is M anagem en t: P la nnin g fo r th e I n evita ble ( C in cin nati, O H: A uth ors G uild , 2 002), p p. 1 5–16.

3 .

D . F is h m an , “ C ris is C om munic atio n T heo ry B le n ded a n d E xte n ded ,” Com munic a tio n Q uarte rly 4 7: 3 45–75.

4 .

K ath le en F earn s-B an k, “ C ris is C om munic atio ns: A R ev ie w o f S om e B est P ra ctic es,” in Handbook o f P ublic Rela tio ns , e d . R .L . H eath ( T housa n d O ak s, C A : S ag e, 2 001), p p. 4 79–485.

5 .

E ric D ezen hall an d Jo hn W eb er, Dam age C ontr o l: W hy E very th in g Yo u K now a bout C ris is M anagem en t Is Wro ng ( N ew Y ork : P en guin , 2 007), p . 7 .

6 .

The lis t o f c ate g orie s is d eriv ed fro m a c o m bin atio n o f tw o a rtic le s. T he e x am ple s fo r e ach c ate g ory a re m in e.

The tw o a rtic le s a re W . T im oth y C oom bs, “ Im pact o f P ast C ris e s o n C urre n t C ris is C om munic atio n: In sig hts fro m Situ atio nal C ris is C om munic atio n T heo ry ,” Jo urn al of B usin ess C om munic a tio n 41, no. 3: 270; an d T im oth y W .

Coom bs a n d S herry J . H olla d ay, “ H elp in g C ris is M an ag ers P ro te ct R ep uta tio nal A sse ts ,” Managem en t C om munic a tio n Quarte rly 1 6, n o. 2 ( N ovem ber 2 002): 1 70–71.

7 .

S ee h ttp ://w ate rg ate .in fo /im peach m en t/im peach m en t- a rtic le s.s h tm l. O ne c o uld m ak e a re aso nab le c ase th at a ll th re e o f th e a rtic le s, a t le ast p erip hera lly , d ealt w ith c o m munic atio n is su es a fte r th e c ris is .

8 .

Q uote d in F in k, Cris is M anagem en t , p . x . 9.

Ja ck G la sc o ck , “T he Ja sp er D ra g gin g D eath : C ris is C om munic atio n an d th e C om munity N ew sp ap er,” Com munic a tio n S tu die s 5 5, n o. 1 ( S prin g 2 004): 2 9–47.

10.

T .C . P au ch an t a n d Ia n M itr o ff, Tra nsfo rm in g th e C ris is P ro ne O rg aniz a tio n (S an F ra n cis c o : J o sse y B ass, 1 992), p. 1 01.

11 .

R obert U lm er, “ E ffe ctiv e C ris is M an ag em en t T hro ugh E sta b lis h ed S ta k eh old er R ela tio nsh ip s: M aid en M ills a s a Case S tu dy,” Managem en t C om munic a tio n Q uarte rly 1 4, n o. 4 ( M ay 2 001): 5 97.

12.

D .L . W ilc o x, P H . A ult, a n d W .K . A gee, Public R ela tio ns S tr a te g ie s a nd T a ctic s (N ew Y ork : H arp er a n d R ow , 1986), p . 3 10.

13.

D av id W illia m s an d G le n da T re ad w ay “E xxon an d th e V ald ez accid en t: A fa ilu re in cris is co m munic atio n.” Com munic a tio n S tu die s A 3; n o. 1 ( S prin g 1 992): 5 6–64.

14.

R ic h ard Ic e, “C orp ora te P ublic s an d R heto ric al S tr a te g ie s: T he C ase of U nio n C arb id e’s B hopal C ris is ,” Managem en t C om munic a tio n Q uarte rly 4 , n o. 3 ( 1 991): 3 41–62.

15.

D am io n W ay m er a n d R obert H eath , “ E m erg en t A gen das: T he F org otte n P ublic s in C ris is C om munic atio n a n d Is su es M an ag em en t R ese arc h ,” Jo urn al o f A pplie d C om munic a tio n R ese a rc h 3 5, n o. 1 ( F eb ru ary 2 007): 8 8–108.

16.

I b id ., p . 9 2.

17.

M atth ew W S eeg er, T im oth y L . S elln ow , a n d R obert R . U lm er, “ C om munic atio n, O rg an iz atio n, a n d C ris is ,” Com munic a tio n Y ea rb ook 2 1: 2 31–75; th e se ctio n d ealin g w ith th is a p pears o n p ag e 2 54 o f th e a rtic le . T he a u th ors attr ib ute th is se n tim en t to K .M . H earit, ‘“ W e D id n’t D o It’ to ‘It’s N ot O ur F au lt’ : T he U se o f A polo gia in P ublic Rela tio ns C ris e s,” in Public R ela tio ns I n quir y a s R heto ric a l C ritic is m : C ase S tu die s o f C orp ora te D is c o urse a nd S ocia l In flu en ce ( W estp ort, C T: P ra eg er, 1 995), p p. 1 1 7–34.

18.

M an y, if n ot a ll a u th ors w ho w rite a b out le g itim acy m ak e th is c la im . S ee, fo r e x am ple , M yria W at- k in s A lle n an d R ach el H . C allo uet, “L eg itim atio n E ndeav ors : Im pre ssio n M an ag em en t S tr a te g ie s U se d b y an O rg an iz atio n in Cris is ,” Com munic a tio n M onogra phs 6 1, n o. 1 ( N ovem ber 1 994): 4 4–62.

19.

D way ne H al D ean , “ C onsu m er R eactio n to N eg ativ e P ublic ity : E ffe cts o f C orp ora te R ep uta tio n, R esp onse , a n d Resp onsib ility f o r a C ris is E ven t,” Jo urn al o f B usin ess C om munic a tio n 4 1, n o. 2 ( A pril 2 004): 1 93.

20.

W . T im oth y C oom bs “ A ttr ib utio n T heo ry a s a G uid e f o r P ost- c ris is C om munic atio n R ese arc h ,” Public R ela tio ns Revie w 3 3 ( 2 007): 1 35–39.

21.

C oom bs, “ Im pact o f P ast C ris e s o n C urre n t C ris is C om munic atio n,” p . 2 65.

22.

C oom bs a n d H olla d ay, “ C om munic atio n a n d A ttr ib utio ns in C ris is ,” p p. 2 79–95.

23.

W im V erb ek e a n d P atr ic k V an K en hove, “ Im pact o f e m otio nal s ta b ility a n d a ttitu de o n c o nsu m ptio n d ecis io ns under ris k : T he C oca-C ola c ris is in B elg iu m ,” Jo urn al o f H ea lth C om munic a tio n.

7 , n o. 5 (O cto ber/D ecem ber 2 002):

455–472.

24.

D wan e D ean , “C onsu m er re actio n to neg ativ e public ity : Effe cts of co rp ora te re p uta tio n, re sp onse , an d re sp onsib ility f o r a c ris is e v en t,” Jo urn al o f B usin ess C om munic a tio n.

4 1, n o. 2 ( A pril 2 004): 1 92–211 .

25.

L is a L yon an d G le n C am ero n, “A R ela tio nal A ppro ach E xam in in g th e In te rp la y of P rio r R ep uta tio n an d Im med ia te R esp onse to a C ris is ,” Jo urn al o f P ublic R ela tio ns R ese a rc h 1 6, n o. 3 : 2 20.

26.

T im oth y W . C oom bs a n d S herry H olla d ay. 2 001. “ A n E xte n ded E xam in atio n o f th e C ris is S itu atio ns: A F usio n of th e R ela tio nal M an ag em en t a n d S ym bolic A ppro ach es,” Jo urn al o f P ublic R ela tio ns R ese a rc h 1 3, n o. 4 : 3 35. • • • • • • • • • • • • • •3 Org an iz atio nal T heo ry a n d C ris is C om munic atio n Chap te r in a N uts h ell Good th eo rie s can help peo ple unders ta n d vario us phen om en a. Sev era l th eo rie s ab out co m munic atio n a n d o rg an iz atio ns a re r e le v an t to c ris is c o m munic atio n s tu dy. U nders ta n din g th ese th eo rie s c an h elp p ra ctitio ners (1 ) p re em pt c ris e s a n d (2 ) re sp ond to c ris e s w hen c o nfro nte d w ith th em . I n t h is c h ap te r, w e r e v ie w s e v era l t h eo rie s a n d d is c u ss w hy a n d h ow t h ey a re r e le v an t t o c ris is co m munic ato rs .

Specif ic ally , a t t h e e n d o f t h is c h ap te r, r e ad ers w ill b e a b le t o Defin e t h e t e rm “ th eo ry .” Desc rib e t h e f o llo w in g t h eo rie s a n d e x pla in t h eir r e le v an ce t o c ris is c o m munic atio n s tu dy Syste m s t h eo ry Cultu ra l t h eo ry Cla ssic al a n d h um an r e so urc es t h eo ry Chao s t h eo ry Critic al t h eo ry Expla in a p plic ab le c o m munic atio n t h eo ry p rin cip le s.

Tra n sm is sio n a n d c o nstitu tiv e d efin itio ns Receiv er-a u die n ce-c en te re d p ers p ectiv e Nonlin earity Irre v ers ib ility Verb al a n d n onverb al s y m bols Id en tif y c ris is c o m munic atio n c ase s t h at i llu str a te t h e r e le v an ce o f t h eo ry .

C ASE 3 .1 : A N EW S UPE R STA R On F eb ru ary 9 , 2 009, A le x R odrig uez— a b ase b all s u pers ta r w ho p la y s th ir d b ase f o r th e h ig hly v is ib le New Y ork Y an kees— ad m itte d th at s e v era l y ears e arlie r h e h ad ta k en a n ille g al s u bsta n ce to e n han ce h is perfo rm an ce a s a n a th le te .

Rodrig uez’s a ck now le d gm en t w as n ot m ad e b ecau se h e s u dden ly h ad a p an g o f m ora l r e m ors e . H e d id not w ak e u p o n F eb ru ary 9 a n d s a y, “ I h av e b een f o olin g th e p ublic to o lo ng. I t is tim e to c o m e c le an .” Rodrig uez w as e sse n tia lly c o m pelle d to a d m it h is g uilt in o rd er to s a lv ag e s o m e s e m bla n ce o f h is p rio r re p uta tio n. T w o d ay s b efo re t h e a d m is sio n a r e p ort a p peare d i n Sports I llu str a te d m ag azin e c la im in g t h at th ere w as e v id en ce in dic atin g th at R odrig uez h ad te ste d p ositiv e fo r s te ro id s— a b an ned s u bsta n ce fo r base b all p la y ers . O nce th is in fo rm atio n le ak ed , r e p orte rs s c ra m ble d to f in d o ld v id eo clip s o f R odrig uez den yin g h is i n volv em en t w ith i lle g al d ru gs. O n S unday, F eb ru ary 8 , t e le v is io n s ta tio ns r a n s e g m en ts o f a 2007 in te rv ie w w ith R odrig uez b y C BS 60 M in ute s re p orte r K atie C ouric . In th e in te rv ie w , R odrig uez an sw ere d C ouric ’s poin t- b la n k questio n uneq uiv ocally . N o, he did not ta k e ban ned su bsta n ces. O n Feb ru ary 9 , 2 009, R odrig uez w as f o rc ed t o a d m it t h at h e h ad l ie d t h en a n d h ad b een , i n f a ct, a c h eat.

This re v ela tio n w as n ot ju st a b lo w to R odrig uez. It w as a n oth er b la st to th e im ag e o f m ajo r le ag ue base b all. A b old h ead lin e a p peare d o n th e f ro nt p ag e o f th e F eb ru ary 1 0 Bosto n G lo be s p orts s e ctio n:

A- Rod A dm it s S te ro id U se . T he f ir s t l in e o f t h e a rtic le b eg an w ith t h e f o llo w in g w ord s:

“B ase b all’s h all o f s h am e g ain ed a n ew s u pers ta r y este rd ay a s A le x R odrig uez o ute d h im se lf a s a d ru g c h eat… ” In 2 008 t h e s o -c alle d M itc h ell r e p ort— nam ed f o r t h e c h air o f a c o ngre ssio nal i n vestig atio n c o m mitte e • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •—in dic ate d th at n o f e w er th an 1 04 b ase b all p la y ers h ad u se d ille g al d ru gs to b oost p erfo rm an ce. B arry Bonds, th e a ll- tim e le ad in g h om e ru n h itte r, a n d M ark M cG uir e , th e fir s t p la y er to b re ak B ab e R uth ’s lo ngtim e r e co rd f o r h om e r u ns in a s in gle s e aso n, h ad b oth b een id en tif ie d a s d ru g c h eats . M cG uir e h ad te arfu lly a ck now le d ged h is c o m plic ity d urin g a s e n ate h earin g . T he r e co rd s o f b oth B onds a n d M cG uir e were n ow t a in te d . T he r e su lts o f a ll o f t h e g am es t h ey h ad p la y ed i n w ere t a in te d . I n f a ct, t h e r e su lts o f a ll gam es th at a n y o f th e 1 04 p la y ers p la y ed in w ere ta in te d . B ase b all, th e n atio nal p astim e o f th e U nite d Sta te s, a g am e re v ere d b y c h ild re n a n d a d ults a lik e, se em ed to b e re elin g fro m a ccu sa tio ns su rfa cin g month ly ab out o ne p la y er o r an oth er w ho h ad b een ch eatin g w hile p la y in g a g am e th at o ste n sib ly re p re se n te d a ll th at w as g ood a n d p ure . A fte r th e R odrig uez a ck now le d gm en t, P re sid en t B ara ck O bam a, le ss th an o ne m onth in to h is p re sid en cy, c o m men te d th at th is la te st a d m is sio n “ ta rn is h es a n e n tir e e ra ” an d a ffe cts c h ild re n ’s p erc ep tio n o f w hat it m ean s to b e h onest. T he b ase b all c o m mis sio ner, B ud S elig , had n o i m med ia te c o m men t o n t h e R odrig uez a d m is sio n.

In a n a tte m pt to r e d uce d am ag e r e la te d to h is in volv em en t, R odrig uez a p olo giz ed to s p orts f a n s. T he Glo be c o m men te d th at R odrig uez “ b orro w ed a p ag e f ro m J a so n G ia m bi a n d A ndy P ettitte w ho r e g ain ed much o f t h eir p opula rity a fte r a d m ittin g t h ey u se d b an ned s u bsta n ces.” R odrig uez a ck now le d ged t h at t h e fa n s “ w ill n ev er lo ok a t m e th e s a m e.” I n h is r e m ark s R odrig uez c la im ed th at h e w as “ y oung a n d s tu pid an d n aiv e” w hen h e t o ok t h e d ru gs a n d i s n ow “ v ery s o rry .” H e a ls o c la im ed t h at h e k now s n ow t h at “ th e tr u th w ill s e t m e f re e.” R odrig uez e v en c o m men te d th at s o m eth in g g ood w ould c o m e o ut o f th is c ris is .

“I’m b eg in nin g t o g ro w u p. I ’m p re tty t ir e d o f b ein g s e lf is h a n d s tu pid .” 1 Questio n s f o r A naly sis Is i t p ossib le t h at In su ffic ie n t i n fo rm atio n h ad b een s e n t t o p la y ers d esc rib in g t h e r u le s a b out u sin g c erta in dru gs?

The c h an nels o f c o m munic atio n f ro m p la y ers t o m an ag em en t w ere c lo gged a n d t h ere fo re man ag em en t w as u naw are o f d ru g u sa g e?

The t r a in ers f o r t h e p la y ers w ere n ot s u ffic ie n tly l in ked t o t h e t e am c o ach es a n d t h ere fo re th ere w as l im ite d c o m munic atio n b etw een t h e t w o g ro ups?

The o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re o f m ajo r l e ag ue b ase b all a ffe cte d t h e e v olu tio n o f t h is c ris is ?

In t h e p re v io us c h ap te r w e d is c u sse d s e v era l t e rm s r e la te d t o c ris is c o m munic atio n. H ow would y ou a n aly ze t h is c ase i n t e rm s o f Sta k eh old er t h eo ry ?

Leg itim acy ?

Sta b ility ?

Halo a n d V elc ro e ffe ct?

Four R s?

Does A le x R odrig uez n eed t o c o ntin ue t o c o m munic ate t o a u die n ces?

Rodrig uez i s a m em ber o f t h e m ajo r l e ag ue b ase b all p la y er’s u nio n. D oes t h e u nio n n eed t o co m munic ate a m essa g e t o a n y a u die n ce?

Rodrig uez p la y s f o r t h e N ew Y ork Y an kees. D o t h e Y an kees n eed t o c o m munic ate a b out t h is is su e?

If y ou a n sw ere d y es t o a n y o f t h e p re ced in g t h re e q uestio ns:

Why d o t h ese p eo ple /o rg an iz atio ns n eed t o c o m munic ate i n fo rm atio n?

Who m ust b e c o nta cte d ?

What i s t h e m essa g e t o t h ese a u die n ces?

How s h ould t h e m essa g es b e r e la y ed ?

Will t h ese c o m munic atio ns a ffe ct t h e p erc ep tio n o f A le x R odrig uez?

Majo r L eag ue B ase b all?

The N ew Y ork Y an kees?

The M ajo r L eag ue B ase b all P la y ers A sso cia tio n?

Will R odrig uez’s a p olo gy o n F eb ru ary 9 , 2 009, h elp r e sto re h is i m ag e? N OTE 1.

B ob H ohle r, “ A -R od a d m its s te ro id u se — Slu gger w as d opin g d urin g T ex as y ears ” Bosto n G lo be , s e ctio n C , p .

1., F eb ru ary 1 0, 2 009.

P RACTIC AL T HEO RY The w ord “th eo ry ” is unfo rtu nate ly la d en w ith a neg ativ e co nnota tio n. Peo ple ofte n re fe r to th e dis tin ctio n b etw een t h eo ry a n d p ra ctic e a n d a rg ue t h at c o ncep tu aliz atio ns m ay m ak e s e n se “ in t h eo ry ” b ut hav e lim ite d p ra ctic al v alu e. P ra ctitio ners w ill s o m etim es d is m is s th eo ry a s th e m usin gs o f a cad em ic s who a re n ot g ro unded i n t h e n uan ces o f r e ality .

Som e t h eo rie s a re , i n f a ct, l e ss t h an p ra ctic al, a n d o fte n t h eo rie s a re p oorly d esc rib ed s o t h at w hate v er valu e t h ey m ay h av e i s i n accessib le t o t h ose w ho m ig ht o th erw is e l ik e t o a p ply t h em . I t c an b e t h an kle ss work to p lo w th ro ugh a c o m ple x a rtic le a b out th eo ry ju st to r e ach a c o nclu sio n th at s e em s ir re le v an t o r se lf -e v id en t. D is m is sin g th eo ry f o r th ese r e aso ns, h ow ev er, is a g ood e x am ple o f th ro w in g o ut th e b ab y with th e b ath w ate r. If ex pre sse d effe ctiv ely , th eo rie s can b e v alu ab le an d can h elp p ra ctitio ners in org an iz atio ns u nders ta n d p hen om en a.

W HAT I S A T H EO RY ?

A t h eo ry i s e sse n tia lly a s p ecu la tio n, a n e d ucate d g uess b ase d o n s tu dy o r e x perie n ce.

Peo ple co nduct re se arc h stu die s th at te st hypoth ese s. “H ypo” is a pre fix th at m ean s “u nder.” Hypoth ese s a re lite ra lly u nder th e th eo ry — fo undatio nal a ssu m ptio ns th at a re te ste d . T he re su lts o f th e te st/s tu dy f o rm t h e b ase s f o r a t h eo ry . A h ypoth esis i n a s e rie s o f s tu die s m ig ht b e t h at a n o rg an iz atio n’s in te rn al sta k eh old ers n eed m ore in fo rm atio n th an ex te rn al sta k eh old ers d urin g a cris is . R ese arc h ers would co nduct stu die s to d ete rm in e w heth er th is h ypoth esis can b e su pporte d . If th e h ypoth esis is su pporte d , t h en a t h eo ry m ig ht b e d ev elo ped a b out h ow t o p ro ceed d urin g c ris e s. T he t h eo ry m ig ht a sse rt th at in te rn al sta k eh old ers need in fo rm atio n m ore quic k ly an d m ore co m ple te ly th an ex te rn al sta k eh old ers .

Theo rie s a re d if fe re n t f ro m l a w s. A l a w , f o r e x am ple t h e l a w o f g ra v ity , i s a n i m muta b le t r u th . T heo rie s are c o nje ctu re s a b out t r u th t h at a re b ase d o n e x perim en ta tio n a n d o bse rv atio n. T he l a w o f g ra v ity i s n ot a co nje ctu re . It is n ot a th eo ry . It is a la w . D ro p a b ook a n d it w ill h it th e flo or. S om eo ne e v en a t th e Univ ers ity o f C alif o rn ia a t B erk ele y w ill n ot h av e a c o ntr a ry o pin io n ( a n d th is is th e a cid te st) . T heo rie s —ev en th ough th ey a re n ot im muta b le tr u th s— can b e v alu ab le f o r p eo ple w ho s tu dy p hen om en a. T hey can h elp p eo ple th in k a b out e v en ts a n d c an h elp p eo ple c o nte m pla te w hat s h ould b e d one in p ro ble m situ atio ns.

Sev era l o rg an iz atio nal th eo rie s a re re le v an t to th e stu dy o f c ris is c o m munic atio n. In th e fo llo w in g pag es th ese th eo rie s a re d is c u sse d . E ach se ctio n in clu des (a ) a b rie f d esc rip tio n o f th e th eo ry , (b ) a dis c u ssio n c o ncern in g h ow th e th eo ry r e la te s to c ris is c o m munic atio n, ( c ) a n e x pla n atio n o f th e th eo ry ’s key p rin cip le s, a n d ( d ) s o m e a p plic ab le c ris is c ase e x am ple s f o r y our a n aly sis .

S YST EM S T HEO RY W HAT I S S Y ST EM S T H EO RY ?

The b asic t e n et o f s y ste m s t h eo ry i s t h at o rg an iz atio ns a re c o m pris e d o f i n te rd ep en den t u nits t h at s h ould work in te rd ep en den tly not in dep en den tly . In a m ed ic al fa cility , ped ia tr ic ia n s w ork in one unit, pharm aco lo gis ts in a s e co nd, a cco unta n ts in a th ir d , m ain te n an ce s ta ff in a f o urth , h um an r e so urc es in a fif th , a n d e x ecu tiv es in a six th . S yste m s th eo ris ts a rg ue th at e ach o f th ese u nits is d ep en den t e ith er dir e ctly o r in dir e ctly o n a n oth er a n d n o u nit s h ould a ct a u to nom ously . In o rd er to s a tis fy th e n eed s o f patie n ts th at v is it th e fa cility as w ell as th e n eed s o f in div id uals w ho w ork w ith in th e fa cility , th e org an iz atio n m ust se e its e lf a s a n in te rd ep en den t w hole , o th erw is e th e o rg an iz atio n w ill n ot re ach its pote n tia l. H OW I S S Y ST EM S T H EO RY R ELEVA NT T O C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATIO N ?

In e sse n ce, th e e ffe ct o f u nits a ctin g in dep en den tly a n d n ot in te rd ep en den tly c an c re ate c ris is s itu atio ns an d l im it t h e e ffe ctiv en ess o f o rg an iz atio ns w hen c o nfro nte d with c ris is . I t i s n ot d if fic u lt t o i m ag in e h ow a c ris is c o uld s u rfa ce i f p ed ia tr ic ia n s i n a m ed ic al f a cility d o n ot s h are i n fo rm atio n w ith p harm acis ts .

Peo ple in o rg an iz atio ns g ath er in fo rm atio n, re la y an d re ceiv e in fo rm atio n fro m o th ers , an d sto re in fo rm atio n fo r la te r use . R ese arc h ers su ch as E gelh off an d Sen hav e m ad e th e case th at cris is man ag em en t s h ould b e s e en f ro m th e p ers p ectiv e o f a n in fo rm atio n p ro cessin g m odel.

1 I n fo rm atio n th at is in ad eq uate ly tr a n sfe rre d , o r n ot tr a n sfe rre d a t a ll, d ep riv es d ep artm en ts o f in fo rm atio n th at m ay b e esse n tia l in o rd er to o pera te e ffic ie n tly . O pera tin g in effic ie n tly c an c re ate c ris e s. O pera tin g e ffic ie n tly will p re v en t t h em .

Syste m s t h eo ry a p plie s n ot o nly t o t h e p re v en tio n o f c ris e s b ut a ls o t o t h e a b ility t o c o m munic ate w hen cris e s a ris e . W hen in fo rm atio n is n ot tr a n sfe rre d fro m o ne u nit to a n oth er, e x ecu tiv es a re d ep riv ed o f know le d ge th ey n eed to re sp ond in te llig en tly to in quir ie s m ad e d urin g c ris e s. W eic k h as a rg ued th at “cris is s itu atio ns im ped e a n o rg an iz atio n’s s e n se m ak in g p ro cess b y s tr a in in g its in fo rm atio n s y ste m s.” 2 This i m ped im en t i s f a r m ore p ro ble m atic i n a n o rg an iz atio n t h at d oes n ot l in k i ts d ep artm en ts a s a m atte r of d aily o pera tio ns. U nders ta n din g s y ste m s th eo ry a n d a p ply in g its te n ets re su lts in th e c re atio n o f a n in fo rm atio n s y ste m t h at h as a c h an ce o f c arry in g t h e u rg en cy a n d d elu ge o f i n fo rm atio n d urin g c ris e s.

W HAT A RE T H E K EY P R IN CIP L ES O F S Y ST EM S T H EO RY ?

Hie ra rc h ic a l o rd erin g A p re m is e o f s y ste m s t h eo ry i s t h at a n o rg an iz atio n i s c o m pose d o f s y ste m s a n d s u bsy ste m s a rra n ged i n a hie ra rc h y. A ny s y ste m w ith in a n o rg an iz atio n h as s u bsy ste m s, a n d e ach s u bsy ste m , its o w n s u bsy ste m s.

These h ie ra rc h ic ally o rd ere d s u bsy ste m s n eed t o i n te ra ct w ith a ll o th er s u bsy ste m s i n t h e e n vir o nm en t.

Your c o lle g e p ro bab ly h as s e v era l d ep artm en ts . E ach d ep artm en t c o uld b e c o nsid ere d a s u bsy ste m o f th e la rg er sy ste m , your co lle g e. The C om munic atio n Stu die s D ep artm en t w ith in your co lle g e, a su bsy ste m o f t h e c o lle g e, w ill l ik ely h av e i ts o w n s u bsy ste m s. T here m ay b e s tr e am s o f s tu dy i n R heto ric , Med ia Stu die s, Org an iz atio nal Com munic atio n, an d Perfo rm an ce Stu die s. W ith in an y of th ese su bsy ste m s c an b e f u rth er s u bsy ste m s. F or e x am ple , w ith in M ed ia S tu die s, o ne s u bsy ste m m ig ht e x plo re med ia e ffe cts w hile a n oth er e x am in es m ed ia p ro ductio n. A b usin ess m ay h av e a d vertis in g, m ark etin g, pro ductio n, h um an r e so urc es, a n d le g al d ep artm en ts . W ith in h um an r e so urc es th ere c o uld b e s u bsy ste m s dealin g w ith g rie v an ces, t r a in in g, a n d e m plo yee b en efits .

In sy ste m s th eo ry , th e p hra se fo ca l sy ste m re fe rs to th e su bsy ste m th at o ne is stu dyin g w ith in an org an iz atio n— in o th er w ord s, th e su bsy ste m th at o ne is lo okin g at, th at is , fo cu sin g o n. If y ou are ex am in in g y our c o lle g e, th e fo cal s y ste m is th e c o lle g e. If y ou a re e x am in in g a u niv ers ity w ith m an y co lle g es, t h en t h e f o cal s y ste m i s t h e u niv ers ity a n d t h e c o lle g e i s a s u bsy ste m .

Each su bsy ste m in an org an iz atio n is sa id to be lin ked horiz o nta lly an d vertic ally w ith oth er su bsy ste m s. T hat i s , e ach s u bsy ste m i n a n o rg an iz atio n i s h oriz o nta lly l in ked t o o th er s u bsy ste m s o n t h e sa m e l e v el o f t h e o rg an iz atio n a n d v ertic ally l in ked to s y ste m s b elo w i t a n d a b ove i t o n t h e o rg an iz atio nal hie ra rc h y (s e e Fig ure 3 .1 ). T he ab se n ce o f lin kag es co uld p ro ve cata str o phic fo r th e o rg an iz atio n’s cu sto m ers a n d e m plo yees a s w ell a s f o r t h e o rg an iz atio n i ts e lf .

If m ajo r le ag ue b ase b all d oes n ot a ck now le d ge th e v ario us b all c lu bs a s s u bsy ste m s a n d th e n eed f o r th ese s u bsy ste m s t o i n te ra ct n ot o nly w ith a c en tr a l a d m in is tr a tio n b ut a ls o w ith e ach o th er, t h en t h e f o cal sy ste m — majo r le ag ue b ase b all— is m ore s u sc ep tib le to c ris e s. If e ach te am d oes n ot a ck now le d ge its su bsy ste m s a n d t h e n eed f o r t h ose s u bsy ste m s t o b e l in ked n ot o nly t o m an ag em en t b ut a ls o t o e ach o th er, th en t h e f o cal s y ste m — th e t e am — is m ore s u sc ep tib le t o c ris e s. I f, f o r e x am ple , A le x R odrig uez i s u sin g ste ro id s a n d t h e m ed ic al s ta ff o f a b ase b all c lu b i s n ot l in ked t o t h e c o ach es, t h en m an ag ers m ay b e o ut o f th e k now a n d n ot a b le to m ak e in te llig en t d ecis io ns. O f c o urs e , th ere a re r e aso ns w hy th e m ed ic al s ta ff mig ht b e l in ked t o t h e c o ach es, b ut i n fo rm atio n m ay s till n ot g et t h ro ugh t o t h em . T he r e aso ns f o r t h is , i n th e v ern acu la r o f s y ste m s t h eo ry , a re r e la te d t o p erm eab ility a n d r e q uis ite v arie ty . B oth o f t h ese s y ste m s th eo ry t e n ets a re i m porta n t f o r c ris is c o m munic ato rs t o c o nsid er.

Perm ea bility All su bsy ste m s w ith in an org an iz atio n need to hav e perm eab le boundarie s. In fo rm atio n fro m one su bsy ste m m ust b e a b le to p en etr a te th e w alls o f o th er su bsy ste m s. If a su bsy ste m h as im pen etr a b le boundarie s th en in fo rm atio n th at n eed s to b e s h are d c an not r e ach e sse n tia l r e ceiv ers w ho m ig ht, d esp ite th eir r e lu cta n ce t o m ak e t h e b oundarie s p erm eab le , a b so lu te ly n eed t h e i n fo rm atio n.

Every su bsy ste m in an o rg an iz atio n h as to b e ab le to g et in fo rm atio n fro m th e o uts id e an d se n d in fo rm atio n t o t h e o uts id e. S yste m s t h eo ris ts r e fe r t o o pen a n d c lo se d s y ste m s. A c lo se d s y ste m d oes n ot hav e p erm eab le b oundarie s. It w ill n ot fu nctio n a s w ell a s it m ig ht a n d c o uld a tr o phy o r e x pir e in th e sa m e w ay t h at a b ody o rg an m ig ht a tr o phy o r e x pir e w ith out n ouris h m en t f ro m i ts e x te rn al e n vir o nm en t.

For e x am ple , if th ere a re n atu ra l lin kag es b etw een tr a in ers a n d c o ach es o n a b ase b all te am , b ut c o ach es do n ot d esir e t o h ear w hat t h e t r a in ers w is h t o t e ll t h em , s y ste m s t h eo ris ts w ould s a y t h at t h e s u bsy ste m i s not p erm eab le . T he f o cal s y ste m , t h e t e am , m ay s u ffe r i f n ot i m med ia te ly , t h en o ver t im e.

Org an iz atio nal pen etr a tio n is a te rm use d by Phillip Tom pkin s in his book Org aniz a tio nal Com munic a tio n I m pera tiv es a n d th en a g ain in a s e q uel.

3 I n th ese b ooks T om pkin s d esc rib es th e n eed f o r org an iz atio ns t o s e e e x te rn al c o ntr a cto rs a s u nits w ith in a n o rg an iz atio n a n d p en etr a te t h ese u nits i n o rd er to b e aw are o f th e activ itie s o f th e co ntr a cto rs . B y ex te n sio n o rg an iz atio nal p en etr a tio n is u se d to desc rib e th e p ra ctic e o f le arn in g a s m uch a s o ne c an a b out o th er s u bsy ste m s in te rn ally s o th at e ach u nit can a ct w ith t h e k now le d ge o f t h ese i n here n tly r e la te d e n titie s.

The im porta n ce o f th is p oin t is th at c ris e s o fte n a ris e w hen a n o uts id e c o ntr a cto r o r v en dor is n ot co nnecte d to th e h ir in g o rg an iz atio n. T he lin kag es m ay n ot e x is t o r, e v en if th ey d o, th e b oundarie s m ay not b e p erm eab le . S om etim es it s e em s c o nven ie n t f o r a n o rg an iz atio n to b la m e a c o ntr a cto r f o r a c ris is .

In th e la n guag e o f c ris is c o m munic atio n th is is a fo rm o f dis p la cem en t.

“ It is n ot o ur fa u lt. W e h ir e d TH EM t o h an dle t h is a n d T H EY m esse d u p.” C erta in ly , a ll o rg an iz atio ns p re fe r n ot t o h av e a c ris is r a th er th an to b e p ut in a p ositio n w here th ey f e el th ey m ust— fo olis h ly a n d m yopic ally — bla m e s o m eo ne e ls e fo r t h e t r a g ed y. ( F or m ore a b out d is p la cem en t, s e e Chap te r 5 .) Fig ure 3 .1 Org an iz a tio n al F ocu s S yste m a n d S ubsy ste m s The s u bsy ste m s w ith in a n y f o cal s y ste m s h ould h av e p erm eab le b oundarie s to a llo w f o r c o m munic atio n b etw een th ese in te rd ep en den t u nits .

Perm eab le w alls m ust b e c h ara cte ris tic o f a ll s u bsy ste m s, e v en t h ose t h at m ay n ot b e o ffic ia lly o n t h e org an iz atio n c h art. O th erw is e , a s w as th e c ase w ith th e C halle n ger d is a ste r, a la ck o f p erm eab ility c an cre ate c ris e s. T he C halle n ger sh ould n ot h av e la u nch ed . It w as to o c o ld to la u nch . T he c o ntr a cto rs a t Morto n T hio kol a d vis e d a g ain st t h e l a u nch . H ow ev er, t h e f o cal s y ste m , t h e M ars h all S pace F lig ht C en te r (M SFC ) h ad a b an doned t h eir p olic y o f p en etr a tin g t h e c o ntr a cto r. I n e ffe ct, t h ey h ad a b an doned a p olic y th at r e co gniz ed t h e i m porta n ce o f p erm eab ility a n d t h e i n here n t r e la tio nsh ip s b etw een s u bsy ste m s. W hen Thio kol re co m men ded ag ain st la u nch , th e su ggestio n m ad e at M SFC w as th at T hio kol re th in k its positio n. T hio kol w as to ld to p ut o n its “ m an ag em en t h at a n d n ot its e n gin eerin g h at.” H ad th e M SFC cre ate d p erm eab le w alls , a n d h ad t h ey p en etr a te d T hio kol, t h ey w ould h av e k now n t h em se lv es t h at i t w as to o r is k y to f ly a t c o ld te m pera tu re s. T he a b se n ce o f in te ra ctio n a n d th e p re se n ce o f d is c re te s u bsy ste m s opera tin g i n dep en den tly p re clu ded a n u nders ta n din g o f t h e r is k . M ore a b out t h e C halle n ger c ris is a p pears in Chap te r 4 .

If su bsy ste m s w ith in org an iz atio ns are not perm eab le th e re su lt is a silo effe ct, in w hic h each su bsy ste m o pera te s a u to nom ously n ot k now in g o r c arin g w hat a n oth er r e la te d d ep artm en t i s d oin g. S ilo s on f a rm s a re l o ng t a ll s tr u ctu re s t h at a re u se d a s r e p osito rie s f o r g ra in . O fte n s e v era l o f t h ese s ilo s s ta n d ad ja cen t to o ne a n oth er a n d a re n ot c o nnecte d in a n y w ay. T he s ilo e ffe ct is a p hra se u se d to d esc rib e dep artm en ts th at, lik e s ilo s in a fie ld , s ta n d a d ja cen t to o ne a n oth er a n d a re n ot c o nnecte d . S om etim es silo s a re c re ate d b ecau se o f c o m petitio n b etw een u nits . O th er tim es th ese s ilo s a re c re ate d b ecau se th e org an iz atio nal c u ltu re p erp etu ate s th e n otio n th at if e v ery u nit d oes its jo b, th e o rg an iz atio n a s a w hole will opera te se am le ssly . T his is co unte rin tu itiv e to an yone w ho co nsid ers it. S eam le ss fu nctio nin g re q uir e s co nnectiv ity th at can o ccu r o nly w ith effic ie n t co m munic atio n an d a cu ltu re th at su pports in te ra ctio ns b etw een d ep artm en ts . I t s h ould b e a p pare n t th at in fo rm atio n s to re d in s ilo s u nderm in es th e ap plic atio ns o f s y ste m s t h eo ry .

Retu rn f o r a m om en t t o a c ase i n tr o duced i n Chap te r 1 . R ev ie w i t n ow .

Reeb ok, a c o m pan y th at p rid es its e lf o n in novatio n a n d c u ttin g-e d ge c h ic , n am ed a n ew b ra n d o f sn eak er th e In cu bus . T his w as a b ew ild erin g n am e c h oic e. T he w ord “ in cu bus” h as s e x ual c o nnota tio ns w ith w hic h R eeb ok, one a ssu m es, w ould p re fe r n ot to b e a sso cia te d . A n in cu bus, b y d efin itio n, is a g host th at h as u nso lic ite d in tim ate re la tio ns w ith a w om an w hile s h e is a sle ep . R eeb ok c la im ed to b e u naw are o f th e m ean in g o f th e w ord w hen it was ch ose n as th e nam e fo r th e sh oe. T his cla im m ad e au die n ces w onder ab out th e in te llig en ce, in te rn al co m munic atio n s tr u ctu re , a n d/o r c re d ib ility o f th e c o m pan y.

How c an th e R eeb ok c ris is b e s e en f ro m th e p ers p ectiv e o f a n a b se n ce o f p erm eab ility ? A s y ou r e ad th ro ugh th e n ex t s e ctio n, th in k a b out h ow th e R eeb ok c ris is c an b e s e en a s a f u nctio n o f th e a b se n ce o f re q uis ite v arie ty .

Req uis ite v a rie ty Even if w alls a re p erm eab le , s u bsy ste m s m ay fa il to c o m munic ate a d eq uate ly if th e s u bsy ste m is n ot eq uip ped to d eal w ith th e in fo rm atio n c o m in g in to a n d f lo w in g o ut o f th e s u bsy ste m . R eq uis ite v arie ty mean s t h at, i n t e rm s o f p ro cessin g i n fo rm atio n, e ach s u bsy ste m h as t o b e a s c o m ple x a n d s o phis tic ate d a s th e r e le v an t e x te rn al e n vir o nm en t.

The sa le s dep artm en t w ith in a car deale rs h ip m ay re ceiv e in fo rm atio n fro m ven dors , cu sto m ers , clie n ts , m ed ia p ers o nnel, jo b a p plic an ts , g overn m en t a g en cie s, d eliv ery s y ste m s, o th er d eale rs , la w yers , an d t h e d eale rs h ip ’s o w n s e rv ic e a n d p arts u nits . T he w alls o f t h e s a le s d ep artm en t m ay b e p erm eab le , b ut if th e sy ste m fo r ad dre ssin g th e in flu x of in fo rm atio n fro m th ese vario us oth er so urc es is not so phis tic ate d e n ough, th en c o m munic atio n c an a n d w ill b re ak d ow n. T he h asty re m ed y fo r th is is to re n der th e w alls n onperm eab le , th at is , to m ak e it d if fic u lt f o r in fo rm atio n to g et in to th e s u bsy ste m to av oid b ein g s u bje cte d t o t h e d elu ge. T his i s , o f c o urs e , a s h orts ig hte d s o lu tio n. T he l o ng-te rm s o lu tio n i s to e n su re th at a ll m ean in gfu l in fo rm atio n c an b e a d dre sse d b y m ain ta in in g a s y ste m f o r c o m munic atin g as c o m ple x a s th e e n vir o nm en t e x te rn al to th e s u bsy ste m . If a W al- M art s to re h ir e d a s in gle te m p to han dle a ll e x te rn al c o m munic atio ns “ to e n su re ” p erm eab ility , i t w ould l ik ely p la n t t h e s e ed s f o r c ris is a n d th e a ct i ts e lf w ould h elp c re ate a c u ltu re t h at d ev alu es o rg an iz atio nal c o m munic atio n.

The r e le v an t e n vir o nm en t i s t h e p art e x te rn al t o t h e s u bsy ste m t h at i s r e le v an t t o t h e s y ste m . O ne c o uld arg ue t h at v ery l ittle i n o ur u niv ers e i s n ot r e le v an t t o a s u bsy ste m ’s e n vir o nm en t. H ow ev er, s o m e f a cto rs are m ore re le v an t th an o th ers . If an y W al- M art sto re is th e fo cal sy ste m , th e re le v an t en vir o nm en t in volv es o th er W al- M art s to re s, v en dors , m ed ia re p re se n ta tiv es, m an ufa ctu re rs , tr a n sp orta tio n w ork ers , an d d ozen s o f o th er e n titie s. A s in gle c o lle g e s tu den t n am ed M ik e w ill n ot b e a b le t o h an dle t h e d elu ge.

Subsy ste m s m ust h av e su ffic ie n t re q uis ite v arie ty to p ro cess in co m in g co m munic atio ns fro m th e re le v an t e n vir o nm en t o r th e r e su lt w ould b e, d e f a cto , a c lo se d s y ste m . S uch a c lo se d s y ste m e v en tu ally beco m es dis a b le d becau se of th e dis o rd er th at re su lts fro m la ck of in te ra ctio n w ith its re le v an t en vir o nm en t a n d re la te d su bsy ste m s. T his sta te o f d is o rd er is re fe rre d to a s “ en tr o py.” S in ce sy ste m s th eo ris ts h old th at o rg an iz atio ns (a s w ell a s o rg an is m s) c an not fu nctio n w ith out p erm eab le b oundarie s an d i n put, t h e d esir e d e n d f o r a h ealth y s y ste m i s t h e n eg ativ e e n tr o py t h at r e su lts f ro m i n te ra ctio ns w ith • • • • •th e e n vir o nm en t. A s y ste m s o rie n ta tio n p re clu des e n tr o py o r a t le ast re ta rd s its d ev elo pm en t. N eg ativ e en tr o py i s a d esir e d r e su lt.

Retu rn a g ain t o a n oth er c ase i n tr o duced i n t h e f ir s t c h ap te r. H ow m ig ht a s y ste m s t h eo ris t a n aly ze t h is case i n t e rm s o f Id en tif y in g s u bsy ste m s?

Perm eab ility ?

Req uis ite v arie ty ?

Avoid an ce o f t h e s ilo e ffe ct?

The g oal o f n eg ativ e e n tr o py?

The fiv e-w eek p erio d b eg in nin g M onday, S ep te m ber 1 5, 2 008, is o ne th at in vestm en t g ia n ts s u ch a s F id elity In vestm en ts in B osto n a re u nlik ely to fo rg et. R um ors h ad sta rte d th e p re v io us w eek en d th at tw o v en era b le fin an cia l in stitu tio ns, L eh m an B ro th ers a n d M errill L ynch , w ould s o on d ecla re b an kru ptc y. W hen o n M onday, Sep te m ber 1 5, th ese fe ars w ere re aliz ed a n d c o nco m ita n t c o ncern s ro ck ed W all S tr e et, th e sto ck m ark ete d plu m mete d 5 00 p oin ts . O n T uesd ay, th e m ark et w en t d ow n a n oth er 4 00 p oin ts . O n S ep te m ber 2 9, th e m ark et declin ed a re co rd 7 77 p oin ts . T hro ughout th e fir s t th re e w eek s in O cto ber th e sto ck m ark et b obbed u p a n d plu nged d ow n, c re atin g e n orm ous a n xie ty . In vesto rs in c o m pan ie s s u ch a s F id elity b ecam e w orrie d a b out th e se cu rity o f th eir fu nds. F id elity w as not a c o m pan y in je o pard y a s L eh m an w as, b ut m an y c u sto m ers w ere nerv ous n oneth ele ss. W ould F id elity g o d ow n to o? W ere in vestm en ts s a fe ? B illio ns o f d olla rs w ere w ith dra w n fro m c o m pan ie s lik e F id elity to b e p la ced in b an ks w here , o ste n sib ly , m oney w ould b e m ore s e cu re .

C ULT U RAL T HEO RY W HAT I S C U LT U RA L T H EO RY ?

Cultu ra l th eo ry is base d on th e pre m is e th at a phen om en on th at can ap pro pria te ly be la b ele d “o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re ” e x is ts . In th e sa m e w ay th at e th nic itie s a re sa id to h av e d is tin ctiv e c u ltu re s, cu ltu ra l th eo ry assu m es th at in div id ual o rg an iz atio ns can b e sa id to h av e d is tin ctiv e cu ltu re s. T hese cu ltu re s a re a c o m posite o f s h are d o rg an iz atio nal v alu es, c u sto m s, a n d b elie fs .

Cultu ra l th eo ris ts c o nte n d th at th ere is a n in te rd ep en den t re la tio nsh ip b etw een o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re an d o rg an iz atio nal c o m munic atio n. I n o th er w ord s, th e c u ltu re of a n o rg an iz atio n c an a ffe ct h ow p eo ple co m munic ate in it, a n d th e w ay p eo ple c o m munic ate in a n o rg an iz atio n c an a ffe ct th e c u ltu re . T his re la tio nsh ip e x te n ds, o f c o urs e , to o rg an iz atio nal c o m munic atio ns p erta in in g to c ris e s. R ese arc h ers s u ch as E dgar S ch ein , a s p ro m in en t a w rite r a s t h ere i s i n t h is a re a, a rg ue t h at “ th ere i s n ow a b undan t e v id en ce th at co rp ora te cu ltu re affe cts co rp ora te p erfo rm an ce.” 4 B an ks, ch urc h es, so ftw are co m pan ie s, th eate r gro ups, govern m en t ag en cie s, univ ers itie s, B estB uy, Sony, an d C harle y ’s B ar an d G rill— all hav e org an iz atio nal cu ltu re s. T er-re n ce D eal an d A lla n K en ned y’s 1 982 b ook Corp ora te C ultu re s is o fte n id en tif ie d a s th e fir s t to d is c u ss th e n otio n th at o rg an iz atio nal g ro ups, lik e e th nic g ro ups, c an h av e a cu ltu re .

5 H OW D OES C U LT U RA L T H EO RY R ELATE T O C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATIO N ?

An o rg an iz atio n a n d/o r t h e i n div id uals b elo ngin g t o i t m ay g en uin ely v alu e t r a n sp are n cy. A c o m pan y m ay su pport th ose w ho beh av e eth ic ally by cele b ra tin g th eir acco m plis h m en ts at an nual ev en ts . It m ay dis tr ib ute e th ic al s ta n dard s a w ard s a n d p ro m ote th ose w ho h av e th e c o ura g e to fo llo w th e g old en ru le ev en i n t h e f a ce o f p ers o nal a n d o rg an iz atio nal h arm . A nd t h is c o m pan y’s b eh av io r i n t h e t h ro es o f c ris is may r e fle ct t h ese u nderly in g v alu es.

How ev er, o bvio usly , a n o rg an iz atio n c an h av e ju st th e o pposite c u ltu re . It m ay b e ru m ore d th at th e co m pan y l o oks t h e o th er w ay w hen t r a n sg re ssio ns o ccu r a n d t h at t h e w ord i n t h e c o nfe re n ce r o om i s t h at you sh ould lie w hen fa ced w ith in vestig ato rs w ho w is h to ex plo re cu rio us d ealin gs. S om e in fo rm al co m munic atio ns m ay s u ggest th at th ose w ho a re d elib era te ly e v asiv e w ill b e r e w ard ed . A c o m pan y m ay se ek “ te am p la y ers ,” w hic h m ay s e em b en ig n a s a p hra se in a n d o f its e lf , u nle ss th e c o rp ora te d efin itio n of “ te am p la y er” i s s o m eo ne w ho w ill n ot e x pose u neth ic al b eh av io r.

A c u ltu re t h at s u pports d ecep tio n m ay n ouris h c ris e s. A c o m pan y m otto o f “ B usin ess i s B usin ess” m ay sh elte r th ose w ho w is h to “ p ush th e e n velo pe” o r e m plo y s p urio us ju stif ic atio ns f o r illic it b eh av io r th at can r e su lt in c ris is . T om pkin s d esc rib es th e M cW an e C orp ora tio n’s s lo gan o f “ D is c ip lin ed M an ag em en t Pra ctic es” a s c o de fo r “ p ro ductio n c o m e h ell o r h ig h w ate r” a n d “ an a b usiv e m an ag em en t c u ltu re th at pla ced th e p ro ductio n o f p ip e a b ove a ll e ls e .” 6 It is n ot su rp ris in g th at th e M cW an e C orp ora tio n h as su ffe re d m an y s a fe ty a ccid en ts a t its p la n t. In th e In fo rm ant , K urt E ic h en w ald d esc rib es th e p erv asiv e cu ltu re of decep tio n in th e A rc h er D an ie ls M id la n d C orp ora tio n (A DM ). A DM , th e su bje ct of th e Eic h en w ald b ook a n d n ow f ilm , i s a n e x am ple o f h ow a c o m pan y t h at c o ndones d uplic ity — th at t a lk s t h e ta lk o f d uplic ity — can c re ate a f ie ld r ip e f o r p ric e f ix in g a n d o th er t y pes o f c o rp ora te a b use /m is b eh av io r.

7 A valu es-d riv en cu ltu re , one th at ab id es by an eth ic ally base d m is sio n sta te m en t, m ay defa u lt to beh av io rs t h at p re clu de c ris e s a n d/o r a re c o nduciv e t o i m ag e r e sto ra tio n.

Chap te r 4 a d dre sse s th e p ro activ e s te p s th at a re n ecessa ry f o r e ffe ctiv e c ris is c o m munic atio n. O ne o f th ese ste p s in volv es cre atin g a cris is co m munic atio n pla n . Org an iz atio nal cu ltu re affe cts th e im ple m en ta tio n o f th at p la n . A s F ra n cis M arra c o m men ts in a Public R ela tio ns R evie w p ie ce, “ M an y pra ctitio ners d ev ote s ig nif ic an t r e so urc es to p ro duce a c ris is c o m munic atio n p la n th at is d estin ed to f a il becau se th e te ch nic al str a te g ie s co nta in ed in th e pla n co ntr a d ic t th e dom in an t an d accep te d co m munic atio n p hilo so phie s u se d b y th eir o rg an iz atio n. In o th er w ord s, a g re at c ris is c o m munic atio ns pla n w on’t w ork if ‘ it’s n ot th e w ay w e d o th in gs h ere .’ ” 8 C ultu re a n d c u ltu ra l th eo ry a re im porta n t f o r cris is c o m munic ato rs b ecau se th ey a re th e s o urc e o f th e fo undatio nal D NA th at u nderg ir d s a n d d ir e cts org an iz atio nal a ctiv ity .

Consid er a c ase f ro m Chap te r 1 . H ow m ig ht c u ltu ra l th eo ry r e la te to th e e v olu tio n, p erp etu atio n, a n d co m munic atio ns r e la te d t o t h is i n cid en t?

Kobe B ry an t, a b ask etb all p la y er fo r th e L os A ngele s L ak ers , w as a ccu se d o f ra p in g a w om an h e m et w hile atte n din g a co nfe re n ce in A sp en , C olo ra d o. B ry an t co nte n ded th at th e 2 004 en co unte r w as co nse n su al an d ple ad ed not guilty to th e ch arg es, but th e accu sa tio ns lin gere d an d th e id ea th at B ry an t had beh av ed in ap pro pria te ly g ain ed in te rn atio nal a tte n tio n. E ven tu ally th e c ase e n ded w ith a s e ttle m en t, b ut B ry an t’s im ag e was a ffe cte d w ell b ey ond th e m oneta ry d am ag e re su ltin g fro m a lo ss o f e n dors e m en ts fro m M cD onald ’s a n d oth er c o m pan ie s. S om e p eo ple c o nte n ded th at th e N atio nal B ask etb all A sso cia tio n a n d th e L os A ngele s L ak ers had a ls o ta k en a h it in te rm s o f p re stig e.

W HAT A RE T H E P R IN CIP L ES O F C U LT U RA L T H EO RY ?

Slo gans, r ite s, r itu als , h ero es Al D av is , o w ner o f t h e O ak la n d R aid ers f o otb all t e am , p ro m ulg ate d t w o s lo gan s a b out h is c lu b. T he m ore fo rm al s lo gan w as, “ C om mitm en t t o E xcelle n ce.” T he l e ss f o rm al b ut e q ually w ell- k now n o ne w as “ Ju st Win B ab y.” S lo gan s a n d o th er c o m munic atio ns, e ith er i n te n tio nally o r i n ad verte n tly c o m munic ate d , m ay sp re ad co m pan y v alu es. A n o rg an iz atio n’s m is sio n sta te m en t m ay in clu de re fe re n ces to co m munity en gag em en t o r f u n o r p unctu ality . I f n otio ns o f th e im porta n ce o f c o m munity c itiz en sh ip , w ork a s p la y, an d tim elin ess b eco m e e m bed ded in th e p sy ch e o f th e w ork fo rc e th en th ese v alu es m ay b eco m e p art o f th e org an iz atio n’s cu ltu re . A ritu al of a w eek ly F rid ay 4 p.m . so cia l hour m ay cre ate a se n se of frie n dlin ess a n d s o cia l s u pport in a c o m pan y. I f a fte r a n e m plo yee’s f ir s t m onth , th e e x ecu tiv es f e te th is in div id ual a s a n i n itia te , i t m ay b eco m e p art o f a n o rg an iz atio nal i d en tif ic atio n p ro cess. I f t h e n ow -re tir e d Shari D av is is re g ula rly a ck now le d ged a t c o m pan y fu nctio ns a s s o m eo ne w ho w ork ed in defa tig ab ly to se al d eals , t h e f a b ric o f t h e o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re m ay i n clu de a r e v ere n ce f o r p ers e v era n ce a n d i n dustr y .

Functio nalis ts a nd in te rp re tiv is ts Som e w rite rs , o ccasio nally d esc rib ed a s fu nctio nalis ts , a ssu m e th at th e c u ltu re o f a n o rg an iz atio n is a dir e ct fu nctio n of ad m in is tr a tiv e co m munic atio ns. These th in kers su ggest th at a cu ltu re can be en gin eere d b y sig nag e, sp eech es fro m a C EO , p ostin gs o n a W eb site , a n d e -m ails b la sts fro m v ic e pre sid en ts o f h um an r e so urc es. A noth er g ro up, in te rp re tiv is ts , s u ggest th at th e o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re is not g en era te d b y m an ag eria l c o m munic atio ns b ut is th e re sid ual o f a ll c o m munic atio ns, re g ard le ss o f how offic ia l th ey m ay be. In te rp re tiv is ts in te rp re t th e cu ltu re of an org an iz atio n by obse rv in g co m munic atio n patte rn s, sim ila r to th e w ay an eth nogra p her stu die s cu ltu re .

They m ig ht lis te n to co nvers a tio ns in th e c afe te ria , e x am in e b oth fo rm al a n d in fo rm al e -m ails , stu dy th e b lo gs o f v ario us pers o nnel, a n d e v en lin ger o n th e c o m pan y w alk in g tr a il in a n a tte m pt to u nders ta n d th e c u ltu re b y • • • • • • • • • • •obse rv in g c o m munic atio n p atte rn s. A n in te rp re tiv is t w ould a rg ue th at A l D av is c o uld c re ate b um per stic k ers th at re ad “ C om mitm en t to E xcelle n ce” b ut, m eta p horic ally , th ese s ig ns w ould h av e to s tic k . If th ey d id n ot, if in fo rm al c o m munic atio ns b y p la y ers , r e p orte rs , a n d c o ach es in dic ate d th at m an ag em en t was co m mitte d to tr a d itio n o r ad m in is tr a tiv e p ow er, at th e ex pen se o f p erfo rm an ce, th ese in fo rm al co m munic atio ns w ould c re ate t h e c u ltu re .

Socia liz a tio n, a ssim ila tio n, a nd id en tific a tio n New co m ers t o a n o rg an iz atio n b eco m e s o cia liz ed t o i t, i n t h e s a m e w ay t h at m em bers o f a n e th nic g ro up beco m e so cia liz ed . Socia liz atio n in clu des an tic ip ato ry , en co unte r, an d meta m orp hosis sta g es.

Antic ip ato ry s o cia liz atio n o ccu rs w hen s o m eo ne c o nsid ers jo in in g a n o rg an iz atio n: th ey m ay r e ad a b out it in fo rm ally , th en fo rm ally d is c u ss th e c o m pan y w ith m em bers , a n d v is it th e o rg an iz atio n. E nco unte r so cia liz atio n o ccu rs in th e e arly d ay s a t a c o m pan y w hen o ne is e x pose d to r itu als , s lo gan s, a n d r ite s. I f on a f ir s t d ay a t a c o m pan y e m plo yees a re m et w ith a w elc o m in g b an ner, it m ay a ffe ct h ow th e c u ltu re beco m es in gra in ed in th em . A t s o m e p oin t a n e m plo yee c h an ges a n d b eco m es p art o f th e o rg an iz atio n.

This is c alle d th e m eta m orp hosis s ta g e b ecau se a t th is p oin t th e e m plo yee h as n ow b eco m e a ssim ila te d in to t h e o rg an iz atio n. I f a n e m plo yee b eg in s t o u se p hra se s s u ch a s “ th is i s h ow w e d o i t h ere a t C harlie ’s ” an d b eco m es p ro ud o f th e o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re to w hic h s h e o r h e h as b een a ssim ila te d , it re fle cts a se n se o f i d en tif ic atio n w ith t h e c o m pan y.

Ofte n w hen co m pan ie s m erg e, th e cla sh of cu ltu re s is pro nounced . In Jo urn ey of a C orp ora te Whis tle b lo w er , C ooper d is c u sse s h ow W orld C om a n d M CI c la sh ed a n d th e e n durin g d if fic u ltie s th at re m ain ed w hen m em bers o f each cu ltu re w ere re lu cta n t to re lin quis h th eir id en tif ic atio n w ith th eir pre m erg er c o m pan y.

9 Apply t h e P rin cip le s A t e n et o f c u ltu ra l t h eo ry i s t h at o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re c an i n flu en ce h ow p eo ple i n a n o rg an iz atio n co m munic ate . A s i t r e la te s t o c ris is c o m munic atio n, c u ltu ra l t h eo ris ts c o nte n d t h at c u ltu re c an d riv e beh av io r t h at c re ate s c ris e s, a n d c an s u pport o r u nderm in e c o m munic atio n e ffo rts d urin g a c ris is .

To w hat e x te n t c an o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re Affe ct p re cris is r e la tio nsh ip s w ith In te rn al s ta k eh old ers ?

Exte rn al s ta k eh old ers ?

Sele ct a n o rg an iz atio n w ith w hic h y ou a re f a m ilia r. I t c o uld b e y our u niv ers ity , a r e lig io us org an iz atio n, a c lu b, o r a b usin ess y ou w ork a t d urin g s u m mers o r w hile s tu dyin g a t t h e univ ers ity .

How w ould y ou d esc rib e t h at o rg an iz atio n’s c u ltu re ?

How d o i n te rn al c o m munic atio ns i n t h at o rg an iz atio n r e fle ct i ts c u ltu re ?

Does t h e c u ltu re o f t h is o rg an iz atio n r e d uce c h an ces f o r c ris e s t o s u rfa ce?

Would t h e o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re u nderm in e c h an ces f o r Tra n sp are n cy d urin g c ris is ?

Follo w in g a g old en r u le a p pro ach t o c ris is c o m munic atio n?

C LA SSIC AL T HEO RY W HAT I S C LA SSIC A L T H EO RY ?

Cla ssic al th eo ry r e fe rs to a c o lle ctio n o f th eo rie s th at w ere d ev elo ped in th e e arly p art o f th e tw en tie th cen tu ry . T he c en tr a l p rin cip le in c la ssic al th eo ry is th at a n o rg an iz atio n s h ould b e s e en a s if it w ere a mach in e. T he b est w ay to m ax im iz e e ffic ie n cy is to c o nsid er th e m ost e ffic ie n t w ay to str u ctu re th e mach in e a n d c o ntr o l i ts o pera tio ns. C la ssic al t h eo ris ts c o nsid er e m plo yees t o b e p arts o f t h e m ach in e t h at is th e org an iz atio n. Ju st as a tir e is part of an au to m obile an d an effic ie n t tir e m ax im iz es th at au to m obile ’s p erfo rm an ce, a n e m plo yee is c o nsid ere d to b e p art o f th e m ach in e/o rg an iz atio n a n d th e ex te n t t o w hic h e m plo yees p erfo rm t a sk s c o rre ctly m ax im iz es o rg an iz atio nal p erfo rm an ce.

Fre d eric k T ay lo r w as a le ad er in th e d ev elo pm en t o f c la ssic al th eo ry . (S om etim es c la ssic al th eo ry is sim ply c alle d T ay lo ris m .) T ay lo r b elie v ed in sc ie n tif ic m an ag em en t, a n a ssu m ptio n th at a jo b c an b e stu die d i n t h e s a m e w ay t h at a s c ie n tis t m ig ht s tu dy b io lo gic al p hen om en a. T ay lo r c o nte n ded t h at s p ecif ic ta sk s s h ould b e e x am in ed a n d m an ag em en t s h ould d ete rm in e t h e “ o ne b est w ay ” t o c o m ple te t h ese t a sk s.

Man ag em en t t h en h as t h e r e sp onsib ility t o c o m munic ate t o e m plo yees s o t h at e m plo yees k now h ow t o d o what is re q uir e d a n d h ow th ey w ill b e c o m pen sa te d fo r w ork in g e ffic ie n tly (o r p en aliz ed fo r n ot d oin g so ).

Cla ssic al t h eo ris ts c o nte n ded t h at l e ad ers i n o rg an iz atio ns d eriv e t h eir a u th ority b y r u le s e sta b lis h ed b y th e o rg an iz atio n t h at i m bue l e ad ers w ith t h is a u th ority . T hese r u le s h av e t o b e c le arly c o m munic ate d n ot only to e n su re a n u nders ta n din g o f h ow th e o rg an iz atio n f u nctio ns b ut a ls o to e x pla in w ho h as a u th ority an d w ho does not. A noth er key prin cip le of cla ssic al th eo ry is th at peo ple w ork prim arily fo r co m pen sa tio n an d n ot fo r an y in here n t p le asu re d eriv ed fro m w ork in g o r b ein g asso cia te d w ith an org an iz atio n a n d c o lle ag ues.

H OW I S C LA SSIC A L T H EO RY R ELEVA NT T O C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATIO N ?

Cla ssic al m an ag em en t t h eo ry h as c erta in ly b een s u ppla n te d b y m ore e n lig hte n ed a p pro ach es. H ow ev er, a t le ast tw o prin cip le s of cla ssic al th eo ry are im porta n t to co nsid er fo r th ose w ho stu dy cris is co m munic atio n.

Let u s c o nsid er t h e “ o ne b est w ay ” p rin cip le o f s c ie n tif ic m an ag em en t. A ssu m e t h at t h ere i s i n f a ct o ne best w ay t o d o a j o b o r a t l e ast t h at t h ere a re g ood w ay s a n d f la w ed w ay s t o c o m ple te a j o b. I f t h is i s t h e case , e m plo yers h av e a r e sp onsib ility t o e x pla in t h is b est w ay t o e m plo yees. C la ssic al t h eo ris ts a rg ue t h at em plo yees m ust b e a w are o f s p ecif ic j o b t a sk s, b e f a m ilia r w ith t h e p ro to co ls f o r c o m ple tin g t h ese t a sk s, an d b e r e w ard ed f o r c o m ple tin g t h ese t a sk s i n t h e p re sc rib ed w ay s. W hen p eo ple i n te rv ie w f o r p ositio ns, th ey s h ould b e g iv en a c le ar j o b d esc rip tio n, t o ld h ow w ork s h ould b e c o m ple te d , a n d b e i n fo rm ed o f t h e co m pen sa tio n f o r e ffic ie n t w ork . R ead ers m ay b e s u rp ris e d to d is c o ver h ow o fte n th is b asic p rin cip le o f cla ssic al th eo ry is n ot a d dre sse d . E m plo yees o fte n c o m pla in o f u ncle ar o r in accu ra te jo b d esc rip tio ns.

Work ers c o nte n d th at th ey a re u nsu re o f o rg an iz atio nal p ro ced ure s b ecau se th ey w ere n ev er e x pla in ed ad eq uate ly o r, in s o m e in sta n ces, th e p ro to co l s im ply d oes n ot e x is t. T he s a d fa ct is th at man y re ad ers will not b e s u rp ris e d b y t h is b ecau se s o o fte n i t i s t h e c ase t h at p eo ple c o m pla in t h at a t w ork w hat t o d o, an d h ow t o d o i t, i s v ag uely c o m munic ate d a t b est.

One c an e asily s e e h ow ig nora n ce o f p olic ie s, f o r e x am ple th ose r e la te d to s a fe ty , c an le ad to c ris e s.

Em plo yees w ho a re c o nfu se d a b out w hat t h eir j o bs a re a n d h ow t o d o t h em a re n ot l ik ely t o d o t h eir j o bs well. T he c u m ula tiv e e ffe ct o f e m plo yees n ot d oin g th eir jo bs w ell c an b e c ris e s. S o w hile c la ssic al th eo ry m ay b e f la w ed in s o m e w ay s, th e e sse n tia l id ea th at o rg an iz atio ns a re o blig ed to e x pla in h ow to work t o e m plo yees i s n ot f la w ed .

Sim ila rly im porta n t in c ris is c o m munic atio n is th e id ea th at r u le s m ust b e a rtic u la te d to id en tif y w ho in an org an iz atio n is re sp onsib le fo r w hic h ro le s. In both pro activ e an d re activ e sta g es of cris is co m munic atio n p la n nin g, it is e sse n tia l to k now w ho d oes w hat a n d w ho s h ould k now w hat. A s tu nnin g an d f rig hte n in g e x am ple o f ig nora n ce d urin g c ris is o ccu rre d o n th e d ay in 1 981 w hen P re sid en t R onald Reag an w as sh ot. D urin g th e h ectic h ours afte r th e sh ootin g, b ure au cra ts in W ash in gto n g ath ere d to dis c u ss h ow to p ro ceed a s th e p re sid en t w as b ein g tr e ate d f o r th e g unsh ot w ounds. A le x an der H aig , th en se cre ta ry o f s ta te , c am e i n to a c o nfe re n ce a n d t o ld a ll t h at h e w as i n c h arg e. “ R ead y our c o nstitu tio n,” h e sa id . F ortu nate ly , th ere is a c o nstitu tio n a n d so m e h av e re ad it. T he c o nstitu tio n c le arly in dic ate s th e ch ain o f c o m man d d urin g s u ch c ris e s. T he s e cre ta ry o f s ta te is fo urth in lin e a fte r th e v ic e p re sid en t, Speak er o f t h e H ouse , a n d p re sid en t p ro -te m pore o f t h e S en ate .

Not a ll o rg an iz atio ns h av e s u ch a n e x plic it c o nstitu tio n. C la ssic al t h eo ris ts w ould b e d elig hte d t o a rg ue th at w ith out r u le s, a n d t h e d ocu m en ts t h at s e rv e a s r e p osito rie s f o r t h em , t h e r e su lt m ay b e c h ao s d urin g tim es o f c ris is .

Consid er t h e f o llo w in g c ase f ro m Chap te r 1 . H ow m ig ht th is c ase b e a n aly zed f ro m th e p ers p ectiv e o f cla ssic al t h eo ry ?

Vir g in ia T ech U niv ers ity a n d a ll o f its s tu den ts , s ta ff, a lu m ni, a n d fa cu lty w ere d ev asta te d o n A pril 1 6, 2 006, when a c ra zed g unm an in dis c rim in ate ly k ille d s tu den ts a n d p ro fe sso rs o n th e B la ck sb urg , V ir g in ia , c am pus. In th e e arly h ours o f th at h orrib le d ay th e d era n ged k ille r, a s tu den t h im se lf , s h ot s tu den ts in a d orm ito ry , a n d th en • • • • • • • • • •re tu rn ed to h is o w n r o om . T w o h ours la te r h e b urs t in to s e v era l c la ssro om s, m urd erin g p ro fe sso rs , m ore s tu den ts , an d th en h im se lf . S ubse q uen tly , th e re v ie w b oard c h astis e d th e u niv ers ity fo r “ fa ilin g to ta k e a ctio n th at m ig ht hav e r e d uced th e n um ber o f c asu altie s, f a ilin g to ta k e n ote o f c erta in ‘ re d f la g s.’ ” 10 T he s h oote r h ad a h is to ry o f psy ch olo gic al p ro ble m s a n d h ad p re v io usly b een a sk ed to le av e a c la ss b ecau se o f in ap pro pria te b eh av io r.

W HAT A RE T H E K EY P R IN CIP L ES O F C LA SSIC A L T H EO RY ?

Natu ra l a nd s y ste m atic s o ld ie rin g Fre d eric k T ay lo r b elie v ed t h at e m plo yees w ere i n here n tly l a zy. “ T here i s n o q uestio n” h e w ro te “ th at t h e te n den cy of th e av era g e [e m plo yee] is to w ard w ork in g at a slo w easy gait.” 11 H e dis c u sse d tw o phen om en a r e la te d t o t h is c o nte n tio n, w hic h h e c alle d n atu ra l a n d s y ste m atic s o ld ie rin g.

By n atu ra l s o ld ie rin g, T ay lo r m ean t th at e m plo yees te n d to w ork s lo w ly . H e b elie v ed th at e m plo yees were lik e s o ld ie rs ju st f o llo w in g o rd ers a t a p re d ic ta b ly s lo w p ace. S yste m atic so ld ie rin g o ccu rre d w hen an em plo yee w as “tr a in ed ” to w ork slo w ly b y a v ete ra n em plo yee. T he v ete ra n w ould d elib era te ly dis c o ura g e in dustr io us b eh av io r b ecau se fa st w ork ers c o uld b e “ ra te b uste rs .” Y ou m ay h av e o bse rv ed th is ex perie n ce yours e lf . A new co m er at w ork m ig ht be rid ic u le d or dis c o ura g ed fro m w ork in g ex ped itio usly o r e v en e ffic ie n tly . A v ete ra n m ig ht s u ggest th at th e n ew co m er is “ m ak in g u s lo ok b ad .” Tay lo r c o nte n ded th at v ete ra n s fe are d th at a m bitio us w ork ers w ould b e “ ra te b uste rs .” If jo bs c o uld b e done in th ir ty m in ute s in ste ad o f a n h our, m an ag em en t m ig ht s e e th at a jo b th ey th ought w as w orth $ 10 sh ould b e w orth o nly h alf t h e o rig in al c o m pen sa tio n. I t w as w is e , t h ought T ay lo r, t o e lim in ate t h e p ra ctic e of s y ste m atic s o ld ie rin g. T his c o uld b e d one b y m an ag em en t r ig id ly i d en tif y in g a n d e n fo rc in g p ro to co l.

Sca la r c h ain /d ow nw ard c o m munic a tio n Cla ssic al th eo ris ts b elie v e in c en tr a liz ed a u th ority a n d a h ie ra rc h ic al c h ain o f c o m man d. “ T he lin e o f au th ority i s t h e r o ute f o llo w ed — via e v ery l in k i n t h e c h ain b y a ll c o m munic atio ns w hic h s ta rt f ro m o r g o to t h e u ltim ate a u th ority . … I t i s a n e rro r t o d ep art n eed le ssly f ro m t h e l in e o f a u th ority .” 12 This p ers p ectiv e a ffe cts h ow o rg an iz atio ns c o m munic ate . W hile th e e x cerp te d q uota tio n sta te s th at co m munic atio ns “ sta rt f ro m o r g o t o t h e u ltim ate a u th ority ,” c la ssic al t h eo ris ts c o nsid ere d t h at a lm ost a ll co m munic atio n t r a v els d ow nw ard f ro m t h e u ltim ate a u th ority t o s u bord in ate s. M an y o rg an iz atio ns t o day co ntin ue to opera te usin g th is sc ala r ch ain , prim arily if not w holly , as a veh ic le fo r dow nw ard co m munic atio n. It is lik ely obvio us to th e re ad er th at in th e ab se n ce of a sc ala r ch ain allo w in g in fo rm atio n to g o u pw ard , in fo rm atio n a t lo w er le v els th at c o uld e lim in ate c ris e s r e m ain s a t th ese lo w er le v els .

Apply t h e P rin cip le s In Chap te r 2 w e d is c u sse d t h e f o llo w in g t e rm s r e la te d t o c ris is c o m munic atio n.

Rela tio nsh ip s, Sta k eh old er t h eo ry , Counte rfa ctu als , Supportin g b eh av io r, Honorin g t h e a cco unt, Rheto ric al s e n sitiv ity , a n d In str u ctin g i n fo rm atio n.

As i t p erta in s t o i n te rn al s ta k eh old ers , h ow m ig ht a c la ssic al o rie n ta tio n a ffe ct e ach o f t h e ite m s o n t h is l is t?

How c an a c la ssic al m an ag em en t s ty le a ffe ct o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re ?

How m ig ht t h e r e su ltin g o rg an iz atio nal c u ltu re a ffe ct t h e c ris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rts o f both i n te rn al a n d e x te rn al s ta k eh old ers ?

H UM AN R ESO URCES T HEO RY W HAT I S H UM AN R ESO URCES T H EO RY ?

Hum an re so urc es th eo ry e m erg ed in re sp onse to a n um ber o f re aliz atio ns a n d a t le ast o ne fa ilu re . A fa m ous s e rie s o f s tu die s c alle d t h e “ H aw th orn e S tu die s” w as t h e s o urc e of t h e r e aliz atio ns. T he a tte m pt t o im ple m en t s o m eth in g c alle d “ h um an r e la tio ns t h eo ry ” w as t h e f a ilu re .

Hum an re so urc e th eo ris ts b elie v e th at em plo yees are n ot in here n tly la zy an d th at u nder th e rig ht co nditio ns th ey w ill e n jo y w ork . T hese th eo ris ts a rg ue th at e m plo yees s e ek re sp onsib ility a n d w is h to hav e th eir v oic es re sp ecte d a n d n ot su ppre sse d d urin g d ecis io n m ak in g. In a d ditio n, h um an re so urc e th eo ris ts b elie v e, a s t h e t itle o f t h e t h eo ry s u ggests , t h at e m plo yees a re i n f a ct o rg an iz atio nal r e so urc es.

H OW I S H UM AN R ESO URCES T H EO RY R ELATED T O C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATIO N ?

Hum an re so urc es th eo ris ts a rg ue th at e m plo yees w an t to p artic ip ate a n d c an b e re so urc es. T hey a ls o arg ue th at e m plo yees n eed to b e r e sp ecte d . T his th eo ry d oes n ot s u ggest th at e m plo yers b e c o m pelle d to do w hat e m plo yees m ig ht s u ggest, b ut r a th er t h at e m plo yers c re d ib ly s o lic it i n put f ro m a n d o ffe r r e sp ect to e m plo yees. I n put f ro m e m plo yees m ig ht p ro vid e in fo rm atio n th at c an p re clu de c ris e s a n d b e h elp fu l durin g c ris is c o m munic atio n e ffo rts . S ourc es o f o rg an iz atio nal c ris is a re o fte n b ase d o n r e sp ect i s su es.

No o ne l ik es t o b e “ d is se d .” T he p erv asiv e n atu re o f t h at s la n g v erb i n dic ate s h ow c en tr a l r e sp ect i s t o our h um an n eed s. S hould p eo ple e n dure d is re sp ect? S hould th ey b e a b le to w ork th ro ugh a n y in te n tio nal or in ad verte n t c o m munic atio ns o f d is re sp ect? S hould e m plo yees b e w illin g— in th e v ern acu la r— to ju st “su ck i t u p?” P erh ap s, b ut t h is c o uld b e a m ean in gle ss d eb ate p oin t. W hat c an not b e d is p ute d i s h ow o fte n peo ple le av e jo bs b ecau se o f fe elin gs th at th ey are n ot ap pre cia te d , h ow o fte n p eo ple u nderp erfo rm becau se t h ey f e el t h at t h ey a re u ndera p pre cia te d , a n d h ow o fte n t h e s o urc e o f b iz arre b eh av io r i s a l a ck o f re co gnitio n.

There c an b e n o lo gic al a cco untin g o r c o ndonin g o f m ad s h ootin gs a t p ost o ffic es o r a t u niv ers itie s.

Cra zed k ille rs a re k now n to h av e c la im ed th at th ey w ere d is re sp ecte d a n d th at is w hy th ey b eh av ed a s th ey did . In sa n e peo ple are lik ely to be im pla cab le an d m ay under th e best of co nditio ns beh av e unco nsc io nab ly . How ev er, m ore sta b le in div id uals m ay beco m e dis g ru ntle d an d underm in e an org an iz atio n’s e ffe ctiv en ess s im ply b ecau se m an ag em en t h as f a ile d to r e co gniz e th at e m plo yees a re n ot co gs i n a m ach in e a n d t h at t h ey h av e h um an n eed s. S tr ik es, a ttr itio n, a n d v io le n t p ro te sts m ay b e o bvia te d by t h e c re d ib le r e co gnitio n o f h um an r e so urc e p rin cip le s.

W HAT A RE T H E K EY P R IN CIP L ES O F H UM AN R ESO URCE T H EO RY ?

The H aw th orn e E ffe ct The H aw th orn e S tu die s w ere a s e rie s o f s tu die s c o nducte d i n t h e 1 930s a n d 1 940s. R ese arc h ers e x am in ed em plo yees a n d h ow th ey r e acte d to c erta in c h an ges, o pportu nitie s, a n d o bse rv atio n b y s u perv is o rs . T he re se arc h ers d re w th re e m ain c o nclu sio ns o n th e b asis o f th ese s tu die s. T he fir s t is th at e m plo yees a re motiv ate d n ot o nly b y fin an cia l in cen tiv es b ut b y re co gnitio n. T he c o m munic atio n im plic atio n o f th is fin din g w as th at org an iz atio ns had to co m munic ate not only polic ie s an d jo b ta sk s to em plo yees.

Em plo yers had to co m munic ate th eir asse ssm en ts of em plo yee perfo rm an ce an d als o need ed to co m munic ate th eir in here n t re sp ect fo r e m plo yees a s in div id uals b ey ond effic ie n t c o gs in th e m ach in e th at is th e o rg an iz atio n. T he s e co nd c o nclu sio n w as th at e m plo yees d esir e d o pportu nitie s to v oic e th eir opin io n t o m an ag em en t. A p art o f t h e H aw th orn e S tu die s r e v eale d t h at e m plo yees w an te d a n o pportu nity to v en t. T he th ir d c o nclu sio n o f th e s tu die s w as th at w hile o rg an iz atio ns m ig ht d ecla re f o rm al r o ute s f o r co m munic atio n, i n a ctu ality t h e i n fo rm al n etw ork s w ere a ctiv e a n d m ay b e m ore c re d ib le t h an t h e f o rm al netw ork s. T he “ H aw th orn e E ffe ct” is a g en era l p hra se u se d to d esc rib e h ow o bse rv atio n a n d r e co gnitio n can a ffe ct o rg an iz atio nal p erfo rm an ce.

Tak e a m om en t to r e v ie w a c ase f ro m Chap te r 1 . C onsid er th e p ossib ility th at in fo rm atio n a b out th is case w as av aila b le in in fo rm al netw ork s. C ould an unders ta n din g of hum an re so urc es th eo ry hav e pre v en te d t h is c ris is ?

On J u ly 1 , 2 002, o ffic ia ls a t A m eric a W est w ere d um bfo unded a n d d azed b y th e n ew s th at tw o o f th eir p ilo ts were d eta in ed a t th e M ia m i a ir p ort. T he p ilo ts h ad b een s c h ed ule d to fly 1 24 p asse n gers a cro ss th e c o untr y to Phoen ix , A riz o na. H ow ev er, s e cu rity p ers o nnel th ought th ese p ilo ts m ig ht b e in eb ria te d . T he a ir c ra ft w as ta x iin g on th e ru nw ay, w hen it w as calle d back . T he pilo ts w ere pulle d off th e pla n e an d ex am in ed . B oth fa ile d • •Bre ath aly zer te sts . Am eric a W est’s im ag e, of co urs e , was dam ag ed . The co m pan y was em barra sse d .

Subse q uen tly , th e a ir lin e w as f u rth er h um ilia te d w hen it w as r e v eale d th at a t le ast o ne o f th e p ilo ts h ad a h is to ry of a lc o hol a b use .

Ja cka ss fo lla cy The j a ck ass f a lla cy i s t h e a ssu m ptio n t h at e m plo yees a re f o ols , n ot w illin g t o d o m uch o th er t h an c o lle ct th eir sa la rie s. T his n otio n— rid ic u le d in a Harv a rd B usin ess R evie w artic le title d “A sin in e A ttitu des Tow ard s M an ag em en t” — co nte n ds th at e m plo yees a re , e sse n tia lly lik e m ule s, ja ck asse s th at h av e to b e push ed , m an ip ula te d , a n d p ro dded t o d o t h eir w ork .

13 T his c o ncep tu aliz atio n h as b een c alle d t h e “ ja ck ass fa lla cy” b ecau se i t r e p re se n ts f la w ed r e aso nin g. E m plo yees c an c o ntr ib ute t o t h e q ualita tiv e g ro w th o f a n org an iz atio n a n d o fte n d esir e t o d o s o . W hen e m plo yees c h oose t o l e av e t h eir j o bs, t h e r e aso n m ost o fte n cite d is a la ck o f re co gnitio n a n d in ad eq uate re sp ect fo r th eir p ote n tia l c o ntr ib utio ns. In o th er w ord s, sa la ry d oes n ot d riv e p eo ple a w ay f ro m a n o rg an iz atio n a s m uch a s d is c o nte n t r e g ard in g p erc ep tio ns o f th eir w orth .

Em plo yees o fte n h av e e x pertis e in a re as th at a d m in is tr a to rs m ay n ot. T hey c an b e a w are o f p ro ble m s an d i s su es r e la te d t o d aily o pera tio ns a b out w hic h a d m in is tr a to rs , b y v ir tu e o f t h eir o th er r e sp onsib ilitie s, are n ot a w are . E m plo yees c an m ak e s u ggestio ns f o r i m pro vem en t t h at c an s a v e a n o rg an iz atio n t im e a n d money. N ot th in kin g o f e m plo yees a s r e so urc es p re em pts th eir a b ility to b e s o urc es o f in fo rm atio n th at can av ert cris e s an d dis e n gag es th em fro m th e pro cess of co m munic atin g, m ak in g th em ex te rn al sta k eh old ers d urin g cris e s. Ju st as sig nif ic an tly , th in kin g o f em plo yees as ja ck asse s d oes n oth in g to im pro ve t h e m ora le o f t h e w ork fo rc e. A d efe n siv e c lim ate a n d d is g ru ntle d e m plo yees c an c re ate s o il r ip e fo r c ris e s.

In fo rm al n etw ork s The r e se arc h b y K eith D av is o n in fo rm al n etw ork s c o nducte d in th e 1 950s is s u pporte d b y la te r s tu die s.

The i n fo rm al n etw ork i s n atu ra l, r e silie n t, a n d o fte n a ccu ra te . S ig nif ic an tly , i t i s v ie w ed b y o rg an iz atio nal men a n d w om en a s m ore c re d ib le th an th e fo rm al n etw ork . T hat is , p eo ple te n d to c h eck th e v era city o f messa g es d is se m in ate d o n th e f o rm al n etw ork b y th eir s o urc es o n th e in fo rm al n etw ork . W hen a f o rm al messa g e f ro m a n e x ecu tiv e r e la y s th at a m em ber o f th e m an ag em en t te am h as s u dden ly d ecid ed to s te p dow n, th e in fo rm al n etw ork is e n erg iz ed to d is c o ver th e re al d ata c o ncern in g th e s u dden c h an ge. N ot re sp ectin g t h e v alu e o f t h e i n fo rm al n etw ork i s t o i g nore s o urc es o f i n fo rm atio n t h at m ay p re clu de c ris e s.

When t h e P ean ut C orp ora tio n o f A m eric a c o nte n ds i t w as u naw are o f s a lm onella p ois o nin g, t h e g ra p ev in e beco m es a ctiv e i n t r y in g t o d is c o ver w ho k new w hat w hen .

Org aniz a tio nal c re d ib ility Becau se o f th e H aw th orn e S tu die s a n a n tid ote to c la ssic al th eo ry w as n eed ed a n d th at a n tid ote to ok th e sh ap e o f w hat h as b een c alle d th e “ h um an re la tio ns th eo ry o f m an ag em en t.” T his th eo ry c o unte re d th e te n ets of cla ssic al th eo ry by in co rp ora tin g th e H aw th orn e S tu dy fin din gs. E m plo yees need ed to be re co gniz ed . O rg an iz atio ns n eed ed t o c re ate u pw ard c h an nels f o r c o m munic atio n, a n d d ev elo p r e sp ect f o r in fo rm al n etw ork s. H ow ev er, a s R obert M ile s p oin te d o ut i n h is o fte n -c ite d a rtic le , “ H um an R ela tio ns o r Hum an R eso urc es? ” m ost m an ag ers w ho atte m pte d to im ple m en t hum an re la tio ns th eo ry did so su perfic ia lly .

14 O fte n th ese a d m in is tr a to rs h ad b een im mers e d in c la ssic al th eo ry a n d th e e x posu re to hum an r e la tio ns p rin cip le s w as ta k en in o nly s u perfic ia lly . M ile s a rg ued f o r a m ore c re d ib le a p plic atio n of h um an r e la tio ns t h eo ry , w hic h h e c alle d “ h um an r e so urc es” t h eo ry .

In co ntr a st to cla ssic al th eo ry an d th e su perfic ia l tr e atm en t o f h um an re la tio ns th eo ry , in h um an re so urc es t h eo ry o rg an iz atio ns w ere e n co ura g ed t o v ie w e m plo yees a s l e g itim ate r e so urc es w ho c o uld b e ta p ped to e n han ce th e c h an ces o f o rg an iz atio nal s u ccess. A s s u ch , th eir c o ntr ib utio ns d urin g m eetin gs were g en uin ely s o lic ite d a n d e x pre ssio ns o f g ra titu de f o r i n dustr y a n d s u ccess w ere h eartf e lt.

Apply t h e P rin cip le s How m ig ht a p plic atio ns o f h um an r e so urc es t h eo ry a ffe ct l e g itim acy w ith Exte rn al s ta k eh old ers ? • • • • • • •In te rn al s ta k eh old ers ?

Attr ib utio n t h eo ry ?

Halo e ffe ct?

In t h e c ase t h at b eg in s t h is c h ap te r, “ A N ew S upers ta r,” How m ig ht a p plic atio ns o f h um an r e so urc es t h eo ry a ffe ct Resp onsib ility ?

Resp onse ?

C HAO S T HEO RY W HAT I S C H AOS T H EO RY ?

Chao s th eo ry h as a n u nfo rtu nate n am e. I t m ean s th e o pposite o f w hat it s e em s to m ean . T he th eo ry h as been attr ib ute d to th e la te E dw ard L ore n z, w ho w as a pro fe sso r at th e M assa ch use tts In stitu te of Tech nolo gy. E sse n tia lly , th e th eo ry p osits th at w hat m ay ap pear to b e u nre la te d p hen om en a— whic h co lle ctiv ely s e em t o c o nstitu te c h ao s— are , i n f a ct, n ot u nre la te d a n d n ot d is p ara te . W hile w e m ay n ot b e ab le t o c o m pute h ow o r w hy, c h ao s t h eo ry a rg ues t h at t h ese a p pare n tly d is p ara te e v en ts a re p art o f s o m e la rg er c o m posite .

In esse n ce, ch ao s th eo ry arg ues th at th e ap peara n ce of ra n dom ch ao s is illu so ry . N o actio n is in co nse q uen tia l a n d a ll a ctio ns h av e s o m e c o nse q uen ce. T he th eo ry is s o m etim es c alle d th e “ b utte rfly effe ct” ( w ith s o m e d eg re e o f d eris io n) b ecau se it s u ggests th at e v en th e a ctio ns o f a b utte rfly c an not b e dis c o nnecte d fro m o th er p hen om en a. T he n ic k nam e fo r th e th eo ry o rig in ate d w hen L ore n z d eliv ere d a 1972 p ap er title d , “ P re d ic ta b ility : D oes th e F la p o f a B utte rfly ’s W in gs in B ra zil S et O ff a T orn ad o in Tex as? ” 15 T he p ro fe sso r’s a n sw er w as “ y es.” H OW D OES C H AOS T H EO RY A PPLY T O C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATIO N ?

Chao s t h eo ry m ay s e em w ild t o t h ose f ir s t r e ad in g a b out i t, b ut f o r t h ose w ho s tu dy c ris is c o m munic atio n th e b asic p rin cip le is n ot in sig nif ic an t a n d is w orth c o nsid erin g. A ll a ctiv ity in a n o rg an iz atio n h as th e pote n tia l to a ffe ct a ll o th er a ctiv ity . A n a ctio n th at c an s e em r e la tiv ely in nocu ous a n d is o la te d — su ch a s not r e sp ondin g to a v oic e-m ail m essa g e— can h av e th e p ote n tia l to e sc ala te in to s o m eth in g c ata str o phic .

It is , o f c o urs e , n ot lik ely th at s u ch a th in g w ill r e su lt in c ata str o phe, b ut it is w orth c o nsid erin g th at a ll activ ity h as a n e ffe ct, a n d th ere fo re a ll a ctiv ity w ith in a n o rg an iz atio n s h ould f o cu s o n th e v alu e-d riv en goals o f th at o rg an iz atio n. A ll a ctiv itie s th at a re c o unte r to th ose g oals s e rv e to e ro de a n d c o rro de th e DNA o f t h e o rg an iz atio n a n d c o nse q uen tly c an c re ate c ris e s.

There is a n oth er a p plic atio n o f c h ao s th eo ry to c ris is c o m munic atio n. In a n e x am in atio n o f th e R ed Riv er F lo od c ris is , re se arc h ers c o nclu ded th at “ C hao s th eo ry su ggests th at c ris is m ay b e a n ecessa ry cy clic al sta te in a pro cess le ad in g to org an iz atio n an d re n ew al.” 16 T his su ggests th at ch ao s th eo ry pro vid es t h e f o undatio n f o r c o ncep tu aliz in g c ris is n ot a s a n a b erra tio n, b ut a s a n orm al e v en t i n a p ro cess of r e d is c o very , r e fo rm atio n, a n d r e b ir th . T his c an b e a n e th ere al a n d e lu siv e c o ncep t to g ra sp if y ou a re Leh m an Bro th ers ch arg ed w ith em bezzlin g fu nds an d ab out to decla re ban kru ptc y becau se of ir re sp onsib le c o rp ora te c o nduct. H ow ev er, i t m ay b e a t l e ast i n te re stin g t o c o nsid er t h at t h e s ta te o f c ris is allo w s o rg an iz atio ns t o r e co nfig ure a n d e v olv e m ore e ffic ie n tly .

How m ig ht c h ao s t h eo ris ts a rg ue t h at t h e c ris is d esc rib ed i n Case 3 .1 , “ A N ew S upers ta r,” co uld h av e a sa lu brio us o utc o m e?

Consid er th e fo llo w in g tw o c ase s fro m Chap te r 1 . E xpla in h ow a c h ao s th eo ris t w ould a n aly ze th ese case s.

On V ale n tin e’s D ay 2008, Je tB lu e, an air lin e th at had beco m e th e darlin g of th e lo w -c o st flig ht in dustr y , ex perie n ced d is a ste r w hen a sn ow sto rm fo rc ed ex cru cia tin g d ela y s. A s p la n es sa t o n th e ru nw ay fo r se v era l hours , p asse n gers a w aitin g ta k eo ff w ere tr a p ped u nab le to u se to ile t f a cilitie s a s th ey s te w ed o n b oard , e sse n tia lly im pris o ned o n th e stu ck v esse l. T he n atio nal p re ss th at re p orte d th e in cid en t w as e x co ria tin g in its c ritic is m .

Je tB lu e e m plo yees beg an to re fe r to th e e v en t a s 2 /1 4 in th e s a m e w ay th at A m eric an s w ould re fe r to th e b in Lad en a tta ck s a s 9 /1 1 . F or J e tB lu e th e e x perie n ce w as, a s th e C EO s u bse q uen tly s a id , “ p re tty h um ilia tin g.” 17 Shortly a fte r th e 2 008 s u m mer O ly m pic s, M ic h ael P help s, a s w im min g c h am pio n, w as p ic tu re d o n th e c o ver o f Sports Illu str a te d m ag azin e w ith h is re co rd -b re ak in g e ig ht O ly m pic g old m ed als d ra p ed a ro und h is n eck . B y Feb ru ary 2 009, P help s h ad s e cu re d e n dors e m en t c o ntr a cts fro m s e v era l c o m pan ie s to h elp p ed dle th eir p ro ducts an d s w eete n th e s w im mer’s p ers o nal tr e asu ry . It w as th ere fo re c ala m ito us fo r b oth P help s a n d th ese c o m pan ie s when a B ritis h ta b lo id , New s o f th e W orld , p ublis h ed a p hoto gra p h o f P help s a t a p arty . T he p hoto c ap tu re d th e eig ht- tim e g old m ed alis t s m okin g m ariju an a fro m a b ong p ip e. T he p ic tu re , w hic h a p peare d in e arly 2 009, w as ta k en in N ovem ber 2 008, a f e w m onth s a fte r th e O ly m pic a n d O ly m pia n a ch ie v em en ts . P help s w as a b le to r e ta in his e n dors e m en t c o ntr a ct w ith S ubw ay, th e s a n dw ic h c h ain , b ut lo st c o ntr a cts w ith o th er o rg an iz atio ns.

C RIT IC AL T HEO RY W HAT I S C RIT IC A L T H EO RY ?

Critic al th eo ry r e fe rs to a ssu m ptio ns a b out th e m is u se o f p ow er in o rg an iz atio ns. C ritic al o rg an iz atio nal co m munic atio n t h eo ris ts a ssu m e t h at c o m munic atio n c an b e u se d a s a t o ol f o r a b use . E m plo yees w ho a re ex clu ded fro m co m mitte e m eetin gs or in vite d to atte n d but not allo w ed to co ntr ib ute can beco m e marg in aliz ed . R earra n gin g th e b ure au cra tic s tr u ctu re s o th at th e s c ala r c h ain r e q uir e s a v ic e p re sid en t to re p ort to tw o n ew in te rm ed ia rie s m ay re d uce th e a u th ority o f a v ic e p re sid en t w ho fo rm erly h ad e asy access to th e p re sid en t. C ritic al th eo ris ts b elie v e th at it is th e re sp onsib ility o f in div id uals to id en tif y ab use s th at s u bju gate e m plo yees a n d a ls o to w ork to e lim in ate th ese a b use s. C ritic al th eo ris ts a rg ue th at th e ab use o f co m munic atio n fo r th e p urp ose s o f m ain ta in in g p ow er u ltim ate ly , if n ot co ntin uously , co m pro m is e s t h e q ualita tiv e g ro w th o f a n o rg an iz atio n.

Critic al t h eo ris ts u se t h e w ord id eo lo gy t o d esc rib e b elie fs t h at e m plo yers c o nsid er n orm al a n d n atu ra l, whic h c o nstitu te a n id eo lo gic al fra m ew ork th at th ose in p ow er w is h e m plo yees to c o nsid er sta n dard , fo undatio nal, a n d p erh ap s e v en s a cre d . F or e x am ple , m ost p eo ple ta k e fo r g ra n te d th at m an ag ers h av e au th ority o ver e m plo yees a n d a re m ore p ow erfu l p la y ers in th e o rg an iz atio n. C ritic al th eo ris ts w ould co nsid er th is p ro ble m atic . T hey w ould a rg ue th at b elie f in th e im porta n ce o f d is p ro portio nate p ow er re fle cts a ccep ta n ce o f a n id eo lo gy th at is in here n tly o ppre ssiv e, a n d b y e x te n sio n c o nduciv e to c ris is . I n oth er w ord s, accep tin g th e co ncep t of m an ag eria l au th ority as a giv en w ill in ev ita b ly su bju gate em plo yees b ecau se t h ey w ill h av e b ought i n to t h e i d eo lo gy m ain ta in in g t h at o rg an iz atio ns m ust f u nctio n by p re se rv in g p ositio ns o f r e la tiv e p ow er. T his , c la im c ritic al t h eo ris ts , i s i n sid io us a n d w ill i n ev ita b ility cre ate s o m e c ris is .

The p hra se manufa ctu re d c o nse n t is u se d b y c ritic al th eo ris ts to d esc rib e th e p hen om en on o f b uyin g in to s u bju gatin g i d eo lo gie s. I t o ccu rs w hen e m plo yees a d opt a n d m ay e n fo rc e p hilo so phie s t h at c o uld , i n fa ct, b e u nhealth y fo r th em . C om munic atio n p atte rn s in th e o rg an iz atio n re in fo rc e th e id eo lo gie s, a n d, co nse q uen tly , th e o rg an iz atio n actu ally m an ufa ctu re s th e b uy-in fro m em plo yees. A critic al th eo ris t mig ht s u ggest t h at c o rp ore al p unis h m en t c o m mon i n p ublic s c h ools i n t h e 1 950s e x is te d b ecau se p are n ts an d stu den ts h ad b ought in to th e id eo lo gy th at th is w as n ecessa ry fo r d is c ip lin e. T heir c o nse n t to a beh av io r th at m ig ht o th erw is e b e c o nsid ere d re p re h en sib le h ad b een m an ufa ctu re d b y e d ucato rs . O ne co uld m ak e t h e c ase t h at s u ch c o nse n t w as f o undatio nal t o a b use s t h at c re ate d c ris e s f o r s o m e e d ucatio nal org an iz atio ns.

H OW D OES C RIT IC A L T H EO RY R ELATE T O C RIS IS C O M MUNIC ATIO N ?

A re cen t artic le in th e Jo urn al o f A pplie d C om munic a tio n B eh avio r dis c u sse s bully in g beh av io r by man ag ers . E m plo yees desc rib ed to re se arc h ers how th ey w ere bera te d becau se of m in or offe n se s.

Em plo yees h ad , i n t h ese i n sta n ces, g ro w n a ccu sto m ed t o t h e n orm alc y o f t h e b ully in g b eh av io r.

Consid er t h e f o llo w in g e x am ple , w hic h i s e x cerp te d f ro m t h e a rtic le :

The a ctu al o ffic e e n vir o nm en t w as a ll g la ss, s o h e c o uld s e e in to a ll o f th e o ffic es. C onsta n t s u rv eilla n ce w as delib era te a n d a p pare n tly p art o f h is s tr a te g y o f c o ntr o l. H e c o uld s e e th ro ugh e v ery o ffic e… . H e’d s c re am a n d yell e v ery d ay. V ein s w ould p op o ut o f h is h ead ; h e’d s p it, h e’d p oin t, h e’d th re ate n d aily , a ll d ay lo ng to a n yone in h is w ay, e v ery d ay th at I w as th ere . E very s in gle d ay. O h, y ellin g!… [F ro m m y o ffic e,] I c o uld s e e h is e y es bulg in g, h is v ein s a n d e v ery th in g, s p ittin g, a n d p oin tin g h is fin ger… . T hat w as d aily , w ith m an y p eo ple , a ll th e tim e. H e w ould y ell in th e s p eak erp hone a t h is g en era l m an ag ers . H e’d s w ear p ro fu se ly , “ Y ou [e x ple tiv e], y ou don’t k now a n yth in g. Y ou [ e x ple tiv e] id io t! Y ou c o uld n’t r u n a [ e x ple tiv e] p ean ut s ta n d.” 18 This m ig ht s e em to b e a n is o la te d e x am ple to m ost r e ad ers , b ut it is lik ely th at s o m e s tu den ts in y our cla ss c an d esc rib e a s im ila r i n cid en t i n t h eir o rg an iz atio nal e x perie n ce.

In a fa m ous c ris is c o m munic atio n c ase , T ex aco e x ecu tiv es h ad a p pare n tly u se d ra cis t la n guag e w ith im punity a n d it h ad b een a ccep te d a s a m atte r o f c o urs e u ntil a ta p ed c o nvers a tio n r e p le te w ith e p ith ets was m ad e p ublic . T his cre ate d a cris is fo r T ex aco as th ey atte m pte d to ex pla in h ow su ch ab norm al beh av io r c o uld h av e b eco m c cep te d . ( S ee case 6 .1 f o r a m ore d eta ile d d is c u ssio n o f t h is c ris is ).

Novem ber 1 8, 2 008, m ark s th e th ir tie th a n niv ers a ry o f a r e lig io us s p lin te r g ro up th at b ought in to th e su bju gatin g i d eo lo gy o f a s p ir itu al l e ad er a n d c o m mitte d m ass s u ic id e a t t h e i n str u ctio ns o f a n o ppre sso r who h ad m an ufa ctu re d t h eir c o nse n t t o t h e u ltim ate s e lf -d estr u ctiv e b eh av io r.

While c ritic al t h eo ris ts h av e t h eir d etr a cto rs — an d i t w ould b e i n ap pro pria te f o r a t h eo ry t h at a d vocate s fo r r e le n tle ss c ritic is m n ot to b e s o e x am in ed — cris is c o m munic atio n s c h ola rs s h ould c o nsid er th e b asic te n et o f c ritic al th eo ry . O rg an iz atio ns c an b e s ite s o f d om in atio n a n d a b use . O nce d ete cte d , a b use s th at hav e lo ng re m ain ed u ndete cte d in th e re le v an t e n vir o nm en t c an c re ate sig nif ic an t p ro ble m s fo r c ris is co m munic ato rs . E xam in in g t h e o rg an iz atio n f o r f e ste rin g a b use s a n d p urg in g t h em b efo re t h e i n fe ctio n i s mag nif ie d is a n e sse n tia l re sp onsib ility o f o rg an iz atio nal c o m munic ato rs a n d a n im porta n t b en efit o f critic al t h eo ry .

K EY C O NCEPT S I N C RIT IC A L T H EO RY Multip le s ta keh old er th eo ry, w ork p la ce d em ocra cy, c o ncertiv e c o ntr o l Sta n le y D eetz h as w ritte n a b out w hat h as b een c alle d multip le s ta keh old er th eo ry.

19 H e a rg ues th at a n org an iz atio n s h ould r e co nfig ure its p ers p ectiv es o f e sse n tia l s ta k eh old ers to in clu de b oth e m plo yees a n d sh are h old ers a s s ta k eh old ers . H e a rg ues th at it is th e o bje ctiv e o f a n o rg an iz atio n to c re ate a w ork pla ce dem ocra cy w here a ll m em bers o f a n o rg an iz atio n th in k a n d a ct lik e a n o w ner o r a t le ast a n a sso cia te .

Geo rg e C hen ey h as w ritte n th at w ork pla ce d em ocra cy e n co ura g es “ in div id ual c o ntr ib utio ns to im porta n t org an iz atio nal c h oic es, a n d ... a llo w s fo r th e o ngoin g m odif ic atio n o f th e o rg an iz atio n’s a ctiv itie s a n d polic ie s b y [ m em bers o f] t h e g ro up.” 20 It is c o m monpla ce in sto re s su ch a s W al- M art a n d T arg et to o bse rv e th at e m plo yees a re n o lo nger calle d “ em plo yees” b ut ra th er “ asso cia te s.” A m ajo r u niv ers it y re cen tly h eld a s e rie s o f m eetin gs w ith ad m in is tr a to rs w here th e a g en da c en te re d o n “ o w ners h ip .” T hat is , in div id ual u nits w ere e n co ura g ed to th in k o f th em se lv es as o w ners an d to assu m e re sp onsib ility lik e an o w ner. D oin g so , m an ag em en t cla im ed , w ould r e su lt i n r e ap in g t h e s a m e t y pe o f b en efits o w ners h ip e n jo ys. T he k ey v aria b le , o f c o urs e , in w ork pla ce dem ocra cy an d m ultip le sta k eh old er th eo ry is cre d ib ility . T hat is , if an org an iz atio n cre d ib ly re co nfig ure s its e lf to re n der its e lf a partic ip ato ry dem ocra cy th en th e id ea of m ultip le sta k eh old er th eo ry c an ta k e h old . N atu ra lly , it w ill h av e lim ite d v alu e if th ose d ecla re d o w ners d is c o ver th at t h eir l a b els w ere m is le ad in g a n d l ittle m ore t h an a r u se .

The r e sid ual o f g en uin e a p plic atio n o f m ultip le s ta k eh old er th eo ry c an b e w hat P hillip T om pkin s a n d Geo rg e C hen ey h av e r e fe rre d to a s “ co ncertiv e c o ntr o l.” 21 C oncertiv e c o ntr o l a ssu m es th at m em bers o f org an iz atio ns a re n ot s u bju gate d b ut w ork c o lle ctiv ely a s a te am to w ard th e h ealth o f th e o rg an iz atio n.

The c o ntr o l i s n ot h ie ra rc h ic al, b ut r a th er d eriv es i ts p ow er a n d i n flu en ce f ro m t h e c o lle ctio n o f w ork ers co m mitte d t o t h e e n te rp ris e .

Apply t h e P rin cip le s How w ould c ritic al t h eo ris ts a n aly ze t h e f o llo w in g t w o c ase s f ro m Chap te r 1 ?

Food L io n, a g ro cery -s to re c h ain , w as m ortif ie d a fte r a n A BC s e g m en t o n Prim etim e L iv e su ggeste d th at th e co m pan y em plo yed u nsa n ita ry p ra ctic es in its p re p ara tio n o f p ro ducts . T he p ro gra m th at air e d o n Novem ber 5 , 1 992, s u ggeste d th at th e c o m pan y n ot o nly s o ld p ro ducts th at h ad b een ta in te d , it d elib era te ly atte m pte d to m ask th e fla w s in th e fo ods to b e a b le to s e ll th e p ro ducts a s if th ey w ere n ot d am ag ed . N ot only w as F ood L io n’s im ag e ta rn is h ed , b ut th e A BC n etw ork ’s b eh av io r w as a ls o c alle d in to q uestio n. T he netw ork w as a ccu se d o f e m plo yin g u neth ic al jo urn alis tic te ch niq ues to g ath er in fo rm atio n a b out F ood L io n.

Both th e o bje ct o f th e in vestig atio n, F ood L io n, a n d th e jo urn alis ts /n etw ork d esc rib in g th e o ffe n se w ere ta in te d b y th e a lle g atio ns. On D ecem ber 5 , 2 002, a t th e h undre d th b ir th day c ele b ra tio n f o r r e tir in g S en ato r S tr o m T hurm ond, S en ato r Tre n t L ott o f M is sis sip pi m ad e a co m men t th at cre ate d a fir e sto rm . In 1 948, T hurm ond h ad b een th e pre sid en tia l n om in ee o f th e D ix ie cra t p arty . In 1 948, th e D ix ie cra ts h ad b ro ken a w ay fro m th e D em ocra ts to ru n o n a se g re g atio n p la tf o rm . A t th e cere m ony fo r T hurm ond, L ott re m in ded all th at th e sta te o f Mis sis sip pi h ad v ote d f o r th e D ix ie cra t c an did ate in 1 948. L ott c o m men te d , “ W e’re p ro ud o f it. A nd if th e re st o f th e c o untr y h ad fo llo w ed o ur le ad , w e w ould n’t h av e h ad a ll th ese p ro ble m s o ver a ll th ese y ears , eith er.” 22 A fte r th e c ere m ony, L ott w as c h astis e d f o r w hat a p peare d to b e a c le arly r a cis t r e m ark . I ro nic ally , six m onth s la te r w hen T hurm ond p asse d a w ay, a w om an n am ed E ssie M ae W ash in gto n-W illia m s s u rfa ced .

Soon it w as re v eale d th at W ash in gto n-W illia m s w as T hurm ond’s ille g itim ate A fric an -A m eric an d au ghte r.

Thurm ond, a s ta u nch s e g re g atio nis t d urin g h is p olitic al c are er, n ev er a ck now le d ged W ash in gto n-W illia m s when h e w as a liv e, b ut s u pporte d h er f in an cia lly th ro ughout h is lif e .

C OM MUNIC ATIO N T HEO RY W HAT I S C O M MUNIC ATIO N T H EO RY ? T R A NSM IS SIO N A ND C O NST IT U TIV E D EFIN IT IO NS Iro nic ally , “ co m munic atio n” i s a m is u nders to od w ord .

Som e p eo ple th in k o f c o m munic atio n a s s y nonym ous w ith u nders ta n din g. F or e x am ple , p eo ple s a y, “W e’re n ot c o m munic atin g” o r “ w e h av e a c o m munic atio n p ro ble m .” B oth o f th ese s ta te m en ts ty pic ally mean th at th e p eo ple in volv ed d o n ot u nders ta n d o ne a n oth er. C om munic atio n is n ot s y nonym ous w ith unders ta n din g. Som e peo ple th in k of co m munic atio n in te rm s of new te ch nolo gy. Effe ctiv e co m munic atio n in th is m ean in g m ay r e fe r to s o phis tic ate d c o m pute rs , p ers o nal d ig ita l a ssis ta n ts ( P D As —bette r k now n as B la ck berrie s), o r v oic e-m ail cap ab ilitie s. T hese to ols can im pro ve th e q uality o f co m munic atio n i n o rg an iz atio ns, b ut t h e m ean in g o f c o m munic atio n t r a n sc en ds w hat i s c o nju re d u p w hen one c o nsid ers c o m munic atio n te ch nolo gy. F or th e p urp ose s o f th is b ook it is im porta n t to u nders ta n d cle arly w hat is m ean t by co m munic atio n an d to be fa m ilia r w ith so m e basic th eo ry germ an e to co m munic atio n s tu dy.

Com munic atio n c an b e u nders to od f ro m b oth a t r a n sm is sio n p ers p ectiv e a n d a c o nstitu tiv e p ers p ectiv e.

It is w is e fo r s tu den ts o f c ris is c o m munic atio n to c o nsid er c o m munic atio n fro m b oth o f th ese v an ta g e poin ts . T he tr a n sm is sio n p ers p ectiv e lik en s c o m munic atio n to th e a ct o f tr a n sp ortin g a b uck et o f w ate r fro m o ne p ers o n t o a n oth er. P ers o n A h as a m essa g e s h e w an ts t o c o nvey t o p ers o n B . S he f ills t h e b uck et with h er m essa g e a n d a tte m pts t o g et i t t o B . T he e x te n t t o w hic h B g ets t h e m essa g e— so m etim es c alle d “m essa g e fid elity ” in th e lite ra tu re of org an iz atio nal co m munic atio n— dete rm in es effic ie n cy. In th e org an iz atio nal co nte x t, co m munic atio n as tr a n sm is sio n re la te s to co m munic atin g polic ie s, ta sk s, ev alu atio ns, r e co m men datio ns, in novatio ns, a n yth in g g erm an e to th e o rg an iz atio n’s f u nctio nin g. P ers o n A p uts th e p olic y in th e b uck et a n d re la y s it to B e ffic ie n tly . T his p ers p ectiv e is im porta n t fo r c ris is co m munic ato rs b ecau se th e re ceip t o f in fo rm atio n is v ita l to re d ucin g th e ch an ces o f cris is an d to ad dre ssin g c ris e s i n t h e e v en t t h ey o ccu r.

The co nstitu tiv e n otio n o f co m munic atio n p ro vid es a d if fe re n t if co m ple m en ta ry p ers p ectiv e. T he co nstitu tiv e notio n su ggests th at one ex am in e co m munic atio n not prim arily as a tr a n sm is sio n phen om en on th at o ccu rs w ith in th e o rg an iz atio n, b ut ra th er as b eh av io r th at sh ap es o r c o nstitu te s th e org an iz atio n. C onsid er t h e o rg an iz atio n t o b e s o m e s o rt o f c o nta in er. I n sid e t h e c o nta in er a re e m plo yees.

As w e h av e d is c u sse d , t h e t r a n sm is sio n p ers p ectiv e c o nceiv es o f c o m munic atio n a s e v en ts t h at t a k e p la ce with in th e co nta in er— whic h is th e org an iz atio n— th at help th e org an iz atio n’s fu nctio nin g. I te ll a co w ork er t o w ear s a fe ty g oggle s w hen s h e o pera te s t h e l a th e a n d t h is h elp s t h e c o nta in er/o rg an iz atio n t o opera te effic ie n tly . T he co nstitu tiv e pers p ectiv e su ggests th at co m munic atio n ta k es pla ce w ith in a co nta in er/o rg an iz atio n, b ut m ore s ig nif ic an tly , b ecau se o f th e n atu re o f c o m munic atio ns th e s iz e, s h ap e, orie n ta tio n, a n d e v en th e g oals o f th e o rg an iz atio n a re a ffe cte d . In sh ort, c o m munic atio n c re ate s th e ev olv in g c o nta in er. T he p ro cess o f c o m munic atio n f o rm s a n d r e fo rm s t h e e n tity t h at i s t h e o rg an iz atio n.

For i llu str a tio n, c o nsid er a m eetin g o f e x ecu tiv es i n a n o rg an iz atio n. A ssu m e t h at t h e m eetin g h as a s e t ag en da th at is rig id ly a d here d to . A ssu m e th at th e p ro to co l a t th e m eetin g is fo r m em bers to re g ula rly ch alle n ge th e positio ns ta k en by oth ers . T hat is , th e pro to co l is fo r th e partic ip an ts to gen era te dis a g re em en ts in ord er to re fin e id eas. G iv en th is sc en ario , peo ple w ho are ad ep t at artic u la tin g, pers u ad in g, d efe n din g, a n d c ritic iz in g i d eas w ill b e v alu ed a n d t h ose w ho a re s h y a n d r e tic en t a re u nlik ely to b e s im ila rly v alu ed . I t i s p ossib le t h at p eo ple w ho a re v erb ose , a g gre ssiv e, a n d l o ud m ay b e p ro m ote d to p ow erfu l p ositio ns b ecau se t h ey d em onstr a te , a t l e ast s u perfic ia lly , t h at t h ey c o m munic ate e ffe ctiv ely .

If th is o ccu rs , th e fo rm atio n o f th e o rg an iz atio n— who is in ch arg e, w ho re p orts to w hom , w ho is dele g ate d a s a d ecis io n m ak er, a n d w ho is m arg in aliz ed — is a fu nctio n o f h ow p eo ple in te ra ct in th e meetin g. N ow a ssu m e th at th e m eetin gs a re ru n d if fe re n tly . In ste ad o f d eb ate , e ach d ep artm en t h ead pre se n ts a d ocu m en t th at d esc rib es th e w ork o f a d ep artm en t. T hat d ocu m en t is d is tr ib ute d to a ll a n d a sh ort p re se n ta tio n is m ad e a t th e w eek ly m eetin g. I t is s ta n dard p