Compose a single-spaced, one-page response to the readings assigned each week. The first paragraph of your response should briefly summarize the assigned chapter or chapters. The second paragraph sh

2 F ilm S tu die s F ilm a n d C ult u re S erie s J o hn B elt o n, G enera l E dit o r 3 F IL M S TU DIE S A n In tr o ductio n E d S ik o v C O LU M BIA U NIV ER SIT Y P R ESS N EW Y O RK 4 C O LU M BIA U NIV ER SIT Y P R ESS P ublis h ers S in ce 1 893 N EW Y O RK C HIC HESTE R , W EST S U SSEX c u p.c o lu m bia .e du C opyrig ht © 2 010 E d S ik o v A LL R IG HTS R ESER VED E -IS BN 9 78-0 -2 31-5 1989-2 L ib ra ry o f C ongre ss C ata lo gin g-in -P ublic a tio n D ata S ik o v, E d.

Film s tu die s : a n in tr o ductio n / E d S ik o v.

p. c m . — ( F ilm a nd c u lt u re ) In clu des in dex.

IS BN 9 78-0 -2 31-1 4292-2 ( c lo th : a lk . p aper) — IS BN 9 78-0 -2 31-1 4293-9 ( p bk. : a lk .

p aper) — IS BN 9 78-0 -2 31-5 1989-2 ( e book) 1. M otio n p ic tu re s. I. T it le . II. S erie s.

PN 1994.s 5 35 2 010 2 009033082 A C olu m bia U niv e rs it y P re ss E -b ook.

C UP w ould b e p le ase d to h ear a bout y o ur r e adin g e xp erie nce w it h th is e -b ook a t cu p- e book@ co lu m bia .e du .

R efe re nce s to In te rn et W eb s it e s ( U RLs) w ere a ccu ra te a t th e tim e o f w rit in g. N eit h er th e a uth or n or C olu m bia U niv e rs it y P re ss is r e sp onsib le fo r U RLs th at m ay h ave e xp ir e d o r c h anged s in ce th e m anuscrip t w as p re pare d.

T he a uth or a nd C olu m bia U niv e rs it y P re ss g ra te fu lly a ckn ow le dge p erm is sio n to q uote m ate ria l fr o m J o hn B elt o n, Am eric a n C in em a/A m eric a n C ult u re , 3 d e d. ( N ew Y ork : M cG ra w - H ill, 2 008); c o pyrig ht © 2 008 T he M cG ra w -H ill C om panie s, In c.

5 f o r Adam O rm an a nd th e o th er g re at s tu dents in m y lif e f o r Jo hn B elt o n a nd th e o th er g re at te ach ers in m y lif e 6 C O NTE N TS P R EFA C E: W HAT T H IS B O OK IS — AN D W HAT IT ’S N O T I N TR O DUCTIO N:

REPR ESEN TA TIO N A ND R EA LIT Y O NE MIS E-E N -S C EN E: W IT H IN T H E IM AG E What Is M is e -e n-S ce ne?

The S hot Subje ct- C am era D is ta nce — Why It M atte rs Cam era A ngle Space a nd T im e o n F ilm Com posit io n S TU DY G UID E: A NALY ZIN G T H E S H O T W RIT IN G A BO UT T H E IM AG E T W O MIS E-E N -S C EN E: C AM ER A M OVEM EN T Mobile F ra m in g Typ es o f C am era M ove m ent Edit in g w it h in th e S hot Space a nd M ove m ent 7 STU DY G UID E: A NALY ZIN G C AM ER A M OVEM EN T WRIT IN G A BO UT C AM ER A M OVEM EN T TH REE MIS E-E N -S C EN E: C IN EM ATO GRAPH Y Motio n P ic tu re P hoto gra phy Asp ect R atio : F ro m 1 :3 3 to W id escre en Asp ect R atio : F orm a nd M eanin g Lig htin g Thre e-P oin t L ig htin g Film S to cks: S uper 8 to 7 0m m to V id eo Bla ck, W hit e , G ra y, a nd C olo r A W ord o r T w o a bout L ense s STU DY G UID E: A NALY ZIN G C IN EM ATO GRAPH Y WRIT IN G A BO UT C IN EM ATO GRAPH Y FO UR ED IT IN G : F R O M S H O T T O S H O T Tra nsit io ns Monta ge The K ule sh ov E xp erim ent Contin uit y E dit in g The 1 80° S yste m Shot/R eve rs e -S hot P atte rn STU DY G UID E: A NALY ZIN G S H O T-T O -S H O T E D IT IN G 8 WRIT IN G A BO UT E D IT IN G FIV E SO UND A V ery S hort H is to ry o f F ilm S ound Reco rd in g, R ere co rd in g, E dit in g, a nd M ix in g Analy tic a l C ate gorie s o f F ilm S ound Sound a nd S pace STU DY G UID E: H EA RIN G S O UND, A NALY ZIN G S O UND WRIT IN G A BO UT S O UND A N D S O UNDTR AC KS SIX NARRATIV E: F R O M S C EN E T O S C EN E Narra tiv e S tr u ctu re Sto ry a nd P lo t Sce nes a nd S equence s Tra nsit io ns fr o m S ce ne to S ce ne Chara cte r, D esir e , a nd C onflic t Analy zin g C onflic t STU DY G UID E: A NALY ZIN G S C EN E-T O -S C EN E E D IT IN G WRIT IN G A BO UT N AR RAT IV E S TR UCTU RE SEVEN FR O M S C REEN PLA Y T O F IL M Deeper in to N arra tiv e S tr u ctu re Scre enw rit in g: T he T hre e-A ct S tr u ctu re Segm enta tio n: F orm 9 Segm enta tio n: M eanin g A S egm enta tio n o f In sid e M an STU DY G UID E: S TO RY A NALY SIS A ND S EG M EN TA TIO N WRIT IN G A BO UT W RIT IN G EIG HT FIL M MAKER S Film — A D ir e cto r’s A rt?

Auth ors h ip The A ute ur T heory The P ro duce r’s R ole Team work STU DY G UID E: T H E P R O BLE M O F A TTR IB UTIO N WRIT IN G A BO UT D IR EC TO RS NIN E PER FO RM ANCE Perfo rm ance a s a n E le m ent o f M is e -e n-S ce ne Actin g S ty le s Sta rs a nd C hara cte r A cto rs Typ e a nd S te re oty p e Wom en a s T yp es Actin g in — and o n— Film Public it y : E xtr a -F ilm ic M eanin g STU DY G UID E: A NALY ZIN G A CTIN G 10 WRIT IN G A BO UT A C TIN G TE N GEN RE What Is a G enre ?

Conve ntio ns, R epetit io ns, a nd V aria tio ns A B rie f T axo nom y o f T w o F ilm G enre s— th e W este rn a nd th e Horro r F ilm Genre : T he S em antic /S yn ta ctic A ppro ach Film N oir : A C ase S tu dy F ilm N oir : A B rie f H is to ry F ilm N oir ’s C onve ntio ns STU DY G UID E: G EN RE A NALY SIS F O R T H E IN TR O DUCTO RY S TU DEN T WRIT IN G A BO UT G EN RES ELE VEN SPEC IA L E FFE C TS Beyo nd th e O rd in ary Optic a l a nd M ech anic a l S pecia l E ffe cts Com pute r-G enera te d Im agery ( C G I) STU DY G UID E: E FFE C TS A ND M EA NIN G WRIT IN G A BO UT S PEC IA L E FFE C TS TW ELV E PU TTIN G IT T O GETH ER : A M ODEL 8 - T O 1 0-P A G E PA PER How T his C hapte r W ork s 11 “In tr o ducin g T yle r,” b y R obert P auls o n GLO SSAR Y AC KN O W LE D G M EN TS IN DEX 12 P R EFA C E W HAT T H IS B O OK IS — AN D W HAT IT ’S N O T T his b ook is d esig ned to p ro vid e a b asic in tr o ductio n to th e a ca dem ic d is cip lin e k n ow n a s film s tu die s. It c o ve rs , in th e fir s t e le ve n c h apte rs , t h e fu ndam enta l e le m ents o f fo rm al film a naly sis , fr o m th e e xp re ssiv e c o nte nt o f in div id ual im ages to th e w ays in w hic h im ages lin k w it h o ne a noth er; fr o m th e s tr u ctu re s o f n arra tiv e s cre enpla ys to th e b asic s o f c in em ato gra phy, s p ecia l e ffe cts , a nd s o und. T he b ook’s fin al c h apte r i s a s te p-b y-s te p g uid e to w rit in g a fin al p aper fo r th e k in d o f c o urs e fo r w hic h th is te xtb ook h as b een w rit te n.

Film S tu die s is a p rim er— a p are d-d ow n in tr o ductio n to th e fie ld . It is a im ed at begin ners . It sim plif ie s th in gs, w hic h is to sa y th at th e i n fo rm atio n it c o nta in s is s tr a ig htfo rw ard a nd a im ed a t e ve ry s tu dent w ho is w illin g to le arn it . It’s c o m plic a te d m ate ria l, b ut o nly to a p oin t.

T he g oal h ere is n ot to a sk a nd a nsw er e ve ry q uestio n, c o ve r e ve ry i s su e a nd te rm , a nd p oin t o ut th e e xce ptio ns th at a cco m pany e ve ry r u le . In ste ad, Film S tu die s tr ie s to co ve r th e su bje ct of narra tiv e c in em a a ccu ra te ly b ut b ro adly , p re cis e ly b ut n ot c o m pre hensiv e ly . It is a re la tiv e ly s h ort b ook, n ot a d oors to p o r m ake sh if t d um bbell. It is n ’t m eant to c o ve r a nyth in g m ore th an th e b asic e le m ents o f fo rm al film s tu die s.

This b ook is a bout fe atu re -le ngth n arra tiv e c in em a— movie s th at te ll f ic tio nal s to rie s th at la st fr o m a bout n in ety m in ute s to th re e o r th re e a nd a h alf h ours . It d oes n ot c o ve r d ocu m enta rie s, w hic h a re a bout r e al p eople a nd e ve nts . It’s n ot th at d ocu m enta ry film makin g is n ot w orth s tu dyin g; o n th e c o ntr a ry . It’s ju st th at Film S tu die s is s tr ic tly a n i n tr o ductio n to n arra tiv e cin em a. S im ila rly , th ere is n oth in g in Film S tu die s about ava ntg ard e film s— th ose m otio n pic tu re s th at are r a dic a lly e xp erim enta l a nd n onco m merc ia l in n atu re . F ilm h is to ry is fu ll o f g re at a va nt- g ard e w ork s, b ut th at m ode o f film makin g is n ot w hat 13 th is b ook is a bout.

People who stu dy m ovie s th in k about th em in dif fe re nt and div e rg ent w ays. S ch ola rs have exp lo re d so cio lo gic a l is su es (ra ce , eth nic it y , re lig io n, a nd c la ss a s d epic te d in film s) a nd p sych olo gic a l is su es ( h ow m ovie s e xp re ss o th erw is e h id den id eas a bout g ender a nd se xu alit y , fo r in sta nce , o r h ow a udie nce s re sp ond to co m edie s a s oppose d to h orro r film s), to cit e o nly a fe w o f th e va rio us le nse s th ro ugh w hic h w e c a n v ie w film s. R ese arc h ers c a n d evo te th em se lv e s entir e ly to th e s tu dy o f film h is to ry — th e n uts -a nd-b olt s n am es, d ate s, and id eas o f te ch nolo gic a l a nd a esth etic in nova tio n th at o ccu rre d o n a glo bal le ve l. S im ila rly , th e s tu dy o f in div id ual n atio nal c in em as h as pro vid ed c rit ic a l a udie nce s w it h a b ro ad ra nge o f c in em atic s ty le s to purs u e, p in poin t, a nd e njo y.

Film S tu die s is n ot a bout a ny o f th ese s u bje cts . It is , to re peat, a prim er, n ot a n e xh austiv e e xa m in atio n o f film in te rp re ta tio n, th ough th e book has been exp re ssly desig ned to acco m pany as w id e a va rie ty o f film c o urs e s a s p ossib le .

This b ook c e nte rs o n a sp ects o f film fo rm . Y ou w ill le arn th e c rit ic a l and te ch nic a l la nguage o f th e c in em a a nd th e w ays in w hic h fo rm al devic e s w ork to c re ate e xp re ssiv e m eanin g. H opefu lly , if y o u g o o n to stu dy film fr o m a p sych olo gic a l o r s o cio lo gic a l p ers p ectiv e , o r e xp lo re a p artic u la r n atio nal c in em a, o r ta ke a n u pper-le ve l film c o urs e o f a ny kin d, y o u w ill u se th e k n ow le dge y o u g ain h ere to g o th at m uch d eeper in to th e film s y o u s e e a nd s tu dy. T his b ook s e rv e s a s a fir s t s te p. If th is tu rn s o ut to b e y o ur o nly e xp osu re to film s tu die s, y o u w ill s till b e able to b rin g to b ear w hat y o u le arn h ere to a ny film y o u e ve r s e e in th e fu tu re .

Most film te xtb ooks a re a w ash in tit le s, n am es, a nd d ate s, a nd Film Stu die s is in c e rta in w ays n o d if fe re nt— exce pt in d egre e. In o rd er to illu str a te v a rio us p oin ts w it h e xa m ple s, Film S tu die s d oes re fe r to a num ber o f re al m ovie s th at w ere m ade b y im porta nt film make rs a t sp ecif ic tim es in th e co urs e o f film h is to ry . B ut in m y e xp erie nce , in tr o ducto ry s tu dents , w hen fa ce d w it h th e tit le a nd e ve n th e b rie fe st descrip tio n o f a film th ey h ave n eve r s e en (a nd m ost lik e ly w ill n eve r se e), te nd to tu ne o ut. A s a re su lt , I d ra w a n um ber o f e xa m ple s in Film S tu die s fr o m h yp oth etic a l film s; I w ill a sk y o u to u se y o ur o w n 14 im agin atio n ra th er th an dra w im possib ly on kn ow le dge yo u don’t alr e ady h ave a bout film s y o u h ave n’t s e en. M ore ove r, e ach in div id ual film cla ss has it s ow n scre enin g lis t. In deed, fr o m a pro fe sso r’s pers p ectiv e , o ne o f th e g re at p le asu re s o f te ach in g c in em a s tu die s cla sse s lie s in p ic kin g th e film s to s h ow a nd d is cu ss.

Film S tu die s tr ie s not to g et in th e w ay o f in div id ual p ro fe sso rs ’ ta ste s. In s h ort, th is b ook does n ot c o m e w it h it s o w n p re arra nged lis t o f film s y o u m ust s e e.

Som e film s tu die s te xtb ooks c o nta in h undre ds o f illu str a tio ns— film stills , d ra w in gs, g ra phs, a nd fr a m e e nla rg em ents , m any o f w hic h a re in c o lo r.

Film S tu die s d oes o ffe r illu str a tio ns w hen n ece ssa ry , b ut in ord er to k e ep th e b ook a ffo rd able , th ey a re n ot a p ro m in ent fe atu re .

In fa ct, Film S tu die s tr ie s to b e a s p ra ctic a l a nd u se fu l a s p ossib le in many ways. It aim s fo r th e wid est re aders h ip and is pit c h ed acco rd in gly . It dra w s m ost of it s exa m ple s fr o m Am eric a n film s beca use th ey a re th e film s th at m ost A m eric a n s tu dents h ave s e en in th e past and are lik e ly to se e in th e fu tu re . It is desig ned to acco m pany a w id e sp ectr u m of film co urs e s but is fo cu se d m ost cle arly o n th e ty p e o f m ain str e am “In tr o ductio n to F ilm ” c la ss th at is ta ught in p ra ctic a lly e ve ry c o lle ge a nd u niv e rs it y in th e U nit e d S ta te s and C anada.

I h ope it w ork s fo r y o u.

15 I N TR O DUCTIO N R EPR ESEN TA TIO N A ND R EA LIT Y C onsid er th e w ord REPR ESEN TA TIO N (s e e g lo ssa ry ). W hat d oes it m ean — and w hat te ch nolo gy does it ta ke — to re pre se nt re al people or p hysic a l o bje cts o n film ? T hese a re tw o o f th e b asic q uestio ns in film s tu die s. T he d ic tio nary d efin es th e v e rb to r e pre se nt a s “to s ta nd fo r; t o s ym boliz e ; to in dic a te o r c o m munic a te b y s ig ns o r s ym bols .” T hat’s a ll w ell a nd g ood a s fa r a s it g oes. B ut in th e fir s t o ne h undre d y e ars o f m otio n p ic tu re s, th e s ig ns a nd s ym bols o nscre en w ere a lm ost a lw ays r e al b efo re th ey e nded u p a s s ig ns a nd s ym bols o n m ovie s cre ens.

We ta ke fo r g ra nte d ce rta in th in gs a bout p ain tin g a nd lit e ra tu re , c h ie f a m ong th em th at th e o bje cts a nd p eople d epic te d in p ain t o r d escrib ed in w ord s d o n ot n ece ssa rily h ave a p hysic a l r e alit y . Y ou c a n p ain t a p ic tu re o f a w om an w it h out u sin g a m odel o r e ve n w it h out h avin g a s p ecif ic re al w om an in y o ur m in d. Y ou c a n p ain t la ndsca pes y o u’v e n eve r a ctu ally s e en, a nd in fa ct y o u d on’t h ave to p ain t a ny r e al o bje cts a t a ll. Y our p ain tin g c a n b e e ntir e ly n onre pre se nta tio nal— ju st s p la sh es o f c o lo r o r s tr e aks o f b la ck p ain t. A nd b ear in m in d th at a ll w ork s o f a rt, in a ddit io n to b ein g re pre se nta tio ns, a re a ls o re al th in gs t h em se lv e s. The wom an Leonard o da Vin ci pain te d again st a m yste rio us la ndsca pe m ay o r m ay n ot h ave e xis te d, b ut th e p ain tin g c o m monly k n ow n a s th e Mona L is a is c e rta in ly a r e al, m ate ria l o bje ct.

In lit e ra tu re , to o, w rit e rs describ e cit ie s th at neve r exis te d and p eople w ho n eve r liv e d. B ut o n film — at le ast n arra tiv e film s lik e th e o nes y o u’r e g oin g to le arn a bout in th is b ook— dir e cto rs h ave to h ave s o m eth in g re al to p hoto gra ph. N ow , w it h th e in cre ase d u se o f d ig it a l a nd c o m pute r-g enera te d im agery ( CG I ), o f c o urs e , th in gs a re c h angin g i n th at re gard , b ut th at’s a s u bje ct fo r a la te r c h apte r. F or th e tim e b ein g, c o nsid er th e fa ct th at in c la ssic a l w orld c in em a, in a ll b ut a fe w v e ry ra re c a se s, d ir e cto rs h ad to h ave s o m eth in g re al to p hoto gra ph 16 wit h a film ca m era . A film make r co uld co nce iv a bly ta ke a str ip o f CELLU LO ID —th e p la stic m ate ria l th at film is m ade o f— and d ra w o n it o r pain t it o r d ig s cra tc h es in to it s s u rfa ce ; e xp erim enta l film make rs h ave been kn ow n to use ce llu lo id as a kin d of ca nva s fo r nonre pre se nta tio nal a rt. B ut o th erw is e a film make r m ust p hoto gra ph re al p eople a nd th in gs. T hey m ay b e a cto rs w earin g m ake up a nd co stu m es, b ut th ey’r e s till re al h um an b ein gs. T hese a cto rs m ay b e walk in g th ro ugh co nstr u cte d se ts , but th ese se ts have a physic a l re alit y ; w alls th at lo ok lik e sto ne m ay a ctu ally b e m ade o f p ain te d wood, b ut th ey a re s till r e al, m ate ria l w alls .

Eve n a nim ate d film s a re p hoto gra phed: a rtis ts p ain t a se rie s o f AN IM ATIO N C ELS , and th en each ce l is photo gra phed. T he physic a l re alit y o f The H unch back o f N otr e D am e —th e W alt D is n ey m ovie , n ot th e V ic to r H ugo n ove l— is n ot th e c h ara cte r o f Q uasim odo, n or is it a n acto r p la yin g Q uasim odo, b ut ra th er th e e la bora te , c o lo rfu l, s ty liz e d dra w in gs th at h ad to b e p hoto gra phed, p ro ce sse d, a nd ru n th ro ugh a pro je cto r to m ake th em m ove . T hose d ra w in gs h ave a p hysic a l r e alit y , and D is n ey a nim ato rs a re m aste rs a t m akin g th em s e em d oubly re al th ro ugh s h adin g, la ye rin g, a nd o th er m eans o f c re atin g a s e nse o f depth .

Let’s appro ach th is is su e anoth er w ay. If P ic a sso , W arh ol, and Rem bra ndt e ach p ain te d a p ortr a it o f th e s a m e p ers o n, m ost e duca te d people w ould im media te ly u nders ta nd th at th e re su lt w ould b e th re e ve ry dif fe re nt- lo okin g pain tin gs. W e re co gniz e th at a pain tin g’s meanin g is at le ast partly a m atte r of it s FO RM —th e sh ape and str u ctu re o f th e a rt w ork . E ve n if th re e p ain te rs fr o m th e s a m e g enera l cu lt u re in th e s a m e g enera l p erio d p ain te d th e s a m e p ers o n— sa y, Rem bra ndt, H als , a nd V erm eer— we w ould s e e th re e d if fe re nt v ie w s of th at p ers o n— th re e v e ry d if fe re nt p ain tin gs.

The s a m e h old s tr u e in lit e ra tu re . If, s a y, E rn est H em in gw ay, J a m es Jo yce , a nd C huck P ala hniu k a ll d escrib ed th e s a m e p ers o n, w e w ould end u p re adin g th re e d iv e rs e p ie ce s o f p ro se . T hey’d a ll b e w rit te n in Englis h , a nd th ey’d b e d escrib in g th e s a m e in div id ual, b ut th ey s im ply would n’t re ad th e s a m e. S om e d eta ils m ay b e s im ila r, b ut e ach w rit e r would describ e th ose deta ils dif fe re ntly usin g dif fe re nt w ord s and se nte nce s tr u ctu re s. A nd b eca use th e fo rm w ould b e d if fe re nt in e ach 17 ca se , w e w ould ta ke a w ay fr o m th e w rit in g th re e d if fe re nt im pre ssio ns —th re e w ays o f th in kin g a nd e xp re ssin g a nd fe elin g.

But p hoto gra phy, p artic u la rly m otio n p ic tu re p hoto gra phy, a ppears on th e s u rfa ce to b e o f a d if fe re nt o rd er. Y ou ta ke a r e al th in g, a nd y o u photo gra ph it . Y ou ta ke a n e ve nt a nd yo u film it . A nd u nle ss yo u monke y w it h th e c a m era o r th e film p ro ce ssin g a nd d o a ll k in ds o f th in gs to d elib era te ly c a ll a tte ntio n to y o ur p re se nce a s th e film make r, if y o u a nd y o ur fr ie nd a nd h er fr ie nd a nd h er fr ie nd’s fr ie nd a ll film ed th e s a m e e ve nt, y o u w ould a ll c o m e u p w it h s im ila r lo okin g film s— or so y o u m ig ht a ssu m e.

This b ook w ill s h ow y o u h ow a nd w hy e ach o f y o ur film s w ould b e dif fe re nt a nd w hy th ose d if fe re nce s m atte r to th e a rt fo rm . Y ou w ill le arn to s e e th e w ays in w hic h film make rs e xp re ss id eas a nd e m otio ns wit h th eir c a m era s.

For e xa m ple , le t’s sa y th at th re e a sp ir in g d ir e cto rs — all fr o m th e Univ e rs it y o f P it ts b urg h— decid e to film w hat th ey e ach c o nsid er to b e a c h ara cte ris tic s ce ne a t a m ajo r le ague b ase ball g am e. T he th re e film stu dents head ove r to PN C Park w it h noth in g but sm all vid eo ca m era s, a nd th ey d on’t le ave th eir s e ats in th e r ig ht fie ld g ra ndsta nd.

Eth an is p la nnin g to u se h is fo ota ge in th e ro m antic co m edy h e’s makin g b ase d o n a g uy h e k n ow s w ho is o bse sse d w it h o ne o f th e Pir a te s’ in fie ld ers . E th an’s fr ie nd, S hin L ae, is m akin g a d ra m a a bout a lit tle boy w it h autis m w ho lo ve s base ball. A nd S hin Lae’s fr ie nd, Sanja na, h asn ’t y e t fig ure d o ut w hat h er s to ry w ill b e le t a lo ne h ow s h e will deve lo p it , but sh e alr e ady kn ow s th at sh e w ants to in clu de ra ndom s h ots ta ke n a t a b ase ball g am e.

When th e P ir a te s’ L uis C ru z h it s a fo ul b all in to th e s ta nds, th e th re e film make rs e ach h ave th eir c a m era s r u nnin g. It’s th e s a m e m om ent in tim e, th e s a m e fo ul b all, b ut th e th re e y o ung d ir e cto rs s e e th e e ve nt fr o m th re e dif fe re nt p ers p ectiv e s. E th an w ants to sh ow th e w hole actio n fr o m b egin nin g to e nd in a c o ntin uous s h ot, s o ju st b efo re th e win dup h e fr a m es th e p it c h er, b atte r, a nd c a tc h er in th e s a m e im age so he ca n sh ow th e ball m ove fr o m m ound to pla te to air and, eve ntu ally , th anks to h is a bilit y to m ove th e c a m era h e’s h old in g, th e ball fin ds it s w ay in to a fa n’s b are fis t. H is b uilt - in m ic ro phone p ic ks u p th e s h arp c ra ck o f th e b at c o nnectin g w it h th e b all, th e c ro w d’s in it ia l 18 ro ar o f e xp ecta tio n, th e c o lle ctiv e g ro an o f d is a ppoin tm ent w hen th e ball c ro sse s th e fo ul lin e, a nd fin ally a q uic k b urs t o f d is ta nt a ppla use at th e fa n’s c a tc h .

Shin Lae, on th e oth er han d, ca re s m ore about th e bois te ro us re actio n o f a g ro up o f C ub S co uts n earb y th an s h e d oes a bout th e partic u la r b atte r o r th e e ve nts o f th e g am e it s e lf . W hen s h e n otic e s th at th e p it c h er is a bout to w in d u p, s h e p oin ts h er c a m era n ot a t eit h er th e p it c h er o r th e b atte r b ut in ste ad a t th e s co uts , w ho a re a fe w ro w s above her. S he sim ply re co rd s th e boys’ sh outs and fa cia l exp re ssio ns, w hic h ra nge fr o m e agern ess to g le e to d is a ppoin tm ent and fin ally to e nvy a s th e fa n s u cce ssfu lly n abs th e b all. S anja na, meanw hile , h as n ot b een p ayin g a tte ntio n to th e b ase ball g am e a t a ll.

(S he h ate s s p orts a nd h as o nly a gre ed to c o m e a lo ng in o rd er to film th in gs.) W hile E th an a nd S hin L ae g et in cre asin gly w ra pped u p b y th e gam e, S anja na h as b eco m e fa scin ate d b y a g ro up o f s h ir tle ss, h eavily ta tto oed, a nd in cre asin gly d ru nk b ik e rs to h er rig ht. S he h as a lr e ady film ed a se cu rit y g uard te llin g th em to q uie t d ow n, b ut so m eth in g about th is g ro up o f u rb an o utla w s a ppeals to h er— partic u la rly th e fa tte st, h air ie st o ne. S he a im s h er c a m era o n h im a nd h im a lo ne a nd ju st film s h im s it tin g th ere , y e llin g, d rin kin g, s w earin g, a nd— eve ntu ally —ra is in g h is h air y p aw a nd n abbin g L uis C ru z’s fo ul b all to th e c h eers of th e c ro w d. S he tilt s h er c a m era u p s lig htly to k e ep h is h ead fr o m le avin g th e im age, and tilt s it back dow n w hen th e cro w d sto ps ch eerin g a nd th e b ik e r ta ke s h is s e at a gain .

Sam e g am e + s a m e s ce ne + s a m e a ctio n = th re e d if fe re nt film s.

Why? B eca use e ach film make r h as m ade a s e rie s o f c h oic e s, a nd each o f th ose c h oic e s h as a rtis tic , e xp re ssiv e c o nse quence s.

This is o ne o f th e k e y a esth etic is su es o f c in em a s tu die s— le arn in g to s e e th at a n a ppare ntly u nm edia te d e ve nt is in fa ct a m edia te d w ork of a rt. A t fir s t g la nce , w e te nd n ot to s e e th e m edia tio n in vo lv e d in th e cin em a; w e d on’t s e e th e art . A ll w e s e e— at fir s t— is a re pre se nta tio n of th e physic a l re alit y of w hat has been photo gra phed. A nd in a str a nge p ara dox, c la ssic a l A m eric a n film makin g is s a ddle d w it h th e notio n th at it ’s p ure ly a rtif ic ia l. T he lig htin g te nds to b e id ealiz e d, th e acto rs ’ fa ce s a re id ealiz e d b y m ake up, th e s e ttin gs a re s o m etim es id ealiz e d. . . . J u st to d escrib e s o m eth in g a s “a H olly w ood v is io n o f 19 lif e ” is to s a y th at it ’s p hony. T he o bje cts a nd p eople in H olly w ood film s a re th us to o r e al a nd to o fa ke , a ll a t th e s a m e tim e. H ow c a n w e make s e nse o f th is ?

20 C HAPTE R 1 M IS E-E N -S C EN E: W IT H IN T H E IM AG E W HAT IS M IS E-E N -S C EN E?

F ilm s tu die s d eals w it h th e p ro ble m s o f re alit y a nd re pre se nta tio n b y m akin g a n in it ia l a ssu m ptio n a nd p ro ce edin g lo gic a lly fr o m it . T his a ssu m ptio n is th at a ll re pre se nta tio ns h ave m eanin g. T he te rm MIS E- E N -S C EN E ( als o m is e -e n-s cè ne) describ es th e prim ary fe atu re of c in em atic re pre se nta tio n. Mis e -e n-s ce ne is th e fir s t ste p in u nders ta ndin g h ow film s p ro duce and re fle ct m eanin g. It’s a te rm t a ke n fr o m th e F re nch , a nd it m eans th at w hic h h as b een p ut in to th e s ce ne o r put o nsta ge . E ve ry th in g— lit e ra lly e ve ry th in g— in th e film ed i m age is d escrib ed b y th e te rm mis e -e n-s ce ne : it ’s th e e xp re ssiv e t o ta lit y o f w hat y o u s e e in a s in gle film im age. M is e -e n-s ce ne c o nsis ts o f all of th e ele m ents pla ce d in fr o nt of th e ca m era to be p hoto gra phed: s e ttin gs, p ro ps, lig htin g, c o stu m es, m ake up, a nd fig ure b ehavio r ( m eanin g a cto rs , th eir g estu re s, a nd th eir fa cia l e xp re ssio ns) .

I n a ddit io n, mis e -e n-s ce ne in clu des th e c a m era ’ s a ctio ns and a ngle s a nd th e c in em ato gra phy , w hic h s im ply m eans p hoto gra phy fo r m otio n p ic tu re s. S in ce eve ry th in g in th e film ed im age co m es under th e h eadin g o f m is e -e n-s ce ne, th e te rm ’s d efin it io n is a m outh fu l, s o a s h orte r d efin it io n is th is :

Mis e -e n-s ce ne is th e to ta lit y o f e xp re ssiv e c o nte nt w it h in th e im age . F ilm s tu die s a ssu m es th at e ve ry th in g w it h in t h e im age h as e xp re ssiv e m eanin gs. B y a naly zin g m is e -e n-s ce ne, w e b egin to s e e w hat th ose m eanin gs m ig ht b e.

The te rm mis e -e n-s ce ne w as fir s t u se d in th e th eate r to d escrib e th e s ta gin g o f a n a ctio n. A th eate r d ir e cto r ta ke s a scrip t, w rit te n a nd p rin te d o n th e p age, a nd m ake s e ach s ce ne c o m e a liv e o n a s ta ge w it h a p artic u la r s e t o f a cto rs , a u niq ue s e t d esig n, a c e rta in s ty le o f l ig htin g, a nd so o n. T he scrip t sa ys th at a sce ne is se t in , sa y, a 21 su burb an liv in g ro om . O ka y, y o u’r e th e d ir e cto r, a nd y o ur ta sk is to cre ate a s u burb an liv in g r o om s ce ne o n s ta ge a nd m ake it w ork n ot a s an in te rc h angeable , in dis tin guis h able s u burb an liv in g r o om , b ut a s th e sp ecif ic liv in g ro om of th e partic u la r su burb an ch ara cte rs th e pla yw rig ht h as d escrib ed o n th e p age— ch ara cte rs y o u a re tr y in g to brin g to lif e o nsta ge. T he s a m e h old s tr u e in th e c in em a: th e d ir e cto r sta rts fr o m s cra tc h a nd s ta ges th e s ce ne fo r th e c a m era , a nd e ve ry ele m ent o f th e r e su lt in g im age h as e xp re ssiv e m eanin g. E ve n w hen a film is s h ot o n LO CATIO N —at a p re exis tin g, r e al p la ce — th e d ir e cto r h as ch ose n th at lo ca tio n fo r it s e xp re ssiv e v a lu e.

It’s im porta nt to n ote th at m is e -e n-s ce ne does n ot h ave a nyth in g to do w it h w heth er a g iv e n s ce ne is “re alis tic ” o r n ot. A s in th e th eate r, film s tu die s d oesn ’t ju dge m is e -e n-s ce ne b y h ow c lo se ly it m im ic s th e world w e liv e in . J u st a s a th eate r d ir e cto r m ig ht w ant to c re ate a th oro ughly w arp ed s u burb an liv in g ro om s e t w it h o ve rs iz e d fu rn it u re and d is to rte d w alls a nd b iz a rre ly s h aped d oors in o rd er to e xp re ss h er fe elin g th at th e c h ara cte rs w ho liv e in th is h ouse a re c ra zy, s o a film dir e cto r c re ate s m is e -e n-s ce ne a cco rd in g to th e im pre ssio n h e o r s h e wis h es to cre ate . S om etim es m is e -e n-s ce ne is re la tiv e ly re alis tic lo okin g, a nd s o m etim es it is n ’t .

Here ’s th e fir s t s h ot o f a h yp oth etic a l film w e’r e m akin g: w e s e e a man s ta ndin g u p a gain st a w all. T he w all is m ade o f . . . w hat? W ood?

Concre te ? B ric ks? L et’s s a y b ric ks. S om e o f th e b ric ks a re c h ip ped.

The w all is . . . w hat c o lo r? W hit e ? N o, le t’s s a y it ’s r e d. It’s a n ew w all.

No, it ’s a n o ld w all, a nd s o m e g ra ffit i h as b een p ain te d o n it , b ut e ve n th e g ra ffit i is o ld a nd fa ded. Is it in doors o r o utd oors ? D ay o r n ig ht?

We’ll g o w it h o utd oors in th e a fte rn oon. T he m an is . . . w hat? S hort?

No, h e’s ta ll. A nd h e’s w earin g . . . w hat? A u nif o rm — a b lu e u nif o rm .

Wit h a b adge.

Bear in m in d, n oth in g h as h appened y e t in o ur film — we ju st h ave a polic e m an sta ndin g again st a w all. But th e m ore m is e -e n-s ce ne deta ils w e a dd, th e m ore v is u al in fo rm atio n w e g iv e to o ur a udie nce , and th e m ore p re cis e o ur a udie nce ’s e m otio nal r e sp onse w ill b e to th e im age w e a re sh ow in g th em . B ut a ls o b ear in m in d th e d if fe re nce betw een w rit te n p ro se a nd film ed im age. A s re aders , y o u h ave ju st been p re se nte d w it h a ll o f th ese d eta ils in v e rb al fo rm , s o n ece ssa rily 22 yo u’v e g otte n th e in fo rm atio n s e quentia lly . W it h a film im age, w e s e em to s e e it a ll a t o nce . N oth in g is is o la te d th e w ay th in gs a re in th is writ te n d escrip tio n. W it h film , w e ta ke in a ll th e vis u al in fo rm atio n quic kly , and w e d o s o w it h out b ein g a w are th at w e ’ re ta kin g it in . A s it happens, s tu die s o f h um an p erc e ptio n h ave p ro ve n th at w e a ctu ally ta ke in v is u al in fo rm atio n s e quentia lly a s w ell, th ough a g re at d eal more s p eedily th an w e d o w rit te n in fo rm atio n. M ore ove r, film make rs fin d w ays o f d ir e ctin g o ur g aze to sp ecif ic a re as in th e im age b y manip ula tin g co m posit io ns, co lo rs , are as of fo cu s, and so on. B y exa m in in g e ach o f th ese a sp ects o f c in em a, film s tu die s a tte m pts to wake u s u p to w hat’s in fr o nt o f u s o nscre en— to m ake u s a ll m ore co nscio us o f w hat w e’r e s e ein g a nd w hy.

To co ntin ue wit h our exa m ple of m is e -e n-s ce ne: th e m an is handso m e in a B ra d P it t s o rt o f w ay. H e’s a w hit e g uy. In h is la te th ir tie s. B ut h e’s g ot a b la ck e ye . A nd th ere ’s a tr a ce o f b lo od o n h is lo w er lip .

So w e’v e g ot a c o p a nd a w all a nd s o m e s ta ge b lo od, a nd w e film him w it h a m otio n p ic tu re o r v id eo c a m era . N oth in g h as h appened b y ch ance here ; w e, th e film make rs , have m ade a se rie s of artis tic decis io ns e ve n b efo re w e h ave tu rn ed o n th e ca m era . E ve n if w e happen to h ave ju st s tu m ble d u pon th is g ood-lo okin g c o p w it h a b la ck eye s ta ndin g a gain st a b ric k w all a nd b le edin g fr o m th e m outh , it ’s o ur decis io n n ot o nly to film h im b ut to u se th at fo ota ge in o ur film . If w e decid e to u se th e fo ota ge, w e h ave m ade a n e xp re ssiv e s ta te m ent wit h it . A nd w e h ave d one s o w it h o nly o ne s h ot th at’s m ayb e s ix se co nds lo ng. T his is th e p ow er o f m is e -e n-s ce ne.

What’s our next sh ot? A body ly in g nearb y? A n em pty str e et?

Anoth er c o p? A g ia nt s lim y a lie n? A ll o f th ese th in gs a re p ossib le , a nd all o f th em a re g oin g to g iv e o ur a udie nce e ve n m ore in fo rm atio n about th e fir s t s h ot. S ubse quent s h ots s ta nd in re la tio n to th e fir s t sh ot, a nd b y th e tim e y o u g et to th e te nth o r tw entie th o r h undre dth sh ot, th e sh eer am ount of exp re ssiv e in fo rm atio n— th e co nte nt of in div id ual sh ots , and th e re la tio nsh ip s fr o m sh ot to sh ot— is sta ggerin g. B ut w e’r e g ettin g a head o f o urs e lv e s; th is is th e s u bje ct o f ch apte r 4 .

23 TH E S H O T By th e w ay: w hat is a SH O T ?

A s h ot is th e b asic e le m ent o f film makin g —a p ie ce o f film r u n th ro ugh th e c a m era , e xp ose d, a nd d eve lo ped; a n unin te rru pte d ru n o f th e c a m era ; o r a n u nin te rru pte d im age o n film .

That’s it : y o u tu rn th e c a m era o n, y o u le t it r u n, y o u tu rn it o ff, a nd th e re su lt — pro vid ed th at y o u h ave re m em bere d to p ut film in th e c a m era —is a s h ot. It’s a n u nedit e d s h ot, b ut it ’s a s h ot n oneth ele ss. It’s th e basic b uild in g b lo ck o f th e m ovie s.

Desp it e th e use of th e w ord sce ne in th e te rm mis e -e n-s ce ne , mis e en-s ce ne d escrib es th e c o nte nt n ot o nly o f a s e quence o f s h ots but o f a n in div id ual s h ot. A s h ot is a u nit o f le ngth o r d ura tio n— a min im al u nit o f d ra m atic m ate ria l; a sce ne is a lo nger u nit usu ally co nsis tin g o f s e ve ra l s h ots o r m ore .

Eve n at th e basic le ve l of a sin gle sh ot, m is e -e n-s ce ne yie ld s meanin g. T he fir s t s h ot o f a n im porta nt c h ara cte r is it s e lf im porta nt in th is re gard . H ere ’s a n e xa m ple : Im agin e th at y o u a re g oin g to film a murd er m ovie , a nd y o u n eed to in tr o duce y o ur a udie nce to a w om an who is g oin g to b e k ille d la te r o n in th e film . W hat d oes th e fir s t s h ot o f th is w om an lo ok lik e ? W hat does sh e lo ok lik e ? B eca use of th e exp re ssiv e im porta nce o f m is e -e n-s ce ne, e ve ry d eta il m atte rs . E ve ry deta il is a s ta te m ent o f m eanin g, w heth er y o u w ant it to b e o r n ot.

(T hese a re p re cis e ly th e q uestio ns A lf r e d H it c h co ck fa ce d w hen h e made h is g ro undbre akin g 1 960 film , Psych o .) Is sh e p re tty ? What does th at m ean ? W hat is s h e w earin g?

What d oes th at m ean ? If s h e’s re ally a ttr a ctiv e a nd w earin g s o m eth in g s kim py— well, a re y o u s a yin g sh e d ese rv e s to b e k ille d? W hat if s h e’s a ctu ally q uit e u gly — what a re yo u s a yin g th ere ? D o y o u w ant y o ur a udie nce to lik e h er o r d is lik e her? It’s y o ur c h oic e — yo u’r e th e d ir e cto r. S o w hat s ig nals a re y o u goin g to s e nd to y o ur a udie nce to g et th at e m otio n a cro ss? L et’s s a y yo u’r e g oin g to p ut s o m eth in g o n th e w all b ehin d h er. A nd it ’s . . . a b ig stu ffe d b ir d . N o, it ’s . . . a p air o f T exa s lo nghorn s. N o, it ’s . . . a b ro ke n mir ro r. N o, it ’s a c ru cif ix . O r m ayb e it ’s ju st a b ig e m pty w all. E ach o f th ese p ro ps a dds m eanin g to th e s h ot, a s d oes th e a bse nce o f p ro ps and d eco ra tiv e e le m ents .

24 This is w hy m is e -e n-s ce ne is im porta nt: it te lls u s s o m eth in g a bove and b eyo nd th e e ve nt it s e lf . A gain :

mis e -e n-s ce ne is th e to ta lit y o f exp re ssiv e co nte nt wit h in th e im age . And eve ry deta il has a meanin gfu l c o nse quence .

Let’s s a y y o u’r e film in g a s h ot o utd oors a nd a b ir d flie s in to th e ca m era ’s fie ld o f v is io n a nd o ut th e o th er s id e. S uddenly , a c o m ple te ly accid enta l e ve nt is in y o ur m ovie . D o y o u k e ep it ? D o y o u u se th at sh ot, o r d o y o u film a noth er o ne? Y our film is g oin g to b e s lig htly dif fe re nt w hic h eve r TA KE y o u c h oose . ( A ta ke is a s in gle r e co rd in g o f a sh ot. If th e d ir e cto r d oesn ’t lik e s o m eth in g th at o ccu rs in T ake 1 , s h e may ru n th e s h ot a gain b y c a llin g o ut “T ake 2 ”— and a gain a nd a gain —“T ake 2 2”— “T ake 3 5”— “T ake 5 9”— until s h e is r e ady to c a ll “ p rin t!” ) If y o u’r e m akin g th e k in d o f film in w hic h e ve ry th in g is fo rm ally s tr ic t and co ntr o lle d, th en yo u pro bably don’t w ant th e bir d . If how eve r yo u’r e tr y in g to c a ptu re a k in d o f ra ndom a nd u npre dic ta ble q ualit y , th en y o ur lit tle b ir d a ccid ent is p erfe ct. W hen film s tu dents d is cu ss yo ur w ork , th ey’ll b e ta lk in g a bout th e b ir d — th e s ig nif ic a nce o f r a ndom eve nts o f n atu re , p erh aps e ve n th e s ym bolis m o f flig ht. T hat b ir d is now p art o f y o ur film ’s m is e -e n-s ce ne, a nd it ’s e xp re ssin g s o m eth in g —wheth er y o u w ant it to o r n ot. W heth er c rit ic s o r a udie nce s a t th e mult ip le x s p ecif ic a lly n otic e it o r n ot, it ’ s th ere . It’s a p art o f th e a rt work . It’s in th e film , a nd th ere fo re it h as e xp re ssiv e m eanin g.

Here ’s an exa m ple fr o m a re al film ca lle d Gentle m en Pre fe r Blo ndes , a 1 953 m usic a l c o m edy s ta rrin g M arily n M onro e a nd J a ne Russe ll. T here ’s a s ce ne in w hic h J a ne R usse ll p erfo rm s a m usic a l num ber w it h a c re w o f a th le te s o n th e A m eric a n O ly m pic te am . T he num ber w as s u ppose d to e nd w it h a c o uple o f th e m uscle b oys d iv in g ove r J a ne R usse ll’s s h ould ers a s s h e s it s b y th e s id e o f a s w im min g pool. A s it tu rn ed o ut, h ow eve r, o ne o f th e a cto rs a ccid enta lly k ic ke d her in th e h ead a s h e a tte m pte d to d iv e o ve r h er in to th e p ool. W it h th e ca m era still ru nnin g, th e film ’s gla m oro us sta r got kn ocke d vio le ntly in to th e w ate r and ca m e up lo okin g lik e th e pro ve rb ia l dro w ned ra t. It w as o bvio usly a n a ccid ent. B ut th e d ir e cto r, H ow ard Haw ks, d ecid ed to u se th at ta ke in ste ad o f a ny o f th e a ccid ent- fr e e re ta ke s h e a nd h is ch ore ogra pher su bse quently film ed. S om eth in g about th e accid ent appeale d to H aw ks’s se nsib ilit y : it exp re sse d 25 so m eth in g v is u ally a bout s e x a nd s e x r o le s a nd g ender a nd a nim osit y and th e fa ilu re o f ro m ance . T here ’s a s u dden a nd s h ockin g s h if t in mis e -e n-s ce ne, a s J a ne R usse ll g oes fr o m b ein g th e c la ssic a lly m ade- up H olly w ood m ovie sta r in a ca re fu lly co m pose d sh ot to bein g dunke d in a p ool a nd c o m in g u p s p utte rin g fo r a ir , h er h air a ll m atte d dow n, a nd im pro vis in g th e e nd o f th e s o ng. H aw ks lik e d th at v e rs io n bette r; it s a id w hat h e w ante d to s a y, e ve n th ough it h appened e ntir e ly by c h ance . T he s h ot, in it ia lly a m is ta ke , to ok o n e xp re ssiv e m eanin g th ro ugh it s in clu sio n in th e film .

SU BJE C T-C AM ER A D IS TA NCE— WHY IT M ATTE R S At th e e nd o f B illy W ild er’s Sunse t B oule va rd (1 950), a n a gin g s ta r tu rn s to h er d ir e cto r a nd u tte rs th e fa m ous lin e, “I’m re ady fo r m y clo se -u p.” B ut w hat e xa ctly is a c lo se -u p? O r a lo ng s h ot? A nd w hy d o th ese te rm s m atte r?

One w ay d ir e cto rs h ave o f p ro vid in g e xp re ssiv e s h adin g to e ach sh ot th ey film is to v a ry th e d is ta nce b etw een th e c a m era a nd th e su bje ct b ein g film ed. E ve ry ru le h as it s e xce ptio ns, o f c o urs e , b ut in genera l, th e c lo se r th e c a m era is to th e s u bje ct, th e m ore e m otio nal weig ht th e s u bje ct g ain s. (T o b e m ore p re cis e , it ’s re ally a m atte r o f how c lo se th e c a m era ’s le ns m ake s th e s u bje ct s e em to b e; th is is beca use a c a m era ’s le ns m ay b rin g th e s u bje ct c lo se r o ptic a lly e ve n when th e ca m era is p hysic a lly fa r a w ay fr o m th e su bje ct. S ee th e glo ssa ry ’s d efin it io n o f TE LE PH O TO L E N S fo r c la rif ic a tio n.) If w e s e e a n em pty liv in g ro om a nd h ear th e s o und o f a te le phone rin gin g o n th e so undtr a ck b ut w e c a n’t im media te ly fin d th e te le phone o nscre en, th e ca ll m ay s e em r e la tiv e ly u nim porta nt. B ut if th e d ir e cto r q uic kly c u ts to a CLO SE-U P o f th e te le phone, s u ddenly th e p hone c a ll a ssu m es g re at sig nif ic a nce . B eca use th e d ir e cto r h as m ove d th e c a m era c lo se to it , th e phone— once lo st in th e liv in g ro om se t— beco m es not only is o la te d w it h in th e r o om b ut e norm ous o n th e s cre en.

A c lo se -u p is a s h ot th at is o la te s a n o bje ct in th e im age, m akin g it appear re la tiv e ly la rg e . A c lo se -u p o f a h um an b ein g is g enera lly o f th at p ers o n’s fa ce . A n extr e m e c lo se-u p m ig ht b e o f th e p ers o n’s 26 eye s— or m outh — or nose — or any ele m ent is o la te d at ve ry clo se ra nge in th e im age.

Oth er su bje ct- c a m era -d is ta nce te rm s are als o sim ple and se lf - exp la nato ry . A MED IU M SH O T appears to be ta ke n fr o m a m ediu m dis ta nce ; in te rm s of th e hum an body, it ’s fr o m th e w ais t up. A TH REEQ UAR TE R S H O T ta ke s in th e hum an body fr o m ju st belo w th e kn ees; a FU LL S H O T is o f th e e ntir e h um an b ody. A LO NG S H O T a ppears to b e ta ke n fr o m a lo ng d is ta nce . R em em ber: le nse s a re a ble to cre ate th e illu sio n of dis ta nce or clo se ness. A dir e cto r co uld co nce iv a bly u se a te le photo le ns o n a c a m era th at is ra th er d is ta nt fr o m th e su bje ct and still cre ate a clo se -u p. The actu al physic a l posit io n o f th e c a m era a t th e tim e o f th e film in g is n ’t th e is su e— it ’s what th e im age lo oks lik e o nscre en th at m atte rs . T he c rit ic a l ta sk is not to tr y to d ete rm in e w here th e c a m era w as a ctu ally p la ce d d urin g film in g, o r w heth er a te le photo le ns w as u se d to c re ate th e s h ot, b ut ra th er to b egin to n otic e th e exp re ssiv e re su lt s of su bje ct- c a m era dis ta nce o nscre en.

There a re g ra datio ns. Y ou ca n h ave med iu m c lo se-u ps , ta ke n fr o m th e c h est u p; extr e m e lo ng s h ots , w hic h s h ow th e o bje ct o r pers o n at a va st dis ta nce su rro unded by a gre at am ount of th e su rro undin g s p ace . If, a t th e e nd o f a w este rn , th e fin al s h ot o f th e film is a n e xtr e m e lo ng s h ot o f a n o utla w rid in g o ff a lo ne in to th e d ese rt, th e d ir e cto r m ay b e u sin g th e s h ot to c o nve y th e c h ara cte r’s is o la tio n fr o m c iv iliz a tio n, h is s o lit u de; w e w ould s e e h im in th e fa r d is ta nce su rro unded b y m ile s o f e m pty d ese rt. Im agin e h ow d if fe re nt w e w ould fe el a bout th is c h ara cte r if , in ste ad o f s e ein g h im in e xtr e m e lo ng s h ot, we s a w h is w eath er-b eate n fa ce in c lo se -u p a s th e fin al im age o f th e film . W e w ould b e e m otio nally a s w ell a s p hysic a lly c lo se r to h im a t th at m om ent b eca use w e w ould b e a ble to re ad in to h is fa ce th e em otio ns h e w as fe elin g. H is s u btle st e xp re ssio ns— a s lig htly ra is e d eye bro w , a te nsin g o f th e m outh — would fill th e s cre en.

27 FIG URE 1 .1 E xtr e m e c lo se -u p: a s in gle e ye d om in ate s th e im age.

FIG URE 1 .2 C lo se -u p: th e c h ara cte r’s fa ce fills m ost o f th e s cre en.

FIG URE 1 .3 M ediu m s h ot: th e c h ara cte r a ppears fr o m th e w ais t u p.

FIG URE 1 .4 L ong s h ot: b eca use th e c a m era h as m ove d b ack e ve n fu rth er, th e c h ara cte r n ow appears in a c o m ple te s p atia l c o nte xt.

28 FIG URE 1 .5 E xtr e m e lo ng s h ot: th e c a m era is n ow v e ry fa r a w ay fr o m th e c h ara cte r, th ere by dw arfin g h im o nscre en. W hat a re th e e m otio nally e xp re ssiv e q ualit ie s o f e ach o f th ese illu str a tio ns ( fig s. 1 .1 th ro ugh 1 .5 )?

Here ’s a fin al o bse rv a tio n o n s u bje ct- c a m era d is ta nce : E ach film esta blis h es it s o w n s h ot s ca le , ju st a s e ach film make r e sta blis h es h is or her ow n sty le . W here as O rs o n W elle s in Cit iz e n K ane (1 941) em plo ys a n e xtr e m e c lo se -u p o f K ane’s lip s a s h e s a ys th e k e y w ord , “R ose bud,” H ow ard H aw ks w ould n eve r p ush h is c a m era s o c lo se to a ch ara cte r’s m outh a nd is o la te it in th at w ay. T he D anis h d ir e cto r C arl Theodor D re ye r sh ot h is m aste rp ie ce The P assio n o f Jo an o f A rc (1 928) a lm ost e ntir e ly in c lo se ups; a s a re su lt , w hat w ould b e a lo ng sh ot fo r D re ye r m ig ht b e a m ediu m s h ot fo r J o hn F ord o r B illy W ild er.

If w e begin w it h th e id ea th at th e hum an body is genera lly th e measu re fo r su bje ct- c a m era dis ta nce , th en th e co nce pt’s re la tiv it y beco m es c le ar: a c lo se -u p is o nly a c lo se -u p in re la tio n to s o m eth in g els e —th e w hole b ody, fo r e xa m ple . T he s a m e h old s tr u e fo r o bje cts and la ndsca pe e le m ents . In s h ort, w e m ust a ppre cia te th e fa ct th at su bje ct- c a m era d is ta nce s a re re la tiv e b oth w it h in in div id ual film s— th e se quence in Cit iz e n K ane th at in clu des th e e xtr e m e c lo se -u p o f K ane utte rin g “R ose bud” b egin s w it h a n e qually e xtr e m e lo ng s h ot o f h is mansio n— and fr o m film to film : D re ye r’s c lo se -u ps d if fe r in s ca le fr o m th ose u se d b y F ord o r W ild er.

CAM ER A A NG LE In addit io n to su bje ct- c a m era dis ta nce , dir e cto rs em plo y dif fe re nt ca m era a ngle s to p ro vid e e xp re ssiv e c o nte nt to th e s u bje cts th ey film .

When d ir e cto rs s im ply w ant to film a p ers o n o r ro om o r la ndsca pe 29 fr o m a n a ngle th at s e em s u nobtr u siv e a nd n orm al ( w hate ve r th e w ord norm al a ctu ally m eans), th ey p la ce th e ca m era a t th e le ve l o f a n adult ’s e ye s, w hic h is to s a y fiv e o r s ix fe et o ff th e g ro und w hen th e ch ara cte rs are sta ndin g, lo w er w hen th ey are se ate d. This , not su rp ris in gly , is c a lle d a n EYE-L E VEL S H O T .

When th e d ir e cto r s h oots h is o r h er s u bje cts fr o m b elo w , th e re su lt is a LO W -A N G LE S H O T ; w it h a lo w -a ngle s h ot, th e c a m era is in e ffe ct lo okin g u p a t th e s u bje ct. A nd w hen h e o r s h e s h oots th e s u bje ct fr o m above , th e r e su lt is a HIG H-A N G LE S H O T ; th e c a m era is lo okin g d ow n. A n extr e m e o ve rh ead s h ot, ta ke n s e em in gly fr o m th e s ky o r c e ilin g a nd lo okin g s tr a ig ht d ow n o n th e s u bje ct, is k n ow n a s a BIR D’S -E YE V IE W .

The te rm s clo se -u p , lo w -a ngle s h ot , extr e m e lo ng s h ot , a nd o th ers assu m e th at th e c a m era is fa cin g th e s u bje ct s q uare ly , a nd fo r th e most p art s h ots in fe atu re film s a re in deed ta ke n s tr a ig ht- o n. B ut a ca m era ca n tilt la te ra lly on it s axis , to o. W hen th e ca m era tilt s horiz o nta lly a nd/o r v e rtic a lly it ’s c a lle d a DUTC H T IL T o r a can te d a n gle .

FIG URE 1 .6 E ye -le ve l s h ot: th e c a m era p la ce s u s a t th e c h ara cte r’s h eig ht— we’r e e quals .

30 FIG URE 1 .7 L ow -a ngle s h ot: w e’r e lo okin g u p a t h er; lo w -a ngle s h ots s o m etim es a ggra ndiz e th e s h ot’s s u bje ct.

FIG URE 1 .8 H ig h-a ngle s h ot: w e’r e lo okin g d ow n a t h er n ow ; th is ty p e o f s h ot m ay s u ggest a ce rta in s u perio rit y o ve r a c h ara cte r.

FIG URE 1 .9 B ir d ’s -e ye s h ot: th is s h ot is ta ke n fr o m th e h ig hest p ossib le a ngle . W hat m ig ht b e th e e xp re ssiv e c o nse quence s o f th is s h ot?

31 FIG URE 1 .1 0 D utc h tilt ( o r c a nte d a ngle ) s h ot: th e c a m era is n ot o n it s n orm al h oriz o nta l o r ve rtic a l a xe s, a nd th e r e su lt in g im age is o ff- k ilt e r; D utc h tilt s a re s o m etim es u se d to s u ggest a ch ara cte r’s u nbala nce d m enta l s ta te .

Of e ve ry th in g y o u re ad in th is b ook, th e o pposit e a ls o m ay b e tr u e at tim es, sin ce e ve ry a tte m pt to d efin e a p henom enon n ece ssa rily re duce s it b y ig norin g s o m e o f th e q uir k s th at m ake film s c o ntin ually in te re stin g. T here ’s a fin e lin e to tr e ad b etw een p ro vid in g a u se fu l basic defin it io n th at yo u want and need and ale rtin g yo u to co m plic a tio ns o r o utr ig ht c o ntr a dic tio ns th at q ualif y th e d efin it io n. T his is c e rta in ly tr u e w it h a ny d is cu ssio n o f th e e xp re ssiv e te ndencie s o f lo w -a ngle and hig h-a ngle sh ots . T yp ic a lly , dir e cto rs use lo w -a ngle sh ots to a ggra ndiz e th eir s u bje cts . A fte r a ll, “to lo ok u p to s o m eone” means th at y o u a dm ir e th at p ers o n. A nd h ig h-a ngle s h ots , b eca use th ey lo ok d ow n o n th e s u bje ct, a re o fte n u se d to s u btly c rit ic iz e th e s u bje ct b y m akin g h im o r h er s e em s lig htly dim in is h ed, o r to d is ta nce a n a udie nce e m otio nally fr o m th e c h ara cte r.

At tim es, a c a m era a ngle c a n in fa ct d is to rt th e o bje ct o nscre en. B y fo re sh orte nin g a n o bje ct, fo r e xa m ple , a v e ry h ig h a ngle s h ot d oes make a n o bje ct o r p ers o n a ppear s m alle r, w hile a v e ry lo w a ngle c a n do th e o pposit e . B ut th ese a re ju st b ro ad te ndencie s, a nd a s a lw ays, th e e ffe ct o f a p artic u la r ca m era a ngle d epends o n th e co nte xt in whic h it a ppears . F ilm s ch ola rs c a n p oin t to h undre ds o f e xa m ple s in cla ssic a l cin em a in w hic h a hig h- or lo w -a ngle sh ot pro duce s an unexp ecte d e ffe ct. In Cit iz e n K ane , fo r in sta nce , W elle s c h oose s to film h is c e ntr a l c h ara cte r in a lo w -a ngle s h ot a t p re cis e ly th e m om ent of his gre ate st hum ilia tio n, and a te ch nic a l devic e th at is ofte n em plo ye d to s ig nal a dm ir a tio n a ch ie ve s e xa ctly th e o pposit e e ffe ct b y 32 makin g K ane lo ok clu m sy and to o big fo r his su rro undin gs, and th ere fo re m ore p it ia ble a nd p ath etic .

FIG URE 1 .1 1 T w o-s h ot: th e d efin it io n is s e lf - e xp la nato ry , b ut n ote th e e qualiz in g q ualit y o f th is ty p e o f s h ot; th ese tw o c h ara cte rs h ave th e s a m e v is u al w eig ht in a s in gle s h ot.

FIG URE 1 .1 2 T hre e-s h ot: th e tw o-s h ot’s s o cia lly b ala nce d q ualit y e xp ands to in clu de a th ir d pers o n, b ut n ote th e g re ate r s u bje ct- c a m era d is ta nce th at g oes a lo ng w it h it in th is e xa m ple .

33 FIG URE 1 .1 3 M aste r s h ot: th e w hole s e t— in th is c a se , a d in in g r o om — and a ll th e c h ara cte rs are ta ke n in b y th is ty p e o f s h ot.

Shots c a n a ls o b e d efin ed b y th e n um ber o f p eople in th e im age.

Were a dir e cto r to ca ll fo r a clo se -u p of his pro ta gonis t, th e assu m ptio n w ould b e th at a s in gle fa ce w ould d om in ate th e s cre en.

When a d ir e cto r s e ts u p a TW O-S H O T , h e o r s h e c re ate s a s h ot in w hic h tw o p eople a ppear, g enera lly in m ediu m d is ta nce o r c lo se r, th ough o f co urs e th ere c a n b e tw o-s h ots o f a c o uple o r o th er ty p e o f p air w alk in g th at w ould re ve al m ore o f th eir lo w er b odie s. T he p oin t is th at tw o- sh ots a re d om in ate d s p atia lly b y tw o p eople , m akin g th em id eal fo r co nve rs a tio ns.

A TH REE-S H O T , o f c o urs e , c o nta in s th re e p eople — not th re e p eople su rro unded b y a c ro w d, b ut th re e p eople w ho a re fr a m ed in s u ch a way a s to c o nstit u te a d is tin ct g ro up.

Fin ally , a MASTE R S H O T is a s h ot ta ke n fr o m a lo ng d is ta nce th at in clu des a s m uch o f th e s e t o r lo ca tio n a s p ossib le a s w ell a ll th e ch ara cte rs in th e s ce ne. F or e xa m ple , a s ce ne s e t in a d in in g ro om co uld b e film ed in m aste r s h ot if th e c a m era w as p la ce d s o th at it ca ptu re d th e w hole d in in g ta ble , a t le ast tw o o f th e fo ur w alls , a ll o f th e 34 people s it tin g a ro und th e ta ble , a nd m ayb e th e b otto m o f a c h andelie r hangin g o ve r th e ta ble . T he d ir e cto r c o uld ru n th e e ntir e s ce ne fr o m begin nin g to e nd a nd, la te r, in te rc u t c lo se -u ps, tw o-s h ots , a nd th re e- sh ots fo r v is u al v a ria tio n a nd d ra m atic e m phasis .

SPA CE A ND T IM E O N F IL M Lik e dance and th eate r, film is an art of both sp ace and tim e.

Chore ogra phers m ove th eir dance rs aro und a sta ge fo r a giv e n am ount o f tim e, a nd s o d o th eate r d ir e cto rs w it h th eir a cto rs . B ut a dance ca n ru n slo w er or fa ste r so m e nig hts , esp ecia lly if it is n ’t co nnecte d to a p ie ce o f m usic . A nd if th e a cto rs in a p la y s kip s o m e o f th eir lin es o r e ve n ta lk fa ste r th an u su al in a g iv e n p erfo rm ance , th e pla y c a n r u n s h orte r s o m e n ig hts th an o th ers .

But a 1 10-m in ute film w ill b e a 1 10-m in ute film e ve ry tim e it is scre ened, w heth er on th e silv e r scre en at a m ult ip le x or on a sta ndard sp eed D VD p la ye r in y o ur liv in g r o om . T his is b eca use s o und film r u ns a t a s ta ndard 24 f r a m es p er s eco nd , a nd it d oes s o not o nly th ro ugh th e ca m era w hen e ach sh ot is in div id ually film ed b ut a ls o th ro ugh th e p ro je cto r w hen it is p la ye d in a th eate r . In th e e arly d ays o f cin em a, c a m era o pera to rs c ra nke d th e film th ro ugh th eir c a m era s b y hand a t a s p eed h ove rin g a s c lo se a s p ossib le b etw een 1 6 a nd 1 8 fr a m es p er s e co nd. If c a m era o pera to rs w ante d to s p eed a ctio ns u p onscre en, th ey w ould underc ra nk, or cra nk slo w er: fe w er fr a m es would b e film ed p er s e co nd, s o w hen th at fo ota ge w as ru n th ro ugh a sta ndard p ro je cto r a t a s ta ndard s p eed, th e a ctio n w ould a ppear to sp eed u p. If th ey w ante d to c re ate a s lo w -m otio n e ffe ct, th ey w ould d o th e opposit e : th ey w ould OVER CRAN K , or cra nk fa ste r, ca usin g th e pro je cto r to s lo w th e m ove m ent d ow n w hen th e s h ot w as p ro je cte d. In sh ort, underc ra nkin g pro duce s fa st motio n, while ove rc ra nkin g pro duce s s lo w m otio n.

The in tr o ductio n of SYN CHRO NIZ E D SO UND FIL M —ch ara cte rs bein g se en a nd h eard sp eakin g a t th e sa m e tim e o nscre en— in th e la te 1920s m eant th at th e IM AG E T R AC KS a nd th e SO UNDTR AC KS h ad to b e both re co rd ed and pro je cte d at th e sa m e sp eed so as to avo id 35 dis to rtio n. 2 4 fr a m es p er se co nd w as th e sta ndard sp eed th at th e in dustr y c h ose . Y ou’ll le arn m ore a bout s o und te ch nolo gy in ch apte r 5 .

And a lt h ough vid eota pe— unlik e film ’s ce llu lo id — is n ot d iv id ed in to in div id ual fr a m es, th e s a m e p rin cip le a pplie s: v id eo’s e le ctr o m agnetic ta pe is re co rd ed a t th e s a m e s p eed a t w hic h it is tr a nsm it te d a nd scre ened. A 6 0-m in ute v id eo w ill a lw ays r u n 6 0 m in ute s— no m ore , n o le ss.

There is a p hilo so phic a l p oin t to film ’s te ch nic a l a ppre hensio n o f tim e. U nlik e a ny o th er a rt fo rm , m otio n p ic tu re s c a ptu re a s e em in gly exa ct s e nse o f r e al tim e p assin g. A s th e g re at H olly w ood a cto r J a m es Ste w art o nce d escrib ed it , m otio n p ic tu re s a re lik e “p ie ce s o f tim e.” Then a gain , a d is tin ctio n m ust b e m ade b etw een re al tim e , th e k in d measu re d by clo cks, and re el tim e —th e pie ce s of tim e th at, fo r exa m ple , S pik e L ee m anip ula te d b y e dit in g to c re ate Malc o lm X , a film th at co ve rs th e ce ntr a l eve nts of a 39-y e ar-o ld m an’s lif e in 202 min ute s.

One fa m ilia r c o m plic a tio n, o f c o urs e , is th at w hen film s a re s h ow n on te le vis io n th ey a re o fte n LE XIC O NNED to fit th em in to a tim e s lo t a nd sq ueeze in m ore c o m merc ia ls .

Lexic o nnin g in vo lv e s s p eedin g u p th e sta ndard 2 4 fr a m es p er s e co nd b y a m atte r o f h undre dth s o f a fr a m e per s e co nd, w hic h m ay s h orte n th e film a s m uch b y a s 6 o r 7 p erc e nt of it s to ta l ru nnin g tim e. Als o note th e fa m ilia r warn in g th at acco m panie s m ovie s on TV : “V ie w er dis cre tio n is advis e d. The fo llo w in g film h as b een m odif ie d fr o m it s o rig in al v e rs io n. It h as b een fo rm atte d to fit th is s cre en a nd e dit e d to ru n in th e tim e s lo t a llo tte d and fo r c o nte nt.” P eople w ho lo ve film s h ate th is P ro cru ste an p ro ce ss.

(P ro cru ste s w as a m yth ic a l k in g w ho h ad a b ed to w hic h h e s tr a pped and to rtu re d h is v ic tim s. T hose w ho w ere to o s h ort fo r th e b ed w ere str e tc h ed to fit it , a nd th ose to o ta ll h ad th eir h eads a nd le gs c h opped off.) W ould a n a rt g alle ry tr im th e to p, b otto m , a nd s id es o f a p ain tin g ju st s o it w ould fit in to a p re exis tin g fr a m e?

36 FIG URE 1 .1 4 A s tr ip o f c e llu lo id , d iv id ed b y fr a m es, w it h th e s o undtr a ck r u nnin g v e rtic a lly dow n th e le ft a lo ngsid e th e im age fr a m es.

CO M PO SIT IO N One co nfu sin g a sp ect o f film stu die s te rm in olo gy is th at th e w ord FR AM E h as tw o d is tin ct m eanin gs. T he fir s t, d escrib ed a bove , r e fe rs to each in div id ual r e cta ngle o n w hic h a s in gle im age is p hoto gra phed a s th e s tr ip o f c e llu lo id r u ns th ro ugh a p ro je cto r. T hat’s w hat w e’r e ta lk in g about w hen w e s a y th at film is re co rd ed a nd p ro je cte d a t 2 4 fr a m es per se co nd: 24 of th ose lit tle re cta ngle s are fir s t fille d wit h photo gra phic im ages w hen th ey a re e xp ose d to lig ht th ro ugh a le ns, and th en th ese fr a m es a re p ro je cte d a t th e s a m e s p eed o nto a s cre en.

But th e w ord fr a m e als o describ es th e bord ers of th e im age onscre en— th e re cta ngula r fr a m e of dark n ess on th e scre en th at defin es th e e dge o f th e im age th e w ay a p ic tu re fr a m e d efin es a fr a m ed p ain tin g o r p hoto gra ph. S om etim es, in th eate rs , th e s cre en’s fr a m e w ill be fu rth er defin ed by cu rta in s or oth er m askin g. Y our te le vis io n s e t’s fr a m e is th e m eta l o r p la stic e dge th at s u rro unds th e gla ss s cre en. In fa ct, y o u c a n m ake th re equarte rs o f a fr a m e a s y o u s it re adin g th is b ook s im ply b y h old in g y o ur h ands in fr o nt o f y o u, p alm s out, a nd b rin gin g y o ur th um bs to geth er. T he to p o f th is h andm ade fr a m e is o pen, b ut y o u c a n g et a g ood s e nse o f w hy th e fr a m e is a n im porta nt a rtis tic c o nce pt in th e c in em a ju st b y lo okin g a ro und y o ur ro om a nd fr a m in g v a rio us o bje cts o r e ve n y o urs e lf in a m ir ro r.

37 Note th at y o ur lit e ra lly h andm ade fr a m e is m ore o r le ss a s q uare if yo u ke ep yo ur th um bs to geth er. N ow cre ate a w id er re cta ngle b y to uch in g y o ur rig ht fo re fin ger to y o ur le ft th um b a nd v ic e v e rs a . S ee how th is fr a m in g c h anges th e w ay th e ro om lo oks. A nd b e a w are o f th e s u bje ctc a m era d is ta nce a nd c a m era a ngle o f th e im agin ary s h ots yo u c re ate . A sk y o urs e lf w hy c e rta in “s h ots ” lo ok b ette r th an o th ers .

Do y o u fin d th at y o u h ave a ta ste fo r o bliq ue a ngle c lo se -u ps, fo r exa m ple , o r d o y o u s e e th e w orld m ore a t e ye le ve l?

The pre cis e arra ngem ents of obje cts and ch ara cte rs w it h in th e fr a m e— th e p ic tu re -fr a m e k in d o f fr a m e— is c a lle d CO M PO SIT IO N . E ach tim e yo u move d yo ur handm ade fr a m e, yo u cre ate d a new co m posit io n, e ve n if y o u d id n’t m ove a ny o bje cts a ro und o n y o ur d esk or a sk y o ur r o om mate to m ove fu rth er a w ay.

As in p ain tin g, c o m posit io n is a c ru cia l e le m ent o f film makin g. In fa ct, c o m posit io n is a p ain te rly te rm . ( F ew if a ny a rt c rit ic s e ve r r e fe r to th e m is e -e n-s ce ne o f a p ain tin g.) C om posit io n m eans th e re la tio nsh ip of lin es, vo lu m es, m asse s, and sh apes at a sin gle in sta nt in a re pre se nta tio n. C om posit io n is re la tiv e ly s ta tic , th ough fe w e le m ents re m ain tr u ly m otio nle ss in a m otio n p ic tu re ; m is e -e n-s ce ne is m ore dyn am ic . M is e en-s ce ne is th e re la tio n o f e ve ry th in g in th e sh ot to eve ry th in g els e in th e sh ot ove r th e co urs e of th e sh ot , th ough so m etim es film crit ic s ca n e xte nd th eir d is cu ssio n o f co m posit io nal co nsis te ncy to in div id ual s p ace s r e pre se nte d in th e film a nd e ve n o ve r th e c o urs e o f th e e ntir e film . O ne c o uld w rit e a g re at p aper o n a ny o f th ese div e rs e m is e -e n-s ce nes, payin g partic u la r atte ntio n to th eir co m posit io nal e le m ents : th e co urty a rd in H it c h co ck’s Rear W in dow (1 954), th e bar’s base m ent in D avid F in ch er’s Fig ht C lu b (1 999), Ric k’s C afé in M ic h ael C urtiz ’s Casa bla nca ( 1 942), o r S al’s P iz ze ria in Spik e L ee’s Do th e R ig ht T hin g ( 1 989).

Lik e a pain te r, a dir e cto r’s partic u la r arra ngem ent of sh apes, masse s, ve cto rs , ch ara cte rs ’ bodie s, te xtu re s, lig htin g, and so on wit h in each film im age is one of th e co rn ers to nes of his or her cin em atic s ty le . T hin k a gain o f th e b ir d th at fle w in to th e h yp oth etic a l sh ot d escrib ed a bove . T hat e xa m ple w as n ot o nly a n in sta nce o f meanin g bein g pro duce d unin te ntio nally ; it was an in sta nce of co m posit io nal c h ange a s w ell. H ere ’s a re la te d e xa m ple : If a d ir e cto r 38 had ta ke n se ve ra l h ours to se t u p a la ndsca pe sh ot w it h a n e ye to w ard a s tr ic t, s ta tic c o m posit io n— a w este rn b utte o n th e le ft s e en a t su nse t w it h a flo ck o f sh eep sta ndin g m ore o r le ss still a t clo se r dis ta nce o n th e r ig ht, a nd a r a nch h and o n a h ors e in n ear d is ta nce a t more o r le ss p re cis e ly th e c e nte r o f th e im age— and s u ddenly o ne o f th e s h eep b olt e d a w ay fr o m th e h erd a nd w ent ru nnin g a cro ss th e ca m era ’s fie ld o f v is io n, th at d ir e cto r m ay in sis t o n a RETA KE w it h th e erra nt s h eep s a fe ly p ut a w ay in a fa ra w ay p en. W hy? B eca use h e co nsid ere d h is c o m posit io n r u in ed. T hen a gain , a noth er d ir e cto r m ig ht use th e ta ke w it h th e ru nnin g sh eep beca use sh e m ig ht se e it s su dden, ra pid , la te ra l m ove m ent a cro ss th e s cre en a s a b enefic ia l if accid enta l a ddit io n to h er c o m posit io n.

Addin g to th e p ro ble m s o f c in em atic c o m posit io n is th e fa ct th at motio n p ic tu re s a re (c le arly ) a ll a bout motio n , s o to a c e rta in e xte nt alm ost e ve ry c o m posit io n is flu id : p eople m ove , th e w in d b lo w s th in gs aro und, c a rs s p eed b y, a nd th e c a m era it s e lf m ay m ove . M ore ove r, a s yo u w ill le arn in ch apte r 4 , s h ots a re c o nnecte d to o th er s h ots in a pro ce ss c a lle d ED IT IN G , a nd th e c o m posit io n o f o ne s h ot o ught to h ave so m eth in g to d o n ot o nly w it h th e s h ot th at fo llo w s it b ut w it h th e s h ot th at p re ce des it .

One fin al co nce pt in th is in tr o ducto ry ch apte r: th e sh ape o f th e im age. C once iv a bly , m ovie s c o uld b e ro und, c o uld n’t th ey? In deed, Thom as E dis o n’s fir s t film s were ro und. O bvio usly film s a re n’t ro und anym ore .

1 T hey ta ke th e fo rm o f re cta ngle s o f v a rio us w id th s. T he te rm ASPEC T ra tio d escrib es th e p re cis e re la tio n o f th e w id th o f th e re cta ngula r im age to it s heig ht. His to ric a lly , asp ect ra tio s are pro ble m atic . T he s ile nt a sp ect r a tio w as a ctu ally 1 .3 3:1 , a s lig htly w id e re cta ngle , th e w id th o f th e im age b ein g o ne a nd o ne th ir d th e s iz e o f it s h eig ht. M akin g m atte rs m ore c o nfu sin g, th e film in dustr y s ta ndard —th e s o -c a lle d AC AD EM Y R ATIO (n am ed a fte r th e A ca dem y o f M otio n Pic tu re A rts a nd S cie nce s, th e g ro up th at g iv e s th e O sca rs , a nd th at in stit u te d th e s ta ndard ra tio in 1 932)— is o fte n re fe rre d to a s b ein g 1.3 3:1 , b ut in a ctu al fa ct th e A ca dem y ra tio is 1 .3 7:1 — a v e ry s lig htly wid er r e cta ngle th an th at o f s ile nt film s.

All H olly w ood film s afte r 1932 w ere m ade w it h th e sta ndard 39 Aca dem y a sp ect r a tio o f 1 .3 7:1 — th at is , u ntil th e 1 950s, w hen v a rio us wid escre en te ch nolo gie s w ere d eve lo ped a s a w ay o f c o m petin g w it h te le vis io n. B ut a gain , th at’s th e s u bje ct o f a la te r c h apte r.

STU DY G UID E:

A N ALY ZIN G T H E S H O T You w ill le arn th ro ugh th e c o urs e o f re adin g th is b ook th at film is a c o m plic a te d a rt fo rm w it h m any te ch nic a l a nd e xp re ssiv e a sp ects , a nd o ne o f th e k e y p ro ble m s in analy zin g m otio n p ic tu re s is th at th at th eir im ages a re in fa ct in m otio n. S o to s im plif y th in gs h ere a t th e b egin nin g o f th e c o urs e , tr y th e fo llo w in g e xe rc is e :

Get a v id eota pe o r D VD o f a fe atu re film fr o m a ny p erio d in film h is to ry . In fa ct, if possib le , g et o ne yo u’v e a lr e ady se en a nd e njo ye d. F ast fo rw ard to a ny p oin t yo u ch oose , a nd th en fr e eze -fr a m e th e im age.

You a re n ow lo okin g a t a s in gle fr a m e o f a s in gle s h ot. W hat d o y o u n otic e a bout it s mis e -e n-s ce ne? P ro perly s p eakin g, s in ce th is is a s ta tic im age, a s in gle fr a m e, y o u a re bein g a ske d to n otic e e le m ents o f it s c o m posit io n ra th er th an th e to ta lit y o f e xp re ssiv e co nte nt in a n e ntir e s h ot. R em em ber w hat m is e -e n-s ce ne m eans:

all o f th e e le m ents pla ce d in fr o nt o f th e c a m era to b e p hoto gra phed: s e ttin gs, p ro ps, lig htin g, c o stu m es, make up, and fig ure behavio r (m eanin g acto rs , th eir gestu re s, and th eir fa cia l exp re ssio ns) . A nd c o m posit io n:

th e r e la tio nsh ip o f lin es, v o lu m es, m asse s, a nd s h apes at a s in gle in sta nt . C om posit io n is r e la tiv e ly s ta tic ; m is e -e n-s ce ne is d yn am ic .

Your a ssig nm ent is to n otic e th e v a rio us c o m posit io nal e le m ents in th e im age. W rit e th em d ow n in th e fo rm o f a lis t, a nd b e a s d escrip tiv e a s p ossib le . (In ste ad o f s a yin g sim ply “ J u lia R oberts ,” fo r in sta nce , d escrib e in d eta il w hat J u lia R oberts lo oks lik e — th e co lo r o f h er h air , th e c o lo r a nd s ty le o f h er c o stu m e, a nd s o o n.) D escrib e th e ro om o r th e la ndsca pe in te rm s o f it s c o lo rs . H ow w ell lit is th e ro om o r o utd oors s p ace ? Is it day, n ig ht, d usk, o r d aw n? W hat k in d o f fu rn it u re is in th e ro om , o r w hat la ndsca pe ele m ents a re in th e im age?

Is th e s h ot ta ke n a t e ye le ve l o r lo w a ngle ? Is it a c lo se -u p o r a lo ng s h ot? Is th ere anyth in g y o u n otic e a bout th e c o m posit io n?

Put a ll o f y o ur o bse rv a tio ns in to w ord s, a nd b e a s c le ar a s p ossib le .

Here is an e xa m ple , d ra w n fr o m Fig ht C lu b (D avid F in ch er, 1999— Chapte r 9, min ute 2 1:5 4):

Clo se -u p, e ye -le ve l Man, a bout 3 0 y e ars o ld , b la ndly h andso m e Dark h air Top o f g ra y s u it ja cke t Whit e c o lla r o f d re ss s h ir t Man is c e nte re d o n th e s cre en Top p art o f h ead c u t o ut o f im age Air p la ne in te rio r Blu e s e at w it h w hit e h eadre st Man in fo cu s; b ackg ro und o ut o f fo cu s Blu e c u rta in s c e nte r-le ft o f im age in b ackg ro und 40 Brig ht c u rv e d w in dow s o n r ig ht in b ackg ro und FIG URE 1 .1 5 T he u nnam ed n arra to r ( E dw ard N orto n) o f Fig ht C lu b ( 1 999) ( fr a m e enla rg em ent) .

Asp ect r a tio — wid e r e cta ngle Man in r o w b ehin d, o ut o f fo cu s— no o th er p eople Lig ht o n fo re head a nd n ose o f m an in c lo se -u p Eye s in s h adow Dark c ir c le s u nder e ye s He is s ta rin g s tr a ig ht a head WRIT IN G A BO UT T H E IM AG E The fir s t s te p in w rit in g a bout film is to tr a nsla te th e c o nte nt o f film im ages in to w ord s usin g th e n ew te ch nic a l v o ca bula ry y o u a re le arn in g. S o y o ur fir s t w rit in g a ssig nm ent is a s im ple o ne: ta ke th e d eta ile d d escrip tio n o f th e s h ot y o u c re ate d a bove a nd tu rn it in to a c o here nt p ara gra ph. D on’t w orry a bout fo rm in g a th esis s ta te m ent o r m akin g a ny s o rt of a rg um ent. F org et a bout a ssig nin g m eanin gs to w hat y o u s e e o nscre en o r d is cu ssin g th e s ym bolis m o f a nyth in g. C once ntr a te in ste ad o n c re atin g a s in gle p ara gra ph o f p ro se th at s u cce eds in tr a nsla tin g a n im age in to w ord s. S pell- c h eck y o ur w ork w hen y o u a re fin is h ed. If y o ur w ord -p ro ce ssin g a pplic a tio n’s d ic tio nary d oes n ot c o nta in s o m e o f th e te ch nic a l te rm s y o u h ave u se d, a dd th em (a fte r c o nsu lt in g th e g lo ssa ry a t th e b ack o f th is b ook to m ake s u re y o u h ave s p elle d th em c o rre ctly to b egin w it h ).

Here ’s a n e xa m ple u sin g th e a bove lis t o f c o m posit io nal e le m ents fr o m th e Fig ht Clu b im age:

The im age is a c lo se -u p o f a b la ndly h andso m e m an w ho a ppears to b e a bo ut th ir ty y e ars o ld . H e h as d ark h air w it h a c o nse rv a tiv e , b usin essm an-ty p e h air c u t.

We c a n s e e th e s h ould ers o f h is g ra y, c o nse rv a tiv e s u it ja cke t a nd th e w hit e co lla r o f h is d re ss s h ir t. T he m an is c e nte re d o n th e s cre en; th e v e ry to p p art o f his h ead is c u t o ut b y th e fr a m e. T he im age s h ow s th e in te rio r o f a n a ir p la ne.

41 The m an is s e ate d o n a b lu e s e at w it h h is fa ce fr a m ed b y a w hit e s tr ip o f mate ria l th at se rv e s as a headre st. The m an is in cris p fo cu s, but th e backg ro und is o ut o f fo cu s. S till, w e c a n c le arly s e e s o m e b lu e c u rta in s in th e ce nte r-le ft o f th e im age, w it h s o m e b rig ht c u rv e d a ir p la ne w in dow s o n th e fa r rig ht in th e b ackg ro und. T he c u rta in s m atc h th e b lu e o f th e s e at; th e w in dow s, appearin g w hit e , m atc h th e h eadre st. T he a sp ect ra tio is th at o f a fa ir ly w id e re cta ngle . T here is a noth er m an in th e im age— he is s e ate d in th e ro w b ehin d th e m an in c lo se -u p— but h e is th e o nly o th er p ers o n in th e im age. T he m an in clo se -u p h as a b rig ht lig ht s h in in g o n h is fo re head a nd n ose , b ut h is e ye s a re nota bly in s h adow , a lt h ough w e c a n c le arly s e e d ark c ir c le s u nder h is e ye s, in dic a tin g tir e dness a nd a la ck o f s le ep. T he m an is s ta rin g s tr a ig ht a head.

1 O ne e xce ptio n is th e IM AX D om e o r O M NIM AX s yste m , w hic h p ro je cts a ro unded (b ut n ot cir c u la r) im age o n a tilt e d d om e.

42 C HAPTE R 2 M IS E-E N -S C EN E: C AM ER A M OVEM EN T M OBIL E F R AM IN G M otio n p ic tu re s s h are a n um ber o f fo rm al e le m ents w it h o th er a rts .

T he s h ape o f a p artic u la r p ain tin g is e sse ntia lly it s a sp ect ra tio — th e r a tio o f w id th to h eig ht o f th e im age— and th e c o m posit io n a nd lig htin g e ffe cts cre ate d b y th e p ain te r p la y a ce ntr a l ro le in th at p ain tin g’s m eanin g, as does th e dis ta nce betw een th e artis t and his or her s u bje ct. ( A p ortr a it m ig ht b e th e e quiv a le nt o f a c lo se -u p; a la ndsca pe i s u su ally a lo ng s h ot o r a n e xtr e m e lo ng s h ot.) T he te rm mis e -e n- s ce ne is d eriv e d fr o m th e th eate r: th e a rra ngem ent a nd a ppeara nce o f a p la y’s s e ts a nd p ro ps, it s c h ara cte rs ’ g estu re s a nd d ia lo gue a nd c o stu m es, th e STO RY and PLO T —all co m e to geth er to w ard an e xp re ssiv e g oal, ju st a s in m otio n p ic tu re s. N ove ls , to o, h ave s to rie s a nd p lo ts th at c a n ( a nd s h ould ) b e a naly ze d fo r m eanin g.

Film o ffe rs s o m eth in g u niq ue:

MOBIL E F R AM IN G . In th e fir s t c h apte r o f F ilm S tu die s , w e m ade a n a ssu m ptio n th at tu rn s o ut to b e fa ls e : th at t h e ca m era is sta tic . A ll th e d efin it io ns a nd e xa m ple s im plie d th at c h ara cte rs a nd o bje cts m ove w it h in th e fr a m e, b ut th e fr a m in g s ta ys t h e s a m e w it h in e ach s h ot. In fa ct, th is is n ot th e c a se a t a ll. T he c a m era ca n m ove fr o m sid e to sid e, u p a nd d ow n, b ackw ard a nd f o rw ard , a ll o f th e a bove , a nd m ore . E dit in g fr o m s h ot to s h ot o r s ce ne t o s ce ne c h anges th e p osit io n o f th e s p ecta to r fr o m s h o t to s h ot o r s ce ne to s ce ne, b ut c a m era m ove m ent s h if ts th e s p ecta to r’s p osit io n w it h in th e s h ot.

No o th er a rt fo rm is a ble to a cco m plis h th is fe at. In p ain tin g, C ubis m p la ys w it h th e id ea o f e xp re ssin g m ult ip le p ers p ectiv e s o f a sin gle s u bje ct, but C ubis t pain tin gs in evit a bly and nece ssa rily have an i m mobile fr a m e ow in g to th e natu re of pain tin g as an art fo rm .

43 Sim ila rly , o ne c a n w alk a ro und a s cu lp tu re , b ut th e s cu lp tu re re m ain s on it s pedesta l. A partic u la rly dyn am ic scu lp tu re m ay su ggest move m ent, a nd in fa ct s o m e s cu lp tu re s h ave m oto rs th at m ake p arts of th em m ove , b ut th ey still re m ain e sse ntia lly in p la ce . A ro ta tin g sta ge m ay sh if t fr o m o ne sce ne to a noth er in th e th eate r, b ut th e audie nce d oes n ot it s e lf e xp erie nce th e s e nsa tio n o f m ove m ent.

Film and vid eo are dif fe re nt. Film s offe r sh if tin g posit io ns and pers p ectiv e s. S hots a re n’t lim it e d in te rm s o f s u bje ct- c a m era d is ta nce or a ngle o f v ie w . A s in gle s h ot m ay b egin fr o m a p osit io n s o h ig h o ff th e g ro und n o h um an b ein g c o uld a ch ie ve it u naid ed b y a m ach in e o r a s tr u ctu re a nd p ro ce ed to lo w er it s e lf to th e le ve l o f a p ers o n, tr a ve l on th e g ro und fo r a w hile , lo ok a ro und, fo llo w a ce rta in ch ara cte r, ch ange d ir e ctio n a nd fo llo w a noth er c h ara cte r fo r a w hile , o r m ayb e fo llo w no p artic u la r c h ara cte r a t a ll a nd g o o ut o n it s o w n, th ere by re ve alin g a s e nse o f s p atia l c o here nce a nd e xp re ssiv e flu id it y th at n o sta tic s h ot c o uld e ve r a ch ie ve . C am era m ove m ent is a n e sp ecia lly sig nif ic a nt a sp ect o f m is e -e n-s ce ne.

TY PES O F C AM ER A M OVEM EN T How d oes film s tu die s d escrib e v a rio us k in ds o f c a m era m ove m ents ?

Fir s t, w hen th e c a m era it s e lf is s ta tio nary b ut p iv o ts o n it s a xis fr o m sid e to s id e, it ’s c a lle d a PAN . If th e c a m era is s ta tio nary b ut tilt s u p a nd dow n, it ’s ca lle d a tilt (o r a VER TIC AL PAN ). B oth of th ese ca m era move m ents a re lik e m ovin g y o ur h ead b ut n ot y o ur b ody: y o u c a n ta ke in a w hole p anora m a w it h out ta kin g a s in gle s te p s im ply b y tu rn in g yo ur h ead fr o m s id e to s id e ( a p an) o r n oddin g u p a nd d ow n ( a tilt ) . B y pannin g and tilt in g, th e ca m era re ve als m ore sp ace w it h out it s e lf movin g fr o m it s fix e d p osit io n o n th e g ro und— whic h is to s a y o n a tr ip od o r o th er s u pportin g d evic e . Y ou c a n c re ate th e e ff e ct o f a p an and a tilt r ig ht n ow s im ply b y m ovin g y o ur h ead.

As y o u c a n s e e, y o u c a n ta ke in la rg e e xp anse s o f th e r o om y o u’r e in w it h out g ettin g u p fr o m y o ur s e at. B ut y o u’r e s till g ro unded; y o u’r e stu ck in th e s a m e p la ce . B ut ju st a s y o u c a n g et u p a nd w alk a ro und, th e c a m era it s e lf c a n m ove . C am era m ove m ent is o ne o f th e m ost 44 beautif u l a nd y e t u ndera ppre cia te d e ffe cts in a ny a rt fo rm . H ow eve r much w e ta ke it fo r g ra nte d, m ove m ent th ro ugh s p ace o n film c a n b e extr a ord in arily g ra ce fu l. A nd b y it s m ove m ent a lo ne, a c a m era r e ve als much m ore th an sim ply th e sp ace th ro ugh w hic h it m ove s. It ca n exp re ss e m otio ns.

The s im ple st w ay o f m ovin g a c a m era is to p la ce it o n a m ovin g obje ct, s u ch a s a c a r o r a tr a in o r a s h ip . T hat’s c a lle d a MOVIN G S H O T .

The c a m era c a n a ls o b e p la ce d o n it s o w n m obile d evic e . W hen th e ca m era m ove s p ara lle l to th e g ro und, it ’s c a lle d a TR AC KIN G S H O T o r a DO LLY . If it m ove s u p a nd d ow n th ro ugh s p ace it ’s c a lle d a CRAN E . F or a cra ne s h ot , th e c a m era is m ounte d o n a k in d o f c h erry -p ic ke r, w hic h enable s it to ris e v e ry h ig h u p in th e a ir — to a sce nd fr o m g ro und le ve l in to th e s ky o r d esce nd fr o m th e s ky to g ro und le ve l.

Wit h b oth o f th ese d evic e s, tr a ckin g s h ots a nd c ra nes, th e c a m era move s p hysic a lly th ro ugh s p ace . In c la ssic a l H olly w ood film makin g, cre w s u se d to m ount a ctu al tr a cks o n th e c e ilin g o r th e flo or, th us ensu rin g th at th e c a m era w ould m ove in a v e ry s m ooth a nd p re cis e fa sh io n ( h ence th e te rm tr a ckin g s h ot ). A cto rs b ein g film ed in tr a ck in g sh ots w ould th ere fo re s o m etim es h ave to p la y th eir s ce nes s q uare ly on th e tr a cks, a nd w hen th ey w alk e d th ey h ad to m ake s u re to lif t th eir le gs h ig h e nough to c le ar th e r a ilr o ad tie s th at h eld th e tr a cks in p la ce .

More ofte n, ca m era s w ere — and still are — mounte d on w heels , or dollie s, th us e nablin g th em to m ove fr e ely in a v a rie ty o f d ir e ctio ns:

fo rw ard a nd b ackw ard , s id ew ard , d ia gonally , o r a ro und in a c ir c le .

In th e 1 960s, te ch nolo gy d eve lo ped to th e p oin t a t w hic h th e s iz e and w eig ht o f a m otio n p ic tu re c a m era , w hic h h ad fo rm erly b een la rg e and c u m bers o m e, w as r e duce d s o m uch th at a c a m era o pera to r c o uld actu ally c a rry th e c a m era w hile film in g. T hese a re c a lle d han d-h eld cam era s , w hic h c re ate HAN D-H ELD S H O TS . In a ny n um ber o f ’6 0s (a nd la te r) film s, d ir e cto rs u se d h and-h eld s h ots a s a c o nve ntio n o f r e alis m —th e je rk in ess o f h and-h eld s h ots s e em ed to s u ggest a n u nm edia te d re alit y , a la ck o f in te rv e ntio n b etw een c a m era a nd s u bje ct. A udie nce s still te nd to re ad h and-h eld s h ots th at w ay: w it n ess The B la ir W it c h Pro je ct ( 1 999), w hic h d epends o n th e s h akin ess o f th e c a m era w ork to co nve y th e h om em ade q ualit y o f th e film make r-c h ara cte rs ’ a tte m pt to docu m ent th e s u pern atu ra l. In fa ct, o f c o urs e , a h and-h eld s h ot is n ’t 45 any m ore “re alis tic ” th an any oth er kin d of sh ot. It is a sty lis tic co nve ntio n— a vis u al sig n th at people still re ad as exp re ssin g heig hte ned r e alis m .

In a s till la te r d eve lo pm ent, c a m era s a re n ow a ble to b e m ounte d o n an a ppara tu s c a lle d a STE AD IC AM , w hic h fit s o nto a c a m era o pera to r’s body ( v ia a v e st) in s u ch a w ay th at w hen h e o r s h e w alk s, th e e ffe ct is th at o f v e ry s m ooth m ove m ent, a s o ppose d to a h and-h eld c a m era th at r e co rd s e ve ry b um p in e ve ry s te p.

Fin ally , th ere ’s a kin d of fa ke m ove m ent, an im pre ssio n of move m ent th at is n ’t re ally th e re su lt o f a m ovin g c a m era b ut ra th er o f a p artic u la r kin d o f le ns. T hat’s ca lle d a ZO OM . W it h a zo om , th e ca m era o pera to r c re ate s th e im pre ssio n o f m ove m ent b y s h if tin g th e fo ca l le ngth o f th e le ns fr o m w id e a ngle to te le photo o r fr o m te le photo to w id e a ngle , but th e c a m era it s e lf d oes n ot m ove . Z oom le nse s a re als o k n ow n a s va rif o ca l le nse s.

A z o om is th ere fo re a k in d o f a rtif ic ia l move m ent. There is no re al m ove m ent wit h a zo om , ju st an enla rg em ent o r m agnif ic a tio n o f th e im age a s th e le ns sh if ts fr o m wid e-a ngle to te le photo o r th e o pposit e , a d em agnif ic a tio n, a s it s h if ts fr o m te le photo to w id e-a ngle .

In o th er w ord s, a zo om h as tw o e xtr e m es— te le photo and w id e angle . T he te le photo ra nge te nds to m ake s p ace s e em fla tte r, w hile th e w id eangle r a nge ( lik e a ny WID E-A N G LE L E N S ) e nhance s th e s e nse o f depth .

Ple ase n ote : w hen y o u s a y o r w rit e “z o om ,” y o u s h ould s p ecif ic a lly mean “ zo om .

” B e c a re fu l n ot to d escrib e a s h ot b y s a yin g o r w rit in g “th e dir e cto r zo om s fo rw ard ” unle ss yo u are co nvin ce d th at th e dir e cto r actu ally use d a zo om le ns to ach ie ve th e im pre ssio n of ca m era m ove m ent. G ra nte d, it ca n be dif fic u lt fo r begin ners to appre cia te th e d if fe re nce in a ppeara nce b etw een a tr a ckin g s h ot a nd a z o om . O ne w ay o f d if fe re ntia tin g b etw een th e tw o is th at a fo rw ard tr a ckin g s h ot a ctu ally p enetr a te s s p ace w here as a z o om fo rw ard (o r zo om in ) h as a ce rta in fla tn ess to it — an in cre asin g la ck o f d epth ow in g to th e s h if t fr o m th e w id e-a ngle r a nge to th e te le photo r a nge.

One w ay o f u nders ta ndin g th e d if fe re nce in v is u al e ffe ct b etw een a tr a ckin g s h ot a nd a z o om is to r e aliz e th at film c re ate s th e illu sio n o f a th re e-d im ensio nal world — heig ht, wid th , and depth —on a 46 tw odim ensio nal scre en. W e’r e usu ally fo ole d in to perc e iv in g depth where th ere is n one. A fo rw ard tr a ckin g s h ot e nhance s th is illu sio n o f depth ; th e c a m era p asse s th ro ugh s p ace a s it m ove s fo rw ard , a nd th e re su lt in g im age r e -c re ate s th at s p atia l p enetr a tio n. A fo rw ard z o om , in co ntr a st, d oes n oth in g to a lle via te th e s cre en’s a ctu al fla tn ess. T he ca m era doesn ’t m ove w it h a fo rw ard zo om , so w e perc e iv e th e re su lt in g im age a s b ein g se em in gly fla tte r th an u su al. In fa ct, th e im age is alw ays fla t. F orw ard z o om s ju st d o n oth in g to m ake u s th in k it is n ’t . ( In a zo om o ut —a z o om th at b egin s in th e te le photo r a nge a nd ends in w id e-a ngle — th e fla tn ess o f th e te le photo g iv e s w ay to th e se nse o f d epth c re ate d b y th e w id e-a ngle .) Fin ally , film make rs and film sch ola rs alik e m ake a dis tin ctio n betw een MOTIV ATE D A N D U NM OTIV ATE D C AM ER A M OVEM EN TS . It’s th e film ’s ch ara cte rs w ho d ete rm in e w heth er th e m ove m ent is m otiv a te d o r n ot.

For e xa m ple , if a c h ara cte r b egin s to w alk to th e le ft a nd th e c a m era tr a cks w it h h er, th e c a m era m ove m ent is c o nsid ere d to b e motiv a te d .

If th e c h ara cte r s ta nds p erfe ctly s till b ut th e c a m era tr a cks fo rw ard to w ard h er, it ’s unm otiv a te d . T his is a u se fu l d is tin ctio n to th e e xte nt th at it d efin es th e c h ara cte rs ’ w orld a s b ein g s e para te a nd d is tin ct fr o m th e film make r’s co m menta ry o n th at w orld .

Motiv a te d ca m era move m ents a re th ose th at a re p ro m pte d b y th e c h ara cte rs a nd e ve nts in th e film ; unm otiv a te d c a m era m ove m ents a re th ose th at p erta in to th e film make r’s c o m menta ry o n c h ara cte rs a nd e ve nts . A t th e s a m e tim e, th e te rm unm otiv a te d is a p oor c h oic e o f w ord s to d escrib e a film make r’s e xp re ssiv e , a rtis tic c h oic e s. T here ’s a m otiv e th ere , a fte r all. It’s ju st th at o f th e d ir e cto r, n ot th at o f a c h ara cte r.

ED IT IN G W IT H IN T H E S H O T No m atte r w heth er a g iv e n c a m era m ove m ent is c a lle d m otiv a te d o r unm otiv a te d, a ll ca m era m ove m ent, lik e a ll e dit in g, is a m atte r o f hum an d ecis io n-m akin g. In fa ct, a n e xte nded c a m era m ove m ent m ay fu nctio n in m uch th e s a m e w ay a s e dit in g. T hey a re e ach a w ay o f se le ctin g, arra ngin g, and pre se ntin g in fo rm atio n in a se quentia l manner to th e a udie nce .

47 Im agin e a film th at b egin s w it h a c ra ne s h ot o f a m ovie m arq uee th at c o nta in s th e n am e o f th e film ’s lo ca tio n. L et’s s a y it ’s th e R ese da Theate r in R ese da, C alif o rn ia . W it h out c u ttin g, th e c a m era p ans le ft and cra nes d ow n to str e et le ve l ju st a s a la rg e ca r p ulls u p a t a nig htc lu b a cro ss th e s tr e et; u sin g a S te adic a m , th e c a m era o pera to r co ntin ues th e s h ot b y fo llo w in g th e d riv e r o f th e c a r a nd h is g ir lf r ie nd as th ey g et o ut o f th e c a r a nd a re g re ete d b y th e n ig htc lu b m anager, who fo llo w s th em in sid e th e n ig htc lu b, w here — still in th e s a m e s h ot— th e m an a nd w om an a re le d to a b ooth , w here th ey s it a nd p la ce a n ord er fo r drin ks. T he sh ot co ntin ues eve n fu rth er as th e ca m era opera to r fo llo w s th e n ig htc lu b m anager a s h e s a ys h ello to a c lu b-g oer wearin g a n o ut- o f- s ty le w este rn s h ir t, th en r e tu rn s to th e c o uple a t th e booth ju st a s a w om an o n r o lle r s ka te s a ppears a nd e ngages th em in a b rie f c o nve rs a tio n. T his le ngth y c a m era m ove m ent is n eit h er s o le ly unm otiv a te d n or s o le ly m otiv a te d; it c o nta in s e le m ents o f b oth .

Film b uffs w ill re co gniz e th is a s th e o penin g s h ot o f P aul T hom as Anders o n’s Boogie N ig hts (1 997). B ut e ve n if y o u h ave n ot s e en th e film , y o u c a n a ppre cia te th e d egre e o f p la nnin g a nd s kill re quir e d in cre atin g a s h ot o f th is e xtr a ord in ary d ura tio n. A s in gle a cto r flu bbin g a lin e o r s n eezin g w ould h ave ru in ed th e ta ke , a s w ould a n EXTR A —an acto r w ho h as n o lin es in a c ro w d s ce ne— bum pin g in to th e S te adic a m opera to r. N otic e a ls o th e a m ount o f se le ctio n in vo lv e d in e xe cu tin g th e sh ot. F ir s t w e s e e th e m arq uee; th en w e s e e th e c a r; th en w e s e e th e co uple in th e c a r; th en w e s e e th e n ig htc lu b m anager . . . It’s a k in d o f edit in g w it h in th e s h ot —an a rra ngem ent a nd s e quentia l p re se nta tio n of d is cre te p ie ce s o f in fo rm atio n w it h in a s in gle s h ot.

The fir s t sh ot o f Boogie N ig hts —and a ny su ch sh ot— is ca lle d a LO NG TA KE , m eanin g th at th e sh ot co ntin ues w it h out a cu t fo r an unusu ally lo ng tim e. T he d ir e cto r o f Boogie N ig hts c o uld e asily h ave ca rv e d up his openin g se quence in to in div id ual sh ots — of th e marq uee, th e c a r, th e d riv e r, h is g ir lf r ie nd, th e n ig htc lu b m anager, a nd so o n— but h e c h ose to u nif y b oth s p ace a nd tim e b y film in g it in o ne co ntin uous ta ke — a lo ng ta ke . ( If y o u h ave s e en th e film , o r w hen y o u se e th e film , a sk yo urs e lf w hat A nders o n’s lo ng ta ke e xp re sse s in te rm s o f th e o ve ra ll th em e o f h is m ovie .) T his p artic u la r lo ng ta ke la sts fo r a lm ost th re e m in ute s. A noth er fa m ous lo ng ta ke , th e o penin g s h ot 48 of O rs o n W elle s’s Touch o f E vil (1 958), la sts fo r a bout fo ur m in ute s.

But it ’s im porta nt to note th at lo ng ta ke s are lik e su bje ct- c a m era dis ta nce s in th at th ey a re d efin ed re la tiv e ly , s o in a n o th erw is e h ig hly cu t m ovie a s h ot la stin g th ir ty o r fo rty s e co nds c o uld b e c o nsid ere d a lo ng ta ke in th e c o nte xt o f th at p artic u la r film .

A sin gle sh ot m ay se rv e , so m ew hat para doxic a lly , as it s ow n se quence o r s ce ne; th e te rm fo r th is is a s e quence s h ot. T he o penin g of H aw ks’s Sca rfa ce (1 932) is a c la ssic e xa m ple o f a s e quence s h ot; th e s h ot c h ro nic le s th e la st m in ute s in th e lif e o f a m obste r. H aw ks begin s w it h a lo w -a ngle s h ot o f a s tr e etla m p a to p a s tr e et s ig n; th e nam es o f th e s tr e ets a re s e t p erp endic u la r to e ach o th er to fo rm th e fir s t o f th e m any X s h apes th at a ppear th ro ughout th e film w heneve r anyb ody is a bout to g et ru bbed o ut. T he c a m era tr a cks b ack a s th e lig ht d im s a nd g oes o ut, tilt s d ow n, a nd p ans r ig ht p ast a m ilk d eliv e ry man to re ve al a m an w it h a n a pro n co m in g o ut o f a p riv a te clu b doorw ay a nd y a w nin g a nd s tr e tc h in g. T he c a m era th en tr a cks la te ra lly rig ht— se em in gly th ro ugh th e e xte rio r w all o f th e clu b— th ro ugh th e lo bby, a nd in to th e b allr o om , w here th e a pro ned m an b egin s to c le an up a fte r w hat h as e vid ently b een a w ild p arty . H e re m ove s s tr e am ers fr o m th e m any p otte d p alm s th at d efin e th e fo re gro und a s th e c a m era co ntin ues to tr a ck and pan rig ht. T he m an sto ps sw eepin g fo r a mom ent, a nd a s th e c a m era tr a cks fo rw ard , h e re ach es d ow n a nd pulls a w hit e b ra ssie re o ut o f th e p ile o f s tr e am ers th at lit te rs th e flo or.

(It c e rta in ly was a w ild p arty .) A s th e m an e xa m in es th e b ra , H aw ks co ntin ues to tr a ck rig ht a nd fo rw ard to re ve al th re e m en s e ate d a t a ta ble se t a m id str e am ers h angin g fr o m th e ra fte rs ; th e m an in th e mid dle , a p ortly fe llo w ca lle d B ig L ouie , is w earin g a p aper p arty cro w n. T he c a m era re m ain s s ta tio nary a s th e th re e m en c o nve rs e fo r a fe w m om ents , a fte r w hic h th e m en g et u p fr o m th e ta ble ; H aw ks tr a cks le ft w it h th em a s th ey m ove in th at d ir e ctio n. A fte r th e tw o o th er men d epart o ffs cre en le ft, th e ca m era re m ain s o n B ig L ouie , w ho walk s to w ard th e rig ht; th e ca m era tr a cks w it h him as he m ove s th ro ugh th e b allr o om a nd in to a te le phone b ooth . H e b egin s to p la ce his c a ll, a nd th e c a m era s ta ys m otio nle ss fo r a fe w s e co nds b efo re tr a ckin g fo rw ard a nd th en to th e r ig ht to r e ve al th e o m in ous s ilh ouette of a m an, w ho s tr o lls in th e d ir e ctio n o f B ig L ouie ; th e c a m era tr a cks 49 le ft w it h h im a s h e w alk s; h e is c a lm ly w his tlin g a n o pera a ria . T he ca m era s to ps o n a fr o ste d g la ss p artit io n; th e s h adow o f th e m an is fr a m ed b y th e p artit io n a s th e m an re ach es in to h is p ocke t a nd p ulls out a g un. “H ello , L ouie ,” th e m an re m ark s b efo re fir in g th re e tim es.

Still in s h adow , h e w ip es th e g un o ff w it h a h andke rc h ie f a nd th ro w s it on th e flo or. T he m an tu rn s a nd le ave s a s H aw ks tr a cks a nd p ans le ft to re ve al th e b ody o f B ig L ouie o n th e flo or. T he s h ot is s till n ot o ve r:

th e a pro ned m an fr o m th e b egin nin g o f th e s e quence s h ot e nte rs th e im age fr o m th e le ft. H e sta re s a t L ouie ’s d ead b ody, re m ove s h is apro n, th ro w s it in a c lo se t, d ons h is h at a nd ja cke t, a nd ru ns le ft to w ard th e d oor a s H aw ks c o m ple te s th e s h ot b y tr a ckin g a nd p annin g le ft a nd slig htly fo rw ard b efo re e ndin g w it h a DIS SO LV E to th e n ext sce ne. T he s h ot is th re e a nd a h alf m in ute s lo ng.

What m ake s th is a s e quence s h ot is th at th e s in gle s h ot c o m pris e s th e e ntir e s ce ne. T he n ext s h ot ta ke s p la ce in a n e ntir e ly d if fe re nt se ttin g— th at o f a n ew sp aper o ffic e , w here e dit o rs d ebate th e c o nte nt of th e h eadlin e a nnouncin g th e k illin g. T he le ngth y o penin g s h ot o f Boogie N ig hts , in c o ntr a st, d oes n ot c o nta in th e e ntir e s ce ne, w hic h co ntin ues w it h m ore s h ots o f th e n ig htc lu b in te rio r.

SPA CE A ND M OVEM EN T We a re a ccu sto m ed to th in kin g o nly a bout th e c o nte nt o f e ach film im age w e s e e— th e m ate ria l a ctu ally o nscre en. B ut if m is e -e n-s ce ne, edit in g, a nd c a m era m ove m ent a re a ll m atte rs o f d ecis io n-m akin g, o f se le ctio n, th en it sta nds to re aso n th at th e in fo rm atio n a dir e cto r le ave s o ut o f th e im age is w orth c o nsid erin g a s w ell.

The film th eoris t N oël B urc h h as d efin ed s ix z o nes o f offs cre en sp ace :

1.

offs cre en r ig ht 2.

offs cre en le ft 3.

offs cre en to p 4.

offs cre en b otto m 5.

behin d th e s e t 50 6.

behin d th e c a m era Im agin e a m ediu m s h ot o f a w om an, a n a gin g a ctr e ss, s e ate d a t a banquet ta ble . W e s e e h er fa ce a nd u pper b ody; w e s e e p art o f th e ta ble in fr o nt o f h er; w e s e e a n e m pty g la ss o n th e ta ble . S he r e ach es fo r s o m eth in g o ffs cre en r ig ht, a nd w hen s h e b rin gs h er h and b ack in to th e im age s h e is g ra sp in g a liq uor b ottle . S he p ours a fe w s lu gs o f booze in to th e e m pty g la ss. T hen, a h and e nte rs th e im age ( a ls o fr o m offs cre en rig ht) ; in th e h and is a b ottle o f w ate r. T he a ctr e ss b ats th e hand aw ay befo re th e oth erw is e unse en ta ble m ate gets th e opportu nit y to pour any w ate r in to th e actr e ss’s liq uor gla ss. T he actr e ss is ca su ally but cle arly re fu sin g to have her drin k w ate re d dow n, a nd th is a ctio n— to geth er w it h th e s u btle s m ir k o n th e a ctr e ss’s fa ce — esta blis h es h er c h ara cte r w it h g re at e xp re ssiv e e ffic ie ncy.

This sh ot— whic h in tr o duce s B ette D avis ’s ch ara cte r in Jo se ph Mankie w ic z’s All A bout E ve (1 950)— em phasiz e s th e fir s t o f B urc h ’s offs cre en s p ace s:

offs cre en r ig ht . A lt h ough th e d ir e cto r h as fr a m ed th e film ’s s ta r in s u ch a w ay a s to e m phasiz e h er p re se nce ( h e m ig ht h ave ch ose n in ste ad to b egin w it h a lo ng s h ot o f D avis s e ate d a t th e s a m e ta ble s u rro unded b y m any o th er p eople a nd th ere fo re n ot fe atu re d onscre en a s a n in div id ual) , h e n eve rth ele ss in dic a te s th at s o m eone els e is s it tin g n ext to h er. W e n atu ra lly u nders ta nd th at th e h and is n ’t dis e m bodie d. W e assu m e th at th e sp ace of th e actio n co ntin ues beyo nd th e fr a m e— th at th ere is a w hole p ers o n th ere .

Audie nce s m ake s im ila r a ssu m ptio ns a bout th e o th er th re e s p ace s th at b ord er th e im age— offs cre en le ft , offs cre en to p , a nd offs cre en botto m . T he dir e cto r does not need to sh ow th ese sp ace s to us dir e ctly fo r u s to a ssu m e th at th ey e xis t. A nd th ese fo ur o ffs cre en sp ace s a re in evit a bly die getic ; in o th er w ord s, th ey p erta in to th e w orld of th e film ’s s to ry . (S ee ch apte r 6 fo r a m ore c o m ple te d is cu ssio n o f th e c o nce pt o f die gesis .) The o th er tw o o ffs cre en s p ace s a re im porta nt to c o nsid er, if o nly brie fly , fo r th e th eore tic a l q uestio ns th ey ra is e . It’s ra re in n arra tiv e cin em a fo r a d ir e cto r to m ove h is o r h er c a m era b ehin d th e s e t, b ut it ’s co nce iv a ble . S uch a s h ot w ould re ve al th at th e s e t, w hic h w e h ave ta ke n to be re al, is in fa ct artif ic ia l— we m ig ht se e th e w ooden 51 su pports h old in g u p th e w alls , th e lig htin g s ta nds a nd a lo t o f e le ctr ic a l co rd s, th e o ute r w alls o f th e s o undsta ge, a nd s o o n— and a s s u ch th e sh ot w ould c a ll a tte ntio n to th e fic tio nal n atu re o f w hat w e’v e b een se ein g until th at poin t in th e film . T hat re co gnit io n is , of co urs e , so m eth in g th at cla ssic a l H olly w ood cin em a a vo id s. A nd b eca use it does n ot h ave to d o w it h th e w orld o f th e film ’s s to ry , th e s p ace b ehin d th e s e t is nondie getic .

The s ix th z o ne o f o ffs cre en s p ace e xis ts o nly in th e im agin atio n. W e kn ow th at th ere is re al s p ace b ehin d th e c a m era , b ut th e c a m era c a n neve r re co rd it . J u st a s w e d on’t h ave e ye s in th e b ack o f o ur h eads, so th e c a m era c a n n eve r h ave a s e para te le ns th at r e co rd s th e s p ace behin d it s e lf . O nly a s e co nd c a m era re co rd in g th e fir s t c a m era c o uld re co rd th at sp ace , b ut th e sp ace b ehin d th e se co nd ca m era — th e offs cre en s p ace B urc h d efin es a s b ein g behin d th e c a m era —would b e equally im possib le fo r th e se co nd ca m era to re co rd . C le arly , th is im possib le -to -re co rd s p ace is nondie getic . It d oesn ’t h ave to d o w it h th e film ’s fic tio nal s to ry b ut in ste ad e xis ts o nly in th e w orld o f th e re al people w ho a re m akin g th e m ovie .

In div id ual sh ots co uld re co rd th e fir s t fiv e of B urc h ’s offs cre en sp ace s. Usin g th e All About Eve exa m ple , th e dir e cto r co uld co nce iv a bly h ave c u t fr o m B ette D avis ’s c h ara cte r, th e a ctr e ss M arg o Channin g, to a s h ot o f h er ta ble m ate to th e le ft, h er ta ble m ate to th e rig ht, h er le gs u nder th e ta ble , th e s p ace a bove h er h ead, a nd a fin al sh ot o f th e s p ace b ehin d th e b anquet ro om s e t. B ut b y movin g th e ca m era , a d ir e cto r c a n a ctu ally r e ve al a ll fiv e o f th e p ossib le -to -re co rd sp ace s in a sin gle sh ot. B y p annin g le ft a nd rig ht, h e co uld h ave sh ow n u s th e s p ace s o n e it h er s id e o f th e c h ara cte r. B y tilt in g u p a nd dow n, h e w ould h ave sh ow n u s th e flo or a nd th e ce ilin g (o r la ck th ere of— most s e ts h ave n o c e ilin g s o a s to a cco m modate o ve rh ead lig htin g e quip m ent) . A nd b y tr a ckin g la te ra lly , th en fo rw ard a nd a ro und th e w alls o f th e b anquet h all, h e c o uld h ave r e ve ale d th e s p ace b ehin d th e s e t. ( A dm it te dly , fo llo w in g th e lo gic o f th e im possib le s p ace b ehin d th e c a m era , n one o f th e o ffs cre en s p ace s c a n e ve r b e re co rd ed as lo ng a s th ey a re tr u ly offs cre en s p ace s , b ut th at’s a s u bje ct fo r a n upper-le ve l film th eory c o urs e to p urs u e.) In s h ort, m obile fr a m in g e nable s a d ir e cto r to u nif y d iv e rs e s p ace s 52 wit h in a n in div id ual s h ot. E ve n th e tin ie st, m ost m in ute re adju stm ent, or REFR AM IN G , re ve als a nd m ain ta in s s p atia l c o ntin uit y fr o m im age to im age w it h out c u ttin g. A t th e e nd o f Cit y L ig hts , w hic h is a naly ze d in more d eta il in ch apte r 4 , th e d ir e cto r, C harle s C haplin , b egin s o ne sh ot by ce nte rin g on th e tw o ch ara cte rs ’ in te rtw in ed hands, th en re fr a m es th e im age to c e nte r o n th e T ra m p’s fa ce a nd th e flo w er h e hold s. W hat is k e y in th is c a se , a nd in m ost c a se s o f r e fr a m in g, is th e onscre en g estu re o r lo ok o r fa cia l e xp re ssio n th at th e d ir e cto r w is h es to e m phasiz e . If a c h ara cte r m ove s h er h ead s lig htly to th e rig ht in a clo se -u p, fo r in sta nce , it ’s lik e ly th at th e d ir e cto r w ill re fr a m e th e s h ot by m ovin g th e c a m era s lig htly to th e rig ht s o th at p art o f h er fa ce w ill not b e c u t o ff b y th e o rig in al fr a m in g.

Ult im ate ly , ca m era m ove m ent— lik e any oth er film te ch niq ue— is about e xp re ssiv it y . T here is n o rig ht o r w ro ng w ay to film a nyth in g.

Som e d ir e cto rs , lik e S erg ei E is e nste in , te nd to c a rv e th e w orld u p in to in div id ual s ta tic s h ots a nd e dit it b ack to geth er a gain , th ough e ve n th e fa m ous “O dessa S te ps” s e quence fr o m Battle sh ip P ote m kin c o nta in s se ve ra l c a m era m ove m ents . O th er d ir e cto rs , lik e F . W . M urn au a nd Max O phüls a re k n ow n fo r th eir e le gant m ovin g-c a m era w ork . T heir film s ce rta in ly co nta in sta tic sh ots th at a re e dit e d to geth er, b ut a s dir e cto rs th eir s ty le h ig hlig hts c a m era m ove m ents ra th er th an e dit in g effe cts . S till o th ers — th e m ajo rit y o f c o nte m pora ry film make rs , in fa ct— lik e P aul T hom as A nders o n, M artin S co rs e se , S pik e L ee, a nd o th ers —ch oose to film ce rta in sce nes in th e fo rm of lo ng ta ke s w it h ela bora te ca m era m ove m ents w hile oth ers ta ke th e fo rm of m ore ra pid ly c u t s e quence s.

STU DY G UID E:

A N ALY ZIN G C AM ER A M OVEM EN T To le arn h ow to a naly ze c a m era m ove m ent, o ne m ust fir s t b e aw are o f c a m era move m ent. S o g et a D VD c o py o f y o ur fa vo rit e m ovie , fin d a s ce ne y o u k n ow a lr e ady, and w atc h it c lo se ly , th is tim e p ayin g p artic u la r a tte ntio n to th e c a m era m ove m ents it co nta in s.

1.

P ause th e D VD a fte r e ve ry ca m era m ove m ent yo u n otic e . If yo u a re fe elin g partic u la rly a m bit io us, w rit e d ow n e ach m ove m ent a s y o u n otic e it .

2.

A sk y o urs e lf th e fo llo w in g q uestio ns a fte r e ve ry p ause :

(A ) W hat ty p e o f c a m era m ove m ent ju st o ccu rre d? W as it a s in gle k in d o f move m ent ( fo r e xa m ple : a p an r ig ht, o r a tilt d ow n), o r w as it a c o m bin atio n 53 of d if fe re nt ty p es ( a s im ult a neous c ra ne d ow n a nd p an le ft) ?

(B ) W hat w as th e a ppare nt m otiv a tio n b ehin d th e m ove m ent? D id th e c a m era move a lo ng w it h a c h ara cte r? D id it m ove a w ay fr o m a c h ara cte r? O r d id it move s e em in gly o n it s o w n, w it h out r e gard to a p artic u la r c h ara cte r?

(C ) T o w hat d oes th e m ove m ent d ra w y o ur a tte ntio n?

(D ) W hat id eas o r e m otio ns m ig ht it e xp re ss b y m ain ta in in g s p atia l u nit y ?

(E ) A s an asid e, co nsid er th e offs cre en sp ace s of each im age and th e assu m ptio ns y o u m ake a bout th em .

3.

N otic e h ow o fte n y o u a re p ausin g th e film — how o fte n th e c a m era m ove s. Is th ere a p atte rn o f c a m era m ove m ents w it h in th e s ce ne? F or e xa m ple , is th ere a s e rie s o f tr a ckin g s h ots , o r a s e rie s o f p ans? Is th ere a ny rh yth m c re ate d b y th e w ay th e ca m era m ove s?

4.

B ase d s o le ly o n th is p artic u la r s ce ne ( a nd b ear in m in d th at th e s ce ne y o u c h oose may n ot b e r e pre se nta tiv e o f th e w hole film ), w ould y o u s a y th at th e d ir e cto r fa vo rs ca m era m ove m ents o ve r c u ttin g? C an y o u b egin to p erc e iv e th e d ir e cto r’s o ve ra ll sty le in th is in div id ual s ce ne, o r is it to o s o on to m ake s u ch a g enera liz a tio n?

WRIT IN G A BO UT C AM ER A M OVEM EN T Giv e n a ll th ese d if fe re nt te rm s a nd th eore tic a l n otio ns, h ow d o yo u d escrib e o n a pra ctic a l le ve l th e c a m era m ove m ents y o u s e e o nscre en? It’s n ot d if fic u lt ; it ju st ta ke s pra ctic e . T he m ore fa m ilia r y o u b eco m e w it h th e te rm in olo gy, th e e asie r it w ill b e to describ e a nd a naly ze w hat y o u n otic e .

“T he c a m era tr a cks fo rw ard ,” “ th e c a m era tr a cks b ack,” “ th e c a m era tr a cks la te ra lly ,” and s o o n: ju st d escrib e w hat y o u s e e u sin g th e te ch nic a l te rm s a t y o ur c o m mand. “ T he ca m era c ra nes u p.” “T he c a m era c ra nes d ow n.” “T he c a m era c ra nes u p, p ans to th e le ft, tilt s d ow n, c ra nes d ow n, a nd tr a cks fo rw ard . . .” a nd o n a nd o n. H ow eve r th e ca m era m ove s, th at’s h ow y o u d escrib e it . It m ake s fo r m ore p re cis e a naly tic a l w rit in g to w rit e , “T he c a m era tr a cks fo rw ard ” o r “th e c a m era p ans le ft,” ra th er th an fu m blin g aro und w it h “ w e g o a head” o r “ w e g o b ackw ard s” o r “ w e tu rn a nd s e e . . .” Be a w are th at c a m era s tr a ck wit h o r aw ay fr o m c h ara cte rs . H ere ’s a n e xa m ple fr o m a W arn er B ro s. a nim ate d c a rto on: “T he c a m era tr a cks to th e rig ht wit h E lm er F udd a s Elm er tr a cks h is p re y, th e ‘w asca lly w abbit .’” ( Y es, th ere a re tr a ckin g s h ots in a nim ate d ca rto ons. E ve n th ough th e c a m era th at re co rd s e ach a nim atio n c e l d oes n ot lit e ra lly move , a nim ato rs cre ate th e e ffe ct o f a ll th e d if fe re nt kin ds o f ca m era m ove m ents describ ed in th is c h apte r.) What fo llo w s is a re aso nably d eta ile d d escrip tio n o f th e o penin g s h ot o f Boogie Nig hts . B ear in m in d th at th is d escrip tio n c o nce ntr a te s o n c a m era m ove m ents . A fu ll analy sis o f th e s h ot w ould in clu de m any m ore d eta ils a bout m is e -e n-s ce ne e le m ents su ch a s lig htin g, se t d esig n, co lo r, co stu m es, m ake up, a nd fig ure b ehavio r, n ot to mentio n d ia lo gue, m usic , a nd o th er s o und e ffe cts , n ot to m entio n w hat it a ll a dds u p to in te rm s o f m eanin g:

The fir s t sh ot o f Boogie N ig hts b egin s a s a lo ng sh ot o f a m ovie m arq uee announcin g th at th e film pla yin g in th e th eate r is tit le d Boogie N ig hts ; th e 54 marq uee fills th e h oriz o nta l im age, it s sh ape e ch oin g th e film ’s w id escre en asp ect r a tio o f 2 .4 0:1 . T he c a m era c ra nes s lig htly fo rw ard , p ans s lig htly le ft, a nd ro ta te s c lo ckw is e to re ve al in a n o bliq ue a ngle th e n am e o f th e th eate r— th e Rese da. J u st a s th e n am e “R ese da” fills th e im age h oriz o nta lly , th e c a m era re ve rs e s th e d ir e ctio n o f it s m ove m ent: it n ow ro ta te s co unte rc lo ckw is e a nd cra nes d ow n to re ve al s o m e p eople e xit in g th e th eate r a nd w alk in g u nder th e marq uee. T he c a m era c o ntin ues it s m ove m ent b y c ra nin g d ow n a nd p ann in g ra th er ra pid ly to th e le ft ju st a s a c a r m ove s fo rw ard o n th e s tr e et n ext to th e th eate r. T he c a m era c o ntin ues to p an le ft a nd c ra ne d ow n— at o ne m om ent, th e ca r, n ow tr a ve lin g fr o m r ig ht to le ft a cro ss th e im age, fills th e s cre en— until it is a t gro und le ve l.

Owin g to th e c a m era h avin g p anned, th e c a r is n ow fa cin g a w ay fr o m th e c a m era .

As a s u btit le a ppea rs — “S an F ern ando V alle y 1 977”— th e c a r m ake s a le ft tu rn a nd pulls u p in fr o nt o f a n ig htc lu b w it h a g audy n eon s ig n th at re ads: “H ot T ra xx.” T he ca m era tr a cks fo rw ard o n th e s tr e et to w ard th e c a r; th e c a m era o pera to r is e vid ently usin g a S te adic a m , b eca use th e m ove m ent is v e ry s m ooth .

A c ro w d h as g ath ere d in fr o nt o f th e e ntr a nce to th e c lu b. T he d riv e r g ets o ut o f th e c a r a nd ra is e s h is a rm in a g re etin g g estu re b ut is m om enta rily c u t o ut o f th e im age b eca use th e c a m era is m ovin g r a pid ly fo rw ard to w ard th e c lu b’s e ntr a nce . T he ca m era c o ntin ues to tr a ck fo rw ard u ntil it s in gle s o ut th e n ig htc lu b m anager, w ho ru sh es fo rw ard a nd to th e le ft o f th e im age w it h h is a rm s o uts tr e tc h ed.

In a v e ry ra pid m ove m ent, th e c a m era c ir c le s a ro und th e n ig htc lu b m anager a nd pans le ft to re ve al th e m om ent a t w hic h th e m anager re ach es th e d riv e r a nd h is gir lf r ie nd, w ho h as a ls o g otte n o ut o f th e c a r ( a n a ctio n w e o nly a ssu m e h as o ccu rre d, beca use w e h ave n ot a ctu ally s e en it ) .

The c a m era th en tr a cks b ackw ard , a nd th e th re e c h ara cte rs fo llo w th e c a m era a s it b acks in to th e d oorw ay o f th e n ig htc lu b, th ro ugh th e s m all e ntr a nce h all, a nd in to th e c lu b, a t w hic h p oin t th e c a m era m ake s a le ft tu rn ; th is a llo w s th e c h ara cte rs to pass th e c a m era , a nd a s th ey c o ntin ue to w alk th ey m ake a le ft tu rn a s th ey h ead aw ay fr o m it . T he c a m era o pera to r re fr a m es th e im age w it h a s lig ht p an le ft a s th e ch ara cte rs m ake a s im ila r a dju stm ent in th eir d ir e ctio n. F or a fe w s e co nds, th e im age is a th re e-s h ot o f th e c h ara cte rs w alk in g a w ay fr o m th e c a m era in s ilh ouette .

The c h ara cte rs th en tu rn rig ht a nd h ead to w ard a n a s-y e t- u nse en b ooth ; th eir destin atio n is re ve ale d in d ia lo gue. T he d riv e r a nd h is g ir lf r ie nd c o ntin ue w alk in g aw ay, b ut th e m anager s to ps, a nd th e c a m era s to ps w it h h im ; a s h e w alk s b ack in th e dir e ctio n fr o m w hic h h e c a m e, th e c a m era r e ve rs e s it s d ir e ctio n a nd tr a cks b ackw ard .

When h e tu rn s to w ard th e le ft o f th e im age, th e c a m era p ans le ft a nd tr a cks fo rw ard , fo llo w in g h im . H e g estu re s to w ard th e le ft s id e o f th e im age, a nd th e c a m era q uic kly pans le ft to r e ve al a w ait e r d re sse d in a s tr ip ed w hit e s h ir t a nd tu rn in g a w ay fr o m th e ca m era . T he w ait e r b egin s to w alk to w ard th e b ack o f th e clu b, b ut th e ca m era quic kly p ans rig ht a w ay fr o m h im a nd re tu rn s to th e m anager, w ho is n ow w alk in g to w ard th e c a m era w hile th e c a m era tr a cks b ackw ard .

The m anager tu rn s to w ard h is le ft a s h e w alk s, a nd th e c a m era p ause s to a llo w him to p ass it ; h e th en w alk s a w ay fr o m th e c a m era , a nd th e c a m era fo llo w s h im th ro ugh a c ro w d o f p eople . H e ju m ps u p o n th e d ance flo or a nd g re ets a m an w ho is dancin g th ere .

The c a m era fo llo w s th e m anager o nto th e d ance flo or a nd th en b egin s to c ir c le th e g ro up o f p eople to w hom th e m anager is s p eakin g: th e d ancin g m an, w ho is 55 whit e ; a w om an; a nd a b la ck m an w earin g a w este rn s h ir t. T he c a m era tr a ve ls in tw o fu ll 3 60-d egre e tu rn s b efo re p annin g a nd tr a ckin g le ft, fo llo w in g th e w ait e r in th e w hit e sh ir t, w ho is w alk in g le ft in th e d is ta nce a nd c a rry in g a tr a y o f d rin ks.

The c a m era tr a cks r a pid ly le ft a nd th en s lig htly fo rw ard a ro und s o m e ta ble s fu ll o f people a nd s lo w s d ow n w hen it n ears th e d riv e r a nd h is g ir lf r ie nd, n ow s e ate d a t th eir booth ; th e d riv e r is o n th e le ft, h is g ir lf r ie nd is r o ughly in th e c e nte r o f th e im age, a nd th e w ait e r is s lig htly to th e r ig ht. T he c o uple s a ys s o m eth in g to th e w ait e r, w ho tu rn s and b egin s to w alk a w ay. T he c a m era fo llo w s h im fo r a m om ent o r tw o, c u ttin g th e co uple b rie fly o ut o f th e im age, b ut th en a y o ung b lo nde w om an o n ro lle r s ka te s ente rs th e im age fr o m th e backg ro und. A s sh e passe s th e w ait e r, th e ca m era ch anges d ir e ctio n a nd b egin s to tr a ck b ackw ard u ntil it is m ore o r le ss a t th e s a m e posit io n it to ok d urin g th e e xch ange w it h th e w ait e r. T he w om an o n s ka te s s to ps a t th e ta ble a nd b egin s a c o nve rs a tio n w it h th e d riv e r a nd h is g ir lf r ie nd. B ut th e c a m era is re stle ss a nd b egin s to tr a ck fo rw ard a nd a ro und th e w om an o n s ka te s. A t o ne mom ent, th e d riv e r’s g ir lf r ie nd is a lo ne in th e im age in m ediu m s h ot fa cin g a t a th re e- quarte r a ngle to th e le ft.

The c a m era th en tr a cks b ackw ard a nd p ans to th e le ft to fo rm w hat is e sse ntia lly th e re ve rs e a ngle to th e o ne th at fir s t c a ptu re d th e w ait e r a nd th e c o uple a nd w as re peate d w it h th e w om an o n ska te s a nd th e co uple : n ow th e w om an o n ska te s sta nds ju st to th e le ft o f c e nte r, th e d riv e r s it s in th e c e nte r, a nd h is g ir lf r ie nd s it s o n th e r ig ht.

1 The w om an o n s ka te s m ake s a h oppin g g estu re a nd tu rn s a nd s ka te s a w ay fr o m th e c a m era , b ut th e c a m era q uic kly fo llo w s h er. S he tu rn s le ft; th e c a m era p ans le ft wit h h er. T he c a m era tr a cks le ft a s s h e s ka te s in th at d ir e ctio n, a fte r w hic h s h e tu rn s and s ka te s to w ard th e b ackg ro und. T he c a m era tr a cks fo rw ard , fo llo w in g h er, u ntil sh e d is a ppears in to th e c ro w d in th e c e nte r o f th e im age. B ut th e c a m era c o ntin ues to tr a ck fo rw ard a nd p an to th e le ft to re ve al a y o ung m an w earin g a w hit e s h ir t. T he ca m era fin ally s to ps m ovin g a s th e y o ung m an, s e en in m ediu m c lo se -u p, g aze s to w ard th e le ft.

C ut! T he fir s t s h ot o f Boogie N ig hts te rm in ate s h ere .

1.

F or a d efin it io n o f th e te rm re ve rs e a ngle , s e e SH O T/R EVER SE-S H O T P ATTE R N in th e glo ssa ry .

56 C HAPTE R 3 M IS E-E N -S C EN E: C IN EM ATO GRAPH Y M OTIO N P IC TU RE P H O TO GRAPH Y C IN EM ATO GRAPH Y —photo gra phy fo r m otio n pic tu re s— is th e genera l t e rm th at b rin gs to geth er a ll th e s tr ic tly p hoto gra phic e le m ents th at p ro duce th e im ages w e s e e p ro je cte d o n th e s cre en.

Lig htin g d evic e s a nd th eir e ffe cts ; film s to cks a nd th e c o lo rs o r to nes th ey p ro duce ; th e l e nse s u se d to re co rd im ages o n c e llu lo id ; th e s h ape o f th e im age, h ow it is c re ate d, a nd w hat it m eans —th ese a ll c o nstit u te th e a rt o f c in em ato gra phy. T his , to o, is a n a sp ect o f m is e -e n-s ce ne.

The w ord cin em ato gra phy c o m es fr o m tw o G re ek r o ots :

kin esis ( th e r o ot o f cin em a ), m eanin g m ove m ent, a nd gra pho , w hic h m eans to w rit e o r r e co rd . ( Photo gra phy is d eriv e d fr o m phos , m eanin g lig ht, a nd g ra pho .) Writ in g w it h m ove m ent a nd lig ht —it ’s a g re at w ay to b egin to t h in k a bout th e c in em ato gra phic c o nte nt o f m otio n p ic tu re s.

A SPEC T R ATIO : F R O M 1:3 3 T O W ID ESC REEN A SPEC T R ATIO is th e r e la tio n o f th e w id th o f th e r e cta ngula r im age to it s h eig ht. A s y o u m ay re m em ber fr o m th e fir s t c h apte r, s ile nt p ic tu re s h ad a n a sp ect ra tio o f 1 .3 3:1 , a re cta ngle a th ir d a gain a s w id e a s it w as ta ll. A nd w hile th e s o -c a lle d AC AD EM Y R ATIO , s ta ndard iz e d b y th e A ca dem y o f M otio n P ic tu re A rts a nd S cie nce s in 1 932, is u su ally r e fe rre d to a s b ein g 1 .3 3:1 , in p oin t o f fa ct th e A ca dem y r a tio is 1 .3 7:1 — a v e ry s lig htly w id er r e cta ngle th an th at o f s ile nt film s.

Afte r 1 932, a ll H olly w ood film s w ere m ade in th e A ca dem y ra tio o f 1 .3 7:1 until th e adve nt of te le vis io n in th e 1950s. Alt h ough TV p ro vid ed a n ew m ark e t fo r o ld m ovie s, it a ls o g ave a udie nce s th e 57 opportu nit y to e njo y a udio vis u al e nte rta in m ent w it h out le avin g th eir hom es. S o a s a w ay o f o ffe rin g p eople s o m eth in g th ey c o uld n ot g et fo r fr e e in th eir liv in g ro om s, H olly w ood e m phasiz e d th e e norm it y o f motio n p ic tu re s cre ens b y d eve lo pin g te ch nolo gie s th at w id ened th e im age fa r b eyo nd th e 1 .3 7:1 A ca dem y r a tio .

CIN EM ASC O PE , in tr o duce d b y 2 0th C entu ry -F ox fo r th e b ib lic a l d ra m a The R obe (1 953), u se d w hat is ca lle d a n AN AM ORPH IC LE N S o n th e ca m era to sq ueeze a ve ry wid e im age onto each fr a m e of sta ndard siz e d film s to ck a nd a noth er a nam orp hic le ns o n th e p ro je cto r to s p re ad it b ack o ut a gain . C in em aS co pe’s a sp ect ra tio u se d to b e 2.3 5:1 ; it w as la te r a dju ste d to 2 .4 0:1 .

PAN AVIS IO N , a noth er s yste m w it h a 2 .4 0:1 r a tio , is th e m ost c o m monly u se d a nam orp hic p ro ce ss to day.

There w ere s till o th er WID ESC REEN p ro ce sse s in th e 1 950s, in clu din g CIN ER AM A a nd VIS TA VIS IO N . C in era m a u se d th re e in te rlo cke d c a m era s to re co rd th re e se para te im ages whic h , when pro je cte d acro ss a sp ecia lly cu rv e d scre en, yie ld ed a sin gle co ntin uous w id escre en im age w it h an asp ect ra tio of 2.7 7:1 . The fir s t film re le ase d in Cin era m a w as a dis p la y of th e pro ce ss ca lle d This Is C in era m a (1 952). It w as an enorm ous box offic e su cce ss, but th e pro ce ss pro ve d to o cu m bers o m e, not only fo r film make rs but als o fo r exh ib it o rs , w ho h ad to fit th e h uge c u rv e d s cre en in to th eir th eate rs in ord er to sh ow Cin era m a film s, whic h were m ostly tr a ve lo gues.

More ove r, eve ry th eate r had to be outfit te d w it h th re e se para te pro je ctio n b ooth s, e ach s ta ffe d b y tw o p eople . C in era m a, in s h ort, w as an e xp ensiv e p ro posit io n fo r e xh ib it o rs . O nly tw o n arra tiv e film s w ere made in th re e-s tr ip C in era m a:

The W onderfu l W orld o f th e B ro th ers Grim m a nd How th e W est W as W on ( b oth 1 962).

1 Vis ta V is io n, d eve lo ped b y P ara m ount P ic tu re s, w as fir s t u se d fo r th e 1 954 film Whit e C hris tm as . In ste ad o f th e film fr a m es ru nnin g ve rtic a lly on th e ce llu lo id , w it h th e sp ro cke t hole s on th e sid es, Vis ta V is io n’s fr a m es ra n h oriz o nta lly ; th e s p ro cke t h ole s w ere o n th e to p a nd b otto m o f e ach fr a m e. T his s yste m y ie ld ed a n a sp ect ra tio o f 1.5 :1 , th ough m ost Vis ta V is io n film s use d MATTE S or MASKIN G to pro duce ra tio s fr o m 1 .6 6:1 a nd 1 .8 5:1 to 2 :1 . S till a noth er w id escre en pro ce ss w as Todd-A O (n am ed fo r th e p ro duce r M ik e T odd a nd th e 58 Am eric a n O ptic a l C om pany), w it h a n a sp ect ra tio o f 2 .2 0:1 ; T odd-A O was a n e arly 7 0m m p ro ce ss, w here as th e o th ers u se d 3 5m m film .

FIG URE 3 .1 A n a nam orp hic fr a m e a s it lo oks to th e n ake d e ye — Sca ry M ovie 3 ( 2 003).

(P hoto fe st) FIG URE 3 .2 T he s a m e a nam orp hic fr a m e a s it lo oks p ro je cte d o nto th e s cre en— Agent Thom pso n ( J a R ule ) a nd P re sid ent H arris ( L eslie N ie ls e n). ( P hoto fe st) FIG URE 3 .3 C in era m a w it h a n a sp ect r a tio o f 2 .7 7:1 .

59 FIG URE 3 .4 V is ta V is io n w it h a n a sp ect r a tio o f 1 .8 5:1 .

FIG URE 3 .5 T he fu ll fr a m e a t th e A ca dem y r a tio , 1 .3 7:1 . K now in g th at th e to p a nd b otto m portio ns o f th e im age w ill b e m aske d w hen th e film is p ro je cte d, th e d ir e cto r d oesn ’t c a re th at th e b oom is v is ib le a t th e to p o f th e im age a nd e le ctr ic a l c o rd s c a n b e s e en a t th e b otto m .

FIG URE 3 .6 T he s a m e fr a m e m aske d a t 1 .8 5:1 ; th e h atc h m ark s in dic a te th e p arts o f th e im age th at w ere p hoto gra phed d urin g s h ootin g b ut a re m aske d w hen p ro je cte d o nto th e scre en. N ow th at th e im age h as b een p ro perly m aske d, th e c o m posit io n m ake s v is u al s e nse ; 60 th e film makin g e quip m ent s till e xis ts o n th e c e llu lo id , b ut it c a n’t b e s e en o n th e s cre en.

Sim ply m askin g th e im age w as— and c o ntin ues to b e— th e e asie st way to p ro duce a w id escre en e ffe ct. M askin g m eans c o ve rin g th e to p and b otto m o f th e im age w it h a n apertu re p la te in th e p ro je cto r in ord er to p ro duce a ny o f a n um ber o f w id escre en a sp ect r a tio s.

ASPEC T R ATIO : F O RM A ND M EA NIN G Unle ss y o u a re a n a sp ir in g film d ir e cto r o r CIN EM ATO GRAPH ER , y o u m ay fin d yo urs e lf a skin g w hat th e p oin t o f a ll th ese a sp ect ra tio s is . If le arn in g a bout th e v a rie ty o f c in em atic a sp ect r a tio s w ere ju st a m atte r of m em oriz in g te ch nic a l sp ecif ic a tio ns, th e le sso n w ould b e a ll b ut use le ss. But th e sh ape of eve ry film is basic to it s exp re ssiv e meanin g. E ach a sp ect ra tio y ie ld s a d if fe re nt w ay o f lo okin g a t th e world . It is m eanin g, r a th er th an ju st n um bers , th at’s im porta nt.

If y o u w atc h film s o n D VD , y o u m ay h ave c o m e a cro ss th e te rm s LE TTE R BO X and LE TTE R BO XIN G . Lette rb oxin g m eans pre se rv in g th e orig in al a sp ect ra tio o f a w id escre en film w hen tr a nsfe rrin g th e film to DVD o r b ro adca stin g it o n te le vis io n. L ette rb oxe d film s h ave b la nk are as above and belo w th e im age, m akin g th e im age’s sh ape re se m ble a b usin ess e nve lo pe, o r le tte r. D esp it e th e ris e in s a le s o f wid escre en, fla ts cre en te le vis io ns, m any T V s s till m ain ta in a n a sp ect ra tio o f 1 .3 3:1 , a nd b ro adca ste rs a s w ell a s v id eo d is tr ib uto rs o fte n sim ply c h op o ff th e s id es o f w id escre en film s in o rd er to fit th e im age to th e a lm ost- s q uare s cre en. R ath er lik e s la sh in g o ff th e e dges o f a pain tin g s o it fit s a p re exis tin g fr a m e, th is c ru de p ra ctic e r u in s m ovie s.

When y o u w atc h film s m ade a fte r 1 954 o n D VD , y o u s h ould a lw ays make s u re th at th ey a re le tte rb oxe d.

To s e e w hy, c o nsid er th e d if fe re nce s b etw een fig ure s 3 .7 a nd 3.8 :

In fig ure 3 .7 , a w om an is s e en in c lo se -u p. W e c a n re ad h er fa cia l exp re ssio n cle arly : sh e is fr ig hte ned at w hat sh e is se ein g. B ut beca use th e a sp ect ra tio is 1 .3 7:1 , th ere is n o ro om in th e im age to main ta in b oth a c lo se p ro xim it y to h er fa ce a nd, a t th e s a m e tim e, to se e w hat s h e is lo okin g a t. T o re ve al th at in fo rm atio n, th e d ir e cto r 61 would h ave e it h er to m ove th e c a m era o r c u t to a noth er s h ot.

Fig ure 3.8 , w it h a n a sp ect ra tio o f 2 .4 0:1 , n ot o nly p ro vid es th e e m otio nal in te nsit y o f th e w om an’s c lo se up b ut a ls o re ve als w hat s h e is s e ein g in th e s a m e im age . P le ase n ote : n eit h er im age is s u perio r. T here is n o sin gle , co rre ct w ay o f fr a m in g a nd film in g th is s h ot, o r any s h ot. O ne dir e cto r m ay p re fe r to s h oot in th e n arro w er a sp ect ra tio o f 1 .3 7:1 , while a noth er m ay c h oose th e w id er, m ore e xp ansiv e 2 .4 0:1 . It’s a matte r o f p ers o nal s ty le . T here is , h ow eve r, a s in gle a nd c o rre ct w ay of sh ow in g a g iv e n film : if it w as film ed w it h a n a sp ect r a tio o f 2 .4 0:1 , it sh ould b e s h ow n a nd s e en o nly in 2 .4 0:1 .

FIG URE 3 .7 A n on-le tte rb oxe d v id eo im age, c h opped o ff s o it c o nfo rm s to th e s h ape o f a te le vis io n s cre en.

FIG URE 3 .8 P ro perly le tte rb oxe d o n v id eo a nd r e sto re d to it s o rig in al c in em atic a sp ect r a tio , th e s a m e s h ot m ake s n arra tiv e a s w ell a s v is u al s e nse o nce m ore .

62 The p oin t is th is : e ach a sp ect ra tio b rin gs w it h it a s e t o f a esth etic , exp re ssiv e co nse quence s. A s a ke y fa ce t o f m is e -e n-s ce ne, e ach film ’s asp ect ra tio pre se nts a kin d of cre ativ e lim it a tio n to th e film make rs — ra th er lik e th e way in whic h th e 14-lin e, ia m bic penta m ete r fo rm o f a s o nnet o ffe rs a p oet a s tr ic t fr a m ew ork in w hic h to w rit e . If, fo r e xa m ple , a d ir e cto r ch oose s to film in P anavis io n’s 2.4 0:1 a sp ect ra tio b ut w ants to c re ate th e im pre ssio n o f c ra m ped sp ace s, s h e m ust fo llo w th ro ugh b y s o m ehow c o unte rb ala ncin g th e exp ansiv e n atu re o f th e e xtr a -w id escre en p ro ce ss— cro w din g h er s e ts wit h obje cts , sa y, and blo ckin g her acto rs to m ove clo se r to one anoth er. ( Blo ckin g is a te rm d eriv e d fr o m th eate r a nd s im ply m eans pla nnin g w here a nd w hen a cto rs m ove a ro und th e s ta ge o r film s e t.) It’s a ll a q uestio n o f co m posit io n —th e a rra ngem ent o f p eople a nd th in gs w it h in th e re cta ngula r fr a m e. C onve rs e ly , a dir e cto r m ay ch oose to film in 1.3 7:1 , th e A ca dem y ra tio , and ye t cre ate th e im pre ssio n o f s p atia l e m ptin ess b y c o nsis te ntly fr a m in g h is c h ara cte rs at a dis ta nce fr o m one anoth er, ke epin g th e se t desig n re la tiv e ly sp are , a nd re fr a in in g fr o m im age-fillin g d evic e s su ch a s clo se -u ps.

Once a gain , it ’s a m atte r o f c re atin g e xp re ssiv e c o m posit io ns th at a re co here nt a nd m eanin gfu l th ro ughout th e film .

As y o u b egin to n otic e th e a sp ect ra tio o f th e film s y o u s e e, a sk yo urs e lf w hat re la tio n th e sh ape o f th e im age h as to w hat yo u’r e fe elin g a nd w hat th e film is s u btly e xp re ssin g s im ply b y w ay o f it s sh ape.

LIG HTIN G Consid er h ow fu tile it w ould b e to film a s ce ne s e t in a p it c h b la ck ro om . T here c a n b e n o c in em ato gra phy— or s till p hoto gra phy, fo r th at matte r— wit h out lig ht. T he lig ht s o urc e m ay b e o nly a fla m in g m atc h , so m e s p ark s, th e tip o f a c ig are tte , o r a b it o f lig ht s h in in g in th ro ugh th e gap betw een a door and th e flo or, but w it h out so m e fo rm of lig htin g n oth in g c a n b e r e gis te re d o n film .

Film s tu die s, a t le ast o n th e in tr o ducto ry le ve l, is le ss c o nce rn ed 63 wit h th e te ch nic a l m eans b y w hic h lig htin g e ffe cts a re c re ate d th an wit h th eir e xp re ssiv e re su lt s . Y our g oal a t th is p oin t is n ot to tr y to dete rm in e h ow a g iv e n e ffe ct w as c re ate d b y a c in em ato gra pher b ut ra th er to begin to appre cia te th e w ay in w hic h th at effe ct bears meanin g . Im agin e film in g a s ce ne s e t in a c o urtr o om , w here a w om an sta nds a ccu se d o f m urd erin g h er h usb and. Y ou c o uld lig ht th e s ce ne any num ber of w ays, dependin g on th e partic u la r sto ry yo u w ere te llin g a nd th e m ood y o u w ante d to c re ate . Y ou m ig ht s u ggest th at ju stic e w as b ein g s e rv e d, fo r in sta nce , b y lig htin g th e ro om b rig htly and w arm ly , w it h s u n s tr e am in g in th ro ugh u nblin ded w in dow s. O n th e oth er hand, yo u m ig ht w ant to genera te so m e vis u al te nsio n to su ggest th at th e d efe ndant h as b een u nju stly c h arg ed w it h th e c rim e, in w hic h c a se y o u c o uld lig ht th e ro om v e ry u neve nly ; a s o rt o f g ra y lig ht c o uld s h in e th ro ugh h alf - c lo se d V enetia n b lin ds in th e w in dow s, and a fe w b lu is h flu ore sce nt lig hts o ve rh ead c o uld s h in e d ow n o n th e co urtr o om to cre ate a ro om fu ll o f sh adow s. O ne th in g yo u w ould pro bably not w ant to d o is s im ply u se th e lig hts th at a re a va ila ble in a re al c o urtr o om a nd n oth in g m ore . W hy n ot? B eca use th e e xp re ssiv e re su lt s w ould b e le ft e ntir e ly to c h ance . Y ou m ig ht fin d, w hen y o u g et th e film b ack fr o m th e p ro ce ssin g la b, th at w hat lo oke d g re at in a r e al co urtr o om d oesn ’t lo ok n early a s g ood o n film : s h adow s th at w ere n’t notic e able in th e r e al r o om m ay a ppear in th e film ed s ce ne, a nd th ere mig ht b e a re as o f o ve re xp osu re a s w ell. E ve n m ore im porta nt, th e ava ila ble lig htin g in a re al co urtr o om m ig ht n ot e xp re ss a rtis tic a lly what y o u w ant to s a y.

TH REE-P O IN T L IG HTIN G The fir s t m otio n p ic tu re s w ere lit b y th e m ost p ow erfu l lig ht s o urc e in th e s o la r s yste m — th e s u n. N ot o nly w ere m any o f th ese m ovie s s e t outd oors , b ut e ve n in te rio r s e ts , to o, w ere c o nstr u cte d in th e o pen a ir sim ply so th at th ere w ould be str o ng enough lig htin g to re gis te r im ages c le arly o n film . T he d eve lo pm ent o f m ore lig ht- s e nsit iv e film sto cks, to geth er w it h m ore p ow erfu l e le ctr ic lig hts , e nable d film make rs to b e m uch le ss d ependent o n d ir e ct s u nlig ht a s th eir c h ie f s o urc e o f 64 illu m in atio n.

The m ost b asic lig htin g s e tu p is k n ow n a s th re e-p oin t lig htin g, w hic h co nsis ts o f a key lig ht , a fill lig ht , a nd a backlig ht . T he ke y lig ht ( A in fig . 3 .9 ) a im s d ir e ctly a t th e s u bje ct— most lik e ly th e m ain c h ara cte r o r obje ct in th e s h ot— and is th e b rig hte st lig ht s o urc e fo r th e s h ot. T he fill lig ht (B ) is a s o fte r lig ht, a nd is u su ally p la ce d o pposit e th e k e y lig ht; th e fill lig ht c u ts d ow n o n s h adow s c re ate d b y th e b rig ht k e y lig ht. A nd th e backlig ht (C ) s h in es b ehin d th e s u bje ct o r o bje ct, s e para tin g h im , her, o r it fr o m th e b ackg ro und— in o th er w ord s, e nhancin g th e s e nse of d epth in th e sh ot. B ackli g htin g so m etim es cre ate s a h alo e ffe ct aro und a c h ara cte r’s h ead, p artic u la rly a t th e e dges o f th e h air .

The te rm ke y lig ht is th e s o urc e o f tw o c o m monly u se d a dje ctiv e s:

lo w k e y a nd hig h k e y . T o c a ll s o m eth in g hig h k e y is to s a y th at it ’s in te nse , where as lo w ke y m eans su bdued. The ove rly ch eerfu l atm osp here o f a te le vis io n g am e s h ow w ould b e d escrib ed a s hig h ke y , w here as th e s m oky m ood o f a ja zz c lu b w ould b e c a lle d lo w k e y.

These exp re ssio ns co m e fr o m cin em ato gra phy. When cin em ato gra phers , a ls o k n ow n a s d ir e cto rs o f p hoto gra phy (D Ps) u se a h ig h p ro portio n o f fill lig ht to k e y lig ht, it ’s c a lle d h ig h-k e y lig htin g; th e effe ct is both brig hte r and m ore eve n th an w hen th ey use a lo w pro portio n o f fill lig ht to k e y li g ht, w hic h is c a lle d lo w -k e y lig htin g. T he lo w er ke y th e lig ht, th e m ore sh adow y th e effe ct. T he dis to rtin g, sp ooky n atu re o f e xtr e m ely lo w -k e y lig htin g is p erfe ctly illu str a te d b y a tr ic k a lm ost e ve ry c h ild h as p la ye d: in th e d ark , y o u s h in e a fla sh lig ht up a t y o ur fa ce fr o m b elo w y o ur c h in . T hat fla sh lig ht w as y o ur k e y lig ht, a nd s in ce th ere w as n o fill lig ht a t a ll, th e p ro portio n o f fill to k e y was a s lo w a s y o u c o uld g et.

To h am mer th e p oin t h om e: th e o bje ct is n ot to d ete rm in e w here th e ke y lig ht w as o n th e s e t, o r w hat th e re al p ro portio n o f fill lig ht to k e y lig ht w as, or w heth er th ere w as so m e to p lig htin g (lig htin g fr o m ove rh ead). In ste ad, y o ur g oals a re to n otic e th e effe cts o f th e lig htin g in a g iv e n s ce ne, to d escrib e th ese e ffe cts a ccu ra te ly , a nd to v e ntu re analy tic a lly s o m e id eas a bout w hat th e e ffe cts m ean. S ee th e S tu dy Guid e, b elo w , fo r tip s o n h ow to r e ach th ese g oals .

65 FIG URE 3 .9 T hre e-p oin t lig htin g: k e y lig ht ( A ), fill lig ht ( B ), b acklig ht ( C ).

Brig ht, eve n hig h-k e y lig htin g is ofte n use d in co m edie s and music a ls to e nhance a s e nse o f liv e lin ess a nd h ig h e nerg y ( fig . 3 .1 0 ).

2 Conve rs e ly , th e s h adow s c re ate d b y lo w -k e y lig htin g ( fig . 3 .1 1 ) w ork so w ell in m yste rie s a nd h orro r film s th at th ey h ave lo ng b een a n im porta nt c o nve ntio n o f th ose GEN RES . A nd o f c o urs e m any film s u se a co m bin atio n o f h ig h-k e y a nd lo w -k e y s e tu ps, d ependin g o n th e n atu re of th e in div id ual sce ne. Im agin e a w este rn outla w , fo r in sta nce , walk in g fr o m a b rillia ntly lit , h ig h-k e y e xte rio r in to a d ark e r, m ore lo w - ke y s a lo on. T he d ir e cto r m ig ht b e c o ntr a stin g th e e xte rn al w orld o f brig ht n atu re w it h th e c o nfin in g, d ark e r, in te rio r w orld o f c iv iliz a tio n.

66 FIG URES 3 .1 0 H ig h-k e y lig htin g a nd lo w -k e y lig htin g: In th e p ublic it y s till fr o m E rn st Lubit s ch ’s m usic a l- c o m edy The M erry W id ow ( 1 934) ( fig . 3 .1 0), th e im age is a bla ze in brillia nt, e ve n lig ht s h in in g n ot o nly o n th e c h ara cte r ( J e anette M cD onald ) b ut a ls o o n h er su rro undin gs— th e c a rp et, th e w alls , a nd th e r id ic u lo us b ed. T he fa ct th at th e s e t is a lm ost co m ple te ly w hit e o nly a dds to th e im age’s lu m in ous q ualit y ; h ad th e fill lig htin g b een le ss in te nse , th e e ffe ct o f a ll th at w hit e ness w ould h ave b een g re atly d im in is h ed b y s h adow s.

It’s im porta nt to u nders ta nd th at th e h ig h-k e y e xte rio r— in th is c a se , th e o uts id e o f th e s a lo on— was p ro bably film ed u sin g a rtif ic ia l lig htin g as w ell a s a ctu al s u nlig ht; a udie nce s n eve r s e e th e m any REFLE C TO RS and LA M PS th at th e film make rs h ave a im ed a t th e o utla w c h ara cte r a s he w alk s to w ard th e s a lo on’s s w in gin g w ooden d oors s o a s to e ve n out th e s h adow s th at w ould h ave re su lt e d if th e b rig ht m id day s u n ove rh ead h ad b een th e o nly lig ht s o urc e .

67 FIG URES 3 .1 1 T he s till fr o m J o hn F ord ’s d ow nbeat d ra m a The F ugit iv e ( 1 947)(fig . 3 .1 1) dem onstr a te s th e o pposit e e ffe ct o f lo w -k e y lig htin g. H ere , th e k e y lig ht s h in es o nto o nly h alf th e fa ce o f th e c e ntr a l c h ara cte r ( H enry F onda), le avin g th e o th er h alf in d ark n ess. T he sh adow o f th e p ris o n b ar c o uld h ave b een r e duce d o r e ve n e lim in ate d h ad F ord w ante d th e ch ara cte r’s fa ce to b e b rig htly a nd e ve nly lit , b ut th at w as c le arly n ot h is e xp re ssiv e in te nt. A nd th ere is lit tle if a ny b acklig htin g, s o th e to p o f th e c h ara cte r’s h ead a ll b ut b le nds in w it h th e co m ple te ly u nlit b ack w all.

FIL M S TO CKS: S U PER 8 T O 7 0M M T O V ID EO DPs a re in c h arg e o f s e le ctin g th e ty p e o f FIL M S TO CK —ra w , u nexp ose d fo ota ge— th at is u se d to m ake a g iv e n film . F ilm s to ck is c a te goriz e d in se ve ra l w ays: ( 1 ) b y gau ge ; ( 2 ) b y ty p e ; (a nd 3 ) b y exp osu re in dex .

The film ’s gauge is sim ply it s w id th , w hic h ra nges in sta ndard iz e d in cre m ents fr o m 7 0m m, th e w id est, th ro ugh 6 5m m, 3 5m m, a nd 1 6m m, to th e n arro w est— Super 8 m m a nd 8 m m. ( In p oin t o f fa ct, 7 0m m film s are a ctu ally s h ot in 6 5m m; th e a dded fiv e m illim ete rs c o m es fr o m th e so undtr a ck.) T he g auge fo r m ost th eatr ic a l film re le ase s is 3 5m m. In genera l, th e w id er th e g auge, th e b ette r th e p ic tu re q ualit y . M otio n pic tu re film c o nta in s a fle xib le base —it h as to b e fle xib le s o it c a n r u n th ro ugh c a m era s a nd p ro je cto rs — th e s u rfa ce o f w hic h is c o ve re d w it h 68 an em uls io n . S o w hen th e film is sh ot, a w id er g auge h as m ore su rfa ce a re a, a nd th ere fo re m ore e m uls io n o n w hic h to r e co rd th e lig ht patte rn s th at fo rm th e im age. S eco nd, w hen th e film is p ro je cte d, a wid er gauge has m ore su rfa ce are a th ro ugh w hic h to sh in e th e pro je cto r’s lig ht b eam , th ere by y ie ld in g a c le are r, le ss g ra in y im age th an a n arro w g auge film p ro je cte d o n th e s a m e la rg e s cre en. A s w it h sn apsh ots , th e m ore y o u a tte m pt to b lo w u p a s m all im age to g re ate r and g re ate r p ro portio ns, th e g ra in ie r th e r e su lt w ill b e.

There a re fiv e ty p es o f film s to ck:

bla ck-a n d-w hit e n eg ativ e, c o lo r neg ativ e, in te rm ed ia te sto ck, bla ck-a n d-w hit e prin t , and co lo r prin t .

Negativ e film is film th at is ru n th ro ugh a c a m era a nd e xp ose d to lig ht fr a m e b y fr a m e. T he im ages c o nta in ed o n it a re in ve rte d in tw o ways: th ey a re u psid e d ow n, a nd th eir to nes a re r e ve rs e d. B la ck-a nd- whit e n egativ e h as d ark a re as in p la ce o f lig ht a re as, a nd v ic e v e rs a , and c o lo r n egativ e h as m agenta in p la ce o f g re en, y e llo w in p la ce o f blu e, a nd c ya n ( b lu egre en) in p la ce o f r e d. P ro ce ssin g th is film c re ate s a posit iv e p rin t , w hic h r e ve rs e s th e to nes b ack to n orm al. In te rm edia te sto cks— in te rn egativ e and in te rp osit iv e —are use d durin g postp ro ductio n.

Exp osu re in dex r e fe rs to th e film ’s s e nsit iv it y to lig ht. It’s a ls o c a lle d film sp eed . S o-c a lle d slo w film re quir e s lo nger exp osu re to lig ht, where as fa st film n eeds a m uch b rie fe r e xp osu re . A k e y c o nse quence of th e d ecis io n to u se a fa ste r o r s lo w er s to ck is th e d egre e o f co ntr a st one d esir e s. F aste r s to ck y ie ld s h ig her c o ntr a st— brig ht a re as a re v e ry brig ht a nd d ark a re as a re ve ry d ark — where as slo w er sto ck yie ld s lo w er c o ntr a st.

BLA CK, W HIT E , G RAY, A ND C O LO R Alm ost a ll n arra tiv e film s p ro duce d to day a re s h ot in c o lo r. T oday’s audie nce s are so use d to se ein g co lo r cin em ato gra phy th at th ey so m etim es fa il to a ppre cia te th e b eauty a nd ra nge o f b la ck-a nd-w hit e film makin g.

It m ay s u rp ris e y o u to le arn th at m any s ile nt film s w ere re le ase d in co lo r, th ough n ot th e k in d o f c o lo r y o u a re u se d to s e ein g. T hro ugh th e 69 re la te d p ro ce sse s o f tin tin g a nd to nin g , c in em ato gra phers tu rn ed th e gra ys in to e qually m onoch ro m atic b lu es o r s e pia s (lig ht b ro w ns) o r re ds.

Tin tin g m eans d ye in g th e film ’s b ase ; to nin g m eans d ye in g o ne co m ponent in th e em uls io n. In te rio rs and la ndsca pes would so m etim es b e tin te d s e pia . N ig ht s ce nes w ere o fte n tin te d o r to ned blu e, a nd in fa ct th is c o nve ntio n b eca m e s o s ta ndard th at s u ch s ce nes were o fte n film ed in b ro ad d aylig ht w it h th e e xp ecta tio n th at th ey would b e tin te d la te r.

Colo r c in em ato gra phy b egan, in a w ay, in 1 903, w hen a F re nch film co m pany, P ath é, b egan h and-s te ncilin g co lo rs o nto e ach fr a m e o f film . C olo r film s to ck, h ow eve r, w as n ot c o m monly u se d in c o m merc ia l film makin g u ntil th e 1 930s a nd 1 940s, w hen a fa m ous c o m pany c a lle d Tech nic o lo r b egan to p ut it s th re e-c o lo r p ro ce ssin g s yste m to w id e use . T ech nic o lo r, w hic h w as a ctu ally fo unded in 1 915, u se d fir s t a tw o-c o lo r a nd la te r, m uch m ore e xte nsiv e ly , a th re e-s tr ip s yste m to re nder s u pers a tu ra te d c o lo rs o n m otio n p ic tu re film . L ig ht e nte re d th e ca m era ’s le ns, but in ste ad of re gis te rin g an im age m ore or le ss dir e ctly onto film sto ck, it passe d in ste ad th ro ugh a pris m th at se para te d it in to re d, g re en, a nd b lu e va lu es, e ach o f w hic h w as re gis te re d on it s ow n sto ck; la te r, th ese str ip s w ere dye d and pro ce sse d o nto a s in gle s tr ip o f c o lo r s to ck. (In p oin t o f fa ct, c a llin g Tech nic o lo r film “ c o lo r s to ck” is in accu ra te ; th e p ro ce ss o rig in ally u se d bla ck-a nd-w hit e s to ck w it h filt e rs fo r e ach o f th re e c o lo rs , a nd re le ase prin ts w ere m ade o n b la nk, b la ck-a nd-w hit e s to ck o n w hic h c o lo r d ye s were s ta m ped. C olo r n egativ e w as n ot u se d u ntil th e la te 1 940s a nd 1950s.) Bla ck-a nd-w hit e c in em ato gra phy is in accu ra te ly n am ed. In fa ct, it ’s monoch ro m atic , m eanin g th at it is co m pris e d o f a sin gle co lo r— usu ally gra y— in a va rie ty of sh ades. F ro m th e la te 1930s to th e 1960s, film make rs sa w th e d if fe re nce b etw een b la ck a nd w hit e o r co lo r c in em ato gra phy a s a m atte r o f c h oic e , th e d ecis io n b ein g b ase d on eco nom ic as well as aesth etic fa cto rs . Tech nic o lo r was an exp ensiv e p ro ce ss, a ddin g a bout 2 5 p erc e nt m ore to th e c o st o f a n ave ra ge film p ro ductio n. A t th e sa m e tim e, co st w as n ot th e o nly is su e, sin ce ce rta in genre s— most nota bly th e grit ty , urb an genre kn ow n as film noir — work e d partic u la rly w ell in bla ck and w hit e , 70 where as o th ers — la vis h m usic a ls a nd c o stu m e d ra m as, fo r in sta nce — were b ette r su it e d to co lo r. T he d eve lo pm ent o f E astm an C olo r, a sim ple r a nd le ss e xp ensiv e c o lo r s yste m , in 1 952 le d to m ore a nd more film s b ein g m ade in c o lo r, a nd e ve ntu ally a rtis tic c h oic e g ave way to a udie nce e xp ecta tio n. A t th is p oin t in th e tw enty -fir s t c e ntu ry , bla ck-a ndw hit e cin em ato gra phy is ra re ly em plo ye d in co m merc ia l film makin g.

A W ORD O R T W O A BO UT L E N SES Beca use m ost if n ot a ll o f th e m ovie s y o u h ave s e en in y o ur lif e h ave not b een fu ll o f d is to rte d v is u als — th ey d on’t re fle ct th e w orld th e w ay a fu nhouse m ir ro r w ould — yo u m ay a ssu m e th at th ere is s u ch a th in g as a norm al le ns, a nd th at m ost film s a re s h ot w it h it . B ut th is is n ot th e c a se . In fa ct, m ost film make rs u se a w id e v a rie ty o f le nse s d urin g th e c o urs e o f s h ootin g a n in div id ual film . W hile m ost o f th ese le nse s yie ld im ages th at re se m ble “n orm al” h um an v is io n, th e w ord norm al means s o m eth in g e xtr e m ely v a rie d in th is c o nte xt; th e h um an e ye is re m ark a bly fle xib le a nd c re ate s a n e norm ous v a rie ty o f e ffe cts w it h out our b ein g a w are o f th e m in ute p hysic a l c h anges th e e ye p erfo rm s.

Lense s are not nearly as adapta ble . They are hard pie ce s of unbendable g la ss, a nd th ey n eed to b e c h anged fr e quently to c re ate th e im pre ssio n o f a ppare ntly s im ple , s o ca lle d “ n orm al” v is io n.

Look a t th e b ook y o u a re r e adin g. F ocu s o n th e p rin t o f th is word in th is se nte nce . N otic e th at e ve n th e o th er w ord s su rro undin g it a re so m ew hat o ut o f fo cu s, le t a lo ne th e e dges o f th e b ook, th e d esk a t whic h yo u a re sit tin g, a nd th e su rro undin g ro om . T here is n oth in g abnorm al a bout th is p artic u la r v ie w o f th e w orld , is th ere ? It’s s p ecif ic , but it ’s n ot a t a ll u nusu al.

Now fo cu s o n a w hole p ara gra ph. T he p rin t is in fo cu s (m ore o r le ss), but in div id ual w ord s are so m ehow not. This vie w is als o partic u la r b ut n ot s tr a nge lo okin g. L ook a t th e p age a s a w hole w it h th is co nce pt in m in d. L ook u p fr o m th e b ook, fo cu s o n a n o bje ct nearb y, a nd n otic e th at w hile y o u c a n s e e th e re st o f th e ro om , th e obje ct yo u have se le cte d se em s cle are r th an th in gs in th e 71 backg ro und. L ook o ut a w in dow ( if y o u c a n) a t s o m eth in g o r s o m eone in th e d is ta nce , a nd lit e ra lly se e th e w ay y o ur e ye s a uto m atic a lly b rin g th at o bje ct o r p ers o n in to c le ar fo cu s w hile th e o bje cts in th e ro om beco m e fu zzie r, le ss dis tin ct. A ll of th ese vis u als are yo ur eye s’ su cce ssfu l a tte m pts to s e le ct o bje cts fo r y o ur a tte ntio n. N one o f th em is d is to rte d in a ny w ay, b ut e ach o f th em is d if fe re nt.

In ord er to guid e yo ur eye s to partic u la r people and th in gs onscre en, film make rs m ust u se in div id ual le nse s th at a re s u it e d to ce rta in a pplic a tio ns. T here is n o n eed fo r y o u to le arn th e te ch nic a l te rm s fo r m ost o f th e le nse s u se d in m otio n p ic tu re p ro ductio n, b ut a fe w o f th e b asic c o nce pts a re w orth k n ow in g.

Ju st a s y o ur e ye s k e ep o bje cts a t a c e rta in d is ta nce in fo cu s w hile th e r e st o f th e r o om s e em s to b lu r, s o e ve ry le ns h as w hat is k n ow n a s a s p ecif ic dep th o f fie ld —th e a re a o f th e im age b etw een fo re gro und and b ackg ro und th at re m ain s in fo cu s. If, fo r e xa m ple , a film make r wants to d ir e ct y o ur a tte ntio n to a p artic u la r ro w o f s p ecta to rs in a cro w ded fo otb all s ta diu m , s h e a nd h er D P m ig ht c h oose a le ns w it h th at p artic u la r d epth o f fie ld ; e ve ry o ne b ehin d th at ro w a nd in fr o nt o f th at r o w w ould b e s lig htly o ut o f fo cu s.

In s o m e in sta nce s, film make rs c h oose to s h oot in w hat is c a lle d deep fo cu s, w hic h m eans th at o bje cts n ear th e c a m era , m id w ay, a nd fa r fr o m th e c a m era a re a ll in s h arp fo cu s. In a d eep fo cu s s h ot, w e ca n s e e o bje cts a nd/o r c h ara cte rs in a ll th re e p la nes in e qually c le ar fo cu s. A n um ber o f s h ots in Cit iz e n K ane a re in d eep fo cu s; Cit iz e n Kane ’s c in em ato gra pher, G re gg T ola nd, p io neere d th e te ch niq ue.

Lense s ru n in a s p ectr u m fr o m WID E-A N G LE T O T E LE PH O TO . A wid e- angle le ns h as a w id e d epth o f fie ld , w hic h m eans th at o bje cts in th e fo re gro und, m id dle gro und, and backg ro und are all in fo cu s. A te le photo le ns , o n th e o th er h and, h as a n arro w d epth o f fie ld , a s it appears to brin g dis ta nt obje cts clo se r. A le ns th at is ca pable of sh if tin g fr o m w id e-a ngle to te le photo a nd b ack is c a lle d a ZO OM L E N S .

Unlik e fo rw ard a nd re ve rs e tr a ckin g s h ots , z o om s h ots d o n ot in vo lv e movin g th e c a m era th ro ugh s p ace . A nd fin ally , a ra ck fo cu s s h ot (s o m etim es c a lle d a fo cu s p ull ) c h anges th e p la ne o f fo cu s w it h in th e sh ot b y w ay o f a c h ange in fo cu s, ra th er th an b y w ay o f a z o om . F or in sta nce , a c h ara cte r in th e fo re gro und is in s h arp fo cu s; h e h ears a 72 nois e a nd tu rn s to lo ok a t th e fa r b ackg ro und; th e fo cu s th en s h if ts — th e m an beco m es blu rry w hile a ca r exp lo din g in th e dis ta nce beco m es cle ar. N otic e th e d if fe re nce b etw een a zo om a nd a ra ck fo cu s: in a z o om , a ll th e d epth p la nes re m ain in fo cu s, w here as in a ra ck fo cu s o nly o ne p la ne a t a tim e is c le ar a nd s h arp .

FIG URE 3 .1 2 D eep fo cu s in Cit iz e n K ane ( 1 941): a ll p la nes o f d epth a re in fo cu s— th e w om an in th e fo re gro und, th e m an s ta ndin g in th e n ear-m id dle g ro und, th e w in dow fr a m e a nd w all in th e b ackg ro und, a nd e ve n th e b oy p la yin g o uts id e in th e s n ow in th e fa r b ackg ro und ( fr a m e enla rg em ent) .

STU DY G UID E:

A N ALY ZIN G C IN EM ATO GRAPH Y To b egin to a naly ze th e v a rio us c o m ponents o f c in em ato gra phy, g et a film o n D VD , ra ndom ly se le ct a sce ne, and fr e eze fr a m e any im age th at str ik e s yo u as w orth purs u in g in d eta il.

Fir s t, n otic e th e a sp ect ra tio . C an y o u te ll w hat a sp ect ra tio it is b y s ig ht? P ro bably not, th ough yo u ca n ce rta in ly dis tin guis h a w id escre en film fr o m one sh ot in th e Aca dem y r a tio .

Alt h ough th e u se o f fr e eze fr a m in g h as it s d ra w backs— what, a fte r a ll, is a m otio n pic tu re w it h out m otio n?— yo u c a n te ll a lo t a bout a s h ot fr o m a n in div id ual fr a m e. In te rm s o f c o m posit io n, h ow d o th e p eople a nd o bje cts in th e im age re la te to th e film ’s asp ect ra tio ? A re th ey c e nte re d, o r c lu ste re d o n o ne s id e, o r s p re ad o ut a cro ss th e 73 exp anse o f th e s cre en? (If it ’s a w id escre en film , im agin e w hat it w ould lo ok lik e if it hadn’t b een le tte rb oxe d. W hat w ould h ave b een c u t o ut? ) What a bout th e lig htin g? W ould y o u d escrib e it a s h ig h k e y o r lo w k e y? If th ere a re sh adow s, w here d o th ey fa ll? Is th e lig htin g n atu ra lis tic o r n ot? In o th er w ord s, d oes it lo ok lik e th e w orld y o u liv e in , o r h ave th e film make rs ju ic e d it u p w it h lig htin g e ffe cts ?

Writ e y o ur r e sp onse s to th ese a nd o th er is su es in a n ote book, b eca use y o u m ay n eed th em fo r r e fe re nce in th e w rit in g e xe rc is e th at fo llo w s.

Now e xa m in e th e im age w it h a n e ye to w ard th e e ffe cts c re ate d b y th e c a m era ’s le ns. Is th e e ntir e im age in th e s a m e s h arp fo cu s, o r is o ne d epth p la ne c le are r th an th e oth ers ? C an y o u e ve n d is tin guis h th e fo re gro und fr o m th e b ackg ro und, o r is th e s h ot one th at c o nta in s o nly o ne p la ne? (If th e s h ot is a c lo se -u p, fo r in sta nce , th ere c a n b e only o ne p la ne b eca use th e im age c o nta in s o nly o ne o bje ct o r fa ce .) WRIT IN G A BO UT C IN EM ATO GRAPH Y Giv e n th e fa ct th at th is c h apte r is th e m ost te ch nic a lly o rie nte d o ne s o fa r, w hat w it h it s arra y o f c in em ato gra phic fa cts a nd fig ure s, y o u m ay b e o ve rw helm ed b y th e id ea o f writ in g about th is asp ect of film makin g. In fa ct, th e ch alle nge of w rit in g about cin em ato gra phy is th e s a m e a s w rit in g c rit ic a lly a bout m ovie s a s a w hole : y o u m ust fin d a w ay not only to describ e w hat yo u se e cle arly but als o to fig ure out w hat th e film make rs a re e xp re ssin g in te rm s o f m eanin g.

One o f th e p ro ble m s b egin nin g film s tu dents fa ce is h ow to m ove b eyo nd s im ple descrip tio n to m eanin gfu l a naly sis . J u st a s it ’s n ot e nough to p ro vid e a s u m mary o f th e film ’s s to ry a nd p ass it o ff a s c rit ic is m , a s im ple d escrip tio n o f a s ce ne’s c in em ato gra phy won’t c u t it e it h er. Y ou m ust le arn h ow to fin d m eanin g o nscre en— in th is c a se , th ro ugh cin em ato gra phy.

Don’t b e a fr a id to s ta te th e o bvio us. O r, b ette r, b egin w it h th e o bvio us— what d oes th e film lo ok lik e ?— and u se re aso n to e xp lo re th e im plic a tio ns o f th ose v is u als . T ake th e e xa m ple o f th e w este rn o utla w e nte rin g th e s a lo on, a bove , a nd b re ak d ow n th e obse rv a tio ns m ade a bout it in to b asic lo gic a l s te ps th at le ad to a c o nclu sio n a bout w hat th e s ce ne is a ctu ally a bout:

1.

T he c h ara cte r m ove s fr o m o ne ty p e o f lig htin g (b rig ht, h ig h k e y) to a noth er (d im , lo w k e y).

2.

T he c h ara cte r is a n o utla w — a p ers o n w ho o pera te s outs id e th e la w s o f s o cie ty .

3.

T he c h ara cte r m ove s fr o m outs id e to in sid e .

4.

Outs id e is fu ll o f lig ht a nd s p ace ; in sid e is s h adow y a nd c o nfin in g.

5.

C onclu sio n: by w ay o f th is sh if t in cin em ato gra phy, th e film make r is a ctu ally co ntr a stin g th e o penness a nd fr e edom o f n atu re w it h th e c o nstr a in ts o f s o cie ty .

In th is c a se , th e c o nclu sio n is n ot p artic u la rly p ro fo und, n or is it u nexp ecte d. A s th ey sa y, it is n ’t ro cke t s cie nce . B ut it g ets th e jo b d one, w hic h is to s a y th at it m ove s fr o m sim ple , s u rfa ce v is u al d escrip tio n to d eeper a naly tic a l th in kin g. It id entif ie s a nd a scrib es th em atic m eanin g to fo rm al a rtis tic d ecis io ns. In s h ort, it ’s a s ta rt.

Go o ve r y o ur n ote s fr o m th e s tu dy g uid es a nd w rit in g e xe rc is e s in th e p re vio us tw o 74 ch apte rs . N ote w heth er yo u in clu ded a ny d escrip tio ns o f c in em ato gra phic e le m ents alo ng w it h y o ur o bse rv a tio ns a bout m is e -e n-s ce ne a nd c a m era m ove m ent. W hat v is u al in fo rm atio n a bout lig htin g d id y o u fa il, h ow eve r in adve rte ntly , to n otic e a nd s p ecif y in yo ur n ote s? If y o u h ave th e tim e a nd in clin atio n, c o m pare y o ur p re vio us n ote s w it h th e note s y o u to ok fo r th is c h apte r. S ee w hat y o u h ave le arn ed to s e e.

Most im porta nt o f a ll: a sk yo urs e lf h ow yo u ca n u se th e ra w m ate ria l o f yo ur descrip tio ns to d ra w in fe re nce s a nd im plic a tio ns a bout w hat th e film s a re a bout. B ase d on w hat yo u kn ow so fa r, a nd u sin g re aso n to g uid e yo u, w hat ca n yo u lo gic a lly co nclu de a bout w hat e ach u niq ue c o m bin atio n o f m is e -e n-s ce ne, c a m era m ove m ent, and c in em ato gra phy means ?

1.

C in era m a c o ntin ued a s a tr a de n am e u se d fo r s in gle -s tr ip w id escre en film s s u ch a s S ta nle y Kubric k’s 2001: A S pace O dysse y .

2.

G ra m mar n ote : D o th e te rm s hig h k e y a nd lo w k e y re quir e h yp hens? T he a nsw er is : y e s and n o. It d epends w here th e te rm is p la ce d in a s e nte nce . If it is u se d b efo re a n oun, s u ch a s hig h-k e y lig htin g , th e a nsw er is y e s; if it is u se d a fte r a n oun, s u ch a s th e lig htin g is lo w k e y , th e a nsw er is n o.

75 C HAPTE R 4 E D IT IN G : F R O M S H O T T O S H O T T R ANSIT IO NS W it h a ll b ut a v e ry fe w e xce ptio ns, film s— esp ecia lly n arra tiv e fe atu re f ilm s— are m ade u p o f a se rie s o f in div id ual sh ots th at film make rs c o nnect in a fo rm al, syste m atic , and exp re ssiv e w ay. There are p ra ctic a l a s w ell a s a rtis tic re aso ns fo r d ir e cto rs to a sse m ble m ovie s f r o m m any h undre ds if n ot th ousa nds o f s h ots . F or o ne th in g, film c a m era s a re a ble to h old o nly a lim it e d a m ount o f c e llu lo id film — not e nough fo r a fe atu re le ngth m otio n p ic tu re . (D ig it a l c a m era s, h ow eve r, c a n c a ptu re m ult ip le h ours .) M ore im porta nt, n arra tiv e film s g enera lly c o m pre ss tim e co nsid era bly b y le avin g o ut th e b orin g p arts o f th e s to rie s th ey te ll. Im agin e h ow d ull it w ould b e to w atc h e ve n th e m ost i n tr ig uin g c h ara cte rs g o th ro ugh th e h um dru m m otio ns o f e ve ry d ay lif e — doin g th e la undry , b ru sh in g th eir te eth , s p endin g a n h our s tu ck in t r a ffic — sim ply b eca use th e film make r h ad n o w ay o f e lim in atin g th ese n ece ssa ry b ut ir re le va nt a ctiv it ie s. E ve n th ose ra re film s th at tr y to d uplic a te re al tim e— th e s to ry o f tw o h ours in a w om an’s lif e c o uld c o nce iv a bly ta ke e xa ctly tw o h ours to te ll o n film — genera lly re quir e t h e film make r to ca rv e up th e actio n in to dis cre te sh ots and r e asse m ble th em co here ntly , if only to hold th e audie nce ’s vis u al i n te re st, le t a lo ne to m ake e xp re ssiv e p oin ts b y w ay o f c lo se -u ps, lo ng s h ots , h ig h- a nd lo w -a ngle s h ots , a nd s o o n.

76 FIG URE 4 .1 E dit o rs w ork m anually a t a n e dit in g ta ble in th is u ndate d p hoto gra ph. N ow , m ost edit in g ta ke s p la ce o n c o m pute rs . ( P hoto fe st) Alf r e d H it c h co ck’s 1 948 film , Rope , is a n a tte m pt to film a n e ntir e fe atu re -le ngth n arra tiv e in a s in gle s h ot. T he fa ct th at film magazin es (lig htp ro of c o nta in ers th at h old , fe ed, a nd ta ke u p film in th e c a m era ) of th at era co uld only hold about te n m in ute s of film w as a big co nstr a in t, b ut H it c h co ck u se s tw o d evic e s to m ask th e te ch nic a lly nece ssa ry e dit s : h e m ake s s tr a ig ht c u ts a t c e rta in re el c h angeove rs and tr a cks fo rw ard in to th e b acks o f m en w earin g d ark s u it s in o rd er to bla ck o ut th e im age b efo re c u ttin g a t c e rta in o th ers . S till, b y m ovin g th e ca m era a nd re fr a m in g th e im age w it h in th ese 5 - to 1 0-m in ute sh ots , H it c h co ck e ffe ctiv e ly c a rv e s e ach s h ot in to d is cre te u nit s fo r exp re ssiv e p urp ose s.

This ch apte r describ es th e m eth ods by w hic h film make rs lin k 77 in div id ual s h ots to o ne a noth er in a p ro ce ss c a lle d ED IT IN G , o r CUTTIN G .

These lin ks a re b ro adly c a lle d TR AN SIT IO NS .

The s im ple st tr a nsit io n is th e CUT . A d ir e cto r film s a s h ot, th e b asic unit o f film makin g, a nd h as it d eve lo ped. S he film s a noth er s h ot a nd has it d eve lo ped a s w ell. S he tr im s e ach s h ot d ow n to th e le ngth s h e wants , a nd s h e a tta ch es th e tw o s tr ip s o f film to geth er w it h a p ie ce o f ta pe. T hat’s it : s h e h as cu t fr o m o ne s h ot to a noth er. In th is e xa m ple , th e film make r is usin g ce llu lo id . S he ca n cre ate th e sa m e effe ct ele ctr o nic a lly w it h tw o s h ots ta ke n in v id eo, th ough in th at c a se , o f co urs e , s h e h as n o n eed fo r ta pe.

Bear in m in d th at e dit in g is a h um an a ctiv it y . U nlik e th e c a m era ’s mech anic a l re co rd in g o f im ages, e dit in g is q uit e s p ecif ic a lly a m atte r of a ctiv e d ecis io n-m akin g— th e p ro duct o f h um an ch oic e . S o w hen describ in g e dit in g, it m ake s n o se nse to sa y o r w rit e “th e ca m era cu ts .” C am era s c a n o nly r e co rd ; d ir e cto rs a nd e dit o rs c u t.

Oth er im porta nt tr a nsit io ns in clu de th e FA D E-IN a nd FA D E-O UT ; th e IR IS - IN a nd IR IS -O UT ; th e DIS SO LV E , a nd th e WIP E , b ut b eca use th ese e ffe cts are u se d m ostly a s tr a nsit io ns fr o m s ce ne to s ce ne— in o th er w ord s, fr o m th e fin al s h ot o f o ne s ce ne to th e fir s t s h ot o f th e n ext s ce ne— and th is c h apte r c o nce rn s tr a nsit io ns fr o m s h ot to s h ot wit h in a s ce ne, le t’s p ostp one d escrib in g th em u ntil ch apte r 6 .

MONTA G E One o f th e ke y te rm s in fil m stu die s is MONTA G E . T ake n fr o m th e Fre nch v e rb monte r , m eanin g to a sse m ble , m onta ge d escrib es th e va rio us w ays in w hic h film make rs s tr in g in div id ual s h ots to geth er to fo rm a s e rie s.

The te rm monta ge h as th re e d if fe re nt b ut re la te d d efin it io ns. T he fir s t d efin it io n is th e e asie st. In F ra nce , th e w ord monta ge sim ply means e dit in g— any k in d o f e dit in g . A s d escrib ed in th e e xa m ple o f a sim ple c u t, a bove , th e film make r ta ke s tw o p ie ce s o f e xp ose d a nd pro ce sse d ce llu lo id , tr im s th em dow n to th e le ngth sh e w ants — decis io ns m ade o n th e b asis o f th e e xp re ssiv e a nd/o r g ra phic c o nte nt of th e im age, o r th e d ia lo gue, o r a c o m bin atio n o f b oth — and lit e ra lly 78 ta pes th em to geth er. In F ra nce , w hat sh e has done is kn ow n as monta ge.

In th e U nit e d S ta te s, th e te rm monta ge re fe rs m ore s p ecif ic a lly to a film s e quence th at re lie s o n e dit in g to c o ndense o r e xp and a ctio n, sp ace , or tim e . The effe ct is ofte n th at of a ra pid -fir e se rie s of in te rre la te d im ages. Im agin e th at a d ir e cto r is te llin g th e s to ry o f a r o ck band th at fo rm s in O m aha, a nd h e n eeds to m ove th em q uic kly to Holly w ood, w here th ey w ill p erfo rm liv e o n a te le vis io n s h ow . S in ce th ere is n eit h er th e n eed n or th e tim e to w atc h th e g ro up d riv e th e entir e w ay fr o m e aste rn N ebra ska to s o uth ern C alif o rn ia , o ur d ir e cto r begin s b y film in g a s h ot o f th e b and m em bers p ackin g u p th eir v a n in Om aha; h e c u ts q uic kly fr o m th is s h ot to a s h ot o f th e v a n o n th e in te rs ta te m akin g it s w ay a cro ss th e G re at P la in s. F ro m th is h e c u ts to a s h ot o f o il d erric ks n ext to th e h ig hw ay, th en to a s h ot o f c a ttle in a fie ld , a nd th en to a s h ot o f th e v a n h eadin g to w ard th e s n ow ca pped Rockie s. C ut to a s h ot o f th e b and m em bers in th e v a n; c u t to a s h ot of th e v a n d riv in g d ow n th e L as V egas S tr ip a t n ig ht. A n im age o f Death V alle y fo llo w s. F ro m th e d ese rt th e d ir e cto r c u ts to a s h ot o f a sig n re adin g “L os A ngele s— 30 m ile s” a nd th en to a s h ot o f th e v a n pullin g u p a t a n o ffic e b uild in g o n S unse t B oule va rd .

In th is A m eric a n-s ty le m onta ge s e quence , th e b and h as m ove d a ll th e w ay fr o m th e M id w est to L .A . in le ss th an a m in ute . T his m onta ge co ndense s tim e a nd s p ace — a 1 ,7 00-m ile tr ip th at w ould ta ke s e ve ra l days in r e al tim e s h rin ks d ow n in s cre en tim e to a bout 4 5 s e co nds.

Here ’s a n e xa m ple o f th e w ay in w hic h a n A m eric a n-s ty le m onta ge ca n exp and tim e a nd s p ace : Im agin e a p it c h er o n th e m ound o f a base ball fie ld p re parin g to fir e a fa stb all to th e c a tc h er. B ut in ste ad o f pre se ntin g th e p it c h in o ne s in gle s h ot ta ke n fr o m h ig h in th e s ta nds, th e d ir e cto r a sse m ble s a n A m eric a n-s ty le m onta ge s e quence in o rd er to e nhance th e g am e’s s u sp ense : a fu ll s h ot o f th e p it c h er w in din g u p; a lo ng sh ot o f th e cro w d in th e b le ach ers ; a m ediu m sh ot o f th e manager lo okin g te nse in th e d ugout; a noth er s h ot o f th e p it c h er, th is one a c lo se -u p, a m om ent la te r in h is w in dup; a s h ot o f a m id dle -a ged guy w atc h in g th e g am e o n te le vis io n in h is d en; a lo ng s h ot o f a g ro up of fa ns b egin nin g to s ta nd u p; a m ediu m s h ot o f th e b atte r lo okin g defia nt; a c lo se -u p o f th e b all le avin g th e p it c h er’s fis t; a fu ll s h ot o f th e 79 batte r b egin nin g to s w in g; a s h ot o f th e b all h urtlin g a cro ss th e s cre en . . . N one o f th ese s h ots n eeds to b e in s lo w m otio n fo r r e al tim e to b e str e tc h ed o ut in re el tim e b y vir tu e o f m onta ge. B y a sse m blin g a n Am eric a n-s ty le m onta ge in th is m anner, th e film make r h as e xp anded an a ctio n th at w ould ta ke o nly a fe w s e co nds in re al tim e in to a 6 0- se co nd m onta ge.

There ’s a th ir d d efin it io n o f m onta ge, a nd it is th e m ost c o m plic a te d to d escrib e a nd c o m pre hend. In th e S ovie t c in em a o f th e im media te post- R evo lu tio nary p erio d— whic h is to s a y th e tw entie th c e ntu ry ’s la te ’t e ens and ’2 0s— film make rs co nducte d a fie rc e debate about th e natu re a nd e ffe cts o f m onta ge. S ovie t film make rs w ere e xcit e d b y th e 1917 M arx is t re vo lu tio n th at s o ught to tr a nsfo rm th eir c o untr y fr o m a fe udal s ta te to a m odern in dustr ia l e m pir e o ve rn ig ht, a nd th ey w ante d to fin d w ays of exp re ssin g th is polit ic a l energ y on film . T he ke y film make rs in vo lv e d in th is b le nd o f p ole m ic a l d ebate a nd c in em atic pra ctic e w ere Serg ei E is en ste in , V sevo lo d P udovkin , a nd Dzig a Verto v . P udovkin belie ve d th at sh ots w ere lik e bric ks th at w ere ca re fu lly p la ce d, o ne b y o ne, to fo rm a k in d o f c in em atic w all, a nd th at monta ge w as effe ctiv e ly th e ce m ent th at held th em to geth er; th e re su lt in g film , lik e a w all, w as m ore m eanin gfu l th an th e s im ple s u m o f it s b ric klik e p arts beca use m onta ge a dded m eanin g to th e in div id ual sh ots ’ co nte nt . V erto v, b ein g e sse ntia lly a d ocu m enta ria n, w as n ot in te re ste d in th e n arra tiv e c o hesio n m onta ge c o uld p ro duce ; h is m ost fa m ous film , Man w it h a M ovie C am era (1 929), is a ka le id osco pic asse m bla ge o f s h ots p ut to geth er w it h th e a ttit u de o f a s ym phonic music ia n r a th er th an a s to ry te lle r.

For E is e nste in , m onta ge m eant a k in d o f dyn am ic e dit in g u se d b oth to e xp ose a nd e xp lo re th e d ia le ctic s, o r o pposit io nal c o nflic ts , o f a giv e n s it u atio n, a nd to c re ate in th e m in d o f th e v ie w er a r e vo lu tio nary syn th esis . T he m ost fa m ous e xa m ple o f S ovie t- s ty le m onta ge in film his to ry , in fa ct, is th e “O dessa S te ps” se quence fr o m E is e nste in ’s Battle sh ip P ote m kin (1 925). The sit u atio n E is e nste in depic ts is a fic tio nal re -c re atio n o f th e 1 905 u pris in g o f s a ilo rs o n th e e ponym ous battle sh ip ; th ey m utin ie d a gain st th e h ars h cza ris t g ove rn m ent a nd re ce iv e d a str o ng m easu re o f p opula r su pport fr o m th e p eople o f Odessa , w ho in th e s e quence in q uestio n h ave g ath ere d o n th e c it y 80 ste ps to vo ic e th eir so lid arit y w it h th e sa ilo rs . T he cza r’s so ld ie rs marc h dow n th e flig ht of ste ps and begin fir in g th eir guns at th e cit iz e ns. N ot o nly d oes E is e nste in e dit th is s e quence o f s h ots v e ry ra pid ly in o rd er to in te nsif y th e s e nse o f c o nflic t b etw een th e m onarc h y and th e p eople , b ut th e c o m posit io ns w it h in e ach s h ot a re th em se lv e s fu ll o f c o nflic t— str o ng c o ntr a sts o f lig hts a nd d ark s, lo ts o f d ia gonal ve cto rs , a nd s o o n. T here is n oth in g s ta tic a bout th is s e quence — not in it s edit in g, not in it s in div id ual sh ots . It is th e cla ssic S ovie t- s ty le monta ge.

For E is e nste in , s h ots w ere m eant to co llid e ; h is s ty le o f m onta ge was th e o pposit e o f s m ooth , a ppare ntly s e am le ss c o ntin uit y e dit in g (w hic h is d efin ed b elo w ). A nd h is g oal w as to c re ate in th e m in ds o f his audie nce a re vo lu tio nary syn th esis of all th ese co nflic ts — to enco ura ge th e v ie w er, th ro ugh m onta ge, to th in k a nd se e in a n ew and, he hoped, ra dic a l w ay. B y edit in g th ese co nflic t- fille d sh ots to geth er in a w ay th at in te nsif ie s c o nflic t r a th er th an s m ooth in g it o ve r, Eis e nste in h oped to in sp ir e in h is a udie nce s a k in d o f re vo lu tio nary th in kin g. F or h im , th e c re ativ e a ct w as n ot o nly th at o f th e film make r who sh oots and asse m ble s th e film . An equally cre ativ e act is perfo rm ed b y th ose o f u s w ho s e e th e film ; w e ta ke in a ll o f th ese im ages b y w ay o f m onta ge a nd c o nse quently p ut th e p ie ce s to geth er in o ur o w n m in ds in o ur o w n w ays.

81 FIG URE 4 .2 F our im ages fr o m th e “ O dessa S te ps” s e quence , Battle sh ip P ote m kin ( 1 925) (fr a m e e nla rg em ents ).

What lin ks a ll o f th ese d efin it io ns o f monta ge is n ot o nly th e s p lic in g to geth er o f in div id ual s h ots . W hat m ake s monta ge w orth y o f s tu dy in any o f it s th re e fo rm s a nd d efin it io ns is th at it is a fu ndam enta lly cre ativ e a ct— th e p ro duct o f a rtis tic d ecis io n-m akin g. A s th e F re nch film th eoris t A ndré B azin o nce w ro te , m onta ge y ie ld s “ th e c re atio n o f a se nse o r m eanin g n ot p ro per to th e im ages th em se lv e s b ut d eriv e d exclu siv e ly fr o m th eir ju xta posit io n.” A s th e re st o f th e ch apte r w ill make cle ar, edit in g co m pounds in fo rm atio n and cre ate s evo ca tiv e asso cia tio ns th at fo rm a c o rn ers to ne o f a ny film ’s e xp re ssiv e m eanin g.

TH E K ULE SH O V E XPER IM EN T Film s tu die s illu str a te s e dit in g ’s a bilit y to c re ate n ew a sso cia tio ns a nd id eas in th e v ie w er’s m in d w it h a noth er e xa m ple fr o m S ovie t c in em a— an a polit ic a l e xa m ple , b ut o ne th at s till n eatly d escrib es th e w ay S ovie t film make rs v ie w ed m onta ge a s im agin ativ e a nd d yn am ic . B y s p lic in g to geth er sn ip pets of photo gra phed re alit y , th ese film make rs 82 unders to od th at s o m eth in g n ew w as b ein g c re ate d— so m eth in g th at did n’t e xis t o n a b ru te m ate ria l p la ne b ut did e xis t in th e m in ds o f a movie audie nce — and only in th ose m in ds. The film dir e cto r and th eoris t Lev K ule sh ov is sa id to have co nducte d an exp erim ent in vo lv in g th e effe cts of m onta ge on an audie nce ’s perc e ptio n of em otio n. H e film ed th e g re at R ussia n a cto r Iv an M ozh ukin in m ediu m clo se -u p, w it h a s in ce re -lo okin g b ut n eutr a l e xp re ssio n o n h is fa ce .

Kule sh ov th en film ed a s h ot o f a b ow l o f s o up, a s h ot o f a c o ffin , a nd a sh ot o f a lit tle g ir l p la yin g.

Fig ure 4 .3 s h ow s h ow K ule sh ov e dit e d th e se quence .

Audie nce s are sa id to have marv e le d at th e gre at acto r’s extr a ord in ary ra nge a nd su btle te ch niq ue. M ozh ukin co uld e xp re ss gre at h unger! M ozh ukin c o uld e xp re ss e xtr a ord in ary g rie f! M ozh ukin co uld e xp re ss e xa ctly th e k in d o f p rid e a nd jo y a p are nt fe els w hen watc h in g h is c h ild a t p la y!

What a g re at a cto r!

In fa ct, o f c o urs e , it w as th e s a m e s h ot o f M ozh ukin , a nd h e w asn ’t exp re ssin g anyth in g oth er th an neutr a lit y . It was th e audie nce mem bers w ho p ro vid ed th e e m otio nal c o nte nt o f th e s e quence s im ply by m akin g a sso cia tio ns in th eir o w n m in ds fr o m o ne s h ot to th e n ext.

One o f th e u ndera ppre cia te d a sp ects o f K ule sh ov’s e xp erim ent is th at K ule sh ov d id n’t ju st c re ate e m otio nal c o nte nt b y w ay o f e dit in g.

He a ls o d efin ed a nd c o nstr u cte d th re e c o ntin uous b ut d is tin ct sp ace s :

Mozh ukin a nd th e b ow l o f s o up in o ne, M ozh ukin a nd th e c o ffin in th e se co nd, M ozh ukin a nd th e c h ild in th e th ir d . T he a cto r w as s e en a s bein g in th e s a m e p la ce a s th e s o up b ow l; th e s a m e p la ce a s th e co ffin ; a nd th e s a m e p la ce a s th e lit tle g ir l— sp ace s c re ate d s o le ly b y way o f e dit in g.

The d ir ty lit tle s e cre t o f th e K ule sh ov e xp erim ent is th e fa ct th at nobody is o n r e co rd a s e ve r h avin g s e en th e film it s e lf . In p oin t o f fa ct, Kule sh ov m ay n eve r h ave s cre ened o r e ve n film ed th e s e quence . B ut th en h e d id n’t h ave to . H e k n ew it w ould w ork .

CO NTIN UIT Y E D IT IN G Cla ssic al H olly w ood s ty le , w hic h film s tu die s d efin es a s th e s e t o f 83 pre dom in ant fo rm al te ch niq ues use d by m ost A m eric a n narra tiv e film make rs th ro ugh th e tw entie th c e ntu ry a nd to th e p re se nt d ay, r e lie s on se ve ra l edit in g prin cip le s to ach ie ve it s ce ntr a l goal: to ke ep audie nce m em bers so w ra pped up in th e fic tio nal w orld cre ate d onscre en th at th ey c e ase to b e c o nscio us o f w atc h in g a m ovie a nd, in ste ad, b elie ve th at th ey a re w it n essin g s o m eth in g re al. W heth er it ’s a ro m ance b etw een tw o b elie va ble c h ara cte rs o r a n a ctio n film w it h a la rg er-th an-lif e h ero o r a h orro r film fe atu rin g a p re poste ro us m onste r, cla ssic a l H olly w ood film s w ant u s to b elie ve th at w e a re w atc h in g re alit y , if o nly fo r th e d ura tio n o f th e p ic tu re .

84 FIG URE 4 .3 T he K ule sh ov e xp erim ent c re ate d th re e d is tin ct s cre en sp ace s a s w ell a s narra tiv e r e la tio nsh ip s.

For e xa m ple , h ave y o u e ve r n otic e d th at film c h ara cte rs ra re ly tu rn and lo ok p re cis e ly a t th e ca m era a nd sp eak d ir e ctly to yo u in th e audie nce ? A lt h ough d ir e ct a ddre sse s fr o m ch ara cte rs to a udie nce s 85 have h appened fr o m tim e to tim e— Annie H all (1 977) a nd Wayn e ’ s World (1 992) co nta in nota ble exa m ple s of th is vio la tio n of fo rm al co nve ntio n— it ’s s ta rtlin g w hen it o ccu rs p re cis e ly b eca use it o ccu rs s o ra re ly . T he e ffe ct o f su ch d ir e ct a ddre sse s is to jo lt u s o ut o f o ur dre am lik e im mers io n in th e film ’s s to ry in to a s u dden a w are ness o f th e film ’s a rtif ic ia lit y : w e k n ow w e w ere n’t th ere w hen th e m ovie w as b ein g film ed, a nd w e k n ow th at th e c h ara cte r is n ’t re ally ta lk in g to us a t a ll.

This jo lt m ake s u s a w are th at w e’r e w atc h in g a m ovie .

Cla ssic a l H olly w ood s ty le str iv e s to a vo id c a llin g a tte ntio n to th e means and fo rm s of it s ow n co nstr u ctio n. T hro ugh str ic tly fo rm al te ch niq ues, H olly w ood film s a tte m pt to s m ooth o ve r th e m any c u ts th at o ccu r. T hey tr y to m ain ta in a s e nse o f s p atia l u nit y w it h in e ach in div id ual s e quence . T hey a tte m pt, to u se lo ftie r c rit ic a l d is co urs e , to effa ce th em se lv e s —to re nder th em se lv e s u nnotic e able . T he o ve ra ll te rm th at describ es th is fo rm al syste m is CO NTIN UIT Y ED IT IN G , als o kn ow n as IN VIS IB LE ED IT IN G . C ontin uit y edit in g is a se t of edit in g pra ctic e s th at esta blis h sp atia l and/o r te m pora l co ntin uit y betw een sh ots —in o th er w ord s, a ny o f th e v a rio us te ch niq ues th at film make rs em plo y to k e ep th eir n arra tiv e s m ovin g fo rw ard lo gic a lly a nd s m ooth ly , wit h out ja rrin g d is ru ptio ns in s p ace o r tim e, a nd w it h out m akin g th e audie nce a w are th at th ey a re in fa ct w atc h in g a w ork o f a rt. C ontin uit y edit in g str iv e s not only to ke ep dis ru ptio ns to a m in im um but to activ e ly pro m ote a se nse of narra tiv e and sp atia l co here nce and sta bilit y in th e fa ce o f h undre ds o r e ve n th ousa nds o f th e d is cre te b it s of c e llu lo id c a lle d s h ots . W hat a re th ese te ch niq ues?

The fir s t se t of co ntin uit y edit in g te ch niq ues in vo lv e w ays to dow npla y th e ja rrin g effe ct of cu ttin g. They are ca lle d ed it in g matc h es . T here a re th re e e sse ntia l w ays o f m atc h in g o ne sh ot to anoth er, a nd th ey a re d efin ed a cco rd in g to h ow th e m atc h is m ade.

1. M atc h in g o n a ctio n 2. E ye -lin e m atc h in g 3. G ra phic m atc h in g MATC HIN G O N A C TIO N o ccu rs w hen a p ie ce o f p hysic a l a ctio n in th e fir s t s h ot c o ntin ues in th e s e co nd s h ot. H ere ’s a s im ple e xa m ple : In 86 th e fir s t s h ot, a c h ara cte r o pens a d oor; in th e s e co nd s h ot, s h e g oes th ro ugh th e doorw ay. H er m ove m ent pro vid es th e co ntin uit y th at matc h es th e tw o s h ots . If th e s h ots a re s e t u p w ell a nd th e e dit o r kn ow s h is s tu ff, th e a udie nce w ill s lid e v is u ally fr o m th e fir s t s h ot to th e se co nd, th anks to th e s e em in gly c o ntin uous, a ppare ntly u nin te rru pte d move m ent o f th e c h ara cte r th ro ugh th e d oorw ay.

Let’s u se a noth er b ase ball g am e a s a m ore c o m plic a te d e xa m ple .

The p it c h er th ro w s a p it c h in S hot 1 : w e s e e h im h url th e b all fr o m th e rig ht s id e o f th e s cre en to th e le ft. In S hot 2 , th e b all flie s in to th e im age fr o m . . . w hic h s id e? Y es, fr o m th e rig ht s id e o f th e s cre en to th e le ft. T his m ake s it a ppear th at it ’s th e s a m e b all p it c h ed b y th e sa m e p it c h er a t th e s a m e tim e. H ow o dd a nd d is ru ptiv e it w ould b e if th e b all fle w fr o m th e p it c h er’s m ound to h om e p la te in o ne d ir e ctio n in th e fir s t sh ot and ente re d th e su cce edin g sh ot fr o m th e opposit e dir e ctio n. It w ould m ake n o s e nse v is u ally . A n e xp erim enta l film make r may ch oose to cre ate su ch a d is ru ptiv e e ffe ct, b ut m ost n arra tiv e film make rs s e ek to a vo id th at k in d o f v is u al illo gic .

Now th e b atte r ta ke s a s w in g a nd c o nnects : it ’s a lin e d riv e , a nd th e ball g oes fly in g o ut o f th e im age o n th e . . . rig ht. W hen th e b all re ente rs th e im age in th e n ext s h ot— th e s e co nd b ase m an is w ait in g fo r it — where does it ente r th e im age and in w hic h dir e ctio n is it tr a ve lin g?

1 EYE-L IN E M ATC HIN G w ork s o n a s im ila r p rin cip le , b ut in ste ad o f u sin g th e d ir e ctio n o f a p hysic a l a ctio n to d ete rm in e th e w ay th at s h ots a re se t u p, film ed, a nd e dit e d to geth er, it ’s th e d ir e ctio n o f ch ara cte rs ’ gaze s th at d ete rm in es w here th e c a m era is p la ce d, in w hic h d ir e ctio n th e a cto rs a re lo okin g w hen th ey’r e film ed, a nd h ow th e tw o ( o r m ore ) re su lt in g s h ots a re e dit e d to geth er. B efo re o ur p it c h er th ro w s th e b all to th e b atte r, h e ta ke s a lo ng lo ok a t th e c a tc h er, w ho u se s s o m e h and sig nals to c o m munic a te w it h h im . H e th en tu rn s to th e fir s t b ase m an to ch eck o n w heth er th e r u nner th ere w as p re parin g to s te al s e co nd. T he dir e cto r film s th e s e quence in fo ur s h ots , a nd w hen h e e dit s th em a ll to geth er, th ese fo ur s h ots m ake s e nse sp atia lly b eca use o f e ye -lin e matc h in g:

SH O T 1 :

Full, e ye -le ve l s h ot o f P IT C HER o n m ound lo okin g o ffs cre en le ft.

87 SH O T 2 :

Full, e ye -le ve l s h ot o f C ATC HER c ro uch in g a nd fo rm in g h and s ig nals b ehin d batte r; th e c a tc h er is lo okin g o ffs cre en rig ht.

T he im pre ssio n c re ate d is th at th e p it c h er a nd th e c a tc h er a re lo okin g a t e ach o th er, e ve n th ough th ey a re not in th e s a m e s h ot.

SH O T 3 :

Full, e ye -le ve l s h ot o f P IT C HER tu rn in g o n h is h eels a nd lo okin g o ffs cre en rig ht .

SH O T 4 :

Full, e ye -le ve l s h ot o f F IR ST B ASEM AN g uard in g O PPO SIN G P LA YER a nd lo okin g o ffs cre en . . .

2 When a udie nce s s e e th is s e quence p ro je cte d a s p art o f a n a ctio n se quence in a b ase ball m ovie , th ey w ill u nders ta nd th at th e p la ye rs are lo okin g at one anoth er. W hy? B eca use th e ru le s of eye -lin e matc h in g h ave b een re sp ecte d. Im agin e th e s p atia l d is o rie nta tio n th e audie nce w ould e xp erie nce if th e p it c h er w as film ed lo okin g in th e “w ro ng” d ir e ctio n; th e s e quence w ould m ake lit tle s p atia l s e nse a nd would be m uch m ore ch alle ngin g to fo llo w . M any people in th e audie nce w ould b e b ew ild ere d. C onfu sio n m ay b e a le git im ate a rtis tic goal, a nd a tr u ly ra dic a l film make r m ay c h oose to b affle p eople to make a p oin t. B ut th at film make r w ould fin d it d if fic u lt to s u cce ed w it h most co m merc ia l m ovie goers — a le git im ate artis tic goal in it s e lf , perh aps, b ut w hoeve r fin ance d th e p ic tu re w ould p ro bably n ot s e e it th at w ay.

The te rm eye -lin e m atc h c a n a ls o b e u se d to d escrib e a n e dit th at occu rs b etw een a s h ot o f a p ers o n a nd a fo llo w in g s h ot o f a n o bje ct th ough th ere is a ls o a p artic u la r te rm th at d escrib es it , to o— GLA N CE- OBJE C T M ATC H . S ay in th e fir s t s h ot w e s e e a h ungry -lo okin g lit tle g ir l in pro file s ta rin g to w ard th e le ft o f th e im age; w e w ould n ot b e ja rre d o r jo lt e d in th e s lig hte st to fin d th at th e s e co nd s h ot in th e s e quence co nta in ed th e im age o f a la rg e d is h o f ic e cre am , a nd w e w ould assu m e— giv e n th e fa ct th at th e d ir e cto r h as s e t u p th e s h ots a nd matc h ed th em w ell— th at th e lit tle g ir l is lo okin g a t th e ic e c re am . T he fa ct th at th e lit tle g ir l w as film ed o n a F rid ay a fte rn oon a nd th e ic e cre am w as film ed s e para te ly th e fo llo w in g M onday w ould n ot m atte r in th e s lig hte st: th e g la nce -o bje ct m atc h w ould b rin g th e lit tle g ir l a nd th e ic e cre am to geth er sp atia lly and te m pora lly in a m eanin gfu l and co here nt w ay.

The te rm eye -lin e m atc h m ay s e em o dd to d escrib e th is tw o-s h ot 88 se quence b eca use a lt h ough th e g ir l’s e ye s a re d ir e cte d o ffs cre en le ft, th e d is h o f ic e c re am c a n’t lo ok b ack a t h er. B ut e ye -lin e m atc h in g is not lim it e d to tw o o r m ore s e ts o f e ye s. E ve n w it h tw o c h ara cte rs , o nly one s e t o f e ye s n eeds to lo ok in a c e rta in d ir e ctio n fo r a n e ye -lin e matc h to b e m ade.

Of th e th re e ty p es o f m atc h es, g ra phic m atc h in g m ay b e th e m ost dif fic u lt to d escrib e. It re fe rs to m atc h in g m ade o n th e b asis o f a co m posit io nal e le m ent— a d oor o r w in dow fr a m e, fo r e xa m ple , o r a ny pro m in ent s h ape. G ra phic m atc h es a re m ade b y c u ttin g ( o r d is so lv in g, fa din g, o r w ip in g) fr o m o ne s h ape in th e fir s t s h ot to a s im ila r s h ape— in th e sa m e re la tiv e p osit io n in th e fr a m e— in th e se co nd sh ot. If in ste ad of th e easily ca tc h able lin e driv e str a ig ht in to th e se co nd base m an’s m it t in th e e xa m ple a bove , th e b atte r h ad h it a h ig h b ut lo ng fly b all th at a ppeare d to b e h eadin g o ut o f th e p ark , th e d ir e cto r co uld h ave m ade a p oin t a bout th e b atte r’s q uic k d em is e b y m atc h in g a s h ot o f th e c a tc h er’s e m pty ro unded g lo ve w it h th e s im ila rly s iz e d and s h aped fie ld er’s g lo ve th at r e ce iv e s th e b atte r’s b all w it h a th w ack.

89 FIG URE 4 .4 A g ra phic m atc h in 2001: A S pace O dysse y ( 1 968): fr o m th e p re his to ric to th e fu tu ris tic ( fr a m e e nla rg em ents ).

If th e b atte r h ad b een su cce ssfu l, o n th e o th er h and, a g ra phic matc h c o uld h ave e xp re sse d th e p oin t b y c o m parin g th e s h ape o f th e fly in g b all to a r o und c o m et h urtlin g th ro ugh th e s ky le avin g a fie ry tr a il in it s w ake . T here is a fa m ous g ra phic m atc h in S ta nle y K ubric k’s 2001: A S pace O dysse y (1 968) in w hic h a p re his to ric a pe to sse s a bone in th e air in one sh ot. A fte r it begin s to fa ll to earth in a su bse quent sh ot, K ubric k m atc h es it w it h a re cta ngula r sp ace sh ip , th ere by s ig nalin g n ot o nly th e p assa ge o f m illio ns o f y e ars b ut a ls o equatin g a p rim it iv e w eapon w it h a fu tu ris tic m eans o f s p ace tr a ve l.

Usu ally , g ra phic m atc h es a re n ot s o c le arly d esig ned to a dd a ddit io nal meanin g to th e s e quence ; g ra phic m atc h es, lik e e ye -lin e m atc h es a nd matc h es o n a ctio n, a re g enera lly e m plo ye d to s m ooth o ve r c u ts r a th er th an c a ll a tte ntio n to th em .

90 TH E 180° S YSTE M In addit io n to th ese th re e ty p es of m atc h es, cla ssic a l H olly w ood cin em a d eve lo ped a s o -c a lle d ru le in o rd er to m ain ta in a s e nse o f co here nt s p ace w it h in a g iv e n film s e quence : th e 1 80° r u le . B eca use it is a r u le th at is o fte n b ro ke n, film s tu die s te nds m ore a nd m ore to c a ll it th e 1 80° SYSTE M . T erm in olo gy a sid e, th e 1 80° s yste m p ro vid es a sim ple b ut c ru cia l w ay fo r film make rs to p re se rv e s p atia l c o here nce wit h in a g iv e n s ce ne.

Im agin e a s ce ne ta kin g p la ce in a liv in g ro om ; th ere a re tw o c h air s se t a t th re e-q uarte r a ngle s to o ne a noth er, a nd in th ese c h air s s it tw o wom en.

The 180° syste m su ggests th at th e best w ay fo r a dir e cto r to esta blis h a nd m ain ta in s p atia l c o here nce in th is s ce ne (o r a ny s ce ne) is to d ra w a n im agin ary lin e a cro ss th e a xis o f th e a ctio n ( th e m id dle o f th e s e t) , d iv id in g it in tw o. In fig ure 4 .5 , th e 1 80° a xis is r e pre se nte d b y a d otte d lin e.

If th e d ir e cto r k e eps th e c a m era o n o ne s id e o f th e d otte d lin e fo r th e d ura tio n o f th e s e quence — and s h e w ould p ro bably c h oose th e sid e th at in clu des th e c h ara cte rs ’ fa ce s— when th e film is e dit e d a nd pro je cte d o nto a s cre en, th e w om an o n th e le ft in th e illu str a tio n w ill alw ays b e o n th e r ig ht. T his s e em s s im ple .

FIG URE 4 .5 T he 1 80° s yste m : th e c a m era s g enera lly s ta y o n o ne s id e o f th e d otte d lin e. S ee fig ure 4 .6 fo r th e c o rre sp ondin g im ages s h ot b y e ach c a m era .

But w hat h appens if s h e s h oots a s h ot o r tw o fr o m th e o th er s id e o f 91 th e im agin ary lin e?

3 Ple ase n ote : th e d ir e cto r c a n move th e c a m era a cro ss th e lin e w hile film in g w it h out dis ru ptin g sp atia l co here nce beca use th e ca m era move m ent w ould m ake it c le ar th at th e s p ace is w hole a nd u nif ie d. It is o nly w hen cu ttin g a cro ss th e im agin ary lin e th at s p atia l c o nfu sio n may o ccu r.

SH O T/R EVER SE-S H O T P A TTE R N One of th e m ost co m mon, effic ie nt, and effe ctiv e edit in g patte rn s deve lo ped b y cla ssic a l H olly w ood cin em a is th e SH O T/R EVER SE-S H O T PATTE R N . T o d efin e th is te ch niq ue, le t’s u se th e a bove e xa m ple o f th e liv in g ro om s ce ne illu str a te d im media te ly a bove . T he tw o w om en a re se ate d in liv in g ro om c h air s s e t a t a th re e-q uarte r a ngle to w ard e ach oth er, and th ey are havin g a co nve rs a tio n. Esta blis h in g and main ta in in g th e 1 80° s yste m , th e d ir e cto r c h oose s h er fir s t s h ot to b e ta ke n fr o m p osit io n 1 (s e e fig . 4 .6 ). T he re su lt in g im age o nscre en is th at o f th e w om an in m ediu m s h ot fa cin g a t a th re e-q uarte r a ngle to th e le ft o f th e im age. S in ce o ur d ir e cto r h as c h ose n to film a nd e dit th is se quence u sin g a sh ot/r e ve rs e sh ot p atte rn , sh e th en p osit io ns th e ca m era to film th e s o -c a lle d “re ve rs e a ngle ,” n am ely fr o m p osit io n 2 :

now th e c a m era fa ce s th e o th er w om an, w ho is s e en o nscre en in mediu m s h ot, a ls o a t th re e-q uarte r a ngle , lo okin g to w ard th e rig ht o f th e s cre en.

The w ord “re ve rs e ” in th is in sta nce does not re ally m ean an abso lu te re ve rs a l o f th e c a m era ’s p la ce ; th e c a m era d oes n ot c ro ss ove r to it s tr u ly o pposit e p osit io n b eca use th at w ould m ean v io la tin g th e 1 80° a xis s yste m . In ste ad, sh ot/r e ve rs e -s h ot m eans th at th e s h ots alt e rn ate n ot b etw een th e tw o c h ara cte rs b ut b etw een th e tw o ca m era posit io ns , o ne p oin tin g rig ht, th e o th er p oin tin g le ft. T he s h ot/r e ve rs e - sh ot p atte rn c a n b e u se d to r e ve al b oth c h ara cte rs in b oth s h ots — th e ca m era p oin tin g o ve r th e s h ould er o f o ne to th e fa ce a nd u pper b ody of th e o th er— or w e c a n s e e th em a s in div id uals a ppearin g to lo ok a t each oth er by vir tu e of eye -lin e m atc h in g. O r th e sh ots ca n be im bala nce d: in s h ot 1 w e m ig ht s e e o ve r th e s h ould er o f o ne c h ara cte r 92 to th e fa ce a nd s h ould ers o f a noth er c h ara cte r, w hile th e s o -c a lle d re ve rs e s h ot m ig ht o nly b e a n a ngle d c lo se -u p o f th e fir s t c h ara cte r.

The p oin t is th at th e d ir e cto r s h oots a n appare nt re ve rs e a ngle w hile main ta in in g th e 1 80° a xis s yste m , th ere by s h ow in g b oth c h ara cte rs fr o m m ore o r le ss e qual b ut a ppro pria te ly r e ve rs e a ngle s.

FIG URE 4 .6 T he s h ot/r e ve rs e -s h ot p atte rn : If th e fir s t s h ot o f a s h ot/r e ve rs e -s h ot p atte rn is 2A , th e s e co nd s h ot— th e r e ve rs e s h ot— would b e 1 A . If th e d ir e cto r th en c u ts to a c lo se -u p o f th e w om an o n th e le ft ( 1 C ), th e r e ve rs e s h ot w ould b e 2 C . N ow im agin e e dit in g a s ce ne betw een th ese tw o c h ara cte rs , u sin g th e fr a m in gs in dic a te d.

STU DY G UID E:

A N ALY ZIN G S H O T-T O -S H O T E D IT IN G To le arn to analy ze edit in g, yo u are goin g to begin w it h an exe rc is e of yo ur im agin atio n. Y ou a re a b egin nin g film make r, a nd y o ur a ssig nm ent is to film — in e xa ctly th re e s h ots — a c h ara cte r w hom y o u w ill r e ve al, m ostly b y w ay o f e dit in g, to b e m enta lly dis tu rb ed.

Oth er film make rs m ig ht ta ke th e e asy w ay o ut a nd u se m is e -e n-s ce ne e le m ents lik e make up (d ark e ned, h ollo w -lo okin g e ye s, fo r in sta nce , o r a lo t o f s ta ge b lo od s m eare d acro ss th e fa ce ) o r a p ie ce o f o utr a geous p hysic a l a ctio n o r d ia lo gue (th e c h ara cte r fa llin g d ow n o n th e g ro und a nd ro llin g a ro und s w earin g in co here ntly , a nd s o o n). S till anoth er la zy d ir e cto r c o uld te le gra ph th e c h ara cte r’s in sa nit y a t th e b egin nin g o f th e se quence b y s ta rtin g o ff w it h a c lo se -u p o f a s ig n th at re ads “P it ts b urg h H om e fo r th e Crim in ally In sa ne.” Not yo u. Y ou w ill co nve y th is ch ara cte r’s in sa nit y b y w ay o f e dit in g. Y ou h ave pre cis e ly th re e s h ots to d o it w it h , to o; n ot o ne, n ot tw o, n ot fo ur, b ut th re e . Y es, th e co nte nt o f e ach o f th ese th re e s h ots w ill c o nve y in fo rm atio n. B ut y o ur p rim ary ta sk is to co nsid er th e s h ots ’ c o nte nts in r e la tio n to o ne a noth er .

Giv e y o urs e lf s o m e tim e to c o nsid er th e p ossib ilit ie s.

Once y o u h ave th ought a bout th e p ro ble m fo r a fe w m in ute s, b egin to c o nstr u ct th e th re e-s h ot s e quence in y o ur m in d a t th e v e ry le ast a nd, if y o u h ave e ve n th e m ost ru dim enta ry d ra w in g s kills , o n p aper.

What is y o ur fir s t s h ot? If y o u m ust c o nve y a c h ara cte r’s c ra zin ess c h ie fly b y w ay o f edit in g, h ow d o y o u b egin th e s e quence ?

Here a re s o m e p ote ntia l o penin g s h ots :

93 1.

A n e xtr e m e c lo se -u p o f a s in gle e ye s ta rin g b la nkly o ut fr o m th e s cre en.

2.

A v e ry h ig h a ngle s h ot o f a y o ung m an s ta ndin g in a n e m pty r o om a nd lo okin g o ut th e w in dow .

3.

A c lo se -u p o f a y o ung w om an’s h and n erv o usly tw is tin g a p encil a ro und, s e em in gly unable to s to p.

Bear in m in d th at th e s e co nd s h ot o f th e s e quence w ill n eed to re la te in s o m e w ay to th e fir s t s h ot, a nd th at s o m e fo rm o f tr a nsit io n m ust b e e m plo ye d.

Let’s c o nce ntr a te o n e xa m ple 2 , a bove , a nd d ecid e o n a s e co nd s h ot w it h w hic h to fo llo w it . H ere a re s o m e p ote ntia l s e co nd s h ots :

2A .

A n e ve n h ig her-a ngle e xtr e m e lo ng s h ot o f th e y o ung m an ta ke n fr o m o uts id e th e b uild in g. T here is n o o ne e ls e in th e s h ot: n obody o n th e s id ew alk o uts id e th e b uild in g, a nd n obody in a ny o f th e o th er w in dow s.

2B .

A c lo se -u p o f h is fo ot ta ppin g a nxio usly a nd c o ntin ually o n th e flo or.

2C .

L in ke d b y a n e ye -lin e m atc h , a n e xtr e m e c lo se -u p o f a p ig eon o n th e s id ew alk fa r b elo w .

Notic e th at n ot m uch is h appenin g in o ur s e quence . E xce pt fo r th e fo ot- ta ppin g a nd pencil- tw is tin g, th ere is v e ry lit tle p hysic a l a ctio n. B ut a s th e s e quence b egin s to ta ke sh ape, th e r e la tio n o f s h ot to s h ot b egin s ( o r s h ould b egin , a nyw ay) to c o nve y a c e rta in uneasin ess— a se nse of anxie ty th at is enhance d if not entir e ly cre ate d by th e re la tio nsh ip o f o ne s h ot to a noth er. It’s tr u e th at th e c h ara cte r’s e xtr e m e s o lit u de is exp re sse d b y th e c o nte nt o f th e s h ots o f h im lo okin g o ut th e w in dow , b ut th at e ffe ct is str o ngly enhance d by th e re la tio nsh ip betw een th e tw o sh ots . A nd th e pig eon is dis tu rb in g n ot b eca use it is a p ig eon— we m ig ht b e film in g a b enig n s e quence in a c it y park in ste ad o f a th re e-s h ot in dic a tio n o f a c h ara cte r’s m adness— but b eca use it is s e en in re la tio n to th e fir s t sh ot o f th e yo ung m an, a nd th e b ir d ’s re la tio nsh ip to h im is unexp la in ed a nd th ere fo re tr o ublin g.

Let’s fin is h u p b y fo llo w in g th ro ugh w it h 2 A , a bove — th e e xtr e m e lo ng s h ot ta ke n fr o m outs id e th e build in g. W hat kin d of sh ot w ould driv e hom e th e poin t of th e se quence ? It’s y o ur d ecis io n.

WRIT IN G A BO UT E D IT IN G As y o u le arn ed in ch apte r 1 , th ere a re s e em in gly in num era ble m is e -e n-s ce ne e le m ents wit h in a s in gle s h ot if y o u lo ok a t it c lo se ly a nd c a re fu lly e nough. R apid ly c u t s e quence s only c o m pound th e e xtr a ord in ary a m ount o f v is u al in fo rm atio n a va ila ble fo r a naly sis . S o to b egin to le arn h ow to w rit e a bout s h ot- to -s h ot e dit in g, ta ke a D VD o f th e film o f y o ur ch oic e a nd c h oose a s im ple a nd fa ir ly s h ort s e quence to w ork o n— sa y fiv e to te n s h ots in a se quence la stin g betw een 30 se co nds and 1 m in ute . B e su re to ch oose an in div id ual se quence o r p art o f a n in div id ual se quence ra th er th an th e e nd o f o ne se quence a nd th e b egin nin g o f a noth er; th at’s th e s u bje ct o f ch apte r 6 . A seq uen ce is 94 sim ply a s e rie s o f in te rre la te d s h ots th at fo rm a c o here nt u nit o f d ra m atic a ctio n.) Describ e th e c o nte nt o f e ach im age th oro ughly , b ut c o nce ntr a te o n th e m eth ods b y whic h th e d ir e cto r e ffe cts tr a nsit io ns fr o m s h ot to s h ot. W hat ty p e o f m atc h in g d oes h e or s h e e m plo y, if a ny? D oes th e s e quence u se a s h ot/r e ve rs e -s h ot p atte rn ?

Here ’s a n e xa m ple d ra w n fr o m th e e nd o f C harle s C haplin ’s Cit y L ig hts (1 931). It’s lo nger th an te n s h ots , b ut it is o ne o f th e m ost fa m ous s e quence s in w orld film h is to ry ; not o nly is it e xce ptio nally e m otio nally s a tis fy in g, b ut it c o nta in s a fa scin atin g la pse in co ntin uit y :

SH O T 1 :

A tw o-s h ot o f th e T ra m p a nd th e G ir l; th e G ir l is sta ndin g in th e doorw ay o f th e flo w er s h op o n th e rig ht s id e o f th e s cre en, a nd th e Tra m p is s ta ndin g o n th e s id ew alk o n th e le ft s id e o f th e s cre en. T he Gir l re ach es o ut w it h h er rig ht h and a nd o ffe rs th e T ra m p a flo w er sh e is h old in g. T he T ra m p tu rn s a nd re ach es o ut to ta ke th e flo w er wit h h is le ft h and. T he flo w er is in th e c e nte r o f th e s cre en a s h e ta ke s it . A s th e T ra m p p ulls h is le ft h and b ack w it h th e flo w er, th e G ir l ste ps to w ard h im a s h e p uts th e flo w er in h is rig ht h and a nd q uic kly pulls h im b y th e le ft h and to w ard h er. C haplin c u ts o n th is a ctio n to :

SH O T 2 :

A c lo se r tw o-s h ot ta ke n fr o m th e re ve rs e a ngle . T his s h ot is ta ke n ove r th e T ra m p’s rig ht s h ould er. T he G ir l is s e en a t a th re e-q uarte r angle ; b oth c h ara cte rs a re in m ediu m s h ot. T he G ir l, n ow h old in g th e Tra m p’s le ft h and in h ers , lo oks th e T ra m p in th e e ye a nd s m ile s, b ut as s h e b egin s to p at th e T ra m p’s le ft h and w it h h er rig ht h and (th e Tra m p is s till h old in g th e flo w er in h is o th er h and), h er e xp re ssio n ch anges to one of new fo und unders ta ndin g: sh e re co gniz e s th e to uch o f h er p re vio usly u nse en b enefa cto r’s h and a nd re aliz e s th at th is rid ic u lo us h om ele ss m an h as e nable d h er v is io n to b e re sto re d.

She n ow a ppears to b e lo okin g n ot o nly a t h im b ut in to h im ; h er g aze is p enetr a tin g. C haplin cu ts o n th e a ctio n o f th e G ir l p attin g th e Tra m p’s h and to :

SH O T 3 :

A r e ve rs e -a ngle s h ot, ta ke n a t a c lo se r d is ta nce ( b ut n ot a c lo se -u p) of th e tw o p eople ’s h ands c la sp ed in th e c e nte r o f th e im age. T he Tra m p’s r ig ht h and is r a is e d to h is fa ce . T he c a m era tilt s u p a nd p ans slig htly le ft to re ve al a clo se r m ediu m sh ot o f th e T ra m p, w ho is hold in g th e flo w er in fr o nt o f th e rig ht sid e o f h is fa ce , h is h and co ve rin g h is m outh . T he s id e o f th e G ir l’s h ead is v is ib le o n th e r ig ht sid e o f th e im age; h er le ft h and is n ow to uch in g th e la pel o f th e Tra m p’s w orn ja cke t. S he begin s to w it h dra w her le ft hand as Chaplin c u ts o n th e a ctio n to :

SH O T 4 :

A re ve rs e a ngle tw o-s h ot (th e s a m e a s S hot 2 ). S he n ow p ulls h er rig ht h and b ack a nd to uch es h er o w n fa ce in a g estu re th at in dic a te s co m pre hensio n; th e w eig ht of her re co gnit io n gro w s. O ddly , th e flo w er th e T ra m p h old s is n o lo nger a t th e le ve l o f h is fa ce b ut is n ow in fr o nt o f h is c h est. T he G ir l m outh s th e w ord s, “It’s y o u?” b efo re Chaplin c u ts to :

SH O T 5 :

A TIT LE C AR D th at r e ads, “ Y ou?” C ut to :

More o r le ss th e s a m e s h ot a s S hot 3 , o nly a b it c lo se r; n ow o nly th e bare st s liv e r o f th e G ir l’s h ead is v is ib le a t th e v e ry e dge o f th e r ig ht- 95 SH O T 6 :

hand s id e o f th e im age. T he T ra m p n ods in re sp onse to th e G ir l’s questio n. T he flo w er is b ack u p a t th e T ra m p’s fa ce , a nd h is in dex fin ger a ppears to b e to uch in g h is lip s. C haplin cu ts o n h is slig ht noddin g a ctio n to :

SH O T 7 :

The s a m e a s S hot 4 . T he flo w er is a gain a t c h est le ve l. C haplin c u ts ra th er q uic kly to :

SH O T 8 :

The s a m e a s S hot 6 ; th e flo w er is a gain a t th e T ra m p’s fa ce . H e poin ts to h is o w n rig ht e ye a nd m outh s th e w ord s, “Y ou c a n s e e now ?” C ut to :

SH O T 9 :

A tit le c a rd th at r e ads, “ Y ou c a n s e e n ow ?” C ut to :

SH O T 1 0:

The s a m e a s S hot 8 . T he T ra m p s m ile s. C ut to :

SH O T 1 1:

The s a m e a s S hot 7 . T he flo w er is o nce a gain a t c h est le ve l a s th e Gir l n ods a nd m outh s th e w ord , “Y es.” S he s w allo w s, in dic a tin g th e depth o f h er e m otio n, a nd m outh s th e w ord s, “ I c a n s e e n ow .” C ut to :

SH O T 1 2:

A tit le c a rd th at r e ads, “ Y es, I c a n s e e n ow .” C ut to :

SH O T 1 3:

The s a m e a s S hot 1 1. T he G ir l a ppears to m outh th e w ord “y e s” tw ic e a s s h e g aze s a t th e T ra m p. C haplin c u ts to :

SH O T 1 4:

More o r le ss th e s a m e a s S hot 1 0: N ot q uit e c lo se e nough to b e a clo se up o f th e T ra m p, b eca use n ot o nly is h is fa ce v is ib le b ut a ls o h is sh ould ers , b ut c lo se e nough to re gis te r th e d epth o f e m otio n in h is fa ce a s h e b egin s to g ig gle w it h p le asu re a t th e G ir l’s re co gnit io n o f him . T he flo w er is o nce a gain a t th e le ve l o f h is fa ce , a nd h is h and partia lly c o ve rs h is m outh . F ade o ut.

What d o y o u n otic e a bout th e s e quence ? F ilm s ch ola rs h ave p uzzle d o ve r th e e ndin g o f Cit y L ig hts s in ce th e film ’s r e le ase in 1 931; th e s e quence is o ne o f th e m ost e m otio nally sa tis fy in g e ndin gs e ve r film ed, a nd y e t th e d ir e cto r, C haplin , v io la te s o ne o f th e c a rd in al ru le s o f c o ntin uit y e dit in g b y n ot m atc h in g th e p osit io n o f th e flo w er fr o m s h ot to s h ot. Is th is s im ply a n e rro r— an e dit in g g lit c h ? O r is th ere a n e xp re ssiv e p urp ose b ehin d it ?

Could it b e a g lit c h and s till h ave e xp re ssiv e m eanin g?

T hese q uestio ns c o uld fo rm th e basis o f a g re at fin al p aper fo r y o ur c o urs e .

1.

If th e b all flie s o ut o f th e rig ht s id e o f th e im age a fte r th e b atte r h it s it , it m ust e nte r th e im age a gain o n th e le ft fo r th e r u le s o f c o ntin uit y e dit in g to b e o bse rv e d.

2.

If th e p it c h er is lo okin g o ffs cre en r ig ht, th e fir s t b ase m an m ust lo ok o ffs cre en le ft if w e a re to belie ve th at th e tw o m en a re lo okin g a t e ach o th er.

3.

B y c u ttin g a cro ss th e a xis a nd s h ootin g fr o m th e o th er s id e o f th e lin e, th e c h ara cte rs w hen pro je cte d w ould a ppear to flip fr o m th eir re gula r s id e o f th e s cre en to th e o pposit e s id e. F or most a udie nce s, th is w ould b e ja rrin g a nd d is ru ptiv e .

96 C HAPTE R 5 S O UND A V ER Y S H O RT H IS TO RY O F F IL M S O UND W e ca ll th em sile nt m ovie s , th ose e arly film s th at d id n ot h ave a s o undtr a ck. B ut th ey w ere n’t a ctu ally s ile nt. M ost m otio n p ic tu re s o f t h at e ra w ere s cre ened w it h s o m e fo rm o f liv e m usic . In la rg e, u rb an t h eate rs , e xh ib it o rs w ould o fte n h ir e a fu ll o rc h estr a to a cco m pany th e m ovie s th ey s h ow ed, w hile in s m all v e nues th ere w ould s im ply b e a p ia nis t. O rg ans, to o, w ere co m monly use d to acco m pany film s in t h ose ye ars . N ot o nly co uld a sin gle p ip e o rg an o r e le ctr ic o rg an s im ula te a v a rie ty o f in str u m ents fr o m c la rin ets to v io lin s, b ut it c o uld a ls o p ro vid e a v a rie ty o f s o und e ffe cts s u ch a s b ells a nd k n ocks.

It ca nnot e ve n b e sa id th at sile nt film s la cke d sp oke n d ia lo gue.

C hara cte rs s p oke to e ach o th er a ll th e tim e. B ut in ste ad o f h earin g t h eir w ord s, a udie nce s re ad th em o nscre en in th e fo rm o f TIT LE C AR DS — so m e o f th ose w ord s, a nyw ay, s in ce n ot e ve ry lin e o f d ia lo gue w as p rin te d in fu ll. T it le c a rd s a ls o c o nve ye d in fo rm atio n a bout c h ara cte rs , w hen a nd w here s ce nes w ere s e t, a nd s o o n.

Exp erim ents w it h s yn ch ro niz in g th e im age w it h a udib le , re co rd ed d ia lo gue, m usic , a nd s o und e ffe cts b egan in H olly w ood in th e 1 910s.

B y th e e arly 1 920s, th ere w ere tw o c o m petin g s yste m s— SO UND O N F IL M a nd SO UND O N D IS C . T he la tte r s yste m r e co rd ed s o unds o n p honogra ph d is cs (o th erw is e k n ow n a s re co rd s), w hic h th en h ad to b e c u ed to b egin p la yin g a t p re cis e ly th e c o rre ct in sta nt in o rd er to m atc h th e i m ages th at w ere pro je cte d onscre en. The so und-o n-film syste m , w hic h p ro ve d le ss cu m bers o m e a nd w hic h u lt im ate ly w as a dopte d a ro und th e w orld , re co rd s s o und o nto p hoto gra phic film in th e fo rm o f l ig ht w ave s, w hic h are th en re ad optic a lly by th e pro je cto r and c o nve rte d b ack in to s o und.

97 In O cto ber 1 927, W arn er B ro s. re le ase d The J a zz S in ger , th e fir s t fe atu re film w it h syn ch ro niz e d dia lo gue and so ngs. Sta rrin g th e popula r so ng-a nd-d ance m an A l Jo ls o n, it ’s th e sto ry of a yo ung Orth odox J e w w ho d efie s h is fa th er b y b eco m in g a ja zz s in ger in ste ad of a ca nto r (a vo ca lis t w ho sin gs p ra ye rs d urin g Je w is h se rv ic e s).

Ja kie R abin ow it z le ave s h om e, A m eric a niz e s h is n am e to J a ck R obin , and tu rn s up te n ye ars la te r at a ca bare t, where he sin gs a syn ch ro niz e d so ng and th en addre sse s not only th e audie nce onscre en b ut th e m ovie a udie nce a s w ell: “W ait a m in ute ! W ait a min ute ! Y ou a in ’t h eard n oth in ’ y e t!” The J a zz S in ger w as a s u cce ssfu l moneym ake r fo r W arn er B ro s., a nd a lt h ough it to ok se ve ra l m ore ye ars fo r s yn ch ro niz e d s o un d to b eco m e s ta ndard in w orld c in em a, th e film e ffe ctiv e ly s ig nale d th e e nd o f th e s o -c a lle d s ile nt e ra a nd th e begin nin g o f fe atu re -le ngth TA LK IE S , a n e ra th at c o ntin ues to day.

Perh aps needle ss to sa y, th ere have been m any te ch nolo gic a l deve lo pm ents sin ce The Ja zz S in ger —adva nce s in m ic ro phones, so und re co rd ers , and sp eake rs — but th e deta ils of th ese im pro ve m ents a re b est le ft to u pper-le ve l film makin g a nd film h is to ry co urs e s. O ne c o m mon te rm th at y o u m ig ht b e c u rio us to k n ow a b it about, th ough, is DO LB Y , s in ce m any if n ot m ost c o m merc ia l film s c a rry th at p artic u la r c re dit a nd lo go. D olb y L abora to rie s s p ecia liz e s in th e nois e re ductio n s yste m in ve nte d b y R ay D olb y in 1 965 fo r u se fir s t in th e re co rd in g in dustr y a nd, a fe w y e ars la te r, in th e c in em a. (T he fir s t film th at u se d D olb y te ch nolo gy w as S ta nle y K ubric k’s A C lo ckw ork Ora nge , 1 971.) T he D olb y s yste m g re atly r e duce s b ackg ro und n ois e s, enhance s th e c la rit y o f v o ic e s, s o und e ffe cts , a nd m usic , a nd c u rre ntly offe rs a to ta l o f s ix s e para te c h annels th at p la y s o und fr o m s p eake rs pla ce d b ehin d th e s cre en o n th e le ft, c e nte r, a nd rig ht, a s u bw oofe r, and s u rro und-s o und s p eake rs o n th e le ft a nd rig ht in th e a udit o riu m .

The dig it a l in fo rm atio n fo r each of th ese ch annels is pla ce d, in genio usly , b etw een th e s p ro cke t h ole s o f th e film .

98 FIG URE 5 .1 S oundtr a cks ( le ft to r ig ht ): ( A ) th e S ony D yn am ic D ig it a l S ound ( S D DS) tr a ck; ( B ) sp ro cke t h ole s; ( C ) th e D olb y D ig it a l tr a ck; ( D ) th e a nalo g s o undtr a ck.

REC O RDIN G , R ER EC O RDIN G , E D IT IN G , A ND M IX IN G The p ro ce ss o f cre atin g, m anip ula tin g, a nd p la yin g b ack cin em atic so und is ty p ic a lly lo ng, e xp ensiv e , a nd in cre asin gly c o m ple x fr o m a te ch nic a l and pers o nnel sta ndpoin t, and sin ce th e sp ecif ic te ch nolo gie s in vo lv e d in film makin g are , here as els e w here , le ss im porta nt to film s tu die s th an th e meanin gs g enera te d b y th e fin is h ed film s, th ere is n o p oin t in a n in tr o ducto ry c la ss to o ve rw helm y o u w it h te ch nic a l d eta ils . S till, y o u s h ould b e a w are o f th e e norm ous a m ount of tim e, e ffo rt, a nd s kill th at g o in to e ve ry fe atu re film s o undtr a ck y o u hear.

Ju st a s th e c re atio n o f th e im age tr a ck b egin s w it h lig ht e nte rin g th e ca m era ’s le ns, th e s o undtr a ck’s g enesis is th e s o und th at e nte rs a mic ro phone. A sce ne ca n b e m ik e d b y w ay o f a BO OM , a g lo rif ie d bro om h andle o nto w hic h a m ic ro phone is a tta ch ed b efo re b ein g h eld out o ve r th e a cto rs ’ h eads ju st o ut o f c a m era ra nge, o r b y w ay o f mik e s atta ch ed to th e acto rs ’ bodie s, heads, or clo th in g.

RAD IO MIC RO PH O NES have th e vir tu e of bein g sm all and wir e le ss— and th ere fo re e asy to h id e. In a ddit io n, th ere a re SH O TG UN M IC RO PH O NES 99 th at p ic k u p s o unds a t s o m e d is ta nce b ut m ust p oin t e xa ctly in th e dir e ctio n o f th e s o und b ein g m ik e d— usu ally a n a cto r’s s p eech .

It’s not only dia lo gue th at re quir e s one or m ore m ik e s. S ound effe cts , to o, m ust b e p ic ke d u p b y a m ik e b efo re th ey c a n b e r e co rd ed, as d oes m usic . T his is n ot o nly fo r a m plif ic a tio n. M ic ro phone filt e rs re duce if n ot e ntir e ly e lim in ate u nw ante d o r u nnece ssa ry fr e quencie s, th ere by r e nderin g th e r e co rd ed s o und e ve n c le are r th an th e o rig in al.

Sound is r e co rd ed a nd e dit e d in e it h er an alo g o r dig it a l fo rm . In a n analo g s yste m , s o unds a re r e co rd ed o nto m agnetic ta pe th at is e dit e d in m uch th e s a m e w ay a s th e im age tr a ck; th e m agnetic ta pe, lik e th e film , is lit e ra lly c u t in to s tr ip s o f v a ry in g le ngth s a nd s p lic e d to geth er se quentia lly . E dit o rs r e ly o n th e c la ckin g o f th e c la pboard d escrib ed in ch apte r 8 to syn ch ro niz e th e im age tr a ck w it h it s co rre sp ondin g magnetic ta pe. C onte m pora ry d ig it a l e dit in g s yste m s re ly o n a DIG IT A L AU DIO W ORKSTA TIO N (D AW ), a c o m pute r a nd s p ecia liz e d a pplic a tio n th at m atc h th e d ig it a l r e co rd in g w it h th e im age.

Much o f th e w ork o f c re atin g th e s o undtr a ck is d one d urin g PO ST- PR O DUCTIO N , th e p erio d a fte r th e im ages h ave b een s h ot. In a w ay, th e te rm postp ro ductio n is s o m eth in g o f a m is n om er, p re cis e ly b eca use th e p ro ductio n p ro ce ss g oes o n lo ng a fte r th e p hoto gra phy h as b een co m ple te d. T his is c e rta in ly th e c a se w it h th e s o undtr a ck.

FO LE Y AR TIS TS are so und effe cts cre ato rs w ho duplic a te ce rta in so unds in a s p ecia l re co rd in g s tu dio c a lle d a F ole y s ta ge o r F ole y stu dio . V ario us k in ds o f fo ots te ps, fo r in sta nce , d on’t s o und q uit e r ig ht when th ey a re re co rd ed a t th e tim e th ey a re p hoto gra phed. It ta ke s a Fole y a rtis t, s p ecif ic a lly a Fole y w alk er , to re -c re ate a m ore a ccu ra te effe ct b y w alk in g o n, s a y, s a nd o r g ra ve l a nd re co rd in g th e s o unds th at r e su lt .

Fole y a rtis ts a nd o th er s o und te ch nic ia ns m ay s tr iv e to c re ate o r enhance th e a udie nce ’s s e nse o f re alis m , b ut o th ers c a n b e s a id to work to w ard a d if fe re nt a esth etic g oal. W e ta ke film SC O RES fo r g ra nte d as a p art o f o ur e xp erie nce o f m otio n p ic tu re s, b ut u nle ss w e w alk aro und lis te nin g to our iP ods all day, our re al liv e s do not have music a l a cco m panim ents to s e t a nd d eve lo p th e m ood o f th e m om ent th e w ay m ovie s d o. T he e ffe ct o f a s co re , th en, c a nnot b e c o nsid ere d to be sim ply “re alis tic .” Appro pria te to th e partic u la r film , ye s 100 —“re alis tic ,” n o. W heth er it ’s c h ord s fr o m a s in gle g uit a r o r th e ric h , sym phonic s o und o f a fu ll o rc h estr a , th e e le m ents o f a film ’s m usic a l sco re a ugm ent th e a udie nce ’s e m otio nal re sp onse to th e c h ara cte rs , sto ry , a nd im ages ir re sp ectiv e o f w heth er th e m om ent is m eant to b e re al- s e em in g o r n ot.

An o rig in al s co re m ay b e w rit te n b y a co m poser , th ough m any film s als o ( o r e ve n e xclu siv e ly ) u tiliz e p re exis tin g r e co rd ed s o ngs.

Fin ally , th e so und m ix er ta ke s a ll th e d if fe re nt c o m ponents — th e dia lo gue tr a cks, th e s o und e ffe cts , th e s co re , a nd s o o n— and b rin gs th em to geth er in a n a esth etic a lly b ala nce d w ay. A dju stin g v o lu m e a nd to ne b y b rin gin g p arts o f th e d ia lo gue u p w hile b rin gin g c e rta in s o und effe cts d ow n, a nd m anip ula tin g th e tr a cks s o th at s o unds s e em to move aro und th e th eate r— th ese are so m e of th e crit ic a l ta sks in MIX IN G . A nd ju st a s th ere is n o s in gle , c o rre ct w ay to film a ny g iv e n sce ne, th ere is n o s in gle a nd c o rre ct w ay to m ix s o und. It’s a ll a m atte r of h onorin g th e d ir e cto r’s v is io n (o r in th is c a se hearin g ). A h orro r dir e cto r, fo r exa m ple , m ay w ant her so und m ix e r to pro duce an unnerv in g, e ch o-lik e q ualit y o n th e s o undtr a ck— a q ualit y th at m ig ht not b e w hat th e d ir e cto r o f a ro m antic co m edy w ould w ant. (T hen again , it m ig ht b e, d ependin g o n w hat th e d ir e cto r is tr y in g to a ch ie ve .) A c o m pose r m ay c re ate a n e sp ecia lly b eautif u l p ie ce o f o rc h estr a tio n, but if th e d ir e cto r d oesn ’t th in k it s u se is o f v a lu e to th e s ce ne fo r whic h it was writ te n, th e so und m ix e r will re m ove it fr o m th e so undtr a ck.

ANALY TIC AL C ATE G ORIE S O F F IL M S O UND Beca use th e g oal h ere a nd th ro ughout Film S tu die s is n ot to tr y to fig ure o ut h ow a g iv e n c in em atic e le m ent— in th is c a se so und —was cre ate d, but ra th er to lo ca te , defin e, and analy ze ele m ents of exp re ssiv e m eanin g, yo u m ay b e w onderin g h ow to d eal w it h film so und p ro ductiv e ly . L et’s b egin b y c a te goriz in g s o m e o f th e v a rio us so unds y o u a ctu ally e xp erie nce w hen w atc h in g a nd lis te nin g to film s.

The th re e m ain c a te gorie s o f film s o und a re dia lo gue, m usic , a nd so und e ffe cts .

Dia lo gue in clu des all th e sp oke n w ord s in a film .

101 Dic tio narie s d efin e th e w ord dia lo gue a s a c o nve rs a tio n b etw een tw o people (a s o ppose d to monolo gue— a s p eech , u su ally lo ng, b y o ne pers o n ). B ut in film te rm in olo gy, dia lo gue r e fe rs to any s p oke n w ord s, in clu din g c o nve rs a tio ns, m onolo gues, ra ndom w ord s a udib le in c ro w d sce nes, a nd v o ic e ove r n arra tio n. T he te rm music is s e lf - e xp la nato ry , but it is im porta nt to re m em ber th at in film , m usic m ay b e die getic o r nondie getic ; it m ay b e s o urc e d w it h in th e w orld o f th e s to ry (w e s e e so m eone w it h a n iP od a nd e arp hones o nscre en a nd w e h ear th e music s h e is h earin g) o r n ot (w e h ear m usic p la yin g a s a b ear w alk s alo ne th ro ugh th e w oods).

Sound e ffe cts a re a ll o th er n ois e s, in clu din g both d ie getic a nd n ondie getic so unds. T he cra sh o f o ce an w ave s, bir d s ch ir p in g, a ca nnon’s boom , co m ic a l honkin g so unds— eve ry nois e th at is n ’t s p oke n w ord s o r m usic is c o nsid ere d a s o und e ffe ct, wheth er it ’s d ie getic o r n ot.

One k e y d is tin ctio n to m ake a m ong ty p es o f film s o und is w heth er it is SYN CHRO NO US o r NO NSYN CHRO NO US .

Syn ch ro nous m eans occu rrin g a t th e s a m e tim e , w hic h in c in em atic s o und te rm s m eans th at a s o und is heard a t th e s a m e in sta nt a s it s s o urc e a ppears o n th e s cre en. W e se e a w om an’s lip s m ove , a nd w e h ear th e m atc h in g w ord s. A v is it o r pre sse s a d oorb ell, a nd w e h ear th e b ell. A h ig h s ch ool k id tu rn s o n a ca r ra dio , a nd m usic b egin s to p la y. T hese s o unds a nd im ages a re te m pora lly a nd s p atia lly m atc h ed:

syn ch ro nous s o und .

Not all so unds are syn ch ro nous.

Nonsyn ch ro nous so unds , in co ntr a st, a re s o unds th at o ccu r a t a d if fe re nt tim e a nd/o r in a d if fe re nt sp ace th an w hat a ppears o nscre en. D ir e cto rs a nd e dit o rs o fte n u se nonsyn ch ro nous s o unds to m ake c u ts fr o m s ce ne to s ce ne s m ooth er, le ss ja rrin g. T hese a re c a lle d SO UND B R ID G ES . F or in sta nce , a t th e ta il end o f o ne s ce ne, a m an is b ein g h andcu ffe d a nd le d a w ay in lo ng sh ot. A ntic ip atin g th e n ext s ce ne, th e s o und o f a c e ll d oor c la nkin g sh ut is h eard o n th e s o undtr a ck fo r a s e co nd o r tw o b efo re th e d ir e cto r cu ts to a fu ll s h ot o f th e m an, n ow a p ris o ner, in h is c e ll. F or th e la st fe w se co nds of th e earlie r sce ne, th e cla nkin g so und is nonsyn ch ro nous w it h th e im age; o nce th e n ext sce ne b egin s, th e so unds o f th e c e ll b eco m e s yn ch ro nous.

Som e nonsyn ch ro nous so unds are m is m atc h ed w it h th e im age, eit h er by in te ntio n or by te ch nolo gic a l fa ilu re . W hen a film prin t 102 beco m es w orn , fo r in sta nce , o r h as b een p oorly p rin te d to b egin w it h , ch ara cte rs ’ s p eech m ay s lip o ut o f s yn ch . F ilm d ia lo gue th at h as b een dubbed in to a noth er la nguage is a ls o n onsyn ch ro nous— ch ara cte rs ’ lip s m ove to fo rm w ord s th at a re o bvio usly d if fe re nt th an th ose h eard on th e s o undtr a ck.

A re la te d te rm is ASYN CHRO NO US S O UND . W here as th e p re fix non- means not , th e pre fix a- m eans wit h out .

Asyn ch ro nous so und , th ere fo re , re fe rs to th ose s o unds th at a re h eard w it h out th eir s o urc e s bein g s e en o nscre en; th e te rm asyn ch ro nous s o und m eans th e s a m e th in g a s th e te rm OFFS C REEN S O UND . F or e xa m ple , a s h ot o f a n o ffic e lo ca te d in a la rg e c it y m ay b e a cco m panie d b y fa in t tr a ffic n ois e s. T he ca rs and buse s th at are pre su m ably pro ducin g th e so unds are n’t vis ib le o nscre en— th e s h ot is o f a n in te rio r, a nd th ere m ay n ot e ve n b e a vis ib le w in dow — but th e offs cre en so unds are u nders to od to b e occu rrin g s im ult a neously w it h th e v is ib le a ctio n.

The te rm offs cre en s o und le ads to y e t a noth er:

AM BIE N T S O UND —th e backg ro und n ois e s o f th e s ce ne’s e nvir o nm ent. V ery fe w p la ce s o n Earth a re p erfe ctly sile nt. C ar m oto rs ru n a nd le ave s ru stle ; p ip es ru m ble a nd a ir c o ndit io ners h um . W hen film c o nve rs a tio ns a re s h ot and re co rd ed, e dit e d, a nd s cre ened w it h out a cco m panyin g a m bie nt so unds, th ey s o und lik e th ey a re ta kin g p la ce in a w eir d ly m uffle d o r eve n to ta lly s o undpro ofe d ro om . L is te n to th e ro om in w hic h y o u a re sit tin g, a nd h ear th e p artic u la r a m bie nt s o unds o f th at p artic u la r s p ace .

Nois e s lik e th e o nes yo u a re n ow h earin g a re g enera lly re co rd ed se para te ly fr o m th e d ia lo gue a nd a dded la te r d urin g m ix in g. E ve n in th e a bse nce o f c a r h orn s a nd a la rm s, b ark in g d ogs in th e d is ta nce , and th e lik e , e ve ry ro om h as w hat is c a lle d RO OM T O NE , w hic h is a ls o re co rd ed a part fr o m th e d ia lo gue a nd in se rte d in to c o nve rs a tio ns to fill any g aps th at m ay o th erw is e o ccu r.

As yo u alr e ady kn ow , anoth er w ay of dis tin guis h in g cin em atic so unds is to c a te goriz e th em o n th e b asis o f w heth er th ey a re DIE G ETIC or NO NDIE G ETIC —in o th er w ord s, w heth er th e s o unds a re s o urc e d in th e world o f th e s to ry o r n ot. A lm ost a ll film d ia lo gue is d ie getic : c h ara cte rs sp eakin g, wheth er syn ch ro nously , nonsyn ch ro nously , or asyn ch ro nously , u su ally d o so w it h in th e w orld o f th e sto ry . F or a fu nny e xce ptio n to th is g enera l ru le , s e e th e b egin nin g o f th e c o m edy 103 The G ir l C an ’ t H elp It (1 956), d ir e cte d b y F ra nk T ash lin . T he s ta r o f th e film , T om E w ell, a ppears o nscre en, lo oks to w ard th e c a m era , a nd dir e ctly a ddre sse s th e a udie nce : “L adie s a nd g entle m en, th e m otio n pic tu re y o u a re a bout to s e e is a s to ry o f m usic . I p la y th e r o le o f T om Mille r, a n a gent . . .” E w ell’s d ia lo gue re fe rs to th e s to ry b ut re m ain s outs id e o f it ; it is , th ere fo re n ondie getic d ia lo gue.

Wit h th e n ota ble e xce ptio n o f so -c a lle d backsta g e m usic als , a film ’s s co re is a lm ost a lw ays n ondie getic ; it is ra re ly s o urc e d in th e world o f th e s to ry . ( Backsta ge m usic a ls a re m usic a ls th at ta ke p la ce in th e world of th eate r and film ; th eir ch ara cte rs are th em se lv e s perfo rm ers w ho a re p uttin g o n a s h ow , s o th eir s o ngs a re o fte n s e t in a re al- w orld c o nte xt) . In a m elo dra m a, th e h eartb ro ke n m oth er o f a dyin g b aby b egin s to c ry w hile , o n th e s o undtr a ck, w e h ear th e s o und of v io lin s. O r in a h orro r film , s o m eone s lo w ly a ppro ach es a c lo se d door b ehin d w hic h lu rk a g ro up o f fle sh -e atin g z o m bie s, a nd w e h ear a co uple o f b eats o f te nse p erc u ssio n. T he v io la tio n o f th is g enera l ru le ca n b e u se d to g re at c o m ic e ffe ct. In B la ke E dw ard s’ P in k P anth er co m edy A S hot in th e D ark (1 964), Pete r Selle rs , as In sp ecto r Ja cq ues C lo use au, tu rn s u p a t a n udis t c o lo ny a nd w alk s lu dic ro usly past a n e qually n ude o rc h estr a p la yin g th e fa m ilia r “T hem e fr o m A Shot in th e D ark ” by H enry M ancin i. T he film ’s sco re , w hic h had pre vio usly been nondie getic , su ddenly and rid ic u lo usly beco m es die getic a lly s o urc e d in th e w orld o f th e s to ry .

In th eir b ook The F ilm E xp erie nce , T im oth y C orrig an a nd P atr ic ia Whit e w rit e : “ O ne q uestio n o ffe rs a s im ple w ay to d is tin guis h b etw een die getic a nd n ondie getic s o und: c a n th e c h ara cte rs in th e film h ear th e so und?” If th ey c a n h ear it , o r if th ey c o uld c o nce iv a bly h ear it , it ’s alm ost c e rta in ly d ie getic . F or e xa m ple , a w om an w ho is a lo ne in h er bedro om m ig ht n ot h ear th e fa in t fo ots te ps o f th e in tr u der w ho is a bout to k ill h er, b ut th e in tr u der c a n h ear th em — and w e h ear th em , to o:

th ese fo ots te ps a re th ere fo re d ie getic s o unds. T he c re epy m usic th at acco m panie s th e sce ne, how eve r, ca nnot be heard by eit h er th e wom an o r th e in tr u der a nd is th ere fo re n ondie getic — unle ss, o f c o urs e , th at p artic u la r p ie ce o f m usic is c o m in g fr o m a ra dio o r o th er s o und so urc e in th e w om an’s bedro om ; in th at ca se , both sh e and th e in tr u der c a n h ear it , w hic h w ould m ake it d ie getic .

104 Som etim es in a n arra tiv e film , a c h ara cte r s e em in gly s p eaks d ir e ctly to th e a udie nce w it h out a ppearin g o nscre en. T his is c a lle d v o ic e -o ve r narra tio n, o r V O . O tto P re m in ger’s c la ssic film n oir , Laura (1 944), fo r in sta nce , b egin s ( a fte r th e o penin g c re dit s , w hic h a re a cco m panie d b y th e n ondie getic “T hem e fr o m Laura ”) w it h a v o ic e -o ve r: a d ead m an sp eaks to u s fr o m a n e ntir e ly b la ck s cre en fo r s e ve ra l s e co nds b efo re an im age a ppears . V O is a ls o o fte n u se d to co nve y a ch ara cte r’s (o th erw is e ) unsp oke n th oughts . F or exa m ple , a sh ot of a co lle ge stu dent lo okin g atte ntiv e ly at his pro fe sso r, who is dis cu ssin g nondie getic so und, m ay be acco m panie d by his vo ic e in VO co m mentin g o n h ow b orin g th e c la ss a ctu ally is a nd h ow h e w ould much r a th er b e o n a b each w it h h is g ir lf r ie nd.

SO UND A ND S PA CE Eve r sin ce so und b eca m e sta ndard in w orld cin em a in th e 1 930s, film make rs h ave h ad to c o nstr u ct s p ace s a ura lly a s w ell a s v is u ally .

Beca use o f te ch nolo gic a l lim it a tio ns, th e e arlie st s yn ch s o und film s were e sp ecia lly c u m bers o m e to c re ate , a nd a cco rd in gly , th e re su lt in g so und s p ace h ad a n a rtif ic ia l q ualit y . M ic ro phones p ic ke d u p n ot ju st th e in te nded s o und b ut any s o und, in clu din g th at o f th e c a m era ; a s a re su lt , c a m era s h ad to b e p la ce d in s o undpro ofe d b oxe s. M ore ove r, all th e so unds h ad to b e re co rd ed sim ult a neously — th ere w ere n o se para te tr a cks and no m ix in g— so , if th e film w as to have an orc h estr a l s co re , a n o rc h estr a h ad to b e p re se nt o n th e s e t, p la yin g alo ngsid e th e acto rs as th eir dia lo gue sce nes w ere sh ot. These te ch nolo gic a l re quir e m ents le nt a c e rta in c a nned q ualit y to th e s o und of th ese film s. T he a ura l s p ace c re ate d m ade e ve ry s ce ne s o und lik e —well, lik e it h ad b een re co rd ed in a c a ve rn ous s tu dio s o undsta ge.

In te rio rs , e xte rio rs — it d id n’t m atte r. It a ll s o unded th e s a m e.

Im pro ve m ents in mic ro phones, ca m era s, re co rd in g devic e s, pla yb ack p ro ce sse s, a nd s p eake rs h ave d one m uch m ore th an fr e ed ca m era s fr o m th eir s o undpro ofin g b oxe s (n ot to m entio n m usic ia ns fr o m th e s e t) . B eca use o f th e c la rit y o f c o nte m pora ry s o undtr a cks, w e are a ble to p erc e iv e a nd a pp re cia te a m ore c o m ple te e nvir o nm ent fo r 105 eve ry im age w e se e— beca use w e ca n hear it in m in ute deta il .

Wheth er th e s o und is s yn ch ro nous, n onsyn ch ro nous, a syn ch ro nous, die getic , o r n ondie getic , va rio us p ro pertie s o f th e so unds w e h ear co ntr ib ute to th e c re atio n o f a ura l s p ace .

AM PLIT U DE , o th erw is e k n ow n a s vo lu m e , re fe rs to th e lo udness o r so ftn ess o f th e s o und w e h ear. A s a lw ays in film s tu die s, it ’s th e effe ct of a m plit u de th at c o unts to w ard p la usib ilit y , n ot it s s tr ic t re alis m . F or in sta nce , a s ce ne s e t a t a ro ck c o nce rt m ay b egin w it h a m aste r s h ot of th e entir e are na acco m panie d by deafe nin g m usic on th e so undtr a ck, but w hen th e dir e cto r cu ts to a co nce rtg oer sa yin g so m eth in g to h er d ate in m ediu m tw o-s h ot, th e v o lu m e o f th e m usic dro ps— slig htly perh aps, but no le ss sig nif ic a ntly — to allo w th e audie nce to hear th e ch ara cte r’s dia lo gue. In re alit y , of co urs e , music ia ns a nd th eir a co ustic a l e ngin eers d on’t a cco m modate e ve n th eir m ost d evo te d fa ns’ c o nve rs a tio ns in th is w ay, b ut in th e m ovie s, audie nce s not only acce pt but eve n exp ect th is partic u la r so und co nve ntio n. If th e a m plit u de d id n’t d ro p, a nd th e a udie nce co uld n’t unders ta nd w hat th e c h ara cte rs s a id to e ach o th er, th ey w ould lik e ly beco m e a ngry a nd fr u str a te d.

The a ura l s p ace is m ain ta in ed in th is e xa m ple b y v ir tu e o f th e fa ct th at th e c h ange in v o lu m e is a s u btle c h ange . If th e a m plit u de fe ll to to o lo w a le ve l d urin g th e co nve rs a tio n, th e a ura l sp ace w ould n o lo nger b e p la usib le , a nd th e s ce ne w ould b egin to s e em u nre alis tic .

Bear in m in d: th is c o uld b e a le git im ate a rtis tic s tr a te gy. D ro ppin g th e music ’s v o lu m e d ra stic a lly m ig ht s e rv e to m ake th e tw o c o nce rtg oers se em to b e liv in g in th eir o w n w orld — a ro m antic w orld c o m pris e d o f ju st th e tw o o f th em d esp it e th e fa ct th at th ey a re in th e c o m pany o f 18,0 00 co nce rtg oers . There ’s a sce ne in Jo hn W oo’s Mis sio n:

Im possib le II th at te sts th e lim it s o f p la usib ilit y in th is re gard : tw o ch ara cte rs ( T om C ru is e a nd T handie N ew to n) e ngage in a c o m ple te ly audib le co nve rs a tio n while sp eedin g alo ngsid e each oth er in co m petin g c o nve rtib le s o n a w in din g o ce ansid e h ig hw ay. P la usib le :

bare ly . R ealis tic : n ot a t a ll. A ppro pria te fo r th e film : a bso lu te ly .

Am plit u de is o fte n u se d to e sta blis h a nd fo rtif y th e a udie nce ’s s e nse of dis ta nce . A n e xtr e m e lo ng sh ot o f a co w boy o n h ors e back, fo r in sta nce , m ay b e a cco m panie d b y th e s o und o f w in d a nd d ust b lo w in g 106 on th e s o undtr a ck, b ut if th e d ir e cto r w ere to c u t to a n e xtr e m e c lo se - up of th e hors e ’s hoofs , th e lik e ly acco m panyin g so und on th e so undtr a ck w ould b e th e s o und o f h oofs h it tin g d ir t. (T hese s o unds would p ro bably h ave b een c re ate d n ot b y th e h ors e b ut b y a F ole y artis t.) T his w ould n ot b e th e c a se , h ow eve r, if th e n ext s h ot in th e se quence w as o f a m an lo o kin g th ro ugh a p ow erfu l te le sco pe (th e obje ct o f h is g aze p re su m ably b ein g th e h ors e ’s h oofs ), in w hic h c a se th e im plic a tio n w ould b e th at th e w atc h er w as a t a fa r e nough d is ta nce fr o m th e c o w boy th at h e w ould n ot h ear th e h oofb eats — and n eit h er would w e.

Varia tio ns in a m plit u de m ay a ls o in dic a te a c h ara cte r’s s u bje ctiv e aw are ness o f th e w orld a ro und h er. In th e K ore an h orro r m ovie The Host (2 006), fo r in sta nce , a y o un g g ir l is p re occu pie d w it h s o m eth in g th at h as ju st h appened to a fa m ily m em ber w hen sh e le ave s h er fa th er’s s n ack b ar a nd g oes o uts id e to w alk in a riv e rs id e p ark . T here is re la tiv e sile nce on th e so undtr a ck— th at is , until sh e gra dually beco m es a w are th at s h e is in th e m id st o f h undre ds o f s cre am in g people w ho a re fle ein g a g ia nt m uta nt riv e r m onste r. T he d ir e cto r, Bong Jo on-h o, brin gs up th e so und le ve l of th e scre am in g, th us in dic a tin g a sh if t in th e gir l’s aw are ness. (T ra gic a lly , sh e is so on la sso ed b y th e h id eous s e rp ent’s ta il a nd s p ir it e d a w ay to it s fo ul la ir deep in th e S eoul s e w er s yste m .) Am plit u de is a n im porta nt s ig nif ie r o f c lo se ness o r d is ta nce , b ut it is not th e o nly fa cto r. T he te rm so und p ers p ectiv e d escrib es th e a ura l equiv a le nt o f th re e-d im ensio nal v is io n. J u st a s w e p erc e iv e d epth , th e th ir d d im ensio n (th e o th er tw o b ein g h eig ht a nd w id th ), la rg ely o n th e basis o f th e re la tiv e s iz e o f o bje cts in th e fo re gro und, m id dle gro und, and backg ro und, w e hear in pers p ectiv e , to o.

Sound pers p ectiv e describ es th e re la tiv e pro portio n of dir e ct so und and re fle cte d so und .

Dir e ct s o und is c re ate d (d ir e ctly !) fr o m it s s o urc e : a n a cto r’s mouth is m ik e d, a nd th e s o und it p ro duce s is re co rd ed. T his is d ir e ct so und.

Refle cte d s o und is s o und th at b ounce s o ff th e flo or, c e ilin g, and w alls and re ach es th e m ic ro phone a phase la te r th an dir e ct so und. (P hase re fe rs to th e d is ta nce b etw een so und w ave s.) T he acto r’s vo ic e cre ate s su ch so unds as w ell. S ound pers p ectiv e is cre ate d b y m ix in g d ir e ct a nd re fle cte d s o und to geth er. A h ig h ra tio o f 107 dir e ct so und to re fle cte d so und su ggests clo se ness; a lo w ra tio o f dir e ct s o und to r e fle cte d s o und s u ggests d is ta nce .

Tw o o th er s o und p ro pertie s a re p it c h a nd tim bre .

Pit c h is a s o und’s fu ndam enta l fr e quency, tim bre it s to nal q ualit y . W om en’s v o ic e s a re genera lly p it c h ed h ig her th an m en’s , m eanin g th at th eir v o ca l c o rd s te nd to be sm alle r and th e re su lt in g fr e quencie s hig her. A vio lin pla yin g a p artic u la rly h ig h n ote p ro duce s a p artic u la rly h ig h p it c h ; a bass v io lin ’s p it c h is m uch lo w er.

Tim bre , m eanw hile , c o ve rs v ir tu ally eve ry o th er a sp ect to a g iv e n so und— it ’s a ls o ca lle d to ne q ualit y .

Does a p ie ce o f m usic s o und ric h o r d oes it s o und tin ny ? Is a m an’s vo ic e nasa l ? Is a ch ild ’s vo ic e sh rill ? D oes a so u nd e ffe ct h ave a partic u la r depth , o r d oes it s o und th in ? A ll o f th ese c h ara cte ris tic s, a nd more , fa ll u nder th e g enera l c a te gory o f tim bre . T im bre , in s h ort, is dif fic u lt if n ot im possib le to d efin e p re cis e ly , b ut w e k n ow it w hen w e hear it .

You d o n ot n eed to b eco m e a n a co ustic a l e ngin eer to a ppre cia te th e v a ria tio ns in p it c h a nd tim bre th at a ffe ct y o ur p erc e ptio n o f film so und. Ju st tr y to in cre ase yo ur aw are ness of th e dif fe re nce s in re co rd ed hum an vo ic e s th at affe ct yo ur unders ta ndin g of dif fe re nt ch ara cte rs a nd th e p artic u la r ch ara cte ris tic s o f a ny film so und yo u hear. P ra ctic e d escrib in g w hat y o u h ear u sin g th e c o nce pts o f p it c h , tim bre , a nd a m plit u de a s a ju m pin g-o ff p oin t.

STU DY G UID E:

H EAR IN G S O UND, A N ALY ZIN G S O UND The fir s t s te p in a naly zin g film s o und is , o f c o urs e , to n otic e it in th e fir s t p la ce . It’s easy to b eco m e s o d is tr a cte d b y w hat y o u’r e s e ein g th at y o u fa il to n otic e w hat y o u’r e hearin g— th e p artic u la r q ualit ie s o f a g iv e n s o und, it s re la tio nsh ip to th e im age th at acco m panie s it , a nd so o n. C onsid er th e in fo rm atio n yo u re ce iv e so le ly b y w ay o f so und, a s o ppose d to w hat y o u le arn s o le ly fr o m th e im age.

As a n e xe rc is e in d is tin guis h in g s o und in fo rm atio n fr o m im age in fo rm atio n, r e ad th e fo llo w in g s h ot b re akd ow n o f th e o penin g, p re -c re dit s s e quence o f J o hn T urtu rro ’s 2 005 film , Rom ance & C ig are tte s :

An e xtr e m e c lo se -u p o f a p atte rn o f fle sh -c o lo re d w ave s. T he c a m era tr a cks b ack to r e ve al th at th ey a re th e fr ic tio n r id ges o f th e b ig to e o n a m an’s r ig ht fo ot. T he fo ot tw it c h es. T he c a m era c o ntin ues to tr a ck, now in a c ir c u la r r ig ht la te ra l m ove m ent, a ro und th e le ft s id e o f a g ra y co uch ; th e fo ot a nd le g a re s u rro unded b y g ra y p illo w s. T he d ark n ess 108 SH O T 1 : of th e ro om a s a w hole a nd th e c o uch a re a in p artic u la r le ad to th e im age b ein g a lm ost e ntir e ly in decip hera ble a t o ne m om ent o f th is tr a ckin g sh ot b efo re th e m an’s b are a rm s, fo ld ed o ve r h is b eefy ch est, b eco m e v is ib le . T he c a m era is n ow p osit io ned o ve r th e m an’s head; th e m an (J a m es G andolf in i) , w hose eye s re m ain clo se d th ro ughout th e s e quence , a ppears u psid e d ow n in th e im age.

SH O T 2 : A lo ng s h ot o f a w om an e nte rin g th e s h adow y r o om ; th e s h ot is ta ke n fr o m th e vic in it y o f th e m an’s h ead. S he is in silh ouette . A s sh e appro ach es th e b ed, th e d ir e cto r c u ts to :

SH O T 3 : A c lo se -u p o f th e m an’s fa ce ; h is m outh tw it c h es.

SH O T 4 : A m ediu m s h ot o f th e w om an, n ow in d im lig ht. S he flic ks a lig hte r and lig hts a c ig are tte .

SH O T 5 : A PO V m ediu m s h ot, fr o m h er PO IN T O F V IE W , o f th e m an ly in g o n th e c o uch .

SH O T 6 : Sam e a s S hot 4 : a m ediu m s h ot o f th e w om an. T he c a m era tilt s dow n s lig htly a s h er h and, n ow h old in g th e lit c ig are tte , m ove s d ow n to w ard th e b otto m o f th e im age.

SH O T 7 : A s lig htly c lo se r s h ot o f th e m an. H e is s m ilin g. T he c a m era tr a cks fo rw ard .

SH O T 8 : A s lig htly c lo se r s h ot o f th e w om an. T he c a m era tr a cks fo rw ard a s sh e b lin ks a nd lo oks a w ay.

SH O T 9 : A c lo se -u p o f th e m an’s b are fo ot. A h and re ach es in to th e im age fr o m th e to p o f th e fr a m e. T he h and c a re fu lly p la ce s th e lit c ig are tte betw een th e m an’s b ig to e a nd th e to e n ext to it ; th e lit e nd is o n th e sid e o f th e fo ot’s s o le .

SH O T 1 0 : A b rie f s h ot o f th e w om an.

FIG URE 5 .2 A n e xtr e m e c lo se -u p o f J a m es G andolf in i’s b ig to e in Rom ance & Cig are tte s ( 2 007) ( fr a m e e nla rg em ent) .

SH O T 1 1:

A sh ot o f th e m an’s h ead a nd sh ould ers ; h e je rk s h is h ead a nd quic kly o pens a nd c lo se s h is m outh .

SH O T 12:

A c lo se -u p o f th e to es h old in g th e c ig are tte .

109 SH O T 13:

Sam e a s S hot 1 0. T he w om an b egin s to tu rn , a nd T urtu rro c u ts o n th e a ctio n to :

SH O T 14:

A fu ll s h ot o f th e w om an c o m ple tin g th e tu rn a nd w alk in g a w ay fr o m th e c o uch in th e g enera l d ir e ctio n o f th e c a m era . In th is lig ht, h er outfit is r e ve ale d in m ore d eta il: s h e is w earin g a tig ht, d eep-c u t b la ck ve st w it h n o b lo use u ndern eath . F ade o ut.

Base d o nly o n th e in fo rm atio n c o nta in ed in th is d escrip tio n o f th e v is u als , w hat d o yo u u nders ta nd a bout th e re la tio nsh ip b etw een th e m an a nd th e w om an? W ho is h e?

Who is s h e? A nd w hat h appened w it h th e lit c ig are tte ?

SH O T 1 :

An e xtr e m e c lo se -u p o f a p atte rn o f fle sh -c o lo re d w ave s.

The s o und of s n orin g is h eard . T he c a m era tr a cks b ack to r e ve al th at th ey a re th e fr ic tio n rid ges o f th e b ig to e o n a m an’s rig ht fo ot. T he fo ot tw it c h es.

A lo ud sn ort acco m pan ie s th e tw it c h . The ca m era co ntin ues to tr a ck, n ow in a c ir c u la r rig ht la te ra l m ove m ent, a ro und th e le ft s id e o f a g ra y c o uch ; th e fo ot a nd le g a re s u rro unded b y g ra y pillo w s. T he d ark n ess o f th e ro om a s a w hole a nd th e c o uch a re a in partic u la r le ad to th e im age b ein g a lm ost e ntir e ly in decip hera ble a t one m om ent o f th is tr a ckin g s h ot b efo re th e m an’s b are a rm s, fo ld ed ove r h is b eefy c h est, b eco m e v is ib le . T he c a m era is n ow p osit io ned ove r th e m an’s head; th e m an (J a m es G andolf in i) , w hose eye s re m ain c lo se d th ro ughout th e s e quence , a ppears u psid e d ow n in th e im age.

The s n orin g c o ntin ues .

SH O T 2:

A lo ng s h ot o f a w om an e nte rin g th e s h adow y r o om ; th e s h ot is ta ke n fr o m th e v ic in it y o f th e m an’s h ead. S he is in s ilh ouette .

She m akes no s o und a t fir s t, th en s ays , “ Dad ?

” A s s h e a ppro ach es th e b ed, sh e s ays , “ Dad dy?

” a nd th e d ir e cto r c u ts to :

SH O T 3:

A c lo se -u p o f th e m an’s fa ce ; h is m outh tw it c h es an d h e s n orts ag ain .

SH O T 4:

A m ediu m s h ot o f th e w om an, n ow in d im lig ht. S he flic ks a lig hte r — th e f lic kin g s o und is h eard —and lig hts a c ig are tte .

The s n orin g so und c o ntin ues .

SH O T 5:

A P O V m ediu m s h ot, fr o m h er p oin t o f v ie w , o f th e m an ly in g o n th e co uch .

SH O T 6:

Sam e a s S hot 4 : a m ediu m s h ot o f th e w om an. T he c a m era tilt s dow n s lig htly a s h er h and, n ow h old in g th e lit c ig are tte , m ove s d ow n to w ard th e b otto m o f th e im age.

SH O T 7:

A s lig htly c lo se r s h ot o f th e m an. H e is s m ilin g.

A s h ort s n ort is heard a s t h e s n orin g c o ntin ues . T he c a m era tr a cks fo rw ard .

SH O T 8:

A s lig htly c lo se r s h ot o f th e w om an. T he c a m era tr a cks fo rw ard a s sh e b lin ks a nd lo oks a w ay.

SH O T 9:

A c lo se -u p o f th e m an’s b are fo ot. A h and re ach es in to th e im age fr o m th e to p o f th e fr a m e. T he h and c a re fu lly p la ce s th e lit c ig are tte betw een th e m an’s b ig to e a nd th e to e n ext to it ; th e lit e nd is o n th e sid e o f th e fo ot’s s o le .

SH O T 10:

A b rie f s h ot o f th e w om an.

110 SH O T 11:

A sh ot o f th e m an’s h ead a nd sh ould ers ; h e je rk s h is h ead a nd quic kly o pens a nd c lo se s h is m outh .

A s n ort is h eard .

SH O T 12:

A c lo se -u p o f th e to es h old in g th e c ig are tte .

The s n orin g c o ntin ues .

SH O T 13:

Sam e a s S hot 1 0. T he w om an b egin s to tu rn , a nd T urtu rro c u ts o n th e a ctio n to :

SH O T 14:

A fu ll s h ot o f th e w om an c o m ple tin g th e tu rn a nd w alk in g a w ay fr o m th e co uch in th e genera l dir e ctio n of th e ca m era .

Unlik e her en tr a n ce, h er fo ots te p s a re n ow h eard . In th is lig ht, h er o utfit is re ve ale d in m ore d eta il: s h e is w earin g a tig ht, d eep-c u t b la ck v e st wit h n o b lo use u ndern eath . F ade o ut.

Afte r a fe w m om en ts , th e sn orin g s o unds s to p, a n d w e h ear a r o ar o f a g ony .

Asid e fr o m th e fa ct th at th e s ce ne’s p ayo ff d epends o n o ur not s e ein g th e m an’s re actio n to havin g his to es burn ed by th e cig are tte , but in ste ad so le ly hearin g it , Turtu rro ’s s o undtr a ck a ls o r e ve als a c ru cia l p ie ce o f n arra tiv e in fo rm atio n: th e w om an is actu ally th e m an’s d aughte r. T hey’r e m ere ly tw o w ord s o f sim ple d ia lo gue— “D ad?

Daddy? ”— but w it h out hearin g th em w e w ould pro bably co m e to a ve ry dif fe re nt co nclu sio n a bout w ho th ese tw o c h ara cte rs a re a nd w hat th eir r e la tio nsh ip is .

To g et y o ur o w n s e nse o f th e d if fe re nce s b etw een v is u al in fo rm atio n a nd in fo rm atio n co nve ye d b y s o und, tr y w atc h in g a s ce ne fr o m a ny film w it h th e v o lu m e tu rn ed o ff. N ote what y o u le arn ed o nly b y w ay o f th e im ages. N ote a ls o w hat th e im ages fa ile d to te ll yo u o n th eir o w n. T hen, a fte r w atc h in g th e s a m e s ce ne a gain w it h th e v o lu m e b ack u p, dete rm in e w hat y o u g ot o nly fr o m th e s o undtr a ck. F in ally , ju st lis te n to th e s ce ne, e it h er by tu rn in g a w ay fr o m th e s cre en o r b y tu rn in g y o ur la pto p in th e o th er d ir e ctio n. T ry to dis tin guis h o ne c h ara cte r fr o m a noth er s o le ly b y v ir tu e o f th eir in div id ual v o ca l q ualit ie s.

WRIT IN G A BO UT S O UND A ND S O UNDTR ACKS The b egin nin g o f a ny film a naly sis is a w are ness. T he s e co nd s te p is p in nin g d ow n in word s w hat y o u s e e a nd h ear. In th e a naly sis o f th e Rom ance & C ig are tte s s e quence , co nsid er in p artic u la r th e w rit e r’s d escrip tio n o f th e s o und th e m an m ake s a fte r th e fa de- out— ro ar o f a gony . T here a re lo ts o f w ord s th at d escrib e th e n ois e s h um an b ein gs make w hen w e’r e in d is tr e ss:

scre am , s h rie k, y e lp , s h out, s q ueal . . . In th is c a se , th e partic u la r tim bre a nd p it c h o f th e s o und is b ette r d escrib ed b y th e w ord ro ar th an th e word sq ueal . G iv e n th e m an’s b earlik e s iz e , ro ar c o nve ys a s e nse o f d epth th at o th er word s d o n ot. F in din g th e rig ht w ord s to d escrib e w hat y o u s e e a nd h ear is a k e y ele m ent o f a ny a naly sis .

As a m atte r o f fa ct, a p re cis e d escrip tio n is it s e lf a naly tic a l. Rheto ric is th e a rt o f pers u asio n. W hen y o u w rit e a p aper, y o u a re tr y in g to p ers u ade y o ur p ro fe sso r th at y o u have s e en (a nd h eard ) th e film , th at y o u h ave th ought a bout w hat it m eans, a nd th at yo u h ave a p oin t to m ake a bout it — an a rg um ent. A s rh eto ric a l s tr a te gie s g o, th ere a re fe w m ore e ffe ctiv e th an a c le ar a nd a ccu ra te v e rb al a cco unt o f a film ’s e xce edin gly co m ple x b le nd o f im ages a nd s o unds. It p ro ve s th at y o u h ave n otic e d th in gs o th er people m ig ht h ave ta ke n fo r g ra nte d o r m is se d a lt o geth er. It le ads th e re ader to s e e and h ear a nd u nders ta nd th e film th e w ay yo u s e e, h ear, a nd u nders ta nd it . A nd th at’s 111 yo ur p rim ary g oal in w rit in g th e p aper.

Aca dem ic p ro se is o fte n d ull a nd la bore d, b ut it d oesn ’t n eed to b e. A ll to o o fte n, aca dem ic w rit e rs co nfu se a naly sis w it h o bfu sca tio n. T hey p hra se th eir p oin ts in a sh ow y, u nnece ssa rily c o m plic a te d w ay in th e m is ta ke n b elie f th at th ey w ill s e em m ore in te llig ent th an th ey are . Fro m a rh eto ric a l sta ndpoin t, it doesn ’t w ork ; it doesn ’t pers u ade a nyo ne th at th ere ’s a nyth in g w orth a rg uin g a bout. F in din g a nd e xp la in in g meanin g in a film is n ot n early a s d if fic u lt o r b orin g a s m ost a ca dem ic w rit in g m ake s it se em .

Here are tw o se nte nce s about Jo hn Turtu rro ’s use of so und in th e openin g se quence o f Rom ance & C ig are tte s . B oth a tte m pt to c o nvin ce th e re ader n ot o nly th at th e stu dent w ho w ro te it kn ow s w hat sh e is ta lk in g about but als o th at sh e has so m eth in g w orth w hile to a rg ue in te rm s o f w hat th e film m eans. O ne w ork s, th e o th er doesn ’t :

“B y priv ile gin g so und ove r im age at th e co nclu sio n of th e se quence — by main ta in in g th e a ura l sp ace o f th e ro om w hile p urg in g th e scre en o f vis u al co nte nt— Turtu rro fu rth er pro ble m atiz e s th e alr e ady co nte ste d re la tio nsh ip betw een th e pate rn al and th e filia l. ” — Phyllis D ie tr ic h so n, se nio r, H arv a rd Univ e rs it y “T he s e quence e nds v is u ally w it h a b la cko ut, b ut T urtu rro m ain ta in s th e ro om ’s so und s p ace lo ng e nough to in clu de th e fa th er’s r o ar; th e s o und o f h is a gony is th e fir s t p unch lin e to th e fe atu re -le ngth jo ke T urtu rro is m akin g o f th e A m eric a n nucle ar fa m ily .” — Laura H unt, ju nio r, W agner C olle ge The fir s t s e nte nce a ppears to s a y m ore th an it a ctu ally d oes. Its u se o f a ca dem ic ja rg on ( priv ile gin g , pro ble m atiz e s , co nte ste d ) is s e lf - d efe atin g. T he s tu dent’s p oin t is actu ally c le are r th an s h e m ake s it o ut to b e; b y o ve rlo adin g th e s e nte nce w it h b ig b ut em pty w ord s, s h e re duce s it s rh eto ric a l e ffe ctiv e ness. It s o unds te rrib ly im porta nt a nd meanin gfu l, b ut it is n ’t r e ally .

The s e co nd s tu dent m ake s m ore o r le ss th e s a m e p oin t— th at th e s o und o f a fa th er in pain is Turtu rro ’s fu nny co m ment on th e fa m ily — but sh e does so w it h m ore pers u asiv e pow er. H er co ncis e but co lo rfu l descrip tio n of w hat happens on th e so undtr a ck is ju st a s a naly tic a l a s th e fir s t s tu dent’s , b ut b eca use it ’s c le are r, it ’s m ore co nvin cin g, n ot to m entio n m uch m ore fu n to r e ad.

112 C HAPTE R 6 N ARRATIV E: F R O M S C EN E T O S C EN E N ARRATIV E S TR UCTU RE E ve n th e s im ple st s to rie s c a n b e b ro ke n d ow n in to c o m ponent p arts :

1. B oy m eets g ir l 2. B oy lo se s g ir l 3. B oy tr ie s to g et g ir l b ack 4. B oy a nd g ir l g et to geth er in th e e nd If th is co nve ntio nal sto ry ta ke s th e fo rm o f a fe atu re -le ngth film , e ach o f it s fo ur p arts is c o m pose d o f h undre ds o f in div id ual s h ots .

E ach s h ot c o nta in s m is e -e n-s ce ne e le m ents th at c o nve y e xp re ssiv e i n fo rm atio n, a nd e ach tr a nsit io n fr o m sh ot to sh ot co m pounds th at i n fo rm atio n b y c re atin g re la tio nsh ip s. B ut w hat a bout th e s to ry ? H ow d oes th e b oy m eet th e g ir l? W hy d oes h e lo se th e g ir l? W hat d oes h e d o to g et h er b ack, a nd w hat s ta nds in h is w ay? W hat c h anges d oes t h e b oy g o th ro ugh. W hat d oes h e le arn ? T his c h apte r is a bout h ow f ilm stu die s addre sse s questio ns lik e th ese by analy zin g film n arra tiv e s.

Fir s t o f a ll, w hat d oes th e te rm n arra tiv e m ean?

NAR RATIV E s im ply m eans sto ry te llin g . Not all film s are narra tiv e film s. There are D O CUM EN TA R IE S —nonfic tio n a cco unts o f re al p eople a nd e ve nts th at m ay o r m ay n ot te ll a s to ry in th e p ro ce ss. A nd th ere a re AVAN T-G AR DE o r e xp erim enta l film s th at m ay b e c o m pose d o f n oth in g b ut s h apes o r c o lo rs o r s h ots o f p eople a nd th in gs th at a re n ot a sse m ble d in th e f o rm o f a ta le .

But m ost o f th e film s yo u w ill se e in yo ur lif e — and m ost o f th e t e le vis io n s h ow s a s w ell— are n arra tiv e s. T hey te ll s to rie s, a nd th eir 113 sto rie s fo llo w b ro ad p atte rn s o r co nve ntio ns. H ow d o w e b egin to analy ze th ese p atte rn s?

STO RY A ND P LO T The fir s t s te p is to d is tin guis h b etw een STO RY a nd PLO T . W hat’s th e dif fe re nce ? In eve ry d ay co nve rs a tio n, we use th e tw o te rm s in te rc h angeably . B ut in film s tu die s, sto ry re fe rs to th e e ve nts th e ta le te lls , w hile plo t re fe rs to it s str u ctu rin g. U sin g th e boy-m eets -g ir l exa m ple , th is p artic u la r s to ry c o nce rn s J o sh a nd J e nnif e r a nd h ow th ey m eet, g et to k n ow e ach o th er, a nd e nd u p m arrie d a nd h avin g ch ild re n a nd g ra ndch ild re n. T he plo t , o n th e o th er h and, is a s fo llo w s:

1. A lit tle gir l nam ed ELS IE asks a 60-y e ar-o ld JO SH and JE N NIF E R h ow th ey m et; th e lit tle g ir l is th eir g ra nddaughte r.

Je nnif e r b egin s to te ll th eir s to ry .

2. YO UNG JO SH , a 25-y e ar-o ld ro okie co p, arre sts YO UNG JE N NIF E R fo r s p eedin g.

3. The 60-y e ar-o ld Jo sh la ughs and sa ys, no, th at’s not w hat happened a t a ll.

4. Y oung J o sh a rre sts Y oung J e nnif e r fo r d riv in g w it h out a lic e nse . .

.

The s to ry , in o th er w ord s, te lls w hat h appened to J o sh a nd J e nnif e r fr o m th e begin nin g (th ey meet) to th e end (th ey have a gra nddaughte r). T he p lo t, o n th e o th er h and, is th e o rd er in w hic h th e film make r re ve als th ese s to ry e le m ents to th e a udie nce : fir s t w e s e e th at th ey h ave a g ra nddaughte r, th en w e s e e h ow th ey m et.

A m ore fo rm al defin it io n of sto ry is th is :

all th e eve nts of th e narra tiv e a s th ey o ccu r in c h ro nolo gic a l o rd er fr o m b egin nin g to e nd, in clu din g n ot o nly th ose th at w e s e e a nd h ear, b ut th ose w e in fe r.

In th is e xa m ple , w e in fe r th at J o sh a nd J e nnif e r h ad a t le ast o ne c h ild beca use w e s e e th at th ey h ave a g ra ndch ild ; th e c h ild h im - o r h ers e lf may n ot a ppear in th e film .

Here is a m ore fo rm al d efin it io n o f plo t :

th e o rd erin g a nd s tr u ctu rin g 114 of n arra tiv e e ve nts a s th ey a re p re se nte d in th e film .

In s u m , th e s to ry o f J o sh a nd J e nnif e r b egin s w it h h im a rre stin g h er fo r o ne re aso n o r a noth er a nd e nds w it h th em a s la te -m id dle -a ged people te llin g th eir g ra nddaughte r h ow th ey m et, w here as th e p lo t begin s w it h th e tw o ch ara cte rs a s e ld erly p eople te llin g co nflic tin g sto rie s.

To fu rth er c o m plic a te m atte rs , film s tu die s u se s a te rm to d escrib e th e w orld o f th e s to ry :

DIE G ESIS . T he d ie gesis o f a film is all th e s to ry ele m ents pre se nte d by th e narra tiv e , no m atte r w heth er th ey are actu ally se en o r h eard o nscre en o r n ot . P erh aps th e b est w ay to describ e th e d ie gesis is b y g iv in g a n e xa m ple o f it s o pposit e : th e music a l s co re o f a film is g enera lly n ondie getic . If a c h ara cte r tu rn s o n th e c a r ra dio a nd m usic c o m es o n, th at m usic is d ie getic . H ow eve r, th e m usic p la ye d o ve r th e o penin g c re dit s o r c lo sin g c re dit s , o r a ny music th at d oes n ot o rig in ate w it h in th e sto ry , is n ondie getic . T he th em e fr o m Sta r W ars is n ondie getic ; L uke S kyw alk e r d oesn ’t h ear it in th e b ackg ro und, b ut th e a udie nce d oes. B ut if , o n th e o th er h and, Jo sh a nd J e nnif e r a re s e en o nscre en w atc h in g Sta r W ars o n D VD o n th eir fir s t d ate , th e th em e m usic fr o m Sta r W ars w ould b e d ie getic beca use th e m usic o rig in ate s in th eir s to ry w orld ; th e c h ara cte rs c a n hear it .

And fin ally , th ere a re tw o m ore te rm s, d ra w n fr o m th e s ch ool o f lit e ra ry crit ic is m kn ow n as Russia n Form alis m , th at dis tin guis h betw een th e eve nts of th e sto ry and th eir pre se nta tio n to th e audie nce :

FA BU LA a nd SYU ZH ET . A s d efin ed b y th e film h is to ria n a nd th eoris t D avid B ord w ell, th e syu zh et is e sse ntia lly th e film ’s p lo t— it ’s th e s p ecif ic o rd erin g o f n arra tiv e e le m ents w it h in th e film . T he fa bula , how eve r, is m ore th an s im ply th e s to ry b ein g to ld ; it ’s th e s to ry th at each o f u s c o nstr u cts a s w e w atc h a nd h ear th e s yu zh et u nfo ld . It’s a ll th e s to ry m ate ria l p re se nte d b y th e film make r, b ut it ’s a ls o th e s to ry mate ria l and asso cia tio ns w e brin g to th e film as in div id uals — th e sto rie s w e te ll o urs e lv e s b ase d o n th e s to rie s w e a re b ein g to ld . J u st as e ve ry s to ry h as a n u nlim it e d n um ber o f p lo ts th at c o uld te ll it , s o eve ry s yu zh et s p ark s a n in fin it e n um ber o f fa bula s. W hy? B eca use eve ry a udie nce m em ber b rin gs h is o r h er o w n p ers o nal e xp erie nce to th e m ovie s w e w atc h , th e s to rie s w e’r e to ld .

115 SC EN ES A ND S EQ UEN CES If th e s to ry o f J o sh a nd J e nnif e r w ere w rit te n in s cre enpla y fo rm , it mig ht b egin th is w ay:

SA M PLE S C REEN PLA Y FA D E IN :

IN T [a bbre via tio n fo r In te rio r ]. J O SH A N D J E N NIF E R ’S L IV IN G R O OM , 2 050— DAY JO SH , a 6 0-y e ar-o ld m an w it h g ra y h air , is s it tin g o n a c o uch w it h h is w if e , J E N NIF E R , als o 6 0, th ough h er h air is d ye d b rig ht re d. In J e nnif e r’s la p is E LS IE , a ge 7 . S he is wearin g a fu tu ris tic p la stic T -s h ir t a nd s w eatp ants a nd s h oes in th e s h ape o f r o cke ts .

E LS IE Gra ndm a, h ow d id y o u m eet G ra ndpa?

J E N NIF E R ( g rin nin g) Well, d ear, y o ur g ra ndfa th er a nd I m et b etw een e xit s 5 a nd 6 o n th e N ew J e rs e y Turn pik e .

EXT [a bbre via tio n fo r Exte rio r ]. N EW J E R SEY T U RNPIK E, 2 015— DAY Cars a re w hiz zin g b y a s Y O UNG J O SH s it s in h is p atr o l c a r, w hic h is h id den b ehin d so m e tr e es b y th e s id e o f th e ro ad. O ne c a r g oes b y p artic u la rly fa st, a nd Y oung J o sh re acts im media te ly b y g unnin g h is e ngin e, c a usin g h is b ack tir e s to s h oot g ra ve l b ehin d th em a s h e ta ke s o ff a fte r th e s p eedin g c a r . . .

The “S am ple S cre enpla y” box sh ow s how a ty p ed scre enpla y actu ally lo oks. The fo llo w in g sh ow s th e sa m e ele m ents of th e pre ce din g s cre enpla y, b ut th is tim e th ese e le m ents a re id entif ie d a nd als o in dic a te th e p ro per in denta tio ns fo r y o ur s cre enpla y.

116 SA M PLE S C REEN PLA Y E LE M EN TS [A LW AYS T H E F IR ST IT E M O N T H E F IR ST P AG E] F A D E IN :

[S C EN E H EAD IN G ] IN T [a bbre via tio n fo r In te rio r ]. J O SH A N D J E N NIF E R ’S L IV IN G R O OM , 2 050— DAY [C HAR AC TE R ’S FIR ST APPEAR AN CE (U SE ALL CAPS) and CHAR AC TE R DESC RIP T IO N] JO SH , a 6 0-y e ar-o ld m an w it h g ra y h air , is s it tin g o n a c o uch w it h h is w if e , J E N NIF E R , als o 6 0, th ough h er h air is d ye d b rig ht re d. In J e nnif e r’s la p is E LS IE , a ge 7 . S he is wearin g a fu tu ris tic p la stic T -s h ir t a nd s w eatp ants a nd s h oes in th e s h ape o f r o cke ts .

[C HAR AC TE R C UE and D IA LO G] E LS IE Gra ndm a, h ow d id y o u m eet G ra ndpa?

[C HAR AC TE R C UE and P ER SO NAL D IR EC TIO N and D IA LO G] J E N NIF E R ( g rin nin g) Well, d ear, y o ur g ra ndfa th er a nd I m et b etw een e xit s 5 a nd 6 o n th e N ew J e rs e y Turn pik e .

[S C EN E H EAD IN G ] EXT [a bbre via tio n fo r Exte rio r ]. N EW J E R SEY T U RNPIK E, 2 015— DAY Cars a re w hiz zin g b y a s Y O UNG J O SH s it s in h is p atr o l c a r, w hic h is h id den b ehin d so m e tr e es b y th e s id e o f th e ro ad. O ne c a r g oes b y p artic u la rly fa st, a nd Y oung J o sh re acts im media te ly b y g unnin g h is e ngin e, c a usin g h is b ack tir e s to s h oot g ra ve l b ehin d th em a s h e ta ke s o ff a fte r th e s p eedin g c a r . . .

Note :

F orm ats a nd s o ftw are fo r s cre enpla ys c a n r e adily b e fo und o n th e In te rn et ( fo r exa m ple , s e e scrip tb uddy.c o m o r scre enpla yg uid e.c o m ).

This scre enpla y alr e ady make s se ve ra l nota ble dis tin ctio ns:

betw een sce nes ; b etw een in te rio r a nd exte rio r ; b etw een tim e p erio ds (2 055 and 2015); and betw een ch ara cte rs ( JO SH , JE N NIF E R , 117 ELS IE , a nd Y O UNG J O SH ). B ut b eca use th is is a film a nd n ot s im ply a w rit te n n arra tiv e , a fu ll a naly sis o f w hat w e s e e o nscre en w ould h ave to in clu de a s h ot- b ysh ot b re akd ow n:

SH O T 1 : Long s h ot o f J O SH , a 6 0-y e ar-o ld m an w it h g ra y h air , s it tin g o n a c o uch wit h h is w if e , J E N NIF E R , a ls o 6 0, th ough h er h air is d ye d b rig ht re d. In Je nnif e r’s la p is E LS IE , a ge 7 . S he is w earin g a fu tu ris tic p la stic T -s h ir t a nd sw eatp ants a nd s h oes in th e s h ape o f ro cke ts . J e nnif e r b egin s b ouncin g Els ie o n h er k n ee. C ut o n th e a ctio n to :

SH O T 2 : Clo se -u p o f E ls ie ’s fe et, w hic h d o n ot re ach th e flo or, b ouncin g u p a nd dow n. C ut o n th is a ctio n to :

SH O T 3 : Clo se -u p o f E ls ie ’s b ouncin g fa ce a s E ls ie la ughs. E ls ie s a ys, “G ra ndm a, how d id y o u m eet G ra ndpa?” SH O T 4 : Sam e a s sh ot 1 : L ong sh ot o f Jo sh , Je nnif e r, a nd E ls ie o n th e co uch .

Je nnif e r, g rin nin g, s a ys, “W ell, d ear, y o ur g ra ndfa th er a nd I m et b etw een exit s 5 a nd 6 o n th e N ew J e rs e y T urn pik e .” C ut to :

SH O T 5 : Long s h ot o f S IG N O N T U RNPIK E th at r e ads “ S peed lim it 7 5 m ph.” C ut to :

SH O T 6 : Long s h ot o f c a rs w hiz zin g b y. C ut to :

SH O T 7 : Mediu m s h ot o f Y O UNG J O SH th ro ugh th e w in dow o f h is p atr o l c a r, lo okin g bore d.

SH O T 8 : Long s h ot o f p atr o l c a r, w hic h is h id de n b ehin d s o m e tr e es b y th e s id e o f th e r o ad.

SH O T 9 : Sam e a s S hot 6 , b ut n ow o ne c a r g oes b y p artic u la rly fa st.

SH O T 1 0 : Sam e a s S hot 7 , b ut n ow Y oung J o sh re acts im media te ly b y g unnin g h is engin e ( s o und o f e ngin e r o arin g).

SH O T 1 1 : Clo se -u p o f b ack le ft tir e s h ootin g g ra ve l b ehin d it a s th e c a r b egin s to move . C ut o n a ctio n to :

SH O T 1 2 : Sam e a s S hot 8 , b ut n ow th e p atr o l c a r is m ovin g fo rw ard o ut o f it s h id in g pla ce a nd o nto th e h ig hw ay . . .

This sh ot- b y-s h ot bre akd ow n is it s e lf not a co m ple te descrip tiv e analy sis b eca use it le ave s o ut s u ch im porta nt e le m ents a s lig htin g, most of th e co stu m e deta ils , and all of th e ca m era angle s. (F or exa m ple : A re th ese all eye -le ve l sh ots , or are th ey va rie d?) A nd beca use th is m ovie h as n ot y e t b een c a st, le t a lo ne film ed, w e d o n ot kn ow w hat any of th e ch ara cte rs lo oks lik e beyo nd th e bare st descrip tio ns o f th eir a ges a nd h air c o lo r. S till, th is a naly sis s u ggests anoth er im porta nt d is tin ctio n: b etw een th e te rm s SC EN E a nd SEQ UEN CE .

A s ce ne is d efin ed b y th e u nit y o f tim e , sp ace , and a ctio n . In o th er word s, a s ce ne is a u nif ie d a ctio n th at ta ke s p la ce in o ne lo ca tio n 118 durin g a sin gle tim e perio d. (A sin gle sce ne se t in a hosp it a l em erg ency ro om m ig ht in clu de a w ait in g ro om , a h allw ay, a nd a n exa m in in g r o om if th e c a m era m ove s c o ntin ually fr o m o ne r o om to th e next ). Sce nes are defin ed by th eir lo ca tio n and tim e perio d; se quence s a re d efin ed b y th e p atte rn s o f s h ots w it h in e ach s ce ne.

Both are unit s of dra m atic actio n. In th is exa m ple , th ere are tw o sce nes: o ne in sid e, th e o th er o uts id e; th e fir s t in 2 055, th e s e co nd in 2015.

A se quence , o n th e o th er h and, main ta in s o ne o r m ore o f th ese unit ie s w hile in tr o ducin g a dis co ntin uit y . In a cla ssic a l H olly w ood monta ge s e quence , fo r e xa m ple , th is d is co ntin uit y o ccu rs te m pora lly —tim e is usu ally sp eeded up in a m onta ge se quence . In a cro sscu ttin g se quence , th e dis co ntin uit y occu rs sp atia lly . In th e exa m ple here , th e fir s t sce ne— Shots 1 th ro ugh 4— co nta in s one se quence . T he se co nd sce ne co nta in s a noth er se quence : S hots 5 th ro ugh 1 2 a re a t le ast th e b e gin nin g o f a n a ctio n s e quence th at m ig ht go o n to in clu de s h ots o f Y oung J e nnif e r a t th e w heel o f th e s p eedin g ca r, c lo se -u ps o f Y oung J o sh a s h e c h ase s h er, a lo ng s h ot o f Y oung Je nnif e r’s c a r w it h Y oung J o sh ’s c a r e nte rin g th e im age fr o m th e r ig ht, and s o o n.

Note a ls o th e re ve rs a l o f c h ro nolo gic a l tim e in th e p lo ttin g o f th is sto ry . F ilm ed sto rie s a re n ot a lw ays to ld in th e o rd er in w hic h th e eve nts h appened. T he te rm s FLA SH BAC K a nd FLA SH FO RW AR D d escrib e tw o o f th e w ays tim e c a n b e m anip ula te d in m otio n p ic tu re s. W e w ould describ e S ce ne 2 a s a fla sh back— a s h ot, s e quence , o r s ce ne th at ta ke s p la ce in th e p ast, b efo re th e p re se nt- d ay tim e fr a m e e sta blis h ed by th e film .

In th is e xa m ple , th e y e ar 2 055 is e sta blis h ed a s th e film ’s pre se nt d ay d esp it e it s b ein g in our fu tu re , s o a nyth in g th at h ap pens befo re th at y e ar m ust o ccu r in th e fo rm o f a fla sh back. A fla sh fo rw ard ach ie ve s th e o pposit e e ffe ct: it ’s a s h ot, s e quence , o r s ce ne th at ta ke s pla ce in th e fu tu re , a fte r th e p re se nt- d ay tim e fr a m e e sta blis h ed b y th e film . O ur film m ig ht e nd, fo r in sta nce , w it h a fla sh fo rw ard o f E ls ie , hers e lf a ged 6 0, te llin g h er o w n g ra ndch ild a s to ry .

TR ANSIT IO NS F R O M S C EN E T O S C EN E 119 Now adays, m ost tr a nsit io ns fr o m s ce ne to s ce ne o ccu r w it h a s im ple cu t, a s in th e e xa m ple a bove , in w hic h th e d ir e cto r c u t fr o m S ce ne 1 to Sce ne 2 wit h out usin g any sp ecia l tr a nsit io nal te ch niq ue. But th ro ughout film his to ry , dir e cto rs have em plo ye d m ore ela bora te means to s h if t fr o m o ne s ce ne to a noth er. T hese d evic e s a re th e FA D E- IN a nd FA D E-O UT ; th e IR IS -IN a nd IR IS -O UT ; th e DIS SO LV E , a nd th e WIP E .

Wit h a fa de-in , th e s cre en o fte n b egin s a s a n e ntir e ly b la ck fie ld (th ough so m etim es it ’s entir e ly w hit e ), w it h th e im age gra dually appearin g u ntil it is a t fu ll s tr e ngth a nd c la rit y ; w it h a fa de-o ut , th e opposit e o ccu rs : th e im age g ra dually d is a ppears u ntil th e s cre en is eit h er a ll w hit e o r a ll b la ck.

An ir is -in is c re ate d w hen th e im age b egin s a s a s m all c ir c le in th e mid dle o f a n a ll- w hit e o r a ll- b la ck s cre en a nd w id ens u ntil it c o ve rs th e scre en. A n ir is -o ut is th e re ve rs e : th e fu ll re cta ngula r im age s h rin ks in a c ir c u la r fo rm u ntil it d is a ppears in th e m id dle o f th e s cre en.

Ir is e s a re not re str ic te d to tr a nsit io ns. T he e ffe ct o f lo okin g th ro ugh a te le sco pe co uld be ach ie ve d by a fix e d, nonm ovin g ir is th at m asks th e re cta ngula r edges of th e im age in to a cir c u la r fo rm . A ch ara cte r lo okin g th ro ugh a p air o f b in ocu la rs m ig ht b e e xp re sse d b y m askin g th e r e cta ngula r im age in to tw o c ir c u la r fo rm s c o nnecte d a t th e c e nte r.

Wit h a dis so lv e , o ne im age fa des o ut w hile th e s u bse quent im age fa des in , th ere by c re atin g th e im pre ssio n o f a m ult ip le e xp osu re . W it h a su perim posit io n , tw o s e para te a nd d is tin ct im ages o ve rla p. A t th e mid w ay poin t of a dis so lv e , w hen th e tw o im ages are of equal in te nsit y , th e e ffe ct is a s u perim posit io n.

And a wip e is c re ate d w hen o ne im age a ppears to p ush a noth er im age o ff th e s cre en. W ip es m ay o ccu r in a ny d ir e ctio n— horiz o nta lly , ve rtic a lly , o r d ia gonally . O r th ey m ay ta ke th e fo rm o f a s h ape: a sta r wip e , fo r in sta nce , is a w ip e in w hic h th e s e co nd im age a ppears in th e ce nte r o f th e s cre en in th e s h ape o f a s ta r a nd e xp ands o utw ard , appearin g to “w ip e” th e fir s t im age o ff th e s cre en. W ip es, w hic h a re optic a l e ffe cts c re ate d in th e p ro ce ssin g la b, w ere p opula r tr a nsit io nal devic e s in th e 1 930s a nd 1 940s, b ut th ey fe ll o ut o f fa vo r u ntil v id eo te ch nolo gy m ade th em e asy to a ch ie ve , a nd th ey b eca m e p opula r again in m usic v id eos b egin nin g in th e 1 980s.

120 Fin ally , th ere is a te ch niq ue k n ow n a s CRO SSC UTTIN G .

Cro sscu ttin g is defin ed a s edit in g th at a lt e rn ate s tw o o r m ore lin es o f a ctio n o ccu rrin g in d if fe re nt p la ce s o r tim es, th ere by c o nnectin g th em .

Here ’s a c la ssic e xa m ple o f c ro sscu ttin g u se d c o untle ss tim es in so ca lle d B w este rn s —and b y th e w ay, w hen film s tu die s r e fe rs to a B movie , B is n ot s h ort fo r bad ; a B m ovie is a film th at w as m ade to fill th e B s id e o f a d ouble fe atu re a nd w as p ro bably le ss e xp ensiv e to pro duce th an th e A pic tu re th at pre ce ded it . In any eve nt: a cro sscu ttin g e xa m ple fr o m a B w este rn is a s h ot o f a w om an tie d to th e ra ilr o ad tr a cks; a s h ot o f a m an rid in g o n a h ors e ; a s h ot o f th e wom an o n th e ra ilr o ad tr a cks; a s h ot o f th e m an o n th e h ors e ; a s h ot of a s p eedin g tr a in ; a s h ot o f th e w om an o n th e tr a cks; a s h ot o f th e man o n th e h ors e ; a s h ot o f th e s p eedin g tr a in . . . a nd s o o n.

What d o y o u a ssu m e fr o m th ese s e para te s h ots ? Y ou a re lik e ly to co nnect th em a ll in y o ur m in d, ra th er lik e th e K ule sh ov e xp erim ent, and u nders ta nd th at th e w om an is a bout to b e ru n o ve r b y th e tr a in unle ss th e m an o n th e h ors e a rriv e s in tim e to s a ve h er. It w ould n’t make a bit of dif fe re nce if th e w om an w as tie d to th e tr a cks in Kentu cky, th e tr a in w as in fa ct in C alif o rn ia , a nd th e m an o n th e h ors e was in S aska tc h ew an, a nd th e s h ots w ere film ed th re e m onth s a part.

When th e dir e cto r edit s th em all to geth er in to a cro sscu ttin g se quence , h e o r s h e is te llin g a n in te rc o nnecte d s to ry b y d ra w in g tw o or m ore lin es o f a ctio n to geth er b y w ay o f e dit in g .

Bear in m in d th at c ro sscu ttin g is d if fe re nt th an s im ple c u ttin g. If a dir e cto r cu ts back and fo rth betw een tw o ch ara cte rs in th e sa m e sp ace , it ’s c u ttin g. If a d ir e cto r c u ts fr o m o ne c h ara cte r to a noth er ch ara cte r not in th e s a m e s p ace , th en b ack to th e fir s t c h ara cte r, th en back to th e s e co nd c h ara cte r, th en p erh aps to a th ir d c h ara cte r in s till a d if fe re nt s p ace , th at’s cro sscu ttin g . D if fe re nt s p ace s o r tim es b ein g lin ke d te m pora lly b y e dit in g: th at’s c ro sscu ttin g.

CHARACTE R , D ESIR E, A ND C O NFLIC T That n arra tiv e film s a re o fte n a bout a n in div id ual c h ara cte r in s e arc h or p urs u it o f a g oal is a c o nve ntio n s o b asic to A m eric a ns’ e xp erie nce 121 of m otio n p ic tu re s th at w e o fte n ta ke it c o m ple te ly fo r g ra nte d. In th e co nve ntio nal “b oy m eets g ir l” s to ry , w e s im ply a ssu m e th at w hat th e boy re ally w ants (h ow eve r lit tle h e m ay b e a w are o f th e fa ct a t th e begin nin g o f th e film ) is to g et to geth er w it h th e g ir l in th e e nd. If h e did n’t , th ere w ould b e lit tle s u bsta nce to th e ta le . “B oy m eets g ir l a nd doesn ’t c a re ” m ig ht m ake a n o ut- o f- th e-o rd in ary c o m edy, b ut u nle ss th e b oy w ants so m eth in g e ls e — money a nd fa m e, fo r in sta nce , o r mayb e a noth er b oy— his la ck o f a g oal w ould lik e ly re su lt in a v e ry sh ort m ovie .

We a ls o a ssu m e th at s o m eth in g w ill g et in th e w ay o f th e c e ntr a l ch ara cte r’s p urs u it o f h is o r h er g oal. B oy m eets g ir l, b oy g ets g ir l— th e end? O nce a gain , th is s ce nario w ould m ake fo r a v e ry b rie f film .

Film s tu die s te nds to d escrib e th e c e ntr a l c h ara cte r’s p urs u it o f a goal w it h th e w ord desir e . In th e c o nve ntio nal b oy-m eets -g ir l s to ry , th e desir e is e sse ntia lly s e xu al in n atu re , b ut film s d eal w it h o th er fo rm s o f desir e a s w ell: k n ow le dge, fo r e xa m ple . T he n arra tiv e o f Cit iz e n K ane unfo ld s a ro und th e b asic q uestio n o f w hat “ro se bud,” K ane’s d yin g word , m eans. O n a m ore a bstr a ct le ve l is th e q uestio n o f w ho th e tit le ch ara cte r a ctu ally is b eyo nd h is p ublic im age; a jo urn alis t a tte m pts to unlo ck th e s e cre t o f C harle s F oste r K ane’s id entit y b y in te rv ie w in g h is fr ie nds a nd b usin ess a sso cia te s, a nd w e, th e a udie nce , sh are th e re porte r’s d esir e fo r in fo rm atio n. (K ane h im se lf tu rn s o ut to b e a m an whose desir e kn ow s no bounds, th ough pre cis e ly w hat he w ants re m ain s e lu siv e a t th e e nd.) C hara cte rs m ay a ls o e xp re ss d esir e b y se ekin g a b ette r lif e fo r th em se lv e s. W hat is The W iz a rd o f O z (1 939) if n ot a q uest fo r a m ore c o lo rfu l a nd e xcit in g w orld o ve r th e r a in bow ?

Fortu nate ly fo r a udie nce s, c h ara cte rs a lm ost a lw ays fin d th eir d esir e th w arte d b y s o m eth in g. If film c h ara cte rs g ot w hat th ey w ante d rig ht aw ay, th ey w ould be sa tis fie d— and audie nce s w ould be bore d.

(M urd er m yste rie s go out of th eir w ay to dela y th e deliv e ry of in fo rm atio n. “ Who d id it ?

” “ She d id !

”— a tw o-m in ute film .) N arra tiv e s re quir e co nflic t . In Cit iz e n K ane , fo r in sta nce , th e re porte r d is co ve rs th at K ane’s fr ie nds e ach s a w a s lig htly d if fe re nt s id e o f K ane— th ey offe r su btly co nflic tin g acco unts of th e m an, and th e jo urn alis t’s atte m pt to le arn th e m eanin g o f K ane’s fin al u tte ra nce , “ro se bud,” ends in fa ilu re . K ane h im se lf , m eanw hile , c a nnot a ch ie ve w hat h e s e ts 122 out to a ch ie ve b eca use o th er p eople a nd c ir c u m sta nce s g et in th e way. H is d esir e , to o, is le ft u nfu lf ille d.

Im agin e The W iz a rd o f O z w it h out th e W ic ke d W it c h o f th e W est. If sh e d id n’t a ppear fr o m tim e to tim e to b lo ck D oro th y’s p ro gre ss to O z, th e film w ould b e n ot o nly s h o rte r b ut d ulle r. D oro th y w ould s im ply s kip happily d ow n th e Y ello w B ric k R oad w it h h er fr ie nds, a nd th at w ould be th at. W ho w ants to w atc h so m ebody happily skip pin g fo r tw o hours ?

Desir e a nd co nflic t co m e in to p la y e ve n in th ose re la tiv e ly ra re in sta nce s in w hic h a narra tiv e film does not ce nte r on a sin gle pro ta gonis t or gro up of pro ta gonis ts . In Eis e nste in ’s Battle sh ip Pote m kin , fo r in sta nce , th e c o nflic t is n ot b etw een a n in div id ual s a ilo r and s o m eth in g th at s ta nds b etw een h im a nd h is g oals b ut b etw een tw o o pposin g c o lle ctiv e fo rc e s: th e c za ris t g ove rn m ent a nd it s o ffic e rs and so ld ie rs o n th e o ne h and a nd th e p eople o f O dessa a nd th e sa ilo rs o n th e b attle sh ip o n th e o th er.

Battle sh ip P ote m kin ’s n arra tiv e unfo ld s a s a c o nflic t o f th ese tw o g ro ups: th e d esir e to p re se rv e th e cza ris t g ove rn m ent a nd th e c la ss s tr u ctu re it r e pre se nts a nd th e d esir e to c h ange it .

ANALY ZIN G C O NFLIC T In th e n ext c h apte r, y o u w ill le arn h ow to b re ak d ow n c in em atic s to rie s in a pro ce ss ca lle d SEG M EN TA TIO N . Segm enta tio ns ca n be ra th er deta ile d, so fo r th e tim e b ein g, le t’s sim ply b re ak d ow n a fa m ilia r movie in to it s b ro adest c o m ponent p arts .

The W iz a rd o f O z : lo ca tio ns B egin nin g:

Kansa s M id dle :

Oz E nd:

Kansa s The W iz a rd o f O z : m ain c h ara cte rs D oro th y 123 M is s G ulc h / th e W ic ke d W it c h o f th e W est The W iz a rd o f O z:

s e co ndary c h ara cte rs A untie E m a nd th e fa rm hands / S ca re cro w , T in M an, C ow ard ly Lio n P ro fe sso r M arv e l / th e W iz a rd The W iz a rd o f O z : d esir e s B egin nin g:

Doro th y w ants to le ave h om e M id dle :

Doro th y w ants to r e tu rn h om e E nd:

Both d esir e s a re fu lf ille d b y th e e nd The W iz a rd o f O z : c o nflic ts B egin nin g:

Doro th y v s. M is s G ulc h o ve r th e p osse ssio n o f T oto M id dle :

Doro th y v s. th e W ic ke d W it c h o ve r th e p osse ssio n of th e r u by s lip pers E nd:

Both c o nflic ts a re r e so lv e d b y th e e nd What d o y o u n otic e a bout The W iz a rd o f O z ’s s tr u ctu re ? If y o u h ave se en th e film , y o u h ave e xp erie nce d th e e ffe cts o f it s s tr u ctu re , b ut what o ccu rs to y o u n ow th at y o u h ave s e en it b ro ke n d ow n in to it s basic e le m ents ?

FIG URE 6 .1 A public it y s till fr o m The W iz a rd o f O z ( 1 939)— Doro th y ( J u dy G arla nd) a nd Toto in K ansa s. ( P hoto fe st) 124 Fir s t, y o u s h ould b e a ble to s e e th at th at th ere is a s ym metr y to it s lo ca tio ns: th e film e nds w here it b egan, in K ansa s— sp ecif ic a lly , o n Auntie E m ’s fa rm .

There is a ls o a d oublin g o f c h ara cte rs — prim arily M is s G ulc h a nd th e W ic ke d W it c h , a nd s e co ndarily P ro fe sso r M arv e l a nd th e W iz a rd and th e fa rm hands/O z tr io .

This d oublin g re peats it s e lf in te rm s o f th e film ’s m ajo r c o nflic ts :

Doro th y a nd M is s G ulc h a re in co nflic t o ve r T oto in K ansa s, a nd Doro th y a nd M is s G ulc h ’s d ouble , th e W ic ke d W it c h , fig ht o ve r c o ntr o l of th e r u by s lip pers in O z.

The s ym metr ic a l n arra tiv e s tr u ctu re a nd d oublin g o f c h ara cte rs in The W iz a rd o f O z a re fo rm al d evic e s a nd a re a esth etic a lly p le asin g a s su ch , b ut th ey a ls o c o nve y m eanin g— or m eanin gs. O ne m ay d ra w in div id ual co nclu sio ns about w hat The W iz a rd of O z is ult im ate ly sa yin g fr o m an id eolo gic a l pers p ectiv e (o r a psych olo gic a l or so cio lo gic a l o ne), b ut th e film ’s n arra tiv e str u ctu re p ro vid es a fir m fo undatio n fo r a basic cla im :

The W iz a rd of O z is about th e co ntr a dic to ry fe elin gs a te enage gir l harb ors about her hom e. B y co m parin g a nd c o ntr a stin g a n o rd in ary K ansa s fa rm w it h th e fa nta stic world of O z, th e film su ggests both th e vir tu es and lim it a tio ns of 125 co nve ntio nal A m eric a n lif e in th e 1 930s.

Does th e film re ally e m bra ce th e id ea th at “th ere ’s n o p la ce lik e hom e”? Is K ansa s u lt im ate ly m ore s a tis fy in g th an O z? D oes th e film esp ouse co nse rv a tiv e va lu es by sh ow in g D oro th y th at sh e had eve ry th in g sh e re ally w ante d all alo ng, and th at her dre am s of esca pin g c o nve ntio nalit y w ere m is g uid ed? W e m ay c o m e u p w it h o ur ow n a nsw ers to th ese q uestio ns d ependin g o n w ho w e a re a nd h ow we v ie w th e w orld , b ut th e film ’s n arra tiv e s tr u ctu re p ro vid es a s o lid fo undatio n fo r th e in div id ual a rg um ents w e m ake a bout it s m eanin g.

STU DY G UID E:

A N ALY ZIN G S C EN E-T O -S C EN E E D IT IN G If y o u h ave n ot s e en The W iz a rd o f O z , o r if y o u d on’t r e m em ber it v e ry w ell, w atc h th e film a nd p ay p artic u la r a tte ntio n to it s n arra tiv e s tr u ctu re a nd th e fo rm al, v is u al devic e s th e d ir e cto r, V ic to r F le m in g, u se s to g et fr o m o ne s ce ne to a noth er. ( In fa ct, y o u ca n w atc h any film a nd d o th e sa m e th in g.

The W iz a rd o f O z is su ggeste d h ere beca use o f it s fa m ilia rit y a nd re la tiv e ly s im ple n arra tiv e s tr u ctu re , n ot to m entio n it s pro m in ent p la ce in th is c h apte r, b ut a ny n arra tiv e film w ill w ork .) Analy zin g n arra tiv e s tr u ctu re , lik e a ny fa ce t o f fo rm al film a naly sis , re quir e s u s to co nce ntr a te o n o ne a sp ect o f a p artic u la r film a nd, in e ffe ct, is o la te it fr o m th e r e st o f th e movie . W it h The W iz a rd o f O z , it ’s n ece ssa ry to p ut a sid e o ur e njo ym ent o f Ju dy Garla nd’s b eautif u l v o ic e a nd th e W ic ke d W it c h ’s s p ecta cu la r n ose a nd g re en m ake up and k e ep o ur m in ds o n tr a nsit io ns. It’s to ugh n ot to le t y o urs e lf g et s o c a ught u p in th e film th at y o u fa il to n otic e s h if ts fr o m s ce ne to s ce ne. If y o u’r e w atc h in g th e film ( o r a ny film ) o n D VD a nd y o u re aliz e th at y o ur m in d h as w andere d— yo u’r e in th e m id dle o f a new s ce ne, a nd y o u d on’t k n ow h ow y o u g ot th ere — ju st h it th e re ve rs e b utto n a nd re w in d to th e p re vio us s ce ne. C om e to th in k o f it , th e fa ct th at y o u fa ile d to n otic e a partic u la r tr a nsit io n is it s e lf n ote w orth y: w hat d evic e o r s e t o f d evic e s d id th e d ir e cto r use to m ake th is tr a nsit io n s o s m ooth th at y o u d id n’t n otic e it ?

If a s tr u ctu ra l p atte rn s e em s to b e e m erg in g, w rit e it d ow n.

If a nyth in g a t a ll o ccu rs to y o u, w rit e it d ow n.

At th e e nd o f th e film , tr y to p ut in to w ord s a t le ast o ne a sp ect o f it s n arra tiv e str u ctu re . T hin k a bout th e film ’s re pre se nta tio n o f tim e. D id th e e ve nts d epic te d o ccu r co m ple te ly c h ro nolo gic a lly , o r w ere th ere fla sh backs o r fla sh fo rw ard s? C onsid er th e film ’s lo ca tio ns. D id it ta ke p la ce in a w id e v a rie ty o f lo ca le s, o r w ere th e e ve nts s e t in only a fe w p la ce s?

What w as th e film about? T o w hat exte nt did it s narra tiv e str u ctu re in fo rm it s meanin g?

Fin ally , to re tu rn to The W iz a rd o f O z a s a n e xa m ple , a sk y o urs e lf th e q uestio ns pose d a t th e e nd o f th e p re vio us s e ctio n; if y o u h ave b een th in kin g a bout a noth er film , ask s im ila r q uestio ns a bout it . W hat id eas d id th e film c o nve y a bout c u lt u re , s o cie ty , ra ce , c la ss, s e x a nd g ender, a nd e ve n th e m eanin g o f lif e ?

What d id th e film s a y?

C an yo u b ase y o ur o pin io n o n th e e vid ence p ro vid ed b y th e film ’s s tr u ctu re ?

126 WRIT IN G A BO UT N ARRATIV E S TR UCTU RE Cit in g e vid ence is a n e sse ntia l a sp ect o f m akin g a n a rg um ent a bout a g iv e n film ’s meanin g. O ne c a n s im ply a sse rt th at The W iz a rd o f O z is a c o nse rv a tiv e film b eca use it sa ys th at w om en a re b ette r o ff s ta yin g a t h om e o n th e fa rm , b ut th e a sse rtio n r e m ain s a matte r o f o pin io n u ntil it is p ro ve n b y w ay o f fa cts . In film s tu die s, th ese fa cts a re fo und in th e film ’s fo rm al d eta ils a nd s tr u ctu re .

Ju st a s yo u h ave le arn ed to d escrib e a sh ot sp ecif ic a lly a nd a ccu ra te ly b y th e ca m era ’s a ppare nt d is ta nce fr o m th e s u bje ct (c lo se -u p, m ediu m s h ot, lo ng s h ot) o r b y it s s ta tic o r m obile fr a m in g (tr a ckin g s h ot, p an, c ra ne), a nd in th e s a m e w ay th at y o u have b egun to a naly ze th e re la tio nsh ip b etw een o ne s h ot a nd a noth er (c u t, d is so lv e , eye -lin e m atc h ), s o y o u c a n u se th e p atte rn s c re ate d b y a film ’s n arra tiv e s tr u ctu re to se rv e a s a b asis fo r a ny c la im s y o u m ake a bout w hat a film h as to s a y a bout th e w orld —what it m eans.

Let’s s a y y o u d o h old th e o pin io n th at The W iz a rd o f O z ta ke s a v e ry c o nse rv a tiv e vie w o f th e w orld — th at th e film d oes in deed s a y th at w om en s h ould le arn to s ta y a t hom e. (O ne c o uld a rg ue p re cis e ly th e o pposit e , b y th e w ay; The W iz a rd o f O z , a nd narra tiv e film s in g enera l, o fte n s u pport a v a rie ty o f r e adin gs.) Y our ta sk a s a c rit ic is to su pport y o ur a rg um ent w it h fa ctu al e vid ence fr o m th e film . In th is c a se , y o u c o uld u se th e m ovie ’s s ym metr ic a l n arra tiv e s tr u ctu re to h elp p ro ve y o ur p oin t: e ve n th ough th e plo t tr a nsp orts D oro th y to th e co lo rfu l la nd of O z and pro vid es her w it h excit in g adve ntu re s o f th e s o rt s h e c ra ve s w hen s h e s in gs “O ve r th e R ain bow ,” th e n arra tiv e str u ctu re r e tu rn s h er p re cis e ly to w here s h e s ta rte d o ut. T hat th is is a w ay o f s a yin g th at wom en a re b ette r o ff s ta yin g a t h om e re m ain s y o ur o pin io n, b ut y o u h ave s u pporte d it wit h a n u ndenia ble fa ct.

127 C HAPTE R 7 F R O M S C REEN PLA Y T O F IL M D EEPER IN TO N ARRATIV E S TR UCTU RE T he s cre enw rit e r p la ys o ne o f th e k e y r o le s in th e c re atio n o f a m otio n p ic tu re . H e o r s h e c o nstr u cts a d eta ile d s to ry , m aps o ut a s ce ne-b y- s ce ne b lu eprin t o f th e film ’s p lo t, a nd w rit e s d ia lo gue th at m ay o r m ay n ot s o und lik e e ve ry d ay lif e b ut th at n oneth ele ss fit s th e to ne a nd s ty le o f th e p artic u la r film . T hat’s a n im porta nt d is tin ctio n. Y ou m ay h ave th e i d ea th at m ovie d ia lo gue m ust b e r e alis tic , b ut th is is n ot th e c a se . T he s crip t fo r B az L uhrm an’s Rom eo + Ju lie t (1 996) fe atu re s dia lo gue w rit te n by Shake sp eare (a nd adapte d by Luhrm an and th e s cre enw rit e r C ra ig P earc e ), m uch of w hic h is rh ym ed poetr y . It’s h ard ly “re alis tic ,” and ye t it ’s perfe ctly appro pria te fo r th e film .

S im ila rly , th e to ugh-ta lk in g d ia lo gue o f a film n oir (“W e’r e b oth ro tte n, b aby, o nly y o u’r e a lit tle more r o tte n”— Double In dem nit y , 1 944) o r th e l a co nic sp eech of a weste rn (“I wis h I kn ew how to quit y o u”— Bro ke back M ounta in , 2005) m ay fu nctio n beautif u lly in a p artic u la r w ork o f film a rt d esp it e th e fa ct th at y o u a nd y o ur fr ie nds d on’t ta lk th at w ay in e ve ry d ay lif e .

It s h ould b e c le ar b y th is p oin t th at film s tu die s d oes n ot a sk y o u to b e a m ovie re vie w er. Y our jo b is to e xa m in e ra th er th an ju dge th e f ilm s y o u s e e. Y ou m ay lik e th e c h ara cte rs o r n ot o r fin d th e s to ry u plif tin g o r u pse ttin g, b ut th ese p ers o nal re sp onse s— as im porta nt to y o u a s th ey m ay b e— are n ot c ru cia l a s fa r a s th e fie ld o f film s tu die s i s c o nce rn ed. H ow , th en, d o y o u c o nfr o nt a film ’s s to ry , if n ot to g iv e it a th um bs-u p o r th um bs-d ow n r e vie w ?

The a nsw er is :

analy sis . T o a naly ze s o m eth in g m eans to b re ak it d ow n in to it s c o m ponent p arts . T his h old s tr u e in c h em is tr y a s w ell a s i n film stu die s. In ch apte r 6 , yo u re ad a fa ir ly sim ple analy tic a l 128 bre akd ow n o f th e lo ca tio ns, c h ara cte rs , d esir e s, a nd c o nflic ts in The Wiz a rd o f O z . Y ou m ay o r m ay n ot lik e The W iz a rd o f O z , a nd y o u c a n ce rta in ly a rg ue it s m erit s w it h y o ur fa m ily a nd fr ie nds, b ut film s tu die s asks yo u to a naly ze a nd u nders ta nd th e film ra th er th an e njo y it .

Hopefu lly y o ur d eeper u nders ta ndin g o f th e film s y o u s tu dy w ill le ad to gre ate r e njo ym ent o f th em , b ut s u ch p le asu re is s e co ndary . A ll o f th is is to s a y th at a naly zin g n arra tiv e s tr u ctu re is n ot e sp ecia lly fu n. In ord er to a naly ze a film ’s s to ry a nd p lo t, y o u m ust s ta nd fa r e nough apart fr o m it th at yo u ca n se e it cle arly . G iv e n th e fa ct th at m ost narra tiv e film s tr y to d ra w y o u in r a th er th an k e ep y o u a t a n a naly tic a l dis ta nce , it ’s n ot e asy to e njo y th em a nd a naly ze th em a t th e s a m e tim e.

SC REEN W RIT IN G : T H E T H REE-A CT S TR UCTU RE Desp it e w hat yo u m ay have heard about narra tiv e scre enw rit in g, partic u la rly H olly w ood s cre enw rit in g, th ere a re n o ru le s g ove rn in g a fe atu re le ngth s cre enpla y’s s tr u ctu re — only co nve ntio ns . A CO NVEN TIO N is an a rtis tic p ra ctic e o r p ro ce ss o r d evic e th at is c o m monly a cce pte d and u nders to od w it h in a g iv e n c u lt u re . E xa m ple s o f film c o nve ntio ns ra nge fr o m th e o utla w in a w este rn a nd th e h ostile a lie n in a s cie nce fic tio n film to th e 1 80° a xis s yste m d escrib ed in ch apte r 4 a nd th e u se of c lo se -u ps to e xp re ss e m otio nal in te nsit y d escrib ed in ch apte r 1 .

Audie nce s u nders ta nd a nd a cce pt th ese c o nve ntio ns n ot d esp it e th eir fa m ilia rit y b ut b eca use o f it ; if w e w ere c o nfr o nte d b y a n a bso lu te ly orig in al, tr u ly u niq ue d evic e in a ny a rt fo rm , w e w ould lik e ly n ot k n ow what to m ake o f it . W e o fte n lik e to th in k th at g re at a rt is a lw ays to ta lly orig in al, b ut in p oin t o f fa ct it ’s u su ally a m atte r o f v a ry in g e sta blis h ed co nve ntio ns, s o m etim es ra dic a lly , ra th er th an d is p ensin g w it h th em alt o geth er. In th e c a se o f s cre enpla ys, s o m e s cre enw rit in g p ro fe sso rs may in sis t th at th eir p re ce pts — in o th er w ord s, w hat th ey te ach — must be s tr ic tly fo llo w ed, p artic u la rly in te rm s o f s tr u ctu re , b ut th is is o nly tr u e if th e scre enw rit e r’s goal is se llin g th e scre enpla y to a la rg e film makin g c o rp ora tio n th at e xp ects to m ake n ot w ild ly o rig in al m ovie s but m ovie s th at a dhere to fa m ilia r c o nve ntio ns a nd th ere by a ppeal to 129 th e la rg est p ossib le a udie nce .

One o f th e k e y c o nve ntio ns o f n arra tiv e s cre enpla ys is k n ow n a s th e th re e-a ct s tr u ctu re . T he o rig in s o f th e id ea th at g ood d ra m as, w hic h now in clu de film s, s h ould h ave a b egin nin g, m id dle , a nd e nd, c a n b e tr a ce d to th e ancie nt G re ek philo so pher A ris to tle , w ho w ro te his tr e atis e Poetic s a ro und 3 35 BC E . In m odern te rm s, A ct O ne s e ts u p th e main c h ara cte r o r c h ara cte rs a nd th e s it u atio n in w hic h h e, s h e, o r th ey fin d th em se lv e s. In A ct T w o, th e m id dle , th e m ain c h ara cte r o r ch ara cte rs a tte m pt to w ork o ut a p ro ble m c a use d a t th e e nd o f A ct One. T he d ra m a c o nclu des in A ct T hre e, in w hic h th e c h ara cte r o r ch ara cte rs re so lv e h is o r h er o r th eir p ro ble m s, u su ally b y w ork in g th ro ugh a nd r e so lv in g a c ris is , w hic h g enera lly o ccu rs a t th e e nd o f th e se co nd a ct.

The th re e-a ct s tr u ctu re is a h elp fu l to ol fo r n arra tiv e s cre enw rit e rs , who b egin w it h a b la nk p age a nd m ust fill a bout 1 20 su ch p ages befo re th ey fin is h th eir fir s t d ra fts . H avin g a th re e-p art m odel to h old up a s a n id eal h elp s w rit e rs to b uild a s e rie s o f in cid ents th at w ill h old an a udie nce ’s in te re st fo r tw o h ours . It o ffe rs a b asic b lu eprin t fo r pacin g th e e ve nts o f th e s to ry .

But beca use film stu die s is le ss about cre atin g film art th an analy zin g it , w e g enera lly d o n ot s p end tim e tr y in g to d ete rm in e w here th e e nd o f th e fir s t a ct is in a g iv e n film , o r w hat co nstit u te s th e begin nin g o f A ct T hre e. P erh aps a b ette r w ay o f p uttin g it is th at s u ch dete rm in atio ns a re o nly th e b egin nin g. A fte r a ll, m any film s d o n ot fo llo w p re cis e ly th e th re e-a ct s tr u ctu re . In ste ad o f tr y in g to m ake th e film s w e s tu dy c o nfo rm to a p re exis tin g m odel, w e lo ok c lo se ly , e ve n min ute ly , a t a n in div id ual film ’s p lo t to s e e th e s u btle n arra tiv e p atte rn s th at e m erg e. E ve ry film ’s n arra tiv e h as it s o w n u niq ue s tr u ctu re , a nd th e p ro ce ss o f d is co ve rin g it is k n ow n a s s e gm enta tio n.

SEG M EN TA TIO N: F O RM In film s tu die s, a fo rm al a naly sis o f a film ’s s to ry a nd p lo t is c a lle d a SEG M EN TA TIO N . S egm enta tio n p ro vid es a w ay to s e e a nd u nders ta nd narra tiv e p atte rn s w it h out b ein g d is tr a cte d b y th e tr e m endous s e nso ry 130 in put o f th e r e st o f th e film — wit h out th e lo ud s o unds, e xcit in g p hysic a l actio ns, a nd b rig ht c o lo rs th at c o ntr ib ute s o m uch to th e p le asu re o f movie goin g. S egm enta tio ns a re s tr a ig htfo rw ard , e ve n d ry o utlin es o f what ta ke s pla ce in th e film ’s narra tiv e in th e ord er in w hic h th e film make rs p re se nt th e e ve nts .

You w ill r e ca ll th at a film ’s STO RY is all th e e ve nts o f th e n arra tiv e a s th ey o ccu r in c h ro nolo gic a l o rd er fr o m b egin nin g to e nd, in clu din g n ot only th ose th at w e s e e a nd h ear, b ut th ose w e in fe r.

T he PLO T , o n th e oth er h and, is th e o rd erin g a nd s tr u ctu rin g o f n arra tiv e e ve nts a s th ey are p re se nte d in th e film . S egm enta tio ns a re a bout p lo t— th e o rd er in whic h n arra tiv e e le m ents o ccu r. If, fo r e xa m ple , a k ille r c o nfe sse s to his crim e in th e begin nin g of th e film , afte r w hic h a se rie s of fla sh backs pre se nt th e eve nts le adin g up to th e murd er, a se gm enta tio n o f th e film w ould b egin , ju st a s th e p lo t b egin s, w it h th e co nfe ssio n. T he s to ry , o n th e o th er h and, ta ke s a c h ro nolo gic a l fo rm : it begin s w it h a m an em bark in g on th e path th at w ill re su lt in his murd erin g th e v ic tim a nd u lt im ate ly c o nfe ssin g to th e c rim e. T he s to ry ends w it h th e c o nfe ssio n; th e p lo t— and th e s e gm enta tio n— begin w it h it .

Film n arra tiv e s c a n b e lo ng a nd c o m plic a te d, s o a s e gm enta tio n o f a w hole film b egin s b y b re akin g th e n arra tiv e d ow n in to it s la rg est co m ponent p arts . O nce a gain , th ese p arts te nd to fo llo w th e m odel pro pose d b y A ris to tle in th e fo urth c e ntu ry BC E . T hese dra m atic u nit ie s , als o kn ow n as th e cla ssic a l unit ie s , are (1 ) th e unit y of actio n, meanin g th at th e m ain c h ara cte r o r c h ara cte rs p urs u e o nly o ne g oal; (2 ) th e u nit y o f p la ce , w hic h is to s a y th at th e a ctio n o ccu rs in a s in gle genera l lo ca tio n; a nd (3 ) th e u nit y o f tim e, m eanin g th at th e a ctio n ta ke s p la ce d urin g a s in gle tim e p erio d. B ut w hile A ris to tle ’s th eory o f th e d ra m atic u nit ie s s e ts fo rth th e id ea th at p la ys (a nd, b y e xte nsio n in to m odern te rm s, film s) sh ould obse rv e all th re e unit ie s fr o m begin nin g to e nd, m ost film s (a nd m any p la ys) o bse rv e o nly th e fir s t unit y — th at o f a ctio n. G iv e n c in em a’s a bilit y to b rin g m ult ip le lo ca tio ns and tim e fr a m es to geth er d urin g th e c o urs e o f th eir 9 0-m in ute o r tw o- hour r u nnin g tim e, m ost film s ig nore th e s e co nd a nd th ir d u nit ie s w hen it c o m es to th e e ntir e film .

Wit h in s ce nes , h ow eve r, th ese u nit ie s a re still o bse rv e d, a nd it is o n th is b asis th at th e la rg est, m ost b asic 131 in div id ual u nit s o f s e gm enta tio n a re c o nce rn ed.

A s e gm enta tio n o f a w ell- k n ow n m ovie m ay m ake th is p oin t c le are r.

The W iz a rd o f O z , a s w e h ave s e en, c a n b e s e gm ente d in to th re e bro ad u nit s b ase d o n th e u nit y o f s p ace :

1. K ansa s 2. O z 3. K ansa s If th e s cre enw rit e rs a nd d ir e cto r o f The W iz a rd o f O z h ad b een fo rc e d to o bse rv e A ris to tle ’s th re e u nit ie s fo r th e d ura tio n o f th e film , th ey would n ot h ave b een a ble to m ove D oro th y fr o m K ansa s to O z a nd back. The film make rs do adhere to th e unit y of actio n— Doro th y desir e s a bette r, m ore excit in g lif e “o ve r th e ra in bow ” but le arn s, th ro ugh h er e xp erie nce s in O z, th at “th ere ’s n o p la ce lik e h om e.” A nd th ey o bse rv e th e u nit y o f tim e a s w ell, s in ce th e a ctio n o f th e film begin s o n th e d ay o f th e to rn ado a nd e nds w it h D oro th y w akin g u p fr o m w hat w e a ssu m e to b e a fa ir ly b rie f p erio d o f u nco nscio usn ess afte rw ard .

Wit h in each of th ese th re e m ain se gm ents , how eve r, th ere are sm alle r u nit s . T he in it ia l se gm ent, ta kin g pla ce in K ansa s, b re aks dow n th is w ay:

1. K ansa s (a ) A untie E m ’s fa rm , w here D oro th y sp eaks o f h er fe ars fo r Toto ’s sa fe ty beca use of th e evil M is s G ulc h ; to pro te ct T oto , Doro th y d ecid es to r u n a w ay fr o m h om e.

(b ) O n th e ro ad, D oro th y e nco unte rs th e fla m boya nt P ro fe sso r Marv e l, w ho c o nvin ce s h er to g o b ack to A untie E m ’s .

(c ) A untie E m ’s fa rm , w hic h is now dese rte d beca use of th e im pendin g to rn ado; th e to rn ado s tr ik e s, D oro th y g ets h it in th e h ead, th e h ouse lif ts o ff it s fo undatio n, a nd D oro th y a nd T oto a re s p ir it e d in to th e a ir .

At th is p oin t, each o f th e th re e s e gm ents (a , b , a nd c ) o bse rv e s a ll th re e cla ssic a l unit ie s —actio n, pla ce , and tim e. And th ere is a 132 sym metr y to th e s e gm ents , o ne th at m atc h es th e o ve ra ll s ym metr ic a l patte rn o f th e e ntir e film ; ju st a s The W iz a rd o f O z m ove s fr o m K ansa s to O z a nd b ack, th e fir s t s e gm ent m ove s fr o m A untie E m ’s fa rm to th e ro ad a nd b ack. W hen th e h ouse la nds in th e n ext s e gm ent, it la nds in an entir e ly new lo ca tio n— “th e m erry old la nd of O z,” sp ecif ic a lly Munch kin L and. A nd w hile tim e a ppears to b e m ore o r le ss c o ntin uous betw een th e old lo ca tio n (th e house sit tin g on it s fo undatio n in Kansa s) a nd th e n ew lo ca tio n (th e h ouse s it tin g o n a d ead w it c h in Munch kin L and), th e u nit y o f a ctio n s h if ts fr o m D oro th y’s d esir e to ke ep T oto a w ay fr o m M is s G ulc h to D oro th y’s d esir e to k e ep th e r u by slip pers a w ay fr o m M is s G ulc h ’s d ouble , th e W ic ke d W it c h o f th e West, th e e nra ged s is te r o f th e ( v e ry ) r e ce ntly d ece ase d w it c h .

SEG M EN TA TIO N: M EA NIN G Our p artia l s e gm enta tio n o f The W iz a rd o f O z is d evo te d to n arra tiv e fo rm a nd it s s ym metr ic a l, m ir ro r-lik e s tr u ctu re . B ut a s w e e xp lo re d it s str u ctu re in ch apte r 6 , w e began to se e how str u ctu re le ads to meanin g. It is p re cis e ly b y w ay o f to ols s u ch a s s e gm enta tio n (a nd mis e -e n-s ce ne, m onta ge, a nd s o o n) th at film s ch ola rs b ase w hate ve r cla im s w e m ake a bout a g iv e n film ’s p olit ic s a nd id eolo gy. In film stu die s, it ’s n ot s o m uch a q uestio n o f what h appens in a m ovie a s th e way it h appens , a nd th is is c e rta in ly tr u e a s fa r a s p lo t p atte rn s a re co nce rn ed. F ilm make rs u se n arra tiv e s tr u ctu re n ot o nly to te ll s to rie s but to ra is e is su es and m ake arg um ents , so m etim es exp lic it ly , so m etim es im plic it ly .

133 FIG URE 7 .1 D alt o n ( C liv e O wen) in th e p re fa ce o f S pik e L ee’s In sid e M an ( 2 006) ( fr a m e enla rg em ent) .

Spik e L ee’s In sid e M an (2 006) is a g ood c a se in p oin t. B ase d o n a scre enpla y b y R usse ll G ew ir tz , In sid e M an is — on th e s u rfa ce — a b ank heis t dra m a sta rrin g D enze l W ash in gto n, C liv e O wens, and Jo die Foste r. A s e gm enta tio n o f th e film , h ow eve r, r e ve als n ot o nly it s fo rm al str u ctu ra l p atte rn s b ut a ls o a n im plic it p olit ic a l a rg um ent a bout ra ce and p erc e ptio n, o r m is p erc e ptio n a s th e c a se m ay b e.

A S EG M EN TA TIO N O F IN SID E M AN Pre fa ce : U nkn ow n s p ace : D alt o n ( C liv e O wen), a w hit e m an, in tr o duce s h im se lf a nd sa ys h e a tte m pte d a p erfe ct b ank r o bbery .

1. A lt e rn atio n: o uts id e a nd in sid e th e b ank: T he ro bbery b egin s; d ete ctiv e F ra zie r (D enze l W ash in gto n), an A fr ic a n A m eric a n is assig ned; A rth ur C ase (C hris to pher Plu m mer), th e h ead o f th e b ank, a w hit e m an, le arn s o f th e ro bbery ; th e ro bbers fo rc e th e hosta ges to put on dark ove ra lls and w hit e m asks th at re nder th em all but in dis tin guis h able fr o m o ne a noth er; C apta in D ariu s ( W ille m D afo e) is in tr o duce d.

In te rro gatio n: A n A fr ic a n A m eric a n m an d escrib es h avin g b een a h osta ge.

2. In sid e th e b ank: D alt o n in th e b ank’s b ase m ent; O uts id e th e b ank: th e p enth ouse of M adele in e W hit e ( J o die F oste r), w ho ta ke s a p hone c a ll fr o m C ase .

In te rro gatio n: S eve ra l h osta ges te ll th eir s to rie s.

3. O uts id e th e b ank: F ra zie r a nd D ariu s d is cu ss th e c ris is ; C ase te lls W hit e a bout a se cre t s a fe ty d eposit b ox; A lt e rn atio n: o uts id e a nd in sid e: F ra zie r a tte m pts to c a ll D alt o n 134 but D alt o n d oesn ’t p ic k u p.

In te rro gatio n: A fe m ale h osta ge.

4. O uts id e th e b ank: A S ik h h osta ge is r e le ase d, a nd th e c o ps r e m ove h is r e lig io usly mandate d tu rb an; th e m ayo r’s o ffic e : W hit e c o nvin ce s th e m ayo r to le t h er in te rv e ne.

In te rro gatio n: th e S ik h c o m pla in s a bout h is r a cia l tr e atm ent.

5. O uts id e th e b ank: F ra zie r, M it c h ell, a nd D ariu s d is cu ss D alt o n’s d em ands; C ase atte m pts to jo in th em b ut is re buffe d; th e c o ps d ecid e to s e nd in p iz za b oxe s o utfit te d wit h a udio tr a nsm it te rs ; In sid e th e b ank: a h osta ge is b eate n fo r ta kin g o ff h is m ask.

In te rro gatio n: a J e w is h h osta ge.

6. A lt e rn atio n b etw een o uts id e a nd in sid e th e b ank: th e p iz za is d eliv e re d; c o ps lis te n v ia th e tr a nsm it te rs a s th e ro bbers s e em to s p eak R ussia n; th e fe m ale ro bber is dis g uis e d a s a h osta ge.

In te rro gatio ns: tw o h osta ges a re s h ow n s n apsh ots o f o th er h osta ges.

7. A lt e rn atio n b etw een in sid e a nd o uts id e: a h ole h as b een c h opped in to th e s to ra ge ro om flo or; th e la nguage is id entif ie d a s A lb ania n; D alt o n a nd a y o ung A fr ic a n A m eric a n boy p la y a vio le nt vid eo g am e; D alt o n o pens (s a fe ty d eposit ) B ox 3 92; W hit e , th e mayo r, a nd F ra zie r d is cu ss th e s it u atio n.

In te rro gatio n: a n A rm enia n A m eric a n h osta ge is a ske d if h e is A lb ania n.

8. A lt e rn atio n b etw een in sid e a nd o uts id e th e b ank: th e ro bbers h ave b ugged th e co m mand c e nte r; W hit e e nte rs th e b ank; C ase ’s b ackg ro und a s a N azi c o lla bora to r is re ve ale d; W hit e in su lt s F ra zie r.

In te rro gatio ns: th e A fr ic a n A m eric a n b oy is a ske d if h e re co gniz e s a nyo ne in th e sn apsh ots a nd s a ys th at “ w it h th e m ask th ey a ll lo ok th e s a m e”; a L atin o h osta ge r e fe rs to a d ete ctiv e a s “W assa W assa ,” w hic h h e d efin es a s s la ng fo r “a p ers o n th at d on’t co m e to y o ur n eig hborh ood”; a J e w is h h osta ge; a fe m ale h osta ge.

9. A lt e rn atio n b etw een in sid e a nd o uts id e th e b ank: F ra zie r is s h ow n th e h osta ges and tu ssle s w it h D alt o n; th e ro bbers a ppear to sh oot a h osta ge to d eath ; F ra zie r dis cu sse s ra ce a nd v io le nce w it h a w hit e c o p; th e c o ps s to rm th e b ank; th e h osta ges are r e le ase d, tr e ate d r o ughly b y th e c o ps, a nd ta ke n a w ay. F ade o ut.

10. F ade in : F ra zie r is to ld to “ b ury ” a p ie ce o f in fo rm atio n; C ase c o nfe sse s h is p ast 135 to W hit e .

Unkn ow n s p ace : D alt o n fa ce s th e c a m era a nd s ta te s h is n am e— a re peat o f th e pre fa ce ; th is c o ntin ues a s v o ic e -o ve r in to a fla sh back o f D alt o n in th e b ank’s s to ra ge ro om fin gerin g d ia m onds a s th e o th er ro bbers b uild a fa ke w all; D alt o n is s e en h id in g behin d it , th en e m erg in g.

11. A lt e rn atio n b etw een in sid e a nd o uts id e th e b ank: th re e o f th e fo ur r o bbers s it in a c a r o uts id e th e b ank a lo ng w it h o ne o f th e s u ppose d h osta ges; D alt o n p re pare s to le ave th e b ank; o n h is w ay o ut, D alt o n b um ps in to F ra zie r, w ho is o n h is w ay in ; F ra zie r opens B ox 3 92.

12. O uts id e th e b ank: F ra zie r co nfr o nts C ase ; F ra zie r co nfr o nts W hit e a nd th e mayo r; F ra zie r fin ds a d ia m ond in h is p ocke t.

13. F la sh back: In sid e: D alt o n b um ps in to F ra zie r, s h ot fr o m a d if fe re nt a ngle .

Coda: F ra zie r’s g ir lf r ie nd in vit e s h im in to b ed.

This s e gm enta tio n o f In sid e M an d iv id es th e n arra tiv e in to th ir te en parts , w it h a pre fa ce and a co da fr a m in g th em . These th ir te en se gm ents , in tu rn , a re in te rru pte d b y s e ve n in te rro gatio n s ce nes th at ta ke pla ce in ch ro nolo gic a l te rm s afte r th e hosta ges have been re le ase d b ut b efo re F ra zie r h as c o nclu ded h is in ve stig atio n. N otic e in th is c o nte xt th e d if fe re nce b etw een In sid e M an ’s p lo t a nd it s s to ry . In th e sto ry , w hic h ru ns ch ro nolo gic a lly fr o m begin nin g to end, th e ro bbery is c o m mit te d fir s t; th e s to ry e nds w it h D alt o n c o nfe ssin g h is crim e. The plo t, how eve r, begin s wit h Dalt o n’s co nfe ssio n— th e pre fa ce — and c o nclu des w it h F ra zie r r e tu rn in g h om e to h is g ir lf r ie nd in th e c o da. In th e s to ry , th e in te rro gatio ns o ccu r b etw een s e gm ents 9 and 1 0 o f th e n arra tiv e ; in th e p lo t, th ey a re in te rs p ers e d a t in te rv a ls betw een s e gm ents 1 a nd 9 .

In sid e M an appears to tr e at ra cia l is su es only in cid enta lly .

Com pare d to s o m e o f S pik e L ee’s o th er film s, lik e Do th e R ig ht T hin g (1 989) a nd Malc o lm X ( 1 992), In sid e M an m ay s e em to b e o nly m ild ly in te re ste d in perc e ptio ns of ra ce and eth nic it y . But in his book Am eric a n F ilm / A m eric a n C ult u re , th e film s ch ola r J o hn B elt o n m ake s 136 th e c a se th at th e film ’s te m pora l s h if ts b etw een th e s e quentia l e ve nts of th e ro bbery a nd it s a fte rm ath o n th e o ne h and a nd th e h osta ge in te rro gatio ns o n th e o th er h and s e rv e to re ve al L ee’s lin kin g o f ra ce re la tio ns w it h p erc e ptio n a nd m is p erc e ptio n, a s tw o o f th e s u ppose d hosta ges— who are in fa ct ro bbers or acco m plic e s— slip past th e dete ctiv e s, w hile se ve ra l of th e re al hosta ges are tr e ate d unfa ir ly beca use o f th eir r a ce o r e th nic it y . B elt o n w rit e s:

Lee’s p la yfu l m anip ula tio n o f tim e a nd s p ace fo re gro unds th e p ro ble m o f perc e ptio n a nd m is p erc e ptio n. T hough th e n om in al s u bje ct o f th e film is th e fa ce -o ff b etw een c o ps a nd c rim in als d urin g a b ank ro bbery , D alt o n Russe ll a nd h is g ang h arb or a h id den a genda th at in vo lv e s se cu rin g evid ence th at w ill e xp ose C ase ’s c rim es a gain st J e w is h v ic tim s o f th e Holo ca ust. In o th er w ord s, th e film is a ls o a bout ra ce . N ew Y ork C it y ’s mult ic u lt u ra lis m is hig hlig hte d th ro ugh a pro lif e ra tio n of ch ara cte rs re pre se ntin g d if fe re nt ra ce s a nd e th nic it ie s, in clu din g A fr ic a n A m eric a ns, Alb ania ns, A rm enia ns, A sia ns, H is p anic s, J e w s, P ole s, S audi A ra bia ns, and S ik h s. T he tit le m usic — “C haiy ya , C haiy ya ”— is a n Is la m ic In dia n lo ve so ng fr o m a p opula r H in di film , fu rth er a nnouncin g th e film ’s c o nce rn w it h oth er c u lt u re s.

Lee’s in clu sio n o f s e em in gly ra ndom in sta nce s o f ra cis m p ro vid es a su bte xt o n ra ce th at lin ks ra cis m to b ia se d p erc e ptio n o r m is p erc e ptio n.

The (w hit e ) c o p o n th e b eat w ho d is co ve rs th e ro bbery te lls F ra zie r, w ho is b la ck, a s to ry a bout h is fir s t v io le nt e nco unte r w it h a 1 2-y e ar-o ld w ho stu ck a g un in h is fa ce . H e ta lk s a bout b re akin g u p a fig ht in w hic h “o ne lit tle s p ic is g ettin g h is c lo cke d c le aned b y a noth er” w hen “a n i . . . , a n Afr ic a n A m eric a n” p ulle d a g un o n h im . W it h th e n -w ord o n h is lip s, h e su ddenly re aliz e s w ho he’s ta lk in g to and sa ys “A fr ic a n Am eric a n” in ste ad. E ve n C apt. D ariu s (W ille m D afo e) in dulg es in ra cis t e pit h ets , re fe rrin g to “th ose ra gheads a t th e M unic h O ly m pic s.” A S ik h h osta ge is re le ase d; b eca use h e w ears a tu rb an, th e p olic e p erc e iv e h im a s a n A ra b te rro ris t a nd th ro w h im to th e g ro und.

Fra zie r’s m is re adin g of th e bank ro bbery , th ough in no w ay ra cis t, beco m es th e th em atic c e nte r w it h w hic h th ese o th er in sta nce s o f b ia se d perc e ptio n r e so nate . L ee’s c h ore ogra phy o f th e e ndin g o f th e film in vo lv e s th e p oolin g o f e ffo rts o n th e p art o f th e film ’s th re e m ajo r c h ara cte rs — a bla ck m an ( F ra zie r), a w hit e m an ( R usse ll) , a nd a w hit e w om an ( W hit e )— to e xp ose C ase ’s c rim in al p ast. T hre e o f th e film ’s m ost v is ib le n on-ra cis ts ta ke d ow n th e film ’s in vis ib le ra cis t. T he m ora l im pera tiv e o f th e film is artic u la te d by R usse ll in his fin al vo ic e -o ve r. A ckn ow le dgin g th at he 137 ro bbed th e b ank fo r th e m oney, h e a ls o a dm it s to a noth er m otiv e , n otin g th at th e m oney’s “n ot w orth m uch if y o u c a n’t fa ce y o urs e lf in th e m ir ro r.

Resp ect is th e u lt im ate c u rre ncy.” R esp ect— both s e lf - re sp ect a nd r e sp ect fo r o th ers — beco m es th e fo undatio n o n w hic h a n ew , n on-ra cis t m ora l ord er c a n b e b uilt . ( J o hn B elt o n, Am eric a n C in em a/A m eric a n C ult u re , 3 d ed., N ew Y ork : M cG ra w -H ill, 2 008) STU DY G UID E:

S TO RY A N ALY SIS A N D S EG M EN TA TIO N Segm enta tio ns c a n b e tim e-c o nsu m in g. Y ou m ust s to p a nd s ta rt th e film m any tim es in o rd er to ta ke n ote s, a nd if th e film is a t a ll e nte rta in in g to y o u, y o u w ill lik e ly re se nt havin g to d is e ngage y o urs e lf fr o m w hat is h appenin g in o rd er to c o nce ntr a te o n th e ta sk at h and. T he s e gm enta tio n o f In sid e M an a bove to ok m any h ours to c o m ple te a nd w as orig in ally e ig ht s in gle -s p ace d p ages lo ng. O nly a fte r s e ve ra l m ore h ours o f w hit tlin g it dow n to it s b asic s e gm ents d id th e film ’s c o re n arra tiv e p atte rn e m erg e.

Unle ss y o ur p ro fe sso r a ssig ns y o u to w rit e a s e gm enta tio n o f a n e ntir e film , h ere a re tw o id eas fo r c u ttin g d ow n th e s h eer a m ount o f w ork in vo lv e d in d oin g a s e gm enta tio n:

(1 ) S egm ent a film w it h w hic h y o u a re a lr e ady v e ry fa m ilia r, a nd ( 2 ) O nly s e gm ent p art of a film .

Segm entin g a film y o u k n ow w ell w ill e nable y o u to a vo id g ettin g s o c a ught u p in th e actio n th at y o u fo rg et to a naly ze th e n arra tiv e . W heth er it is Alie n ( 1 979) o r The S ound of M usic (1 965), y o ur p rio r k n ow le dge o f th e film ’s s to ry w ill e nable y o u to c o nce ntr a te on it s p lo t.

Segm entin g o nly p art o f a film is a ls o p ossib le , a lt h ough it m ay p ro vid e m is le adin g re su lt s . Y ou w ill s a ve s o m e tim e if y o u a naly ze , s a y, th e fir s t tw enty m in ute s o f a film in ste ad o f th e w hole th in g, b ut w hile y o u w ill g ain th e e xp erie nce o f tr a cin g a s p ecif ic narra tiv e ’s deve lo pm ent, yo ur analy sis w ill be partia l and possib ly dis to rte d. For exa m ple , w ere y o u to a naly ze o nly th e fir s t p art o f In sid e M an , y o u w ould n ot s e e th e la rg er p atte rn fo rm ed b y th e in te rro gatio ns, o nly th e fir s t o f w hic h w ould a ppear in y o ur se gm enta tio n. T o a vo id m is re pre se ntin g th e n arra tiv e ’s s tr u ctu re , b e s u re to w atc h th e re st o f th e film c a re fu lly , r e m ain in g a w are o f a ny b ro ad p atte rn s th at e m erg e a nd n otin g th em a cco rd in gly .

WRIT IN G A BO UT W RIT IN G The s e arc h fo r m eanin g, a nd th e a rtic u la tio n o f id eas a bout m eanin g, c o ntin ues a s th e ce ntr a l th em e o f th is la st s e ctio n. L et’s ta ke a s e co nd lo ok a t J o hn B elt o n’s a naly sis o f In sid e M an to s e e s p ecif ic a lly h ow B elt o n u se d s e gm enta tio n a nd c lo se o bse rv a tio n to put to geth er a n a rg um ent a bout w hat th e film m eans:

1. L ee’s p la yfu l m anip ula tio n o f tim e a nd sp ace fo re gro unds th e p ro ble m o f perc e ptio n a nd m is p erc e ptio n. T hough th e n om in al s u bje ct o f th e film is th e fa ce -o ff b etw een c o ps a nd c rim in als d urin g a b ank ro bbery , D alt o n R usse ll a nd 138 his gang harb or a hid den agenda th at in vo lv e s se cu rin g evid ence th at w ill exp ose C ase ’s c rim es a gain st J e w is h v ic tim s o f th e h olo ca ust. In o th er w ord s, th e film is a ls o a bout r a ce .

In th is para gra ph, Belt o n make s a lo gic a l co nnectio n betw een th e film ’s nonch ro nolo gic a l tim e s tr u ctu re a nd th e th em e o f m is p erc e ptio n, c o nclu din g th at th e co m bin atio n of th ese ele m ents — uncle ar te m pora l str u ctu re plu s th em e of mis p erc e ptio n e quals th e film ’s o th erw is e h id den s u bje ct m atte r:

ra ce . It’s a n in genio us asse rtio n. H ere ’s h ow B elt o n s u pports it w it h e vid ence :

2. N ew Y ork C it y ’s m ult ic u lt u ra lis m is hig hlig hte d th ro ugh a pro lif e ra tio n of ch ara cte rs re pre se ntin g dif fe re nt ra ce s and eth nic it ie s, in clu din g Afr ic a n Am eric a ns, Alb ania ns, Arm enia ns, Asia ns, H is p anic s, Je w s, Pole s, Saudi Ara bia ns, a nd S ik h s. T he tit le m usic — “C haiy ya , C haiy ya ”— is a n Is la m ic In dia n lo ve s o ng fr o m a p opula r H in di film , fu rth er a nnouncin g th e film ’s c o nce rn w it h oth er c u lt u re s.

So fa r s o g ood; B elt o n p ro vid es d eta ils o f a ll th e ra cia l, e th nic , re lig io us, a nd n atio nal co m munit ie s r e pre se nte d b y c h ara cte rs in In sid e M an . B y lis tin g th ese g ro ups, B elt o n is la yin g o n d eta ils th at s u pport h is a rg um ent th at th e film c o nta in s a s o cia l a nd p olit ic a l th em e u nderly in g it s s u rfa ce b ank-ro bbery s u bje ct.

3. L ee’s in clu sio n o f s e em in gly ra ndom in sta nce s o f ra cis m p ro vid es a s u bte xt on r a ce th at lin ks r a cis m to b ia se d p erc e ptio n o r m is p erc e ptio n. T he ( w hit e ) c o p on th e b eat w ho d is co ve rs th e ro bbery te lls F ra zie r, w ho is b la ck, a s to ry a bout his fir s t v io le nt e nco unte r w it h a 1 2-y e ar-o ld w ho s tu ck a g un in h is fa ce . H e ta lk s a bout b re akin g u p a fig ht in w hic h “o ne lit tle s p ic is g ettin g h is c lo cke d cle aned b y a noth er” w hen “ a n i . . . , a n A fr ic a n A m eric a n” p ulle d a g un o n h im .

Wit h th e n -w ord o n h is lip s, h e s u ddenly re aliz e s w ho h e’s ta lk in g to a nd s a ys “A fr ic a n A m eric a n” in ste ad. E ve n C apt. D ariu s ( W ille m D afo e) in dulg es in r a cis t epit h ets , re fe rrin g to “th ose ra gheads a t th e M unic h O ly m pic s.” A S ik h h osta ge is re le ase d; b eca use h e w ears a tu rb an, th e p olic e p erc e iv e h im a s a n A ra b te rro ris t a nd th ro w h im to th e g ro und.

In th is p ara gra ph, B elt o n lin ks in cid ents o f ra cis m to th em atic q uestio ns a bout th e natu re o f p erc e ptio n. H e p ro vid es c le ar, a ccu ra te d escrip tio ns o f th re e in cid ents in th e film th at re la te to th ese is su es, ble nds vis u al, aura l and sto ry descrip tio ns, and meth odic a lly la ys o ut h is c a se .

4. F ra zie r’s m is re adin g o f th e b ank ro bbery , th ough in n o w ay ra cis t, b eco m es th e th em atic ce nte r w it h w hic h th ese oth er in sta nce s of bia se d perc e ptio n re so nate . L ee’s c h ore ogra phy o f th e e ndin g o f th e film in vo lv e s th e p oolin g o f effo rts o n th e p art o f th e film ’s th re e m ajo r c h ara cte rs — a b la ck m an ( F ra zie r), a whit e m an (R usse ll) , a nd a w hit e w om an (W hit e )— to e xp ose C ase ’s c rim in al past. T hre e o f th e film ’s m ost v is ib le n on-ra cis ts ta ke d ow n th e film ’s in vis ib le ra cis t. T he m ora l im pera tiv e o f th e film is a rtic u la te d b y R usse ll in h is fin al v o ic e - 139 ove r. A ckn ow le dgin g th at h e ro bbed th e b ank fo r th e m oney, h e a ls o a dm it s to anoth er m otiv e , notin g th at th e m oney’s “n ot w orth m uch if yo u ca n’t fa ce yo urs e lf in th e m ir ro r. R esp ect is th e u lt im ate c u rre ncy.” R esp ect— both s e lf - re sp ect a nd re sp ect fo r o th ers — beco m es th e fo undatio n o n w hic h a n ew , n on- ra cis t m ora l o rd er c a n b e b uilt .

In th is fin al p ara gra ph, B elt o n tie s u p h is a sse rtio n a bout m is p erc e ptio ns w it h c le ar, co ncis e e vid ence fr o m th e film a nd o ffe rs a c o nclu sio n th at s p in s o ut fr o m th e in div id ual movie to th e g re ate r re alm o f p olit ic s a nd cu lt u re . H ad B elt o n b egun w it h h is fin al se nte nce ( “R esp ect— both se lf - re sp ect and re sp ect fo r oth ers — beco m es th e fo undatio n o n w hic h a n ew , non-ra cis t m ora l o rd er ca n b e built ” ) w it h out lo gic a lly le adin g th e re ader th ro ugh h is e vid ence -b ase d a rg um ent s te p b y s te p, h is p oin t w ould not s ta nd; th ere w ould b e n o fo undatio n fo r it to re st o n. B ut b y u sin g lo gic , in genuit y , cre ativ e th in kin g, a nd a ccu ra te q uota tio ns fr o m th e film , B elt o n m ake s a s o lid c a se a nd a c o nvin cin g a rg um ent. K eep th is s tr a te gy in m in d fo r a ny w rit in g a ssig nm ents y o u a re aske d to d o, n ot o nly in th is c o urs e b ut in y o ur o th er c o urs e s a s w ell.

140 C HAPTE R 8 F IL M MAKER S F IL M — A D IR EC TO R’S A RT?

Y ou a re p ro bably u se d to h earin g a nd r e adin g r e vie w ers r e fe r to film s a s h avin g b een m ade b y th eir d ir e cto rs : “S te ve n S pie lb erg ’s Savin g P riv a te R ya n ,” “W ong K ar-W ai’s 2046 ,” “M ic h el G ondry ’s Ete rn al S unsh in e o f th e S potle ss M in d . . .” B ut c o nsid er th is : o f th ose th re e f ilm s, o nly 2046 w as w rit te n b y th e p ers o n w ho d ir e cte d it . R obert R odat w ro te Savin g P riv a te R ya n ’s s cre enpla y, n ot S te ve n S pie lb erg , a nd Ete rn al S unsh in e o f th e S potle ss M in d w as w rit te n b y C harlie K aufm an. W hy is th e d ir e cto r n ece ssa rily th e film ’s cre ato r? W hat a bout th e s cre enw rit e r? O r th e p ro duce r? O r th e c in em ato gra pher?

H ow a bout th e a cto rs ? S hould n’t th ey b e g iv e n s o m e c re dit , to o? W hy n ot c a ll it “ T om H anks’s Savin g P riv a te R ya n ” o r “ J im C arre y’s Ete rn al S unsh in e o f th e S potle ss M in d ”?

This c h apte r e xp lo re s th e n atu re o f a uth ors h ip in th e c in em a, th e v a rio us r o le s p la ye d b y th e k e y c re ativ e p ers o nnel in a film ’s c re atio n, a nd th e c o lla bora tiv e n atu re o f c o m merc ia l film makin g. A fte r a ll, o ve r e ig hty a cto rs r e ce iv e d c re dit in th e CRAW L a t th e e nd o f Savin g P riv a te R ya n ; c o untle ss EXTR AS a ls o a ppeare d o nscre en. (A cra w l is a s e t o f w ord s th at a ppear a t th e b otto m o f th e s cre en a nd m ove u pw ard ; th e E N D C RED IT S o f a film o fte n ta ke th e fo rm o f a c ra w l. A n extr a is a p erfo rm er w ho h as n o d ia lo gue in a c ro w d s ce ne a nd re ce iv e s n o c re dit .) A to ta l of eig ht pro duce rs , co pro duce rs , and asso cia te p ro duce rs help ed make Savin g Priv a te Rya n , alo ng wit h a c in em ato gra pher ( Ja nusz K am in ski) , an edit o r (M ic h ael K ahn), a c o m pose r ( J o hn W illia m s), a p ro ductio n d esig ner ( T om S anders ), fiv e a rt d ir e cto rs , a co stu m e d esig ner ( Jo anna Jo hnsto n) a nd h er 3 9- m em ber cre w , a se t deco ra to r (L is a D ean Kava naugh), six te en 141 make up a rtis ts , te n a ssis ta nt d ir e cto rs , a nd o ve r s ix h undre d o th er people , fr o m so und re co rd is ts a nd F ole y a rtis ts to e le ctr ic ia ns a nd best boys and grip s to nurs e s, pro sth etic s sp ecia lis ts , driv e rs , negativ e cu tte rs , acco unta nts , ca te re rs , and stu ntm en. In pra ctic a l te rm s, h ow c a n w e c o nsid er th is film to b e “ S te ve n S pie lb erg ’s Savin g Priv a te R ya n ” w it h out lo sin g s ig ht o f th e fa ct th at it to ok a th ousa nd people to m ake it ? A nd w hat is a best b oy , a nyw ay?

AUTH O RSH IP Alt h ough th ere is c o ntin uin g d is a gre em ent o n th e p oin t, film s ch ola rs te nd to c re dit th e d ir e cto r a s th e c h ie f c re ato r o f a g iv e n film . D ir e cto rs —th ose w hose w ork s w e stu dy in m ost film cla sse s, a t le ast— are th ere fo re th e a uth ors o f th e film s in m uch th e s a m e w ay th at a b ook’s auth or is it s w rit e r, desp it e th e fa ct th at m any oth er people are in vo lv e d in a b ook’s c re atio n: a n e dit o r, a p ro ofr e ader, a d esig ner, a ty p ese tte r, a nd th ose w ho p hysic a lly p ut th e b ook to geth er o ut o f paper, in k, a nd a dhesiv e s. E ve ry b ook is s h aped in s o m e m anner b y a te am o f p eople , b ut th e w rit e r g enera lly g ets th e c re dit fo r it s c re atio n.

So it is w it h film d ir e cto rs , th ough th e c in em a’s te ch nolo gic a l n atu re is su ch th at th e a m ount o f a rtis tic in put b y o th ers is m uch g re ate r in film makin g th an in p ublis h in g.

There a re b oth p ra ctic a l a nd th eore tic a l r e aso ns fo r tr e atin g a g iv e n film ’s dir e cto r as it s auth or. F ir s t, and ce rta in ly not le ast of all, it sim plif ie s m atte rs . F ilm h is to ria ns a re r a re ly p re se nt d urin g th e w rit in g, pro ductio n, a nd PO STP R O DUCTIO N o f th e film s w e s tu dy, a nd w it h out doin g a g re at d eal o f a rc h iv a l r e se arc h a nd in te rv ie w s, it is im possib le to k n ow e xa ctly w ho m ade e ve ry a rtis tic d ecis io n in th e c re atio n o f a motio n p ic tu re . E ve n a fte r d oin g d eta ile d re se arc h , w e fin d th at m any decis io ns re m ain unattr ib uta ble . H ow do w e kn ow w ho exa ctly is re sp onsib le fo r w hat? D id S te ve n S pie lb erg te ll T om H anks to p la y a giv e n s ce ne in Savin g P riv a te R ya n in a c e rta in w ay, o r d id H anks im pro vis e h is g estu re s a nd fa cia l e xp re ssio ns? W as S pie lb erg e ve n pre se nt o n th e s e t o r lo ca tio n e ve ry s in gle d ay? C ould it h ave b een a n assis ta nt dir e cto r w ho su ggeste d a partic u la r gestu re to H anks?

142 Perh aps th e g estu re w as s p ecif ie d in R obert R odat’s s cre enpla y. O r mayb e H anks p erfo rm ed it s p onta neously a nd u nco nscio usly w it h out anyo ne d ir e ctin g h im to d o it , in clu din g h im se lf . T o m ake it p ossib le to dis cu ss Savin g P riv a te R ya n ’s m eanin g in a ny d eta il a nd c la rit y , film stu die s m ake th in gs fr a nkly e asie r b y a ssu m in g th at b eca use S te ve n Spie lb erg e xe rts a n e norm ous a m ount o f cre ativ e co ntr o l o ve r h is film s, h e is th e a uth or o f th ose film s e ve n th ough h e d id n ot w rit e th e scre enpla ys and m ay not eve n have dir e cte d eve ry sin gle sce ne him se lf .

This h old s tr u e fo r a ll o f th e w orld ’s g re at d ir e cto rs , fr o m C harle s Chaplin a nd D . W . G rif fit h to J o hn F ord a nd H ow ard H aw ks to J e an Renoir , K enji M iz o guch i, F ederic o F ellin i, R ain er W ern er F assb in der, Saty a jit R ay, and on and on. These dir e cto rs genera lly did not co m pose e ve ry w ord o f th e s crip ts o f th eir film s, a nd in fa ct th ey m ay not h ave w rit te n a ny s cre enpla ys a t a ll. B ut th ey u ndoubte dly o ve rs a w all th e im porta nt a sp ects o f th eir film s’ c re atio n, a nd s o w e c o nsid er th em th e film s’ c re ato rs .

A m ore d efe nsib le r e aso n fo r tr e atin g a film ’s d ir e cto r a s it s a uth or is th at it is th e d ir e cto r, n ot th e s cre enw rit e r o r th e p ro duce r o r a ny o th er mem ber of th e cre ativ e te am , w ho genera lly decid es w here th e ca m era g oes, w hat it s h oots , a nd w here it m ove s. In fa ct, it is u su ally th e d ir e cto r w ho is p re se nt th ro ugh m ost o f th e sta ges o f a film ’s cre atio n, fr o m c a stin g th ro ugh p ostp ro ductio n. A lt h ough it is th e e dit o r and h is o r h er s ta ff w ho lit e ra lly p ie ce th e s h ots to geth er to fo rm th e whole film , it ’s th e dir e cto r w ho pro vid es th e ra w m ate ria l. S om e dir e cto rs — lik e B illy W ild er a nd A lf r e d H it c h co ck, fo r in sta nce — were kn ow n fo r m ain ta in in g a rtis tic c o ntr o l b y d oin g w hat is c a lle d edit in g in th e c a m era ; in o th er w ord s, th ey o nly s h ot p re cis e ly w hat th ey w ante d to b e in clu ded in th e fin al c u t. ( A fin al c u t is th e la st v e rs io n o f a film — th e o ne th at is re le ase d to th e p ublic . A RO UG H C UT is a p re lim in ary ve rs io n o f a film , o ne th at in clu des a ll th e m ajo r s e quence s in th eir appro xim ate le ngth , b ut w it h out fin ely tu ned e dit in g o r th e m usic a l sco re . T he te rm DIR EC TO R’S C UT r e fe rs to th e v e rs io n o f th e film th at th e dir e cto r d eem s to b e fin is h ed, w it h out th e in te rfe re nce o f p ro duce rs , stu dio s, ce nso rs , o r d is tr ib uto rs .) L esse r d ir e cto rs sh ot sce nes th at co uld be edit e d in va rio us w ays, but w it h W ild er, H it c h co ck, and 143 oth ers , s tu dio e xe cu tiv e s fo und it d if fic u lt to ta m per w it h th eir film s beca use th ey sim ply d id n’t h ave a lt e rn ate fo ota ge to ta m per w it h .

There w as n ot m uch c e llu lo id le ft o n th e p ro ve rb ia l c u ttin g-ro om flo or in a W ild er o r H it c h co ck e dit in g r o om .

One o f th e m ost fa m ous c a se s o f d is p ute d a uth ors h ip in th e c in em a is Cit iz e n K ane , th e scre enpla y of w hic h w as co w rit te n by O rs o n Welle s and H erm an M ankie w ic z. M ankie w ic z and his su pporte rs re se nte d th e fa ct th at W elle s to ok th e lio n’s s h are o f th e c re dit fo r th e film ’s cre atio n. W hile it is fa ir to sa y th at M ankie w ic z dra fte d th e scre enpla y , th e fa ct is th at O rs o n W elle s m ade th e film . R eaders o f th e s crip t m ay le git im ate ly a ttr ib ute th e s crip t to H erm an M ankie w ic z, but Cit iz e n K ane ’s a udie nce s s e e th e w ork o f O rs o n W elle s.

TH E A UTE U R T H EO RY In 1 948 th e F re nch film c rit ic a nd th eoris t A le xa ndre A str u c c o in ed th e te rm ca m éra -s ty lo , o r c a m era -p en, to d escrib e th e w ay a film d ir e cto r use s h is o r h er ca m era — and so und re co rd ers , lig htin g e quip m ent, and so on— as a so rt of writ in g in str u m ent, a m eans of se lf - exp re ssio n. F or A str u c, th e c re atio n o f a film w as lik e th e w rit in g o f a nove l o r a p oem : it w as n ot o nly a c re ativ e a ct, b ut a d eeply p ers o nal one. H e r e je cte d th e id ea th at a film d ir e cto r s im ply to ok a p re exis tin g scre enpla y a nd film ed it a cco rd in g to it s s p ecif ic a tio ns. In ste ad, A str u c arg ued, th e best dir e cto rs cre ate d an entir e ly new and in te nse ly pers o nal w ork o f a rt, w it h th e s cre enpla y b ein g o nly a b lu eprin t fo r sto ry , plo t, dia lo gue, and ch ara cte rs . Film art, he arg ued, was onscre en, n ot o n th e ty p ed o r p rin te d p age.

Astr u c’s fo llo w ers , m ost n ota bly th e crit ic F ra nço is T ru ffa ut (w ho went o n to b eco m e a d ir e cto r in h is o w n rig ht, a s d id A str u c h im se lf ) , to ok th is id ea fu rth er b y d eve lo pin g w hat th ey c a lle d th e polit iq ue d es aute urs , th e a ssu m ptio n b ein g th at d ir e cto rs w ere in fa ct aute urs , o r auth ors . F or T ru ffa ut a nd h is c ir c le , w ho w ro te fo r th e jo urn al Cahie rs du c in ém a , it w asn ’t ju st th at th e d ir e cto r w as th e c re ato r o f h is o r h er film s, b ut th at s o m e d ir e cto rs w ere b ette r a t it th an o th ers . N ot o nly d id ce rta in d ir e cto rs e xp re ss th em se lv e s w it h th eir film s, b ut w hat th ey 144 exp re sse d w as e sp ecia lly w orth e xp re ssin g. T ru ffa ut d id n’t c a ll it th e polit iq ue d es a ute urs fo r n oth in g. H is c h am pio nin g o f c e rta in d ir e cto rs (H ow ard H aw ks a nd A lf r e d H it c h co ck a t th e to p o f th e lis t) o ve r o th ers (B illy W ild er, m ost n oto rio usly ) e xp re sse d a k in d o f a rtis tic p olit ic s th at was b ase d n ot o nly o n ju dgm ents a bout a d ir e cto r’s v is u al s ty le b ut als o in la rg e m easu re o n th e p erc e iv e d m ora l q ualit y o f h is o r h er world vie w . W ild er, fo r e xa m ple , w as b oth to o cyn ic a l fo r T ru ffa ut’s ta ste and to o in ve ste d in his ow n scre enpla ys, w hic h he alw ays co w ro te ; sin ce th e aute uris ts te nded to dis re gard scre enw rit e rs , a writ e r-d ir e cto r s u ch a s W ild er p re se nte d a c a use fo r s u sp ic io n a nd co nse quent d eva lu atio n.

AU TE U RIS M w as p opula riz e d in th e U nit e d S ta te s b y th e c rit ic A ndre w Sarris , w hose g ro undbre akin g 1 968 v o lu m e Am eric a n C in em a r a nke d about tw o h undre d H olly w ood d ir e cto rs a cco rd in g to th eir a bilit y to cre ate a w orld vie w o ve r th e c o urs e o f th eir c a re ers a nd th e q ualit y o f th at w orld vie w . B y world vie w , S arris a nd th e o th er a ute uris ts m eant a n ove ra ll v is io n o f th e w ay th e w orld w ork e d s o cia lly a nd p hilo so phic a lly , th e w ay m en a nd w om en d ealt w it h e ach o th er a nd th em se lv e s, a nd th e e th ic a l a nd m ora l q uestio ns th e d ir e cto rs g ra pple d w it h o ve r th e co urs e o f th eir c a re ers .

Giv e n th e w ay m ost o f th ese film s w ere m ade, it w as s u rp ris in g fo r Sarris to s e e th e a rtic u la tio n o f in div id ual w orld vie w s in th em . U nder th e s tu dio s yste m , th e m ode o f p ro ductio n th at d om in ate d A m eric a n film makin g fr o m th e 1 920s to th e la te 1 940s, e ach m ovie c o m pany sig ned m ost o f it s d ir e cto rs to lo ng-te rm c o ntr a cts , a lo ng w it h a cto rs and oth er cre ativ e pers o nnel. (P ara m ount, M etr o -G old w yn -M aye r, 20th C entu ry -F ox, W arn er B ro s., R KO , C olu m bia , U nit e d A rtis ts , a nd Univ e rs a l w ere th e e ig ht d om in ant c o m panie s. O f th ese , P ara m ount, MGM , F ox, W arn ers , a nd R KO w ere c o nsid ere d th e majo r s tu dio s , and th e o th er th re e— Colu m bia , U A, a nd U niv e rs a l— were th e min or stu dio s .) T here w as a w rit in g d epartm ent w it h a s ta ff o f s cre enw rit e rs whose jo b it w as to c ra nk o ut film able s cre enpla ys fo r c o m merc ia l film s; th ere w ere co stu m e and pro ps departm ents to pro vid e and ware house th e re quir e d it e m s, m any o f w hic h w ere u se d o ve r a nd ove r a gain ; th ere w ere a cto rs w ho w ere u nder c o ntr a ct a nd a ppeare d in film a fte r film . . . T he stu dio syste m o pera te d u nder a m ass- 145 pro ductio n m odel in w hic h film s w ere m ade and dis tr ib ute d lik e sa usa ges o r b oxe s o f ce re al, a nd th ere w as n ot a lo t o f ro om fo r in div id ual d ir e cto rs to p ut th eir p ers o nal s ta m p o n th e film s th ey m ade.

It w as a ll th e m ore re m ark a ble , th en, fo r S arris a nd o th ers to d is ce rn ele m ents o f p ers o nal sty le in th e w ork o f tw o h undre d H olly w ood dir e cto rs , m any o f w hom w ork e d in a v a rie ty o f g enre s o ve r th e c o urs e of tw enty o r th ir ty y e ars . (A genre is a c a te gory o f film , s u ch a s th e weste rn , th e h orro r film , th e c o stu m e d ra m a, th e m elo dra m a, a nd s o on, w it h re co gniz a ble c o nve ntio ns a nd c h ara cte r ty p es. T his to pic is co ve re d in d eta il in ch apte r 1 0 .) How ard H aw ks, fo r e xa m ple , m ade s cre w ball c o m edie s ( Brin gin g Up B aby , 1 938; Ball o f F ir e , 1 941, I Was a M ale W ar B rid e , 1 948), weste rn s ( Red R iv e r , 1 948; Rio B ra vo , 1 959), m usic a ls ( A S ong Is Born , 1 948, Gentle m en P re fe r B lo ndes , 1 953), a film n oir ( The B ig Sle ep , 1 946), c o m bat film s ( The D aw n P atr o l , 1 930; Serg eant Y ork , 1941), a nd a h orro r film ( The T hin g fr o m A noth er W orld , 1 951), a nd ye t h is w orld vie w is r e m ark a bly c o nsis te nt fr o m g enre to g enre , film to film . H aw ks’s m ale c h ara cte rs d em onstr a te a m ore o r le ss c o here nt co de o f e th ic a l a nd e m otio nal b ehavio r— a c e rta in s to ic is m in th e fa ce of a dve rs it y , fo r e xa m ple — th at ru ns fr o m C ary G ra nt’s e xa sp era te d pale onto lo gis t in th e c o m edy Brin gin g U p B aby th ro ugh J o hn W ayn e’s obse ssiv e c a ttle m an in th e w este rn Red R iv e r . T ru ffa ut, S arris , a nd oth er aute uris ts appre cia te d th e co nsis te ncy of Haw ks’s m ora l univ e rs e a s w ell a s h is u nders ta te d a nd p re cis e fo rm al s ty le .

Befo re T ru ffa ut, S arris , a nd th e a ute uris ts , c rit ic s te nded to tr e at th e film s of Alf r e d Hit c h co ck as bein g mere ly hig hly polis h ed ente rta in m ents .

Rebecca , Noto rio us , Str a ngers on a Tra in , Rear Win dow , Vertig o , Psych o . . . H it c h co ck’s ta le nt fo r c re atin g s u sp ense was w id ely appre cia te d by film re vie w ers and audie nce s, but his underly in g w orld vie w w as la rg ely ig nore d. T he a ute uris ts , h ow eve r, perc e iv e d th at H it c h co ck w as a skin g m ora l q uestio ns w it h h is film s:

What is th e n atu re o f g uilt , a nd is a nyo ne e ve r tr u ly in noce nt? F ilm sch ola rs n ow u nders ta nd th at o ne c a n tr a ce b ro ad th em es fr o m The Ple asu re G ard en , H it c h co ck’s fir s t film , to Fam ily P lo t , h is la st— th at Hit c h co ck c re ate d a c o m ple x a nd c o here nt w orld vie w w it h h is b ody o f work r e gard le ss o f w ho w ro te th e s crip ts . H is s cre enw rit e rs v a rie d; h e 146 work e d w it h m any p ro duce rs a nd cin em ato gra phers ; a nd h is film s were re le ase d u nder a v a rie ty o f s tu dio b anners . B ut h is v is u al s ty le and th em atic in te re sts fo rm a b ody o f w ork th at film s ch ola rs a naly ze fo r m eanin g in e xa ctly th e s a m e w ay a s lit e ra ry s ch ola rs s tu dy th e work o f w rit e rs lik e S hake sp eare , F aulk n er, a nd P ro ust. W rit e rs w rit e wit h w ord s; film make rs w rit e w it h im ages a nd s o unds.

TH E P R O DUCER ’S R O LE If th e d ir e cto r c h oose s c a m era a ngle s, d esig ns c a m era m ove m ents , and s u perv is e s th e a cto rs ’ p erfo rm ance s, w hat d oes th e p ro duce r d o?

Under th e stu dio syste m , p ro duce rs (o r p ro ductio n su perv is o rs , a s th ey w ere s o m etim es c a lle d) w ere in c h arg e o f m akin g s u re th eir film s sta ye d o n s ch edule , o r a s c lo se to s ch edule a s p ossib le . P ro duce rs (a lo ng w it h d ir e cto rs a nd s o m e s ta rs ) lo oke d a t DAIL IE S o r RUSH ES , th e deve lo ped fo ota ge ju st back fr o m th e pro ce ssin g la b, and eit h er appro ve d th em o r a ske d th e d ir e cto r to film re ta ke s. B eca use th e stu dio s yste m w as m ore o r le ss fa cto ry -lik e in it s m ode o f p ro ductio n, th e fin ancin g o f in div id ual m otio n p ic tu re s w as n ot a t is su e in th ose days; th e s tu dio s g enera lly h ad th e n ece ssa ry c a pit a l to m ake th eir movie s, s o a film ’s p ro duce r d id n’t h ave to d ouble a s a fu ndra is e r. B ut in to day’s film makin g w orld , p ro duce rs (lik e d ir e cto rs ) a re m uch m ore in dependent, a nd th ey m ust o fte n a rra nge fo r th e fin ancin g o f e ach pic tu re th ey m ake .

Seve ra l p ro duce rs in th e s tu dio e ra e xe rte d a p ro fo und in flu ence ove r th e film s u nder th eir c o ntr o l. Ir v in g T halb erg a t M GM a nd H al B .

Wallis a t W arn er B ro s., fo r in sta nce , w ere m ore e xa ctin g in th eir ta ste s and a uth orit a tiv e in th eir a rtis tic in flu ence th an m any o f th e d ir e cto rs who a ctu ally s h ot th e film s. T hese p ro duce rs m onit o re d e ve ry s te p o f th eir film s’ p ro ductio n, a nd th ey c o ntin ued e xe rtin g c o ntr o l o ve r th e film s d urin g p ostp ro ductio n, lo ng a fte r th e d ir e cto rs h ad m ove d o n to oth er p ro je cts .

David O . S elz n ic k w as a noth er p ow erfu l p ro duce r w ho b egan a s a stu dio e m plo ye e b ut, h avin g o utg ro w n th e ro le o f u nderlin g to th e le gendary s tu dio b oss L ouis B . M aye r o f M GM , S elz n ic k b eca m e a n 147 in dependent p ro duce r. H is g re ate st film , Gone w it h th e W in d , h ad a to ta l o f th re e d if fe re nt d ir e cto rs ( V ic to r F le m in g is th e c re dit e d d ir e cto r, but G eorg e C uko r a nd S am W ood a ls o w ork e d o n th e film a t th e begin nin g o f it s p ro ductio n), s o o ne c o uld a rg ue th at S elz n ic k is th at film ’s re al a ute ur. It w as S elz n ic k w ho s u perv is e d th e s cre enpla y’s co nstr u ctio n, S elz n ic k w ho m ade a ll th e im porta nt c a stin g d ecis io ns, and S elz n ic k w ho co ntr o lle d th e e dit in g p ro ce ss. U nlik e th e a ute ur dir e cto rs , h ow eve r, e ve n a p ow erfu l p ro duce r lik e D avid O . S elz n ic k did n ot h ave a p ers o nal film makin g sty le in th e w ay H it c h co ck o r Haw ks d id . ( A s a n e xa m ple o f a n in te re stin g c la sh b etw een a n a ute ur and a m ajo r pro duce r, H it c h co ck alw ays m ain ta in ed th at his film Rebecca (1 940) w as n ot a ctu ally a H it c h co ck p ic tu re , b ut ra th er a Selz n ic k p ic tu re , b eca use S elz n ic k h ad in sis te d o n la vis h in g h is o w n tr a dem ark pro ductio n va lu es on th e film .) If, as A le xa ndre A str u c pro pose d, film makin g a t it s b est is a k in d o f p ers o nal w rit in g, th en it mig ht be sa id th at pro duce rs lik e S elz n ic k, Thalb erg , and W allis pro duce d h ig hly p olis h ed b ut r e la tiv e ly im pers o nal film s.

Today, m ost p ro duce rs a re m ore lik e S elz n ic k th an th e a ve ra ge stu dio -e ra p ro duce r in th at th ey a re o fte n th e o nes w ho c o m e u p w it h th e id ea o f m akin g a film o ut o f a g iv e n n ove l, s to ry , p la y, o r o rig in al scre enpla y, afte r whic h th ey put to geth er a packa ge— dir e cto r, scre enw rit e r, sta rs — and a tte m pt to fin d fin ancin g. It is u su ally th e pro duce r, n ot th e d ir e cto r, w ho b uys th e optio n ( o r th e r ig hts to m ake th e film ) o n a g iv e n lit e ra ry p ro perty . P ro duce rs m ay o r m ay n ot b e affilia te d w it h o ne o f th e m ajo r s tu dio s, a nd e ve n w hen th ey a re u nder co ntr a ct to a s tu dio , th ey fu nctio n m ore in dependently th an p ro duce rs did w hen th e s tu dio s yste m w as in e ffe ct. T he s tu dio e ra e ffe ctiv e ly ended in 1 948 w hen th e S upre m e C ourt ru le d in th e a ntit r u st c a se Unit e d S ta te s v . P ara m ount P ic tu re s e t. a l.

th at th e s tu dio s h ad to div e st th em se lv e s o f th e m ovie th eate rs th ey o w ned, th us b re akin g th e VER TIC AL IN TE G RATIO N m odel th at e nable d th e m ovie c o m panie s to o w n not only pro ductio n fa cilit ie s but als o dis tr ib utio n netw ork s and exh ib it io n h ouse s.

How d oes th e c u rre nt s ce nario w ork ? W ell, tw o o f th e s tu dio s o f o ld , 20th C entu ry -F ox and C olu m bia P ic tu re s, are now esse ntia lly film dis tr ib uto rs th at a re o w ned b y m uch la rg er m edia c o nglo m era te s— 148 New s C orp . a nd S ony, re sp ectiv e ly — whic h e it h er b ankro ll film s b y sm alle r pro ductio n house s (Im agin e E nte rta in m ent or A m blin , fo r exa m ple ) o r b uy th e d is tr ib utio n rig hts to film s th at a re in dependently pro duce d a nd fin ance d; th ese tr a nsa ctio ns o fte n ta ke p la ce a t film fe stiv a ls . By ch angin g th eir orig in al busin ess m odel, Fox and Colu m bia a re a ble to d is tr ib ute film s th ro ugh th eir o w n o utle ts a nd s till co m ply w it h a ntit r u st la w s. (In F ox’s c a se , it ’s te le vis io n s ta tio ns; in Colu m bia ’s c a se , it ’s th e L oew s th eate r c h ain , w hic h is a s e para te co m pany o w ned b y S ony.) A noth er w ay o f m ain ta in in g th e b enefit s o f ve rtic a l in te gra tio n w hile a bid in g b y a ntit r u st re gula tio ns is to c o ntr o l both a n in dependent p ro ductio n co m pany a nd a th eate r ch ain — fo r in sta nce , W ald en M edia a nd R egal C in em as, w hic h a re b oth o w ned by P hilip A nsch utz . W ald en p ro duce s it s film s, a nd th en A nsch utz str ik e s d eals w it h d is tr ib uto rs ( s u ch a s D is n ey) to p ut h is W ald en film s on h is o w n R egal s cre ens.

TE A M W ORK CIN EM ATO GRAPH Y is th e p ro vin ce o f th e D P, o th erw is e k n ow n a s th e cin em ato gra pher. T he D P is re sp onsib le fo r s e le ctin g th e c a m era s, le nse s, a nd film s to cks, a nd a ls o fo r o ve rs e ein g th e lig htin g d esig n and th e o pera tio n o f th e c a m era . O n a b ig -b udget film , a d edic a te d ca m era o pera to r u su ally h as th e jo b o f ru nnin g th e c a m era it s e lf . T he ch ie f e le ctr ic ia n, w ho a ctu ally s e ts u p th e lig htin g e quip m ent, is c a lle d a g affe r . T he g affe r’s a ssis ta nt is th e best b oy. G rip s p erfo rm v a rio us fu nctio ns, n ot o nly fo r th e cin em ato gra pher a nd g affe r b ut fo r th e ca m era and pro ps departm ents as w ell; grip s are th e cin em atic equiv a le nt o f s ta ge h ands in th e th eate r. T he fir s t a ssis ta n t c am era opera to r —ca lle d a fo cu s p ulle r in E uro pe— make s s u re th e im age re m ain s in fo cu s d urin g ca m era m ove m ents , n ot to m entio n b ein g re sp onsib le fo r th ere bein g film in th e mag azin e (th e re m ova ble co nta in er o f film th at fit s o nto th e c a m era ). T he seco nd a ssis ta n t cam era opera to r (c a lle d a cla p per in Euro pe), opera te s th e cla p board , th e d evic e w it h a s la te a nd a h in ged a rm th at c la ps d ow n onto th e s la te to s ig nal th e b egin nin g o f a ta ke ; w hen, in th e e dit in g 149 ro om , th e cla p s o und o n th e s o undtr a ck is m atc h ed w it h th e fr a m e in whic h th e a rm h it s th e s la te , th e s o undtr a ck a nd th e im age tr a ck a re nece ssa rily s yn ch ro niz e d.

The scre en w rit e r (h ow to p hra se it ? ) w rit e s th e s crip t. H e o r s h e may a dapt a n a lr e ady-e xis tin g n ove l o r p la y o r c o m pose a n o rig in al scre enpla y.

The pro ductio n d esig ner , o r art d ir e cto r , is in c h arg e o f d esig nin g and e xe cu tin g th e lo ok o f a film — it s s e ts a nd lo ca tio ns, p rim arily . In co nsu lt a tio n w it h th e d ir e cto r, th e p ro ductio n d esig ner d esig ns th e arc h it e ctu re a nd g enera l d eco ra tio n o f th e s e ts a nd s u perv is e s th e ch oic e o f lo ca tio ns b ase d o n th e re quir e m ents o f th e p erio d in w hic h th e film is s e t a nd th e m ood th e d ir e cto r w is h es to c re ate . W ork in g under th e p ro ductio n d esig ner’s g uid ance a re set d eco ra to rs , th e pro ps m aste r a nd h is o r h er s ta ff, a c o nstr u ctio n c re w w it h c a rp ente rs and p ain te rs a nd p la ste re rs , a nd s o o n.

Sin ce s o und is th e s u bje ct o f ch apte r 5 , y o u a re a lr e ady a w are o f th e c o m ple xit y o f a s o undtr a ck’s c re atio n, b ut in b rie f, a la rg e s o und cre w is re sp onsib le n ot o nly fo r re co rd in g th e d ia lo gue a nd a m bie nt so unds o n th e s e t o r o n lo ca tio n a nd c re atin g a ll th e s o und e ffe cts b ut als o fo r m akin g s u re th at th e e norm ous n um ber o f p eople p re se nt durin g film in g d o n ot c re ate th eir o w n d is ru ptiv e s o unds th at w ould ru in a ta ke . M em bers o f th e s o und c re w in clu de th e so und m ix er (u su ally th e s u perv is o r), th e so und r e co rd is t ( w ho is in c h arg e o f th e re co rd in g a ppara tu s a nd c re w ), boom o pera to rs (w ho h old th e lo ng arm s fr o m w hic h m ic ro phone s h ang o ve r th e p erfo rm ers ju st a bove th e c a m era ’s fie ld o f v is io n), F ole y a rtis ts (w ho c re ate a ura l e ffe cts th at s o und m ore re alis tic th an th e a ctu al n ois e s th at w ere re co rd ed), and o th ers . H ere ’s a n e xa m ple o f w hat a F ole y a rtis t m ig ht d o: u pon pla yb ack, th e film make rs dis co ve r th at th e so und of a ch ara cte r walk in g o n s n ow d oesn ’t s o und r ig ht, s o a F ole y a rtis t c re ate s a s o und effe ct b y p re ssin g tw o p ie ce s o f S ty ro fo am to geth er, th e S ty ro fo am so undin g m ore lik e s h oes tr a m plin g in th e s n ow th an th e a ctu al s o und of fo ots te ps th at w as r e co rd ed w hen th e s ce ne w as s h ot.

Thanks to th e d ig it a l r e vo lu tio n, m any o f th e o rig in al film makin g jo bs have c h anged. T he fir s t a ssis ta nt c a m era o pera to r, fo r e xa m ple , is now r e sp onsib le fo r m akin g s u re th at m em ory c a rd s a re r e m ove d fr o m 150 th e c a m era a nd th e in fo rm atio n o n th em is p ro perly u plo aded to a hard d riv e . A nd th e c la pper is n ow a d ig it a l s la te a tta ch ed to a Dig it a l Audio R eco rd er (D AR) ; th e DAR c o nta in s a tim e c o de g enera to r, and th e tim in g is re co rd ed c o ntin uously o n th e ta pe. T he tim e c o de is als o d is p la ye d c o nsta ntly o n a la rg e LE D o n a d ig it a l s la te , w hic h is sh ow n to th e ca m era b efo re th e a ctio n sta rts so th e e dit o r kn ow s exa ctly w hat th e ta pe’s tim e c o de is a nd c a n s yn ch ro niz e it w it h th e film . S om etim es a dig it a l sla te co nta in s a cla pboard , but it ’s not esse ntia l th e w ay it o nce w as.

Sin ce s p ecia l e ffe cts is th e s u bje ct o f ch apte r 1 1 , h ere is a p re vie w of co m in g attr a ctio ns:

CG (c o m pute r gra p hic s) artis ts , m atte artis ts , m odel m akers , ro to sco pe a rtis ts , a nd CO M PU TE R G EEKS a ll work to c re ate e ffe cts th at w ould b e im possib le to film u sin g o nly w hat mate ria l r e alit y p ro vid es. T hese e ffe cts , a s e xp ensiv e a s th ey m ay b e, may n oneth ele ss p ro vid e b udgeta ry s a vin gs a s w ell. C onsid er h ow much m oney it w ould h ave c o st th e d ir e cto r P ete r J a ckso n a nd th e stu dio N ew L in e C in em a to p ay, fe ed, h ouse , a nd c o stu m e 1 0,0 00 orc s fo r th e Lord o f th e R in gs tr ilo gy ( 2 001, 2 002, a nd 2 003).

STU DY G UID E:

T H E P R O BLE M O F A TTR IB U TIO N The g oal o f g ood w rit in g is c la rit y . W heth er y o u a re w rit in g a la b r e port in b io lo gy, a paper o n th e Ir a q W ar fo r a h is to ry c la ss, o r a n a naly sis o f The M atr ix R elo aded o r Rata to uille fo r a film c la ss, y o u s h ould a lw ays tr y to p re se nt y o ur id eas a s lu cid ly a nd dir e ctly a s p ossib le . B ut film s tu die s p re se nts s tu dents w it h a p artic u la r p ro ble m : h ow ca n y o u a scrib e a rtis tic in te ntio n w it h out s p ecif ic e vid ence to b ack u p th e c la im ? A s describ ed in th is c h apte r, film s ch ola rs te nd to a ttr ib ute e ve n m in or c in em atic d eta ils to dir e cto rs e ve n th ough w e r e co gniz e th at th e d ecis io ns m ay a ctu ally h ave b een m ade b y oth er p eople .

For e xa m ple , in ch apte r 1 y o u re ad a bout th e m usic a l n um ber in Gentle m en P re fe r Blo ndes in w hic h a n e xtr a k ic ke d th e film ’s s ta r, J a ne R usse ll, in to a s w im min g p o ol durin g a ta ke , b ut th e d ir e cto r, H ow ard H aw ks, u se d th e m is ta ke a nyw ay. In fa ct, it w as th e film ’s c h ore ogra pher, J a ck C ole , w ho a ctu ally d ir e cte d th at p artic u la r s ce ne; H aw ks him se lf m ay o r m ay n ot h ave b een o n th e s e t w hen th e a ccid ent h appened a s w ell a s when th e re ta ke s w ere film ed. N eve rth ele ss, it is a ppro pria te to d escrib e th e film a s a whole a s H ow ard H aw ks’s Gentle m en P re fe r B lo ndes , a s w ell as to describ e th e decis io n to u se th e s u ppose d m is ta ke in th e fin al c u t a s h avin g b een H aw ks’s . O n a pra ctic a l le ve l, it w as H aw ks w ho h ad th e fin al s a y in w hat ta ke w as u se d. A nd o n a crit ic a l and th eore tic a l le ve l, film sch ola rs lik e Robin W ood and oth ers have dem onstr a te d th at th ro ughout h is film s H aw ks is in te re ste d in th e c o nflic t b etw een th e 151 se xe s. O ne c a n d ra w p ara lle ls b etw een, s a y, K ath arin e H epburn ’s c h ara cte r’s a buse o f Cary G ra nt’s in Brin gin g U p B aby a nd th e v io le nt e ndin g o f th e “A in ’t T here A nyo ne Here fo r L ove ?” n um ber in Gentle m en P re fe r B lo ndes w it h out w orry in g a bout w here Haw ks w as o n th e d ay J a ne R usse ll g ot k n ocke d in to th e p ool. A s lo ath e a s s o m e film sch ola rs m ay b e to a ckn ow le dge it , th e fa ct is th at film s tu die s is a n a rt, n ot a s cie nce , and it is n ot s u bje ct to th e s a m e c o ncre te ru le s o f p ro va bilit y th at a pply in c h em is tr y o r physic s d epartm ents .

That s a id , th ere is a k e y q uestio n th a t e ve ry s tu dent a nd s ch ola r m ust a sk w hen writ in g a p aper:

Do I k n ow it fo r a fa ct?

Here ’s a n e xa m ple o f w hat n ot to w rit e : “ H ow ard H aw ks p ers o nally d ir e cte d a n e xtr a to k ic k J a ne R usse ll in to th e s w im min g p ool in Gentle m en P re fe r B lo ndes .” It is s im ply not a v a lid c la im . W it h out c a re fu l a nd d eta ile d re se arc h in to th e p ro ductio n o f th e film s yo u w rit e a bout, y o u c a nnot le git im ate ly s ta te w hat h appened o n th e s e t. In ste ad, y o u may— in fa ct, y o u sh ould —asse rt w hat y o u th in k a s e quence means : “ T he s tr a nge w ay Haw ks e nds th e n um ber e xp re sse s h is d is tr u st o f r o m ance .” In m ost c o lle ge film c o urs e s, p artic u la rly in tr o ducto ry le ve l c o urs e s, y o u w ill n ot b e aske d to d o p rim ary re se arc h in to a film ’s p ro ductio n h is to ry . M ore ove r, th e film s y o ur pro fe sso r is s h ow in g y o u a re p ro bably m ade b y d ir e cto rs w it h s tr o ng a uth oria l v o ic e s.

So y o ur b est b et is to a ssu m e fo r n ow th at th e d ir e cto r n ot o nly m ade m ost if n ot a ll o f th e im porta nt artis tic decis io ns in th e film ’s cre atio n but a ls o th at th ese d ecis io ns exp re ss id eas a nd e m otio ns w orth a naly zin g in d eta il.

WRIT IN G A BO UT D IR EC TO RS Unle ss th e c o urs e y o u a re ta kin g is a s tu dy o f o ne o r tw o p artic u la r d ir e cto rs , y o u w ill not h ave th e o pportu nit y to p ut th e a ute ur th eory to e xte nsiv e p ra ctic e . W hy n ot?

Beca use a ute uris m d is ce rn s a d ir e cto r’s p ers o nal s ty le fr o m h is o r h er e ntir e b ody o f work . Y ou w ould h ave to s e e a fa ir ly la rg e n um ber o f film s b y H it c h co ck, o r H aw ks, o r Ford , o r S pie lb erg , o r any s in gle d ir e cto r in o rd er to b e a ble to m ake a ny s u bsta ntia l cla im s a bout h is o r h er w orld vie w .

What y o u ca n d o, h ow eve r, is to le arn b io gra phic a l a nd film ogra phic a l d eta ils a bout th e m en a nd w om en w hose film s y o u a re s e ein g a nd to b egin to s e e e le m ents o f pers o nal s ty le in a n in div id ual film . (A film ogra p hy is a s im ple lis t o r m ore d eta ile d ca ta lo g o f th e film s m ade b y a n in div id ual; d ir e cto rs , p ro duce rs , s cre enw rit e rs , a cto rs , and s o o n a ll h ave film ogra phie s.) To s ta rt y o ur s tu dy o f w hom eve r y o u o r y o ur p ro fe sso r c h oose s, g o o nlin e to th e In te rn et M ovie D ata base ( www.im db.c o m ) a nd d o a s im ple s e arc h fo r th e film make r o r film in q uestio n. L ik e th e Am eric a n F ilm In stit u te C ata lo g o f M otio n P ic tu re s P ro duce d in th e U nit e d S ta te s , b oth p rin t a nd o nlin e e dit io ns, im db.c o m is a v e ry u se fu l p rim ary re so urc e fo r film s ch ola rs w ho a re re se arc h in g th e n am es-a nd-d ate s fa cts o f a g iv e n film ’s p ro ductio n. U nlik e th e AFI C ata lo g , im db.c o m h as th e v ir tu e o f b ein g a cce ssib le fr o m a ny c o m pute r in th e w orld . T he AFI C ata lo g p rin t e dit io n c a n b e fo und in m any co lle ge a nd u niv e rs it y lib ra rie s, w hile th e o nlin e e dit io n is a va ila ble o nly to s u bscrib in g in div id uals a nd in stit u tio ns. ( C heck y o ur lib ra ry ’s c a ta lo g to s e e w heth er y o u a re a ble to acce ss it .) H ow eve r, o ne s h ould b e a w are th at im db.c o m — lik e W ik ip edia a nd o th er 152 onlin e re so urc e s— may c o nta in fa ctu al e rro rs d esp it e th e b est in te ntio ns o f th ose w ho co ntr ib ute in fo rm atio n to th e s it e . S om e p ro fe sso rs a re th ere fo re a dam ant th at s u ch sit e s n ot b e u se d fo r a ca dem ic r e se arc h ; a sk y o ur p ro fe sso r fo r th e g uid elin es fo r y o ur partic u la r c o urs e .

Let’s u se a s a n e xa m ple th e p io neerin g fe m ale d ir e cto r D oro th y A rz n er. G o to www.im db.c o m , ty p e th e n am e “D oro th y A rz n er” in th e s e arc h b ox, a nd h it e nte r. T he page th at w ill a ppear c o nta in s h er b ir th a nd d eath d ate s, th e lo ca tio ns o f h er b ir th a nd death , th e fir s t lin es o f h er IM DB b io gra phy, a fe w im porta nt d eta ils o f h er lif e — deta ils th at a re e rro neously la bele d “tr iv ia ,” w hic h a ctu ally m eans “in sig nif ic a nt m atte rs .” (H ow “in sig nif ic a nt” is it th at A rz n er w as th e fir s t w om an to jo in th e D ir e cto rs G uild of Am eric a ?) T hen s cro ll d ow n a nd fin d h er film ogra phy, w hic h is it s e lf b ro ke n d ow n in to se ve ra l c a te gorie s. W e le arn fr o m th is s e t o f film ogra phie s, fo r in sta nce , th at A rz n er work e d a s a n e dit o r o n s ix film s a nd a w rit e r o n fiv e . S he w ork e d a s a d ir e cto r o n a to ta l of tw enty film s, s e ve ra l tim es in a n u ncre dit e d c a pacit y .

This p age, a nd o th ers lik e it , is o nly th e b egin nin g. T here is a w ealt h o f in fo rm atio n ava ila ble o n im db.c o m — in fo rm atio n th at w ould h ave ta ke n p re vio us g enera tio ns o f stu dents a gre at deal of tim e, effo rt, and org aniz a tio nal skill to gath er. C lic k, fo r exa m ple , o n a ny o f th e lin ks o n th e p age to fin d o ut m ore a bout D oro th y A rz n er: o ne le ads to a th oro ugh a nd in fo rm ativ e b io gra phy, o th ers to d eta ile d p ages o n th e film s Arz n er m ade. C lic k, fo r e xa m ple , o n th e tit le Chris to pher S tr o ng a nd y o u w ill b e ta ke n to a p age d evo te d to th at u nusu al film , o ne o f th e e arlie st in th e s ta r K ath arin e H epburn ’s lo ng c a re er. O n th e le ft s id e o f th e s cre en o n th e Chris to pher S tr o ng p age is a lis t o f lin ks th at yie ld partic u la r in fo rm atio n su ch as th e film ’s re le ase date , it s te ch nic a l sp ecif ic a tio ns ( th e film ’s le ngth in r e els , it s a sp ect r a tio , a nd s o o n), a nd o th er d ata .

Now p ic k y o ur o w n film make r a nd s ta rt r e se arc h in g.

153 C HAPTE R 9 P ER FO RM ANCE P ER FO RM ANCE A S A N E LE M EN T O F M IS E-E N -S C EN E H ow d oes film s tu die s d eal w it h a ctin g? M ovie re vie w ers te ll u s th at c e rta in p erfo rm ance s a re g ood w hile o th ers a re te rrib le . T he A ca dem y o f M otio n P ic tu re A rts a nd S cie nce s g iv e s a w ard s e ve ry y e ar in tr ib ute t o th e q ualit y o f in div id ual p erfo rm ance s. A nd w e a ll c o m e a w ay fr o m t h e m ovie s w e s e e w it h o pin io ns o f w heth er th e s ta rs h ave d one a g ood jo b c re atin g th eir c h ara cte rs o r n ot. B ut it s h ould b e c le ar b y n ow t h at a s a n a ca dem ic d is cip lin e, film s tu die s is le ss in te re ste d in is su in g j u dgm ents th an in a naly zin g a sp ects a nd co m ponents o f m eanin g.

H ow , th en, d o w e d is tin guis h q uantit a tiv e e xp re ssiv e m eanin gs fr o m q ualit a tiv e o pin io ns a s fa r a s a ctin g is c o nce rn ed?

In ke y w ays, a ctin g is a ctu ally a n e le m ent o f m is e -e n-s ce ne— a h um an e le m ent, b ut a n e le m ent n oneth ele ss. T hin k b ack to th e in it ia l d efin it io n o f MIS E-E N -S C EN E :

all o f th e e le m ents p la ce d in fr o nt o f th e c a m era to be photo gra phed: se ttin gs, pro ps, lig htin g, co stu m es, m ake up, a nd fig ure b ehavio r— acto rs , th eir g estu re s, a nd th eir fa cia l e xp re ssio ns . “F ig ure b ehavio r” m ay s e em lik e a c o ld , im pers o nal w ay o f d escrib in g ta le nte d h um an b ein gs, e sp ecia lly w hen th ey a re a s l a rg er-th an-lif e a s m ovie s ta rs a ppear to b e. B ut th e te rm d oes h elp b oth to d em ystif y a nd to q uantif y film a ctin g— to ta ke th e d is cu ssio n o f p erfo rm ance o ut o f th e re alm o f “Is it O sca r-w orth y? ” a nd p ut it in to a l e ss ju dgm enta l, m ore a naly tic a l c a te gory o f d is cu ssio n. O ne d oesn ’t h ave to g o a s fa r a s A lf r e d H it c h co ck, w ho o nce c o m pare d a cto rs to l iv e sto ck, to s e e th at fo r a ll th eir g la m our a nd fa m e, film p erfo rm ers a re ju st p art o f th e o ve ra ll p ro ductio n o f m eanin g in a n arra tiv e film .

( H it c h co ck o nce c la rif ie d th e p oin t h e w as tr y in g to m ake : “ I d id n’t s a y a cto rs are ca ttle . W hat I sa id w as, acto rs sh ould be tr e ate d lik e 154 ca ttle .” ) F ro m th is p ers p ectiv e , a cto rs ’ g estu re s a nd e xp re ssio ns a re no d if fe re nt fr o m th e p ro ps th ey u se a nd th e c o stu m es th ey w ear.

Hit c h co ck’s in su lt in g jo ke a sid e, th is is ce rta in ly n ot to sa y th at acto rs a re in te rc h angeable , th at ta le nt d oesn ’t m atte r, a nd th at it is n ’t excru cia tin gly h ard w ork to p erfo rm o n film , le t a lo ne b uild a nd s u sta in a c a re er a s a m ovie s ta r. O n th e c o ntr a ry . B ut a s y o u w ill s e e, film stu die s d eals w it h a cto rs a naly tic a lly . In ste ad o f a ppla udin g th em , w e stu dy th em , th ough th ese tw o a ctiv it ie s a re n ot m utu ally e xclu siv e .

ACTIN G S TY LE S Actin g s ty le s c h ange o ve r tim e. W hat o ne g enera tio n re gard s a s a re alis tic and belie va ble perfo rm ance m ay be vie w ed by a la te r genera tio n as hig hly sty liz e d. To cit e one fa m ous fa m ily as an exa m ple , Jo hn B arry m ore (1 882–1942) w as co nsid ere d o ne o f th e gre ate st (if n ot th e g re ate st) a cto r o f h is tim e. H e a ppeare d in s u ch cla ssic film s a s Din ner a t E ig ht (1 933) a nd Tw entie th C entu ry (1 934), and h e w as k n ow n fo r h is re so nant, th eatr ic a l v o ic e . B arry m ore d id n’t ta lk o nscre en th e w ay o rd in ary p eople ta lk o ffs cre en; h e pro je cte d h is vo ic e a nd e nuncia te d e ach w ord th e w ay a tr a in ed th eate r a cto r d id , and a udie nce s a dm ir e d h im fo r it . H e u se d h is v o ic e a s a k in d o f music a l in str u m ent w it h g re at ra nge a nd d epth . B ut if B arry m ore ’s gra nddaughte r, D re w B arry m ore (1 975– ), s p oke o nscre en to day th e way h er g ra ndfa th er d id in th e 1 930s, a udie nce s w ould lik e ly fin d h er perfo rm ance s unacce pta bly sty liz e d— to o se lf - c o nscio us and th eatr ic a lly o ve r th e to p.

Beca use o f th is so rt o f ch ange in p ublic p erc e ptio ns o f w hat is re alis tic a nd w hat is n ot, it ’s b ette r to a vo id th e c o nce pt o f re alis m in fa vo r o f a re la te d b ut m ore fu nctio nal te rm :

NATU RALIS M .

Natu ra lis m in actin g is an a tte m pt b y a p erfo rm er to a ppear n ot to b e p erfo rm in g.

Gestu re s th at lo ok s p onta neous a nd u npla nned, s p eech th at d oesn ’t ca ll atte ntio n to it s e lf — th ese are so m e of th e to ols of natu ra lis tic acto rs . C la ssic a l s ta rs w ho w ere n atu ra lis tic p erfo rm ers in clu de H enry Fonda, Ja m es S te w art, a nd Jo anne W oodw ard ; cu rre nt n atu ra lis tic sta rs in clu de D enze l W ash in gto n, J u lia R oberts , a nd G eorg e C lo oney.

155 One s ta r w ho w as not e sp ecia lly n atu ra lis tic w as B ette D avis , w ho once to ld a n in te rv ie w er, “ Y ou s till r u n in to d ir e cto rs to day w ho te ll y o u [to ] ‘d o le ss in a c lo se -u p th an y o u d o in a lo ng s h ot. D on’t , fo r G od’s sa ke , g iv e a ny s u ggestio n th at y o u’r e actin g . J u st b e n atu ra l. ’ N o, n o, no, n o, n o, no !” D avis w ante d h er p erfo rm ance s to b e s e en a s s u ch :

as n otic e ably c ra fte d s h ow pie ce s. A re la tiv e ly re ce nt, n on-n atu ra lis tic perfo rm ance , o r s e t o f p erfo rm ance s, is J o hnny D epp’s in th e Pir a te s of th e C arib bean s e rie s (2 003, 2 006, a nd 2 007); D epp’s fla m boya nt gestu re s and exa ggera te d m anner of sp eakin g in th ose film s are meant to be se en, heard , and appre cia te d sp ecif ic a lly as actin g devic e s .

But notio ns of w hat co nstit u te s natu ra lis m ch ange, to o. In th e 1950s, a n a ctin g te ch niq ue c a lle d TH E M ETH O D d re w n atio nal a tte ntio n wit h th e r a pid r is e o f s u ch s ta rs a s M arlo n B ra ndo a nd J a m es D ean— acto rs w ho w ere tr a in ed to u se th eir o w n e m otio ns a nd b ackg ro unds to in fo rm th e ch ara cte rs th ey pla ye d. At th e tim e, Bra ndo’s perfo rm ance s in s u ch film s a s A S tr e etc a r N am ed D esir e (1 951) a nd On th e W ate rfr o nt (1 954) w ere perc e iv e d as bein g ele ctr if y in gly natu ra lis tic a nd str a ig ht fr o m th e h eart; m ore th an fif ty ye ars la te r, th ese p erfo rm ance s a re s till e le ctr if y in g, b ut th ey s e em m uch m ore sty liz e d a nd le ss n atu ra lis tic th an th ey d id o rig in ally .

STA RS A ND C HARACTE R A CTO RS Eve ry b ody k n ow s w hat a m ovie s ta r is , b ut o uts id e o f film s tu die s te xtb ooks a nd d ic tio narie s, th ere a re fe w c le ar a nd c o ncis e d efin it io ns.

Here is o ne o ffe re d b y Ir a K onig sb erg in h is e xce lle nt r e fe re nce b ook, The C om ple te F ilm D ic tio nary : A s ta r is “ a p erfo rm er w it h a n atio nal o r in te rn atio nal r e puta tio n w ho a ppears in m ajo r r o le s a nd h as g re at b ox- offic e a ppeal.

” This defin it io n of sta r co nta in s th re e ke y ele m ents : w id esp re ad public kn ow le dge of th e perfo rm er, siz e able ro le s pla ye d by th e perfo rm er, a nd th e p erfo rm er’s a bilit y to g enera te tic ke t s a le s o n h is o r her o w n. N obody c a n b e a s ta r w it h out b ein g w ell k n ow n o n a v e ry bro ad s ca le , a nd w hile s ta rs m ay p erio dic a lly m ake w hat is k n ow n a s 156 CAM EO A PPEAR AN CES ( th at is , th ey a ppear in tin y r o le s s p ecif ic a lly to b e notic e d b y a udie nce s a s b ig s ta rs in tin y r o le s— Bra d P it t’s m om enta ry fla sh o nscre en in Bein g J o hn M alk o vic h , 1 999, is ju st s u ch a c a m eo) —th ey m ust a ppear m ostly in le adin g ro le s, n ot s u pportin g ro le s. T he la st e le m ent, box-o ffic e a ppeal , is p artic u la rly im porta nt to a ppre cia te .

Audie nce s h ave b een w illin g to s p end m oney to s e e th e la te st C harle s Chaplin film , o r th e la te st J u lia R oberts film , n ot b eca use o f th e s u bje ct of th e film , b u t b eca use th at p artic u la r sta r a ppears in it . In su ch ca se s, it is n ’t th e s to ry th at s e lls th e film , n or is it th e d ir e cto r o r th e pro duce r. It’s th e s ta r— hence h is o r h er a str o nom ic a l s a la ry .

One c o m mon m is p erc e ptio n a bout film a ctin g in vo lv e s s ta rs w ho appear in re la tiv e ly th e s a m e ro le in film a fte r film — Jo hn W ayn e, fo r in sta nce . B eca use o f th e s im ila rit y o f m any o f h is c h ara cte rs , W ayn e is s o m etim es c a lle d a ch ara cte r a cto r , b ut th at te rm m eans s o m eth in g els e e ntir e ly .

CHAR AC TE R A C TO RS a re n ot s ta rs , b ut ra th er se co ndary perfo rm ers w ho s p ecia liz e in p la yin g s im ila r, re co gniz a ble c h ara cte r ty p es . U nder th e s tu dio s yste m , c h ara cte r a cto rs w ork in g a t a g iv e n stu dio w ould tu rn u p re gula rly o nscre en in fa m ilia r b ut re la tiv e ly s m all ro le s— th e sa m e perfo rm er w ould be se en ofte n as a fa st- ta lk in g sa le sm an o r a m ug-fa ce d g angste r, th e h ero in e’s b est fr ie nd o r a kin dly o ld la dy. N ow th at th e s tu dio s yste m a nd it s lo ng-te rm c o ntr a cts have d is a ppeare d, c h ara cte r a cto rs a re m uch le ss c o m mon, th ough th ey s till e xis t. S te ve B usce m i, fo r in sta nce , h as b eco m e a fa m ilia r ch ara cte r acto r th ro ugh his appeara nce s in a num ber of crim e dra m as, s u ch a s Q uentin T ara ntin o’s Rese rv o ir D ogs ( 1 992) a nd Pulp Fic tio n (1 994) a nd D avid C hase ’s H BO s e rie s The S opra nos (1 999– 2007).

TY PE A ND S TE R EO TY PE Alt h ough m ovie sta rs are usu ally bette r lo okin g th an th e ave ra ge pers o n, and w e ta ke th e fa ct th at th ey are id ealiz e d im ages fo r gra nte d, o ne fe atu re o f m ost s ta rs is th eir re pre se nta tiv e ness —th eir abilit y to p ers o nif y a ty p e o f p ers o n. T here is a n im porta nt d is tin ctio n to b e m ade b etw een th e w ord s ty p e a nd ste re oty p e . W here as a ty p e 157 (a s th e film h is to ria n R ic h ard D ye r p uts it in h is b ook Sta rs ) is “ a sh are d, re co gniz a ble , easily -g ra sp ed im age of how people are in so cie ty (w it h co lle ctiv e appro va l or dis a ppro va l built in to it ) ,” a ste re o ty p e is not only co nve ntio nal but fo rm ula ic . In sh ort, a ste re oty p e is a n o ve rs im plif ie d a nd s o m etim es d em eanin g ty p e .

An a cto r c a n re pre se nt a ty p e w it h out re pre se ntin g a s te re oty p e.

The s ta rs w ho h ave p la ye d th e c h ara cte r J a m es B ond, fo r in sta nce , are a ll o f a c e rta in ty p e: A udie nce s p erc e iv e S ean C onnery , R oger Moore , P ie rc e B ro sn an, D anie l C ra ig , a nd o th ers a s b ein g— lik e B ond him se lf — so phis tic a te d, p olis h ed, c le ve r, a nd s e xu ally a ppealin g in a ru ggedly m ascu lin e w ay. O ne w ould n ot d escrib e J a m es B ond a nd th e men w ho h ave p la ye d h im a s b ein g a s te re oty p e; th ey a re , h ow eve r, a partic u la r ty p e . T he ro le s pla ye d by th e A ca dem y A w ard –w in nin g, Afr ic a n A m eric a n actr e ss H attie M cD anie l, how eve r, w ere la rg ely ste re oty p es , b eca use — desp it e h er g re at ta le nt— sh e w as g enera lly re le gate d to p la yin g s o m ebody’s s e rv a nt, a lb eit o ne w ho o fte n s p oke her m in d. (M cD anie l w on her O sca r fo r pla yin g M am my, S ca rle tt O’H ara ’s s la ve , in Gone w it h th e W in d , 1 939.) Both s ta rs a nd th e c h ara cte rs p la ye d b y s ta rs c a n b e d escrib ed a s ty p es . (T he s a m e c a nnot b e s a id o f th e w ord ste re oty p e , w hic h is lim it e d to c h ara cte rs .) O ne v e ry p opula r ty p e in H olly w ood film makin g is , to p ut it v e ry p la in ly , th e G ood G uy . W e a re s o fa m ilia r w it h th is ty p e of ch ara cte r th at w e ta ke him to ta lly fo r gra nte d, but th is ch ara cte r a nd s ta r ty p e is w orth p urs u in g p re cis e ly b eca use o f h is co nve ntio nalit y . B y th e G ood G uy , w e m ean m ore th an s im ply th at th e ch ara cte r o r s ta r c o nve ys a p osit iv e im age. W e m ean a p artic u la r ty p e of p osit iv e im age, w it h a s p ecif ic s e t o f tr a it s . W hat a re s o m e o f th e ch ara cte ris tic s o f th is ty p e ?

TH E G OOD G UY Frie ndly , b ut n ot a ggre ssiv e ly s o ; h e n eve r g la d-h ands Mascu lin e; h e is n eve r e ffe m in ate Easyg oin g, b ut n ot la zy Sm art e nough, b ut n ot o ve rly b ra in y— he d oesn ’t u se b ig w ord s Good lo okin g— handso m e, b ut n ot p re tty Honora ble , e sp ecia lly in th e e nd 158 Able to d is p la y a s e nse o f h um or— he c a n b e fu nny b ut is ra re ly rid ic u lo us Som e e xa m ple s o f s ta rs w ho h ave b een k n ow n a s G ood G uys, a nd who b eca m e k n ow n a s G ood G uys b eca use th ey re peate dly pla ye d Good G uys, a re W illia m H old en, D enze l W ash in gto n, a nd p erh aps most fa m ously , Jo hn W ayn e. W hen so m eone lik e W ash in gto n or Wayn e p la ys a B ad G uy (W ash in gto n a s a m urd ero us d ru g lo rd in Am eric a n Gangste r , 2007; W ayn e as Genghis Khan in The Conquero r , 1 956), it ’s k n ow n a s castin g a g ain st t y p e : th e k n ow le dge of th e sta r’s ty p e th at th e audie nce brin gs in to th e film goin g exp erie nce is d elib era te ly c h alle nged b y c a stin g a gain st ty p e.

WOM EN A S T Y PES The lin e th at dis tin guis h es ty p e fr o m ste re oty p e ca n beco m e dis tu rb in gly th in w hen it c o m es to w om en’s c h ara cte rs in film . T ake th e e xa m ple o f H attie M cD anie l, th e A fr ic a n A m eric a n a ctr e ss w ho won a B est S upportin g A ctr e ss O sca r fo r p la yin g M am my in Gone w it h th e W in d . M cD anie l b ro ught g re at in te llig ence to h er c h ara cte rs a lo ng wit h a s e nse o f s a ssy in dependence , a nd y e t in film a fte r film s h e w as co nsig ned to th e b ackg ro und a s s o m ebody’s m aid . T here is n oth in g eit h er co m ic a l or sh am efu l about w ork in g as a house ke eper, but McD anie l’s c h ara cte rs w ere o fte n th e b ru nt o f jo ke s p re cis e ly b eca use of h er r a ce a nd h er c h ara cte rs ’ o ccu patio n.

Race is n ot th e o nly fa cto r th at c a n b lu r th e d is tin ctio n b etw een ty p e and s te re oty p e. A n e ve n m ore o ve ra rc h in g c o nstr a in t c o m es th ro ugh th e d ual ca te gorie s o f se x a nd g ender. In sh ort, se x is b io lo gic a l; gender is cu lt u ra l. S ex is th e physio lo gy w e are each born w it h ; gender is h ow w e le arn to u nders ta nd th e s e xe s— how w e h old o ur books o r lo ok a t o ur n ails , a nd h ow w e w alk a nd ta lk , a ll o f w hic h co m munic a te s in fo rm atio n a bout m ascu lin it y a nd/o r fe m in in it y .

For exa m ple , one of th e m ost nota ble and co nsis te ntly popula r fe m ale ch ara cte r ty p es in cin em a is th e Blo nde Bom bsh ell , th e cu rv a ce ous beauty w it h ra dia ntly lig ht- c o lo re d hair and, ofte n, a 159 ce rta in la ck o f n orm al in te llig ence . Is sh e a ty p e o r a ste re oty p e?

Marily n M onro e is th e b est- k n ow n sta r w ho e m bodie d th e B lo nde Bom bsh ell ty p e. O th er B lo nde B om bsh ells in clu de M am ie V an D ore n and J a yn e M ansfie ld , b oth o f w hom w ere d esig ned to b e c o m petit o rs to M onro e in th e 1 950s; J e an H arlo w in th e 1 930s (H arlo w a ctu ally sta rre d in a 1 933 film c a lle d Bom bsh ell ) ; B rig it te B ard ot in th e 1 960s; and o th ers . T he p opula r 2 001 R eese W it h ers p oon co m edy Legally Blo nde ( to geth er w it h th e h it B ro adw ay m usic a l th at fo llo w ed) p la ys o n th is c h ara cte r ty p e. ( O r is s h e a s te re oty p e?) Anoth er p opula r fe m ale ch ara cte r ty p e is th e F em me F ata le , o r Kille r D am e; o ne o fte n s e es s u ch m urd ero us w om en in c rim e d ra m as.

Som e n ota ble e m bodim ents o f th e K ille r D am e a re B arb ara S ta nw yck in Double In dem nit y ( 1 944), K ath le en T urn er in Body H eat ( 1 981), a nd Gle nn C lo se in F ata l A ttr a ctio n ( 1 987).

ACTIN G IN — AND O N— FIL M What d is tin guis h es film a ctin g fr o m s ta ge a ctin g?

For one th in g, th eate r is liv e , w hile film is re co rd ed. T his has im porta nt c o nse quence s fo r e ach c a te gory o f p erfo rm ance . T heate r acto rs m ust in te ra ct d ir e ctly w it h a udie nce s. A s a re su lt , th ey re ce iv e co nsta nt in dic a tio ns o f h ow th eir a udie nce s a re re sp ondin g, a nd th ey ca n p ause fo r la ughte r to d ie d ow n, s p eed u p s lig htly if th ey s e nse bore dom , e m phasiz e ce rta in lin es a nd g estu re s d ependin g o n th e partic u la r a udie nce th ey a re p la yin g to th at d ay, a nd s o o n. A nd if th ey make a m is ta ke s u ch a s flu bbin g a lin e, th ey m ust g o o n w it h th e s h ow as th ough n oth in g h ad h appened. If a s ta ge a cto r d ro ps a p la te b y mis ta ke a nd it b re aks, h e o r s h e m ust e it h er ig nore th e m is ta ke o r in co rp ora te it in to th e actio n. Sta ge acto rs ’ perfo rm ance s are co ntin uous; th ey ru n fr o m b egin nin g to e nd fo r th e d ura tio n o f th e sce ne o r th e a ct.

Film a cto rs , o n th e o th er h and, p la y th eir s ce nes b efo re a ny n um ber of p eople , b ut th ose p eople a re th e c re w , n ot a n a udie nce , a nd th e cre w is n ot su ppose d to re act. If, sa y, B en S tille r d oes so m eth in g fu nny d urin g a ta ke a nd a g rip la ughs a udib ly , th e ta ke m ig ht b e 160 ru in ed. M ovie a cto rs ’ p erfo rm ance s a re a ls o d is co ntin uous; d ependin g on th e d ir e cto r’s p re fe re nce a nd sty le , th eir p erfo rm ance s m ay b e giv e n in s h ort b urs ts la stin g o nly fo r th e d ura tio n o f a s in gle s h ot. If th ey a re film in g a c lo se -u p th at o ccu rs in th e m id st o f a d ia lo gue, fo r exa m ple , th e o th er a cto r m ay n ot e ve n b e p re se nt. A nd b eca use o f th is kin d o f d is co ntin uit y , film a cto rs (w it h th e a id o f th e co ntin uit y cre w m em ber a ssig ned to th e ta sk) m ust re ca ll p re cis e ly w here th ey were , w hat d ir e ctio n th eir h eads w ere tu rn ed, a nd w hat e xp re ssio ns were o n th eir fa ce s fr o m o ne s h ot to th e n ext to m ake it p ossib le fo r edit o rs to m atc h th em in th e e dit in g r o om .

Where as sta ge a cto rs m ust, in b oth vo ic e a nd g estu re , e xp re ss em otio ns cle arly to audie nce m em bers se ate d in th e back of th e balc o ny a s w ell a s in th e fr o nt r o w , film a cto rs m ust p la y to th e c a m era and th e m ic ro phone, b oth o f w hic h m ay b e e xtr e m ely c lo se to th em .

What would be unnotic e able onsta ge— th e slig ht ra is in g of an eye bro w , o r th e d eliv e ry o f a lin e in a b are w his p er— will r e gis te r m uch more defin it e ly and exp re ssiv e ly w hen blo w n up to th e siz e of a cin em a scre en and pro je cte d th ro ugh an exte nsiv e syste m of sp eake rs . Film acto rs ’ im ages are la rg e, but ele m ents of th eir perfo rm ance s m ay b e q uit e s m all.

One im porta nt a sp ect o f a ny k in d o f a ctin g is s im ply th e w ay a n acto r lo oks o n a b lu nt, p hysic a l le ve l. It’s a n is su e th at’s e ve n m ore basic th an th e w ell- re porte d c a se s o f a g iv e n a cto r g ain in g o r lo sin g a lo t o f w eig ht in p re para tio n fo r a p artic u la r ro le . (F or h is ro le a s th e boxe r Ja ke LaM otta in M artin S co rs e se ’s Ragin g B ull , 1980, fo r in sta nce , R obert D e N ir o fir s t tr im med d ow n to fig htin g w eig ht fo r th e early s ce nes th en g ain ed a to ta l o f s ix ty p ounds to p la y th e a gin g, o ut- of- s h ape L aM otta in th e fin al sce nes.) A udie nce s m ake im media te ju dgm ents about a ch ara cte r base d on th e acto r’s fa ce , or physio gnom y. F or b ette r o r w ors e , w e m ake th ese ju dgm ents in re al lif e as well, but we are only co nce rn ed wit h th e cin em atic co nse quence s h ere . A gain u sin g R obert D e N ir o a s a n e xa m ple , it ’s cle ar th at he w as ch ose n fo r th e ro le of Ja ke LaM otta not only beca use h e is a ta le nte d a cto r b ut b eca use h is fa ce lo oks lik e it c o uld be th at o f a c h am pio n Ita lia n A m eric a n b oxe r, a nd h e h as th e p hysic a l dyn am is m o f a b oxe r a s w ell. F ro m S co rs e se ’s p ers p ectiv e , it w as 161 more im porta nt th at audie nce s ju dged D e N ir o ’s physio gnom y as appro pria te th an it w as th at D e N ir o b ore a p assin g re se m bla nce to th e re al Ja ke LaM otta . S im ila rly , M att D am on w as ca st as Ja so n Bourn e in th e h ig hly su cce ssfu l Bourn e se rie s (2 002, 2 004, 2 007) beca use audie nce s re sp ond posit iv e ly to his str ik in gly handso m e fa cia l fe atu re s. S ach a B aro n C ohen w ould n ot cu t q uit e th e sa m e fig ure a s J a so n B ourn e, n or w ould S te ve B usce m i— not b eca use th ey are n’t ta le nte d acto rs , but sim ply beca use of th eir quir k ie r physio gnom ie s.

PU BLIC IT Y : E XTR A - F IL M IC M EA NIN G One a sp ect o f film s tu die s th at h as n o c o unte rp art in lit e ra ry a naly sis is th at film a udie nce s k n ow q uit e a b it o f in fo rm atio n a bout th e s ta rs th ey fo llo w , a nd th ey b rin g th at in fo rm atio n to th e film s th ey s e e. W hen stu dents a nd s ch ola rs r e ad a n ove l, th ey m ay b rin g p rio r k n ow le dge o f th e auth or or th e genre to th eir in it ia l exp erie nce of th e book in questio n, b ut th ere a re n o re al- lif e s to rie s b ehin d th e c h ara cte rs , w ho are e ntir e ly fic tio nal. (T here a re m any e xce ptio ns, o f c o urs e ; T ru m an Capote ’s b ook In C old B lo od is kn ow n a s a nonfic tio n n ove l .) B ut when w e s e e a m ovie fo r th e fir s t tim e, w e m ay k n ow s o m eth in g n ot only a bout th e d ir e cto r a nd th e g enre ; w e m ay a ls o k n ow in fo rm atio n about th e s ta r’s p ers o nal a s w ell a s p ro fe ssio nal lif e — th e s ta te o f h is or h er c u rre nt m arria ge, w heth er h e o r s h e h as h ad a d ru g o r a lc o hol addic tio n in th e p ast, w hat d esig ner m ade th e g ow n s h e w ore a t th e la st O sca rs c e re m ony, w hic h p olit ic a l p arty th e s ta r s u pports , a nd s o on. A ll o f th is in fo rm atio n c o m es to u s u nder th e g enera l h eadin g o f PU BLIC IT Y .

Public it y is defin ed as th e m anagem ent of th e public ’ s perc e ptio n o f a p ers o n ; public it y c a n a ls o b e d efin ed a s th e cre atio n and m ain te nance o f a s ta r ’ s p ers o na b y e xtr a -film ic m eans —not th e ro le s in w hic h th ey a ppear o n scre en, b ut th e m agazin es a nd te le vis io n sh ow s a nd w ebsit e s in w hic h th ey a ppear o ffs cre en.

What, th en, is a PER SO NA ? A pers o na is th e ro le o ne c o n sis te ntly dis p la ys in p ublic , a s o ppose d to th e in ner s e lf k n ow n o nly to u s a s in div id uals . W e e ach h ave a p ers o na. C onsid er fo r a m om ent th e 162 pers o na th at y o u p ro je ct to o th ers , a nd th e d if fe re nce , if a ny, b etw een th e p ers o na y o u n ow h ave in c o lle ge a nd th e p ers o na y o u u se d to have in h ig h s ch ool. N ow c o nsid er th e d if fe re nce b etw een m ovie s ta rs and th e re st o f u s. M ovie s ta rs d eve lo p th eir p ers o nas o n a n atio nal and eve n in te rn atio nal sca le , la rg ely th ro ugh th e aid of public it y .

Im agin e th e e ffe ct o f h avin g (a nd s e ein g) p hoto s o f y o urs e lf le avin g a la te -n ig ht p arty p la ste re d in th e p ages o f Us m agazin e, fo r in sta nce .

What m ig ht be a m in or em barra ssm ent fo r th e re st of us is in te rn atio nal n ew s fo r a m ovie s ta r.

FIG URE 9 .1 B ra d P it t in The A ssa ssin atio n o f J e sse J a m es b y th e C ow ard R obert F ord (2 007) ( fr a m e e nla rg em ent) .

When th e d ir e cto r A ndre w D om in ik ’s The A ssa ssin atio n o f J e sse Ja m es b y th e C ow ard R obert F ord w as re le ase d in 2 007, B ra d P it t’s fa ns w ent to th e m ovie a lr e ady k n ow in g a g re at d eal a bout P it t a nd h is pers o na. T hey w ere fa m ilia r w it h d eta ils o f h is ro m antic re la tio nsh ip s wit h G wyn eth P alt r o w , J e nnif e r A nis to n, a nd A ngelin a J o lie ; th ey k n ew th at he has ta ke n an activ e ro le in hum anit a ria n ca use s lik e th e re build in g o f N ew O rle ans a fte r H urric a ne K atr in a a s w ell a s h avin g a lo ngtim e in te re st in a rc h it e ctu re a nd d esig n. T hey m ay h ave se en unauth oriz e d p apara zzi p hoto s o f h im in ce le brit y m agazin es, a nd th ey m ay e ve n fin d th em se lv e s s p ecu la tin g o n a sp ects o f h is p riv a te lif e . T hese fa ns fe el a s th ough th ey k n ow q uit e a b it a bout B ra d P it t eve n th ough th ey a lm ost c e rta in ly h ave n eve r m et h im th em se lv e s.

Pit t’s p ublic is ts a tte m pt to c o ntr o l th e flo w a nd c o nte nt o f in fo rm atio n about him by negotia tin g w it h m agazin es fo r co ve r sto rie s and 163 sch edulin g h is a ppeara nce s o n ta lk s h ow s, b ut th ey c a nnot c o ntr o l it all; p apara zzi p hoto s, b ein g u nauth oriz e d, r e m ain o uts id e o f p ublic is ts ’ pow er. B ut all o f it c o ntr ib ute s to th e p ublic ’s k n ow le dge o f B ra d P it t a s a sta r, and all of it ca n be th e obje ct of analy tic a l stu dy in th is aca dem ic d is cip lin e.

The q uestio n h ere is n ot w heth er B ra d P it t is a g ood a cto r o r a b ad acto r, o r w heth er o r n ot h e is a g ood m ate fo r A ngelin a. In ste ad, le git im ate q uestio ns in film s tu die s a re : W hat a re th e e le m ents o f B ra d Pit t’s p ers o na? H ow d id th ese e le m ents b eco m e e sta blis h ed? H ave th ey c h anged o ve r tim e, a nd if s o , in w hat w ays? A nsw erin g th em re quir e s r e se arc h a s w ell a s a naly tic a l th in kin g; film s ch ola rs h ip in th is ca se re quir e s in ve stig atin g p opula r m agazin es fr o m th e b egin nin g o f Pit t’s c a re er a nd o th er b io gra phic a l r e se arc h .

STU DY G UID E:

A N ALY ZIN G A C TIN G A g ood w ay to b egin le arn in g h ow to p ut y o ur n ew k n ow le dge a bout film a ctin g in to pra ctic e is to ta ke a fr e sh lo ok a t a fa m ilia r s u bje ct— yo ur fa vo rit e s ta r. It d oesn ’t m atte r who y o u p artic u la rly a dm ir e — Cary G ra nt, V in g R ham es, M ery l S tr e ep, L ucy L iu , B ette Davis , A sh to n K utc h er . . . T he fie ld o f p ossib ilit ie s is v e ry w id e. Y our ta sk in ste ad is to tr a nsla te y o ur a dm ir a tio n, w hic h e xis ts o n th e le ve l o f q ualit a tiv e o pin io n, in to a m ore quantif ia ble , a naly tic a l s e t o f o bse rv a tio ns. T he g oal is to b e a s d escrip tiv e ly p re cis e a s possib le . ( T he n ext s e ctio n, “ W rit in g a bout A ctin g,” w ill h elp y o u tu rn d escrip tiv e d eta ils in to a naly tic a l o bse rv a tio ns a bout m eanin g.) Here ’s a b asic o utlin e to g uid e y o u.

1. T H E S TA R’S P H YSIC AL A PPEA RANCE A.

E stim ate d a ge B.

F acia l fe atu re s i. M ost d is tin ctiv e a sp ects ii. E ye s— co lo r a nd s h ape iii. M outh — sh ape a nd s iz e iv . H air — co lo r a nd c u t C.

B ody ty p e i. H eig ht— is h e o r s h e ta lle r th an a ve ra ge, s h orte r th an a ve ra ge, o r a ve ra ge?

ii. S hape— slim , a th le tic /m uscu la r, o r h eavy; h ave y o u s e en p hoto gra phs o f th e sta r u nclo th ed, a nd if s o , w hat d id y o u n otic e ?

D.

R eal lif e o r c h ara cte r? In o th er w ord s, a re th e o bse rv a tio ns a bove b ase d o n th e sta r a s s e en in m agazin es o r a s m ade u p fo r a p artic u la r r o le ?

E.

E th nic it y a nd r a ce — what d o y o u k n ow , a nd w hat c a n y o u s e e, a bout th e s ta r’s eth nic a nd r a cia l b ackg ro und?

164 2. T H E S TA R’S V O IC E A.

V oca l q ualit y — does th e s ta r h ave a h ig h v o ic e , o r a lo w v o ic e , o r s o m eth in g in betw een?

B.

V olu m e— is th e s ta r k n ow n fo r s p eakin g lo udly ( B ette M id le r, fo r in sta nce ) o r fo r sp eakin g q uie tly ( C lin t E astw ood)?

C.

D is tin ctiv e e le m ents o f th e v o ic e i. N atio nal a cce nt— is A m eric a n E nglis h n ot th e s ta r’s fir s t la nguage?

ii. R egio nal a cce nt— th e d if fe re nce s, s a y, b etw een D olly P arto n (T ennesse e) and M ark W ahlb erg ( B osto n) iii. E cce ntr ic v o ca l s ty le — ca n th e s ta r’s v o ic e b e im pers o nate d e asily , a nd if s o , what are th e ele m ents of th e im pers o natio n? (S ta rs w ho fa ll in to th is ca te gory in clu de B ette D avis , K ath arin e H epburn , J a m es C agney, a nd J a ck Nic h ols o n.) 3. T H E S TA R’S TY PE A.

Is th e sta r a sso cia te d w it h a p artic u la r g enre o r tw o? F or e xa m ple , Jo an Cra w fo rd appeare d in se ve ra l m usic a ls but is m ain ly asso cia te d w it h th e melo dra m a.

B.

D oes th e s ta r h ave a d efin able p ers o na th ro ughout h is o r h er c a re er? Is h e a Good G uy o r a B ad G uy? Is s h e a B lo nde B om bsh ell o r a C are er G ir l?

4. P U BLIC IT Y A BO UT T H E S TA R —lis t e ve ry th in g th at y o u a lr e ady k n ow a bout th e sta r’s lif e , in clu din g m arria ges a nd a ffa ir s , a w ard s , a ddic tio ns, le gal tr o uble s, w ell- kn ow n h obbie s, p olit ic a l a ctiv it ie s, a nd s o o n.

WRIT IN G A BO UT A CTIN G Describ in g a s ta r c le arly a nd p re cis e ly is o nly h alf th e g am e. N ow y o u m ust e xp and yo ur d escrip tio ns in to a sse rtio ns a bout th e s ta r’s m eanin g. It is d if fic u lt e nough fo r m ost in tr o ducto ry film s tu dents to a scrib e m eanin gs to a g iv e n s ce ne’s m is e -e n-s ce ne o r a ce rta in s e quence ’s e dit in g, b ut a t le ast w hate ve r c la im s s tu dents m ake a bout th ese th in gs h ave th e v ir tu e o f b ein g a bout fic tio n, w here th e c o nse quence s o f b ein g w ro ng are im mate ria l. (I s a y The W iz a rd o f O z is c o nse rv a tiv e o r e ve n re actio nary , a nd y o u dis a gre e. It’s a liv e ly d is cu ssio n, b ut n e it h er o f u s is m akin g a ny c la im s a bout r e alit y , le t alo ne r e al p eople w ho h ave r e al fe elin gs.) Analy zin g s ta rs p re se nts a p ro ble m th at m ay a t fir s t in hib it y o u fr o m o penin g y o ur min d fu lly : Y ou a re b ein g a ske d to b uild a n a rg um ent, p oin t b y p oin t, a bout a re al hum an b ein g a nd th e m eanin gs h e o r s h e g enera te s a s a s ta r. H ow eve r u nco nscio usly , yo u m ay hesit a te to describ e a re al pers o n in unfla tte rin g te rm s. Y ou m ay re sis t re ach in g a n in su lt in g c o nclu sio n. Y ou m ay fe el s o m ehow th at y o u h ave n o r ig ht to ju dge oth er p eople , a nd th us y o u m ay b e r e lu cta nt to in clu de n egativ e o bse rv a tio ns.

You m ust g et o ve r th ese h esit a tio ns a nd in hib it io ns. F or o ur p urp ose s, s ta rs a re sim ply h um an e le m ents o f m is e -e n-s ce ne, a nd w e s h ould a naly ze th eir p ers o nae a nd 165 perfo rm ance s fo r m eanin g a s u nem otio nally a s w e d o a c a m era m ove m ent o r a c u t.

Take th e outlin e yo u pre pare d in th e Stu dy G uid e, above , and push yo ur descrip tio ns in to a s e rie s o f a naly tic a l d eta ils . L ook fo r a ny p atte rn s th at e m erg e, a nd fo rm ula te te nta tiv e a rg um ents a s y o u g o a lo ng.

Let’s use C lin t Eastw ood as an exa m ple — sp ecif ic a lly th e C lin t Eastw ood of Unfo rg iv e n ( 1 992):

NO TE S O N C LIN T E A STW OOD 1. E A STW OOD’S P H YSIC AL A PPEA RANCE A.

E stim ate d a ge:

la te 5 0s . (In p oin t o f fa ct, E astw ood w as 6 2 w hen Unfo rg iv e n was s h ot. Y ou c a n lo ok u p s u ch d eta ils o nlin e, b ut r e ly fir s t o n y o ur o w n p ow ers of o bse rv a tio n.) B.

E astw ood’s fa cia l fe atu re s FIG URE 9 .2 A p ublic it y s till o f C lin t E astw ood in Unfo rg iv e n ( 1 992). ( P hoto fe st) i. M ost d is tin ctiv e a sp ects :

cra ggy, w eath erb eate n fa ce ii. E ye s— co lo r a nd s h ape:

blu e e ye s th at a re o fte n s q uin tin g, g iv in g h im th e appeara nce o f b ein g a t b est s ke ptic a l a nd a t w ors t h ostile iii. M outh — sh ape a nd s iz e :

th in lip s o fte n fo rm ed in to a s n eer iv . H air — co lo r a nd c u t:

gra y, th in nin g h air C.

E astw ood’s b ody ty p e i. H eig ht— he c o m es a cro ss a s b ein g ta ll . ( In fa ct, h e is 6 ’2 ”.) ii. S hape— he is s lim a nd in g ood p hysic a l c o ndit io n d esp it e h is a ge; e arly 166 public it y p hoto s o f E astw ood o fte n in clu ded s h ir tle ss, b eefc a ke s h ots th at re ve ale d a s m ooth , a th le tic p hysiq ue. H e n o lo nger h as th e m uscle to ne o f a 20- o r 3 0-y e ar-o ld , b ut h is b ody s till r e fle cts v ig oro us m ascu lin it y .

D.

R eal lif e o r c h ara cte r? In o th er w ord s, a re th e o bse rv a tio ns a bove b ase d o n th e sta r a s s e en in m agazin es o r a s m ade u p fo r a p artic u la r ro le ?

The ro le o f Willia m M unny in U nfo rg iv e n re quir e d n o a gin g m ake up, d ra m atic w eig ht g ain or lo ss. It’s in co rre ct to s a y E astw ood p la ys h im se lf in U nfo rg iv e n, but h e d oes pla y a c h ara cte r ta ilo re d to h is o w n fa m ilia r p ers o na, w hic h in vo lv e s n ot o nly ru gged m ascu lin it y b ut a s tr ic t s e nse o f r ig ht a nd w ro ng a nd a te ndency to e xa ct vio le nt r e ve nge fo r w hat h e p erc e iv e s a s in fr a ctio ns o f h is p ers o nal m ora l c o de .

E.

E th nic it y , s e xu alit y , r e lig io sit y , a nd r a ce — Eastw ood is a w hit e h ete ro se xu al w ho is n ot k n ow n fo r b ein g e sp ecia lly r e lig io us .

2. T H E S TA R’S V O IC E A.

V oca l q ualit y — Eastw ood’s v o ic e is lo w a nd d is tin ctiv e ly ra sp y; it h as a d usty qualit y , a s th ough h e a nd h is c h ara cte rs h ave s p ent s o m uch tim e o utd oors in th e W est th at h is m outh , lu ngs, a nd v o ca l c h ord s h ave a bso rb ed th e d ir t o f th e la ndsca pe .

B.

V olu m e— Eastw ood s p eaks in a c h ara cte ris tic a lly lo w v o lu m e; h e ra re ly if e ve r ye lls .

C.

D is tin ctiv e e le m ents o f th e v o ic e i. N atio nal a cce nt— he s p eaks A m eric a n E nglis h w it h n o fo re ig n a cce nt, w hic h co ntr ib ute s to h is p ers o na’s c o nse rv a tiv e A m eric a n v a lu es .

ii. R egio nal a cce nt— he h as n o re gio nal a cce nt; h e c o uld b e fr o m a ny s ta te o r re gio n in th e c o untr y .

iii. E cce ntr ic v o ca l s ty le — ca n th e s ta r’s v o ic e b e im pers o nate d e asily , a nd if s o , what a re th e e le m ents o f th e im pers o natio n?

Eastw ood’s lo w , ra sp y v o ic e and la co nic lin e d eliv e ry , to geth er w it h h is s q uin ty e ye s, fo rm th e fo undatio n not o nly o f E astw ood’s p ers o nal s ty le b ut o f a la rg er, m ore o ve rrid in g im age of h ard , u nyie ld in g A m eric a n m ascu lin it y .

3. T H E S TA R’S T Y PE A.

Is th e s ta r a sso cia te d w it h a p artic u la r g enre o r tw o?

Alt h ough E astw ood h as appeare d in m any film s, h e is a sso cia te d w it h th e w este rn a nd a ctio n g enre s .

B.

D oes th e s ta r h ave a d efin able p ers o na th ro ughout h is o r h er c a re er? Is h e a Good G uy or a B ad G uy? Is sh e a B lo nde B om bsh ell or a C are er G ir l?

Eastw ood’s p ers o na w as fo rm ed e arly in h is c a re er a nd h as b een b urn is h ed ove r tim e. B eca use h e h as p la ye d a n um ber o f o utla w s a s w ell a s a r o gue c o p or tw o, w e m ig ht d efin e h is p artic u la r p ers o na a s a B ad G ood G uy/G ood B ad Guy .

4. P U BLIC IT Y A BO UT T H E S TA R —lis t e ve ry th in g th at y o u a lr e ady k n ow a bout th e sta r’s lif e , in clu din g m arria ges a nd a ffa ir s , a w ard s, a ddic tio ns, le gal tr o uble s, w ell- kn ow n h obbie s, p olit ic a l a ctiv it ie s, a nd s o o n.

A.

Beca m e a s u cce ssfu l film d ir e cto r B.

Polit ic a lly c o nse rv a tiv e b ut s o cia lly lib era l; s e rv e d a s th e R epublic a n m ayo r o f Carm el, C alif o rn ia a t o ne tim e 167 C.

Marrie d s e ve ra l tim es D.

Not kn ow n fo r p artic u la rly h ard liv in g— not se en a s a d ru ggie o r a lc o holic , doesn ’t g et in to p ublic fig hts , h as n o w ell- k n ow n s cra pes w it h th e la w E.

H as w on a n um ber o f p re stig io us a w ard s, in clu din g s e ve ra l O sca rs a nd th e Am eric a n F ilm In stit u te ’s L if e A ch ie ve m ent A w ard 168 C HAPTE R 1 0 G EN RE W HAT IS A G EN RE?

G EN RE ( z h on’- ru h):

a ty p e o r c a te gory o f film — su ch a s th e w este rn , th e h orro r film , th e c o m edy, o r th e m usic a l— th at h as it s o w n r e co gniz a ble c o nve ntio ns a nd c h ara cte r ty p es .

To re tu rn to a poin t ra is e d w hile defin in g th e te rm CO NVEN TIO N ( c h apte r 7 ), w e s o m etim es a ssu m e th at a rt is a bout p ure c re ativ it y — t h at g re at film s ( o r n ove ls , o r p ain tin gs, o r m usic a l w ork s) a re a m atte r o f co m ple te o rig in alit y . B ut g enre s b elie th at id ea. G enre s re ly o n r e petit io n a nd v a ria tio n r a th er th an u niq ueness— fa m ilia r, r e co gniz a ble c o nve ntio ns r a th er th an r a w , p ure in ve ntio ns . It’s tr u e th at a film make r m ay ta ke a n e sp ecia lly fr e sh a ppro ach to a g enre b y e m phasiz in g a n u nexp ecte d e le m ent, s p in nin g a s e em in gly p re dic ta ble s to ry in a n ew a nd u nusu al d ir e ctio n, o r h avin g a ce ntr a l ch ara cte r b ehave in a n u nco nve ntio nal w ay. B ut th ese a re va ria tio ns , n ot ra dic a l in nova tio ns.

I n a w ay, a film g enre is r a th er lik e a la nguage w e a ll u nders ta nd. O ne c o uld m ake u p a n e ntir e ly n ew w ord , b ut n obody e ls e w ould k n ow w hat it m eans. It’s th e re petit iv e n atu re o f la nguage th at e nable s it to h ave m eanin g a nd m ake c o m munic a tio n p ossib le . T he s a m e h old s t r u e fo r film g enre s.

The w ord genre c o m es fr o m F re nch , w here it s im ply m eans kin d o r t y p e.

Y ou m ay b e fa m ilia r w it h th e w ord generic , w hic h is u se d to d escrib e m edic in es a nd o th er p ro ducts th at a re s o ld w it h out a b ra nd n am e. T yle nol is a n in div id ual b ra nd n am e, fo r in sta nce , b ut T yle nol’s a ctiv e in gre die nt, a ce ta m in ophen— a k in d o r ty p e o f p ain re lie ve r— is a ls o s o ld in u nbra nded, generic fo rm . Y ou m ay a ls o k n ow th e w ord g enus in b io lo gy. A genus is a c a te gory o f o rg anis m th at fa lls o n th e t a xo nom ic (o r cla ssif ic a tio nal) sca le betw een fa m ily and sp ecie s .

169 ( Hom o is o ur g enus, sa pie ns o ur s p ecie s.) A ll o f th ese te rm s— genre , generic , a nd g enus— re fe r to w ays o f c a te goriz in g th in gs a cco rd in g to th eir re se m bla nce to e ach o th er. It’s so m etim es sa id th at it is o ur dif fe re nce s th at d efin e u s a s in div id uals , b ut in g enre crit ic is m it ’s re ally q uit e th e o pposit e : g enre s a re d efin ed b y th e s im ila rit ie s a m ong a la rg e n um ber o f film s.

Crit ic s h ave id entif ie d in num era ble g enre s a nd s u bgenre s o ve r th e ye ars , fr o m th e a ctio n film ( Capta in B lo od , 1 934; In dia na J o nes a nd th e T em ple o f D oom , 1 984; Lara C ro ft: T om b R aid er , 2 001) a nd th e base ball p ic tu re ( Bull D urh am , 1 988; The N atu ra l , 1 984; The J a ckie Robin so n S to ry , 1 950, w hic h is a ls o a b io gra phic a l p ic tu re , o r bio pic ) to th e th rille r (A lf r e d H it c h co ck’s North b y N orth w est , 1 959; Phone Booth , 2 003; Angels a nd D em ons , 2 009) a nd th e w om en’s p ris o n pic tu re ( Caged , 1 950; Wom en ’ s P ris o n , 1 955; Caged H eat , 1 974).

There a re m artia l a rts film s, c h ic k flic ks, b each p arty p ic tu re s, c o stu m e dra m as, s ci- fi film s, a nd s la pstic k c o m edie s. T here is a g enre c a lle d th e bla xp lo it a tio n film , w hic h b egan w it h M elv in V an P eeble s’ Sw eet Sw eetb ack’s B aadasssss S ong (1 971) a nd c o ntin ued w it h s u ch film s as G ord on P ark s’s Shaft ( 1 971) a nd Q uentin T ara ntin o’s Ja ckie B ro w n (1 997), th ough o ne m ig ht v e ry w ell q uestio n th e g enre ’s n am e o n th e gro unds th at s e ekin g A fr ic a n A m eric a n a udie nce s fo r film s fe atu rin g Afr ic a n A m eric a n a ctio n h ero es is s ca rc e ly m ore e xp lo it iv e th an a ny oth er a tte m pt to ta rg et a p artic u la r a udie nce .

Many o f th e b est film s e ve r m ade a re g enre p ic tu re s. J o hn F ord ’s Sta geco ach ( 1 939) is a w este rn ; A lf r e d H it c h co ck’s Psych o ( 1 960) is a horro r film ; G eorg e C uko r’s A S ta r is B orn (1 954) is a m usic a l; M artin Sco rs e se ’s Goodfe lla s (1 990) is a g angste r p ic tu re . E ach o f th ese film s h as s o m eth in g o rig in al a bout it , b ut a ll o f th em d epend o n g enre co nve ntio ns to p ro vid e m eanin g a nd s tr u ctu re . N ot a ll film s fa ll r e adily in to sp ecif ic genre s.

Cit iz e n K ane (1 941) is a dra m a , one of th e bro adest p ossib le g enre c a te gorie s, b ut a s m any s ch ola rs h ave n ote d, it c o nta in s e le m ents o f b oth th e myste ry a nd th e film n oir g enre s.

CO NVEN TIO NS, R EPETIT IO NS, A ND V A RIA TIO NS 170 A co nven tio n is a w id ely u se d a nd a cce pte d d evic e in a n a rt fo rm .

Film re vie w ers o fte n u se th e te rm co nve ntio nal a s a p ut- d ow n, a w ay of sa yin g th at th ey are tir e d of se ein g th e sa m e te ch niq ue, sto ry ele m ent, o r c h ara cte r ty p e o ve r a nd o ve r o nscre en. B ut film s tu die s use s co nve ntio nal in a n onju dgm enta l w ay. W e s e e c o nve ntio ns n ot as exh auste d clic h és but as esse ntia l and va lu able parts of a co m munic a tio n s yste m , m eanin gfu l c o m ponents in a w id e n etw ork o f sh are d id eas. In s h ort, c o nve ntio ns a re b asic to c u lt u re , p artic u la rly popula r c u lt u re . T o r e peat th e d efin it io n p ro vid ed e arlie r in th is b ook, a co nve ntio n is an artis tic pra ctic e or pro ce ss or devic e th at is co m monly acce pte d and unders to od wit h in a giv e n cu lt u re .

Conve ntio ns a re m eanin gfu l p re cis e ly b eca use th ey a re re petit iv e ; if an a rtis tic d evic e w as tr u ly n ew a nd u tte rly u niq ue, c h ance s a re w e would n’t u nders ta nd it a t a ll.

If th e sa m e ch ara cte r ty p e a ppeare d in th e sa m e co stu m e a nd perfo rm ed th e s a m e p hysic a l a ctio ns in th e s a m e g enera l s e ttin g in film a fte r film a fte r film , so m e p eople m ig ht g ro w b ore d. B ut o th er people would re m ain in te re ste d— hence th e pro fu sio n of sim ila r weste rn s in th e 1 930s. T he p le asu re o f r e exp erie ncin g th e s a m e b asic genre e le m ents in film o ve r a nd o ve r a gain — in th is c a se , a c o w boy, a hors e , s o m e s a gebru sh , a n o utla w a nd/o r s o m e In dia ns— is n ot s o le ly th e p ro vin ce o f th e d is ta nt p ast. T hin k a bout th e m any c o m merc ia lly su cce ssfu l in ca rn atio ns of th e psych otic M ic h ael M eye rs in th e Hallo w een h orro r s e rie s a nd th e lik e (s u bgenre : th e SLA SH ER F IL M ), o r his equally cra ze d kin in th e re la te d but eve n m ore gru eso m e su bgenre k n ow n a s th e SPLA TTE R M OVIE . M id dle bro w c rit ic s m ay h ave ya w ned (a nd p ublis h ed th eir y a w ns a s m ovie re vie w s), b ut a udie nce s ke pt b uyin g tic ke ts to s la sh er a nd s p la tte r m ovie s, k n ow in g m ore o r le ss e xa ctly w hat th ey w ere g oin g to s e e a nd h ear b efo re th ey a ctu ally sa w o r h eard it . T hat fa m ilia rit y w as p art o f th eir p le asu re .

A su bgen re is s im ply a s m alle r c a te gory w it h in a g enre c a te gory .

The h orro r film h as s u bgenre s in clu din g th e s la sh er m ovie , th e s p la tte r movie , a nd th e m onste r m ovie ( Godzilla v s. M oth ra , 1 964). C om edie s ca n b e ca te goriz e d in to su bgenre s su ch a s th e scre w ball co m edy ( Brin gin g U p B aby , 1 938), th e g ro ss-o ut c o m edy ( Dum b a nd D um ber , 1994), th e b la ck c o m edy ( Dr. S tr a ngelo ve : o r H ow I L earn ed to S to p 171 Worry in g a nd L ove th e B om b , 1 964), a nd o th er s u bgenre s.

Repetit io n : th e re petit io n of genre co nve ntio ns fr o m film to film pro vid es a b uilt - in s tr u ctu re , a re co gniz a ble fr a m ew ork in w hic h n ot only th e film make rs but audie nce s opera te . Seen fr o m th is pers p ectiv e , g enre c o nve ntio ns s u pport ra th er th an c h alle nge s o cia l, cu lt u ra l, and artis tic assu m ptio ns. W hen w e se e a w este rn , fo r exa m ple , w e a re n ot s u rp ris e d to m eet a p ro ta gonis t o nscre en w ho em bodie s a ce rta in kin d of id ealiz e d man: str o ng, to ugh, in div id ualis tic , ta cit u rn . . . T he c la ssic a l w este rn h ero is re assu rin g in his fa m ilia rit y . T his c h ara cte r h as a ppeare d in film a fte r film fo r a lm ost a c e ntu ry , e ve n th ough h e h as b een p la ye d b y s u ch d iv e rs e fig ure s a s Jo hn W ayn e ( Fort A pach e , 1 948), C lin t E astw ood ( Unfo rg iv e n , 1 992), and H eath L edger ( Bro ke back M ounta in , 2 005). E ach o f th ese s ta rs , and e ach o f th ese film s, re in fo rc e s s o cia l a nd c u lt u ra l e xp ecta tio ns about mascu lin it y , fo r exa m ple , by way of physio gnom y and perfo rm ance s ty le . T he re petit io n o f th is c h ara cte r ty p e is s o b asic to th e w este rn g enre th at it is im possib le to im agin e a w este rn fe atu rin g as it s h ero , s a y, a v e ry s w eet, e xtr e m ely s h ort s in gin g s h erif f w ho rid es aro und a fr o ntie r to w n on an adora ble lit tle S hetla nd pony.

(Im possib le perh aps fo r fir s t- tim e film stu dents , but not fo r th ose se aso ned v e te ra ns w ho h ave s e en th e 1 938 a ll- m id get w este rn The Terro r o f T in y T ow n .) Varia tio n : a t th e s a m e tim e, r e petit io n is n eve r p ure ly s o . E ve ry n ew weste rn , or scre w ball co m edy, or sp la tte r m ovie , brin gs va ria tio n .

Each p artic u la r s to ry (o r p lo t, o r lo ca tio n, o r a cto r, o r lin e o f d ia lo gue) co nstit u te s a d is sim ila rit y fr o m o th er film s in th e g enre o r s u bgenre .

Each it e ra tio n is u niq ue. In Fort A pach e , fo r in sta nce , J o hn W ayn e’s ch ara cte r, C apt. K ir b y Y ork , c lo se s th e film b y u phold in g a m ora l a nd eth ic a l p osit io n— th e v a lu e o f tr a dit io nal le aders h ip — th at th e film h as se ve re ly questio ned until th at poin t; York th us defe nds ce rta in co nse rv a tiv e id eas a bout m ascu lin it y . In Unfo rg iv e n , C lin t E astw ood’s ch ara cte r, Bill M unny, ends up goin g on a m urd ero us, blo ody ra m page, u nle ash in g a ll h is p ent- u p e nerg y b y s la ughte rin g a n um ber of oth er m en in a sp ecta cu la r, clim actic sh oot- o ut; th is , to o, is a sta te m ent a bout m ascu lin it y , b ut it ’s c le arly q uit e d if fe re nt th an th at o f Fort Apach e . And fin ally , alt h ough H ealt h Ledger’s ch ara cte r in 172 Bro ke back M ounta in , E nnis D el M ar, m ay lo ok a nd ta lk lik e a c la ssic a l Am eric a n film co w boy (E nnis is te ch nic a lly a ra nch hand, not a co w boy), his lo ve fo r anoth er m an se ts him dis tin ctly apart fr o m co nse rv a tiv e n otio ns o f w este rn h ero is m , n ot to m entio n c o nve ntio nal mascu lin it y . A ll th re e film s a re w este rn s, a ll th re e b egin w it h s im ila r ch ara cte rs , a nd y e t e ach h as s o m eth in g q uit e d if fe re nt to s a y a bout what it m eans to b e a m an: r e petit io n a nd v a ria tio n.

A B RIE F T A XO NO M Y O F T W O F IL M G EN RES— TH E W ESTE R N A ND T H E HO RRO R F IL M Here is a p artia l b re akd ow n o f tw o p opula r g enre s, th e w este rn a nd th e h orro r film , a nd s o m e o f th e s u bgenre s in to w hic h th ey c a n b e div id ed. T he lis t is c e rta in ly n ot c o m pre hensiv e , a nd th e s p ecif ic film s lis te d in e ach s u bgenre a re b y n o m eans th e o nly e xa m ple s a va ila ble .

They’r e o ffe re d sim ply to g iv e yo u a se nse o f w hat re petit io n a nd va ria tio n m eans in s p ecif ic c in em atic in sta nce s:

TH E W ESTE R N In g enera l, th e w este rn is a film th at ta ke s p la ce in th e n in ete enth ce ntu ry A m eric a n West.

1 Subgenre : C ow boys-a nd-In dia ns m ovie — ra cia l a nd im peria l c o nflic t o n th e fr o ntie r Bro ke n A rro w ( 1 950) Dru m s A cro ss th e R iv e r ( 1 954) Cheye nne A utu m n ( 1 964) Subgenre : V engeance w este rn — a lo ner, s o m etim es a n o utla w , s e eks r e ve nge Sta geco ach ( 1 939) One-E ye d J a cks ( 1 961) The O utla w J o se y W ale s ( 1 976) Subgenre : S paghetti w este rn — a w este rn m ade b y a n Ita lia n d ir e cto r a nd c h ara cte riz e d by a c e rta in p astic h e q ualit y , m eanin g th at it s e em s to b e q uotin g o r e ve n p aro dyin g cla ssic a l A m eric a n w este rn s The G ood, th e B ad, a nd th e U gly ( 1 966) Dja ngo ( 1 966) Com pañero s ( 1 970) Dja ngo a nd S arta na a re C om in g: It’s th e E nd!

( 1 970) Subgenre : S cie nce -fic tio n w este rn — th e fu tu re m eets th e p ast in th e A m eric a n W est 173 Westw orld ( 1 973) Back to th e F utu re III ( 1 990) Obliv io n ( 1 994) TH E H O RRO R F IL M The h orro r film in duce s fr ig ht o r te rro r in a n a udie nce .

2 Subgenre : M onste r m ovie — a c re atu re w re cks h avo c Brid e o f F ra nke nste in ( 1 935) Brid e o f th e M onste r ( 1 955) Brid e o f C hucky ( 1 998) Subgenre : M onste r-a s-p sych otic -h um an m ovie — th e c re atu re is o ne o f u s Psych o ( 1 960) Hallo w een ( 1 978) The S ile nce o f th e L am bs ( 1 991) Subgenre : S pla tte r m ovie — a h orro r m ovie th at c e nte rp ie ce s b lo od a nd g uts Nig ht o f th e L iv in g D ead ( 1 968) The E vil D ead ( 1 981) Dead A liv e ( 1 990) Subgenre :

J-H O RRO R —a gru eso m e Ja panese horro r movie wit h a perv e rs e psych olo gic a l b ent Blin d B east ( 1 969) Cure ( 1 997) Audit io n ( 1 999) Subgenre : h orro r-c o m edy Young F ra nke nste in ( 1 974) Atta ck o f th e K ille r T om ato es ( 1 978) Shaun o f th e D ead ( 2 004) Nig ht o f th e D ay o f th e D aw n o f th e S on o f th e B rid e o f th e R etu rn o f th e R eve nge o f th e T erro r o f th e A tta ck o f th e E vil, M uta nt, H ellb ound, F le sh -E atin g S ubhum anoid Zom bif ie d L iv in g D ead, P art 3 ( 2 005) GEN RE: T H E S EM ANTIC /S YN TA CTIC A PPR O ACH What ro le does his to ry pla y in th e fo rm atio n, deve lo pm ent, and possib le d eclin e o f c e rta in g enre s? H ow d o w e d escrib e th e w ay th at genre s c h ange o ve r tim e a nd s till re m ain c o nsis te nt e nough to b e, in 174 fa ct, g enre s? A nd w hat a bout v a ria tio ns th at a ppear to d efy g enre defin it io ns— weste rn s th at d on’t ta ke p la ce in th e A m eric a n W est, fo r in sta nce ? T hese a re th orn y q uestio ns.

The film s ch ola r a nd th eoris t R ic k A lt m an h as p ro pose d a m odel h e ca lls th e “ sem an tic /s yn ta ctic a p pro ach ” a s a w ay o f re so lv in g th ese th eore tic a l is su es.

3 T he te rm s se m antic a nd syn ta ctic c o m e fr o m th e fie ld o f lin guis tic s, th e stu dy o f la nguage a nd it s co m ponent p arts .

Sem antic re fe rs to meanin g ; syn ta ctic h as to d o w it h str u ctu rin g a nd ord erin g . C onsid er th e w ord hors e . S em antic a lly , hors e re fe rs to a la rg e fo ur-le gged, h oofe d m am mal. S yn ta ctic a lly , hors e is a n oun th at may a ppear a t a ny o f a n um ber o f a ppro pria te p la ce s in a s e nte nce a s lo ng a s it s u sa ge c o nfo rm s to th e r u le s o f g ra m mar. ( T he c o w boy r o de his hors e . T he hors e h ad n o s a ddle . O n a hors e , a p ers o n m ay tr a ve l more q uic kly th an o n fo ot. E tc e te ra .) S yn ta ctic a lly , th e w ord hors e may c h ange p osit io ns in a s e nte nce ; it s p la ce m ent is v a ria ble , a nd a giv e n s e nte nce m ake s s e nse b y v ir tu e o f w here th e w ord hors e fa lls in it . S em antic a lly , how eve r, th e w ord hors e re m ain s m ore or le ss co nsta nt in te rm s o f it s m eanin g, a nd it d oes n ot e ve n h ave to b e u se d in a s e nte nce a t a ll to h ave m eanin g. T hin k a bout it :

hors e . Y ou k n ow what th e w ord m eans o n it s o w n.

Acco rd in g to R ic k A lt m an, th ere h ave b een tw o s ch ools o f c rit ic a l th ought a nd p ra ctic e in g enre s tu die s: th e s e m antic m odel o n th e o ne hand a nd th e syn ta ctic m odel o n th e o th er. C rit ic s w ho stu dy film genre s se m antic a lly have co nce ntr a te d on th e sim ila rit ie s of ch ara cte rs , lo ca tio ns, lig htin g s ty le s, a nd s o o n w it h in a g iv e n g enre — in o th er w ord s, e ach g enre h as a s e t o f r e la tiv e ly fix e d m eanin gs. J u st as hors e h as a g iv e n m eanin g, s o th e w este rn , o r th e h orro r film , o r any g enre o r s u bgenre h as a g iv e n m eanin g.

Syn ta ctic a lly o rie nte d sch ola rs , in c o ntr a st, d escrib e g enre s in te rm s o f v a ria ble r e la tio nsh ip s betw een str u ctu re d, ord ere d ele m ents . In ste ad of str e ssin g w hat re m ain s c o nsta nt w it h in a g enre , s yn ta ctic c rit ic s fin d a m uch m ore flu id a nd c h angeable s e t o f film s a s c o nstit u tin g a c o nse quently m ore flu id a nd c h angeable g enre . J u st a s th e w ord hors e a ppears v a ria bly in se nte nce s, th e w este rn , th e co m edy, o r a ny g enre o r su bgenre appears v a ria bly o ve r tim e a nd c h anges a cco rd in g to h is to ric a l s h if ts , 175 co m merc ia l decis io ns and eco nom ic tr e nds, a sp ecif ic dir e cto r’s in div id ual c o nce rn s a nd v is u al s ty le , a nd s o o n.

Alt m an u se s a s a n e xa m ple a s e m antic d efin it io n o f th e w este rn offe re d b y th e F re nch c rit ic J e an M it r y : a w este rn , fo r M it r y , is “a film whose a ctio n, s it u ate d in th e A m eric a n W est, is c o nsis te nt w it h th e atm osp here , th e v a lu es, a nd th e c o ndit io ns o f e xis te nce in th e F ar West b etw een 1 840 a nd 1 900.” T his is a fin e e xa m ple o f a fix e d, co nsta nt d efin it io n. F or M it r y , it d oesn ’t m atte r w heth er a film w as made in 1 909, 1 959, o r 2 009: a ny film th at is s it u ate d in th e A m eric a n West and has th e va lu es and atm osp here of th e la te nin ete enth ce ntu ry is a w este rn . There is so m eth in g co ncre te about M it r y ’s defin it io n— it ’s m ore o r le ss s ta ble a nd u nch angin g.

To p ro vid e a c o ntr a st, A lt m an c it e s th e w ork o f J im K it s e s a s a n exa m ple of a syn ta ctic appro ach to th e w este rn . F or K it s e s, th e weste rn a s a g enre r e su lt s fr o m s e ve ra l o ve rla ppin g th em atic c la sh es:

th e W est a s d ese rt v e rs u s th e W est a s g ard en / n atu re v e rs u s c u lt u re / th e in div id ual ve rs u s th e co m munit y . The fa ct th at alm ost all weste rn s ta ke p la ce in th e A m eric a n W est is a ctu ally o f le ss in te re st to Kit s e s a nd o th er s yn ta ctic c rit ic s th an th e d ia le ctic s, o r o pposit io nal co nflic ts , th at g enera te th ese film s’ n arra tiv e s. F or K it s e s a nd o th ers , th e w este rn is va ria ble — it g enera te s a nd re genera te s a ll th e tim e.

Such co nsta nt re genera tio n cro sse s cu lt u re s as w ell as deca des:

Terre nce M alic k’s Badla nds ( 1 973) c a n b e c o nsid ere d a w este rn , a nd eve n m ore fle xib ly , s o c a n A ng L ee’s Cro uch in g T ig er, H id den D ra gon (2 000), th anks to it s u se o f w este rn (a nd W este rn ) c o nve ntio ns (lik e rid in g o ff in to th e su nse t) a nd it s th em e o f m oney a nd civ iliz a tio n encro ach in g o n th e o ld w ays o f th e fr o ntie r.

The se m antic defin it io n is , fr a nkly , easie r to gra sp th an th e syn ta ctic , w hic h depends on th e abstr a ct philo so phic a l co nce pt of dia le ctic s, b ut th e s yn ta ctic a ppro ach y ie ld s a m ore d yn am ic v is io n o f what c o nstit u te s th e g ro w th , s u ste nance , a nd v a ria tio n w it h in g enre s.

More ove r, as A lt m an note s, w hile th e se m antic defin it io n has th e vir tu e o f b ein g a ble to c le arly d escrib e a nd u nif y la rg e n um bers o f film s, th e syn ta ctic defin it io n m ake s it possib le fo r us to is o la te underly in g th em es a nd c o nflic ts e ve n th ough s u ch is o la te d th em atic cla sh es m ay n ot u lt im ate ly h ave b ro ad a pplic a bilit y to e ve ry s in gle film 176 in a genre or su bgenre . How do we re so lv e th is appare nt co ntr a dic tio n?

For A lt m an, a nd fo r th e m any film s ch ola rs h e h as in flu ence d, th ese tw o s ch ools o f th ought a nd p ra ctic e a re n ot o pposit e s a t a ll. In ste ad, th ey c o m ple m ent e ach o th er. J u st a s hors e h as b oth a s e m antic a nd a syn ta ctic a sp ect, s o g enre c rit ic is m m ay p oin t o ut b oth th e re la tiv e ly co nsta nt m eanin g of a giv e n genre and it s dyn am ic va ria bilit y — sim ila rit ie s a nd d if fe re nce s, r e petit io ns a nd v a ria tio ns.

One fin al n ote : w hat a bout th ose o dd w este rn s th at d on’t ta ke p la ce in th e W est? A 1 939 film ca lle d Alle gheny U pris in g , sta rrin g Jo hn Wayn e, co nta in s a num ber of ele m ents co m mon to w este rn s— an outla w /h ero , In dia ns, a fo rt, a v is io n o f lif e o n th e A m eric a n fr o ntie r— but th e film is s e t in c o lo nia l tim es in P ennsylv a nia ’s A lle gheny V alle y, well e ast o f th e M is sis sip pi R iv e r (th e c o nve ntio nal d iv id e b etw een East a nd W est) . U nder Je an M it r y ’s se m antic d efin it io n, Alle gheny Upris in g c a nnot b e a w este rn ; it ta ke s p la ce in th e E ast d urin g th e eig hte enth ce ntu ry . But as Ric k Alt m an poin ts out, under th e co m ple m enta ry se m antic /s yn ta ctic model, film s lik e Alle gheny Upris in g ( a nd J o hn F ord ’s Dru m s A lo ng th e M ohaw k , 1939; C ecil B. D eM ille ’s Unco nquere d , 1947; and oth ers ) are acco unte d fo r a s w este rn s. T hese film s, th ough lo ca te d in th e E ast, are n eve rth ele ss s e t o n th e A m eric a n fr o ntie r, a nd th ey a ll p ro vid e va ria tio ns o f K it s e s’ d ia le ctic a l cla sh es b etw een d ese rt a nd g ard en (th ough th e c o nflic t is a ctu ally b etw een fo re st a nd g ard en), in div id ual and c o m munit y , a nd n atu re a nd c u lt u re , a ll in th e o ve ra rc h in g c o nte xt of Am eric a n his to ry . These film s th us fo rm a su bgenre w it h a para doxic a l n am e: th e easte rn w este rn .

FIL M N O IR : A C ASE S TU DY One o f th e m ost in tr ig uin g g enre s in film h is to ry is th e film n oir .

Film Stu die s fo cu se s o n th is g enre fo r s e ve ra l r e aso ns: film n oir h as r e adily id entif ia ble th em es, vis u al co nve ntio ns, ch ara cte r co nve ntio ns, a nd sto ry c o nve ntio ns; it ’s a p artic u la rly h om egro w n A m eric a n g enre th at sa ys so m e su rp ris in g th in gs about our cu lt u re ; it ra is e s so m e 177 fa scin atin g h is to ric a l a nd th eore tic a l q uestio ns; a nd c la ssic film n oir s ofte n s e rv e a s k e y s cre enin gs in in tr o ducto ry film c o urs e s.

Film n oir d eve lo ped— and c rit ic s b egan to p erc e iv e it a s a g enre — at a s p ecif ic p oin t in h is to ry : th e 1 940s. A fte r th e e nd o f W orld W ar II (1 939–1945), A m eric a n film s— whic h h ad b een b anned u nder th e N azi occu patio n o f F ra nce — ca sca ded b ack in to F re nch m ovie th eate rs .

Thanks to th e crit ic a l dis ta nce affo rd ed to th em by dif fe re nce s in la nguage a nd c u lt u re , F re nch c rit ic s n otic e d w hat A m eric a ns h adn’t ye t p erc e iv e d, n ot c o nscio usly a nyw ay: th at d urin g th e p re vio us fe w ye ars , H olly w ood had been pro ducin g a cycle of esp ecia lly dark - te m pere d a nd m orb id film s. A m eric a n a udie nce s h ad b een s e ein g a nd pre su m ably e njo yin g th ese film s fo r a ye ar o r tw o d urin g th e la te r ye ars o f th e w ar, b ut it to ok s o m e h ig hly p erc e ptiv e F re nch c rit ic s afte r th e w ar to s e e th e re petit io n a nd v a ria tio n o f fo rm al e le m ents a nd narra tiv e th em es a m ong a g ro up o f film s, a nd o n th at b asis th ey cla ssif ie d a n ew g enre :

film n oir , o r “ b la ck film .” These film s h ave a n u nusu al e m otio nal g oal: th ey in duce a s e nse o f te nsio n a nd mala is e in th eir a udie nce s. T hey’r e fe el- b ad m ovie s. T he male p ro ta gonis ts a re u su ally tr o uble d, a nd w om en a re o fte n d eadly , vic io us, a llu rin g te m ptr e sse s. T he film s o fte n ta ke p la ce a t n ig ht, in bad p arts o f to w n, w it h s h adow y, lo w -k e y lig htin g a nd a lo t o f to ugh ta lk . It’s a n u gly w orld — a p ara noid w orld . U rb an a nd d ir ty . F ull o f gre ed, lu st, a nd c o rru ptio n. In s h ort, film n oir e xp lo re s th e d ark s id e o f Am eric a n c u lt u re .

World W ar II c e rta in ly p la ye d a ro le in th e g enesis o f film n oir ’s grit ty , grim m oodin ess, but it w asn ’t ju st th e w ar’s te nsio ns and deva sta tio n th at p ro vo ke d a nd s u sta in ed th e g enre ; film n oir c o ntin ued fo r m any y e ars a fte r th e w ar e nded. In 1 952, fo r in sta nce , ju st w hen eve ry b ody w as s u ppose d to b e h appily b uild in g h ouse s in th e h appy su burb s, th e d ir e cto r F rit z L ang m ade a film n oir c a lle d The B ig H eat in w hic h L ee M arv in ’s c h ara cte r th ro w s a p ot o f s ca ld in g c o ffe e r ig ht in Glo ria Gra ham e’s ch ara cte r’s fa ce in th e mid dle of th e film .

(F ortu nate ly , s h e h urls a noth er p ot o f e qually h ot c o ffe e in M arv in ’s fa ce la te r in th e film , s o s h e g ets e ve n.) A p oste r fo r The B ig H eat fe atu re d th e ta g lin e, “ S om ebody’s g oin g to p ay— beca use th ey fo rg ot to k ill m e!” T hat’s th e p erv e rs e b asis o n w hic h th is p artic u la r film n oir 178 was s o ld to th e p ublic a s m ass e nte rta in m ent in 1 952: th e p ro ta gonis t (G le nn F ord ) s e eks v e ngeance fo r s o m eone’s fa ilu re to k ill h im .

FIG URE 1 0.1 A s till fr o m th e c la ssic film n oir Murd er, M y S w eet ( 1 944)— Mik e M azu rk i ( le ft ), Dic k P ow ell ( rig ht ). ( P hoto fe st) FIL M N O IR : A B R IE F H IS TO RY Billy W ild er’s Double In dem nit y (1 944) a nd O tto P re m in ger’s Laura (1 944) a re w id ely c o nsid ere d to b e n ot o nly tw o o f th e fir s t film n oir s but a ls o tw o o f th e g re ate st a nd m ost d efin it iv e . (In th e fo rm er, a n 179 in su ra nce s a le sm an p la ns th e m urd er o f o ne o f h is o w n c lie nts w it h th e aid of th e clie nt’s kille r-d am e w if e ; in th e la tte r, a dete ctiv e in ve stig atin g a m urd er fin ds h im se lf fa llin g d is tu rb in gly in lo ve w it h th e vic tim .) B ut film s ch ola rs h ave n ote d th at J o hn H usto n’s The M alt e se Falc o n a nd O rs o n W elle s’s Cit iz e n K ane , b oth re le ase d th re e y e ars earlie r, in 1 941, a ls o c o nta in e le m ents o f film n oir , th ough s ch ola rs ra re ly c la ssif y th em s im ply ( o r, b ette r, s o le ly ) a s film n oir s .

Oth er n ota ble film n oir s fr o m th e m id -to -la te 1 940s a re H ow ard Haw ks’s The B ig S le ep a nd F rit z L ang’s Sca rle t S tr e et (b oth 1 945), Ja cq ues T ourn eur’s Out o f th e P ast (1 947), a nd J u le s D assin ’s The Nake d C it y (1 948). In 1 950 a lo ne, th e fo llo w in g n oir s w ere re le ase d:

D.O .A ., D ark C it y , In a Lonely P la ce , No W ay O ut , Panic in th e Str e ets , Where D anger L iv e s , a nd Where th e S id ew alk E nds . T heir tit le s a lo ne c o nve y a s e nse o f th e g enre ’s b le ak e m otio nal te nor. T he fif tie s w ent o n to fe atu re m any m ore d ow ners : L ang’s Cla sh b y N ig ht (1 952), Sam uel Fulle r’s Pic ku p on South Str e et (1 953), Robert Ald ric h ’s Kis s M e D eadly (1 955), A lf r e d H it c h co ck’s The W ro ng M an (1 956), a nd O rs o n W elle s’s Touch o f E vil ( 1 958), to n am e o nly a fe w .

There is w id esp re ad dis a gre em ent about w hat happened to (o r wit h ) film n oir a s a g enre fr o m a bout 1 960 to th e p re se nt d ay. S om e people th in k th at film n oir a dapte d o ve r th e y e ars a nd s till c o ntin ues a s an activ e genre to day; th ey ca ll th ese la te r film s neo-n oir s to dis tin guis h th em fr o m th ose o f th e c la ssic p erio d. S till o th ers s e e th e genre a s e ndin g in th e la te 1 950s a nd e arly 1 960s a nd re fu se to cla ssif y a s film n oir a ny film m ade th ere afte r. A fe w o f th e b est- k n ow n film s th at fa ll in to th is d is p ute d te rrit o ry a re R obert A lt m an’s The L ong Goodbye (1 973), Rom an Pola nski’s Chin ato w n (1 974), Quentin Tara ntin o’s Rese rv o ir Dogs (1 992), and Curtis Hanso n’s L.A .

Confid entia l (1 997). A nd w hat o f J o el a nd E th an C oen’s No C ountr y fo r O ld M en ( 2 007)? C ould it b e a neo-n oir w este rn ?

FIL M N O IR ’S C O NVEN TIO NS Film n oir ’s c o nve ntio ns a re b oth th em atic a nd fo rm al. T hat is , th ere are g re at s im ila rit ie s a m ong th e s to rie s a nd p lo ts o f th ese film s, th eir 180 ce ntr a l a nd s e co ndary c h ara cte rs ’ o ccu patio ns a nd p ers o nalit ie s, w hat th e film s a re a bout o n a p hilo so phic a l le ve l, a nd th e w ays th e film s lo ok a nd s o und. T hese lik e nesse s, a fte r a ll, a re w hat m ake s film n oir a genre .

Many (th ough not all) film noir s fe atu re a m urd er or m ult ip le murd ers ; o n th is b asis a lo ne, o ne c a n s a fe ly s a y th at q uestio ns a bout vio le nce , m orta lit y , a nd d eath lie a t th e h eart o f th e g enre . B eca use a killin g s o o fte n m otiv a te s th e n arra tiv e s o f th ese film s, m any film n oir pro ta gonis ts a re d ete ctiv e s w ho a re h ir e d to s o lv e th e c a se a nd n ab th e k ille r. T here is th us a n e pis te m olo gic a l q uest a t th e h eart o f th e genre — a se arc h fo r kn ow le dge. ( Epis te m olo gy is a bra nch of philo so phy co nce rn ed w it h questio ns of kn ow in g —as oppose d to onto lo gy , w hic h is a bout bein g .) One o dd w ay th e g enre fo rm aliz e s th is e pis te m olo gic a l q uest is to fe atu re e sp ecia lly c o nvo lu te d s to rie s w it h p lo ttin g th at d oes n ot s e rv e to cla rif y eve nts but in ste ad ove rc o m plic a te s th em . The dete ctiv e /p ro ta gonis t ofte n se rv e s as th e audie nce ’s onscre en su rro gate , tr y in g to m ake s e nse n ot o nly o f a n a ppare ntly s e nse le ss murd er b ut, b y e xte nsio n, a w hole m ora l u niv e rs e o f c o nfu sio n a nd meanin gle ssn ess. T here is a nih ilis tic q ualit y to th ese film s— a s e nse of co ld , co sm ic hostilit y , a fe elin g th at lif e is em pty and noth in g matte rs . T he m ost illu str a tiv e e xa m ple o f n oir ’s th em e o f u nce rta in ty and d is o rd er is H aw ks’s The B ig S le ep , a film so co nvo lu te d a nd bew ild erin g in it s sto ry and str u ctu re th at half w ay th ro ugh th e pro ductio n H aw ks re porte dly s e nt a te le gra m to R aym ond C handle r, th e a uth or o f th e n ove l o n w hic h th e film is b ase d, a skin g h im to c la rif y so m eth in g: w ho k ille d o ne o f th e c h ara cte rs ? C handle r w ir e d b ack th at he h ad n o id ea.

Low -k e y lig htin g th at c re ate s o m in ous s h adow s, th e s tr ip ed e ffe ct o f brig ht lig ht sh in in g in to a dim ro om th ro ugh V enetia n blin ds, and str ik in g bla ck-a nd-w hit e cin em ato gra phy— so m etim es grit ty , so m etim es polis h ed— are th re e of th e most sig nif ic a nt fo rm al co nve ntio ns o f film n oir . In fa ct, th e p re se nce o r a bse nce o f b la ck a nd whit e in ste ad o f c o lo r c a n b e u se d to d efin e w hat is a nd w hat is n ot a film n oir . S in ce a ll th e o rig in al film n oir s w ere m ade in b la ck a nd w hit e , la te r d ir e cto rs ’ u se o f c o lo r— Alt m an in The L ong G oodbye , P ola nski in 181 Chin ato w n , T ara ntin o in Rese rv o ir D ogs —may b e s e en a s c o nstit u tin g so s ig nif ic a nt a v a ria tio n fr o m o ne o f th e g enre ’s e sse ntia l c o nve ntio ns th at n o co lo r film ca n b e, str ic tly sp eakin g, a film n oir . T his is , o f co urs e , d ebata ble , a s a ll g ood p oin ts m ust b e.

STU DY G UID E:

G EN RE A N A L Y SIS F O R T H E IN TR O DUCTO RY S TU DEN T Stu dyin g g enre p re se nts a p artic u la r c h alle nge fo r th e b egin nin g film s tu dent. W hile one c a n le arn to d escrib e m is e -e n-s ce ne e le m ents in d eta il b y w atc h in g a fiv e -m in ute clip fr o m a ny film , fo r in sta nce , s tu dyin g a g enre d em ands th at o ne b e fa m ilia r w it h a t le ast s e ve ra l film s w it h in a p artic u la r g enre , if n ot m ore . In fa ct, to fu lly a ppre cia te w hat genre m eans fr o m b oth h is to ric a l a nd fo rm al p ers p ectiv e s— to s e e th e m acro -p ic tu re o f how film s a re c la ssif ie d b y w ay o f s im ila rit ie s— one n eeds to b e fa m ilia r w it h a v e ry la rg e num ber of film s. Appare ntly sim ple questio ns tu rn out to be su rp ris in gly dependent o n a dva nce d k n ow le dge:

How d oes o ne g enre d if fe r fr o m a noth er?

What ro le d oes h is to ry p la y in g enera tin g, su sta in in g, ch angin g, a nd e ve n elim in atin g g enre s a nd s u bgenre s?

Fir s t- tim e film s tu die s s tu dents m ust le arn to a sk th ese q uestio ns, b ut th ey c a n ra re ly a nsw er th em a ccu ra te ly o n th eir o w n. Ju st a s yo u ca nnot le git im ate ly m ake cla im s a bout a d ir e cto r’s w orld vie w b ase d o n o nly o ne e xa m ple o f h is o r h er w ork , s o yo u m ust re in in a ny g enera liz a tio ns y o u m ig ht tr y to m ake a bout g enre s. U nle ss y o u brin g e xte nsiv e p rio r vie w in g e xp erie nce to th e ta ble , yo u n eed a stu dy g uid e th at te ach es yo u to le arn in dependently about a su bje ct th at, by it s natu re , re quir e s fa m ilia rit y w it h la rg e n um bers o f film s.

So, s ta rt s m all. D eal w it h g enre o n a m ic ro le ve l.

Note th e tit le o f a m ovie y o u h ave s e en re ce ntly (o uts id e o f c la ss, th at is ), a nd atte m pt to c la ssif y it a s a g enre a nd/o r s u bgenre . D on’t s im ply n am e a g enre rig ht aw ay, e ve n if y o u th in k y o u k n ow th e a nsw er. (A nd it ’s c h eatin g to s im ply lo ok it u p onlin e and acce pt so m eone els e ’s genre cla ssif ic a tio n.) In ste ad, ta ke a m ore meth odic a l a ppro ach b y c re atin g a ta xo nom ic o utlin e. C olle ct a nd e num era te fa cts , a nd use re aso n to d educe a n a nsw er. In s im ple r te rm s, id entif y th e film ’s m ost n ote w orth y tr a it s , a nd s e e if th e re su lt s s u ggest th at th e film b elo ngs to a p artic u la r g enre a nd/o r su bgenre o r w heth er th e film is a m ix o f g enre s.

Here ’s a n e xa m ple :

TH E D ARK K NIG HT ( C hris to pher N ola n, 2 008) 1. M IS E-E N -S C EN E E LE M EN TS A.

C olo r— does a ny c o lo r o r to ne p re dom in ate ?

B.

L ig htin g— hig h k e y, lo w k e y, o r a m ix o f b oth ?

C.

U rb an lo ca tio n D.

S im ila rit ie s w it h o th er a rt fo rm s 182 i. A rt fo rm A ii. A rt fo rm B E.

C ostu m es i. B ru ce W ayn e’s c o stu m es ii. B atm an’s c o stu m e iii. O th er c h ara cte rs ’ c o stu m es F.

M ake up i. B ru ce W ayn e’s m ake up ii. T he J o ke r’s m ake up iii. O th er c h ara cte rs ’ m ake up 2. C HARACTE R T Y PES A.

B ru ce W ayn e ( C hris tia n B ale ) B.

B atm an ( C hris tia n B ale ) C.

T he J o ke r ( H eath L edger) D.

R ach el D aw es ( M aggie G ylle nhaal) E.

H arv e y D ent/T w o F ace ( A aro n E ckh art) F.

O th er c h ara cte rs 3. S TO RY A ND P LO T E LE M EN TS A.

C entr a l s to ry e ve nts B.

D aytim e s ce nes v s. n ig httim e s ce nes C.

P re se nce o r a bse nce o f e xp lic it v io le nce (F or in sta nce , c o uld The D ark K nig ht be a s p la tte r film ?) D.

P lo t s tr u ctu re i. P re se nce o r a bse nce o f fla sh backs ii. P lo t tw is ts / r e ve la tio ns 4. T H EM ES A.

D ualit ie s a nd s e cre t id entit ie s B.

D ouble c ro sse s Conclu sio n:

The D ark K nig ht is a _____________________.

WRIT IN G A BO UT G EN RE The k e y c h alle nges w hen w rit in g a bout g enre a re to c o nfin e y o ur d is cu ssio n to w hat yo u c a n p ro ve y o u k n ow a nd to a vo id m akin g c la im s y o u c a nnot s u pport. Y ou ca n w rit e about The D ark K nig ht ’s v is u al a nd a ura l s ty le , it s ro ots in a noth er a rt fo rm , a nd th e mora l questio ns th e film ra is e s. Y ou ca n als o analy ze th e Jo ke r’s m ake up and co stu m in g a s p artic u la r e xp re ssio ns o f th e film ’s th em atic co nce rn s. Y ou ca n w rit e about a ny fo rm al a sp ect o f The D ark K nig ht th at in te re sts y o u— as lo ng a s y o u h ave se en The D ark K nig ht , th at is . W hat y o u s h ould n ot a tte m pt to d o is ta ckle th e to o-b ro ad to pic o f th e s u perh ero film b y u sin g The D ark K nig ht a s a n e xa m ple . W hy n ot? W ell, fo r 183 one th in g, y o u w ill h ave to h ave s e en a n um ber o f s u perh ero film s in o rd er to m ake a ny le git im ate cla im s about th e genre .

Fair enough , yo u m ay co unte r; I have se en Superm an (1 978) , B atm an (1 989) , D ark m an (1 990) , S pid er-M an (2 002) , U lt r a m an (2 004) , M erc u ry M an (2 006) , and T he A dve ntu re s o f S hark b oy a nd L ava gir l 3 -D (2 005), so w hy c a n’t I w rit e a bout th em ?

The a nsw er is , yo u c a n tr y . A nd y o u m ay s u cce ed— but o nly if y o u d eal w it h th ese film s in s p ecif ic , c o ncre te d eta il. D o y o u re m em ber th em s o w ell th at y o u c a n d escrib e and a naly ze th eir m is e -e n-s ce nes e ffe ctiv e ly ? If s o , g re at! T o d o it w ell, y o u w ould e nd up w it h a t le ast a 1 0- to 1 2-p age p aper, if n ot a m uch lo nger o ne. A b ette r id ea is to ta ilo r y o ur g enre p aper’s to pic . It’s a lw ays b ette r to w rit e a s h orte r, tig hte r p aper th at pro ve s yo u kn ow w hat yo u’r e ta lk in g about th an a lo nger, fla bbie r paper fu ll of genera liz a tio ns a nd v a gue d escrip tio ns.

When w rit in g a p aper a bout g enre — unle ss yo ur p ro fe sso r g iv e s yo u a sp ecif ic assig nm ent th at d if fe rs , o f c o urs e — use th ese th re e g uid elin es to fo rm y o ur to pic a nd sh ape th e p aper:

1. C onstr u ct a p ro vab le th esis . T he th esis o f y o ur p aper is it s a rg um ent— what yo u a re s e ttin g o ut to p ro ve . F or e xa m ple , y o u w ill n ot b e a ble to p ro ve a nyth in g about a ll s u perh ero m ovie s in a n a ve ra ge-le ngth c o lle ge p aper. Y ou d on’t h ave enough s p ace , le t a lo ne k n ow le dge. Y ou ca n p ro ve , h ow eve r, th at The D ark Knig ht , a s in gle s u perh ero m ovie , is a bout m ora l r e la tiv is m , o r th at it s p ro ta gonis t has s o m eth in g in c o m mon w it h it s v illa in , o r th at p artic u la r a sp ects o f it s m is e -e n- sce ne vis u ally e xp re ss th e g lo om su ggeste d b y it s tit le . Y our b est b et is to partic u la riz e y o ur th esis a s m uch a s p ossib le to a n in div id ual film , a nd le ave bro ader a rg um ents a bout e ntir e g enre s to u pper-le ve l film c la sse s.

2. S ta y f o cu sed o n t h e f ilm in q uestio n . H avin g c o nstr u cte d a p ro va ble th esis th at co nfin es it s e lf to a p artic u la r a sp ect o f a s in gle m ovie , s tic k to it . If y o u fin d yo urs e lf begin nin g a se nte nce w it h th e phra se “M ost su perh ero m ovie s” or anyth in g lik e it , d ele te it im media te ly a nd s ta rt a gain . Y ou a re n ot w rit in g a bout most s u perh ero m ovie s. Y ou a re w rit in g a bout The D ark K nig ht .

3. If y o u c an ’t h elp y o urs elf a n d a re c o m pelle d t o m en tio n s o m eth in g a b out a n en tir e g en re o r s u bgen re , c it e a n e xp ert . L et’s fa ce it : p ro fe sso rs a re lo okin g fo r th in gs to o bje ct to in y o ur p apers . ( T hat’s w hat w e d o. It’s in o ur c o ntr a ct.) It is much m ore d if fic u lt fo r p ro fe sso rs to o bje ct to a ny b ro ad c la im y o u m ake a bout a genre ( o r a ny s u bje ct) if y o u c a n fin d a film s ch ola r to s a y it fo r y o u. F or e xa m ple :

Unacce pta ble : “ M ost s u perh ero m ovie s fe atu re p ro ta gonis ts w ho h ave a s in gle su perp ow er a nd a o ne-d im ensio nal p ers o nalit y to m atc h .” — Tim oth y B urto n, fr e sh m an, M id dle bury C olle ge Acce pta ble : “A cco rd in g to th e c rit ic a nd film s ch ola r V ic ki V ale in th e jo urn al Annals o f C in em atic it y , ‘M ost s u perh ero m ovie s fe atu re p ro ta gonis ts w ho h ave a sin gle su perp ow er a nd a o ne-d im ensio nal p ers o nalit y to m atc h ’ (V ale , p .

373).— Jim G ord on, s o phom ore , H ave rfo rd C olle ge 184 1.

T his is a c le ar a nd s im ple d efin it io n o f th e w este rn , a nd it is p ro ble m atic fo r th at v e ry re aso n. S ee b elo w fo r a d is cu ssio n o f w hat m ake s it a p ro ble m .

2.

T his , to o, is a p ro ble m atic a lly s im ple d efin it io n. C an any g enre b e d efin ed a ccu ra te ly a nd th oro ughly in ju st a fe w w ord s? W hy n ot?

3.

R ic k A lt m an, Film /G enre (L ondon: B rit is h F ilm In stit u te , 1 999).

185 C HAPTE R 1 1 S PEC IA L E FFE C TS B EYO ND T H E O RDIN ARY A tr a in p ulls in to a s ta tio n in L ouis L um iè re ’s 5 0-s e co nd 1 895 film , The A rriv a l o f a T ra in a t L a C io ta t . A tr a in w re cks w hen th e h ig h b rid ge it is c ro ssin g c o lla pse s in B uste r K eato n’s 1 927 c o m edy, The G enera l . A c ir c u s tr a in ju m ps th e tr a cks a nd w re cks in C ecil B . D eM ille ’s 1 952 d ra m a, The G re ate st S how o n E arth . T he fir s t tw o film s u se d re al l o co m otiv e s, w hile th e th ir d u se d a s m all m odel. B ut e ve n th e re al t r a in in The G enera l h ad to b e w re cke d b y w ay o f SPEC IA L E FFE C TS .

The te rm sp ecia l e ffe cts is b ro adly d efin ed a s any im age o r e le m ent w it h in th e im age th at h as b een p ro duce d b y e xtr a ord in ary te ch nic a l m eans . B y extr a ord in ary , w e m ean e xa ctly th at— in e xce ss o f th e o rd in ary te ch nolo gy n ece ssa ry fo r th e p ro ductio n o f m otio n p ic tu re s .

W hen L ouis L um iè re s e t o ut to film th e tr a in a rriv in g a t a s ta tio n in s o uth ern F ra nce , h e n eeded o nly th e b asic te ch nolo gic a l e le m ents o f f ilm makin g: a ca m era , so m e film , enough lig ht, and an eve nt to p hoto gra ph. B uste r K eato n re quir e d th e s a m e e le m ents to film The G enera l , but beca use he in sis te d fo r th e sa ke of ve ra cit y on d estr o yin g a r e al b rid ge a nd s e ndin g a r e al tr a in c ra sh in g o nto a v a lle y f lo or, th ere w as c o nsid era bly m ore te ch nolo gy in vo lv e d. T he b rid ge, a fte r a ll, w as n ot g oin g to c o lla pse o n it s o w n. T ech nic ia ns h ad to g o b eyo nd th e n orm al film makin g a ppara tu s; th ey h ad to u se e xp lo siv e s.

B y th e s a m e to ke n, u nle ss C ecil B . D eM ille ’s p urp ose w as to m ake h is s ce ne lo ok lik e th e w re ck o f a to y tr a in fu ll o f m in ia tu re c ir c u s a nim als , u nusu al te ch nic a l effe cts had to be em plo ye d. F or D eM ille ’s tr a in w re ck to lo ok e ve n s lig htly p la usib le , a te am o f s p ecia liz e d te ch nic ia ns w as e m plo ye d to c re ate th e e ffe ct— hence th e te rm sp ecia l e ffe cts . (It m ust b e n ote d th at The G re ate st S how o n E arth ’s sp ecia l e ffe cts 186 appear ra th er p rim it iv e b y to day’s sta ndard s, to th e p oin t th at th e se quence d oes in deed lo ok lik e th e w re ck o f a to y tr a in .) FIG URE 1 1.1 A r e al tr a in w re cks in B uste r K eato n’s The G enera l ( 1 927) ( fr a m e e nla rg em ent) .

FIG URE 1 1.2 A to y tr a in w re cks in C ecil B . D eM ille ’s The G re ate st S how o n E arth ( 1 952) (fr a m e e nla rg em ent) .

187 FIG URE 1 1.3 L’a rro se ur a rro sé ( The S prin kle r S prin kle d , 1 895) b y L ouis L um iè re ( fr a m e enla rg em ent) . ( P hoto fe st) 188 FIG URE 1 1.4 Un h om me d e tê te s ( The F our T ro uble so m e H eads , 1 898) b y G eorg es M éliè s (fr a m e e nla rg em ent) .

There a re th re e b ro ad c a te gorie s o f v is u al s p ecia l e ffe cts :

optic al effe cts , m ech an ic al e ffe cts , a nd CO M PU TE R -G EN ER ATE D IM AG ER Y ( C G I) .

Each is d escrib ed in d epth b elo w . B ut b efo re p lu ngin g in to th e d eta ils , co nsid er fo r a m om ent— in th e h opefu lly b rig ht lig ht o f w hat y o u h ave le arn ed in th is b ook— th e is su es ra is e d in th e in tr o ducto ry c h apte r:

questio ns o f r e alit y a nd r e pre se nta tio n. If m otio n p ic tu re s a re — at le ast to so m e e xte nt— an a tte m pt to re pre se nt th e re al w orld a rtis tic a lly , what d oes it m ean w hen film make rs d elib era te ly c o nstr u ct s o m eth in g artif ic ia l to film ? O r p urp ose ly ta m per w it h th e p hoto gra phic p ro ce ss sp ecif ic a lly in ord er to cre ate so m eth in g th at lo oks unre al? O nce again , w e fin d th at w hat w e lik e to c a ll “ re alit y ” o r “ re alis m ” is n eit h er a use fu l n or a r e lia ble m easu re o f c in em atic g oals a nd r e su lt s .

The te nsio n b etw een th e re al a nd th e u nre al h as e xis te d in c in em a sin ce it s e arlie st d ays. W hile L ouis L um iè re a nd h is b ro th er A uguste were d eve lo pin g a d ocu m enta ry c in em a b y film in g a r e al tr a in a rriv in g at a re al tr a in sta tio n, anoth er film make r, G eorg es M éliè s, w as headin g in q uit e th e o pposit e d ir e ctio n. W here as th e L um iè re s s a w 189 film s a s a w ay to re pre se nt th e re al w orld in a rt, M éliè s sa w th e pote ntia l fo r film a rt to re pre se nt th in gs a nd e ve nts th at d id n ot and co uld n ot e xis t in r e alit y . T he tit le s o f s o m e o f h is m ost im porta nt film s te ll th e s to ry o n th eir o w n:

A T rip to th e M oon (1 902), The M an w it h th e R ubber H ead (1 902), The M erm aid (1 904), The Im possib le Voya ge ( 1 904), 20,0 00 L eagues U nder th e S ea (1 907). M éliè s w as a pio neer in s cie nce fic tio n a nd fa nta sy film s— tw o g enre s th at d epend on s p ecia l e ffe cts fo r th eir v e ry e xis te nce .

OPTIC AL A ND M EC HANIC AL S PEC IA L E FFE C TS Tw o o f th e tr a nsit io nal d evic e s y o u h ave a lr e ady le arn ed a bout a re in fa ct optic a l sp ecia l effe cts :

DIS SO LV ES and SU PER IM PO SIT IO NS .T hey, alo ng w it h o th er e ffe cts , a re c a lle d pro cess s h ots b eca use th ey a re cre ate d in th e p ro ce ssin g la b. A su perim posit io n o ccu rs w hen tw o o r more im ages a re v is ib le o nscre en a t th e s a m e tim e; a dis so lv e is a tr a nsit io n fr o m o ne s h ot to a noth er in w hic h th e fir s t s h ot fa des o ut while th e se co nd sh ot fa des in , cre atin g a su perim posit io n at th e mid w ay p oin t. T hese s p ecia l e ffe cts a re c re ate d b y film in g tw o s h ots se para te ly a nd co m bin in g th em o ptic a lly o nto a sin gle str ip o f film durin g p ro ce ssin g.

More te ch nic a lly c o m ple x is a s p ecia l e ffe ct c a lle d re ar p ro je ctio n , whic h is ach ie ve d on a so undsta ge by film in g acto rs again st th e backg ro und o f a film s cre en, o nto w hic h is p ro je cte d, fr o m b ehin d it , an a lr e ady film ed s h ot. T he b enefit o f r e ar p ro je ctio n is th at th e a cto rs ca n be lit and m ik e d in th e ca re fu lly co ntr o lle d co ndit io ns of th e so undsta ge while pla cin g th em again st a dra m atic exte rio r backg ro und. C ary G ra nt’s c h ara cte r in H it c h co ck’s North b y N orth w est (1 959) c a n th us a ppear to b e d riv in g d angero usly a nd e rra tic a lly o n a win din g c o asta l h ig hw ay w it h out G ra nt a ctu ally h avin g to p ut h im se lf in danger.

Fro nt p ro je ctio n a ch ie ve s th e sa m e e ffe ct b ut in a m ore vis u ally lif e lik e w ay; th e p ro je cte d im ages a re b oth c le are r a nd b rig hte r th an w it h re ar p ro je ctio n. H ere , a s e m ir e fle ctin g (o r tw o-w ay) m ir ro r bounce s th e p ro je cte d b ackg ro und a ro und th e a cto rs o nto a s cre en th at h as b een s e t u p b ehin d th em .

190 Anoth er w ay o f c o m bin in g tw o s e para te ly s h ot im ages in to o ne is ca lle d MATTE W ORK . T o c re ate a m atte , o ne a re a o f th e im age is film ed —eit h er b y s h ootin g a r e al b ackg ro und d ir e ctly o r b y p ain tin g o ne a nd sh ootin g th e pain tin g— while th e re m ain in g are a is le ft bla nk by blo ckin g a c o rre sp ondin g a re a o f th e le ns. T he b la nk a re a is th en fille d by film in g, w it h th e o pposit e a re a b ein g b lo cke d, a fte r w hic h th e tw o are as a re c o m bin ed in p ro ce ssin g. L et’s s a y a d ir e cto r is m akin g a film se t in a fa nta stic a lly orn ate ca stle . In ste ad of havin g to build th e exte rio rs o f a re al c a stle o r fin d a n a ppro pria te re al o ne, s h e h as a te am of m atte artis ts pain t a va rie ty of vie w s of th e ca stle . H er ch ara cte rs a re th ere by g iv e n a b ackg ro und in th e la b w hen th ese sh ots are m atte d w it h sh ots of th e acto rs — sh ots th at are film ed se para te ly . T hese s ta tic m atte s a re c a lle d MATTE P AIN TIN G S .

Matte s m ay a ls o b e m ovin g im ages; th ese a re ca lle d TR AVELIN G MATTE S . A c o m mon w ay o f a ch ie vin g a tr a ve lin g m atte is th e u se o f a so -c a lle d BLU ESC REEN . In th is p ro ce ss, w hic h is a ls o k n ow n a s CHRO M A KEY , a s p ecif ic c o lo r is r e ndere d in vis ib le , u nable to r e gis te r o n film ( o r vid eo). W hen a cto rs a re p la ce d b efo re a s cre en th at h as b een p ain te d unif o rm ly in th at partic u la r co lo r, usu ally blu e, th eir im ages are re co rd ed a gain st a b la nk b ackg ro und; la te r, th at b ackg ro und is fille d in wit h s e para te ly s h ot im ages.

Not a ll s p ecia l e ffe cts a re c re ate d b y p ro ce ssin g. S om e a re m ade by c o nstr u ctin g m odels o r o th erw is e re plic a tin g o bje cts o r e ve nts th at would n ot e xis t o r o ccu r n atu ra lly . M ust a d ir e cto r, a cto rs , a nd th e whole c re w s ta nd a ro und a nd w ait fo r it to ra in b efo re film in g a s to rm sce ne? H ard ly . A s p ecia l e ffe cts te am c re ate s th e e ffe ct b y u sin g a mach in e to sim ula te ra in and anoth er m ach in e to sim ula te w in d.

These , a nd o th ers lik e th em , a re c a lle d mech anic a l e ffe cts .

Oth er k in ds o f m ech anic a l e ffe cts in clu de pyro te ch nic s , th e c re atio n of fie ry e xp lo sio ns; model b uild in g ; a nd e la bora te make up . S te ve n Spie lb erg ’s Ja w s (1 975), fo r exa m ple , em plo ye d a fa m ously mech anic a l s h ark th at e nds u p c h om pin g R obert S haw ’s c h ara cte r.

(T here w ere a ctu ally th re e s e para te m ech anic a l s h ark s u se d to m ake Ja w s , a nd n o a cto rs w ere e ate n d urin g th e p ro ductio n o f th e m otio n pic tu re .) A s fo r m ake up, p erh aps n eedle ss to s a y, th e s p la tte r film su bgenre would not exis t wit h out sp ecia l effe cts m ake up. The 191 pla usib le re cre atio n of m ois t, fr e sh ly exp ose d hum an guts and deco m posin g z o m bie fle sh is k e y to b oth th e c rit ic a l a nd c o m merc ia l su cce ss o f G eorg e R om ero ’s Daw n o f th e D ead (1 979), to c it e o nly one w ell- k n ow n e xa m ple .

CO M PU TE R -G EN ER ATE D IM AG ER Y ( C G I) CG I is d efin ed a s any im age th at h as b een c re ate d b y o r m anip ula te d by th e u se o f a c o m pute r a nd s o ftw are . A cco rd in g to T erre nce M asso n in h is c o m pendiu m CG 1 01 , co m pute r g ra p hic s (C G ) b egan a s a vis u aliz a tio n to ol fo r re se arc h ers a t s u ch c o m panie s a s B oein g a nd Bell L abs in th e 1 950s, th ough a d eca de e arlie r m ath em atic ia ns a t th e Massa ch use tts In stit u te o f T ech nolo gy h ad d eve lo ped m odels th at cre ate d hig hly accu ra te depic tio ns of lig htin g se tu ps. (L ackin g an outp ut devic e , th e M IT m ath em atic ia ns had to cu t out pie ce s of co lo re d p aper b y h and to m atc h th eir c a lc u la te d p atte rn s.) The te rm co m pute r g ra phic s (C G ) w as c o in ed in 1 960 b y a B oein g engin eer, Willia m Fette r, to describ e his dra w in gs of pilo ts exp erie ncin g va rio us sp ecif ic co ckp it co ndit io ns. As co m pute rs deve lo ped in th e 1 950s a nd 1 960s, s o d id C G a nd C G I. T he fir s t s h ort film m ade on a dig it a l co m pute r w as Jo hn W hit n ey Sr.’s 1968 Perm uta tio ns ; W hit n ey w as an anim ato r w ho had w ork e d on th e openin g c re dit s s e quence fo r H it c h co ck’s Vertig o ( 1 958), a m ong o th er film s. C G m ade it s fir s t appeara nce in a fe atu re film in M ic h ael Cric h to n’s 1 973 Westw orld (s u bgenre : scie nce fic tio n w este rn ); th e se quence r e pre se nte d a n a ndro id ’s p oin t o f v ie w b y u sin g PIX IL A TIO N — th e a ve ra gin g to geth er o f b lo cks o f in div id ual p ix e ls to c re ate a k in d o f mosa ic e ffe ct. (T he w ord pix e l m eans pic tu re e le m ent .) A fe w y e ars la te r, th e alg orit h m ic artis t Larry C uba cre ate d a sp ecta cu la r C G I effe ct fo r G eorg e L uca s’s Sta r W ars (1 977): th e s im ula te d fly -th ro ugh of th e Death Sta r’s tr e nch , a narro w re cta ngula r ch asm in an enorm ous g lo belik e s p ace s ta tio n.

There a re to o m any C G I m ile sto nes to m entio n m ore th an a fe w here , b ut s o m e n ota ble o nes a re Sta r T re k II: T he W ra th o f K han (1 982)— th e fir s t entir e ly dig it a l C G I se quence in a fe atu re film ; 192 How ard th e D uck (1 986)— th e fir s t d ig it a l w ir e re m ova l in a fe atu re film , where in th e rig gin g ca ble s th at su pport acto rs who are su sp ended in th e air are dig it a lly re m ove d fr o m th e im age, th us makin g it a ppear th at th e c h ara cte rs a re fly in g; a nd Willo w (1 988)— th e fir s t u se o f d ig it a l m orp hin g te ch nolo gy in a fe atu re film .

Morp hin g is th e te ch niq ue in w hic h im ages o f tw o o r m ore d is tin ct o bje cts , anim als , or ch ara cte rs are ble nded to geth er to fo rm a new , in te rp ola te d r e su lt .

AN IM ATIO N , it s e lf a n im porta nt fo rm o f s p ecia l e ffe cts , h as c o m e to re ly on C G I fo r deta ilin g th at w ould be to o exp ensiv e and tim e- co nsu m in g to c re ate b y h and. A nim atio n is any p ro ce ss th at s im ula te s move m ent b y film in g a s e rie s o f in div id ual d ra w in gs, o bje cts (s u ch a s cla y fig ure s o r d olls ), o r c o m pute r im ages; tin y s h if ts in th e p osit io ns and s h apes o f th ese d ra w in gs, th in gs, o r im ages c re ate th e s e nse o f motio n . W hile m uch a nim atio n h as b een c re ate d e ntir e ly b y h and fr o m scra tc h , th e p ro ce ss o f RO TO SC O PIN G w as d eve lo ped a s e arly a s th e 1910s to a ssis t th e a nim ato r; ro to sco pin g m eans pro je ctin g liv e -a ctio n fo ota ge, fr a m e b y fr a m e, o nto a n a nim ato r ’ s d ra w in g ta ble s o th at h e or s h e c a n tr a ce th e fig ure s w it h g re at p re cis io n.

T he d ir e cto r R ic h ard Lin kla te r h as in fa ct m ade tw o film s e ntir e ly u sin g r o to sco pin g, Wakin g Lif e ( 2 001) a nd A S ca nner D ark ly ( 2 006).

FIG URE 1 1.5 G ollu m , a m ajo r c h ara cte r c re ate d b y C G I, in The L ord o f th e R in gs: T he R etu rn of th e K in g ( 2 003) ( fr a m e e nla rg em ent) .

STU DY G UID E:

E FFE C TS A N D M EAN IN G 193 Wit h a ll o f th ese n ew te ch nic a l te rm s, y o u m ig ht a ssu m e th at th e g oal o f s tu dyin g sp ecia l e ffe cts is to le arn to id entif y th em o n s ig ht— to d ete rm in e w hen film make rs u se d sp ecia l e ffe cts in a g iv e n film , a nd to c la ssif y th e e ffe cts ta xo nom ic a lly a s o ptic a l o r mech anic a l o r C G I a nd th en p in poin t th e p re cis e s p ecia l e ffe ct u se d in e ach c a se . T hat assu m ptio n is o ff b ase .

If Film S tu die s h as ta ught y o u a nyth in g, it is th at th e s e arc h fo r e xp re ssiv e m eanin g is th e m ost im porta nt a sp ect o f y o ur w ork . U pper-le ve l u nderg ra duate film c la sse s a nd gra duate pro gra m s exp and th is fu ndam enta l prin cip le co nsid era bly to in clu de th e deta ile d s tu dy o f film h is to ry a nd th eory a s w ell a s te ch nolo gy. B ut fo r th e tim e b ein g, th e q uestio n o f lo ca tin g a nd d escrib in g a film ’s m eanin g r e m ain s y o ur c e ntr a l fo cu s.

In te rm s o f s p ecia l e ffe cts , th is m eans c o nce ntr a tin g o n th e effe cts o f w hat y o u s e e and h ear ra th er th an o n th eir s p ecia l n atu re . J u st a s y o u le arn ed to n otic e , d escrib e, and a naly ze th e e xp re ssiv e e ffe ct o f a b are b ric k w all o r a lo ne s h eep b olt in g fr o m it s herd in lo ng s h ot o r lo w -k e y lig htin g in a film n oir o r a ny o f th e o th er to pic s c o ve re d in th is b ook, y o ur o bje ctiv e h ere is to d escrib e a nd a naly ze s p ecia l e ffe cts n ot w it h a n e ye to w ard c a te goriz in g th e s p ecia liz e d te ch nolo gie s th at c re ate d th em b ut ra th er to w ard artic u la tin g th eir effe ctiv e m eanin g . T he re st of th is ch apte r se rv e s as a pra ctic a l exa m ple o f h ow to g o a bout a ch ie vin g th is g oal.

For k e y s ce nes in h is s u sp ense film Vertig o (1 958), A lf r e d H it c h co ck e m plo ye d a re al lo ca tio n th at he and his te am th en em bellis h ed w it h sp ecia l effe cts . T he old Spanis h m is sio n a t S an J u an B autis ta h ad lo w e xte rio rs th at m et H it c h co ck’s v is io n o f how c e rta in s ce nes in th e film s h ould lo ok, b ut Vertig o ’s c e ntr a l s to ry e ve nts r e quir e d a ta ll b ell to w er, a nd th is p artic u la r m is sio n h ad n o to w er. (T here w as o nce a re la tiv e ly sm all s te eple , b ut it h ad b een d em olis h ed.) C once iv a bly , H it c h co ck c o uld s im ply h ave fo und a noth er lo ca tio n— an o ld S panis h m is sio n th at h ad a to w er. B ut h e d id n’t h ave to .

He kn ew h e co uld g et e xa ctly w hat h e w ante d b y u sin g a m ix o f e xte rio r lo ca tio n sh ootin g, in te rio r se t co nstr u ctio n, a nd sp ecia l e ffe cts to a ugm ent b oth th e e xis tin g lo ca tio n a nd th e c o nstr u cte d s e t.

Build in g th e to w er’s n arro w in te rio r, in clu din g a ste ep sta ir c a se , re quir e d skille d desig n w ork a nd c a rp entr y — th e o rd in ary te ch nolo gy o f film makin g. H it c h co ck w ent s o fa r as to cre ate an unusu al and in nova tiv e m obile fr a m in g devic e to exp re ss th e partic u la r m enta l a nd e m otio nal c ris is th e p ro ta gonis t fa ce s in th e to w er, b ut e ve n th is devic e is th e re su lt of one ord in ary ca m era opera tio n— a re ve rs e tr a ckin g sh ot— co m bin ed s im ult a neously w it h a noth er o rd in ary c a m era o pera tio n— a z o om fo rw ard . A s str ik in g a s th e e ffe ct m ay b e— and it ’s v e ry s tr ik in g in deed— it is n ’t a sp ecia l e ffe ct.

Film s ch ola rs k n ow fr o m d oin g r e se arc h — exa m in in g p ro ductio n r e co rd s, c o nductin g in te rv ie w s w it h p eople w ho w ork e d o n th e film , o r e ve n s im ply re adin g th ose p rin te d in te rv ie w s— th at th e b ell to w er e xte rio r is in fa ct a m atte p ain tin g, o r m ore a ccu ra te ly , a se rie s o f m atte p ain tin gs. A nd w hile th e s im ult a neous z o om fo rw ard /tr a ck b ack is n ot it s e lf a s p ecia l e ffe ct a s fa r a s th e c a m era is c o nce rn ed, r e se arc h r e ve als th at th e s h ot was ta ke n n ot fr o m th e to p o f th e s tu dio -c o nstr u cte d s ta ir c a se , th e s e t, b ut ra th er fr o m th e s id e o f a m in ia tu re s ta ir c a se — a m odel— whic h w as p la ce d o n it s s id e in fr o nt o f th e ca m era . T hat m odel is th ere fo re a s p ecia l e ffe ct e ve n th ough th e m eans o f ta kin g th e sh ot is n ot.

194 FIG URE 1 1.6 A b ir d ’s -e ye s h ot— exp re ssin g a G od’s -e ye v ie w — in o ne o f th e b ell to w er se quence s in A lf r e d H it c h co ck’s Vertig o ( 1 958) ( fr a m e e nla rg em ent) .

Unle ss y o u a re a ske d to re se arc h a film ’s p ro ductio n— in th is c a se , Vertig o ’s — yo u ca nnot b e e xp ecte d to k n ow a nd d escrib e w hat is a nd is n ot a s p ecia l e ffe ct. W hat y o u ca n d o— in fa ct, w hat y o u must d o— is a naly ze th e film ’s meanin g . In th is c a se , y o u co uld b egin w it h th e film ’s tit le a nd le arn w hat it m eans. Y ou c o uld th en r e la te w hat y o u le arn ed a bout th e m edic a l c o ndit io n c a lle d ve rtig o to th e film ’s s to ry , p lo t, a nd c e ntr a l th em es. Y ou m ig ht d escrib e in g re at d eta il th e c o m ple x v is u al e ffe ct o f th e fa m ous sim ult a neous z o om -tr a ckin g s h ots a nd r e la te it to w hat y o u h ave le arn ed a bout th e tit le , sto ry , p lo t, a nd th em es o f th e film . A nd a s y o u w ill s e e in th e fo llo w in g s e ctio n, y o u co uld d riv e y o ur p oin ts h om e b y a naly zin g in d eta il a s in gle s h ot. T he e xa m ple b elo w describ es a s h ot ta ke n fr o m n ear th e to p o f th e m is sio n to w er a ppro xim ate ly o ne h our and tw enty m in ute s in to th e film .

WRIT IN G A BO UT S PEC IA L E FFE C TS Alt h ough w e k n ow fr o m h avin g re se arc h ed th e p ro ductio n o f Vertig o th at (a ) th e to w er se ctio n o f th e im age is a m atte p ain tin g a nd e ve ry th in g e ls e is liv e a ctio n, a nd ( b ) th ese tw o s e para te ly film ed p ortio ns o f th e im age w ere c o m bin ed in a film -p ro ce ssin g la b to cre ate th e c o m posit e s h ot, it ’s s till th e s h ot’s e xp re ssiv e e ffe ct th at re ally m atte rs . W it h th is in m in d, y o u w ill fin d th at w rit in g a bout s p ecia l e ffe cts is n o d if fe re nt th an w rit in g about a ny o th er a sp ect o f a film . K eep it s im ple :

Describ e th e s h ot in d eta il Offe r s u ggestio ns a bout th e e xp re ssiv e e ffe cts o f th e s h ot Ventu re a n e duca te d g uess o r tw o a bout w hat th e s h ot m eans For e xa m ple :

fig ure 1 1.6 is a re pro ductio n o f o ne fr a m e in a s h ot th at ru ns fo r a bout tw enty s e co nds. W hat c a nnot b e re pro duce d h ere , b ut is v it a l to a ppre cia te a bout th e sh ot, is th e m otio n th at o ccu rs in tw o a re as o f th e im age: th ere a re p eople c lim bin g o nto th e tile ro of ju st to th e le ft o f th e to w er’s b ase , a nd to th e rig ht o f th e to w er a m an is 195 walk in g o ut o f th e a rc h w ay a nd s lin kin g a ro und th e c o rn er o f th e b uild in g. ( Y ou c a n s e e him , a nd th e s h adow h e c a sts , in th e le ft b ra nch o f th e c ro ss-s h aped s id ew alk in th e lo w er rig ht c o rn er o f th e im age.) T he fo llo w in g th re e p ara gra phs b egin w it h a d eta ile d descrip tio n o f th e s h ot, m ove th ro ugh s u ggestio ns a bout it s e xp re ssiv e e ffe cts , a nd arriv e a t a s ta te m ent n ot o nly o f w hat th e s h ot m eans b ut w hat th e film m ay m ean a s a whole :

There is a re m ark a ble c ris p ness o f fo cu s to a ll th e d epth p la nes in th is s h ot. T he ve ry to p o f th e to w er is c u t o ut o f th e im age b y th e to p e dge o f th e fr a m e, b ut th e b ulk of th e to w er is v is ib le in w hat is e ffe ctiv e ly th e fo re gro und a nd m id dle gro und, a nd it ’s all in s h arp fo cu s. A ls o in th e m id dle gro und b ut e xte ndin g to b oth e dges o f th e im age is th e tile r o of o f th e m is sio n’s s a nctu ary ( o n th e le ft) a nd e ntr y w ay ( o n th e r ig ht) , a nd th e w hole e xp anse o f ro of is in e qually s h arp fo cu s. W hile th e tr e es in th e to p le ft co rn er o f th e im age a re n ot q uit e a s s h arp a s th e to w er a nd tile ro of, th ey re m ain more o r le ss in fo cu s, b ut in a ny c a se H it c h co ck d ra w s th e v ie w er’s a tte ntio n a w ay fr o m th em to th e o pposit e c o rn er b y w ay o f m ove m ent— th e m an’s e m erg ence fr o m th e a rc h w ay, h is s n eakin g a w ay n ext to th e b uild in g, a nd h is d is a ppeara nce a ro und th e c o rn er. H e, to o, r e m ain s in c ris p , s h arp fo cu s. T his is a d eep-fo cu s e xte rio r s h ot.

The p rim ary e xp re ssiv e e ffe ct o f th is s h ot is th at th e p eople in it lo ok e sp ecia lly tin y. W e s e e th em in e xtr e m e lo ng s h ot, a nd th ey’r e m in is cu le . T he p eople c lim bin g on to p o f th e ro of a re c e rta in ly n otic e able (a lt h ough th ey a re d if fic u lt to m ake o ut in th e a bove r e pro ductio n), b ut th e m an’s m ore d is tin ct m ove m ent d ra w s th e e ye to w ard him , and in fa ct it is he— th e film ’s acro phobic pro ta gonis t— who is th e ce ntr a l em otio nal s u bje ct o f th e s h ot. H e h as ju st e xp erie nce d a c ris is th at h as m ade h im fe el utte rly in effe ctu al, a s ta te o f m in d H it c h co ck e xp re sse s b y re ducin g h im o nscre en to th e s iz e o f a fle a.

The lo om in g to w er’s siz e a s w ell a s it s sh arp fo cu s e nhance s th is e ffe ct b y le ndin g a n u nnatu ra l q ualit y to th e im age. It’s a s th ough H it c h co ck’s c a m era h as th e abilit y to s e e th is m an m ore c le arly , a nd to a sse ss h im m ore c o ld ly , th an a n o rd in ary hum an e ye c o uld . It’s n ot a b ir d ’s -e ye v ie w a s m uch a s it is a G od’s -e ye v ie w — cle ar and d is ta nt, s h arp a nd ju dgm enta l. T he c ro ss-lik e s h ape in th e lo w er rig ht c o rn er o f th e s h ot o nly a dds a to uch o f d ir e ct s ym bolis m to th e v ie w er’s g ro w in g s e nse th at Hit c h co ck is w ork in g w it h g ra nd re lig io us th em es su ch as g uilt , m orta l sin , a nd dam natio n.

196 C HAPTE R 1 2 P U TTIN G IT T O GETH ER : A M ODEL 8 - T O 1 0-P A G E P A PER H O W T H IS C HAPTE R W ORKS T his c h apte r, th e la st o ne in th e b ook, is a h ands-o n g uid e to w rit in g a n in tr o ducto ry -le ve l film paper. Footn ote s se rv e as a ru nnin g c o m menta ry o n th e p ro s a nd co ns o f th e p aper’s co nte nt, fo rm at, w rit in g s ty le , a nd s o o n. E ve ry is su e c o ve re d in th ese fo otn ote s, e ve n t h ose th at se em em barra ssin gly obvio us, is base d on an actu al s tu dent p aper re ce iv e d b y, re ad b y, a nd g ra ded b y th e a uth or o f th is t e xtb ook o ve r th e c o urs e o f tw enty -fiv e y e ars o f te ach in g. T hey ra nge f r o m sim ple poin ts of co m mon se nse and gra m mar to more s u bsta ntiv e is su es o f c o nte nt a nd s ty le .

1 ( p age n um ber) 1 In tr o ducin g T yle r 2 by R obert P auls o n 3 Colo ra do C olle ge A film a bout m ale b ondin g th ro ugh s h are d d is sa tis fa ctio n a nd c o m munal v io le nce , David F in ch er’s Fig ht C lu b (1 999) p re se nts a d is tu rb in g v is io n o f A m eric a n s o cie ty , a cu lt u re th at is o ve rd ue fo r d ra stic c h ange.

4 B ase d o n th e n ove l o f th e s a m e n am e b y Chuck P ahla niu k, Fig ht C lu b su ggests th at th e depre ssin g co nfo rm it y of m odern co rp ora te lif e — in te rc h angeable h ote l ro om s, im pers o nal a ir p orts , d ull b usin ess s u it s , heartle ss jo bs— needs to b e co nfr o nte d, ch alle nged, a nd u lt im ate ly d estr o ye d. T he ca ta ly st o f c h ange in Fig ht C lu b is a n u nderg ro und n etw ork o f m en w ho w ork o ut th eir fr u str a tio ns b y c lo bberin g e ach o th er. T he in stig ato r o f th ese fig hts , T yle r D urd en ( B ra d Pit t) , in sp ir e s m en a ro und th e c o untr y to b eco m e re vo lu tio narie s, a polit ic a l te rro ris ts who a ct o ut th eir c o nte m pt fo r tr a dit io nal A m eric a n v a lu es in in cre asin gly v io le nt w ays.

5 Fin ch er in tr o duces th is in cen dia ry c h ara cte r w it h a s u btle b ut p ro fo und tr a ckin g movem en t t h at r e veals m uch m ore t h an it a p pears t o a t f ir s t; b eg in nin g a s a s h ot 197 of Fig ht C lu b ’s u nnam ed n arra to r ( E dw ard N orto n), a lo ne in p ro file , it p ro ceed s t o make T yle r s eem to e m erg e o ut o f th e n arra to r— a c ru cia l k ey to T yle r’s re al id en tit y . 6 Fore sh adow in g th e v io le nce th at fo llo w s, F in ch er s e ts u p h is in tr o ductio n o f T yle r wit h a s ce ne o f c h aos: c o nsu m ed w it h a nom ie , th e n arra to r m orb id ly liv e ns th in gs u p b y im agin in g h im se lf in a c ra sh in g a ir p la ne.

7 “E ve ry tim e th e p la ne b anke d to o s h arp ly o n ta ke -o ff o r la ndin g, I p ra ye d fo r a c ra sh ,” h e s a ys in v o ic e -o ve r in a fla t, a ffe ctle ss to ne, as h e h old s a tin y c h erry to m ato im pale d o n a fo rk in fr o nt o f h im . H e lo oks to h is le ft, and F in ch er c u ts to a s h ot o f th e a ir p la ne w in dow a s lig hts fr o m a noth er s m all a ir c ra ft hurtle to w ard th e p la ne. F in ch er th en c u ts to a s h ot ta ke n fr o m th e b ack o f th e p la ne fo r th e m om ent o f im pact; th e e ve n ro w s o f b la nd b lu e s e ats a re s u ddenly s h ake n b y a n exp lo siv e b la st o n th e le ft s id e o f th e im age. W in dow s b urs t in w ard o n b oth s id es o f th e pla ne a nd n ew sp apers fly in a ll d ir e ctio ns a s th e o nce c a lm c a bin tu rn s in sta ntly in to eve ry a ir tr a ve le r’s n ig htm are — eve ry tr a ve le r, th at is , e xce pt o ur n arra to r, w ho h as cre ate d th is te rrif y in g s ce ne n ot a s a n ig htm are b ut a s a w is h .

The ca m era p ans slig htly to th e rig ht b efo re F in ch er cu ts to a clo se -u p o f th e narra to r, h is e ye s s h uttin g re fle xiv e ly a s p ie ce s o f w hit e d ebris fly p ast h is fa ce 8 T he ca m era tr a cks a b it to th e le ft a s s o unds o f s cre am s m ix e d w it h r u sh in g a ir a re h eard o n th e s o undtr a ck.

9 F in ch er c u ts a gain , th is tim e to a s h ot o f th e c e ntr a l p art o f th e c a bin .

The c a m era p ans to th e rig ht p ast m ostly e m pty s e ats a s a lo ne o xyg en b ag fa lls fr o m th e c e ilin g.

10 A s th e c a m era c o ntin ues to p an, th e e ntir e s id e o f th e p la ne fa lls o ff, re ve alin g th e lig hts o f a c it y sca pe b elo w . A p asse nger s e ate d o n th at s id e o f th e p la ne dis a ppears , a ppare ntly h avin g fa lle n o ut o f th e g apin g h ole in th e p la ne.

11 A noth er tr a ve le r, in m ediu m s h ot o n th e r ig ht o f th e im age, s tr u ggle s in h is s e at a gain st th e r u sh of a ir .

12 Fin ch er c u ts to a noth er c lo se -u p o f th e n arra to r, th is tim e ta ke n fr o m b ehin d h is se at. H e h as tu rn ed a ro und in h is s e at a nd is lo okin g b ehin d h im w it h h is e ye s h alf - s h ut again st th e r u sh in g a ir a nd h is m outh o pen in a n e xp re ssio n o f s h ock. D ebris c o ntin ues to fly p ast h im fr o m r ig ht to le ft a cro ss th e s cre en.

“L if e in su ra nce p ays o ff tr ip le if y o u d ie o n a b usin ess tr ip ,” th e n arra to r d ry ly n ote s in v o ic e -o ve r. It’s a n ir o nic o bse rv a tio n c o m in g fr o m h im , g iv e n th at h e h as n o fr ie nds o r fa m ily to a ct a s th e b enefic ia rie s o f a ny in su ra nce p olic ie s h e m ig ht b e h old in g. A sid e fr o m th e c o nnectio ns h e m ake s a t h is v a rio us s u pport g ro up m eetin gs— co nnectio ns th at a re fu ndam enta lly fa ls e , b ase d a s th ey a re o n h is n onexis te nt m edic a l c o ndit io ns— th is m an is e ntir e ly a lo ne in th e w orld .

The pin g o f th e s e at b elt s ig n a cco m panie s th e n ext s h ot— of th e s ig n it s e lf — and th e so und b rin gs th e n arra to r b ack to r e alit y , a s ta te o f m in d F in ch er w ry ly e xp re sse s w it h a fr o nt- a nd-c e nte r c lo se -u p o f th e n arra to r je rk in g h is e xh auste d-lo okin g h ead fo rw ard in his s e at. T he p la ne is o nce a gain c a lm ; th e c ra sh w as a ll in th e n arra to r’s p erv e rs e min d, e xp re ssin g a d eep-s e ate d d esir e fo r e xcit e m ent— any e xcit e m ent, e ve n it re su lt s in h is o w n v io le nt d eath . B ut to p ara phra se th e n arra to r’s m uch re peate d e xp re ssio n, th is is “ J a ck’s r e alit y ,” a nd fo r th e n arra to r, J a ck’s r e alit y is w ors e th an d eath .

Take a c lo se lo ok a t h im . H e is a h andso m e if b la ndlo okin g m an w ho a ppears to b e about th ir ty y e ars o ld . H e h as d ark h air w it h a c o nse rv a tiv e , b usin essm an-ty p e h air c u t.

We c a n s e e th e s h ould ers o f h is g ra y, c o nse rv a tiv e s u it ja cke t a nd th e w hit e c o lla r o f 198 his d re ss s h ir t. H e is c e nte re d o n th e s cre en; th e v e ry to p p art o f h is h ead is c u t o ut b y th e fr a m e. H e is in c ris p fo cu s, b ut th e b ackg ro und is o ut o f fo cu s. S till, w e c a n c le arly se e s o m e b lu e c u rta in s in th e c e nte r-le ft o f th e im age, w it h s o m e b rig ht c u rv e d a ir p la ne win dow s o n th e fa r r ig ht in th e b ackg ro und. T he c u rta in s m atc h th e b lu e o f th e s e at; th e win dow s, a ppearin g w hit e , m atc h th e h eadre st. It’s a ll te rrib ly ta ste fu l— and d ull.

13 A nd, to th e n arra to r, m eanin gle ss.

14 The a sp ect r a tio is th at o f a fa ir ly w id e r e cta ngle , w hic h c re ate s th e e ffe ct in th is s h ot of is o la tin g th e n arra to r a gain st a n e m pty -s e em in g b ackg ro und. T here is a noth er m an in th e im age— he is s e ate d in th e r o w b ehin d th e m an in c lo se -u p— but h e is th e o nly o th er pers o n in th e im age, a nd h e is in dis tin ct. T he n arra to r, in c o ntr a st, h as a b rig ht lig ht sh in in g o n h is fo re head a nd n ose , b ut h is e ye s a re n ota bly in s h adow , a lt h ough w e c a n cle arly s e e d ark c ir c le s u nder h is e ye s, in dic a tin g tir e dness a nd a s e nse o f p ro fo und bore dom . E ve ry th in g a bout th is m an is c o nve ntio nal, fr o m h is fa ce a nd s u it a nd h air c u t to h is su rro undin gs o n th is u tte rly o rd in ary a ir p la ne. B ut th is m an’s lif e is a bout to ch ange ra dic a lly . A nd a lt h ough h e d oes n ot y e t k n ow it , h e is th e a ctu al a uth or o f th at ch ange, a fa ct e xp re sse d b y o ne o f F in ch er’s m ost su btle b ut m eanin gfu l ca m era move m ents .

15 The narra to r blin ks tw ic e , ra pid ly , as th ough to w ake him se lf up, but F in ch er acco m plis h es th at ta sk m ore p ro fo undly b y c u ttin g to a s h ot ta ke n fr o m th e n arra to r’s sid e. S een n ow in p ro file , th e n arra to r b lin ks a gain a nd r e m ain s s ta rin g b la nkly fo rw ard as F in ch er tr a cks h is c a m era to th e r ig ht. W here as th e b egin nin g o f th e s h ot s u ggeste d th at th e n arra to r w as e it h er a lo ne in a n ew s ce ne o r e ls e s till s it tin g n ext to th e A fr ic a n Am eric a n w om an he’d been sp eakin g w it h befo re im agin in g th e pla ne cra sh , th e tr a ckin g c a m era re ve als th at h e is in fa ct s e ate d n ext to a n ew c h ara cte r— a m an b oth su rp ris in gly d if fe re nt a nd o ddly fa m ilia r.

This n ew g uy is n otic e ably u nlik e th e n arra to r. H e is str ik in gly h andso m e, w it h ch is e le d fe atu re s a nd a fla sh y, s p ik y h air c u t. H e is w earin g s u ngla sse s— on a n a ir p la ne at n ig ht. T he w in dow b esid e h im h as it s s h ade u p, b ut n o lig ht is c o m in g in , w hic h su ggests th at th e s u ngla sse s a re p ure ly a m atte r o f s ty le ra th er th an p ra ctic a lit y . M ost nota ble o f a ll, th ough, is th e n ew c h ara cte r’s r e d ja cke t w it h it s w id e la pels w it h tw o th in whit e s tr ip es ru nnin g v e rtic a lly d ow n th eir e dges. T he n arra to r’s s h ir t c o lla r re m ain s tu cke d n eatly in sid e h is d ull g ra y ja cke t; th is h ip ste r’s w id e w hit e s h ir t c o lla r, o n th e oth er h and, la nds fla m boya ntly o ve r th e c o lla r o f h is ja cke t.

It’s th e ja cke t’s c o lo r th at s ta nds o ut m ost a gain st th e b lu es, w hit e s, a nd g ra ys o f th e air p la ne in te rio r. A sid e fr o m th e n arra to r’s s in gle -s e rv in g c h erry to m ato a t th e b egin nin g of th e im agin ary c ra sh s e quence , a nd th e fla sh in g r e d lig ht o n th e w in g o f th e p la ne ju st befo re im pact, th is is th e fir s t a ppeara nce o f th e c o lo r r e d in Fig ht C lu b in a r a th er lo ng tim e.

Red is a s tr o ngly s u ggestiv e a nd e vo ca tiv e c o lo r, e sp ecia lly in th e c o nte xt o f it s sta ndin g o ut a gain st a fie ld o f b lu es a nd w hit e s. A s th e e xp re ssio n “ s e ein g r e d” s e rv e s to p ro ve , th e c o lo r e xp re sse s g re at a nger, e ve n o ut- o fc o ntr o l ra ge. In deed, th e re st o f Fig ht C lu b w ill e xp lo re th e n arra to r’s d esp era te d esir e to b e vio le nt— not sim ply to im agin e v io le nce b ein g c o m mit te d a gain st h im , a s w it h th e im agin ary p la ne c ra sh in whic h h e is a p assiv e v ic tim , b ut to e ngage in v io le nce a s a n a ctiv e in stig ato r. H e b lo w s up h is o w n a partm ent, e ngages in u nderg ro und n o-h old s-b arre d fig hts w it h a n a rm y o f equally v io le nt c o co nsp ir a to rs , a nd u lt im ate ly b lo w s h alf h is fa ce o ff w it h a g un.

16 In 199 sh ort, th ere ’s a lo t o f a nger th ere , a nd h is s e atm ate ’s fla m in g re d ja cke t is th e fir s t in dic a tio n o f it .

17 Alt h ough th is sce ne se rv e s as T yle r’s in tr o ductio n, w e have actu ally se en him se ve ra l tim es b efo re . F in ch er h as in se rte d a fe w fr a m es o f h im , in m in ia tu re m ediu m sh ot, s u perim pose d o n M arla S in ger’s b ody a s s h e w alk s a w ay fr o m a s u pport g ro up meetin g a fte r e nra gin g th e n arra to r b y h er v e ry p re se nce . T he n arra to r d ete sts M arla Sin ger (H ele na B onham C arte r) b eca use , a s h e p uts it , h er lie th re ate ns to e xp ose his lie — nam ely , th at h e h as n one o f th e illn esse s fo r w hic h h e a tte nds s u pport g ro ups.

Neit h er d oes M arla , a nd h e h ate s h er fo r it . H is r a ge a t M arla in ca rn ate s it s e lf , if o nly fo r a fe w fr a m es, a s a n a lt e r e go— one w hose s ty lis tic fla re m atc h es th at o f th e fla sh y Marla .

Fin ch er p ro vid es a m ore lin gerin g lo ok a t T yle r s e ve ra l s ce nes la te r. A s th e n arra to r is tr a ve lin g u p a n e sca la to r a t y e t a noth er a ir p ort, F in ch er s u ddenly p ans to th e le ft— th e sh ot is ta ke n fr o m a fe w s te ps lo w er o n th e e sca la to r— to c e nte r o n a noth er tr a ve le r headin g d ow n th e e sca la to r n ext to h im . T he n arra to r d oesn ’t n otic e th is o th er tr a ve le r, but th e c a m era d oes— and w e d o, to o. H e’s w earin g o ve rs iz e d s u ngla sse s a nd a w hit e sp orts ja cke t o ve r a y e llo w s h ir t. In th is in sta nce , T yle r a ppears n ot in th e c o nte xt o f ra ge b ut o f b ore dom . L ik e th e n arra to r, h e, to o, lo oks a s th ough h e h as s e en a fe w to o many in te rc h angeable a ir p ort in te rio rs ; h is e xp re ssio n is b la nk a s h e h eads d ow n th e esca la to r. B ut u nlik e th e n arra to r, h e is n ot w earin g a b la nd c o rp ora te u nif o rm . A t le ast he c o unte rs h is b ore dom w it h fa sh io n.

When F in ch er fin ally in tr o duce s h im to th e n arra to r o n th e p la ne, T yle r is re adin g alo ud fr o m th e a ir lin e’s p asse nger s a fe ty c a rd in th e s e at in fr o nt o f h im . “A n e xit d oor pro ce dure at 30,0 00 fe et. M m-h m m,” he sa ys sa rc a stic a lly .

18 A s he co ntin ues to exp la in th e p oin tle ssn ess o f e va cu atio n p la ns w it h a k n ow le dgeable a ir , F in ch er r e co rd s th e co nve rs a tio n in a se rie s of sh ot/r e ve rs e sh ots of th e tw o m en, th ere by both co ntr a stin g a nd lin kin g th em . O ne is n ot s e en w it h out th e o th er a s th ey b egin th eir re la tio nsh ip . U lt im ate ly , F in ch er re ve als th at T yle r D urd en is a fig m ent o f th e n arra to r’s im agin atio n, but fo r th e m om ent his use of a sh ot/r e ve rs e -s h ot patte rn se em s to su ggest th e b egin nin g o f a fr ie ndsh ip b etw een tw o s tr a ngers .

19 “B la nk fa ce s,” s a ys th e m an in th e s u ngla sse s a s F in ch er c u ts to a re nderin g o f ca rto on p asse ngers b ra cin g fo r a c o llis io n— “c a lm a s H in du c o w s.” T yle r is p oin tin g o ut th at th e o xyg en m asks th at a re s u ppose d to fa ll fr o m th e p la ne’s o ve rh ead u nit s in c a se of a n e m erg ency a re a ctu ally d esig ned to n arc o tiz e p asse ngers b efo re th ey d ie v io le nt death s. T he n arra to r s m ile s; h e’s p le ase d a nd a m aze d b y h is n ew fr ie nd’s lo gic .

“W hat d o y o u d o?” th e n arra to r a sks.

“W hat d o y o u m ean?” th e m an in s u ngla sse s r e plie s. T he n arra to r, o f c o urs e , m eans to a sk w hat p ro fe ssio n th e m an h as, b ut th e q uestio n h as a d eeper, m ore p hilo so phic a l meanin g— one th e n arra to r a ppears n ot to h ave c o nsid ere d b efo re m eetin g th e m an in th e fla m in g r e d ja cke t. B y a skin g fo r c la rif ic a tio n, T yle r is c a llin g in to q uestio n m ore th an sim ply th e n arra to r’s n eed fo r c h it - c h at. H e is s tr ik in g a t th e v e ry h eart o f th e s yste m under w hic h m en lik e th e n arra to r— Am eric a n m en, b usin essm en, y o ung a nd m id dle - aged m en, ave ra ge m en— go th ro ugh th e m otio ns o f th eir e m pty liv e s. If th e q uestio n “w hat d o y o u d o?” re fe rs o nly to w hat jo b o ne h as, th en doin g s o m eth in g in a nd w it h one’s lif e is re duce d s im ply to b ein g a m eanin gle ss, m in dle ss d ro ne in th e s e rv ic e o f a world th at d oesn ’t c a re .

The n arra to r, s u rp ris e d a t h is s e atm ate ’s c u t- th ro ugh-it fr a nkn ess, la ughs n erv o usly , 200 only to b e to ld th at h is la ughte r h as “a k in d o f s ic k d esp era tio n” to it . A s th e m an in su ngla sse s b egin s to s ta nd u p, F in ch er c u ts o n th e a ctio n to a s h ot o f h is h and r e ach in g fo r o ne o f tw o id entic a l b rie fc a se s o n th e flo or o f th e p la ne. T he n arra to r lo oks d ow n in th e n ext s h ot a nd, w it h a to ne o f w onder in h is v o ic e , o bse rv e s th at h e a nd h is s e atm ate “h ave th e e xa ct s a m e b rie fc a se ,” a fu rth er c lu e to th e m an’s re al id entit y . W hat s e em s at th is p oin t lik e m ere c o in cid ence is in fa ct k e y to th e n arra to r’s o w n s p lit p ers o nalit y .

“A nd th is is h ow I m et . . .” th e n arra to r s a ys in v o ic e -o ve r, “T yle r D urd en,” h e re ads fr o m T yle r’s b usin ess c a rd .

Tyle r’s re sp onse is h ila rio us: “D id y o u k n ow if y o u m ix e qual p arts o f g aso lin e a nd fr o ze n o ra nge ju ic e c o nce ntr a te y o u c a n m ake n apalm ?” T he c re atio n o f in ce ndia ry su bsta nce s is , fo r T yle r, a s m atte r o f fa ct a s a c o nve rs a tio n w it h o ne’s s e atm ate o n a n ord in ary a ir p la ne r id e.

Tyle r so on in su lt s th e narra to r, w ho has to ld him th at he is “b y fa r th e m ost in te re stin g s in gle -s e rv in g fr ie nd” h e h as e ve r m et. It’s a g ood lin e, a nd th e n arra to r kn ow s it , b ut h e tip s h is h and b y g oin g o n to e xp la in it to T yle r, a s th ough it s m eanin g was n ot a lr e ady c le ar. “O h, I g et it ,” T yle r re sp onds. “V ery c le ve r. H ow ’s th at w ork in g out fo r y o u?” T yle r th en g ets u p fr o m h is s e at. “ N ow a q uestio n o f e tiq uette a s I p ass: d o I g iv e y o u th e a ss o r th e c ro tc h ?” F in ch er p ans to th e r ig ht a s T yle r m ove s in fr o nt o f th e narra to r— giv in g h im th e a ss— and c u ttin g th e n arra to r o ut o f th e im age. T yle r w alk s aw ay fr o m th e c a m era a nd th e n arra to r, p re su m ably h eadin g to th e r e str o om .

Tyle r’s a ttit u de is w orth d escrib in g in m ore d eta il, e sp ecia lly in lig ht o f th e fa ct th at th e n arra to r’s n ext lin e re ve als th at th e tw o m en c o m e to liv e w it h e ach o th er. If T yle r re pre se nts th e n arra to r’s u nfu lf ille d d esir e s, w hat is it th at re m ain s u nfu lf ille d in th e narra to r? A s a c o rp ora te c o g, th e n arra to r h as m aste re d th e a rt o f a ir p la ne s m all ta lk , but a s T yle r p oin ts o ut, s u ch c le ve rn ess h as b een o f lit tle r e al u se . It’s a w ay o f p assin g th e tim e, n oth in g m ore . T yle r, o n th e o th er h and, d oesn ’t h esit a te to b e ru de. H e deliv e rs th e lin e “H ow ’s th at w ork in g o ut fo r y o u?” w it h a s m ir k , s u ggestin g th at h e kn ow s th e sco re bette r th an th e narra to r— th at he doesn ’t buy in to th e need fo r meanin gle ss p le asa ntr ie s e xch anged b etw een s tr a ngers , b ut in ste ad c u ts th ro ugh th em to s o m eth in g m ore g enuin e u ndern eath .

20 He pro ve s it w it h th e “a ss or th e cro tc h ” lin e. Eve ry air p la ne tr a ve le r has exp erie nce d th e a w kw ard ness o f th is d ecis io n— whic h p art o f o ne’s in tim ate a nato m y to co nfr o nt a s tr a nger w it h w hen s q ueezin g o ut o f a s e at— but it ’s a s o cia l in te ra ctio n th at alw ays goes unre m ark e d. Exce pt by Tyle r Durd en, who not only flo uts so cia l co nve ntio ns b ut tr u m pets th eir d estr u ctio n. T yle r is r ig ht: w heth er to p re se nt o ne’s b ack or o ne’s fr o nt to a c o m ple te s tr a nger is a n e tiq uette d ecis io n, b ut c o nve ntio nal e tiq uette dem ands th at th e d ecis io n re m ain co m ple te ly u nsp oke n. T yle r sp eaks it . F ro m th e destr u ctio n o f s u perfic ia l p olit e ness to th e c re atio n o f n apalm w it h h ouse hold c h em ic a ls , Tyle r is a n in ce ndia ry p ers o nalit y .

Ult im ate ly , F in ch er re ve als th at T yle r D urd en a nd th e u nnam ed n arra to r a re th e sa m e m an— th at th e n arra to r h as c re ate d T yle r a s a n a lt e r e go w ho a cts o ut a ll o f h is unfu lf ille d d esir e s. F ro m th e s im ple if b ru ta l fig hts b etw een th em to th e d estr u ctio n o f skyscra pers , th e n arra to r’s a nger fin ds s a tis fa ctio n in a cts o f in cre asin g v io le nce . O nly by b lo w in g h alf h is o w n fa ce o ff w it h a g un n ear th e e nd o f th e film c a n th e n arra to r re cla im h is in te grit y a s a n in div id ual, a n a ct th at s u ggests fu tilit y b y w ay o f it s o w n im possib ilit y . A fte r a ll, n o o ne c o uld s u rv iv e s u ch a g apin g w ound.

The r e ve la tio n th at T yle r is a ctu ally a n a sp ect o f th e n arra to r h im se lf m ay c o m e a s a 201 su rp ris e . B ut in lo okin g b ack o n T yle r’s in tr o ducto ry s ce ne, it ’s c le ar th at th e s e cre t h as been s u ggeste d a ll a lo ng, if n ot e xp lic it ly re ve ale d. W it h th e fir s t s h ot o f T yle r in th at sce ne, D avid F in ch er h as p ro vid ed a s u btle in dic a tio n th at T yle r is a n o utg ro w th o f th e narra to r a nd h is b are ly s u ppre sse d ra ge. B y tr a ckin g th e c a m era to th e s id e w hen in tr o ducin g th is s e em in gly n ew c h ara cte r, F in ch er e ffe ctiv e ly m ake s T yle r a ppear to em erg e fr o m th e n arra to r’s o w n b ody. W hen th e c a m era tr a cks to th e r ig ht, th e n arra to r vis u ally s p lit s in tw o. T o u se p sych olo gic a l la nguage, o ut o f a tr o uble d e go, a n e go id eal em erg es.

21 1.

E ve ry p age o f y o ur p aper s h ould b e n um bere d, if fo r n o o th er re aso n th an th e fa ct th at it pro ve s y o u h ave c o m ple te d th e a ssig nm ent. If y o ur p ro fe sso r h as a ssig ned a fiv e -p age p aper, pro ve it b y e ndin g o n p age 5 .

2.

E ve ry p aper m ust h ave a tit le , a nd th e tit le m ust b e th at o f th e p aper it s e lf , n ot th e film y o u are w rit in g a bout. If th is s tu dent s im ply rip ped o ff th e tit le o f th e m ovie a nd c a lle d h is p aper “ Fig ht C lu b ,” h is p ro fe sso r w ould h ave n o c lu e w hat th e p aper in te nded to d is cu ss. H ere , th e tit le p erta in s to th e s e quence th e s tu dent is w rit in g a bout. It s p ecif ie s th e p aper’s to pic w it h out bein g ove rly pedantic , th ough m ore deta ile d tit le s— fo r in sta nce , “In tr o ducin g Tyle r: A Chara cte r S plit s in T w o in Fig ht C lu b ”— are ce rta in ly acce pta ble . U nle ss yo ur pro fe sso r in str u cts y o u o th erw is e , y o u d o n ot n eed to c re ate a s e para te tit le p age. If y o u d o c re ate a se para te tit le p age, th at p age m ust n ot b e n um bere d; n um bere d p ages b egin o n th e fir s t p age of te xt.

3.

T his m ay s e em r id ic u lo us, b ut it b ears s ta tin g d ir e ctly : e ve ry p aper m ust h ave th e a uth or’s nam e o n it . (D o y o u w ant y o ur p ro fe sso r to b e fo rc e d to id entif y y o ur p aper b y p ro ce ss o f elim in atio n a nd g ra de y o ur w ork w it h th at p oin tle ss ir rit a tio n in m in d? I d id n’t th in k s o .) U nle ss yo ur p ro fe sso r g iv e s y o u s p ecif ic in str u ctio ns a bout th e fo rm at, y o u m ay g iv e y o urs e lf a b y- lin e, a s th is s tu dent h as d one, o r s im ply p ut y o ur n am e a t th e to p o f th e fir s t p age. A nd b y th e way— do y o urs e lf a nd y o ur p ro fe sso r a fa vo r: s ta ple th e p ages o f y o ur p aper to geth er. S ta ple s pre ve nt p ages fr o m c o m in g lo ose a nd g ettin g lo st. P aperc lip s a re fa r ris kie r fo r e ve ry o ne co nce rn ed, a nd u nder n o c ir c u m sta nce s s h ould y o u e ve r ju st fo ld th e tip s o f th e c o rn ers dow n. T hat’s ju st s tu pid .

4.

( A ) U nle ss y o u a re in str u cte d o th erw is e , y o ur p aper s h ould b e d ouble -s p ace d w it h 1 in ch o r 1.5 -in ch m arg in s o n th e sid es a nd 1 -in ch m arg in s o n th e to p a nd b otto m o f e ach p age.

Pro fe sso rs re act b adly to d um b tr ic ks lik e w id enin g th e m arg in s to a n a bsu rd d egre e a nd tr ip le sp acin g th e te xt to m ake a p aper s e em lo nger th an it r e ally is .

(B ) F ilm tit le s s h ould b e it a lic iz e d o r u nderlin ed; d o n ot p la ce th em w it h in q uota tio n m ark s.

The film ’s d ate (th e d ate o f it s re le ase ) s h ould a ppear in p are nth ese s a fte r th e tit le th e fir s t tim e y o u r e fe r to it .

5.

It’s b ette r to r e fe r to a c h ara cte r b y th e c h ara cte r’s n am e r a th er th an th e n am e o f th e a cto r; if y o u w ant to id entif y th e a cto r, p la ce h is o r h er n am e in p are nth ese s a fte r th e c h ara cte r’s nam e.

6.

(A ) T his se nte nce , re pro duce d here in bold ty p e fo r em phasis , is th e paper’s th esis sta te m ent. E ve ry p aper m ust h ave o ne. ( Y ou s h ould n ot s e t y o ur o w n th esis s ta te m ent in b old ty p e u nle ss yo ur p ro fe sso r te lls yo u to d o so .) A n e ffe ctiv e th esis sta te m ent d efin es th e arg um ent th at th e p aper s e ts o ut to p urs u e, a nd it d oes s o in a s d eta ile d a w ay a s p ossib le , 202 giv e n th e lim it a tio ns o f a n in div id ual s e nte nce . H ere , th e w rit e r is a rg uin g th at a p artic u la r ca m era m ove m ent, a la te ra l tr a ck, r e ve als a n im porta nt c lu e to a c h ara cte r’s id entit y . T he r e st of th e p aper p urs u es th is id ea in c o n cre te d eta il. A le ss e ffe ctiv e th esis s ta te m ent w ould atte m pt to s a y th e s a m e th in g, o nly m ore v a guely . F or e xa m ple : “F in ch er in tr o duce s T yle r Durd en in a n in te re stin g w ay.” T ru e, y e s; s u bsta ntiv e , n o. E ve n if th e r e st o f th e p aper w ent o n to c it e th e s a m e d eta ils th is p aper d oes, it s w eak th esis s ta te m ent w ould s p ell th e d if fe re nce betw een a v e ry h ig h g ra de a nd a lo w er o ne.

(B ) C ounte rin tu it iv e ly , th is p ara gra ph w as th e la st o ne th e w rit e r w ro te . H e w ait e d u ntil h e co m pose d not only th e body of his paper but als o his co nclu sio n befo re he w ro te th e in tr o ductio n. W hy? A s it h appens, h e is th e k in d o f w rit e r w ho d oesn ’t k n ow e xa ctly w hat h e’s tr y in g to s a y u ntil h e h as a ctu ally s a id it . H avin g w rit te n th e b ody o f th e p aper fir s t, h e is in a much b ette r, m ore k n ow le dgeable p osit io n to c o m pose a n in tr o ductio n, e sp ecia lly a th esis sta te m ent. H e w asn ’t s u re w here th e p aper w ould le ad h im u ntil h e h ad w rit te n a fir s t d ra ft, a t whic h p oin t h e c o uld c le arly d efin e h is th esis . T his s tr a te gy m ay n ot w ork fo r e ve ry o ne, b ut if yo u a re h avin g tr o uble g ettin g s ta rte d, tr y it a nd s e e if it w ork s fo r y o u.

(C ) N ote th at th e w rit e r c o nfin es h is s u bje ct to Fig ht C lu b , th e film a t h and. O fte n, b egin nin g writ e rs fe el a w ro ngheaded n eed to b egin p apers w it h g ra nd s ta te m ents a bout th e w ay th e world w ork s, a s th ough s u ch c la im s g iv e th e p aper w eig ht it w ould n ot o th erw is e h ave . In fa ct, it c re ate s th e o pposit e e ffe ct. A n e xa m ple o f th is te ndency is a s fo llo w s: “A m eric a n m en a re dis sa tis fie d w it h th e c o rp ora te c u lt u re in w hic h th ey a re s tu ck.” T his c la im m ay o r m ay n ot b e tr u e, b ut it is ir re le va nt to th e s u bje ct o f th e p aper. T hat s u bje ct is D avid F in ch er’s Fig ht C lu b , not A m eric a n m en in g enera l. R em em ber: y o u a re o nly s e ttin g o ut to p ro ve th at y o u k n ow so m eth in g s p ecif ic a bout a g iv e n film — not th at y o u h ave c o nfr o nte d a nd a nsw ere d th e b ig questio ns o f lif e .

7.

Anom ie m eans a fe elin g o f d epre sse d, b ore d, a nd e ve n s u ic id al a lie natio n fr o m s o cie ty ca use d b y th e a bse nce o f b enefic ia lly s u pportin g s o cia l s tr u ctu re s.

8.

F or th e s a ke o f c la rit y , th e w rit e r h as c h ose n to d escrib e th e s e quence s h ot b y s h ot in th e ord er in w hic h it p la ys o ut in th e film it s e lf . T his is p ro bably th e s a fe st s tr a te gy fo r th e b egin ner to a dopt, s in ce th e s e quence ’s o w n o rd er p ro vid es a re ady-m ade s tr u ctu re th at (p re su m ably ) alr e ady m ake s s e nse . S till, k e ep in m in d th at o th er s tr u ctu re s a re p ossib le . F or e xa m ple , a paper m ay ju m p a ro und fr o m s h ot to s h ot w it h in a s e quence , a s lo ng a s th is s tr u ctu re (a ) make s s e nse to th e w rit e r, a nd ( b ) th e w rit e r s u cce ssfu lly c o nve ys th at s e nse to th e r e ader.

9.

W hate ve r s tr u ctu re y o u c h oose fo r y o ur p aper, tr y to v a ry y o ur d escrip tio ns o f e dit in g a nd ca m era m ove m ents fr o m s e nte nce to s e nte nce . H ere , th e w rit e r h as c h ose n a v a rie ty o f se nte nce s tr u ctu re s to b re ak u p w hat w ould o th erw is e b e a s e rie s o f s e nte nce s b egin nin g w it h “T hen F in ch er c u ts to a s h ot o f . . .” T here ’s n oth in g wro ng w it h th at. It’s ju st b orin g.

10.

Is it a tr a ckin g s h ot o r a p an? T he w rit e r w asn ’t c e rta in . B ut h e d ecid ed to ta ke th e r is k o f bein g w ro ng r a th er th an h edgin g h is b ets a nd b ein g n onco m mit ta l.

11.

T his d eta il— th e d is a ppeara nce o f th e p asse nger fr o m th e im age— only b eca m e e vid ent to th e w rit e r a fte r m ult ip le v ie w in gs o f th e s e quence , th e fin al o ne in s lo w m otio n. R em em ber th at y o ur e xp erie nce a s a film s ch ola r is in c e rta in w ays m ore lik e th at o f a n e dit o r th an a n audie nce m em ber. D on’t h esit a te to r u n th e s e quence in s lo w m otio n o r e ve n fr a m e b y fr a m e in o rd er to c o lle ct d ata a bout it s c o nte nts . U se th e to ols th at D VD te ch nolo gy g iv e s y o u.

12.

A h andy r u le o f th um b fo r a ny w rit e r is th is : if y o u fin d y o urs e lf u sin g th e s a m e w ord in tw o back-to -b ack s e nte nce s, u se a th esa uru s to fin d a s yn onym . H ere , th e w rit e r n otic e d in h is fir s t d ra ft th at th e w ord passe nger a ppeare d tw ic e in a ro w , s o h e u se d h is w ord -p ro ce ssin g 203 applic a tio n’s b uilt - in th esa uru s to fin d th e w ord tr a ve le r .

13.

W it h th is p ara gra ph a nd th e o ne th at fo llo w s, th e w rit e r u se s th e n ote s h e to ok a nd th e writ in g e xe rc is e h e p erfo rm ed fo r th e fir s t c h apte r o f th is b ook. It m ay s e em a t fir s t g la nce to be a s im ple d escrip tio n o f th e c o nte nts o f th e im age, b ut it is a ctu ally th e fo undatio n o f h is arg um ent a bout T yle r’s in tr o ductio n. T he c o ntr a sts F in ch er c re ate s b etw een th e n arra to r a nd Tyle r w ould n ot h ave b een q uit e a s n otic e able to th e w rit e r, a nd th ere fo re to th e r e ader, if h e hadn’t d escrib ed th e n arra to r’s m is e -e n-s ce ne in s p ecif ic d eta il.

14.

T his is a s e nte nce fr a gm ent. T ech nic a lly , it ’s fa ult y s yn ta x. B ut th e w rit e r h as e m plo ye d it as a s ty lis tic d evic e w it h w hic h to e nd th e p ara gra ph. It’s o ka y to b re ak th e ru le s o nce in a while . J u st m ake s u re th at y o u’r e b re akin g th em o n p urp ose , a nd n ot b eca use y o u d on’t k n ow how to c o nstr u ct a p ro per s e nte nce . If y o ur p ro fe sso r c a lls y o u o n it , ju st s a y y o u d id it fo r sty lis tic r e aso ns.

15.

T his is c a lle d fo re sh adow in g . T he w rit e r is a llu din g h ere to a n id ea h e w ill in tr o duce a nd deve lo p in th e n ext p ara gra ph a nd b eyo nd. F ore sh adow in g is a n e ffe ctiv e d evic e to e m plo y beca use it p iq ues r e aders ’ in te re st w it h out g iv in g a w ay to o m uch to o s o on.

16.

A lt h ough th is p aper is a bout T yle r’s in tr o ducto ry s ce ne in Fig ht C lu b , th e w rit e r fin ds su pport fo r h is p oin t b y r e fe rrin g to o th er s ce nes in th e film . T hese o th er s ce nes d o n ot r e quir e th e le ve l o f d escrip tiv e a nd a naly tic a l d eta il o f th e s ce ne u nder d is cu ssio n, a nd in fa ct s u ch min ute d eta ils w ould d is tr a ct fr o m th e a rg um ent a t h and. B ut re fe rrin g to o th er s ce nes le nds weig ht to th e w rit e r’s o bse rv a tio ns b y d em onstr a tin g h is c o m mand o f th e w hole film .

17.

Is th is c h ara cte r’s r e d ja cke t r e ally “ th e fir s t in dic a tio n” o f th e n arra to r’s r a ge in Fig ht C lu b ?

Mayb e, m ayb e n ot. It d oesn ’t m atte r. F or th e p urp ose s o f th is p aper, w hat’s im porta nt h ere is th at th e w rit e r asse rts th at it is so . H e’s tr y in g to co nvin ce h is p ro fe sso r th at h is la rg er arg um ent a bout th e m eanin g o f th e s e quence is v a lid , a nd h e m ake s th is c la im w it h b re ezy co nfid ence a nd k e eps p re ssin g fo rw ard . T he w ors t th in g th at c a n h appen is th at h is p ro fe sso r may c h alle nge h im . H e c a n liv e w it h th at, a s c a n h is p ro fe sso r.

18.

T o k e ep th in gs m ovin g, a nd a ls o to k e ep th em s im ple , th e w rit e r h as c h ose n in th is para gra ph to q uote o nly o ne o r tw o lin es o f d ia lo gue to c o nve y th e s u bje ct a nd to ne o f th e co nve rs a tio n. U nle ss y o u a re c lo se ly a naly zin g e ach lin e o f d ia lo gue, th ere is n o n eed to pro vid e e xte nsiv e q uota tio ns fr o m th e film . It’s b ette r to s u m mariz e w hat th e c h ara cte rs a re sa yin g b y p ara phra sin g.

19.

N otic e th e w rit e r’s u se o f th e w ord s “ s e em s to ” in th is s e nte nce . W hy h as h e u se d th em ?

In th is c a se , th e w rit e r is m akin g th e p oin t th at w hat a ppears to b e a n ew fr ie ndsh ip b etw een tw o s tr a ngers is in fa ct s o m eth in g e ls e : th e c re atio n o f a s p lit p ers o nalit y . S tu dent w rit e rs o fte n in se rt th e e xp re ssio ns “s e em s to ” a nd “a ppears to ” a s a w ay o f h edgin g th eir b ets o n th e poin ts th ey a re m akin g. T here is n o r e aso n to d o th is . S im ply m ake th e a sse rtio n y o u w ant to make , a nd s a ve “s e em s to ” a nd “a ppears to ” fo r s it u atio ns in w hic h y o u a re d is cu ssin g th e dif fe re nce b etw een a ppeara nce a nd r e alit y .

20.

T his p ara gra ph a nd th e o ne th at fo llo w s d o n ot s e t o ut to p ro vid e r e vo lu tio nary id eas, b ut sim ply to e xp lo re th e m eanin g o f a fe w lin es o f d ia lo gue. R em em ber: y o u a re n ot e xp ecte d to writ e th e la st w ord o n th e s u bje ct. If in sp ir a tio n s tr ik e s y o u a nd y o u c o m e u p w it h a tr u ly brillia nt o bse rv a tio n, s o m uch th e b ette r. Y our re al ta sk, th ough, is to e xp lo re th e s e quence and it s m eanin gs to th e best of yo ur abilit y , and to get th e jo b done by th e deadlin e.

Eve ry th in g e ls e is ic in g o n th e c a ke .

21.

(A ) T he c o nclu din g p ara gra ph o f a p aper s h ould d o m ore th an ju st s u m mariz e w hat th e 204 writ e r h as a lr e ady w rit te n. If th e p aper h as s u cce eded to a ny e xte nt, a ro utin e s u m mary is wors e th an n o c o nclu sio n a t a ll. W hy? B eca use th e r e ader a lr e ady k n ow s w hat h e o r s h e h as re ad a nd d oes n ot n eed to h ave it re peate d in e ve n s h orte r a nd s im ple r te rm s. In ste ad, th e co nclu sio n s h ould g o b eyo nd re petit io n b y b ro adenin g th e to pic — by d em onstr a tin g th at th e writ e r n ot o nly h as c o m mand o f th e s e quence b ut o f th e film a s a w hole . T he w rit e r m ay a ls o go o ne s te p fu rth er, a s th is s tu dent h as d one. ( S ee th e fo llo w in g s e ctio n.) (B ) T he w ord e go m eans th e s e lf a s a d is tin ct in div id ual, a nd th e te rm e go id eal re fe rs to th e part o f th e e go th at m ain ta in s a n o ve rly ro m antic iz e d, im possib ly p erfe ct v is io n o f o ne’s s e lf .

The s tu dent w ho w ro te th is p aper h appens to b e a ju nio r p sych olo gy m ajo r, a nd h e s a w n o re aso n not to put his kn ow le dge of anoth er fie ld to use in his film paper. It’s not only acce pta ble b ut e ve n a dvis a ble to d em onstr a te th e b re adth o f y o ur g enera l k n ow le dge w hen writ in g a p aper, a s lo ng a s y o ur p oin t is g erm ane a nd y o u d on’t g et s id etr a cke d b y s e co ndary to pic s. In th is s tu dent’s c a se , h e a ssu m ed th at h is p ro fe sso r w ould b e fa m ilia r w it h th e te rm s ego a nd e go id eal. T hat c a n b e b oth a fa ir a ssu m ptio n a nd a ris ky o ne. It’s fa ir in th is c a se beca use , th ro ughout th e s e m este r, h is p ro fe sso r o fte n u se d p sych olo gic a l la nguage in h is le ctu re s, a nd th e s tu dent s a w n o n eed to d efin e th e te rm s fo r h im . It w ould h ave b een a b it ris kie r if p sych olo gy h ad p la ye d n o ro le in c la ss. W hen in d oubt, ju st re m em ber th e c a rd in al ru le o f g ood w rit in g: b e c le ar. If y o u b rin g in m ate ria l fr o m o th er d is cip lin es, y o u m ay p ro vid e a brie f e xp la natio n if y o u th in k it ’s n ece ssa ry , b ut d on’t g o o ff o n ta ngents .

205 G LO SSAR Y 1 80° S YS T E M :

A c o nve ntio n o f n arra tiv e film makin g in w hic h th e d ir e cto r e sta blis h es a n im agin ary lin e ru nnin g a cro ss th e s e t; th e d ir e cto r th en k e eps th e c a m era o n o ne s id e o f th is lin e fo r e ve ry s h ot ta ke n s o a s to a vo id m akin g c h ara cte rs a nd o bje cts a ppear to flip su ddenly fr o m o ne s id e o f th e s cre en to th e o th er w hen th e s e quence is e dit e d to geth er and e ve ntu ally p ro je cte d o n a s cre en.

A CADEM Y R ATIO or ACADEM Y A PER TU RE:

T he s ta ndard a sp ect ra tio e sta blis h ed in 1932 b y th e A ca dem y o f M otio n P ic tu re A rts a nd S cie nce s; it ’s o fte n s a id to b e 1 .3 3:1 , b ut in fa ct it ’s 1 .3 7:1 — a r e cta ngle th at is a bout a th ir d a gain a s w id e a s it is ta ll.

A M BIE N T S O UND:

T he a ppro pria te s o unds o f d aily lif e th at a cco m pany th e im age, w heth er th e s ce ne is s e t in sid e ( a r e sta ura nt s ce ne m ay in clu de th e c la tte r o f d is h es a nd fla tw are hit tin g ta ble s, d is ta nt c o nve rs a tio ns, a nd s o o n) o r o uts id e ( a s ce ne s e t in a fa rm er’s fie ld may b e a cco m panie d b y th e s o unds o f c h ic ke ns c a cklin g o r th e r u stle o f le ave s).

A M PLIT U DE:

T he lo udness o r s o ftn ess o f s o und; it s vo lu m e .

A NAM ORPH IC L E N S:

A le ns in th e c a m era th at s q ueeze s a w id escre en im age o nto a norm ally s h aped fr a m e o f film , a nd/o r a le ns in th e p ro je cto r th at u nsq ueeze s th e im age back o ut to w id escre en w id th .

A NIM ATIO N:

any pro ce ss th at sim ula te s m ove m ent by film in g a se rie s of in div id ual dra w in gs, o bje cts (s u ch a s c la y fig ure s o r d olls ), o r c o m pute r im ages; tin y s h if ts in th e posit io ns a nd s h apes o f th ese d ra w in gs, th in gs, o r im ages c re ate th e s e nse o f m otio n.

A NIM ATIO N C EL:

a c le ar s h eet o f p la stic o n w hic h a rtis ts d ra w in div id ual e le m ents o f a n im age; w hen a lig ned w it h o ne a noth er, c e ls fo rm a n im pre ssio n o f d epth ; th e s ta cks o f ce lls a re th en p hoto gra phed o nto m otio n p ic tu re film , a nd th e s lig ht v a ria tio ns o f p osit io n fr o m o ne s ta ck o f c e ls to a noth er c re ate th e im pre ssio n o f m ove m ent.

A SPEC T R ATIO :

T he ra tio o f th e film im age’s w id th to it s h eig ht. S ee Aca dem y ra tio , Cin em aS co pe , Panavis io n , Vis ta V is io n , a nd wid escre en .

A SYN CHRO NO US S O UND:

S ee offs cre en s o und .

A UTE U RIS M :

A c rit ic a l th eory d eve lo ped o rig in ally in F ra nce in th e 1 950s b y c rit ic s a ffilia te d wit h th e F re nch film jo urn al Cahie rs d u c in ém a , a nd la te r p opula riz e d in th e U nit e d S ta te s by A ndre w S arris , th at v ie w s th e d ir e cto r a s a film ’s c h ie f c re ato r, v a lu es a d ir e cto r’s pers o nal s ty le o ve r w hate ve r lit e ra ry m erit a s cre enpla y m ay h ave , a nd ra nks d ir e cto rs acco rd in g to th e p erc e iv e d m ora lit y o f th eir w orld vie w s.

A VA NT-G ARDE F IL M :

a ny e xp erim enta l a nd n onco m merc ia l film ; fr o m th e F re nch , m eanin g adva nce d g uard .

B IR D’S - E YE S H O T:

A s h ot ta ke n fr o m a n e xtr e m ely h ig h a ngle .

B LU ESC REEN :

a ty p e o f tr a ve lin g m atte in w hic h a s p ecif ic c o lo r is re ndere d in vis ib le , unable to r e gis te r o n film o r v id eo; a cto rs a re th en p la ce d b efo re a s cre en th at h as b een pain te d u nif o rm ly in th at p artic u la r c o lo r, u su ally b lu e, a nd th eir im ages a re re co rd ed again st a b la nk b ackg ro und; la te r, th at b ackg ro und is fille d in w it h s e para te ly s h ot im ages; als o k n ow n a s ch ro m a k e y .

206 BO OM :

A lo ng, b ro om stic k-lik e a rm o nto w hic h a m ic ro phone is a tta ch ed b efo re b ein g h eld out o ve r th e h eads o f a cto rs ju st o ut o f c a m era r a nge.

CAM EO :

a n a ppeara nce b y a r e co gniz a ble s ta r in a v e ry s m all o r e ve n tin y r o le .

CAM ER A O PER ATO R:

th e m em ber of th e cin em ato gra pher’s cre w who is ch ie fly re sp onsib le fo r ru nnin g th e c a m era a nd s e ttin g th e c a m era in p la ce w it h th e a id o f a vie w fin der; o th er cre w m em bers in vo lv e d in clu de th e fir s t assis ta nt ca m era opera to r (c a lle d a fo cu s p ulle r in E uro pe), w ho is in c h arg e o f k e epin g th e im age in fo cu s d urin g ca m era m ove m ents , a nd th e se co nd a ssis ta nt ca m era o pera to r (c a lle d a cla pper in Euro pe), w ho m ark s th e s la te a nd o pera te s th e cla pboard , th e d evic e w it h a h in ged a rm th at s n aps s h ut a t th e b egin nin g o f e ach ta ke s o th at th e e dit o r c a n m atc h th e s o undtr a ck wit h th e im age tr a ck ( th e fr a m e in w hic h th e a rm h it s th e s la te o n th e im age tr a ck m atc h es th e cla p s o und o n th e s o undtr a ck).

CELLU LO ID :

The tr a nsp are nt pla stic m ate ria l, te ch nic a lly ce llu lo se nit r a te , th at w as orig in ally u se d in m otio n p ic tu re p hoto gra phy; b eca use c e llu lo se n it r a te is e xtr a ord in arily fla m mable a nd p ro ne to r a pid d ete rio ra tio n, it s u se w as d is co ntin ued in fa vo r o f ce llu lo se ace ta te ; th e te rm ce llu lo id c o ntin ues to b e u se d to d escrib e b oth film s to ck a nd p ro ce sse d film in g enera l.

CG I, O R C O M PU TE R -G EN ER ATE D IM AG ER Y:

T he c re atio n o f 3 -D c o m pute r g ra phic s in cin em a a nd te le vis io n in ste ad o f re al p hysic a l o bje cts a nd p eople ; th e b enefit s o f C G I in clu de d ecre ase d c o st ( it ’s c h eaper to c re ate a c ro w d o f 1 00,0 00 a lie n w arrio rs a m assin g on a c o m pute r s cre en th an it w ould b e to h ir e , c o stu m e, fe ed, a nd p ay 1 00,0 00 p eople to gath er o n a r e al fie ld ) a nd fe w er p ers o nnel ( o ne C G I a rtis t v e rs u s a ll th e film makin g c re w plu s 1 00,0 00 e xtr a s); d ra w backs in clu de th e te ndency o f m odern a udie nce s to a ssu m e th at e ve ry v is u al e ffe ct h as b een fa ke d, a tr e nd th e d ir e cto r W ern er H erz o g c h alle nged when h e fo rc e d C hris tia n B ale , th e s ta r o f h is film Rescu e D aw n (2 007), to e at a b ow l o f re al, liv e m aggots o nscre en in o rd er (a s H erz o g p ut it ) to “g et p eople to s ta rt b elie vin g th eir o w n e ye s a gain .” CHARACTE R A CTO R:

a se co ndary perfo rm er w ho sp ecia liz e s in pla yin g a sim ila r, re co gniz a ble c h ara cte r ty p e fr o m film to film .

CHRO M A K EY:

s e e blu escre en .

CIN EM ASC O PE:

th e anam orp hic pro ce ss fo r wid escre en film s in tr o duce d by 20th Centu ry F ox in 1 953; it s a sp ect ra tio w as o rig in ally 2 .3 5:1 b ut w as a dju ste d la te r to b e 2.4 0:1 ; so m e p artic u la rly g re at C in em aS co pe film s a re O tto P re m in ger’s Riv e r o f N o Retu rn (1 954), M ax O phüls ’ Lola M onte s (1 955), a nd N ic h ola s R ay’s Rebel w it h out a Cause ( 1 955) a nd Big ger th an L if e ( 1 956).

CIN EM ATO GRAPH ER :

a ls o k n ow n a s th e D ir e cto r o f P hoto gra phy o r D P; th e p ers o n in ch arg e o f s e le ctin g th e c a m era s, le nse s, film s to cks, a nd o ve ra ll lig htin g d esig n in th e makin g o f a m otio n p ic tu re a nd o ve rs e ein g th e w ork o f th e c a m era o pera to r if h e o r s h e is not o pera tin g th e c a m era h im - o r h ers e lf .

CIN EM ATO GRAPH Y:

th e p hoto gra phy o f m otio n p ic tu re s.

CIN ER AM A:

a lu sh but cu m bers o m e w id escre en pro ce ss th at use d th re e in te rlo cke d ca m era s to re co rd th re e se para te im ages w hic h , w hen pro je cte d acro ss a sp ecia lly cu rv e d s cre en, y ie ld ed a s in gle c o ntin uous w id escre en im age w it h a n a sp ect ra tio o f 2.7 7:1 ; e xa m ple s in clu de This Is C in era m a (1 952), How th e W est W as W on (1 962), a nd many tr a ve lo gues.

CLO SE-U P:

a s h ot th at is o la te s a n o bje ct in th e im age, m akin g it a ppear r e la tiv e ly la rg e.

CO M PO SIT IO N:

T he fo rm al a rra ngem ents o f s h apes w it h in th e im age, in clu din g p eople , se ts , p ro ps, a nd la ndsca pe e le m ents .

207 CO M PU TE R G EEK :

A p ers o n w ho s p ends to o m uch tim e in fr o nt o f a c o m pute r s cre en, esp ecia lly p la yin g g am es o r m akin g p ic ky c o rre ctio ns to W ik ip edia e ntr ie s; th e w ord geek was o rig in ally u se d in th e w orld o f c ir c u se s a nd c a rn iv a ls to d escrib e a s id esh ow fr e ak.

CO M PU TE R -G EN ER ATE D IM AG ER Y ( C G I) :

s e e CG I, o r c o m pute r-g enera te d im agery .

CO NTIN UIT Y E D IT IN G :

a se t o f e dit in g p ra ctic e s th at e sta blis h sp atia l a nd/o r te m pora l co ntin uit y b etw een s h ots ; th e v a rio us te ch niq ues th at film make rs e m plo y to k e ep th eir narra tiv e s m ovin g fo rw ard lo gic a lly a nd s m ooth ly , w it h out ja rrin g d is ru ptio ns in s p ace o r tim e d esp it e h undre ds o r e ve n th ousa nds o f th e d is cre te b it s o f c e llu lo id c a lle d s h ots , a nd wit h out m akin g th e a udie nce a w are th at th ey a re in fa ct w atc h in g a w ork o f a rt. S ee eye - lin e m atc h , gla nce -o bje ct m atc h , gra phic m atc h , a nd matc h in g o n a ctio n .

CO NVEN TIO N:

a n a rtis tic p ra ctic e o r p ro ce ss o r d evic e th at is w id ely u se d a nd c o m monly acce pte d and unders to od w it h in a giv e n cu lt u re ; fo r exa m ple , th e so -c a lle d “h appy endin g” is a c o nve ntio n o f th e ro m antic c o m edy film , a nd th e k n if e -w ie ld in g h om ic id al mania c is a c o nve ntio n o f th e s p la tte r film . S ee ro m antic c o m edy a nd sp la tte r film .

CRANE:

a c a m era m ove m ent in w hic h th e c a m era m ove s u p a nd d ow n th ro ugh s p ace ; th e ca m era is m ounte d o n a k in d o f c h erry -p ic ke r, w hic h e nable s it to a sce nd fr o m g ro und le ve l in to th e s ky o r d esce nd fr o m th e s ky to g ro und le ve l.

CRAW L:

a s e rie s o f w ord s th at a ppears a t th e b otto m o f th e s cre en a nd m ove s u pw ard ; th e end c re dit s o f a film o fte n ta ke th e fo rm o f a c ra w l.

CRO SSC UTTIN G :

e dit in g th at a lt e rn ate s tw o o r m ore lin es o f a ctio n o ccu rrin g in d if fe re nt pla ce s o r tim es, th ere by c o nnectin g th em ; fo r e xa m ple , a d ir e cto r c ro sscu ts fr o m a s h ot o f a w om an tie d to r a ilr o ad tr a cks to a s p eedin g tr a in to a m an o n h ors e back to th e w om an to th e tr a in to th e w om an to th e m an o n h ors e back a nd s o o n u ntil e it h er th e m an s a ve s th e w om an o r s h e g ets tu rn ed in to b lo ody p ulp b y th e tr a in .

CUT:

th e s im ple st fo rm o f tr a nsit io n fr o m o ne s h ot to a noth er; in film makin g (a s o ppose d to vid eo), th e fir s t s h ot is lit e ra lly c u t w it h a b la de a nd ta ped to th e s e co nd s h ot, w hic h h as been s im ila rly tr im med; in v id eo, th e p ro ce ss h appens e le ctr o nic a lly .

CUTTIN G :

th e pro ce ss of sp lic in g one sh ot to anoth er; syn onym ous w it h edit in g; se e monta ge .

DAIL IE S:

a d ay’s w orth o f p ro ce sse d b ut u nedit e d fo ota ge fr e sh ly b ack fr o m th e la b; a ls o ca lle d ru sh es .

DIE G ESIS :

th e w orld o f th e film ; a ll th e s to ry e le m ents p re se nte d b y th e n arra tiv e , n o m atte r wheth er th ey a re a ctu ally se en o r h eard o nscre en o r n ot; m usic b ro adca st fr o m a n onscre en r a dio is d ie getic , w here as th e film ’s m usic a l s co re is n ondie getic .

DIE G ETIC S O UND:

S ounds (in clu din g m ost d ia lo gue a nd s o und e ffe cts a nd s o m e m usic ) th at a re s o urc e d in th e w orld o f th e film ’s s to ry ; s e e nondie getic s o und fo r it s o pposit e .

DIG IT A L A UDIO W ORKSTA TIO N ( D AW ):

a c o m pute r a nd a cco m panyin g s o ftw are u se d to edit m otio n p ic tu re s o und d ig it a lly .

DIR EC TO R O F P H O TO GRAPH Y ( D P):

s e e cin em ato gra pher .

DIR EC TO R’S C UT:

th e v e rs io n o f th e film th e d ir e cto r c o nsid ers to b e fin is h ed, w it h out in te rfe re nce fr o m th e s tu dio o r th e p ro duce rs .

DIS SO LV E:

a tr a nsit io n fr o m o ne s h ot to a noth er in w hic h th e fir s t s h ot fa des o ut w hile th e se co nd s h ot fa des in , c re atin g a su perim posit io n a t th e m id w ay p oin t.

DO CUM EN TA RY:

a film about fa cts ra th er th an fic tio n; an acco unt of re al eve nts .

Docu m enta rie s o fte n ta ke a p artic u la r p oin t o f v ie w to w ard th eir s u bje ct( s ), a nd th ey a re alw ays a m atte r o f s e le ctiv e ly p re se ntin g th e fa cts th ey c h ro nic le . T hey m ay o r m ay n ot te ll s to rie s, b ut th ey a re a lw ays n onfic tio n.

DO LB Y:

The nois e -re ductio n syste m in ve nte d by R ay D olb y in 1965; D olb y re duce s 208 backg ro und n ois e s, c u ts d ow n o n th e n ois e c re ate d b y th e p ro ce ss o f r e co rd in g it s e lf , a nd enhance s th e c la rit y o f d ia lo gue, m usic , a nd s o und e ffe cts .

DO LLY :

s e e tr a ckin g s h ot .

DUTC HTIL T S H O T:

a s h ot th at tilt s , o fte n d ra stic a lly , o ff th e s ta ndard h oriz o nta l a nd/o r ve rtic a l a xe s; D utc h a ngle s a re c o m monly u se d to e xp re ss a bnorm al s ta te s o f m in d; a ls o ca lle d a ca nte d a ngle s h ot .

ED IT IN G :

th e p ro ce ss o f s p lic in g o ne s h ot to a noth er; s yn onym ous w it h cu ttin g .

EN D C RED IT S , O R E N D T IT LE S:

th e lis t o f p ers o nnel in vo lv e d in m akin g th e film , fr o m th e acto rs to th e c a te re rs , th at a ppears a t th e e nd o f th e film , o fte n in th e fo rm o f a cra w l .

EXTR A:

a p erfo rm er w ho h as n o d ia lo gue in a c ro w d s ce ne a nd re ce iv e s n o c re dit fo r appearin g in th e film .

EYE-L E VEL S H O T:

a s h ot ta ke n fr o m th e h eig ht o f a n a ve ra ge h um an b ein g, s o th e c a m era appears to b e lo okin g s tr a ig ht a t th e c h ara cte rs a nd/o r o bje cts b ein g film ed.

EYE-L IN E M ATC H:

a ty p e o f c o ntin uit y e dit in g th at re lie s o n th e d ir e ctio n o f o ne o r m ore ch ara cte rs ’ g la nce s to m ain ta in s p atia l re la tio nsh ip s fr o m s h ot to s h ot; fo r in sta nce , a ch ara cte r lo okin g o ffs cre en r ig ht in th e fir s t s h ot is fo llo w ed in th e s e co nd s h ot b y a noth er ch ara cte r lo okin g o ffs cre en le ft, th e tw o c h ara cte rs a ppearin g to lo ok a t e ach o th er e ve n th ough th ey a re in s e para te s h ots .

FA BULA :

th e eve nts of th e narra tiv e in ch ro nolo gic a l ord er, alo ng w it h th e pers o nal asso cia tio ns bro ught to th e narra tiv e by each audie nce m em ber; m ore or le ss syn onym ous w it h sto ry , b ut in a ddit io n to th e sto ry th e film te lls u s, it in clu des th e in div id ual s to rie s w e e ach te ll o urs e lv e s.

FA DE-IN A ND F A DE-O UT:

th e g ra dual in cre ase (fa de-in ) o r d e cre ase (fa de-o ut) in th e str e ngth a nd c la rit y o f th e film ed im age o r r e co rd ed s o und; fa de-in s g enera lly b egin w it h a pure w hit e o r p ure b la ck s cre en in th e c a se o f th e im age tr a ck a nd s ile nce in th e c a se o f th e s o undtr a ck, w hile fa de-o uts u su ally b egin w it h a c le ar im age o r s o und, w hic h th en dis a ppears to w hit e o r b la ck o r d im in is h es to s ile nce ; fa de-in s a nd fa de-o uts a re o fte n use d a s tr a nsit io nal d evic e s b etw een s ce nes.

FIL M S TO CK:

R aw , u nexp ose d fo ota ge.

FIN AL C UT:

th e la st v e rs io n o f a film a s it is b ein g p ro duce d— th e o ne th at is r e le ase d to th e public ; s e e ro ught c u t a nd dir e cto r ’ s c u t .

FLA SH BACK:

a s h ot, s e quence , o r s ce ne th at ta ke s p la ce in th e p ast, b efo re th e p re se nt- day tim e fr a m e e sta blis h ed b y th e film .

FLA SH FO R W ARD:

a s h ot, s e quence , o r s ce ne th at ta ke s p la ce in th e fu tu re , a fte r th e pre se ntd ay tim e fr a m e e sta blis h ed b y th e film .

FO LE Y A RTIS T:

A m em ber o f th e s o und te am w ho s p ecia liz e s in d uplic a tin g s o und e ffe cts th at, fo r w hate ve r re aso n, d on’t s o und a ccu ra te w hen re co rd ed d ir e ctly a t th e tim e o f sh ootin g.

FO RM :

in a rt, th e s h ape a nd s tr u ctu re o f th e a rtw ork ; in film , a ll th e s p ecif ic te ch niq ues u se d by film make rs to c re ate e xp re ssiv e m eanin g.

FR AM E:

(a ) th e in div id ual re cta ngula r p hoto gra phs o n a s tr ip o f m otio n p ic tu re film w hic h , when r u n th ro ugh a p ro je cto r, y ie ld th e im pre ssio n o f m ove m ent o w in g to s lig ht v a ria tio ns in th e p osit io n o f th e o bje cts b ein g p hoto gra phed; (b ) th e fo ur b ord ers o f th e p ro je cte d im age.

FU LL S H O T:

a s h ot th at in clu des th e e ntir e h um an b ody fr o m h ead to to e, w it h lit tle s p ace above th e h ead a nd b elo w th e fe et.

GEN RE:

a c a te gory o f film , s u ch a s th e w este rn , th e h orro r film , th e c o stu m e d ra m a, th e melo dra m a, a nd s o o n, w it h r e co gniz a ble c o nve ntio ns a nd c h ara cte r ty p es.

209 GLA NCE-O BJE C T M ATC H:

a n e ye -lin e m atc h th at o ccu rs b etw een a h um an b ein g a nd th e obje ct h e o r s h e is s u ppose d to b e lo okin g a t; fo r e xa m ple : a w om an lo oks o ffs cre en le ft in th e fir s t s h ot, a nd th e s e co nd s h ot is o f a r in gin g te le phone.

GRAPH IC M ATC HIN G :

a ty p e of co ntin uit y edit in g th at re lie s on th e sim ila rit y of co m posit io nal s h apes fr o m o ne s h ot to th e n ext to b rid ge th e c u t s m ooth ly ; fo r in sta nce , a sh ot o f a d oorw ay is fo llo w ed b y a s h ot o f a noth er d oorw ay, th e tw o s h ots b ein g m atc h ed by th e s im ila r p osit io ns th e tw o d oorw ays o ccu py o nscre en.

HAND-H ELD S H O T:

a s h ot ta ke n fr o m a c a m era th at is s m all a nd lig htw eig ht e nough to b e ca rrie d b y th e c a m era o pera to r, u nlik e c a m era s th at a re m ounte d o n d evic e s s u ch a s tr ip ods o r d ollie s o r cra nes, h and-h eld ca m era s re co rd th e b odily m ove m ents o f th e ca m era o pera to rs , le ndin g a s o m ew hat je rk y q ualit y to h and-h eld s h ots .

HIG H-A NG LE S H O T:

a s h ot ta ke n fr o m a c a m era th at is p osit io ned m uch h ig her th an th e su bje ct b ein g film ed, s o th at th e e ffe ct is th at o f lo okin g d ow n o n th e s u bje ct.

IM AG E T R ACK:

th at p ortio n o f th e c in em atic m ediu m th at c o nta in s th e p ic tu re , a s o ppose d to th e so undtr a ck .

IN VIS IB LE E D IT IN G :

s e e co ntin uit y e dit in g .

IR IS -IN A ND IR IS -O UT:

tr a nsit io nal d evic e s b etw een sh ots a nd/o r sce nes in w hic h th e im age a ppears fir s t a s a s m all c ir c le in th e c e nte r o f th e s cre en (ir is -in ) a nd e xp ands outw ard u ntil it fills th e s cre en, o r th e r e ve rs e ( ir is -o ut) .

J-H O RRO R F IL M :

a g ru eso m e J a panese h orro r s u bgenre w it h a p erv e rs e p sych olo gic a l bent.

LE TTE R BO XIN G :

p re se rv in g th e o rig in al w id escre en a sp ect ra tio w hen tr a nsfe rrin g th e film onto v id eo.

LE XIC O NNIN G :

a p ro ce ss b y w hic h film s a re s h orte ned fo r b ro adca stin g o n te le vis io n; th e sta ndard 2 4 fr a m es p er s e co nd s p eed is in cre ase d b y a m atte r o f h undre dth s o f a fr a m e per s e co nd, th e c u m ula tiv e e ffe ct o f w hic h m ay s h orte n th e film b y a s m uch a s 6 o r 7 perc e nt o f it s to ta l r u nnin g tim e.

LO CATIO N:

a r e al p la ce u se d b y film make rs a s th e s e ttin g o f a g iv e n s ce ne, a s o ppose d to a s e t th at is s p ecif ic a lly d esig ned a nd c o nstr u cte d fo r a film ; o utd oor s ce nes in w este rn s are u su ally s h ot o n lo ca tio n, fo r e xa m ple , b eca use n ot e ve n th e m ost e xp ansiv e o utd oor se t c a n c o nve y e it h er th e n atu ra l b eauty o r th e d eso la tio n o f th e A m eric a n W est.

LO NG S H O T:

a s h ot in w hic h th e c a m era a ppears to b e fa ir ly fa r a w ay fr o m th e s u bje ct bein g film ed, th ough s p ecia l le nse s c a n c re ate th e im pre ssio n o f g re at d is ta nce w here much le ss d is ta nce e xis ts .

LO NG T A KE:

a s in gle s h ot o f a n u nusu ally lo ng d ura tio n; a d eta ile d d escrip tio n o f th e co m ple x lo ng ta ke th at b egin s Boogie N ig hts (1 997) c a n b e fo und in th e “ Edit in g w it h in th e S hot ” s e ctio n o f c h apte r 2 .

LO W -A NG LE S H O T:

a s h ot ta ke n fr o m a c a m era th at is p osit io ned m uch lo w er th an th e su bje ct b ein g film ed, s o th at th e e ffe ct is th at o f lo okin g u p a t th e s u bje ct.

MASK IN G :

C ove rin g th e to p a nd/o r b otto m o f th e im age w it h a n a pertu re p la te to c re ate a wid escre en e ffe ct.

MASTE R S H O T:

a s h ot ta ke n fr o m a lo ng d is ta nce th at in clu des a s m uch o f th e s e t o r lo ca tio n a s p ossib le a nd a ll th e c h ara cte rs in th e s ce ne; fo r e xa m ple , a m aste r s h ot o f a sce ne s e t in a d in in g ro om w ould c a ptu re th e w hole d in in g ta ble , a t le ast tw o o f th e fo ur walls , a ll o f th e p eople s it tin g a ro und th e ta ble , a nd p erh aps th e b otto m o f a c h andelie r hangin g o ve r th e ta ble ; a d ir e cto r m ig ht ru n th e e ntir e s ce ne fr o m b egin nin g to e nd in a maste r sh ot and, la te r, in te rc u t clo se -u ps, tw o-s h ots , and th re e-s h ots fo r vis u al and dra m atic in te re st.

210 MATC HIN G :

a ny o f th re e w ays o f d im in is h in g th e ja rrin g e ffe ct o f sp lic in g o ne sh ot to anoth er; s e e matc h in g o n a ctio n , eye -lin e m atc h in g , a nd gra phic m atc h in g .

MATC HIN G O N A CTIO N:

a n e dit in g te ch niq ue th at u se s a n a ctio n b egun in th e fir s t s h ot to brid ge th e c u t to th e s e co nd s h ot; fo r e xa m ple : a b ase ball th ro w n a cro ss th e s cre en fr o m le ft to r ig ht in th e fir s t s h ot e nte rs th e s e co nd s h ot fr o m s cre en le ft a nd tr a ve ls a cro ss th e im age in a r ig htw ard d ir e ctio n.

MATTE :

a ty p e o f s p ecia l e ffe ct in w hic h o ne a re a o f th e im age is film ed, e it h er b y s h ootin g a re al b ackg ro und d ir e ctly o r b y p ain tin g o ne a nd s h ootin g th e p ain tin g, w hile th e r e m ain in g are a is le ft b la nk b y b lo ckin g a c o rre sp ondin g a re a o f th e le ns; th e b la nk a re a is th en fille d by film in g, w it h th e o pposit e a re a b ein g b lo cke d, a fte r w hic h th e tw o a re as a re c o m bin ed in p ro ce ssin g.

MED IU M S H O T:

a s h ot ta ke n fr o m a m ediu m d is ta nce fr o m a p ers o n o r o bje ct; w it h a pers o n, a m ediu m s h ot is fr o m th e w ais t u p.

METH O D, T H E:

a n a ctin g te ch niq ue d eriv e d fr o m th e te ach in gs o f K onsta ntin S ta nis la vsky and p opula riz e d b y L ee S tr a sb erg a nd h is N ew Y ork d ra m a s ch ool, th e A cto rs S tu dio , th ro ugh w hic h p erfo rm ers e xp lo re th eir o w n fe elin gs a nd m em orie s in a n a tte m pt to cre ate m ore n atu ra lis tic c h ara cte rs o nsta ge a nd o nscre en.

MIS E-E N -S C EN E ( als o MIS E-E N -S C ÈN E ): a ll o f th e e le m ents p la ce d in fr o nt o f th e c a m era to b e p hoto gra phed: s e ttin gs, p ro ps, lig htin g, c o stu m es, m ake up, a nd fig ure b ehavio r (m eanin g a cto rs , th eir g estu re s, a nd th eir fa cia l e xp re ssio ns); fr o m th e F re nch , m eanin g th at w hic h h as b een p ut in to th e s ce ne o r o nsta ge .

MIX IN G :

C om bin in g d ia lo gue, s o und e ffe cts , a nd m usic ( b oth d ie getic a nd n ondie getic ) o nto a s in gle s o undtr a ck; a dju stin g a nd b ala ncin g v o lu m e, to ne, a nd d ir e ctio n o f s o und.

MOBIL E F R AM IN G :

th e g enera l te rm th at d escrib es th e c a m era ’s a bilit y to m ove ; w here as still p hoto gra phy is , in a w ord , still , c in em a is a bout motio n —th e o bje cts a nd c h ara cte rs in th e im age m ove , a nd s o m ay th e c a m era it s e lf ; s e e cra ne , hand-h eld s h ot , movin g s h ot , pan , Ste adic a m , a nd tilt .

MONTA G E:

( a ) in th e F re nch d efin it io n, a ny ty p e o f e dit in g; ( b ) in th e A m eric a n d efin it io n, a ra pid ly c u t, ra th er k a le id osco pic s e rie s o f im ages th at o fte n c o ndense s (b ut s o m etim es exp ands) tim e a nd s p ace , s u ch a s a tr a ve l m onta ge s h ow in g a c h ara cte r’s p ro gre ssio n acro ss th e U nit e d S ta te s in a m atte r o f 2 0 s e co nds; ( c ) in th e S ovie t d efin it io n, a d yn am ic , exp re ssly p olit ic a l ty p e o f film e dit in g th at u se s th e d ia le ctic s, o r c o nflic ts , o f a g iv e n sit u atio n (a th esis a nd it s a ntit h esis ) to p ro duce a re vo lu tio nary s yn th esis in th e m in d o f th e s p ecta to r.

MORPH IN G :

a C G I te ch niq ue in w hic h im ages o f tw o o r m ore d is tin ct o bje cts , a nim als , o r hum ans a re b le nded to geth er to fo rm a n ew , in te rp ola te d r e su lt .

MOTIV A TE D AND UNM OTIV A TE D CAM ER A MOVEM EN TS :

Motiv a te d ca m era move m ents are th ose th at are pro m pte d by th e ch ara cte rs and eve nts in th e film ; unm otiv a te d c a m era m ove m ents a re th ose th at p erta in to th e film make rs ’ c o m menta ry o n ch ara cte rs a nd e ve nts . ( P le ase n ote : u nm otiv a te d c a m era m ove m ents a re s o m eth in g o f a mis n om er; th ey, to o, a re m otiv a te d— but b y th e d ir e cto r, n ot th e c h ara cte rs o r e ve nts in th e film .) MOVIN G S H O T:

a c a m era m ove m ent th at re su lt s fr o m th e c a m era s h ootin g fr o m a m ovin g obje ct, s u ch a s a s h ot ta ke n o ut o f a tr a in w in dow a s th e tr a in s p eeds a lo ng, o r a s h ot o f th e o ce an ta ke n fr o m th e d eck o f a n o ce anlin er a s it s a ils .

NARRATIV E:

a noth er w ord fo r s to ry te llin g.

NATU RALIS M :

In a ctin g, a n a tte m pt b y a p erfo rm er to a ppear n ot to b e p erfo rm in g; b eca use of c h angin g id eas a bout w hat c o nstit u te s a re alis tic p erfo rm ance , th e te rm natu ra lis tic is 211 more fle xib le a nd u se fu l th an re alis tic .

NO NDIE G ETIC S O UND:

S ounds, in clu din g s o m e s o und e ffe cts a nd th e film ’s s co re , th at a re not s o urc e d in th e w orld o f th e film ’s s to ry ; s e e die getic s o und fo r it s o pposit e .

NO NSYN CHRO NO US S O UND:

S ounds th at do not occu r at th e sa m e tim e th at th eir so urc e s a ppear o nscre en; s e e so und b rid ge .

OFFS C REEN S O UND:

S ounds th at o ccu r a t th e s a m e tim e th at th e e ve nt o ccu rs in th e im age, b ut w it h out th e e ve nt a ppearin g o nscre en; fo r e xa m ple , a s h ot o f a w rit e r h old in g his h ead in h is h ands in sid e h is a partm ent is a cco m panie d b y th e s o und o f a c a r h orn bein g h eld d ow n, p re su m ably o uts id e h is w in dow — th e c a r c a nnot b e s e en, b ut it s s o und ca n b e h eard .

OVER CRANKIN G :

a s p ecia l e ffe ct c re ate d b y s p eedin g u p th e film a s it m ove s th ro ugh th e ca m era fr o m it s u su al 2 4 fr a m es p er s e co nd; w hen o ve rc ra nke d fo ota ge is r u n th ro ugh a pro je cto r— whic h s till o pera te s a t th e n orm al 2 4 fr a m es p er s e co nd— th e e ffe ct c re ate d is slo w m otio n; s e e underc ra nkin g .

PA N:

a c a m era m ove m ent a ch ie ve d b y p iv o tin g th e c a m era o n it s h oriz o nta l a xis , o r fr o m sid e to s id e; fo r e xa m ple , a p an m ig ht b egin w it h th e le ft fie ld b le ach ers a t a b ase ball p ark and m ove h oriz o nta lly to th e le ft, ta kin g in th e c h eerin g c ro w d, u ntil it g ets to th e p re ss box to th e rig ht o f h om e p la te ; to d escrib e th is s h ot, o ne w ould s im ply s a y o r w rit e , “T he ca m era p ans le ft fr o m th e b le ach ers to th e p re ss b ox.” PA NAVIS IO N:

th ough th e te rm c a n b e u se d to d escrib e a ny film m ade w it h c a m era s a nd le nse s p ate nte d b y th e c o m pany n am ed P anavis io n, it a ls o s p ecif ic a lly d escrib es th e co m pany’s w id escre en p ro ce sse s; w it h a c u rre nt a sp ect r a tio o f 2 .4 0:1 , P anavis io n is th e most w id ely u se d a nam orp hic p ro ce ss to day; s o m e p artic u la rly n ota ble P anavis io n film s are B illy W ild er’s The A partm ent (1 960), G eorg e S id ney’s Bye B ye B ir d ie (1 963), R obert Mullig an’s In sid e D ais y C lo ve r ( 1 965), a nd S erg io L eone’s Once u pon a T im e in A m eric a (1 984); s e e anam orp hic le ns .

PER SO NA:

th e r o le a p ers o n c o nsis te ntly d is p la ys in p ublic , a s o ppose d to th e in ner s e lf ; in th e c a se o f a film s ta r, th e g enera l c h ara cte r h e o r s h e r e pre se nts to th e p ublic , b ase d o n th e r o le s h e o r s h e p la ys a nd th e c o nte nt o f h is o r h er p ublic it y .

PH YSIO GNO M Y:

th e c h ara cte ris tic s o f a h um an fa ce , e sp ecia lly a s th ey r e ve al— or se em to re ve al— th e c h ara cte r o f a p ers o n.

PIT C H:

T he r e la tiv e ly h ig h, m ediu m , o r lo w q ualit y o f a s o und th at d epends o n th e fr e quency of s o und w ave s c re ate d b y th e s o und’s s o urc e .

PIX IL A TIO N:

a c o m pute r-g enera te d s p ecia l e ffe ct th at c o nsis ts o f th e a ve ra gin g to geth er o f blo cks o f in div id ual p ix e ls to c re ate a m osa ic e ffe ct.

PLO T:

th e o rd erin g o r s tr u ctu rin g o f s to ry e ve nts a s th ey a re p re se nte d in th e film .

PO IN T-O F-V IE W S H O T (P O V):

a p artic u la r ty p e o f s h ot th at s u ggests th at th e c a m era is re co rd in g exa ctly w hat a ch ara cte r is se ein g at th at m om ent; P O V sh ots are not appro xim atio ns o f a c h ara cte r’s p osit io n— th ey a re n’t ta ke n fr o m th e g enera l v ic in it y o f a ch ara cte r, b ut ra th er fr o m th e p re cis e p osit io n o f th at c h ara cte r’s e ye s; P O V s h ots a re th ere fo re in te nse ly su bje ctiv e , sin ce th ey effe ctiv e ly put th e audie nce in sid e th e ch ara cte r’s h ead.

PO STP R O DUCTIO N:

T he p erio d o f film makin g a fte r s h ootin g h as b een c o m ple te d.

PU BLIC IT Y :

th e m anagem ent o f th e p ublic ’s p erc e ptio n o f a p ers o n; th e cre atio n a nd main te nance o f a sta r’s pers o na b y e xtr a -film ic m eans— not th e ro le s in w hic h th ey appear o nscre en, b ut th e n ew sp apers , m agazin es, te le vis io n ta lk s h ow s, a nd w ebsit e s in whic h th ey a ppear o ffs cre en.

RADIO M IC RO PH O NE:

A w ir e le ss m ik e th at is a ffix e d to a s o und s o urc e , u su ally a n a cto r.

212 REFR AM IN G :

a ny c a m era m ove m ent, in clu din g e ve n th e m ost m in ute re adju stm ent— fo r in sta nce , th e c a m era p ans e ve r s o s lig htly to th e le ft to k e ep a c h ara cte r’s h ead c e nte re d in th e im age w hen s h e s h if ts a lit tle in c lo se -u p.

REPR ESEN TA TIO N:

a s ig n o r s ym bol th at c o m munic a te s m eanin g w it h a c o m bin atio n o f co nte nt and fo rm ; a hors e is re al, w here as a scu lp tu re of a hors e is an artis t’s re pre se nta tio n. A ll film s a nd p hoto gra phs a re re pre se nta tio ns, n o m atte r h ow re alis tic th ey m ay s e em .

RETA KE:

A s e co nd, th ir d , te nth , o r e ve n h undre dth a tte m pt to film a g iv e n s h ot; th e te rm re ta ke s o m etim es im plie s th at th e s h ootin g o ccu rs o n a d ay s u bse quent to th e o rig in al ta ke s; a cto rs a re o fte n b ro ught b ack to th e stu dio a t th e e nd o f p ro ductio n to sh oot re ta ke s o f sh ots a nd sce nes th e d ir e cto r fin ds to b e p ro ble m atic fo r o ne re aso n o r anoth er.

RO M ANTIC C O M ED Y:

a s u bgenre o f th e c o m edy g enre in w hic h tw o p eople fa ll in lo ve w it h each o th er b y g oin g th ro ugh a s e rie s o f m is h aps a nd c o nfu sio ns; s o m e n ota ble r o m antic co m edie s a re Brin gin g U p B aby ( 1 938), Pillo w T alk ( 1 959), When H arry M et S ally ( 1 989), and Knocke d U p ( 2 007).

RO OM T O NE:

T he fa in t, b are ly a udib le s o unds o f th e p artic u la r r o om in w hic h d ia lo gue h as been r e co rd ed; r o om to ne is r e co rd ed s e para te ly fr o m d ia lo gue.

RO TO SC O PIN G :

th e p ro je ctio n o f liv e -a ctio n fo ota ge, fr a m e b y fr a m e, o nto a n a nim ato r’s dra w in g ta ble s o th at h e o r s h e c a n tr a ce th e fig ure s w it h g re at p re cis io n.

RO UG H C UT:

a p re lim in ary , e dit e d ve rs io n o f a film th at in clu des a ll th e m ajo r sto ry ele m ents , b ut w it h out a ny fin e-tu nin g o f th e v is u al a nd a udio tr a cks.

RUSH ES:

s e e dailie s .

SC EN E:

a u nit o f d ra m atic a ctio n th at ta ke s p la ce in o ne lo ca tio n d urin g a s in gle tim e p erio d; se e se quence .

SC O RE:

T he m usic , u su ally n ondie getic , th at a cco m panie s th e im ages.

SEG M EN TA TIO N:

a fo rm al, w rit te n b re akd ow n o f a film ’s n arra tiv e in to it s c o m ponent p arts ; se e ch apte r 7 fo r a d eta ile d d is cu ssio n o f s e gm enta tio n a nd s o m e e xa m ple s.

SEQ UEN CE:

a c o m ponent o f film n arra tiv e th at m ain ta in s a u nit y o f tim e, p la ce , o r d ra m atic actio n b ut in tr o duce s a d is co ntin uit y ; fo r e xa m ple , a s in gle d ra m atic a ctio n (a m an g oes sh oppin g) c o ntin ues th ro ughout a s e quence b ut th e lo ca tio ns c h ange ( a la rg e d epartm ent sto re , a je w elr y s h op, a flo ris t, a s p ortin g g oods s to re ) a nd tim e is s p eeded u p (s h ots o f clo cks o n th e w all r e ve al th e p assin g o f a n e ntir e a fte rn oon); s e e sce ne .

SEQ UEN CE S H O T:

a s in gle s h ot th at s e rv e s, s e em in gly p ara doxic a lly , a s it s o w n s e quence or s ce ne; a p artic u la r ty p e o f lo ng ta ke th at c o ve rs a n e ntir e s e quence o r s ce ne fr o m begin nin g to e nd; a n e xa m ple o f th e s e quence s h ot th at b egin s Sca rfa ce (1 931) c a n b e fo und in th e “ Edit in g w it h in th e S hot ” s e ctio n o f c h apte r 2 .

SH O T/R EVER SE-S H O T P A TTE R N:

an edit in g te ch niq ue th at re co rd s th e in te ra ctio n betw een tw o c h ara cte rs , u su ally a c o nve rs a tio n, w ho a re fa cin g o ne a noth er w it h o ne se rie s o f s h ots o fte n ta ke n o ve r th e s h ould er o f o ne c h ara cte r a nd a noth er s e rie s o f s h ots ta ke n o ve r th e s h ould er o f th e o th er c h ara cte r; n ote th at th e s o -c a lle d r e ve rs e s h ot is n ot actu ally ta ke n fr o m th e tr u ly o pposit e a ngle , b eca use s u ch a n a ngle w ould v io la te th e 180° s yste m .

SH O T:

th e b asic e le m ent o f film makin g— a p ie ce o f film ru n th ro ugh th e c a m era , e xp ose d, and d eve lo ped; a n u nin te rru pte d r u n o f th e c a m era ; o r a n u nin te rru pte d im age o n film .

SH O TG UN M IC RO PH O NE:

A s p ecia liz e d m ik e th at m ust b e p oin te d d ir e ctly a t a s o und so urc e b ut th at c a n p ic k u p s o und a t a g re at d is ta nce .

SLA SH ER F IL M :

a s u bgenre o f th e h orro r film c h ara cte riz e d b y th e m enacin g p re se nce o f a 213 psych otic w ho w ie ld s a b utc h er k n if e , m eat c le ave r, m ach ete , s tr a ig ht ra zo r, b ox c u tte r, pig stic ke r, o r X -a cto k n if e to b lo ody a nd fa ta l e ffe ct; c la ssic e xa m ple s o f th e s u bgenre a re Hallo w een ( 1 978) a nd Frid ay th e 1 3th ( 1 980) .

SO UND B RID G E:

A n a ura l tr a nsit io n fr o m o ne s ce ne to th e n ext in w hic h th e s o und o f th e se co nd s ce ne is h eard a t th e ta il e nd o f th e im age tr a ck o f th e fir s t; fo r in sta nce , th e la st fe w s e co nds o f a n e xte rio r s tr e et s ce ne a re a cco m panie d b y th e s o und o f a te le phone rin gin g, a fte r w hic h th e d ir e cto r cu ts to a sh ot o f a b edro om in te rio r w it h a rin gin g te le phone o n th e n ig ht ta ble .

SO UND O N D IS C :

A n e arly m eth od o f s yn ch ro niz in g s o und to m otio n p ic tu re im ages in whic h s o und w as r e co rd ed o n p honogra ph d is cs ( re co rd s) a nd p la ye d b ack w hen th e film was s cre ened; s e e so und o n film .

SO UND O N F IL M :

T he d om in ant m eth od o f s yn ch ro niz in g s o und to m otio n p ic tu re im ages in whic h s o und is c o nve rte d to o ptic a l s ig nals a nd p la ce d o n a s o undtr a ck o n th e film it s e lf ; th e p ro je cto r r e ads th e s ig nals a nd c o nve rts th em b ack in to s o und; s e e so und o n d is c .

SO UNDTR ACK:

th at p ortio n o f th e cin em atic m ediu m th at co nta in s a ura l in fo rm atio n— dia lo gue, m usic , a nd s o und e ffe cts ; o n c e llu lo id , it ’s th e s q uig gly lin e o n th e s id e o f th e im age fr a m es; se e fig ure 1.1 4 fo r a sim ple illu str a tio n; se e fig ure 5.1 fo r a m ore co m plic a te d— and c o nte m pora ry — illu str a tio n.

SPEC IA L E FFE C TS :

a ny im age o r e le m ent w it h in th e im age th at h as b een p ro duce d b y extr a ord in ary te ch nic a l m eans— th at is , b eyo nd th e o rd in ary te ch nolo gy r e quir e d to m ake a film .

SPLA TTE R F IL M :

a s u bgenre o f th e h orro r film th at fe atu re s a s it s m ain c o nve ntio n th e lib era l u se o f s ta ge b lo od; c rit ic s c it e th e s h ow er m onta ge in A lf r e d H it c h co ck’s Psych o (1 960) a s th e m ost im porta nt p re cu rs o r o f th e s p la tte r film , w hic h b egan in e arn est w it h Georg e R om ero ’s Nig ht o f th e L iv in g D ead ( 1 968).

STA R:

a film p erfo rm er w ho h as a n atio nal o r in te rn atio nal r e puta tio n a nd s iz e able b ox o ffic e appeal a nd w ho c o nsis te ntly a ppears in m ajo r r o le s.

STE A DIC AM :

a n a ppara tu s th at fit s o nto a c a m era o pera to r’s b ody (v ia a v e st) in s u ch a way th at w hen h e o r s h e w alk s, th e c a m era — whic h is s m all a nd lig htw eig ht e nough to b e ca rrie d— re co rd s a ve ry sm ooth m ove m ent, a s o ppose d to a h and-h eld ca m era th at re co rd s e ve ry b um p in e ve ry s te p.

STO RY:

a ll th e e ve nts o f th e n arra tiv e a s th ey o ccu r in c h ro nolo gic a l o rd er fr o m b egin nin g to end, in clu din g n ot o nly th ose th at w e s e e a nd h ear, b ut th ose w e in fe r.

STU DIO S YSTE M :

th e m ode o f p ro ductio n th at d om in ate d A m eric a n film makin g fr o m th e early 1 920s to th e la te 1 940s, a p erio d d urin g w hic h th e s o -c a lle d H olly w ood s tu dio s w ere actu ally v e rtic a lly in te gra te d d is tr ib utio n c o m panie s th at p ro duce d a nd e xh ib it e d th eir o w n pro ducts — movie s; s e e ve rtic a l in te gra tio n .

SU PER IM PO SIT IO N:

a sp ecia l effe ct in w hic h th ere are tw o or m ore im ages vis ib le onscre en a t th e s a m e tim e; th e m id w ay p oin t o f a dis so lv e is a s u perim posit io n.

SYN CHRO NIZ E D S O UND:

d ia lo gue, s o und e ffe cts , a nd d ie getic m usic th at a re h eard a t th e sa m e tim e th at th e s o urc e a ppears o nscre en.

SYU ZH ET:

m ore o r le ss s yn onym ous w it h plo t : th e o rd erin g o f s to ry e ve nts w it h in th e film .

TA KE:

a s in gle a tte m pt to r e co rd a s h ot; a s h ot m ay r e quir e m any ta ke s b efo re a d ir e cto r is sa tis fie d; s e e re ta ke .

TH REE-Q UARTE R S H O T:

a s h ot ta ke n fr o m a d is ta nce th at re ve als th e h um an b ody fr o m th e h ead to ju st b elo w th e k n ees.

TA LK IE S:

F ilm s w it h s yn ch ro niz e d d ia lo gue; s h ort fo r ta lk in g p ic tu re s .

TE LE PH O TO L E N S:

A le ns th at g re atly m agnif ie s d is ta nt o bje cts , th e w ay a te le sco pe d oes; 214 a te le photo le ns h as a s h allo w depth o f fie ld , m eanin g th at o nly o bje cts in th e d is ta nce a re in fo cu s, w it h e ve ry th in g in fr o nt o f th em a ppearin g b lu rry . S ee wid e-a ngle le ns a nd zo om .

TH REE-P O IN T L IG HTIN G :

A v e ry c o m monly u se d lig htin g s e tu p, c o nsis tin g o f th re e m ain lig ht s o urc e s— a k e y lig ht, a fill lig ht, a nd a b acklig ht; th e e ffe ct is a c e ntr a lly illu m in ate d su bje ct (b y th e k e y lig ht) s e en in a n e ve nly lit s e ttin g (b y th e fill lig ht) b ut s e para te d vis u ally fr o m th e b ackg ro und ( b y th e b acklig ht) .

TH REE-S H O T:

a sh ot in w hic h th re e people dom in ate th e im age— not th re e people su rro unded b y a c ro w d, b ut th re e p eople w ho a re fr a m ed s o a s to c o nstit u te a d is tin ct gro up, w it h lit tle s p ace b etw een th em a nd th e fr a m e.

TIL T:

a c a m era m ove m ent a ch ie ve d b y p iv o tin g th e c a m era o n a v e rtic a l a xis , o r u p a nd dow n, w it h th e c a m era r e m ain in g s ta tio nary o n th e g ro und; fo r e xa m ple , a tilt c o uld b egin wit h th e g ro und flo or o f a s kyscra per a nd e nd w it h th e to p o f th e b uild in g; to d escrib e th is sh ot, o ne w ould s a y o r w rit e , “T he c a m era tilt s fr o m th e g ro und flo or to th e to p o f th e build in g.” TIM BRE:

A ll th e q ualit ie s o f a s o und th at a re n o t d escrib ed b y vo lu m e a nd pit c h , s u ch a s it s ric h ness o r tin nin ess, it s fu lln ess o r h ollo w ness, it s n asa ln ess if it ’s a h um an v o ic e , a nd s o on; s yn onym ous w it h to ne q ualit y .

TIT LE C ARD:

W ord s p rin te d o n a p age o r p ie ce o f c a rd board , p hoto gra phed, a nd e dit e d in to a film ( u su ally a s ile nt film ), c o nve yin g b it s o f d ia lo gue o r in fo rm atio n a bout lo ca tio n, tim e fr a m e, o r b acksto ry .

TR ACKIN G S H O T:

a m obile fr a m in g s h ot in w hic h th e c a m era m ove s fo rw ard , b ackw ard , o r la te ra lly ; a ls o c a lle d a dolly .

TR ANSIT IO NS:

A ny o f a n um ber o f m eth ods b y w hic h o ne s h ot is lin ke d to th e n ext; s e e cu t , dis so lv e , fa de-in a nd fa de-o ut , ir is -in a nd ir is -o ut , a nd wip e .

TR AVELIN G M ATTE :

m atte w ork th at c o nsis ts o f tw o s e para te ly s h ot m ovin g im ages th at are c o m bin ed in p ro ce ssin g; s e e blu escre en .

TW O-S H O T:

a s h ot in w hic h tw o p eople a ppear, u su ally in m ediu m d is ta nce o r c lo se r; tw osh ots a re d om in ate d s p atia lly b y tw o p eople , m akin g th em id eal fo r c o nve rs a tio ns.

UNDER CRANKIN G :

a s p ecia l e ffe ct c re ate d b y s lo w in g d ow n th e film a s it m ove s th ro ugh th e c a m era fr o m it s u su al 2 4 fr a m es p er s e co nd; w hen u nderc ra nke d fo ota ge is ru n th ro ugh a p ro je cto r— whic h s till o pera te s a t th e n orm al 2 4 fr a m es p er s e co nd— th e e ffe ct cre ate d is fa st m otio n; s e e ove rc ra nkin g .

VER TIC AL IN TE G RATIO N:

th e syste m of pro ductio n, dis tr ib utio n, and exh ib it io n th at ch ara cte riz e d Holly w ood’s stu dio syste m ; th e so -c a lle d stu dio s were esse ntia lly dis tr ib utio n a nd e xh ib it io n c o m panie s th at p ro vid ed th eir o w n p ro duct to d is tr ib ute a nd exh ib it , th ere by in te gra tin g th eir o pera tio ns in a th re e-tie re d, o r v e rtic a l, w ay.

VER TIC AL P A N:

s e e tilt .

VIS TA VIS IO N:

a w id escre en p ro ce ss d eve lo ped b y P ara m ount P ic tu re s in 1 953 a nd 1 954 to co m pete w it h 20th C entu ry -F ox’s C in em aS co pe; w hile C in em aS co pe’s fr a m es ra n ve rtic a lly o n th e c e llu lo id , V is ta V is io n’s fr a m es r a n h oriz o nta lly , w it h th e s p ro cke t h ole s o n th e to p a nd b otto m o f e ach fr a m e; m ost V is ta V is io n film s u se d m atte s o r m askin g to pro duce a sp ect r a tio s th at r a nged fr o m 1 .6 6:1 a nd 1 .8 5:1 to 2 :1 ; a fe w n ota ble V is ta V is io n film s a re J o hn F ord ’s The S earc h ers (1 956), S ta nle y D onen’s Funny F ace (1 957), a nd Alf r e d H it c h co ck’s Vertig o ( 1 958) a nd North b y N orth w est ( 1 959).

WID E-A NG LE L E N S:

a le ns w it h a w id e h oriz o nta l fie ld o f v ie w , th e o pposit e o f a te le photo le ns; w id e-a ngle le nse s h ave g re at depth o f fie ld , m eanin g th at o bje cts a t v a rio us d egre es of d is ta nce fr o m th e c a m era c a n r e m ain in fo cu s, w hile o nly o bje cts v e ry c lo se o r v e ry fa r aw ay fr o m th e c a m era a re b lu rry . S ee te le photo le ns a nd zo om .

215 WID ESC REEN :

a g enera l te rm fo r a ny o f th e p ro ce sse s th at y ie ld a n a sp ect r a tio w id er th an th e sta ndard Aca dem y ra tio of 1.3 7:1 ; th ese in clu de Cin em aS co pe, Cin era m a, Panavis io n, SuperP anavis io n 70, Tech nis co pe, Tech nir a m a, Todd-A O , Tohosco pe, Vis ta V is io n, a nd U lt r a P anavis io n 7 0; fo r a fe w n ota ble e xa m ple s, se e Cin em aS co pe , Panavis io n , a nd Vis ta -V is io n ; s e e a ls o Aca dem y r a tio .

WIP E:

a ty p e o f tr a nsit io n fr o m o ne s h ot to a noth er in w hic h th e s e co nd s h ot a ppears to push th e fir s t s h ot o ff th e s cre en; w ip es m ay ta ke th e fo rm o f a h oriz o nta l o r v e rtic a l lin e movin g a cro ss th e s cre en, o r th ey m ay ta ke g ra phic s h apes s u ch a s a sta r w ip e , a sp ir a l wip e , o r a n ir is w ip e .

WIR E R EM OVA L:

a C G I te ch niq ue in w hic h th e rig gin g c a ble s th at s u pport a cto rs w ho a re su sp ended in th e a ir a re d ig it a lly r e m ove d fr o m th e im age, th us m akin g it a ppear th at th e ch ara cte rs a re fly in g.

ZO OM :

a le ns w it h a v a ria ble fo ca l le ngth , m eanin g th at it s h if ts fr o m w id e-a ngle to te le photo and b ack; w it h a tr a ckin g s h ot, th e w hole c a m era m ove s, w here as w it h a z o om , o nly p arts of th e le ns m ove b ut th e c a m era it s e lf re m ain s in p la ce . S ee te le photo le ns a nd wid e- angle le ns .

216 A C KN O W LE D G M EN TS I a m p artic u la rly g ra te fu l to J o hn B elt o n, w ho h as ta ught m e, in sp ir e d m e, g uid ed m e, a nd c o rre cte d m y fa ctu al e rro rs fo r th ir ty y e ars . I a ls o e sp ecia lly th ank Ju re e S ondke r, m y fir s t edit o r, fo r in it ia tin g th is p ro je ct at C olu m bia U niv e rs it y Pre ss, and th e am azin g Je nnif e r C re w e, a sso cia te d ir e cto r a nd e dit o ria l d ir e cto r, w ho s a w it th ro ugh to c o m ple tio n, a s w ell a s M artin H in ze , th e b ook’s d esig ner; it s illu str a to r, V ic K ulih in ; A fu a A duse i- G onta rz , e xe cu tiv e e dit o ria l a ssis ta nt; a nd m y a ce c o pye dit o r R oy T hom as, s e nio r m anuscrip t e dit o r.

There w ere tim es w hen I w as stu ck; Adam O rm an and D an S ch ackm an h elp ed m e g et u nstu ck. M y s tu dents a t H ave rfo rd a nd C olo ra do C olle ge ta ught m e h ow to te ach ; th anks to a ll o f th em . I’m i n debte d to D avid B ord w ell a nd K ris tin T hom pso n, T im oth y C orrig an a nd P atr ic ia W hit e , Ir a K onig sb erg , J a m es M onaco , a nd th eir v a rio us i llu str a to rs . M y g ra tit u de a ls o g oes to C hris B ra m , G eorg e B utte , F lo yd C ase y, L iz H in le in , G re gor M eye r, M atth ew M ir a paul, W illia m P aul, J o hn S im ons, th e m any g ood p eople a t th e P LM P D fo ru m , a nd J o e S m it h , G eorg e R obin so n, a nd th e re st o f th e Ir a g uys. It w ould n’t b e a n h onest a ckn ow le dgm ents p age if I d id n’t th ank m y m oth er, B etty S ik o v. S pecia l th anks to m y a gent, E dw ard H ib bert. M ost o f a ll, I th ank B ru ce S ch ackm an fo r p uttin g u p w it h m y, u h, c re ativ e te m pera m ent.

217 I N DEX A ca dem y a pertu re .

See A ca dem y r a tio A ca dem y o f M otio n P ic tu re A rts a nd S cie nce s A ca dem y r a tio a ctin g, a naly zin g a nd w rit in g a bout, a ctin g s ty le s a ctio n film s T he A cto rs S tu dio T he A dve ntu re s o f S hark b oy a nd L ava gir l ( 2 005) A ld ric h , R obert:

Kis s M e D eadly ( 1 955) A lie n ( 1 979) A ll A bout E ve ( 1 950) A lle gheny U pris in g ( 1 939) A lt m an, R ic k A lt m an, R obert:

The L ong G oodbye ( 1 973) a m bie nt s o unds A m blin E nte rta in m ent A m eric a n C in em a ( S arris ) A m eric a n F ilm /A m eric a n C ult u re ( B elt o n) A m eric a n F ilm In stit u te C ata lo g o f M otio n P ic tu re s P ro duce d in th e U nit e d Sta te s ( A FI C ata lo g) A m eric a n G angste r ( 2 007) A m eric a n m onta ge A m eric a n O ptic a l C om pany, a m plit u de a nalo g r e co rd in g a nd e dit in g a naly sis in film s tu die s: o f a ctin g, o f a ttr ib utio n, o f c a m era m ove m ent, o f cin em ato gra phy, d is cu sse d, o f g enre , o f s ce ne-to -s ce ne e dit in g, o f s h ots , of s h ot- to -s h ot e dit in g, o f s o und, o f s p ecia l e ffe cts , o f s to ry a nam orp hic fr a m es a nam orp hic le ns A nders o n, P aul T hom as, Boogie N ig hts ( 1 997) A ngels a nd D em ons ( 2 009) a nim atio n a nim atio n c e ls A nis to n, J e nnif e r 218 Annie H all ( 1 977) Ansch utz , P hilip The A partm ent ( 1 960) A p ic tu re s Aris to tle The A rriv a l o f a T ra in a t L a C io ta t ( 1 895) art, film s a s art d ir e cto r.

See p ro ductio n d esig ner Arz n er, D oro th y, Chris to pher S tr o ng ( 1 933) asp ect r a tio : d epic te d, d is cu sse d, fo rm a nd m eanin g, See a ls o A ca dem y r a tio ; Cin em aS co pe; P anavis io n; V is ta V is io n; w id escre en p ro ce sse s The A ssa ssin atio n o f J e sse J a m es b y th e C ow ard R obert F ord ( 2 007) Astr u c, A le xa ndre asyn ch ro nous s o unds, See a ls o o ffs cre en s o und Atta ck o f th e K ille r T om ato es ( 1 978) attr ib utio n Audit io n ( 1 999) Auntie E m ( m ovie c h ara cte r) aura l s p ace aute uris m aute ur th eory auth ors h ip in film makin g ava nt- g ard e film s backlig ht backsta ge m usic a ls Back to th e F utu re III ( 1 990) Bad G uy ty p e Badla nds ( 1 973) Bale , C hris tia n Ball o f F ir e ( 1 941) Bard ot, B rig it te Barry m ore , D re w Barry m ore , J o hn base ( m otio n p ic tu re film ) base ball film s Batm an ( 1 989) Battle sh ip P ote m kin ( 1 925) Bazin , A ndré behin d th e c a m era s p ace Bein g J o hn M alk o vic h ( 1 999) 219 Bell L abs Belt o n, J o hn best b oy Big ger T han L if e ( 1 956) The B ig H eat ( 1 952) The B ig S le ep ( 1 946) bio pic s bir d ’s -e ye s h ots bla ck-a nd-w hit e c in em ato gra phy bla ck-a nd-w hit e n egativ e film s to ck bla ck-a nd-w hit e p rin t film s to ck bla ck c o m edie s The B la ir W it c h P ro je ct ( 1 999) bla xp lo it a tio n film s Blin d B east ( 1 969) blo ckin g Blo nde B om bsh ell ty p e blu escre en B m ovie s Body H eat ( 1 981) Boein g Bom bsh ell ( 1 933) Bond, J a m es ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Bong J o on-h o:

The H ost ( 2 006) Boogie N ig hts ( 1 997) boom boom o pera to rs Bord w ell, D avid Bourn e, J a so n ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Bourn e s e rie s ( ) Bra ndo, M arlo n Brid e o f C hucky ( 1 998) Brid e o f F ra nke nste in ( 1 935) Brid e o f th e M onste r ( 1 955) Brin gin g U p B aby ( 1 938) Bro ke back M ounta in ( 2 005) Bro ke n A rro w ( 1 950) Bro sn an, P ie rc e Bull D urh am ( 1 988) Burc h , N oël Busce m i, S te ve 220 B w este rn s Bye B ye B ir d ie ( 1 963) Caged ( 1 950) Caged H eat ( 1 974) Cagney, J a m es Cahie rs d u c in ém a ( jo urn al) ca m eo a ppeara nce s ca m era a ngle ca m era m ove m ent: a naly zin g, e dit in g w it h in th e s h ot, m obile fr a m in g, s p ace and m ove m ent, ty p es o f, w rit in g a bout ca m era o pera to rs ca m éra -s ty lo ca nte d a ngle s h ots .

See D utc h tilt s h ots Capote , T ru m an Capta in B lo od ( 1 934) Carre y, J im Casa bla nca ( 1 942) Case , A rth ur ( m ovie c h ara cte r) ca stin g a gain st ty p e ce llu lo id ce llu lo se a ce ta te ce llu lo se n it r a te CG .

See c o m pute r g ra phic s ( C G ); c o m pute r g ra phic s ( C G ) a rtis ts CG ( M asso n) CG I.

See c o m pute r-g enera te d im agery ( C G I) “C haiy ya , C haiy ya ,” Chandle r, R aym ond Channin g, M arg o ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Chaplin , C harle s, Cit y L ig hts ( 1 931) ch ara cte r a cto rs ch ara cte r in n arra tiv e Chase , D avid :

The S opra nos ( ) Cheye nne A utu m n ( 1 964) Chin ato w n ( 1 974) Chris to pher S tr o ng ( 1 933) ch ro m a k e y.

See b lu escre en Cin em aS co pe cin em ato gra phers cin em ato gra phy, a sp ect r a tio , b la ck, w hit e , g ra y, a nd c o lo r, d efin ed, film sto cks, le nse s, lig htin g, g enera lly , m otio n p ic tu re p hoto gra phy, th re e-p oin t 221 lig htin g Cin era m a: a sp ect r a tio , d is cu sse d, e xa m ple s o f, a s w id escre en p ro ce ss Cit iz e n K ane ( 1 941) Cit y L ig hts ( 1 931) cla pboard cla pper.

See s e co nd a ssis ta nt c a m era o pera to r Cla sh b y N ig ht ( 1 952) cla ssic a l H olly w ood s ty le , See a ls o c o ntin uit y e dit in g cla ssic a l u nit ie s A C lo ckw ork O ra nge ( 1 971) Clo oney, G eorg e Clo se , G le nn clo se -u ps Clo use au, J a cq ues, In sp ecto r ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Coen, J o el a nd E th an:

No C ountr y fo r O ld M en (2 007) Cohen, S ach a B aro n Cole , J a ck co lo r c in em ato gra phy co lo r n egativ e film s to ck co lo r p rin t film s to ck Colu m bia P ic tu re s co m bat film s co m edie s: b la ck c o m edie s, d is cu sse d, h orro r-c o m edie s, r o m antic c o m edie s, scre w ball c o m edie s Com pañero s ( 1 970) The C om ple te F ilm D ic tio nary ( K onig sb erg ) co m pose rs co m posit io n co m pute r g eeks co m pute r-g enera te d im agery ( C G I) co m pute r g ra phic s ( C G ) co m pute r g ra phic s ( C G ) a rtis ts co nflic t in n arra tiv e Connery , S ean The C onquero r ( 1 956) co ntin uit y e dit in g.

See a ls o e ye -lin e m atc h in g; g la nce -o bje ct m atc h in g; g ra phic matc h in g; m atc h in g o n a ctio n co ntr a st co nve ntio ns: d is cu sse d, in film n oir , in g enre s Corrig an, T im oth y co w boys-a nd-In dia ns m ovie s 222 Cra ig , D anie l cra ne s h ots Cra w fo rd , J o an cra w l Cric h to n, M ic h ael: Westw orld ( 1 973) crim e d ra m as cro sscu ttin g Cro uch in g T ig er, H id den D ra gon ( 2 000) Cru is e , T om Cru z, L uis Cuba, L arry Cuko r, G eorg e:

Gone w it h th e W in d ( 1 939), A S ta r is B orn ( 1 954) Cure ( 1 997) Curtiz , M ic h ael: Casa bla nca ( 1 942) cu t, d efin ed cu ttin g.

See a ls o e dit in g; m onta ge Dafo e, W ille m dailie s Dam on, M att DAR .

See D ig it a l A udio R eco rd er ( D AR ) Dariu s, C apta in ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Dark C it y ( 1 950) The D ark K nig ht ( 2 008) Dark m an ( 1 990) Dassin , J u le s:

The N ake d C it y ( 1 948) Davis , B ette DAW .

See d ig it a l a udio w ork sta tio n ( D AW ) Daw n o f th e D ead ( 1 979) The D aw n P atr o l ( 1 930) Dead A liv e ( 1 990) Dean, J a m es deep fo cu s Del M ar, E nnis ( m ovie c h ara cte r) DeM ille , C ecil B .:

The G re ate st S how o n E arth ( 1 952), Unco nquere d ( 1 947) De N ir o , R obert Depp, J o hnny depth o f fie ld desir e in n arra tiv e dia lo gue ( s o und o n film ) die gesis 223 die getic s o und.

See a ls o n ondie getic s o und die getic s p ace .

See a ls o n ondie getic s p ace Dig it a l A udio R eco rd er ( D AR ) dig it a l a udio w ork sta tio n ( D AW ) dig it a l r e co rd in g a nd e dit in g Din ner a t E ig ht ( 1 933) dir e cto r’s c u t dir e cto rs o f p hoto gra phy ( D Ps). S ee c in em ato gra phers dir e ct s o und Dis n ey, W alt :

The H unch back o f N otr e D am e dis so lv e s: d is cu sse d, s u perim posit io ns a nd dis ta nce Dja ngo ( 1 966) Dja ngo a nd S arta na a re C om in g: It’s th e E nd!

(1 970) D.O .A .

( 1 950) docu m enta rie s Dolb y, R ay Dolb y L abora to rie s Dolb y s yste m dolly .

See tr a ckin g s h ots Dom in ik , A ndre w :

The A ssa ssin atio n o f J e sse J a m es b y th e C ow ard R obert Ford ( 2 007) Donen, S ta nle y:

Funny F ace ( 1 957) Doro th y ( m ovie c h ara cte r).

See G ale , D oro th y Do th e R ig ht T hin g ( 1 989) Double In dem nit y ( 1 944) dra m as dra m atic u nit ie s Dre ye r, C arl T heodor:

The P assio n o f J o an o f A rc ( 1 928) Dr. S tr a ngelo ve : o r H ow I L earn ed to S to p W orry in g a nd L ove th e B om b (1 964) Dru m s A cro ss th e R iv e r ( 1 954) Dru m s A lo ng th e M ohaw k ( 1 939) Dum b a nd D um ber ( 1 994) Dutc h tilt s h ots Dye r, R ic h ard easte rn w este rn s Eastm an C olo r.

See b la ck-a nd-w hit e c in em ato gra phy Eastw ood, C lin t, Unfo rg iv e n ( 1 992) edit in g: c o ntin uit y e dit in g, d epic te d, d is cu sse d, K ule sh ov e xp erim ent, 224 monta ge, 1 80° s yste m , s h ot/r e ve rs e -s h ot p atte rn , tr a nsit io ns, w rit in g about, See a ls o c u ttin g edit in g in th e c a m era edit in g m atc h es edit in g w it h in th e s h ot Edw ard s, B la ke :

A S hot in th e D ark ( 1 964) Eis e nste in , S erg ei, Battle sh ip P ote m kin ( 1 925) em uls io n end c re dit s ( e nd tit le s) epis te m olo gic a l q uests , in film n oir Ete rn al S unsh in e o f th e S potle ss M in d ( 2 004) eth nic it y is su es in film s The E vil D ead ( 1 981) Ew ell, T om exp osu re in dex o f film s to ck extr a s extr e m e c lo se -u ps extr e m e lo ng s h ots eye -le ve l s h ots eye -lin e m atc h in g fa bula fa de-in fa de-o ut Fam ily P lo t ( 1 976) fa nta sy film s Fassb in der, R ain er W ern er fa st film Fata l A ttr a ctio n ( 1 987) Fellin i, F ederic o Fem me F ata le ( K ille r D am e) ty p e Fette r, W illia m Fig ht C lu b ( 1 999) fill lig ht film a ctin g film d ir e cto rs a s a uth ors The F ilm E xp erie nce ( C orrig an a nd W hit e ) film m agazin es ( c o nta in ers ) film make rs : a ttr ib utio n, a ute ur th eory , a uth ors h ip , d is cu sse d, p ro duce r’s r o le , te am work , w rit in g a bout film n oir : c o nve ntio ns, d epic te d, d is cu sse d, e xa m ple s o f, h is to ry o f, r o le o f 225 dia lo gue film ogra phy film s o und.

See s o und o n film film s p eed.

See e xp osu re in dex o f film s to ck film s to ck fin al c u t Fin ch er, D avid :

Fig ht C lu b ( 1 999) fir s t a ssis ta nt c a m era o pera to r fla sh backs fla sh fo rw ard s Fle m in g, V ic to r:

Gone w it h th e W in d ( 1 939) The W iz a rd o f O z ( 1 939) fo cu s p ull. See r a ck fo cu s s h ots fo cu s p ulle r.

See fir s t a ssis ta nt c a m era o pera to r Fole y a rtis ts Fole y w alk e rs Fonda, H enry Ford , G le nn Ford , J o hn, Dru m s A lo ng th e M ohaw k ( 1 939) The F ugit iv e ( 1 947), The Searc h ers ( 1 956) Sta geco ach ( 1 939) fo re sh adow in g fo rm Fort A pach e ( 1 948) Foste r, J o die fr a m e Fra zie r, D ete ctiv e K eit h ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Fre nch m onta ge Frid ay th e 1 3th ( 1 980) fr o nt p ro je ctio n The F ugit iv e ( 1 947) Fulle r, S am uel: Pic ku p o n S outh S tr e et ( 1 953) fu ll s h ots Funny F ace ( 1 957) gaffe rs Gale , D oro th y ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Gandolf in i, J a m es gangste r film s Garla nd, J u dy gauge, o f film s to ck gender is su es in film s The G enera l ( 1 927) 226 Genghis K han ( m ovie c h ara cte r) genre s: a naly zin g, c o nve ntio ns, r e petit io ns, a nd v a ria tio ns, d efin ed d is cu sse d, exa m ple s o f film n oir ( se e film n oir ); h orro r film s ( se e h orro r film s); se m antic /s yn ta tic a ppro ach , w este rn s ( se e w este rn s); w rit in g a bout Gentle m en P re fe r B lo ndes ( 1 953) Gew ir tz , R usse ll The G ir l C an’t H elp It ( 1 956) gla nce -o bje ct m atc h in g Godzilla v s. M oth ra ( 1 964) Gollu m ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Gondry , M ic h el: Ete rn al S unsh in e o f th e S potle ss M in d ( 2 004) Gone w it h th e W in d ( 1 939) The G ood, th e B ad, a nd th e U gly ( 1 966) Goodfe lla s ( 1 990) Good G uy ty p e Gra ham e, G lo ria Gra nt, C ary gra phic m atc h in g The G re ate st S how o n E arth ( 1 952) Grif fit h , D .W .

grip s Gulc h , M is s ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Hallo w een ( 1 978) Hallo w een s e rie s hand-h eld c a m era s hand-h eld s h ots Hanks, T om Hanso n, C urtis :

L.A . C onfid entia l ( 1 997) Harlo w , J e an Haw ks, H ow ard ; Ball o f F ir e ( 1 941) The B ig S le ep ( 1 946); Brin gin g U p B aby (1 938), The D aw n P atr o l ( 1 930) Gentle m en P re fe r B lo ndes ( 1 953); I W as a Male W ar B rid e ( 1 948) Red R iv e r ( 1 948), Rio B ra vo ( 1 959) Sca rfa ce (1 932); Serg eant Y ork ( 1 941) A S ong Is B orn ( 1 948) The T hin g fr o m Anoth er W orld ( 1 951) hearin g s o und Hepburn , K ath arin e Herz o g, W ern er, Rescu e D aw n ( 2 007) hig h-a ngle s h ots hig h k e y hig h-k e y lig htin g 227 Hit c h co ck, A lf r e d, Fam ily P lo t ( 1 976) North b y N orth w est ( 1 959) Noto rio us (1 946) The P le asu re Gard en ( 1 925) Psych o ( 1 960), Rear W in dow ( 1 954), Rebecca ( 1 940) Rope ( 1 948), Str a ngers o n a T ra in ( 1 951) Vertig o ( 1 958) The W ro ng M an ( 1 956) Hold en, W illia m horro r-c o m edie s horro r film s: d efin ed, e xa m ple s o f, s u bgenre s The H ost ( 2 006) How ard th e D uck ( 1 986) How th e W est W as W on ( 1 962) The H unch back o f N otr e D am e Husto n, J o hn:

The M alt e se F alc o n ( 1 941) im ages, w rit in g a bout im age tr a ck Im agin e E nte rta in m ent IM AX D om e The Im possib le V oya ge ( 1 904) In a L onely P la ce ( 1 950) In C old B lo od ( C apote ) In dia na J o nes a nd th e T em ple o f D oom ( 1 984) In sid e D ais y C lo ve r ( 1 965) In sid e M an ( 2 006) in te rm edia te film s to ck In te rn et M ovie D ata base ( im db.c o m ) in te rp osit iv e film s to ck in vis ib le e dit in g.

See c o ntin uit y e dit in g ir is e s ir is -in ir is -o ut I W as a M ale W ar B rid e ( 1 948) Ja ckie B ro w n ( 1 997) The J a ckie R obin so n S to ry ( 1 950) Ja ckso n, P ete r:

Lord o f th e R in gs tr ilo gy ( 2 001, 2 002, 2 003) Ja w s ( 1 975) The J a zz S in ger J-h orro r film s Jo hnsto n, J o anna Jo lie , A ngelin a 228 Jo ls o n, A l Kahn, M ic h ael Kam in ski, J a nusz Kane, C harle s F oste r ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Kaufm an, C harlie Kava naugh, L is a D ean Keato n, B uste r:

The G enera l ( 1 927) ke y lig ht Kille r D am e ( F em me F ata le ) ty p e Kis s M e D eadly ( 1 955) Kit s e s, J im Knocke d U p ( 2 007) Konig sb erg , Ir a Kubric k, S ta nle y:

A C lo ckw ork O ra nge ( 1 971), 2 001:

A S pace O dysse y ( 1 968) Kule sh ov, L ev Kule sh ov e xp erim ent Kutc h er, A sh to n L.A . C onfid entia l ( 1 997) LaM otta , J a ke LaM otta , J a ke ( m ovie c h ara cte r) la m ps Lang, F rit z :

The B ig H eat ( 1 952) Cla sh b y N ig ht ( 1 952) Sca rle t S tr e et ( 1 945) Lara C ro ft: T om b R aid er ( 2 001) L’a rro se ur a rro sé ( The S prin kle r S prin kle d , 1 895) Laura ( 1 944) Ledger, H eath Lee, A ng:

Bro ke back M ounta in ( 2 005) Cro uch in g T ig er, H id den D ra gon ( 2 000) Lee, S pik e , Do th e R ig ht T hin g ( 1 989), In sid e M an ( 2 006), Malc o lm X ( 1 992) Legally B lo nde ( 2 001) le nse s Leone, S erg io :

Once u pon a T im e in A m eric a ( 1 984) le tte rb oxin g le xic o nnin g lig htin g Lin kla te r, R ic h ard :

A S ca nner D ark ly ( 2 006) Wakin g L if e ( 2 001) Liu , L ucy lo ca tio n Lola M onte s ( 1 955) 229 The L ong G oodbye ( 1 973) lo ng s h ots lo ng ta ke s, d is cu sse d Lord o f th e R in gs tr ilo gy lo w -a ngle s h ots Low es th eate r c h ain lo w k e y lo w -k e y lig htin g Lubit s ch , E rn st:

The M erry W id ow ( 1 934) Luca s, G eorg e:

Sta r W ars ( 1 977) Luhrm an, B az, Rom eo + Ju lie t ( 1 996) Lum iè re , A uguste Lum iè re , L ouis , The A rriv a l o f a T ra in a t L a C io ta t ( 1 895) L’a rro se ur a rro sé ( The S prin kle r S prin kle d , 1 895) magazin es ( film c o nta in ers ) majo r s tu dio s, A m eric a n s tu dio s yste m make up, fo r s p ecia l e ffe cts Malc o lm X ( 1 992) Malic k, T erre nce :

Badla nds ( 1 973) The M alt e se F alc o n ( 1 941) Mam my ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Mancin i, H enry : “ T hem e fr o m A S hot in th e D ark ,” Mankie w ic z, H erm an Mankie w ic z, J o se ph:

All A bout E ve ( 1 950) Mansfie ld , J a yn e Man w it h a M ovie C am era ( 1 929) The M an w it h th e R ubber H ead ( 1 902) Marv e l, P ro fe sso r ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Marv in , L ee maskin g Massa ch use tts In stit u te o f T ech nolo gy ( M IT ) Masso n, T erre nce maste r s h ots matc h in g.

See e ye -lin e m atc h in g; g ra phic m atc h in g; m atc h in g o n a ctio n matc h in g o n a ctio n The M atr ix R elo aded ( 2 003) matte a rtis ts matte p ain tin gs matte s matte w ork 230 Maye r, L ouis B .

Mazu rk i, M ik e McD anie l, H attie McD onald , J e anette mech anic a l s p ecia l e ffe cts mediu m c lo se -u ps mediu m s h ots Méliè s, G eorg es :

The Im possib le V oya ge ( 1 904) The M an w it h th e R ubber Head ( 1 902) The M erm aid ( 1 904) A T rip to th e M oon ( 1 902) Leagues Under th e S ea ( 1 907) Un h om me d e tê te s ( The F our T ro uble so m e H eads , 1898) Merc u ry M an ( 2 006) The M erm aid ( 1 904) The M erry W id ow ( 1 934) Meth od a ctin g ( th e M eth od) Metr o -G old w yn -M aye r ( M GM ) Meye rs , M ic h ael ( m ovie c h ara cte r) MGM .

See M etr o -G old w yn -M aye r ( M GM ) Mid le r, B ette min or s tu dio s, A m eric a n s tu dio s yste m mis e -e n-s ce ne ( m is e -e n-s cè ne): a sp ect r a tio s c a m era a ngle , c o m posit io n, dis cu sse d, p erfo rm ance a s e le m ent o f, th e s h ot, s p ace a nd tim e o n film , su bje ct- c a m era d is ta nce Mis sio n: Im possib le II ( 2 000) Mit r y , J e an mix in g ( s o und) Miz o guch i, K enji mobile fr a m in g, See a ls o c ra ne; h and-h eld s h ots ; m ovin g s h ots ; p an; Ste adic a m ; tilt model b uild in g model m ake rs model s tu dent p aper monoch ro m atic .

See b la ck-a nd-w hit e c in em ato gra phy Monro e, M arily n monste r-a s-p sych otic -h um an m ovie s m onste r m ovie s monta ge Moore , R oger morp hin g motio n p ic tu re p hoto gra phy motiv a te d c a m era m ove m ents .

See a ls o u nm otiv a te d c a m era m ove m ents move m ent a nd s p ace o n film 231 movin g s h ots Mozh ukin , Iv a n Mullig an, R obert:

In sid e D ais y C lo ve r ( 1 965) Munny, B ill ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Murd er, M y S w eet ( 1 944) Murn au, F .W .

music ( s o und o n film ) music a ls The N ake d C it y ( 1 948) narra tiv e : a naly zin g c o nflic t, c h ara cte r, d esir e , a nd c o nflic t, d efin ed s ce nes and s e quence s, s to ry a nd p lo t, tr a nsit io ns fr o m s ce ne to s ce ne narra tiv e s tr u ctu re The N atu ra l ( 1 984) natu ra lis m negativ e film neo-n oir s New s C orp .

New to n, T handie Nic h ols o n, J a ck Nie ls e n, L eslie Nig ht o f th e D ay o f th e D aw n o f th e S on o f th e B rid e o f th e R etu rn o f th e Reve nge o f th e T erro r o f th e A tta ck o f th e E vil, M uta nt, H ellb ound, Fle sh E atin g S ubhum anoid Z om bif ie d L iv in g D ead, P art 3 ( 2 005) Nig ht o f th e L iv in g D ead ( 1 968) No C ountr y fo r O ld M en ( 2 007) Nola n, C hris to pher:

The D ark K nig ht ( 2 008) nondie getic s o und.

See a ls o d ie getic s o und nondie getic s p ace .

See a ls o d ie getic s p ace non-le tte rb oxe d im ages nonsyn ch ro niz e d s o und North b y N orth w est ( 1 959) Norto n, E dw ard Noto rio us ( 1 946) No W ay O ut ( 1 950) Obliv io n ( 1 994) offs cre en s o und offs cre en s p ace OM NIM AX s yste m 232 Once u pon a T im e in A m eric a ( 1 984) 180° s yste m One-E ye d J a cks ( 1 961) On th e W ate rfr o nt ( 1 954) Ophüls , M ax, Lola M onte s ( 1 955) optic a l s p ecia l e ffe cts optio n The O utla w J o se y W ale s ( 1 976) Out o f th e P ast ( 1 947) ove rc ra nkin g, See a ls o u nderc ra nkin g Owen, C liv e Palt r o w , G wyn eth pan Panavis io n.

See a ls o a nam orp hic le ns Panic in th e S tr e ets ( 1 950) Para m ount P ic tu re s Park s, G ord on:

Shaft ( 1 971) Parto n, D olly The P assio n o f J o an o f A rc ( 1 928) Path é Pearc e , C ra ig perfo rm ance : a ctin g s ty le s, a s e le m ent o f m is e -e n-s ce ne, film a ctin g dis tin guis h ed fr o m s ta ge a ctin g, p ublic it y a nd, s ta rs a nd c h ara cte r a cto rs , ty p e a nd s te re oty p e, w om en a s ty p es Perm uta tio ns ( 1 968) pers o na phase Phone B ooth ( 2 003) physio gnom y Pic ku p o n S outh S tr e et ( 1 953) Pillo w T alk ( 1 959) Pir a te s o f th e C arib bean s e rie s ( 2 003, 2 006, 2 007) pit c h Pit t, B ra d pix ila tio n The P le asu re G ard en ( 1 925) plo t: d is cu sse d d is tin guis h ed fr o m s to ry Plu m mer, C hris to pher Poetic s ( A ris to tle ) Pola nski, R om an:

Chin ato w n ( 1 974) 233 polit iq ue d es a ueurs posit iv e p rin t postp ro ductio n Pow ell, D ic k Pre m in ger, O tto :

Laura ( 1 944), Riv e r o f N o R etu rn ( 1 954) Pro cru ste s pro duce rs ’ r o le in film makin g pro ductio n d esig ner pro ps m aste r Psych o ( 1 960) public it y public it y s till Pudovkin , V se vo lo d Pulp F ic tio n ( 1 994) pyro te ch nic s Quasim odo ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Rabin ow it z , J a kie ( J a ck R obin ) ( m ovie c h ara cte r) ra cia l is su es in film s ra ck fo cu s s h ots ra dio m ic ro phones Ragin g B ull ( 1 980) Rata to uille ( 2 007) Ray, N ic h ola s:

Big ger T han L if e ( 1 956) Rebel w it h out a C ause ( 1 955) Ray, S aty a jit re al tim e re ar p ro je ctio n Rear W in dow ( 1 954) Rebecca ( 1 940) Rebel w it h out a C ause ( 1 955) Red R iv e r ( 1 948) re el tim e re fle cte d s o und re fle cto rs re fr a m in g Regal C in em as Renoir , J e an re petit io n re pre se nta tio n 234 Rescu e D aw n ( 2 007) Rese rv o ir D ogs ( 1 992) re ta ke s re ve rs e a ngle .

See s h ot/r e ve rs e -s h ot p atte rn Rham es, V in g Rio B ra vo ( 1 959) Riv e r o f N o R etu rn ( 1 954) RKO The R obe ( 1 953) Roberts , J u lia Robin , J a ck ( J a kie R abin ow it z ) ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Rodat, R obert Rom ance & C ig are tte s ( 2 005) ro m antic c o m edie s Rom eo + Ju lie t ( 1 996) Rom ero , G eorg e:

Daw n o f th e D ead ( 1 979) Nig ht o f th e L iv in g D ead ( 1 968) ro om to ne Rope ( 1 948) ro to sco pe a rtis ts ro to sco pin g ro ugh c u t Rule , J a ru sh es.

See d ailie s Russe ll, D alt o n ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Russe ll, J a ne Russia n F orm alis m Sanders , T om Sarris , A ndre w Savin g P riv a te R ya n ( 1 998) A S ca nner D ark ly ( 2 006) Sca rfa ce ( 1 932) Sca rle t S tr e et ( 1 945) Sca ry M ovie ( 2 003) sce nes.

See a ls o s e quence s sce ne-to -s ce ne e dit in g scie nce fic tio n film s scie nce fic tio n w este rn s sco re ( m usic a l a cco m panim ents ) Sco rs e se , M artin , Goodfe lla s ( 1 990) Ragin g B ull ( 1 980) scre enpla ys: n arra tiv e s tr u ctu re , s a m ple s, s cre enw rit in g, s e gm enta tio n 235 scre enw rit e rs scre enw rit in g scre w ball c o m edie s The S earc h ers ( 1 956) se co nd a ssis ta nt c a m era o pera to r se gm enta tio n: d efin ed d epic te d, d is cu sse d, e xa m ple s, fo rm , m eanin g, w rit in g about Selle rs , P ete r Selz n ic k, D avid O ., Gone w it h th e W in d ( 1 939) se m antic s tu dy o f film g enre s se quence s.

See a ls o s ce nes se quence s h ots Serg eant Y ork ( 1 941) se t d eco ra to rs se ts se xu al is su es in film s Shaft ( 1 971) Shaun o f th e D ead ( 2 004) Shaw , R obert sh otg un m ic ro phones A S hot in th e D ark ( 1 964) sh ot/r e ve rs e -s h ot p atte rn sh ots sh ot- to -s h ot e dit in g Sid ney, G eorg e:

Bye B ye B ir d ie ( 1 963) The S ile nce o f th e L am bs ( 1 991) sile nt film s Skyw alk e r, L uke ( m ovie c h ara cte r) sla sh er film s slo w film A S ong Is B orn ( 1 948) Sony The S opra nos ( 1 999–2007) so und b rid ges so und c re w so und e ffe cts so und m ix e rs The S ound o f M usic ( 1 965) so und o n d is c so und o n film : a naly tic a l c a te gorie s o f, a naly zin g, h is to ry o f, r e co rd in g, re re co rd in g, e dit in g, a nd m ix in g, s p ace a nd, w rit in g a bout 236 so und o n film s yste m so und p ers p ectiv e so und r e co rd is t so undtr a cks.

See a ls o im age tr a ck Sovie t c in em a Kule sh ov e xp erim ent sp ace o n film sp aghetti w este rn s sp ecia l e ffe cts : a naly zin g, c o m pute rg enera te d im agery ( C G I) , d efin ed depic te d d is cu sse d, m ech anic a l s p ecia l e ffe cts , o ptic a l s p ecia l e ffe cts writ in g a bout Spid er-M an ( 2 002) Spie lb erg , S te ve n, Ja w s ( 1 975) Savin g P riv a te R ya n ( 1 998) sp la tte r film s: c o nve ntio ns in e xa m ple s o f, u se o f m ake up fo r s p ecia l e ffe cts sta ge a ctin g Sta geco ach ( 1 939) Sta nis la vsky, K onsta ntin Sta nw yck, B arb ara A S ta r is B orn ( 1 954) sta rs ( a cto rs ) Sta rs ( D ye r) Sta r T re k II: T he W ra th o f K han ( 1 982) Sta r W ars ( 1 977) sta r w ip e Ste adic a m ste re oty p e Ste w art, J a m es Stille r, B en sto ry : a naly zin g, d is cu sse d d is tin guis h ed fr o m p lo t, w rit in g a bout.

See a ls o fa bula Str a ngers o n a T ra in ( 1 951) Str a sb erg , L ee Str e ep, M ery l A S tr e etc a r N am ed D esir e ( 1 951) stu dio s yste m .

See a ls o v e rtic a l in te gra tio n su bgenre su bje ct- c a m era d is ta nce Sunse t B oule va rd ( 1 950) su perim posit io ns: d is cu sse d, d is so lv e s a nd Superm an ( 1 978) SuperP anavis io n 237 su sp ense film s Sw eet S w eetb ack’s B aadasssss S ong ( 1 971) syn ch ro niz e d s o und syn ch ro niz e d s o und film syn ta tic s tu dy o f film g enre s syu zh et, See a ls o p lo t ta ke s.

See a ls o r e ta ke s ta lk ie s ( ta lk in g p ic tu re s) Tara ntin o, Q uentin :

Ja ckie B ro w n ( 1 997) Pulp F ic tio n ( 1 994) Rese rv o ir D ogs (1 992) Tash lin , F ra nk:

The G ir l C an’t H elp It ( 1 956) te am work in film makin g Tech nic o lo r Tech nir a m a Tech nis co pe te le photo le ns.

See a ls o w id e-a ngle le ns; z o om te le vis io n The T erro r o f T in y T ow n ( 1 938) Thalb erg , Ir v in g The T hin g fr o m A noth er W orld ( 1 951) This Is C in era m a ( 1 952) th re e-a ct s tr u ctu re th re e-p oin t lig htin g th re e-q uarte r s h ots th re e-s h ots th rille rs tilt tim bre tim e a nd s p ace o n film tin tin g tit le c a rd s Todd, M ik e Todd-A O Tohosco pe Tola nd, G re gg to ne q ualit y .

See tim bre to nin g to p lig htin g Toto ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Touch o f E vil ( 1 958) 238 Tourn eur, J a cq ues:

Out o f th e P ast ( 1 947) tr a ckin g s h ots tr a in w re cks ( s p ecia l e ffe cts ) tr a nsit io ns.

See a ls o c u t; d is so lv e s; fa de-in ; fa de-o ut; ir is -in ; ir is o ut; w ip e tr a ve lin g m atte s.

See a ls o b lu escre en A T rip to th e M oon ( 1 902) Tru ffa ut, F ra nço is Turn er, K ath le en Turtu rro , J o hn:

Rom ance & C ig are tte s ( 2 005) 20th C entu ry -F ox Tw entie th C entu ry ( 1 934) Leagues U nder th e S ea ( 1 907) A S pace O dysse y ( 1 968) tw o-s h ots ty p e UA.

See U nit e d A rtis ts ( U A) Ult r a m an ( 2 004) Ult r a P anavis io n Unco nquere d ( 1 947) underc ra nkin g.

See a ls o o ve rc ra nkin g Unfo rg iv e n ( 1 992) Un h om me d e tê te s ( The F our T ro uble so m e H eads ) Unit e d A rtis ts ( U A) Unit e d S ta te s v . P ara m ount P ic tu re s e t a l.

Univ e rs a l S tu dio s unm otiv a te d c a m era m ove m ents , See a ls o m otiv a te d c a m era m ove m ents Van D ore n, M am ie Van P eeble s, M elv in :

Sw eet S w eetb ack’s B aadasssss S ong ( 1 971) va ria tio n in g enre s va rif o ca l le nse s ve ngence w este rn s ve rtic a l in te gra tio n ve rtic a l p an.

See tilt Vertig o ( 1 958) Verto v, D zig a, Man w it h a M ovie C am era ( 1 929) Vis ta V is io n: a sp ect r a tio , d is cu sse d e xa m ple s o f a s w id escre en p ro ce ss vo ic e -o ve r ( V O ) vo lu m e.

See a m plit u de 239 Wahlb erg , M ark Wakin g L if e ( 2 001) Wald en M edia Wallis , H al B .

Warn er B ro s., The J a zz S in ger Wash in gto n, D enze l Wayn e, J o hn Wayn e’s W orld ( 1 992) Wells , O rs o n Cit iz e n K ane ( 1 941) Touch o f E vil ( 1 958) weste rn s: c o nve ntio ns in , d efin ed, e xa m ple s o f, r o le o f d ia lo gue s u bgenre s Westw orld ( 1 973) When H arry M et S ally ( 1 989) Where D anger L iv e s ( 1 950) Where th e S id ew alk E nds ( 1 950) Whit e , M adele in e ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Whit e , P atr ic ia Whit e C hris tm as ( 1 954) Whit n ey, J o hn S r.

Perm uta tio ns ( 1 968) Wic ke d W it c h o f th e W est ( m ovie c h ara cte r) wid e-a ngle le ns, See a ls o te le photo le ns; z o om wid escre en p ro ce sse s, See a ls o A ca dem y r a tio ; C in em aS co pe; P anavis io n; Vis ta V is io n Wild er, B illy ; The A partm ent ( 1 960) Double In dem nit y ( 1 944) Sunse t Boule va rd ( 1 950) Willia m s, J o hn Willo w ( 1 988) wip e wir e r e m ova l Wit h ers p oon, R eese The W iz a rd o f O z ( 1 939) Wiz a rd o f O z ( m ovie c h ara cte r) wom en a s ty p es Wom en’s P ris o n ( 1 955) wom en’s p ris o n m ovie s The W onderfu l W orld o f th e B ro th ers G rim m ( 1 962) Wong K ar-W ai: ( 2 004) Woo, J o hn:

Mis sio n: Im possib le II ( 2 000) Wood, R obin Wood, S am :

Gone w it h th e W in d ( 1 939) Woodw ard , J o anne 240 world vie w s o f d ir e cto rs writ in g tip s: o n a ctin g, o n c a m era m ove m ent, o n c in em ato gra phy o n d ir e cto rs , on e dit in g o n g enre , o n im ages m odel s tu dent p aper, o n n arra tiv e str u ctu re , o n s o und a nd s o undtr a cks, o n s p ecia l e ffe cts , o n w rit in g ( s to ry se gm enta tio n) The W ro ng M an ( 1 956) York , K ir b y, C apta in ( m ovie c h ara cte r) Young F ra nke nste in ( 1 974) zo om , See a ls o te le photo le ns; w id e-a ngle le ns zo om le ns 241 F IL M A ND C ULTU RE A S ER IE S O F C O LU M BIA U NIV ER SIT Y P R ESS E dit e d b y J o hn B elt o n W hat M ade P is ta ch io N uts ? E arly S ound C om edy a nd th e V audeville A esth etic HEN R Y J E N KIN S S how sto ppers : B usb y B erk e le y a nd th e T ra dit io n o f S pecta cle MAR T IN R UBIN P ro je ctio ns o f W ar: H olly w ood, A m eric a n C ult u re , a nd W orld W ar II TH O M AS D O HER TY L aughin g S cre am in g: M odern H olly w ood H orro r a nd C om edy WIL LIA M P A UL L aughin g H yste ric a lly : A m eric a n S cre en C om edy o f th e 1 950s ED S IK O V P rim it iv e Passio ns: Vis u alit y , Sexu alit y , Eth nogra phy, and C onte m pora ry C hin ese C in em a REY C HO W T he C in em a of M ax O phuls : M agis te ria l V is io n and th e F ig ure of W om an SU SA N M . W HIT E B la ck W om en a s C ult u ra l R eaders JA CQ UELIN E B O BO P ic tu rin g Ja panese ness: Monum enta l Sty le , Natio nal Id entit y , J a panese F ilm DARRELL W IL LIA M D AVIS 242 Atta ck o f th e L eadin g L adie s: G ender, S exu alit y , a nd S pecta to rs h ip in Cla ssic H orro r C in em a RHO NA J . B ER EN STE IN This M ad M asq uera de: S ta rd om a nd M ascu lin it y in th e J a zz A ge GAYLY N S TU DLA R Sexu al P olit ic s a nd N arra tiv e F ilm : H olly w ood a nd B eyo nd RO BIN W OOD The S ounds o f C om merc e : M ark e tin g P opula r F ilm M usic JE FF S M IT H Ors o n W elle s, S hake sp eare , a nd P opula r C ult u re MIC HAEL A NDER EG G Pre -C ode H olly w ood: S ex, Im mora lit y , a nd In su rre ctio n in A m eric a n Cin em a, 1 930 – 1934 TH O M AS D O HER TY Sound Tech nolo gy and th e Am eric a n Cin em a: Perc e ptio n, Repre se nta tio n, M odern it y JA M ES L A STR A Melo dra m a a nd M odern it y : E arly S ensa tio nal C in em a a nd Its C onte xts BEN S IN G ER Wondro us D if fe re nce : C in em a, A nth ro polo gy, a nd T urn -o f- th e-C entu ry Vis u al C ult u re ALIS O N G RIF FIT H S Hears t O ve r H olly w ood: P ow er, P assio n, and P ro paganda in th e Movie s LO UIS P IZ ZIT O LA Mascu lin e In te re sts : H om oero tic s in H olly w ood F ilm RO BER T L A NG 243 Specia l E ffe cts : S till in S earc h o f W onder MIC HELE P IE R SO N Desig nin g W om en: C in em a, A rt D eco , a nd th e F em ale F orm LU CY F IS C HER Cold W ar, C ool M ediu m : Tele vis io n, M cC arth yis m , and A m eric a n Cult u re TH O M AS D O HER TY Kath arin e H epburn : S ta r a s F em in is t ANDREW B RIT TO N Sile nt F ilm S ound RIC K A LTM AN Hom e in H olly w ood: T he Im agin ary G eogra phy o f H olly w ood ELIS A BETH B RO NFE N Holly w ood a nd th e C ult u re E lit e : H ow th e M ovie s B eca m e A m eric a n PETE R D EC HER NEY Taiw an F ilm D ir e cto rs : A T re asu re Is la nd EM IL IE Y U EH -Y U Y EH A ND D ARRELL W IL LIA M D AVIS Shockin g R epre se nta tio n: H is to ric a l T ra um a, N atio nal C in em a, a nd th e M odern H orro r F ilm ADAM L O W EN STE IN Chin a o n S cre en: C in em a a nd N atio n CHRIS B ER RY A ND M ARY F A RQ UHAR The N ew E uro pean C in em a: R edra w in g th e M ap RO SA LIN D G ALT Georg e G allu p in H olly w ood SU SA N O HM ER 244 Ele ctr ic S ounds: T ech nolo gic a l C hange a nd th e R is e o f C orp ora te Mass M edia STE VE J . W URTZLE R The Im possib le D avid L yn ch TO DD M CG OW AN Sentim enta l F abula tio ns, C onte m pora ry C hin ese F ilm s: A tta ch m ent in th e A ge o f G lo bal V is ib ilit y REY C HO W Hit c h co ck ’ s R om antic Ir o ny RIC HARD A LLE N In te llig ence W ork : T he P olit ic s o f A m eric a n D ocu m enta ry JO NATH AN K AHANA Eye o f th e C entu ry : F ilm , E xp erie nce , M odern it y FR ANCESC O C ASETTI Shiv e rs D ow n Y our S pin e: C in em a, M use um s, a nd th e Im mers iv e Vie w ALIS O N G RIF FIT H S Weim ar C in em a: A n E sse ntia l G uid e to C la ssic F ilm s o f th e E ra NO AH IS EN BER G Afr ic a n F ilm a nd L it e ra tu re : A daptin g V io le nce to th e S cre en LIN DIW E D O VEY Film , A S ound A rt MIC HEL C HIO N Holly w ood L ig htin g fr o m th e S ile nt E ra to F ilm N oir PA TR IC K K EA TIN G Levin as and th e C in em a of R edem ptio n: Tim e, Eth ic s, and th e Fem in in e SA M B . G IR G US 245