JST204 - Young People and CrimeAssessment 1:Length: 1,500 wordsRationaleThis assessment task will assess the following learning outcome/s: be able to provide a general overview of the statutory frame

1 2 3

F ir s t p ublis h ed i n 2 011

C opyrig ht © C ath erin e M cD onald , C hris tin e C ra ik , L in ette H aw kin s a n d J u dy W illia m s 2 011

A ll r ig hts r e se rv ed . N o p art o f t h is b ook m ay b e r e p ro duced o r t r a n sm itte d i n a n y f o rm o r b y

a n y m ean s, e le ctr o nic o r m ech an ic al, i n clu din g p hoto co pyin g, r e co rd in g o r b y a n y

i n fo rm atio n s to ra g e a n d r e tr ie v al s y ste m , w ith out p rio r p erm is sio n i n w ritin g f ro m t h e

p ublis h er. T he A ustr a lia n

Copyrig ht A ct 1 968

( th e A ct) a llo w s a m ax im um o f o ne c h ap te r o r

1 0 p er c en t o f t h is b ook, w hic h ev er i s t h e g re ate r, t o b e p hoto co pie d b y a n y e d ucatio nal

i n stitu tio n f o r i ts e d ucatio nal p urp ose s p ro vid ed t h at t h e e d ucatio nal i n stitu tio n ( o r b ody t h at

a d m in is te rs i t) h as g iv en a r e m unera tio n n otic e t o C opyrig ht A gen cy L im ite d ( C A L) u nder

t h e A ct.

A lle n & U nw in

8 3 A le x an der S tr e et

C ro w s N est N SW 2 065

A ustr a lia

P hone:

( 6 1 2 ) 8 425 0 100

F ax :

( 6 1 2 ) 9 906 2 218

E m ail:

in fo @ alle n an dunw in .c o m

W eb :

www.a lle n an dunw in .c o m

C ata lo guin g-in -P ublic atio n d eta ils a re a v aila b le f ro m t h e N atio nal L ib ra ry o f A ustr a lia

w ww.l ib ra rie sa u str a lia .n la .g ov.a u

I S B N 9 78 1 7423 7 039 2

e IS B N 9 78 1 7426 9 322 4

I n te rn al d esig n b y E m ily O ’N eill

T ypese t b y P ost P re -p re ss G ro up, A ustr a lia

4 W e d ed ic ate t h is b ook f ir s t, t o a ll t h e p ast, p re se n t a n d f u tu re s o cia l w ork a n d h um an s e rv ic e

stu den ts w e h av e h ad t h e p riv ile g e t o t e ach ; a n d s e co nd, t o a ll o f t h e w onderfu l s o cia l

work ers w ho o ffe r f ie ld -b ase d e d ucatio nal e x perie n ces f o r o ur s tu den ts .

C O NTEN TS

L is t o f t a b le s

I n tr o ductio n

C H APT ER O NE

U nders ta n din g o rg an is a tio ns

C H APT ER T W O

L ead ers h ip i n h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns

C H APT ER T H REE

S co pin g t h e c o nte x t

C H APT ER F O UR

R eco rd in g a n d r e p ort- w ritin g

C H APT ER F IV E

I n fo rm atio n d ev elo pm en t a n d m an ag em en t i n h um an s e rv ic e

org an is a tio ns

C H APT ER S IX

B uild in g a n d m ain ta in in g p ro fe ssio nal r e la tio ns

C H APT ER S E V EN

S uperv is io n a n d s u pport

C H APT ER E IG HT

M an ag in g c o nflic t

C H APT ER N IN E

P ow er a n d a d vocacy

C H APT ER T EN

A dm in is tr a tiv e e th ic s i n h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns

C H APT ER E LEV EN

P re p arin g f o r a n d d ealin g w ith c o m pla in ts

C H APT ER T W ELV E

P ro fe ssio nal e th ic s a n d e th ic al r e aso nin g

R efe re n ces

L IS T O F T A BLES

T ab le 1 .1 :

C hara cte ris tic s o f o rg an is a tio ns

T ab le 1 .2 :

C ore s ta n dard s s u m mary

T ab le 4 .1 :

P ro cess r e co rd in g s h eet

T ab le 4 .2 :

C ase r e co rd s

T ab le 5 .1 :

I d en tif y in g r e le v an t c ate g orie s o f e x te rn al i n fo rm atio n, p art 1

T ab le 5 .2 :

I d en tif y in g r e le v an t c ate g orie s o f i n te rn al i n fo rm atio n, p art 2

T ab le 5 .3 :

S erv ic e t y pe

T ab le 8 .1 :

P hase s o f i n te ra ctio n

T ab le 8 .2 :

S ourc es o f c o nflic t

T ab le 8 .3 :

S ta g es i n m ed ia tio n

T ab le 1 0.1 :

S erv ic e a ctio ns

T ab le 1 0.2 :

M an ag in g p riv acy b re ach es

T ab le 1 1.1 :

C en tr a l t h em es i n d ual r e la tio nsh ip s

I N TR O DUCTIO N

T he h um an s e rv ic es f ie ld c o nstitu te s a l a rg e a n d g ro w in g i n dustr y o f i n cre asin g s ig nif ic an ce

i n t h e t w en ty -fir s t c en tu ry . C urre n tly , i t i s t h e s e co nd f a ste st- g ro w in g i n dustr y i n

c o nte m pora ry A ustr a lia ( H ealy a n d L onne, 2 009). I t i s a ls o a n i n dustr y w ith a r a n ge o f

v ocatio nal r o le s a n d w id ely v ary in g l e v els o f q ualif ic atio ns. I n g en era l, t h e p re -s e rv ic e

e d ucatio n o f p eo ple w ork in g i n t h at p art o f t h e h um an s e rv ic es k now n a s t h e ‘ c o m munity

s e cto r’ i s m ix ed . O fte n

, p eo ple a re w ork in g i n t h e s e cto r w ith out p ost- s c h ool v ocatio nal

e d ucatio n o r u niv ers ity q ualif ic atio ns ( M eag her a n d H ealy , 2 006; M cD onald , 1 999). A s s u ch ,

m an y p eo ple l e arn ( o r f a il t o l e arn ) h ow t o g o a b out h um an s e rv ic e w ork ‘ o n t h e j o b’.

In a d ditio n t o m ak in g e m plo yees’ e arly w ork in g c are ers i n t h e f ie ld v ery h ard , t h is

s itu atio n c re ate s c o nsid era b le t r a n sa ctio n c o sts f o r e m plo yers . F urth erm ore , l e arn in g ‘ o n t h e

j o b’ i n ev ita b ly c re ate s w ork ers a ttu ned t o t h e s p ecif ic p ra ctic es— eith er g ood o r b ad —

p re v ailin g i n t h e o rg an is a tio n t h at e m plo ys t h em , i r re sp ectiv e o f w heth er t h ese a re t h e m ost

a p pro pria te o r e ffe ctiv e f o rm s o r m odes o f p ra ctic e f o r t h e p re se n tin g i s su es t o w hic h t h e

o rg an is a tio n i s a tte m ptin g t o r e sp ond. S om e h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns h av e w ell-

d ev elo ped p ra ctic es f o r m an ag in g t h e v olu m e, s c o pe, c h alle n ges a n d v arie ty o f w ork , w hile

o th ers d o n ot. O fte n t h is i s a f u nctio n o f s iz e a n d a g e. I n cre asin gly , i t i s a ls o a f u nctio n o f t h e

f u ndin g j u ris d ic tio n t o w hic h a n o rg an is a tio n i s o rie n te d .

Org an is a tio ns f u nded b y g overn m en ts a re r e q uir e d t o d em onstr a te c o nfo rm ity t o h ig h

s ta n dard s o f o pera tio ns i n r e la tio n t o a d m in is tr a tiv e s y ste m s, i n fo rm atio n-m an ag em en t

s y ste m s, o rg an is a tio nal p ra ctic es, a n d s o f o rth . I n s o m e A ustr a lia n s ta te s, f u nded

o rg an is a tio ns— eith er c u rre n tly o r i n t h e n ear f u tu re — will b e s u bje ct t o f o rm al a u dit o f t h ese

b y s ta te g overn m en ts . T his b ook i s d esig ned t o a ssis t f u tu re w ork ers i n p artic u la r t o b oth

u nders ta n d t h e i m porta n ce o f p ro fe ssio nalis m i n o rg an is a tio nal p ra ctic es a n d t o d ev elo p

e x celle n ce i n p ra ctic e s ta n dard s w ith in h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns e n gag ed i n h um an

s e rv ic es d eliv ery .

Furth erm ore — partly a s a c o nse q uen ce o f t h e i n cre ase d p re ssu re s o n w ork ers a n d

o rg an is a tio ns a ris in g f ro m t h e d esta b ilis a tio n o f t h e w elf a re s ta te a n d t h e i n cre ase d p re ssu re s

o n h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns a n d t h eir w ork fo rc e t o c o nfo rm t o f u ndin g b odie s’

c o ntr a ctu al r e q uir e m en ts — what w ork ers d o o n a d aily b asis i s i n cre asin gly p re sc rib ed b y

d riv es f o r e ffic ie n cy a n d c o nstr a in ed n otio ns o f e ffe ctiv en ess. I n t h ese c o nte x ts , w hat m ig ht

o nce h av e b een c o nsid ere d c o re a ctiv itie s i n t h e d eliv ery o f s e rv ic es h av e c o ntr a cte d t o

‘ d eliv era b le s’ c o uch ed i n t e rm s o f k ey p erfo rm an ce i n dic ato rs ( M cD onald , 2 006; H arris ,

2 003).

Tra n sa ctio n c o sts :

T he e x pen se t o a n o rg an is a tio n o r i n div id ual t h at i s i n cu rre d b y u nderta k in g a n

activ ity w hic h i s n ot r e co gnis e d o r c o m pen sa te d .

Audit:

A p ro cess w here in t h e a ctiv itie s o f a n o rg an is a tio n o r a n i n div id ual a re c lo se ly s c ru tin is e d .

8 Deliv era ble s o r k ey p erfo rm an ce i n dic a to rs:

N om in ate d o utc o m es o f t h e a ctiv itie s o f a n

org an is a tio n o r i n div id ual a s a g re ed i n a c o ntr a ct.

In te rv en tio n s k ills :

S kills u se d i n h um an s e rv ic e w ork s u ch a s c ase w ork , c o unse llin g, c ase

man ag em en t, g ro up w ork , c o m munity w ork a n d s o cia l p la n nin g.

Work ers — both q ualif ie d a n d u nqualif ie d — will t h ere fo re b e e n co ura g ed t o a p ply c o re s e ts o f

pra ctic es c en tr a lly i m plic ate d i n e ffe ctiv e s e rv ic e d eliv ery — pra ctic es t h at a re b oth q uite

pra ctic al i n n atu re a n d t r a n sfe ra b le a cro ss v ir tu ally a ll o rg an is a tio nal c o nte x ts . F urth erm ore ,

man y e n tr a n ts t o t h e h um an s e rv ic es h av e l ittle e x perie n ce o f w ork in g i n o rg an is a tio nal

co nte x ts t h em se lv es. T he f ir s t s e ctio n o f t h e b ook ( C hap te rs 1 a n d 2 ) o rie n ts t h e r e ad er t o

th ese c o nte x ts a n d e x plo re s t h e c h ara cte ris tic s a n d p ecu lia ritie s o f w ork in g i n h um an s e rv ic e

org an is a tio ns a n d i n n on-p ro fit o rg an is a tio ns. C hap te rs 3 , 4 a n d 5 a d dre ss c o re g en eric

pra ctic es t h at a ll w ork ers n eed t o a d opt, s u ch a s s c o pin g t h e c o nte x t, w ritin g a n d r e co rd in g,

work in g w ith i n fo rm atio n a n d w ork in g a cro ss c u ltu ra l a n d l in guis tic d if fe re n ces.

This b ook a ls o a ck now le d ges t h at h um an s e rv ic e w ork i n volv es w ork in g w ith a n d t h ro ugh

in tr a - a n d i n te r-o rg an is a tio nal n etw ork s, w ith in a c o nte x t o f c o m ple x s e rv ic e d eliv ery

sy ste m s. E ffe ctiv e w ork w ith in t h ese s y ste m s r e q uir e s a n oth er s e t o f a tte n dan t p ra ctic es t h at

are o fte n n ot f u lly a ck now le d ged o r a re o fte n o vers h ad ow ed i n s ta n dard p re -s e rv ic e a n d i n -

se rv ic e h um an s e rv ic e e d ucatio n a n d t r a in in g d ev ote d t o d ev elo pin g i n te rv en tio n s k ills . T hese

are d is c u sse d i n

Chap te r 6

. T his b ook i s d esig ned t o a ssis t f u tu re w ork ers t o d ev elo p a n d

main ta in g ood p ra ctic es i n r e la tio n t o t h eir w ork o ver a n d a b ove t h eir i n te rv en tio n k now le d ge

an d s k ills — in r e la tio n t o s e rv ic e u se rs , t h eir e m plo yin g o rg an is a tio ns a n d o th er w ork ers a n d

org an is a tio ns i n t h e i n dustr y .

The r e m ain der o f t h e b ook a ck now le d ges a n d r e sp onds t o t h e n atu re o f w ork i n a ll p arts o f

th e i n dustr y , w hic h i n ev ita b ly i n volv es w ork in g w ith v uln era b le p eo ple — fo r e x am ple , w ith

ch ild re n , t h e d is a b le d , t h e e ld erly a n d t h e h om ele ss. T here i s a n i m pera tiv e t h at p eo ple

en gag ed i n c arin g w ork c arry o ut t h eir d utie s i n a m an ner w hic h i s c o nsta n tly m in dfu l o f t h e

ra n ge o f i n here n t r is k s t o t h ese p eo ple , a n d a re a b le t o r e sp ond a p pro pria te ly w ith s o und

pra ctic es w ith in o rg an is a tio ns. T he w ork h as i n ev ita b le e th ic al d im en sio ns a n d i m plic atio ns

at e v ery p oin t. A cco rd in gly , s k ills i n e th ic al r e aso nin g a n d d ecis io n-m ak in g a re e sse n tia l.

Furth er, t h e v uln era b le n atu re o f t h e p eo ple w ith w hom t h e h um an s e rv ic e i n dustr y e n gag es

su ggests t h at u nders ta n din g t h e n eed f o r a s w ell a s h av in g t h e c ap acity t o r e sp ond p ositiv ely

to t h eir i s su es a n d r ig hts i s p artic u la rly i m porta n t.

The t itle e m plo ys t h e a d je ctiv e ‘ p ro fe ssio nal’ i n r e la tio n t o p ra ctic e i n t h e i n dustr y . W e d o

not u se t h is w ord t o i m ply t h at t h e b ook c o ntr ib ute s s o le ly t o p ro fe ssio nalis m a s t h at t e rm i s

unders to od i n t h e s o cio lo gy o f p ro fe ssio ns. G en era lly , p ro fe ssio nalis m i m plie s a p artic u la r

ty pe a n d l e v el o f k now le d ge, s k ills a n d c o m mitm en ts , d if fe re n tly a rtic u la te d i n a n d

so m etim es ‘ o w ned ’ b y v ario us f ie ld s s u ch a s s o cia l w ork a n d p sy ch olo gy. I t i s u se d h ere i n a

more c o llo quia l s e n se t o s ig nif y t h at t h ere s h ould b e c erta in s ta n dard s t h at b oth s e rv ic e u se rs

an d e m plo yers c an e x pect o f a ll e m plo yees w ork in g i n t h e i n dustr y , i r re sp ectiv e o f

ed ucatio nal b ack gro und a n d/o r q ualif ic atio ns. A cco rd in gly , w e f o cu s o n t h ose g en eric s k ills

th at a p ply

acro ss

t h e d iv ers ity o f h um an s e rv ic e i n dustr y s e ttin gs. T his b ook i s

not

d esig ned

to d ev elo p s p ecif ic i n te rv en tio n s k ills s u ch a s c o unse llin g o r g ro up w ork . R ath er, i t i s

desig ned t o d ev elo p a cco m pan yin g s e ts o f s k ills a n d p ra ctic es t h at a re a ls o n eed ed , b ut t h at

are o fte n a d dre sse d i n q uite l im ite d w ay s i n s ta n dard h um an s e rv ic e i n te rv en tio n t e x ts . A s w e

hav e d one t o a l im ite d e x te n t i n t h ese i n tr o ducto ry c o m men ts , w e w ill e x pla in w ord s a n d

te rm s t h at r e ad ers m ay b e u nfa m ilia r w ith a s t h e b ook p ro gre sse s. F in ally , w e h ope t h at, b y

re ad in g t h is b ook a n d t h in kin g a b out t h e i s su es a n d t o pic s w e d is c u ss, r e ad ers ’ c ap acitie s t o

work i n w hat i s u ndoubte d ly a f a sc in atin g y et a t t h e s a m e t im e v ery c h alle n gin g f ie ld o f t h e

hum an s e rv ic es i s e n han ced .

9 10

C H APT ER O NE

Understa n din g o rg an is a tio n s

S U M MARY

T his c h ap te r i s d esig ned t o a ssis t s tu den ts a n d n ew w ork ers t o u nders ta n d t h e n atu re ,

d ynam ic s a n d f u nctio nin g o f h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns. A fte r e sta b lis h in g w hy t h e c o nte x t

o f o rg an is a tio ns i s i m porta n t t o t h e c o nduct o f h um an s e rv ic e w ork , w e e x plo re k ey c o ncep ts

r e la te d t o o rg an is a tio ns a n d k ey c h alle n ges o f w ork in g i n o rg an is a tio ns, p artic u la rly b ut n ot

w holly e m erg in g f ro m t h e c o nte m pora ry c o nte x t. F in ally , t h e c h ap te r d is c u sse s a n um ber o f

i m porta n t i s su es i n volv ed i n b ein g a n e m plo yee, a n d h en ce b ein g m an ag ed , b efo re b rie fly

d is c u ssin g s e v era l i s su es r e la te d t o m an ag in g o urs e lv es.

T H E I M PO RTA NCE O F C O NTEX T

W hile e v ery one h as s o m e e x perie n ce o f o rg an is a tio ns— fo r e x am ple , t h ro ugh a tte n din g

s c h ool o r u niv ers ity — most o f u s t a k e t h em v ery m uch f o r g ra n te d . W e r a re ly s to p t o c o nsid er

t h e i m plic atio ns o f a n o rg an is a tio n f o r t h e r a n ge o f p eo ple — fo r e x am ple , s ta ff a n d s e rv ic e

u se rs — en gag in g w ith i t. T his i s a v ery i m porta n t i s su e f o r h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers b ecau se

t h e o rg an is a tio nal c o nte x t i ts e lf s h ap es h ow w ork ers u nderta k e t h eir w ork , a n d u ltim ate ly t h e

i m pact o f t h eir w ork o n d is a d van ta g ed o r t r o uble d s e rv ic e u se rs w ho a re o fte n h eav ily

d ep en den t o n t h e o rg an is a tio n t o w hic h t h ey h av e c o m e f o r h elp . T hin k, f o r e x am ple , a b out

t h e r e la tio nsh ip t h at a p ers o n w ho h as b een h om ele ss h as w ith a n e m erg en cy h ousin g s e rv ic e,

o r t h at a p ers o n w ith a p sy ch ia tr ic d is a b ility h as w ith a m en ta l h ealth s e rv ic e. I t i s a ls o v ery

i m porta n t t o r e m em ber t h at m ost p eo ple w ho b eco m e s e rv ic e u se rs o f h um an s e rv ic e

o rg an is a tio ns d o s o b ecau se t h ey h av e l ittle c h oic e. A s a c o nse q uen ce, h ow t h e o rg an is a tio n

f u nctio ns— esp ecia lly a t t h e f ro nt l in e— is i m porta n t n ot o nly f o r o urs e lv es a s w ork ers , b ut

a ls o f o r t h e p eo ple w e w an t t o a ssis t.

Unlik e m an y o th er f o rm s o f w ork , s u ch a s t h at d one b y b uild ers , p lu m bers o r e le ctr ic ia n s,

h um an s e rv ic e w ork i s n early a lw ay s u nderta k en i n o rg an is a tio nal c o nte x ts . T hese c o nte x ts

a re n ot u nif o rm , h ow ev er— th ey r a n ge f ro m h uge s ta te -b ase d b ure au cra cie s t o s m all n on-

p ro fit o r c o m munity -b ase d o rg an is a tio ns— each w ith i ts o w n u niq ue s e ts o f i s su es a n d

e x perie n ces. W hile p ro fe ssio ns s u ch a s s o cia l w ork t h at o pera te w ith in t h e h um an s e rv ic es

f ie ld d ra w t h eir l e g itim acy f ro m t h eir p ro fe ssio n, t h ey a ls o d ra w i t— perh ap s e v en m ore s o —

f ro m t h eir e m plo yin g o rg an is a tio n. V ery o fte n , t h ose o rg an is a tio ns ( p artic u la rly i f t h ey a re

11 opera te d b y a g overn m en t) a re e sta b lis h ed b y s ta tu te a n d h av e a n a sso cia te d b ody o f

le g is la tio n t h at s e ts o ut t h eir p urp ose a n d t h eir p ow ers . A h um an s e rv ic e w ork er w ork in g f o r

a s ta te g overn m en t c h ild p ro te ctio n s e rv ic e, f o r e x am ple , h as q uite s ig nif ic an t p ow ers i n

re la tio n t o c h ild re n c o nsid ere d t o b e a t r is k , a n d a s o cia l w ork er w ork in g f o r C en tr e lin k h as

su bsta n tia l p ow er i n d ete rm in in g t h e e lig ib ility o f y oung p eo ple f o r i n co m e s e cu rity .

Man y n ew ly g ra d uate d p ro fe ssio nals h av e b een t a u ght t h e n otio n t h at t h ey r e ta in

sig nif ic an t p ro fe ssio nal a u to nom y. T his i s n ot e n tir e ly t r u e a n d, a s w e w ill d is c u ss l a te r, i t i s

ev en l e ss t r u e i n t h e c o nte m pora ry c o nte x t t h an i t w as 3 0 y ears a g o. O rg an is a tio ns l a rg ely

cre ate t h e r u le s o f t h e g am e— fo r e x am ple , t h e a ctu al i n te rv en tio n p ra ctic es a w ork er m ig ht

underta k e, a s w ell a s t h e s p ecif ic d utie s a n d r e sp onsib ilitie s o f e m plo yees. B ein g e m plo yed i n

an o rg an is a tio n i n ev ita b ly m ean s b ein g s u bord in ate t o s o m eo ne, a n d f o r b eg in nin g w ork ers i t

ofte n m ean s w ork in g i n a p ositio n a l o ng w ay d ow n a d au ntin g h ie ra rc h y. T hese p ositio ns

im ply t h at e m plo yees h av e t o o bey s e ts o f r u le s e sta b lis h ed b y t h e o rg an is a tio n. I t i s a ls o

im porta n t t o r e fle ct t h at e m plo yees d ra w t h e m ean s o f d aily s u ste n an ce f ro m t h eir e m plo yers

in t h e f o rm o f t h eir s a la rie s; f u rth erm ore , t h ey s p en d a c o nsid era b le p art o f t h eir l iv es w ith in

th e o rg an is a tio n.

Mostly , o rg an is a tio ns o pera te i n p hysic al l o catio ns, d em arc ate d f ro m t h e s u rro undin g

co m munity i n w hic h t h ey a re e m bed ded b y s u ch d ev ic es a s b uild in gs, d oors a n d c o unte rs .

Som e h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns d ep lo y d eg re es o f s e cu rity r a re ly s e en o r e x perie n ced i n

oth er c o nte x ts , a n d i n d oin g s o t h ey s e n d c le ar m essa g es t o b oth t h eir s ta ff a n d t h eir s e rv ic e

use rs . F in ally , o rg an is a tio ns g ra n t i d en titie s t o t h eir e m plo yees, o fte n r e p re se n te d a n d

pro je cte d v ia p hysic al m ean s s u ch a s I D c ard s, n am e b ad ges o r c o rp ora te c lo th in g. I n a ll,

hum an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns a re s ig nif ic an t c o nte x ts f o r h um an s e rv ic es p ra ctic e, a n d a ll

hum an s e rv ic e w ork ers n eed t o d ev elo p t h e c ap acity t o u nders ta n d t h e c o nte x ts w ith in w hic h

th ey p ly t h eir s k ills , a n d t h e i m plic atio ns f o r t h eir p ra ctic e.

Non -p ro fit o rg an is a tio n :

A n o rg an is a tio n t h at m ay n ot l e g ally r e d is tr ib ute a n y s u rp lu s m oney i t

mak es t o i n div id ual s h are h old ers . A ny s u ch s u rp lu s m ust b e r e in veste d i n t h e l e g ally a ccep te d g oals

an d a ctiv itie s o f t h e o rg an is a tio n.

Sta tu te :

A n a ct p asse d b y a p arlia m en t o r o th er l e g is la tu re t h at i s f o rm ally r e co rd ed .

Pro fe ssio n al a u to n om y:

T he r ig hts o f s o m e p ro fe ssio ns, i n div id ually a n d c o lle ctiv ely , t o m an ag e

an d g overn t h eir o w n w ork .

KEY C O NCEPT S I N H UM AN S E R VIC E O RG ANIS A TIO NS

Dis tin gu is h in g c h ara cte ris tic s o f h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio n s

It i s g en era lly a ccep te d b y k ey t h eo ris ts t h at h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns a re s o m ew hat

dif fe re n t f ro m o th er o rg an is a tio ns ( s e e H ase n fe ld , 1 983 f o r a s e m in al a cco unt) . J o nes a n d

May ( 1 992) s u ggest t h at t h is g ro up o f o rg an is a tio ns c an ( m ore o r l e ss) b e d is tin guis h ed b y

th eir p urp ose , t h eir t e ch nolo gy a n d t h eir a u sp ic e. W e b eg in w ith p urp ose . U su ally , h um an

se rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns a re c o ntr a ste d w ith f o r-p ro fit o rg an is a tio ns e n gag ed i n p ro ductio n o r

busin ess. T he p rim ary p urp ose o f t h at l a tte r g ro up, i t i s s u ggeste d , i s t o p ro duce p ro fit f o r

ow ners a n d s h are h old ers . F or t h e m ost p art ( th ough t h ere a re e x cep tio ns, a n d t h ese a re

gro w in g i n n um ber), h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns n om in ate a s t h eir p rim ary p urp ose t h e

pro m otio n o f t h e c are a n d w ellb ein g o f p eo ple e x perie n cin g d if fic u ltie s i n t h eir l iv es b ecau se

of p overty , d is a b ility , i lln ess o r s o m e o th er l if e h azard . W hile t h is m ig ht s e em

str a ig htf o rw ard , d is tin guis h in g a h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio n b y p urp ose c an h av e i ts

12 dif fic u ltie s, e sp ecia lly i n w hat i s k now n a s a

mix ed e co nom y o f w elfa re

. B y t h is , w e m ean t h e

en tir e r a n ge o f o rg an is a tio ns c au ght u p i n t h e o ver-a rc h in g b usin ess o f t h e w elf a re s ta te ( a

te rm c h ara cte ris in g a n d d esc rib in g t h e a ctiv itie s o f t h ose a d van ced i n dustr ia lis e d c o untr ie s

th at h av e a ctiv ely p ro m ote d a n d p ro vid ed m an y f o rm s o f w elf a re s in ce t h e e n d o f W orld W ar

II). I n A ustr a lia , f o r e x am ple , t h ese c an b e p ublic s e cto r o rg an is a tio ns, n on-p ro fit

org an is a tio ns o r b usin esse s. C onsid er t h e e m plo ym en t s e rv ic es s e cto r, w here a n um ber o f

busin esse s s u ch a s S arin a R usso a n d M ax im us a re c o ntr a cte d b y t h e C om monw ealth

govern m en t t o p ro vid e s e rv ic es t o t h e u nem plo yed . C le arly , t h ese o rg an is a tio ns c o uld c la im

th at t h eir p urp ose i s t o h elp t h e u nem plo yed . H ow ev er, t h eir o th er v ery i m porta n t p urp ose i s

to m ak e a p ro fit f o r t h eir o w ners a n d s h are h old ers . O th er e x am ple s i n clu de b usin esse s

pro vid in g n urs in g h om e c are a n d c h ild c are . S om e o f t h ese a re v ery c o ntr o vers ia l— su ch a s

board in g o r r o om in g h ouse s— becau se t h e p oor c o nditio ns o fte n f o und i n t h em i llu str a te o nly

to o w ell t h at t h e m ain p urp ose i s p ro fit g en era tio n, o fte n t o t h e d etr im en t o f t h eir h ap le ss

re sid en ts .

Anoth er m ean s o f d is tin guis h in g h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns i s t h ro ugh t h e ‘ te ch nolo gie s’

th ey e m plo y. ‘ T ech nolo gy’ h ere i s r e ally a m eta p hor f o r t h e t y pes o f a ctiv itie s a n d

in te rv en tio ns d ep lo yed — fo r e x am ple , c o unse llin g o r e m erg en cy r e lie f. H ase n fe ld ( 1 983) i s

one o f t h e m ain t h eo ris ts s u ggestin g t h is . H e a rg ues t h at w e c an d is tin guis h b etw een p eo ple -

pro cessin g, p eo ple -s u sta in in g a n d p eo ple -c h an gin g o rg an is a tio ns. P eo ple -p ro cessin g

te ch nolo gie s a re f o und i n t h ose o rg an is a tio ns t h at a sse ss p eo ple a n d p ro vid e a p artic u la r

la b el, w hic h t h en c au se s t h em t o b e t r e ate d i n s p ecif ic w ay s. I n t h e A ustr a lia n c o nte x t, o ne o f

th e m ain p eo ple -p ro cessin g o rg an is a tio ns i s C en tr e lin k. C le arly , w hen a p ers o n g oes t o a

Cen tr e lin k c u sto m er-s e rv ic e o ffic e, h is o r h er s ta tu s i s a sse sse d a n d l a b elle d a s u nem plo yed ,

so le p are n t, d is a b le d o r a g ed . E ach o f t h ese c ate g orie s a ttr a cts a p artic u la r p ay m en t w ith

sp ecif ic c o nditio ns a tta ch ed t o i t. H ase n fe ld o rig in ally t h ought t h at s u ch o rg an is a tio ns w ere

not p artic u la rly i n te re ste d i n c h an gin g t h e a ttr ib ute s o f t h eir s e rv ic e u se rs , a v ie w h e

ex pre sse d i n a n e ra b efo re ‘ w elf a re r e fo rm ’ ( a d ev elo pm en t i n p olic y b y w hic h i n co m e

se cu rity p ay m en ts b ecam e c o nditio nal o n r e cip ie n ts b eh av in g i n r e q uir e d w ay s). I n cre asin gly ,

an d c erta in ly i n t h e c ase o f C en tr e lin k, t h e c o nditio ns a tta ch ed t o p ay m en ts f o r

unem plo ym en t r e q uir e c erta in a ctiv itie s, w hic h i t i s b elie v ed w ill c h an ge t h e d is p ositio ns o f

th e u nem plo yed f ro m p assiv e b en efic ia rie s t o a ctiv e j o b-s e ek ers .

Peo ple -s u sta in in g o rg an is a tio ns a re t h ose t h at p ro vid e s o m e s o rt o f s e rv ic e w hic h a llo w s

peo ple t o l iv e t h eir l iv es, b ut w hic h a g ain i s n ot i n te re ste d i n c h an gin g t h em . S om e e x am ple s

of t h ese a re a g ed c are ( fo r e x am ple , i n -h om e c are t h at i s d esig ned t o a llo w p eo ple t o ‘ a g e i n

pla ce’ o r s ta y i n t h eir o w n h om es), c h ild c are a n d m an y d is a b ility -s u pport s e rv ic es.

In -h om e c a re :

D om estic s u pport o r c are s e rv ic es p ro vid ed t o t h e a g ed i n t h eir o w n h om es.

Age i n p la ce:

A p rin cip le o f g ood p ra ctic e i n a g ed c are t h at s u ggests p eo ple a re h ap pie r i n t h eir o w n

hom es t h an i n i n stitu tio nal s e ttin gs.

Fin ally , p eo ple -c h an gin g o rg an is a tio ns a re t h ose t h at a re s p ecif ic ally s e t u p t o c h an ge t h e

dis p ositio ns o r p ers o nal a ttr ib ute s o f t h e p eo ple w ho e n gag e w ith t h em . T here a re m an y

ex am ple s o f t h ese , i n clu din g c o unse llin g s e rv ic es, e d ucatio nal s e rv ic es, f a m ily -s u pport

se rv ic es a n d c h ild -p ro te ctio n s e rv ic es. J o nes a n d M ay ( 1 992) a rg ue t h at t h ere i s a f o urth t y pe

of h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio n: p eo ple -c o ntr o llin g o rg an is a tio ns— th e m ain p urp ose o f w hic h

is c o ntr o l o r r e str a in t. E xam ple s o f t h ese a re c o rre ctiv e s e rv ic es a n d s o m e m en ta l h ealth

se rv ic es ( e .g . p sy ch ia tr ic h osp ita ls ).

The t h ir d f e atu re s a id t o c h ara cte ris e d is tin ctiv en ess i n h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns i s

au sp ic e. B y a u sp ic e, w e m ean t h e m an date o r m ech an is m t h at a u th oris e s a n o rg an is a tio n’s

ex is te n ce. U su ally , t h is i s d ra w n f ro m t h e l e g al f o rm o f t h e o rg an is a tio n. T here a re s e v era l o f

13 th ese i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es: s ta tu to ry o rg an is a tio ns o r C om monw ealth a n d s ta te g overn m en t

dep artm en ts ; f o r-p ro fit b usin ess e n titie s; a n d n on-p ro fit o rg an is a tio ns. T he l a st g ro up i s a ls o

sp lit i n to f o ur t y pes: r e lig io us c h aritie s, s e cu la r c h aritie s, i n co rp ora te d a sso cia tio ns a n d

co m pan ie s l im ite d b y g uara n te e.

Relig io u s c h arity :

A n o rg an is a tio n e n gag ed i n h um an s e rv ic es d eliv ery s p onso re d b y a l e g ally

re co gnis e d c h urc h , w hic h i s r e co gnis e d a s s u ch b y t h e T ax atio n D ep artm en t.

Secu la r c h arity :

A n o rg an is a tio n e n gag ed i n h um an s e rv ic e d eliv ery

not

s p onso re d b y a l e g ally

re co gnis e d c h urc h , b ut a ccep te d a s a c h arity b y t h e T ax atio n D ep artm en t.

In co rp ora te d a sso cia tio n :

A n on-p ro fit s e cu la r o rg an is a tio n g iv en l e g al i d en tity t h ro ugh s ta te

Asso cia tio ns I n co rp ora tio ns A cts

Com pan y l im ite d b y g u ara n te e:

A n on-p ro fit s e cu la r o rg an is a tio n g iv en l e g al i d en tity b y t h e

Austr a lia n S ecu ritie s a n d I n vestm en t C om mis sio n ( A SIC ).

The c o m mon f e atu re o f t h e n on-p ro fit g ro up i s t h at t h ey a re a ll b ound b y w hat i s k now n a s

th e ‘ n on-d is tr ib utio n c o nstr a in t’ ( H an sm an , 1 980: 8 35), b y w hic h t h ey a re l e g ally b arre d f ro m

dis tr ib utin g a n y o rg an is a tio nal s u rp lu s a s p ro fit a n d m ust r e in vest a n y s u ch s u rp lu s i n to t h e

aim s a n d o bje ctiv es o f t h e o rg an is a tio n.

Tab le 1 .1 : C hara cte ris tic s o f o rg an is a tio n s

Ausp ic e

Tech nolo gy

Purp ose

Unitin g C are n urs in g h om e

Sta te c h ild p ro te ctio n s e rv ic e

Neig hbourh ood c en tr e

For-p ro fit e m plo ym en t s e rv ic e

Welf a re r ig hts c en tr e

Priv ate p ris o n

Sm ith F am ily c h arity

EX ER CIS E

Id en tif y t h e c h ara cte ris tic s o f t h e o rg an is a tio ns i n

Tab le 1 .1

Org an is a tio n al s tr u ctu re

Org an is a tio ns a re c h ara cte ris e d b y s tr u ctu re , b y w hic h w e m ean t h e p atte rn o f r e la tio nsh ip s—

both h oriz o nta l a n d v ertic al— th at e x is t i n a n y o rg an is a tio ns. W e a ll u nders ta n d t h e v ertic al

str u ctu re o f a n o rg an is a tio n. A t t h e t o p i s t h e b oss— th e c h ie f e x ecu tiv e o ffic er o f a p riv ate o r

non-p ro fit o rg an is a tio n, t h e D ir e cto r-G en era l o f a s ta te o r C om monw ealth d ep artm en t, t h e

prin cip al o f a s e co ndary s c h ool, o r t h e v ic e-c h an cello r o f a u niv ers ity . F allin g o ut i n r o w s

belo w t h e b oss i s a s e rie s o f l e v els a n d r o le s, e ach c h arg ed w ith a p art o f i m ple m en tin g t h e

obje ctiv es o f t h e o rg an is a tio n, c u lm in atin g i n h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns— th e p eo ple w ho

deliv er s e rv ic es— in t h e f ro nt l in e.

Buch an an a n d H yczy nsk i ( 2 004: 5 ) s ta te t h at o rg an is a tio nal s tr u ctu re i s a ‘ s o cia l

arra n gem en t f o r a ch ie v in g c o ntr o lle d p erfo rm an ce i n p urs u it o f c o lle ctiv e g oals ’. I n t h e

pre v io us p ara g ra p h, w e i n voked o ne t y pe o f s tr u ctu re — th e t y pic al b ure au cra tic o r

14 hie ra rc h ic al s tr u ctu re — but t h ere a re o th er m odels i n w hic h t h e d eg re e o f h ie ra rc h y i s

co nsid era b ly r e d uced . A noth er f a m ous t h eo ris t, M in tz b erg ( 1 989) s u ggeste d f iv e d im en sio ns

th at i n fo rm t h e t y pe o f s tr u ctu re i n a n o rg an is a tio n:

t h e d eg re e o f j o b s p ecia lis a tio n i n clu din g t h e v ertic al a n d h oriz o nta l d iv is io n o f r e sp onsib ility a n d

acco unta b ility

t h e c rite ria b y w hic h j o bs a re g ro uped t o geth er

t h e d eg re e o f f o rm alis a tio n o f r u le s a n d r e g ula tio ns a n d t h e e x te n t t o w hic h t h ese a re w ritte n

dow n

t y pes o f i n te g ra tiv e m ech an is m s

t h e c en tr a lis a tio n o f d ecis io n-m ak in g a n d t h e d eg re e o f d ele g atio n d ow nw ard s.

EX ER CIS E

Dis c u ss t h e o rg an is a tio nal s tr u ctu re s l ik ely t o b e f o und i n a n eig hbourh ood c en tr e , A nglic are a n d

Cen tr e lin k.

Org an is a tio n al c u lt u re

All o rg an is a tio ns h av e c u ltu re s, a n d a n o rg an is a tio n’s c u ltu re p la y s a n i n te g ra l p art i n s h ap in g

how i t f u nctio ns, a s w ell a s h ow i t i s e x perie n ced b y w ork ers a n d s e rv ic e u se rs . B y c u ltu re ,

we m ean t h e b asic a ssu m ptio ns a n d b elie fs — ofte n h id den a n d u nco nsc io us— th at r e p re se n t

th e n atu re o f t h e o rg an is a tio n a n d i ts r e la tio nsh ip w ith t h e e n vir o nm en t. C ultu re c an b e

ex pre sse d i n s u ch p ra ctic es a s r itu als , f o rm al w ritte n s ta te m en ts , s ta n dard s, r u le s a n d p olic ie s,

arte fa cts , a n d f o rm al a n d i n fo rm al s to rie s t o ld a b out t h e o rg an is a tio n b y i ts m em bers .

Em plo yees r a p id ly l e arn a n o rg an is a tio n’s c u ltu re , a s m ost o rg an is a tio ns a ctiv ely d is se m in ate

th eir f o rm al c u ltu re a t i n ductio n. T he R ed C ro ss, f o r e x am ple , h as a v id eo i t s h ow s s ta ff a n d

volu nte ers a b out i ts u niq ue h is to ry . S ee, f o r e x am ple , t h at o rg an is a tio n’s h is to ry d ra w n f ro m

its w eb p ag e:

The R ed C ro ss a nd R ed C re sc en t M ovem en t b eg an a lm ost 1 50 y ea rs a go w hen o n a h ot J u ne d ay i n

1859 H en ry D unant, a S w is s b anker t r a vellin g o n b usin ess i n n orth ern I ta ly , w itn esse d t h e a fte rm ath

of t h e B attle o f S olfe rin o a h orrify in g a nd b lo ody c o nflic t b etw een 3 00,0 00 s o ld ie rs f r o m I m peria l

Austr ia a nd t h e F ra nco -S ard in ia n A llia nce. I n 1 862 D unant p ublis h ed h is r e co lle ctio n o f t h is

exp erie n ce a s A M em ory o f S olfe rin o a nd r e m ain ed c o nvin ced t h at t h e p ow er o f h um anity c o uld b e

en gaged t o a lle via te s u ffe rin g o n a g lo bal s c a le . V uln era ble p eo ple e xis t i n a ll s o cie tie s, h e a rg ued ,

and s h ould b e a ffo rd ed t h e s a m e c a re a nd c o nsid era tio n.

Som e o f t h e m en w ounded i n b attle l a y w here t h ey f e ll f o r d ays b le ed in g a nd t o rm en te d b y t h ir st,

hunger, f lie s a nd b urn in g h ea t. T he d ea d w ere t h ro w n i n to h uge p its , a lo ng w ith o th ers s e rio usly

in ju re d b ut a liv e n oneth ele ss. A m id t h e s te n ch a nd s o unds o f p ain a nd a nguis h , t h ie ves m oved f r o m

perso n t o p erso n, r o bbin g b oth t h e w ounded a nd t h e d ea d. M oved b y t h e s ig ht o f t h e a ppallin g

in ju rie s s u ffe re d b y t h ese y o ung m en , D unant r a llie d v illa gers f r o m t h e t o w n o f C astig lio ne d ella

Pie ve t o a ssis t a nd t e n d t h e w ounded . T hese t o w nsfo lk w ere t o b eco m e t h e f ir st v o lu nte ers o f t h e R ed

Cro ss.

Would t h ere n ot b e s o m e m ea ns, d urin g a p erio d o f p ea ce a nd c a lm , o f f o rm in g r e lie f S ocie tie s

whose o bje ct w ould b e t o h ave t h e w ounded c a re d f o r i n t im e o f w ar b y e n th usia stic d evo te d

vo lu nte ers f u lly q ualifie d f o r t h e t a sk ? S uch S ocie tie s c o uld e ven r e n der g re a t s e rv ic e d urin g

ep id em ic s o r a t t im es o f d is a ste r o f f lo od a nd f ir e ; t h e p hila nth ro pic m otiv es u nderly in g t h eir

vo ca tio n w ould b rin g t h em i n to a ctio n i m med ia te ly w here ver a nd w hen ever t h ey c o uld u se fu lly

in te rv en e.

His m atte r-o f- fa ct a cco unt, w ith i ts u nderly in g m essa ge o f h ope a nd i n sp ir a tio n d re w w id esp re a d

15 su pport a cro ss E uro pe, b rin gin g w ith i t t h e s a lie n t r e m in der t h at s u ffe rin g d oes n ot e n d o nce t h e

battle h as c ea se d . I n

Gen eva i n O cto ber 1 863 u nder t h e l e a dersh ip o f H en ry D unant, G usta ve

Moyn ie r, G en era l G uilla um e-H en ri D ufo ur, D r L ouis A ppia a nd D r T heo dore M aunoir s e t u p t h e

In te rn atio nal C om mitte e f o r R elie f t o t h e W ounded . T he C om mitte e, l a te r t o b eco m e t h e

In te rn atio nal C om mitte e o f t h e R ed C ro ss, c h ose a s t h eir e m ble m a p erfe ctly f o rm ed r e d c ro ss o n a

white b ackg ro und t h e s im ple i n verse o f t h e S w is s f la g.

< www.r e d cro ss.o rg .a u /a b outu s_ his to ry _in te rn atio nal_ defa u lt.h tm

In s o m e o rg an is a tio ns— partic u la rly r e lig io us c h arita b le o rg an is a tio ns— th e c u ltu re i s

dra w n d ir e ctly f ro m t h e s p ir itu al o rie n ta tio n o f t h e r e lig io us g ro up o r o rd er a u sp ic in g t h e

org an is a tio n.

EX ER CIS E

Dis c u ss w hat y ou k now a b out t h e c u ltu re o f t h e S alv atio n A rm y.

As w ell a s f o rm al c u ltu re s, m an y o rg an is a tio ns a ls o h av e i n fo rm al o r c o vert c u ltu re s,

whic h a re m ore p ow erfu l b ecau se t h ey a re u nsp oken a n d u nch alle n ged . I n o ne l a rg e n on-

pro fit o rg an is a tio n s tu die d b y M cD onald a n d W arb urto n ( 2 004), t h ere w as a n eg ativ e a n d

unack now le d ged c u ltu ra l u nders ta n din g o f t h e r e la tio nsh ip b etw een t h e c en tr e a n d t h e

perip hery , w hic h l e d t o c o nsid era b le b itte rn ess a n d c o nflic t. U nfo rtu nate ly , i t i s n ot

unco m mon f o r h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns t o h av e c u ltu re s t h at a re n eg ativ e a n d d is m is siv e

ab out t h eir s e rv ic e u se rs . M cD onald a n d M ars to n ( 2 008b) f o und, f o r e x am ple , t h at m an y c ase

man ag ers a t t h e f ro nt l in e o f A ustr a lia ’s e m plo ym en t s e rv ic es h av e v ery n eg ativ e a ttitu des

to w ard s t h e u nem plo yed , e sp ecia lly t h e l o ng-te rm u nem plo yed . T his o rie n ta tio n t o s e rv ic e

use rs m ore g en era lly w as a ls o n ote d b y W earin g ( 1 998) i n h is s tu dy o f t h e n on-p ro fit s e cto r

in N ew S outh W ale s.

EX ER CIS E

Fro m a s e rv ic e u se r’s p oin t o f v ie w , w hat i s t h e d om in an t c o vert c u ltu ra l o rie n ta tio n o f C en tr e lin k

cu sto m er s e rv ic e o ffic ers ?

Str eet-le v el o r f r o n t-lin e w ork ers

In 1 980, M ic h ael L ip sk y w ro te a v ery f a m ous b ook c alle d

Str e et- L evel B ure a ucra cy

, i n

whic h h e a d van ced t h e p ro positio n t h at w ork ers a t t h e f ro nt l in e o f h um an s e rv ic e

org an is a tio ns— partic u la rly s ta te -ru n o rg an is a tio ns— were t h e u ltim ate s h ap ers o f s o cia l

polic y . H ow a s e rv ic e u se r a ctu ally e x perie n ced a p artic u la r p olic y o rie n ta tio n a n d a sso cia te d

pro gra m w as m ed ia te d t h ro ugh a f ro nt- lin e w ork er’s u nders ta n din g o f t h e p olic y a n d h is o r

her p ers o nal o rie n ta tio n t o t h e w ork a n d t o t h e s e rv ic e u se rs . T his w as t h e c ase , h e s u ggeste d ,

becau se f ro nt- lin e w ork ers i n h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns h ad c o nsid era b le a u to nom y i n t h e

way t h ey w en t a b out t h eir w ork . I n 1 993, S m ith a n d L ip sk y r e v is ite d t h e n otio n o f s tr e et-

le v el b ure au cra ts i n t h e c o nte x t o f d ev elo pm en ts s in ce t h e o rig in al b ook w as p ublis h ed . I n t h e

la te r b ook, t h ey n ote d t h at w ork ers a t t h e f ro nt l in e i n t h e n on-p ro fit s e cto r w ere t h e n ew

str e et- le v el b ure au cra ts . T o a c erta in e x te n t t h is i s t r u e, i n t h e s e n se t h at m uch s e rv ic e

deliv ery t h at o nce w as u nderta k en b y t h e s ta te i s n ow u nderta k en b y t h e n on-p ro fit o r

co m munity s e cto r. T hat s a id , a n d a s w e w ill d is c u ss s h ortly , d ev elo pm en ts i n g overn m en t

16 hav e c h an ged t h e w ay b ure au cra ts m onito r a n d o vers e e t h e w ork o f c o ntr a cte d c o m munity

org an is a tio ns. N ev erth ele ss, f ro nt- lin e w ork ers s till b ear m uch o f t h e r e sp onsib ility f o r a n d

ris k s i n here n t i n h um an s e rv ic e d eliv ery . I n o th er w ord s, f ro nt- lin e w ork ers a re v ita l.

KEY C H ALLEN G ES I N H UM AN S E R VIC E O RG ANIS A TIO NS

Cle arly t h ere a re m an y c h alle n ges f a cin g p eo ple w ork in g i n h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns,

so m e o f w hic h w e d is c u ss h ere . T he i s su es d is c u sse d l a rg ely a ris e f ro m t h e c o nte m pora ry

en vir o nm en t i n w hic h h um an s e rv ic es o pera te .

New p ublic m an agem en t

In 1 992 a n e x tr e m ely i n flu en tia l b ook,

Rein ven tin g G overn m en t

b y O sb orn e a n d G aeb le r,

was p ublis h ed , s e ttin g t h e t o ne f o r g overn m en ts t h ro ughout t h e a d van ced i n dustr ia lis e d

world . I ts c en tr a l a rg um en t w as t h at g overn m en ts s h ould r u n t h e p ublic s e cto r i n m uch t h e

sa m e m an ner a s p riv ate c o rp ora tio ns. S ubse q uen tly , a n e n tir e m ovem en t i n p ublic s e cto r

ad m in is tr a tio n— New P ublic M an ag em en t ( N PM )— gre w u p. T his m ovem en t h as r e sh ap ed

th e p ublic s e cto r, a n d i n t h e p ro cess t h e r e la tio nsh ip s b etw een t h e s ta te a n d t h ose n on-s ta te

org an is a tio ns c o ntr a cte d t o f u lf il s ta te f u nctio ns. W ith r e g ard t o t h e l a tte r, t h e c o nditio ns o f

co ntr a cts n ow r o utin ely s p ecif y w hat o rg an is a tio ns w ill d o, h ow t h ey w ill d o i t a n d h ow t h ey

will o rg an is e t h em se lv es. S om e o f t h e m ajo r r e fo rm s i n clu de p ra ctic es s u ch a s:

• i n cre ase d u se o f p urc h ase -o f-s e rv ic e c o ntr a cts ( w here b y t h e s ta te h ir e s n on-s ta te o rg an is a tio ns t o

underta k e t h eir w ork ), t r a n sfe rrin g s ig nif ic an t s w ath es o f s e rv ic e d eliv ery o ut o f t h e s ta te ’s d ir e ct

co ntr o l

• i n tr o ductio n o f p erfo rm an ce t a rg ets ( k ey p erfo rm an ce i n dic ato rs ) f o r o rg an is a tio ns a n d e m plo yees

• t h e p rio ritis a tio n o f e ffic ie n cy a s a n o pera tio nal p rin cip le

• t h e u se o f g en eric s e n io r m an ag ers a s o ppose d t o p eo ple w ho a re e x perts i n t h e f ie ld .

Curre n tly , a ll h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns— public s e cto r a n d n onpro fit— are a ffe cte d .

One o f t h e b ig gest i m plic atio ns f o r w ork ers i s t h e d ecre ase d t r u st o f a d vocate s o f N PM i n

pro fe ssio nals , a n d t h e s u bse q uen t d ete rio ra tio n o f t h eir a u to nom y. C ouple d w ith t h e i n cre ase d

use o f i n fo rm atio n t e ch nolo gy, t h e f ro nt l in e o f w elf a re i s n ow m uch m ore t ig htly c o ntr o lle d

th an i t w as i n t h e p ast, a n d w hat a u to nom y a n d d is c re tio n w ork ers o nce h ad i s n ow

in cre asin gly d esig ned o ut.

Qualit y a ssu ra n ce

Acco m pan yin g t h e r is e o f N PM a n d i ts a sso cia te d d is tr u st o f p ro fe ssio nals , a n ew m eth od o f

man ag in g t h e q uality o f s e rv ic e d eliv ery h as d ev elo ped — quality a ssu ra n ce, a c o m pre h en siv e

an d q uite i n vasiv e m eth od o f a sse ssin g ‘ q uality ’ i n o rg an is a tio nal f u nctio nin g. C urre n tly , a ll

org an is a tio ns— in clu din g h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns— are u sin g f o rm al q uality a ssu ra n ce

sy ste m s. N atio nally , t h e Q uality I m pro vem en t C ouncil ( Q IC ) u nderta k es q uality a sse ssm en ts

of h ealth a n d c o m munity s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns a ro und a w hole r a n ge o f m atte rs . I n cre asin gly ,

su ch a ccre d ita tio n i s a r e q uir e m en t f o r f u ndin g. S ee

Tab le 1 .2

f o r t h e c o re s ta n dard s u se d b y

QIC w hen a ccre d itin g o rg an is a tio ns.

Tab le 1 .2

: C ore s ta n dard s s u m mary

17 Sectio n 1

Build in g q ualit y o rg an is a tio n s

Sta n dard 1 .1

Lead ers h ip a n d m an ag em en t

Sta n dard 1 .2

Hum an r e so urc es

Sta n dard 1 .3

Physic al r e so urc es

Sta n dard 1 .4

Fin an cia l m an ag em en t

Sta n dard 1 .5

Know le d ge m an ag em en t

Sta n dard 1 .6

Ris k a sse ssm en t a n d m an ag em en t

Sta n dard 1 .7

Leg al a n d r e g ula to ry c o m plia n ce

Sectio n 2

Pro vid in g q ualit y s e rv ic es a n d p ro gra m s

Sta n dard 2 .1

Id en tif y in g a n d m eetin g c o m munity n eed s

Sta n dard 2 .2

Focu sin g o n p ositiv e o utc o m es

Sta n dard 2 .3

Ensu rin g c u ltu ra l s a fe ty a n d a p pro pria te n ess

Sta n dard 2 .4

Confir m in g c o nsu m er r ig hts

Sta n dard 2 .5

Em pow erin g c o nsu m ers

Sta n dard 2 .6

Coord in atin g s e rv ic es a n d p ro gra m s

Sectio n 3

Susta in in g q ualit y e x te rn al r ela tio n sh ip s

Sta n dard 3 .1

Serv ic e a g re em en ts a n d p artn ers h ip s

Sta n dard 3 .2

Colla b ora tio n a n d s tr a te g ic p ositio nin g

Sta n dard 3 .3

In co rp ora tio n a n d c o ntr ib utio n t o g ood p ra ctic e

Sta n dard 3 .4

Com munity a n d p ro fe ssio nal c ap acity b uild in g

Sourc e:

www.q ic .o rg .a u

Each o rg an is a tio n t h at a p plie s f o r a ccre d ita tio n h as t o u nderta k e a f o rm al e x te rn al r e v ie w

of i ts s y ste m s, a n d i f t h ey m eet t h e s ta n dard s t h e o rg an is a tio n i s a ccre d ite d f o r a n um ber o f

years . I n s o m e s ta te s, q uality a ccre d ita tio n i s a c o nditio n o f r e ceiv in g g overn m en t f u nds.

The r is e o f r is k

As P ow er ( 1 997) s o e lo quen tly s u ggests , r is k h as b eco m e a c en tr a l c o ncep t e m plo yed i n

unders ta n din g t h e c o nte m pora ry o pera tin g e n vir o nm en ts o f o rg an is a tio ns. A cco m pan yin g i t

is a m an ag em en t i m pera tiv e t o m an ag e r is k . T his t a k es s e v era l f o rm s. A ll o rg an is a tio ns,

in clu din g h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns, i n te rro gate t h eir o rg an is a tio nal p ra ctic es i n t e rm s o f

pote n tia l r is k in ess, a n d d ev elo p p ro to co ls a n d p ro ced ure s t o m in im is e i t. T hese a ffe ct

vir tu ally a ll a sp ects o f a n o rg an is a tio n’s f u nctio nin g, a n d o fte n i n volv e d efle ctin g

co nsid era b le r e so urc es a w ay f ro m d ir e ct s e rv ic e d eliv ery . T here a re s e v era l t y pes o f r is k —

fin an cia l r is k s ( e .g . u nan tic ip ate d e x pen ditu re ), l e g al r is k s ( w here o rg an is a tio ns a re h eld

lia b le f o r s o m eth in g), p olitic al r is k s ( w here in g overn m en ts o r o rg an is a tio ns a re h eld

re sp onsib le f o r f a ilu re o r f o r p oor o utc o m es) a n d r e p uta tio nal r is k ( w here a n o rg an is a tio n’s

re p uta tio n i s p ut a t j e o pard y). I n cre asin gly , g overn m en ts m an ag e r is k a sso cia te d w ith h um an

se rv ic e d eliv ery b y c o ntr a ctin g i t o ut. L ook, f o r e x am ple , a t t h e V ic to ria n g overn m en t’ s

re cen tly i m ple m en te d C hild F ir s t s y ste m o f r e sp ondin g t o a n d m an ag in g c h ild p ro te ctio n ( s e e

case s tu dy).

18 Obvio usly , t h is h as i m plic atio ns f o r t h e c o m munity -b ase d f a m ily s u pport a g en cie s

pro vid in g s u pport t o ‘ ris k y’ f a m ilie s. A s a c o nse q uen ce, t h ose o rg an is a tio ns a re v ery

co ncern ed w ith m ak in g s u re t h eir f ro nt- lin e s ta ff c an m an ag e t h e w ork .

In volv in g s e rv ic e u se rs

In cre asin gly , i t i s a ccep te d t h at g ood p ra ctic e i n h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns i s p ra ctic e t h at

ta k es s e rio usly t h e i s su e o f l is te n in g t o a n d i n volv in g s e rv ic e u se rs . T he d eg re e o f

in volv em en t c an v ary f ro m o rg an is a tio n t o o rg an is a tio n, d ep en din g o n t h e v alu es o rie n ta tio n

of t h e m an ag em en t. I n s o m e o rg an is a tio ns, i n volv em en t o f s e rv ic e u se rs i s l a rg ely c o nfin ed

to p ro vid in g i n fo rm atio n— eith er r o utin ely h an din g o ut i n fo rm atio n i n w ritte n f o rm o r

re sp ondin g t o s p ecif ic r e q uests f o r i n fo rm atio n. A m ore i n -d ep th a p pro ach w ould b e f o rm s o f

co nsu lta tio n w ith s e rv ic e u se rs — su rv ey s, f o cu s g ro ups o r c o nsu lta tio n m eetin gs. I n s o m e

org an is a tio ns, t h e r e la tio nsh ip b etw een t h e o rg an is a tio n a n d t h e s e rv ic e u se rs i s m ore l ik e a

partn ers h ip , w here b y u se rs a re f o rm ally i n volv ed o n a d vis o ry o r p la n nin g c o m mitte es.

Fin ally — an d a s i s b eco m in g m ore c o m mon i n d is a b ility s e rv ic es— so m e o rg an is a tio ns

dele g ate c o ntr o l t o s e rv ic e u se rs , w ho m ay b e i n volv ed i n s e le ctin g s ta ff.

Case s tu dy: C hild F ir st

In tr o duced i n 2 007, t h e V ic to ria n g overn m en t h as l e g is la te d t h at t h e p rim ary a re n a o f i n te rv en tio n

in to f a m ilie s c o nsid ere d t o b e ‘ a t r is k ’ i s n on-p ro fit f a m ily s u pport s e rv ic es o rg an is e d i n to r e g io ns.

Chara cte ris e d a s s e co ndary s p ecia lis t s e rv ic es, a n d b ecau se o f t h e C hild F ir s t m odel, g overn m en t-

fu nded n on-p ro fit f a m ily s e rv ic es a g en cie s h av e i n cre asin gly t a rg ete d t h e m ost v uln era b le f a m ilie s

with t h e m ost c o m ple x p ro ble m s. T he C hild re n , Y outh a n d F am ilie s A ct 2 006 a u th oris e s t h ese

org an is a tio ns t o a ccep t r e fe rra ls f ro m t h e D ep artm en t o f H um an S erv ic es’ C hild P ro te ctio n

Serv ic e a s w ell a s f ro m o th er s o urc es. C hild P ro te ctio n i ts e lf a sse sse s c ase s, m ak es f o rm al

notif ic atio ns a n d u nderta k es a n y c o urt p ro ceed in gs d eem ed n ecessa ry . A fte r i n vestig atio n, a n d

when n o a p plic atio n t o t h e C hild re n ’s C ourt f o r a p ro te ctio n o rd er i s m ad e, t h e c ase i s t r a n sfe rre d

to a n on-p ro fit f a m ily s e rv ic es o rg an is a tio n. I n V ic to ria , 6 p er c en t o f n otif ic atio ns r e su lt i n a

pro te ctio n o rd er, s o i n te rv en tio n b y C hild P ro te ctio n i n t h e b ulk o f c ase s i s t im e-lim ite d a n d

ep is o dic . F or m ost f a m ilie s a t r is k o f h arm in g t h eir c h ild re n ( th at i s , e x perie n cin g s ig nif ic an t

dif fic u ltie s), t h era p eu tic i n te rv en tio n a n d f a m ily s u pport a re u nderta k en b y t h e n on-p ro fit s e cto r.

Furth erm ore , t h e d ep artm en t h as, t h ro ugh t h e p ro vis io ns o f f u ndin g c o ntr a cts , e n jo in ed a g en cie s t o

co nnect w ith e ach o th er i n l o calis e d s e rv ic e d eliv ery s y ste m s. O ne a g en cy i s n om in ate d a s l e ad

ag en cy , w hic h t a k es r e fe rra ls f ro m C hild P ro te ctio n, a sse sse s t h eir n eed s a n d m an ag es f u rth er

re fe rra l f o r i n te rv en tio n t o o ne o f t h e o th er p artn er a g en cie s. I f t h ere i s n o ‘ s p ace’ i n t h e s y ste m ,

th e l e ad a g en cy ( o r a n oth er c o ntr a cte d f o r t h e t a sk ) h as t h e r o le o f ‘ m an ag in g’ t h e c ase u ntil

in te rv en tio n i s a b le t o c o m men ce. F ro m a r is k p ers p ectiv e, t h e a g en cy c h arg ed w ith t h at

man ag em en t h as a v ery t r ic k y j o b t o d o. B y d efin itio n, t h ese a re h ig h-ris k c ase s, y et a s t h ey w ait

fo r a ssis ta n ce t o l o w er t h at r is k , t h e n on-p ro fit o rg an is a tio n ‘ m an ag in g’ t h ese f a m ilie s i n ev ita b ly

fa ces w hat m ay w ell b e a n e sc ala tin g r is k o f h arm o ccu rrin g t o t h e n otif ie d c h ild re n b ecau se t h ere

is n o i n te rv en tio n.

Hard in a ( 2 005) o utlin es t e n c h ara cte ris tic s o f w hat s h e c alls a n ‘ e m pow erm en t o rie n te d

org an is a tio n’, a n um ber o f w hic h r e la te t o t h e i n volv em en t o f s e rv ic e u se rs . T hese a re t h at a n

org an is a tio n:

i n clu des s e rv ic e u se rs /c o nsu m ers i n o rg an is a tio n d ecis io n-m ak in g

c re ate s p artn ers h ip s t o d esig n a n d e v alu ate p ro gra m s

19 3.

d eliv ers c u ltu ra lly a p pro pria te s e rv ic es

m in im is e s p ow er d if fe re n tia ls b etw een s e rv ic e u se rs a n d s ta ff

p ro m ote s t e am -b uild in g a n d c o lla b ora tio n

p ro m ote s p sy ch olo gic al e m pow erm en t o f w ork ers b y g iv in g t h em m ore a u to nom y t o m ak e

decis io ns t h at a ffe ct t h eir w ork

c re ate s a n a d m in is tr a tiv e l e ad ers h ip s tr u ctu re t h at i s i d eo lo gic ally c o m mitte d t o e m pow erin g

se rv ic e u se rs a n d s ta ff m em bers

i n cre ase s e m plo yee j o b s a tis fa ctio n t h ro ugh t h e p ro vis io n o f f rin ge b en efits a n d o th er i n cen tiv es

e n co ura g es s ta ff t o a d vocate f o r i m pro vem en ts i n s e rv ic e d eliv ery a n d s e rv ic e u se r r e so urc es

10.

i n cre ase s t h e p olitic al p ow er o f o rg an is a tio n c o nstitu en ts .

Even t h ough t h ere m ay b e f o rm al s y ste m s i n p la ce t o m ax im is e s e rv ic e u se rs ’ i n volv em en t,

it m ay s till b e d if fic u lt t o p ut i n to p ra ctic e. T his c an b e t h e c ase i f a n o rg an is a tio n d oes n ot

delib era te ly t r y t o a cco m plis h t h e f o urth p oin t o n t h e l is t a b ove. W e a d dre ss t h is i s su e i n

co nsid era b le d ep th i n

Chap te r 9

BEIN G M ANAG ED A ND M ANAG IN G O URSE LV ES

Superv is io n a n d a cco u nta b ilit y

There a re a t l e ast t w o t y pes o f s u perv is io n o pera tin g i n h um an s e rv ic e w ork . O ne i s

pro fe ssio nal s u perv is io n, w here a p ro fe ssio nal s u perv is o r w ork s w ith a p ers o n t o d is c u ss t h eir

ap pro ach t o c ase s a n d t o d ev elo p t h eir p ro fe ssio nal c ap acitie s. W e d is c u ss t h is t y pe o f

su perv is io n i n m ore d ep th i n

Chap te r 7

. O f m ore i n te re st i n t h is c h ap te r i s t h e f o rm al

su perv is io n a l in e m an ag er u nderta k es i n r e la tio n t o h is o r h er s ta ff. T his s u perv is io n i s

co ncern ed p rim arily w ith a cco unta b ility . E ven t h ough a d m in is tr a tiv e s u perv is io n i s

esse n tia lly a b out w ork in g w ith e m plo yees t o m eet t h e o rg an is a tio n’s g oals a n d t a rg ets , i t

nev erth ele ss s h ould s till b e c en tr a lly c o ncern ed w ith h elp in g p eo ple a ch ie v e t h eir p ote n tia l.

Couls h ed a n d M ulle n der ( 2 001: 1 65) l is t w hat a n e m plo yee s h ould e x pect f ro m

ad m in is tr a tiv e s u perv is io n. A cco rd in g t o t h em , a s u perv is o r w ill:

• h elp t h em w ith t h eir w ork lo ad a n d c ase lo ad m an ag em en t, b ala n cin g t h e o vera ll w ork lo ad f a ir ly

am ong e m plo yees i n t h e u nit

• m onito r a ll t h e w ork u nderta k en i n t h e u nit t o e n su re i t c o m plie s w ith t h e o rg an is a tio n’s p olic ie s

an d p ro ced ure s

• p ro vid e a s o undin g b oard f o r a w ork er t o t h in k t h ro ugh i s su es o r w orrie s

• k eep e m plo yees i n t o uch w ith d ev elo pm en ts i n t h e o rg an is a tio n

• g iv e f e ed back a b out a n e m plo yee’s p erfo rm an ce

• e n su re t h at e m plo yees k eep u p t o d ate w ith t h e m an ag em en t o f i n fo rm atio n.

It i s w ell k now n t h at p oor s u perv is io n a n d p oor l e ad ers h ip a t t h e f ro nt l in e l e ad t o p oor

perfo rm an ce, l o w j o b s a tis fa ctio n, l o w l e v els o f o rg an is a tio nal c o m mitm en t a n d h ig h d eg re es

of t u rn over ( E lp ers a n d W esth uis , 2 008; M ary , 2 005). F in ally , a n e m plo yee c an e x pect t h at

th eir e x perie n ce o f s u perv is io n i s p ositiv e a n d i f ( fo r w hate v er r e aso n) i t i s n ot, t h en a n

em plo yee a n d h is o r h er c o lle ag ues h av e e v ery r ig ht t o m ak e t h at k now n t o t h e o rg an is a tio n.

Case s tu dy: S uperv is io n

Mario i s a n ew r e cru it t o t h e s ta te C hild W elf a re D ep artm en t. H e h as u nderta k en a s ix -w eek

in ductio n a n d t r a in in g c o urs e a n d i s n ow o n t h e j o b i n a n i n ner-c ity l o cal o ffic e. O ver t h e c o urs e

of t h e f ir s t e ig ht w eek s, s e v era l i s su es a ris e , l a rg ely t o d o w ith h im b ein g g iv en a n um ber o f v ery

20 co m ple x a n d s e rio us c ase s t o m an ag e. O n f iv e o ccasio ns h e h as g one t o h is s u perv is o r f o r a d vic e

an d h as b een b ru sh ed o ff. H e f e els i n cre asin gly f rig hte n ed a n d d em ora lis e d . H e a sk s h is

co lle ag ues w heth er t h is i s n orm al a n d t h ey s a y i t i s . O ne d ay , h e g oes o ut f o r l u nch a n d c o m es

back t o f in d h is s u perv is o r a t h is d esk . S he d re sse s h im d ow n f o r n ot f illin g o ut t h e r e co rd s

pro perly a n d f o r n ot c o nta ctin g a s c h ool a b out o ne c h ild . H e e x pla in s t h at h e ( a ) d id n’t k now h e

had t o , ( b ) t h at t h e f ile d id n ot i n dic ate h e s h ould b e d oin g t h ese t h in gs, a n d ( c ) h e’s u nsu re o f t h e

pro to co ls o f c o nta ctin g a s c h ool. S he t e lls h im t h at h e w ill d o p oorly a t h is f ir s t p erfo rm an ce

ap pra is a l w ith h er a n d s h e w ill b e r e co m men din g t h at h e b e p ut o n p erfo rm an ce m an ag em en t f o r

th re e m onth s b efo re r e v ie w . M ario f e els d esp era te , a n d a fte r t a lk in g i t o ver w ith h is p artn er h e

fo rm ally r e sig ns. U nfo rtu nate ly , t h e w hole e p is o de h as u pse t h im s o m uch t h at h e t h in ks h e w ill

nev er b e a g ood w ork er.

Dis c u ssio n q uestio n s

• W hat i s t h e p ro ble m h ere ?

• W hat a p pro ach s h ould M ario ’s s u perv is o r h av e t a k en ?

• W as r e sig nin g t h e b est o ptio n?

• W hat o th er o ptio n s h ould M ario h av e p urs u ed ?

Perfo rm an ce a p pra is a l

All e m plo yees i n a ll o rg an is a tio ns a re a cco unta b le t o t h eir e m plo yers . O vera ll, t h is i s a g ood

th in g b ecau se i t i s o ne o f t h e m ean s b y w hic h h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns m ain ta in q uality

in s e rv ic e d eliv ery . I n cre asin gly , f o rm al p erfo rm an ce a p pra is a l i s t h e m ech an is m u se d t o

asse ss a w ork er’s p erfo rm an ce. I f i t i s d one w ell, p erfo rm an ce a p pra is a l i s a u se fu l t o ol f o r

help in g a w ork er t o t h in k a b out h is o r h er g oals , a n d t o t h in k t h ro ugh w ay s o f a ch ie v in g t h ese

th ro ugh, f o r e x am ple , t a rg ete d s ta ff d ev elo pm en t. I n m an y h um an s e rv ic e s e ttin gs— fo r

ex am ple , t h ose w here o bse rv ab le c h an ge i n t h e s e rv ic e u se r g ro up i s s lo w — perfo rm an ce

ap pra is a l c an b e u se d a s a p ro fe ssio nal t o ol t o r e fle ct o n w hat i s g oin g w ell, w hat i s n ot, a n d

how p ro gre ss i s d efin ed a n d e v alu ate d . U su ally , p erfo rm an ce a p pra is a l t a k es p la ce o n a n

an nual b asis , i n volv es a n i n te n siv e s e ssio n w ith a s u perv is o r a n d r e su lts i n a w ritte n r e co rd o f

decis io ns m ad e, g oals i d en tif ie d a n d s u pports n om in ate d .

Couls h ed a n d M ulle n der ( 2 001: 1 75) s u ggest t h at p erfo rm an ce a p pra is a l i n h um an s e rv ic e

org an is a tio ns s h ould :

• r e fle ct a p artn ers h ip a p pro ach

• b e s y ste m atic

• b e t a sk -fo cu se d

• s o lv e p ro ble m s

• b e r e sp ectf u l, v alu in g t h e e m plo yees’ s tr e n gth s

• b e e m pow erin g t h ro ugh g iv in g t h e e m plo yee a v oic e

• b e b ase d o n a w ritte n a g re em en t.

Sta ff d ev elo p m en t

Sta ff d ev elo pm en t i s a n i m porta n t p art o f a n y h um an s e rv ic e w ork er’s d ev elo pm en t p la n .

Most w ork ers , w hen g ra d uatin g, a re n ot y et f u lly f o rm ed a s p ro fe ssio nals a n d w ill n eed

ad ditio nal l e arn in g t o r e ach t h eir f u ll p ote n tia l. F urth erm ore , i n t h e f a st- c h an gin g

co nte m pora ry e n vir o nm en t, t h e n otio n o f l if e lo ng l e arn in g h as b eco m e i n cre asin gly

im porta n t. L if e lo ng l e arn in g i s a c o ncep t t h at h as b eco m e v ery p opula r o ver t h e p ast t w o

decad es, e sp ecia lly w ith g overn m en ts . I t r e co gnis e s t h at t h e c o nte m pora ry c o nte x ts i n w hic h

21 peo ple w ork a re b eco m in g m ore c o m ple x , a n d t h at c o nte m pora ry w ork ers i n cre asin gly a re

know le d ge w ork ers . E m plo yees w ork in g a s p ro fe ssio nals i n h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns a re

ex am ple s o f k now le d ge w ork ers . E ngag in g i n p ro fe ssio nal p ra ctic e i n volv es s ig nif ic an t

an aly tic al s k ills , a s w ell a s t h e a b ility t o d ra w o n d if fe re n t b odie s o f k now le d ge, i n te rp re t

th ese i n c o nte x t a n d d ev elo p a p la n o f a ctio n. E ngag in g i n s ta ff-d ev elo pm en t a ctiv itie s a s a n

activ e l e arn er h elp s e m plo yees t o b eco m e l if e lo ng l e arn ers .

Cle arly , s u perv is o rs p la y a n i m porta n t p art i n d ev elo pin g, p ro m otin g a n d m atc h in g p eo ple

to s ta ff d ev elo pm en t o pportu nitie s a n d p ro cesse s. S uperv is o rs s h ould n ot o nly h elp p eo ple t o

id en tif y a n d e n gag e i n l e arn in g a ctiv itie s; t h ey s h ould p ro vid e p eo ple w ith t h e m ean s o f

dem onstr a tin g t h e a p plic atio n o f t h eir l e arn in g i n t h e w ork pla ce.

It i s a ls o i m porta n t t o u nders ta n d t h at m ost h um an s e rv ic e p ro fe ssio nal g ro ups a re r e q uir e d

to u nderta k e c o ntin ued p ro fe ssio nal e d ucatio n t o r e m ain a ccre d ite d b y t h e p ro fe ssio nal b ody.

The A ustr a lia n A sso cia tio n o f S ocia l W ork ers , f o r e x am ple , s a y s t h at:

Contin uin g p ro fe ssio nal e d uca tio n i s a c o m mitm en t e a ch m em ber m akes t o p ro fe ssio nal d evelo pm en t

as a n a cco unta ble s o cia l w ork er. T he p urp ose o f t h e A ASW C PE p olic y i s t o p ro m ote c o ntin ued

le a rn in g b y s o cia l w ork p ra ctitio ners t h at m ay b e i n te g ra te d i n to p ro fe ssio nal p ra ctic e. T he g oal i s t o

en su re t h at s o cia l w ork ers m ain ta in u p t o d ate k n ow le d ge a nd s k ills a s t h e f o undatio n f o r

pro fe ssio nal e n dea vo ur i n a ll f ie ld s o f p ra ctic e.

( A ASW , 2 006)

Sta ff c a re a n d s e lf -h elp

Again , w e a d dre ss t h is i s su e i n c o nsid era b ly m ore d eta il i n

Chap te r 7

. N ev erth ele ss, i t i s

im porta n t t o a ck now le d ge i n t h is i n tr o ducto ry c h ap te r o n u nders ta n din g o rg an is a tio ns t h at

work in g i n a h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio n c an b e b oth d em an din g a n d s tr e ssfu l. R ead , f o r

ex am ple , t h e f o llo w in g e x cerp t:

in adeq uate c o m pen sa tio n, l a rg e c a se lo ads, l o ng h ours a nd o n-c a ll r e sp onsib ilitie s, v o lu m in ous

paperw ork , f r e q uen t p olic y c h ange c o uple d w ith s tr in gen t s ta te a nd f e d era l p olic y r e q uir e m en ts ,

is su es o f p erso nal s a fe ty , i n adeq uate t r a in in g a nd s u perv is io n, i n vo lu nta ry s e rv ic e u se rs f a cin g

co m ple x p ro ble m s, l a ck o f a deq uate r e so urc es t o s e rv e s e rv ic e u se rs . . .

( W estb ro ok e t a l., 2 006: 3 8)

While t h is q uota tio n i s r e fe rrin g t o w ork in g i n c h ild p ro te ctio n, m an y o f t h e s a m e i s su es a re

ex perie n ced i n o th er t y pes o f h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns. P rio r t o a d dre ssin g t h e i s su es o f

man ag in g y our o w n h ealth a n d s tr e ss, i t w ould b e h elp fu l t o i d en tif y w hat f a cto rs y ou t h in k

would b e i m porta n t t o s e lf -c are i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es.

EX ER CIS E

Id en tif y a t l e ast f o ur f a cto rs t h at y ou t h in k w ill b e c en tr a l t o y our s e lf -c are w hen w ork in g i n a

hum an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio n.

The i m porta n ce o f c rit ic a l r efle ctio n

When w ork in g i n t h e h um an s e rv ic e f ie ld , i t h as b een c le arly d em onstr a te d o ver a n d o ver

ag ain t h at i t i s t h e r e la tio nsh ip y ou d ev elo p w ith t h e s e rv ic e u se r t h at m atte rs a b ove a lm ost

ev ery th in g e ls e . W ork ers i n t h is f ie ld n eed t o u nders ta n d t h at, u ndern eath i t a ll, i t i s h ow t h ey

re la te t o a n d t r e at t h e h um an b ein g i n f ro nt o f t h em t h at c o unts . I f, a s a w ork er, y ou c an not

re co gnis e a n d u nders ta n d t h e i m pact o f y our o w n e x perie n ces o n t h e w ay s i n w hic h y ou

22 in te rp re t i s su es ( a n d t h e w ay s i n w hic h t h ese e x perie n ces h av e i m pacte d o n y our l if e

opportu nitie s a n d l if e c h oic es), t h en y ou h av e l ittle h ope o f b ein g a b le t o c u t t h ro ugh t h e

dom in an t d is c o urs e s o f o ur s o cie ty . S im ila rly , y ou w ill h av e l ittle c ap acity t o r e co gnis e a n d

unders ta n d w hat s h ap es t h e l if e o pportu nitie s a n d l if e c h oic es o f y our s e rv ic e u se rs .

This i s w hy w e v alu e a n d u se c ritic al r e fle ctio n i n o ur d ay -to -d ay p ra ctic e. C ritic al

re fle ctio n i s a n e ffe ctiv e w ay t o l e arn t o u nders ta n d h ow a n d w hy y ou r e act t h e w ay y ou d o t o

certa in i s su es. I t w ill a ssis t y ou a s a w ork er t o d ev elo p a d eep er u nders ta n din g o f w hat i s

goin g o n w ith y our s e rv ic e u se rs — whic h b asic ally m ean s a ssis tin g y ou i n d ev elo pin g

unders ta n din g a n d e m path y. C ritic al r e fle ctio n c o ntr ib ute s t o a n a tm osp here o f i n quir y , t h e

re alis a tio n o f t h e i m porta n ce o f l if e lo ng l e arn in g a n d t h e ‘ w an tin g t o k now ’ a m ong h um an

se rv ic e w ork ers a n d t h eir o rg an is a tio ns. Y ou n eed t o b e a b le t o d ev elo p c ritic al r e fle ctio n a s a

hab it t h at i s p art o f e v ery day p ra ctic e.

What d o w e m ea n b y c rit ic a l r efle ctio n ?

At d if fe re n t t im es t h ro ughout t h is b ook, w e w ill t a lk a b out

critic a l r e fle ctio n

a n d

critic a lly

re fle ctiv e p ra ctic e

. W hen w e d o s o , w e a re t a lk in g a b out a l e n s t h ro ugh w hic h g ood w ork ers

ev alu ate t h eir r e actio ns, u nders ta n din gs a n d t h e w ork t h ey d o. U nders ta n din g w hat

yo u

h av e

done, a n d w hy, a n d d ev elo pin g i n sig ht i n to w here y our t h oughts a n d a ctio ns c o m e f ro m a n d

how e ffe ctiv e y our p ro cesse s a re i s e sse n tia l w hen w ork in g i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es a re a. Y our

ev alu atio n o f t h e ‘ w here ’ a n d ‘ w hy’ w ill a ls o g uid e y our i d eas a b out h ow y ou m ig ht u se t h is

ex perie n ce f o r f u tu re w ork . A s a w ork er i n t h e h um an s e rv ic e f ie ld , y ou n eed t o b e a b le t o

ev alu ate y our t h ought p ro cesse s a n d f o llo w y our ‘ jo urn ey o f l e arn in g’ a ro und t h ese t h ought

pro cesse s. T o d o t h is , y ou n eed t o b e a b le t o r e fle ct o n y our o w n e x perie n ces i n l if e , a s w ell

as y our f e elin gs a n d v alu es, a n d i d en tif y a sp ects o f y our s o cia l l o catio n t h at h av e c o ntr ib ute d

to t h e p ositio n y ou h old o n a n y i s su e o r s itu atio n. A fte r a ll, w e a sk o ur s e rv ic e u se rs t o r e fle ct

in s u ch a w ay o n t h e h ow a n d w hy o f w here t h ey a re , a n d w e k now c ritic al r e fle ctio n w ork s

fo r t h em . S o w hy s h ould n’t w e b e f o llo w in g t h e s a m e p ro cesse s a s w ork ers ?

With r e g ard t o c ritic al r e fle ctio n, h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers n eed t o :

• b e a b le t o d em onstr a te t h eir b eg in nin g u nders ta n din gs o f a s itu atio n o r i s su e a n d t o b eg in t o t e ase

out t h e m ean in g o f t h e i s su e o r i n cid en t f o r t h em

• d eco nstr u ct t h eir f ir s t i n te rp re ta tio ns o f a s itu atio n— what i t i s t h at l e d t o y our i n itia l u nders ta n din g

an d t o y our w ay o f t h in kin g, y our v alu es, a ssu m ptio ns, b eh av io urs ( w hat r o le d oes t h e i m pact o f

your s o cia l l o catio n— fo r e x am ple y our a g e, g en der, c la ss, r a ce, c u ltu re , r e lig io n, a b ility , s e x uality

—hav e o n t h e w ay s i n w hic h y ou t h in k, b eh av e a n d u nders ta n d)

• u nders ta n d t h e c o ntr ib utio n o f t h e n ew e x perie n ce ( w heth er t h at b e a r e ad in g, a w ork sh op,

dis c u ssio n, w ork w ith a s e rv ic e u se r, a t e am m eetin g, s u perv is io n o r a n o rg an is a tio nal i s su e)

• a fte r r e fle ctin g, c h alle n gin g a n d e v alu atin g ( th ro ugh d is c u ssio n, o fte n i n s u perv is io n), t o

dem onstr a te w here t h ey s it n ow w ith a p artic u la r i s su e o r s itu atio n.

In s h ort, a w ork er n eed s t o b e a b le t o ‘ re co nstr u ct’ t h e m ean in g f o r h im o r h er t h at h as c o m e

out o f t h is i s su e o r e x perie n ce.

We o fte n t e ll o ur s tu den ts t h at u nders ta n din g c ritic al r e fle ctio n i s a b it l ik e l o okin g a t a

math s e q uatio n. W e d on’t w an t t o g iv e y ou t h e e q uatio n ( o r t h e i s su e, p ro ble m , s itu atio n) a n d

ju st h ear t h e a n sw er; w e w an t y ou t o b e a b le t o d em onstr a te a n d u nders ta n d t h e p ro cess o f

work in g i t o ut. W e l ik e t o s e e t h e ‘ jo urn ey ’ o f l e arn in g, a n d w an t y ou t o b e a b le t o a rtic u la te

your u nders ta n din g o f t h is j o urn ey .

CO NCLU SIO N

23 As w e i n dic ate d i n t h e I n tr o ductio n, h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns f o rm t h e c o nte x t o f

pro fe ssio nals ’ e x perie n ce a n d t h at o f t h e p eo ple t h ey s e rv e. I n m an y w ay s, t h is c h ap te r s e rv es

as t h e f o undatio n f o r o th er t h em es t h at w ill e m erg e i n s u bse q uen t c h ap te rs . A nd a s w ill

beco m e c le ar, m an y o f t h e i s su es w e t o uch ed o n h ere w ill b e t a k en u p i n m ore d ep th i n

su bse q uen t c h ap te rs .

Chap te r r ev ie w q uestio n s

1.1 I d en tif y t h re e r e aso ns w hy t h e o rg an is a tio nal c o nte x t i s i m porta n t.

1.2 W hat a re p eo ple -p ro cessin g, p eo ple -s u sta in in g, p eo ple -c h an gin g a n d p eo ple -c o ntr o llin g

org an is a tio ns?

1.3 W hat i s a n o rg an is a tio n’s a u sp ic e?

1.4 W hat d o w e m ean b y o rg an is a tio nal c u ltu re ?

1.5 W hat i s N ew P ublic M an ag em en t?

1.6 W hy d o o rg an is a tio ns u nderg o q uality a ssu ra n ce?

1.7 W hat c h ara cte ris tic s s h ould a n e m plo yee e x pect o f a g ood p erfo rm an ce a p pra is a l?

1.8 W hy i s c ritic al r e fle ctio n i m porta n t?

OTH ER R ESO URCES

‘O ur C om munity ’, d ev elo pm en t m ate ria l f o r C om munity O rg an is a tio ns,

< www.o urc o m munity .c o m .a u /in dex .j s p

Quality I m pro vem en t a n d C om munity S erv ic es A ccre d ita tio n,

< www.l a tr o be.e d u.a u /a ip c/q ic sa

AASW , 2 006, C ontin uin g P ro fe ssio nal D ev elo pm en t,

< www.a asw .a sn .a u /d ocu m en t/ite m /8 9

KEY R EA DIN G S

Ja ck so n, A .C . a n d D onovan , F .D . 1 999, ‘ M ax im is in g P eo ple ’s C ontr ib utio n’, i n

Managin g t o

Surv iv e: M anageria l P ra ctic e i n N ot- fo r-p ro fit O rg anis a tio ns

, A lle n & U nw in , S ydney .

Gard ner, F . 2 006, i n

Work in g w ith H um an S erv ic e O rg anis a tio ns

, O xfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss,

Melb ourn e.

Hughes, M . a n d W earin g, M . 2 007,

Org anis a tio ns a nd M anagem en t i n S ocia l W ork

, S ag e,

London.

C H APT ER T W O

Lea d ersh ip i n h um an s e rv ic e

o rg an is a tio n s

S U M MARY

T his c h ap te r e x plo re s l e ad ers h ip i n h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns. W e s ta rt w ith a d is c u ssio n

o f w hy l e ad ers h ip i s i m porta n t t o n ew h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers . W e t h en p ro vid e a n o verv ie w

o f b ro ad er i s su es o f m an ag em en t i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es. T his i n clu des a n o verv ie w o f t h e

c o ncep t o f l e ad ers h ip a n d s o m e t h eo rie s a n d m odels t h at h av e b een u se d t o u nders ta n d i t. W e

t h en l o ok a t d if fe re n t w ay s o f u nders ta n din g t h e r o le h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers c an p la y i n

m an ag in g h um an s e rv ic es a n d i n e x erc is in g l e ad ers h ip . E xam ple s o f h ow w ork ers c an

e x erc is e l e ad ers h ip a n d i n flu en ce t h e d ev elo pm en t a n d d eliv ery o f s e rv ic es i n t h eir

o rg an is a tio n a re d is c u sse d . F in ally a n d i m porta n tly , t h e c h ap te r l o oks a t h ow r e cen t i d eas o f

g ood l e ad ers h ip h av e a l o t i n c o m mon w ith c o re p ro fe ssio nal v alu es. T hro ughout t h e c h ap te r,

w ork ers a re e n co ura g ed t o t h in k a b out h ow t h ey c an l e arn f ro m t h e l e ad ers h ip o f c o lle ag ues

a s w ell a s u ltim ate ly e x erc is e l e ad ers h ip t h em se lv es— ev en i f t h ey d o n ot h old m an ag em en t

p ositio ns.

W HY I S L EA DER SH IP I M PO RTA NT?

A s a n ew w ork er s ta rtin g o ut i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es f ie ld , y ou m ay w onder ‘ W hy i s

l e ad ers h ip i m porta n t t o m e?’ M an y n ew g ra d uate s e n te r p ra ctic e w ith a s tr o ng c o m mitm en t t o

w ork w ith i n div id uals o r f a m ilie s a n d n o r e al i n te re st i n d ealin g w ith b ure au cra cy o r a lig nin g

t h em se lv es w ith ‘ m an ag em en t’ . O th ers m ay f e el t h at, a s a n ew , i n ex perie n ced w ork er i n t h e

o rg an is a tio n, t h ey w ill j u st h av e t o f it i n , f o llo w t h e p ro ced ure s s e t a n d c erta in ly h av e n o r o le

i n l e ad ers h ip — ev en i f t h ey w an t t o .

This c an l e ad t o a f e elin g o f h elp le ssn ess o r a b elie f t h at t h ey h av e n o p ow er o r i n flu en ce

o n t h eir r o le a n d t h e d utie s t h ey p erfo rm . I t c an a ls o l e ad t o w ork ers b ein g i n a p ositio n w here

t h ey f e el t h ey h av e n o r ig hts a n d a re p ote n tia lly o pen t o b ully in g o r e x plo ita tio n b y m an ag ers .

W e d is c u ss t h e i m porta n ce o f p ow er a n d h ow y ou c an c o ncep tu alis e a n d e x erc is e p ow er a s a

w ork er i n m ore d eta il i n

Chap te r 9

; f o r n ow , t h ough, i t i s i m porta n t t o n ote t h at a n

u nders ta n din g o f t h e m an ag er’s r o le a n d o f h ow l e ad ers h ip c an b e e x erc is e d i s c en tr a l t o

b ein g a b le t o d eal w ith t h e i n ev ita b le t e n sio ns t h at c an a ris e i n h um an s e rv ic e w ork .

Lead ers h ip i s i m porta n t t o a ll h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers i n s e v era l w ay s. F ir s t, a s o utlin ed i n

25 Chap te r 1

, i f y ou a re t o w ork i n a n o rg an is a tio n, t h e w ay i t i s m an ag ed a n d h ow o th ers

ex erc is e l e ad ers h ip w ill h av e a d ir e ct i m pact o n t h e q uality o f y our w ork a n d y our j o b

sa tis fa ctio n. I f y ou u nders ta n d m ore a b out m an ag em en t a n d l e ad ers h ip , i t m ay h elp y ou t o

work c o nstr u ctiv ely ; i t m ay a ls o h elp y ou t o i d en tif y w hen t h in gs a re n ot g oin g w ell a n d w ork

out s tr a te g ie s y ou c an u se t o r a is e c o ncern s. A s e co nd a n d v ery i m porta n t a sp ect i s t h at y ou

can p la y a l e ad ers h ip r o le i n m an y w ay s w ith in y our w ork s e ttin g, a n d t h ro ugh t h is y ou m ay

be a b le t o i n flu en ce t h e q uality o f s e rv ic e o ffe re d t o t h e u se rs o f t h e o rg an is a tio n. E xam ple s

of t h is w ill b e p ro vid ed t h ro ughout t h e c h ap te r. A t h ir d r e aso n i s t h at y ou a re l ik ely , a t s o m e

poin t, t o b e a sk ed t o c o m men t o n y our e m plo yin g o rg an is a tio n’s l e ad ers h ip . F in ally , t h ough i t

may n ot s e em l ik ely n ow , y ou w ill a lm ost c erta in ly m ove i n to t e am l e ad ers h ip p ositio ns,

perh ap s e v en m ore s e n io r p ositio ns.

In t h e e arly y ears o f h um an s e rv ic e a ctiv ity , p ro fe ssio nals t e n ded t o b e l e ft l a rg ely a lo ne t o

underta k e t h eir s e rv ic e u se r-b ase d w ork . F ro m t h e 1 980s o nw ard s, t h ere w as a s h if t t o w ard s a

str o nger r o le f o r m an ag ers w ith in h um an s e rv ic es a n d p ublic s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns ( L aw le r

2007). W hile t h is m an ag eria lis m m ay h av e b ro ught i n cre ase d e ffic ie n cy a n d a cco unta b ility , i t

als o c am e a t a c o st t o p ro fe ssio nal s ta ff i n t e rm s o f m ore c o ntr o l a n d s tr u ctu re f o r h um an

se rv ic e w ork ers . T his r e su lte d i n a r e d uctio n i n t h eir j o b s a tis fa ctio n a n d u ltim ate ly a

re d uctio n i n t h e q uality o f t h eir w ork , a s s ta ff b ecam e d is e n gag ed a n d c o nstr a in ed d ue t o

lim ite d o pportu nitie s t o e x erc is e p ro fe ssio nal j u dgem en t. I n t h is c o nte x t, l e ad ers h ip ( a s

oppose d t o m an ag em en t) c an b e s e en a s a w ay t o i n cre ase e ffe ctiv en ess a n d i m pro ve s e rv ic es

while a llo w in g f o r m ore c re ativ ity , j o b s a tis fa ctio n a n d i n div id ual r e sp onsiv en ess i n a w ay

th at r e co gnis e s p ro fe ssio nal t r a in in g a n d t h e c o m ple x s itu atio ns i n w hic h h um an s e rv ic e

work ers o pera te .

Man ageria lis m :

A u niq uely A ustr a lia n t e rm u se d t o s ig nif y t h at N ew P ublic M an ag em en t- in sp ir e d

re fo rm s a re o pera tiv e.

It h as b een a rg ued t h at a s h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns b eco m e m ore c o m ple x w ith

ch an ges i n f u ndin g f o r a n d f ra g m en ta tio n o f s e rv ic es, i t h as b eco m e m ore i m porta n t f o r s ta ff

mem bers t o b e a b le t o u nders ta n d h ow t h e o rg an is a tio n w ork s ( C ouls h ed a n d M ulle n der,

2001). I n t h eir b ook

Managem en t i n S ocia l W ork

, t h ese a u th ors p ro vid e a n o verv ie w o f

org an is a tio nal t h eo ry a n d f ra m ew ork s f o r u nderta k in g m an ag em en t f u nctio ns w ith in h um an

se rv ic e a g en cie s, a n d t h e p oin ts t h ey r a is e a re v alu ab le f o r n ew h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers . T hey

are a ls o s im ple t o u nders ta n d. C ouls h ed a n d M ulle n der ( 2 001: 1 1) a rg ue t h at w ork ers n eed t o

‘th in k l ik e a m an ag er’ a n d b e a b le t o l o ok c ritic ally a t t h eir o rg an is a tio n, t h e w ork t h ey

underta k e a n d t h e s ta n dard s t o w hic h t h ey t h em se lv es w ork . T his ‘ c ritic al e y e’ p ro vid es t h e

opportu nity t o s e e t h e s e rv ic e t h at t h ey a n d t h eir a g en cy p ro vid e f ro m t h e p ers p ectiv e o f

se rv ic e u se rs . I t a ls o p ro m ote s a n aly sis o f t h e q uality o f s e rv ic e a n d i s su es t h at m ay n ot

oth erw is e b e c o nsid ere d d ue t o a p re o ccu patio n w ith o ne’s o w n r o le .

It i s a ls o i m porta n t t o n ote t h at, t h ro ugh u nders ta n din g m an ag em en t p rin cip le s a n d

pro cesse s, h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers c an b ette r u nders ta n d h ow t h ey f it w ith in t h e s y ste m a n d

when c h an ges a re n eed ed t o e n su re q uality s e rv ic e. T he f o llo w in g q uote s u m maris e s t h is

poin t w ell: ‘ T he r e le v an ce o f m an ag em en t s tu die s t o s o cia l w ork m ig ht l ie i n h elp in g u s t o

se e w hen i t i s t h e s y ste m , n ot o urs e lv es, w hic h i s a t f a u lt a n d w hen s ta n dard s a re n ot g ood

en ough a n d n eed c h an gin g.’ ( C ouls h ed a n d M ulle n der, 2 001: 1 2) E xam ple s o f h ow w ork ers

can i n flu en ce t h e q uality o f t h eir s e rv ic e w ill b e c o nsid ere d l a te r i n t h e c h ap te r.

While h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers m ay n ot i m med ia te ly s e e t h at m an ag em en t o r l e ad ers h ip a re

co re p arts o f t h eir r o le , a c lo se r e x am in atio n w ill s h ow t h at i n f a ct t h ey a re c en tr a l.

Chen ow eth a n d M cA ulif fe ( 2 008: 1 5), i n t h eir i n tr o ducto ry t e x t f o r s o cia l w ork a n d h um an

se rv ic e p ra ctic e, i d en tif y e ig ht d om ain s o f p ra ctic e i n w hic h t h ey b elie v e s o cia l w ork ers a n d

hum an s e rv ic e p ra ctitio ners h av e a l e g itim ate p la ce. O rg an is a tio nal p ra ctic e, m an ag em en t a n d

26 le ad ers h ip i s o ne o f t h ese d om ain s. T he o th ers a re : w ork w ith i n div id uals ; w ork w ith f a m ilie s

an d p artn ers h ip s; g ro up w ork ; c o m munity w ork ; s o cia l p olic y ; r e se arc h a n d e v alu atio n; a n d

ed ucatio n a n d t r a in in g. C hen ow eth a n d M cA ulif fe m ak e t h e i m porta n t p oin t t h at s o cia l

work ers a n d h um an s e rv ic e p ra ctitio ners a re n ot t h e o nly w ork ers / p ro fe ssio nals w ho h av e

le g itim acy i n t h ese d om ain s; t h ey d o, h ow ev er, h av e a k ey r o le t o p la y a n d a u niq ue

opportu nity f o r i n flu en ce, g iv en t h e b re ad th o f t h eir t r a in in g.

While h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers o fte n m ove i n to p ositio ns o f l e ad ers h ip a fte r t h ey h av e

work ed i n t h e f ie ld f o r a n um ber o f y ears , t h ere a re a ls o e x am ple s o f h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers

ta k in g u p t h is r o le e arly i n t h eir w ork in g c are ers . T he f ir s t p ositio n o ne o f t h e a u th ors

underto ok i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es f ie ld w as c o ord in ato r f o r a s m all, n ew ly f u nded c o m munity

org an is a tio n. W hile s h e h ad a c o m munity -b ase d m an ag em en t c o m mitte e t o p ro vid e o vera ll

dir e ctio n a n d t o h elp i d en tif y c o m munity i s su es a n d c o ncern s, a n d a c o -w ork er w ith e x celle n t

know le d ge o f t h e c o m munity ( b ut n o t r a in in g i n h um an s e rv ic e w ork ), m ost o f t h e d ay -to -d ay

pla n nin g a n d m an ag em en t f u nctio ns f e ll t o h er. T he b ro ad t r a in in g p ro vid ed b y h er s o cia l

work e d ucatio n— partic u la rly i n a re as s u ch a s p olic y , c o m munity w ork , g ro up w ork a n d

man ag em en t i s su es— pro vid ed a n e x celle n t f o undatio n t o h elp h er u nders ta n d h ow t o

esta b lis h n ew s e rv ic es a n d t o w ork w ith a w id e r a n ge o f f u ndin g b odie s, c o m munity g ro ups,

hum an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns a n d g overn m en t d ep artm en ts .

MANAG EM EN T I N H UM AN S E R VIC E O RG ANIS A TIO NS

A l o t h as b een w ritte n a b out m an ag em en t i n o rg an is a tio ns. A s s u ggeste d i n

Chap te r 1

, a k ey

dif fe re n ce w hen c o nsid erin g m an ag em en t o f h um an s e rv ic es i s t h at m ost d o n ot h av e p ro fit a s

th eir p rim ary m otiv e— unlik e b usin ess, w here m an ag em en t t h eo ry f ir s t w as d ev elo ped . M uch

of t h e r e se arc h o n l e ad ers h ip h as a ls o b een i n f o r-p ro fit o rg an is a tio ns ( P ack ard , 2 009). T hat

sa id , a s a ls o o utlin ed i n

Chap te r 1

, a n i n cre asin g n um ber o f f o r-p ro fit o rg an is a tio ns a re n ow

opera tin g i n t h e h um an s e rv ic e a re a. F or t h e p urp ose o f t h is c h ap te r, w e w ill f o cu s o n

unders ta n din g t h eo rie s o f l e ad ers h ip a n d m an ag em en t a s t h ey a re a p plie d t o h um an s e rv ic e

org an is a tio ns. T his w ill a ssis t y ou t o d ev elo p a n u nders ta n din g o f y our e m plo yin g

org an is a tio n a n d t h e c h alle n ges i t f a ces i n p ro vid in g s o cia l a n d c o m munity s e rv ic es.

The H andbook o f H um an S erv ic es M anagem en t

, P atti ( 2 009) p ro vid es a c o m pre h en siv e

overv ie w o f m an ag em en t a n d o rg an is a tio nal t h eo ry a n d p ra ctic e a s t h ey a re a p plie d t o h um an

se rv ic es. T he b ook i s a k ey r e so urc e f o r h um an s e rv ic e m an ag em en t a n d h as c o ntr ib utio ns

fro m a w id e r a n ge o f p ra ctitio ners a n d a cad em ic s. T he c en tr a l t h em e o f t h e b ook, i n P atti’ s

word s, i s ‘ h ow t o m an ag e h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns i n w ay s t h at l e ad t o t h e p ro vis io n o f

hig h q uality , e ffe ctiv e s e rv ic es t o c o nsu m ers ’ ( 2 009: i x ). T he b ook h as a s tr o ng f o cu s o n

is su es a n d a p pro ach es i m porta n t f o r m an ag ers . H ow ev er, t h e w ay t h e o rg an is a tio n i s r u n w ill

affe ct n ot o nly t h e q uality o f s e rv ic e t o c o nsu m ers b ut a ls o t h e s a tis fa ctio n o f w ork ers w ith in

it a n d t h eir c ap acity t o a ch ie v e t h eir g oals . P atti ( 2 009: 3 ) d efin es m an ag em en t— als o r e fe rre d

to a s

adm in is tr a tio n

—as ‘ o ne o f t h e m eth ods o f p ra ctic e e m plo yed b y h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers

to a ch ie v e t h eir p ro fe ssio nal a n d o rg an is a tio nal o bje ctiv es’. H e s e es m an ag em en t a n d

le ad ers h ip a s c o re t o h um an s e rv ic e w ork . T his v ie w m ay n ot b e s h are d b y w ork ers n ew t o

th e f ie ld , b ut a l o t c an b e g ain ed b y t h in kin g a b out o pportu nitie s f o r l e ad ers h ip a n d t h is i s

what w e h ope t o g iv e y ou a f e elin g f o r i n t h is c h ap te r. I t i s a ls o i m porta n t t o u nders ta n d h ow

man ag em en t r e q uir e m en ts m ay i m pact o n y our c ap acity t o w ork i n t h e o rg an is a tio n.

Patti s e es m an ag em en t a s e sse n tia l t o t h e o ptim um f u nctio nin g o f h um an s e rv ic e

org an is a tio ns. H e d is c u sse s t h e r a n ge o f m an ag eria l r o le s i n h um an s e rv ic es a n d o utlin es k ey

ro le s. F or t h e p urp ose o f t h is c h ap te r, w e w ill n ot d is c u ss t h ese r o le s; h ow ev er, b y l is tin g

th em w e c an g et a n i d ea o f t h e h uge r a n ge o f r o le s a m an ag er c an u nderta k e. T hese a re :

27 co m munic ato r, b oundary s p an ner, f u tu ris t- in novato r, o rg an is e r, r e so urc e e v alu ato r, p olic y

pra ctitio ner, a d vocate , s u perv is o r, f a cilita to r a n d t e am -b uild er/le ad er ( P atti, 2 009: 1 0–11).

Patti ( 2 009: 1 3) i d en tif ie s t h re e l e v els o f m an ag em en t a u th ority : t h e e x ecu tiv e l e v el ( e .g .

CEO ); t h e m id dle l e v el ( p ro gra m d ir e cto rs ); a n d t h e s u perv is o ry o r t e ch nic al l e v el ( e .g . t e am

le ad ers ). H e n ote s t h at w ork ers w ho d o n ot h av e a s p ecif ic m an ag em en t f u nctio n c an a ls o

co ntr ib ute t o t h e ‘ m an ag eria l p ro cesse s’, p artic u la rly a s f a cilita to rs a n d t e am -b uild ers .

Activ itie s s u ch a s m em bers h ip o n a g en cy o r i n te r-a g en cy c o m mitte es a n d p ro vid in g f e ed back

on t h e i m pact o f p olic ie s a n d p ro ced ure s a t t h e g ra ss-ro ots l e v el a re e x am ple s o f t h is .

The r o le o f y our m an ag ers w ill b e s e t o ut w ith in t h e o rg an is a tio nal s tr u ctu re

. T he d eg re e o f

au to nom y a n d s u pport y ou h av e i n y our p ositio n w ill b e a p pare n t f ro m y our j o b d esc rip tio n

or d uty s ta te m en t. I t i s i m porta n t f o r y ou t o h av e a c le ar u nders ta n din g o f w hat i s e x pecte d o f

your m an ag er a n d h ow m uch a u to nom y y ou w ill h av e. D o t a k e t h e t im e t o f a m ilia ris e

yours e lf w ith w hat i s e x pecte d . T his s h ould b e d one t h ro ugh r e ad in g t h e a g en cy f o rm al

docu m en ta tio n a n d b y s p eak in g w ith y our m an ag er a n d w ith c o lle ag ues. I f t h ere i s s o m eth in g

you d o n ot u nders ta n d— ask . D o n ot l e av e i t u ntil a n i s su e a ris e s t o f in d o ut t h at c erta in t h in gs

are e x pecte d o f y ou, o r c o nvers e ly , s h ould h av e b een p ro vid ed b y y our m an ag er.

If y ou d o n ot f e el t h at y our n eed s o r r ig hts a re b ein g p ro perly c o nsid ere d , d o n ot i g nore t h is

an d p ote n tia lly e n d u p f e elin g s tr e sse d o r t r a p ped ; r a th er, s p en d s o m e t im e r e fle ctin g o n t h e

situ atio n, e x plo re p ossib le a ctio n y ou c an t a k e a n d s e ek a d vic e f ro m o th er w ork ers o r

man ag ers . I f t h is d oes n ot h elp , c o nsid er s e ek in g i n put f ro m p ro fe ssio nal b odie s o r y our

unio n. T he i m porta n ce o f m ain ta in in g p ro fe ssio nal r e la tio nsh ip s a n d s tr a te g ie s f o r d ealin g

with c o nflic t i s a d dre sse d l a te r i n t h is b ook ( C hap te rs 6 a n d 8 ) a n d w ill h elp y ou i n

unders ta n din g c o nstr u ctiv e w ay s o f d ealin g w ith p oor m an ag em en t. T he r o le o f t h eir m an ag er

is a v ery s ig nif ic an t o ne f o r a n y h um an s e rv ic e w ork er, b ut p artic u la rly s o f o r s o m eo ne n ew

to t h e f ie ld . I t i s w orth s p en din g a s h ort w hile c o nsid erin g w hat y ou d o o r c an e x pect f ro m

your m an ag er.

EX ER CIS E

Tak e a f e w m in ute s t o t h in k a b out m an ag ers w ith w hom y ou h av e w ork ed , p erh ap s a t a p la cem en t

ag en cy o r i n a h um an s e rv ic e s e ttin g.

• W rite d ow n t h e t h re e k ey s t h in gs y ou s e e a s b ein g i n te g ra l t o t h e m an ag er’s r o le .

• T hin k o f a n e x am ple o f w here a m an ag er p erfo rm ed h is o r h er m an ag em en t r o le w ell.

• T hin k o f a n oth er e x am ple w here y ou f e el a m an ag er d id n ot p erfo rm w ell. W hat m ad e t h e

dif fe re n ce? W as i t p ers o nal q ualitie s? T he s tr u ctu re o f t h e s e ttin g? S om eth in g e ls e ? D is c u ss

your e x am ple s i n p air s /g ro ups a n d s e e w heth er t h ere i s s h are d u nders ta n din g a b out w hat

was/w asn ’t d one w ell a n d w hy. A ls o s e e w heth er y ou c an r e ach a g re em en t a b out w hat t h e

ro le o f t h e m an ag er s h ould b e i n t h e s itu atio ns y ou d is c u sse d a n d w hat i s n eed ed f o r i t t o

work w ell.

What w ill y ou e x pect f ro m m an ag ers ? F acto rs t h at m ay i n flu en ce t h is w ill b e:

• y our p re v io us e x perie n ces, b oth g ood a n d b ad

• y our c o lle ag ues’ p erc ep tio ns

• y our p ers o nality

• y our u nders ta n din g o f t h e o rg an is a tio n a n d i ts f o cu s a n d a im s.

LEA DER SH IP I N H UM AN S E R VIC E O RG ANIS A TIO NS

28 While m ost h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers a re a b le t o u nders ta n d t h e r o le o f m an ag ers , l e ad ers h ip i s

more d if fic u lt t o d efin e, a n d t h ere a re w id e-ra n gin g v ie w s a b out h ow i t d oes a n d d oes n ot

dif fe r f ro m m an ag em en t ( L aw le r, 2 007; G ard ner, 2 006; P atti, 2 009; J a ck so n a n d D onovan ,

1999). M an y w rite rs c o nsid er— as d o w e— th at m an ag em en t i n volv es a l in e r e sp onsib ility f o r

th e d ay -to -d ay w ork o f a g ro up o f s ta ff, w here as l e ad ers h ip c an b oth b e a c o m ponen t o f

man ag em en t a n d a ls o b e e x erc is e d b y o th ers w ith in t h e o rg an is a tio n. I n h is a rtic le o n

le ad ers h ip i n s o cia l w ork , L aw le r ( 2 007: 1 26) c le arly s ta te s t h at t h e l ite ra tu re o n l e ad ers h ip i s

now o f t h e v ie w t h at ‘ th ey d o c o nstitu te d if fe re n t p hen om en a, w ith m an ag em en t f o cu sin g

more o n e ffic ie n cy a n d r e g ula tio n, a s l e ad ers h ip f o cu se s m ore o n c h an ge a n d m otiv atio n’.

Pack ard ( 2 009) p ro vid es a c o m pre h en siv e o verv ie w o f h is to ric al a n d c u rre n t v ie w s o f

le ad ers h ip , a n d n ote s t h at a w id e r a n ge a n d m ix o f a p pro ach es h av e b een a n d c o ntin ue t o b e

use d i n o rg an is a tio ns. T his i s q uite a c o m ple x a re a, a n d i t i s u se fu l t o q uote P ack ard f o r a n

overv ie w o f t h ese a p pro ach es:

The e a rlie st r e se a rc h o n l e a dersh ip f o cu se d o n t r a its , w hic h w ere o rig in ally s e en a s i n nate

ch ara cte ris tic s o f l e a ders. T his a re a o f s tu dy h as b ro aden ed t o i n clu de s k ills a nd c o m pete n cie s a s

well a s m ore i n nate t r a its . N ext, r e se a rc h i n t o g ro up d yn am ic s e xa m in ed i n te rp erso nal a nd t a sk

beh avio urs a s t h ey i m pacte d g ro up e ffe ctiv en ess. T he n otio n o f l e a dersh ip s ty le e vo lv ed f r o m t h is

work , o fte n u se d i n a c o ntin uum f r o m a uto cra tic o r d ir e ctiv e s ty le s t o p artic ip ato ry a ppro ach es.

Even tu ally , r e se a rc h ers e xp lo re d t h e n otio n t h at t h ere i s n o o ne ‘ b est w ay’ o f l e a din g a nd i d en tifie d

co ntin gen cie s t h at w ould s u ggest t h e b est a ppro ach . C urre n t t h eo rie s c o m monly i n clu de e le m en ts o f

se vera l o f t h ese e a rlie r m odels .

( 2 009: 1 46)

Hum an s e rv ic e w ork ers k een t o u nders ta n d m ore a b out t h eo rie s o f l e ad ers h ip ( a n d

man ag em en t) c o uld r e ad P ack ard ’s c h ap te r i n f u ll a n d r e ad t h e

Handbook o f H um an S erv ic es

Managem en t

m ore w id ely ( P atti, 2 009). T hose w ith a p artic u la r i n te re st i n t h e m an ag em en t

of s m alle r n on-p ro fit o rg an is a tio ns w ill f in d a l o t o f p ra ctic al a n d l o cal i n fo rm atio n i n

Ja ck so n a n d D onovan ’s b ook

Managin g t o S urv iv e

( 1 999), w hic h i s w ritte n p rim arily f o r

man ag ers a n d b oard m em bers o f s m alle r o rg an is a tio ns w ith in t h e h um an s e rv ic e s e cto r. T heir

earlie r b ook,

Managin g H um an S erv ic e O rg anis a tio ns

( D onovan a n d J a ck so n, 1 991) i s a

more d eta ile d a cco unt t h at p ro vid es s o m e v alu ab le i n fo rm atio n t o h elp r e ad ers u nders ta n d

an d s u pport m an ag em en t o f h um an s e rv ic es f ro m a n A ustr a lia n p ers p ectiv e. C ouls h ed a n d

Mulle n der ( 2 001) a ls o p ro vid e s o m e p ra ctic al a n d v ery a ccessib le g uid an ce o n m an ag em en t

with in s o cia l w ork ; w hile w ritte n f ro m a B ritis h p ers p ectiv e, t h is b ook i s s till v ery r e le v an t t o

hum an s e rv ic e p ra ctic e a n d m an ag em en t i n A ustr a lia .

With in t h e h um an s e rv ic es, t h ere a re m an y d efin itio ns o f l e ad ers h ip . P ack ard u se s

North ouse ’s d efin itio n o f l e ad ers h ip a s ‘ a p ro cess b y w hic h a n i n div id ual i n flu en ces a g ro up

of i n div id uals t o a ch ie v e c o m mon g oals ’ ( 2 009: 1 44). T his f a ir ly s tr a ig htf o rw ard d efin itio n

mak es s e n se t o u s. P ack ard f o cu se s o n p ro gra m a n d a g en cy l e ad ers h ip ; h ow ev er, h e a ls o

note s t h at l e ad ers h ip c an t a k e p la ce a t o th er l e v els , i n clu din g g ro ups, t e am s a n d m ore b ro ad ly

co m munitie s a n d c o untr ie s. F or t h e n ew w ork er, i t i s a t t h e g ro up o r t e am l e v el t h at t h ey h av e

th e p ote n tia l t o e x erc is e l e ad ers h ip .

More r e cen t w ritin gs o n l e ad ers h ip h av e s h if te d a w ay f ro m a c o ncern w ith t h e p ers o nal

qualitie s o f a l e ad er t o a n u nders ta n din g o f d im en sio ns o f l e ad ers h ip a n d h ow i m porta n t

ch ara cte ris tic s c an b e d ev elo ped ( L aw le r, 2 007; J a ck so n a n d D onovan , 1 999). A noth er

im porta n t w ay o f u nders ta n din g m an ag em en t a n d l e ad ers h ip i s p ro vid ed b y c o nsid erin g t h e

co ncep ts o f t r a n sa ctio nal a n d t r a n sfo rm atio nal l e ad ers h ip . L aw le r ( 2 007: 1 26) d esc rib es t h ese

as f o llo w s: ‘ T ra n sa ctio nal l e ad ers h ip ( o r “ m an ag em en t” ) h as a f o cu s o n s ta b ility , e ffic ie n cy ,

fo rm al a u th ority , c o ord in atio n, r e su lts a n d c o ntr o l. T ra n sfo rm atio nal l e ad ers h ip h as a f o cu s

on e ffe ctiv en ess, c h an ge a n d t h e d ev elo pm en t o f c o -o pera tio n, m otiv atio n a n d v alu es.’

The i n tr o ductio n o f v alu es i s w here l e ad ers h ip s ta rts t o s h ow a c le ar c o nnectio n w ith

29 hum an s e rv ic e w ork ers , a n d s o cia l w ork i n p artic u la r. V alu es a re c en tr a l t o p ro fe ssio nal

pra ctic e— as a rtic u la te d , f o r e x am ple , t h ro ugh a C ode o f E th ic s ( A ASW ). H ughes a n d

Wearin g ( 2 007: 7 9) r e fe r t o m ore r e cen t t h eo rie s o f l e ad ers h ip a s ‘ n ew l e ad ers h ip ’, w here t h e

le ad er i s s e en a s i n flu en cin g o rg an is a tio nal c u ltu re a n d a rtic u la tin g s h are d v alu es a n d

purp ose . T hro ughout t h eir c h ap te r o n l e ad ers h ip , H ughes a n d W earin g ( 2 007) i d en tif y a

str o ng p ote n tia l r o le f o r s o cia l w ork i n p artic u la r i n l e ad ers h ip w ith in h um an s e rv ic e

org an is a tio ns. W e w ill r e v is it t h e q uestio n o f l e ad ers h ip a n d h um an s e rv ic es v alu es a n d

pra ctic e s ta n dard s a t t h e e n d o f t h is c h ap te r.

Opin io ns a b out h ow a m an ag er s h ould e x erc is e l e ad ers h ip a n d a b out w hat m ak es a g ood

man ag er o r l e ad er v ary g re atly . I t i s i n te re stin g t o n ote t h at r e se arc h h as s h ow n w hen w ork ers

are a sk ed a b out l e ad ers h ip t h ey o fte n s e e l e ad ers h ip a s w hat m an ag ers d o o r s h ould d o

(G ard ner, 2 006). D onovan a n d J a ck so n ( 1 991) a ls o s ta te t h at i n h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns

th ere i s a t e n den cy t o f o cu s o n w hat s h ould b e d one w ith out c o nsid erin g f a cto rs t h at m ay

im pact o n d ecis io n-m ak in g. H ughes a n d W earin g ( 2 007: 7 8) s ta te t h at w hile t h e c o m mon

im ag e o f a l e ad er i n a n o rg an is a tio n i s a ‘ p urp ose fu l, a ctiv e c h an ge a g en t’ , t h ey s e e t h is a s a

co nstr u ctio n t h at d oes n ot m atc h p eo ple ’s l iv ed e x perie n ce i n o rg an is a tio ns. T hey m ak e t h e

fo llo w in g o bse rv atio n a b out h ow d ecis io ns c an b e m ad e i n o rg an is a tio ns: n ot a ll d ecis io ns a re

han ded d ow n t o s o cia l w ork ers f ro m ‘ o n h ig h’ a n d a s a

fa it a cco m pli

. M an y a re e x perie n ced

by f ro nt- lin e w ork ers a s b ein g n eg otia te d i n p ro cess, w ith r e al a n d s o m etim es u nin te n ded

co nse q uen ces.

This s u pports o ur v ie w t h at h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers d o h av e m ore o pportu nitie s t o

in flu en ce d ecis io ns t h an t h ey r e alis e . I t i s a m atte r o f l o okin g f o r t h ese o pportu nitie s a n d

build in g y our o w n c o nfid en ce a n d c ap acity t o m ak e a c o ntr ib utio n. I t i s a ls o u se fu l t o

unders ta n d t h at n ot a ll a ctio ns a n d d ecis io ns o f m an ag ers a re m ad e i n p erfe ct, p la n ned

cir c u m sta n ces. C onsid er t h e f o llo w in g c ase s tu dy, w hic h i llu str a te s b oth t h e c ap acity f o r

work ers t o i n flu en ce s e rv ic e d eliv ery a n d t h e d if fic u ltie s m an ag ers c an h av e w hen s e ek in g t o

im ple m en t c h an ge.

Case s tu dy: G ath erin g s ta tis tic s

Lis a i s a n ew w ork er i n a f a m ily s u pport a g en cy . W hen s h e j o in s s h e i s t o ld b y h er m an ag er,

Maria , t h at h er e m plo ym en t i s p art o f a n e x pan sio n o f s e rv ic es f o r t h e a g en cy , b ro ught a b out b y

new f u ndin g f ro m t h e s ta te g overn m en t. S he i s t o ld t h at i t w ill b e i m porta n t f o r c o ntin ued f u ndin g

of h er p ositio n t h at s ta tis tic s a re a ccu ra te ly k ep t. L is a i s h ap py w ith t h is a s s h e i s k een t o k eep

work in g i n t h e p ro gra m a n d i s i n te re ste d i n s e ein g d eta ils o n t h e t y pes o f s e rv ic e u se rs /s itu atio ns

th e p ro gra m e n co unte rs a n d t h e r a n ge a n d n um ber o f o utc o m es.

When L is a m eets h er c o -w ork ers , s h e s ta rts t o h ear m an y c o m pla in ts a b out t h e

man ag er. W ork ers a re u nhap py w ith t h e c h an ges s h e h as i n tr o duced a n d p artic u la rly

unhap py a b out t h e n eed t o k eep l o ts o f d eta ile d s ta tis tic s, w hic h t h ey s e e a s i r re le v an t.

Sev era l o f h er c o -w ork ers t e ll h er t h at M aria h as c h an ged s in ce s h e t o ok o n t h e

man ag em en t r o le , a n d t h at t h e s ta tis tic s s h e h as t o ld t h em t o k eep d o n ot m ak e s e n se f o r

th e n ew p ro gra m , i n w hic h M aria h as n ev er w ork ed . T hey t e ll h er t h at t h ey a re n ’t r e ally

both erin g t o k eep t h e s ta tis tic s a n d w ill m ak e u p e n tr ie s w hen t h ey a re f o rc ed t o p ut i n

th eir m onth ly r e p orts .

Lis a b eco m es m ore a n d m ore w orrie d , a s s h e k now s t h at h er c o ntin uin g e m plo ym en t

dep en ds o n t h e e x tr a f u ndin g a n d t h at t h e s ta tis tic s a re n eed ed t o p ro ve t h e a m ount a n d

ty pe o f w ork t h ey a re d oin g. S he i s a ls o c o ncern ed b ecau se s h e a g re es w ith t h e o th er

work ers t h at t h e s ta tis tic s k ep t d o n ot m ak e s e n se a n d d o n ot r e fle ct a ll o f t h e w ork d one.

She s ta rts t o w orry t h at s h e w ill n ot h av e a j o b f o r l o ng, s o a lth ough s h e i s r e ally

en jo yin g t h e w ork a n d i t i s i n h er a re a o f i n te re st, s h e d ecid es t o l o ok f o r a n ew p ositio n

in a n oth er a g en cy .

30 Dis c u ssio n q uestio n s

• W hat d o y ou t h in k h as h ap pen ed h ere ?

• I s t h ere s o m eth in g L is a c o uld h av e d one t o t r y t o i m pro ve h er s itu atio n?

• W hat d o y ou t h in k m ay b e h ap pen in g b etw een M aria a n d t h e o th er s ta ff?

• I f y ou w ere a sk ed b y M aria t o h elp i n t h is s itu atio n, w hat w ould y ou s u ggest?

• W hat c o uld t h e o th er w ork ers d o i f t h ey w ere u nhap py w ith t h e c h an ges?

EX ER CIS IN G L EA DER SH IP A T T H E F R O NT L IN E

Now t h at w e h av e g iv en a n o verv ie w o f m an ag em en t a n d l e ad ers h ip i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es

an d s p en t s o m e t im e t h in kin g a b out w hat a m an ag er ‘ s h ould d o’, o r w hat m ay i m pact o n t h eir

ab ility t o m an ag e, i t i s t im e t o t h in k a b out w hat r o le y ou m ig ht p la y a s a w ork er i n a h um an

se rv ic e a g en cy . W e s ta rt b y c o nsid erin g s o m e o f t h e r o le s w ork ers c an u nderta k e i n t h e

man ag em en t o f t h eir o rg an is a tio ns a n d t h en m ove o n t o d is c u ss e x am ple s o f h ow h um an

se rv ic e w ork ers c an c o ntr ib ute t o m an ag em en t a n d l e ad ers h ip i n t h eir o rg an is a tio n. W e w an t

you t o t h in k a b out h ow y ou c an e x erc is e l e ad ers h ip ; w hat y ou c an d o t o i m pro ve t h e q uality

of s e rv ic e t o y our c o nsu m ers a n d w hat y ou c an d o t o i m pro ve y our o w n a n d o th ers ’ j o b

sa tis fa ctio n.

As o utlin ed a t t h e s ta rt o f t h e c h ap te r, w e b elie v e t h at i t i s p ossib le f o r f ro nt- lin e w ork ers t o

ex erc is e l e ad ers h ip a n d t h at t h is i s a c o re p art o f t h eir r o le /d om ain o f p ra ctic e w ith in t h e

hum an s e rv ic es f ie ld . J a ck so n a n d D onovan ( 1 999: 9 ) d is c u ss t h e r e la tio nsh ip b etw een

man ag em en t a n d l e ad ers h ip ; t h eir v ie w i s t h at v ery f e w a ctiv itie s a re p ure ly l e ad ers h ip o r

pure ly m an ag em en t, b ut m ost a ctiv itie s a re b oth . F or n ew h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers , a u se fu l

dis tin ctio n m ay b e m ad e b etw een r o le s w here w ork ers h av e a f o rm al r e sp onsib ility f o r o th er

sta ff o r a ctiv itie s, a n d b ro ad er l e ad ers h ip f u nctio ns t h at c an b e e x erc is e d a p art f ro m t h ese

fo rm al r o le s.

The r o le o f f r o n t-lin e w ork ers i n m an agem en t

Chen ow eth a n d M cA ulif fe ( 2 008: 1 9) p ro vid e a c le ar o verv ie w o f m an ag em en t

re sp onsib ilitie s. T hey s ta te :

Managem en t r e sp onsib ilitie s, w hic h a re o fte n a dm in is tr a tiv e i n n atu re , i n clu de r e cru itin g a nd

em plo yin g s ta ff, t r a in in g v o lu nte ers, n eg otia tin g f u ndin g a rra ngem en ts a nd b udgets , e va lu atin g

se rv ic es, d evelo pin g p olic y, p ublic s p ea kin g a nd c o ord in atin g s e rv ic es.

They p ro vid e t h e f o llo w in g e x am ple s o f m an ag em en t r e sp onsib ilitie s:

• b ein g r e sp onsib le , a s a s e n io r s o cia l w ork er, f o r a s ta ff t e am i n a m ajo r h osp ita l a n d c o ord in atin g

org an is a tio nal r e sp onse s t o s ta ffin g i s su es

• m an ag in g a c o m munity a g en cy r e sp onsib le f o r c o ord in atin g w om en ’s h ealth s e rv ic es a cro ss a

re g io n

• m an ag in g a g overn m en t f u ndin g p ro gra m f o r c o m munity a g en cie s t h at p ro vid es g am blin g s u pport

se rv ic es i n r u ra l a re as

• m an ag in g a m ultic u ltu ra l c o m munity a g en cy r e sp onsib le f o r p ro vid in g l a n guag e p ro gra m s t o

lin guis tic ally d iv ers e c o m munitie s

• p ro vid in g c lin ic al s u perv is io n w ith in a c h ild p ro te ctio n a g en cy ( C hen ow eth a n d M cA ulif fe , 2 008:

19).

While m an y p ositio ns r e q uir in g m an ag em en t a n d l e ad ers h ip s k ills a re o fte n a d m in is tr a tiv e,

31 le ad ers h ip s k ills a re a ls o i m porta n t i n n on-a d m in is tr a tiv e p ositio ns. H um an s e rv ic e w ork ers

can m ove t o m an ag em en t p ositio ns— most t y pic ally a s s e n io r w ork ers /p ra ctitio ners — an d

th ey c an a ls o b e a d m in is tr a tiv ely a cco unta b le t o o r f o r w ork ers f ro m d if fe re n t d is c ip lin es

oth er t h an t h eir o w n. O rg an is a tio nal s k ills a n d t h e a b ility t o w ork c o nstr u ctiv ely w ith o th er

dis c ip lin es a re i d en tif ie d a s s o m e o f t h e k ey f a cto rs i m porta n t t o h um an s e rv ic e m an ag em en t.

It i s i m porta n t t o u nders ta n d t h at w hile l e ad ers h ip o pportu nitie s m ay c o m e w ith l in e

man ag em en t o r a d m in is tr a tiv e a cco unta b ility , t h ey d o n ot a lw ay s h av e t o g o t o geth er a n d i n

so m e c ase s a d m in is tr a tiv e r e sp onsib ly c an i n f a ct d etr a ct f ro m t h e c ap acity t o e x erc is e g ood

le ad ers h ip . I t i s i m porta n t t o s tr ik e a b ala n ce b etw een a d m in is tr a tiv e r e sp onsib ility a n d t h e

opportu nity t o e x erc is e l e ad ers h ip . S om etim es t h e a d m in is tr a tiv e r e sp onsib ility c an g iv e

le g itim acy t o y our r o le i n a re as y ou c an i n flu en ce, b ut i n o th er s itu atio ns i t c an t a k e t h e f o cu s

aw ay f ro m a re as i n w hic h h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers c an m ak e a r e al c o ntr ib utio n, a n d t ie u p

th eir t im e a n d r e so urc es w ith b ure au cra tic p ro ced ure s a n d p ro cesse s.

Case s tu dy: C en tr elin k

A g ood e x am ple o f t h is i s t h e h is to ry o f s o cia l w ork ers w ork in g w ith a d m in is tr a tiv e s ta ff i n

se ttin gs s u ch a s C en tr e lin k. A s a n ew a n d t h e s o le s o cia l w ork er i n a n ew C en tr e lin k o ffic e, S ue

was k een t o f in d b ette r w ay s t o s u pport t h e s ta ff w ho w ork ed a t t h e f ro nt c o unte r, d ealin g w ith

myria d i n quir ie s a n d c o ncern s f ro m t h e p ublic , s o m etim es h av in g t o d eal w ith p eo ple w ho w ere

eith er v ery d is tr e sse d o r a t t im es v ery a n gry . T he o pportu nity t o t a k e o n t h e t e am l e ad ers h ip o f t h is

gro up o f s ta ff p re se n te d a n d s h e g la d ly a ccep te d , s e ein g t h is a s a w ay o f b oth s u pportin g t h e s ta ff

an d o f i n flu en cin g t h e q uality o f s e rv ic e o ffe re d t o p eo ple a tte n din g t h e o ffic e. T he p ro ble m w as

th at t h e t e am l e ad er r o le c arrie d a r a n ge o f o th er r e sp onsib ilitie s w ith i t, i n clu din g m onito rin g

atte n dan ce, d ra w in g u p r o ste rs a n d e n su rin g t h at s ta ff w ere u p t o d ate w ith p olic y a n d p ro ced ura l

ch an ges. A ll t h is d etr a cte d f ro m S ue’s c ap acity t o p ro vid e a s o cia l w ork s e rv ic e t o p eo ple

atte n din g t h e o ffic e. A s t h ere w ere n o s o cia l w ork ers a m ongst t h e o th er s ta ff, t h is m ean t t h at t h ere

was l e ss t im e t o s e e s e rv ic e u se rs o r t o u nderta k e o th er s o cia l w ork a ctiv itie s s u ch a s s e rv ic e

dev elo pm en t, m onito rin g o f p olic y o r l ia is in g w ith o th er s e rv ic e p ro vid ers i n t h e c o m munity .

Even tu ally S ue d ecid ed t h at t h ere w ere o th er w ay s t o p ro vid e s u pport t o t h e f ro nt- lin e s ta ff a n d t o

in flu en ce t h e q uality o f s e rv ic e p ro vid ed f o r s e rv ic e u se rs . A n e x perie n ced a d m in is tr a tiv e s ta ff

mem ber w as a p poin te d a s t e am l e ad er a n d S ue a cte d a s m en to r f o r n ew f ro nt- lin e s ta ff a n d

atte n ded t e am m eetin gs. S he a ls o p ro vid ed i n put o n s e rv ic e u se r n eed s, i n te r-p ers o nal s k ills

tr a in in g a n d c o m munity n eed s a w are n ess. A ccep ta n ce o f S ue i n t h is c o nsu lta tiv e r o le w as

certa in ly a ssis te d b y h er t im e a s t e am l e ad er, w here s h e e sta b lis h ed h er l e g itim acy a n d d ev elo ped

a s tr o ng a p pre cia tio n o f t h e i s su es f a cin g f ro nt- lin e s ta ff a n d t h e c o m petin g d em an ds p la ced o n

th em .

The r o le o f f r o n t-lin e w ork ers i n l e a d ersh ip

Lead ers h ip i n s o cia l w ork i n p artic u la r c an o fte n b e e x erc is e d l a te ra lly , n ot o nly f ro m a b ove,

as i llu str a te d b y t h e C en tr e lin k c ase s tu dy. A c o m mon s itu atio n w here l in e m an ag em en t o r

te am l e ad ers h ip i s n ot a n i s su e i s w hen a h um an s e rv ic e w ork er i n flu en ces h is o r h er f e llo w

work ers t o e n gag e i n a p pro pria te p ra ctic e t h ro ugh e x am ple , o r b y d is c u ssin g h ow t h ey w ould

work i n a p artic u la r s itu atio n. ( S ee t h e M ig ra n t R eso urc e C en tr e c ase s tu dy l a te r i n t h is

se ctio n f o r a n e x am ple o f t h is ).

Couls h ed a n d M ulle n der ( 2 001) a rg ue t h at a ll w ork ers a re m an ag ers ; t h ey a ls o e x plo re

sim ila ritie s b etw een t h e s k ills i n volv ed i n d ir e ct p ra ctic e a n d i n m an ag em en t. C en tr a l t o t h is

are i n te rp ers o nal s k ills , w ork in g t o w ard s c h an ge a n d a n u nders ta n din g o f g ro up w ork t h eo ry

an d p ra ctic e. T he r o le o f c ase m an ag er i s u se d t o i llu str a te c o re a sp ects o f h um an s e rv ic e

32 work p ra ctic e t h at p ro vid e g ood p re p ara tio n f o r m an ag em en t b ecau se t h ey r e q uir e w ork ers t o

utilis e s k ills i n a re as s u ch a s n eg otia tin g, l ia is o n a n d a d vocacy , a s w ell a s w ork in g w ith in a

budget. F ro m t h is i t s h ould f o llo w t h at w ork ers i n t h e h um an s e rv ic e f ie ld a lr e ad y p osse ss t h e

sk ills t o e x erc is e g ood l e ad ers h ip .

Exam ple s o f h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers e x erc is in g l e ad ers h ip i n clu de:

• m onito rin g t h e q uality o f t h e s e rv ic e o ffe re d b y t h e a g en cy , e ith er t h ro ugh a f o rm al r o le i n

ev alu atio n o r b y i n fo rm al o bse rv atio n a n d f e ed back

• m ax im is in g s e rv ic e u se r o rie n ta tio n/f o cu s t h ro ugh r a is in g i s su es, s ta ff t r a in in g o r c o m men tin g o n

pro pose d c h an ges

• h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers p artic ip atin g i n m an ag em en t t e am o f o rg an is a tio ns ( e .g . t h e s e n io r s o cia l

work r o le i n C en tr e lin k a t t h e l o cal l e v el a n d i n a re a m an ag em en t f o ru m s)

• p artic ip atin g i n p ro fe ssio nal o rg an is a tio ns s u ch a s t h e A ASW

• p artic ip atin g i n o rg an is a tio nal w ork in g p artie s

• p artic ip atin g i n u nio ns ( e .g . t h e A ustr a lia n S erv ic es U nio n)

• s e rv in g o n b oard s o f o th er o rg an is a tio ns ( e .g . o n t h e m an ag em en t c o m mitte e o f t h e l o cal

co m munity c en tr e o r y outh h ousin g s e rv ic e).

The a b ility t o a p pre cia te t h e s k ills a n d k now le d ge o f o th ers a s w ell a s e x erc is e l e ad ers h ip

in a m ultid is c ip lin ary s e ttin g i s c ritic al t o s u ccessfu l w ork i n h um an s e rv ic es. L aw le r s e es t h e

co ncep t o f ‘ in te r-p ro fe ssio nal l e ad ers h ip ’ a s a k ey w ay t h at h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers c an

ex erc is e l e ad ers h ip i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es ( 2 007: 1 31).

A n um ber o f a u th ors h av e d is c u sse d t h e i m porta n ce o f w ork in g t o w ard s c h an ge i n a n

org an is a tio n ( e .g . G ard ner 2 006; C ouls h ed a n d M ulle n der, 2 001). W e b elie v e t h at t h is f o cu s

on o rg an is a tio nal c h an ge a n d o n i m pro vem en t i n t h e q uality o f s e rv ic e p ro vis io n c an b e

acco m plis h ed b y h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers e x erc is in g l e ad ers h ip . C ouls h ed a n d M ulle n der

(2 001: 1 6) s ta te t h at w ork ers w ith in a n o rg an is a tio n c an c o ntr ib ute t o c h an ge o r i n novatio n.

They n ote : ‘ T hese d o n ot a lw ay s h av e t o c o m e f ro m t h e o uts id e; c h an gin g t h e a g en cy f ro m

with in o ccu rs q uite f re q uen tly a n d o ne n eed n ot b e i n a p ositio n o f p ow er t o i n flu en ce a g en cy

pra ctic e.’

Gard ner ( 2 006) d is c u sse s t h e c o ncep t o f ‘ w ork in g a ctiv ely ’ i n t h e o rg an is a tio n. S he l o oks

at w ay s t o w ork w ith in t h e o rg an is a tio n f o r c h an ge a n d a t t im es t o r e sis t c h an ge. T he v ie w

sh e p re se n ts s its w ell w ith t h e d efin itio n o f l e ad ers h ip w e h av e p ro m ote d t h ro ughout t h is

ch ap te r.

Gard ner a ls o a rg ues t h at w hile m an y w ork ers a t t h e l o w er e n d o f a n o rg an is a tio n o fte n f e el

pow erle ss a n d u nab le t o v oic e t h eir c o ncern s, t h ey i n f a ct c an i n itia te /r e sis t c h an ge m ore t h an

th ey r e alis e . S he m ak es t h e i m porta n t p oin t t h at:

work ers a re s o f o cu se d o n w ork in g w ith s e rv ic e u se rs t h at t h ey h ave n o e n erg y l e ft t o c h ange o r

ch alle n ge t h e o rg anis a tio n. O fte n t o o, w ork ers s o m eh ow l o ose t h e c a pacity t o s ta nd b ack f r o m t h eir

org anis a tio n t o s e e i t m ore c le a rly , t o b e a ble t o i d en tify — as t h ey w ould w ith a n i n div id ual o r

co m munity s e rv ic e u se r— how i t w ork s a nd h ow c h ange m ay b e p ossib le , a nd t h en t o t a ke a ctiv e

ste p s t o a ch ie ve t h is .

( G ard ner, 2 006: 1 28–9)

While w ork ers w ill a t t im es u nderta k e a c le ar l e ad ers h ip o r m an ag em en t r o le f o r a s e t

perio d o f t im e o r p urp ose , i t i s a ls o i m porta n t f o r w ork ers t o b e a le rt t o o pportu nitie s f o r

‘s itu atio nal l e ad ers h ip ’. B y t h is w e m ean t h at t h ere w ill b e t im es w hen i t i s i m porta n t t o

in itia te a ctio n o r s h ow l e ad ers h ip i n a d dre ssin g a n i m med ia te i s su e o r c o ncern . W hat w e h ope

to d o b y g iv in g a b rie f o verv ie w o f m an ag em en t a n d i n tr o ducin g t h e c o ncep t o f l e ad ers h ip a t

hum an s e rv ic e w ork er l e v el i s t o e n co ura g e y ou t o a lw ay s b e o pen t o t h e p ossib ility o f

ch an ge a n d t o h av e t h e c o nfid en ce t o m ak e a n e ffo rt.

Som e s tr a te g ie s c an t h at b e u se d t o w ork t o w ard s c h an ge i n clu de r a is in g t h e i s su e,

33 gath erin g i n fo rm atio n, p ro m otin g t h e c ase f o r c h an ge m ore f o rm ally , b uild in g s u pport a n d

activ ely a d vocatin g f o r c h an ge. T hese s tr a te g ie s c an b e u se d w heth er y ou s e ek s m all o r l a rg er

sc ale c h an ge, a n d w heth er o r n ot t h e c h an ge i s w an te d w ith in o r o uts id e t h e a g en cy ( G ard ner,

2006: 1 35). W e b elie v e t h at t h ese s tr a te g ie s a re c o ncre te e x am ple s o f e x erc is in g l e ad ers h ip .

Case s tu dy: M ig ra n t R eso u rce C en tr e

Ja ck i s a w ork er i n a M ig ra n t R eso urc e C en tr e . H e h as b een t h ere f o r a b out a y ear a n d i s

re sp onsib le t o t h e t e am l e ad er o f t h e s e ttle m en t p ro gra m . A n ew w ork er, A hm ed , i s e m plo yed t o

work a s p art o f t h e s e ttle m en t t e am w ith o ne o f t h e e m erg in g c o m munitie s; h e h as l im ite d

ex perie n ce i n h um an s e rv ic e w ork a n d h as b een e m plo yed b ecau se o f h is c u ltu ra l u nders ta n din g

an d l a n guag e s k ills . J a ck n otic es t h at A hm ed i s w ork in g v ery l o ng h ours a n d o verh ears h im

arra n gin g f o r s e rv ic e u se rs t o c o nta ct h im a t h om e o n w eek en ds a n d e v en in gs. H e i s a ls o s u sp ects

th at A hm ed i s n ot k eep in g c ase n ote s f o r m an y o f h is c o nta cts d ue t o l a ck o f t im e a n d t h e b elie f

th at h e w ill b e t h e o nly p ers o n w ork in g w ith t h e s e rv ic e u se rs . J a ck k now s t h at A hm ed i s m ean t t o

be r e ceiv in g s u perv is io n a n d s u pport f ro m t h e t e am l e ad er; h ow ev er, t h is t e am l e ad er i s v ery b usy

due t o a n oth er w ork er l e av in g. J a ck a ls o i s a w are t h at A hm ed i s a n xio us t o d o a g ood j o b a n d i s

re lu cta n t t o a p pro ach h is s u perv is o r w ith a n y c o ncern s i n c ase t h is i s s e en a s h im n ot c o pin g.

Giv en t h ese f a cto rs , J a ck i s a ls o r e lu cta n t t o s p eak t o t h e t e am l e ad er a b out h is c o ncern s, b ut h e i s

beg in nin g t o f e el t h at s e rv ic e u se rs w ho s e e A hm ed a re n ot g ettin g a n a p pro pria te s e rv ic e. H e c an

re m em ber f e elin g l ik e t h is w hen h e s ta rte d a t t h e s e rv ic e a y ear e arlie r.

Dis c u ssio n q uestio n s

• L is t s o m e s p ecif ic a ctio ns J a ck c o uld t a k e.

• S hould h e a d vis e t h e t e am l e ad er?

• W hat a re t h e l o nger t e rm o r b ro ad er i s su es J a ck s h ould b e c o nsid erin g?

• W hat o th er f a cto rs m ay b e r e le v an t t o t h e t e am l e ad er n ot s u pportin g A hm ed ?

While a m an ag er h as t h e a u th ority o f h is o r h er p ositio n t o g iv e w eig ht t o t h e w is h f o r

ch an ge, t h is d oes n ot m ean t h at t h e c h an ge w ill b e a ccep te d w ith out p ro per p la n nin g a n d

su pport, a s i llu str a te d i n t h e e arlie r G ath erin g s ta tis tic s c ase s tu dy w here M aria h ad

dif fic u ltie s e x erc is in g h er m an ag em en t r o le . C onvers e ly , a s a w ork er y ou m ay n ot h av e a

cle ar o rg an is a tio nal m an date t o i d en tif y i s su es/ a re as o f c o ncern , b ut y ou s till h av e t h e

pote n tia l a n d t h e p ro fe ssio nal o r e th ic al i m pera tiv e t o d o s o . T his i s i llu str a te d b y t h e M ig ra n t

Reso urc e C en tr e c ase s tu dy a b ove a n d w ill b e c o nsid ere d f u rth er i n t h e n ex t s e ctio n o n

le ad ers h ip a n d p ro fe ssio nal v alu es.

Anoth er e x am ple o f l e ad ers h ip t h at h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers c an e x erc is e i s t o w ork w ith

oth ers t o m ax im is e s e rv ic es. M unn a n d M unn ( 2 003) d esc rib e t h is r o le a s t h at o f ‘ s o cia l

in novato r’, a n d d esc rib e t h e i m porta n t f u nctio n t h at s o cia l w ork ers c an p la y i n t h eir l o cal

co m munity b y w ork in g w ith b oth f o rm al a n d i n fo rm al n etw ork s t o r e sp ond t o c h an ge a n d

dev elo p s e rv ic es. T his i s a n e x am ple o f t h e i m porta n ce o f u nders ta n din g t h e b ro ad h um an

se rv ic es f ie ld a n d a s w ell a s h av in g t h e c ap acity t o u nders ta n d a n d v alu e t h e w ork o f o th er

dis c ip lin es. A h um an s e rv ic e w ork er i n a r u ra l a re a m ay b e t h e o nly f u nded a n d q ualif ie d

work er i n t h e t o w n— certa in ly a g overn m en t e m plo yee m ay h av e t h e j o b s e cu rity a n d

co ntin uity t h at o th er p ro je ct f u nded p ositio ns w ill n ot. I n t h is r o le , t h e h um an s e rv ic e w ork er

can a ssis t t h e c o m munity b y r e so urc in g a n d s u pportin g l o cal n etw ork s. T his c o uld b e b y

actin g a s a c o nven or o f a l o cal w elf a re n etw ork , a ssis tin g w ith f u ndin g a p plic atio ns f o r m uch -

need ed l o cal s e rv ic es o r h elp in g t o c o ord in ate l o cal a ctio n/lo bby g ro ups. T his i s a r o le t h at

can b e p la y ed i n o th er c o m munitie s; h ow ev er, t h ere i s l ik ely t o b e a w id er r a n ge o f w ork ers

who c an p artic ip ate i n t h is w ay i n m etr o polita n s e ttin gs. O th er e x am ple s o f l e ad ers h ip i n t h is

cro ss-a g en cy d is c ip lin e i n clu de t h e r o le o f h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers i n d is a ste r-re co very a ctio n.

34 Now t h at w e h av e e x plo re d t h e i m porta n ce o f h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers i n flu en cin g t h e

quality o f s e rv ic e t h ro ugh e x erc is in g l e ad ers h ip , a n d h av e c o nsid ere d s k ills w ork ers h av e i n

th eir p ra ctitio ner r o le t h at c an e q uip t h em t o d o t h is , l e t’ s c o nsid er a n oth er c ase s tu dy w here

le ad ers h ip c an b e e x erc is e d . T his c ase s tu dy i n volv es b oth i n te rn al o rg an is a tio nal c h an ge a n d

work w ith a r a n ge o f s e rv ic es.

Case s tu dy: E m erg en cy f u ndin g f o r y ou th

Sonia i s a n o utr e ach w ork er f o r a l o cal g overn m en t y outh s e rv ic es p ro gra m . O ne o f t h e m ajo r

is su es f a ced b y y oung p eo ple i n h er a re a i s i n su ffic ie n t m oney f o r f o od a n d s c h ool c o sts f o r y oung

peo ple w ho e ith er l iv e a w ay f ro m h om e o r c o m e f ro m f a m ilie s o n v ery l o w i n co m es. T here i s a

sm all a m ount o f f u ndin g a v aila b le f ro m c o uncil f o r t h e y outh c o unse llo r t o h elp o ut h is s e rv ic e

use rs ; h ow ev er, t h is i s r a re ly e n ough a n d c an o nly b e p ro vid ed t o o ngoin g s e rv ic e u se rs o f t h e

youth c o unse llin g p ro gra m . A s t h e y outh c o unse llo r o nly w ork s o ne d ay p er w eek , y oung p eo ple

can not a ccess a n y o f t h e f u nds o n o th er d ay s. S onia i s a w are o f m an y y oung p eo ple w ho c an not

access a n y f u nds. T he l o cal c o m munity a d vic e b ure au r e ceiv es s o m e g overn m en t f u ndin g t o

pro vid e e m erg en cy r e lie f; h ow ev er, y oung p eo ple d o n ot a tte n d t h is s e rv ic e a s t h ey f e el

unw elc o m e t h ere a n d t h e w ork ers h av e s a id t h ey d o n ot w an t y oung p eo ple a tte n din g t h e s e rv ic e

as t h ey a re c o ncern ed t h at t h eir o ld er s e rv ic e u se rs w ill f e el t h re ate n ed b y t h em . A n um ber o f

ch urc h -b ase d s e rv ic es a ls o p ro vid e e m erg en cy r e lie f w hen f u nds a re a v aila b le b ut t h ey d o n ot

open d urin g a n y r e g ula r h ours . S onia w ould l ik e t o i m pro ve y oung p eo ple ’s a ccess t o e m erg en cy

re lie f f u ndin g a n d a ls o i m pro ve t h e c ap acity o f l o cal s e rv ic es t o w ork w ith y oung p eo ple m ore

gen era lly . S he h as r a is e d t h is a s a c o ncern w ith t h e S ocia l a n d C om munity S erv ic es m an ag er, w ho

sa y s t h at e m erg en cy r e lie f i s n ot t h e c o uncil’ s r o le a n d t h e e x tr a f u ndin g w as m ad e a v aila b le t o

cate r f o r y oung p eo ple w ho c o uld n’t a ccess t h e c o m munity i n fo rm atio n a n d s u pport c en tr e s.

Dis c u ssio n q uestio n s

• W hat o ptio ns a re o pen t o S onia ?

• W hat c an s h e c an d o t o i m pro ve a ccess w ith in c o uncil?

• W hat a ctio n c o uld s h e t a k e t o i m pro ve c ap acity o f l o cal a g en cie s t o w ork w ith y oung p eo ple ?

• I s t h is p art o f h er j o b? W hy?

LEA DER SH IP A ND P R O FE SSIO NAL V ALU ES

Fro m o ur d is c u ssio n o f a sp ects o f l e ad ers h ip i n h um an s e rv ic es, i t i s c le ar t h at l e ad ers h ip i s

fa r m ore t h an l in e m an ag em en t a n d i s n ot o nly t h e r e sp onsib ility o f t h ose i n d esig nate d

le ad ers h ip p ositio ns. A s a h um an s e rv ic e w ork er, y ou w ill h av e a n e th ic al d uty t o l o ok m ore

bro ad ly t h an y our o w n d ay -to -d ay p ra ctic e, a n d t o d o a ll y ou c an t o i m pro ve s e rv ic es

pro vid ed b y y ours e lf a n d t h e o rg an is a tio n f o r w hic h y ou w ork .

An e x am ple o f t h is b ro ad er f o cu s i s p ro vid ed b y t h e A ustr a lia n A sso cia tio n o f S ocia l

Work ers ’ ( A ASW ) C ode o f E th ic s, w hic h c le arly s h ow s t h e i m porta n ce o f w ork in g a t a

bro ad er l e v el. W ith in t h is c o de, t h e p urp ose o f s o cia l w ork i s s ta te d a s f o llo w s:

The s o cia l w ork p ro fe ssio n i s c o m mitte d t o t h e p ursu it a nd m ain te n ance o f h um an w ellb ein g. S ocia l

work a im s t o m axim is e t h e d evelo pm en t o f h um an p ote n tia l a nd t h e f u lfilm en t o f h um an n eed s,

th ro ugh a n e q ual c o m mitm en t t o :

• work in g w ith a nd e n ablin g p eo ple t o a ch ie ve t h e b est p ossib le l e vels o f p erso nal a nd s o cia l w ell-

bein g

• work in g t o a ch ie ve s o cia l j u stic e t h ro ugh s o cia l d evelo pm en t a nd s o cia l c h ange ( A ASW C ode o f

Eth ic s, 1 999).

35 Exam ple s o f h ow t h is c an b e d one a re p ro vid ed t h ro ugh t h e A ASW P ra ctic e S ta n dard s

(2 003), w hic h w ere d ev elo ped t o g uid e p ra ctic e a n d t o p ro vid e a m ean s o f a cco unta b ility .

Pra ctic e S ta n dard 2 — Serv ic e M an ag em en t s ta te s t h at:

All s o cia l w ork ers, r e g ard le ss o f t h eir o rg anis a tio nal p ositio n o r t h e c o nte xt o f t h eir p ra ctic e, h ave

th e r e sp onsib ility t o m anage t h eir o w n s e rv ic e p ro vis io n a nd p ra ctic e i n a w ay w hic h i s c o nsis te n t

with t h ese s ta ndard s. T his m ay i n vo lv e m anagem en t o f s ta ff a nd o th er A gen cy r e so urc es. T he t e rm

‘s o cia l w ork m anager’ t h ere fo re a pplie s t o a ll s o cia l w ork ers.

( A ASW , 2 003: 1 3)

This r e in fo rc es t h e p oin ts w e h av e s tr e sse d t h ro ughout t h is c h ap te r: t h at l e ad ers h ip i s n ot

ju st t h e r o le o f t h e m an ag er a n d t h at e th ic al w ork i n t h e h um an s e rv ic e f ie ld i n volv es t a k in g a

bro ad er v ie w , r a is in g i s su es o r t a k in g a ctio n r a th er t h an j u st b elie v in g i t i s s o m eo ne e ls e ’s

re sp onsib ility . L ead ers h ip i s o ne w ay i n w hic h y ou a re a b le t o i n flu en ce t h e q uality o f w ork

underta k en a n d a p ra ctic al d em onstr a tio n o f y our w illin gness t o w ork w ith o th ers t o i m pro ve

se rv ic es a n d a d dre ss i m porta n t i s su es o f s o cia l j u stic e a n d e q uity .

CO NCLU SIO N

Thro ugh t h is c h ap te r, y ou w ill h av e b eg un t o u nders ta n d t h e m ean in g o f l e ad ers h ip i n t h e

hum an s e rv ic es a n d e x plo re d h ow y ou c an e x erc is e l e ad ers h ip a s a n ew h um an s e rv ic e

work er. W e h ope t h at y ou w ill a ls o h av e b eg un t o t h in k a b out t h e r o le o f m an ag ers i n h um an

se rv ic es a n d t o c o nsid er h ow y ou m ay u se t h is , e ith er a s a w ork er o r i n a m an ag em en t

positio n, t o i m pro ve t h e q uality o f s e rv ic e m ore b ro ad ly .

Chap te r r ev ie w q uestio n s

2.1 W hy i s l e ad ers h ip i m porta n t t o h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers ?

2.2 W hat i m pact h as m an ag eria lis m h ad o n h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers ?

2.3 H ow a re m an ag em en t a n d l e ad ers h ip s im ila r a n d d if fe re n t?

2.4 A s a n ew w ork er i n a h um an s e rv ic es o rg an is a tio n, w hat d o y ou n eed t o k now a b out t h e

org an is a tio n’s m an ag em en t?

2.5 I n w hat w ay s c an a f ro nt- lin e w ork er e x erc is e l e ad ers h ip ? G iv e t h re e e x am ple s, e ith er

fro m y our e x perie n ce o r t h at y ou c an s e e y ours e lf u nderta k in g.

OTH ER R ESO URCES

Cen tr e f o r S ocia l L ead ers h ip , <

www.s o cia lle ad ers .o rg

Com munity L ead ers h ip C en tr e ,

< www.o urc o m munity .c o m .a u /le ad ers h ip /le ad ers h ip _m ain .j s p

KEY R EA DIN G S

Couls h ed , V . a n d M ulle n der, A . 2 001, ‘ M an ag em en t a s V is io n, S tr a te g y a n d L ead ers h ip ’, i n

Managem en t i n S ocia l W ork

( 2 nd e d .) , P alg ra v e, H oundsm ills .

Gard ner, F . 2 006, ‘ W ork in g A ctiv ely w ith in t h e O rg an is a tio n’, i n

Work in g w ith H um an

Serv ic e O rg anis a tio ns

, O xfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss, M elb ourn e.

Hughes, M . a n d W earin g, M . 2 007, ‘ L ead ers h ip , D ecis io n M ak in g a n d R is k ’, i n

Org anis a tio ns a nd M anagem en t i n S ocia l W ork

, S ag e, L ondon.

36 37

C H APT ER T H REE

Sco p in g t h e c o n te x t

S U M MARY

T his c h ap te r i s d esig ned t o i llu str a te h ow , w hen b eg in nin g w ork i n a n ew o rg an is a tio n,

w ork ers c an s y ste m atic ally a p pro ach d ev elo pin g a n u nders ta n din g o f t h e c o nte x t i n w hic h

t h ey a re e n gag in g. I t i n volv es s c o pin g t h e i d eo lo gic al, p olitic al a n d l e g al c o nte x t i n w hic h

s e rv ic e d eliv ery i s u nderta k en , b oth w ith in a n d b etw een o rg an is a tio ns, a n d i n t e rm s o f t h e

b ro ad er s o cia l c o nte x t o f a t r a n sfo rm in g w elf a re s ta te .

W HY I S C O NTEX T I M PO RTA NT?

A s a h um an s e rv ic e w ork er, y ou o fte n n eed t o a ch ie v e a b ala n ce b etw een y our d uty o f c are t o

y our s e rv ic e u se rs , y our c o -w ork ers a n d y our o rg an is a tio n. I n o rd er t o a ch ie v e t h is , y ou h av e

t o b e a w are n ot o nly o f t h e i d eo lo gic al, p olitic al a n d l e g al c o nte x t o f y our o rg an is a tio n a n d

h ow i t f its i n to t h e b ig ger a n d e v er-c h an gin g w elf a re l a n dsc ap e, b ut a ls o o f t h e t e n sio ns

b etw een y our p olitic al a n d i d eo lo gic al b elie fs a n d t h e n eed s o f y our s e rv ic e u se rs . W e h av e

s p oken t o h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers o n m an y o ccasio ns w ho t e ll u s t h at t h ey l e av e t h eir p olitic al

a n d i d eo lo gic al b elie fs o ut o f t h eir w ork w ith s e rv ic e u se rs a n d o rg an is a tio ns. P ro te sta tio ns

n otw ith sta n din g, o ur p ositio n i s t h at t h is c an not b e d one.

Id eo lo gy a n d i d eo lo gic a l b elie f:

A d octr in e o r s e t o f b elie fs , u su ally i n fo rm ed b y a s e t o f p olitic al

id eas.

Work in g i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es f ie ld i s i n ev ita b ly p olitic al w ork , s h ap ed a n d d efin ed b y

l e g is la tio n a n d t h e d om in an t i d eo lo gic al b elie fs c u rre n t a t a n y p artic u la r t im e. W hat t h e

w ork ers t o w hom w e r e fe rre d a b ove a re r e ally s a y in g i s t h at t h ey d o n ot p ro perly u nders ta n d

t h e c o nte x t o f t h eir w ork — certa in ly n ot e n ough t o r e fle ct o n i ts i m pact o n t h eir i m plic it

b elie fs a b out s e rv ic e u se rs , a b out t h e p ro ble m s t h ey c o nfro nt a n d a b out t h eir o rg an is a tio ns. I n

e ffe ct, n ot b ein g a b le t o e n gag e i n c ritic al r e fle ctio n o n a ll a sp ects o f t h e c o nte x t m ean s s u ch

w ork ers a re i n d an ger o f n eg le ctin g t h eir d uty o f c are t o t h eir s e rv ic e u se rs a n d t o t h eir

a g en cie s. F urth er, a s a h um an s e rv ic e w ork er, y ou c an not a d vocate e ffe ctiv ely i f y ou a re

u naw are o f t h e p olitic al, l e g al a n d i d eo lo gic al p ositio n o f y ours e lf , y our s e rv ic e u se rs , y our

o rg an is a tio n a n d t h e i n dustr y a s a w hole .

38 Critic a l r e fle ctio n :

A p ro cess b y w hic h w ork ers r e se arc h , e v alu ate a n d i m pro ve t h eir o w n p ra ctic e. I t

is i n te n ded t o e n han ce a w ork er’s a b ility t o m ove b ey ond i d eo lo gy a n d t o s c ru tin is e h is o r h er o w n

pra ctic e i n r e la tio n t o p ers o nal a n d p ro fe ssio nal v alu es a n d c o m mitm en ts .

Duty o f c a re :

A n i m pera tiv e t h at a p plie s t o a r a n ge o f s itu atio ns; a n o blig atio n t h at a s e n sib le p ers o n

would h av e i n t h e c ir c u m sta n ces w hen a ctin g t o w ard s o th ers a n d t h e p ublic . I f t h e a ctio ns o f a p ers o n

are n ot m ad e w ith c are , a tte n tio n, c au tio n a n d p ru den ce, t h eir a ctio ns a re c o nsid ere d n eg lig en t.

TH E B IG P IC TU RE

Befo re w e d elv e i n to t h e w ay s i n w hic h w ork ers c an i n te rp re t a n d u nders ta n d t h e p olitic al,

id eo lo gic al a n d p hilo so phic al p re ssu re s a n d d em an ds o f w ork in g i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es, w e

need t o l o ok a t t h e b ig ger p ic tu re . I t i s n ecessa ry t h at w e d ev elo p a n a w are n ess o f t h e h um an

se rv ic e l a n dsc ap e: w ho w ork s w here , t h e r e la tio nsh ip s b etw een t h e g overn m en t a n d n on-

pro fit s e cto rs , a n d s o m e o f t h e m ajo r b odie s o f l a w t h at s h ap e t h e o vera ll c o nte x t o f p ra ctic e.

Dev elo p in g a n a w aren ess o f t h e i n dustr y a n d i t s l a b ou r f o rce

Meag her a n d H ealy ( 2 006) s ta te t h at t h e c arin g p ro fe ssio ns— th ose p ro fe ssio ns t h at f o cu s o n

lo okin g a fte r p eo ple ’s p hysic al, d ev elo pm en ta l, e m otio nal a n d b asic p ra ctic al n eed s s u ch a s

housin g a n d i n co m e s u pport— co nstitu te a g ro w in g a n d e x pan din g i n dustr y i n t h e c u rre n t

clim ate . C erta in ly , t h e C om monw ealth g overn m en t a g re es. T he h ealth a n d s o cia l c are

in dustr y ( in w hic h h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns a re l o cate d ) i s l a rg e. T he i n dustr y i s t h e

fa ste st g ro w in g i n dustr y i n A ustr a lia , s e t t o e x pan d t o 2 4 p er c en t o f a ll e m plo ym en t o ver t h e

nex t f iv e y ears . T he i n dustr y i s s e t t o c o ntin ue t o g ro w b y n early 4 p er c en t u ntil 2 013 a n d

2014 ( D ep artm en t o f E ducatio n, E m plo ym en t a n d W ork pla ce R ela tio ns, 2 009) a n d p ro duce

an e x tr a 1 70 0 00 j o bs. S ocia l w ork ers , y outh w ork ers , c rim in al j u stic e w ork ers , w elf a re

work ers , c o m munity d ev elo pm en t w ork ers , m en ta l h ealth w ork ers , d is a b ility s u pport

work ers , r e sid en tia l c are w ork ers , h ousin g w ork ers a n d e m plo ym en t p la cem en t w ork ers , t o

nam e j u st a f e w , m ak e u p t h e m an y d if fe re n t b ack gro unds o f w ork ers i n t h e g ro w in g h um an

an d c o m munity s e rv ic es f ie ld .

In t e rm s o f w here t h e w ork i s l o cate d i n t h e c u rre n t h um an s e rv ic e l a b our m ark et,

co m munity s e rv ic es, w elf a re , e d ucatio n a n d h ealth a re t h e l e ad in g a re as o f e m plo ym en t f o r

work ers :

The b ulk o f e m plo ym en t i n s o m e c a rin g o ccu patio ns, s u ch a s c o unse llo rs a nd p sy ch olo gis ts , w as

sp re a d a cro ss t h e t h re e m ain h um an s e rv ic e i n dustr ie s i n 2 001. O f a ll t h ose r e p ortin g w ork in g a s a

co unse llo r i n t h eir m ain j o b, 3 9% w ere e m plo yed i n c o m munity s e rv ic es, 2 6% i n e d uca tio n, a nd 2 1%

in h ea lth .

( M eag her a n d H ealy , 2 006: 2 9)

Hum an s e rv ic e w ork ers a re e m plo yed b y a n e n orm ous r a n ge o f a g en cie s a n d o rg an is a tio ns—

of a ll s iz es a n d w ith d if fe re n t a u sp ic es— all o f w hic h i m pact o n h ow a n o rg an is a tio n

fu nctio ns a n d h ow i t i s e x perie n ced b y s e rv ic e u se rs . I n A ustr a lia , t h ese r a n ge f ro m m an y

re lig io us-b ase d a n d s e cu la r c h arita b le o rg an is a tio ns t o g overn m en t b odie s t h at d eal w ith

health , c h ild p ro te ctio n, a g ed c are a n d a lm ost a n yth in g e ls e o ne c an t h in k o f. E m plo ym en t i n

th e h um an s e rv ic es i n dustr y i s v ast a n d v arie d , a n d a s a r e su lt m an y f ie ld s o f p ra ctic e t h at

co uld b en efit f ro m c lo se a n d o pen d ia lo gue w ith e ach o th er ( fo r e x am ple , f a m ily v io le n ce a n d

ch ild p ro te ctio n) a re o fte n d is ta n ced i n t e rm s o f f u ndin g, u nders ta n din g, p hilo so phy,

ev alu atio n p ra ctic es a n d o utc o m es f o r s e rv ic e u se rs .

An i n te re stin g t r e n d t h at c an b e e x tr a p ola te d f ro m t h e M eag her a n d H ealy ( 2 006) s tu dy i s

39 th at b etw een 1 996 a n d 2 001, t h ere w as a d efin ite c h an ge i n t h e s tr u ctu re o f e m plo ym en t i n

co m munity s e rv ic es i n dustr ie s. D ata f ro m t h is t im e p erio d s h ow t h at t h ere i s a t r e n d t o w ard s

dein stitu tio nalis a tio n o f c erta in s e rv ic e u se r g ro ups ( s u ch a s p eo ple w ith a d is a b ility )

acco m pan ie d b y a c o rre sp ondin g t r e n d i n t h e d ep ro fe ssio nalis a tio n o f t h ose w ork in g w ith t h is

gro up o f s e rv ic e u se rs . W hat t h is m ean s i s t h at w hile s e rv ic e u se rs a re l e ss l ik ely t o b e l iv in g

in a n i n stitu tio nal s e ttin g ( a n d m uch m ore l ik ely t o b e l iv in g i n h om e-b ase d a n d c o m munity -

base d c are a n d t r e atm en t o ptio ns), c o rre sp ondin gly t h e w ork ers w ho w ork w ith t h em a re

lik ely n ot t o h old a p ro fe ssio nal q ualif ic atio n. A s a p ro fe ssio nal w ork er i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es

fie ld , t h is w ill h av e a n i m pact o n y ou i n t e rm s o f h ow y ou w ork w ith t h is g ro up o f l e sse r

qualif ie d c o lle ag ues a s w ell a s s e rv ic e u se rs . I t h as i m plic atio ns f o r t h e r e so urc es a v aila b le t o

carry o ut y our w ork a n d a ls o f o r t h e w ay s i n w hic h y ou a re a b le t o w ork w ith o th er w ork ers

who m ay h av e a d if fe re n t u nders ta n din g a n d i n te rp re ta tio n o f t h e m an y f a cto rs t h at c o ntr ib ute

to s e rv ic e u se rs ’ s itu atio ns.

Understa n din g t h e r o le o f t h e s ta te a n d t h e n on -s ta te s e cto rs i n s e rv ic e

deliv ery a n d t h e r ela tio n sh ip s b etw een t h em

It i s i m porta n t t o t a k e a m om en t t o u nders ta n d h ow w e c am e t o b e i n t h e p ositio n i n w hic h w e

fin d o urs e lv es i n A ustr a lia i n t e rm s o f o rg an is a tio ns a n d a g en cie s p ro vid in g w elf a re s e rv ic es

with in t h e c o nte m pora ry h um an s e rv ic es l a n dsc ap e. W hen A ustr a lia w as s e ttle d a s a c o lo ny

of G re at B rita in , t h e c o lo nia l g overn m en t p olic ie s o f t h e d ay r e je cte d t h e B ritis h a p pro ach t o

so cia l s u pport, a n d a v oid ed a n y c o lle ctiv e a p pro ach es t o w elf a re a ctiv ity . I t h as b een w ell

docu m en te d t h at s e ttle r s o cie tie s i n A ustr a lia a n d N ew Z eala n d w ere a d am an t t h at t h ere

would b e n o ‘ p oor l a w s’ a n d t h e a sso cia te d w ork house s i n t h e n ew c o lo nie s ( T hom so n, 1 998;

Dic k ey , 1 987; M en dels o hn, 1 979). T hat a p pro ach w as u nders to od t o p ro m ote u nw an te d

dep en den cy b y t h e p oor o n i n stitu tio nal c h arity . T he s e ttlin g o f t h e n ew w orld w as s e en a s a n

opportu nity t o d o t h in gs d if fe re n tly , a n d t h e u nders ta n din g w as t h at t h ere w ould b e p le n ty o f

work s o p eo ple w ould n’t n eed w elf a re . P overty w ould o nly b elo ng t o t h ose w ho b ro ught i t

upon t h em se lv es. ( T he ‘ g en dere d b ia s’ o f t h is p hilo so phy a n d w hat w ould h ap pen t o t h e

man y y oung w om en l e ft ‘ h old in g t h e b ab y’, s o t o s p eak , n eed s t o b e r e m em bere d , b ut t h at i s

a s u bje ct f o r a n oth er d is c u ssio n.)

Poor L aw s:

A s y ste m o f p overty r e lie f e sta b lis h ed i n E liz ab eth an E ngla n d, w here in l a n dhold ers

re sid in g i n p aris h es p aid a ‘ ta x ’ f o r t h e r e lie f o f t h e p oor i n t h at p aris h .

Work h ou se s:

A ls o k now n a s ‘ in door r e lie f’. P art o f t h e p oor l a w s y ste m o f r e lie f, t h ey w ere h ars h

in stitu tio ns i n w hic h t h e d estitu te w ere f o rc ed t o l iv e a n d w ork .

As a r e su lt o f t h is , g overn m en t i n te rv en tio n t o p ro m ote t h e w elf a re o f t h e d estitu te w as

kep t a t a m in im um . S upport f o r t h ose w ho c o uld n’t s u pport t h em se lv es w as e x pecte d t o c o m e

fro m f a m ilie s, n eig hbours o r t h e C hris tia n c h aritie s t h at w ere e sta b lis h in g t h em se lv es i n t h e

new c o lo nie s. T he a u th oritie s a t t h is t im e m ad e a f ir m d ecis io n n ot j u st t o s ta y o ut o f t h e

busin ess o f a ssis tin g t h e p oor, b ut a ls o t o p ro m ote t h e i d ea t h at t o b e p oor o r t o n eed h elp

mean t t h at a p ers o n w as s o m eh ow m ora lly d efic ie n t ( T hom so n, 1 998). T he r e lia n ce o n

re lig io us c h aritie s a n d t h e a cco m pan yin g l a ck o f a n y l e g is la tio n b y g overn m en ts t o r e g ula te

th ese c h aritie s r e su lte d i n a s y ste m w here j u dgem en t, d is c rim in atio n a n d s u bsta n dard s e rv ic e

deliv ery t o w ard s t h ose d eem ed t h e ‘ u ndese rv in g p oor’ w as r if e .

Dese rv in g a n d u ndese rv in g p oor:

T he d ese rv in g p oor w ere t h ose c o nsid ere d t o b e d estitu te t h ro ugh

no f a u lt o f t h eir o w n ( e .g . o rp han s); t h e u ndese rv in g p oor w ere t h ose a b le -b odie d p eo ple w ho h ad t h e

40 cap acity t o w ork b ut w ho ( a p pare n tly ) c h ose n ot t o .

This l e g acy o f t h e b eg in nin gs o f w elf a re i n t h is c o untr y h as m ean t t h at a p hilo so phy w hic h

dis tin guis h es b etw een t h e s o -c alle d d ese rv in g a n d u ndese rv in g p oor s till f ilte rs t h ro ugh i n

vario us f o rm s o f g overn m en t l e g is la tio n, c h arita b le a ctiv ity a n d i n co m e s u pport t o day .

(T hin k, f o r e x am ple , o f t h e s in gle m oth ers m en tio ned p re v io usly , a n d t h e w ay s i n w hic h t h ey

are s till j u dged i n g overn m en t d ep artm en ts s u ch a s C en tr e lin k.) O ur w elf a re h is to ry h as a ls o

le ft u s w ith a w elf a re s y ste m t h at r e se m ble s a p atc h w ork q uilt— an d i t i s a q uilt t h at, i n t h e

tr a d itio ns o f a ll g ood f a m ilie s, h as b een h an ded d ow n t h ro ugh t h e g en era tio ns t o t h e p re se n t

day . U nlik e t h e U nite d K in gdom , w here l o cal g overn m en t p la y s a m ajo r r o le i n t h e p ro vis io n

of w elf a re a n d c h ild p ro te ctio n, A ustr a lia h as a w elf a re s y ste m t h at i n volv es a ll t h re e t ie rs o f

govern m en t ( lo cal, s ta te a n d f e d era l) . I t a ls o i n volv es o th er a g en cie s a n d o rg an is a tio ns

deriv in g f ro m t h ose e arlie r c h aritie s ( fo r e x am ple A nglic are , K ild onan , t h e B en ev ole n t

Socie ty , S t V in cen t d e P au l, t h e B ro th erh ood o f S t L au re n ce, t h e S alv atio n A rm y, t h e S m ith

Fam ily ), p lu s a w hole r a ft o f s m alle r c o m munity a g en cie s l a rg ely s e t u p b ecau se o f

dev elo pm en ts i n s o cia l p olic y f ro m t h e 1 970s o nw ard s.

The w elf a re s e rv ic e d eliv ery s y ste m v arie s f ro m s ta te t o s ta te w ith in A ustr a lia — fo r

ex am ple , t h e i n volv em en t o f l o cal g overn m en t v arie s d ra m atic ally — an d t h ese d ay s m ost

org an is a tio ns c o m pete f ie rc ely a g ain st o ne a n oth er f o r g overn m en t f u ndin g. A s a w ork er i n

th e h um an s e rv ic es a re a, y our w ork w ill b e i n flu en ced b y t h is h is to ry a s w ell a s b y t h e

pre se n t p urc h ase o f s e rv ic e c o ntr a ctin g a rra n gem en ts ( d is c u sse d l a te r). Y ou w ill h av e t o b e

aw are o f t h is i n o rd er t o n eg otia te t h e ‘ s y ste m ’.

Purc h ase -o f-s e rv ic e c o n tr a ctin g:

A s y ste m w here b y a g overn m en t b uys t h e s e rv ic es o f a n on-s ta te

org an is a tio n t o d eliv er h um an s e rv ic es i t d eem s a p pro pria te . T he r e la tio nsh ip b etw een t h e p urc h ase r

(th e s ta te ) a n d t h e p ro vid er ( th e n on-s ta te o rg an is a tio n) i s m an ag ed v ia a l e g ally b in din g c o ntr a ct.

The i m plic atio ns o f t h ese c o m ple x itie s m ean t h at t h e m ajo r f u ndin g b odie s f o r e m plo ym en t

in t h e h um an s e rv ic es i n dustr y i n clu de f e d era l, s ta te a n d l o cal g overn m en ts , a lo ngsid e v ario us

ch arita b le a n d r e lig io us-b ase d o rg an is a tio ns a n d m an y s m alle r n on-g overn m en t a g en cie s. T he

ch an ces a re t h at, a s a w ork er i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es i n dustr y , y ou w ill b e e m plo yed b y o r y our

positio n w ill b e e ith er d ir e ctly o r p artia lly f u nded b y o ne o f t h e t h re e t ie rs o f g overn m en t.

This c an h av e m ajo r i m plic atio ns f o r t h e k in ds o f w ork y ou c an d o a n d t h e k in ds o f s u pport

you h av e f o r y our w ork , a s w ell a s f o r t h e w ork y ou c an not d o. F urth er, i t m ay w ell p la ce

se rv ic e u se rs i n d if fe re n t b oxes o r c ate g orie s t h at w ill n ot b e a g ood f it f o r t h em o r a d dre ss

th eir n eed s a d eq uate ly . Y ou o nly n eed t o l o ok a t t h e r e str ic tio ns o n C en tr e lin k w ork ers , c h ild

pro te ctio n w ork ers a n d i m mig ra tio n w ork ers t o g ain a n u nders ta n din g o f t h e i m porta n ce o f

le g is la tio n a n d g overn an ce o n y our r o le i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es i n dustr y . L eg is la tio n o fte n

defin es w ho d ese rv es w hat a n d w ho d oesn ’t i n t e rm s o f i n co m e s u pport, l e g al p ro te ctio n a n d

re sid en cy . S uch c ate g oris a tio n o f n eed y p eo ple c o nstr a in s t h e w ork o f a h um an s e rv ic e

work er. S o h ow d o y ou n eg otia te y our w ay a ro und t h is m in efie ld ?

Big -p ic tu re i n flu en ces o n t h e o rg an is a tio n al c o n te x t

As a w ork er i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es f ie ld , y ou n eed t o h av e a g ood u nders ta n din g o f t h e

dom in an t f ra m ew ork s f o r c o ncep tu alis in g a n d r e sp ondin g t o ‘ s o cia l p ro ble m s’. T he w ay s i n

whic h s o cia l i s su es a n d s o cia l p ro ble m s a re i n te rp re te d a n d u nders to od i n o ur s o cie ty a re

co nsta n tly c h an gin g a n d a d ju stin g, d ep en din g o n t h e t r e n ds a n d p hilo so phie s o f t h ose i n

pow er. A s t h ese c h an ges f ilte r d ow n t o p ra ctic e c o nte x ts , s o d o t h e d om in an t f ra m ew ork s w e

use t o u nders ta n d a n d r e sp ond t o t h ese s o cia l p ro ble m s.

41 Work in g i n t h is l in e o f w ork , i t i s o ur r e sp onsib ility t o b e v ig ila n t a n d c o nsis te n t i n

in te rp re tin g, e v alu atin g a n d c ritic ally a n aly sin g n ot o nly t h e m otiv es b eh in d t h e w ay s i n

whic h m an y s o cia l p ro ble m s a re c o ncep tu alis e d a n d i n te rp re te d b y s o cie ty , b ut a ls o t h e w ay s

in w hic h t h e d om in an t f ra m ew ork s f o r p ra ctic e p re sc rib e h ow w e r e sp ond t o t h ese . D om in an t

pre sc rip tio ns f o r h ow h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers s h ould r e sp ond t o s e rv ic e u se rs i n c erta in

cate g orie s m ay b e b ase d o n f la w ed a g en das o f t h ose i n p ow er. T hese a g en das m ay s e rv e t h e

in te re sts o f a v ery f e w , o fte n a t t h e e x pen se o f y our s e rv ic e u se rs .

Critic a l a n aly sis :

S im ila r t o c ritic al r e fle ctio n; a p ro cess b y w hic h a w ork er t h in ks r a tio nally a n d

sy ste m atic ally a b out a s itu atio n o r c o nte x t u sin g k now le d ge a b out i n ju stic e, d is c rim in atio n a n d

str u ctu ra l i n eq uality .

A r e cen t e x am ple o f a ‘ d om in an t p re sc rip tio n’ i n A ustr a lia w ould b e t h e w ay i n w hic h t h e

beh av io ur o f a sy lu m s e ek ers w as p ortr a y ed t o t h e p ublic b y t h e H ow ard C oalitio n

govern m en t, a n d t o a c erta in e x te n t b y t h e L ab or g overn m en t u nder J u lia G illa rd . A sy lu m

se ek ers h av e b een r e p re se n te d a s ‘ q ueu e j u m pers ’, a s ‘ u n-A ustr a lia n ’ a n d a s a g ro up n ot t o b e

tr u ste d . F ed era l g overn m en t f u ndin g r e q uir e m en ts a n d t h e p ra ctic e p ro ced ure s t h at f lo w ed

fro m t h is a g en da m ean t t h at m an y h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers h ad t h eir f ra m ew ork s f o r p ra ctic e

dic ta te d i n n o u ncerta in t e rm s. W ork ers h ad t o b e a w are o f t h e w ay s i n w hic h t h is g ro up o f

se rv ic e u se rs w as c o ncep tu alis e d a n d t h e c o rre sp ondin g w ay s i n w hic h t h is i m pacte d o n t h e

work t h ey w ere a b le t o d o. T his o fte n m ean t w ork in g i n d if fe re n t w ay s— fo r e x am ple , g ain in g

a f ir m u nders ta n din g o f t h e n ew l e g is la tio n, t h e n ew c ate g orie s o f v is a s a n d t h e l o ophole s,

an d d ev elo pin g a w ork in g k now le d ge o f w hic h o rg an is a tio ns w ere s till a b le t o o ffe r s e rv ic es

to t h is g ro up o f p eo ple . I t m ean t t h at i t w as h ard er t o w ork i n a n e m pow erin g w ay w ith

peo ple w ho w ere j u dged a n d o str a cis e d b y t h e w id er c o m munity , a s w ell a s h ard er t o e d ucate

th ose i n t h at w id er c o m munity a b out t h e r e ality o f t h eir l iv es.

Work in g t h ro ugh t h is p erio d o f t im e d em onstr a te d t h e v ery r e al n eed f o r h um an s e rv ic e

work ers t o t h in k c ritic ally a n d t o s tr iv e f o r a n i n te llig en t a n d h um an e u nders ta n din g o f t h e

big ger p ic tu re i n w hic h o ur w ork i s s itu ate d a n d t h e i m pact t h is c an h av e o n o ur s e rv ic e u se rs .

You n eed t o s c ru tin is e t h e b ig ger p ic tu re b y a sk in g q uestio ns a b out h ow s e rv ic e u se r i s su es

are d efin ed b y t h ose w ho h old t h e p ow er t o d efin e t h em . W hat s tr u ctu re s a t t h e l o cal, s ta te ,

fe d era l o r g lo bal l e v els ( w heth er t h ey b e l e g al, p olitic al, r e lig io us o r s o cia l) a re w ork in g t o

oppre ss, d is c rim in ate o r c o ntr ib ute t o y our s e rv ic e u se rs ’ i s su es? W hy i s t h is t h e c ase ? R ead

th e f o llo w in g c ase s tu dy a n d a n sw er t h e q uestio ns p ose d .

The f ir s t s te p i n g ain in g a n a w are n ess o f t h e b ig ger p ic tu re i s t o h av e a c le ar u nders ta n din g

of s tr u ctu ra l d is c rim in atio n a n d t o u se t h is a s a l e n s t h ro ugh w hic h t o a d ap t a n y f ra m ew ork

fo r p ra ctic e t o e n su re t h at y ou a re w ork in g f o r t h e b est o utc o m e f o r y our s e rv ic e u se rs . T he

nex t s te p i n u nders ta n din g t h e b ig ger p ic tu re i s f o r y ou a s a w ork er t o g ain s o m e i n sig ht i n to

th e n ot s o o bvio us w ay s i n w hic h t h is s tr u ctu ra l d is c rim in atio n c an b e b uilt i n to p re sc rip tio ns

fo r p ra ctic e. H um an s e rv ic e w ork ers a re o fte n ‘ e n co ura g ed ’ t o r e sp ond t o t h ese ‘ s o cia l

pro ble m s’ i n s p ecif ic w ay s.

Str u ctu ra l d is c rim in atio n :

D is c rim in atio n a g ain st a p ers o n o r g ro up o n t h e b asis o f r a ce, c u ltu ra l

back gro und, g en der, r a ce, a g e a n d/o r d is a b ility .

This d oes n ot m ean t h at y ou n eed t o b eco m e c ritic al f o r t h e s a k e o f i t w hen n ew

fra m ew ork s a n d w ay s o f w ork in g a re i n tr o duced b y g overn m en ts a n d p eak b odie s. I t d oes

mean , h ow ev er, t h at y ou n eed t o a sk y ours e lf s o m e q uestio ns a b out w ho i s d oin g t h e

defin in g, t h e p re sc rib in g a n d w hy. T here a re n um ero us e x am ple s o f t h is i n t h e h um an

se rv ic es f ie ld a t t h e p re se n t t im e, w ith t h e d om in an ce o f f ra m ew ork s a n d p ra ctic es— base d ,

fo r e x am ple , o n m ed ic al m odels o f i n te rp re tin g p re se n tin g i s su es. T hese o fte n s e rv e t o

42 path olo gis e a n d b la m e i n div id uals r a th er t h an s itu ate t h eir i s su es w ith in b ro ad er s o cia l

str u ctu re s. A n e x am ple o f t h is w ould b e t h e w ay t h e c u rre n t s y ste m o f e m plo ym en t s e rv ic es

path olo gis e s a n d b la m es t h e u nem plo yed f o r t h eir p re d ic am en t, t h ere b y a u th oris in g p unitiv e

an d i n tr u siv e r e sp onse s ( s e e M cD onald a n d M ars to n, 2 008b). I t c an a ls o b e f o und i n s o m e o f

th e w ay s i n w hic h t h e e v id en ce-b ase d p ra ctic e a p pro ach i s u se d .

Case s tu dy: A ccess t o c o m munit y h ea lt h s e rv ic es

You a re a s o cia l w ork er, w ork in g i n a c o m munity h ealth c en tr e . P art o f y our j o b i s t o f a cilita te

access t o t h e s e rv ic es o f t h e c o m munity h ealth c en tr e f o r v ario us g ro ups i n t h e l o cal c o m munity ,

in clu din g n ew ly a rriv ed a sy lu m s e ek ers w ho a re w aitin g f o r t h eir i m mig ra tio n s ta tu s t o b e

fin alis e d . Y ou k now t h at t h is i s a v ery s tr e ssfu l t im e f o r t h is g ro up o f p eo ple . T hey h av e s p oken t o

you o fte n a b out t h e r e aso ns w hy t h ey w ere f o rc ed t o f le e t h eir c o untr y , a n d t h e g rie f o f h av in g t o

le av e f a m ily m em bers b eh in d. M an y o f t h e f a m ilie s w ith w hic h y ou w ork h av e n ot b een a b le t o

co nta ct t h ose t h ey l e ft b eh in d, a n d a re n ot e v en s u re w heth er t h ey s u rv iv ed . T hey h av e a ls o t a lk ed

ab out t h eir j o urn ey t o A ustr a lia , a j o urn ey t h at o fte n t o ok y ears , d urin g w hic h t im e t h ey w ere

atta ck ed a n d a ssa u lte d a n d h ad f e w i f a n y m ed ic al o r d en ta l s e rv ic es. R ecen tly , t h e e ld erly

citiz en s’ e x erc is e g ro up h as a p pro ach ed y ou. T hey a re c o m pla in in g a b out h av in g t o s h are t h e

re so urc es o f t h e c en tr e ( e .g . t h e b us, t h e m eetin g r o om s, e tc .) , w ith t h ese n ew g ro ups. T hey f e el

th at, a s t h ey h av e a lw ay s b een h ere v olu nte erin g a n d w ork in g i n t h e c en tr e , t h ey h av e m ore o f a

cla im t o t h ese r e so urc es t h an t h e p eo ple w ho o nly j u st g ot h ere . T hey a re a n gry a n d r a cis t i n t h eir

co m men ts t o y ou a b out t h e a sy lu m s e ek ers , a n d a re d em an din g t h at y ou g iv e t h em p rio rity a ccess

to t h e c en tr e ’s r e so urc es f o r t h e c o m in g t e rm .

Dis c u ssio n q uestio n s

• W hat s te p s c an y ou t a k e t o d if fu se t h is s itu atio n?

• W hat d o y ou t h in k m ay b e c o ntr ib utin g t o t h e e x erc is e g ro up’s r a cis t a ttitu de?

• H ow m ay t h is i m pact o n y our a lr e ad y t r a u m atis e d g ro up o f a sy lu m s e ek ers ?

• I n w hat w ay s c o uld y ou i n cre ase e ach g ro up’s u nders ta n din g o f e ach o th er a n d t h eir n eed s?

• W ho w ould y ou f e ed t h is s itu atio n ‘ u p’ t o a n d w hat w ould y ou b e a sk in g f o r?

‘E vid en ce-b ase d ’ a p pro ach es t o t h e h um an s e rv ic es

As a h um an s e rv ic e w ork er, y ou w ill n eed t o d ev elo p a n i n fo rm ed p ositio n r e g ard in g t h e r is e

an d a d optio n o f e v id en ce-b ase d p ra ctic e a n d r e se arc h -in fo rm ed p ra ctic e i n t h e h um an

se rv ic es i n dustr y . T hese a p pro ach es t o p ra ctic e a re m ore t h an i n fo rm ed s u ggestio ns a b out

way s f o rw ard . I n deed , a s w ith e v ery th in g i n t h e s o cia l w orld , t h ey c o nta in a n d p ro pel a m ora l

ag en da. E vid en ce-b ase d p ra ctic e i n p artic u la r h as b een m ark ete d t o h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers i n

man y f ie ld s o f p ra ctic e a s t h e m ost s u ita b le m odel f o r w ork ers t o i m ple m en t. O ne o nly n eed s

to e x am in e t h e t e rm s a n d c o nditio ns o f f u ndin g s u bm is sio ns a n d t h e t e n ders f ro m a n y

govern m en t d ep artm en t t o g ain a n u nders ta n din g o f t h e w ay s i n w hic h t h is a p pro ach h as

sa tu ra te d t h e h um an s e rv ic es. Y our o ngoin g f u ndin g m ay w ell d ep en d o n t h e r e p ortin g a n d

ev alu atio n o f p ra ctic e t h ro ugh a n e v id en ce-b ase d f ra m ew ork . S o w hat i s i t a n d w hat a re t h e

im plic atio ns o f t h is s a tu ra tio n?

Evid en ce-b ase d p ra ctic e i s d eriv ed f ro m m ed ic al d is c o urs e s, f ro m a p ro fe ssio n w here

sc ie n tif ic d eb ate s p re v ail. E vid en ce-b ase d p ra ctic e i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es f ie ld d ra w s o n t h e

tr a d itio n o f e v id en ce-b ase d m ed ic in e i n w hic h d ecis io ns m ad e a b out t h e c are o f p atie n ts ( in

our c ase , s e rv ic e u se rs ) w ill c o m e f ro m k now le d ge g ain ed f ro m r ig oro us s c ie n tif ic s tu die s

an d a r a tio nal a p pro ach t o d ecis io n-m ak in g. O ’C onnor a n d c o lle ag ues ( 2 008) a rg ue t h at t h is

im plie s h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers h av e a n e th ic al r e sp onsib ility t o d ev elo p t h eir k now le d ge b ase

43 an d e n su re b est o utc o m es f o r s e rv ic e u se rs t h ro ugh c o nsis te n tly d ra w in g f ro m t h e m ost u p-to -

date r e se arc h -b ase d k now le d ge a v aila b le . N o o ne w ould d en y t h at t h is i s t h e k in d o f p ra ctic e

we w an t t o a ch ie v e; h ow ev er, e v id en ce-b ase d p ra ctic e f re q uen tly d ra w s o nly o n t h e m ost u p-

to -d ate k now le d ge i n c erta in a re as. A s a r e su lt, i t c an a ssu m e a o ne-s iz e-fits -a ll a p pro ach a n d

ofte n f a ils t o t a k e i n to a cco unt t h e c o m ple x itie s o f t h e h um an c o nditio n.

Dis c o u rse :

A p artic u la r s y ste m o f b elie fs h eld i n c o m mon b y a g ro up o r f ie ld o f a ctiv ity t h at s h ap es

unders ta n din g, c o m munic atio ns a n d p ra ctic es i n t h at f ie ld .

Evid en ce-b ase d p ra ctic e i s b uilt o n t h e m ed ic al a n d s c ie n tif ic p re m is e t h at y our s e rv ic e

use r h as a s p ecif ic p ro ble m o r p ro ble m s t h at c an b e i s o la te d a n d t r e ate d . I t i s g eare d t o w ard s

pre cis e m easu re m en t, m onito rin g a n d e v alu atio n, a n d p ro m ote s a n o ver-s im plif ie d v ie w o f

pra ctic e t h at c an m easu re t h e t r e atm en t o f t h e s p ecif ic s y m pto m s. I t o fte n c an not a d dre ss t h e

co m ple x m ultip le l a y ers o f t h e l if e e x perie n ce o f y our s e rv ic e u se r, o r a n u nders ta n din g o f t h e

in eq ualitie s o r o ppre ssiv e p ra ctic es t h at h av e a ls o c o ntr ib ute d t o y our s e rv ic e u se r’s i s su es.

Bed doe a n d M aid m en t ( 2 009: 6 7) a rg ue t h at t h e p rim ary d if fic u lty w ith e v id en ce-b ase d

pra ctic e i s t h at t h e h um an c o nditio n i s v ery c o m ple x a n d t h at: ‘ s e rv ic e u se rs f re q uen tly h av e

multip le l a y ers o f i s su es t o a d dre ss, i n clu din g p ra ctic al a n d p sy ch olo gic al c o ncern s r e la tin g t o

str u ctu ra l i n eq uality ’.

Evid en ce-b ase d p ra ctic e c la im s t o b e s c ie n tif ic a n d o bje ctiv e, a n d a s a w ork er y ou

obvio usly w an t ‘ b est p ra ctic e’ f o r y our s e rv ic e u se rs . H ow ev er, y ou a ls o n eed t o b e m in dfu l

th at e v id en ce-b ase d p ra ctic e

d eriv ed f ro m t h e m ed ic al p ro fe ssio n— or, m ore s p ecif ic ally ,

fro m a w hite , m ale , W este rn is e d m ed ic al d is c o urs e t h at o fte n d oes n ot u nders ta n d o r h onour

vast a m ounts o f k now le d ge l o cate d o uts id e i ts o w n d om ain . A s a h um an s e rv ic e w ork er, y ou

need t o b e r e sp ectf u l o f o th er b odie s o f k now le d ge t h at c an c o ntr ib ute t o t h e w ork y ou a re

doin g w ith y our s e rv ic e u se rs , s u ch a s f e m in is t o r I n dig en ous w ay s o f u nders ta n din g t h e

is su es y our s e rv ic e u se rs e x perie n ce. Y ou n eed t o b rin g i n w ay s o f u nders ta n din g d iv ers ity

aris in g f ro m g en der, c u ltu re , r a ce, c la ss a n d a g e, a s w ell a s t h e o ppre ssio n i n here n t i n t h ese

cate g orie s a t m ultip le l e v els .

We a re n ot s u ggestin g t h at y ou d is m is s t h e e n tir e g en re o f e v id en ce-b ase d p ra ctic e. T his

would c erta in ly b e d etr im en ta l i n t o day ’s c lim ate . W e a re a sk in g t h at y ou l o ok s c ep tic ally a t

th e d om in an t f o rc es i n t h e i n dustr y a n d b e e q ually s c ep tic al a b out c alls f o r o verly s im plis tic

way s o f m easu rin g t h e h um an c o nditio n. A t t h e s a m e t im e, w e s u ggest t h at y ou w ork w ith

your s e rv ic e u se rs t o a d dre ss t h eir d is a d van ta g e a n d l e sse n t h e i m pact o f p ath olo gis in g

pra ctic e a n d o th er p re sc rip tio ns t h at ‘ b la m e t h e v ic tim ’. R efle ct o n t h e c ase s tu dy b elo w a n d

th e q uestio ns w e p ose .

Case s tu dy: I n te r-g en era tio n al i s su es

Kara i s a s u pport w ork er i n a f a m ily s u pport a g en cy . S he w ork s m ain ly w ith f a m ilie s r e fe rre d t o

her f ro m C hild P ro te ctio n. S he r e ceiv es a r e fe rra l t o w ork w ith a 2 8-y ear-o ld w om an , N ata lie , a

moth er o f t w o c h ild re n a g ed 1 3 a n d 1 4. A cco rd in g t o t h e r e fe rra l, N ata lie h as b een s e n din g h er

ch ild re n t o s c h ool h ungry a n d t h ey a re o fte n n ot t u rn in g u p t o s c h ool a t a ll. T he s e co ndary c o lle g e

th ey a tte n d m ad e a n otif ic atio n o n t h e g ro unds o f n eg le ct. T he r e fe rra l f ro m c h ild p ro te ctio n

su ggests t h at N ata lie n eed s a ssis ta n ce w ith p are n tin g a n d b udgetin g, a n d t h ere i s s o m e s u ggestio n

th at t h e c h ild re n m ay b e w itn essin g v io le n ce. O nce K ara b eg in s t o w ork w ith N ata lie , a h is to ry

em erg es o f i n te r-g en era tio nal p overty a n d a b use . K ara l e arn s t h at N ata lie r a n a w ay a t t h e a g e o f 1 2

due t o s e x ual a b use , a n d l iv ed w ith v ario us r e la tiv es, o ne o f w hom a ls o a b use d h er. B y t h e t im e

sh e w as 1 4, s h e w as n o l o nger a tte n din g s c h ool a n d w ould n ot l e av e h er h ouse . A t 1 6 s h e h ad h er

fir s t c h ild t o h er 2 7-y ear-o ld c o usin , w ho i s c u rre n tly i n j a il f o r a ssa u lt. N ata lie i s n ow a lo ne w ith

her c h ild re n , u nab le t o w ork d ue t o a cu te a n xie ty , a n d a s s h e i s n ot f u lf illin g h er ‘ lo okin g f o r

work ’ c rite ria , s h e h as h ad h er i n co m e d ock ed b y C en tr e lin k.

44 Dis c u ssio n q uestio n s

• W hat a re s o m e o f t h e b ig ger-p ic tu re s tr u ctu ra l i s su es t h at a re c o ntr ib utin g t o N ata lie ’s s itu atio n?

• E vid en ce-b ase d p ra ctic e w ould s u ggest t h at, a s h er w ork er, y ou n eed t o b e a ssis tin g N ata lie t o

co m ply w ith C en tr e lin k p ro to co l b y g ettin g h er t o l o ok f o r w ork , l e arn t o b udget a n d b eco m e a

more a sse rtiv e p are n t. W hat c o m ple x itie s d oes t h is m is s i n N ata lie ’s s itu atio n?

Every a g en cy a n d o rg an is a tio n w ith in w hic h y ou w ork i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es f ie ld w ill

hav e t h ese ‘ b ig ger p ic tu re ’ i s su es a n d p re ssu re s t o c o nte n d w ith . T he t r ic k i s t o b e a b le t o s e e

th ese t e n sio ns, t o b e a b le t o a n aly se a n d u nders ta n d w hat i s g oin g o n a n d t o w ork w ith in t h e

para m ete rs o f t h is u nders ta n din g f o r t h e b est o utc o m e f o r y our s e rv ic e u se rs . S om e o f t h e

most p ositiv e w ay s f o rw ard i n b ein g a b le t o w ork w ith in t h ese b oundarie s i n volv e h av in g a

fir m u nders ta n din g o f t h e m ajo r b odie s o f l a w t h at s h ap e p ra ctic e a n d g overn o rg an is a tio ns,

an d a c o m pre h en siv e k now le d ge o f t h e c o nte x t o f y our s p ecif ic o rg an is a tio n.

UNDER ST A NDIN G T H E M AJO R B O DIE S O F L A W

The w ork o f h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns i s g overn ed b y v ario us l a w s o r A cts o f p arlia m en t,

wheth er i t i s f e d era l l e g is la tio n, s ta te l e g is la tio n o r l o cal c o uncil r e g ula tio ns. K now le d ge i s

pow er, a n d h av in g a g ood g ra sp o f t h e ‘ ru le s’ t h at r e g ula te y our w ork , a n d a n u nders ta n din g

of t h e w ay s i n w hic h t h ese r u le s a re i n te rp re te d b y v ario us g overn m en t b odie s a n d l e g al

in stitu tio ns, i s e x tr e m ely i m porta n t. F urth erm ore , s e rv ic e u se rs a re o fte n n ot g iv en t h e

in fo rm atio n t h ey r e q uir e , o r t o ld t h e d ir e ctio n t h ey n eed t o t a k e, b ecau se t h eir w ork er i s n ot

fa m ilia r w ith t h e l e g is la tio n w ith in w hic h t h e i s su e s its .

We a re n ot a d vocatin g t h at y ou h av e y our h ead a ro und a ll t h e l e g is la tio n i n a ll a re as o f t h e

work y ou d o; h ow ev er, y ou n eed t o k now m an y o f t h e b asic l e g al t e n ets o f t h e w ork t h at i s

th e m ain b usin ess o f y our o rg an is a tio n, a n d w here t o l o ok f o r f u rth er i n fo rm atio n w hen y ou

need i t. L eg is la tio n g overn in g t h e w ork w e d o i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es f ie ld r e fle cts t h e c h ao tic

mix ed e co nom y o f w elf a re i n w hic h h ealth , w elf a re a n d c o m munity s e rv ic es a re d eliv ere d i n

Austr a lia . S om e l e g is la tio n t h at d ir e cts y our w ork i s f e d era l, a n d i s t h ere fo re n atio nal i n i ts

co vera g e o f t h at s p ecif ic i s su e— fo r e x am ple , t h e

Socia l S ecu rity A ct

1 991, w hic h s e ts o ut t h e

para m ete rs f o r i n co m e s e cu rity a n d t h e

Fam ily L aw A ct

2 008, w hic h s e ts o ut r e sid en cy ,

co nta ct r u le s a n d p ro ced ure s f o r s e p ara tin g p are n ts . T hese a cts , a lo ng w ith t h e

Aged C are A ct

1997, t h e

Mig ra tio n A ct

1 958 a n d t h e

Dis a bility A ct

2 006 a re c o nsis te n t n o m atte r i n w hat

sta te o r t e rrito ry y ou f in d y ours e lf w ork in g.

Much o f t h e l e g is la tio n t h at w ill g overn y our w ork o n a d ay -to -d ay b asis i s s ta te

le g is la tio n. L eg is la tio n g overn in g h ousin g (

Resid en tia l T en ancy A cts

), f a m ily v io le n ce,

se x ual a ssa u lt, m en ta l h ealth a n d c h ild p ro te ctio n i s a ll i n t h e f o rm o f s ta te A cts , a n d a s s u ch

is d if fe re n t i n e v ery s ta te a n d t e rrito ry o f A ustr a lia . Y ou w ill f in d t h at s o m e o f t h ese a re

sim ila r i n v ario us s ta te s a n d s o m e a re v ery d if fe re n t. I n a r e cen t n atio nal c o m paris o n o f c h ild

pro te ctio n s y ste m s, f o r e x am ple , i t w as f o und t h at, d esp ite s o m e d if fe re n ces i n l e g is la tiv e

str u ctu re s a n d s o m e d if fe re n ces i n t h e w ay s i n w hic h t h is l e g is la tio n i s i n te rp re te d a n d

en acte d , A ustr a lia n s ta te s a n d t e rrito rie s a re p ro vid in g v ery c o m para b le m odels o f c h ild

pro te ctio n i n te rv en tio n ( B ro m fie ld a n d H ig gin s, 2 005). A ustr a lia h as e ig ht d if fe re n t c h ild

pro te ctio n s y ste m s b ecau se e ach s ta te a n d t e rrito ry h as r e sp onsib ility f o r i ts o w n h ealth a n d

welf a re i s su es. T his m ean s t h at t h ere i s n o s in gle d efin itio n o f c h ild a b use c o nsis te n t

th ro ughout A ustr a lia . P ro ble m s c an e m erg e w hen s e rv ic e u se rs w ho a re u nder i n vestig atio n

in o ne s ta te f o r c h ild p ro te ctio n i s su es m ove i n te rs ta te .

This v olu m e o f s ta te -s p ecif ic l e g is la tio n c an l e ad t o o th er i s su es. I n t h e c rim es ( s e x ual

offe n ces) a n d f a m ily v io le n ce a re a, f o r e x am ple , t h ere a re n o c o nsis te n t n atio nal d efin itio ns

45 co verin g c h ild s e x ual a b use o r d om estic v io le n ce. T his m ean s t h at w hat y ou m ay b e a b le t o

ad dre ss i n a c o urt o f l a w i n o ne s ta te m ay n ot n ecessa rily e v en b e i n t h e l e g is la tio n o f

an oth er. T his h as i m plic atio ns w ith s e rv ic e u se rs w ho o fte n n eed t h e p ro te ctio n o f t h e l a w a s

th ey m ove a ro und t h e c o untr y ( w heth er t h ey b e c h ild re n o r a d ults ), a n d o fte n w ork s t o t h e

ad van ta g e o f p erp etr a to rs .

The A tto rn ey -G en era l’ s D ep artm en ts , e ith er n atio nally o r a t a s ta te l e v el, a re r e sp onsib le

fo r r e g ula rly r e v ie w in g A cts t o k eep t h em u p t o d ate w ith c h an gin g t im es a n d c h an gin g

co m munity a ttitu des. I t i s y our r e sp onsib ility a s a w ork er i n t h is f ie ld t o k eep a b re ast o f t h e

ch an ges a n d t o f a m ilia ris e y ours e lf w ith n ew p ro vis io ns t o A cts o f p arlia m en t. O fte n t h e b est

way t o d o t h is i s t o e n su re t h at y ou f in d o ut w ho i s o ffe rin g t r a in in g a n d w ork sh ops o n

re v is e d o r n ew l e g is la tio n, a n d b ook y ours e lf i n to t h is t r a in in g.

Your a g en cy o r o rg an is a tio n s h ould h av e c o pie s o f t h e l e g is la tio n a n d l e g al f ra m ew ork s

th at g uid e o r c o ntr o l t h e e v ery day b usin ess o f y our a g en cy . T ak e t im e t o f a m ilia ris e y ours e lf

with t h ese d ocu m en ts . I f t h ey a re n ot a v aila b le , l o ok t h em u p. L eg is la tio n i s a v aila b le o n t h e

Atto rn ey -G en era l’ s w eb site f o r e v ery s ta te i n A ustr a lia . A lte rn ativ ely , g o t o t h e w eb site o f

th e A ustr a lia n L eg al I n fo rm atio n I n stitu te a t <

www.a u stlii.e d u.a u

>. A ls o e n su re t h at y ou ( o r

your a g en cy ) a re a m em ber o f p ro fe ssio nal a n d i n dustr y p eak b odie s, a s t h eir

co m munic atio ns a re a g ood w ay t o s ta y i n fo rm ed a b out a n y c h an ges.

Pro fe ssio n al b ody:

A p ro fe ssio nal b ody i s a n o rg an is a tio n g iv in g r e co gnitio n a n d p ro vid in g

mem bers h ip t o m an y o f t h e p ro fe ssio ns. E xam ple s i n clu de t h e A ustr a lia n A sso cia tio n o f S ocia l

Work ers , t h e A ustr a lia n P sy ch olo gic al A sso cia tio n a n d t h e A ustr a lia n M ed ic al A sso cia tio n.

Pea k b ody:

A p eak b ody i s a n i n dustr y -b ase d o rg an is a tio n t h at i s f o rm ed t o r e p re se n t t h e i s su es o f

pro vid ers i n t h at i n dustr y . E xam ple s i n clu de t h e A ustr a lia n C ouncil o f S ocia l S erv ic e, J o bs A ustr a lia

an d t h e C ham ber o f C om merc e.

Som e o f t h e i m plic atio ns f o r d ay -to -d ay p ra ctic e m ay n ot b e q uite s o s tr a ig htf o rw ard . T he

le g is la tio n a n d i ts g uid in g p rin cip le s m ay s e t y ou a t o dds w ith o th er h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers

in y our a re a, w ho m ay b e w ork in g w ith t h e s a m e s e rv ic e u se rs a s y ours e lf . F or e x am ple ,

in te rp re ta tio ns a ro und ‘ b est i n te re sts o f t h e c h ild ’ h av e d if fe re n t w eig htin gs a n d m ean in gs

dep en din g o n w heth er y ou w ork f ro m s ta te -b ase d c h ild p ro te ctio n l e g is la tio n o r s ta te -b ase d

fa m ily v io le n ce p ro te ctio n l e g is la tio n, o r t h e c u rre n t

Fam ily L aw A ct

2 006.

TH E O RG ANIS A TIO NAL C O NTEX T

As w e h av e s e en i n t h e p re v io us d is c u ssio n o f t h e i n dustr y a s a w hole , t h ere a re m an y f a cto rs

th at n eed t o b e t a k en i n to c o nsid era tio n w hen a sse ssin g t h e c o nte x t o f p ra ctic e. I n a n

org an is a tio n w here t h e m ain g oal i s t h e d eliv ery o f h um an s e rv ic es, t h ere c an b e m ultip le

maste rs , a n d t h e w ork er m ay b e a cco unta b le t o m an y o rg an is a tio nal a n d c o m munity

sta k eh old ers . A s y ou b eg in t o u nders ta n d t h e l e g al, p olitic al a n d i d eo lo gic al c o nte x t w ith in

whic h y our o rg an is a tio n f u nctio ns, y ou w ill a ls o b eg in t o u nders ta n d t h e m an y

in co nsis te n cie s a n d c o nflic tin g p rio ritie s t h at t h e w ork ers w ith in t h e o rg an is a tio n m ust

co nfro nt a n d w ork t h ro ugh o n a d aily b asis . I t i s n o e asy t a sk t o w eig h u p a n d b ala n ce t h e

need s, w an ts a n d r ig hts o f t h e s e rv ic e u se rs , t h e c o m munity , t h e g overn m en t a n d o th er

pro fe ssio nal w ork ers w hile k eep in g w ith in y our f in ite a llo catio n o f r e so urc es.

As d is c u sse d i n

Chap te r 1

a n d a cco rd in g t o B erg -W eg er a n d B ir k en m aie r ( 2 000: 9 0), m an y

is su es c o ntr ib ute t o t h e c o nte m pora ry e n vir o nm en t o f o rg an is a tio ns. T hese i n clu de t h e

in sta b ility a n d c o nsta n t v ola tility o f f u ndin g s o urc es, s o cia l p olic y a n d p re ssu re s o f

accre d ita tio n a n d p olitic al a ffilia tio ns, a lo ng w ith b ala n cin g t h e n eed s o f y our s e rv ic e u se rs

46 with t h e s u rv iv al o f t h e o rg an is a tio n. O rg an is a tio ns m ay a ls o b e c o nflic t r id den a n d s e em t o

hav e n o s h are d v alu e s y ste m . C le ak a n d W ils o n ( 2 007: 3 0) a rg ue t h at m an y h um an s e rv ic e

org an is a tio ns h av e v ag ue g oals t h at a re c o nte ste d b y w ork ers a s w ell a s b y e x te rn al

sta k eh old ers . A s a h um an s e rv ic e w ork er, y ou n eed t o b e a w are o f t h ese d if fe re n t d em an ds

an d d ev elo p s k ills t h at w ill e n ab le y ou t o m an oeu vre a n d w ork e ffe ctiv ely . H ere a re s o m e

ad ditio nal i n sig hts t h at c o m ple m en t t h ose o ffe re d i n

Chap te r 1

Understa n din g t h e i d eo lo gic a l o rie n ta tio n o f t h e o rg an is a tio n a n d t h e

norm ativ e i m pera tiv es t h at a ris e f r o m t h is

In o rd er t o b e a s e ffe ctiv e a s p ossib le i n y our w ork w ith a n d o n b eh alf o f y our s e rv ic e u se rs , i t

is i m porta n t t o u nders ta n d t h e i d eo lo gic al o rie n ta tio n o f t h e o rg an is a tio ns f o r w hic h y ou w ork

an d t h ose w ith w hic h y ou n etw ork , t o geth er w ith t h e i m plic atio ns o f t h is f o r t h e w ork y ou

will b e a b le t o d o. W hen y ou t a k e i n to c o nsid era tio n t h e f a ct t h at y ou c an f in d y ours e lf

work in g f o r a l a rg e g overn m en t b ure au cra cy , a s m all c o m munity a g en cy , a r e lig io us-b ase d

org an is a tio n, a c o lle ctiv e o r p erh ap s a ‘ p ro fit- b ase d ’ o rg an is a tio n, i t i s n o w onder t h at t h ere

are m an y d if fe re n t i d eo lo gic al p ers p ectiv es i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es.

While i t i s v ery i m porta n t t o h av e a f ir m u nders ta n din g o f t h e p olic ie s, p ro ced ure s a n d

le g is la tio n t h at g overn t h e d ay -to -d ay w ork w ith in a n o rg an is a tio n a n d t h e e x pecta tio ns u pon

th e w ork ers t h at a ris e f ro m t h is , i t i s e q ually i m porta n t t o h av e a g ood a p pre cia tio n o f t h e

in fo rm al r u le s, t h e l a n guag e a n d t h e r itu als t h ro ugh w hic h a n o rg an is a tio n d efin es i ts e lf . I n

Chap te r 1

, w e i n tr o duced t h e n otio n o f o rg an is a tio nal c u ltu re . A n o rg an is a tio n’s c u ltu re

pro vid es a n i n dic atio n o f h ow a w ork er w ill b e t r e ate d b y t h at o rg an is a tio n: w heth er a w ork er

can b e o rig in al a n d i m ag in ativ e i n t h e w ay s i n w hic h t h ey w ork , o r w heth er t h e o rg an is a tio n

only h as r o om f o r o ne d om in an t m ode o f w ork in g. I f y ou d o n ot h av e a g ood u nders ta n din g

of t h e c u ltu re o f y our o rg an is a tio n a n d h ow t h is r e fle cts i ts v alu es a n d i d eo lo gy, y ou w ill

hav e t r o uble w ork in g o ut w hat t h e i m plic atio ns a re f o r t h e w ay s i n w hic h y ou w ork , a n d t h e

way s i n w hic h y ou w ill b e a b le t o a d vocate f o r y our s e rv ic e u se rs . H ow c an y ou g o a b out

work in g o ut t h e c u ltu re , a n d i d eo lo gy o f y our a g en cy ?

Org an is a tio n al c u ltu re :

T he a ttitu des, b elie fs , p ers o nal a n d c u ltu ra l v alu es s h are d b y p eo ple a n d

gro ups i n a n o rg an is a tio n t h at s ig nif ic an tly i m pact o n t h e w ay p eo ple i n te ra ct w ith e ach o th er a n d

with o th ers o uts id e o f t h e o rg an is a tio n.

Every o rg an is a tio n o r a g en cy h as a n nual r e p orts , w ritte n v alu es, m is sio n s ta te m en ts a n d

goals . I s t h e w ork y ou a re d oin g w ith s e rv ic e u se rs a n d o th er p ro fe ssio nals r e fle ctiv e o f t h ese

goals a n d v alu es, o r i s t h ere a m is m atc h ? W hat d o t h e s e rv ic e u se rs t h in k o f t h e w ay t h ey a re

tr e ate d b y t h e o rg an is a tio n? A re t h ey v alu ed , e m pow ere d , l is te n ed t o a n d r e sp ecte d ? A re t h e

work ers w ith in t h e o rg an is a tio n v alu ed , e m pow ere d , l is te n ed t o a n d r e sp ecte d ? O fte n t h e

way s i n w hic h t h e w ork ers a re t r e ate d a re i n dic ativ e o f t h e w ay s i n w hic h s e rv ic e u se rs a re

vie w ed . W ork er e v alu atio ns, s e rv ic e u se r e v alu atio ns a n d o uts id e a u dits a re a ll g ood m eth ods

of c o lle ctin g a n d r e v ie w in g i n fo rm atio n t h at w ill e n ab le y ou a n d y our a g en cy t o r e fle ct o n t h e

re ality o f t h e w ork t h at i s b ein g d one a s w ell a s o n t h e c u ltu re o f t h e o rg an is a tio n. T hey a re

als o g ood m eth ods o f d ev elo pin g r e co m men datio ns a n d w ay s o f m ovin g t o w ard s w hat y ou

re ally w an t t o b e d oin g. A w ork er o r a n o rg an is a tio n t h at i s r e sis ta n t t o t h is k in d o f s c ru tin y

will o fte n a lr e ad y k now t h at t h ey a re n ot p ra ctis in g a s t h ey s h ould . A gain , r e ad t h e f o llo w in g

case s tu dy a n d t h in k a b out t h e q uestio ns p ose d .

Case s tu dy: O rg an is a tio n al c u lt u re

47 You a re a n ew g ra d uate w ork er i n a c o m munity a g en cy . D urin g y our o rie n ta tio n, y ou r e ad m uch

ab out t h e m is sio n a n d v alu e s ta te m en ts o f y our n ew a g en cy , w hic h c la im t h at t h e o rg an is a tio n

re fle cts t h e l o cal c o m munity i n t h at i t h as a m ultic u ltu ra l f o cu s a n d i s s e n sitiv e t o t h e n eed s o f t h e

lo cal I n dig en ous c o m munity . A s y ou p ro gre ss t h ro ugh y our f ir s t f e w m onth s i n t h is a g en cy , y ou

beg in t o g et a n u neasy f e elin g t h at a ll i s n ot a s i t s e em s. Y ou r e alis e t h at t h ere a re v ery f e w s e rv ic e

use rs a n d n o w ork ers a t a ll f ro m a n y c u ltu ra lly a n d l in guis tic ally d iv ers e b ack gro unds. M em bers

of t h e l o cal I n dig en ous c o m munity d o n ot u se y our s e rv ic es a n d p re fe r t o t r a v el a n e x tr a 3 0

min ute s t o a n oth er a g en cy , a n d t h ere i s n o s y ste m i n p la ce f o r i n te rp re tin g s e rv ic es o r t r a n sla tio n

of a n y o f t h e a g en cy ’s w ritte n m ate ria l.

Dis c u ssio n q uestio n s

• A s a n ew w ork er, w hat c an y ou d o a b out t h is ?

• W hat c an y ou d o t o e n su re t h at t h ese o bse rv atio ns a re v alid ate d a n d b eco m e m ore t h an a n ecd ota l

obse rv atio ns?

• T o w hom c an y our o bse rv atio ns b e g iv en ?

• W here t o f ro m h ere ?

Understa n din g a n d d ea lin g w it h t h e t e n sio n s b etw een y ou a s a h um an

se rv ic e w ork er a n d t h e o rg an is a tio n s i n w hic h y ou w ork

Work in g i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es f ie ld i s n ev er g oin g t o b e a ll s m ooth s a ilin g. W hat w e e x pect

an d w an t f ro m o ur o rg an is a tio ns a n d t h e p eo ple w ith w hom w e w ork v ery r a re ly m eets o ur

ex pecta tio ns. W heth er y ou a re e m plo yed b y a g overn m en t o r n on-p ro fit o rg an is a tio n, t h ere

can b e m an y r e aso ns w hy y ou m ay f in d y ours e lf f ru str a te d , a n d y ou n eed t o f in d w ay s t o

id en tif y , w ork t h ro ugh a n d d eal w ith t h ese t e n sio ns.

O’C onnor a n d c o lle ag ues ( 2 008: 1 85) o utlin e f o ur k ey r e aso ns f o r t h ese t e n sio ns:

O rg an is a tio ns c o ntr o l a ccess t o s o cia l r e so urc es. W ork ers o fte n c o m pete w ith in t h eir

org an is a tio ns f o r t h e d is tr ib utio n o f t h ese r e so urc es.

T he k now le d ge a n d p ra ctic e c o nte x t o f t h e w ork c arrie d o ut b y h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers i s o fte n

co nte ste d b y s e rv ic e u se rs , c o m munity a ttitu des, g overn m en t p olic y a n d o th er w ork ers .

O rg an is a tio ns a re o fte n a t a rg et f o r s o cia l c h an ge b y t h eir o w n w ork ers o r w ork ers i n o th er

ag en cie s.

H um an s e rv ic e w ork ers o fte n h av e t o c o nfro nt i s su es o f a u to nom y a n d c o ntr o l o ver t h eir w ork .

These p oin ts d em onstr a te t h at w ork ers c an b e u nder p re ssu re f ro m w ith in t h eir o w n

org an is a tio n t o w ork i n c erta in w ay s a n d f o llo w c erta in p ro to co ls , a s w ell a s c o m in g u nder

pre ssu re f ro m o uts id e t h eir o rg an is a tio ns, f ro m o th er p ro fe ssio nals , s e rv ic e u se rs a n d

co m munity a ttitu des t o w ork i n c erta in w ay s. W e c an not s tr e ss e n ough t h at c o m munic atio n i s

ofte n t h e k ey t o n eg otia tin g y our w ay t h ro ugh t h ese t e n sio ns. B ein g a b le t o s ta te y our c ase

cle arly a n d l is te n t o t h at o f o th ers w ith in y our o rg an is a tio n c an o fte n l e ad t o w ork ab le

co m pro m is e s i n t e rm s o f t h e s tr u ggle f o r r e so urc es w ith in o rg an is a tio ns.

Unders ta n din g t h e b ig ger p ic tu re , a s w e h av e d is c u sse d p re v io usly — partic u la rly i n t e rm s

of h av in g a g ood g ra sp o f w ho i s d efin in g s o cia l p ro ble m s, h ow t h ey a re d oin g i t a n d w hy— is

ofte n t h e k ey t o n av ig atin g p re ssu re s a n d t e n sio ns f ro m o uts id e y our o rg an is a tio n. B ein g a b le

to c o m munic ate t h is u nders ta n din g, f e ed in g t h is i n fo rm atio n u p t o t h ose i n g overn m en t

dep artm en ts a n d r e m ain in g i n fo rm ed a re a ll w ay s i n w hic h y ou c an f in d a w ay t h ro ugh m an y

of t h e f ru str a tio ns a n d t e n sio ns y ou w ill e x perie n ce.

As w e w ill d is c u ss i n m ore d eta il i n

Chap te r 6

, a h um an s e rv ic e w ork er w ill h av e t o w ork

with w ork ers f ro m o th er d is c ip lin es a n d w ork ers w ith o th er a g en das. I t i s v ery i m porta n t t o

be a b le t o n eg otia te t h ese r e la tio nsh ip s a s r e sp ectf u lly a s y ou c an , i n o rd er t o p ro vid e t h e b est

48 possib le o utc o m e f o r y our v uln era b le s e rv ic e u se r g ro up a n d t o d eal w ith s o m e o f t h ose

te n sio ns. T here h as b een m uch r e se arc h o f l a te t h at c le arly d em onstr a te s t h e f a ct t h at s e rv ic e

use rs l o se w hen t h ere i s p oor n etw ork in g a n d p oor c o m munic atio n, a n d t h is c an o fte n a ris e a s

a r e su lt o f p ro fe ssio nal o r a g en cy r iv alr y .

The r e ality i s t h at, a s a w ork er, y ou w ill w ork w ith p ro fe ssio nals , n on-p ro fe ssio nals a n d

ag en cie s, w ho m ay w ell b e w ork in g f ro m a d if fe re n t p hilo so phic al p ositio n t h an y ours e lf .

You w ill a ls o b e w ork in g w ith w ork ers f ro m o th er p ro fe ssio ns w ho h av e d if fe re n t i d eo lo gic al

positio ns a n d w ho a re f o cu se d o n d if fe re n t o utc o m es— fo r e x am ple , n urs e s, d octo rs , l a w yers ,

men ta l h ealth w ork ers , t h e p olic e a n d t h e c o urts . T he t r ic k i s t o l o ok f o r t h e p ositiv es a n d

str e n gth s i n t h is d iv ers ity , t o s e ek t h e w ay s i n w hic h t h is c an a ssis t y our s e rv ic e u se r a n d

work t o w ard s t h eir g oals . I f y ou a p pre cia te e ach p ro fe ssio n, a n d s tr iv e f o r s o m e

unders ta n din g o f w here e ach w ork er a n d a g en cy i s c o m in g f ro m , y ou c an b e w ork in g t o w ard s

so lu tio ns.

This d oes n ot m ean t h at y ou r e m ain s ile n t a b out v ic tim b la m in g a n d d is c rim in ato ry

pra ctic es, b ut i t d oes m ean t h at y ou w ork t o geth er, k eep in g t h is a n d y our a g en da f o r y our

se rv ic e u se r i n m in d. P art o f y our w ork f o r p artic u la r s e rv ic e u se rs m ay i n clu de t h e n eed f o r

you t o e d ucate y our c o -w ork ers a b out y our p ositio n. T his c an b e i n fo rm al, o r y ou m ay c h oose

to m ak e i t f o rm al. Y ou c o uld , f o r e x am ple , f a cilita te a n e d ucatio n s e ssio n w ith l o cal g en era l

pra ctitio ners a ro und d om estic v io le n ce, o r a n e d ucatio n s e ssio n w ith c h ild p ro te ctio n w ork ers

aro und c h ild s e x ual a b use a n d t h e i m porta n ce o f t h e r e la tio nsh ip t h e c h ild h as w ith t h e n on-

offe n din g p are n t.

CO NCLU SIO N

This c h ap te r h as f o cu se d o n h ow y ou c an b eg in t o s c o pe t h e c o nte x t o f y our w ork i n a n y

org an is a tio n. W e h av e l o oked a t w hy i t i s e sse n tia l t o g ain a n u nders ta n din g o f t h e b ig ger

pic tu re , a n d t h e s tr u ctu ra l d im en sio ns w hic h i m pact o n y our s e rv ic e u se rs a n d t h e w ork t h at

you d o. O nce y ou a re a b le t o u se t h is c ritic al a n aly sis a s a l e n s t h ro ugh w hic h t o s e e h ow y our

work i s s itu ate d , y ou w ill h av e a b ette r u nders ta n din g o f t h e i s su es c o ntr ib utin g t o t h e l iv es o f

your s e rv ic e u se rs a n d t h e w ay s i n w hic h y ou a n d y our o rg an is a tio n a re s itu ate d t o r e sp ond t o

th ese .

Chap te r r ev ie w q uestio n s

3.1 W hy i s i t i m porta n t t o b e a b le t o u nders ta n d t h e c o nte x t o f t h e o rg an is a tio n a n d t h e w ay s

in w hic h t h is i m pacts o n y our s e rv ic e u se rs ?

3.2 W ho a re t h e w ork ers w ith w hom y ou w ill b e w ork in g a n d w hat m ig ht b e t h eir

back gro unds?

3.3 W hat b earin g c o uld t h is h av e o n t h e w ork t h at y ou d o?

3.4 H ow c an y ou b eco m e a w are o f w ho i s d efin in g s o cia l i s su es, w hy t h ey a re d oin g t h is a n d

th e p ote n tia l i m pact o n s o m e o f y our c lie n ts ?

3.5 W hy i s i t i m porta n t t o h av e a b asic u nders ta n din g o f t h e l e g al f ra m ew ork s i n w hic h y our

work i s s itu ate d ?

3.6 H ow c an y ou e n su re t h at t h e w ork y ou a re d oin g i s c o nsis te n t w ith t h e s ta te d v alu es a n d

mis sio ns o f y our o rg an is a tio n?

OTH ER R ESO URCES

All F ed era l A cts o f P arlia m en t, <

www.a u stlii.e d u.a u /a u /le g is /c th /c o nso l_ act

49 All s ta te -b ase d l e g is la tio n i s a v aila b le a t s ta te g overn m en t w eb site s. F or e x am ple , f in d

Vic to ria n l e g is la tio n a t: <

www.l e g is la tio n.v ic .g ov.a u

Cen tr e f o r C ultu re , E th nic ity a n d H ealth , <

www.c eh .o rg .a u /r e so urc es/p ublic atio ns/a sp x

KEY R EA DIN G S

Bed doe, L . a n d M aid m en t J . 2 009,

Mappin g K now le d ge f o r S ocia l W ork P ra ctic e, C ritic a l

In te rse ctio ns

, C en gag e, M elb ourn e.

C H APT ER F O UR

Reco rd in g a n d r ep ort-w rit in g

S U M MARY

N ote -ta k in g, r e co rd in g, r e p ort- w ritin g a n d a sso cia te d d ocu m en ta tio n a re t h e m ajo r m ean s o f

c o m munic atio n i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es s e cto r— both f o rm ally a n d i n fo rm ally . T his c h ap te r

l o oks a t f a cto rs c o m mon t o a ll p ro fe ssio nal w ritin g i n t h is f ie ld . W e t h en c o nsid er v ario us

f o rm s a n d m eth ods o f w ritin g f o r e ffe ctiv e c o m munic atio n w ith in a n d a cro ss d if fe re n t l e v els

o f p ra ctic e. S om e o f t h ese a re s p ecif ic t o p artic u la r a re as o f w ork , w ith in t h e c o nte x t o f

l e g is la tio n a n d p rin cip le s t h at a re c o m mon t o a ll h um an s e rv ic e p ra ctitio ners .

I N TR O DUCTIO N

A s i n dic ate d i n

Chap te r 1

, w hat w e w rite i s d ep en den t o n t h e c o nte x t. T his m ean s w ork ers

n eed t o a p pre cia te h ow s p ecif ic c o nte x ts m ay i n flu en ce t h e a ctio ns a n d i n te rp re ta tio ns o f a ll

i n volv ed . F urth er, t h e l a n guag e w e u se c re ate s t h e w ay s i n w hic h w e b oth s e e a n d u nders ta n d

c o nte x t ( H artm an , 1 991). ‘ L an guag e i s u se d t o a cco m plis h p artic u la r p ra ctic al p urp ose s a n d

t o c o nstr u ct a n d m ain ta in s o cia l r e alitie s.’ ( S ch neid er, 2 001: 2 31) L an guag e i s a ls o

d ete rm in ed b y o ur c ap acity t o e n gag e i n c ritic al r e fle ctio n, a ck now le d ged b y m an y r e cen t

w rite rs a s t h e m ost s ig nif ic an t c o m ponen t o f p ro fe ssio nal p ra ctic e ( e .g . F ook, 1 996; A lla n ,

2 009; H alf p en ny, 2 009). C ritic al r e fle ctio n b y a p ra ctitio ner f o cu se s o n h is o r h er p ra ctic e i n

r e la tio n t o h ow k now le d ge i s g en era te d a b out t h ose w ith w hom t h e p ra ctitio ner i s w ork in g,

a n d t h e p la ce o f p ow er i n t h is p ro cess, t o geth er w ith r e fle ctio n u pon t h e i n flu en ce o f t h e

p ra ctitio ner’s v alu es, f e elin gs a n d e m otio ns. ( D ’C ru z e t a l, 2 007).

The n atu re a n d s ig nif ic an ce o f r e co rd in g a n d r e p ort- w ritin g h av e e x te n ded b ey ond t h em

b ein g s e en a s ‘ a m ech an is m t o f a cilita te t h eo ry b uild in g, r e se arc h , a n d t e ach in g’ ( C um min g

e t a l., 2 007: 2 39) t o b ein g v ie w ed a s a n e sse n tia l c o m ponen t o f a ll o ur p ra ctic e. W hile m an y

h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers v ie w r e co rd in g a n d r e p ort- w ritin g a s a n ecessa ry b urd en , s o m e s e e i t

a s a n i n te g ra l p art o f t h eir p ro fe ssio nal r e sp onsib ility . C le ak ( 2 009: 1 ) r e fe rs t o r e se arc h

u nderta k en b y O ’C onnor e t a l. ( 2 008) t h at s u ggests w ork ers i n c lin ic al s e ttin gs s p en d o ne-

f if th o f t h eir t im e r e co rd in g. A s e n io r s o cia l w ork er i n a h osp ita l r e cen tly e stim ate d t h at

a p pro xim ate ly h alf o f h er t im e w as s p en t w ritin g r e p orts o r p ro vid in g v erb al r e p orts . I n

c o ntr a st, t h e e stim ate d t im e s p en t o n t h is a ctiv ity b y a s u pport w ork er i n a s m all n on-p ro fit

o rg an is a tio n w as a ro und 3 0 p er c en t a n d f o r t h e d ep uty C EO i t w as 9 0 p er c en t.

51 Our f o cu s o n r e co rd in g a n d r e p ort- w ritin g r e la te s t o i ts s ig nif ic an t p la ce i n s e rv ic e

deliv ery . R efe re n ce i s a ls o m ad e t o a sso cia te d w ritin g s k ills r e q uir e d f o r o rg an is a tio nal

re sp onsib ilitie s a n d c o m munity e n gag em en t ( e .g . e m ails , m in ute -ta k in g a n d p re ss r e le ase s).

The h um an s e rv ic e w ork er i s p art o f a n o rg an is a tio n t h at i s t h ere t o a d dre ss t h e s e rv ic e u se r’s

need s. T hese d ay s, s e rv ic e u se rs m ay b e a ssis te d b y a t e am o f p ro fe ssio nals . T his m ean s t h at

work ers n eed t o s h are i n fo rm atio n w ith in a n d b etw een t e am s b elo ngin g t o a m ore o r l e ss

dis p ers e d n etw ork , c o m munic atin g o fte n b y i n fo rm atio n t e ch nolo gy. I n t h is c o nte x t, t h e t e rm

‘p ro fe ssio nal r e la tio nsh ip ’ t a k es o n a d if fe re n t m ean in g.

Rese arc h i n to t h e i m pact o f d ata p ro te ctio n l e g is la tio n i n t h e U nite d K in gdom f o und t h at

hum an s e rv ic e p ra ctitio ners e x perie n ce o ngoin g t e n sio n b etw een t w o d if fe re n t d is c o urs e s, t h e

le g al- a d m in is tr a tiv e d is c o urs e a n d t h e t h era p eu tic d is c o urs e ( J e n kin s a n d P otte r, 2 007: 1 33).

In a c u ltu re w here f e ar a n d r is k a re c o nsta n tly p re se n t, q uality a n d t im ely r e co rd in g i s a

critic al c o m ponen t o f h um an s e rv ic e w ork . I n t h e f ir s t p art o f t h is c h ap te r, w e p ro vid e

ex am ple s o f t h e p urp ose a n d n atu re o f r e co rd in g a n d r e p ort- w ritin g.

WHAT I S R EC O RDIN G ?

A w ell- c o nstr u cte d r e co rd p ro vid es c o ncre te e vid en ce o f c h ange, i n fo rm atio n f o r a naly sis , a nd

in dic a tio ns f o r f u tu re a ctio n . . . [ se rv in g] a s t h e b asis f o r i n div id ual r e fle ctio n, s u perv is o ry

dis c u ssio n, a nd p eer c o nsu lta tio n. F or p ro gra m e va lu atio n, f u tu re p la nnin g, j u stify in g a nd o bta in in g

fu nds, m ea su re s o f q uality a ssu ra nce a nd r e se a rc h .

( M ile y e t a l., 1 998: 2 60)

Reco rd in g d ra w s o n i n fo rm atio n a n d k now le d ge f ro m a w id e r a n ge o f s o urc es, a n d i n clu des

desc rip tio n, a n aly sis a n d p ro fe ssio nal j u dgem en t. C le ar d is tin ctio ns n eed t o b e m ad e b etw een

fa ct a n d o pin io n w here i n put i s o bta in ed f ro m a t h ir d p arty .

As w e d is c u ss i n m ore d ep th i n

Chap te r 1 0

, A ustr a lia n c itiz en s h av e t h e r ig ht t o a ccess

in fo rm atio n— pers o nal a n d p ublic — held b y f e d era l a n d s ta te g overn m en ts a n d g overn m en t-

fu nded a g en cie s. I n V ic to ria , f o r e x am ple , t h e D ep artm en t o f H um an S erv ic es’ p olic y i s t h at,

where a p pro pria te , s e rv ic es u se rs s h ould b e a b le t o a ccess t h eir p ers o nal i n fo rm atio n d ir e ctly ,

with out t h e n eed t o m ak e a f o rm al a p plic atio n u nder t h e V ic to ria n

Fre ed om o f I n fo rm atio n

Act

. F or t h ese r e aso ns, i t i s v ita l t h at w ork ers t a k e g re at c are w hen r e co rd in g.

Reco rd s a n d r e p orts i n a n y h um an s e rv ic e w ork r e q uir e a v arie ty o f w ritin g s k ills . W ork i n

a s p ecia lis t a re a s u ch a s c h ild p ro te ctio n w ill b e f o cu se d o n t h e i n div id ual, b ut m uch w ritin g a

work er d oes w ill b e b ro ad er o r f o r d if fe re n t p urp ose s.

The d if fe re n t t y pes o f r e co rd in g a n d r e p orts w ith in a s p ecia lis t r o le s u ch a s c h ild p ro te ctio n

in clu de: c ase n ote s; i n itia l r e p ort o r n otif ic atio n; m in ute s o f c ase -p la n nin g m eetin gs; c ase

pla n s r e co rd in g t h e c h ild ’s g oals a n d s tr a te g ie s; a sse ssm en t r e p orts ; a ffid av its f o r c are a n d

pro te ctio n c o urt p ro ceed in gs; c o urt r e p orts ; l e tte rs t o s ta k eh old ers a ffe cte d b y a d ecis io n; a n d

re p orts f o r e x te rn al ( e .g . o m budsm an ) a n d i n te rn al a u die n ces ( e .g . m em o t o m an ag er).

WHY R EC O RD?

When t h in gs g o w ro ng t h ere i s a t e n den cy t o j u dge p ra ctic e o n t h e b asis o f t h e w ritte n r e co rd .

(T ay lo r, 2 008: 2 9)

Shaefo r a n d c o lle ag ues u se fu lly r e m in d u s t h at ‘ if i t i s n ot d ocu m en te d i n t h e r e co rd , i t w as

not d one’ ( S haefo r e t a l., 2 003: 1 81). T hey p ro pose t h at t h e p urp ose s o f r e co rd in g c o ncern

acco unta b ility i n r e la tio n t o f o ur m ajo r p artie s: t h e s e rv ic e u se r, t h e w ork er, t h e o rg an is a tio n

an d t h e s ta te . F or e x am ple , i t i s u se d :

52 • t o p ro vid e a n a ccu ra te a cco unt o f s e rv ic es p ro vid ed ( w ork er/ o rg an is a tio n)

• t o i d en tif y c h an ges i n p olic y , s e rv ic e d eliv ery a n d s ta ff d ep lo ym en t ( w ork er/o rg an is a tio n)

• f o r e v alu atio n a n d f u tu re r e se arc h ( w ork er/o rg an is a tio n)

• f o r o vera ll l e g al a n d p olic y r e q uir e m en ts ( o rg an is a tio n/s ta te ).

Reco rd in g p la y s a c ritic al r o le i n d ecis io n-m ak in g i n c o nte x ts s u ch a s c h ild p ro te ctio n, t h e

Fam ily C ourt a n d t h e G uard ia n sh ip a n d A dm in is tr a tiv e T rib unals .

Besid es d ocu m en tin g e v ery c o nta ct w ith o r i n r e la tio n t o t h e s e rv ic e u se r, t h e r is k ( m in im al

th ough i t i s i n A ustr a lia ) o f c h arg es b ein g b ro ught a g ain st a w ork er n ecessita te t h at e v en

can cella tio ns o f a p poin tm en ts s h ould b e n ote d . A s B oyle e t a l. ( 2 006) p oin t o ut, c are fu l

docu m en ta tio n h elp s r e d uce a w ork er’s l ia b ility i f a s e rv ic e u se r s u es t h em , o r w hen a n

offic ia l i n vestig atio n i s c arrie d o ut. F urth er, C um min g e t a l. ( 2 007: 2 41) r e co m men d

fa m ilia rity w ith p ro fe ssio nal a sso cia tio ns’ c o des o f e th ic s a n d p ra ctic e s ta n dard s d ocu m en ts

re g ard in g t h e s ig nif ic an t r o le o f r e co rd in g i n r e la tio n t o ‘ e th ic al r is k s’ a n d p ro fe ssio nal

acco unta b ility .

Case s tu dy: R eco rd in g 1

Angela p la ces a h ig h p rio rity o n r e co rd in g b ecau se : ‘ I n eed t o r e co rd w hat i s s a id a n d h ap pen s a t

th e t im e. I c an ’t r e ly o n m em ory . F or l e g al a n d p ro fe ssio nal r e aso ns I r e ta in a r e co rd o f e v ery

se rv ic e u se r c o nta ct o n t h e d ata b ase s y ste m , w heth er i t b e b y p hone, f a x , l e tte r o r e m ail. T his i s

esp ecia lly r e le v an t t o c ase s, w hic h m ay e n d u p i n c o urt, o r t h ose t h at t h e m ed ia m ay p ic k u p, f o r

whic h a s p eed y r e p ort t o t h e m in is te r o r p arlia m en t m ay b e r e q uir e d . W e c an ’t f o re se e t h e l o nger-

te rm i m plic atio ns. W e’re a cco unta b le t o t h e s e rv ic e u se r, t h eir a d vocate s, a s w ell a s t o t h e

govern m en t a n d o ur p ro fe ssio n.’

Reco rd in g f o r a sse ssm en t, p la n nin g a n d r e p ortin g w ere i n te g ra l f a cto rs d ev elo ped i n 2 008

by t h e A ASW M en ta l H ealth P ra ctic e S ta n dard s. T hey s tip ula te t h e n ecessity t o :

• m ain ta in r e co rd s o f a ctiv ity a s r e q uir e d b y a cco unta b ility s ta n dard s w ith in t h e a g en cy

• d ev elo p a s e rv ic e p la n w ith t h e s e rv ic e u se r t h at t a k es a cco unt o f s h ort- a n d l o ng-te rm g oals , a n d

id en tif ie s h ow t h e c ase m an ag er w ill s u pport t h ese g oals

• r e v ie w , r e v is e a n d m onito r t h e p la n r e g ula rly w ith t h e s e rv ic e u se r

• i n te g ra te d ata -g ath erin g t o f o rm a t e n ta tiv e a sse ssm en t o f c o m munity n eed s a n d r e so urc es

• r e g ula rly m onito r t h e a sse ssm en t f o rm ed .

Apart f ro m t h e a b ove f o rm al n ecessity t o m ain ta in a r e lia b le r e co rd o f s e rv ic es r e n dere d ,

th ere a re s e v era l o th er a d van ta g es a sso cia te d w ith a s y ste m atic r e co rd in g p la n . T hese i n clu de

th e v is ib ility o f s p ecif ic g oals a n d o utc o m es, a r e co rd o f p ro gre ss o r o th erw is e , a n d d ata

dev elo pm en t e n ab lin g e v alu atio n o f e ffe ctiv en ess o f p ra ctic e, b oth i n div id ually a n d

org an is a tio nally ( B lo om a n d F is c h er, 1 983).

Case s tu dy: R eco rd in g 2

Angela ’s e x perie n ce o f a p artic u la rly c ritic al i n cid en t r e la te d t o t h e r e je ctio n o f a n a p plic atio n f o r

re fu gee s ta tu s f o r a w om an w ith m en ta l h ealth i s su es. T he w om an ’s l a w yer a sk ed f o r e x tr a t im e

becau se t h e w om an w as p re g nan t a n d s u ffe rin g p re -n ata l d ep re ssio n, s o s h e w as n ot w ell e n ough

fo r a n i n te rv ie w . T his w en t o n f o r s e v era l m onth s. A fte r c h ild bir th , t h e w om an w as s till u nw ell,

ex perie n cin g p sy ch otic e p is o des a n d u nab le t o b e i n te rv ie w ed . C onse q uen tly , s h e s o ught a

decis io n f ro m t h e d ep artm en ta l w ork er w ith out a n i n te rv ie w . A ngela s a id t h at t h e i n te rv ie w w as

esse n tia l. T he w om an r e co vere d s o t h e i n te rv ie w p ro ceed ed . T he w om an c la im ed t h at s h e w as a

53 vic tim o f d om estic v io le n ce. A ngela ’s a sse ssm en t w as t h at t h e s itu atio n w as m ore r e la te d t o

fa m ily p ro ble m s. H er s ta tu s c o uld n ot b e d efin ed a s ‘ re fu gee’, s o h er a p plic atio n w as r e fu se d a n d a

notif ic atio n l e tte r w as s e n t t o t h e s e rv ic e u se r a n d h er r e p re se n ta tiv e. A ppro xim ate ly t w o w eek s

afte r t h e l e tte r o f r e je ctio n w as s e n t, t h e w om an ’s l a w yer p honed a n d s a id t h at t h ere w as a n e rro r

in n otif ic atio n a n d t h at t h e s e rv ic e u se r h ad r e ceiv ed a n a d ditio nal l e tte r t h at r e fe rre d t o t h e g ra n t

of a r e sid en t v is a ( i.e . p erm an en t s ta tu s).T his w as t h e r e su lt o f a n a d m in is tr a tiv e e rro r o f w hic h

Angela w as u naw are . A fte r c h eck in g t h e f ile s s h e f o und t h at s h e h ad s e n t t h e c o rre ct n otif ic atio n

le tte r t o t h e s e rv ic e u se r, b ut t h at a d m in is tr a tio n h ad s e n t a n i n co rre ct l e tte r. T he l a w yer a ccu se d

Angela o f p re cip ita tin g a s u ic id e a tte m pt b y t h e w om an b ecau se h er c ase h ad b een r e fu se d . A ngela

was c o ncern ed b ecau se o ver a s ix -m onth p erio d s h e h ad r e sp onded t o a ll o f t h e w om an ’s r e q uests

fo r a d ditio nal t im e a n d e x te n sio ns o f t h e p ro cessin g p erio d. T his w as d ocu m en te d i n h er f ile a n d

on t h e d ep artm en ta l d ata b ase . A ngela a g ain a d vis e d t h e l a w yer t h at a p plic atio n c o uld b e m ad e t o

th e R efu gee R ev ie w T rib unal, d ra w in g a tte n tio n t o w hat h ad b een a d vis e d i n t h e p re v io us

co rre sp onden ce. L ate r t h e l a w yer a d vis e d A ngela t h at h er s e rv ic e u se r’s c ase h ad b een a p pro ved

by t h e R efu gee R ev ie w C ouncil.

Dis c u ssio n q uestio n

• W hat m ore c o uld A ngela h av e d one t o r e m ed y t h e s itu atio n?

HOW T O R EC O RD

Key q uestio ns t h at a p ply t o e v ery th in g w e w rite a re :

• W ho i s t h e a u die n ce?

• W hat i s t h e p urp ose ?

• W hat d o I w an t t o c o m munic ate ?

• W hen s h ould I r e co rd t h is ?

• W hic h f o rm o f w ritin g s h ould I u se ?

Case s tu dy: R eco rd in g 3

Angela m ak es d eta ile d h an dw ritte n n ote s, s im ila r t o a p ro cess r e co rd . S he t h en w rite s a n a n aly sis

of t h e c ase u pon w hic h a d ecis io n i s m ad e, d ra w in g u pon a ll i n fo rm atio n f ro m t h e s e rv ic e u se r a n d

oth er r e se arc h d ocu m en te d , t a k in g a cco unt o n o ccasio ns o f c erta in p ro fe ssio nal c o des o f e th ic s

(e .g . w here i n fo rm atio n o n w hic h t h e d ecis io n i s b ase d h as b een o bta in ed p rim arily t h ro ugh a n

in te rp re te r).

An i m porta n t s k ill t h at i s o fte n o verlo oked i s t h e d ev elo pm en t o f o ur o w n v ers io n o f

‘s h orth an d’. W hile l a p to ps h av e b eco m e t h e n orm f o r n ote -ta k in g a t m eetin gs, a n d c o m pute rs

are i n te g ra l t o i n te rv ie w in g i n o ffic es s u ch a s C en tr e lin k, i n m an y f a ce-to -fa ce e n co unte rs

with s e rv ic e u se rs , w heth er i n t h e w ork er’s o ffic e o r i n t h e s e rv ic e u se r’s h om e, w ork ers a re

still r e lia n t o n m an ual n ote -ta k in g. I n r e la tio n t o c ase r e co rd in g, S haefo r e t a l. ( 2 008: 1 91)

su ggest a s y ste m o f n ote -ta k in g w here b y c ase n ote s k eep a c h ro nolo gic al r e co rd o f a ctiv itie s

pro vid in g b asic d ata t h at m ay b e d ra w n u pon a t a n y t im e. I n t r a n sfe rrin g t h e o rig in al n ote s

in to f o rm al r e co rd s, O ’H ara a n d W eb er ( 2 006: 1 12) r e co m men d t h at t h e r e p ort b e s im ple a n d

sh ort, w ith s e n te n ces i n t h e a ctiv e v oic e, p ara g ra p hs c o nfin ed t o o ne p oin t, a v oid an ce o f

ab str a ct w ord s a n d j a rg on, a f a ctu al a n d o bje ctiv e s ty le , a n d a v oid an ce o f j u dgem en t a n d

su bje ctiv ity .

Work ers n eed t o d ev elo p w ritin g s k ills i n a r a n ge o f w ritin g s ty le s t o e ffe ctiv ely d ocu m en t

all a sp ects o f t h eir w ork a n d t o c o nvey t h e c o rre ct m essa g e t o d if fe re n t a u die n ces. M ost

54 org an is a tio ns h av e s p ecif ic c o m pute r- o r p ap er-b ase d s y ste m s w ith g uid elin es f o r

docu m en tin g t h e h ow , w hen , w hy a n d w hat o f p ra ctic e. R eam er ( 2 005) h as d ev elo ped a

fra m ew ork f o r c o ncep tu alis in g f u nctio ns o f d ocu m en ta tio n m ore b ro ad ly . H e n ote s t h at f o r

pra ctic e r e la te d t o c lin ic al, s u perv is o ry , m an ag em en t o r a d m in is tr a tiv e d utie s, o ur r e co rd in g

se rv es s ix m ain f u nctio ns:

a sse ssm en t a n d p la n nin g

s e rv ic e d eliv ery

c o ntin uity a n d c o ord in atio n o f s e rv ic es

s u perv is io n

s e rv ic e e v alu atio n

a cco unta b ility t o s e rv ic e u se rs , i n su re rs , a g en cie s, o th er p ro vid ers , c o urts a n d r e v ie w b odie s.

TY PE S O F P R O FE SSIO NAL R EC O RDIN G A ND R EPO RTIN G

Cle ak ( 2 009: 1 5) i d en tif ie s f o ur m ain t y pes o f p ro fe ssio nal r e p ort- w ritin g r e q uir e d o f h um an

se rv ic e p ra ctitio ners i n t h eir c o nta ct w ith s e rv ic e u se rs . T hese a re :

f ile n ote s, p ro gre ss n ote s o r c lie n t r e co rd s

r e fe rra ls t o o th er p ro fe ssio nals a n d a g en cie s

r e p orts o n p ro gre ss o r o utc o m e o f i n te rv en tio ns

a sse ssm en ts .

Som e s p ecif ic m eth ods a re l is te d b elo w .

The d ia ry o r l o g b ook

Activ ity l o gs t h at d ocu m en t c h ro nolo gic ally t h e c o nta cts b etw een w ork er a n d s e rv ic e u se r, a s

well a s r e le v an t t a sk s, g oals , a ctiv itie s, f u tu re p la n s, o th er p artie s i n volv ed a n d t im e s p en t, a re

re tr o sp ectiv ely v alu ab le f o r r e lia b ility a n d a cco unta b ility ( S haefo r e t a l., 2 003: 2 62). I n t e rm s

of t im e m an ag em en t a n d p la n nin g, a d ia ry i n dic atin g d aily e v en ts , a p poin tm en ts a n d c ale n dar

dead lin es f o r c erta in t a sk s i s i n valu ab le . C le ak a n d W ils o n ( 2 007: 7 7) p ro vid e a u se fu l t o ol.

Jou rn al

A j o urn al r e co rd s m ate ria l u su ally d ra w n u pon t o s u bsta n tia te p ers o nal/p ro fe ssio nal r e fle ctio n

upon p ro gre ss a n d o utc o m es. I t i s m ore c o m monly u se d b y s tu den ts t o c o m ple m en t t h eir

le arn in g p la n s. C le ak a n d W ils o n ( 2 007: C h. 8 ) p ro vid e d eta ile d g uid elin es f o r j o urn al

writin g a s a r e fle ctiv e l e arn in g t o ol.

Note -ta k in g

Note -ta k in g p ro vid es t h e b asis f o r m ost r e co rd s. U nlik e l e ctu re n ote s a n d l o g b ooks, n ote s

kep t a b out s e rv ic e u se rs m ay b e s u bpoen aed , s o a t f ir s t c o nta ct i t i s a p pro pria te t o l e t t h e

se rv ic e u se r k now w hy n ote s a re b ein g t a k en a n d t o o bta in p erm is sio n t o t a k e n ote s d urin g

th e i n te rv ie w .

55 Pro cess r eco rd in g

Pro cess r e co rd in g i s ‘ a n arra tiv e a cco unt o f a n i n te ra ctio n w ith a n oth er i n div id ual’ ( W oodsid e

an d M cC la m , 2 006: 3 19), a d eta ile d a cco unt o f c o m munic atio n t h at t a k es p la ce b etw een t h e

in te rv ie w er a n d t h e i n te rv ie w ee. I t i s p rim arily u se d a s a s tu den t l e arn in g t o ol w ith p artic u la r

atte n tio n t o c ritic al r e fle ctio n u pon t h e r e co rd o f t h e s tu den t’ s s u bje ctiv e r e actio ns t o t h e

se rv ic e u se r a n d s itu atio n. C onte n ts s h ould i n clu de a d esc rip tio n o f i n te ra ctio n w ith t h e

se rv ic e u se r, r e fle ctio n u pon h ow a n d w hat t h e s e rv ic e u se r c o m munic ate d ( in clu din g n on-

verb al b eh av io ur) a n d t h e t h eo ry , s k ills a n d v alu es d ra w n u pon d urin g t h e i n te ra ctio n.

A u se fu l f o rm at f o r r e co rd in g a n d r e fle ctin g u pon p ro cess n ote s i s r e p ro duced i n

Tab le 4 .1

Tab le 4 .1 : P ro cess r eco rd in g s h eet

Dia lo gu e

Skills

use d

Feelin gs a n d

resp on se s

Refle ctiv e

an aly sis

Superv is o r

co m men ts

EX ER CIS E

Role -p la y a n a sse ssm en t i n te rv ie w b etw een a w ork er a n d a h ostile y oung f a th er w ho h as b een

re fe rre d b y C hild P ro te ctio n t o a p are n tin g p ro gra m r u n b y a n on-p ro fit o rg an is a tio n. F ill o ut t h e

pro cess r e co rd i n r e la tio n t o t h at i n te rv ie w ( s e e

Tab le 4 .1

The f o llo w in g q uestio ns a re u se fu l t o a sk w hen r e fle ctin g u pon t h e i n te rv ie w :

• W hic h a sp ects o f t h e i n te rv ie w d id I f in d m ost c h alle n gin g a n d w hy?

• W hat m ig ht I h av e d one d if fe re n tly ?

• W hat s p ecif ic m ic ro -s k ills d id I u se i n t h is i n te rv ie w ?

• I n w hat w ay s d id t h e p ers o nal i s su es d is c u sse d d urin g t h e i n te rv ie w r e fle ct m acro s o cie ta l

co ncern s?

• W hat n eed s t o h ap pen n ow w ith t h is ‘ c ase ’?

Sourc e:

B ed doe a n d M aid m en t ( 2 009: 3 0)

Narra tiv e r eco rd in g

In t h e h um an s e rv ic es, n arra tiv e r e co rd in g i s u se d p re d om in an tly a s a n oth er l e arn in g t o ol f o r

stu den ts e n gag ed w ith i n div id ual s e rv ic e u se rs . I t i s a d eta ile d r e co rd o f e v ery th in g t h at i s

ex pre sse d i n a n i n te rv ie w , u sin g t h e ‘ I s a id , s h e/h e s a id ’ s ty le o f w ritin g ( W in t a n d H ealy

1998: 9 7). R eis sm an a n d Q uin ney ( 2 005) h av e u se d n arra tiv e f ra m ew ork s e ls e w here , s u ch a s

fo r r e se arc h i n te rv ie w s a n d p ro fe ssio nal s to ry te llin g a t t e am m eetin gs. V aria tio ns o f n arra tiv e

re co rd in g a re c ritic al i n cid en t a n d c ritic al i s su e r e co rd in g.

56 Crit ic a l i n cid en t r eco rd in g

The a b ility t o t h in k c ritic ally i s a k ey f a cto r i n r e sp ondin g e ffe ctiv ely t o t h e c o m ple x ity a n d

uncerta in ty o f t h e h um an s e rv ic e e n vir o nm en t. T he c ritic al i n cid en t c o ncep t h as b een a p plie d

in n um ero us w ay s. D av is a n d R eid ( 1 983) r e fe r t o c ritic al i n cid en t a n aly sis a s a u se fu l

meth od f o r d eta ile d s tu dy o f a p ers o n’s s p ecif ic e x perie n ce g ro unded i n a p artic u la r s itu atio n,

an d f o r c ap tu rin g w hat i s u niq ue o r c o m mon a b out a n e v en t. H ettla g e a n d S te in lin ( 2 006)

re g ard t h e C ritic al I n cid en t T ech niq ue a s a u se fu l t o ol f o r e x plo ra tio n i n p la n nin g, p ro je ct

ev alu atio n a n d e m pow erm en t a ctiv itie s.

The C ritic al I n cid en t T ech niq ue w as d ev elo ped b y F la n ag an ( 1 954) f o r t h e A via tio n

Psy ch olo gy P ro gra m o f t h e U S A rm y A ir F orc es d urin g W orld W ar I I. B en ner ( 1 984) a p plie d

th e t e ch niq ue t o n urs in g, o pen in g t h e w ay f o r i ts u se i n t h e q ualita tiv e s tu dy o f p ro fe ssio nal

pra ctic e, e x am ple s o f w hic h m ay b e f o und i n r e se arc h r e g ard in g p ro fe ssio nal c o m pete n cie s

(G onzi e t a l., 1 993) a n d p ro fe ssio nal e x pertis e ( F ook e t a l., 2 000). H ettla g e a n d S te in lin

(2 006) r e fe r t o t h e m utu al b en efit f o r b oth r e se arc h er a n d t h e r e se arc h ed o f u sin g t h e C ritic al

In cid en t T ech niq ue a s a r e se arc h t o ol, w ith i n te rv ie w ees g ain in g a b ette r u nders ta n din g o f

th eir o w n b eh av io urs i n t h e p ro cess o f s tr u ctu re d r e fle ctio n u pon t h eir e x perie n ce w hile

pro vid in g t h e i n fo rm atio n s o ught b y t h e i n te rv ie w er.

In h ealth c are , t h e C ritic al I n cid en t T ech niq ue i s u se d a s a t o ol t o h elp c lin ic al s ta ff b ette r

unders ta n d t h eir p ra ctic e f ro m t h e v ie w poin t o f a v arie ty o f r o le s ( e .g . p hysic ia n , n urs e ,

clin ic al e d ucato r), a s w ell a s t h ro ugh r e fle ctio n o n t h e h an dlin g o f a m ed ic al e m erg en cy o r a

co m mon p ro ble m w ith a p atie n t o r a c o lle ag ue. A s a n a d ult e d ucatio n l e arn in g t o ol, t h e

critic al i n cid en t e x erc is e p la y s a d ual r o le , w hic h h as b een b uilt i n to t h e c u rric u lu m o f m an y

hum an s e rv ic e p ro gra m s. A n i n div id ual’ s l e arn in g i s e n han ced b y r e fle ctin g u pon t h eir o w n

ex perie n ce w hile e x posin g p eers t o a d iv ers ity o f c o nte x ts a n d s itu atio ns, l e arn in g t h ro ugh

narra tiv e a n d d ia lo gue w ith e ach o th er: ‘ T he s im ple a ct o f a sk in g a p ers o n t o d esc rib e a n

in cid en t t h at w as c ritic al t o t h em e lic its v alu ab le c o ncre te i n fo rm atio n a b out h ow t h at p ers o n

ex perie n ces t h eir w orld .’ ( F ook, 1 996: 1 94)

The p ro cess o f r e fle ctin g o n t h e i n cid en t i ts e lf i s a l e arn in g e x perie n ce f o r t h at

work er/p ers o n. A s w ell, i t p ote n tia lly u nearth s a ll s o rts o f t h eo re tic al a ssu m ptio ns o f w hic h

th e w ork er i s n ot a lw ay s a w are , w hic h m ak es i t a p artic u la rly v alu ab le t o ol f o r t e ach in g t h e

in te g ra tio n o f t h eo ry a n d p ra ctic e. T he a b ility t o t h in k c ritic ally i s a k ey f a cto r i n r e sp ondin g

effe ctiv ely t o t h e c o m ple x ity a n d u ncerta in ty o f t h e h um an s e rv ic es e n vir o nm en t. A c ritic al

in cid en t m ay b e:

• a n i n cid en t t h at w en t u nusu ally w ell

• a n i n cid en t i n w hic h t h in gs d id n ot g o a s p la n ned

• a n i n cid en t t h at i s v ery o rd in ary a n d t y pic al

• a n i n cid en t t h at w e t h in k c ap tu re s t h e e sse n tia l n atu re o f w hat o ur w ork i s a b out

• a n i n cid en t t h at w as p artic u la rly d em an din g.

In cre asin g a tte n tio n, b oth l o cally a n d i n te rn atio nally , i s n ow b ein g g iv en t o s itu atio n a n d

re sp onse s tr a te g ie s w hen a p artic u la r t y pe o f c ritic al i n cid en t ( s u ch a s n atu ra l d is a ste r o r

unfo re se en a cts o f v io le n ce) i m pacts u pon a g ro up, a c o m munity o r a n atio n.

Crit ic a l i s su e r eco rd in g

A c ritic al i s su e u su ally c o m pris e s f a cto rs s p an nin g a p erio d o f t im e, r e la tin g t o a g ro up o f

peo ple , a n o rg an is a tio n o r a c o m munity t h at i s h av in g a s ig nif ic an t i m pact o n o th ers . A

critic al i s su e g en era lly a ris e s f ro m i n volv em en t i n a re as s u ch a s p ro gra m p la n nin g, s ta ff

57 tr a in in g, r e se arc h , p olic y e v alu atio n o r c o m munity d ev elo pm en t. I t m ay b e a n i s su e t h at w as

partic u la rly c o m ple x , o ne t h at r a is e d c o nflic ts o r d oubts , o r o ne t h at c au se d u s t o r e fle ct u pon

ours e lv es o r t h e n atu re o f t h e w ork i n w hic h w e a re e n gag ed , t h e c o ncep ts u pon w hic h w e

dra w , o ur v alu es o r o ur r o le i n t h at c o nte x t, r a is in g q uestio ns a b out o ur o blig atio n t o t a k e

actio n a n d, i f s o , u nder w hic h a u sp ic es.

The m ajo r f a cto rs i n volv ed i n r e fle ctin g u pon t h e e x perie n ce a re :

• w hy t h e i n cid en t o r i s su e w as c ritic al t o u s a t t h e t im e

• w hat w ere o ur c o ncern s, t h oughts , f e elin gs a n d d em an ds.

In ta k e s u m mary

Most a g en cie s h av e a s ta n dard p ro -fo rm a d ocu m en t f o r e ffic ie n cy a n d c o nsis te n cy i n

in fo rm atio n o bta in ed a t f ir s t p oin t o f c o nta ct w ith s e rv ic e u se rs . H ow ev er, t h e e x te n t a n d

dep th o f m ate ria l r e co rd ed v arie s b etw een o rg an is a tio ns, a n d i s d ep en den t o n t h e a g en cy ’s

au sp ic e, s ta tu to ry r o le a n d s e rv ic e p ro vis io n. L eg ally , a g en cy r e co rd s a re t h e p ro perty o f t h e

em plo yer ( C le ak a n d W ils o n, 2 007: 8 1).

Data g en era lly r e q uir e d i n clu des: a g en cy a n d w ork er i d en tif y in g d ata ; d ate ; i d en tif ic atio n

(n am e, a d dre ss, f a m ily s ta tu s); r e fe rra l s o urc e; r e aso n f o r r e fe rra l; b ack gro und s u m mary a n d

so cia l h is to ry ; p re v io us c o nta ct w ith a g en cy ; s u m mary s ta te m en t o f p re se n tin g s itu atio n; a n d

re co m men datio ns. S um mary r e co rd in g a ls o r e fe rs t o p ro gre ss n ote s, i n ta k e s u m marie s a n d

re fe rra l r e p orts .

Case n ote s

Case n ote s a re t h e w ritte n a cco unt o f e ach c o nta ct w ith o r i n r e la tio n t o a s e rv ic e u se r. T hese

pro vid e a c h ro nolo gic al r e co rd o f c o m munic atio n, a ctio ns a n d e v en ts t h at m ay n ot b e c o vere d

in o th er d ocu m en ta tio n. C ase n ote s s h ould b e b rie f, f a ctu al a n d p ertin en t t o t h e c u rre n t

situ atio n o f t h e s e rv ic e u se r ( C le ak , 2 009: 1 5).

Case r eco rd s

A c ase r e co rd c o nta in s t h e i n fo rm atio n g ain ed , p la n s a g re ed u pon, d ecis io ns m ad e a n d

actio ns t a k en . T ay lo r ( 2 008: 2 8) h ig hlig hts t h e e sse n tia l r o le o f c ase -re co rd in g s k ills i n

re co rd s t h at i n cre asin gly a re d ocu m en te d v ia I T . T his s ta n dard is e d I T -b ase d s y ste m o f

re co rd in g o fte n f a cilita te s i n te r-p ro fe ssio nal s h are d a ccess a n d e n ab le s m ore s y ste m ic c ase

ad m in is tr a tio n, i n clu din g a v aila b ility o f m ate ria l f o r l o nger t e rm q uan tita tiv e a n d q ualita tiv e

an aly sis .

Tab le 4 .2 : C ase r eco rd s

Id en tif y in g d ata : n am e, p hon e,

ad dress, f a m ily m em bers—

gen ogra m

• I n itia l a sse ssm en t o f i s su e a n d s itu atio n

• I s su es p ers o n/s p re se n t w ith e ach p ers o n’s s tr e n gth s a n d

need s

In it ia l a n d s u bse q uen t g oals

an d o b je ctiv es a n d r ev ie w

sc h ed ule

• P la n s o f h ow g oals w ill b e a ch ie v ed

• T ask s a ssig ned t o w ork er, f a m ily , o th er

Refe rra l m ate ria ls

58 Serv ic e a greem en t/ p la n

• I d eally d ev elo ped i n c o lla b ora tio n w ith a n d s ig ned b y

se rv ic e u se r

Case a ctiv it y l o g

• D ate , a ctiv ity , c o m men t

• R ela te d t o p la n a n d g oals

• O nly r e co rd s w hat i s r e le v an t t o t h e i s su e

• R eco rd s f a cts b ase d o n e v id en ce a n d o bse rv atio ns, e .g .

verb al a n d n onverb al l a n guag e, w hat w as s a id , w hat

hap pen ed , w hat y ou s a w

Corresp on den ce R ep orts

Sourc e:

C oste llo , 2 007

With i n cre asin g l e g is la tio n b ein g p asse d r e g ard in g r ig hts a n d p ro fe ssio nal r e sp onsib ilitie s,

Je n kin s a n d P otte r ( 2 007: 1 34) h ig hlig ht t h e n eed f o r p ro fe ssio nals t o o bta in t h eir c o nse n t f o r

th e r e co rd in g a n d t o i n fo rm t h em o f p ro vis io ns a n d p ro ced ure s r e g ard in g a ccess t o r e co rd s. A

critic al f a cto r d ete rm in in g a ccu ra cy o f c ase n ote s i s t h e p erio d b etw een c o m munic atio n w ith

th e o th er p artie s a n d d ocu m en ta tio n. C onte n t o f d ia lo gue s h ould b e d ocu m en te d a lm ost

im med ia te ly f o r g re ate r a ccu ra cy .

Actio n s h eets /a ctiv it y l o gs

Actio n s h eets o r a ctiv ity l o gs a re u se fu l t o ols t h at c o m ple m en t c ase n ote s b y d ocu m en tin g a ll

th e w ork er a n d t h e s e rv ic e u se r f o cu se d u pon, r e le v an t t a sk s s u ch a s t h e g oals s o ught,

activ itie s, o th er p artie s i n volv ed , f u tu re p la n s a n d r e so urc es s o ught/r e q uir e d t o a ch ie v e t h ese .

REPO RT-W RIT IN G

Ham ilto n ( in C le ak 2 009: 5 1) d esc rib es a r e p ort r e g ard in g s e rv ic e u se rs a s a r e co rd o f t h e

pro fe ssio nal a ccu m ula tio n o f i n fo rm atio n, r e fle ctio ns a n d k now le d ge a b out a p ers o n a n d t h eir

situ atio n, t o geth er w ith a n a n aly sis a n d a p plic atio n o f t h is k now le d ge i n t h e c o nte x t o f t h e

pers o n’s n eed s a n d t h e s e rv ic e s y ste m a v aila b le t o r e sp ond. T he r e p ort f o rm at w ill v ary

acco rd in g t o i ts p urp ose a n d o rg an is a tio nal c o nte x t. S haefo r e t a l. ( 2 003) i d en tif y t h ir te en

poin ts t h at c o ntr ib ute t o w ard s a q uality r e p ort. T hese a p ply t o r e p orts r e g ard in g i n div id ual

se rv ic e u se rs a s w ell a s s y ste m s.

S pecif y t h e p urp ose o f t h e r e p ort.

D ecid e u pon t h e f o rm at a n d w ritin g s ty le a p pro pria te f o r t h e r e p ort.

O rg an is e t h e i n fo rm atio n i n a l o gic al s tr u ctu re w ith h ead in gs a n d s u b-h ead in gs.

U se t h e m in im um n um ber o f w ord s t o a d dre ss p urp ose o f r e p ort.

U se c le ar, s im ple a n d d ir e ct l a n guag e/te rm in olo gy.

S en te n ces s h ould b e s u ccin ct— fif te en t o t w en ty w ord s i s t h e r e co m men ded l e n gth .

W here p ossib le , u se t h e a ctiv e v oic e.

C onstr u ct p ara g ra p hs a ro und a s in gle i d ea, s ta tin g t h e c en tr a l p oin t i n t h e f ir s t s e n te n ce, t h en

fin is h in g w ith a s u m mary o f t h e k ey p oin t i n t h e f in al s e n te n ce.

A void l a n guag e t h at i s v ag ue, h azy o r u ncle ar i n m ean in g.

10.

A void c lic h és.

11.

E nsu re t im e f o r a t l e ast o ne d ra ft a n d, w here p ossib le , o bta in f e ed back f ro m p eers o r a n oth er s ta ff

mem ber b efo re s u bm ittin g t o t h e s u perv is o r.

12.

W hen u ncerta in o f t h e m ean in g o f w ord s, u se a d ic tio nary .

59 13.

M ax im is e t h e u se o f t o ols o n t h e c o m pute r t o e d it, a n d t o c h eck s p ellin g a n d g ra m mar.

Cou rt r ep orts

In g en era l, a r e p ort f o r t h e C hild re n ’s C ourt s h ould i n clu de:

• a n a cco unt o f y our i n volv em en t w ith t h e c h ild o r y oung p ers o n a n d t h e f a m ily ( in clu din g y our o w n

dir e ct i n volv em en t o r t h e i n volv em en t o f t h e a g en cy o r s e rv ic e)

• a d esc rip tio n o f t h e a b use o r n eg le ct o f t h e c h ild , i f a p pro pria te w ith in y our e x pertis e

• a p ro fe ssio nal a sse ssm en t o f t h e f a m ily ’s s itu atio n, t h eir s tr e n gth s a n d w eak nesse s

• y our m ajo r c o ncern s a b out t h e c h ild ’s w ellb ein g ( in clu din g p ast, p re se n t a n d f u tu re c o ncern s)

• t h e c ap acity a n d w illin gness o f t h e c h ild ’s p are n ts o r c are g iv ers t o c are f o r a n d p ro te ct t h e c h ild i n

th e f u tu re .

Pro fe ssio nals m ust i n fo rm f a m ilie s t h at a r e p ort i s b ein g w ritte n f o r t h e C hild re n ’s C ourt

hearin g, k eep in g t h em i n fo rm ed o f t h e a ctio ns a n d r e aso ns f o r w ritin g t h e r e p ort.

The r e p ort w ill b e a d ocu m en t o f t h e C hild re n ’s C ourt a n d i s r e ad b y t h e m ag is tr a te a n d t h e

le g al r e p re se n ta tiv es f o r t h e d ep artm en t, t h e c h ild a n d f a m ily . T he c h ild a n d f a m ily w ill a ls o

usu ally r e ad t h e r e p ort o r h av e t h e c o nte n ts e x pla in ed t o t h em . B elo w a re f a cto rs s p ecif ic t o

co urt r e p orts f ro m N atio nal C en tr e A gain st S ex ual A ssa u lt’ s g uid elin es, i n a d ditio n t o t h e

poin ts i d en tif ie d b y S haefo r e t a l. ( 2 003).

• P re se n t t h e i n fo rm atio n a s a c h ro nolo gic al a cco unt o f y our i n volv em en t w ith t h e c h ild o r y oung

pers o n, u sin g p re cis e d ate s.

• D is tin guis h b etw een f a ct a n d p ro fe ssio nal a sse ssm en t.

• D ra w o n f a cts a n d l in k t h ese t o y our p ro fe ssio nal k now le d ge, t r a in in g a n d t h eo ry .

• P ro vid e e x am ple s t o s u pport y our a sse ssm en ts a n d c o nclu sio ns. F or e x am ple , i f y ou s a y ‘ M ary w as

with dra w n’, t h en y ou n eed t o s a y h ow a n d w hy.

• D is tin guis h b etw een y our o w n o bse rv atio ns ( fir s t h an d) a n d i n fo rm atio n f ro m o th er s o urc es

(h ears a y ).

• S ta te y our s o urc es o f i n fo rm atio n.

• K eep w ith in y our o w n a re a o f e x pertis e a n d k now le d ge.

• S ta te y our c o nclu sio ns a n d r e co m men datio ns a b out t h e f u tu re c are o f t h e c h ild o r y oung p ers o n

(a v oid i n tr o ducin g n ew m ate ria l a t t h is p oin t) .

• T itle t h e r e p ort ‘ R ep ort t o t h e C hild re n ’s C ourt i n R ela tio n t o ( n am e o f c h ild )’.

• I n clu de n am es o f a ll r e le v an t f a m ily m em bers o n t h e t itle p ag e.

• S ta te y our r o le , t h e r o le o f y our a g en cy a n d t h e s e rv ic es i t p ro vid es.

• S ta te w hen t h e c h ild a n d f a m ily b ecam e i n volv ed w ith y ou a n d y our a g en cy , a n d w hy.

• D esc rib e t h e n atu re o f y our i n volv em en t w ith t h e c h ild a n d f a m ily .

• D esc rib e t h e n um ber a n d t y pe o f c o nta cts y ou h av e h ad w ith t h e c h ild o r f a m ily i n t h e b ody o f t h e

re p ort, o r a tta ch i t a s a n a p pen dix .

• S ta te y our c o ncern s f o r t h e c h ild ’s w elf a re a n d t h e b asis f o r t h ese .

• D esc rib e t h e s tr e n gth s a n d w eak nesse s o f t h e f a m ily .

• S ta te y our c o nclu sio ns a n d, i f a p pro pria te , y our r e co m men datio ns.

Som e a g en cie s r e q uir e t h at t h e r e p ort b e s ig ned b y t h e i n div id ual w ork er ( a u th or) a n d

co unte r-s ig ned b y t h e w ork er’s s u perv is o r o r a g en cy d ir e cto r. T he e n velo pe s h ould b e

mark ed ‘ c o nfid en tia l’ .

Pro fe ssio n al l e tte r-w rit in g

Hogan ’s ( 2 001) p ro posa l f o r l e tte r-w ritin g a s p art o f t h e c o unse llin g p ro cess i s t h at i t i s a n

60 eth ic ally v alu ab le m ean s o f s h are d r e co rd -k eep in g, t a k in g i n to a cco unt m ore o pen a ccess t o

data u nder f re ed om o f i n fo rm atio n ( 2 001: 1 5). T he c o nte n ts o f t h is k in d o f l e tte r i n clu de

id en tif y in g d ata ( e .g . n am e, d ate a n d p la ce), r e v ie w o f p re v io us c o nta ct, p oin ts r a is e d , f u tu re

goals , p la n s, c o m mitm en t a n d a g re em en ts . M ore f o rm al l e tte rs r e q uir e c are fu l p la n nin g,

su ccin ct w ritin g a n d a c le ar s ta te m en t o f t h e s u bje ct- m atte r, p urp ose a n d a c o nta ct p ers o n ( if

not t h e w rite r). A s im ple b ut s o m etim es o m itte d f a cto r i n l e tte rs s e n t b y ‘ s n ail m ail’ t h ese

day s i s t h e d ate !

Reco rd in g i n te rn et c o m munic a tio n

Com munic atio n b y e m ail h as b eco m e a n i n sta n t, s p eed y m ean s o f c o m munic atio n, b lu rrin g

th e b oundarie s b etw een i n fo rm al ( p ers o nal) a n d p ro fe ssio nal m essa g es. J o hnso n ( 2 009)

id en tif ie s t h re e t y pes o f e m ail: e m ail p ro vid in g i n fo rm atio n; e m ail r e q uestin g i n fo rm atio n;

an d e m ail r e q uestin g a ctio n. S en din g s in gle -to pic e m ails o bta in s a s p eed ie r r e sp onse , a v oid s

co nfu sio n w hen s o rtin g i n to t h em ed m ailb oxes o r w hen s e arc h in g b y s u bje ct a t a l a te r d ate .

The i m porta n ce o f k eep in g p ers o nal a n d p ro fe ssio nal e m ails s e p ara te i s o bvio us— but h ow

ofte n h av e w e f a ile d t o a d here t o t h is ? H ow o fte n h av e w e f o rw ard ed e m ails o n t o o th ers

with out t h in kin g? W e h av e l ittle c o ntr o l o ver w hat h ap pen s t o o ur m essa g e a fte r i t h as b een

se n t. T he b est s a fe g uard i s t o a v oid u sin g e m ail t o c o m munic ate i n fo rm atio n t h at s h ould n ot

be m ad e p ublic ( 2 009: 2 2). W hen a tta ch in g a f ile , a lw ay s r e fe r t o i t i n t h e e m ail m essa g e,

sta tin g t h e r e aso n f o r s e n din g t h e a tta ch m en t.

Effe ctiv e p ro fe ssio nal e m ail c o m munic atio n i s d ep en den t u pon:

• t h e p olic ie s a n d p ro ced ure s o f y our o rg an is a tio n

• t h e i n te r-a g en cy s y ste m i n o pera tio n

• t h e p ers o nal o rg an is a tio n a n d ‘ u se ’ o f e m ails r e ceiv ed a n d s e n t.

As p ra ctitio ners , w e a re r e sp onsib le f o r i m ple m en tin g t h e f ir s t t w o f a cto rs . O rg an is a tio nal

em ail p olic ie s a n d p ro ced ure s d ev elo ped b y t h e I T s e ctio n o f o ur o rg an is a tio n a n d a u th oris e d

by m an ag em en t a re t h ose t o w hic h w e s ig n a g re em en t o n c o m men cin g e m plo ym en t.

Jo hnso n’s ( 2 009) g uid elin e a b out a v oid in g s e n din g i n fo rm atio n v ia e m ail t h at s h ould n ot

be m ad e p ublic i s h elp fu l. H ow ev er, t h e i n cre asin g d ep en den cy o f o ur h ealth a n d w elf a re

sy ste m s u pon s p eed y c o m munic atio n v ia e m ail i n l ie u o f t e le p hone c o nta ct h as n ecessita te d

th e d ev elo pm en t o f i n te r-a g en cy s y ste m s f o r t r a n sfe rrin g c o nfid en tia l i n fo rm atio n a b out

se rv ic e u se rs a cro ss a g en cie s. A n e x am ple o f t h is i s t h e S erv ic e C oord in atio n o f T ools

Tem pla te ( S C oT T) S yste m , u se d b y h ealth s e rv ic es i n V ic to ria . T his i s a d ata b ase -d riv en e -

re fe rra l s y ste m a im ed a t s tr e am lin in g a n d c o ord in atin g r e fe rra l p ro cesse s, u sin g s ta n dard

docu m en ta tio n. T he d ocu m en ta tio n i n clu des a g re ed -u pon s ta n dard r e fe rra l p ro cesse s, w hic h

re q uir e a ck now le d gem en t t h at t h e r e fe rra l h as b een r e ceiv ed a n d f e ed back a b out t h e o utc o m e.

Secu rity i n te g ra l t o t h e s y ste m e n su re s l im ite d a ccess t o m ate ria l t r a n sm itte d , g uara n te ein g

co nfid en tia lity . A c ritic al c o m ponen t o f t h e s y ste m i s c lie n t c o nse n t.

Use o f t h e S C oT T s y ste m a m ong o rg an is a tio ns c o m pris in g t h e S outh W est P rim ary C are

Partn ers h ip ( V ic to ria ) h as r e su lte d i n i m pro vem en ts i n t h e c o nte n t o f r e fe rra ls ,

co nfid en tia lity , m ore e ffic ie n t d ata -c o lle ctio n a n d i n cre ase d s h arin g o f r e le v an t k now le d ge

ab out r e fe rra l a n d o utc o m e; i t h as a ls o s tr e n gth en ed i n te r-a g en cy r e la tio ns ( S in nott, 2 007).

Alo ngsid e t h is , h ow ev er, i s t h e f ru str a tio n e x perie n ced b y w ork ers d ue t o t h e i n itia l

ad ditio nal t im e c o nsu m in g t a sk .

The t h ir d f a cto r i n r e g ard t o o ur o rg an is a tio n a n d ‘ u se ’ o f e m ails r e ceiv ed a n d s e n t i s o ur

pers o nal/p ro fe ssio nal r e sp onsib ility . R ese arc h i n t h e b usin ess s e cto r ( B en ja m in , 2 008) f o und

th at 5 5 p er c en t o f e m plo yers r e ta in a n d r e ad t h eir e m plo yees’ e m ails . M cG hee ( 2 009)

61 re co m men ds f o ur w ay s t o t a k e c o ntr o l o f y our e m ail i n b ox:

S et u p a s im ple a n d e ffe ctiv e e m ail r e fe re n ce s y ste m .

S ch ed ule u nin te rru pte d t im e t o p ro cess a n d o rg an is e e m ail.

P ro cess o ne i te m a t a t im e, s ta rtin g a t t h e t o p.

U se t h e ‘ 4 D s f o r D ecis io n M ak in g’ m odel.

The ‘ 4 D s f o r D ecis io n M ak in g’ r e fe rs t o t h e c h oic es a v aila b le w hen o pen in g e ach m essa g e

—th at i s , d ecid in g w heth er t o :

• D ele te

i t

• D o

i t

• D ele g ate

i t, o r

• D efe r

i t.

McG hee f in ds t h at t h is a p pro ach e n ab le s u s t o h an dle o ur d aily e m ails m ore s p eed ily , t h ere b y

en han cin g o ur m in dse t.

Snopes.c o m

p ro vid es a d vic e t h at i s p artic u la rly r e le v an t t o h um an s e rv ic e p ra ctitio ners

re g ard in g m essa g es a b out ‘ w orth y c au se s’ o r ‘ m atte rs o f c o ncern ’ t h at s e ek y our s u pport a n d

ask y ou t o f o rw ard t h em o n t o o th ers . T hro ugh t h is p ro cess, t h e h ost s e n der a cq uir e s l is ts o f

‘a ctiv e’ e m ail a d dre sse s, w hic h m ay t h en b e u se d f o r o th er p urp ose s. M ore o ver, e m ail

petitio ns a re n ot a ccep ta b le t o g overn m en t. T he s im ple m essa g e i s : d o n ot s ig n, r e sp ond o r

fo rw ard e m ails o f t h is k in d. I f y ou a re c o ncern ed a b out t h e n atu re o r s o urc e o f a n e m ail,

< www.s n opes.c o m

> m ay s h ed l ig ht u pon w heth er t h e m essa g e i s s p am .

The i n cre asin g u se o f t e x tin g b etw een w ork ers a n d s e rv ic e u se rs r a is e s q uestio ns a b out o ur

re co rd in g r e sp onsib ility f o r i n fo rm atio n c o m munic ate d i n t h is m an ner. W hat a re t h e m eth ods

fo r r e co rd in g S M S s e rv ic e u se r c o m munic atio n o n o ur a g en cy d ata b ase s? D o w e n eed

dif fe re n t p olic ie s t o r e co rd s e rv ic es p ro vid ed b y a m ed iu m o th er t h an o ur c o nven tio nal f a ce-

to -fa ce a n d t e le p hone c o unse llin g ( fo r e x am ple , o nlin e c o unse llin g) t e ch niq ues?

Min ute s o f m eetin gs

The m in ute s o f a m eetin g a re a n o ffic ia l r e co rd o f w hat t a k es p la ce. T his i n clu des:

• a s u m mary o f t h e d ate , t im es t h at t h e m eetin g b eg in s a n d e n ds a n d m eetin g v en ue

• t h e n am es o f a ll p eo ple p re se n t a n d a p olo gie s r e ceiv ed

• k ey p oin ts r e g ard in g a ll i te m s d is c u sse d ( w heth er o n t h e a g en da o r n ot)

• m otio ns a n d w ho m ad e t h em , h ig hlig htin g a ctio ns a g re ed u pon, w ith t h e n am es o f t h ose r e sp onsib le

fo r i m ple m en ta tio n

• i te m s d efe rre d a n d m otio ns f o r f u rth er d is c u ssio n— th ese s h ould b e n ote d t o a g en da a t t h e n ex t

meetin g

• t h e d ate f o r n ex t m eetin g.

It i s w is e t o p re p are a d ra ft a s s o on a s p ossib le a fte r t h e m eetin g. W hen r e p ortin g o n l e n gth y

or c o m ple x d is c u ssio ns, i t i s a g ood i d ea f o r t h e s u perv is o r o r a c o lle ag ue p re se n t a t t h e

meetin g t o r e ad t h e m in ute s b efo re d is tr ib utio n.

Subm is sio n -w rit in g

The g uid elin es a n d a p plic atio n f o rm s o f t h e p ote n tia l f u ndin g o rg an is a tio n a re t h e s ta rtin g

poin t f o r a n y s u bm is sio n-w ritin g. A n e sse n tia l c o m ponen t i n t h e a p plic atio n, o r a tta ch ed , i s

62 an o rg an is a tio nal s ta te m en t ( n o m ore t h an o ne p ag e). T his s h ould i n clu de:

• o rg an is a tio n m is sio n a n d p urp ose

• o rig in s o f o rg an is a tio n

• c u rre n t o pera tio ns

• f u tu re v is io n

• s tr u ctu re o f o rg an is a tio n

• a d m in is tr a tiv e p ro ced ure s

• f in an cia l p ro cesse s.

Mate ria l t o s u pport t h e n eed f o r f u ndin g c o uld i n clu de r e p orts ( e .g . a n nual r e p ort) , A GM

min ute s, s u rv ey r e su lts o r a p ro gra m f ly er. G uid elin es f o r r e p ort- w ritin g a re g en era lly

ap plic ab le t o s u bm is sio n-w ritin g, t h e m ajo r d if fe re n ce b ein g t h at i n a s u bm is sio n o ne i s

se ek in g f u nds f o r a p ro gra m o r r e se arc h t h at i s s till a n i d ea, f o r e v alu atin g a n ew s e rv ic e o r

dev elo pin g a lte rn ativ e w ay s o f a d dre ssin g l o cal n eed s. T he f o llo w in g s u bm is sio n-w ritin g

guid elin es a re f ro m t h e C om monw ealth D ep artm en t o f H ealth a n d A gein g ( 2 006):

• S ta rt w ith a d esc rip tio n o f t h e i m petu s o f t h e s u bm is sio n. W here d id i t c o m e f ro m — a p ublic

meetin g, t h e o utc o m es o f a r e se arc h p ro je ct, a n a d vertis e m en t i n t h e p ap er?

• S ta te t h e n atu re a n d d im en sio ns o f t h e p ro ble m t h at a s u ccessfu l s u bm is sio n w ill a d dre ss— pro vid e

cle ar a n d c o ncre te i n fo rm atio n. D esc rib e y our u nders ta n din g o f t h e c au se o f t h e ‘ p ro ble m ’ a n d w hat

th e ‘ p ro ble m ’ i s — ex pla in h ow y ou i d en tif y t h is c au se – effe ct r e la tio nsh ip .

• I n dic ate s u pportin g e v id en ce, i n clu din g r e se arc h r e p orts , c u rre n t b est p ra ctic e, p olic y g uid elin es.

• D esc rib e h ow t h e ‘ p ro ble m ’ i s c u rre n tly d ealt w ith , h ow a d eq uate t h ese a p pro ach es a re a n d t h eir

defic ie n cie s.

• E xpla in t h e p ossib le a lte rn ativ e c o urs e s o f a ctio n, t h eir b en efits a n d d efic its .

• S ta te c le arly w hat y our p ro posa l i s a n d h ow i t w ill a d dre ss t h e p ro ble m — desc rib e t h e p ro pose d

meth ods a n d w hat w ill b e a ch ie v ed .

• I n dic ate c le arly h ow t h e s e rv ic e/p ro je ct w ill b e m onito re d a n d e v alu ate d .

• D esc rib e t h e o rg an is a tio nal a n d a cco unta b ility s tr u ctu re s.

• I n dic ate w ho w ill b e r e sp onsib le f o r w hat.

• D esc rib e h ow a n d w hen r e p orts — sa y , t o a f u ndin g b ody— will b e d eliv ere d .

• D esc rib e t h e r e q uir e d b udget.

• C re ate a s c h ed ule o f t a sk s a n d c o m ple tio n d ate s.

• S ta te t h e c o nta ct d eta ils o f y our r e fe re es.

• G iv e t h e d eta ils f o r t h e c o nta ct p ers o n f o r t h e s u bm is sio n.

Med ia r ele a se s

Ross ( 2 004) p ro vid es t h e f o llo w in g c o m pre h en siv e g uid e t o w ritin g a m ed ia r e le ase ,

ex am ple s o f w hic h h av e b een a d ap te d t o t h e h um an s e rv ic es f ie ld . T he p urp ose o f a m ed ia

re le ase i s t o p ro vid e n ew sw orth y i n fo rm atio n t o t h e m ed ia a b out r e cen t o r c o m in g e v en ts —

fo r e x am ple , t h e o pen in g o f t h e l o cal y outh -m an ag ed c o m munity c afé — in t h e h ope t h at t h ey

will r u n t h e s to ry . T his i n fo rm atio n s h ould b e p ro vid ed i n w ritin g r a th er t h an v erb ally , t o

min im is e t h e c h an ce o f m is ta k es.

The m ed ia r e le ase s h ould b e b rie f a n d t o t h e p oin t. O ne p ag e i s r e co m men ded ( b ack gro und

in fo rm atio n, p hoto s, e tc . c an b e a tta ch ed s e p ara te ly ), s ta rtin g w ith t h e m ain p oin ts , u sin g b old

te x t t o m ak e i t e asy f o r t h e j o urn alis t t o e x tr a ct t h e m ost i m porta n t p oin ts . I t m ust b e

co nsis te n t a n d a ccu ra te , w ith d ate s, t im es a n d n um bers . A m ed ia r e le ase s h ould a n sw er t h e

fo llo w in g q uestio ns: W ho? W hat? W hen ? W here ? W hy? H ow ? H ow m uch ? H ow m an y? A nd

how d o p eo ple a ccess i t? T o m ak e t h e s to ry ‘ n ew sw orth y’, i t n eed s t o b e t o pic al/tim ely ,

politic ally /e co nom ic ally s ig nif ic an t, a ty pic al, o f h um an i n te re st a n d h eart- w arm in g. U se

63 quote s t o l iv en u p t h e s to ry , t a k in g i n to a cco unt t h e t o ne/s ty le o f t h e p ublic atio n t o w hic h y ou

are s e n din g t h e m ed ia r e le ase a n d w ho w ill b e t h e r e ad ers .

Read t h e t a rg ete d p ublic atio ns t o i d en tif y t h e r e le v an t e d ito rs a n d j o urn alis ts , d ev elo pin g a

med ia l is t t h at i s a p pro pria te t o o ur o rg an is a tio n. T he m ed ia r e le ase s h ould b e s e n t t o ‘ T he

Edito r’ ( p re fe ra b ly b y n am e). M ed ia r e le ase s m ay b e s e n t b y f a x o r e m ail, b ut a h ard c o py

with a n y p hoto gra p hs o r o th er e n clo su re s s h ould f o llo w . I t i s i m porta n t t o c h eck d ead lin es,

esp ecia lly f o r m onth ly o r w eek ly p ublic atio ns, b ut t o a v oid s e n din g i t t o o f a r i n a d van ce o f

th e e v en t. A f o llo w -u p c all a f e w d ay s a fte r s e n din g t h e m ed ia r e le ase i s a g ood i d ea, t o

double c h eck t h at i t h as b een r e ceiv ed b y t h e r ig ht p ers o n, a n d w heth er a n y f u rth er

in fo rm atio n i s r e q uir e d ; t h is a ls o a cts a s a r e m in der.

CO NCLU SIO N

Hum an s e rv ic e w ork ers r e q uir e a d iv ers ity o f w ritin g s k ills i n p ro vid in g s e rv ic e t o i n div id uals

an d r a is in g c o m munity a w are n ess a b out s h are d i s su es. R eco rd in g a n d r e p ort- w ritin g a re

critic al c o m ponen ts o f t h is w ork .

Chap te r r ev ie w q uestio n s

4.1 W hy a re r e co rd in g a n d r e p ort- w ritin g c ritic al c o m ponen ts o f o ur w ork i n h um an s e rv ic es?

4.2 W hat m ajo r l e g is la tio n i m pacts u pon o ur r e co rd in g a n d r e p ort- w ritin g?

4.3 W hat t y pes o f r e co rd s a re e sse n tia l w hen c o m munic atin g w ith s e rv ic e u se rs ?

4.4 H ow m ig ht r e cen t d ev elo pm en ts i n i n fo rm atio n t e ch nolo gy a n d r e la te d l e g is la tio n a ffe ct

our r e co rd in g?

4.5 W hat o th er t y pes o f w ritin g a re u se fu l f o r o ur o rg an is a tio nal a n d c o m munity r o le s?

OTH ER R ESO URCES

The O wl a t P urd ue ( P urd ue O nlin e W ritin g L ab ), <

http ://o w l.e n glis h .p urd ue.e d u/s ite m ap

Rep ort W ritin g ( C en tr a l Q ueen sla n d U niv ers ity ) <

www.d tls .c q u.e d u.a u /c lc /2 _1_3.h tm l

How t o w rite r e p orts i n p la in E nglis h , <

www.p la in en glis h .c o .u k/r e p orts g uid e.p df

AASW C ode o f E th ic s 1 999, <

www.a asw .a sn .a u /d ocu m en t/ite m /9 2

The P ra ctic e S ta n dard s f o r S ocia l W ork ers : A ch ie v in g O utc o m es, A ASW , 2 003, 1 .6 a n d 1 .7 ,

< www.a asw .a sn .a u /d ocu m en t/ite m /1 6

Snopes, <

www.s n opes.c o m

> a n d/o r <

www.t r u th orfic tio n.c o m

< www.s n opes.c o m /in boxer/p etitio n/I n te rn et.a sp

C H APT ER F IV E

In fo rm atio n d ev elo p m en t a n d

m an agem en t i n h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio n s

S U M MARY

T his c h ap te r i s d esig ned t o a ssis t s tu den ts a n d n ew w ork ers a p pre cia te w hy i n fo rm atio n

d ev elo pm en t a n d m an ag em en t— esp ecia lly t h at u nderta k en b y a n o rg an is a tio n’s m an ag em en t

t e am — is i m porta n t. W e a ck now le d ge t h at p eo ple w ork in g a t t h e f ro nt l in e o f h um an s e rv ic es

p ra ctic e o fte n f e el t h at r e co rd in g a n d o th er f o rm s o f i n fo rm atio n g en era tio n d etr a ct f ro m t h eir

c ap acity t o p ro vid e m uch -n eed ed a ssis ta n ce t o t h eir c lie n ts . N ev erth ele ss, t h e c h ap te r o utlin es

a n um ber o f r e aso ns w hy i t c an not b e i g nore d . W e d is c u ss t h e d if fe re n t t y pes o f d ata t h at

o rg an is a tio ns m ig ht g en era te , i llu str a te t h e s te p s i n volv ed i n d ev elo pin g a m an ag em en t

i n fo rm atio n s y ste m , o utlin e q uestio ns w ork ers m ig ht l ik e t o a sk i n a n y s u ch d ev elo pm en t

p ro cess, a n d e x pose t h e s o cia l d im en sio ns o f m an ag em en t i n fo rm atio n s y ste m s. R etu rn in g t o

c o nte x t, t h e c h ap te r d is c u sse s t h e s p ecif ic d if fic u ltie s p ose d t o c o m munity -b ase d , n on-p ro fit

o rg an is a tio ns i n t h e c o nte m pora ry m ix ed e co nom y o f w elf a re . W e f in is h w ith a n od t o t h e

f u tu re , t h e d ev elo pm en t o f k now le d ge m an ag em en t— a f ie ld o f a ctiv ity d is tin ct f ro m

i n fo rm atio n m an ag em en t.

I N TR O DUCTIO N

N ot s u rp ris in gly , p eo ple w ork in g i n h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns a re v ery c o m mitte d t o t h eir

w ork a n d t o t h e v uln era b le p eo ple w ith w hom t h ey w ork . B ecau se o f t h is , h um an s e rv ic e

w ork ers c an b eco m e v ery f ru str a te d w ith a n y o rg an is a tio nal i m pera tiv e t h at d ir e cts t h eir

a tte n tio n a w ay f ro m t h eir s e rv ic e u se rs . T his i s p artic u la rly t h e c ase i n r e la tio n t o t h e t im e

s p en t r e co rd in g i n fo rm atio n f o r m an ag em en t. O fte n , w ork ers c h alle n ge t h e u tility o f t h e

i n fo rm atio n t h ey i n put i n to m an ag em en t i n fo rm atio n s y ste m s, p artic u la rly w hen t h ey a re

o ver-s tr e tc h ed a n d a w are o f t h e u nre le n tin g d em an d f o r t h eir s e rv ic es. S om etim es, t h ey a re

c o ncern ed t h at t h e d em an ds o f s u ch s y ste m s ( in t e rm s o f w hat a ctiv itie s c o unt a s ‘ d ata ’)

o verly d ete rm in e t h e c o nto urs o f t h eir a ctu al p ra ctic es. I n s u ch s itu atio ns, i t i s v ery i m porta n t

t o b e c le ar a b out w hy o rg an is a tio ns a sk w ork ers t o d o c erta in t h in gs, a n d i n t h is c ase w hy

d ev elo pin g a n d c o lle ctin g i n fo rm atio n i s a v ery i m porta n t p art o f g ood o rg an is a tio nal p ra ctic e

a n d g overn an ce.

Our f ir s t a rg um en t r e la te s t o a c o re p ro fe ssio nal s k ill t h at w e h ope a ll h um an s e rv ic e

65 work ers d ev elo p— th e c ap acity t o b e c ritic ally r e fle ctiv e a b out t h eir w ork o vera ll a n d t h eir

en gag em en t w ith s e rv ic e u se rs i n p artic u la r. W e s u ggest t h at d ev elo pin g a n d r u nnin g

man ag em en t i n fo rm atio n s y ste m s i s t h e b usin ess e n d o f c ritic al r e fle ctiv ity , b ut i n t h is c ase a t

th e l e v el o f t h e p ro gra m a n d t h e o rg an is a tio n. W hat d o w e m ean b y t h is ? A ll h um an s e rv ic e

org an is a tio ns h av e a n e th ic al o blig atio n t o p ro vid e t h e v ery b est s e rv ic e t h ey c an . T o d o s o ,

th ey n eed t o b e a b le t o s ta n d b ack f ro m t h e h urly b urly o f e v ery day p ra ctic e a n d l o ok

critic ally a t w hat i s g oin g o n b eh in d t h e d oor a t t h e b ack o f t h e r e cep tio n d esk . M an ag ers a n d

sta ff a ll h av e t o c o ntr ib ute t o a n o ngoin g c y cle o f e v alu atio n, l o okin g c are fu lly a t w heth er t h e

fro nt- lin e p ra ctic es o f s ta ff i n volv ed i n d eliv erin g p ro gra m s a re a ch ie v in g t h e d esir e d

outc o m es. I n o th er w ord s, p ro gra m e v alu atio n ( a n d o th er f o rm s o f a sse ssin g a n o rg an is a tio n’s

perfo rm an ce) i s a p ro fe ssio nal d uty . I n fo rm atio n a b out t h e s e rv ic e, n ot s u rp ris in gly , i s t h e

basic u nit o f e v alu atio n.

The C ode o f E th ic s d ev elo ped b y t h e A ustr a lia n A sso cia tio n o f S ocia l W ork ers , f o r

ex am ple , s ta te s t h at:

Socia l W ork ers s h ould a ppro pria te ly c h alle n ge a nd w ork t o i m pro ve p olic ie s, p ro ced ure s, p ra ctic es

and s e rv ic e p ro vis io ns w hic h :

• are n ot i n t h e b est i n te re sts o f t h e s e rv ic e u se r

• are i n eq uita ble

• are i n a ny w ay o ppre ssiv e, d is e m pow erin g o r c u ltu ra lly i n appro pria te

• dem onstr a te u nfa ir d is c rim in atio n.

( A ASW , 2 002: 3 1)

Alth ough c o uch ed i n a s lig htly d if fe re n t m an ner, t h e e th ic al i m pera tiv e i s n ev erth ele ss c le ar:

so cia l w ork ers i n p artic u la r m ust w ork t o i m pro ve p olic ie s, p ro ced ure s, p ra ctic es a n d s e rv ic e

pro vis io n. W e s u ggest t h at a s im ila r i m pera tiv e i s p ose d t o a ll h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers , n ot

ju st s o cia l w ork ers . T o d o t h is , w ork ers ( a n d m an ag ers , w ho w ill n o d oubt h av e s im ila r

co m mitm en ts t o f ro nt- lin e s ta ff) m ust b e p re p are d t o e n gag e i n p ro gra m a n d o rg an is a tio nal

‘c ritic al r e fle x iv ity ’— or, i n t e ch nic al l a n guag e, e v alu atio n. F urth er, a s a k ey a u th or o n

ev alu atio n s u ggests , o ur f o cu s o n e v alu atio n a n d o n t h e i n fo rm atio n-c o lle ctio n s y ste m s a n d

pro cesse s t h at i n fo rm e v alu atio ns s h ould n ot b e v ie w ed a s a n i m positio n, b ut a s a n

opportu nity ( G in sb erg , 2 001).

A s e co nd r e aso n f o r p ay in g a tte n tio n t o i n fo rm atio n d ev elo pm en t a n d m an ag em en t i s t h at

all h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns a re , a s w e s u ggeste d i n

Chap te r 3

, c u rre n tly c au ght u p i n a

bro ad er m ovem en t a ffe ctin g t h e e n tir e s p an o f i n te re sts a n d a ctiv itie s o f g overn m en ts — th e

ev id en ce-b ase d p olic y a n d p ra ctic e m ovem en t. O ccu rrin g o n a b ro ad er s c ale t h an t h e h um an

se rv ic es, t h e r e n ais sa n ce o f e v id en ce i n t h e c o nte m pora ry e ra i s e n tir e ly c o ngru en t w ith t h e

tim es. I ts e m erg en ce h as b een s p urre d b y a r a n ge o f o bje ctiv es, t h e m ost i n tu itiv ely

co m pellin g o f w hic h a re e th ic al i n i n te n t. I n s im ila r v ein t o o ur c o m men ts a b ove, t h e

pro m otio n o f p ra ctitio ner a cco unta b ility t o p eo ple w ho u se h um an s e rv ic es, a s w ell a s t o

oth er r e le v an t b odie s, i s v ig oro usly a d van ced a s a k ey r e aso n w hy h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers i n

partic u la r s h ould e m bra ce e v id en ce-b ase d p ra ctic e ( s e e G am brill 2 003; R ose n 2 003).

An i m porta n t ( a lth ough n ot a s c le arly a ck now le d ged ) i m petu s a ls o a ris e s f ro m t h e d esir e t o

co unte r t h e i n cre asin gly p re cario us i m ag e o f w elf a re i n t h e ( u nfrie n dly ) N ew P ublic

Man ag em en t- in sp ir e d s ta te . E sse n tia lly , e v id en ce-b ase d p ra ctic e p ro pose s t h at h um an s e rv ic e

in te rv en tio n k now le d ge s h ould b e d ev elo ped t h ro ugh t h e a p plic atio n o f ( fo r t h e m ost p art)

so und e v alu atio n a n d r e se arc h m eth ods, a n d t h at i n div id ual a n d o rg an is a tio nal p ra ctic e

sh ould b e b ase d o n t h e b est a v aila b le e v id en ce. O bvio usly , u nderta k in g e v alu atio n a n d

re se arc h a b out t h e e ffic acy a n d i m pact o f a n o rg an is a tio n’s p ro gra m s a n d i n te rv en tio ns

re q uir e s i n fo rm atio n a b out a n o rg an is a tio n’s a ctiv itie s a n d t h ose o f i ts e m plo yees.

Fin ally , a n oth er v ery g ood r e aso n t o t a k e t h e c o lle ctio n o f i n fo rm atio n s e rio usly i s t h at i t i s

66 a r e q uir e m en t o f f u ndin g b odie s— be t h ey g overn m en ts o r p hila n th ro pic b odie s. T hese d ay s, a

hum an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio n w ould n ot b e g ra n te d f u nds u nle ss i t c o uld p ro vid e a n i n -d ep th

an d a ccu ra te p ic tu re o f w hat i t d oes. S im ila rly , a ll f u ndin g c o ntr a cts r e q uir e a cco unta b ility

becau se t h e f u ndin g i ts e lf c o m es f ro m t a x pay ers o r d onors . C onte m pora ry f u ndin g b odie s

assu m e t h at h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns h av e p ro fe ssio nal i n fo rm atio n-m an ag em en t

sy ste m s, a n d a ssu m e t h at t h eir s ta ff e n gag e w ith t h ese p ro activ ely .

So w hy d o h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers r e act n eg ativ ely t o e n gag in g i n d ata -c o lle ctio n f o r

in fo rm atio n-m an ag em en t s y ste m s? B urto n a n d v an d en B ro ek ( 2 006) p ro vid e a n um ber o f

re aso ns t h at t h ey d is c o vere d w hen t a lk in g t o h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers i n Q ueen sla n d a n d N ew

South W ale s. O ne i m porta n t r e aso n o fte n s ta te d b y w ork ers i s t h at t h ey a re f e arfu l

man ag em en t i n fo rm atio n s y ste m s m ig ht c o m pro m is e s e rv ic e u se r c o nfid en tia lity . T here a re

tw o i s su es h ere . F ir s t, w ork ers c an b e w orrie d t h at f u ndin g b odie s m ig ht r e q uir e t o o m uch

pote n tia lly i d en tif y in g d ata o n t h e p eo ple w ith w hom o rg an is a tio ns w ork . S eco nd, w ork ers

ofte n d o n ot h av e c o nfid en ce i n t h eir o w n o rg an is a tio n’s h an dlin g o f t h e d ata . B urto n a n d v an

den B ro ek c ite , f o r e x am ple , a f a m ily t h era p is t’ s c o ncern s i n r e la tio n t o l o cal d ata b ein g m ad e

accessib le t o o th er s ite s i n t h e o rg an is a tio n:

It h orrifie s m e b eca use I s till d on’t k n ow w here o ur c o m pute ris e d s e rv ic e u se rs’ f ile s w ill b e l iv in g . .

. W e k eep a ll o ur r e co rd s o n c o m pute r . . .

That’ s f in e a t t h e m om en t b eca use w e k n ow w here o ur

stu ff g oes a nd w e k n ow w ho h as a ccess t o i t . . . S o w e a ctu ally h ave s o m e c o ntr o l o ver t h e p riv a cy o f

our s e rv ic e u se rs . . . W ith t h e n ew s y ste m i t s e em s t o m e t h at e very th in g w e p ut o n t h at s y ste m i s

goin g t o b e k ep t i n h ea d o ffic e.

( 2 006: 6 )

Burto n a n d v an d en B ro ek a ls o n ote t h at h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers a re v ery a ttu ned t o t h e u se o f

man ag em en t i n fo rm atio n s y ste m s i n m an ag in g r is k — be i t o rg an is a tio nal r is k o r r is k a s i t i s

perc eiv ed b y t h e f u ndin g b ody. U nfo rtu nate ly , a s P ow er ( 1 997) s u ggests , r is k a n d t h e n eed t o

man ag e i t a re u biq uito us i n t h e c o nte m pora ry e ra . W e u se t h e w ord ‘ u nfo rtu nate ly ’

delib era te ly h ere b ecau se m uch c o nte m pora ry r is k m an ag em en t i n h um an s e rv ic e

org an is a tio ns i s n ot n ecessa rily r e la te d t o e n su rin g g ood s e rv ic e u se r o utc o m es, b ut r a th er i s

more r e la te d t o m an ag in g t h e p olitic al r is k o f f a ilu re .

Anoth er r e aso n w hy h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers m ig ht b e w ary o f m an ag em en t i n fo rm atio n

sy ste m s a n d e v alu atio ns i s s im ply t h at t h e l a n guag e a n d l o gic t h ey d ep lo y i s u nfa m ilia r. L ook

at t h e c ase s tu dy o pposite .

DATA A ND I N FO RM ATIO N

In t h e c o nte m pora ry c o nte x t, v ir tu ally a ll h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns a re r e q uir e d t o d ev elo p

good m an ag em en t i n fo rm atio n s y ste m s i f t h ey w is h t o r e ceiv e g overn m en t f u nds. I n V ic to ria ,

fo r e x am ple , a ll o rg an is a tio ns p ro vid in g f a m ily s e rv ic es a re r e q uir e d t o r e g is te r w ith t h e s ta te

govern m en t u nder t h e

Child re n , Y outh a nd F am ilie s A ct

2 005. P art o f t h e r e g is tr a tio n

sta n dard s i n volv es t h e d ev elo pm en t o f a m an ag em en t i n fo rm atio n s y ste m a n d o ver t h e p ast

decad e t h ese h av e b eco m e i n cre asin gly m ore s o phis tic ate d . O ur p urp ose i n t h is s e ctio n o f t h e

ch ap te r i s t o h elp y ou b eg in t o u nders ta n d t h e d im en sio ns o f s u ch s y ste m s, a n d w hat t h ey a re

tr y in g t o a ch ie v e. I n t h is w ay , w e h ope t o h elp h um an s e rv ic e w ork ers e n gag e p ro ductiv ely

with t h em w hile r e co gnis in g t h at m ost w ork ers w ill n ot b e i n volv ed i n t h eir d esig n.

Case s tu dy: P ro gra m e v alu atio n

Ja n , a h um an s e rv ic e w ork er m an ag in g a n ew c o unse llin g p ro gra m f o r v ic tim s o f d is a ste rs , w as

ask ed t o p artic ip ate i n t h e d ev elo pm en t o f a n e v alu atio n f o r t h e p ro gra m . T he e v alu atio n w as

67 co m mis sio ned b y t h e a u sp ic in g o rg an is a tio n i n p artn ers h ip w ith a u niv ers ity . T he u niv ers ity

peo ple w ould a ctu ally r u n t h e e v alu atio n. T hese p eo ple w ere p ro fe ssio nal e v alu ato rs . T he m eetin g

Ja n w as a sk ed t o a tte n d w as i n te n ded t o o utlin e t h e d esig n o f t h e e v alu atio n, a n d i t w as d ete rm in ed

th at J a n ’s i n put w as i m porta n t. T he u niv ers ity p eo ple b eg an b y p ro m ptin g J a n t o t a lk a b out t h e

pro gra m . N ot l o ng i n to t h e d is c u ssio n, t h ey a sk ed h er w hat t h e p ro gra m ’s l o gic m odel w as. J a n

was c o nfu se d . S he d id n ot u nders ta n d w hat t h ey w ere a sk in g a n d s h e f e lt q uite i n ad eq uate . A fte r

so m e t im e, s h e w ork ed o ut t h at t h ey w ere a sk in g h er t o n om in ate t h e h um an s e rv ic e p ra ctic e

th eo rie s a n d k now le d ge t h e c o unse llin g p ro gra m u se d . I n t h is c ase , t h e p ra ctic e t h eo ry w as s h ort-

te rm c ris is i n te rv en tio n, l o nger t e rm c ase m an ag em en t w here a p pro pria te , a n d k now le d ge o f

peo ple ’s r e actio ns t o l o ss, g rie f a n d t r a u m a, a s w ell a s s ta g es o f r e co very . B ut i t t o ok s o m e e ffo rt

fo r t h is t o b eco m e c le ar.

Dis c u ssio n q uestio n s

• H ow w ould y ou r e act i f s o m eo ne t a lk ed t o y ou l ik e t h is ?

• W ho h as t h e p ro ble m h ere — Ja n o r t h e e v alu ato rs ?

• W hy w ould t h e e v alu ato rs n eed t o k now t h e l o gic m odel ( p ra ctic e t h eo ry a n d k now le d ge)?

• W hat l in ks d o y ou t h in k t h ere a re b etw een p ra ctic e t h eo rie s a n d k now le d ge, a n d m an ag em en t

in fo rm atio n s y ste m s?

Kettn er ( 2 002), o ne o f t h e l e ad in g a u th ors i n m an ag in g h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns,

su ggests t h at o rg an is a tio ns n eed t w o t y pes o f i n fo rm atio n: i n fo rm atio n a b out t h e

exte rn al

en vir o nm en t

a n d i n fo rm atio n a b out t h e o rg an is a tio n’s

in te rn al p ro cesse s

. S ev era l t y pes o f

in fo rm atio n a b out t h e e x te rn al e n vir o nm en t a re r e le v an t. T hese c an b e r e fra m ed a s q uestio ns.

We s u ggest t h at r e ad ers u se t h ese q uestio ns a t t h is b eg in nin g s ta g e o f t h in kin g a b out t h e

in fo rm atio n n eed s o f a n o rg an is a tio n w ith w hic h t h ey a re f a m ilia r. A cco rd in gly , i n

Tab le 5 .1

we h av e m odif ie d t h e o rig in al q uestio ns d ev elo ped b y K ettn er f o r u se i n a s im ple e x erc is e .

Tab le 5 .1 : I d en tif y in g r ele v an t c a te g orie s o f e x te rn al i n fo rm atio n , p art 1

Questio n

Answ ers

What i n fo rm atio n d o o ur

fu ndin g b odie s w an t?

What i n fo rm atio n d o o ur

re g ula to rs o r a ccre d ito rs

wan t?

What i n fo rm atio n d o w e

wan t a b out o ur

co m munity ?

What i n fo rm atio n d o w e

wan t a b out o ur s e rv ic e

use rs ?

What i n fo rm atio n d o w e

wan t a b out o ur l o cal

se rv ic e d eliv ery s y ste m ?

Look a t t h e a n sw ers y ou g en era te d i n t h ese l a st t w o c ate g orie s i n

Tab le 5 .1

. H ow w ould

th is i n fo rm atio n n eed t o b e t r a n sla te d i n to a m an ag em en t i n fo rm atio n s y ste m ? W ith r e g ard t o

se rv ic e u se rs , c o lle ctin g i n fo rm atio n a b out t h e c h ara cte ris tic s o f s e rv ic e u se rs a t i n ta k e i s t h e

basic b uild in g b lo ck o f k now in g h ow r e sp onsiv e t h e o rg an is a tio n i s t o t h e n eed s o f l o cal

68 peo ple . W ith r e g ard t o t h e s e rv ic e d eliv ery s y ste m , a m an ag em en t i n fo rm atio n s y ste m s h ould

cap tu re t h e o rg an is a tio n’s p atte rn s o f r e fe rra ls — both s u ccessfu l a n d u nsu ccessfu l. I f, f o r

ex am ple , a n oth er o rg an is a tio n s y ste m atic ally r e fu se s r e fe rra ls , t h en t h e r e fe rrin g

org an is a tio n’s m an ag em en t n eed s t o a d dre ss t h is i n w hate v er w ay i s c o nsid ere d a p pro pria te .

As p re v io usly s u ggeste d , K ettn er ( 2 002) s u ggests t h at t h ere a re s ig nif ic an t t y pes o f i n te rn al

in fo rm atio n t h at o rg an is a tio ns n eed f o r m an ag em en t, a d m in is tr a tiv e a n d s u perv is o ry

purp ose s. M ost o rg an is a tio ns, f o r e x am ple , w ill h av e a v is io n e m bed ded i n t h eir s tr a te g ic

pla n . T hat p la n w ill a ls o n om in ate c y cle s o f r e v ie w a n d e v alu atio n. I n te rn al o rg an is a tio nal

in fo rm atio n i s v ita l i n t h ese p ro cesse s, b ecau se w ith out i t a n o rg an is a tio n c an not t e ll w heth er

or n ot i t i s p ro gre ssin g t o w ard s i ts v is io n. F urth erm ore , i t c an not t e ll w heth er i t i s b ein g

effic ie n t, m uch l e ss e ffe ctiv e, o r w heth er i t i s t a rg etin g i ts u ndoubte d ly s c arc e r e so urc es

ap pro pria te ly . A gain , r e v is in g K ettn er’s s u ggestio ns,

Tab le 5 .2

p re se n ts s o m e q uestio ns

worth c o nsid erin g.

Tab le 5 .2 : I d en tif y in g r ele v an t c a te g orie s o f i n te rn al i n fo rm atio n , p art 2

Questio n

Answ ers

What f a cto rs n eed t o b e

tr a ck ed t o a sse ss

ach ie v em en t o f

org an is a tio nal p urp ose ?

How m ig ht t h ese f a cto rs

be m easu re d ?

What a re t h e p erfo rm an ce

re q uir e m en ts f o r o ne

div is io n, s e ctio n o r

pro gra m i n t h e

org an is a tio n?

What s o rt o f d ata w ould

ev alu ate t h ese

perfo rm an ce

re q uir e m en ts ?

How c an t h at d ata b e

co lle cte d ?

While t h e q uestio ns i n

Tab le 5 .2

a re v ery s im ple , t h ey d em onstr a te t h at q uite a l o t o f d ata

is n ecessa ry t o m eet e v en t h e b asic i n fo rm atio n n eed s o f h um an s e rv ic e o rg an is a tio ns. O ne o f

th e h ard est t h in gs t o d o w hen d ev elo pin g a m an ag em en t i n fo rm atio n s y ste m i s t o c ap tu re

su ffic ie n t d ata t o s e rv e s e n sib le p urp ose s w ith out g oin g i n to i n fo rm atio n o verlo ad . A s s u ch ,

man ag em en t i n fo rm atio n s y ste m s s h ould b e s tr e am lin ed . T he o th er k ey c h alle n ge i s t o

dev elo p t h e s y ste m i n s u ch a w ay t h at w ork ers a t t h e d ata -c o lle ctio n i n te rfa ce c an e asily

unders ta n d t h e u tility o f t h e d ata f o r t h e o rg an is a tio n b ut a ls o , i m porta n tly , f o r t h em se lv es.

Such s y ste m s a re o fte n d ev elo ped i n l a y ers . A t t h e c o re w ill b e w hat R ap p a n d P oertn er

(1 992) ( c ite d i n K ettn er, 2 002: 1 62) c all t h e ‘ p erfo rm an ce g uid an ce s y ste m ’— data o n a ll t h e

se rv ic e u se rs s e rv ic ed b y t h e o rg an is a tio n; t h e p ro gra m s w ith in t h e o rg an is a tio n s e rv in g t h e

se rv ic e u se rs ; t h e v olu m e, r a te a n d t y pe o f s e rv ic e u se r e n gag em en t w ith p ro gra m s i n t h e

org an is a tio n, p lu s a n y o utc o m e v aria b le s ( if t h ese a re a v aila b le ). A s w e w ill d is c u ss i n t h e

nex t s e ctio n, t h is l a st t y pe o f d ata i s q uite c o nte n tio us i n t h e h um an s e rv ic es.

69 As w ell a s t h e c o re p ro gra m g uid an ce s y ste m , a t y pic al m an ag em en t i n fo rm atio n s y ste m

will h av e s e co ndary s y ste m s f o cu sin g o n t h e i n fo rm atio n n eed ed f o r h um an r e so urc e

man ag em en t. N ot s u rp ris in gly , a ll t h e p arts o f a m an ag em en t i n fo rm atio n s y ste m n eed t o b e

in te g ra te d s o t h at d if fe re n t p arts c an b e i n te rro gate d i n d