StudyDaddy Psychology JST204 - Young People and CrimeAssessment 1:Length: 1,500 wordsRationaleThis assessment task will assess the following learning outcome/s: be able to provide a general overview of the statutory frame

JST204 - Young People and CrimeAssessment 1:Length: 1,500 wordsRationaleThis assessment task will assess the following learning outcome/s: be able to provide a general overview of the statutory frame

JU VE N IL E JU STIC E YO U TH A N D C R IM E I N A U STR ALIA FIF TH E D IT IO N Chris C unneen   Rob W hit e   Kelly R ic h ard s 2 O xfo rd U niv ersit y P re ss i s a d ep artm en t o f t h e U niv ersit y o f O xfo rd .

I t f u rth ers t h e U niv ersit y ’s o b je ctiv e o f e x ce lle n ce i n r e se arc h , s c h ola rsh ip , a n d e d u ca tio n b y p u blis h in g w orld w id e. O xfo rd i s a r e g is te re d t r a d em ark o f O xfo rd U niv ersit y P re ss i n t h e U K a n d i n c e rta in o th er c o u n tr ie s.

P u blis h ed i n A ustr a lia b y O xfo rd U niv ersit y P re ss 2 53 N orm an by R oad , S o u th M elb ou rn e, V ic to ria 3 205, A ustr a lia © C hris C un neen , R ob W hit e a n d K elly R ic h ard s 2 015 T h e m ora l r ig h ts o f t h e a u th ors h av e b een a sse rte d .

F ir st e d it io n p u blis h ed 1 995 S eco n d e d it io n p u blis h ed 2 002 T h ir d e d it io n p u blis h ed 2 007 F o u rth e d it io n p u blis h ed 2 011 F if t h e d it io n p u blis h ed 2 015 A ll r ig h ts r e se rv ed . N o p art o f t h is p u blic a tio n m ay b e r e p ro d u ce d , s to re d i n a r e tr ie v al s y ste m , o r t r a n sm it te d , i n a n y f o rm o r b y a n y m ean s, w it h ou t t h e p rio r p erm is sio n i n w rit in g o f O xfo rd U niv ersit y P re ss, o r a s e x p re ssly p erm it te d b y l a w , b y l ic e n ce , o r u n der t e rm s a g re ed w it h t h e a p pro p ria te r e p ro gra p h ic s r ig h ts o rg an is a tio n . E n qu ir ie s c o n ce rn in g r e p ro d u ctio n o u ts id e t h e s c o p e o f t h e a b ove s h ou ld b e s e n t t o t h e R ig h ts D ep artm en t, O xfo rd U niv ersit y P re ss, a t t h e a d dre ss a b ove.

Y ou m ust n ot c ir c u la te t h is w ork i n a n y o th er f o rm a n d y o u m ust i m pose t h is s a m e c o n dit io n o n a n y a cq u ir e r.

N atio n al L ib ra ry o f A ustr a lia C ata lo gu in g-i n -P u blic a tio n d ata Cre ato r:

  Cun neen , C hris , 1 953- a u th or.

Tit le :

  Ju ven il e j u stic e / C hris C un neen , R ob W hit e , K elly R ic h ard s.

Edit io n :

  Fif t h e d it io n .

IS B N :

  9780195598421 (p ap erb ack ) Note s:

  In clu des b ib lio gra p h ic a l r e fe re n ce s a n d i n dex .

Su bje cts :

  Ju ven il e d elin qu en cy — Austr a lia — Tex tb ook s.

Ju ven il e j u stic e , A dm in is tr a tio n o f— Austr a lia — Tex tb ook s.

Ju ven il e d ete n tio n — Austr a lia — Tex tb ook s.

Oth er C re ato rs/C on tr ib u to rs:

  Whit e , R . D . (R ob ert D ou gla s), 1 956- a u th or.

Ric h ard s, K elly , a u th or.

D ew ey N um ber:

  364.3 60994 R ep ro d u ctio n a n d c o m mun ic a tio n f o r e d u ca tio n al p u rp ose s T h e A ustr a lia n Cop yrig h t A ct 1 968 (t h e A ct) a llo w s a m ax im um o f o n e c h ap te r o r 1 0% o f t h e p ag es o f t h is w ork , w hic h ev er i s t h e g re ate r, t o b e r e p ro d u ce d a n d/o r c o m mun ic a te d b y a n y e d u ca tio n al i n stit u tio n f o r i t s e d u ca tio n al p u rp ose s p ro vid ed t h at t h e e d u ca tio n al i n stit u tio n (o r t h e b od y t h at a d m in is te rs i t ) h as g iv en a r e m un era tio n n otic e t o C op yrig h t A gen cy L im it e d (C A L) u n der t h e A ct.

F o r d eta il s o f t h e C A L l ic e n ce f o r e d u ca tio n al i n stit u tio n s c o n ta ct:

C op yrig h t A gen cy L im it e d L e v el 1 5, 2 33 C astle re ag h S tr e et S yd n ey N SW 2 000 T ele p h on e: (0 2) 9 394 7 600 F a csim il e : (0 2) 9 394 7 601 E m ail :

in fo @ co p yrig h t.c o m .a u E dit e d b y J u de H un te r T ex t d esig n b y D en is e L an e T yp ese t b y d ia criT ech , C hen nai, I n dia 3 Pro ofr e ad b y P h il ip B ry an In dex ed b y K are n G il le n Prin te d b y S h eck W ah T on g P rin tin g P re ss Lin ks t o t h ir d p arty w eb sit e s a re p ro vid ed b y O xfo rd i n g ood f a it h a n d f o r i n fo rm atio n o n ly . O xfo rd d is c la im s an y r e sp on sib ili t y f o r t h e m ate ria ls c o n ta in ed i n a n y t h ir d p arty w eb sit e r e fe re n ce d i n t h is w ork .

4 CO N TE N TS Lis t o f T ab le s Lis t o f B ox es In tr o d u ctio n Ack n ow le d gm en ts PA R T I   HIS TO R Y, T H EO R Y, A N D I N STIT U TIO N S 5 1   The D ev elo p m en t o f J u ven ile J u st ic e 6 2   Theo rie s o f J u ven ile O ffe n din g 7 3   The N atu re o f C on te m pora ry J u ven ile C rim e 8 4   The I n st it u tio n s o f J u ven ile J u st ic e PA R T I I   TH E S O CIA L D YN AM IC S O F J U VE N IL E J U STIC E 9 5   Cla ss a n d C om mun it y 10 6   In dig en ou s Y ou n g P eo p le 11 7   Eth n ic M in orit y Y ou n g P eo p le 12 8   You n g W om en , Y ou n g M en , a n d G en der PA R T I II   TH E S TA TE , P U N IS H M EN T, A N D C O M MUN IT Y 13 9   Poli c in g t h e Y ou n g 14 10   Cou rts a n d S en te n cin g P ro cesse s 15 11   Dete n tio n a n d C om mun it y C orre ctio n s 16 12   You th C rim e P re v en tio n 17 13   Rest o ra tiv e J u st ic e a n d J u ven ile C on fe re n cin g Bib li o gra ph y In dex 18 L IS T O F T A B LE S 3 .1 Alle g ed o ffe n ders a n d r e co rd ed c rim e, N ew S o u th W ale s, A pril 2 009– M arc h 2 010 3 .2 Alle g ed o ffe n ces b y j u ven ile s a p pre h en ded b y p oli c e, V ic to ria , 2 012– 13 3 .3 Perso n s c h arg ed i n f in ali s e d c rim in al m atte rs i n t h e N ew S o u th W ale s C hild re n ’s C ou rt durin g 2 013, b y s e x a n d o ffe n ce t y p e 4 .1 Dep artm en t r e sp on sib le f o r a d m in is t e rin g j u ven ile j u st ic e s e rv ic es, b y j u ris d ic tio n 4 .2 Child re n ’s C om mis sio n ers, b y j u ris d ic tio n 4 .3 You th A ffa ir s C ou n cils ( o r e q u iv ale n t) , b y j u ris d ic tio n 5 .1 Pare n ts’ p erc ep tio n s o f t h e c h ara cte ris t ic s o f a g o od p re sc h ool 6 .1 You n g p eo p le i n d ete n tio n c en tr e s i n A ust r a li a , d aily a v era g e 2 012– 13, b y I n dig en ou s s t a tu s 6 .2 In dig en ou s a n d n on -I n dig en ou s j u ven ile s: p oli c e a p pre h en sio n b y o ffe n ce c a te g o ry , Queen sla n d, 2 009– 10 6 .3 You n g p eo p le r e fe rre d b y p oli c e t o a c o n fe re n ce o r t o c o u rt, b y I n dig en ou s s t a tu s 7 .1 Num ber o f j u ven ile s w ho c a m e i n to c o n ta ct w it h V ic to ria P oli c e, b y ‘ r a cia l a p pea ra n ce’, 2012– 13 7 .2 Num ber o f j u ven ile s w ho c a m e i n to c o n ta ct w it h V ic to ria P oli c e, b y c o u n tr y o f b ir th , 2012– 13 8 .1 Ju ven ile s ( 1 0– 17 y ea r o ld s) a p pre h en ded b y Q ueen sla n d p oli c e, 2 009– 10, b y s e x ( n um ber an d p erc en ta g e) 1 0.1 Cou rt o u tc o m es f o r p ro ven o ffe n ces, N ew S o u th W ale s C hild re n ’s C ou rt, 2 013 19 L IS T O F B OXE S 1 .1 Furth er r e so u rc es o n g ir ls ’ i n dust r ia l s c h ools 1 .2 His t o ric a l i n te rp re ta tio n s 2 .1 You th s u bcu lt u re s: T he J u ggalo s 2 .2 Sex u al b ia s i n r a p e t r ia ls i n vo lv in g s e x w ork ers 2 .3 Main f o cu s o f t h eo rie s o f y o u th o ffe n din g 3 .1 You n g p eo p le a n d p etr o l- a n d d eo d ora n t-s n if fin g i n r e m ote c o m mun it ie s 3 .2 Feta l A lc o h ol S p ectr u m D is o rd er a n d c o n ta ct w it h t h e j u ven ile j u st ic e s y st e m 3 .3 You n g p eo p le , c y b er-b u lly in g a n d s u ic id e: t h e c a se o f A lle m H alk ic 4 .1 Key j u ven ile j u st ic e l e g is la tio n i n A ust r a li a , 2 015 4 .2 In te rn atio n al h um an r ig h ts: j u ven ile j u st ic e 5 .1 Can berra ‘ c rim e f a m ili e s’ 5 .2 You th o ffe n din g a n d p are n ta l r e sp on sib ili s a tio n : t h e c a se o f F aceb ook p artie s i n Queen sla n d 6 .1 The a ccu ra cy o f d ata o n I n dig en ou s s t a tu s i n c rim in al j u st ic e r e p ortin g 6 .2 Brin gin g T hem H om e —th e N atio n al I n qu ir y i n to t h e S ep ara tio n o f A borig in al a n d T orre s Str a it I sla n der C hild re n f r o m T heir F am ili e s 7 .1 West e rn S yd n ey g an g r a p es 7 .2 The L ogan ‘ r io ts’ o f 2 013 7 .3 Reso u rc es o n y o u n g p eo p le a n d i m mig ra tio n d ete n tio n 8 .1 ‘H ap py s la p pin g’ 8 .2 Ju d ic ia l o b se rv atio n s r e g ard in g y o u n g f e m ale o ffe n ders 9 .1 You th a n d p oli c e p erc ep tio n s o f e a ch o th er 9 .2 The H aile -M ic h ael r a cia l d is c rim in atio n a n d p ro fili n g c a se 9 .3 Lesb ia n , G ay , B is e x u al, T ra n sg en der, I n te rse x a n d Q ueer ( L G BT IQ ) y o u n g p eo p le ’s ex p erie n ces o f p oli c in g 9 .4 Fair c o p ? C om mis sio n er C hris t in e N ix o n a n d t h e s h if t t o c o m mun it y -o rie n te d p oli c in g i n Vic to ria 9 .5 Poli c e, d ru g d ogs, a n d m usic f e st iv als 1 2.1 So cia l i n st it u tio n s a n d y o u n g p eo p le 1 2.2 Mod els o f y o u th c rim e p re v en tio n 1 2.3 Prin cip le s f o r p re v en tin g o ffe n din g b y I n dig en ou s y o u n g p eo p le 1 2.4 Tow ard s j u st ic e r e in vest m en t i n N ew S o u th W ale s 1 3.1 Thre e w ay s t o r e sp on d t o y o u n g o ffe n ders 1 3.2 You n g p eo p le , v ic tim s a n d r e st o ra tiv e j u st ic e 1 3.3 You n g o ffe n ders, r e st o ra tiv e j u st ic e c o n fe re n ces a n d a p olo gy 20 21 I N TR OD U CTIO N T his b ook is a b ou t y o u th a n d c rim e in A ust r a li a , a n d t h e in st it u tio n s a n d a g en cie s a sso cia te d w it h t h e ad m in is t r a tio n o f ju ven ile ju st ic e. It p ro vid es an o verv ie w an d in tr o d uctio n to th e m ain c o n cep ts a n d is su es o f ju ven ile ju st ic e in a w ay th at is a ccessib le y et c rit ic a l. T he in te n tio n is to p ro vid e b asic i n fo rm atio n a cro ss a b ro ad r a n ge o f a re a s, a n d i n s o d oin g r a is e a n um ber o f q u est io n s a b ou t t h e i n st it u tio n s o f j u ven ile j u st ic e a n d, i n deed , h ow w e t h in k a b ou t i s su es o f j u ven ile j u st ic e.

Dep ic tio n s of yo u n g offe n ders an d ju ven ile ju st ic e ag en cie s are all to o oft e n base d upon e x ag gera tio n , s t e re o ty p e, a n d c o n je ctu re . P oli t ic ia n s a n d t h e m ed ia c o n st a n tly b em oan t h e p re se n t y o u th g en era tio n ’s la ck o f d is c ip li n e a n d r e sp ect. W e a re f r e q u en tly t o ld t h at m an y o f t h ese y o u n g p eo p le , e sp ecia lly c erta in ‘e th n ic ’ y o u th , a re b ey o n d r e d em ptio n . F or e v ery s t o ry a b ou t a y o u th g an g, t h ere i s a s im ult a n eo u s d em an d f o r a n e v en b ig ger s t ic k t o k eep y o u n g p eo p le i n l i n e.

You n g p eo p le , i t s e em s, s h ou ld n ot b e s e en o r h ea rd . T hey s h ou ld n ot b e a llo w ed i n t h e s t r e et o r b e v is ib le in c it y c en tr e s o r lo ca l n eig h bou rh ood s. T o g ro w u p ‘g o od ’, t h ey n eed t o b e r e st r ic te d in w here t h ey c a n g o a n d w hat t h ey c a n d o. T o p ro te ct s o cie ty , y o u n g p eo p le n eed t o b e u n der c o n tr o l a n d u n der s u rv eilla n ce.

When y o u n g p eo p le a ct u p, w hen t h ey c o m mit c rim es o r e n gag e in a n tis o cia l b eh av io u r, t h en t h ey m ust b e h eld r e sp on sib le f o r t h eir a ctio n s. T hey m ust p ay f o r t h eir t r a n sg re ssio n s. T hey m ust m ak e a m en ds f o r t h e h arm t h ey h av e c a u se d . T hey m ust b e m ad e t o c h an ge t h eir w ay s.

The d is t o rte d o u tlo oks o n a n d p u n it iv e a p pro ach es t o y o u th b eh av io u r t h at a re s o p ro m in en t i n t h e m ed ia a n d i n t h e p oli t ic a l a re n a a re m ad e m an if e st i n m an y d if fe re n t w ay s i n t h e j u ven ile j u st ic e s y st e m . Sim ult a n eo u sly , h ow ev er, n on -c o erc iv e alt e rn ativ es are als o b ein g d ev elo p ed , as m an y p ra ctit io n ers a n d t h eo ris t s in t h e fie ld o f ju ven ile ju st ic e a p pre cia te m ore fu lly t h an o th ers in t h e c o m mun it y th e c o m ple x it ie s a n d d if fic u lt ie s o f li f e fo r y o u n g p eo p le in th e tw en ty -f ir st c en tu ry .

O ngo in g d eb ate a n d d is c u ssio n s u rro u n d h ow p eo p le t h in k a b ou t t h e p ro b le m s o f ‘ y o u th c rim e’ a n d a ls o h ow b est to re sp on d to it . C om petin g o p in io n s in dic a te b oth th e h ig h ly p oli t ic a l n atu re o f j u ven ile j u st ic e a n d i m porta n t d if fe re n ces i n b asic p h ilo so p h ie s.

It is m ore t h an t w o d eca d es s in ce t h e fir st e d it io n o f Ju ven ile J u st ic e w as p u bli s h ed b y O xfo rd U niv ersit y P re ss. S in ce th en w e h av e se en a t v ario u s tim es h eig h te n ed p u bli c c o n cern a n d m ora l p an ic s a b ou t e th n ic m in orit y y o u th , th e in cre a se in y o u n g w om en in th e ju ven ile ju st ic e sy st e m , a b ou t yo u n g re fu gees an d ab ou t yo u th gan gs; w e h av e se en th e d ev elo p m en t of m an dato ry s e n te n cin g r e g im es f o r ju ven ile o ffe n ders in t h e N orth ern T errit o ry ( sin ce r e p ea le d ) a n d W est e rn A ust r a li a (st ill in p la ce); th e a p pare n t a ccep ta n ce o f z ero to le ra n ce p oli c in g, e sp ecia lly in p u bli c s p aces; th e p ersis t e n t o ver-r e p re se n ta tio n o f In dig en ou s y o u n g p eo p le w it h in th e ju ven ile ju st ic e s y st e m ( w hic h h as g ro w n w orse in s o m e ju ris d ic tio n s) ; an d in te n sif ic a tio n o f in te rv en tio n in t h e l i v es o f y o u n g o ffe n ders a n d n on -o ffe n ders a li k e. In eq u ali t y a n d so cia l p ola ris a tio n a re g ro w in g, a cco m pan ie d by th e ra cia li s a tio n of crim in al ju st ic e an d th e crim in ali s a tio n of th e poor— e x acerb ate d b y th ose fe d era l go vern m en ts th at d o n ot ex h ib it a st r o n g co m mit m en t to so cia l i n clu sio n a n d s o cia l ju st ic e. W it h t h e d em is e o f t h e w elf a re s t a te a n d t h e r is e o f t h e r e p re ssiv e s t a te , d is c u ssio n h as o ft e n c en tr e d o n h ow b est to c o n tr o l, m an ag e, a n d c o n ta in th ose y o u th su ffe rin g m ost fr o m t h e d is a d van ta g es o f s o cia l, e co n om ic , a n d p oli t ic a l e x clu sio n . I n p ra ctic a l t e rm s t h ese c h an ges m an if e st t h em se lv es i n g ro w in g r e m an d p op u la tio n s a s m ore y o u n g p eo p le a re r e fu se d b ail, a n d t h e in tr o d uctio n o f m ore p u n it iv e le g is la tiv e m ea su re s s u ch a s m ove-o n p ow ers f o r p oli c e a n d 22 co u rt o rd ers p ro h ib it in g a n tis o cia l b eh av io u r.

On th e p osit iv e sid e, g re a te r a tte n tio n is n ow b ein g g iv en to th e b asic r ig h ts a n d w ellb ein g o f yo u n g p eo p le . I n p artic u la r, t h ere h as b een a g ro w th in t h e h um an r ig h ts p ersp ectiv e a s a c rit ic a l persp ectiv e b y w hic h t o e v alu ate p oli c in g p ra ctic es, t h e o p era tio n o f c o u rts a n d y o u th c o n fe re n ces, an d th e co n dit io n s u n der w hic h y o u n g p eo p le are d eta in ed o r se n te n ced to co m mun it y w ork .

Ren ew ed e m ph asis o n c rim e p re v en tio n h as li k ew is e b een u se d t o c h alle n ge e x p li c it ly t h e c o erc iv e ‘l a w a n d o rd er’ a p pro ach es. M ea n w hile , t h e p ra ctic es o f ‘r e st o ra tiv e ju st ic e’, w it h a n e m ph asis o n re p air in g s o cia l h arm , c a n s e rv e a s a n im porta n t c o u n te rw eig h t t o t r a d it io n al r e tr ib u tiv e m eth od s th at e m ph asis e p u n is h m en t. A ll A ust r a li a n s t a te s a n d t e rrit o rie s h av e s o m e d iv ersio n ary p ro cesse s i n pla ce, in clu d in g p oli c e c a u tio n in g a n d y o u th c o n fe re n ces. D ecre a sin g c rim e ra te s d urin g th e la st deca d e m ay y et p ro vid e a n o p portu n it y t o lo w er o u r le v els o f y o u th i n ca rc era tio n a n d e x p an d n on - pu n it iv e, s o cia lly s u pportiv e y o u th j u st ic e p oli c ie s.

Analy sis o f t h e p rin cip le s, p oli c ie s, a n d p ra ctic es o f ju ven ile ju st ic e is n ev er a p oli t ic a lly n eu tr a l ex erc is e : th at is , it a lw ay s in vo lv es v alu e ju d gm en ts o f so m e k in d. In o u r v ie w , su ch re v ie w a n d ev alu atio n o u gh t t o b e g u id ed b y a v is io n o f s o cie ty , a n d o f y o u n g p eo p le , in w hic h h um an r ig h ts an d d ig n it y a re r e sp ecte d , a n d s o cia l e q u ali t y a n d h um an li b era tio n a re t h e g o als . T his m ea n s t h at is su es o f c la ss d iv is io n , ra cis m , se x is m , h om op h ob ia , a n d c o lo n ia li s m c a n n ev er b e fa r fr o m th e cen tr e o f a n aly sis . T he m arg in ali s a tio n o f s p ecif ic g ro u ps o f y o u n g p eo p le ( a n d t h eir fa m ili e s a n d co m mun it ie s) , an d th eir crim in ali s a tio n by th e m ain st r e a m crim in al ju st ic e sy st e m , re fle ct su bst a n tiv e i n eq u ali t ie s a n d t h e o p pre ssiv e s t r u ctu re s t h at s h ap e e v ery d ay l i f e i n A ust r a li a n s o cie ty .

This b ook is d iv id ed in to th re e p arts.

Part I , ‘H is t o ry , T heo ry , an d In st it u tio n s’, p ro vid es a his t o ric a l a n d t h eo re tic a l o verv ie w o f t h e d ev elo p m en t o f ju ven ile ju st ic e, i t s m ain i n st it u tio n s, a n d th e n atu re o f c o n te m pora ry ju ven ile c rim e a s d ete rm in ed b y t h e a ctio n s o f o ffic ia l s t a te a g en cie s.

Part I I , ‘T he S o cia l D yn am ic s o f J u ven ile J u st ic e’, p ro vid es a n a n aly sis o f h ow c la ss, e th n ic it y , r a ce, an d g en der im pin ge u pon th e p ro cesse s a n d in st it u tio n s o f ju ven ile ju st ic e, a n d h ow p artic u la r gro u ps o f y o u n g p eo p le a re d ea lt w it h b y t h e s y st e m i n w ay s t h at r e fle ct t h eir s p ecif ic s o cia l l o ca tio n an d s t a tu s i n s o cie ty .

Part I II , ‘T he S ta te , P un is h m en t, a n d C om mun it y ’, e x am in es t h e o p era tio n o f vario u s p arts o f th e ju ven ile ju st ic e sy st e m , fr o m p oli c e a n d c o u rts th ro u gh to d ete n tio n , c rim e pre v en tio n , a n d ju ven ile co n fe re n cin g. E ach s e ctio n o f t h e b ook p ro vid es a w id e-r a n gin g s u rv ey o f re le v an t f a cts a n d f ig u re s, l i t e ra tu re , a n d c o n cep ts, w hile r a is in g i s su es a n d p ersp ectiv es n ecessa ry t o a crit ic a l a p pra is a l o f k ey q u est io n s i n t h e j u ven ile j u st ic e a re a .

If w e a re t o c o m pre h en d t h e s it u atio n o f y o u n g p eo p le a d eq u ate ly , a n d t o i n te rp re t t h eir p osit io n wit h in t h e f ie ld o f c rim in al ju st ic e, t h en a n aly sis m ust b e i n fo rm ed t h eo re tic a lly a s w ell a s v ali d ate d em pir ic a lly . A crit ic a l crim in olo gy is on e th at bu ild s upon th e kn ow le d ge an d co n cep tu al co n tr ib u tio n s o f so cia lly p ro gre ssiv e p ersp ectiv es a n d a p pro ach es. I n so d oin g, th e o b je ctiv e is to pro vid e a c le a r, u n am big u ou s p ic tu re o f t h e e x is t in g f ie ld , w hile r e ta in in g a c rit ic a l e d ge.

The m is r e p re se n ta tio n o f y o u th o n t h e o n e h an d a n d t h e i n tr u siv en ess o f t h e s t a te o n t h e o th er, dem an d th at is su es o f y o u n g p eo p le a n d c rim e b e c o n sid ere d c a re fu lly a n d in a w id er so cia l a n d poli t ic a l c o n te x t. W e h op e th at, in it s o w n m od est w ay , th is b ook w ill a ssis t th ose w ho w is h to cre a te a m ore h um an e a n d s o cia lly j u st s y st e m o f j u ven ile j u st ic e i n A ust r a li a .

23 A CK N OW LE D GM EN TS T am ara B ell, K yli e B urg ess, P atr ic k D uP on t a n d P riy an ka G upta p ro vid ed r e se a rc h a ssis t a n ce t o t h e f if t h e d it io n o f Ju ven ile J u st ic e : Y ou th a n d C rim e i n A ust r a li a .

The a u th ors a n d t h e p u bli s h er w is h t o t h an k t h e f o llo w in g c o p yrig h t h old ers f o r r e p ro d uctio n o f t h eir m ate ria l.

Im ag es:

A AP/D av id H un t f o r i m ag e o f L ogan C om mun it y m em bers; A la m y/Jim N ew berry f o r J u ggalo i m ag e; N ew sp ix /Ja y T ow n f o r C hris t in e N ix o n i m ag e.

Tex t:

A ust r a li a n C le a rin g H ou se f o r Y ou th S tu d ie s f o r e x tr a ct f r o m You n g P eo p le , D an ger o u s D riv in g a n d C ar C ult u re b y G ra h am , H .

a n d W hit e , R . 2 007; A ust r a li a n H um an R ig h ts C om mis sio n f o r e x tr a ct f r o m The N atio n al I n qu ir y I n to th e Sep a ra tio n of A borig in al an d T orres Str a it Isla n der C hild ren fr o m T heir Fam ili e s ( N IS A TSIC 1 997); A ust r a li a n L aw R efo rm C om mis sio n fo r e x tr a ct fr o m R ep ort 8 4, Seen a n d H ea rd : P rio rit y fo r C hild ren in th e L eg a l P ro ce ss ; B on dy, J ., O gili v ie , A . & A st b u ry , B fo r e x tr a ct f r o m Liv in g o n t h e E dge: U nder st a n din g t h e S ocia l C on te x t o f K nife C arria ge a m on g Y ou n g P eo p le , R M IT U niv ersit y P re ss, M elb ou rn e; C om mis sio n er f o r C hild re n T asm an ia f o r e x tr a ct f r o m Vie w s:

L ife In sid e A sh le y Y ou th D ete n tio n C en tr e , 2 010; C om mon w ea lt h o f A ust r a li a fo r e x tr a ct fr o m S en ate C om mun it y A ffa ir s R efr e n ces C om mit te e R ep ort Forg o tte n A ust r a li a n s: A rep ort on A ust r a li a n s w ho e x per ie n ce d i n st it u tio n al o r o u t- o f- h om e c a re a s c h ild ren . 2 004; I n te rn atio n al J o u rn al f o r C rim e, J u st ic e a n d S o cia l D em ocra cy fo r e x tr a ct fr o m T ufa il, W . & P oyn tin g, S .

A C om mon “ O utla w ness” : C rim in ali s a tio n o f M usli m M in orit ie s in th e U K a n d A ust r a li a (2 013); M elb ou rn e U niv ersit y P re ss f o r e x tr a ct f r o m Fair C op b y C . N ix o n a n d J . C han dle r, 2 011; P ris o n R efo rm T ru st L on don f o r e x tr a ct f r o m Care- A S te p pin g S to n e t o C ust o d y? T he V ie w s o f C hild ren in C are o n t h e L in ks betw een C are, O ffe n din g an d C ust o d y . B la d es et al. (2 011); Q ueen sla n d P arli a m en ta ry C ou n cil f o r e x tr a ct f r o m t h e You th J u st ic e A ct 1 992 , s e ctio n 1 50; S ta te o f Q ueen sla n d f o r e x tr a ct f r o m Queen sla n d P oli c e S er v ic e 2 012 .

Annual S ta tis t ic a l R ev ie w 2 011– 12 , Q PS: B ris b an e; S u pre m e C ou rt o f T asm an ia fo r c a se e x tr a ct; U nit e d N atio n s fo r e x tr a ct fr o m Con ven tio n o n th e R ig h ts o f C hild , G en er a l C om men t N o. 1 0 , U nit e d N atio n s C om mit te e o n th e R ig h ts o f th e C hild , 2 010.

R ep rin te d w it h p erm is sio n o f t h e U nit e d N atio n s, fo r e x tr a ct fr o m Sta n dard M in im um R ule s fo r t h e A dm in is t r a tio n o f J u ven ile J u st ic e ( T he B eiji n g R ule s) , U nit e d N atio n s G en era l A sse m bly , 1 985, r e p rin te d w it h p erm is sio n o f t h e U nit e d N atio n s; V ic to ria P oli c e f o r e x tr a ct f r o m Crim e S ta tis t ic s 2 012/1 3 , V ic to ria P oli c e, M elb ou rn e.

Every e ffo rt h as b een m ad e t o t r a ce t h e o rig in al s o u rc e o f c o p yrig h t m ate ria l c o n ta in ed in t h is b ook. T he p u bli s h er w ill b e p le a se d to h ea r fr o m co p yrig h t h old ers to re ctif y an y erro rs o r o m is sio n s.

24 PA RT I HIS TO R Y, T H EO R Y, AN D I N STIT U TIO N S 1   TH E D EVE LO PM EN T O F J U VE N IL E J U STIC E 2   TH EO R IE S O F J U VE N IL E O FFE N DIN G 3   TH E N ATU RE O F C O N TE M PO R AR Y J U VE N IL E C R IM E 4   TH E I N STIT U TIO N S O F J U VE N IL E J U STIC E 25 1 TH E D EVE LO PM EN T O F J U VE N IL E JU STIC E 26 C H AP TE R H IG H LIG H TS In tr o d u ctio n Early n in ete en th -c e n tu ry d eve lo p m en ts Poor o r c rim in al?

Refo rm ato rie s a n d i n du str ia l s ch ools Th e r e alit y o f l if e i n t h e s ch ools Th e j u ve n il e c o u rt Ju dic ia l t h era p is ts Gen dere d a p pro ach es Polic e , l a w , a n d j u ve n il e d elin qu en cy Exp la in in g c h an ge Con clu sio n I N TR OD U CTIO N T o u n derst a n d t h e c o n te m pora ry d eb ate s a b ou t ju ven ile ju st ic e a n d t h e n atu re o f ju ven ile c rim e, i t i s im porta n t to th in k ab ou t is su es re la tin g to h is t o ry an d th eo ry . H av e ju ven ile s alw ay s b een i n vo lv ed i n c rim e, o r i s i t a m od ern p h en om en on ? H ow h av e o u r t h ou gh ts a b ou t y o u n g p eo p le a n d c rim e c h an ged ? H as th e p la ce o f y o u n g p eo p le in so cie ty c h an ged ? T he a im o f th is c h ap te r is to c o n sid er t h ese q u est io n s i n m ore d eta il t h ro u gh a n u n derst a n din g o f t h e h is t o ric a l d ev elo p m en t o f a s e p ara te ju ven ile ju st ic e s y st e m . T o b eg in w it h , it is w orth c o n sid erin g t h e t e rm s w e u se . F ir st , it is n ecessa ry t o r e a li s e t h at t h e c a te g o rie s ‘y o u th ’, ‘a d ole sc en t’, a n d ‘j u ven ile ’ a re n ot u n iv ersa l, n or a re t h ey n ecessa rily u se d c o n sis t e n tly w it h in a s o cie ty . I t is im porta n t t o k n ow w here p artic u la r id ea s a b ou t y o u n g p eo p le ca m e fr o m an d h ow th ese d ev elo p ed . T he so cia l co n st r u ctio n o f y o u th is n eit h er a n atu ra l n or a n eu tr a l p ro cess, n or i s i t d iv o rc ed f r o m w id er s o cia l, p oli t ic a l, a n d e co n om ic d ev elo p m en ts ( se e B ern ard & K urly ch ek 2 010; C ost e r 2 007).

Seco n d, n otio n s o f ju ven ile d eli n qu en cy d ep en d o n a n d re cre a te p artic u la r id ea s a b ou t y o u n g p eo p le a s a se p ara te a n d so cia lly d efin ab le g ro u p. P ut sim ply , th ere c a n b e n o th eo ry o f ju ven ile o ffe n din g w it h ou t a c o n cep t o f ‘j u ven ile ’. F or e x am ple , in p u bli c u sa g e a n d a ca d em ic st u d y, th e w ord ‘ y o u th ’ h as o ft e n i m pli c it ly ( if n ot e x p li c it ly ) b een u se d t o r e fe r p rim arily to y o u n g m en . M uch o f t h e c o n cern w it h y o u th h as c o n sis t e n tly ig n ore d t h e e x p erie n ces o f y o u n g w om en , o r r e le g ate d t h ese t o s e co n dary i m porta n ce b eca u se o f s e x is t d efin it io n s a n d c o n cep tio n s o f t h e ‘r e a l w orld ’ ( se e C hap te r 8 ).

Thir d , th e sy st e m s d ev elo p ed fo r d ea li n g w it h ju ven ile d eli n qu en cy a n d c rim e a re c re a te d a n d d ev elo p ed in partic u la r his t o ric a l co n te x ts. A co n sid ere d un derst a n din g of th e his t o ric a l d ev elo p m en t o f j u ven ile j u st ic e i s i m porta n t b eca u se o f t h e l e v el o f m yth olo gy s u rro u n din g j u ven ile o ffe n din g.

The c o m mon t h em es o f l o ss o f a u th orit y i n t h e k ey i n st it u tio n s— th e f a m ily , e d uca tio n , a n d l a w e n fo rc em en t— co n st a n tly r e -e m erg e, a lo n g w it h c la im s th at p erm is siv en ess h as in cre a se d le v els o f j u ven ile v io le n ce a n d lo w ere d st a n dard s o f p u bli c b eh av io u r. W it h in th is sc en ario , th e so lu tio n s p ro p ose d a re o ft e n e q u ally s im ple : g re a te r le v els o f in te rv en tio n b y s t a te a g en cie s a rm ed w it h m ore p u n it iv e p ow ers.

The co n cep t o f ju ven ile d eli n qu en cy d ate s fr o m th e ea rly n in ete en th cen tu ry . A cco rd in g to 27 Bern ard ( 1 992), o n e o f t h e f ir st u se s o f t h e t e rm w as i n t h e Rep ort o f t h e C om mit te e f o r I n vest ig a tin g th e C au se s o f t h e A la rm in g I n cr ea se o f J u ven ile D eli n qu en cy i n t h e M etr o p oli s , p u bli s h ed i n L on don i n 1816. T he c o n cep t o f j u ven ile d eli n qu en cy i s h is t o ric a lly c o n tin gen t ( th at i s , t h e c o n cep t d ev elo p ed at a p artic u la r m om en t in h is t o ry ). S ev era l c o m men ta to rs h av e a ls o a rg u ed t h at t h e ph en om en on o f ju ven ile crim e is als o co n tin gen t (B ern ard & K urly ch ek 2010). In deed , Ferd in an d (1 989) pro vo ca tiv ely a sk ed : ‘W hic h c a m e fir st : ju ven ile d eli n qu en cy o r ju ven ile ju st ic e?’ I n o th er w ord s, what a re t h e o rig in s o f a n d r e la tio n sh ip b etw een t h e b eh av io u rs t h at a re c h ara cte ris e d a s ju ven ile offe n din g, a n d t h e i n st it u tio n s a n d p ra ctic es o f t h e c rim in al ju st ic e s y st e m d ev elo p ed s p ecif ic a lly t o dea l w it h y o u th ? I n o u r v ie w , t h ey a ro se s im ult a n eo u sly . T he p h en om en on o f ju ven ile d eli n qu en cy ap pea rs to b e sp ecif ic a lly m od ern . S o m e co m men ta to rs h av e arg u ed th at it o ccu rre d w it h th e tr a n sit io n fr o m ru ra l to urb an so cie tie s an d is asso cia te d w it h fiv e fa cto rs, th ese bein g th e bre a k d ow n o f t r a d it io n al m ech an is m s o f s o cia l c o n tr o l, u rb an is a tio n , in dust r ia li s a tio n , p op u la tio n gro w th , a n d ju ven ile ju st ic e m ech an is m s t h at s y st e m atic a lly d ete ct ju ven ile o ffe n din g ( B ern ard & Kurly ch ek 2 010:3 4– 40). W hile t h ese f iv e f a cto rs a re im porta n t, it is o u r v ie w t h at t h e c la ss-b ase d natu re o f ju ven ile ju st ic e n eed s to b e r e co gn is e d ( se e Chap te r 5 ). T he tr a n sfo rm atio n s to w hic h Bern ard a n d K urly ch ek r e fe r o ccu rre d w it h t h e d ev elo p m en t o f i n dust r ia l c a p it a li s m , w hic h c re a te d an u rb an is e d w ork in g c la ss. N ew s y st e m s o f d ea li n g w it h y o u n g p eo p le t a rg ete d t h e y o u th o f t h is new ly f o rm ed c la ss. I n a d dit io n , t h e s y st e m s o f c o n tr o l t h at w ere in tr o d uced in to c o lo n ie s s u ch a s Aust r a li a w ere im pose d in a so cie ty th at w as a ls o in th e p ro cess o f d is p osse ssin g a n In dig en ou s min orit y . T he tr e a tm en t o f In dig en ou s y o u n g p eo p le b eca m e an im porta n t co m pon en t in th e dev elo p m en t o f ju ven ile ju st ic e in A ust r a li a , alt h ou gh as w e n ote in Chap te r 6 it w as to ta k e so m ew hat d if fe re n t f o rm s f r o m t h e t r e a tm en t o f n on -I n dig en ou s c h ild re n .

The k ey p erio d in u n derst a n din g t h e d ev elo p m en t o f a s e p ara te s y st e m f o r d ea li n g w it h ju ven ile offe n ders is th e se co n d h alf o f th e n in ete en th cen tu ry . T his w as an im porta n t p erio d in th e co n st r u ctio n o f o th er a g e-b ase d d if fe re n ces in vo lv in g y o u n g p eo p le , in clu d in g r e st r ic tio n s o n c h ild la b ou r a n d t h e in tr o d uctio n o f c o m pu ls o ry s c h ooli n g. T he s t a te b eg an t o in te rv en e a ctiv ely in t h e pro vis io n o f ‘w elf a re ’ f o r t h e c h ild re n o f t h e ‘p eris h in g c la sse s’.

In p ra ctic e, t h ese v ario u s m ea su re s were li n ked c lo se ly . F or e x am ple , in th e sa m e y ea r th at th e Publi c S ch ools A ct 1 866 (N SW ) w as passe d th e Refo rm ato ry S ch ools A ct (fo r yo u n g p eo p le co n vic te d o f crim in al o ffe n ces) an d th e In du st r ia l Sch ools A ct an d Work h ou se A ct (fo r vag ra n t ch ild re n ) w ere passe d in th e U nit e d Kin gd om . S p ecif ic a lly , in A ust r a li a t h e f ir st m oves t o id en tif y a n d r e co gn is e t h e c a te g o ry o f ‘y o u n g offe n ders’ o ccu rre d w it h t h e d ev elo p m en t o f in st it u tio n s fo r d ea li n g w it h n eg le cte d a n d d est it u te ch ild re n . T he m ajo r le g al c h an ge in A ust r a li a d urin g th e p erio d w as th e m od if ic a tio n o f c o u rt pro ced ure s to a llo w fo r ju ven ile s to b e d ea lt w it h su m marily (th at is , to h av e th eir le ss se rio u s ch arg es d ete rm in ed b y a m ag is t r a te ) (S ey m ou r 1 988:3 ). M ore b ro ad ly , ju ven ile ju st ic e w as an ele m en t in t h e e x p an sio n o f s t a te c o n tr o l a n d r e g u la tio n t h at o ccu rre d d urin g t h e la te r p art o f t h e nin ete en th a n d t h e e a rly t w en tie th c en tu rie s.

EA R LY N IN ETE EN TH -C EN TU RY D EVE LO PM EN TS There a re a n um ber o f s im ila rit ie s in t h e m eth od s t h at w ere d ev elo p ed fo r d ea li n g w it h ju ven ile s acro ss vario u s n atio n s, in clu d in g A ust r a li a , N ew Z ea la n d, th e U SA , C an ad a, an d th e U nit e d Kin gd om . O ne r e a so n f o r t h ese s im ila rit ie s w as t h e e co n om ic , s o cia l, a n d p oli t ic a l t r a n sfo rm atio n s alr e a d y m en tio n ed t h at w ere o ccu rrin g a t t h e t im e.

Until t h e e a rly n in ete en th c en tu ry , c h ild re n w ere e x p ecte d t o e n te r t h e a d ult w orld a t a y o u n g 28 ag e. C hild la b ou r w as s t ill r e g ard ed a s u n iv ersa l. F or e x am ple , in t h e e a rly p art o f t h e n in ete en th cen tu ry , so m e 8 0 p er cen t o f w ork ers in E ngli s h co tto n m ills w ere ch ild re n (M orris & G ille r 1987:4 ). S im ila rly , t h e c rim in al ju st ic e s y st e m d id li t tle t o fo rm ally s e p ara te c h ild re n fr o m a d ult s.

There w as n o s e p ara te l e g al c a te g o ry o f ‘ j u ven ile o ffe n der’.

At c o m mon l a w , t h e a g e o f c rim in al r e sp on sib ili t y w as s e v en y ea rs o ld . F or c h ild re n b etw een t h e ag es o f se v en a n d 1 4 y ea rs, th ere w as a p re su m ptio n th at th ey w ere in ca p ab le o f c o m mit tin g a n offe n ce ( doli i n ca pa x ). H ow ev er, t h is p re su m ptio n c o u ld b e r e b u tte d in c o u rt b y s h ow in g t h at t h e ch ild k n ew t h e d if fe re n ce b etw een r ig h t a n d w ro n g, a n d k n ew t h e a ct i n q u est io n t o b e w ro n g. I t i s not cle a r w heth er ru le s re la tin g to th e a g e o f crim in al re sp on sib ili t y w ere effe ctiv e in p ra ctic e:

accu ra te k n ow le d ge o f c h ild re n ’s a g es m ig h t n ot h av e b een a v aila b le , o r m ag is t r a te s m ig h t h av e b een ig n ora n t o f t h e l a w . I n a n y c a se , c h ild re n u n der t h e a g e o f s e v en w ere i n ca rc era te d , a n d i n V ic to ria i n th e m id -1 860s, c h ild re n a s y o u n g a s s ix c o u ld b e f o u n d i n P en tr id ge G ao l ( S ey m ou r 1 988:6 ).

In te rm s o f p u n is h m en t, a d ult s a n d ju ven ile s w ere tr e a te d th e sa m e: d ete rre n ce w as th e m ain ob je ct. A n E ngli s h ju d ge, a ft e r s e n te n cin g a 1 0 y ea r o ld t o d ea th , s t a te d t h at t h e c h ild w as a ‘p ro p er su bje ct f o r c a p it a l p u n is h m en t a n d o u gh t t o s u ffe r’. O n o n e d ay i n 1 815, f iv e c h ild re n b etw een e ig h t an d 1 2 yea rs o ld w ere h an ged in E ngla n d fo r p etty la rc en y (th eft ) (M orris & G ille r 1 987:6 ).

Sim ila rly , in A ust r a li a , y o u th s w ere e x ecu te d , f lo gged , a n d s e n te n ced t o r o ad g an gs, t r a n sp orta tio n , an d i m pris o n m en t ( S ey m ou r 1 988:8 – 9).

There is s o m e a rg u m en t, h ow ev er, o ver t h e e x te n t t o w hic h c h ild re n w ere t r e a te d t h e s a m e a s ad ult s. T he a g e o f th e o ffe n der w as so m etim es h eld to b e a m it ig atin g fa cto r in se n te n cin g. F or ex am ple , in R v . R oss [ 1 832] N ew S o u th W ale s S u pre m e C ou rt 5 8 th e ju d ge im pose d th e d ea th pen alt y a g ain st a 1 4 y ea r o ld , b u t b eca u se o f t h e ju ry ’s r e co m men datio n f o r m erc y t h e c a se w as s e n t to t h e G overn or fo r c o n sid era tio n o f c le m en cy ( B oersig 2 003:1 30). P la tt ( 1 977) su ggest s th at in ca se s r e la tin g t o c a p it a l p u n is h m en t, t h e p ro se cu tio n r e fu se d t o c h arg e, j u rie s r e fu se d t o c o n vic t, a n d pard on s w ere giv en m ore fr e q u en tly th an fo r ad ult s. N otio n s of ‘c o n ta m in atio n ’ w ere als o im porta n t in a rg u m en ts c o n cern in g t h e s e p ara tio n o f ju ven ile s fr o m a d ult o ffe n ders in p ris o n . I n 1836 i n E ngla n d, t h e r e p ort o f t h e I n sp ecto r o f P ris o n s n ote d t h at: ‘t h e b oy [ sic ] i s t h ro w n a m on g vete ra n s in g u ilt … a n d h is v ic io u s p ro p en sit ie s c h eris h ed a n d in fla m ed … H e e n te rs t h e p ris o n a ch ild in y ea rs, a n d n ot in fr e q u en tly a ls o in c rim e; b u t h e le a v es it w it h a k n ow le d ge in t h e w ay s o f wic k ed n ess’ ( c it e d in M orris & G ille r 1 987:8 ). I n A ust r a li a , t h ere w ere a tte m pts t o k eep c h ild re n se p ara te fr o m a d ult s, e v en w here th ey w ere h eld in th e sa m e ja il (D aria n -S m it h 2 010:3 ). S o m e mag is t r a te s atte m pte d to av o id im pris o n in g yo u n g p eo p le b y d is c h arg in g fir st o ffe n ders, u sin g co n dit io n al d is c h arg es b y p la cin g c h ild re n i n t h e c a re o f p are n ts o r i n st it u tio n s, o r u sin g c o n dit io n al pard on s ( S ey m ou r 1 988:9 ). B oersig ( 2 003) s u ggest s t h at in so m e c a se s c o n sid era tio n w as g iv en t o th e y o u th o f t h e o ffe n der w hen s e n te n cin g. T hese p ra ctic es m od if ie d a n o th erw is e d ra co n ia n c o d e.

The in cre a sin g p ris o n p op u la tio n in t h e U nit e d K in gd om d urin g t h e m id -n in ete en th c en tu ry a ls o pro m pte d r e fo rm ( M ay 1 981).

In t h e U SA , t h e f ir st ju ven ile i n st it u tio n s w ere h ou se s o f r e fu ge s u ch a s t h e N ew Y ork H ou se o f Refu ge. T his r e fu ge w as e st a b li s h ed in 1 825 a ft e r n um ero u s r e p orts d re w a tte n tio n t o t h e f a ct t h at pen it e n tia rie s c o n ta in ed n o se p ara te fa cili t ie s fo r ju ven ile s. H ow ev er, it a p pea rs th at fe w o f th e yo u th se n t to th e re fu ge w ou ld h av e g o n e to th e p en it e n tia ry in a n y c a se . M an y w ere th ere fo r vag ra n cy ( th at is , b ein g p en nile ss a n d u n em plo yed in a p u bli c p la ce). T he ‘p la cin g o u t’ s y st e m f o r ju ven ile s, w here b y y o u th w ere s e n t t o w ork o n f a rm s ( B ern ard 1 992), d ev elo p ed a t a b ou t t h e s a m e tim e.

There w as a se n se o f cris is in th e ea rly n in ete en th cen tu ry co n cern in g so cia l is su es su ch as 29 urb an is a tio n , in dust r ia li s a tio n , a n d t h e g ro w th o f t r a d e u n io n s a n d w ork in g-c la ss m ili t a n cy , a lo n g wit h c o n cern s a b ou t p au peris m , v ag ra n cy , a n d ju ven ile c rim e. T here w ere a ls o c h an ges in t h e w ay crim e w as b ein g c o n cep tu ali s e d . A s w e d is c u ss in Chap te r 2 , c la ssic a l c rim in olo gy s a w c rim e a s a n ou tc o m e o f f r e e w ill, a n d t h e r o le o f p u n is h m en t a s d ete rre n ce. H ow ev er, b y t h e e a rly n in ete en th cen tu ry th ere w as a g ro w th in c la ssif ic a to ry sy st e m s o f c rim in al c a u sa tio n re la te d to th e ris e o f posit iv is t crim in olo gy. For ex am ple , th e 1816 re p ort in to ju ven ile deli n qu en cy in L on don , men tio n ed e a rli e r, st a te s th e m ain c a u se s o f ju ven ile d eli n qu en cy to b e th e im pro p er c o n duct o f pare n ts, th e w an t o f ed uca tio n , an d th e w an t o f su it a b le em plo ym en t. T he sa m e re p ort als o id en tif ie s p ro b le m s w it h th e se v erit y o f th e crim in al co d e, a n d th e p oor a n d d efic ie n t st a te o f poli c in g. I n o th er w ord s, t h e r e sp on sib ili t y f o r ju ven ile o ffe n din g w as n ot n ecessa rily s e en a s s o le ly th at o f t h e y o u n g p erso n ( M orris & G ille r 1 987:1 6).

Gro w th in th e co lle ctio n o f crim in al st a tis t ic s fa cili t a te d a fo cu s o n ju ven ile s. B y th e m id - nin ete en th c en tu ry , c rim in al s t a tis t ic s i n E ngla n d a n d W ale s w ere s h ow in g t h at t h e 1 5- t o 2 0-y ea r- old ag e gro u p w as o ver-r e p re se n te d in o ffe n din g fig u re s (M orris & G ille r 1 987:7 ). T hus, th e dev elo p m en t o f s t a tis t ic s, c o m bin ed w it h t h at o f o th er d is c ip li n es, a llo w ed fo r t h e d is c o very o f a ‘n ew p ro b le m ’.

Con te m pora ry r e li g io u s v ie w s a ls o f it te d w ell w it h t h e n otio n t h at d eli n qu en cy w as t h e r e su lt o f so cia l a n d m ora l c o n dit io n s r a th er t h an in nate d ep ra v it y . T he f o cu s o n t h e p h ysic a l c o n dit io n s o f th e p oor in cre a se d , a s d id th e v ie w th at w ork in g-c la ss fa m ili e s w ere in effe ctiv e a n d u n re li a b le in th eir p are n tin g.

PO OR O R C R IM IN AL?

In A ust r a li a , t h e f ir st s t e p s t o w ard s c re a tin g a s e p ara te s y st e m f o r j u ven ile s o ccu rre d a s a r e su lt o f t h e pro b le m o f d ea li n g w it h y o u n g p eo p le w ho w ere a rriv in g a s t r a n sp orte d c o n vic ts. A ppro xim ate ly 1 5 per c en t o f a ll t r a n sp orte d c o n vic ts s e n t t o A ust r a li a w ere u n der t h e a g e o f 1 8 y ea rs ( D aria n -S m it h 2010:3 ). F ro m t h e l a te e ig h te en th c en tu ry , v ario u s s c h em es i n vo lv in g a p pre n tic esh ip s w ere u tili s e d , an d b y t h e b eg in nin g o f t h e n in ete en th c en tu ry t h ere w ere a tte m pts t o s e p ara te c h ild c o n vic ts f r o m th e c o n ta m in atio n o f a d ult s. B y 1 819 a ju ven ile s e ctio n o f t h e C arte r B arra ck s w as e st a b li s h ed f o r co n vic t b oys, w hile g ir l c o n vic ts w ere d eta in ed in th e P arra m atta F em ale F acto ry ( D aria n -S m it h 2010:3 – 4).

Orp h an s c h ools w ere e st a b li s h ed f r o m t h e e a rly 1 800s t o d ea l w it h d est it u te c h ild re n . T he o rig in s of th e c h ild w elf a re sy st e m in A ust r a li a in clu d e th e e st a b li s h m en t o f th e F em ale O rp h an S ch ool (1 801); t h e M ale O rp h an S ch ool ( 1 819); t h e B en ev o le n t A sy lu m ( 1 821) f o r ‘ d est it u te , u n fo rtu n ate , need y f a m ili e s’; t h e F em ale S ch ool o f I n dust r y ( 1 826); t h e R om an C ath oli c O rp h an S ch ool ( 1 837); an d th e R an dw ic k A sy lu m fo r D est it u te C hild re n (1 858). B y th e 1 880s th e R an dw ic k A sy lu m alo n e h eld 8 00 n eg le cte d o r o rp h an ed c h ild re n ( D aria n -S m it h 2 010:5 ). B oth t h e f e m ale a n d m ale orp h an s c h ools a d op te d t h e p oli c y o f a p pre n tic in g c h ild re n o u t t o w ork . L eg is la tiv e c h an ges i n N ew So u th W ale s b eg in nin g in 1 828 a n d 1 834 e n ab le d m ag is t r a te s to p la ce o rp h an s a s a p pre n tic es.

Furth er l e g is la tiv e c h an ges o ccu rre d u n til t h e l a te 1 850s t h at e x p an ded t h e c a te g o ry o f c h ild re n w ho co u ld b e b ou n d o ver a s a p pre n tic es ( S ey m ou r 1 988:2 1– 3).

There w as o verla p b etw een th e p ro cesse s o f c rim in ali s a tio n a n d th e d ev elo p m en t o f sp ecif ic welf a re in st it u tio n s. A c h ild in p overty c o u ld b e d ea lt w it h u n der v ag ra n cy la w s a n d p ote n tia lly im pris o n ed , o r t h e c h ild c o u ld b e t r e a te d a s d est it u te a n d k ep t in a w elf a re in st it u tio n . T hus, it is possib le t o s e e t h e d ev elo p m en t o f d if fe re n t s t r a te g ie s fo r d ea li n g w it h is su es e sse n tia lly r e la te d t o 30 poverty a n d y o u n g p eo p le , w hic h r a is e s im porta n t q u est io n s a b ou t d is c re tio n a n d d ecis io n -m ak in g pow ers. C erta in ly , p art o f t h e m eth od o f d ea li n g w it h p overty w as r e fle cte d in m id dle - a n d u pper- cla ss n otio n s o f t h e ‘d ese rv in g’ a n d ‘u n dese rv in g’ p oor ( D on zelo t 1 979). A lt h ou gh a ll p oor p eo p le sh are d s im ila r m ate ria l c o n dit io n s, a d is t in ctio n w as m ad e b etw een t h e d ese rv in g a n d u n dese rv in g on th e b asis o f th eir b eh av io u r, a ttit u d es, a n d re sp ecta b ili t y . W elf a re a n d c h arit a b le in st it u tio n s were t h ere t o a ssis t t h ose d efin ed a s t h e d ese rv in g p oor, w hile t h e ‘ o th ers’ w ere t r e a te d a s c rim in al. I t ap pea rs t h at m an y c h ild re n s e n t t o j a il i n A ust r a li a w ere t h ere a s a r e su lt o f v ag ra n cy c h arg es. A l a rg e pro p ortio n o f t h e 2 30 c h ild re n u n der 1 4 y ea rs o f a g e s e n t t o p ris o n in V ic to ria d urin g 1860 a n d 1861 h ad b een s e n te n ced f o r v ag ra n cy ( S ey m ou r 1 988:1 8– 19). T hus, t h ey w ere i m pris o n ed f o r t h e crim e o f p overty r a th er t h an f o r c o m mit tin g a n y s u bst a n tiv e o ffe n ce.

REFO R M ATO R IE S A N D I N DU STR IA L S C H OOLS Durin g th e m id -n in ete en th c en tu ry , th ere w ere tw o fu n dam en ta l m oves to w ard s e st a b li s h in g a se p ara te s y st e m f o r d ea li n g w it h ju ven ile s. O ne w as t o c h an ge t h e r o le o f t h e m ag is t r a te ’s c o u rt in re la tio n t o h ea rin g o ffe n ces a g ain st j u ven ile s; t h e o th er w as t o e st a b li s h r e fo rm ato rie s a n d i n dust r ia l sc h ools .

In t h e U nit e d K in gd om , t h e f ir st p arli a m en ta ry b ills t o a lt e r p ro ced ure s f o r d ea li n g w it h j u ven ile s were d eb ate d in 1 821, 1 829, a n d 1 837. H ow ev er, it w as n ot u n til 1 847 t h at t h e Ju ven ile O ffe n der s Act w as p asse d . T his le g is la tio n in cre a se d t h e p ow ers o f m ag is t r a te s t o h ea r s u m marily la rc en y a n d th eft o ffe n ces c o m mit te d b y t h ose u n der 1 4 y ea rs o f a g e. I n A ust r a li a , t h e m eth od o f d ea li n g w it h ‘y o u n g o ffe n ders’ b eg an t o c h an ge i n 1 849 w it h t h e i n tr o d uctio n o f a n ‘A ct t o p ro vid e f o r t h e c a re an d e d uca tio n o f i n fa n ts w ho m ay b e c o n vic te d o f f e lo n y o r m is d em ea n ou r’ ( 1 3 V ic t. N o. 2 1). T he le g is la tio n d ea lt w it h y o u n g p eo p le u p t o 1 9 y ea rs o ld , a n d a llo w ed t h e c o u rt t o a p pre n tic e y o u n g offe n ders. A m ore s ig n if ic a n t l e g is la tiv e c h an ge w as t h e i n tr o d uctio n o f a n ‘A ct f o r t h e m ore s p eed y tr ia l an d p u n is h m en t o f Ju ven ile O ffe n ders’ (1 4 V ic t. N o. 2 ) in 1 850. T he A ct ex te n ded th e su m mary ju ris d ic tio n to y o u n g p eo p le u n der 1 4 y ea rs o ld w ho w ere ch arg ed w it h la rc en y an d asso cia te d o ffe n ces. T he le g is la tio n a ls o a llo w ed fo r d if fe re n t a n d le sse r p en alt ie s t o b e a p pli e d t o ju ven ile s c o n vic te d o f l a rc en y t h an w ere a p pli e d t o a d ult s f o r t h e s a m e c rim es, a n d b eg an t h e p ro cess of d ev elo p m en t o f c h ild re n ’s c o u rts i n A ust r a li a . I t c re a te d n ot o n ly d if fe re n t p ro ced ure s f o r d ea li n g wit h y o u n g p eo p le th an fo r d ea li n g w it h a d ult s w ho h ad c o m mit te d th e sa m e c rim es, b u t a ls o dif fe re n t p en alt ie s f o r d if fe re n t o ffe n ces.

The e st a b li s h m en t o f re fo rm ato rie s (n ow k n ow n a s ju ven ile d ete n tio n c en tr e s) re p re se n te d a majo r c h an ge in d ea li n g w it h y o u n g p eo p le . I n t h e U nit e d K in gd om , t h e s t a tu to ry r e co gn it io n o f re fo rm ato ry a n d in dust r ia l sc h ools fo r th e ‘d an gero u s’ a n d ‘p eris h in g’ c la sse s o ccu rre d w it h th e You th fu l O ffe n der s A ct 1 854 a n d t h e In du st r ia l S ch ools A ct 1 857 . S im ila rly , r e fo rm ato rie s a p pea re d in th e U SA in th e m id -n in ete en th c en tu ry . I n A ust r a li a , in dust r ia l a n d r e fo rm ato ry sc h ool A cts were p asse d in m ost st a te s b etw een 1 863 a n d 1 874 a m id c o n cern a b ou t d est it u te c h ild re n a n d crit ic is m o f t h e l a ck o f a lt e rn ativ es t o i m pris o n m en t f o r y o u n g o ffe n ders.

Engli s h r e fo rm ers s u ch a s M ary C arp en te r w ere i n flu en tia l i n d ev elo p in g n ew m eth od s o f d ea li n g wit h y o u n g p eo p le . T hey sa w d is c ip li n e th ro u gh p u n is h m en t a s in effe ctiv e: ra th er, th ey so u gh t fu n dam en ta l an d la st in g re h ab ili t a tio n th ro u gh ch an ge w it h in th e yo u n g p erso n . T he is su e o f tr a in in g a n d r e fo rm w as e sse n tia lly o n e o f e ffe ctiv en ess r a th er t h an b en ev o le n ce. I t d em on st r a te d a fu n dam en ta l s h if t a w ay f r o m d ete rre n ce a s a r a tio n ale f o r p u n is h m en t. C arp en te r n ote d t h at r e fo rm occu rre d ‘o n ly w hen t h e c h ild ’s s o u l i s t o u ch ed , w hen h e y ie ld s f r o m t h e h ea rt’. C arp en te r p la y ed a 31 le a d in g ro le in th e re fo rm m ovem en t, p artic u la rly w it h h er b ook Refo rm ato ry S ch ools fo r th e Child ren of th e P er is h in g a n d D an ger o u s C la sse s a n d fo r Ju ven ile O ffe n der s , p u bli s h ed in 1 851.

Carp en te r’s w ork m ad e a dis t in ctio n betw een th e est a b li s h m en t of re fo rm ato ry sc h ools fo r deli n qu en ts ( o f t h e ‘d an gero u s c la sse s’) a n d in dust r ia l s c h ools f o r t h e p oor ( th e p re -d eli n qu en ts o f th e ‘p eris h in g c la sse s’) . H ow ev er, b oth r e g im es s t r e sse d r e li g io u s i n st r u ctio n , e le m en ta ry e d uca tio n , an d i n dust r ia l t r a in in g.

The A ust r a li a n le g is la tio n c o n ta in ed d efin it io n s o f t h e s it u atio n s in w hic h ‘n eg le cte d ’ c h ild re n co u ld b e p la ced i n i n st it u tio n s. F or e x am ple , t h e Neg le cte d a n d C rim in al C hild ren ’s A ct 1 864 ( V ic ), s 13, d efin ed a n eg le cte d c h ild a s a n y c h ild fo u n d b eg gin g o r r e ceiv in g a lm s; ‘w an derin g a b ou t’, o r hav in g n o h om e o r v is ib le m ea n s o f su bsis t e n ce; o r a n y c h ild ‘w hose p are n t r e p re se n ts t h at h e is un ab le to c o n tr o l su ch c h ild ’. In so m e c a se s, th e le g is la tio n sim ply re ca st th e e x is t in g v ag ra n cy defin it io n s as bein g ap pli c a b le to ch ild re n , bu t it als o ad ded n ew d efin it io n s th at w ere th e fo re ru n ner o f m od ern n otio n s o f ‘u n co n tr o lla b ili t y ’. T he le g is la tio n in V ic to ria , Q ueen sla n d, a n d New S o u th W ale s a ls o p ro vid ed f o r t h e e st a b li s h m en t o f in dust r ia l s c h ools f o r t h ose y o u n g p eo p le defin ed a s n eg le cte d ( S ey m ou r 1 988:3 7– 43).

In a d dit io n , t h e n ew l e g is la tio n p ro vid ed f o r s p ecia l p ro ced ure s f o r d ea li n g w it h y o u n g o ffe n ders.

In V ic to ria , Q ueen sla n d, a n d S o u th A ust r a li a , a c h ild c o n vic te d o f a n o ffe n ce c o u ld b e se n t t o a re fo rm ato ry s c h ool r e g ard le ss o f t h e s e rio u sn ess o f t h e o ffe n ce. I n N ew S o u th W ale s, a y o u n g p erso n who h ad b een c o n vic te d o f a n o ffe n ce t h at w as p u n is h ab le b y 1 4 o r m ore d ay s o f im pris o n m en t co u ld b e co m mit te d to a re fo rm ato ry . T hese ch an ges re p re se n te d an im porta n t sh if t in th e se n te n cin g o f y o u n g p eo p le t h ro u gh t h e s e p ara tio n o f t h e n atu re o f t h e o ffe n ce fr o m t h e p en alt y im pose d , a n d a n ew f o cu s o n t h e o ffe n der r a th er t h an t h e o ffe n ce.

Alt h ou gh t h e s y st e m e st a b li s h ed t w o g ro u ps— neg le cte d c h ild re n a n d y o u n g o ffe n ders— in r e a li t y th ere w as a b lu rrin g o f d is t in ctio n s. In m ost A ust r a li a n st a te s, y o u n g o ffe n ders c o u ld b e se n t to in dust r ia l s c h ools b y t h e c o u rt u n der c erta in c ir c u m st a n ces. A m en dm en ts t o le g is la tio n d urin g t h e 1870s fu rth er b lu rre d th e d is t in ctio n b etw een th e tw o g ro u ps, w hen c o u rts w ere e m pow ere d to se n d n eg le cte d c h ild re n t o r e fo rm ato rie s if t h ey h ad b een le a d in g a n ‘i m mora l o r d ep ra v ed li f e ’. I n ad dit io n , n eg le cte d c h ild re n c o u ld b e t r a n sfe rre d a d m in is t r a tiv ely t o t h e r e fo rm ato ry s y st e m i f t h ey pro ved d if fic u lt t o m an ag e.

The n ew le g is la tio n a ls o e m pow ere d c o u rts t o c o m mit y o u n g p eo p le f o r e x te n ded p erio d s. T his pow er e x p re sse d t h e n otio n t h at y o u n g p eo p le w ere b ein g c o m mit te d fo r t r a in in g a n d e d uca tio n .

Offe n ders w ere t o b e c o m mit te d f o r l e n gth y p erio d s, r e g ard le ss o f w heth er t h e c rim e w as s e rio u s. A s a re su lt , th e n orm al se n te n cin g c o n sid era tio n th at a p u n is h m en t sh ou ld b e p ro p ortio n al to th e se rio u sn ess o f t h e c rim e w as n ot s e en a s p art o f t h e l a w g o vern in g j u ven ile s ( S ey m ou r 1 988:4 8– 9).

A fu rth er fa cto r t h at w as im porta n t in t h e d ev elo p m en t o f t h e ju ven ile ju st ic e s y st e m w as t h at re le a se w as d ete rm in ed b y t h e in st it u tio n ’s a d m in is t r a tio n r a th er t h an b y t h e c o u rt. A ddit io n ally , th e co n dit io n s o f re le a se (o n ‘l i c en ce’, fo r ex am ple ) w ere als o d ete rm in ed b y th e in st it u tio n ’s ad m in is t r a tio n . T his a d m in is t r a tiv e d is c re tio n w as l e g it im ate d b y a n i d eo lo gy t h at a ssu m ed t h e s t a te was a ctin g i n t h e b est i n te re st s o f t h e c h ild .

The u se o f r e fo rm ato rie s a n d in dust r ia l s c h ools in t h e U nit e d K in gd om w as s im ila r t o t h at in Aust r a li a . T he offe n ce w as oft e n ir re le v an t to co m mit ta l. R efo rm ato rie s en co u ra g ed ea rly in te rv en tio n u n re la te d t o t h e n atu re o f t h e ju ven ile ’s o ffe n ce, a n d a b ou t h alf t h e ju ven ile s s e n t t o re fo rm ato rie s w ere s e n t t h ere o n t h eir f ir st c o n vic tio n . I n a d dit io n , r e fo rm w as b ase d o n d is c ip li n e th ro u gh w ork . Y et t h e ‘w ork ’ w as n ot t r a in in g o r s k ills a cq u is it io n , b u t la b orio u s a n d m on oto n ou s work d esig n ed t o p ro d uce in div id uals w ho w ou ld b e s u it a b le f o r a n y m en ia l jo b ( M orris & G ille r 32 1987:2 4– 7).

In t h e U SA , t h ere w ere i m porta n t le g al c h alle n ges c o n cern in g t h e p la cem en t o f y o u n g p eo p le i n hou se s of re fu ge, re fo rm ato rie s, an d in dust r ia l sc h ools . T he Pen nsy lv an ia Su pre m e C ou rt dete rm in ed t h e C ro u se c a se in 1 838, in w hic h M ary A nne C ro u se h ad n ot c o m mit te d a c rim in al offe n ce b u t w as s e en t o b e i n d an ger o f g ro w in g u p t o b e a p au per. S h e w as c o m mit te d t o a h ou se o f re fu ge, t h e c o u rt d ecid in g t h at h old in g h er t h ere w as le g al b eca u se s h e w as b ein g h elp ed a n d n ot pu n is h ed . T he s t a te a ssu m ed t h e r o le o f pa ren s p a tr ia e , w here b y it a cte d in t h e r o le o f t h e c h ild ’s pare n ts, w ho w ere s e en a s i n ca p ab le o f f u lf illi n g t h e t a sk . F urth er, b eca u se C ro u se w as b ein g h elp ed an d n ot p u n is h ed , t h ere w as s e en t o b e n o n eed f o r t h e p ro te ctio n o f f o rm al d ue p ro cess ( su ch a s pre su m ptio n o f i n nocen ce, o r g u ilt p ro ven b ey o n d r e a so n ab le d ou bt) ( fo r m ore d eta ils , s e e B ern ard 1992:6 8– 70). T he C ro u se c a se w as im porta n t a s th e fir st U S le g al c h alle n ge to th e p ra ctic e o f co m mit tin g y o u n g p eo p le t o h ou se s o f r e fu ge a n d r e fo rm ato rie s e v en w here t h ey h ad c o m mit te d n o crim in al o ffe n ce.

The O ’C on nell ca se (fo r d eta ils , se e B ern ard 1 992), w hic h w as d ete rm in ed in th e Illi n ois Su pre m e C ou rt in 1 870, s a w t h e c o u rt r e je ct t h e pa ren s p a tr ia e a rg u m en t ( th e c o u rt a ctin g in t h e best in te re st s o f t h e c h ild a n d p ro te ctin g t h e c h ild ) a n d o rd er t h e r e le a se o f O ’C on nell fr o m t h e Chic a g o R efo rm S ch ool. T he c o u rt h ea rd o f th e h arsh c o n dit io n s in th e sc h ool, a n d fo u n d th at O’C on nell w as b ein g p u n is h ed , n ot h elp ed . T he c o u rt w as o f t h e v ie w t h at O ’C on nell w as b ein g im pris o n ed , a lt h ou gh h e h ad n ot c o m mit te d a c rim in al o ffe n ce. T he O ’C on nell d ecis io n i n flu en ced th e est a b li s h m en t o f th e ju ven ile co u rt in C hic a g o in 1 899, an d le d to su ch ch alle n ges b ein g cir c u m ven te d b y n ew d efin it io n s o f d eli n qu en cy ( B ern ard 1 992:7 0– 3).

The r a tio n ale f o r t h e e st a b li s h m en t o f r e fo rm ato rie s w as t h at t h ey w ou ld p ro vid e a s p ecia l f o rm of pris o n dis c ip li n e fo r yo u n g peo p le an d tr a n sfo rm deli n qu en ts in to la w -a b id in g cit iz en s.

Acco rd in g t o P la tt ( 1 977), r e fo rm ato ry li f e w as d esig n ed t o t e a ch t h e v alu e o f a d ju st m en t, p riv ate en te rp ris e , t h rif t , a n d s e lf -r e li a n ce. L ik e M ary C arp en te r’s a im t o ‘t o u ch t h e s o u l’, t h e r e fo rm ato ry mast e rs s o u gh t t o ‘r e v o lu tio n is e … t h e e n tir e b ein g’ ( P la tt 1 977:5 2). T his t r a n sfo rm atio n i n vo lv ed a dif fe re n t m od e o f p u n is h m en t, a n d ca n b e co n te x tu ali s e d w it h in b ro ad er ch an ges o ccu rrin g in pu n is h m en t d urin g t h e s e co n d h alf o f t h e n in ete en th c en tu ry . B y t h e e n d o f t h at c en tu ry , t h e f o cu s had sh if t e d fr o m th e b eli e f th at a c rim in al sh ou ld b e p u n is h ed a cco rd in g to th e se v erit y o f th e offe n ce to a v ie w th at th e o ffe n der sh ou ld r e ceiv e tr e a tm en t. T re a tm en t w as to b e b ase d o n th e dia g n osis o f t h e p erso n ’s p ath olo gic a l c o n dit io n , a n d a ls o e n ab le d t h e e x p an sio n a n d d iv ersif ic a tio n of p en al s a n ctio n s. A cco rd in g t o G arla n d, t h is d ev elo p m en t m ark ed t h e b eg in nin g o f a n ew m od e o f se n te n cin g t h at c la im ed t o t r e a t o ffe n ders a cco rd in g t o t h eir s p ecif ic c h ara cte ris t ic s o r n eed s, a n d not e q u ally o n th e b asis o f th e se rio u sn ess o r n atu re o f th e o ffe n ce (G arla n d 1 985:2 8, F ou ca u lt 1977).

TH E R EA LIT Y O F L IF E I N T H E S C H OOLS If s o m uch f a it h w as p la ced i n t h e d ev elo p m en t o f t h e n ew m eth od s o f c o n tr o l a n d r e fo rm atio n , i t i s fa ir to a sk w hat th e o u tc o m es w ere . A lt h ou gh a se p ara te p en al sy st e m h ad b een e st a b li s h ed fo r yo u n g peo p le , in so m e are a s ch ild re n w ere st ill im pris o n ed w it h ad ult s. In th e U SA , th e re fo rm ato rie s w ere d esc rib ed a s ‘o verc ro w ded , p oorly eq u ip ped , b ad ly sit u ate d a n d m ore li k e a pris o n th an a sc h ool’ (P la tt 1 977:1 46). In th e U nit e d K in gd om , th e re a li t y o f th e sc h ools w as sim ila rly fa r fr o m th e rh eto ric . A cco rd in g to H arris an d W eb b (1 987:1 4), th ere w ere se rio u s pro b le m s in th e re cru it m en t o f su it a b le st a ff, an d p u n is h m en ts w ere se v ere , in clu d in g so li t a ry 33 co n fin em en t, w hip pin g, a n d d ie ts o f b re a d a n d w ate r. S u ch p u n is h m en ts m ir ro re d th ose in th e ad ult s y st e m . I n a d dit io n , e a rly a tte m pts t o s e p ara te ju ven ile o ffe n ders fr o m a d ult o ffe n ders w ere not s u ccessfu l. T he p ris o n b oats u se d f o r y o u n g p eo p le w ere i n w orse c o n dit io n t h an t h ose u se d f o r ad ult s.

In A ust r a li a , p ris o n b oats w ere u se d a s r e fo rm ato rie s in V ic to ria , S o u th A ust r a li a , Q ueen sla n d, an d N ew S o u th W ale s d urin g t h e l a tte r p art o f t h e n in ete en th c en tu ry . T here w as a s e rie s o f o ffic ia l in vest ig atio n s in to c o n dit io n s in th e re fo rm ato rie s a n d in dust r ia l sc h ools d urin g th e 1 870s a n d 1880s. T he in qu ir ie s in S o u th A ust r a li a , N ew S o u th W ale s, V ic to ria , an d T asm an ia p ain te d a pic tu re o f t h e i n st it u tio n s a s b ru ta l j a ils ( S ey m ou r 1 988:5 8– 61).

Refo rm ato rie s an d in dust r ia l sc h ools w ere oft e n co m bin ed , th us fu rth er un derm in in g th e dis t in ctio n b etw een ‘ n eg le cte d ’ y o u n g p eo p le a n d y o u n g o ffe n ders. I n deed , t h e c rit e ria f o r r e fe rra l t o re fo rm ato ry a n d i n dust r ia l s c h ools w ere v ag u e:

The p er is h in g c la sse s:

R eg ard ed a s p re -d eli n qu en t, t h ey w ere s e en a s t h e l e g it im ate o b je ct o f t h e st a te ’s i n te rv en tio n . T he s o -c a lle d p eris h in g c la sse s c o n sis t e d o f y o u n g p eo p le w ho h ad ‘n ot y et fa lle n ’ i n to c rim e, b u t w ho w ere l i k ely t o d o s o b eca u se o f p overty .

The d an ger o u s c la sse s:

T hese c o n sis t e d o f y o u n g p eo p le w ho h ad a lr e a d y c o m mit te d o ffe n ces an d w ho h ad r e ceiv ed t h e ‘ p ris o n b ra n d’.

The m ix in g o f w elf a re a n d c rim in al c a se s w it h in t h e s y st e m s o f d ete n tio n b eca m e a h allm ark o f dea li n g w it h y o u n g p eo p le in t h e ju ven ile ju st ic e s y st e m u n til w ell in to t h e c o n te m pora ry p erio d .

Man y y o u n g p eo p le w ere s e n t t o r e fo rm ato rie s f o r m in or o ffe n ces. S ey m ou r p ro vid es e x am ple s o f yo u n g p eo p le b ein g g iv en l o n g c o m mit ta ls , s u ch a s a n in e-y ea r-o ld b oy i n S o u th A ust r a li a b ein g s e n t to a r e fo rm ato ry f o r s ix y ea rs f o r s t e a li n g s ix a p ple s ( S ey m ou r 1 988:5 6). O ne o u tc o m e w as t h at s u ch in st it u tio n s p ro vid ed fo r th e d ete n tio n o f yo u n g p eo p le w ho w ou ld n ot p re v io u sly h av e b een im pris o n ed .

It h as b een s u ggest e d t h at i n t h e U nit e d K in gd om t h e ‘i n st it u tio n s c o n st it u te d a m ajo r e x te n sio n of co n tr o l over th e yo u n g, w hile sim ult a n eo u sly offe rin g th e ap pare n t possib ili t y of m ass re fo rm atio n a n d th e n ea r e li m in atio n o f ju ven ile c rim e’ ( H arris & W eb b 1 987:1 1). C erta in ly , it ap pea rs t h e r e fo rm ato rie s a ttr a cte d a n ew c li e n te le . M ore ju ven ile s w ere b ro u gh t in to t h e ju ven ile ju st ic e s y st e m a n d w ere s e n t t o r e fo rm ato rie s. I n E ngla n d b etw een 1 865 a n d 1 873, s o m e 2 6 3 26 ju ven ile s w ere s e n t t o r e fo rm ato rie s o r in dust r ia l s c h ools . I n a d dit io n , ju ven ile s w ere in ca rc era te d lo n ger t h an t h eir a d ult c o u n te rp arts: i n st e a d o f a n av era g e t h re e m on th s im pris o n m en t, t h ey s p en t tw o t o f iv e y ea rs i n r e fo rm ato rie s ( M orris & G ille r 1 987:2 4– 7).

We c a n s u m maris e t h e e ffe cts o f c h an ges b ro u gh t a b ou t b y t h e i n tr o d uctio n o f r e fo rm ato rie s a n d in dust r ia l s c h ools a s:

se p ara te p ro ced ure s f o r d ea li n g w it h y o u n g p eo p le f o r s o m e o ffe n ces dif fe re n t p en alt ie s f o r s o m e o ffe n ces f o r j u ven ile s w hen c o m pare d w it h p en alt ie s f o r a d ult s a d if fe re n t a n d s e p ara te p en al r e g im e f o r j u ven ile s dif fe re n t c rit e ria f o r i n te rv en tio n b etw een j u ven ile s a n d a d ult s overla p b etw een w elf a re a n d c rim in al i n te rv en tio n hig h le v els o f a d m in is t r a tiv e d is c re tio n o ver th ose y o u n g p eo p le w it h in th e ju ven ile p en al re g im e ex te n ded a n d i n dete rm in ate p erio d s o f d ete n tio n 34 ad ult s e n te n cin g t a rif fs n o l o n ger s e en a s r e le v an t t o j u ven ile s ea rli e r c o m mit ta l t o d ete n tio n f o r m in or o ffe n ces more y o u n g p eo p le i n ca rc era te d t h an p re v io u sly .

It w as w it h in t h e c o n te x t o f t h ese c h an ges t h at t h e d ev elo p m en t o f s p ecia li s t c h ild re n ’s c o u rts to ok p la ce. W e d ea l w it h t h is i s su e i n t h e f o llo w in g s e ctio n .

TH E J U VE N IL E C O U RT The n ew ju ven ile c o u rts th at d ev elo p ed a t th e e n d o f th e n in ete en th c en tu ry w ere b ase d o n th e notio n o f pa ren s p a tr ia e . T he c o n cep t h ad o rig in ally r e fe rre d t o t h e p ro te ctio n o f p ro p erty r ig h ts o f ju ven ile s a n d o th ers w ho w ere l e g ally i n co m pete n t; h ow ev er, i t c a m e t o r e fe r t o t h e r e sp on sib ili t y o f th e j u ven ile c o u rts a n d t h e s t a te t o a ct i n t h e b est i n te re st s o f t h e c h ild .

As o n e e a rly t w en tie th -c en tu ry B rit is h c o m men ta to r p u t i t , t h e d octr in e o f pa ren s p a tr ia e a llo w ed th e c o u rt ‘t o g et a w ay f r o m t h e n otio n t h at t h e c h ild i s t o b e d ea lt w it h a s a c rim in al; t o s a v e i t f r o m th e b ra n d o f c rim in ali t y , t h e b ra n d t h at s t ic k s t o i t f o r l i f e ’ ( c it e d i n M orris & G ille r 1 987:1 2).

Child re n ’s c o u rts w ere e st a b li s h ed a t r o u gh ly t h e s a m e t im e in t h e U nit e d K in gd om , t h e U SA , Can ad a, a n d A ust r a li a , t h is b ein g d urin g t h e la st d eca d es o f t h e n in ete en th c en tu ry a n d t h e e a rly yea rs o f t h e t w en tie th c en tu ry . T he p ow ers o f t h e c o u rt v arie d f r o m s t a te t o s t a te a n d c o u n tr y t o co u n tr y .

In t h e U SA , t h e Illi n ois J u ven ile C ou rt A ct 1 899 e st a b li s h ed t h e ju ven ile c o u rt w it h t h e p ow er t o dete rm in e t h e le g al s t a tu s o f ‘t r o u ble so m e’ o r ‘p re -d eli n qu en t’ c h ild re n . S u ch c o u rts w ere a b le t o in vest ig ate a v arie ty o f b eh av io u r. S ta tu to ry d efin it io n s o f d eli n qu en cy in clu d ed a cts t h at w ou ld b e crim in al if c o m mit te d b y a d ult s; a cts th at v io la te d c o u n tr y , to w n, o r m un ic ip al o rd in an ces; a n d vio la tio n s o f vag u ely d efin ed ca tc h -a lls , su ch as vic io u s o r im mora l b eh av io u r, in co rrig ib ili t y , tr u an cy , p ro fa n e o r in decen t la n gu ag e, gro w in g u p in id le n ess, o r li v in g w it h an y vic io u s o r dis r e p u ta b le p erso n ( P la tt 1 977:1 38).

The co n cep t o f pa ren s p a tr ia e au th oris e d th e co u rts to u se w id e d is c re tio n in re so lv in g th e pro b le m s o f y o u n g p eo p le . A c h ild w as n ot a ccu se d o f a c rim e, b u t o ffe re d a ssis t a n ce a n d g u id an ce.

In te rv en tio n w as n ot su ppose d to ca rry th e st ig m a of a crim in al re co rd , an d h ea rin gs w ere co n ducte d i n r e la tiv e p riv acy w it h i n fo rm al p ro ceed in gs.

The le g is la tio n in tr o d uced i n I lli n ois w as w ell r e ceiv ed b y t h e ju d ic ia ry a n d le g al p ro fe ssio n , a n d beca m e t h e f o u n datio n f o r o th er U S s t a te s. J u ven ile c o u rts w ere e st a b li s h ed i n W is c o n sin a n d N ew York in 1 901, a n d in O hio a n d M ary la n d in 1 902. B y 1 928, a ll b u t t w o U S s t a te s h ad a d op te d a ju ven ile c o u rt s y st e m . C an ad a a d op te d l e g is la tio n i n 1 908.

The f ir st a n nual r e p orts f r o m t h e C ook C ou n ty ju ven ile c o u rt i n C hic a g o i n dic a te d t h at p u bli c - ord er o ffe n ces a n d sc h ool tr u an cy m ad e u p th e m ajo rit y o f c h arg es th at le d to th e ‘d eli n qu en cy ’ ca se s d ea lt w it h b y t h e c o u rt ( P la tt 1 977:1 40). F ailu re t o c o n fo rm t o n ew fo rm s o f s o cia l c o n tr o l (su ch a s c o m pu ls o ry e d uca tio n ) w as c le a rly a n i m porta n t s o u rc e o f d eli n qu en cy c la ssif ic a tio n s.

In E ngla n d by th e en d of th e n in ete en th cen tu ry , so m e to w ns, su ch as M an ch est e r an d Bir m in gh am , h ad b eg u n to o p era te se p ara te ju ven ile co u rts. S ep ara te co u rts w ere est a b li s h ed th ro u gh ou t E ngla n d a n d W ale s a ft e r t h e C hild re n A ct 1 908 w as in tr o d uced . T he le g is la tio n g av e th e c o u rts c rim in al ju ris d ic tio n o ver c rim in al m atte rs a n d c iv il ju ris d ic tio n in r e la tio n to w elf a re matte rs. A cco rd in g t o H arris a n d W eb b, ‘i t m ad e t h e ju ven ile c o u rt it se lf a lo cu s f o r c o n fli c t a n d co n fu sio n , a v eh ic le fo r th e sim ult a n eo u s w elf a riz a tio n o f d eli n qu en cy a n d th e ju rid ic iz a tio n o f 35 need ’ ( 1 987:9 ). T he l e g is la tio n a ls o c o n ta in ed a v arie ty o f p ro vis io n s, o f w hic h t h ose d ea li n g w it h a se p ara te ju ven ile c o u rt w ere o n ly a p art. O th er se ctio n s d ea lt w it h th e p re v en tio n o f c ru elt y to ch ild re n , a n d p ro h ib it io n s o n b eg gin g a n d p ro st it u tio n . A t a ro u n d th e sa m e tim e, th e st a tu to ry cre a tio n o f p ro b atio n a n d p re v en tiv e d ete n tio n o ccu rre d .

In A ust r a li a , t h e m ajo r r e a so n g iv en f o r e st a b li s h in g c h ild re n ’s c o u rts w as t h at t h ey e n su re d t h at yo u n g p eo p le w ere tr ie d se p ara te ly fr o m a d ult s a n d w ere n ot su bje ct to th e h arm fu l effe cts o f co n ta m in atio n a n d s t ig m a— partic u la rly w here t h e y o u n g p erso n w as b efo re t h e c o u rt o n n eg le ct matte rs. A ust r a li a n l e g is la tio n e st a b li s h in g s e p ara te c h ild re n ’s c o u rts w as i n tr o d uced a s f o llo w s:

So u th A ust r a li a — Sta te C hild ren A ct 1 895 New S o u th W ale s— Neg le cte d C hild ren a n d J u ven ile O ffe n der s A ct 1 905 Vic to ria — Child ren ’s C ou rt A ct 1 906 Queen sla n d— Child ren ’s C ou rt A ct 1 907 West e rn A ust r a li a — Sta te C hild ren A ct 1 907 Tasm an ia — Child ren ’s C harte r 1 918 The A ust r a li a n le g is la tio n w as b ase d o n c h ild -s a v in g r h eto ric s im ila r t o t h at u se d in t h e U SA .

The c o u rts w ere t o b e p are n ta l a n d in fo rm al, w it h c o rre ctio n a d m in is t e re d in a ‘f a th erly m an ner’ (S ey m ou r 1 988:7 0– 1). M ag is t r a te s w ere t o b e s p ecia lly s e le cte d , t r a in ed , a n d q u ali f ie d t o d ea l w it h yo u n g p eo p le ; p ro b atio n o ffic ers w ere to p la y a sp ecia l ro le in su perv is in g yo u n g p eo p le an d pre p arin g b ack gro u n d r e p orts.

The le g is la tio n e st a b li s h in g c h ild re n ’s c o u rts in A ust r a li a g av e ju ris d ic tio n to th e c o u rts o ver crim in al m atte rs ( ju ven ile o ffe n din g) a n d w elf a re m atte rs ( n eg le cte d c h ild re n a n d y o u n g p eo p le ).

The c h ild re n ’s c o u rts a ls o h ad e x clu siv e j u ris d ic tio n , w hic h m ea n t t h at o th er, l o w er c o u rts c o u ld n ot hea r c a se s in vo lv in g c h ild re n . T he le g is la tio n a ls o st ip u la te d th at th e c h ild re n ’s c o u rt h ad to sit se p ara te ly f r o m t h e o th er c o u rts, a n d t h at s p ecia l m ag is t r a te s h ad t o b e a p poin te d . I n p ra ctic e, m ost mag is t r a te s w ere sim ply d esig n ate d as ch ild re n ’s m ag is t r a te s, an d o n ly in th e m ajo r cit ie s d id an yth in g l i k e s p ecia l c o u rts e x is t ( S ey m ou r 1 988:9 6).

There w ere i m porta n t v aria tio n s a m on g j u ris d ic tio n s c o n cern in g t h e e x te n t t o w hic h t h e j u ven ile co u rt d if fe re d f r o m t h e a d ult c rim in al c o u rts. F or i n st a n ce, t h e c h ild re n ’s c o u rt i n A ust r a li a w as n ot as d if fe re n t f r o m t h e a d ult c o u rts a s it w as in t h e U SA . I n t h e U SA , t h e y o u n g p erso n a p pea re d in th e c o u rt a s a r e su lt o f a d eli n qu en cy p etit io n , a n d t h e c o u rt h ad t o d ete rm in e w heth er t h e c h ild w as deli n qu en t, n ot w heth er t h ey h ad c o m mit te d a p artic u la r o ffe n ce. I n c o n tr a st , i n A ust r a li a t h e c o u rt had t o d ete rm in e w heth er t h e y o u n g p erso n h ad c o m mit te d a n o ffe n ce, a t l e a st i n r e g ard t o c rim in al matte rs. I n r e la tio n t o w elf a re m atte rs, t h e c o u rt h ad t o b e s h ow n t h at t h e c h ild o r y o u n g p erso n w as neg le cte d w it h in th e te rm s of th e le g is la tio n (a lt h ou gh th is w as n ot th e ca se in re la tio n to In dig en ou s c h ild re n ).

Wit h t h e in cre a sin g s e p ara tio n o f c h ild re n fr o m a d ult s in t h e ju d ic ia l s y st e m , t h e p ro vis io n o f in fo rm atio n to th e c o u rt a b ou t th e y o u n g p erso n in cre a se d in im porta n ce. T he d ev elo p m en t o f pro b atio n w as a n im porta n t a d ju n ct t o t h e n ew c h ild re n ’s c o u rts. C harit y w ork ers f ille d a n eed b y pro vid in g sp ecia l k n ow le d ge to c o u rt a b ou t th e y o u n g p erso n ( M cC allu m 2 009:1 21). P ro b atio n pre d ate d t h e c h ild re n ’s c o u rts a n d h ad a ris e n f r o m v o lu n ta ry c h arit a b le a n d r e li g io u s w ork . I n t h e USA , m em bers o f t h e B oard o f S ta te C harit ie s h ad a tte n ded c o u rt h ea rin gs i n vo lv in g c h ild re n , a n d as a re su lt ab ou t on e-t h ir d of su ch ch ild re n w ere p la ced on p ro b atio n u n der th e m em bers’ su perv is io n . In th e U nit e d K in gd om , th e Fir st O ffe n der s A ct , p asse d in 1 887 , h ad allo w ed th e 36 su perv is io n o f m in or f ir st o ffe n ders b y ‘m is sio n arie s’ a n d v o lu n ta ry w ork ers. S im ila rly , in A ust r a li a th e co u rts h ad o ffe re d co n dit io n al d is c h arg es to o ffe n ders, an d th is h ad b een re fe rre d to as pro b atio n . T he d ev elo p m en t o f s e p ara te c o u rts fo r y o u n g p eo p le le d t o a m ore s y st e m atic u se o f pro b atio n , a n d in v ario u s p arts o f A ust r a li a th e c h ild re n ’s c o u rt le g is la tio n a llo w ed fo r ju ven ile offe n ders t o b e r e le a se d o n p ro b atio n .

In it ia lly , h on ora ry p ro b atio n o ffic ers w ere a tta ch ed t o t h e c h ild re n ’s c o u rts, w it h t h e f u n ctio n o f pre p arin g back gro u n d re p orts an d co n ductin g su perv is io n . T he use of pro b atio n beca m e an im porta n t s e n te n cin g o p tio n fo r t h e c h ild re n ’s c o u rts. B y 1 908, t h ere w ere 2 11 h on ora ry o ffic ers ap poin te d t o t h e c h ild re n ’s c o u rts in V ic to ria , a n d b y 1 909 t h ere w ere 2 50 o ffic ers in N ew S o u th Wale s ( S ey m ou r 1 988:1 00– 1). O utc o m es f o r t h e S yd n ey C hild re n ’s C ou rt f o r a 1 2-m on th p erio d en din g in A pril 1 911 r e v ea le d t h at 8 73 c h ild re n h ad b een f o u n d g u ilt y o f a n o ffe n ce, o f w hom 4 6 per c en t w ere r e le a se d o n p ro b atio n ( S ey m ou r 1 988:1 04).

JU DIC IA L T H ER APIS TS The c h ild re n ’s c o u rts e n co u ra g ed m in im um p ro ced ura l f o rm ali t y a n d g re a te r d ep en den cy o n n ew perso n nel su ch a s p ro b atio n o ffic ers. Ju d ges w ere e n co u ra g ed to lo ok a t th e c h ara cte r a n d so cia l back gro u n d o f t h e ‘d eli n qu en ts’. I n t h is s e n se , t h e m ovem en t h as b een d esc rib ed a s a n ti- le g al ( P la tt 1977:1 41). F urth erm ore , t h e c o u rt’s in te rv en tio n w as ju st if ie d w here n o o ffe n ce h ad a ctu ally b een co m mit te d b u t w here t h e y o u n g p erso n w as c a u sin g p ro b le m s f o r s o m eo n e in a u th orit y , b e t h at a pare n t, t e a ch er, o r s o cia l w ork er. I n A ust r a li a n ju ris d ic tio n s, s u ch m atte rs c o u ld c o m e b efo re t h e co u rts in th e fo rm o f a r a n ge o f w elf a re c o m pla in ts o r st a tu s o ffe n ces, su ch a s u n co n tr o lla b ili t y , ex p osu re t o m ora l d an ger, o r t r u an cy .

One w ay o f c o n cep tu ali s in g t h e r e la tio n sh ip b etw een t h e c h ild re n ’s c o u rt, it s a n cilla ry s t a ff, a n d th e y o u n g p erso n h as b een th ro u gh n otio n s o f th e ‘t h era p eu tic ’ st a te . S o m e c o m men ta to rs h av e arg u ed th at th e ‘r o le m od el fo r ju ven ile co u rt ju d ges w as d octo r-c o u n se lo r ra th er th an la w yer.

Ju d ic ia l th era p is t s w ere e x p ecte d to e st a b li s h a o n e-t o -o n e re la tio n sh ip w it h d eli n qu en ts’ (P la tt 1977:1 42). D on zelo t (1 979) h as a ls o a rg u ed th at th e a d ven t o f th e ju ven ile c o u rt c h an ged th e re la tio n sh ip o f t h e f a m ily t o o u tsid e a g en cie s. H e a rg u es t h at t h e f a m ily b eca m e s u bje ct t o a ‘ t u te la ry co m ple x ’, w here b y a n um ber o f a g en cie s, in clu d in g ju ven ile ju st ic e, r e d uced t h e f a m ily ’s a u to n om y an d i n st e a d e st a b li s h ed t h e f a m ily a s a s it e o f i n te rv en tio n .

In D on zelo t’s te rm s, th e tr a n sit io n h as b een fr o m g o vern m en t of th e fa m ily to g o vern m en t th ro u gh t h e f a m ily . T he t e rm ‘g o vern m en t’ in t h is c o n te x t r e fe rs t o t h e p ro cess o f s o cia l a n d le g al re g u la tio n . W it h t h e d ev elo p m en t o f a s e p ara te s y st e m f o r d ea li n g w it h y o u n g p eo p le , f a m ili e s c a n be m ore c lo se ly p oli c ed ( in t h e b ro ad est s e n se o f t h e t e rm ), a n d r e ca lc it r a n t c h ild re n r e m oved .

Durin g th e la te n in ete en th c en tu ry , th ere w ere sp ecif ic in te lle ctu al d ev elo p m en ts th at h ad a n im pact on th e co n st r u ctio n of ju ven ile deli n qu en cy an d th at fa cili t a te d sp ecif ic fo rm s of in te rv en tio n . T hese n ew fo rm s o f k n ow le d ge g av e t h e p ro m is e o f s c ie n tif ic n eu tr a li t y , w hic h a ls o pro vid ed le g it im acy to th e b en ev o le n t in te n tio n s o f th e co u rt. T he d is c o u rse o f re fo rm atio n in clu d ed a r a n ge o f n ew d is c ip li n es, s u ch a s c h ild p sy ch ia tr y , p sy ch olo gy, a n d p aed ia tr ic s. T he f o rm s of in te rv en tio n w ere a ls o c o n necte d t o t h e n ew c a te g o ris a tio n o f y o u n g p eo p le a s ‘a d ole sc en t’— a te rm t h ou gh t t o h av e b een c re a te d b y G . S ta n le y H all i n h is b ook Adole sc e n ce , p u bli s h ed i n t h e la te nin ete en th c en tu ry ( M orris & G ille r 1 987:4 ). D ev elo p in g s o cia l a n d p sy ch olo gic a l t h eo rie s b eg an t o id en tif y t h e d ev elo p m en ta l s t a g es o f c h ild re n a n d a d ole sc en ts. T hese i n te lle ctu al d ev elo p m en ts s a w ch ild re n a n d y o u th a s v u ln era b le , a n d w ere li n ked t o — an d ju st if ie d t h e i n tr o d uctio n o f— ‘a d elu ge 37 of p ro te ctiv e l e g is la tio n ’ i n a re a s s u ch a s c h ild w elf a re , e d uca tio n , a n d l a b ou r ( G illi s 1 981:1 33).

There w as a ls o a sh if t in a ttit u d es to w ard s p en ali t y . T he ‘s c ie n tif ic ’ d is c o u rse s o n b eh av io u r su pporte d t h e m ove t o im pose lo n g-t e rm ‘t r a in in g’ t h ro u gh in dete rm in ate ( o p en -e n ded , w it h n o fix ed t e rm ) s e n te n ces f o r y o u n g p eo p le . T he g ro w th o f p osit iv is t c rim in olo gy i n t h e l a te r p art o f t h e nin ete en th c en tu ry a ls o p ro vid ed a n in te lle ctu al fr a m ew ork t h at fa cili t a te d s e p ara te t r e a tm en t fo r ju ven ile s, w it h th e em ph asis o n cla ssif ic a tio n b y ag e an d th e p sy ch olo gic a l attr ib u te s o f ea ch offe n der ( M orris & G ille r 1 987:1 8).

Vie w s o n th e th era p eu tic n atu re o f in te rv en tio n a re a ls o re fle cte d in th e d ev elo p m en t o f th e notio n t h at ju st ic e i s t o b e p erso n ali s e d i n t e rm s o f i t s s t y le a s w ell a s i t s o u tc o m es. A t t h e t im e t h e new j u ven ile c o u rt b u ild in gs w ere o p en ed i n C hic a g o i n 1 907, i t w as c la im ed t h at ‘t h e h ea rin gs w ill be h eld i n a r o om f it te d u p a s a p arlo u r r a th er t h an a c o u rt, a ro u n d a t a b le i n st e a d o f a b en ch … T he hea rin gs w ill b e i n t h e n atu re o f a f a m ily c o n fe re n ce, i n w hic h t h e e n dea v o u r w ill b e t o i m pre ss t h e ch ild w it h t h e f a ct t h at h is o w n g o od i s s o u gh t a lo n e’ ( c it e d i n P la tt 1 977:1 43).

Sim ila r a rg u m en ts w ere p u t fo rw ard in A ust r a li a fo r th e c o n st r u ctio n o f se p ara te fa cili t ie s fo r ch ild re n ’s co u rt hea rin gs. In re a li t y , th ou gh , m ost m atte rs w ere dete rm in ed in th e ph ysic a l su rro u n din gs o f t h e l o ca l m ag is t r a te ’s c o u rt.

GEN DER ED A PPR OACH ES Beca u se in it s d ev elo p m en t ju ven ile ju st ic e w as c o n cern ed w it h q u est io n s o f y o u th b eh av io u r, it is not su rp ris in g th at th is in te re st h ad a sp ecia l m ea n in g fo r yo u n g w om en . F ro m th e ea rli e st dev elo p m en ts o f s e p ara te s y st e m s f o r d ea li n g w it h y o u th , t h ere a p pea r t o h av e b een s p ecif ic g en der- base d d if fe re n ces i n t h e t r e a tm en t o f y o u n g p eo p le ( se e Chap te r 8 ). S ch lo ssm an a n d W alla ce ( 1 978) note t h at in t h e U SA y o u n g w om en w ere fo cu se d u pon b eca u se o f t h eir s e x u ali t y . T he ‘i m mora l co n duct’ of gir ls w as bro ad ly defin ed , an d th ey w ere su bje cte d to ph ysic a l ex am in atio n s to dete rm in e w heth er t h ey h ad b een s e x u ally a ctiv e. S ch lo ssm an a n d W alla ce a ls o f o u n d t h at g ir ls w ere giv en lo n ger re fo rm ato ry se n te n ces. In C an ad a, it h as a ls o b een n ote d th at, h is t o ric a lly , fe m ale s re ceiv ed m ore s e v ere f o rm s o f i n te rv en tio n f r o m t h e j u ven ile c o u rts t h an m ale s ( S ch is se l 1 993:1 1).

The s it u atio n f o r g ir ls i n A ust r a li a w as s im ila r, w it h l o n ger p erio d s o f i n ca rc era tio n b ein g g iv en t o yo u n g w om en . I n h er s t u d y in W est e rn A ust r a li a , K err n ote s t h at ‘b oys w ere g en era lly c o m mit te d fo r c rim es a g ain st p ro p erty . C on tr o lli n g t h e b eh av io u r o f g ir ls in clu d ed m ora l p oli c in g a s w ell a s dea li n g w it h c iv il a n d c rim in al m is d em ea n ou rs’ ( 1 998:1 ). J a g gs ( 1 986:6 2) n ote d t h at, in V ic to ria , ‘g ir ls ’ la rc en y an d oth er offe n ces gav e ca u se fo r co n cern , bu t gen era l “w ild n ess” an d se x u al mis b eh av io u r g av e m ore , sin ce th ey b re a ch ed st r o n gly h eld v ie w s o n fe m ale p u rit y ’. G ir ls w ho mis b eh av ed w ere t h ou gh t t o b e w orse t h an b oys a n d m ore d if fic u lt t o r e fo rm .

Sim ila rly , a s t u d y o f P arra m atta I n dust r ia l S ch ool f o r G ir ls a rg u ed t h at t h e s c h ool’s f o cu s w as o n mora l r e co n st r u ctio n o f t h e y o u n g w om en s e n t t h ere . T ra in in g f o cu se d o n d om est ic s k ills a n d m ora l pu rit y , an d at le a st u n til th e ea rly tw en tie th cen tu ry th e re g im e w as h arsh , w it h n o p erso n al posse ssio n s a llo w ed , n o p riv acy , t w o o u tsid e v is it s p er y ea r, a n d n o o u tsid e a u th orit y t o w hom t h e gir ls c o u ld a p pea l. P un is h m en ts i n clu d ed c a n in g ( ‘t h ra sh in g’ o r ‘w hip pin g’) , h ea d s h av in g, ‘s t a n din g ou t’ ( st a n din g o u tsid e p erfe ctly s t ill f o r a n um ber o f h ou rs) , a n d i s o la tio n ( W illi s 1 980:1 84– 8).

By t h e e a rly t w en tie th c en tu ry , le g is la tio n a ls o b eg an t o r e fe r s p ecif ic a lly t o y o u n g w om en a n d th eir b eh av io u r. T hus, th e Neg le cte d C hild ren a n d Ju ven ile O ffe n der s A ct 1 905 (N SW ) n eg le ct ca te g o ry h ad sp ecif ic p ro vis io n s th at r e la te d to g ir ls a n d y o u n g w om en .

Gir ls a n d y o u n g w om en co u ld b e c h arg ed w it h b ein g n eg le cte d i f t h ey w ere f o u n d s o li c it in g m en o r o th erw is e b eh av in g i n a n 38 in decen t m an ner ( W illi s 1 980:1 85). T here w ere n o e q u iv ale n t p ro vis io n s r e la tin g t o m ale s.

You n g w om en w ere a ls o p u n is h ed w hen t h ey w ere t h e v ic tim s o f s e rio u s c rim e. A s V an K rie k en (1 991:9 3) h as n ote d , t h e e n tr y b ooks t o P arra m atta I n dust r ia l S ch ool fo r G ir ls s h ow ed t h at g ir ls who w ere r a p ed o r t h e v ic tim s o f i n cest o ft e n f o u n d t h em se lv es c o m mit te d t o t h e i n st it u tio n , w hile th e p erp etr a to rs re m ain ed fr e e. P arra m atta w as to re m ain th e m ain in st it u tio n fo r g ir ls in N ew So u th W ale s u n til t h e la te 1 970s ( se e F ra n kli n 2 014). A s e n ate in qu ir y in to in st it u tio n al c a re in Aust r a li a n ote d t h at:

Parra m atta G ir ls ’ I n dust r ia l S ch ool … b eca m e r e n ow ned fo r e x tr e m e c ru elt y , w as th e su bje ct o f m an y in qu ir ie s w hic h w ere s c a th in g o f i t s a ctiv it ie s a n d a ch ie v ed n oto rie ty i n t h e 1 960s w hen m an y o f t h e g ir ls rio te d a g ain st i t s c o n dit io n s. ( S en ate C om mun it y A ffa ir s R efe re n ces C om mit te e 2 004a:5 5) The in qu ir y re ceiv ed m an y su bm is sio n s fr o m w om en w ho had been in th e Parra m atta in st it u tio n , s u ch a s t h e f o llo w in g.

When I g o t t o P arra m atta I w as t o ld t h at t h ey w ou ld b re a k m y s p ir it a t t h at t im e I d id n ’t k n ow w hat t h ey mea n t. A M r G ord on p u n ch ed m e i n t h e f a ce s e v era l t im es, m y n ose b le d . ( S u b 3 9) I d id n ot k n ow w hat c ru elt y w as li k e u n til I w en t in to P arra m atta G ir ls H om e … n o ch ild s h ou ld h av e e n dure d t h e n eg le ct, t h e c ru elt y , t h e b ru ta li t y , m ali c e a n d im mora li t y th at w ere s h ow n b y m an y o f t h e s t a ff t o m an y o f t h e g ir ls i n t h e h om e. ( S u b 1 10) I w as in vo lv ed in t h e P arra m atta r io ts. M yse lf a n d o th er g ir ls w ere t h e f ir st t o g et o n th e r o of a t P arra m atta w hic h w as t o e sc a p e t h e b ru ta l b ash in g w e k n ew w e w ou ld g et f o r le a v in g t h e l a u n dry . M r J o h n so n w as t h en i n c h arg e, h e w as a b ru ta l m an a n d w it h in t h at week I h ad s e en h im b ash a n d k ic k a g ir l t h at h e h ad b een m ole st in g t o t r y a n d i n duce a mis c a rria g e. ( S u b 2 50) ( S en ate C om mun it y A ffa ir s R efe re n ces C om mit te e 2 004a:5 6; s e e fu rth er F ra n kli n 2 014, a n d Box 1 .1 ) BOX 1 .1   FU RTH ER R ESO U RCES O N G IR LS ’ I N DU STR IA L SC H OOLS In r e ce n t y e ars , in cre ase d m ed ia a tte n tio n h as b een p aid t o t h e s h ock in g t r e atm en t of g ir ls in re fo rm ato rie s in A ustr a lia . T w o p la ys — Parra m atta G ir ls a n d Eye s to th e Flo or by Ala n a Vale n tin e— have been w rit te n an d perfo rm ed to sh ow ca se th e exp erie n ce s o f ‘P arra m atta G ir ls ’. F or m ore in fo rm atio n o n th e P arra m atta G ir ls ’ Hom e, s e e t h e f o llo w in g A B C S ta te lin e f iv e -p art s e rie s:

Reliv in g th e Horro r , AB C Sta te lin e, 30/5 /0 3 < http :/ /w ww.a b c.n et.a u /s ta te lin e/n sw /c o n te n t/ 2 003/s 8 69514.h tm >.

More Vic tim s of Parra m atta Gir ls Hom e , AB C Sta te lin e, 6/6 /0 3 < http :/ /w ww.a b c.n et.a u /s ta te lin e/n sw /c o n te n t/ 2 003/s 8 75163.h tm >.

Th e Reu nio n , AB C Sta te lin e, 27/0 6/0 3 < http :/ /w ww.a b c.n et.a u /s ta te lin e/n sw /c o n te n t/ 2 003/s 8 90893.h tm >.

Th e ‘G ir ls ’ Get Tog eth er , AB C Sta te lin e, 24/1 0/0 3 < http :/ /w ww.a b c.n et.a u /s ta te lin e/n sw /c o n te n t/ 2 003/s 9 75547.h tm >.

Th e ‘G ir ls ’ Re-u nit e , AB C Sta te lin e 7/1 1/0 3 39 < http :/ /w ww.a b c.n et.a u /s ta te lin e/n sw /c o n te n t/ 2 003/s 9 85548.h tm >.

See a ls o :

Exp ose d to Mora l Dan ger , AB C Rad io Natio n al, Hin dsig h t, < http :/ /w ww.a b c.n et.a u /r a d io n atio n al/ p ro g ra m s/h in dsig h t/ e xp ose d -to -m ora l- dan ger/3 069882 >.

(A r a d io p ro g ra m a b ou t P arra m atta G ir ls ’ H om e, w hic h w as h ig h ly c o m men ded in th e ‘ r a d io ’ c a te g ory o f t h e 2 008 H um an R ig h ts C om mis sio n A w ard s.) For f u rth er i n fo rm atio n a n d r e so u rc e s, s e e < www.p arra g ir ls .o rg .a u >.

PO LIC E, L A W , A N D J U VE N IL E D ELIN QU EN CY The dev elo p m en t of n ew m eth od s of dea li n g w it h yo u n g peo p le w en t h an d in h an d w it h dev elo p m en ts in t h e r e co rd ed in cid en ce o f e sse n tia lly n ew c a te g o rie s o f m in or ju ven ile c rim e. A n an aly sis b y G illi s (1 975) o f O xfo rd P oli c e C ou rt re co rd s b etw een 1 895 an d 1 914 sh ow s th at ju ven ile c rim e w as a p pare n tly i n cre a sin g a t a f a st e r r a te t h an a d ult c rim e i n t h is p erio d . T hese f ig u re s wou ld s e em t o s u pport f e a rs a t t h at t im e a b ou t r is in g j u ven ile c rim e, b u t a c lo se r e x am in atio n o f t h e patte rn o f o ffe n din g s h ow s u n ev en d is t r ib u tio n a cro ss v ario u s o ffe n ces. T he m ajo r i n cre a se s w ere i n min or su m mary an d p u bli c -o rd er o ffe n ces su ch as d ru n ken ness, gam bli n g, m ali c io u s m is c h ie f, lo it e rin g, w ilf u l d am ag e, b eg gin g, d an gero u s p la y , a n d d is c h arg e o f f ir e w ork s. T he a n aly sis o f a m ore se rio u s o ffe n ce, t h eft , s h ow s t h at t h is w as a sso cia te d w it h m in or i t e m s ( fr u it , v eg eta b le s, t o ys, s w eets, cig are tte s, a n d s o o n ).

It w ou ld ap pea r th at tw o b ro ad ca te g o rie s o f o ffe n ces w ere im porta n t. Y ou n g p eo p le w ere bro u gh t b efo re th e c o u rts fo r p u bli c -o rd er o ffe n ces r e la te d to le is u re a ctiv it ie s in p u bli c , a n d fo r pro p erty o ffe n ces a sso cia te d w it h e co n om ic n eed . H um ph rie s ( 1 981) h as a rg u ed , o n t h e b asis o f o ra l his t o rie s, t h at m an y o ffe n ces c a n b e v ie w ed a s e x p re ssio n s o f ‘s o cia l c rim e’. T he c o n cep t o f s o cia l crim e e n co m passe s ‘t h e in num era b le m in or c rim es a g ain st p ro p erty c o m mit te d b y w ork in g-c la ss ch ild re n a n d y o u th t h at w ere c o n don ed b y la rg e s e ctio n s o f b oth t h e y o u th a n d p are n t c u lt u re s a s le g it im ate d esp it e t h eir ille g ali t y ’ ( H um ph rie s 1 981:1 51). M an y p ro p erty c rim es w ere n ecessit a te d an d ju st if ie d b y e x tr e m e p overty a n d t h e s t r u ggle f o r s u rv iv al. T he m ost c o m mon f o rm o f p ro p erty th eft , whic h was se en as a cu st o m ary rig h t am on g work in g-c la ss co m mun it ie s, in vo lv ed su pple m en tin g t h e f a m ily ’s f o od a n d f u el s u ppli e s. I n E ngla n d, t h e s in gle m ost im porta n t c a te g o ry of ju ven ile crim e d urin g th e ea rly tw en tie th cen tu ry w as ‘s im ple an d m in or la rc en y’, w hic h ‘c o m pris e d ta k in g c o al fr o m p it h ea d s, c h um ps o f w ood fr o m tim ber y ard s a n d v eg eta b le s fr o m fa rm er’s fie ld s, p oach in g ra b bit s a n d so o n ’ (H um ph rie s 1 981:1 51). T he a ctu al n atu re o f so cia l crim e w as c o m ple x , a n d v arie d sig n if ic a n tly a m on g d if fe re n t a re a s, d ep en din g o n o p portu n it ie s offe re d b y t h e l o ca l e co n om y a n d t h e n atu re o f l o ca l t r a d it io n s.

Vario u s g o vern m en t st u d ie s a t th e tim e su ggest e d th at p etty c rim e w as m ost c o m mon a m on g un sk ille d , u n em plo yed , a n d s o le -p are n t fa m ili e s, a n d t h at o ld er c h ild re n in t h e fa m ily w ere m ore li k ely t o b e d eli n qu en t. T he d om in an t c rim in olo gic a l c la ssif ic a tio n s o f ju ven ile d eli n qu en cy d urin g th e la te n in ete en th a n d e a rly t w en tie th c en tu rie s s a w ju ven ile c rim e a s a sso cia te d w it h w ea k n ess o f ch ara cte r, ig n ora n ce, ir ra tio n ali t y , o r so m e o th er fo rm o f p ath olo gy. T he a sso cia te d e x p la n atio n s re li e d on bio lo gic a l an d psy ch olo gic a l in te rp re ta tio n s su ch as ‘p rim it iv e im pu ls e s’. H ow ev er, Hum ph rie s h as a rg u ed t h at s u ch e x p la n atio n s ig n ore d t h e s ig n if ic a n ce o f p overty , in eq u ali t y , a n d cla ss c o n fli c t a s s ig n if ic a n t f a cto rs i n c rim e. T he d om est ic e co n om y o f t h e w ork in g-c la ss h ou se h old 40 pro vid ed a r a tio n al s e t o f m otiv es, w here b y t h e e ld est c h ild re n c o m mit te d o ffe n ces t o h elp s u pport th e f a m ily . I n o th er w ord s, t h ere w as a m ora l e co n om y o p era tin g t h at v alu ed f a m ily s u pport m ore th an c o m pli a n ce w it h t h e l a w .

Offe n ces r e la te d t o p u bli c o rd er t e n ded t o in vo lv e a rre st s o f y o u n g p eo p le in g ro u ps o f t w o o r more , a n d so m etim es in g ro u ps o f a s m an y a s 1 0 o r 1 5. C harg es re la tin g to p ro p erty d am ag e, mis c h ie f, a n d d an gero u s p la y c o u ld in vo lv e m an y y o u n g p eo p le a n d d eriv e f r o m p artic u la r p oli c in g activ it ie s. G illi s s t a te s: ‘S li d in g o n b rid ges, t h ro w in g r o ck s a n d p la y in g s t r e et fo otb all w ere t y p ic a l activ it ie s w hic h le d to th e a rre st o f la rg e g ro u ps. T his w ou ld se em to su ggest th at th ere w as a te n den cy o n t h e p art o f t h e p u bli c a n d t h e p oli c e t o a ttr ib u te a n tis o cia l i n te n ts t o b oys c o lle ctiv ely , th us r a is in g t h e r a te o f r e co rd ed o ffe n ces … ’ ( 1 975:1 03).

The s u rv eilla n ce o f p u bli c s p ace a n d t h e a b ili t y o f p oli c e t o a rre st y o u n g p eo p le r a is e t h e i s su e o f dev elo p m en ts in p oli c in g— partic u la rly w it h a fo cu s o n th e eco n om ic an d le is u re activ it ie s o f work in g-c la ss y o u n g p eo p le . G illi s ( 1 975) a rg u es t h at, ir o n ic a lly , t h e c o lle ctiv e b eh av io u r o f y o u th had a ctu ally i m pro ved b y t h e la te r p art o f t h e n in ete en th c en tu ry . T hus, i n cre a se d a rre st r a te s w ere li k ely to h av e b een a fu n ctio n o f a n um ber o f fa cto rs, in clu d in g la w -e n fo rc em en t p ra ctic es, n ew le g is la tio n , a n d t h e g ro w th o f a r a n ge o f o rg an is a tio n s ( su ch a s t h e B oy S co u ts) w hose i n te n t w as t o mod if y y o u n g p eo p le ’s b eh av io u r.

Poli c e fu n ctio n s an d pra ctic es w ere alt e rin g. T he la te nin ete en th cen tu ry sa w ex p an ded , re o rg an is e d , a n d in cre a sin gly p ro fe ssio n al p oli c e fo rc es. P oli c e h ad re sp on sib ili t ie s in re la tio n to yo u n g p eo p le t h at e x te n ded b ey o n d t h e n otio n o f c rim in ali t y t o o n e o f m on it o rin g y o u n g p eo p le ’s so cia l li f e . P oli c e w ere in vo lv ed a s w elf a re a g en ts, tr u an t o ffic ers, a n d m ora l g u ard ia n s (F in nan e 1994:7 ). In N ew S o u th W ale s in th e 1 890s, th e p oli c e to ok o n th e ro le o f re g u la tin g tr u an ts.

Offic ia l a rre st f ig u re s f r o m t h e n in ete en th c en tu ry in A ust r a li a s h ow a p rim ary c o n cern w it h p etty crim e a n d p u bli c o rd er; h ow ev er, w elf a re c o m pla in ts s u ch a s n eg le ct o r u n co n tr o lla b ili t y w ere a ls o im porta n t. G ir ls w ere in cre a sin gly re p re se n te d in w elf a re co m pla in ts su ch as co m pla in ts of un co n tr o lla b ili t y ( F in nan e 1 994).

The d if fe re n t se n te n cin g re g im es fo r ju ven ile s c o n vic te d o f la rc en y, a n d th e e x te n sio n o f th e mag is t r a te s’ ju ris d ic tio n , r e su lt e d in m ore ju ven ile s b ein g p ro se cu te d b y p oli c e. I n o th er w ord s, t h e net w as m ad e w id er b eca u se m ore ju ven ile s w ere b ro u gh t b efo re th e co u rts as a re su lt o f th e se em in gly b en efic ia l r e fo rm s ( S ey m ou r 1 988:3 3). S p ecia l l a w s w ere d ev elo p ed d urin g t h e 1 870s a n d 1880s t h at w ere a im ed s p ecif ic a lly a t y o u n g p eo p le ’s b eh av io u r. I n le g is la tio n s u ch a s t h e Ju ven ile Offe n der s A ct 1 875 ( T as) , sp ecif ic ju ven ile b eh av io u r, su ch as in decen t e x p osu re , a ssa u lt , o b sc en e la n gu ag e, th ro w in g st o n es, ob st r u ctin g a ra ilw ay , an d van dali s m , co u ld be d ea lt w it h in th e mag is t r a te ’s c o u rt.

There w as a ls o a m ove a w ay f r o m t h e o ld p oli c e p ra ctic e o f d ea li n g w it h j u ven ile o ffe n ders o n t h e sp ot. C orp ora l p u n is h m en t b y p oli c e w as v ie w ed a s i n ap pro p ria te , p artic u la rly b y o rg an is a tio n s s u ch as t h e N atio n al S o cie ty f o r t h e P re v en tio n o f C ru elt y t o C hild re n . O ne e ffe ct o f r e d ucin g t h e u se o f arb it r a ry p u n is h m en t w as t h at t h e p oli c e m ad e m ore u se o f t h e c o u rts ( G illi s 1 975). I n deed , i n N ew So u th W ale s t h e e st a b li s h m en t o f t h e c h ild re n ’s c o u rt a n d l e g is la tio n r e la tin g t o n eg le cte d c h ild re n was r e co gn is e d b y it s a rc h it e cts a s f a cili t a tin g p oli c e in te rv en tio n ( F in nan e 1 994:1 7). I n fo rm atio n av aila b le f r o m t h e S yd n ey C hild re n ’s C ou rt w as s e en t o s u pport g re a te r i n te rv en tio n , p artic u la rly i n re la tio n t o p u bli c b eh av io u r. I n 1 911, a b ou t o n e-t h ir d o f a ll t h e o ffe n ces d ete rm in ed i n t h e S yd n ey Child re n ’s C ou rt r e la te d t o r io to u s b eh av io u r, t h ro w in g s t o n es, p la y in g g am es, ‘ b oard in g o r q u it tin g tr a m in m otio n ’, an d ‘b ath in g in vie w ’ (S ey m ou r 1 988:1 04). S im ila r ev id en ce fr o m W est e rn Aust r a li a a ls o s u ggest s p ro se cu tio n s fo r v ery m in or o ffe n ces, s u ch a s b re a k in g b ra n ch es fr o m t r e es 41 an d k ic k in g f o otb alls in a p ark . S ey m ou r a rg u es t h at m in or in cid en ts s u ch a s t h ese w ou ld p ro b ab ly not h av e b een b ro u gh t b efo re m ag is t r a te s p rio r t o t h e a d ven t o f t h e c h ild re n ’s c o u rt, a n d it s e em s li k ely t h at t h e n et w as w id en ed , w it h a g re a te r le v el o f p ro se cu tio n s fo r m in or o ffe n ces ( S ey m ou r 1988:1 09). R ese a rc h in th e U SA su ggest s th at th e e x erc is e o f d is c re tio n ary a u th orit y b y p oli c e sh ap ed th e o p era tio n s o f ju ven ile ju st ic e d urin g th is p erio d o f th e la te n in ete en th an d ea rly tw en tie th c en tu rie s ( W olc o tt 2 001).

Sch ools a n d y o u th o rg an is a tio n s a ls o h ad th e in dir e ct e ffe ct o f c a u sin g m ore y o u n g p eo p le to ap pea r b efo re th e co u rts a s th ey d efin ed a n d a tte m pte d to co n tr o l th e p u bli c b eh av io u r, w ork activ it ie s, a n d le is u re o f y o u n g p eo p le . S u ch o rg an is a tio n s’ in flu en ce w as e x te n ded t h ro u gh s o cia l ch an ges, su ch as th e p ro vis io n o f co m pu ls o ry ed uca tio n ; an d le g is la tio n , su ch as th e E ngli s h Prev en tio n o f C ru elt y a n d P ro te ctio n o f C hild ren A ct 1 889 . T here w as a ls o a r a n ge o f r e fo rm ativ e org an is a tio n s, su ch a s th e S alv atio n A rm y, B oy S co u ts, B oys’ B rig ad es, Y ou n g M en ’s C hris t ia n Asso cia tio n s ( Y M CA), a n d Y ou n g W om en ’s C hris t ia n A sso cia tio n s ( Y W CA). T hese o rg an is a tio n s were e n gag ed in a ctiv it ie s a im ed a t a lt e rin g y o u n g p eo p le ’s p u bli c a n d p riv ate b eh av io u r. ‘K eep in g th em o ff t h e s t r e ets’ b eca m e a s h orth an d w ay o f d esc rib in g t h is fu n ctio n ( M au n ders 1 984; G illi s 1975). S ch ools a ls o b eca m e s it e s o f d is c ip li n e a n d t h e l a w . O ne s c h ool’s p u n is h m en t b ook f o r 1 905 sh ow ed th at alm ost on e-t h ir d of th e pu n is h m en ts re la te d to ex tr a cu rric u la r activ it ie s (G illi s 1975:1 18).

One o u tc o m e o f t h e c h an ges i n l e g is la tio n a n d o f t h e s p re a d o f s c h ooli n g a n d y o u th o rg an is a tio n s was t h at c le a re r d is t in ctio n s b etw een ‘r o u gh ’ a n d ‘r e sp ecta b le ’ w ork in g-c la ss y o u th w ere e st a b li s h ed .

Certa in ly , p oli c e p erc ep tio n s o f m ale y o u th w ere d efin ed i n t e rm s o f c la ss a n d s e x . ‘ S u ch p erc ep tio n s did n ot n ecessa rily m ea n t h at p oli c e w ou ld d efe re n tia lly s id e w it h t h e w is h es o f s o cia l e li t e s a g ain st th e a lle g ed d ep re d atio n s o f w ork in g-c la ss y o u th . B ut t h ey d id w ork w it h s o cia l d is t in ctio n s w hic h pit te d t h e r e sp ecta b le a g ain st t h e r o u gh .’ ( F in nan e 1 994:1 3).

The n ew an d ex p an din g ju ris d ic tio n d ea li n g sp ecif ic a lly w it h yo u n g p eo p le allo w ed gre a te r re g u la tio n . N ew o ffe n ces w ere c re a te d a n d w elf a re p ro vis io n s w ere d ev elo p ed .

There w ere n ew meth od s o f su rv eilla n ce a n d n ew b u re a u cra tic st r u ctu re s fo r e n fo rc in g so cia l r e g u la tio n . T here is wid esp re a d e m pir ic a l e v id en ce t o s u ggest t h at in cre a se d n um bers o f y o u n g p eo p le w ere d ea lt w it h fo rm ally b y t h e j u ven ile j u st ic e s y st e m .

EXP LA IN IN G C H AN GE His t o ria n s a n d c rim in olo gis t s h av e d eb ate d h ow t o c o n cep tu ali s e t h e e ffe cts o f t h e e st a b li s h m en t o f a se p ara te le g al r e g im e fo r d ea li n g w it h y o u n g p eo p le . T hese d eb ate s a re n ot o f p u re ly a ca d em ic in te re st b eca u se t h ey a ls o i llu m in ate c u rre n t i s su es r e le v an t t o ju ven ile ju st ic e. D if fe re n t c o n cep tu al ap pro ach es a re s h ow n i n Box 1 .2 .

As c a n b e s e en i n Box 1 .2 , o n e w ay o f c o n cep tu ali s in g t h e p erio d o f c h an gin g p oli c y i s t o v ie w i t i n te rm s of pro gre ss. A se p ara te ch ild re n ’s co u rt an d se p ara te pen al sy st e m ca n be se en as a hum an it a ria n a d van ce o ver fo rm er m eth od s o f d ea li n g w it h y o u n g p eo p le . T hey c a n b e se en a s necessa rily go od . Lib era l (o r ‘W hig ’) his t o rie s are oft e n crit ic is e d fo r th eir te le o lo gic a l or ev o lu tio n ary v ie w o f t h e p ast : t h at i s , f o r s e ein g t h e p ast a s i n ev it a b ly a n d p ro gre ssiv ely l e a d in g t o t h e pre se n t. A n im pli c it a ssu m ptio n is t h at b eca u se t h e p re se n t is t h e o u tc o m e o f p ro gre ssiv e s t e p s in th e p ast , t h en t h e p re se n t s y st e m i s t h e b est a n d m ost a d van ced . T his v ie w o f h is t o ry s e es t h e m ain so u rc e o f c h an ge in ju ven ile ju st ic e a s d eriv in g f r o m e n li g h te n ed a n d h um an e in div id uals w ho c a re ab ou t th e p li g h t a n d w elf a re o f w ork in g-c la ss c h ild re n . T he st a te is se en a s a n eu tr a l in st it u tio n 42 to w ard s w hic h r e fo rm a ctiv it y c a n b e d ir e cte d .

In th e 1 960s a n d e a rly 1 970s, th ese v ie w s o f th e p ast w ere su bje cte d to in te n se c rit ic is m . T he in st it u tio n s o f ju ven ile ju st ic e w ere s e en a s a m ech an is m o f s o cia l c o n tr o l, a n d c rit ic is e d f o r b ein g in effic ie n t, b ru ta l, m is m an ag ed , a n d c o rru pt. A k ey c o m pon en t o f th e c rit iq u e w as th at th e n ew sy st e m s o f re g u la tio n in cre a se d le v els o f su rv eilla n ce a n d ‘s u bje cte d m ore a n d m ore ju ven ile s to arb it r a ry a n d d eg ra d in g p u n is h m en ts’ ( P la tt 1 977:x vii) . I n s o m e o f t h ese ‘s o cia l c o n tr o l’ a p pro ach es, th e i s su e o f c la ss i s s e en a s i m porta n t. S o cia l c o n tr o l m ech an is m s a re s e en a s e x te n din g c o n tr o l o ver th e w ork in g c la ss, p artic u la rly y o u n g p eo p le . Im pli c it in th ese a p pro ach es is th e v ie w th at st a te in st it u tio n s a re a f o rm o f r e g u la tio n b y o n e c la ss o ver a n oth er.

So m e w rit e rs h av e s t r e sse d t h e i m porta n ce o f i n co rp ora tin g a p oli t ic a l e co n om y a p pro ach , w hic h arg u es th at th e n in ete en th - an d ea rly tw en tie th -c en tu ry d ev elo p m en ts in ju ven ile ju st ic e w ere neit h er is o la te d n or a u to n om ou s, s in ce b ro ad er e co n om ic a n d s o cia l r e fo rm s w ere o ccu rrin g t h at were o p pose d to la is se z -fa ir e c a p it a li s m , a n d th ere w as a n in cre a se d ro le fo r st a te in st it u tio n s in eco n om ic re g u la tio n . T he n ew p oli t ic a l eco n om y at th is tim e w as ch ara cte ris e d b y lo n g-r a n ge pla n nin g an d bu re a u cra tic ro u tin e (P la tt 1977:x ix ). C on cep tu al ch an ges re la te d to sc ie n tif ic man ag em en t in in dust r y , in te lli g en ce te st in g in ed uca tio n , an d cla ssif ic a tio n s an d tr e a tm en t in crim in al j u st ic e. D ev elo p m en ts w it h in i n dust r ia l c a p it a li s m d em an ded a g re a te r r o le f o r t h e s t a te i n pre p arin g p ote n tia l w ork ers f o r t h e la b ou r m ark et w hile e n su rin g t h e m ain te n an ce o f p u bli c o rd er an d p ro te ctio n o f p ro p erty .

BOX 1 .2   HIS TO R IC A L I N TE R PR ETA TIO N S LIB ER AL A N ALYS IS ( P R OGR ESS A N D H UM AN IT A R IA N IS M ) Focu s:

I n div id u al m ora l r e fo rm atio n a n d t r a in in g f o r r e sp ecta b le w ork a n d l if e Cen tr a l i d eas Key p la ye rs Sou rc e o f c h an ge Pro g re ss Mid dle -c la ss re fo rm ers Hum an e in div id u als Hum an it a ria n is m Chil d -s a ve rs ’ move m en t Neu tr a l s ta te Ben evo le n t i n te n tio n s a cco rd in g t o b ou rg eois id eals Charit ie s Enlig h te n m en t id eals Salv a tio n o f c h il d re n CR IT IC AL A N ALYS IS ( S O CIA L C O N TR OL A N D P O LIT IC AL E C O N OM Y) Focu s:

T h e p olic in g a n d r e g u la tio n o f t h e l iv e s o f w ork in g-c la ss f a m il ie s a n d c h il d re n to e n su re s o cia l o rd er a n d c a p it a lis t e co n om ic r e la tio n s Cen tr a l i d eas Key p la ye rs Sou rc e o f c h an ge Socia l d iv is io n s Sta te Str u ctu ra l c h an ges a sso cia te d w it h ca p it a lis t d eve lo p m en t Main te n an ce o f b ou rg eois s o cia l ord er Rulin g c la ss Reso cia lis a tio n o f w ork in g c la ss 43 Str u ctu ra l n eed f o r d is cip lin ed an d h ard -w ork in g l a b ou r New p ro fe ssio n s In cre ase d s ta te i n te rv e n tio n Effe cts o f p olic ie s o n w ork in g- cla ss c h il d re n Polic e Ju ve n il e c o u rts an d i n stit u tio n s SIT U ATIO N AL A N ALYS IS ( S O CIA L A C TO R S A N D D IV E R SE I N TE R ESTS ) Focu s:

T h e c o m ple xit y o f c h an ge r e fle cts a ctiv e r e sp on se s fr o m d iv e rs e a cto rs w it h dif fe re n t i n te re sts Cen tr a l i d eas Key p la ye rs Sou rc e o f ch an ge Pow er i s d is p ers e d t h ro u gh ou t s o cia l in te ra ctio n s Mid dle -c la ss r e fo rm ers Self - c o n scio u s actio n s a n d attit u des o f peop le Em ph asis o n h ow r e fo rm s t r a n sla te d in to p ra ctic a l s it u atio n s Work in g-c la ss p are n ts a n d org an is a tio n s w ho u se d t h e sys te m t o t h eir a d va n ta g e Unin te n ded effe cts Actu al p ro ce sse s o f i m ple m en ta tio n i n re la tio n t o c h il d ’s c ir c u m sta n ce s v e rs u s se rio u sn ess o f o ffe n ce s Polic e a n d i n stit u tio n al s ta ff In stit u tio n al dyn am ic s s h ap e activ it y /p olic y Agen cy o r r o le o f w ork in g c la ss, a s w ell as m id dle c la ss, i n r e fo rm p erio d Aust r a li a n h is t o ria n s o f c h ild w elf a re a n d ju ven ile ju st ic e, su ch a s V an K rie k en (1 991), h av e arg u ed t h at it is im porta n t t o u n derst a n d h ow t h e w ork in g c la ss u se d t h e n ew in st it u tio n s t o t h eir ow n a d van ta g e. D ep en din g o n t h eir s it u atio n , d if fe re n t s o cia l a cto rs h ad d if fe re n t in te re st s in h ow th e ju ven ile ju st ic e s y st e m d ev elo p ed a n d w as u se d . C la ss w as im porta n t, b u t t h e n ew in st it u tio n s were n ot m ere ly r e p re ssiv e o f w ork in g-c la ss y o u th . C om pla in ts a b ou t y o u n g p eo p le m ig h t a ris e f r o m fa m ily m em bers, n eig h bou rs, o r t h e p u bli c , a n d d id n ot s im ply d eriv e f r o m p oli c e o r in st it u tio n al su rv eilla n ce ( se e a ls o F in nan e 1 994). P la tt ( 2 008:1 25) n ote s i n h is r e co n sid era tio n o f s o cia l c o n tr o l arg u m en ts th at it is im porta n t n ot to o vere m ph asis e th e ro le o f th e st a te at th e ex p en se o f un derst a n din g i s su es o f a g en cy , r e sis t a n ce, a n d e n gag em en t.

Van K rie k en (1 991) arg u es th at th ere w as a d iv is io n b etw een th e ‘r e sp ecta b le ’ an d ‘n on - re sp ecta b le ’ s e ctio n s o f t h e w ork in g c la ss. T he r e sp ecta b le w ork in g c la ss a n d s e ctio n s o f t h e la b ou r movem en t su pporte d so m e a sp ects o f th e n ew in st it u tio n s, su ch a s c o m pu ls o ry e d uca tio n . T hey mig h t w ell h av e s u pporte d n ew s t a n dard s o f p u bli c p ro p rie ty a n d m ora li t y a g ain st w hat t h ey s a w t o be th e b eh av io u r o f th e n on -r e sp ecta b le u rb an p oor. In deed , F in nan e (1 994:1 0– 15) n ote s th at poli c e u se d d is t in ctio n s b etw een th e re sp ecta b le an d th e ‘r o u gh ’ w ork in g cla ss w hen d ecid in g wheth er t o e n fo rc e p artic u la r p u bli c -o rd er la w s. A cco rd in g t o V an K rie k en , w e n eed to c o n sid er how w ork in g-c la ss p eo p le a ccep te d c erta in st a n dard s in th eir o w n in te re st s a n d w ere n ot sim ply passiv e v ic tim s o f n ew l e v els o f s t a te i n te rv en tio n .

44 CO N CLU SIO N The c h an ges t h at o ccu rre d i n t h e l a st h alf o f t h e n in ete en th a n d e a rly p art o f t h e t w en tie th c en tu rie s wit h t h e i n tr o d uctio n o f s p ecif ic m ea su re s t o d ea l w it h y o u n g p eo p le b ro u gh t b efo re t h e c o u rts c a n be u n derst o od w it h in th e c o n te x t o f b ro ad c h an ges o ccu rrin g in th e fo rm s o f st a te in te rv en tio n .

Educa tio n A cts c o m pelle d c h ild re n b etw een c erta in a g es to a tte n d sc h ool. L eg is la tio n re g u la tin g la b ou r p ro h ib it e d c h ild re n o f c erta in a g es f r o m w ork in g. T he p erio d o f d ep en den cy o f c h ild re n w as ex te n ded . I n r e la tio n t o w elf a re , r e li a n ce o n p riv ate p h ila n th ro p ic o rg an is a tio n s w as t r a n sfo rm ed s o th at t h e s t a te a ssu m ed r e sp on sib ili t y f o r w elf a re p ro vis io n .

Sta te in te rv en tio n c h an ged th e o vera ll p osit io n o f y o u n g p eo p le in A ust r a li a d urin g th is tim e.

New f o rm s o f r e g u la tio n r e la te d t o e d uca tio n , w ork , a n d le is u re . I n cre a se d p oli c e s u rv eilla n ce, t h e dev elo p m en t o f th e c h ild re n ’s c o u rt, a lt e ra tio n s to th e p en al re g im e fo r y o u n g p eo p le , a n d th e gro w th o f n ew p ro fe ssio n s w ere a ll p art o f t h is b ro ad er c h an ge. T here w as a ls o g re a te r r e g u la tio n o f fa m ily r e la tio n s, in clu d in g g u ard ia n sh ip la w s. I t is c le a r t h at t h e la w w as u se d t o e n fo rc e s t a n dard s an d o b li g atio n s o n p are n ts. C om pu ls o ry e d uca tio n is o n e e x am ple . I n E ngla n d, t h ere w ere 8 6 1 49 pro se cu tio n s o f p are n ts u n der t h e 1 870 E duca tio n A ct i n o n e y ea r a lo n e ( M orris & G ille r 1 987:2 2).

How ev er w e c o n cep tu ali s e t h e c h an ges, it is c le a r t h ere w ere f u n dam en ta l s h if t s d urin g t h e la te nin ete en th a n d e a rly tw en tie th c en tu rie s in th e re la tio n sh ip b etw een y o u n g p eo p le a n d th e la w .

There w as a s e p ara te m eth od o f p u n is h m en t f o r y o u n g p eo p le , i n clu d in g n ew p en al i n st it u tio n s a n d gre a te r s u rv eilla n ce a t h om e a n d i n t h e c o m mun it y t h ro u gh p ro b atio n o ffic ers. S ep ara te s e n te n cin g re g im es w ere e st a b li s h ed , in clu d in g t h e u se o f in dete rm in ate s e n te n cin g. S ep ara te c h ild re n ’s c o u rts were e st a b li s h ed , n ot o n ly to d ete rm in e c rim in al m atte rs b u t a ls o to a sse ss n eg le ct a n d w elf a re matte rs. P artic u la r p ra ctic es w ere a ls o s e en a s a p pro p ria te in d ea li n g w it h y o u n g p eo p le w ho c a m e befo re t h e c o u rts, p artic u la rly t h e u se o f s o cia l- b ack gro u n d r e p orts. P artly a s a r e sp on se t o c h an ges in le g is la tio n an d d ev elo p m en ts in p oli c in g, an d p artly as a re su lt o f th e ex is t e n ce o f se p ara te ch ild re n ’s c o u rts, th ere w as a n in cre a se in th e n um ber o f y o u n g p eo p le p ro se cu te d a n d b ro u gh t fo rm ally in to t h e ju st ic e s y st e m . F in ally , t h ere w ere g en dere d a p pro ach es t o t h e a p pli c a tio n o f t h e new f o rm s o f c o n tr o lli n g y o u n g p eo p le . U nderst a n din g t h e f o u n datio n a n d h is t o ric a l d ev elo p m en t of ju ven ile ju st ic e is p artic u la rly im porta n t a t a tim e w hen m uch o f th e c o n te m pora ry li t e ra tu re fo cu se s o n n arro w e m pir ic a l s t u d ie s o f c rim e c a u sa tio n a n d p artic u la r p ro gra m s ( P la tt 2 008:1 26).

The d ev elo p m en ts i n ju ven ile ju st ic e c a n b e f u rth er u n derst o od b y t h e t h eo re tic a l d ev elo p m en ts in c rim in olo gy. W e h av e re fe rre d o n a n um ber o f o cca sio n s in th is c h ap te r to d ev elo p m en ts in cla ssif ic a tio n , n ew d is c ip li n es, an d ch an ges in th in kin g ab ou t yo u n g p eo p le . In th e fo llo w in g ch ap te r, w e e x p lo re t h e d ev elo p m en ts o f c rim in olo gic a l t h eo ry a n d v ario u s e x p la n atio n s f o r j u ven ile offe n din g.

45 2 TH EO R IE S O F J U VE N IL E O FFE N DIN G 46 C H AP TE R H IG H LIG H TS In tr o d u ctio n Cla ssic a l t h eory a n d i n div id u al c h oic e Posit iv is m a n d i n div id u al c rim in al b eh avio u r Socio lo g ic a l t h eorie s Lab ellin g p ers p ectiv e s Socia l i n eq u alit y a n d s tr u ctu ra l p ow er Mult if a cto ria l e xp la n atio n s Con clu sio n I N TR OD U CTIO N T he a im o f t h is c h ap te r i s t o e x p lo re t h eo rie s a n d e x p la n atio n s f o r w hy y o u n g p eo p le c o m mit c rim e.

T he c h ap te r o u tli n es t h e m ain t h eo rie s o f ju ven ile o ffe n din g, a n d p ro vid es a b rie f o verv ie w o f k ey c o n cep ts an d id ea s p erta in in g sp ecif ic a lly to yo u n g o ffe n ders. A s w ill b e se en , th ere are m an y d if fe re n t e x p la n atio n s p u t f o rw ard t o e x p la in j u ven ile o ffe n din g. T hese r a n ge f r o m p ersp ectiv es t h at e m ph asis e in div id ual o ffe n der c h oic e in w heth er t o o ffe n d, t h ro u gh t o t h ose t h at e m ph asis e s o cia l f a cto rs su ch a s p overty , li m it e d e m plo ym en t o p portu n it ie s, a n d sc h ool p erfo rm an ce in sh ap in g j u ven ile c rim in al c a re ers. T he c h ap te r c o n clu d es w it h a d is c u ssio n o f t h e d if fe re n t le v els o f a n aly sis e v id en t i n g en era l a cco u n ts o f y o u th o ffe n din g.

The f o cu s o f e a ch o f t h e m an y d if fe re n t t h eo rie s o f ju ven ile o ffe n din g v arie s c o n sid era b ly . S o m e c o n cen tr a te o n e x am in in g t h e c rim in al a ct; s o m e, t h e o ffe n der. O th ers s e e c rim e a s a s o cia l p ro cess; s t ill o th ers lo ok a t it in t e rm s o f p ow er r e la tio n s. T he m an ner in w hic h c a u se s a re r e p re se n te d h as m ajo r i m pli c a tio n s f o r s t r a te g ie s o f c rim e p re v en tio n a n d c rim e c o n tr o l. A gain , d ep en din g u pon t h e t h eo ry a d op te d , t h e ‘s o lu tio n ’ m ay b e s e en in t e rm s o f p u n is h m en t, t r e a tm en t, o r r e h ab ili t a tio n o f o ffe n ders; re st it u tio n in vo lv in g vic tim s an d offe n ders; or m ajo r st r u ctu ra l ch an ge re q u ir in g t r a n sfo rm atio n s in th e n atu re o f b asic so cia l in st it u tio n s. S p ecif ic th eo rie s th ere fo re a ris e fr o m s p ecif ic w ay s o f v ie w in g c rim e, t h e r o le o f c rim in al j u st ic e i n st it u tio n s, a n d t h e a p pro p ria te s t r a te g ie s f o r g ra p pli n g w it h c rim in al a n d d ev ia n t b eh av io u r.

Dif fe re n ces in t h e b ro ad le v el o f a n aly sis , a n d in s p ecif ic d is c ip li n e-r e la te d p ersp ectiv es, c a n b e l i n ked t o s o m e e x te n t t o d if fe re n ces i n t h e p oli t ic a l f r a m ew ork o f t h e w rit e r. I t i s a t r u is m t h at a n y p artic u la r c rim in olo gic a l t h eo ry d oes n ot e x is t in a p oli t ic a l v acu um : e a ch is t ie d t o a w id er s o cia l a n d p h ilo so p h ic a l v ie w o f s o cie ty . T he m otiv atio n , c o n cep tu al d ev elo p m en t, m eth od olo gic a l t o ols , a n d s o cia l v alu es a sso cia te d w it h a s p ecif ic a p pro ach a re u su ally in te rtw in ed w it h o n e o f t h e t h re e b ro ad p oli t ic a l p ersp ectiv es: c o n se rv ativ e, l i b era l, o r r a d ic a l ( se e W hit e , H ain es & A sq u it h 2 012). I f w e a ck n ow le d ge t h e c en tr a li t y o f ‘p oli t ic s’ i n c rim in olo gic a l a n aly sis , t h en w e m ust a ccep t t h at t h ere i s n o su ch th in g a s v alu e-f r e e c rim in olo gy. V alu es o f th e R ig h t (c o n se rv ativ e), L eft (ra d ic a l) a n d C en tr e (li b era l) a re e m bed ded in th e c rim in olo gic a l e n te rp ris e . C rim in olo gic a l th eo ry is a lw ay s r e la te d t o s p ecif ic h is t o ric a l c o n te x ts, m ate ria l c o n dit io n s, a n d p oli t ic a l s t r u ggle s.

The o b je ctiv es a n d m eth od s o f a n aly sis u se d in c rim in olo gy r e fle ct c erta in u n derly in g id ea s a n d c o n cern s o f th e w rit e r. In re a d in g c rim in olo gic a l m ate ria l, th en , it is im porta n t to e x am in e th e a ssu m ptio n s o f th e w rit e rs, th e k ey co n cep ts th ey u se , an d th e m eth od s o r arg u m en ts u se d to s u pport t h eir t h eo rie s, in o rd er t o id en tif y t h eir c o n cep tio n s o f s o cie ty a n d o f h um an n atu re , a n d 47 th e k in ds o f re fo rm s o r in st it u tio n s th ey u lt im ate ly su pport. It is a ls o im porta n t to id en tif y th e sile n ces in a p artic u la r t h eo ry o r t r a d it io n : t h at is , w hic h q u est io n s a re n ot b ein g a sk ed , a n d w hy not? F in ally , it is c ru cia l t o c o n sid er t h e s o cia l r e le v an ce o f t h e t h eo ry o r p ersp ectiv e. W hat d oes it te ll u s a b ou t o u r s o cie ty a n d t h e d ir e ctio n o u r s o cie ty i s o r o u gh t t o b e t a k in g? F un dam en ta lly , t h e st u d y o f c rim e in vo lv es th e v alu es a n d o p in io n s o f th e c rim in olo gis t , a n d th is is n o le ss tr u e o f ju ven ile j u st ic e t h an o f a n y o th er a re a o f c rim in olo gy.

CLA SSIC A L T H EO R Y A N D I N DIV ID U AL C H OIC E In th e c la ssic a l tr a d it io n , th e p u rp ose o f p u n is h m en t w it h in th e la w is to d ete r in div id uals fr o m im pin gin g u pon a n d v io la tin g o th ers’ r ig h ts a n d i n te re st s. A ll o f u s a s i n div id uals a re s e en t o h av e a n eq u al c a p acit y t o r e a so n , a n d h en ce a re d eem ed r e sp on sib le f o r o u r o w n a ctio n s. T he c la ssic a l v ie w i s th at t h ere is a c o n se n su s a m on g m em bers o f a s o cie ty r e g ard in g t h e d esir a b ili t y o f a s o cia l c o n tr a ct th at d en ote s t h e r e la tio n sh ip b etw een t h e s t a te a n d t h e in div id ual. S in ce in div id uals a re v ie w ed a s hav in g e q u al p ow er t o r e a so n a n d t o s u pport a r a tio n al s y st e m b ase d u pon r e a so n , t h en a n y l a w s a n d ru le s d ev elo p ed u n der s u ch a s y st e m a re s e en t o b e r e a so n ab le a n d b in din g f o r a ll ( th is is k n ow n a s th e s o cia l c o n tr a ct) . T hus, r u le i s b y c o n se n su s, w hic h i n t u rn i s r a tio n ally e st a b li s h ed . A n i n div id ual who e n gag es i n c rim e e it h er a cts i r ra tio n ally o r m ak es a b ad c h oic e.

Cla ssic is m l o ca te s t h e s o u rc e o f c rim in ali t y w it h in t h e r a tio n al, r e a so n in g i n div id ual, a n d s e es i t a s a m atte r o f c h oic e a n d in te n t o n t h e p art o f t h e o ffe n der. R ela te d t o t h is is t h e n otio n t h at e a ch in div id ual sh ou ld b e m ad e fa m ili a r w it h th e la w , a n d w it h it s p u n is h m en ts, in o rd er to m ak e a co rre ct c h oic e in t e rm s o f b eh av io u r. P un is h m en t is in te n ded t o d ete r in div id uals fr o m c h oosin g wro n gly in t h eir im med ia te a n d f u tu re a ctiv it ie s, t h ro u gh t h e t h re a t o f p ossib le p ain ( p en alt y ) ( se e dis c u ssio n o f s p ecif ic d ete rre n ce i n Chap te r 1 0 ). I n div id uals a re h eld r e sp on sib le f o r t h eir a ctio n s.

Cla ssic a l c rim in al p oli c y f o cu se s p rim arily o n t h e c rim in al a ct a n d s u ggest s e q u al p u n is h m en ts f o r eq u al crim es. A gain , th e em ph asis is o n eq u al tr e a tm en t b eca u se o f th e p re su m ptio n o f eq u al ra tio n ali t y a n d t h e n ecessit y f o r e q u ali t y in le g al p ro ceed in gs. T he p u n is h m en t is m ea n t t o f it t h e crim e. I t is a ssu m ed t h at, t h ro u gh p u n is h m en t, t h e o ffe n din g in div id ual w ill c o m e t o s e e o b ey in g th e l a w a s t h e m ost r a tio n al o f c h oic es. F or t h e s a k e o f e q u ali t y , i t i s t h ou gh t t h at p en alt ie s s h ou ld b e fix ed p rio r t o s e n te n cin g, a n d b e a d m in is t e re d in a cco rd an ce w it h t h e a ctu al o ffe n ce t h at h as b een co m mit te d , r a th er t h an w it h a n y p rio r o ffe n ces, o r a s a r e su lt o f s p ecu la tio n r e g ard in g t h e o ffe n der’s possib le f u tu re o ffe n ces.

The cla ssic a l sc h ool o f crim in olo gy em ph asis e s ch oic e, re sp on sib ili t y , an d in te n t. T his is a volu n ta ris t ic c o n cep tio n o f c rim e, w hic h lo ca te s t h e r e a so n s fo r c rim e w it h in t h e in div id ual s o cia l acto r. It st r e sse s eq u ali t y b efo re th e la w , an d eq u ali t y in p eo p le ’s ca p acit y to re a so n an d m ak e ch oic es. C rim e is s e en a s a v io la tio n o f t h e le g al c o n se n su s, w hic h it se lf is s e en t o r e fle ct t h e s o cia l co n tr a ct. T he l a w i s s e en a s n eed in g t o b e c o d if ie d , n eu tr a l, a n d i m partia l, a n d p u n is h m en t i s s e en a s in te n ded to d ete r in div id uals acco rd in g to p le a su re – pain p rin cip le s. T he m ain st r e ss is o n th e crim in al a ct, a n d t h e e q u al a n d s y st e m atic a p pli c a tio n o f l a w s i n r e la tio n t o t h is a ct.

The rig h t- w in g li b er ta ria n p ersp ectiv e is a m od ern v ersio n o f t h e c la ssic a l a p pro ach . I t is b ase d upon a m ora l p h ilo so p h y o f e g o is m ( se lf is h n ess) , in w hic h t h e o n ly c o n st r a in t o n b eh av io u r is t h e duty n ot t o in it ia te f o rc e o ver o th ers. T he n otio n o f a c o m petit iv e e th os p erv ad es t h is p ersp ectiv e.

This is u su ally t ie d t o t h e id ea o f r ig h ts t o p riv ate p ro p erty a s b ein g t h e f ir st v ir tu e o f t h e le g al a n d crim in al ju st ic e sy st e m . A cco rd in gly , crim e is d efin ed in te rm s o f th e in fr in gem en t o f p riv ate pro p erty , in clu d in g in fr in gem en ts o f o n e’s p h ysic a l s e lf . S in ce t h is p ersp ectiv e c o n ceiv es o f h um an 48 natu re a s b ein g p osse ssiv e a n d in div id uali s t ic — an d c o n ceiv es o f c rim e m ain ly in t e rm s o f p riv ate pro p erty — th e ro le o f th e st a te is se en a s b ein g re st r ic te d to th ose in st a n ces w here o th er p eo p le actu ally c o m e t o h arm t h ro u gh o n e’s s o cia l a ctio n s ( se e T am e 1 991). S o -c a lle d ‘ v ic tim le ss c rim es’ a re th ere fo re s e en a s n eed in g t o b e d ecrim in ali s e d in so fa r a s t h ey d o n ot d ir e ctly a ffe ct t h ose b ey o n d on ese lf . I n o th er w ord s, ‘a n yth in g g o es’ in t h is p ersp ectiv e: p eo p le s h ou ld h av e c o m ple te li b erty t o do a s t h ey w ill, a s l o n g a s t h ey d o n ot i n fr in ge u pon t h e p ro p erty o f o th ers i n a n i lle g al w ay .

Fro m th e p oin t o f v ie w o f ra tio n al ch oic e th eo ry , w e n eed to a ssu m e th at m ost ‘c rim in als ’ a re ra tio n al ag en ts w ho ca n b e d ete rre d fr o m co m mit tin g ad dit io n al crim es b y an in cre a se in th e pu n is h m en t t h ey m ig h t e x p ect t o r e ceiv e ( B uch an an & H artle y 1 992). A cco rd in g t o t h e a d vo ca te s of t h is a p pro ach , t h e m ost e co n om ic a lly e ffic ie n t w ay t o m an ag e t h e c rim e p ro b le m is t o p riv atis e in st it u tio n s s u ch a s p ris o n s, a n d t o i n cre a se t h e p ro b ab ili t y o f d ete ctio n a n d c o n vic tio n o f o ffe n ders.

The b ro ad p h ilo so p h ic a l o rie n ta tio n o f r a tio n al c h oic e t h eo ry i s a ls o c lo se ly r e la te d t o t h e a d op tio n of p re v en tio n t e ch n iq u es d ir e cte d p rim arily a t r e d ucin g o p portu n it ie s f o r c rim e ( se e F els o n 1 994), ra th er t h an a t t h e s t r u ctu ra l r e a so n s f o r o ffe n din g b eh av io u r o r t h e c rim in ali s a tio n p ro cess i t se lf .

The tr a d it io n al c o n se r v a tiv e p ersp ectiv e t a k es a b ro ad er v ie w t h an t h e r ig h t-w in g li b erta ria n o f what c o n st it u te s a c rim e. T he c o n se rv ativ e v ie w o f c rim e in clu d es n ot o n ly th at a ctiv it y w hic h en dan gers p ro p erty o r t h e p erso n , b u t a ls o m ora li t y . H en ce, a tta ck s o n c erta in tr a d it io n al v alu es a n d peo p le ’s r e sp ect f o r a u th orit y g en era lly m ay b e l i n ked t o c rim in ali t y . F ro m t h is p oin t o f v ie w , c rim e is n ot o n ly a m atte r o f fr e e c h oic e: it is a ls o li n ked to c erta in in tr in sic a sp ects o f h um an it y . In partic u la r, p eo p le a re s e en a s p osse ssin g c erta in ‘n atu ra l u rg es’ t h at g o a g ain st t h e m ore c iv ili s e d o r div in e p u rp ose s o f s o cie ty . I n o rd er t o c o n st r a in t h ese u rg es, i t i s f e lt n ecessa ry t o e st a b li s h a s t r o n g ord er b ase d u pon p erso n al sa crif ic e, se lf -d is c ip li n e, an d su bm is sio n to au th orit y (T am e 1 991).

Ord er m ust ta k e p re ced en ce o ver all els e , in clu d in g ju st ic e. C rim e is sa id to b e ca u se d b y th e un w illi n gn ess o f p eo p le to a ccep t d is c ip li n e, b y th e u n derm in in g o f tr a d it io n al lo yalt ie s su ch a s lo yalt y t o t h e ( p atr ia rc h al) f a m ily , a n d b y t h e p u rsu it o f i m med ia te i n div id ual g ra tif ic a tio n w it h ou t ap pro p ria te h ard w ork .

Acco rd in g to th is a p pro ach , p u n is h m en t is a n e sse n tia l p art o f d ete rre n ce n ot o n ly b eca u se it est a b li s h es p erso n al r e sp on sib ili t y f o r o n e’s a ctio n s, b u t a ls o b eca u se p u n is h m en t h as a n im porta n t sy m boli c i m pact o n s o cie ty a s a w hole ( se e d is c u ssio n o f g en era l d ete rre n ce i n Chap te r 1 0 ). T hat i s , pu n is h m en t is se en in te rm s of it s effe ct on th e est a b li s h m en t of m ora l so li d arit y th ro u gh st ig m atis a tio n . S tr o n g e m ph asis is p la ced u pon t h e im porta n ce o f m ora li t y in t h e m ain te n an ce o f so cia l a u th orit y ; th us, so m eo n e w ho d oes so m eth in g d eem ed to b e w ro n g o r h arm fu l m ust b e pu n is h ed sw if t ly an d ap pro p ria te ly in o rd er to se t th e m ora l st a n dard . U nli k e th e li b erta ria n persp ectiv e, th e c o n se rv ativ e p oin t o f v ie w o ft e n fa v o u rs in cre a se d st a te in te rv en tio n in e v ery d ay so cia l l i f e b eca u se i t i s f e lt t h at o n ly s t r o n g c o erc iv e m ea su re s w ill u lt im ate ly k eep p eo p le i n l i n e a n d te a ch t h em t h e d is c ip li n e t h ey r e q u ir e t o l i v e a s m em bers o f a c iv ili s e d c o m mun it y .

The o verrid in g m essa g e o f t h ese t h eo rie s i s t h at t h ere i s a n eed t o ‘ g et t o u gh o n c rim in als ’, t o h old th em r e sp on sib le fo r t h eir a ctio n s, a n d t o p u n is h w ro n gd oers in a c o n sis t e n t m an ner s o t h ey g et th eir ‘j u st d ese rts’. P eo p le m ak e c h oic es, a n d a cco rd in g to th ese th eo rie s th ey m ust p ay fo r th ese ch oic es. I n a n utsh ell, t h e a rg u m en t is t h at if y o u ‘d o t h e c rim e’, t h en y o u m ust ‘d o t h e t im e’. B ut sh ou ld t h ese p rin cip le s a ls o a p ply t o j u ven ile o ffe n ders?

The m ain p ro b le m o f cla ssic a l th eo ry a n d it s v aria n ts is th at th ey te n d to ig n ore in div id ual dif fe re n ces am on g crim in al acto rs. T hey assu m e th at ev ery o n e is a ra tio n al acto r ca p ab le of ex erc is in g f r e e c h oic e. P ra ctic a lly s p ea k in g, h ow ev er, i t h as l o n g b een r e co gn is e d t h at s o m e c a te g o rie s of p eo p le — th e a g ed , t h e y o u n g, p eo p le w it h a m en ta l i lln ess o r i n te lle ctu al d is a b ili t y — do n ot h av e 49 th e sa m e c a p acit ie s a s o th ers. T hus, a cco rd in g to th e ‘t h eo re tic a l c o m pro m is e ’ (H op kin s B urk e 2008:8 9) o f n eo cla ssic is m , th ey a re sin gle d o u t a s p osse ssin g d im in is h ed re sp on sib ili t y fo r th eir actio n s. W it h in th e ju ven ile ju st ic e a re a , th ese c o n sid era tio n s a re e v id en t; fo r e x am ple , in le g al doctr in e p erta in in g t o t h e a g e o f c rim in al r e sp on sib ili t y , a n d doli i n ca pa x , b oth o f w hic h r e la te t o co m pete n cy a n d re sp on sib ili t y (se e Chap te r 1 0 ). A k ey te n sio n w it h in th e c la ssic a l tr a d it io n is wheth er to em ph asis e fu ll crim in al re sp on sib ili t y on th e part of ju ven ile s, or w heth er to ack n ow le d ge d if fe re n t c a p acit ie s d ep en din g u pon a g e.

More g en era lly , c la ssic is m h as b een c rit ic is e d f o r a ssu m in g e q u ali t y f o r a ll w hen t h is i s c le a rly n ot th e c a se in a s o cie ty r iv en b y d eep s o cia l d iv is io n s a n d in eq u ali t ie s ( Y ou n g 1 981). L oca tin g c rim e ca u sa tio n w it h in t h e in div id ual ( b y w ay o f t h eir s u ppose d e x erc is e o f fr e e w ill o r c h oic e) h as a ls o been c rit ic is e d b y a n oth er s c h ool o f c rim in olo gy, n am ely , t h e p osit iv is t s.

PO SIT IV IS M A N D I N DIV ID U AL C R IM IN AL B EH AVIO U R In c o n tr a st t o c la ssic a l t h in kin g, t h e h allm ark o f p osit iv is m is t h at b eh av io u r is dete r m in ed , in t h e se n se th at in div id ual beh av io u r is sh ap ed by fa cto rs su ch as ph ysio lo gy, perso n ali t y , so cia l upbrin gin g, a n d s o o n . P osit iv is m f u rth er a sse rts t h at o ffe n ders v ary , t h at i n div id ual d if fe re n ces e x is t am on g o ffe n ders, a n d t h at t h ese in t u rn m ust b e a ck n ow le d ged a n d c la ssif ie d o r m ea su re d in s o m e way . T he f o cu s is o n in div id uals , w ho a re s e en t o r e q u ir e t r e a tm en t, s in ce t h ey a re n ot n ecessa rily re sp on sib le fo r t h eir c rim in ali t y . T hus, p osit iv is t s c o n cen tr a te o n t h e o ffe n der a n d t h e o ffe n der’s ch ara cte ris t ic s.

The p ra ctit io n er’s ro le is se en to b e to id en tif y sp ecif ic d ete rm in in g fa cto rs w it h re g ard to a partic u la r o ffe n der, a n d t h en t o t r e a t t h e o ffe n der o r c o rre ct t h e p ro b le m i n s o m e w ay . T his t y p e o f re a so n in g p la ces a lo t o f p ow er in t h e h an ds o f t h e ‘e x p ert’ w hose jo b it is t o d ia g n ose , c la ssif y , a n d ult im ate ly p re sc rib e t r e a tm en t f o r t h e i n div id ual. A c en tr a l i d ea o f p osit iv is m i s t h at w hen a p erso n is s e n te n ced , t h ey a re s e n te n ced t o r e ceiv e h elp . T he i d ea i s t o t r e a t t h e c rim in al, n ot t h e c rim e.

When i t c o m es t o t h e o p era tio n o f t h e c rim in al j u st ic e s y st e m , t h e p osit iv is t c o n cep t o f t r e a tm en t dif fe rs fr o m th e cla ssic a l em ph asis o n p u n is h m en t. F or ex am ple , p osit iv is m tr a n sla te s in to an arg u m en t in fa v o u r o f in dete rm in ate se n te n ces; th e crim in al act is d ow npla y ed in fa v o u r o f co n cen tr a tio n o n th e o ffe n der. S in ce e a ch o ffe n der is a n in div id ual, a n d d if fe re n t fr o m a ll o th er offe n ders, t r e a tm en t m ust b e in div id uali s e d . T he le n gth o f s e n te n ce in c u st o d y t h ere fo re d ep en ds upon t h e d ia g n osis a n d c la ssif ic a tio n ( se v ere o r m in or p ro b le m ; d an gero u s o r n ot d an gero u s) r a th er th an s im ply t h e c o n te n t o f t h e c rim in al a ct t h at w as c o m mit te d . A s w e s a w i n Chap te r 1 , t h ese i d ea s hav e h ad p artic u la r a p pli c a tio n t o y o u n g p eo p le .

Posit iv is m is an o vera rc h in g p ersp ectiv e, an d th us w it h in th is gen era l o rie n ta tio n th ere are num ero u s d if fe re n t s t u d ie s a n d e x p la n atio n s ( se e W hit e , H ain es & A sq u it h 2 012; M cL au gh li n & New bu rn 2 010). T he t h re e m ain s t r a n ds o f p osit iv is m i n clu d e t h e b io lo gic a l, t h e p sy ch olo gic a l, a n d th e s o cio lo gic a l. A lt h ou gh p osit iv is m e m bra ces a d iv erse r a n ge o f id ea s, t e ch n iq u es, a n d c o n cep ts sp ecif ic t o p artic u la r d is c ip li n es, a c en tr a l p ro p osit io n is t h at a m ora l c o n se n su s e x is t s in s o cie ty in re la tio n t o w hat c o n st it u te s ‘ d ev ia n t’ a n d ‘ n orm al’ b eh av io u r.

Our in it ia l c o n cern is w it h p osit iv is t a p pro ach es th at se e b eh av io u ra l p ro b le m s in te rm s o f a n in div id ual p ath olo gy o r d efic ie n cy . T hese a p pro ach es c a n b e su m maris e d in te rm s o f th re e m ain te n den cie s i n r e se a rc h , t h ose t h at fo cu s o n b io lo gic a l f a cto rs 50 co n cen tr a te o n p sy ch olo gic a l f a cto rs pre se n t b io so cia l e x p la n atio n s f o r c rim e.

There a re t w o b ro ad s t r a n ds w it h in t h e bio lo gic a l e x p la n ato ry fr a m ew ork . O ne a rg u es th at, in esse n ce, th e crim in al is ‘b orn ’. C rim in ali t y an d crim in al b eh av io u r are th us se en as p rim arily attr ib u ta b le to in herit e d p re d is p osit io n s. S o m e w rit e rs arg u e th at o u r g en etic mak e-u p d ir e ctly affe cts t h in gs s u ch a s o u r in te lle ct a n d o u r t e m pera m en ta l t r a it s, p u ttin g u s a t r is k o f e n gag in g in crim in al b eh av io u r ( se e F is h bein 1 990). D if fe re n t g en etic fa cto rs a re t h us s e en a s b ein g li n ked t o partic u la r b eh av io u ra l p atte rn s.

The o th er s t r a n d i n t h e b io lo gic a l e x p la n ato ry f r a m ew ork a rg u es t h at b io lo gic a l f a cto rs a re c ru cia l in d ete rm in in g b eh av io u r, b u t th at th ey m ay st e m fr o m th e e n vir o n m en t ra th er th an sim ply b e in herit e d . I n t h is f r a m ew ork , c rim in als a re mad e a s a r e su lt o f e n vir o n m en ta l f a cto rs t h at a ffe ct t h eir bio lo gic a l fu n ctio n in g. F or e x am ple , m uch w ork h as b een d on e o n h ow p sy ch op h arm aco lo gic a l in ducem en ts su ch as co ca in e, alc o h ol, PC P, an d am ph eta m in es in flu en ce beh av io u r, w it h su ggest io n s t h at t h ese k in ds o f e x te rn al fa cto rs p ro p el o r fa cili t a te t h ose u n der t h eir in flu en ce t o co m mit c rim es ( se e F is h bein 1 990). R ecen t r e se a rc h a ls o i n dic a te s t h at a cq u ir e d b ra in i n ju rie s ( su ch as o n e m ig h t a cq u ir e f r o m a c a r a ccid en t) c a n le a d t o c rim in al b eh av io u r, b y, f o r e x am ple , li m it in g in div id uals ’ c a p acit y t o r e g u la te im pu ls iv it y . O ne s t u d y f o u n d t h at t h e p re se n ce o f t r a u m atic b ra in in ju rie s a m on g p ris o n ers i s m ore t h an t w ic e t h at o f t h e g en era l p op u la tio n i n t h e U SA ( R ay , S ap p & Kin ca id 2 014). I n s u ch c a se s, i t i s s e en a s b ro ad ly p ossib le f o r s o m e k in d o f b io lo gic a l ‘c o rre ctiv e’ t o be d ev elo p ed t o p re v en t c rim in al b eh av io u r o ccu rrin g, t h is c o rre ctiv e t a k in g t h e f o rm o f r e m ovin g th e s o u rc e o f t h e p ro b le m ( su ch a s r e m ovin g le a d f r o m o n e’s li v in g e n vir o n m en t, b an nin g a lc o h ol sa le s) o r r e g u la tin g t h e b io ch em ic a l a n d p h ysio lo gic a l o p era tio n s o f t h e b od y t h ro u gh a p pro p ria te tr e a tm en t ( su ch a s d ru gs t h at r e st o re h orm on al e q u ili b riu m o r e n su re a r e g u la r h ea rt r a te ).

Psy ch olo gic a l e x p la n atio n s o f c rim e a re b ase d u pon a n aly se s o f v ario u s p erso n ali t y o r b eh av io u ra l tr a it s t h at p ro p el s o m e p eo p le in to c o m mit tin g c rim e. T his a p pro ach s e es s u ch p eo p le a s p erh ap s la ck in g so m e k in d o f in te rn al r e g u la to ry se lf -c o n tr o l, o r p osit s t h at p atte rn s o f e a rly so cia li s a tio n may h av e n eg ativ ely a ffe cte d s o cia l d ev elo p m en t. P sy ch olo gic a l a p pro ach es i n clu d e t h ose t h at f o cu s on ‘p erso n ali t y ty p es’ (se e F arrin gto n 1 996) a n d th at p re se n t ty p olo gie s o f a b n orm ali t ie s in th e psy ch olo gic a l st r u ctu re of in div id uals (fo r ex am ple ‘o ver-a g gre ssiv e’, ‘h ig h ly st r u n g’) . Su ch ap pro ach es o ft e n se e th e fo rm atio n o f p artic u la r p erso n ali t y ty p es a s li n ked to c erta in b io lo gic a l pre d is p osit io n s a s w ell a s d ev elo p m en ta l e x p erie n ces. A noth er k in d o f a p pro ach , t h e psy ch oa n aly tic , tu rn s a tte n tio n t o t h e u n co n sc io u s m in d a n d t h e w ay in w hic h e x p erie n ce s h ap es a n d is s h ap ed b y pro cesse s b ey o n d t h ose c o n sc io u sly a p pare n t t o t h e s u bje ct ( se e G ib bon s 1 977).

The psy ch ia tr ic th eo ry o f d ev ia n t b eh avio u r is b ase d o n th e a ssu m ptio n th at c erta in c h ild h ood ex p erie n ces h av e a n e ffe ct t h at t r a n sc en ds a ll o th er s o cia l a n d c u lt u ra l e x p erie n ces ( C li n ard 1 974).

Su ch e x p la n atio n s a d op t a m ed ic a l m od el in w hic h d ev ia n cy o r c rim in ali t y is s e en t o r e sid e w it h in th e m ala d ju st e d in div id ual. A ll h um an b ein gs a re s e en a s h av in g in herit e d u n iv ersa l n eed s, s u ch a s th e n eed f o r e m otio n al s e cu rit y . I t is t h ou gh t t h at if s u ch n eed s a re u n m et d urin g c h ild h ood , t h en partic u la r p erso n ali t y p atte rn s fo rm in la te r li f e , re su lt in g esp ecia lly in th ose p erso n ali t y ty p es asso cia te d w it h d ev ia n t o r c rim in al b eh av io u r. F am ily e x p erie n ces a re t h us s e en a s d ete rm in in g l a te r beh av io u r, w it h th e d ev elo p m en t o f c erta in b eh av io u rs b ein g v ie w ed a s a n in div id ual’s m ea n s o f dea li n g w it h p artic u la r p erso n al tr a it s su ch a s a g gre ssiv en ess, e m otio n al in se cu rit y , o r fe eli n gs o f in ad eq u acy ( th ese h av in g b een g en era te d b y u n m et n eed s i n c h ild h ood ).

More s o p h is t ic a te d b io lo gic a l a n d p sy ch olo gic a l a cco u n ts o f c rim in ali t y a ccep t t h at b eh av io u r is 51 su bje ct t o b io lo gic a l an d e n vir o n m en ta l i n flu en ces. T hese a re r e fe rre d t o a s bio so cia l a p pro ach es, a n d th ey c h ara cte ris t ic a lly v ie w b eh av io u r a s t h e p ro d uct o f n atu re p lu s n urtu re , r a th er t h an o n e o r t h e oth er. P ro p on en ts o f t h is p ersp ectiv e a rg u e t h at h um an b ein gs h av e a ‘c o n dit io n al f r e e w ill’; t h at i s , in div id ual c h oic e w it h in a s e t, y et t o s o m e d eg re e c h an gea b le , r a n ge o f p ossib ili t ie s ( F is h bein 1 990).

For e x am ple , E yse n ck ( 1 984) p u t f o rw ard t h e a rg u m en t t h at b eh av io u r c a n b e e x p la in ed a s r e su lt in g fr o m a c o m bin atio n o f b io lo gic a l a n d e n vir o n m en ta l in flu en ces. H is s t u d y a n aly se d c rim e in t e rm s of t w o b ro ad p ro cesse s o f d ev elo p m en t:

The diffe r en tia l a b ili t y t o b e c o n dit io n ed , w here in g en etic i n herit a n ce a ffe cts o n e’s a b ili t y t o b e co n dit io n ed — th at is , th e se n sit iv it y o f th e au to n om ic n erv o u s sy st e m in div id uals in herit dete rm in es w heth er e a ch in div id ual is a n e x tr o vert o r a n in tr o vert, a n d t h us h ow w ell e a ch is ab le t o b e c o n dit io n ed i n s o cie ty .

The diffe r en tia l q u ali t y o f c o n dit io n in g , w here b y fa m ily c o n dit io n in g m ak es u se o f a r a n ge o f te ch n iq u es, s o m e o f w hic h a re m ore e ffic a cio u s t h an o th ers. T he w ay i n w hic h a c h ild i s r e a re d th ere fo re h as a n i m pact o n t h e c h ild ’s s u bse q u en t b eh av io u r.

The b io so cia l a rg u m en t i s t h at a c o m bin atio n o f b io lo gic a l p ote n tia ls s e t t h ro u gh i n herit a n ce a n d in te ra ctin g w it h en vir o n m en ta l p ote n tia ls sh ap ed b y p are n tin g p ra ctic es d ete rm in e th e o vera ll pro p en sit y t o c o m mit c rim e. H um an b eh av io u r t h us c o n ta in s a b io lo gic a l a n d a s o cia l e le m en t ( se e, fo r e x am ple , M offit t 1 996). L ussie r a n d c o lle a g u es ( 2 011) s t u d ie d t h e im pacts o f a n um ber o f p re - an d p erin ata l fa cto rs (su ch as m ate rn al su bst a n ce m is u se ) o n b eh av io u r am on g ch ild re n an d ad ole sc en ts. They fo u n d th at yo u n g peo p le ex p ose d to m ate rn al su bst a n ce m is u se an d co m pli c a tio n s in u te r o w ere m ore li k ely to d em on st r a te in cre a se d p h ysic a l a g gre ssio n a n d se x u al beh av io u r. T hey c o n clu d ed t h at t h e e ffe cts o f p re g n an cy -r e la te d c o m pli c a tio n s a re l i k ely t o i n te ra ct wit h e n vir o n m en ta l f a cto rs: ‘a s t h ey a g e, p h ysic a lly a g gre ssiv e c h ild re n a re e x p ose d t o a n in cre a sin g num ber o f ris k fa cto rs (fa m ily in co m e, p are n ts’ c rim in ali t y , lo w er e d uca tio n al b ack gro u n d) th at may f a cili t a te t h e p ersis t e n ce o f a g gre ssio n ’ ( L ussie r e t a l. 2 011:5 6).

In s u m mary , t h e p osit iv is t p ersp ectiv e i n c rim in olo gy e m ph asis e s t h e r o le o f e x te rn al a n d i n te rn al dete rm in an ts o f c rim e a n d c rim in ali t y . P eo p le , it is a rg u ed , d o n ot c h oose t o e n gag e in d ev ia n t o r crim in al b eh av io u r; th ey are lo ck ed in to su ch b eh av io u r b y a w id e ra n ge o f b io lo gic a l an d/o r psy ch olo gic a l i n flu en ces b ey o n d t h eir i m med ia te c o n tr o l. T he p osit iv is t p osit io n s t r e sse s ‘i n div id ual dif fe re n ces’ a m on g p eo p le , a s w ell a s t h e n ecessit y t o p in poin t t h e m ain f a cto r o r f a cto rs t h at h av e giv en ris e to th e crim in ali t y . P in poin tin g of su ch fa cto rs is d on e th ro u gh te st in g, d ia g n osis , cla ssif ic a tio n , a n d t r e a tm en t, a ll o f w hic h c en tr e u pon i n div id ual t r a it s a n d n eed s a s p erc eiv ed b y t h e ‘e x p ert p ro fe ssio n al’.

One p ro b le m w it h in div id ual- f o cu se d p osit iv is m is t h at it p u ts a n in ord in ate a m ou n t o f p ow er in to t h e h an ds o f a f e w ‘e x p erts’ w ho m ay a rg u e f o r e v er-g re a te r l e v els o f i n te rv en tio n i n t h e l i v es o f cit iz en s g en era lly . F or e x am ple , i n o rd er t o d ea l a d eq u ate ly w it h t h e ‘p re d is p osit io n ’ t o c rim e ( b ase d upon b io lo gic a l o r p sy ch olo gic a l i n dic a to rs) , id ea lly i n te rv en tio n s h ou ld t a k e p la ce b efo re t h e c rim e or d ev ia n t a ct is a ctu ally c o m mit te d . H ow e a rly a re w e t o in te rv en e t o ‘c h an ge’ s o m eo n e? W ho is go in g to d o th is ? S h ou ld w e ‘t r e a t’ p eo p le w hen in fa ct n o c rim e o r la w bre a k in g h as o ccu rre d ?

Furth er q u est io n s c a n b e a sk ed re g ard in g w hose ‘n orm s’ a n d ‘v alu es’ w e a re to m ea su re p eo p le ’s beh av io u r a g ain st , t h e s o cia l i m pact o f a tte m ptin g t o m ou ld e a ch i n div id ual i n to p assiv e c o n fo rm it y , an d th e w ay in w hic h ra cis t a n d se x is t a ssu m ptio n s h av e b een b u ilt in to th e ‘s c ie n tif ic ’ st u d y o f bio lo gic a l d if fe re n ces, in te lli g en ce, an d so cia l b eh av io u r. A s se en in Chap te r 1 , m an y o f th ese co n cern s a n d q u est io n s h av e b een c en tr a l to th e h is t o ry o f ju ven ile ju st ic e in st it u tio n s a n d th e 52 dev elo p m en t o f t h e i d ea o f j u ven ile d eli n qu en cy .

Both th e c la ssic a l a n d th e p osit iv is t a p pro ach es lo ca te c rim e in te rm s o f in div id ual a ttr ib u te s, wheth er w it h r e sp ect t o ‘r a tio n ali t y ’ o r ‘p ath olo gy’. T he ‘r e m ed y’ in e a ch c a se is t o d ea l w it h t h e in div id ual d ir e ctly — eit h er t o c o erc e t h e in div id ual b ack in to r a tio n al d ecis io n -m ak in g, o r t o c u re th e in div id ual o f a p re d is p osin g te n den cy to c o m mit d ev ia n t a cts. I n th e e n d, th e o b je ctiv e is to re in te g ra te t h e o ffe n der i n to t h e m ain st r e a m o f s o cie ty b y c h an gin g t h e o ffe n der t h em se lf . T his c a n be a ch ie v ed e it h er th ro u gh th e th re a t a n d e x p erie n ce o f p u n is h m en t, o r b y th e in te rv en tio n o f ex p ert a ssis t a n ce t o r e so cia li s e a n d r e h ab ili t a te t h e i n div id ual.

SO CIO LO G IC A L T H EO R IE S Rath er th an re d uce d ev ia n t o r crim in al b eh av io u r so le ly to th e in div id ual le v el, a so cio lo gic a l per sp ectiv e a rg u es t h at, i n o rd er t o u n derst a n d t h e n atu re a n d o ccu rre n ce o f c rim e, w e n eed t o lo ok at t h e s t r u ctu re o f t h e s o cie ty t h at m ou ld s a n d s h ap es c u lt u re a n d b eh av io u r. I n div id ual a ctio n is th us a ttr ib u ta b le t o s o cia l c a u se s, a n d c rim e c a n b e s e en a s a m atte r o f s o cia l p ath olo gy. S o cio lo gis t s an d crim in olo gis t s are b oth co n cern ed w it h co n nectin g w id er sit u atio n al fa cto rs (fo r ex am ple im med ia te op portu n it ie s, sp ecif ic peer gro u ps) an d so cia l st r u ctu ra l fa cto rs (fo r ex am ple em plo ym en t a n d e d uca tio n al p atte rn s) w it h c rim in al a ctiv it y . C rim e is s e en a s e sse n tia lly a s o cia l ph en om en on th at c a n not b e r e d uced to p erso n al p sy ch olo gy o r in div id ual b io lo gy. I n o n e se n se , th en , th e im pu ls e to c o m mit c rim e is se en a s ‘n orm al’ a n d is so cia lly in duced . T he ‘c rim in al’ o r ‘d eli n qu en t’ i s t h us a p ro d uct o f a s p ecif ic k in d o f s o cia l o rd er.

STR AIN T H EO R IE S The u n derly in g t h em e o f m an y s o cio lo gic a l t h eo rie s is t h at c rim e is d ue t o s o cia l d is ju n ctu re s o r so cia l s t r a in s w it h in a s o cie ty . T he s t r a in s o r s o u rc es o f t e n sio n a re t h ou gh t t o b e g en era te d b y t h e so cie ty i t se lf : t h ey d o n ot r e sid e w it h in t h e i n div id ual ( a s i n t h e c a se , f o r e x am ple , o f a p erso n f e eli n g st r a in ed o r p re ssu re d b y cir c u m st a n ce). T he ca u se o f crim e is se en as b ein g lo ca te d in so cia l st r u ctu re s a n d/o r so cia l v alu es th at in so m e w ay a re u n fa ir o r so cia lly p ath olo gic a l. T o d ea l w it h crim e, t h ere fo re , r e q u ir e s s t r a te g ie s a n d p oli c ie s t h at a re p it c h ed a t i n st it u tio n al r e fo rm r a th er t h an so le ly a t c h an gin g o r m od if y in g t h e i n div id ual i n s o m e w ay .

By an d la rg e, st r a in th eo rie s se e crim e as so m eth in g li n ked to st r a in s betw een ‘s t r u ctu ra l op portu n it ie s’ a n d ‘c u lt u ra l p ro cesse s’. D ecis io n s a re m ad e b y p eo p le in t h e c o n te x t o f w heth er o r not t h ey h av e t h e m ea n s o r o p portu n it ie s t o a ch ie v e t h eir g o als r e la tiv e t o o th er p eo p le in s o cie ty , an d w heth er th ro u gh so cia l cir c u m st a n ce th ey asso cia te w it h o th ers w ho sh are th eir id ea s an d cu lt u ra l u n derst a n din gs r e g ard in g a ccep ta b le a n d u n accep ta b le b eh av io u r. T he k ey s o cia l c o n fli c t i n th is p ersp ectiv e is t h at a ris in g f r o m a d is ju n ctu re b etw een s o cia l m ea n s a n d c u lt u ra l e n ds. D ev ia n t beh av io u r is v ie w ed a s a m ea n in gfu l a tte m pt t o s o lv e p ro b le m s f a ce d b y g ro u ps o f in div id uals w ho are l o ca te d i n p artic u la r d is a d van ta g ed p osit io n s w it h in t h e s o cia l s t r u ctu re .

SO CIA L D IS O R GAN IS A TIO N T H EO R IE S There are se v era l d if fe re n t st r a n ds o f th ou gh t w it h in st r a in th eo ry . So m e o f th ese fo cu s o n op portu n it y s t r u ctu re s r e la tin g t o e d uca tio n a n d p aid w ork ; o th ers c o n cen tr a te o n p eer n etw ork s an d t h e l e a rn in g o f p artic u la r n orm s a n d v alu es. O ne o f t h e e a rli e st f o rm ula tio n s o f s t r a in t h eo ry i s th at w hic h ex am in ed crim e in te rm s o f so cia l d is o rg a n is a tio n . A ls o k n ow n as a ‘s o cia l eco lo gy’ 53 persp ectiv e, th is k in d o f a p pro ach a tte m pts to li n k th e n atu re a n d e x te n t o f c rim e w it h sp ecif ic so cia l p ro cesse s a sso cia te d w it h u rb an l i f e . S h aw a n d M cK ay ( 1 942), f o r e x am ple , e x am in ed t h e w ay s in w hic h s u ccessiv e w av es o f i m mig ra n ts m oved i n to i n ner-c it y n eig h bou rh ood s o f t h e u rb an s p atia l grid , a n d t h en g ra d ually m oved t o t h e o u te r a re a s. T his p ro cess o f u rb an s e ttle m en t a n d t r a n sit io n was se en to pro d uce te n sio n s an d ch ao s; it w as ch ara cte ris e d by a hig h deg re e of so cia l dis o rg an is a tio n . A gain st th is b ack d ro p , S h aw a n d M cK ay e x am in ed th e li f e h is t o rie s o f ju ven ile offe n ders, c o m in g t o t h e c o n clu sio n t h at ju ven ile o ffe n din g is in tim ate ly li n ked t o t h e t r a n sit io n al pro cesse s o f s o cia l c h an ge. T hey a rg u ed t h at d eli n qu en cy c a n b e v ie w ed a s p art o f t h e n atu ra l s o cia l pro cess o f s e ttli n g in e x p erie n ced b y n ew im mig ra n ts. S p ecif ic a lly , t h ese c o m mun it ie s w ere s e en t o ex h ib it a h ig h d eg re e o f so cia l d is o rg an is a tio n . C ust o m ary so cia l n orm s th at u su ally p ro d uce co n fo rm in g b eh av io u r w ere o ft e n in ap pli c a b le o r in a p pare n t c o n fli c t w it h t h e n orm s o f t h e n ew so cie ty . T he n ew im mig ra n ts w ere r a re ly in te g ra te d in to t h e w id er s o cia l, e co n om ic , a n d p oli t ic a l sy st e m s. Q uest io n s o f la n gu ag e, e d uca tio n , w ork sk ills , a n d so cia l n etw ork s a ll c a m e in to p la y in sh ap in g t h e l i f e a ffa ir s o f i n div id uals a n d i m mig ra n t c o m mun it ie s.

OPPO R TU N IT Y T H EO R IE S The im porta n ce o f a n aly sin g so cia l v alu es a n d so cia l st r u ctu re s is a p artic u la rly st r o n g fe a tu re o f op portu n it y t h eo rie s . A cco rd in g t o M erto n ( 1 957), f o r e x am ple , m ali n te g ra tio n o ccu rs w here t h ere i s a d is p ro p ortio n ate b ala n ce o r d is ju n ctu re b etw een t h e c u lt u ra lly d efin ed g o als o f a s o cie ty a n d t h e in st it u tio n ali s e d m ea n s w here b y t h ese g o als c a n b e a ch ie v ed . H e a rg u ed t h at a ll i n div id uals s h are t h e sa m e c u lt u ra l g o al ( in t h is c a se , t h e ‘A m eric a n D re a m ’ o f fin an cia l s u ccess, fa m e, a n d s t a tu s) , b u t th at t h ey h av e d if fe re n t o p portu n it ie s t o a ch ie v e s u ccess t h ro u gh t h e e st a b li s h ed in st it u tio n ali s e d mea n s ( su ch a s e d uca tio n ). T hat i s , i n a s o cie ty w here e m ph asis h as b een p la ced u pon c erta in v alu ed go als , b u t th e u n iv ersa l p ro vis io n o f a p pro p ria te m ea n s to a tta in th ese g o als h as b een n eg le cte d , mali n te g ra tio n i s i n ev it a b le .

Dep en din g u pon o n e’s lo ca tio n in t h e s o cia l s t r u ctu re , o n e c h oose s w heth er t o a ccep t o r r e je ct cu lt u ra lly d efin ed g o als , a n d w heth er t o a ccep t o r r e je ct t h e i n st it u tio n al m ea n s t o a tta in t h ese g o als .

The im porta n ce o f y o u th e m plo ym en t o p portu n it ie s is s t r e sse d t im e a n d a g ain a s b ein g a c ru cia l varia b le in th e c o n dit io n s th at g iv e r is e to v ary in g fo rm s o f y o u th c rim in ali t y ( A lla rd , O gilv ie & Ste w art 2 007; A ust r a li a n I n st it u te o f C rim in olo gy 2 012; Z ag ar, G ro ve & B usc h 2 013). T he i s su e o f th e l a ck o f i n div id ual o p portu n it y f o r e co n om ic a n d s o cia l a d van cem en t i s p artic u la rly p ertin en t i n a p erio d o f g en era li s e d h ig h u n em plo ym en t. F ro m th e p oin t o f v ie w o f p oli c y , th e o p portu n it y ap pro ach p la ces g re a t e m ph asis o n e n han cin g a n d d ev elo p in g m ore o p portu n it ie s f o r y o u n g p eo p le in t h e l a b ou r m ark et s o a s t o r e d uce i n cen tiv es t o c o m mit c rim e. T he k ey p oin t o f t h is p ersp ectiv e i s th at, u lt im ate ly , ‘s t r a in ’ o r co n fli c t is n ot se en to re sid e w it h in th e in div id ual, b u t w it h in th e st r u ctu re o f s o cie ty a n d it s in st it u tio n s. I t is t h us t h e t e n sio n s e x is t in g b etw een c u lt u ra l g o als a n d av aila b le m ea n s t h at p ro vid e t h e i m petu s f o r d if fe re n t t y p es o f i n div id ual a d ap ta tio n .

SO CIA L C O N TR OL T H EO R IE S The n otio n o f o p portu n it y a ls o p artia lly u n derli e s co n tr o l t h eo ry . H ere , h ow ev er, t h e is su e is n ot s o much t h e p re se n ce o r a b se n ce o f o p portu n it y , b u t t h e a ctu al u se o f o p portu n it y b y y o u n g p eo p le .

Con tr o l t h eo ry is p re m is e d u pon t h e id ea t h at it is a n in div id ual’s ‘b on d’ t o s o cie ty t h at m ak es t h e dif fe re n ce in te rm s o f w heth er o r n ot th ey a b id e b y so cie ty ’s g en era l r u le s a n d v alu es. F ro m th is persp ectiv e, a ll p eo p le a re in here n tly a n tis o cia l: t h us, a ll y o u n g p eo p le w ou ld c o m mit c rim e if t h ey 54 dare d . I t is t h e n atu re o f t h e b on d t h at c h ild re n h av e w it h t h eir s o cie ty t h at u lt im ate ly d ete rm in es th eir b eh av io u r ( E m pey 1 982; N ettle r 1 984). H ir sc h i ( 1 969) t h eo ris e d t h at t h e s o cia l b on d i s m ad e up o f t h e f o llo w in g f o u r m ajo r e le m en ts:

atta ch m en t —th e tie s o f affe ctio n an d re sp ect to sig n if ic a n t o th ers in o n e’s li f e , an d m ore gen era lly a s e n sit iv it y t o t h e o p in io n o f o th ers co m mit m en t —th e in vest m en t o f tim e an d en erg y in activ it ie s su ch as sc h ool an d v ario u s co n ven tio n al a n d u n co n ven tio n al m ea n s a n d g o als in volv em en t —th e p atte rn s o f li v in g th at sh ap e im med ia te a n d lo n g-t e rm o p portu n it ie s, fo r ex am ple th e id ea th at k eep in g b u sy d oin g c o n ven tio n al th in gs w ill re d uce th e e x p osu re o f yo u n g p eo p le t o i lle g al o p portu n it ie s beli e f —th e d eg re e t o w hic h y o u n g p eo p le a g re e w it h t h e r ig h tn ess o f le g al r u le s, w hic h a re in tu rn s e en t o r e fle ct a g en era l m ora l c o n se n su s i n s o cie ty .

Con tr o l t h eo ry p osit s t h at it is t h e c o m bin atio n o f a tta ch m en t, c o m mit m en t, in vo lv em en t, a n d beli e f t h at s h ap es t h e li f e w orld o f t h e y o u n g p erso n , a n d t h at e sse n tia lly d ic ta te s w heth er t h ey w ill ta k e a d van ta g e o f c o n ven tio n al m ea n s a n d g o als o f s o cia l a d van cem en t, o r w heth er t h ey w ill p u rsu e ille g al p ath w ay s t o s e lf -g ra tif ic a tio n .

In r e la te d w ork , G ottfr e d so n a n d H ir sc h i ( 1 990) a rg u e t h at t h e c en tr a l i s su e i n e x p la in in g c rim e is t h at o f se lf- c o n tr o l ; t h at is , p eo p le d if fe r in t h e e x te n t t o w hic h t h ey a re r e st r a in ed f r o m c rim in al acts. T his in tu rn is li n ked to th e q u est io n o f so cia l b on din g, an d esp ecia lly th e p ro b le m o f in effe ctiv e c h ild -r e a rin g. C on tr o l t h eo ry i n co rp ora te s e le m en ts o f c la ssic a l t h eo ry ( in i t s a ccep ta n ce of t h e i d ea t h at p eo p le a re b asic a lly s e lf -s e ek in g), b io so cia l p osit iv is m ( in i t s f o cu s o n t h e i m porta n ce of p ro p er ‘c o n dit io n in g’ o r t r a in in g o f t h e y o u n g), a n d s o cio lo gic a l p ersp ectiv es ( w hic h lo ok t o t h e natu re o f th e fa m ily a s a k ey v aria b le in th e d ev elo p m en t o f se lf -c o n tr o l) . T he th eo ry d oes n ot an aly se s p ecif ic s o cia l d iv is io n s s u ch a s c la ss, g en der, a n d e th n ic it y , b u t r e st s u pon a c o n cep tio n o f hum an n atu re t h at s e es a ll p eo p le a s e sse n tia lly d riv en b y t h e s a m e u n iv ersa l t e n den cy t o e n han ce th eir o w n p le a su re . G iv en t h is , t h e c ru cia l i s su e b eco m es h ow b est t o s o cia li s e a ll p eo p le t o c o n fo rm to so cie ty ’s valu es an d to en gag e in co n ven tio n al la w -a b id in g b eh av io u r. In p oli c y te rm s, th e ap pro ach ’s a n sw er t o ju ven ile c rim e li e s i n r e d re ssin g t h e d efe ctiv e s o cia l t r a in in g t h at c h ara cte ris e s offe n ders w ho h av e in s o m e w ay ‘l o st c o n tr o l’. I n o th er w ord s, t h e e m ph asis f r o m a p ra ctit io n er’s persp ectiv e i s t o r e a tta ch t h e y o u n g p eo p le t o s o m e k in d o f f a m ily , t o r e co m mit t h em t o l o n g-r a n ge co n ven tio n al g o als , t o in vo lv e t h em in s c h ool a n d o th er c o n st r u ctiv e a ctiv it ie s, a n d t o h av e t h em acq u ir e b eli e f i n t h e m ora li t y o f l a w ( E m pey 1 982:2 69).

Writ e rs h av e ex p lo re d th e im pact o f so cia l st r a in s as m an if e st e d in yo u th su bcu lt u re s an d in div id ual le a rn in g p ro cesse s. S u th erla n d an d C re ssy (1 974), fo r ex am ple , arg u e th at crim e is esse n tia lly c u lt u ra l i n n atu re , i n t h e s e n se t h at i t i s l e a rn t b eh av io u r. C rim e i s n ot s im ply d ete rm in ed by b io lo gic a l fa cto rs o r yo u th fu l ex p erie n ces o f la ck o f o p portu n it y . O ver a p erio d o f yea rs, Su th erla n d a n d C re ssy d ev elo p ed a th eo ry o f diffe r en tia l a sso cia tio n a s a m ea n s to e x p la in h ow crim in al b eh av io u r is le a rn t in in te ra ctio n s b etw een p eo p le . W hat is d if fe re n tia lly a sso cia te d is t h e beh av io u r, in t h at s o m e in div id uals w ill a sso cia te w it h t h e h old ers o f c rim in al n orm s, w hile o th ers will n ot.

The t h eo ry a rg u es t h at p eo p le le a rn t o d efin e a s it u atio n a n d t o d efin e t h eir c o n duct in r e la tio n to t h e l a w , a n d t h at t h is l e a rn in g t a k es p la ce w it h in s p ecif ic g ro u p c o n te x ts. O ne l e a rn s t o a sso cia te certa in c la sse s o f c o n duct, e it h er l e g al o r i lle g al, w it h t h e g ro u p’s a p pro val o r d is a p pro val. I f w e a re t o in te rv en e in y o u n g p eo p le ’s li v es t o s t o p t h em fr o m o ffe n din g, t h en , a cco rd in g t o t h is t h eo ry , w e 55 must a tte m pt t o c h an ge t h e w ay i n w hic h c erta in g ro u ps d efin e t h eir i m med ia te s it u atio n s a n d t h eir re la tio n sh ip t o l a w -a b id in g o r l a w bre a k in g b eh av io u r.

The id ea t h at d ecis io n s t o e n gag e in d ev ia n t o r c rim in al b eh av io u r a re c o lle ctiv e in n atu re h as been t h e s u bje ct o f t h ose w ho l o ok t o y o u th s u bcu lt u re s a s t h e s o u rc e o f t h e p ro b le m ( se e Box 2 .1 ).

Vario u s w rit e rs, fo r in st a n ce, h av e a rg u ed th at th e st r a in b etw een e n ds a n d m ea n s is r e fle cte d in sp ecif ic c la ss c u lt u re s. C oh en (1 955) a n d C lo w ard a n d O hli n (1 960) p oin t to th e e x is t e n ce o f work in g-c la ss w ay s o f d oin g th in gs, a n d w ork in g-c la ss c o n cep ts o f th e so cia l w orld . R ath er th an fo cu sin g on th e dis a p poin te d in div id ual w ho ad ap ts in vary in g w ay s to th e st r a in betw een op portu n it ie s a n d m ea n s t o a tta in d esir e d e n ds, t h ese p ersp ectiv es e m ph asis e t h at c rim e i s c o lle ctiv e beh av io u r. W heth er it b e a c o n fli c t b etw een m id dle -c la ss v alu es a n d w ork in g-c la ss v alu es, o r th e ad op tio n of ille g it im ate op portu n it y st r u ctu re s sp ecif ic a lly re la te d to on e’s cla ss back gro u n d, deli n qu en cy a n d c rim e a re s e en t o b e c o lle ctiv e p h en om en a. R ela te d t o t h is t y p e o f a n aly sis is t h e li t e ra tu re o n y o u th g an gs, a g ain w it h a n e m ph asis o n th e g ro u p n atu re o f y o u th o ffe n din g a n d an tis o cia l b eh av io u r ( se e Chap te r 7 f o r a n e x te n ded d is c u ssio n ).

The sp ecif ic re a so n s fo r c erta in ty p es o f c o lle ctiv e re sp on se to a g en era l sit u atio n o f b lo ck ed op portu n it y h av e b een se en to in clu d e la ck o f se lf -e st e em ( C oh en 1 955) a n d a se n se o f in ju st ic e (C lo w ard & O hli n 1 960). B ut o th ers ( M atz a 1 964; D ow nes 1 966) h av e a rg u ed t h at w ork in g-c la ss boys n eit h er r e je ct n or in vert t h e d om in an t c u lt u ra lly p re sc rib ed v alu es o f so cie ty . R ath er, y o u th su bcu lt u re s o ft e n s im ply a ccen tu ate p artic u la r ‘ s u bte rra n ea n v alu es’ t h at a re a p art o f n orm al s o cie ty (fo r e x am ple , r is k , a d ven tu re , f u n ), b u t s o m etim es t a k e t h em t o o f a r. I n t h e f a ce o f r e st r ic te d a ccess to o p portu n it y , t h e r e sp on se o f y o u n g p eo p le i s t o r e so rt t o a f o rm o f ‘m an ufa ctu re d e x cit e m en t’ o f th eir o w n ( M atz a 1 964; s e e a ls o H ay w ard 2 002; P re sd ee 2 001). F ro m a s o cio lo gic a l p ersp ectiv e, t h e an sw er t o c rim e b ein g l e a rn t b eh av io u r t h at o ft e n t a k es p la ce i n a s u bcu lt u ra l c o n te x t i s t o d is m an tle deli n qu en t s u bcu lt u re s a n d r e p la ce t h em w it h s o m eth in g m ore p osit iv e.

In su m mary , so cio lo gic a l th eo rie s ex am in e th e n atu re o f so cia l co n st r a in ts as th ey re la te to beh av io u r; t h at is , t h e d is ju n ctu re b etw een a sp ir a tio n s a n d o p portu n it ie s, a n d b etw een d om in an t valu es a n d s u bcu lt u re s. T hese k in ds o f d is ju n ctu re s p ro d uce f r ic tio n , f r u st r a tio n , a n d s t r a in , w hic h re su lt in c rim in al b eh av io u r. T he fo cu s o f su ch p ersp ectiv es te n ds to b e o n w ork in g-c la ss c rim e, partic u la rly s t r e et c rim e, a n d v ario u s o th er f o rm s o f a n tis o cia l b eh av io u r. S o cio lo gic a l t h eo rie s s ig n al a m ajo r sh if t a w ay fr o m a tte m pts to lo ca te th e c a u se s o f y o u th c rim e w it h in th e in div id ual, a n d to w ard s a n e x am in atio n o f t h e s o cia l s t r u ctu re . I t i s c la im ed t h at c rim e i s n ot a m atte r o f d is t u rb ed peo p le a ctin g o u t t h eir p erso n al p ath olo gie s; r a th er, c rim e is a c a se o f n orm al p eo p le c o p in g w it h ab n orm al o r u n eq u al s it u atio n s. T he p oli c y o p tio n s o f s o cio lo gic a l t h eo rie s in clu d e s u ch t h in gs a s en han cin g op portu n it ie s in ord er to overc o m e th e dis p arit y betw een en ds an d m ea n s, an d en co u ra g in g t h e d ev elo p m en t o f ‘h ea lt h y’ p eer n etw ork s a n d r e la tio n sh ip s. O n a p erso n al l e v el, t h is tr a n sla te s i n to t h e p ro vis io n o f t r a in in g, a n d e d uca tio n al, v o ca tio n al, a n d r e h ab ili t a tio n p ro gra m s.

BOX 2 .1   YO U TH S U BCU LTU RES: T H E J U GGALO S One yo u th s u bcu lt u re th at h as c o m e to m ed ia a n d la w e n fo rc e m en t a tte n tio n in re ce n t y e ars is th e ‘J u ggalo s’ (a n d ‘J u ggale tte s’) — fa n s o f th e D etr o it h ip -h op d u o In sa n e C lo w n P osse . W hil e a k ey ch ara cte ris tic o f th is su bcu lt u re is m em bers ’ ap peara n ce — Ju ggalo s t y p ic a lly p ain t t h eir f a ce s in b la ck -a n d-w hit e c lo w n m ak e-u p lik e th eir m usic a l id ols (s e e p h oto on th e fo llo w in g p ag e)— co m men ta to rs h ave arg u ed th at th e su bcu lt u re has been bu il t on th e fe elin gs of m arg in alis a tio n 56 exp erie n ce d b y m em bers . T h e s u bcu lt u re o f J u ggalo s a n d J u ggale tte s is t h ou gh t t o pro vid e a s e n se o f c u lt u ra l id en tit y a n d b elo n gin g t o y o u ng p eop le w ho f e el e xc lu ded fr o m t h e m ain str e am c o m munit y ( D etr ic k 2 014; R aft e ry 2 010).

Perh ap s d u e t o t h eir a p peara n ce — ‘[ t ]h ey c o ve r t h eir f a ce s in b la ck a n d w hit e p ain t an d w ear clo th in g an d je w elr y sta m ped w it h a h atc h et- w ie ld in g ca rto on fig u re ’ (D etr ic k 2 014:5 2)— Ju ggalo s h ave re p eate d ly c o m e to p olic e a tte n tio n in th e U SA (D etr ic k 2014; F udge 2014). A cco rd in g to th e N atio n al G an g In te llig en ce C en te r (2 011), J u ggalo s a re c la ssif ie d a s a g an g in s e ve ra l U S s ta te s, d esp it e o p posit io n t h at th ey d o n ot m eet t h e d efin it io n o f a g an g ( F udge 2 014).

Con ce rn s w ere ra is e d in 2 010 a b ou t th e in vo lv e m en t o f A ustr a lia n J u ggalo s in crim e, a ft e r a w om an w as r o b bed in W este rn S yd n ey b y th re e y o u ng m en w earin g clo w n m ak e-u p. T h ese c o n ce rn s, h ow eve r, h ave b een l a rg ely d is m is se d .

Th is e p is o d e o f Med ia W atc h d em on str a te s t h e w ay in w hic h y o u th s u bcu lt u re s c a n be portr a ye d as gan gs in th e main str e am med ia :

< http :/ /w ww.a b c.n et.a u /m ed ia w atc h /tr a n scrip ts /s 2 977987.h tm >.

On A ustr a lia n y o u th s u bcu lt u re s g en era lly , s e e B ak er, R ob ard & B uttig ie g (2 015) an d W hit e ( 2 012a ).

LA B ELLIN G P ER SP EC TIV E S Lab elli n g t h eo rie s a re c lo se ly a sso cia te d w it h t h e in te r a ctio n is t t h eo rie s, w hic h a rg u e t h at t h e s o cia l world is a ctiv ely m ad e b y h um an b ein gs in th eir e v ery d ay in te ra ctio n s ( se e B erg er & L uck m an n 1971). S u ch p ersp ectiv es c h alle n ge t h e n otio n t h at t h e w orld a n d c rim e a re o b je ctiv ely g iv en , i n st e a d arg u in g th at crim e sh ou ld b e v ie w ed a s a so cia l p ro cess. T hat is , h um an b ein gs d o n ot sim ply re sp on d p assiv ely t o e x te rn al s t im uli : t h ey p osse ss c h oic e, t h ey a re c re a tiv e, a n d t h ey b rin g t o b ea r th eir o w n m ea n in gs u pon s it u atio n s. T he m ea n in gs t h at p eo p le a tta ch t o s it u atio n s a n d t h e m an ner in w hic h th ey d efin e sit u atio n s in tu rn h av e an im pact o n b eh av io u r. L ab elli n g p ersp ectiv es th ere fo re f o cu s o n s u bje ctiv it y , s e ein g o u r p erc ep tio n s o f o u rse lv es a s a rriv ed a t t h ro u gh a p ro cess o f in te ra ctio n s w it h o th ers a n d t h ro u gh n eg o tia tin g t h e m ult ip le p ossib le d efin it io n s o f a s it u atio n o r ev en t.

Fro m th is p ersp ectiv e, d ev ia n ce o r c rim in ali t y is n ot so m eth in g th at is o b je ctiv ely g iv en ; it is su bje ctiv ely p ro b le m atic ( P lu m mer 1 979). T he l a b elli n g p ersp ectiv e t h ere fo re a tte m pts t o p ro vid e a pro cessu al a cco u n t o f d ev ia n cy a n d c rim in ali t y . T he b ro ad i n te ra ctio n is t p ersp ectiv e f o cu se s o n h ow 57 peo p le t y p if y o n e a n oth er ( th at i s , s e e e a ch o th er a s a p artic u la r t y p e o f p erso n , s u ch a s ‘m en ta lly i ll’ or ‘y o u n g o ffe n der’) , h ow p eo p le r e la te t o o n e a n oth er o n t h e b asis o f t h ese t y p if ic a tio n s, a n d w hat th e co n se q u en ces are o f th ese so cia l p ro cesse s (R ubin gto n & W ein berg 1 978:1 ). E sse n tia lly , it arg u es t h at d ev ia n cy it se lf c a n b e t h e r e su lt o f t h e in te ra ctiv e p ro cess b etw een in div id ual ju ven ile s an d t h e c rim in al j u st ic e s y st e m ; t h at, f o r e x am ple , p oli c e i n te rv en tio n c a n a ctu ally p ro d uce d ev ia n cy .

In e a rly v ersio n s o f l a b elli n g t h eo rie s, i t w as a sse rte d t h at d ev ia n cy i s n ot a n i n here n t p ro p erty o f beh av io u r, b u t s o m eth in g t h at i s c o n fe rre d u pon t h e i n div id ual b y s o cie ty . I n o th er w ord s, d ev ia n ce is c re a te d b y s o cia l r e a ctio n . A cco rd in g t o B eck er ( 1 963:9 ), t h e i m pact of s o cia l r e a ctio n o n c erta in ty p es o f b eh av io u r o r o n p artic u la r c a te g o rie s o f p eo p le is c ru cia l t o e x p la in in g t h e c rim in ali s a tio n pro cess, i n t h at:

So cia l g ro u ps c re a te d ev ia n ce b y m ak in g t h e r u le s w hose i n fr a ctio n c o n st it u te s d ev ia n ce, a n d b y a p ply in g th ose r u le s t o p artic u la r p eo p le a n d l a b eli n g t h em a s o u tsid ers. F ro m t h is p oin t o f v ie w , d ev ia n ce i s n ot a qu ali t y o f t h e a ct t h e p erso n c o m mit s, b u t r a th er a c o n se q u en ce o f t h e a p pli c a tio n b y o th ers o f r u le s a n d sa n ctio n s t o a n ‘o ffe n der’. T he d ev ia n t is o n e t o w hom t h e la b el h as s u ccessfu lly b een a p pli e d ; d ev ia n t beh av io r i s b eh av io r t h at p eo p le s o l a b el.

The a rg u m en t h ere i s t h at w e n eed t o lo ok a t t h e i m pact o f t h e a p pli c a tio n o f c erta in la b els ( fo r ex am ple ‘b ad ’, ‘c rim in al’, ‘d eli n qu en t’) in f o st e rin g d ev ia n t b eh av io u r. P ubli c la b elli n g, it is a rg u ed , may a ffe ct a n i n div id ual’s s e lf -id en tit y a n d t r a n sfo rm t h em s o t h at t h ey s e e t h em se lv es i n t h e l i g h t o f th e la b el. T he p ro cess o f la b elli n g is t ie d u p w it h t h e id ea o f t h e s e lf -f u lf illi n g p ro p h ecy . T hat is , if yo u t e ll s o m eo n e s u ffic ie n tly o ft e n t h at t h ey a re ‘b ad ’, ‘s t u pid ’, o r ‘c ra zy ’, t h at p erso n m ay s t a rt t o beli e v e t h e l a b el a n d t o a ct o u t t h e s t e re o ty p ic a l b eh av io u r a sso cia te d w it h i t .

A f u rth er a sp ect o f t h e p u bli c l a b elli n g p ro cess i s t h at st ig m atis a tio n m ay o ccu r. T his i n vo lv es t h e ap pli c a tio n o f a n eg ativ e la b el th at b eco m es th e ‘m ast e r’ ( o r d om in an t) d efin it io n o f th e p erso n co n cern ed . R eg ard le ss o f c u rre n t b eh av io u r o r p ast e x p erie n ces, a p erso n m ay b eco m e k n ow n t o t h e wid er c o m mun it y m ain ly o r s o le ly in t e rm s o f t h e la b el a p pli e d t o t h em . A n eg ativ e la b el s u ch a s ‘c rim in al’ o r ‘d eli n qu en t’ c a n c o lo u r t h e p erc ep tio n s o f p eo p le w it h w hom t h e in div id ual in te ra cts, an d in flu en ce h ow t h e c o m mun it y in g en era l t r e a ts t h at p erso n . W here s u ch s t ig m a e x is t s, it m ay le a d t o a s it u atio n w here t h e ‘d ev ia n t’ b eg in s t o li v e u p t o t h e d ic ta te s o f t h e la b el, a n d t o c h an ge th eir i d en tit y a n d b eh av io u r a cco rd in gly .

Lab elli n g t h eo rie s in c rim in olo gy h av e h ad t h eir g re a te st im pact in t h e s p ecif ic a re a o f ju ven ile ju st ic e. T his is n ot su rp ris in g, g iv en th e g en era l v ie w th at y o u n g p eo p le a n d c h ild re n a re m ore im pre ssio n ab le t h an o ld er p eo p le , a n d t h ere fo re m ore li k ely t o r e sp on d t o a n y la b elli n g t h at m ig h t occu r. I t i s a rg u ed t h at i f a y o u n g p erso n c o m es t o c o u rt a n d i s l a b elle d a s a n o ffe n der, t h is p ro cess o f pu bli c la b elli n g an d st ig m atis a tio n cre a te s a new id en tit y fo r th e yo u n g perso n an d, as a co n se q u en ce, t h at i n div id ual w ill b eco m e c o m mit te d t o t h e r o le s a n d b eh av io u r o f t h e ‘ d eli n qu en t’.

Wheth er t h ey a re g o od o r b ad , p osit iv e o r n eg ativ e, c o n st r u ctiv e o r d est r u ctiv e, it is a rg u ed t h at la b els d o a ffe ct a n d h av e c o n se q u en ces fo r su bse q u en t b eh av io u r. M atz a ( 1 964) in vest ig ate d th e qu est io n o f ‘d eli n qu en cy ’ o n th e b asis o f th e p ro p osit io n th at c rim e it se lf is u biq u it o u s— th at is , most p eo p le a t so m e st a g e e n gag e in so m e fo rm o f c rim in al, d ev ia n t, o r a n tis o cia l b eh av io u r. In st u d yin g y o u th su bcu lt u re s a n d d eli n qu en ts, a ‘n atu ra li s t ic ’ a p pro ach w as a d op te d , o n e th at w as co m mit te d to p ro vid in g a n a cco u n t d esc rib in g y o u th e x p erie n ces fr o m th e p oin t o f v ie w o f th e yo u n g p eo p le . T his n ot o n ly e n ab le d th e re se a rc h er to re co n sid er th e q u est io n o f v alu es a n d to ch alle n ge t h e id ea t h at o n ly w ork in g-c la ss y o u n g p eo p le e x p erie n ce s t r a in , b u t a ls o t o e x p lo re t h e motiv atio n al a cco u n ts p ro vid ed b y t h e a cto rs t h em se lv es a s t o w hy t h ey e n gag e in c erta in t y p es o f activ it y . S yk es a n d M atz a ( 1 957) a n d M atz a ( 1 964) d esc rib ed t h e w ay s in w hic h y o u n g p eo p le u se 58 certa in t e ch n iq u es o f ‘n eu tr a li s a tio n ’ a s a w ay o f d en yin g t h e m ora l b in d o f la w ( fo r e x am ple ‘T hey st a rte d it ’, ‘N o o n e g o t h urt’) . F urth erm ore , M atz a a rg u ed t h at t h e a ctio n s o f t h e ju ven ile ju st ic e sy st e m , an d esp ecia lly yo u th p erc ep tio n s o f th e co m pete n ce o f o ffic ia ls an d th e ap pli c a tio n o f sa n ctio n s, a ls o a ffe ct t h e ‘w ill t o c rim e’ o f y o u n g p eo p le a n d fo rm p art o f t h e w ay s in w hic h t h ey neu tr a li s e t h eir m ora l r e st r a in t.

In s t u d yin g y o u n g p eo p le , M atz a f o u n d t h at ju ven ile s e a g erly e x p lo re a ll a sp ects o f s o cia l l i f e . H e fo u n d th at in th is pro cess th ey te n d to drif t betw een th e tw o pole s of co n ven tio n al an d un co n ven tio n al b eh av io u r ( in clu d in g c rim e), w it h ou t b ein g f u lly c o m mit te d t o e it h er. I n t h e e n d, most ju ven ile s d rif t to w ard s c o n ven tio n al li f e st y le s a n d b eh av io u r a s th eir p erm an en t p atte rn o f ex p erie n ce. H ow ev er, M atz a fo u n d th at, if d urin g th e te en ag e yea rs o f d rif t th ere is o ffic ia l in te rv en tio n a n d s o cia l r e a ctio n t o s p ecif ic k in ds o f u n co n ven tio n al b eh av io u r, it m ay p re cip it a te th e m ovem en t o f t h e ju ven ile i n to a p erm an en t s t a te o f d eli n qu en cy . T he c en tr a l p oli c y c o n cern o f th e l a b elli n g a p pro ach , t h ere fo re , i s t o f in d w ay s i n w hic h t o p re v en t a y o u n g p erso n f r o m b eco m in g a c a re er c rim in al o r lo n g-t e rm d ev ia n t. I f w e a ccep t t h e p ro p osit io n t h at c o n ta ct w it h t h e c rim in al ju st ic e s y st e m — wheth er p oli c e, c o u rts, o r d ete n tio n c en tr e s— se rv es t o s u st a in d ev ia n t c a re ers, t h en th e so lu tio n is p ose d in te rm s o f div er sio n . F ro m a la b elli n g p ersp ectiv e, in div id uals sh ou ld b e div erte d aw ay fr o m th e fo rm al p ro cesse s o f th e ju st ic e sy st e m in o rd er to esc a p e an y p ossib le neg ativ e co n se q u en ces aris in g fr o m th e fo rm al pu bli c la b elli n g pro cess. In th is w ay , fu tu re co m mit m en t to a d ev ia n t ca re er ca n b e av erte d . F or th ose yo u n g p eo p le w it h in th e sy st e m , dein st it u tio n ali s a tio n ( th at is , t h e r e m oval o f y o u th f r o m in st it u tio n s) a n d t h eir p la cem en t in t h e co m mun it y a re a d vo ca te d i n o rd er t o m in im is e n eg ativ e l a b elli n g.

In su m mary , la b elli n g th eo ry c o n cen tr a te s it s a tte n tio n o n th e so cia l re a ctio n to c rim e. T he ap pro ach s e es c rim e a s m ain ta in ed , p erp etu ate d , o r a m pli f ie d b y t h e l a b elli n g p ro cess. C rim in ali t y i s th us s o m eth in g t h at is c o n fe rre d u pon s o m e in div id uals , a n d o n s o m e t y p es o f b eh av io u r, b y t h ose peo p le w ho h av e t h e p ow er t o d o it , a n d w ho h av e t h e p ow er t o m ak e a la b el s t ic k . T he la b elli n g persp ectiv e’s im pli c a tio n s fo r ju ven ile ju st ic e a re t h at w e s h ou ld d o w hat w e c a n t o m in im is e t h e harm fu l e ffe cts o f la b elli n g a n d st ig m atis a tio n . T his c a n b e a ch ie v ed th ro u gh a w id e v arie ty o f div ersio n ary p ra ctic es t h at a tte m pt t o k eep t h e y o u n g p erso n f r o m e n te rin g t o o f a r i n to t h e o ffic ia l crim in al j u st ic e s y st e m .

SO CIA L I N EQ U ALIT Y A N D S TR U CTU RAL P O W ER Marx is t a n d f e m in is t c o n cep tio n s o f s o cie ty a re b ase d u pon a n a n aly sis o f s t r u ctu ra l p ow er. I n t h is vie w , in div id uals a re d efin ed n ot s o m uch b y p erso n al a ttr ib u te s o r b y r e fe re n ce t o u n iv ersa li s in g st a te m en ts r e g ard in g ‘c h oic e’ a n d ‘d ete rm in is m ’, b u t b y t h eir p osit io n a n d o p portu n it ie s a s d ic ta te d by c la ss f o rc es a n d u n eq u al g en der r e la tio n s. T o u n derst a n d c rim e, t h ere fo re , w e n eed t o e x am in e th e a ctio n s o f th e p ow erfu l in d efin in g a n d e n fo rc in g a p artic u la r k in d o f so cia l o rd er, a n d th e activ it ie s o f th e le ss p ow erfu l in th e c o n te x t o f a so cia l st r u ctu re w it h in w hic h th ey h av e fe w er re so u rc es a n d l e ss d ecis io n -m ak in g p ow er t h an o th ers.

MAR XIS T P ER SP EC TIV E S A k ey c h ara cte ris t ic o f Marx is t c o n cep tio n s o f c rim e a n d c rim in ali t y is t h eir fo cu s o n t h e w ay in whic h in st it u tio n ali s e d p ow er is o rg an is e d an d ex erc is e d in so cie ty . S p ecif ic a lly , w here ‘l i b era l’ an aly sis v ie w s t h e s t a te a s a ctin g in t h e c a p acit y o f a n eu tr a l u m pir e o r a rb it e r o f c o n fli c t, a n d a s bein g in dep en den t o f a n d n ot a li g n ed to a n y p artic u la r c la ss, M arx is m se es th e st a te a s v ario u sly 59 li n ked to th e sp ecif ic in te re st s of th e ca p it a li s t ru li n g cla ss. In a ca p it a li s t so cie ty , p ow er is co n cen tr a te d , a n d t h e a ctiv it ie s o f t h e s t a te r e fle ct t h e i n te re st s o f c a p it a l i n g en era l. T hese a ctiv it ie s fo st e r t h e a ccu m ula tio n o f c a p it a l, m ain ta in t h e le g it im acy o f u n eq u al s o cia l r e la tio n s, a n d c o n tr o l th e a ctio n s o f t h ose w ho t h re a te n p riv ate p ro p erty r e la tio n s a n d t h e p u bli c o rd er. I n o th er w ord s, th e s t a te i n a c a p it a li s t s o cie ty i s a c a p it a li s t s t a te . A s s u ch , t h e g en era l t e n den cy o f s t a te i n st it u tio n s (su ch a s t h e p oli c e, t h e ju d ic ia ry , p ris o n s, a n d c o m mun it y p ro gra m s) is t o c o n cen tr a te o n s p ecif ic kin ds o f b eh av io u r ( u su ally a sso cia te d w it h w ork in g-c la ss c rim e) a s b ein g ‘d ev ia n t’ a n d ‘h arm fu l’.

Oth er k in ds o f d est r u ctiv e o r e x p lo it a tiv e b eh av io u r ( u su ally a sso cia te d w it h c rim es o f t h e p ow erfu l) are d eem ed t o b e l e ss w orth y o f s t a te i n te rv en tio n .

Fro m a M arx is t v ie w poin t, h ow is su es a re c o n st r u cte d , h ow c rim e is d efin ed , a n d h ow c rim e is re sp on ded t o r e la te d ir e ctly t o t h e i n div id ual’s p osit io n i n t h e c la ss s t r u ctu re ( se e W hit e & v an d er Veld en 1 996). If so cia l p ow er is co n cen tr a te d in th e h an ds o f th ose w ho o w n th e m ea n s o f pro d uctio n , th ey w ill in flu en ce an d g en era lly d ic ta te w hic h b eh av io u r is an d is n ot d efin ed as crim in al. T he M arx is t c o n cern w it h c la ss a n d c la ss a n aly sis o f s o cie ty h as l e d s o m e t h eo ris t s t o d ra w atte n tio n to th e sp ecif ic w ay s in w hic h th e activ it ie s o f w ork in g-c la ss ju ven ile s are su bje ct to partic u la r pro cesse s of crim in ali s a tio n . T he B ir m in gh am C en tr e fo r C on te m pora ry C ult u ra l Stu d ie s ( B C CCS) in E ngla n d, fo r in st a n ce, r e -e x am in ed th e is su e o f y o u th su bcu lt u re s fr o m th e poin t o f vie w o f th e u n eq u al m ate ria l cir c u m st a n ces o f w ork in g-c la ss b oys an d gir ls (H all & Je ffe rso n 1 976). I t w as a rg u ed b y m em bers o f t h e B C CCS t h at c la ss i s c en tr a l t o a n y e x p la n atio n o f th e ex p erie n ce of gro w in g up, an d th at th e re la tio n sh ip betw een yo u n g peo p le an d so cia l in st it u tio n s— su ch a s s c h ool, e m plo ym en t, a n d t h e l e g al s y st e m — is c h ara cte ris e d b y d if fe re n t f o rm s of c la ss-b ase d r e sis t a n ces t o t h e d om in an t r e la tio n s o f p ow er. C erta in y o u th s u bcu lt u ra l f o rm s w ere se en in th is w ork to ‘s o lv e’, in a n im ag in ary w ay , p ro b le m s e x p erie n ced b y w ork in g-c la ss y o u n g peo p le (fo r ex am ple un em plo ym en t, ed uca tio n al dis a d van ta g e), w hic h at th e m ate ria l le v el re m ain ed u n re so lv ed ( C la rk e e t a l. 1 976; B ra k e 1 985).

Fro m t h e p oin t o f v ie w o f s o cia l c o n tr o l a n d p oli c in g, v ario u s s t u d ie s h av e p oin te d t o t h e w ay s i n whic h th e m ed ia p ortr a y certa in ty p es o f yo u th su bcu lt u re s, w hic h in tu rn le a d to a fo rm o f ‘d ev ia n cy a m pli f ic a tio n ’ ( C oh en 1 973; Y ou n g 1 971; C olli n s e t a l. 2 000); t h at is , t h e s o rt o f p u bli c la b elli n g p erta in in g t o s o m e g ro u ps o f y o u n g p eo p le a ctu ally g en era te s f u rth er ‘ d ev ia n t’ b eh av io u r i n th e la b elle d gro u p. M ore gen era lly , th e li n k is m ad e b etw een th e actu al cu lt u ra l, so cia l, an d eco n om ic ex p erie n ces of w ork in g-c la ss yo u n g peo p le , an d th e m an ner in w hic h th e st a te — partic u la rly th e p oli c e— in te rv en es in th eir li v es, b oth co erc iv ely (sh ow n b y arre st ra te s) an d id eo lo gic a lly ( su ch a s t h ro u gh t h e p ro m ulg atio n o f ‘ m ora l p an ic s’ o ver y o u n g p eo p le ’s b eh av io u r a n d attit u d es) .

The c o n cern o f th e M arx is t c rim in olo gic a l a p pro ach is to h ig h li g h t th e in eq u ali t ie s o f a c la ss so cie ty ( fo r e x am ple w ea lt h v ersu s p overty ; b u sin ess p ro fit s v ersu s l o w w ag es) , a n d t h e i m pact t h ese hav e o n t h e c rim in ali s a tio n p ro cess ( S p it z er 1 975). T he p ow erfu l a re s e en a s d esig n in g t h e la w s in th eir o w n c o lle ctiv e i n te re st , w hile h av in g g re a te r c a p acit y t o d efe n d t h em se lv es i n div id ually i f t h ey do b re a k a n d b en d e x is t in g r u le s a n d r e g u la tio n s. T he le ss p ow erfu l in s o cie ty a re s e en a s p ro p elle d to c o m mit c rim e t h ro u gh e co n om ic n eed a n d s o cia l a li e n atio n . T hey a re a ls o t h e m ain t a rg ets o f l a w en fo rc em en t a n d w id er c rim in al- ju st ic e a g en cie s, s o m eth in g r e fle cte d i n s t a tis t ic s t h at s h ow a n o ver- re p re se n ta tio n o f t h e u n em plo yed a n d p oor i n p ris o n s, p oli c e l o ck -u ps, a n d c rim in al c o u rts ( W hit e & P erro n e 2 015). B y p ro vid in g a s t r u ctu ra l p ersp ectiv e o n s o cia l in st it u tio n s, s o cia l p ro cesse s, a n d so cia l o u tc o m es, M arx is t a p pro ach es a rg u e t h at r e v o lu tio n ary o r p ro fo u n d s o cia l t r a n sfo rm atio n is need ed i f ‘c rim e’ i s t o b e a d dre sse d i n a s o cia lly ju st m an ner. T his i m pli e s t h at w ork in g w it h y o u n g offe n ders i s i n here n tly p oli t ic a l a n d n eed s t o b e b ase d o n s t r a te g ie s t h at e m pow er y o u n g p eo p le a n d 60 th eir c o m mun it ie s.

FE M IN IS T P ER SP EC TIV E S Fem in is m p ro ceed s f r o m t h e p oin t o f v ie w t h at a f u n dam en ta l d iv is io n in s o cie ty is t h at b etw een men a n d w om en . T he fe m in is t a p pro ach , w hic h c a m e t o p ro m in en ce in t h e 1 970s, s e es d if fe re n ces betw een m en a n d w om en a s b io lo gic a l, a n d s o cia lly a n d h is t o ric a lly c o n st r u cte d . A m ajo r e m ph asis in c o n te m pora ry s o cia l a n aly sis i s t o e x p la in t h e d if fe re n t e x p erie n ces a n d s o cia l r e a li t ie s o f m en a n d wom en in so cie ty , a n d to u n derst a n d w hy w om en a n d m en h av e d if fe re n t p osit io n s, ro le s, a n d st a tu s.

Fem in is m ch alle n ged crim in olo gy in at le a st th re e w ay s. F ir st , th ere w as th e re la tiv e n eg le ct wit h in c rim in olo gy i t se lf o f is su es r e la tin g t o f e m ale c rim e a n d w om en a s v ic tim s o f c rim e. S eco n d, th e th eo rie s a n d st u d ie s th at d id ex is t te n ded to re in fo rc e certa in st e re o ty p es a n d co n se rv ativ e portr a y als o f t h e ‘p ro p er’ p la ce o f w om en i n s o cie ty . T hir d , a n d p erh ap s m ost i m porta n tly , f e m in is t crim in olo gis t s r a is e d w hat N affin e ( 2 003:1 0) c a lls ‘t h e m an q u est io n ’. I n o th er w ord s, ‘w hat is it ab ou t m en … t h at t h ey a re s o m uch m ore d is p ose d t o c rim in ali t y a s a s e x ?’ P rio r t o t h e e m erg en ce an d i n flu en ce o f f e m in is m , c rim in olo gy h ad l a rg ely i g n ore d t h e f a ct t h at m ost c rim e i s c o m mit te d b y men , a n d h ad n ot e x am in ed t h e r o le o f m asc u li n it y i n c rim e. A s N affin e ( 2 003:1 0) a rg u es, a p ara d ox of c o n te m pora ry c rim in olo gy is t h at ‘m uch o f it is c o n cern ed w it h m ale a ctiv it y a n d y et it is o ft e n fo rm ally a n d p ra ctic a lly b li n d t o t h e m ale n ess o f i t s s u bje cts’.

Fem in is t w rit e rs s o u gh t t o r e ctif y t h ese m atte rs t h ro u gh c rit iq u es n ot o n ly o f t h e c rim in al j u st ic e sy st e m , b u t als o o f th e d om in an t se x is t assu m ptio n s u n derp in nin g m ain st r e a m crim in olo gic a l th eo rie s o f c rim e ( S m art 1 976; N affin e 1 987). F em in is t t h eo ris t s p oin te d o u t, f o r e x am ple , t h at t h e neg le ct o f w om en in c rim in olo gic a l e n qu ir y w as d ue in p art to th e o verw helm in g d om in an ce o f male s i n t h e c rim in olo gy d is c ip li n e a n d t h e c rim in al j u st ic e s y st e m . I n t e rm s o f r e se a rc h a n d t h eo ry , an d a t th e le v el o f th e p ra ctit io n er, th e sy st e m h as tr a d it io n ally b een c o m pose d m ain ly o f m en .

Ju d ges, b arris t e rs, s o li c it o rs, p ris o n o ffic ers, a n d p oli c e w ere p re d om in an tly m ale . E ven w hen s o m e men c h alle n ged t h e o vert s e x is t p ra ctic es of t h e la w a n d la w e n fo rc em en t, t h is d id n ot c h an ge t h e overa ll o rie n ta tio n o f t h e s y st e m t o w ard s w om en . S im ila rly , i t w as r e co gn is e d t h at w om en w ere w ell re p re se n te d in so cia l- c o n tr o l a g en cie s su ch a s w elf a re , so cia l w ork , a n d th e n ursin g p ro fe ssio n s.

Nev erth ele ss, t h e c rim in al ju st ic e a n d w elf a re s y st e m s t o geth er t e n ded t o p oli c e t h e b eh av io u r o f wom en in w ay s th at re in fo rc ed th e n otio n o f w om en as o n ly w iv es, m oth ers, se x u al p artn ers, nurtu re rs, a n d d om est ic w ork ers, r a th er t h an a s c o m ple te i n div id uals i n t h eir o w n r ig h t.

The n eg le ct o f w om en g en era lly w it h in c rim in olo gy u n til t h e s e co n d w av e o f fe m in is m in t h e 1970s is a ttr ib u ta b le to th e su bord in ate p osit io n a n d li m it e d p artic ip atio n o f w om en w it h in th e crim in al ju st ic e sy st e m . It is a ls o re la te d to th e fa ct th at w om en a p pea r to b e a le ss st a tis t ic a lly sig n if ic a n t p ro b le m t h an m en , in t h at w om en g en era lly c o m mit f e w er c rim es. F urth erm ore , w hile wom en are over-r e p re se n te d in so m e ca te g o rie s of vic tim is a tio n (fo r ex am ple ra p e, d om est ic vio le n ce), in g en era l th ey d id n ot a p pea r to b e v ic tim s o f c rim e to th e sa m e e x te n t a s m en . A s a co n se q u en ce, in vest ig ato rs w it h in c rim in olo gy d id n ot re g ard th e fe m ale o ffe n der o r th e fe m ale vic tim a s w orth y o f m uch r e se a rc h a tte n tio n .

One o f th e p ro b le m s w it h th e o vera ll a ttit u d e a n d p ersp ectiv e o n w om en a n d c rim e w as th at when m ain st r e a m c rim in olo gis t s o cca sio n ally l o oked a t f e m ale c rim e, t h ey d id s o f r o m w it h in a m ale fr a m ew ork . S in ce m ain st r e a m c rim in olo gic a l t h eo rie s ( su ch a s s t r a in t h eo ry a n d m ale s u bcu lt u re s) had h it h erto t e n ded t o c o n cen tr a te o n m ale e x p erie n ce, t h ere w as a p ro b le m i n t r y in g t o e x tr a p ola te su ch e x p erie n ces in to t h e a n aly sis o f w om en ’s p la ce in c rim e ( N affin e 1 987). W hat, fo r e x am ple , 61 does s t r a in t h eo ry t e ll u s a b ou t t h e o p portu n it y s t r u ctu re s a n d c u lt u ra l g o als o f w om en ? S im ila rly , la b elli n g t h eo ry a rg u es t h at it is pa rtic u la rly t h e le ss p ow erfu l in s o cie ty w ho s u ffe r m ost f r o m t h e detr im en ta l e ffe cts o f l a b elli n g. H ow , t h en , d o w e a cco u n t f o r t h e f a ct t h at p ow erle ss w om en a re n ot in vo lv ed in c rim e to th e sa m e e x te n t a s p ow erle ss m en ? W hat is it a b ou t th e se x v aria b le th at in flu en ces th e sp ecif ic co n dit io n s u n der w hic h m ale an d fe m ale o ffe n din g (a n d vic tim is a tio n ) occu rs? T he v ast m ajo rit y o f c rim in olo gic a l t h eo rie s h av e i g n ore d t h ese q u est io n s a lt o geth er. W hen su ch t h eo rie s h av e a tte m pte d t o e x p la in f e m ale c rim e a s a d is t in ct a n d s p ecif ic s o cia l p h en om en on , th ey h av e accep te d a n arro w , co n se rv ativ e v ie w re g ard in g th e p la ce an d p osit io n o f w om en in so cie ty , a n d m ore o ft e n t h an n ot h av e d on e s o o n t h e b asis o f a fo rm o f b io lo gic a l r e d uctio n is m .

Bio lo gic a l r ed u ctio n is m re fe rs to in st a n ces w here fe m ale e x p erie n ces a n d b eh av io u r a re e x p la in ed so le ly in t e rm s o f p re su m ed b io lo gic a l im pera tiv es, in t h at t h e b io lo gic a l s e x o f a p erso n is s e en t o dic ta te o r d ete rm in e a p pro p ria te s o cia l r o le s a n d p ra ctic es.

The re sp on se o f fe m in is t w rit e rs to b io lo gic a l ex p la n atio n s is th at th ese re p re se n t a d ou ble st a n dard in t e rm s o f m ora li t y a n d p ow er. T hey a rg u e t h at u n derp in nin g t h e d ou ble s t a n dard is a blu rrin g o f t h e d is t in ctio n b etw een ‘s e x ’ a n d ‘g en der’. M an y c rim in olo gic a l t h eo rie s h av e p re su m ed fe m ale s h av e a fix ed b io lo gic a l n atu re t h at is in dis t in gu is h ab le fr o m t h eir t r a d it io n al s o cia l r o le a s moth er, h ou se k eep er, se x u al p artn er, an d ch ild ca re r. A ny ‘m ala d ju st m en t’ to th is st e re o ty p ic a l fe m in in it y is sa id to b e clo se ly li n ked to th e activ it ie s of w om en as offe n ders (fo r ex am ple pro st it u tio n ) a n d t h eir e x p erie n ces a s v ic tim s ( fo r e x am ple b ein g s u bje cte d t o m ale v io le n ce).

In th e fe m in is t p ersp ectiv e, th e cru cia l is su e is th at o f re la tiv e so cia l p ow er an d access to co m mun it y re so u rc es. T he crim in ali s a tio n p ro cess it se lf is se en to b e h ea v ily la d en w it h se x is t assu m ptio n s t h at r e in fo rc e a n d r e p ro d uce s t r u ctu ra l i n eq u ali t ie s o f g en der i n s o cie ty ( G els t h orp e & Morris 1 990). T his i s t h ou gh t t o o ccu r w it h r e sp ect t o t h e c o n st r u ctio n o f o ffe n din g b eh av io u r, a n d wit h r e sp ect t o t h e p ortr a y al o f v ic tim s. T he c en tr a l p ro p osit io n o f m uch f e m in is t a n aly sis is t h at wom en a re tr e a te d d if fe re n tly in a n d b y th e c rim in al ju st ic e sy st e m b eca u se o f th e p ersis t e n ce o f tr a d it io n al g en der-r o le e x p ecta tio n s re g ard in g ‘a p pro p ria te ’ a n d ‘f e m in in e’ b eh av io u r fo r w om en (a n d m en ). I t h as b een a rg u ed t h at f e m ale o ffe n ders a re v ie w ed b y t h e c o u rt a s ‘ d ou bly d ev ia n t: ‘ t h ey hav e tr a n sg re sse d b oth th e crim in al la w an d so cia l re g u la tio n o f “p ro p er fe m in in e co n duct” ’ (H eid en so h n 2 003:1 74).

Underp in nin g t h is g en dere d d iv is io n o f t h e s e x es i s t h e q u est io n o f p ow er. S o cie ty i s s e en a s m ale - dom in ate d , a n d th is is re fle cte d in m yria d so cia l in st it u tio n s, in clu d in g th e la w a n d th e ju ven ile ju st ic e s y st e m . F em in is t t h eo ry p la ces t h e n atu re o f f e m ale o ffe n din g i n to a w id er s o cia l, e co n om ic , an d p oli t ic a l c o n te x t, r a th er t h an o n e t h at r e d uces f e m ale e x p erie n ce t o b io lo gic a l o r p sy ch olo gic a l dete rm in an ts. For ex am ple , as dis c u sse d in Chap te r 8 , m an y yo u n g w om en co m mit te d to in st it u tio n s h av e b een v ic tim s o f v io le n ce t h em se lv es. S im ila rly , w om en w ho c o m mit s o cia l- s e cu rit y fr a u d o r o th er m in or fo rm s o f fr a u d a n d th eft u su ally d o so n ot fo r th em se lv es b u t to su pport ch ild re n a n d o th er d ep en dan ts. H en ce, t h e g en era li s e d v io le n ce a g ain st w om en a s a s o cia l c a te g o ry , an d t h e r e la tiv e d is a d van ta g es t h ey s u ffe r e co n om ic a lly , a re e x p lo re d a s v it a l p re co n dit io n s t o a n y in div id ual o ffe n din g b eh av io u r. I n t h e c a se o f v ic tim is a tio n , f e m in is t a n aly sis p ay s m uch a tte n tio n to th e w ay s in w hic h c rim es a g ain st w om en h av e h is t o ric a lly n ot b een c o n sid ere d a s su ch (fo r ex am ple d om est ic v io le n ce) o r a re su bje ct to tr iv ia li s a tio n (se e A rm st r o n g 1 994 o n in cest ) a n d se x u al b ia s ( fo r e x am ple r a p e t r ia ls i n vo lv in g s e x w ork ers ( S u lli v an 2 007); s e e Box 2 .2 ). Q uest io n s o f what is a n ‘o ffe n ce’ a n d w ho is a ‘v ic tim ’ a re t h us o ft e n in te rtw in ed w it h g en der s t e re o ty p es a n d bia se s t h at r e fle ct a g en era l i n eq u ali t y b etw een t h e s e x es i n s o cie ty .

In s u m mary , t h e f e m in is t p ersp ectiv es w it h in c rim in olo gy c h alle n ge t h e m ale b ia se s a n d a re a s o f 62 neg le ct o f m ain st r e a m crim in olo gy (se e N affin e 1 997, 2 003). F em in is t crit ic is m is le v elle d at his t o ric a l a n d c o n te m pora ry e x am ple s o f t h e d if fe re n t s t a n dard s a p pli e d t o w om en a n d m en i n t h e crim in al ju st ic e sy st e m . A s w ell, activ e in te rv en tio n h as b een ca lle d fo r b y fe m in is t activ is t s, in clu d in g la w yers a n d c rim in olo gis t s, in a re a s s u ch a s in ap pro p ria te r e sp on se s t o fe m ale o ffe n ders (fo r e x am ple im pris o n m en t) , la w r e fo rm t h at p re v en ts d is c rim in atio n a g ain st w om en ( fo r e x am ple eq u al e m plo ym en t o p portu n it y ), t h e l e g al r e co gn it io n o f c erta in c rim es a g ain st w om en ( fo r e x am ple se x u al h ara ssm en t) , a n d a ctiv e en fo rc em en t o f la w s to p ro te ct w om en fr o m m ale v io le n ce (fo r ex am ple d om est ic v io le n ce, i n cest , r a p e).

BOX 2 .2   SE XU AL B IA S I N R APE T R IA LS I N VO LV IN G S E X WOR K ER S It h as b een w ell d ocu m en te d th at s e x w ork ers w ho re p ort ra p e a re n ot ta k en a s se rio u sly as oth er ra p e co m pla in an ts . For exa m ple , in th e ca se of R v H ero s Hak op ia n , h eard in th e S upre m e C ou rt o f V ic to ria C ou rt o f C rim in al A ppeal in 1 991, th e c o m pla in an t, a 28-y e ar- o ld s e x w ork er, c la im ed th at th e a ccu se d fo rc e d h er to perfo rm o ra l s e x a n d i n dece n tly a ssa u lt e d h er a ft e r s h e h ad p ro vid ed c o n se n su al s e x work s e rv ic e s to h im . T h e a ccu se d w as fo u nd g u il t y , b u t w as g iv e n a m ore le n ie n t se n te n ce th an w ou ld o rd in aril y h ave b een th e ca se , sin ce th e vic tim w as a se x work er (S ulliv a n 2 007). T h e tr ia l J u dge (in S ulliv a n 2 007:1 34) a rg u ed th at th is w as ap pro p ria te a s t h e im pact o f t h e s e xu al a ssa u lt o n t h e v ic tim w ou ld b e ‘m uch le ss a fa cto r in th is c a se a n d le sse n s th e g ra vit y o f th e o ffe n ce s’. S im il a rly , in th e N ew Zeala n d c a se o f R v C la rk , t h e J u dge ( in S ulliv a n 2 007:1 34) s a id o f t h e v ic tim , w ho w as fo u nd t o h ave b een t h re ate n ed w it h a r if le a n d r a p ed s e ve ra l t im es, t h at ‘w hil s t th e se xu al a tta ck t h at s h e h ad … m ig h t h ave b een o f a d if fe re n t t y p e t h an s h e o th erw is e exp ecte d , it is a v e ry d if fe re n t c a se f r o m a w om an w ho d oes n ot w an t t o h ave s e x a t all’.

Whil e S ulliv a n ’s (2 007) re se arc h fo u nd th at th ere h ave b een im pro ve m en ts in re ce n t ye ars to o u tc o m es fo r s e x w ork ers w ho re p ort ra p e, th e re ce n t ra p e a n d murd er o f V ic to ria n w om an J il l M eag h er h as a g ain r a is e d t h e is su e ( F in nera n 2 012).

Meag h er’s k il le r, A dria n B ayle y, h ad b een o n p aro le fo r 1 6 v io le n t r a p es o f fiv e S t Kil d a s e x w ork ers a t th e tim e o f h er d eath (M il lig an 2 013). B ayle y h ad a p pro ach ed th e s e x w ork ers o n t h e s tr e ets o f t h e S t K il d a r e d lig h t d is tr ic t, a n d d riv e n e ach t o a narro w s tr e et n earb y, p ark in g h is c a r c lo se to a w all s o th at th ey c o u ld n ot e sca p e (M il lig an 2 013). D esp it e th e s e n te n cin g J u dge A nth on y D uck ett’s (in M il lig an 2 013) co m men ts to B ayle y th at ‘Y o u u se d a n a rra y o f th re ats a n d v io le n ce to fo rc e y o u r vic tim s to s a tis fy y o u r g ro ss s e xu al a p petit e . Y o u fo rc e d y o u r v ic tim s to a cce p t a se rie s o f s e xu al a cts t h at c a u se d t h em h orrif y in g d is tr e ss. Y o u r r e sp on se t o p le ad in g crie s o f p ain a n d t e ars w as t o f o rc e t h ese w om en in to f u rth er s e xu al a cts . T h ere a re descrip tio n s g iv e n b y v ic tim s o f th e h au ntin g p syc h olo g ic a l c o n se q u en ce s o f y o u r actio n s’, B ayle y w as s e n te n ce d t o e ig h t y e ars in p ris o n — half t h e m axim um a va il a b le se n te n ce (M il lig an 2 013). It h as b een a rg u ed th at th e le n ie n t s e n te n ce im pose d o n Bayle y fo r th ese o ffe n ce s re su lt e d in h im b ein g fr e e to c o m mit fu rth er vio le n ce , in clu din g t h e m urd er o f M eag h er ( M il lig an 2 013).

63 For more on th is ca se , watc h :

< http :/ /w ww.a b c.n et.a u /7 .3 0/c o n te n t/ 2 013/s 3 779563.h tm >.

MULTIF A CTO R IA L E XP LA N ATIO N S Most t h eo rie s o f c rim e c a u sa tio n a t s o m e s t a g e r e fe r t o i s su es o f ‘f r e e w ill’ a n d ‘d ete rm in atio n ’. T hat is , m ost w rit e rs o n y o u th o ffe n din g te n d to sp ea k a b ou t c rim e a s e n tir e ly o r m ain ly a m atte r o f perso n al c h oic e (th ere b y st r e ssin g th e re sp on sib ili t y o f th e y o u n g p erso n fo r th eir a ctio n s) o r a s so m eth in g la rg ely d ete rm in ed o r sh ap ed b y fo rc es o u tsid e th e y o u n g p erso n ’s c o n sc io u s c o n tr o l (th ere b y s t r e ssin g t h e n eed f o r t r e a tm en t o r s o cia l r e fo rm o f s o m e k in d).

At a v ery g en era l le v el, w rit e rs te n d to fo cu s o n a n d e m ph asis e p artic u la r fa cto rs th at m ay b e re la te d to y o u n g o ffe n din g. If w e a re to c o n st r u ct g en era l ty p es o r a p pro ach es to c rim in olo gic a l th eo ry , th en it is u se fu l to id en tif y th e c en tr a l fo cu s o f a n y th eo ry , a n d th e le v el o f a n aly sis a n d ex p la n atio n a t w hic h th e th eo ry is p it c h ed . A s Box 2 .3 in dic a te s, th ere a re th re e b ro ad le v els o f crim in olo gic a l ex p la n atio n : th e in div id ual, th e sit u atio n al, an d th e st r u ctu ra l. C rim in olo gic a l th eo rie s t e n d t o lo ca te t h eir m ain e x p la n atio n f o r c rim in al b eh av io u r o r c rim in ali t y a t o n e o f t h ese le v els . O cca sio n ally , a th eo ry atte m pts to co m bin e all th re e le v els in o rd er to p ro vid e a m ore so p h is t ic a te d a n d c o m pre h en siv e p ic tu re o f c rim e a n d c rim in ali t y .

BOX 2 .3   MAIN F O CU S O F T H EO R IE S O F Y O U TH O FFE N DIN G FO CU S O N I N DIV ID U AL F A C TO R S In th is a p pro ach , th e fo cu s is o n th e p ers o n al o r in div id u al c h ara cte ris tic s o f th e offe n der or vic tim . S tu dy co n sid ers , fo r exa m ple , th e in flu en ce of in te llig en ce , men ta l il ln ess, s u bsta n ce a b u se , o r m otiv a tio n o n th e n atu re o f c rim e c a u sa tio n o r vic tim is a tio n . Th is le ve l of an aly s is te n ds to lo ok to psyc h olo g ic a l or bio lo g ic a l fa cto rs t h at a re s a id t o h ave a n im porta n t d ete rm in in g r o le in w hy c e rta in in div id u als en gag e in crim in al a ctiv it y . T h e k ey co n ce rn is w it h e xp la in in g crim e o r d evia n t beh avio u r in te rm s of th e ch oic e s or ch ara cte ris tic s of th e in div id u al. Typ ic a l exp la n atio n s f o r y o u th o ffe n din g i n clu de:

yo u ng p eop le c h oose t o c o m mit c rim e bio lo g ic a l r e aso n s, s u ch a s l e ad p ois o n in g, a b n orm al c h ro m oso m es psyc h olo g ic a l r e aso n s, s u ch a s a g gre ssio n , l a ck o f s e lf - c o n tr o l so cia l- p syc h olo g ic a l r e aso n s, s u ch a s a b u siv e c h il d h ood , l a ck o f l o ve path olo g ic a l c o n dit io n s, s u ch a s m en ta l i l ln ess.

FO CU S O N S IT U ATIO N AL F A C TO R S Th e s it e o f a n aly s is in th is a p pro ach is th e im med ia te s it u atio n o r c ir c u m sta n ce s wit h in w hic h c rim in al a ctiv it y o r d evia n t b eh avio u r o ccu rs . A tte n tio n is d ir e cte d t o t h e sp ecif ic fa cto rs th at m ay co n tr ib u te to an eve n t occu rrin g, su ch as how th e partic ip an ts d efin e th e s it u atio n , h ow d if fe re n t p eop le a re la b elle d b y o th ers in th e 64 crim in al ju stic e s ys te m , th e o p portu nit ie s a va il a b le fo r th e c o m mis sio n o f c e rta in ty p es o f o ffe n ce s, a n d s o o n . A k ey c o n ce rn is t h e n atu re o f t h e in te ra ctio n b etw een dif fe re n t p la ye rs w it h in th e s ys te m , th e e ffe ct o f lo ca l e n vir o n m en ta l fa cto rs o n th e natu re o f th is in te ra ctio n , a n d th e in flu en ce o f g ro u p b eh avio u r o n s o cia l a ctiv it y .

Typ ic a l e xp la n atio n s f o r y o u th o ffe n din g i n clu de:

re su lt o f n eg ativ e l a b ellin g, s u ch a s t h e s tig m a o f b ein g c a lle d a ‘ d elin qu en t’ poor s ch ool p erfo rm an ce , i n clu din g l e ve l o f a tta in m en t, a lie n atio n poor p are n tin g, i n clu din g l a ck o f s u perv is io n , n eg le ct hom ele ssn ess, f o r e xa m ple l a ck o f s ta b le a n d s a fe s h elt e r peer gro u p an d yo u th -s u bcu lt u re in flu en ce s, in clu din g yo u th gan gs, m ed ia im ag es, v io le n t v id eo g am es.

FO CU S O N S O CIA L S TR U CTU RAL F A C TO R S Th is a p pro ach te n ds to lo ok a t c rim e in te rm s o f b ro ad er s o cia l r e la tio n sh ip s— an d th e m ajo r so cia l in stit u tio n s— of th e so cie ty as a w hole . Th e an aly s is m ak es re fe re n ce to th e re la tio n sh ip b etw een c la sse s, s e xe s, d if fe re n t e th nic a n d ‘r a cia l’ gro u ps, t h e e m plo ye d a n d u nem plo ye d , a n d v a rio u s o th er s o cia l d iv is io n s in s o cie ty .

It a ls o in ve stig ate s t h e o p era tio n o f s p ecif ic s o cia l in stit u tio n s, s u ch a s e d u ca tio n , t h e fa m il y , w ork , a n d th e le g al s ys te m , in c o n str u ctin g a n d re sp on din g to c rim e a n d devia n t b eh avio u r. T yp ic a l e xp la n atio n s f o r y o u th o ffe n din g i n clu de:

in ad eq u ate so cia lis a tio n , fo r exa m ple lit tle ed u ca tio n in w hat is ‘r ig h t’ an d ‘w ro n g’ co lo n ia lis m a n d s o cia l d is e m pow erm en t, f o r e xa m ple d en ia l o f c u lt u re ra cis m a n d d is crim in atio n , f o r e xa m ple n eg ativ e b ia se s i n t h e s ys te m pove rty , in eq u alit y , a n d s o cia l m arg in alis a tio n , fo r e xa m ple n o m ean s to a tta in desir e d e n ds, s o cia l e xc lu sio n unem plo ym en t, f o r e xa m ple f e w o p portu nit ie s f o r p aid w ork .

The l e v el o f a n aly sis c h ose n ( se e Box 2 .3 ) d ete rm in es h ow c rim e a n d t h e o ffe n der a re v ie w ed , a n d how t h e c rim in al ju st ic e s y st e m s h ou ld b e o rg an is e d . A b io lo gic a l p osit iv is t a p pro ach , f o r e x am ple , whic h lo oks a t c h ara cte ris t ic s ( su ch a s g en etic m ak e-u p) o f th e in div id ual o ffe n der, se es c rim e a s st e m min g fr o m t h e in div id ual o ffe n der’s s p ecif ic p erso n al a ttr ib u te s. A s it u atio n al p ersp ectiv e, o n th e o th er h an d, m ig h t c o n sid er t h e i n te ra ctio n b etw een p oli c e a n d y o u n g p eo p le o n t h e s t r e et, a n d arg u e t h at ‘c rim e’ i s d efin ed i n t h e p ro cess o f s p ecif ic i n te ra ctio n s, b eh av io u rs, a n d a ttit u d es. F ro m a st r u ctu ra l p ersp ectiv e, th e is su e m ig h t b e se en in te rm s o f th e re la tio n sh ip b etw een p overty a n d crim e; t h at is , t h e e le m en ts o f s o cia l li f e t h at u n derp in p artic u la r c o u rse s o f a ctio n . T he b io lo gic a l, th e s it u atio n al, a n d t h e s t r u ctu ra l a p pro ach es w ou ld e a ch a d vo ca te q u it e d if fe re n t p oli c ie s b eca u se of t h eir p artic u la r p ersp ectiv es. T he v an ta g e p oin t f r o m w hic h o n e e x am in es c rim e— fr o m a f o cu s on p erso n al c h ara cte ris t ic s th ro u gh to so cie ta l in st it u tio n s— th us sh ap es th e w ay s in w hic h o n e th in ks a b ou t a n d a cts i n r e g ard t o c rim in al j u st ic e m atte rs.

65 The d if fe re n t le v els o f a n aly sis a p pare n t in c rim in olo gy a ls o r e fle ct th e d iv erse d is c ip li n es th at hav e c o n tr ib u te d t o t h e s t u d y o f c rim e o ver m an y y ea rs. R ese a rc h ers, s c h ola rs, a n d w rit e rs in a re a s su ch as bio lo gic a l sc ie n ce, p sy ch olo gy, p h ilo so p h y, la w , so cio lo gy, fo re n sic m ed ic in e, p oli t ic a l eco n om y, ed uca tio n , h is t o ry , an d cu lt u ra l st u d ie s h av e all co n tr ib u te d to th e m ult id is c ip li n ary natu re o f c rim in olo gy. E ach d is c ip li n e u se s i t s o w n c o n cep ts, d eb ate s, a n d m eth od s w hen e x am in in g a c rim in olo gic a l i s su e o r p ro b le m . T his m ea n s t h at w it h in c rim in olo gy t h ere i s a n atu ra l d iv ersit y o f vie w poin ts, as d if fe re n t w rit e rs an d re se a rc h ers se e th e w orld th ro u gh v ery d if fe re n t an aly tic a l sp ecta cle s. S u ch d if fe re n ces are re fle cte d in th e ad op tio n o f a w id e ra n ge o f te ch n iq u es an d meth od olo gie s i n t h e s t u d y o f c rim e. T hese i n clu d e t h e u se o f h is t o ric a l r e co rd s, s u rv ey s, p artic ip an t ob se rv atio n , in te rv ie w s, ev alu atio n of offic ia l st a tis t ic s, cli n ic a l ex am in atio n , st u d y of poli c y docu m en ts, a n d d is c o u rse a n aly sis .

So m e re se a rc h ers fin d th e ca u se s of crim e in lo okin g at th e perso n al ch ara cte ris t ic s an d back gro u n d o f in div id ual o ffe n ders. O th ers e x am in e a sp ects o f s it u atio n s w it h in w hic h t h e y o u n g perso n h as b een p la ced , a n d t h e t y p es o f in te ra ctio n s t h at p erso n h as w it h o th er p eo p le , a n d h ow th ese i n flu en ce t h at p erso n ’s b eh av io u r. F in ally , t h ere a re t h ose w ho l o ok t o t h e n atu re o f s o cie ty a s a w hole f o r t h eir e x p la n atio n . A c o n se rv ativ e p ersp ectiv e, f o r e x am ple , m ay s e e c rim e a s u lt im ate ly st e m min g fr o m t h e la ck o f m ora l v alu es a n d in ad eq u ate d is c ip li n e in a s o cie ty . L ib era l a n d m ore ra d ic a l a n aly se s p oin t t o i s su es r e la tin g t o i n eq u ali t y a n d s o cia l d iv is io n s.

There a re , th en , m yria d r e a so n s fo r a n y p artic u la r y o u n g p erso n to e n gag e in c rim e, a lt h ou gh bro ad s o cia l p atte rn s i n o ffe n din g b eh av io u r a re a p pare n t. A s d em on st r a te d i n t h is c h ap te r, t h eo rie s an d s t u d ie s o f ju ven ile o ffe n din g p oin t t o a w id e r a n ge o f c a u sa l f a cto rs. T hese in clu d e in div id ual fa cto rs ( ra n gin g f r o m p erso n al c h oic e, t o p sy ch olo gic a l d am ag e a ris in g f r o m a n a b u siv e c h ild h ood , to m en ta l illn ess) , sit u atio n al fa cto rs (in clu d in g su ch th in gs as poor sc h ool perfo rm an ce, hom ele ssn ess, an d d ev ia n t p eer cu lt u re s) , an d so cia l st r u ctu ra l fa cto rs (re la tin g fo r in st a n ce to in ad eq u ate m ora l ed uca tio n an d so cia li s a tio n , ra cis m , an d so cia l in eq u ali t y ). T here is , th en , a mult ip li c it y o f s p ecif ic f a cto rs t h at h elp t o e x p la in c rim e.

In a r e v ie w o f e m pir ic a l r e se a rc h o n t h e p re d ic to rs a n d c o rre la te s o f o ffe n din g, F arrin gto n ( 1 996) pro vid es a s y st e m atic o u tli n e o f t h e k ey ‘r is k f a cto rs’ a sso cia te d w it h y o u th fu l o ffe n din g. A m on g t h e man y f a cto rs c it e d a re :

pre n ata l a n d p erin ata l f a cto rs ( fo r e x am ple e a rly c h ild bea rin g, s u bst a n ce u se d urin g p re g n an cy , lo w b ir th w eig h t) hyp era ctiv it y a n d i m pu ls iv it y ( fo r e x am ple h yp era ctiv it y – im pu ls iv it y – atte n tio n -d efic it , l a ck o f in hib it io n ) in te lli g en ce an d atta in m en t (fo r ex am ple lo w n on -v erb al in te lli g en ce, ab st r a ct re a so n in g, co gn it iv e a n d n eu ro p sy ch olo gic a l d efic it ) pare n ta l s u perv is io n , d is c ip li n e, a n d a ttit u d e ( fo r e x am ple e rra tic o r h arsh p are n ta l d is c ip li n e, re je ctin g p are n ta l a ttit u d es, v io le n t b eh av io u r) bro ken h om es ( fo r e x am ple m ate rn al a n d p ate rn al d ep riv atio n , p are n ta l c o n fli c t) pare n ta l c rim in ali t y ( fo r e x am ple c o n vic te d p are n ts, p oor s u perv is io n ) la rg e f a m ily s iz e ( re la te d t o p are n ta l a tte n tio n , o verc ro w din g) so cio eco n om ic d ep riv atio n ( fo r e x am ple l o w f a m ily i n co m e, p oor h ou sin g) peer i n flu en ces ( fo r e x am ple m ale g ro u p b eh av io u r, d eli n qu en t f r ie n ds) sc h ool i n flu en ces ( fo r e x am ple u se o f p ra is e a n d p u n is h m en t, c la ssr o om m an ag em en t) 66 co m mun it y i n flu en ces ( fo r e x am ple h ig h r e sid en tia l m ob ili t y , n eig h bou rh ood d is o rg an is a tio n , ph ysic a l d ete rio ra tio n , o verc ro w din g, t y p e o f h ou sin g) sit u atio n al i n flu en ces ( fo r e x am ple s p ecif ic o p portu n it ie s, b en efit s o u tw eig h in g e x p ecte d c o st s, se ek in g e x cit e m en t) .

It is th e c o m bin atio n o f th ese fa cto rs, a n d th eir a sso cia tio n w it h c erta in c a te g o rie s o f y o u n g peo p le th at ex p la in s v aria tio n s in th e p ro p en sit y fo r crim in al b eh av io u r a n d/o r crim in ali s a tio n am on g y o u n g p eo p le A s F arrin gto n ( 1 996:1 05) o b se rv es:

In e x p la in in g t h e d ev elo p m en t o f o ffe n din g, a m ajo r p ro b le m is t h at m ost r is k f a cto rs t e n d t o c o in cid e an d b e in te rre la te d . F or e x am ple , a d ole sc en ts li v in g in p h ysic a lly d ete rio ra te d a n d s o cia lly d is o rg an iz ed neig h bou rh ood s d is p ro p ortio n ate ly t e n d a ls o t o c o m e f r o m f a m ili e s w it h p oor p are n ta l s u perv is io n a n d erra tic p are n ta l d is c ip li n e a n d t e n d a ls o t o h av e h ig h i m pu ls iv it y a n d l o w i n te lli g en ce. T he c o n cen tr a tio n an d co -o ccu rre n ce of th ese kin ds of ad versit ie s m ak e it dif fic u lt to est a b li s h th eir in dep en den t, in te ra ctiv e, a n d s e q u en tia l i n flu en ces o n o ffe n din g a n d a n tis o cia l b eh av io r.

In a sim ila r v ein , C an ad ia n r e se a rc h ( N atio n al C rim e P re v en tio n C ou n cil ( C an ad a) 1 996:1 1) id en tif ie d t h e f o llo w in g f a cto rs a s b ein g a sso cia te d w it h p ersis t e n t c rim e:

fa m ily v io le n ce a n d n eg le ct la ck o f s u perv is io n f r o m p are n ts o r o th er c a rin g a d ult s, p are n ta l r e je ctio n , a n d l a ck o f p are n t– ch ild i n vo lv em en t dif fic u lt ie s i n s c h ool neig h bou rh ood s ch ara cte ris e d by poor hou sin g an d a la ck of re cre a tio n al, hea lt h , an d ed uca tio n al f a cili t ie s th e d is in te g ra tio n o f s o cia l s u pports peer p re ssu re yo u th u n em plo ym en t a n d b lo ck ed o p portu n it ie s poverty .

Aust r a li a n re v ie w s an d co m men ta rie s li k ew is e id en tif y a w id e ra n ge of in te ra ctin g an d in te rre la te d f a cto rs— perta in in g t o t h e in div id ual, p eer g ro u ps, f a m ily , s c h ool, a n d c o m mun it y — as in te g ra l t o a n y e x p la n atio n o f y o u th o ffe n din g ( se e D ev elo p m en ta l C rim e P re v en tio n C on so rtiu m 1999; T ou m bou ro u 1 999). H ow ev er, a n d a s in dic a te d in t h e n ex t c h ap te r, t h e p ro file s o f y o u n g offe n ders te n d to lo ok basic a lly th e sa m e: yo u n g m en w it h lo w in co m e, lo w ed uca tio n al ach ie v em en t, n o e m plo ym en t, a w ea k a tta ch m en t t o p are n ts, a n d w ho m ove f r e q u en tly a re t h e m ost li k ely t o w in d u p in ju ven ile d ete n tio n c en tr e s ( se e B ra it h w ait e 1 989). W hile r e se a rc h ers c o n tin ue to id en tif y a ra n ge o f ‘r is k fa cto rs’ (su ch a s d ru g a b u se ) a n d ‘p ro te ctiv e fa cto rs’ (su ch a s fa m ily co h esio n ) th at in flu en ce w heth er an in div id ual en gag es in crim in al or an tis o cia l beh av io u r (C ata la n o & H aw kin s 1 996), it is t h e w id er s t r u ctu ra l c o n te x t o f y o u th e x p erie n ce t h at s h ap es t h e overa ll l i f e c h an ces a n d l i f e e x p erie n ces o f y o u n g p eo p le ( W hit e & W yn 2 013).

To sa y th at th e w id er st r u ctu ra l c o n te x t is su ch a st r o n g d ete rm in an t o f y o u th b eh av io u r a n d op portu n it y i s t o a sse rt t h at y o u th o ffe n din g o ccu rs w it h in c erta in s p ecif ic p oli t ic a l, e co n om ic , a n d so cia l co n te x ts. R ath er th an tr e a tin g su ch ph en om en a as ‘s o cio eco n om ic dis a d van ta g e’ an d ‘u n em plo ym en t’ as sp ecif ic ca u sa l fa cto rs, am on g m an y oth ers, it is n ecessa ry to vie w su ch ph en om en a a s c o n se q u en ces o f w id er st r u ctu ra l tr a n sfo rm atio n s in so cie ty . T his is p re cis e ly th e cen tr a l co n cern of crit ic a l crim in olo gy (se e Scra to n & C had w ic k 1 991; C olli n s et al. 2 000; 67 Cun neen 2 001a; C arrin gto n & H ogg 2 002; M un cie 2 004; A nth on y & C un neen 2 008). W it h in th is th eo re tic a l a p pro ach , so m e g ro u ps a re p artic u la rly v u ln era b le to p ro cesse s o f c rim in ali s a tio n , marg in ali s a tio n , a n d s o cia l e x clu sio n . M em bers o f t h e w ork in g c la ss ( e sp ecia lly it s m ore p ow erle ss se ctio n s, in clu d in g t h e ‘u n derc la ss’) , w om en ( e sp ecia lly t h ose w ho a re p oor, w ho a re s o le p are n ts, an d w ho a re s o cia lly is o la te d ), e th n ic m in orit y g ro u ps ( e sp ecia lly t h ose f r o m n on -E ngli s h -s p ea k in g back gro u n ds a n d re fu gees) , a n d In dig en ou s p eo p le (e sp ecia lly th ose w orst a ffe cte d b y lo n g-t e rm co lo n is a tio n p ro cesse s an d in st it u tio n al d is a d van ta g e) are th ose m ost li k ely to su ffe r fr o m th e weig h t o f o p pre ssiv e s o cia l r e la tio n s b ase d u pon c la ss d iv is io n , s e x is m , a n d r a cis m . Y et, a s a n aly sis o f neo li b era l p oli c y a n d p ra ctic e i n dic a te s, a s y st e m ic p ro cess o f ‘r e sp on sib ili s a tio n ’ a n d ‘i n div id uatio n ’ sh if t s t h e p u bli c g aze a n d s o cia l p oli c y a w ay fr o m s t r u ctu ra l d is a d van ta g e a n d t o w ard s t h e n otio n th at e a ch p erso n is r e sp on sib le fo r t h eir o w n li f e c h an ces ( M un cie 2 001; M un cie 2 004; W hit e & Cun neen 2 006). I t is u p t o in div id uals , fa m ili e s, a n d c o m mun it ie s t o c o p e w it h t h eir s it u atio n a s best a s t h ey c a n , a n d t o b e f u lly r e sp on sib le f o r t h eir a ctio n s. I n c o n tr a st , c rit ic a l c rim in olo gy f o cu se s on h ow c rim e is s o cia lly c o n st r u cte d t h ro u gh t h e in te rv en tio n s o f t h e s t a te a n d w it h in t h e c o n te x t of th e p oli t ic a l e co n om y o f a d van ced c a p it a li s m . T o a d dre ss y o u th c rim e th ere fo re re q u ir e s th at an aly sis m ove f r o m s im ple m ult if a cto ria l a n aly se s t o c o n sid era tio n o f b ro ad er s o cia l p ro cesse s t h at giv e ris e to an d ex acerb ate partic u la r ‘r is k fa cto rs’. It als o re q u ir e s crit ic a l sc ru tin y of re sp on sib ili s a tio n p ro cesse s t h at m ak e t h e in div id ual a p pea r t o b e a t t h e c en tr e o f e x p la n atio n s f o r crim in ali t y , w it h n o o r l i t tle c o n sid era tio n o f s t r u ctu ra l d is a d van ta g e.

In p ra ctic e, o f c o u rse , w hy c erta in y o u n g p eo p le c o m mit c erta in c rim es is o n ly a n sw era b le b y co n sid era tio n o f t h eir p erso n al l i f e h is t o ry , t h eir i m med ia te l i f e c ir c u m st a n ces, a n d t h eir p osit io n i n th e w id er s o cia l s t r u ctu re . F or e x am ple , t h e d ecis io n t o c o m mit v an dali s m m ay i n co rp ora te e le m en ts of a n a b u siv e c h ild h ood , d if fic u lt ie s a t s c h ool, u n em plo ym en t, a n d b ad e x p erie n ces w it h a u th orit y fig u re s, o r i t c o u ld b e a s s im ple a s t h e d esir e t o ‘ h av e a g o od t im e’.

While it is im porta n t t o t h in k a b ou t g en era l t h eo rie s a n d c a u se s o f c rim e, it is a ls o in sig h tfu l t o co n sid er t h e s p ecif ic r e a so n s fo r y o u n g p eo p le t o c o m mit p artic u la r c rim es, a n d h ow t h ese m ig h t re la te to th e g en era l th eo rie s. T ak e p ro p erty o ffe n ces, fo r ex am ple : a N ew S o u th W ale s st u d y in vo lv in g i n te rv ie w s w it h ju ven ile -t h eft o ffe n ders i n d ete n tio n c en tr e s f o u n d t h at t h e m ain r e a so n s giv en f o r s h op li f t in g w ere t o o b ta in c lo th es o r m on ey f o r c lo th es, a n d t o o b ta in f o od o r m on ey f o r fo od ( F re em an 1 996). T he m ajo rit y o f y o u n g o ffe n ders a ls o s a id t h ey c o m mit te d b re a k -a n d-e n te r offe n ces i n o rd er t o o b ta in m on ey , w it h a b ou t h alf o f t h ese y o u n g p eo p le w an tin g t o u se t h e m on ey to b u y d ru gs a n d/o r a lc o h ol. A lm ost h alf o f t h e o ffe n ders c o n vic te d f o r s t e a li n g a m oto r v eh ic le s a id th at t h ey h ad c o m mit te d t h e o ffe n ce b eca u se o f t h e w an t o r n eed o f t r a n sp ort. S im ila rly , a s t u d y i n Vic to ria o f t e en ag ers i n l o w -in co m e n eig h bou rh ood s f o u n d t h at 8 0 p er c en t o f y o u n g p eo p le i n t h e st u d y v ie w ed ille g al a ctiv it y a s a n im porta n t m ea n s w here b y p eo p le t h eir a g e c o u ld s u pple m en t a n in ad eq u ate in co m e (W hit e e t a l. 1 997). D ru g d ea li n g a n d sh op li f t in g were c o n sid ere d th e m ain way s t o g et m on ey , a n d in b oth c a se s t h e r e a so n fo r t h e a ctiv it y w as p rim arily fin an cia l. H als e y ’s (2 008, 2 007) i n te rv ie w s w it h y o u n g m ale o ffe n ders f o u n d t h at i n a d dit io n t o f in an cia l m otiv atio n s, yo u n g p eo p le sa w th eir o ffe n din g a s re su lt in g fr o m fa m ili a l a n d su bst a n ce a b u se p ro b le m s. F or ex am ple , t h e y o u n g m en s a id :

My u pbrin gin g. T hat’s w hy I g o t s t u ck i n to i t a ll [ c rim e] a n d I j u st s t a rte d r u n nin g a m ok f r o m m em orie s an d f la sh back s… I t h ou gh t I h ad a f u ck ed u p li f e … M y s t e p d ad u se d t o t r e a t m e li k e s h it … B ea t m e u p ev ery d ay … W hen 1 w as a b ou t 1 2, m um w alk ed in t h e r o om o n e d ay , y o u k n ow , s e en it a n d t h en t h ey bro ke u p a n d s in ce t h en I ’v e j u st h ad m em orie s … t h at’s w hat g o t m e i n to i t ( in H als e y 2 008:1 02).

[ T he a re a I g re w u p i n i s ] a p re tty b ad n eig h bou rh ood w it h a ll t h e d ru gs a n d t h e v io le n ce … T hey c a rry wea p on s, li k e e it h er a g u n o r so m e sh it li k e th at … I st a rte d c a rry in g a fir e a rm a t 1 3 … b eca u se o f 68 pro te ctio n ( in H als e y 2 008:9 9).

Rese a rc h o n y o u n g m en ’s o ffe n din g h as a ls o i n te rp re te d s o m e t y p es o f o ffe n din g— su ch a s v io le n t offe n din g— as b ein g c o m mit te d to o b ta in th e a p pro val o f o th ers (H als e y 2 008), e sp ecia lly o th er male s ( R eic h 2 010).

These e x am ple s illu st r a te t h at c erta in t y p es o f c rim es a re v ery m uch r e la te d t o p artic u la r g ro u ps of o ffe n ders fo r v ery sp ecif ic e n ds. T his is im porta n t in so fa r a s it in dic a te s th at it is c ru cia l to co n sid er t h e s o cia l c o n te x t o f c rim e in a n y g en uin e a tte m pt t o b rin g t o geth er c rim e’s in div id ual, sit u atio n al, a n d s t r u ctu ra l e le m en ts.

Tak in g in to a cco u n t s o cia l c o n te x t, w e c a n a ls o b ette r u n derst a n d t h e p la ce a n d r o le o f a lc o h ol an d o th er d ru gs i n t h e l i v es o f s o m e y o u n g p eo p le . S tu d ie s h av e s h ow n, f o r e x am ple , t h at s u bst a n ce use — partic u la rly th e u se o f m ariju an a an d alc o h ol— is st r o n gly asso cia te d w it h y o u n g-o ffe n der st a tu s ( H ow ard & Z ib ert 1 990; P utn in s 2 001). H ig h er r a te s o f t o b acco , a lc o h ol, a n d c a n nab is u se hav e a ls o b een o b se rv ed i n t h ose y o u n g p eo p le w ho, f o r w hate v er r e a so n , a re o u t o f s c h ool b u t n ot i n fu ll- t im e e m plo ym en t ( T re ssid er e t a l. 1 997). D ru g u se ( a n d a b u se ) h av e b een a sso cia te d w it h a l a ck of p osit iv e t h in gs t o d o, b ore d om , l a ck o f e m plo ym en t a n d e d uca tio n al o p portu n it ie s, a n d a g en era l se n se o f p essim is m t h at t h in gs a re n ot g o in g t o g et a n y b ette r. F urth erm ore , m an y o ffe n ders r e p ort usin g s u bst a n ces a t t h e t im e o f t h eir o ffe n ce, w it h a lc o h ol t h e s u bst a n ce m ost o ft e n a sso cia te d w it h th e a ctu al a ct o f o ffe n din g ( M ak kai & P ay n e 2 003; P utn in s 2 001:1 4).

What y o u n g p eo p le t h in k a b ou t t h eir c ir c u m st a n ces, h ow t h ey t h in k a b ou t t h em se lv es, a n d h ow oth ers v ie w t h em , a ll h av e m ajo r r e p erc u ssio n s f o r t h e w ay s in w hic h t h ey r e la te t o is su es o f c rim e an d s o cie ty . I n varia b ly , t h e s o cia l p osit io n o f y o u n g p eo p le b rin gs t h em in to r e g u la r c o n ta ct w it h ag en ts o f t h e c rim in al ju st ic e s y st e m . C erta in ly , m ore t h eo re tic a l a n d e m pir ic a l w ork is n eed ed t o ex p lo re t h e li v ed e x p erie n ces o f y o u th c rim e— th e m otiv atio n s, e m otio n s, s e n sa te e x p erie n ces, a n d mea n in gs a sso cia te d w it h h um an b eh av io u r. H ow y o u n g p eo p le p erc eiv e a n d e m otio n ally r e sp on d to t h e w orld a ro u n d t h em is c en tr a l t o t h is t a sk . I n t h is r e g ard , r e cen t d ev elo p m en ts in ‘c u lt u ra l crim in olo gy’ e m ph asis e b oth t h at t h e c rim in ali s a tio n o f m an y a sp ects o f e v ery d ay li f e is o ccu rrin g an d th at ‘t r a n sg re ssin g an d d oin g w ro n g are fo r m an y an ex cit in g an d p le a su ra b le ex p erie n ce’ (P re sd ee 2 001:3 0; s e e a ls o K atz 1 988). A s H ay w ard ( 2 002) o b se rv es, t h e v ili f ic a tio n a n d p le a su re s of y o u th fu l tr a n sg re ssio n a re i m porta n t t o s t u d y s in ce t h ey r e la te t o b ro ad er c h an ges i n s o cie ty ( fo r ex am ple c o m mod if ic a tio n o f so cia l li f e , g en era li s e d fe eli n gs o f in se cu rit y ) th at, in tu rn , g en era te vary in g r e sp on se s o n t h e p art o f y o u n g p eo p le a s t h ey n eg o tia te t h eir e v ery d ay li v es ( fo r e x am ple se a rc h in g f o r e x cit e m en t, g o in g b ey o n d t h e m un dan e a n d t h e b orin g). T he p h en om en on o f j u ven ile crim e h as t o b e i n vest ig ate d f r o m t h e p oin t o f v ie w o f h ow y o u n g p eo p le c o n st r u ct m ea n in g, a s w ell as in re la tio n to th e m ate ria l an d cu lt u ra l re so u rc es th at th ey dra w upon in sp ecif ic so cia l cir c u m st a n ces. U nderst a n din g an d ex p la in in g yo u th o ffe n din g th ere fo re d em an ds th at w e b e se n sit iv e t o t h e in te rc o n nectio n s b etw een in div id ual b io gra p h y, s o cia l h is t o ry , a n d lo ca l c o n te x t, a s well a s t a k in g in to a cco u n t t h e in te rv en tio n s o f p ow erfu l a g en cie s a n d a d ult s in t h e li v es o f y o u n g peo p le .

CO N CLU SIO N The d ev elo p m en t o f o ffic ia l re sp on se s to ju ven ile o ffe n din g h as b een h ea v ily in flu en ced b y th e th eo rie s a n d p ersp ectiv es o u tli n ed in t h is c h ap te r. T he ‘s p ecia l c o n dit io n s’ t h at h av e c h ara cte ris e d th e w ay s in w hic h y o u n g p eo p le h av e b een p ro cesse d w it h in t h e c rim in al ju st ic e s y st e m a re in n o sm all p art d ue t o t h e i n flu en ce o f i d ea s r e la tin g t o t h e s o cia l s t r u ctu re a n d s o cia l p ro cesse s a n d t h eir 69 im pact o n y o u th b eh av io u r. T he r e sp on se s o f t h e s y st e m t o y o u n g p eo p le a re b y n o m ea n s u n if o rm or c o n sis t e n t, a n d t h e m ult ip li c it y o f p ro gra m s a n d in st it u tio n s in p art r e fle cts t h e m an y d if fe re n t id ea s a b ou t t h e c a u se s o f ju ven ile o ffe n din g. T he e m ph asis o n g ro u p w ork a n d o u tr e a ch w ork in so m e p ro gra m s, f o r e x am ple , i s r e la te d t o t h e n otio n o f p eer-g ro u p i n flu en ce a n d s u bcu lt u ra l v alu es, an d h ow t h ese s h ap e a y o u n g p erso n ’s a ttit u d e t o w ard s c rim in al o r d ev ia n t b eh av io u r. P ro vis io n o f tr a in in g an d ed uca tio n al pro gra m s is cle a rly li n ked wit h co n cern s to en han ce ‘b lo ck ed op portu n it ie s’ an d en co u ra g e posit iv e dev elo p m en ta l ou tle ts fo r yo u n g peo p le . The decrim in ali s a tio n o f so m e ju ven ile o ffe n ces, o n go in g c o n cern s to d iv ert y o u n g p eo p le fr o m th e fo rm al c o u rt s y st e m , a n d t h e d ev elo p m en t o f a lt e rn ativ es t o d ete n tio n r e p re se n t s y st e m ic r e sp on se s to i s su es r a is e d b y t h e l a b elli n g t h eo ry ( C oven tr y & P olk 1 985).

The a p pli c a tio n b y c rim in olo gis t s o f t h e i d ea s s u m maris e d i n t h is c h ap te r t e n ds t o m an if e st i n t h e fo rm of m ult if a cto ria l ex p la n atio n s fo r yo u th crim e. H ow ev er, in doin g th is , crim in olo gis t s gen era lly r e fr a in f r o m p re se n tin g a h ie ra rc h y o f c a u se s. T he r e su lt i s t h at i m med ia te c a u se s a re c it e d (su ch a s u n em plo ym en t, r a cis m , la b elli n g, p oor sc h ooli n g) a n d r e fo rm is t m ea su re s a re a d vo ca te d (su ch as tr a in in g sc h em es, alt e rn ativ e sc h ools ) , b u t ra re ly are su bst a n tia l ch an ges to th e so cia l st r u ctu re a s a w hole d em an ded . F or th ose w ho w is h to se e m ajo r so cia l ch an ge o ccu rrin g, th e qu est io n s o f p ow er a n d o f s o cia l i n te re st s a re o f p ara m ou n t i m porta n ce. W here m ult ip le f a cto rs a re at th e fo re g ro u n d o f an aly sis , th e te n den cy is to re sp on d to th e p h en om en on o f y o u th crim e th ro u gh e m ph asis o n d ev elo p in g s p ecif ic p ro je cts a n d p ro gra m s. M ore r a d ic a l p ersp ectiv es v ie w s u ch pro p osa ls a s v ery l i m it in g, u n le ss t h ey a re l i n ked d ir e ctly t o a w id er p oli t ic s o f s o cia l c h an ge.

The th eo re tic a l persp ectiv es ou tli n ed in th is ch ap te r pro vid e co m petin g an d at tim es co m ple m en ta ry e x p la n atio n s re g ard in g th e c a u se s o f c rim e a n d th e a p pro p ria te re sp on se s to it .

While so m e th eo rie s co n cen tr a te o n d ete rm in in g in div id ual d if fe re n ces in th e co m mis sio n o f offe n ces a n d s o m e f o cu s o n s it u atio n al f a cto rs s u ch a s a lc o h ol u se a n d a n tis o cia l b eh av io u r, o th ers ex p lo re th e w ay in w hic h c h an gin g so cio eco n om ic c ir c u m st a n ces a n d th e n atu re o f so cie ty it se lf im pin ge u pon p artic u la r gro u ps an d cla sse s in so cie ty . T he sp ecif ic le v el o f an aly sis an d th e partic u la r p oli t ic a l o rie n ta tio n o f th e w rit e r in e sse n ce d ic ta te th e d efin it io n s, e x p la n atio n s, a n d co n tr o l s t r a te g ie s t h at o u gh t t o b e a d op te d . I n a s im ila r v ein , t h e n otio n o f ‘s c ie n tif ic t r u th ’ i n t e rm s of t h eo re tic a l u n derst a n din g, a n d ‘e ffe ctiv en ess’ w it h r e g ard t o a ctu al c rim in al ju st ic e p ra ctic es, w ill vary a cco rd in g t o t h e p ara d ig m w it h in w hic h o n e is w ork in g. P erc ep tio n s a n d t h eo rie s o f ju ven ile offe n din g a re f r e q u en tly r e li a n t u pon d ata r e g ard in g s p ecif ic o ffe n ces a n d o ffe n ders g ath ere d b y t h e fo rm al a g en cie s o f c rim in al j u st ic e ( a s w ell a s d ata g en era te d t h ro u gh r e se a rc h s t u d y). W hic h y o u n g peo p le a n d w hic h o ffe n ces c o m e t o t h e a tte n tio n o f c rim in al ju st ic e o ffic ia ls is t h e s u bje ct o f t h e nex t c h ap te r.

70 3 TH E N ATU RE O F C O N TE M PO R AR Y JU VE N IL E C R IM E 71 C H AP TE R H IG H LIG H TS In tr o d u ctio n Th e e xte n t o f j u ve n il e o ffe n din g Socia l f a cto rs Exp la n atio n s Med ia r e p re se n ta tio n s Yo u ng p eop le a s v ic tim s o f c rim e Con clu sio n I N TR OD U CTIO N T his c h ap te r d is c u sse s t h e n atu re a n d d yn am ic s o f j u ven ile c rim e. I t i s i m porta n t t o r e co gn is e a t t h e o u tse t t h at a c o m ple te p ic tu re o f ju ven ile c rim e c a n not b e o b ta in ed . O ur s o u rc es o f in fo rm atio n l i m it t h e p ic tu re o f ju ven ile o ffe n din g fo r a v arie ty o f r e a so n s. E ach s o u rc e o f in fo rm atio n a t t h e m ost p ro vid es o n ly a s e le ctiv e g li m pse — an d, li k e a n y p artia l v ie w , m ay a ctu ally d is g u is e a s m uch a s i llu m in ate . S o u rc es o f in fo rm atio n a b ou t ju ven ile o ffe n din g in clu d e o ffic ia l st a tis t ic s, se lf -r e p ort s t u d ie s, a n d o th er s u rv ey s a n d r e se a rc h . H ow ev er, w e s h ou ld n ot u n dere st im ate t h e r o le o f p op u la r c u lt u re t h ro u gh film , v id eo , m usic , a n d li t e ra tu re — as w ell a s t h e u biq u it o u s r o le o f t h e m ed ia a s d efin ers o f la w -a n d-o rd er n ew s— in st r u ctu rin g o u r k n ow le d ge an d u n derst a n din g o f ju ven ile o ffe n din g a n d t h e r a n ge o f p ossib le r e sp on se s t o i t .

T H E E XTE N T O F J U VE N IL E O FFE N DIN G O ffic ia l so u rc es o f in fo rm atio n d ea l w it h th e e n d p ro cess o f in te rv en tio n b y p oli c e, c o u rts, a n d j u ven ile ju st ic e a u th orit ie s. T hese s o u rc es m ay b e u se fu l in t e rm s o f u n derst a n din g s o m e ju ven ile o ffe n din g p atte rn s, a n d a ls o f o r t e lli n g u s a b ou t t h e p rio rit ie s, p ra ctic es, a n d n atu re o f i n te rv en tio n b y st a te a g en cie s ( fo r e x am ple h ow m an y y o u n g p eo p le r e ceiv e a p oli c e c a u tio n in st e a d o f b ein g a rre st e d a n d c h arg ed , o r h ow m an y m atte rs a re p ro cesse d b y w ay o f y o u th c o n fe re n cin g o r o th er a lt e rn ativ es, r a th er t h an t h ro u gh t h e c h ild re n ’s c o u rts) .

How ev er, w e n eed t o b e a w are o f t h e li m it a tio n s o f t h e o ffic ia l s t a tis t ic s t h at a re , in t h e e n d, a p ro d uct o r o u tc o m e o f a s o cia l a n d p oli t ic a l p ro cess. C ic o u re l ( 1 976), in a n im porta n t s t u d y t h at e x am in ed j u ven ile j u st ic e i n t h e 1 960s, a n aly se d t h e s o cia l p ro cesse s t h at c re a te k n ow le d ge a b ou t a n ‘ o ffe n der’. In p artic u la r, h e w as c o n cern ed w it h th e w ay p oli c e a n d p ro b atio n o ffic ers c o n st r u ct d ocu m en ts a n d te x tu al a cco u n ts th at d ev elo p ‘e v id en ce’ a b ou t a n in div id ual. In th is se n se , th e r o u tin e bu re a u cra tic pro cesse s in co rp ora te an d tr a n sfo rm th e yo u n g perso n in to a ‘j u ven ile d eli n qu en t’, a n d o ffic ia l s t a tis t ic s c o n cern in g y o u n g o ffe n ders d eriv e f r o m t h ese p ro cesse s. E qu ally i m porta n t i s t h at o u r k n ow le d ge o f t h e o ccu rre n ce o f ‘ c rim e’ i s a ls o d ep en den t o n a r a n ge o f f a cto rs.

For a n e v en t t o b e c la ssif ie d a s a c rim e, a n um ber o f c o n dit io n s m ust b e s a tis fie d . S o m e a ct o r s it u atio n m ust b e p erc eiv ed b y s o m eo n e a n d t h en d efin ed a s b ein g ille g al. T he o b se rv er m ust t h en d ecid e t o r e p ort t h e i n cid en t t o p oli c e. T he p oli c e m ust d ecid e t h at w hat i s b ein g r e p orte d t o t h em c o n st it u te s a n o ffe n ce, a n d r e co rd i t a s s u ch .

We k n ow th at a g re a t d ea l o f c rim e is n ot r e p orte d to th e p oli c e in th e fir st in st a n ce. C rim e v ic tim s u rv ey s in A ust r a li a a n d o verse a s s h ow t h at m an y o ffe n ces o f v io le n ce a re n ev er r e p orte d t o 72 au th orit ie s. R ecen t s u rv ey s i n A ust r a li a s h ow t h at o n ly 3 4 p er c en t o f s e x u al a ssa u lt s, 5 0 p er c en t o f assa u lt s, a n d 5 0 p er c en t o f r o b berie s a re r e p orte d t o p oli c e ( A BS 2 013a). R ep orts o f t h eft v ary , w it h 93 p er c en t o f m oto r v eh ic le th eft a n d 7 8 p er c en t o f b u rg la rie s b ein g re p orte d to th e p oli c e.

Furth erm ore , s t u d ie s h av e s h ow n t h at a s u bst a n tia l p ro p ortio n o f o ffe n ces r e p orte d b y t h e p u bli c t o th e p oli c e a re s u bse q u en tly n ot a ccep te d b y p oli c e a s b ein g c rim es a n d a re t h ere fo re n ot r e co rd ed .

The pro p ortio n of offe n ces affe cte d by th is ph en om en on — kn ow n as ‘n o-c rim in g’— varie s acco rd in g t o a r a n ge o f f a cto rs, p artic u la rly o ffe n ce t y p e a n d w heth er t h e c o m pla in an t is k n ow n t o poli c e. F or e x am ple , r e se a rc h h as c o n sis t e n tly s h ow n t h at a l a rg e p ro p ortio n o f c o m pla in ts o f s e x u al vio le n ce are n ot re co rd ed b y p oli c e (se e, fo r ex am ple , K elly , L ovett & R eg an 2 005). D aly & Bou h ou rs’ (2 010) co m para tiv e st u d y o f attr it io n in ra p e ca se s in A ust r a li a , C an ad a, th e U SA , Sco tla n d a n d E ngla n d a n d W ale s fo u n d th at o n a v era g e, le ss th an o n e-t h ir d o f r e p orte d c a se s o f se x u al v io le n ce p ro gre sse d t o t h e p ro se cu tio n s t a g e ( a lt h ou gh c a se s m ay d ro p o u t o f t h e c rim in al pro cess d ue t o r e a so n s o th er t h an p oli c e n ot r e co rd in g t h e a lle g ed o ffe n ce, s u ch a s a l a ck o f e v id en ce an d v ic tim s w it h dra w in g t h e c o m pla in t) . W hat e m erg es i n t h e o ffic ia l c rim e s t a tis t ic s a s t h e l e v el o f crim e i s c le a rly a p artia l p ic tu re .

There a re a ls o fa cto rs s p ecif ic t o ju ven ile c rim e t h at fu rth er li m it t h e u tili t y o f o ffic ia l fig u re s.

These a re :

th e l e v el o f u n re p orte d j u ven ile c rim e, p artic u la rly w here y o u n g p eo p le a re a ls o t h e v ic tim s ch an ges i n e n fo rc em en t p ra ctic es w it h a s p ecif ic f o cu s o n y o u n g p eo p le dis t o rtio n s c a u se d b y t h e n atu re o f j u ven ile o ffe n din g i t se lf ( a s d is c u sse d f u rth er b elo w ).

You n g p eo p le m ay b e r e lu cta n t t o r e p ort c rim e t o p oli c e f o r a v arie ty o f r e a so n s. I t h as b een n ote d th at y o u n g w om en w ho a re t h e v ic tim s o f v io le n ce a n d h ara ssm en t r e p ort f e w o f t h ese i n cid en ts t o th e p oli c e ( H la v k a 2 014). H om ele ss y o u n g p eo p le a re a ls o v u ln era b le t o vio le n ce, a n d t h eir a lr e a d y st r a in ed re la tio n sh ip w it h au th orit ie s m ak es re p ortin g o f in cid en ts u n li k ely . S p ecif ic g ro u ps o f yo u n g p eo p le fr o m n on -E ngli s h -s p ea k in g b ack gro u n ds, re fu gee yo u n g p eo p le , an d In dig en ou s yo u n g p eo p le , a re u n li k ely t o r e p ort o ffe n ces w hen t h ey h av e b een v ic tim s, p erh ap s b eca u se t h ey a re su sp ic io u s o f p oli c e o r b eca u se t h ey h av e a h is t o ry o f p oor r e la tio n s w it h p oli c e ( se e f u rth er Chap te r 9 ). P eo p le w ork in g i n y o u th s e rv ic es h av e n ote d t h at a s e n se o f r e sig n atio n a n d p ow erle ssn ess o ft e n pre v en ts yo u n g peo p le fr o m re p ortin g offe n ces (U nderw ood , W hit e & O melc zu k 1993:1 4).

Rou tin e c rim e-v ic tim s u rv ey s s u ch a s t h ose c o n ducte d b y t h e A ust r a li a n B ure a u o f S ta tis t ic s o r t h e Brit is h H om e O ffic e are u n li k ely to o verc o m e th e p ro b le m s asso cia te d w it h th e lo w le v els o f re p ortin g b y s p ecif ic g ro u ps: h om ele ss p eo p le a re e x clu d ed f r o m h ou se h old s u rv ey s, a s a re t h ose w ho are n ot o n t h e e le cto ra l r e g is t e r ( th is is t h e c a se fo r m an y I n dig en ou s y o u n g p eo p le ). P eo p le w it h Engli s h as a se co n d la n gu ag e (in clu d in g In dig en ou s p eo p le ) m ay fin d th e su rv ey s d if fic u lt to co m ple te . P erh ap s m ost i m porta n t f o r o u r d is c u ssio n o f y o u n g p eo p le i s t h e f a ct t h at a l a rg e s e ctio n of y o u n g p eo p le a re e x clu d ed fr o m t h e s u rv ey p ro cess. I n t h e U nit e d K in gd om , h ou se h old c rim e su rv ey s a re c o m ple te d b y t h ose 1 6 y ea rs a n d a b ove, a n d i n A ust r a li a t h e r e sp on den t m ust b e 1 5 y ea rs of a g e o r o ld er ( se e < http :/ /w ww.a b s.g o v.a u >).

Chan ges in ju ven ile ju st ic e e n fo rc em en t p ra ctic es a n d la w c a n h av e d ra m atic e ffe cts o n o ffic ia l fig u re s, p artic u la rly in a m pli f y in g th e in cid en ce o r p artic ip atio n o f sp ecif ic g ro u ps o f o ffe n ces o r offe n ders. F or in st a n ce, a p oli c e c ra ck d ow n o n g ra ffit i g ro u ps c a n im med ia te ly b oost a rre st s a n d co u rt ap pea ra n ces fo r o ffe n ces re la te d to p ro p erty d am ag e. Y et th is d oes n ot m ea n th ere h as necessa rily b een a n y i n cre a se in t h e le v el o f o ffe n din g. S im ila rly , c h an ges i n le g is la tio n c a n c a u se a n in cre a se in co u rt ap pea ra n ces. F or ex am ple , fo llo w in g th e rio ts at C ro n ulla an d o th er S yd n ey 73 bea ch es, t h e N ew S o u th W ale s G overn m en t i n tr o d uced a r a ft o f l e g is la tiv e a m en dm en ts i n t h e Law Enfo rce m en t L eg is la tio n A m en dm en t (P ubli c S afe ty ) A ct 2 005 (N SW ) w it h th e ex p re ss aim o f pre v en tin g a n d c o n tr o lli n g la rg e-s c a le p u bli c d is o rd er in cid en ts. C han ges in e x is t in g c h ild w elf a re la w s o r t h e i n tr o d uctio n o f n ew w elf a re -s t y le d l a w s ( w hic h b rid ge ‘p ro te ctio n ’ a n d i s su es r e la tin g t o pote n tia l c rim in ali t y ) m ay a ls o in cre a se c o n ta ct b etw een y o u n g p eo p le a n d t h e p oli c e; f o r e x am ple , th e Child ren (P ro te ctio n a n d P aren ta l R esp on sib ili t y ) A ct 1 997 (N SW ) p ro vid es p oli c e w it h th e pow er to re m ove c h ild re n fr o m p u bli c p la ces u n der p artic u la r c ir c u m st a n ces. R ed efin in g p oli c e pow ers an d p rio rit ie s ca n als o le a d to in cre a se d le v els o f fo rm al co n ta ct w it h ju ven ile ju st ic e ag en cie s. F or e x am ple , w hen t h e N SW S ta te P la n d ir e cte d p oli c e t o fo cu s o n m on it o rin g a lle g ed offe n ders’ c o m pli a n ce w it h b ail c o n dit io n s, b ail c o m pli a n ce c h eck s i n cre a se d 4 00 p er c en t b etw een Ja n uary 2 007 a n d S ep te m ber 2 010. A lt h ou gh y o u n g p eo p le w ere u n li k ely t o h av e c o m mit te d m ore bail b re a ch es d urin g t h is p erio d , t h is s h if t in p oli c e p rio rit ie s h ad a s ig n if ic a n t im pact o n le v els o f re co rd ed crim e by yo u n g peo p le (R ic h ard s & R en sh aw 2013). C han ges in la w -e n fo rc em en t ap pro ach es t o illi c it d ru gs c a n a ls o in flu en ce y o u n g p eo p le ’s c o n ta ct w it h ju ven ile ju st ic e. I n r e cen t yea rs, m an y st a te s h av e in tr o d uced p oli c e d iv ersio n fo r m in or ca n nab is o ffe n ces, u n der w hic h eli g ib le o ffe n ders c a n b e d iv erte d t o a d ru g d iv ersio n p ro gra m f o r a sse ssm en t a n d e d uca tio n . I f t h e offe n der a tte n ds th e p ro gra m , h e o r sh e is n ot c h arg ed w it h a c rim in al o ffe n ce, d oes n ot a tte n d co u rt, an d d oes n ot re ceiv e a crim in al re co rd . T his ca n als o b e th e ca se w it h yo u th ju st ic e co n fe re n cin g a n d y o u th d ru g a n d a lc o h ol c o u rts.

There a re a n um ber o f sp ecif ic fe a tu re s o f ju ven ile o ffe n din g th at li k ew is e c a n in cre a se y o u n g peo p le ’s r e p re se n ta tio n i n c rim e s t a tis t ic s. Y ou n g p eo p le a re m ore l i k ely t o g et c a u gh t b y p oli c e t h an ad ult o ffe n ders, f o r t h e f o llo w in g r e a so n s:

You n g p eo p le a re l e ss l i k ely t o b e e x p erie n ced a n d a cco m pli s h ed c rim in als .

You n g p eo p le t e n d t o c o m mit o ff e n ces in g ro u ps, w hic h le a d s t o g re a te r v is ib ili t y a n d r is k o f dete ctio n .

The s o cia l d yn am ic s o f t h e o ffe n ce m ay le a d t o e a sie r d ete ctio n if it is p u bli c , g re g ario u s, a n d atte n tio n -s e ek in g.

Ju ven ile c rim e is o ft e n e p is o d ic , u n pla n ned , o p portu n is t ic , a n d re la te d to th e u se o f p u bli c sp ace in a re a s su ch a s p u bli c tr a n sp ort a n d sh op pin g c en tr e s, w here th ere is a h ig h le v el o f vis ib ili t y a n d s u rv eilla n ce.

You n g p eo p le t e n d t o c o m mit o ffe n ces c lo se t o w here t h ey l i v e. A s a r e su lt , t h ey a re m ore l i k ely to b e i d en tif ie d b y t h e v ic tim a n d r e p orte d .

These is su es h av e b een d is c u sse d m ore fu lly in a n um ber o f re p orts (M ukh erje e 1 983, 1 985; Fre ib erg , F ox & H ogan 1 988). T here a re a ls o a n um ber o f o th er f a cto rs t h at le a d t o d is t o rtio n s in th e f ig u re s o n j u ven ile o ffe n din g. T hese i n clu d e t h e f o llo w in g:

Beca u se y o u n g p eo p le c o m mit o ffe n ces i n g ro u ps, s e v era l y o u n g p eo p le a re o ft e n a rre st e d f o r a sin gle o ffe n ce, w hic h d is t o rts t h e s t a tis t ic s o n t h e r e la tio n sh ip b etw een o ffe n ders a n d o ffe n ces.

The o ffe n ces fo r w hic h ju ven ile s a re m ost o ver-r e p re se n te d w hen c o m pare d w it h a d ult s a re als o o ffe n ces t h at h av e h ig h r e p ortin g r a te s b eca u se o f in su ra n ce r e q u ir e m en ts ( m oto r v eh ic le th eft , b u rg la ry ).

Moto r v eh ic le t h eft a n d b u rg la ry a re a ls o o ffe n ces f o r w hic h p oli c e c le a r-u p r a te s ( th at i s , r a te s of c rim es s o lv ed ) a re v ery l o w . T he a p pare n t h ig h l e v el o f y o u n g p eo p le ’s p artic ip atio n i n t h ese offe n ces m ay in p art re fle ct th eir in ex p erie n ce an d th e gre a te r li k eli h ood o f th eir b ein g 74 ap pre h en ded .

So m e e x am ple s w ill c la rif y t h e p oin ts j u st n ote d . F or i n st a n ce, y o u n g p eo p le a re l i k ely t o s t e a l c a rs fo r r e a so n s d if fe re n t f r o m t h ose o f p ro fe ssio n al t h ie v es, a n d a re m ore li k ely t o b e c a u gh t jo y-r id in g beca u se o f t h e n atu re o f t h eir p u bli c b eh av io u r a n d t h eir y o u th . Y et t h e v ast m ajo rit y o f c a r t h eft s are n ot s o lv ed . I n f a ct, 9 4 p er c en t o f r e p orte d m oto r v eh ic le t h eft s a re n ot c le a re d b y p oli c e, a n d pro ceed in gs a re c o m men ced a g ain st a n a lle g ed o ffe n der in 4 .5 p er c en t o f r e p orte d t h eft s ( N SW Bure a u o f C rim e S ta tis t ic s a n d R ese a rc h 2 010:4 0). I f t h e t h eft o f a s in gle c a r h as b een c o m mit te d b y a gro u p, th is p ro d uces m ult ip le o ffe n ders in p oli c e an d co u rt st a tis t ic s. T hus, w hile w e k n ow ju ven ile o ffe n ders c o m pris e s o m e 5 1.9 p er c en t o f t h ose w ho a re c a u gh t b y p oli c e f o r m oto r v eh ic le th eft i n A ust r a li a ( se e Tab le 3 .1 ), t h is f ig u re i s i t se lf b ase d o n a v ery l o w p erc en ta g e ( 5 .6 p er c en t) o f cle a re d c rim es ( N SW B ure a u o f C rim e S ta tis t ic s a n d R ese a rc h 2 010:4 0). I n a d dit io n , t h e 5 1.9 p er cen t f ig u re o f j u ven ile o ffe n ders o verst a te s j u ven ile i n vo lv em en t b eca u se o f t h e l i k eli h ood t h at t h ere were se v era l yo u n g p eo p le in vo lv ed in e a ch c a r th eft in cid en t. A sim ila r sc en ario is a p pli c a b le to bu rg la ry ( ‘b re a k a n d e n te r’ o r ‘b re a k in g a n d e n te rin g’) , w here y o u n g p eo p le ’s i n ex p erie n ce a n d t h eir pro p en sit y t o c o m mit o ffe n ces in g ro u ps le a d t o a g re a te r c h an ce o f a p pre h en sio n a n d a d is t o rte d pre se n ce in t h e o ffe n der s t a tis t ic s. I t h as b een w ell e st a b li s h ed t h at o ffe n din g b y y o u n g p eo p le is a gro u p a ctiv it y ( D aly 2 005; S to lz en berg & D ’A le ssio 2 008).

TA B LE 3 .1   Alle g ed o ffe n ders a n d r e co rd ed c rim e, N ew S ou th W ale s, A pril 2 009– Marc h 2 010 Offe n ce No. o f j u ve n il e s % o f a ll o ffe n ders Murd er 9 10.8 Assa u lt 4324 14.9 Sexu al a ssa u lt 7 4 13.4 Oth er s e x o ffe n ce s 8 4 7 .7 Rob bery w it h ou t a w eap on 7 01 53.7 Rob bery w it h a f ir e arm 3 8 21.1 Rob bery w it h o th er w eap on 2 29 36.5 Burg la ry d w ellin g 1361 40.7 Burg la ry n on -d w ellin g 1098 47.7 Moto r v e h ic le t h eft 9 51 51.9 Ste al f r o m m oto r v e h ic le 6 31 42.2 Ste al f r o m r e ta il s to re 3419 29.5 Ste al f r o m d w ellin g 2 86 33.1 Ste al f r o m p ers o n 1 88 36.1 Fra u d 3 46 8 .1 Pro p erty d am ag e 4324 31.7 Sou rc e : U npu blis h ed d ata , N SW B ure au o f C rim e S ta tis tic s a n d R ese arc h , 2 7 A ugu st 2 010.

Even w hen y o u n g p eo p le c o m mit t h e m ost s e rio u s o ffe n ces ( su ch a s h om ic id e), t h e p atte rn o f 75 th eir o ffe n din g is d if fe re n t fr o m t h at o f a d ult s. H om ic id es c o m mit te d b y y o u n g p eo p le a re m ore li k ely t o o ccu r b etw een u n re la te d p eo p le , a n d a re m ore l i k ely t o o ccu r i n p u bli c e n vir o n m en ts t h an hom ic id es p erp etr a te d b y a d ult s ( C arc a ch 1 997).

TH E P R OPO R TIO N O F O FFE N CES C O M MIT TE D B Y Y O U N G PEO PLE Offic ia l p oli c e fig u re s ca n b e u se d to giv e so m e in dic a tio n o f yo u n g p eo p le ’s p artic ip atio n in re p orte d c rim e. O ne s e t o f d ata t h at is a v aila b le r e la te s t o o ffe n ces c le a re d b y p oli c e t h ro u gh t h e arre st o f a n o ffe n der o r w here t h ere i s a s u sp ect i d en tif ie d b y p oli c e.

These d ata s h ow t h at t h e o ffe n ces t h at h av e t h e h ig h est p ro p ortio n o f y o u n g p eo p le t h ou gh t t o be in vo lv ed a re r e la te d t o v ario u s f o rm s o f p ro p erty t h eft , o r r o b bery w it h ou t a w ea p on . T here a re dif fic u lt ie s in d ra w in g t o o m an y c o n clu sio n s f r o m p oli c e a rre st f ig u re s beca u se o f t h e a ssu m ptio n s un derly in g s u ch f ig u re s a n d b eca u se o f t h eir m od e o f c o lle ctio n , b u t t h ey d o t e ll u s s o m eth in g a b ou t who g ets a rre st e d fo r p artic u la r o ffe n ces. R ic h ard s (2 009a) fo u n d th at y o u n g p eo p le c o n st it u te nea rly h alf o f a ll t h ose a rre st e d f o r t r e sp assin g a n d v ag ra n cy , a n d a p pro xim ate ly 4 0 p er c en t o f t h ose arre st e d f o r r o b bery , a rso n , a n d u n la w fu l u se o f m oto r v eh ic le . C on verse ly , ju ven ile o ffe n ders t e n d to b e u n derre p re se n te d i n t h e m ore s e rio u s o ffe n ce c a te g o rie s ( o ffe n ce c a te g o rie s b ein g g ro u pin gs o f dis t in ct crim in al o ffe n ces) su ch as h om ic id e an d se x u al o ffe n ces (R ic h ard s 2 009a). T he h ig h er ju ven ile arre st ra te s fo r b u rg la ry an d m oto r v eh ic le th eft are o p en to in flu en ce b y th e fa cto rs dis c u sse d e a rli e r, s u ch a s t h e c o m mis sio n o f t h e o ffe n ce in c o m pan y, a la ck o f c rim in al e x p erie n ce, an d t h e g re a te r l i k eli h ood o f d ete ctio n .

Not o n ly a re y o u n g p eo p le n ot o ver-r e p re se n te d in t h e m ost s e rio u s o ffe n ce c a te g o rie s, b u t t h e offe n ces t h ey c o m mit a re a ls o l e ss s e rio u s t h an a d ult c rim es b eca u se :

th ere i s a g re a te r l i k eli h ood t h at t h e a tte m pte d p ro p erty c rim e o r r o b bery w ill b e u n su ccessfu l th ere i s l e ss f r e q u en t u se o f w ea p on s w hen c o m mit tin g a n o ffe n ce when i n ju rie s t o v ic tim s o ccu r, t h ey a re l e ss s e rio u s t h an t h ose c a u se d b y a n a d ult o ffe n der th e f in an cia l l o ss s u ffe re d i n t h eft o ffe n ces i s l e ss t h an t h at c a u se d b y a d ult o ffe n ders.

While t h e o vera ll p ic tu re s h ow s t h at a b ou t o n e i n f o u r o ffe n ders i n o ffe n ces c le a re d b y p oli c e i s a ju ven ile , y o u n g p eo p le a re c o n cen tr a te d i n l e ss-s e rio u s p ro p erty o ffe n ces ( R ic h ard s 2 009a).

Anoth er w ay o f c o n sid erin g t h e in fo rm atio n a v aila b le o n y o u n g p eo p le w ho c o m e in to c o n fli c t wit h ju ven ile ju st ic e a g en cie s is to lo ok a t th e a p pre h en sio n o f y o u n g p eo p le b y p oli c e. A y o u n g perso n w ho is a p pre h en ded is n ot n ecessa rily a rre st e d a n d c h arg ed , a n d d oes n ot n ecessa rily a p pea r befo re t h e c h ild re n ’s c o u rt. I n a ll s t a te s a n d t e rrit o rie s, a r a n ge o f o p tio n s i s a v aila b le t o p oli c e, w hic h mig h t d iv ert th e y o u n g p erso n fr o m th e c o u rt sy st e m ( su ch a s p oli c e c a u tio n s a n d w arn in gs) . I n sh ort, t h e in fo rm atio n o n a p pre h en sio n s s h ow s t h e n atu re o f t h e o ffe n ces f o r w hic h y o u n g p eo p le are l i k ely t o c o m e i n to c o n ta ct w it h p oli c e.

Tab le 3 .2 p re se n ts V ic to ria P oli c e d ata , a n d sh ow s th e o ffe n ces fo r w hic h y o u n g p eo p le w ere ap pre h en ded b y p oli c e d urin g 2 012– 13. I t s h ow s t h at o ffe n ces r e la tin g t o a ssa u lt , p ro p erty d am ag e an d s h op li f t in g a re t h e m ajo r r e a so n s f o r y o u n g p eo p le ’s c o n ta ct w it h p oli c e.

TA B LE 3 .2   Alle g ed o ffe n ce s b y j u ve n il e s a p pre h en ded b y p olic e , V ic to ria , 2 012–13 Offe n ce N o.

% 76 Hom ic id e 2 < 0.1 Rap e 1 06 0 .4 Sex ( n on -r a p e) 4 23 1 .4 Rob bery 1 074 3 .7 Assa u lt 4 975 1 7.0 Abd u ctio n /k id n ap 3 5 0 .1 Ars o n 3 83 1 .3 Pro p erty d am ag e 4 072 1 3.9 Burg la ry ( a g gra va te d ) 2 67 0 .9 Burg la ry ( r e sid en tia l) 1 019 3 .5 Burg la ry ( o th er) 1 136 3 .9 Dece p tio n 8 04 2 .6 Han dlin g s to le n g ood s 6 26 2 .1 Th eft f r o m m oto r v e h ic le 2 149 7 .4 Th eft ( s h op ste al) 3 677 1 2.6 Th eft o f m oto r v e h ic le 1 534 5 .3 Th eft o f b ic y cle 1 84 0 .6 Th eft ( o th er) 1 608 5 .5 Dru g ( c u lt iv a te , m an ufa ctu re , tr a ffic k ) 1 03 0 .4 Dru g ( p osse ss, u se ) 8 97 3 .1 Goin g e q u ip ped t o s te al 5 9 0 .2 Ju stic e p ro ce d u re s 1 398 4 .8 Reg u la te d p u blic o rd er 2 72 0 .9 Weap on s/e xp lo siv e s 7 34 2 .5 Hara ssm en t 2 11 0 .7 Beh avio u r i n p u blic 4 51 1 .5 Oth er 9 99 3 .4 Tota l 29 1 98 100.0 Sou rc e : V ic to ria P olic e ( 2 013:1 4).

CO U RT A PPEA R AN CES B Y Y O U N G P EO PLE Anoth er s o u rc e o f in fo rm atio n o n y o u n g p eo p le ’s c o n ta ct w it h ju ven ile ju st ic e a g en cie s is a v aila b le fr o m t h e c h ild re n ’s c o u rts. A s w e n ote d a b ove, n ot a ll y o u n g p eo p le w ho c o m e in to c o n ta ct w it h poli c e en d up befo re th e ch ild re n ’s co u rt. H ow ev er, th e co u rt data do pro vid e im porta n t in fo rm atio n o n c rim in al m atte rs se le cte d fo r p ro se cu tio n . Y ou n g p eo p le a p pea r in th e c h ild re n ’s co u rts f o r a v arie ty o f o ffe n ces, f r o m t h e v ery s e rio u s ( su ch a s h om ic id e) t o m in or f o rm s o f y o u th fu l 77 mis b eh av io u r.

Tab le 3 .3 re la te s to 7 401 fin ali s e d crim in al m atte rs in th e N ew So u th W ale s Child re n ’s C ou rt d urin g 2 013, a n d sh ow s th e d if fe re n t o ffe n ces fo r w hic h y o u n g p eo p le c a m e befo re th e c o u rts. T he m ajo r o ffe n ce c a te g o rie s re la te to ‘a cts in te n ded to c a u se in ju ry ’ (v ario u s fo rm s o f a ssa u lt ) ( 2 4.0 % ), o ffe n ces a g ain st j u st ic e p ro ced ure s, g o vern m en t s e cu rit y a n d g o vern m en t op era tio n s (1 6.5 % ) an d th eft an d re la te d o ffe n ces (1 4.2 % ). T heft o ffe n ces ra n ge fr o m m oto r veh ic le t h eft t o s h op li f t in g.

TA B LE 3 .3   Pers o n s c h arg ed i n f in alis e d c rim in al m atte rs i n t h e N ew S ou th W ale s Chil d re n ’s C ou rt d u rin g 2 013, b y s e x a n d o ffe n ce t y p e Male Fem ale Tota l No.

% No.

% No.

% Hom ic id e a n d r e la te d offe n ce 3 0 .0 4 0 0 .0 3 0 .0 4 Acts i n te n ded t o c a u se i n ju ry 1235 2 0.9 5 39 3 6.2 1774 2 4.0 Sexu al a ssa u lt a n d r e la te d offe n ce s 1 01 1 .7 1 0 .1 1 02 1 .4 Dan gero u s o r n eg lig en t a cts en dan gerin g p ers o n s 8 1 1 .4 8 0 .5 8 9 1 .2 Abd u ctio n , h ara ssm en t a n d oth er o ffe n ce s a g ain st t h e pers o n 5 0 0 .8 1 2 0 .8 6 2 0 .8 Rob bery , e xto rtio n a n d re la te d o ffe n ce s 3 18 5 .4 7 9 5 .3 3 97 5 .4 Unla w fu l e n tr y w it h in te n t/ b u rg la ry , b re ak a n d en te r 8 08 1 3.7 6 4 4 .3 8 72 1 1.8 Th eft a n d r e la te d o ffe n ce s 8 33 1 4.1 2 12 1 4.2 1045 1 4.2 Fra u d, d ece p tio n a n d r e la te d offe n ce s 4 1 0 .7 1 5 1 .0 5 6 0 .8 Il lic it d ru g o ffe n ce s 2 04 3 .5 2 6 1 .7 2 30 3 .1 Pro h ib it e d a n d r e g u la te d weap on s a n d e xp lo siv e s offe n ce s 2 0 0 .4 2 0 .1 2 2 0 .3 Pro p erty d am ag e a n d en vir o n m en ta l p ollu tio n 6 39 1 0.8 1 10 7 .4 7 49 1 0.1 Public o rd er o ffe n ce s 5 02 8 .5 1 24 8 .3 6 26 8 .5 Tra ffic a n d v e h ic le re g u la to ry o ffe n ce s 1 13 1 .9 2 5 1 .7 1 38 1 .9 Offe n ce s a g ain st j u stic e pro ce d u re s, g ove rn m en t se cu rit y a n d g ove rn m en t op era tio n s 9 51 1 6.1 2 68 1 8.0 1219 1 6.5 78 Mis ce lla n eou s o ffe n ce s 1 4 0 .2 3 0 .2 1 7 0 .3 Tota l 5913 100.0 1488 100.0 7401 100.0 Sou rc e : A dap te d f r o m N ew S ou th W ale s B ure au o f C rim e S ta tis tic s a n d R ese arc h ( 2 014:8 2–90).

Bro ad ly s p ea k in g, t h e d ata fr o m t h e N ew S o u th W ale s C hild re n ’s C ou rt a re c o m para b le w it h th at fr o m o th er ju ris d ic tio n s in A ust r a li a . R ic h ard s (2 009a:6 7– 8) n ote s so m e v aria tio n am on g st a te s, b u t t y p ic a lly b u rg la ry /th eft , a ssa u lt a n d d an gero u s/ n eg li g en t d riv in g a re t h e m ost c o m mon offe n ces h ea rd i n c h ild re n ’s c o u rts.

Retu rn in g t o t h e N ew S o u th W ale s d ata i n Tab le 3 .3 , s o m e f u rth er c o m men ts c a n b e m ad e o n a num ber o f o ffe n ce ca te g o rie s th at g iv e a g re a te r in dic a tio n o f th e actu al n atu re o f th e alle g ed offe n din g b eh av io u r. In th e h om ic id e c a te g o ry , a ll th re e o f th e o ffe n ces w ere ‘m an sla u gh te r a n d driv in g c a u sin g d ea th ’. F if t y -s ix o f th e 6 2 ‘a b d uctio n , h ara ssm en t a n d o th er o ffe n ces a g ain st th e perso n ’ w ere h ara ssm en t a n d t h re a te n in g b eh av io u r o ffe n ces.

TH E C O STS O F J U VE N IL E O FFE N DIN G Vario u s a tte m pts h av e b een m ad e t o e st im ate t h e c o st s o f j u ven ile c rim e ( se e, f o r e x am ple , S m it h e t al. 2 014). A ny a tte m pt w ill i n vo lv e s o m e d eg re e o f e st im atio n , g iv en t h e l i m it a tio n s o f o ffic ia l c rim e st a tis t ic s. C ost s c a n b e m ea su re d b oth i n r e la tio n t o t h e d ir e ct c o st s o f c rim e ( fo r e x am ple c a r t h eft ) an d in r e la tio n t o t h e in ta n gib le c o st s ( fo r e x am ple a n a sse ssm en t o f t h e m on eta ry v alu e o f p ain , su ffe rin g, a n d l o st q u ali t y o f l i f e ).

There i s n o d ou bt t h at t h e t o ta l c o st o f c rim e i s v ery s ig n if ic a n t, w it h r e cen t e st im ate s p la cin g i t a t $47.6 b illi o n p er a n num , in clu d in g t h e c o st s o f p oli c e, p ris o n s, p riv ate s e cu rit y , e tc . ( S m it h e t a l.

2014). T hese f ig u re s r e p re se n t t h e c o st o f a ll c rim e, i r re sp ectiv e o f w heth er i t i s c o m mit te d b y a d ult s or j u ven ile s.

The m ost e x p en siv e c rim es a re o ffe n ces t h at a re o verw helm in gly c o m mit te d b y a d ult s. F ra u d is th e c a te g o ry o f c rim e w it h t h e h ig h est a sso cia te d c o st s, a cco u n tin g f o r 1 2.7 p er c en t o f t h e c o st o f crim e. B y w ay o f c o n tr a st , s h op li f t in g a cco u n ts f o r 0 .3 p er c en t ( S m it h e t a l. 2 014).

The eco n om ic co st s of ju ven ile crim e are sig n if ic a n t. H ow ev er, w hen co m pare d to th e pre d om in an tly ad ult eco n om ic an d p ro p erty crim es, th e co st s o f ju ven ile crim e are re la tiv ely mod est .

CH AN GES I N T H E R ATE O F J U VE N IL E O FFE N DIN G There is a lw ay s g re a t d ea l o f p u bli c d is c u ssio n a b ou t w heth er c rim e r a te s a re r is in g a n d w heth er yo u n g p eo p le a re c o m mit tin g a g re a te r n um ber o f o ffe n ces n ow t h an in t h e p ast . W e k n ow t h at man y t y p es o f c rim e d ecli n ed d urin g t h e e a rly 2 000s, w it h lo w er in cid en ts o f c a r t h eft , h om ic id e, ro b bery , an d b u rg la ry . S o m e o ffe n ces als o in cre a se d d urin g th is p erio d , m ost n ota b ly assa u lt s (A ust r a li a n I n st it u te o f C rim in olo gy 2 004:8 ).

One w ay o f fin din g o u t w heth er t h ere h as b een a n in cre a se in ju ven ile o ffe n din g is t o lo ok a t tr e n d d ata in te rm s o f th e n um ber o f in te rv en tio n s b y th e ju ven ile ju st ic e sy st e m . T he te rm ‘i n te rv en tio n s’ re fe rs to all co u rt ap pea ra n ces an d o th er fo rm al d iv ersio n ary p ro cesse s, su ch as ca u tio n in g a n d/o r a p pea ra n ces b efo re y o u th c o n fe re n ces. O ver r e cen t d eca d es, a r e la tiv ely st a b le pro p ortio n o f y o u n g p eo p le h av e f a ced s o m e f o rm o f in te rv en tio n b y ju ven ile ju st ic e a u th orit ie s in Aust r a li a . I n r e cen t y ea rs, t h e r a te a t w hic h y o u n g p eo p le c o m e u n der ju ven ile ju st ic e s u perv is io n has li k ew is e r e m ain ed r e la tiv ely st a b le ( A IH W 2 014a). D esp it e p erc ep tio n s a t th e tim e o f r is in g 79 ju ven ile c rim e r a te s, f ig u re s t h ro u gh ou t t h e 1 980s were r e m ark ab ly s t a b le . A rre st r a te s o f ju ven ile s durin g a n e a rli e r p erio d — fr o m t h e 1 960s t o t h e e n d o f t h e 1 970s— sh ow a s li g h tly d if fe re n t p atte rn , how ev er. T he d ata fo r th is p erio d a re a v aila b le o n ly fo r a li m it e d n um ber o f o ffe n ces, in clu d in g hom ic id e, s e rio u s a ssa u lt , r o b bery , b u rg la ry , f r a u d , a n d m oto r v eh ic le t h eft , a n d s h ow i n cre a se s i n a ll th ese c a te g o rie s fo r b oth y o u n g m en a n d y o u n g w om en (M ukh erje e 1 985:3 0– 1). A lt h ou gh th e arre st r a te f o r y o u n g w om en r e m ain ed m uch s m alle r t h an t h at f o r b oys, t h ere w ere s o m e i m porta n t ch an ges d urin g th is p erio d , w it h th e a rre st ra te in cre a sin g m ore ra p id ly fo r y o u n g w om en w hen co m pare d w it h t h at f o r y o u n g m en , a n d w hen c o m pare d w it h t h at f o r a d ult w om en ( se e Chap te r 8 ).

Aust r a li a n f ig u re s f o r t h e p erio d 1 964– 95 t h at M ukh erje e ( 1 985, 1 997) h as c o m pile d i m ply t h at th e a p pare n t in cre a se in ju ven ile a rre st s e x p erie n ced d urin g t h e p erio d o f t h e 1 960s t o t h e 1 980s may h av e le v elle d o ff d urin g th e 1 990s. T here is so m e ev id en ce to su ggest an in cre a se in th e se rio u sn ess o f o ffe n ces f o r w hic h j u ven ile s h av e b een a p pre h en ded o ver t h e l a st f e w d eca d es. I n N ew So u th W ale s, both th e num ber an d pro p ortio n of ch arg es fo r offe n ces ag ain st th e perso n dete rm in ed b y t h e c h ild re n ’s c o u rt d ou ble d b etw een 1 985– 86 a n d 1 989– 90. T here w as a n i n cre a se ag ain in o ffe n ces a g ain st t h e p erso n in t h e la te r h alf o f t h e 1 990s ( N SW D ep artm en t o f J u ven ile Ju st ic e 1 999:6 – 7). T here a p pea rs t o b e a s im ila r p atte rn r e g ard in g p ro p ortio n s o f o ffe n ces a g ain st th e p erso n in o th er st a te s an d te rrit o rie s. H ow ev er, o vera ll, o ffe n ces ag ain st th e p erso n st ill co n st it u te a re la tiv ely sm all p ro p ortio n o f o ffe n ces, e v en in N ew S o u th W ale s (se e Tab le 3 .3 ).

Furth erm ore , w hile w e m ig h t e x p ect a n in cre a se in y o u n g p eo p le in d ete n tio n a s a c o ro lla ry o f a n in cre a se i n t h e s e rio u sn ess o f j u ven ile o ffe n din g, t h is h as n ot e v en tu ate d , w it h t h e r a te o f j u ven ile s i n dete n tio n d ecli n in g s u bst a n tia lly d urin g t h e 1 980s a n d 1 990s ( R ic h ard s & L yn eh am 2 010; R ic h ard s 2011) u n til a ‘s p ik e’ i n t h e m id -2 000s, w hic h h as p rim arily b een a ttr ib u te d t o a n i n cre a se i n y o u n g peo p le b ein g h eld o n r e m an d ( R ic h ard s & R en sh aw 2 013).

Fin ally , t h ere i s e v id en ce t o s u ggest t h at t h e ‘ l e v elli n g o ff’ i n j u ven ile o ffe n din g i n t h e m id - t o l a te - 1990s h as s in ce t h en b eco m e a n a ctu al d ecli n e in r e co rd ed ju ven ile o ffe n din g le v els . N atio n al r a te s of o ffe n din g b y 1 0 t o 1 4 y ea r o ld s h av e b een d ecli n in g s in ce 1 995– 96 a n d r a te s o f o ffe n din g b y 1 5 t o 19 y ea r o ld s h av e b een d ecli n in g s in ce a p pro xim ate ly 1 999– 2000 ( R ic h ard s 2 009a:2 9). A s im ila r pic tu re e m erg es f r o m S o u th A ust r a li a , w here p oli c e a p pre h en sio n s o f ju ven ile s h av e d ecli n ed b y 3 6 per c en t f r o m t h eir p ea k i n 1 995 ( O ffic e o f C rim e S ta tis t ic s a n d R ese a rc h 2 005:1 5– 16).

The p ossib le re a so n s fo r th e d ecli n e in th e fr e q u en cy o f p artic u la r c rim es a re c o m ple x . S o m e possib le c a u se s o f t h e d ow nw ard t r e n d in p ro p erty c rim e in clu d e a f a ll in h ero in c o n su m ptio n a n d gre a te r u se o f m eth ad on e m ain te n an ce t r e a tm en t p ro gra m s, a r is e i n a v era g e w eek ly e a rn in gs, a n d a fa ll in lo n g-t e rm u n em plo ym en t a m on g y o u n g m en (M offa tt, W ea th erb u rn & D on nelly 2 005).

Moto r v eh ic le t h eft h as c o n sis t e n tly d ecli n ed s in ce 2 001. T he r a te o f m oto r v eh ic le t h eft in 2 005 was h alf o f t h e 2 001 r a te , a d ecli n e t h at h as b een la rg ely a ttr ib u te d t o t h e in tr o d uctio n o f e n gin e im mob ili s e rs a s st a n dard e q u ip m en t o n n ew v eh ic le s (N atio n al M oto r V eh ic le T heft R ed uctio n Cou n cil 2 006).

SE LF -R EP O R T S TU DIE S A N D J U VE N IL E C R IM E Self -r e p ort st u d ie s p ro vid e a n a lt e rn ativ e m eth od to o ffic ia l st a tis t ic s fo r g ain in g a p ic tu re o f th e ex te n t a n d n atu re o f o ffe n din g b y y o u n g p eo p le . S u ch st u d ie s re ly o n y o u n g p eo p le to p ro vid e in fo rm atio n o n t h eir i n vo lv em en t i n b eh av io u r t h at c o u ld c o n st it u te a c rim in al o ffe n ce. S elf -r e p ort st u d ie s c a n b e u se fu l i n g ain in g k n ow le d ge a b ou t o ffe n ces t h at a re n ot d ete cte d b y p oli c e.

Stu d ie s in t h e 1 950s c o m pare d s e lf -r e p orts o n d eli n qu en cy b etw een m ale h ig h -s c h ool s t u d en ts 80 an d m ale s i n a j u ven ile d ete n tio n c en tr e . W hile b oth g ro u ps a d m it te d t o c o m mit tin g o ffe n ces, t h ose who w ere in ca rc era te d ad m it te d to m ore fr e q u en t an d se rio u s o ffe n ces (L un dm an 1 994:1 2).

How ev er, s e lf -r e p ort s t u d ie s d o s u ggest t h at j u ven ile o ffe n din g o ccu rs m ore u n if o rm ly a m on g y o u n g peo p le t h an i s s u ggest e d b y a rre st d ata ( se e B ak er 1 998).

Gen era lly , m ore atte n tio n h as b een p aid to se lf -r e p ort st u d ie s in th e U nit e d K in gd om , an d partic u la rly i n t h e U SA , t h an i n A ust r a li a . I n t h e e a rly 1 980s, t h ere w ere s o m e lo ca l s t u d ie s ( K ra u s & B ow m ak er 1 982; W arn er 1 982). M ore r e cen tly , t h e N ew S o u th W ale s B ure a u o f C rim e S ta tis t ic s an d R ese a rc h c o n ducte d a se lf -r e p ort st u d y o f o ffe n din g b eh av io u r w it h 5 178 se co n dary sc h ool st u d en ts ( B ak er 1 998). T he r e su lt s i n dic a te d t h at i n t h e 1 2-m on th p erio d p rio r t o t h e i n te rv ie w , 2 9 per c en t o f st u d en ts h ad a ssa u lt e d so m eo n e, 2 7 p er c en t h ad d am ag ed p ro p erty , 1 5 p er c en t h ad re ceiv ed o r s o ld s t o le n g o od s, a n d f iv e p er c en t h ad b een in vo lv ed in b u rg la ry a n d c a r t h eft ( B ak er 1998:v ii) . E ven h ig h er p ro p ortio n s o f y o u n g p eo p le h ad ‘ e v er’ p artic ip ate d i n t h ese o ffe n ces, w it h 3 9 per cen t h av in g assa u lt e d so m eo n e, 3 9 p er cen t h av in g d am ag ed p ro p erty , 2 3 p er cen t h av in g re ceiv ed o r so ld st o le n g o od s, a n d n in e a n d se v en p er c en t re sp ectiv ely h av in g b een in vo lv ed in bu rg la ry a n d c a r t h eft ( B ak er 1 998:1 9).

Self -r e p ort st u d ie s hav e als o been use d in N ew So u th W ale s to un derst a n d th e so cia l en vir o n m en t s u rro u n din g v io le n ce a m on g s c h ool s t u d en ts a n d t h e f a cto rs t h at m ig h t in hib it s u ch vio le n ce ( G ru n se it , W ea th erb u rn & D on nelly 2 005), a n d n atio n ally in r e la tio n t o o ffe n din g a n d dru g a n d a lc o h ol u se a m on g j u ven ile d eta in ees ( P ric h ard & P ay n e 2 005).

Self -r e p ort s t u d ie s a re a ls o u se fu l f o r m ak in g c o m paris o n s a cro ss d if fe re n t c o u n tr ie s. A r e v ie w o f se lf -r e p ort st u d ie s in 1 3 W est e rn co u n tr ie s (Ju n ger-T as 1 994; se e als o Ju n ger-T as, R ib ea u d & Cru yff 2 004) f o u n d s im ila rit ie s i n t h e r a te s o f d eli n qu en t b eh av io u r a n d i n t h e n atu re o f o ffe n din g beh av io u r g en era lly . T here w ere a ls o s im ila rit ie s w it h r e sp ect t o h ig h er r a te s o f r e p orte d o ffe n din g am on g m ale s t h an f e m ale s. T here w ere d if fe re n ces, h ow ev er, i n r e p orte d d ru g u se , w it h l o w er l e v els in s o u th ern E uro p e t h an in w est e rn E uro p e o r t h e U SA . I n te rn atio n al c o m paris o n s o f s e lf -r e p ort st u d ie s a ls o r e v ea l a d is p arit y b etw een t h e s e lf -r e p orte d le v el o f o ffe n din g b y e th n ic m in orit ie s a n d th eir o ver-r e p re se n ta tio n in o ffic ia l ju ven ile ju st ic e st a tis t ic s w hen co m pare d w it h th eir n on - min orit y c o u n te rp arts. T his h ig h li g h ts t h e d if fe re n ce b etw een a ctu al o ffe n din g b eh av io u r a n d t h e pro cesse s o f c rim in ali s a tio n t h at a p pea rs t o b e a c o m mon p h en om en on i n m an y c o u n tr ie s ( Ju n ger- Tas 1 994; J u n ger-T as, R ib ea u d & C ru yff 2 004).

CO N TA CT W IT H T H E J U VE N IL E J U STIC E S YS TE M There a re a n um ber o f w ay s w e c a n c o n sid er t h e q u est io n o f h ow m an y y o u n g p eo p le c o m e in to co n ta ct w it h th e ju ven ile ju st ic e sy st e m in A ust r a li a . F ir st , th ere are fig u re s o n arre st ra te s o f ju ven ile s f r o m v ario u s s t a te s, w hic h i n dic a te f o rm al p oli c e c o n ta ct. T hese f ig u re s a re o ft e n a v aila b le on ly fo r th e partic u la r ty p es of offe n ces. T hey in dic a te qu it e su bst a n tia l dif fe re n ces am on g ju ris d ic tio n s ( R ic h ard s 2 009a).

Seco n d, as d is c u sse d ea rli e r, th ere are th e fo rm al in te rv en tio n ra te s, w hic h co m bin e co u rt ap pea ra n ces w it h d ata f r o m f o rm al d iv ersio n ary a p pea ra n ces ( p oli c e c a u tio n s a n d y o u th c o n fe re n ces in ju ris d ic tio n s w here t h ese d iv ersio n ary a lt e rn ativ es e x is t ) . A noth er w ay o f c o n sid erin g h ow m an y yo u n g p eo p le c o m e in to c o n ta ct w it h th e sy st e m is th ro u gh th e u se o f c o h ort st u d ie s. In S o u th Aust r a li a , M org an ( 1 993) c o n ducte d r e se a rc h o n t w o g ro u ps o f y o u n g p eo p le ( o r c o h orts) w ho w ere born i n 1 962 a n d 1 972. T he r e se a rc h i n dic a te d t h at a b ou t o n e i n f iv e y o u n g p eo p le a p pea re d b efo re eit h er th e S o u th A ust r a li a n C hild re n ’s C ou rt o r th e A id P an el (w hic h w ere u se d b efo re th e in tr o d uctio n of yo u th co n fe re n ces) durin g th eir ad ole sc en ce. T he an aly sis has sh ow n th at 81 ap pro xim ate ly o n e i n f o u r b oys, c o m pare d w it h o n e i n 1 0 g ir ls , h ad c o n ta ct w it h e it h er t h e c o u rt o r th e p an el. M ore th an h alf o f th e A borig in al y o u th in th e 1 972 c o h ort h ad c o n ta ct w it h th ese ag en cie s. S k rz y p ie c a n d W un dersit z (2 005) u se d a m ore re cen t c o h ort o f y o u n g p eo p le b orn in 1984, a n d a n aly se d t h eir f o rm al c o n ta ct w it h t h e S o u th A ust r a li a n ju ven ile ju st ic e s y st e m t h ro u gh poli c e ap pre h en sio n s. T hey fo u n d on e in six (1 6.7 per cen t) yo u n g peo p le w ere fo rm ally ap pre h en ded b y p oli c e d urin g t h eir a d ole sc en t y ea rs o f 1 0 t o 1 7. T his r e p re se n te d a b ou t o n e in 1 2 gir ls a n d o n e in f o u r b oys. A lla rd a n d c o lle a g u es’ ( 2 010) c o h ort s t u d y o f a ll y o u n g p eo p le b orn in Queen sla n d i n 1 990 f o u n d t h at, o vera ll, 1 4 p er c en t h ad a t l e a st o n e c o n ta ct w it h t h e j u ven ile j u st ic e sy st e m ( th at i s , a c a u tio n , c o n fe re n ce o r c o u rt a p pea ra n ce). A gain , h ow ev er, t h is v arie d c o n sid era b ly by se x a n d I n dig en ou s st a tu s, w it h n ea rly tw o-t h ir d s ( 6 2.6 % ) o f a ll I n dig en ou s m ale s a n d o ver a qu arte r (2 7.8 % ) o f In dig en ou s fe m ale s h av in g a co n ta ct co m pare d w it h 1 2.8 p er cen t o f n on - In dig en ou s m ale s a n d 6 .9 p er c en t o f n on -I n dig en ou s f e m ale s.

Thus, in te rv en tio n ra te s in dic a te th at in a n y o n e y ea r o n ly a v ery sm all p ro p ortio n o f y o u n g peo p le c o m e i n to f o rm ali s e d c o n ta ct w it h t h e j u ven ile j u st ic e s y st e m ( a sid e f r o m c a su al c o n ta ct w it h poli c e). A d if fe re n t p ic tu re e m erg es fr o m s t u d ie s t h at c o n sid er t h e li k eli h ood o f c o n ta ct o ver t h e en tir e p erio d o f a d ole sc en ce. In g en era l te rm s, th e m ajo rit y o f y o u n g p eo p le h av e n o fo rm ali s e d co n ta ct w it h ju ven ile ju st ic e ag en cie s; how ev er, ab ou t on e-q u arte r of yo u n g m ale s do fin d th em se lv es a t s o m e t im e b efo re t h e a u th orit ie s w it h in a f o rm al s e ttin g.