leadership development program

PR AIS E F O R TH E E XTR AO RD IN ARY L E AD ER “ T he Z enger F olk m an l e ad ers h ip m odel i s d is ti n guis h ed f r o m o th ers i n th at i t i s b acked u p b y r e se arc h a nd d ata . T hat d ata v alid ate s th e e ffe cti v eness o f i d enti fy in g a n i n d iv id ual’ s s tr e ngth s a nd d ev elo pin g th em , r a th er th an f o cusin g o n w eaknesse s.

T he Z enger F olk m an p hilo so phy h as i ts e ye o n th e r ig ht g o al – r e al, m easu ra b le r e su lts .” —Bill B la se Senio r E xecuti v e V ic e P re sid ent Hum an R eso urc es AT& T C orp .

“ I f e ll i n l o ve w ith The E xtr a ord in ary L ea der o n p age 1 . F ro m th e m om ent I s ta rte d r e ad in g I r e ally g o t j a zze d , a nd m y e nth usia sm o nly i n cre ase d th e m ore I r e ad . Y ou s e e, I ’ m j u st m ad a b out b ooks th at a tta ck c heris h ed b ut u nsu p porta b le a ssu m pti o ns a b out a nyth in g, e sp ecia lly l e ad ers h ip . T hat’ s e xactl y w hat J a ck Z enger a nd J o e F olk m an d o, a nd th ey d o i t p ers u asiv ely , p re cis e ly , a nd p ro fe ssio nally .

The E xtr a ord in ary L ea der i s n o h ackneyed r e hash in g o f ti r e d n o str u m s. T hro ugh th eir e xcep ti o nal r e se arc h, th e a uth o rs d em onstr a te a nd p ro ve th at l e ad ers h ip does m ake a d iffe re nce a nd th at yo u c an l e arn to l e ad . T here a re s o m e p ro fo und i n sig hts i n th is b ook, a nd w heth er y o u’v e s tu d ie d l e ad ers h ip f o r o ver 2 0 y ears , a s I h av e, o r y o u a re b ra nd n ew to th e s u b je ct, Z enger a nd F olk m an g iv e y o u m uch m ore th an y o ur m oney’s w orth . A nd w hile th eir r e se arc h g iv es th e b ook d is ti n cti v e c re d ib ility , t h eir e xam ple s a nd p ra cti c al a p plic ati o ns g iv e i t l ife . T his i s a b ook th at s c ho la rs a nd p ra cti ti o ners w ill b e r e fe rrin g to f o r y ears to c o m e.

If y o ur g o al i s to b e a b ette r l e ad er th an y o u a re to day, th en y o u m ust r e ad th is b ook.” —Ja m es M . K ouze s Chair m an E m eritu s, T om P ete rs C om pany Coauth o r o f The L ea dersh ip C halle n ge a nd Enco ura gin g t h e H ea rt “ Jo e F olk m an a nd J a ck Z enger h av e p ro ved th em se lv es to b e e xtr a o rd in ary t h in kers . I n th eir n ew b ook, The E xtr a ord in ary L ea der, th ey u nfo ld th e m ost i n tr ig uin g a nd p ro vocati v e n ew r e se arc h o n l e ad ers h ip th at I h av e e nco unte re d i n m any y ears . T his b ook i s a ‘ m ust r e ad ’ f o r a nyo ne f a ced w ith th e d ay-to -d ay c halle nges o f d ev elo pin g e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers h ip ta le nt w ith in a n o rg aniz a ti o n.” —Annie L aB om bard Dir e cto r o f L ead ers h ip Fir e m an’s F und I n su ra nce C om pany “ R ead th is b ook! I ts a p pro ach to u nd ers ta nd in g l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent i s u niq ue:

I t u se s d ata , n o t o pin io n! S om e o f th e i n sig hts a re i n tu iti v e, b ut m any a re 2 co unte rin tu iti v e. E xtr a o rd in arily r e ad ab le , th is b ook r e p re se nts s o m e o f th e b est th in kin g o n l e ad ers h ip I ’ v e s e en i n a l o ng w hile .” —E. D av id S pong Pre sid ent, M ilita ry A ero sp ace S up port The B oein g C om pany “O rd in arily , I ’ d s a y th e l a st th in g w e n eed i s a no th er b ook o n l e ad ers h ip . B ut The Extr a ord in ary L ea der b y J a ck Z enger a nd J o e F olk m an i s r e fr e sh in gly d iffe re nt.

Rath er th an s e rv e u p y este rd ay’s a necd ote s, th ey’v e p erfo rm ed th e h eav y l ifti n g o f em pir ic al d ata c o lle cti o n a nd a naly sis . T he f o re w ord p ro m is e s c la rity , s im plic ity , and u ti lity i n a d dre ssin g th e r e al- w orld c halle nges o f d ev elo pin g l e ad ers , a nd th is book d eliv ers th at a nd m ore . T his i s a m ust r e ad .” —Jo n Y ounger, P h.D .

Senio r V ic e P re sid ent, L ead ers h ip D ev elo pm ent Nati o nal C ity C orp ora ti o n “T he a uth o rs ’ p ro m is e o n th e b otto m o f p age 3 to d o th eir b est ‘ to u nra v el th e myste ry o f l e ad ers h ip th ro ugh c are fu l a naly sis a nd o bse rv ati o n’ o f a h uge data b ase ‘b y e m ula ti n g S herlo ck H olm es,’ g ra b bed m y a tte nti o n. A lw ays a n a v id m yste ry re ad er, I f o und m yse lf c o m puls iv ely tu rn in g p ages, d ev ourin g th e e nti r e b ook, l ik e any g o od m yste ry , i n o ne s itti n g. I e sp ecia lly a p pre cia te d th e w is d om f o und i n In sig hts 1 to 2 0, th e n o no bvio us c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns, a nd th e d is ti n cti o ns betw een m attr e ss a nd te nt l e ad ers h ip m odels . B y th e l a st c hap te r ( w hen a ll a t l a st had b een r e v eale d ), I h ad d ed uced a f a r b ette r w ay to h elp m y o rg aniz a ti o n b eco m e a c o m pany o f l e ad ers th an I ’ v e b een a b le to f ig ure o ut i n th e p ast 2 0 y ears !” —Sallie T . H ig hto w er, E d.D .

Cono co U niv ers ity Cono co , I n c.

“F in ally s o m eo ne h as m oved b eyo nd th eo ry a nd c o m plic ate d m odels to te ll u s w hat gre at l e ad ers r e ally b rin g to th e p arty . Z enger a nd F olk m an h av e e ffe cti v ely su m mariz e d d ata o n 2 0,0 00 l e ad ers th at h elp u s u nd ers ta nd w hat r e ally m akes le ad ers ti c k. A ny s e rio us s tu d ent o f l e ad ers h ip w ill b oth e njo y th is b ook’s j o urn ey and w alk a w ay w ith u se fu l n ew i n sig hts th at w ill h elp th em a nd o th ers .” —Ralp h C hris te nse n Senio r V ic e P re sid ent, H um an R eso urc es Hallm ark C ard s, I n c.

“T his b ook h as c hanged th e w ay I th in k! I f y o u w ant to m ove f r o m g o od to g re at a s a l e ad er, d on’t f o cus o n a w eakness; i n ste ad , ta ke a s tr e ngth a nd b uild o n i t. J a ck 3 Zenger a nd J o e F olk m an h av e w ritte n a n i m porta nt b ook, f u ll o f i n sig ht a nd b ase d on s o und r e se arc h. I t w ill s h ap e th e w ay w e h elp o ur c lie nts d ev elo p e xecuti v es.” —Dougla s D . A nd ers o n Found er a nd M anagin g P artn er Cente r f o r E xecuti v e D ev elo pm ent– B osto n “T his i s a ‘ m ust r e ad ’ f o r c o aches, l e ad ers , a nd th o se w ho d ev elo p th em .

The Extr a ord in ary L ea der g o es b eyo nd a necd ote s o r ‘ w ar s to rie s’; i t b uild s u p on co m pre hensiv e r e se arc h. I t i s d esti n ed to b e a c la ssic i n o ur f ie ld .” —Mars h all G old sm ith Nam ed b y Forb es a s o ne o f f iv e to p e xecuti v e c o aches a nd o ne o f th e Wall S tr e et J o urn al’ s “ T op 1 0” e xecuti v e e d ucato rs 4 TH E E XTR AO RDIN AR Y L EA D ER 5 CO M PLETELY R EV IS E D A N D E XPA N DED E D IT IO N 6 TH E EX TR AO RDIN ARY L EA DER TU RNIN G G OOD M AN AG ER S IN TO G REA T L EA D ER S JO HN H . Z E N G ER & J O SE PH R . F O LK M AN 7 C opyrig ht © 2 009 b y T he M cG ra w -H ill C om panie s, I n c. A ll r ig hts r e se rv ed .

E xcep t a s p erm itte d u nd er th e U nite d S ta te s C opyrig ht A ct o f 1 976, n o p art o f th is p ub lic ati o n m ay b e r e p ro duced o r d is tr ib ute d i n a ny f o rm o r b y a ny m eans, o r s to re d i n a d ata b ase o r r e tr ie v al s y ste m , w ith o ut th e p rio r w ritte n p erm is sio n o f th e p ub lis h er.

I S B N : 9 78-0 -0 7-1 63003-0 M HID : 0 -0 7-1 63003-1 T he m ate ria l i n th is e B ook a ls o a p pears i n th e p rin t v ers io n o f th is ti tl e : I S B N :

9 78-0 -0 7-1 62808-2 , M HID : 0 -0 7-1 62808-8 .

e B ook c o nv ers io n b y c o deM antr a V ers io n 2 .0 A ll tr a d em ark s a re tr a d em ark s o f th eir r e sp ecti v e o w ners . R ath er th an p ut a t r a d em ark s y m bol a fte r e v ery o ccurre nce o f a tr a d em ark ed n am e, w e u se n am es i n a n e d ito ria l f a sh io n o nly , a nd to th e b enefit o f th e tr a d em ark o w ner, w ith n o i n te nti o n o f i n fr in gem ent o f th e tr a d em ark . W here s u ch d esig nati o ns a p pear i n th is b ook, th ey h av e b een p rin te d w ith i n iti a l c ap s.

M cG ra w -H ill e B ooks a re a v aila b le a t s p ecia l q uanti ty d is c o unts to u se a s p re m iu m s a nd s a le s p ro m oti o ns, o r f o r u se i n c o rp ora te tr a in in g p ro gra m s. T o c o nta ct a r e p re se nta ti v e p le ase v is it th e C onta ct U s p age a t w ww.m hp ro fe ssio nal.c o m .

T ER M S O F U SE T his i s a c o pyrig hte d w ork a nd T he M cG ra w -H ill C om panie s, I n c. ( “ M cG ra w - H ill” ) a nd i ts l ic enso rs r e se rv e a ll r ig hts i n a nd to th e w ork . U se o f th is w ork i s s u b je ct to th ese te rm s. E xcep t a s p erm itte d u nd er th e C opyrig ht A ct o f 1 976 a nd th e r ig ht to s to re a nd r e tr ie v e o ne c o py o f th e w ork , y o u m ay n o t d eco m pile , d is a sse m ble , r e v ers e e ngin eer, r e p ro duce, m odify , c re ate d eriv ati v e w ork s b ase d u p on, tr a nsm it, d is tr ib ute , d is se m in ate , s e ll, p ub lis h o r s u b lic ense th e w ork o r a ny p art o f i t w ith o ut M cG ra w -H ill’ s p rio r c o nse nt. Y ou m ay u se th e w ork f o r y o ur o w n n o nco m merc ia l a nd p ers o nal u se ; a ny o th er u se o f th e w ork i s s tr ic tl y p ro hib ite d . Y our r ig ht to u se th e w ork m ay b e te rm in ate d i f y o u f a il to c o m ply w ith t h ese te rm s.

T H E W ORK I S P R O VID ED “ A S I S .” M cG RA W -H IL L A ND I T S L IC EN SO RS M AKE N O G UA RA NTEES O R W ARRA NTIE S A S T O T H E A CCURA CY , A DEQ UA CY O R C O M PLE TEN ESS O F O R R ESU LT S T O B E O BTA IN ED F R O M U SIN G T H E W ORK , I N CLU D IN G A NY I N FO RM ATIO N T H AT C A N B E A CCESSE D T H RO UG H T H E W ORK V IA H YPE R LIN K O R O TH ER W IS E , A ND E X PR ESSLY D IS C LA IM A NY W ARRA NTY , E X PR ESS O R I M PLIE D , I N CLU D IN G B UT N OT L IM IT ED T O I M PLIE D W ARRA NTIE S O F M ER CH ANTA BIL IT Y O R F IT N ESS F O R A P A RTIC ULA R P U RPO SE .

8 McG ra w -H ill a nd i ts l ic enso rs d o n o t w arra nt o r g uara nte e th at th e f u ncti o ns co nta in ed i n th e w ork w ill m eet y o ur r e q uir e m ents o r th at i ts o pera ti o n w ill b e unin te rru p te d o r e rro r f r e e. N eith er M cG ra w -H ill n o r i ts l ic enso rs s h all b e l ia b le to y o u o r a nyo ne e ls e f o r a ny i n accura cy, e rro r o r o m is sio n, r e gard le ss o f c ause , i n th e w ork o r f o r a ny d am ages r e su lti n g th ere fr o m . M cG ra w -H ill h as n o re sp onsib ility f o r th e c o nte nt o f a ny i n fo rm ati o n a ccesse d th ro ugh th e w ork . U nd er no c ir c um sta nces s h all M cG ra w -H ill a nd /o r i ts l ic enso rs b e l ia b le f o r a ny i n d ir e ct, in cid enta l, s p ecia l, p uniti v e, c o nse q uenti a l o r s im ila r d am ages th at r e su lt f r o m th e use o f o r i n ab ility to u se th e w ork , e v en i f a ny o f th em h as b een a d vis e d o f th e possib ility o f s u ch d am ages. T his l im ita ti o n o f l ia b ility s h all a p ply to a ny c la im o r cause w hats o ev er w heth er s u ch c la im o r c ause a ris e s i n c o ntr a ct, to rt o r o th erw is e .

9 We d ed ic ate th is b ook to th e th o usa nd s o f l e ad ers w ho c o ura geo usly s e ek fe ed back f r o m c o lle agues i n th eir q uest to i m pro ve th eir l e ad ers h ip sk ills . T hey s e t a l a ud ab le e xam ple b y r is in g o ut o f th eir c o m fo rt z o ne and w ork in g d ilig entl y to b eco m e b ette r l e ad ers .

10 CO NTEN TS F OREW ORD A CK NOW LED GM EN TS I NTR O DUCTIO N C HAPTER 1 D EM YST IF Y IN G L EA DER SH IP C HAPTER 2 G REA T L EA DER S M AKE A G REA T D IF FE R EN CE C HAPTER 3 S IM PLIF Y IN G L EA DER SH IP C HAPTER 4 T HE C OM PETEN CY Q UEST C HAPTER 5 L EA DER S M UST F IT T HEIR O RGA NIZ A TIO N C HAPTER 6 G REA T L EA DER S P OSSE SS M ULTIP LE S TR EN GTH S C HAPTER 7 F ATA L F LA W S M UST B E F IX ED C HAPTER 8 N EW I NSIG H TS I N TO L EA DER SH IP D EV ELO PM EN T C HAPTER 9 A C ASE S TU DY I N L EA DER SH IP D EV ELO PM EN T —T HE U .S . M ARIN E C ORPS C HAPTER 1 0 W HAT I NDIV ID UALS D O T O B EC O M E G REA T L EA DER S C HAPTER 1 1 D EV ELO PIN G L EA DER SH IP T EA M S C HAPTER 1 2 T HE O RGA NIZ A TIO N’S R OLE I N D EV ELO PIN G L EA DER S 11 C HAPTER 1 3 M EA SU RIN G L EA DER SH IP I MPR O VEM EN T A T G EN ER A L M IL LS C HAPTER 1 4 T HE I MPO RTA NCE O F F OLLO W -T H RO UGH A PPEN DIX R ESE A RCH M ETH ODOLO GY E NDNOTES I NDEX 12 FO REW ORD T oday’s b usin ess c lim ate d em and s l e ad ers h ip th ro ugho ut th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

The E xtr a ord in ary L ea der d ra w s o n d ata f r o m m ore th an 2 00,0 00 i n d iv id uals w ho h av e r a te d m ore th an 2 5,0 00 l e ad ers to s h o w h o w l e ad ers c an g o f r o m b ein g g o od t o b ein g g re at, f r o m b ein g a v era ge to b ein g e xtr a o rd in ary . T he b ook f o cuse s o n th e t o p 1 0 p erc ent o f l e ad ers , a s d efin ed b y th eir s ta keho ld ers . T hese l e ad ers a re e xem pla rs a nd s h o uld b eco m e th e s ta nd ard to w hic h o th ers a sp ir e .

The E xtr a ord in ary L ea der b oth c o m ple m ents a nd a d vances th e w ork w e b egan i n Resu lts -B ase d L ea dersh ip . I n th at e arlie r w ork , w e a rg ued th at l e ad ers h ip i s a c o m bin ati o n o f a ttr ib ute s a nd r e su lts , b ut w e f o cuse d th ere o n th e “ re su lts ” s id e o f t h e e q uati o n; i n th is b ook, th e a uth o rs e m phasiz e th e “ attr ib ute s” s id e o f th e e q uati o n a nd th us m ove to w ard a m ore c o m ple te p ic tu re o f l e ad ers h ip . T o th is e nd , t h ey a re a p ply in g th e l o gic f r o m J im C ollin s’ e xcelle nt w ork o n h o w o rg aniz a ti o ns c an g o f r o m g o od to g re at p erfo rm ance o n th e p ers o nal s id e o f l e ad ers h ip . R ath er t h an s e ekin g q uic k f ix es th at d on’t l a st, th is b ook p ro pose s a l e ad ers h ip s c ie nce th at w ill o ffe r s u sta in in g a nd e nd urin g l e ad ers h ip v alu e. T he b ook s u ccessfu lly l in ks t h ese tw o a p pro aches to geth er, s h o w in g h o w th e a ttr ib ute s th at m ake a d iffe re nce to s u b ord in ate s a nd p eers a re e xactl y th e o nes th at p ro duce b ette r r e su lts f o r th e s h are ho ld ers .

Lead ers h ip r e q uir e s b oth a ttr ib ute s a nd r e su lts . T here a re tw o w ays to d is c o ver t h ese a ttr ib ute s. F ir s t, f in d th o se a ttr ib ute s th at d riv e f in ancia l a nd o th er r e su lts .

S eco nd , u se “ 3 60-d egre e f e ed back” to d efin e a ttr ib ute s th at a re r ig ht “ in th e e ye o f t h e b eho ld er.” S uch 3 60-d egre e i n str u m ents h elp l e ad ers d ete rm in e w hat i s e xp ecte d f r o m th o se th ey l e ad . T hey h elp l e ad ers k no w th e i n te nd ed a ttr ib ute s th at m ean th e m ost to th o se b ein g l e d .

This b ook i s i n fo rm ati v e b ecause o f i ts r ic h a nd th o ro ugh c o nte nt, a nd i t i s u se fu l b ecause i t c o nta in s i d eas w ith i m pact, w hic h w ill h elp l e ad ers b eco m e s e en a s e xtr a o rd in ary b y th eir a sso cia te s. I t l in ks p erc ep tu al d ata w ith h ard , q uanti ta ti v e b usin ess r e su lts , i n clu d in g u nit p ro fita b ility , r e te nti o n s ta ti s ti c s, c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n, a nd e m plo yee c o m mitm ent m easu re s.

An i m porta nt m essa ge o f th e b ook i s th at l e ad ers c an c hange. L ead ers c an g o f r o m b ein g g o od to b ein g g re at, f r o m b ein g s e en a s a d eq uate to b ein g s e en a s e xtr a o rd in ary . T he p ro cess f o r g etti n g f r o m g o od to g re at m ay d iffe r s o m ew hat f o r e ach p ers o n, b ut th ere i s a p atte rn . T his p atte rn e nab le s l e ad ers to d is c ern w hat th ey n eed to d o to d eliv er m ore v alu e.

The b ook o ffe rs a p le th o ra o f c o nte nt a nd n ew w ays to th in k a b out l e ad ers h ip b ase d o n b oth r e se arc h a nd e xp erie nce. I t g iv es th e r e ad er m ulti p le p ers p ecti v es o f l e ad ers h ip , b ut a m id st a ll th at c o m ple xity , th e b ook p ro m is e s s im plic ity . T he 13 auth o rs g iv e th e r e ad er a c o ncep tu al f r a m ew ork b y w hic h to u nd ers ta nd l e ad ers h ip attr ib ute s. T heir “ te nt” m odel i s a p ow erfu l w ay to d esc rib e l e ad ers h ip . I b elie v e most r e ad ers w ill a p pre cia te th is g ra p hic d ep ic ti o n o f a n e xtr e m ely c o m ple x ( a nd so m eti m es o btu se ) s u b je ct. F urth er, th e m odel m oves b eyo nd s im ply d esc rib in g le ad ers h ip to a ls o d esc rib in g i d eal l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent m eth o ds— exp and in g str e ngth s v ers u s d ith erin g a b out w eaknesse s. T he a uth o rs e m phasiz e th at th e b est way to r a is e a te nt i s to e xte nd th e p ole s s k yw ard , n o t to g o l o okin g f o r th e dro opin g p ie ce o f c anv as a nd p ro ppin g i t u p .

One te st o f a b usin ess b ook i s h o w i t i n fo rm s p ra cti c e a nd a cti o n. T he obse rv ati o ns m ad e i n th is b ook w ill h av e i m pact w hen th ey c hange h o w l e ad ers th in k a nd /o r b ehav e. W ith th is i n m in d , l e t m e s h are w hat I w ould a d vis e a l e ad er to do, b ase d o n th e i d eas i n th is b ook. I a ssu m e th at th is l e ad er w ants to m ove f r o m bein g g o od to b ein g e xtr a o rd in ary , f r o m b ein g s e en b y s u b ord in ate s, p eers , a nd su p erv is o rs a s a v era ge to b ein g i n th e to p 1 0 p erc ent i n a 3 60-d egre e f e ed back o r sim ila r e xerc is e .

• Dis p la y h ig h p erso nal c h ara cte r.

E very th in g a b out g re at l e ad ers h ip r a d ia te s fr o m c hara cte r. P ers o nal c hara cte r i m pro ves th e p ro bab ility o f e xhib iti n g str o ng i n te rp ers o nal s k ills . S om e o f th is p erc eiv ed c hara cte r i s i n nate a nd base d o n a p ers o nal v alu e s e t; b ut m ore i s d riv en b y th e l e ad er’s s e lf- aw are ness a nd i n te ra cti o ns w ith o th ers .

• Sta rt s m all.

G oin g f r o m g o od to g re at f o llo w s a n “ S ” c urv e o f l e arn in g.

Sta rti n g s m all m eans d oin g s o m eth in g n o w , s o m eth in g w ith in y o ur c o ntr o l th at will h av e i m med ia te i m pact. A s s m all th in gs c um ula te , b ig ger th in gs w ill hap pen. A l e ad er s h o uld i d enti fy s o m e q uic k, s im ple , a nd r e ad ily v is ib le th in gs th at c an b e d one a lo ng th e “ S ” c urv e p ath .

• Excel a t s o m eth in g.

T he w ors t l e ad ers ( 3 4th p erc enti le , o r b otto m th ir d ) h av e an “ av era ge” p ro file , w ith n o g re at s tr e ngth s o r w eaknesse s. T hey a re v anilla le ad ers , n o t s ta nd in g o ut o n a nyth in g. T he i m pact o f o ne p erc eiv ed s tr e ngth moves l e ad ers to th e 6 4th p erc enti le , a nd th re e str e ngth s m oves th em to th e 81st p erc enti le . M y a d vic e to y o u a s a l e ad er i s to f ig ure o ut w hat y o u a re g o od at a nd i m pro ve i t to th e 9 0 p erc ent l e v el. B e g o od a t s o m eth in g, th en a f e w th in gs.

• Connect c o m pete n cie s a nd l e vera ge c o m bin atio ns . Y ou a re a b ette r l e ad er when y o u c o nnect c o m pete ncie s a nd s e e th e p ow er o f c o m bin ati o ns. F or exam ple , l e ad ers w ho a re h ig hly c o m pete nt a t F ocus o n R esu lts a nd In te rp ers o nal S kills h av e a p ow erfu l c o m bin ati o n. W ith a s in gle s tr e ngth i n In te rp ers o nal S kills , o nly 9 p erc ent a re a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le . W ith a s in gle str e ngth i n F ocus o n R esu lts , o nly 1 3 p erc ent a re a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le . W ith a co m bin ati o n ( b oth I n te rp ers o nal S kills a nd F ocus o n R esu lts p erc eiv ed a s str e ngth s), 6 6 p erc ent a re a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le .

14 • Use a n onlin ea r a ppro ach t o b eco m in g a b ette r l e a der.

F or e xam ple , i f y o u get l o usy f e ed back o n te chnic al s k ills , th e b est a p pro ach m ay n o t b e to w ork o n im pro vin g y o ur te chnic al s k ills . T he a uth o rs ’ p ro posa l f o r c o m pete ncy co m panio ns s u ggests th at i t m ay b e i n y o ur i n te re st to i m pro ve y o ur in te rp ers o nal s k ills a s th e b est w ay to i m pro ve th e p erc ep ti o n o f y o ur te chnic al sk ills .

• Build o n y o ur s tr e n gth s.

F ig ure o ut w hat y o u d o w ell a nd m agnify i t. I t o nly ta kes s tr e ngth i n a f e w ( tw o to f o ur) a ttr ib ute s w hile b ein g a v era ge i n th e r e st to a chie v e a h ig h p ro bab ility o f b ein g s e en a s a g re at l e ad er. S o, a l e ad er need s to b uild o n s tr e ngth s. F in d w hat y o u d o w ell, th en f in d th e c o m bin ati o n of c o m pete ncie s th at y o u s h o uld d o w ell to b e s e en a s m ore e ffe cti v e.

• Rem ed y f a ta l f la w s.

T he a uth o rs p ro vid e d ata s h o w in g th at th ese a re a n in ab ility to l e arn f r o m m is ta kes a nd d ev elo p n ew s k ills ; b ein g i n te rp ers o nally in ep t; b ein g c lo se d to n ew i d eas; f a ilu re to b e a cco unta b le f o r r e su lts ; n o t ta kin g i n iti a ti v e. A sse ss y o urs e lf a nd s e e h o w o th ers a sse ss y o u o n th ese f iv e fa ta l f la w s. I f a ny s h o w u p , w ork o n th em f a st a nd f u rio usly .

These s u ggesti o ns a re j u st th e b egin nin g o f i d eas w ith i m pact th at y o u c an d ra w fr o m th is b ook. H ow ev er, th ese i d eas r e p re se nt th e c o nte nt th at m ay h elp y o u a s a le ad er to m ove f r o m b ein g g o od to b ein g g re at. I n th e c o nte xt o f to day’s org aniz a ti o ns, a p ply in g th ese i d eas w ill n o t o nly h elp l e ad ers i m pro ve b ut a ls o h elp org aniz a ti o ns b eco m e m ore c o m peti ti v e.

Dave U lr ic h 15 AC K NO W LED G M EN TS T his b ook b egan s e v era l y ears a go a s I w as w alk in g d ow n th e h all l o okin g o ver s o m e s ta ti s ti c al o utp ut a nd b um ped i n to J a ck Z enger. J a ck’s q uesti o n w as, “ A re y o u d oin g a nyth in g th at’ s i n te re sti n g?” M y r e sp onse w as, “ F unny y o u s h o uld a sk , l o ok a t th is d ata .” W hat b egan a s a f a sc in ati o n w ith s o m e s ta ti s ti c al a naly sis g re w i n to a c o m pellin g b ody o f e v id ence th at m odifie d s u b sta nti a lly th e c o nv enti o nal w is d om p eo ple h av e a b out w hat m akes g re at l e ad ers a nd h o w th ey d ev elo p.

To a nyo ne w ho r e ad s a n um ber o f b ooks o n l e ad ers h ip , i t b eco m es a p pare nt th at m ore th an 9 0 p erc ent o f w hat y o u r e ad h as b een s a id b efo re . T he p ackagin g i s d iffe re nt, th e e xam ple s a m usin g, b ut f u nd am enta lly th ere i s l ittl e th at i s n ew . I h ad n o i n te re st i n w riti n g th at k in d o f b ook. O ur a p pro ach w as to d o r ig o ro us r e se arc h a nd th en f o rm ula te a th eo ry to e xp la in th e r e su lts . I n p re se nta ti o ns o n o ur f in d in gs to c lie nts , w e h av e b een v ery p le ase d w ith th e “ A h-h a’s ” th at a re a p pare nt a s w e p re se nt th e i n sig hts f r o m o ur r e se arc h. I a m h o pefu l th at r e ad ers o f th is b ook w ill h av e a s im ila r e xp erie nce.

One o f th e m ost i n te re sti n g f in d in gs f r o m o ur r e se arc h i s s o m eth in g c alle d “ p ow erfu l c o m bin ati o ns.” A p ow erfu l c o m bin ati o n o ccurs w hen l e ad ers c o m bin e t w o u niq ue s k ills , w hic h r e su lts i n a s u b sta nti a l i n cre ase i n o vera ll e ffe cti v eness. I n t h in kin g a b out th e p ro cess o f g etti n g th is b ook w ritte n, I a m v ery c o nfid ent th at n eith er J a ck n o r I c o uld h av e a cco m plis h ed th is r e se arc h a nd w ritte n th is b ook a lo ne. T he c o m bin ati o n o f J a ck’s e xp erie nce, k no w le d ge, a nd c o ncep tu al s k ills w ith m y r e se arc h, m easu re m ent, a nd c hange m anagem ent b ackgro und c re ate d a v ery p ow erfu l c o m bin ati o n.

Work in g th ro ugh th e l a b orio us a nd d em and in g p ro cess o f w riti n g th is b ook w ith J a ck h as b een a n a b so lu te d elig ht. I a m g ra te fu l f o r h is p ati e nce, g entl e p ers u asio n, a nd p ers is te nce.

Many p eo ple c o ntr ib ute d s u b sta nti a lly b y d oin g r e se arc h a nd e d iti n g o n th e b ook. T hanks to b oth o ur c o lle agues, s ta ff m em bers a nd c lie nts f o r th eir c o ntr ib uti o ns a nd s u ggesti o ns.

As i s a lw ays th e c ase w ith p ro je cts s u ch a s th is , i t w as i m possib le to p ro duce r e co rd r e v enues, c arry a f u ll c lie nt l o ad , w rite a b ook, a nd m anage m y r e sp onsib iliti e s a s a h usb and a nd f a th er. I t w as m y w ife a nd f a m ily w ho g av e u p th e m ost a nd v olu nta rily c arrie d a n i n cre ase d l o ad . I a p pre cia te th eir w illin gness to d o s o v ery m uch. I r e co gniz e i n th em m uch th at i s e xtr a o rd in ary .

Fin ally , I w ould l ik e to d ed ic ate th is b ook to m y c lie nts . I a m e xtr e m ely g ra te fu l t o b rillia nt c lie nts i n a b ro ad r a nge o f i n d ustr ie s. U niv ers a lly , th ey a re d ed ic ate d to i m pro vin g o rg aniz a ti o ns a nd th e i n d iv id uals w ho w ork i n th em . T hey a re c o nti n ually l o okin g f o r w ays to m ake p eo ple m ore s u ccessfu l. T he d ata , w hic h i s 16 th e f o und ati o n o n w hic h th is b ook i s b uilt, c am e f r o m th em .

Jo e F olk m an As a r e la ti v ely y o ung b oy, I w ork ed a t th e h o sp ita l f o r w hic h m y f a th er w as th e ad m in is tr a to r. F ro m h im I l e arn ed m uch a b out l e ad ers h ip a nd th e c halle nges o f bein g th e s e nio r e xecuti v e. H is r e le ntl e ss p urs u it o f i m pro vem ent a nd w illin gness to a b and on s y ste m s th at w ere w ork in g f o r th e p ro m is e o f s o m eth in g b ette r w ere gre at e xam ple s to m e.

My a cad em ic i n te re sts i n l e ad ers h ip b egan a t U CLA a s a r e se arc h a ssis ta nt i n th e H um an R ela ti o ns R ese arc h G ro up . I a p pre cia te th e tu te la ge o f R obert Tannenb aum a nd th e l a te I r v W esc hle r. T hen a t U SC c am e a n a sso cia ti o n w ith B ill Woolf, w ho e xp ose d m e to a s o cio lo gic a nd a nth ro polo gic v ie w o f l e ad ers h ip .

Many o th ers i n flu enced m y th in kin g, i n clu d in g M el S orc her, th e c re ato r o f behav io ra l m odelin g tr a in in g i n i n d ustr y .

I h ad m any c o lle agues a t Z enger-M ille r w ho i n flu enced m e, b egin nin g w ith D ale Mille r, S te v e M ann, E d M usse lw hite , B ob S herw in , a nd d oze ns o f o th ers . T heir asso cia ti o n e nric hed m y th in kin g a b out l e ad ers h ip a nd s im ulta neo usly h elp ed b uild an e xtr a o rd in ary c o m pany. T o th em a ll I e xp re ss a p pre cia ti o n. I w is h to th ank m y curre nt c o lle agues w ho n o t o nly m ake th e o rg aniz a ti o n r u n s m ooth ly b ut a ls o a re th e genesis o f c o untl e ss g o od i d eas. I c o uld n o t a sk f o r a m ore d ed ic ate d g ro up w ith who m to w ork .

I w ould n ev er h av e i m agin ed th at I ’ d b e w riti n g a b ook w ith a s ta ti s ti c ally in clin ed o rg aniz a ti o nal p sy cho lo gis t. J o e F olk m an’s a cad em ic i n te re sts h av e b een quite o pposite f r o m m in e, b ut th e e xp erie nce h as b een e xtr e m ely p ositi v e.

Diffe re nces w ere q uic kly a nd p ain le ssly r e so lv ed . T he b ook i s s o m eth in g th at neith er o f u s c o uld h av e d one a lo ne.

Fin ally , I e xte nd m y d eep est a p pre cia ti o n to m y c o m bin ed f a m ily . F ro m o ur child re n, th eir s p ouse s, a nd m any g ra nd child re n h av e c o m e g re at l e sso ns i n le ad ers h ip , a lo ng w ith o pportu niti e s to a p ply s o m e o f w hat I h av e l e arn ed . T o m y wife , H olly , I e xp re ss s p ecia l th anks. B esid es b ein g a g o od c riti c o f w hate v er I write , h er o rg aniz a ti o n o f o ur l ife to geth er c re ate s th e ti m e a nd e nv ir o nm ent i n whic h i t i s p ossib le to w rite a b ook.

Ja ck Z en ger 17 IN TR O DUCTIO N “ W hat w ill I g ain f r o m r e ad in g th is b ook?” “W ill i t b e w orth th e e ffo rt I e xp end i n p lo w in g i n to i ts c o nte nts ? ” “W ill th ere b e a g o od r e tu rn o n th e ti m e I i n v est i n r e ad in g a nd s tu d yin g i t? ” “W hat a b out th is b ook i s d iffe re nt th an o th er b ooks o n th e s u b je ct o f ‘ le ad ers h ip ’? ” Tho se a re j u sti fia b le q uesti o ns. T he m ore y o u k no w a b out o ur o bje cti v es a nd th e n atu re o f th is b ook, th e e asie r i t w ill b e f o r y o u to a rriv e a t g o od a nsw ers to th o se q uesti o ns. P urc hasin g a ny b ook l ig hte ns y o ur p urs e o r w alle t a ta d , b ut th e r e al i n v estm ent i s n o t d olla rs . R ead in g a ny b ook c o nsu m es a n e xtr e m ely v alu ab le c o m modity — yo ur ti m e.

We h ad th re e p rim ary o bje cti v es i n w riti n g th is b ook. F ir s t w as s im plic ity . W e i n sis te d th at th e b ook p ro vid e a c le ar, u nd ers ta nd ab le m essa ge. N oth in g i s m ore i r rita ti n g th an to r e ad a b ook o n a to pic o f g re at p ers o nal i n te re st a nd th en c lo se th e b ook a nd n o t b e a b le to s u m mariz e th e b ook’s p oin t o f v ie w o r b asic th esis . W e d o n o t e xp ect e v ery o ne to a gre e f u lly w ith a ll th e c o nclu sio ns w e p ut f o rth .

But a gre e o r n o t, th is b ook c o nta in s a s im ple m odel o f l e ad ers h ip , o ur a nsw er a b out w heth er l e ad ers h ip c an b e d ev elo ped , h o w l e ad ers h ip c an b e d ev elo ped b y i n d iv id uals th em se lv es, a nd w hat o rg aniz a ti o ns c an d o to d ev elo p l e ad ers . W e p re se nt a c ase s tu d y o f a n o rg aniz a ti o n th at s u ccessfu lly tr a nsfo rm s p eo ple i n to e ffe cti v e l e ad ers . W e p re se nt 2 0 i n sig hts , m any o f th em n ew i d eas, a b out l e ad ers h ip . T hese c re ate th e f r a m ew ork o f th e b ook.

Our s e co nd o bje cti v e w as th at th e c o nte nts b e a cti o nab le . W e d o n o t e xp ect th at e v ery i d ea i n th e b ook w ill b e s o m eth in g y o u c an i m ple m ent i m med ia te ly ; b ut s u ccess f o r u s w ill b e y o ur a b ility to ta ke a g re at p orti o n o f o ur f in d in gs a nd b e a b le to d o s o m eth in g w ith th em . W e b elie v e th at r e al l e arn in g s h o w s u p i n n ew b ehav io r.

If th is b ook i s a s e rio us v ehic le o f l e arn in g, th en th e w ay to m easu re i ts v alu e i s v ia th e n ew a cti o ns y o u ta ke. I n l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s, th ere i s th e p ere nnia l p le a to th e i n str u cto rs f o r “ W hat d o I d o o n Mond ay m orn in g?” B ooks o n l e ad ers h ip s h o uld m eet th e s a m e te st. M ost r e co m mend ati o ns a re o nes th at m ere m orta ls c an u se c o m fo rta b ly — on M ond ay m orn in g.

Our th ir d o bje cti v e w as th at th e b ook b e e m pir ic al. W e i n sis te d th at i t b e b ase d o n h ard d ata , f a cts , a nd s ta ti s ti c al a naly se s. H uge s e ts o f d ata w ere th e to uchsto ne t o w hic h w e c o nsta ntl y r e tu rn ed .

Fra nkly , w e ti r e o f b ooks b y e xecuti v es a nd b usin ess w rite rs th at p rim arily e xp re ss p ers o nal p hilo so phie s a nd b elie fs , e sp ecia lly w hen th ey a re s o 18 in co nsis te nt. T he d is c ip lin e o f l e ad ers h ip a nd th o se c o m mitte d to d ev elo pin g le ad ers i n sid e o rg aniz a ti o ns s u re ly d ese rv e b ette r. O ur s ta nd ard w as to h av e e v ery co nclu sio n g ro und ed i n o bje cti v e d ata . T he c o m bin ati o n o f h ard d ata a nd s ta ti s ti c al analy se s w ere to b e th e p oin t o f th e s p ear. I t th en b ecam e o ur ta sk to m ake s e nse o f th e d ata a nd to p ut l o gic al e xp la nati o ns a ro und o ur f in d in gs.

We w elc o m e f e ed back f r o m r e ad ers . T he to pic d ese rv es a g re at d eal o f dia lo gue f r o m a ll o f u s w ho a re c o ncern ed w ith th e f u tu re o f o ur g re at i n sti tu ti o ns— univ ers iti e s, s c ho ols , h o sp ita ls , g o vern m ent a gencie s, a nd b usin esse s. T hese a ll need l e ad ers to f lo uris h . O ur h o pe i s th at th e i n fo rm ati o n th at f o llo w s w ill i n s o m e sm all w ay a id i n th e d ev elo pm ent o f th o se m uch-n eed ed l e ad ers .

19 1 DEM YST IF Y IN G L EA D ER SH IP Lead ers h ip i s o ne o f th e m ost o bse rv ed a nd l e ast u nd ers to od p heno m ena o n Earth .

—J. M . B urn s The a ura w ith w hic h w e te nd to s u rro und th e w ord s l e ad er a nd l e ad ers h ip makes i t h ard to th in k c le arly . G ood s e nse c alls f o r d em ysti fic ati o n.

—Jo hn G ard ner T he M yste ry R em ain s W hile w e w ere s e ate d a t a d in ner ta b le r e centl y , i t b ecam e k no w n th at w e w ere w riti n g a b ook. A d in ner g uest i m med ia te ly i n q uir e d , “ W hat i s th e b ook a b out? ” “It i s a b out l e ad ers h ip ,” o ne o f u s r e p lie d .

With o ut h esita ti o n th e g uest i n q uir e d , “ D o y o u r e ally th in k p eo ple c an b e d ev elo ped i n to l e ad ers ? A re n’t th ey b orn th at w ay?” ( W e’d l ik e to h av e a d olla r f o r e v ery ti m e th at q uesti o n h as b een a sk ed o f u s o ver th e p ast d ecad es.) T he q uesti o n s e em s a s h ard y a s c o ckro aches o r c ro co dile s. P eo ple i n g enera l h av e th at q uery a t th e to ps o f th eir m in d s a nd s o d o a l o t o f C EO s a nd p ub lic o rg aniz a ti o n l e ad ers .

And th e q uesti o n i s r e ally i n tw o p arts . I f th e q uesti o n i s a nsw ere d u sin g th e p opula r p arty l in e th at s a ys, “ O f c o urs e y o u c an d ev elo p l e ad ers h ip i n peo ple ,” th e i m med ia te f o llo w -u p q uesti o n i s , “ H ow d o y o u d o th at? ” I t i s to th o se tw o b asic q uesti o ns th at w e a d dre ss th is b ook.

Does th e w orld n eed a nyth in g m ore w ritte n o n th e s u b je ct o f l e ad ers h ip ? O n th e o ne h and , i t c o uld b e a rg ued th at th e a nsw er i s a l o ud “ N o!” C onsid er th e f a ct th at m ore th an 1 0,0 00 a rti c le s h av e b een p ub lis h ed a b out l e ad ers h ip i n th e p ast c entu ry .

W here as s o m e a re b ase d o n r e se arc h, m ost r e fle ct th e p ers o nal o pin io ns o f th e a uth o rs r e gard in g l e ad ers h ip , d eriv ed f r o m th eir o w n e xp erie nces o r th eir o bse rv ati o ns o f l e ad ers . M any a re w ritte n b y s u ccessfu l b usin ess e xecuti v es a nd r e fle ct th eir o w n b elie fs a b out w hat m ad e th em s u ccessfu l.

Add to th at a p pro xim ate ly a th o usa nd r e se arc h s tu d ie s th at h av e b een c o nd ucte d o n l e ad ers h ip a nd p ub lis h ed i n s c ho la rly j o urn als . T hen a d d n early a th o usa nd b ooks th at h av e b een w ritte n a b out l e ad ers h ip o ver th e p ast 1 00 y ears . M any o f 20 th ese w ere w ritte n b y p ra cti c in g l e ad ers , a nd o th ers w ere w ritte n b y a cad em ic ia ns and c o nsu lta nts w ho s o ught to e xp la in th is i m porta nt r o le th at s o m e p eo ple p erfo rm .

Giv en th at i m mense b ody o f l ite ra tu re , i t w ould s e em f u ti le to a d d y et o ne m ore book.

The R ea so n s f o r O ne M ore B ook Desp ite th at e xte nsiv e l ite ra tu re , l e ad ers h ip r e m ain s s h ro ud ed i n m yste ry . R ath er th an m akin g th e s u b je ct c le are r, o ne r e co gniz e d l e ad ers h ip e xp ert, W arre n B ennis , su m med i t u p b y s a yin g “ th e m ore th at i s w ritte n a b out l e ad ers h ip , th e l e ss w e s e em to k no w .” Regard in g th e e no rm ous n um ber o f r e se arc h s tu d ie s th at h av e b een c o nd ucte d , ano th er r e sp ecte d s c ho la r o bse rv ed , “ T he r e su lts o f m any o f th ese s tu d ie s a re co ntr a d ic to ry o r l a ck a ny c le ar c o nclu sio n.” 1 How M yste rie s A re S olv ed ?

There i s a n a sto nis h in g d esc rip ti o n o f o ne a p pro ach to s o lv in g a m yste ry i n S ir Arth ur C onan D oyle ’s c la ssic S herlo ck H olm es ta le .

The S ig n o f F our.

D r. W ats o n r e m ark s to S herlo ck H olm es, “ I h av e a g o ld w atc h in m y p osse ssio n. W ould y o u h av e th e k in d ness to l e t m e h av e a n o pin io n u p on th e chara cte r o r h ab its o f th e l a te o w ner? ” W ats o n w as te sti n g H olm es a nd a tte m pti n g to to ne d ow n h is a rro gant m anner. H olm es th en c o m pla in ed th at b ecause th e w atc h had r e centl y b een c le aned , h e w as r o bbed o f th e m ost u se fu l d ata . B ut a fte r care fu lly e xam in in g th e w atc h, H olm es th en p ro ceed ed to te ll W ats o n a s e rie s o f hyp oth ese s a b out th e o w ner. T hese i n clu d ed :

• T he w atc h b elo nged to h is o ld er b ro th er, w ho i n herite d i t f r o m h is f a th er.

• H e w as a m an o f u nti d y h ab its .

• H e h ad g o ne th ro ugh a p erio d o f p overty , w ith i n te rv als o f p ro sp erity .

• H e h ad ta ken to h eav y d rin kin g b efo re h e d ie d .

Wats o n s p ra ng f r o m h is c hair a nd a ccuse d H olm es o f h av in g m ad e i n q uir ie s i n to th e h is to ry o f h is u nhap py b ro th er a nd th en p re te nd in g to d ed uce i t f r o m h is obse rv ati o ns o f th e g o ld p ocket w atc h. H e c o nclu d ed b y s a yin g, “ It i s u nkin d a nd , to s p eak p la in ly , h as a to uch o f c harla ta nis m i n i t.” Holm es p ro ceed ed to e xp la in h o w h e h ad c o m e to e ach o f h is c o nclu sio ns b y sim ply o bse rv in g i m porta nt d ata a nd s e ein g th eir i m plic ati o ns. T he i n iti a ls o n th e watc h’s b ack, “ H .W .,” s u ggeste d a f a m ily m em ber, a nd g o ld w atc hes u su ally w ere 21 passe d f r o m f a th er to th e e ld er s o n.

The w atc h w as 5 0 y ears o ld . T he i n iti a ls a p peare d to b e a s o ld a s th e w atc h, and s o i t w as m ost l ik ely th e f a th er’s w atc h, p asse d to D r. W ats o n’s b ro th er. T he ow ner’s u nti d y h ab its w ere r e v eale d b y th e d ents a nd s c ra tc hes th at c am e f r o m carry in g th is e xp ensiv e w atc h i n th e s a m e p ocket w ith o th er h ard o bje cts s u ch a s co in s o r k eys. I n sid e th e c ase o f th e w atc h w ere s c ra tc hed i n p in p oin t th e n um bers of a p aw nb ro ker’s ti c ket, s u ggesti n g th at th e o w ner h ad g o ne th ro ugh a p erio d o f dir e p overty . T he f a ct th at h e r e gain ed p osse ssio n o f th e w atc h w ould i m ply th at h e als o h ad p erio ds o f p ro sp erity . T he o w ner’s d rin kin g p ro ble m w as r e v eale d b y th o usa nd s o f s c ra tc hes a ro und th e k eyho le w here th e w in d in g k ey h ad s lip ped a nd sc ra tc hed th e c ase . H olm es n o te d , “ T hat i s c hara cte ris ti c o f a d ru nkard ’s w atc h, n o t a s o ber m an’s .” Solv in g t h e M yste ry o f L ea d ersh ip Our h o pe i s to ta ke a n e no rm ous a m ount o f d ata c o lle cte d a b out a nd f r o m l e ad ers and , th ro ugh c are fu l a naly sis a nd o bse rv ati o n, b egin to u nra v el th e m yste ry o f le ad ers h ip . W e w ill d o o ur b est to e m ula te S herlo ck H olm es. I t w ould s e em th at i f care fu l a tte nti o n i s g iv en to th e c lu es th at l ie i n sid e h uge d ata b ase s, th e c o nti n uin g myste ry o f l e ad ers h ip m ig ht b e p enetr a te d .

Our o bje cti v e i s to p ro vid e th e r e ad er w ith a n e m pir ic al a naly sis o f l e ad ers h ip , a s im ple a nd p ra cti c al c o ncep tu al m odel o f w hat l e ad ers h ip i s , a nd a p ra cti c al guid e to h elp in g l e ad ers d ev elo p “ gre atn ess.” O ur a p pro ach a nd u nd ers ta nd in g co m es f r o m o ur a naly sis o f h und re d s o f th o usa nd s o f l e ad ers h ip a sse ssm ents f r o m th e d ir e ct r e p orts o f l e ad ers , th eir p eers , th eir b osse s, a nd th em se lv es. W e l e t o ur fin d in gs g uid e o ur d ev elo pm ent o f a p ra cti c al th eo ry .

Because to geth er th e a uth o rs h av e r o ughly th re e-q uarte rs o f a c entu ry o f exp erie nce i n l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent, w e w ere s u rp ris e d th at th e r e se arc h c hanged so m e l o ng-h eld b elie fs a b out th e n atu re o f l e ad ers h ip a nd h o w b est to d ev elo p i t.

The C om ple x it y o f D efin in g a n d D esc rib in g Lea d ersh ip , o r W hy t h e M yste ry E xis ts Every o ne r e co gniz e s th e c halle nge o f tr y in g to s o lv e a ny p ro ble m th at c o nta in s multi p le u nkno w ns. T hat i s p re cis e ly th e p ro ble m i n tr y in g to s o lv e th e l e ad ers h ip dile m ma. T here a re a t o nce a s ig nific ant n um ber o f u nkno w ns, a nd m any o f th em a re co nsta ntl y c hangin g.

Six te en o f th o se v aria b le s a re d esc rib ed b elo w .

1. T here a re d iffe re nces i n th e l e ad ers h ip b ehav io rs a nd p ra cti c es r e q uir e d a t 22 diffe re nt l e v els o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n. W hat w e n eed f r o m a C EO o r th e s e cre ta ry of th e D efe nse D ep artm ent i s d iffe re nt th an th e l e ad ers h ip r e q uir e m ents o f a nig ht- s h ift s u p erv is o r a t M cD onald ’s .

2. L ead ers h ip o ccurs i n e xtr e m ely d iv ers e e nv ir o nm ents . S om e l e ad ers h ip pro duces p re sc rib ed r e su lts i n a r e la ti v ely d efin ed a nd e sta b lis h ed org aniz a ti o n. S uch l e ad ers h ip m ay s p eed a p ro duct to m ark et o r e sc ala te th e re v enue f r o m a s a le s f o rc e, b ut i t i s n o t c o nceiv in g n ew d ir e cti o ns o r str a te gie s f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n. O th er l e ad ers h ip i s e xhib ite d i n a s ta rt- u p org aniz a ti o n i n w hic h th ere i s n o s tr u ctu re o r f o rm , a nd th e l e ad er m ust c re ate it f r o m s c ra tc h.

3. D iffe re nt s k ills a re r e q uir e d a t d iffe re nt s ta ges i n a p ers o n’s c are er. T he re se arc h o n c are er s ta ges s h o w s th at p eo ple ’s c are ers g o th ro ugh v ery pre d ic ta b le s ta ges. E arly o n, p eo ple s ta rt a s a p pre nti c es, l e arn in g s o m e new dis c ip lin e. T hey th en m ove to b eco m e m ore i n d ep end ent i n th eir w ork . F ro m th ere , s o m e p eo ple m ove i n to m anageria l p ositi o ns i n w hic h th ey o vers e e th e work o f o th ers o r m ove f r o m a n arro w f o cus o n th eir o w n w ork to a b ro ad er fo cus th at i n v olv es c o achin g o th ers to d ev elo p s k ill a nd e xp erti s e . F in ally , a hand fu l o f p eo ple b eco m e p ath fin d ers a nd v is io narie s w ho l e ad b ro ad -s c ale org aniz a ti o n c hange a nd a re th e “ sta te sm en” o f th eir o rg aniz a ti o n. C are er sta ges a re e asily c o nfu se d w ith o rg aniz a ti o nal l e v els , b ut th ey a re n o t id enti c al. P eo ple w ho a re p ro m ote d i n to m anageria l p ositi o ns o fte n c o nti n ue to f u ncti o n a s p ro fe ssio nal, i n d iv id ual c o ntr ib uto rs . T hey r e v ert to th e w ork th ey f in d m ost c o m fo rta b le a nd n ev er ta ke o n th e r o le o f c o ach, m ento r, o r dir e cto r o f o th ers . T hey c o nti n ue d oin g te chnic al w ork a t w hic h th ey a re h ig hly pro fic ie nt. H ow ev er, th e s ta ge o f a p ers o n’s c are er i s a no th er v aria b le o f th e le ad ers h ip e q uati o n.

4. L ead ers h ip i s d riv en b y m ajo r e v ents . M ayo r R ud olp h G iu lia ni o f N ew Y ork was c ata p ulte d i n to th e n ati o nal l im elig ht b ecause o f h is h and lin g o f th e te rro ris t a tta cks o n th e W orld T ra d e C ente r. P rio r to th at, h is c are er h ad b een wanin g. C hurc hill h ad s o ught s e v era l l e ad ers h ip p ositi o ns, b ut i t w as n o t u nti l th e e v ents o f D unkir k th at h is ta le nts w ere r e co gniz e d . T hro ugh W orld W ar I I he w as a p re m ie r l e ad er, a nd th en w hen th e w ar w as o ver, h is c o untr y m en vote d h im o ut o f o ffic e. W hen a f r ie nd s u ggeste d th at th is w as a b le ssin g i n dis g uis e , C hurc hill g ro w le d b ack, “ If i t i s , th e d is g uis e i s p erfe ct.” 5. T he a cti v iti e s o f l e ad ers h ip a re n o t a ll th e s a m e. F or e xam ple , n o t a ll l e ad ers are r e q uir e d to “ le ad c hange.” S om e l e ad ers s p end a g re at d eal o f ti m e o n peo ple -d ev elo pm ent a cti v iti e s, w here as o th ers a re r iv ete d to th e o pera ti o nal or p ro ducti o n e le m ents o f th eir r o le s.

6. W e c o nfu se s u ccess a nd e ffe cti v eness a s th e g enera l b enchm ark o f l e ad ers h ip .

If s u ccess i s m easu re d b y d olla rs a nd ti tl e s, th at i s c le arly n o t th e s a m e th in g 23 as e ffe cti v eness, o r tr u ly p ro ducin g th e r e su lts th at th e o rg aniz a ti o n n eed s. W e belie v e th is i s p ro bab ly b est m easu re d b y th e f e ed back f r o m s u b ord in ate s w ho exp erie nce th at l e ad ers h ip . M uch o f th e r e se arc h o n l e ad ers h ip m akes n o dis ti n cti o n b etw een s u ccess a nd e ffe cti v eness.

7. W e l a ck a gre ed -u p on m easu re s, s o i t h as b een f r u str a ti n gly d iffic ult to g et agre em ent o n w ho i s a g o od l e ad er a nd w ho i s n o t. W e l a ck r o bust m easu re s of l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd e sp ecia lly h av e n o co m pre hensiv e m easu re s th at tr a ck th e l e ad er’s i m pact o n c usto m ers , e m plo yees, o rg aniz a ti o ns, a nd sh are ho ld ers .

8. W e h av e n o t ta ken i n to a cco unt th e e v olv in g n atu re o f l e ad ers h ip . T hat i s , w e hav e a naly ze d l e ad ers h ip a ro und th e c hara cte ris ti c s th at a re r e q uir e d f o r su ccess o r e ffe cti v eness to day b ut h av e n o t g iv en m uch a tte nti o n to th e co m pete ncie s th at w ill b e r e q uir e d i n th e f u tu re . T hus, m uch o f th e l e ad ers h ip analy sis a nd d ev elo pm ent h as b een “ lo okin g i n th e r e arv ie w m ir ro r” a nd n o t lo okin g o ut o ver th e h o riz o n.

9. T here h as b een n o w ay to d efin e th e d iffe re nt c o nsti tu encie s o f th e l e ad er.

Thus, i f a l e ad er i s i n c harg e o f “ B ab y B oom ers ” b orn f r o m 1 945 to 1 955, th is would c all f o r s o m e d iffe re nt v alu es, m oti v es, a nd s k ills th an i f th e l e ad er w as re sp onsib le f o r a g ro up o f “ G en-X ers ” b orn f r o m l 9 75 to 1 985. T hat co m ple xity i s n o w c o m pound ed w ith “ G enera ti o n Y ,” th o se b orn f r o m 1 986 to 2000, a nd th e s o on to c o m e “ G enera ti o n Z ,” b orn i n 2 001 a nd b eyo nd .

10. S ti ll a no th er v aria b le i s w heth er th e l e ad er i s o pera ti n g a lo ne v ers u s a cti n g a s part o f a l e ad ers h ip te am . C le arly th ere a re o rg aniz a ti o ns i n w hic h o ne p ers o n pla ys a n e xtr e m ely d om in ant p art a nd e xerc is e s c o ntr o l a nd i n flu ence o ver th e big i s su es, a lo ng w ith th e d ay-to -d ay ta cti c s. O th er o rg aniz a ti o ns h av e a le ad ers h ip te am th at a cts i n c o ncert. I n s o m e c ase s, a f o rm al “ o ffic e o f th e pre sid ent” h as p eo ple w ho a ct q uite i n te rc hangeab ly i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

11. A f u rth er d im ensio n i s th e i m pact o f te chno lo gy. E ffe cti v eness i n s o m e org aniz a ti o ns w ould d em and a h ig h l e v el o f c o m fo rt w ith th e l a te st c o m pute r and i n fo rm ati o n te chno lo gy, w here as o th ers w ould to le ra te a l e ad er w ho c o uld neith er s e nd n o r r e ceiv e e -m ail. N ew te chno lo gie s e xis t to c o nd uct v ir tu al meeti n gs, a nd i n s o m e o rg aniz a ti o ns a c o m fo rt a nd f a m ilia rity w ith s u ch te chno lo gy w ould b e a “ m ust.” A D ell C om pute r e m plo yee r e p orte d , “ M y boss s p ent th e e nti r e w eekend r e ty p in g a 2 5-p age p ro posa l th at o nly n eed ed co rre cti o ns. S he c la im s th e f ile I g av e h er w as c o rru p te d a nd s h e c o uld n o t ed it i t. T he P D F f ile I g av e h er w as ‘ re ad o nly ,’ b ut a ll s h e h ad to d o w as co py i t i n to a w ord -p ro cessin g p ro gra m a nd m ake th e c o rre cti o ns.” 12. A n ew d im ensio n o f l e ad ers h ip i s o ne o f g eo gra p hy. S om e l e ad ers i n te ra ct with a v ir tu al te am , w here as o th ers h av e th eir s ta ffs o n-s ite .

This c an b e e v en fu rth er c o m plic ate d b y th e f a ct th at g ro up s a re o fte n s c atte re d a cro ss w id ely 24 diffe re nt ti m e z o nes, th us m akin g th e l e ad ers h ip ta sk e v en m ore c o m ple x. F or exam ple , h o ld in g m eeti n gs a t o ne p oin t i n ti m e c an b e c um bers o m e.

13. A no th er v aria b le i s th e w id e v arie ty o f l e ad ers h ip s ty le s u se d w ith in d iffe re nt org aniz a ti o ns to m oti v ate a nd i n sp ir e th e f r o nt l in e. S om e o f th e b est r e se arc h in th is r e gard c o m es f r o m J o n K atz e nb ach a nd i s d esc rib ed i n h is b ook Pea k Perfo rm ance.

2 I n th at b ook, h e d esc rib es f ir m s th at w ere e xtr e m ely e ffe cti v e and s u ccessfu l b ut th at u se d v ery d iffe re nt a p pro aches to g etti n g h ig h perfo rm ance f r o m th e p eo ple w ith in . H e d esc rib ed f iv e o f th ese :

• Mis sio n, v a lu es, a nd p rid e.

I n th is a p pro ach, th e o rg aniz a ti o n i m mers e s ev ery o ne i n th e tr a d iti o ns, th e s p ir it, th e c o re v alu es, a nd th e m is sio n o f th e org aniz a ti o n. T his i n tu rn g enera te s g re at p rid e, a nd p eo ple p ro duce a t h ig h le v els b ecause o f th at p rid e i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n. T he U .S . M arin e C orp s i s a go od e xam ple o f th is .

• Reco gnitio n a nd c ele b ra tio n.

M any o rg aniz a ti o ns h e s tu d ie d p ra cti c ed exte nsiv e r e co gniti o n f o r th eir p eo ple a nd w ent to g re at l e ngth s to c ele b ra te su ccesse s. S outh w est A ir lin es i s a c la ssic e xam ple o f th is a p pro ach.

• Pro cess m etr ic s.

M any o rg aniz a ti o ns p ost d eta ile d c harts s h o w in g pro ducti v ity a nd q uality m etr ic s f o r e v ery d ep artm ent. P eo ple a re tr a in ed to und ers ta nd th ese m etr ic s, a nd th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s s u ccess i s m easu re d a nd re w ard ed b y p erfo rm ance a gain st th ese m etr ic s.

• In div id ual a ch ie vem en t.

O th er o rg aniz a ti o ns e xcel b y a llo w in g i n d iv id uals to a cco m plis h e xtr a o rd in ary th in gs. O rg aniz a ti o nal e ffe cti v eness i s th e ad diti o n o f a ll th ese e xcellin g i n d iv id uals . P ro fe ssio nal s e rv ic e f ir m s fu ncti o n th is w ay, a nd M cK in se y a nd C om pany i s a g o od e xam ple .

• Entr e p re n eu ria l s p ir it.

S ti ll a no th er a p pro ach to m oti v ati n g p eo ple to h ig h perfo rm ance i s to l e t th em e njo y a h uge f in ancia l s ta ke i n th e p ote nti a l su ccess o f th e f ir m . M any h ig h-te ch s ta rt- u p s h av e r e lie d o n th is a p peal to so m eo ne’s e ntr e p re neuria l s p ir it, a nd th is h as e nab le d s u ch o rg aniz a ti o ns to excel.

This i s a g o od e xam ple o f th e c o m ple xity o f l e ad ers h ip . A ll f iv e o f th e ab ove a p pro aches w ork w ell. O ne i s n o t r ig ht a nd th e o th ers w ro ng.

What co uld e nd u p b ein g “ w ro ng” i s f o r a r e co gniti o n a nd c ele b ra ti o n l e ad er to atte m pt to f u ncti o n th at w ay i n a p ro cess m etr ic s o rg aniz a ti o n. C hances a re th e org aniz a ti o n w ould r e je ct s u ch a l e ad er a s th e h um an b ody r e je cts a ny f o re ig n su b sta nce i m pla nte d i n i t.

14. W ho d ecid es th o se w ho a re g o od l e ad ers ? W e h av e b een u ncle ar r e gard in g who i s i n th e b est p ositi o n to e v alu ate l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. O rg aniz a ti o ns hav e o fte n r e lie d o n p erfo rm ance a p pra is a ls f r o m th e l e v el a b ove to e v alu ate th e e ffe cti v eness o f a l e ad er. W e h av e s tu d ie s f r o m s e v era l o rg aniz a ti o ns 25 sh o w in g a b so lu te ly n o c o rre la ti o n b etw een p erfo rm ance a p pra is a ls a nd th eir 360-d egre e f e ed back i n str u m ents . Y et th e r e se arc h f o r p ast d ecad es h as s h o w n th at s u b ord in ate s w ere i n th e b est p ositi o n to a p pra is e a ny l e ad er’s effe cti v eness. R ese arc h i n th e m ilita ry p ro ved th at h av in g th e e nlis te d m en se le ct s e rg eants w as m ore e ffe cti v e th an h av in g h ig her-ra nkin g o ffic ers m ake th o se s e le cti o ns.

15. S ev era l “ co m panio ns” o f l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness h av e c lo ud ed th e i s su e. F or exam ple , a ll o f th e f o llo w in g h av e b een s h o w n to h av e s o m e c o rre la ti o n to le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness:

• I n te llig ence, a s m easu re d b y I Q s c o re s • P hysic al c hara cte ris ti c s, s u ch a s h eig ht • E m oti o nal o r p ers o nality c hara cte ris ti c s, s u ch a s a sse rti v eness a nd outg o in gness • B io chem ic al c hara cte ris ti c s, s u ch a s te sto ste ro ne l e v els i n m en Because s o m e c o rre la ti o n e xis ts b etw een th ese e le m ents a nd l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness, th ere h as b een a l o gic al te m pta ti o n to a ssu m e th ere to b e a cause -a nd -e ffe ct r e la ti o nsh ip . A t th e s a m e ti m e, th ere w as h ig h i n te re st i n su ch c o nclu sio ns f r o m th o se r e sp onsib le f o r l e ad ers h ip s e le cti o n; th e a b ove ele m ents d id n o t h elp f u rth er th e w ork o f th o se c o ncern ed w ith d ev elo pm ent.

16. L anguage h as a n i m pact. I s th e l a ck o f a d eq uate l a nguage p artl y r e sp onsib le fo r th e m yste ry th at s u rro und s l e ad ers h ip ? T he I n uit ( o r a s s o m e c all th em , Esk im os) h av e s o m e 2 3 w ord s to d esc rib e s n o w . T hey c an d esc rib e i ts hard ness, te xtu re , m ois tu re c o nte nt, c o lo r, a ge, a nd c ry sta llin e s tr u ctu re w ith th eir r ic her v ocab ula ry . W e, o n th e o th er h and , h av e r o ughly th re e w ord s a t best, a s w e ta lk a b out p ow der, s lu sh , a nd c o rn s n o w . I t i s p ossib le th at i f o ur vocab ula ry w ere m ore p re cis e a nd r o bust, w e c o uld b ette r s u cceed i n desc rib in g w hat le ad ers h ip i s a nd h o w to m ore e ffe cti v ely d ev elo p i t. G iv en our c urre nt c o nd iti o n, l e ad ers h ip i s s ti ll n early i m possib le to d efin e o r desc rib e i n d eta il o r s p ecific ity . H ow ev er, a s P ro fe sso r K arl W eic k h as su ggeste d , a ny i d ea c an b e “ sim ple , g enera l o r a ccura te , b ut n ev er a ll th re e.” 3 We w ill s tr iv e to b e g enera l a nd a ccura te , b ut n o t s p ecific . T hat a p pears to b e th e b est w ay to i m pro ve o ur u nd ers ta nd in g o f th is m ost i m porta nt to pic .

Rese a rch -b ase d B ook Our h o pe i s to p re se nt a w ay f o r p eo ple to th in k a b out l e ad ers h ip i n a h ig hly pra cti c al a nd y et s im ple w ay. W e w ill n o t r e v ie w th e p ast l ite ra tu re o n l e ad ers h ip .

26 Oth ers h av e d one th at. N or w ill w e d w ell o n th e th eo re ti c al. N or w ill w e a tte m pt to desc rib e a ll o f th e ta sk s o r a cti v iti e s o f l e ad ers . O th ers h av e d one th at a ls o . I n ste ad , we w ant to p re se nt a w ay f o r y o u p ers o nally to th in k a b out y o ur o w n l e ad ers h ip ab iliti e s a nd h o w y o u m ig ht g o a b out i n cre asin g th o se , i f y o u c ho ose . A nd f o r th o se who h av e s u b ord in ate s, w e p ro vid e s u ggesti o ns a b out w hat th ey a nd th eir org aniz a ti o ns c an d o to d ev elo p l e ad ers h ip i n th e p eo ple w ho r e p ort to th em .

We b elie v e th is i s b est d one b y e xam in in g a h uge b ody o f d ata c o lle cte d a b out le ad ers f r o m th eir p eers , s u b ord in ate s, b osse s, a nd th em se lv es. R ath er th an desc rib e o ur p ers o nal b elie fs a nd p re ju d ic es a b out l e ad ers h ip , w e w ill tu rn to m ore obje cti v e d ata . W e th in k i t e nab le s u s to d is c o ver s o m e p ro fo und i n sig hts i n to th e re al n atu re o f l e ad ers h ip . W here m yste rie s s ti ll r e m ain , w e c all th at to y o ur atte nti o n a nd p ass o n o ur b elie fs .

To a nsw er i n te llig entl y th e q uesti o n “ A re l e ad ers b orn o r m ad e?” a nd th e s e q uel “If th ey a re m ad e, th en h o w d o y o u d o th at? ” w e b egin b y p ro vid in g th e r e ad er w ith a m odel o f l e ad ers h ip th at b eco m es o ur o pera ti o nal d efin iti o n o f a l e ad er. T hat model th en p ro vid es a w ork ab le v ehic le w ith w hic h to d esc rib e a p ra cti c al w ay to make g o od m anagers i n to g re at l e ad ers . L ate r i n th e b ook, w e p re se nt a n e xam ple o f an o rg aniz a ti o n th at h as e xcelle d a t ta kin g w hat s o m e w ould d esc rib e a s a v era ge peo ple a nd tr a nsfo rm in g th em i n to h ig hly e ffe cti v e l e ad ers . T hat o rg aniz a ti o n i s th e U.S . M arin e C orp s. W e a ls o p re se nt a c ase s tu d y o f a c o rp ora ti o n th at s u ccessfu lly dev elo ps i ts l e ad ers a nd th e c o m pellin g s u p port th is g iv es to d ev elo pin g s tr e ngth s ra th er th an w eaknesse s.

This b ook e xam in es th e l e ad er a s s e en th ro ugh th e e yes o f th o se b ein g l e d (s u b ord in ate s) a nd i n flu enced ( p eers ), o f th o se w ho m anage th e l e ad ers ( th e bosse s), a nd o f th e l e ad ers th em se lv es. T his p ro cess h as b eco m e k no w n as 3 60- degre e f e ed back, b ecause o f i ts c o m pre hensiv e v ie w o f a l e ad er’s b ehav io r, l o oked at f r o m a b ove, th e s id e, a nd b elo w . I n d eed , w e l a te r d esc rib e o ur d ata b ase o f s o m e 200,0 00 r e sp onse s, u sin g 3 60-d egre e q uesti o nnair e s. W e f o cus o n th e q uesti o n:

What d o th ese th re e g ro up s ( s u b ord in ate s, p eers , a nd b osse s) n o ti c e? W hat d o th ey se e i n “ gre at l e ad ers ” th at s e ts th em a p art f r o m th e a v era ge o nes?

Of th o se th re e p ers p ecti v es, w e c o nclu d e th at th e b est w ay to u nd ers ta nd le ad ers h ip i s to e xam in e th e i m pact l e ad ers h av e o n th e p eo ple th ey l e ad . I t i s th e su b ord in ate s’ v ie w w e v alu e th e m ost, b ecause w e b elie v e th ey h av e th e m ost co m ple te a nd a ccura te d ata .

Peers a nd b osse s s e e s lic es o f a l e ad er’s b ehav io r, b ut th ere i s g o od e v id ence to co nclu d e th at th eir p erc ep ti o ns a re l e ss a ccura te th an th o se o f th e p eo ple w ho re p ort to th e l e ad er.

We s tr o ngly b elie v e th at th is c o m pre hensiv e p ool o f d ata i s f a r m ore p ow erfu l and a ccura te th an i n fo rm ati o n th at w ould c o m e f r o m i n te rv ie w s o f l e ad ers th em se lv es. A s M ic hael P ola nyi n o te d i n h is b ook Perso nal K now le d ge , “ m ost hig hly s k ille d p erfo rm ers i n a ny a cti v ity , w heth er i t b e m usic , s p orts , o r v io lin 27 makin g, c anno t a ccura te ly te ll y o u w hat m akes th em s o e ffe cti v e. T heir b ehav io r i s ofte n h ig hly i n tu iti v e. Y ou m ust a ctu ally o bse rv e th em to a ccura te ly d ete rm in e th e tr u e c ause o f th eir s u ccess.” 4 This d ata b ase o f a p pro xim ate ly 2 00,0 00 q uesti o nnair e s c o m ple te d b y su b ord in ate s, p eers , a nd b osse s a b out l e ad ers c o lle cti v ely d esc rib es m ore th an 20,0 00 l e ad ers . T hey c o m e f r o m w id ely d iv ers e i n d ustr ie s. T hese l e ad ers a re f r o m North A meric a, a lo ng w ith m any f r o m E uro pe, th e P acific R im , a nd S outh A meric a.

To m ake o ur d ata b ase a nd a naly sis m ore r o bust, w e e xam in ed m ore th an 2 5 diffe re nt l e ad ers h ip a sse ssm ent i n str u m ents . R ath er th an d ep end in g o n th e s a m e s e t of a sse ssm ent i te m s f o r a ll 2 0,0 00 l e ad ers , w e e xam in ed a v arie ty o f d iffe re nt asse ssm ents , e ach b uilt o n d iffe re nt a ssu m pti o ns. T his p ro vid ed u s w ith a d ata b ase ric h i n d iv ers ity a nd h elp ed g iv e u s a m uch c le are r s e nse o f w hat m akes e ffe cti v e le ad ers h ip a nd w hat d oesn ’t. A ll to geth er, w e i n clu d ed i n o ur a naly sis m ore th an 2,0 00 u niq ue a sse ssm ent i te m s.

Rese a rc h M eth od olo gy We b egan o ur a naly sis b y i d enti fy in g th e to p 1 0 p erc ent o f m anagers a s s e en th ro ugh th e e yes o f th eir s u b ord in ate s, p eers , a nd b osse s a nd c o m pare d th em w ith th e b otto m 1 0 p erc ent. T he to p 1 0 p erc ent, w ith th e h ig hest a ggre gate sc o re s, becam e a h ig h-p erfo rm in g g ro up , a nd th e 1 0 p erc ent w ith th e l o w est a ggre gate sc o re s w ere p la ced i n th e b otto m g ro up . N ext w e a sk ed th e q uesti o n: W hat w ere th e c o m pete ncie s o r a ttr ib ute s th at s e p ara te d th ese g ro up s?

We w ere s u rp ris e d b y th e r e su lts th at c am e f r o m a naly zin g a ll o f th ese d ata . I t opened o ur th in kin g to s o m e h ig hly p ro m is in g n ew w ays to l o ok a t l e ad ers h ip a nd pro vid ed n ew d ir e cti o ns i n th e w ays w e g o a b out d ev elo pin g l e ad ers .

Movin g C om ple x it y T ow ard S im plic it y If y o u a nd 1 0 c o lle agues w ere a sk ed to d esc rib e a c o m pute r, th ere w ould b e s o m e genera l c o nsis te ncy a m ong th e a nsw ers , b ut th e a nsw ers w ould m ost l ik ely f o cus o n what a c o m pute r d oes, n o t w hat i s g o in g o n i n sid e i t. I n d eed , f o r m ost p eo ple , w hat go es o n i n sid e a l a p to p o r d esk to p c o m pute r i s a c o m ple te m yste ry . M ost h av e nev er l o oked i n sid e o ne. W hat’ s m ore , y o u d on’t n eed to . T he o utp ut f r o m th e co m pute r i s a ll y o u c are a b out; th at c an b e s p re ad sh eets , c o m pute r g ra p hic s, d esig n sim ula ti o ns, e -m ail, o r s im ple w ord p ro cessin g.

Many p eo ple k no w th at th ere i s a h ard d riv e i n sid e a nd r o ughly k no w i ts cap acity . T hey a ls o k no w th ere i s a m ic ro pro cesso r, a nd th ey h av e s o m e i d ea a b out its s p eed . T hey k no w th ere i s s o m e m em ory c ap acity a nd a p pro xim ate ly w hat th e 28 RA M o f th eir c o m pute r i s . I n s h o rt, th ey k no w s o m e g enera l th in gs a b out i t a nd what i t p ro duces.

That i s th e l e v el o f u nd ers ta nd in g th at p ra cti c in g l e ad ers n eed to h av e a b out le ad ers h ip . T hey d o n o t n eed to k no w th e d eta ils , b ut i t i s h elp fu l to h av e s o m e genera l u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e c o m ponents th at c o m e to geth er to m ake a g re at l e ad er.

The L ea d ersh ip T en t— a C on cep tu al F ra m ew ork We p ro pose a p pro achin g l e ad ers h ip i n th e s a m e w ay. W e w ill n o t a d d o ne m ore desc rip ti o n o f th e i n ner c hara cte r tr a its o r th o ught p ro cesse s o f g re at l e ad ers . T he co ncep tu al m odel w e p ro pose i s r a th er s im ple a nd i n v olv es f iv e e le m ents , w hic h we w ill c o m pare w ith th e p ole s i n a te nt.

Our e m pir ic al f a cto r a naly sis o f h uge a m ounts o f d ata c o lle cte d o n l e ad ers ’ co m pete ncie s r e v eals th at a ll v ita l a nd d iffe re nti a ti n g l e ad ers h ip c o m pete ncie s Fig ure 1 -1 T he L ead ers h ip T ent F lo or can b e g ro up ed i n to f iv e c lu ste rs . F or th e s a ke o f e ase i n r e m em berin g a nd a naly sis , we h av e c re ate d a d ia gra m i n th e f o rm o f a te nt f lo or ( Fig ure 1 -1 ) th at s h o w s th e re la ti o nsh ip o f th ese b uild in g b lo cks to e ach o th er.

29 Chara cte r Our m odel i n Fig ure 1 -1 s ta rts w ith a c ente r p ole r e p re se nti n g th e “ chara cte r” o f a n in d iv id ual. T here i s a h uge b ody o f w riti n g o n th is s u b je ct. I n d eed , s o m e w rite rs and r e se arc hers h av e a rg ued th at l e ad ers h ip i s to ta lly a b out c hara cte r o r i n te grity .

We d o n o t s h are th at v ie w , b ut w e d o a gre e th at p ers o nal c hara cte r i s th e c o re o f a ll le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. W e s tr o ngly c o ncur th at th e e th ic al s ta nd ard s, i n te grity , and a uth enti c ity o f th e l e ad er a re e xtr e m ely i m porta nt.

With a s tr o ng p ers o nal c hara cte r, th e l e ad er i s n ev er a fr a id to b e o pen a nd tr a nsp are nt. I n f a ct, th e m ore p eo ple c an s e e i n sid e, th e m ore h ig hly r e gard ed th e le ad er w ill b e. W ith o ut th at p ers o nal c hara cte r, o n th e o th er h and , l e ad ers a re fo re v er i n d anger o f b ein g d is c o vere d . T hey a re l ik e a H olly w ood s e t th at f r o m o ne sid e l o oks a ttr a cti v e, b ut a fte r w alk in g a ro und i t, th e i llu sio n i s d is p elle d a nd th e ho llo w ness i s o bvio us.

Perso n al C ap ab ilit y On o ne s id e o f th e te nt f lo or i s th e p ole o f p ers o nal c ap ab ility . T his d esc rib es th e in te lle ctu al, e m oti o nal, a nd s k ill m akeup o f th e i n d iv id ual. I t i n clu d es a naly ti c al and p ro ble m -s o lv in g c ap ab iliti e s, a lo ng w ith th e te chnic al c o m pete nce th e p ers o n posse sse s. I t r e q uir e s a n a b ility to c re ate a c le ar v is io n a nd s e nse o f p urp ose f o r th e org aniz a ti o n. G re at l e ad ers n eed a s tr o ng c o lle cti o n o f th ese p ers o nal c ap ab iliti e s.

Lead ers h ip c anno t b e d ele gate d to o th ers . T he l e ad er m ust b e e m oti o nally r e silie nt, tr u st o th ers , a nd b e s e lf- c o nfid ent e no ugh to r u n e ffe cti v e m eeti n gs a nd s p eak i n pub lic .

Focu s o n R esu lt s The th ir d te nt p ole o f l e ad ers h ip r e p re se nts th e b ehav io rs th at c an b ro ad ly b e desc rib ed a s “ fo cusin g o n r e su lts .” I t d esc rib es th e a b ility to h av e a n i m pact o n th e org aniz a ti o n. I t m eans b ein g c ap ab le o f g etti n g th in gs a cco m plis h ed . W e f u lly su b sc rib e to th e m ain th esis i n th e b ook Resu lts -B ase d L ea dersh ip , 5 w hic h a rg ues th at l e ad ers m ay b e w ond erfu l h um an b ein gs, b ut i f th ey d on’t p ro duce s u sta in ed , bala nced r e su lts , th ey s im ply a re n o t g o od l e ad ers . W e w ill l a te r e xam in e th e in te rp la y o f th ese th re e e le m ents a s a p ow erfu l p re d ic to r o f l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness.

In te rp erso n al S kills The f o urth te nt p ole o f l e ad ers h ip p uts i n to o ne c lu ste r a ll o f th e i n te rp ers o nal o r peo ple s k ills . T here i s a n e no rm ous b ody o f e v id ence th at s a ys l e ad ers h ip i s exp re sse d th ro ugh th e c o m munic ati o n p ro cess a nd i s th e i m pact th at o ne p ers o n ( th e le ad er) h as o n a g ro up o f o th er p eo ple . I t i s th e d ir e ct e xp re ssio n o f th e c hara cte r o f th e i n d iv id ual a nd i s o fte n th e w in d ow b y w hic h p eo ple u nd ers ta nd th e p ers o nal 30 chara cte r o f th e l e ad er. ( N ote , h o w ev er, th at l e ad ers h ip d oes n o t e q ual a ny o ne co m pete ncy. I t i s e xp re sse d i n a r e su lt. Y es, th e c o m pete ncy i s th e to ol o r th e manners i n w hic h th at r e su lt i s o bta in ed . A s s u ch, i t i s w orth y o f u nd ers ta nd in g, b ut a c o m pete ncy i s n ev er a n o utc o m e, and l e ad ers h ip i s u lti m ate ly a b out o utc o m es.) We h av e a rb itr a rily s e p ara te d th e l e ad er’s i m pact o n p eo ple f r o m th e l e ad er’s ab ility to o bta in g o od r e su lts i n o th er a re nas, s u ch a s f in ancia l o utc o m es, pro ducti v ity i m pro vem ent, e nhanced c usto m er r e la ti o ns, o r g re ate r o rg aniz a ti o nal cap ab ility .

Lea d in g O rg an iz a tio n al C han ge Fifth , a s n o te d e arlie r, a no th er e xp re ssio n o f l e ad ers h ip c o m es i n th e a b ility to pro duce c hange w ith in a n o rg aniz a ti o n. T he h ig hest e xp re ssio n o f l e ad ers h ip in v olv es c hange. C are ta ker m anagers c an k eep th in gs g o in g o n a s te ad y p ath , b ut le ad ers a re d em and ed i f th e o rg aniz a ti o n i s to p urs u e a n ew p ath o r r is e to a sig nific antl y h ig her l e v el o f p erfo rm ance.

A k ey p oin t h ere i s th at f o r m any l e ad ers h ip r o le s, th e f ir s t f o ur te nt p ole s m ay be a ll th at a re r e q uir e d . I t i s n o t u nti l a p ers o n g ets i n to l e ad in g b ro ad , s tr a te gic change th at th e f in al te nt p ole i s r e q uir e d .

An O verv ie w o f I m porta n t I d ea s i n t h is B ook There a re 2 0 i n sig hts p re se nte d i n th is b ook. T he f o llo w in g c hap te rs p re se nt f u rth er analy sis o f th ese i d eas.

In sig h t 1 . G re a t L ea d ers M ake a H uge D if fe re n ce W hen Com pare d w it h M ere ly G ood L ea d ers We h av e k no w n f o r s o m e ti m e th at h uge d iffe re nces e xis t b etw een to p p erfo rm ers and a v era ge p erfo rm ers i n a ny j o b c ate go ry . O ne m eta -a naly sis ( a s y nth esis o f so m e 8 0 w ell- c o nd ucte d s tu d ie s o n p ro ducti v ity ) s h o w ed th at f o r h ig h-le v el j o bs (a nd l e ad ers c erta in ly f it th at c ate go ry ), th e p ro ducti v ity d iffe re nce b etw een th e to p pers o n o ut o f 1 00 a nd th e g re at m ajo rity i s h uge. F or e xam ple , th e to p p ers o n perfo rm in g h ig h-c o m ple xity j o bs i s 1 27 p erc ent m ore p ro ducti v e th an th e m ean av era ge p ers o n a nd i n fin ite ly m ore p ro ducti v e th an th e 1 00th p ers o n i n th at c urv e.

The r e se arc hers s a id “ in fin ite ly ” b ecause th e n um ber w as s o l a rg e th at i t w ould b e la ckin g p re cis io n to s a y a nyth in g o th er th an “ in fin ite .” Our r e se arc h w ith a l a rg e m ortg age c o m pany s h o w ed th at th e l e ad ers i n th e to p decile o f r a ti n gs ( 9 0th to 9 9th ), a s r a te d b y th eir m anagers , s u b ord in ate s, and p eers , pro duced tw ic e a s m uch n et r e v enue to th e o rg aniz a ti o n ( th eir te rm f o r p ro fita b ility ) 31 as th at o f m anagers i n th e 1 1th th ro ugh 8 9th p erc enti le s. S o th e d iffe re nce b etw een re ally g re at l e ad ers a nd th e o th ers i s e xtr a o rd in ary . W e h av e f o und s tr o ng sta ti s ti c ally s ig nific ant r e la ti o nsh ip s b etw een l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd a v arie ty of d esir a b le b usin ess o utc o m es s u ch a s p ro fita b ility , tu rn o ver, e m plo yee co m mitm ent, c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n, a nd i n te nti o n o f e m plo yees to l e av e. I n a lm ost ev ery s tu d y w here w e h av e u nd erta ken to u nd ers ta nd th e i m pact o f v ario us dim ensio ns o f o rg aniz a ti o nal e ffe cti v eness, l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness h as co nsis te ntl y h ad s u b sta nti a l i m pact. T his i s d is c usse d i n Chap te r 2 .

In sig h t 2 . O ne O rg an iz a tio n C an H ave M an y G re a t L ea d ers Bein g a g re at l e ad er c an b e d efin ed b y s e le cti n g th e to p 5 o r 1 0 p erc ent f r o m a ny dis tr ib uti o n, b ut th is i s a rti fic ia l. I t w as d one f o r th e s a ke o f e ase a nd o bje cti v ity i n our r e se arc h. H ow ev er, g re atn ess s h o uld u lti m ate ly b e d efin ed a gain st a s ta nd ard ra th er th an m ere ly c o m parin g p eo ple a gain st e ach o th er. T here i s n o r e aso n w hy half th e l e ad ers i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n c o uld n o t b e g re at i f th ey w ere d ev elo ped pro perly . B ette r s ti ll, w hy n o t a ll? G re at l e ad ers h ip i s n o t a c o m peti ti v e a cti v ity i n whic h o ne p ers o n’s s u ccess d etr a cts f r o m a no th er’s s u ccess.

Four g re at g o lfe rs c an p la y to geth er a nd a ll f o ur c an c o m e i n 1 0 s tr o kes o r m ore und er p ar o n th e c o urs e . I f a nyth in g, p la yin g w ith o th er g re at p la yers e le v ate s th e pla y o f e ach i n d iv id ual. L ik ew is e , a n o rg aniz a ti o n c an h av e l a rg e n um bers o f le ad ers p erfo rm in g a t a h ig h l e v el a nd h av in g p ositi v e i m pact o n th eir p eo ple a nd pro ducin g e xcelle nt b usin ess r e su lts . T he g o al s h o uld b e to h av e a ll l e ad ers perfo rm in g a t a n e xtr e m ely h ig h l e v el, a nd th ere i s n o r e aso n w hy th is c anno t o ccur.

Ja ck W elc h’s l e gacy a t G E w as a s tr o ng e m phasis o n d ev elo pin g a l a rg e n um ber of g re at l e ad ers , m any o f w ho m w ent o n to l e ad m ajo r d iv is io ns o f G E, a nd s o m e who l e ft to h ead u p o th er m ajo r c o rp ora ti o ns. S om eho w w e m ust c hange th e menta lity th at h o ld s th at a ny o rg aniz a ti o n c an h av e o nly a f e w r e ally g o od l e ad ers .

Chap te r 2 c o vers th is to pic .

In sig h t 3 . W e H ave B een A im in g T oo L ow in O ur L ea d ersh ip Develo p m en t A ctiv it ie s We c o nte nd th at o ne o f th e m ajo r f a ilin gs i n l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s h as been th e te nd ency to a im l o w . M ic hela ngelo s a id , “ T he g re ate st danger f o r m ost o f us i s n o t th at o ur a im i s to o h ig h a nd w e m is s i t, b ut th at i t i s to o l o w a nd w e r e ach it.” We h av e o fte n s e t th e ta rg et a s “ getti n g a l ittl e b it b ette r.” W e h av e n o t s e t o ur sig hts o n g etti n g p eo ple to b eco m e o uts ta nd in g l e ad ers . T he m ore g re at l e ad ers a n org aniz a ti o n d ev elo ps, th e m ore i t w ill b eco m e a n o uts ta nd in g o rg aniz a ti o n. T here is n o r e aso n to a ccep t m ed io crity i n l e ad ers h ip a ny m ore th an i n s o ftw are pro gra m min g, c usto m er s e rv ic e, o r s e llin g. T his i s m ore f u lly c o vere d i n Chap te r 2 .

32 In sig h t 4 . T he R ela tio n sh ip B etw een I m pro ved L ea d ersh ip a n d In cre a se d P erfo rm an ce O utc o m es I s N eit h er P re cis e ly In cre m en ta l N or I s I t L in ea r Afte r e v alu ati n g a v arie ty o f d iffe re nt a sse ssm ents c o m parin g l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness w ith o utc o m es a s m enti o ned a b ove, a d is ti n ct p atte rn e m erg ed i n alm ost a ll o f o ur s tu d ie s. P oor l e ad ers ( th o se u p to th e 2 0th p erc enti le ) h ad p oor re su lts , w here as l e ad ers a b ove th e 8 0th p erc enti le a chie v ed e xcep ti o nal r e su lts .

Lookin g a t o nly th o se tw o d ata p oin ts , th e r e la ti o nsh ip a p pears f a ir ly l in ear, b ut i n each c ase w here w e e xam in ed th o se l e ad ers w ith g o od r e su lts ( 2 0th to 8 0th perc enti le s), th ey a chie v ed a p pro xim ate ly th e s a m e l e v el o f o utc o m es e v en th o ugh th eir e ffe cti v eness r a nged f r o m th e 2 0th to th e 8 0th p erc enti le . T he c o ncep t th at le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i s n o t p re cis e ly i n cre m enta lly r e la te d to p erfo rm ance outc o m es m eans th at i n cre m enta l i m pro vem ents i n l e ad ers h ip w ill n o t c re ate in cre m enta l i m pro vem ents i n p erfo rm ance o utc o m es. P erh ap s i f i t d id , p eo ple would b e m ore f o cuse d o n i m pro vem ent. T hey w ould s e e th at a s lig ht i m pro vem ent in th eir l e ad ers h ip a b ility c re ate d i m pro ved j o b p erfo rm ance. L ead ers w ho se effe cti v eness r a ti n gs a re a t th e 4 0th o r 5 0th p erc enti le e nd u p a chie v in g a b out th e sa m e p erfo rm ance a s l e ad ers a t th e 6 0th o r 7 0th p erc enti le . T ho se a t th e 4 0th o r 50th p erc enti le a nd w ho c ho ose to c o nse rv e th e e nerg y i n v olv ed i n c hange m ig ht ask th em se lv es, “ W hat’ s th e p oin t? M y r e su lts a re th e s a m e a s th o se o f o th ers w ho are w ork in g to i m pro ve th eir l e ad ers h ip .” T he l a ck o f i n cre m enta l m ovem ent o f le ad ers h ip a nd p erfo rm ance m akes i t d iffic ult f o r p eo ple to m ake th e j u m p to extr a o rd in ary p erfo rm ance. A nd s o m ost c ho ose to b e s a ti s fie d w ith g o od perfo rm ance r a th er th an to m ove f o rw ard to h ig her l e v els . S om e o rg aniz a ti o ns, a s well, a p pear to b e s a ti s fie d w ith l e ad ers th at a re g o od.

Chap te r 2 p re se nts f u rth er ev id ence a nd i n fo rm ati o n o n th is i s su e.

In sig h t 5 . G re a t L ea d ersh ip C on sis ts o f P osse ssin g S evera l “B uild in g B lo ck s” o f C ap ab ilit ie s, E ach C om ple m en tin g t h e Oth ers We h av e d esc rib ed th e “ b uild in g b lo cks” o f:

• C hara cte r • P ers o nal c ap ab iliti e s • F ocus o n r e su lts • I n te rp ers o nal s k ills • L ead in g o rg aniz a ti o nal c hange Each o f th ese c o nsis ts o f s e v era l f a ir ly d is ti n ct c o m pete ncie s o r s e ts o f b ehav io rs .

These a re d esc rib ed i n s o m e d eta il l a te r i n th e b ook, b ut a k ey i n sig ht i s th at 33 posse ssin g o nly o ne o f th em i s n o t l ik ely to h av e y o u p erc eiv ed a s a n e ffe cti v e le ad er. I n f a ct, l e ad ers p osse ssin g o ne c o m pete ncy a s a s tr e ngth a t th e 9 0th perc enti le w ould n o t b e r a te d a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le i n te rm s o f o vera ll l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness.

Chap te r 3 e la b ora te s o n th is c o ncep t.

In sig h t 6 . L ea d ersh ip C ulm in ate s in C ham pio n in g C han ge The h ig hest e xp re ssio n o f l e ad ers h ip i n v olv es c hange, a nd th e h ig hest o rd er o f change i s g uid in g a n o rg aniz a ti o n th ro ugh a n ew s tr a te gic d ir e cti o n, c hangin g i ts cultu re , o r c hangin g th e f u nd am enta l b usin ess m odel. T hus, c hange i s a n i m porta nt and u lti m ate c rite rio n b y w hic h to m easu re l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness.

Chap te r 3 dis c usse s th is .

In sig h t 7 . A ll C om pete n cie s A re N ot E qual. S om e D if fe re n tia te Good f r o m G re a t L ea d ers, W here a s O th ers D o N ot There h as b een a n e no rm ous a m ount o f m oney s p ent, m ostl y b y l a rg e c o rp ora ti o ns, to d efin e c o m pete ncie s. T he i m plic ati o n o f th ese l is ts h as o fte n b een th at a ll o f th ese w ere o f e q ual i m porta nce a nd th at th e w is e m anager w ould d ev ote ti m e to bein g g o od a t a ll o f th em .

Our r e se arc h, o n th e c o ntr a ry , s u ggests th at s o m e c o m pete ncie s to w er a b ove oth ers , a nd w hic h o nes a re m ost i m porta nt o fte n d ep end s o n th e org aniz a ti o n. F or exam ple , i n o ne o rg aniz a ti o n w e s tu d ie d , th e d ata s h o w ed th at th e s in gle m ost im porta nt c o m pete ncy f o r a l e ad er w as to b e s e en a s te chnic ally c o m pete nt.

Conv ers e ly , th e q uality th at p ut l e ad ers i n to th e b otto m r u ng w as th eir l a ck o f te chnic al c o m pete nce. T his o ne c hara cte ris ti c w as f a r m ore i m porta nt th an th e se co nd o r th ir d d is ti n guis h in g c ap ab ility .

The p oin t i s th at i f p eo ple s e ek to b e p erc eiv ed a s g re at l e ad ers , i t b eho oves th em to k no w w hic h c o m pete ncie s r e ally m ake a d iffe re nce i n th eir o rg aniz a ti o ns.

Our r e se arc h i d enti fie d 1 6 c o m pete ncie s th at a ctu ally s e p ara te d th e to p 1 0 p erc ent of a ll l e ad ers f r o m th e r e st. W e b elie v e th ese a re th e c o m pete ncie s o n w hic h m ost le ad ers s h o uld f o cus. T his c o m pris e s Chap te r 4 o f th e b ook.

In sig h t 8 . L ea d ersh ip C om pete n cie s A re L in ked C lo se ly T ogeth er Alth o ugh a n e ffo rt h as b een m ad e to m ake th em a p pear u niq ue a nd s p ecific , th e f a ct of th e m atte r i s th at l e ad ers h ip c o m pete ncie s a re h ig hly i n te rtw in ed . S ev era l f o rc es ap pear to b e a t w ork to m ake th is h ap pen. O ne i s th at b eco m in g g o od a t o ne co m pete ncy a p pears to m ake p eo ple b ette r a t a no th er. T his i s th e “ cro ss-tr a in in g effe ct.” T he s e co nd w ay th ey b eco m e l in ked a p pears to b e f r o m “ attr ib uti o n” o r th e cre ati o n o f a “ halo e ffe ct.” I f a l e ad er i s p erc eiv ed a s b ein g h ig hly e ffe cti v e i n work in g w ith p eo ple , th en i t i s e asy to a ttr ib ute to th at p ers o n th e s k ills o f b ein g co m mitte d to th e d ev elo pm ent o f s u b ord in ate s. S ee Chap te r 4 .

34 In sig h t 9 . E ffe ctiv e L ea d ers H ave W id ely D if fe re n t P erso n al Sty le s. T here I s N o O ne R ig h t W ay t o L ea d Milita ry l e ad ers p ro vid e s o m e o f th e c le are st c o ntr a sts i n l e ad ers h ip b ehav io r.

Eis e nho w er w as a n a b le a d m in is tr a to r a nd b uild er o f c o aliti o ns a nd g enera lly s e lf- effa cin g. M acA rth ur w as s tr a te gic ally f o cuse d , s e nsiti v e to th e c ultu re o f th e e nem y, and h ig hly f la m boyant. P atto n w as i m petu o us, p assio nate , a nd a “ lo ne-ra nger.” W e no w h av e s o lid r e se arc h e v id ence o f th ese w id ely d iffe re nt s ty le s, e sp ecia lly vie w ed f r o m o ne o rg aniz a ti o n to th e n ext.

In o ur r e se arc h w e tr ie d d ilig entl y to d is c o ver th e o ne, tw o, o r th re e c ap ab iliti e s th at w ere c o m mon f o r a ll e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers . W e f a ile d . O ur r e se arc h c o nfir m s what h as b een s u ggeste d f r o m c lin ic al s tu d ie s o f o rg aniz a ti o ns a nd l e ad ers . T here cle arly i s n o o ne p atte rn th at c o vers a ll o rg aniz a ti o ns or l e ad ers w ith in a ny o ne org aniz a ti o n. O ur d ata s u p port th e c o nclu sio n th at e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip i s i n cre d ib ly co m ple x a nd d iv ers e . P ro vid in g o ne s im ple k ey to l e ad ers h ip i s j u st n o t w ork ab le .

Our i n ab ility to f in d th ese u niv ers a l i s su es w as i n m any w ays o ne o f o ur m ost pro fo und f in d in gs. T he r e se arc h s u ggests th at e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers c o m e i n a ll sh ap es a nd s iz e s. S om e h av e s tr e ngth s i n s o m e c o m pete ncie s w hile o th ers co m ple m ent th em b ecause o f th eir s tr e ngth s i n d iffe re nt c o m pete ncie s. F or a n org aniz a ti o n to h av e e xcep ti o nal l e ad ers h ip a b ility , i t n eed s to a sse m ble th e r ig ht te am w ith a m ple d iv ers ity a nd ta le nt to m axim iz e th e c o lle cti v e i n flu ence o f th e te am .

Chap te r 5 e la b ora te s o n th is p rin cip le .

In sig h t 1 0. E ffe ctiv e L ea d ersh ip P ra ctic es A re S pecif ic t o a n Org an iz a tio n Countl e ss l e ad ers w ho w ere s u ccessfu l i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n s w itc h to a no th er a nd th en f a il. T his i s c o m pellin g e v id ence th at l e ad ers m ust f it th e o rg aniz a ti o n. O ur re se arc h s h o w ed w id e v aria ti o ns b etw een o rg aniz a ti o ns r e gard in g th e s p ecific co m pete ncie s th at w ere v alu ed m ost b y e ach o ne. L ead ers h ip a lw ays o ccurs i n a co nte xt. S ee Chap te r 5 f o r f u rth er i n fo rm ati o n.

In sig h t 1 1. T he K ey t o D evelo p in g G re a t L ea d ersh ip I s t o B uild Str e n gth s When p eo ple a re c halle nged to i m pro ve th eir l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness, th ey a lm ost auto m ati c ally a ssu m e th at th e b est a p pro ach f o r i m pro vem ent i s f ix in g w eaknesse s.

In f a ct, m ost l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro cesse s r e su lt i n l e ad ers d ev elo pin g a n acti o n p la n th at f o cuse s p rim arily o n w eaknesse s. O ur r e se arc h h as l e d u s to co nclu d e th at g re at l e ad ers a re n o t d efin ed b y th e a b se nce o f w eakness, b ut r a th er by th e p re se nce o f c le ar s tr e ngth s. G re at l e ad ers , a s s e en th ro ugh th e e yes o f su b ord in ate s a nd p eers , p osse ss m ulti p le s tr e ngth s, a nd o ur r e se arc h s h o w s a re la ti v ely s tr a ig ht- lin e p ro gre ssio n. T he m ore s tr e ngth s p eo ple h av e, th e m ore 35 lik ely th ey a re to b e p erc eiv ed a s g re at l e ad ers . F or e xam ple , o ne l a rg e g ro up o f managers h ad th is p atte rn :

• N o s tr e ngth p uts th em i n th e 3 0th p erc enti le o f a ll l e ad ers i n th at g ro up .

• O ne s tr e ngth p la ced th em a t th e 6 0th p erc enti le .

• T hre e s tr e ngth s p ut th em a t th e 8 0th p erc enti le .

• F iv e s tr e ngth s c ata p ulte d th em i n to th e 9 0th p erc enti le .

These s tr e ngth s a re n o t a lw ays th e s a m e o nes. O f th e 1 6 c o m pete ncie s th at w e dis c o vere d , g re at l e ad ers d id n o t h av e th e s a m e f o ur s tr e ngth s. H ow ev er, th ese str e ngth s c anno t a ll b e f r o m th e s a m e c lu ste r. T hey m ust b e d is tr ib ute d a m ong th e vario us b uild in g b lo cks d esc rib ed e arlie r.

In g enera l, i n e xam in in g a ll o f o ur d ata , i t i s c le ar th at th e g re ate r th e n um ber o f str e ngth s y o u h av e, th e m ore l ik ely y o u a re to b e c o nsid ere d a g re at l e ad er. T his h as eno rm ous i m plic ati o ns f o r e xecuti v e s e le cti o n p ro cesse s, w hic h s e em o fte n to b e se ekin g p eo ple w ho p osse ss n o f la w s. I t s e em s th at th e e m phasis s h o uld b e o n se ekin g p eo ple w ith r e m ark ab le c o nfig ura ti o ns o f s tr e ngth s. P ro ven tr a ck r e co rd s o f acco m plis h m ent s te m min g f r o m c o m pete ncie s a p pear to b e th e k ey to f in d in g g re at le ad ers . T his a ls o h as e no rm ous i m plic ati o ns f o r l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent. I n th e past, w e h av e o fte n f o cuse d o ur e ffo rts o n p atc hin g o ver w eaknesse s. W hen executi v es a re g iv en a 3 60-d egre e f e ed back r e p ort, th e c o nsis te nt r e acti o n i s to ig no re th e p ages d esc rib in g th eir s tr e ngth s, a nd i m med ia te ly f o cus o n w eaknesse s, whic h i n m ost c ase s a re s im ply b ehav io rs th at a re r a te d a s l e ss p ositi v e r a th er th an re al f a ta l f la w s. I t i s a s i f s tr e ngth s a re g iv ens, a nd th e th in g to w ork o n i s weaknesse s o r l e ss p ositi v e a re as. I n cre asin gly w e a re c o nv in ced th is i s a m is ta ke.

It i s f a r b ette r to m agnify s tr e ngth s, o r c re ate s tr e ngth s o ut o f th o se c hara cte ris ti c s th at a re i n p ositi v e te rrito ry b ut n o t f u lly d ev elo ped . L ead ers w ho a re m odera te ly effe cti v e a nd p re o ccup y th em se lv es w ith i n cre m enta l i m pro vem ent o f l e ss p ositi v e is su es w ill n ev er m ove f r o m g o od to g re at.

Chap te r 6 e xp and s th is i d ea.

Dev elo pm ent i s f a r m ore s u ccessfu l w hen th e l e ad er f o cuse s p rim arily o n str e ngth s r a th er th an b ein g o nly c o ncern ed w ith r e p air in g w eaknesse s. I n m any case s, i t w ork ed w ell to h av e a c o m bin ati o n o f s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s a s th e dev elo pm ent ta rg et. B ut th e o vera ll i m pro vem ent o f th o se w ork in g o nly o n weaknesse s w as o nly a th ir d o f th e p ro gre ss o f th o se w ho w ork ed o n s tr e ngth s o r a co m bin ati o n o f s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s.

In sig h t 1 2. P ow erfu l C om bin atio n s P ro d uce N ea rly E xp on en tia l Resu lt s Bein g g o od a t o ne th in g i s s u ffic ie nt f o r s o m e a th le te s o r m usic ia ns, b ut s e ld om f o r le ad ers . O ur r e se arc h c o nfir m ed th at a c o m bin ati o n o f c o m pete ncie s is th e k ey to bein g h ig hly e ffe cti v e. F or e xam ple , th e p ers o n w ho i s f o cuse d o nly o n g etti n g 36 re su lts o fte n f a ils to o bta in th o se r e su lts . W hy? I t i s a kin to a p ers o n a tte m pti n g to ro w a b oat w ith o ne p ad dle . I n ste ad , g o od r e su lts c o m e f r o m a c o m bin ati o n o f sk ills , e sp ecia lly th o se j o in in g th e e m phasis o n r e su lts w ith s tr o ng i n te rp ers o nal behav io r a nd r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith p eo ple . N eith er o ne, b y i ts e lf, ta kes y o u v ery f a r.

Togeth er, th ey p ro duce s p ecta cula r o utc o m es. I n o ne s tu d y, w e f o und th at i f y o u a re in th e to p q uarti le i n I n te rp ers o nal S kills b ut r a te d p oorly o n F ocus o n R esu lts , th e lik elih o od o f y o u b ein g p erc eiv ed a s a g re at l e ad er i s o nly 9 p erc ent. I f y o u a re i n th e to p q uarti le o n F ocus o n R esu lts b ut g iv en l o w r a ti n gs o n I n te rp ers o nal S kills , th e l ik elih o od o f b ein g p erc eiv ed a s a g re at l e ad er i s 1 3 p erc ent. B ut i f y o u p osse ss both s tr o ng I n te rp ers o nal S kills a nd a F ocus o n R esu lts , th en y o ur p ro bab ility o f bein g p erc eiv ed a s a g re at l e ad er j u m ps to 6 6 p erc ent. I t i s th e p ow erfu l co m bin ati o n o f th o se f a cto rs th at m akes a h uge d iffe re nce.

Wheth er y o u a re w ork in g w ith c o m ple x o rg aniz a ti o ns o r w ith o ne s u b ord in ate , th ere i s s e ld om a ny o ne th in g r e sp onsib le f o r p ro ducin g a p ositi v e o utc o m e.

In ste ad , i t i s th e c o m bin ati o n o f s e v era l f o rc es th at p ro duces d esir e d o utc o m es. I n genera l, l e ad ers a re m ost e ffe cti v e w hen th ey p osse ss s tr e ngth s i n e ach o f th e m ajo r clu ste rs o f c o m pete ncie s.

Chap te r 6 p ro vid es f u rth er i n sig ht i n to th is f in d in g, a lo ng with e m pir ic al e v id ence f o r th is c o nclu sio n.

In sig h t 1 3. G re a tn ess I s N ot C au se d b y t h e A bse n ce o f W ea kn ess Our d ata r e v eal th at a l a rg e p erc enta ge o f l e ad ers , a p pro xim ate ly 8 4 p erc ent, d o n o t posse ss a ny s e v ere w eakness, a nd y et th ey a re n o t p erc eiv ed a s s tr o ng l e ad ers .

They a re “ b la h.” S ub ord in ate s d o n o t s in gle o ut a ny o ne w eakness a s th e r o ot c ause of th e l e ad er b ein g w eak. I n ste ad , th e c o m bin ati o n o f b ein g i n th e “ m id ra nge” o n a num ber o f d im ensio ns i s th e p atte rn o f th e m ed io cre m anager. I n s u m , th e a b se nce of w eaknesse s c o m bin ed w ith th e a b se nce o f a ny p ro no unced s tr e ngth s c o m mits y o u to b ein g n o b ette r th an a v era ge.

Our r e se arc h s h o w s th at th e s e lf- e v alu ati o n o f m ost l e ad ers i n th is c ate go ry i s hig hly d is to rte d . T hey f e el l ik e th ey a re g o od l e ad ers . P ossib ly b ecause th ey a re n o t re ally b ad a t a ny o ne a re a o f l e ad ers h ip , th ey c o m e to b elie v e th at th ey a re g o od.

But r a th er th an tr y in g to c o nv in ce th em th at th ey a re b ad l e ad ers , w e th in k i t f a r more v alu ab le to h elp th is g ro up s e e w hat th ey c an d o to beco m e o uts ta nd in g i n se v era l a re as, a nd th at w hen th ey d o, th ey w ill i n a ll l ik elih o od b e p erc eiv ed a s hig hly e ffe cti v e l e ad ers .

Our r e se arc h i n d ic ate s th at g o od l e ad ers a re , i n f a ct, p ro ducin g b ette r o utc o m es th an th o se o f l e ad ers w ho a re b ad . G ood i s b ette r th an b ad , b ut n eith er th ey th em se lv es n o r th eir l e ad ers a p pear to r e co gniz e th e s u b sta nti a l c o ntr ib uti o n th ey co uld m ake b y m ovin g f r o m b ein g m ere ly g o od to g re at.

An e xam ple o f th e f o cus m ost e xecuti v es h av e i n f ix in g w eaknesse s w as dem onstr a te d i n th e f o llo w in g c o nsu lti n g e ngagem ent:

37 We c o nd ucte d a n o rg aniz a ti o n-w id e s tu d y to d ete rm in e th e k ey f a cto rs in flu encin g th e s u ccess o f 1 00 f ie ld o ffic es. W e s u b m itte d a r e p ort th at f o und th at th e m ost p ow erfu l f a cto r i n flu encin g th e s u ccess o f f ie ld o ffic es w as th e effe cti v eness o f th e o ffic e m anager. A fte r s tu d yin g th e r e p ort c are fu lly , th e executi v e te am c am e o ut w ith a r e co m mend ati o n to “ fin d th e b ad m anagers a nd f ix th em .” H ow ev er, a fte r f in d in g th e “ b ad ” m anagers , i t w as d ete rm in ed th at th ere were n o t e no ugh o f th em to e xp la in th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s o vera ll p oor p erfo rm ance.

The e xecuti v es c am e b ack d oub ti n g th e v alid ity o f o ur s tu d y. W ith f u rth er a naly sis , ho w ev er, w e c o lle cti v ely c am e to th e c o nclu sio n th at th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s p oor perfo rm ance p ro ble m w as n o t b ecause o f b ad m anagers b ut w as th e r e su lt o f h av in g a l a rg e n um ber o f m ed io cre o nes. T heir p erfo rm ance p ale d i n c o m paris o n w ith th at of th e f e w e xcep ti o nal m anagers , a nd th e k ey to r a is in g th e o vera ll p erfo rm ance o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n w as to h elp f a cilita te th e i m pro vem ent o f th e m ed io cre m anagers to th e l e v el o f th e e xcep ti o nal o nes. G re atn ess i s d riv en b y s tr e ngth s, w ith “ th e m ore th e b ette r” b ein g th e s im ple f a ct.

Chap te r 6 e la b ora te s o n th is i m porta nt i d ea.

In sig h t 1 4. G re a t L ea d ers A re N ot P erc eiv ed a s H avin g M ajo r Wea kn esse s One o f th e c o m mon b its o f f o lk w is d om a b out l e ad ers i s th at g re at l e ad ers h av e gre at s tr e ngth s, b ut th at s tr e ngth s ta ken to o f a r b eco m e w eaknesse s. F urth erm ore , n o one i s p erfe ct, s o g re at l e ad ers m ust h av e h ig hly v is ib le f la w s. W e w ere f u lly exp ecti n g to f in d th at n o ti o n c o nfir m ed b y o ur d ata .

To o ur s u rp ris e , th ere i s n o h in t o f th at. I n ste ad , o ur d ata d esc rib e th e l e ad ers who a re s e en a s h ig hly e ffe cti v e b y th eir s u b ord in ate s a s n o t h av in g f la w s. T heir sc o re s a cro ss a ll c o m pete ncy c ate go rie s w ere r e m ark ab ly s im ila r o n th e h ig h s id e.

Fra nkly , w e w ond ere d i f th ere w as n o t a p erv asiv e h alo e ffe ct th at c ause d p eo ple who a re r e ally e ffe cti v e a t a f e w s k ills to b e p erc eiv ed a s b ein g go od a t e v ery th in g.

We f e ar th e c o nv ers e m ay a ls o b e tr u e: th at l e ad ers w ho a re n o t s e en a s s ta nd in g out o n s e v era l d im ensio ns a re p erc eiv ed a s n o t s ta nd in g o ut o n a ny d im ensio n.

In r e cent d ecad es, o ur p oliti c al l e ad ers h av e s e em ed to d is p la y g re at s tr e ngth s th at a re a cco m panie d b y s e rio us f la w s. ( N ota b le e xam ple s a re R ic hard N ix o n, a nd Bill C lin to n.) W heth er p riv ate - a nd p ub lic -s e cto r l e ad ers r e ally d iffe r f r o m e le cte d le ad ers , o r w heth er th ere i s j u st m ore i n te nse p ub lic s c ru ti n y p la ced o n e le cte d politi c al l e ad ers , i s th e s u b je ct o f a g o od d eal m ore r e se arc h. ( Chap te r 6 c o vers th is .) In sig h t 1 5. F ata l F la w s M ust B e F ix ed Alth o ugh o ur f o cus w ill b e o n d ev elo pin g s tr e ngth s, th ere a re s o m e c ir c um sta nces when a f o cus o n w eaknesse s i s w arra nte d . T his o fte n h ap pens w hen th e n atu re o f th e w eakness j e o pard iz e s th e c ente r p ole o f th e “ le ad ers h ip te nt” : c hara cte r. I f a pers o n i s n o t h o no ra b le , d oes n o t k eep p ro m is e s, d oes n o t te ll th e tr u th to p eo ple , 38 or i f th is p ers o n p la ces p ers o nal g ain a b ove th e n eed s o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n, th at f la w will c ause th e p ers o n to b e i n effe cti v e.

There a re o th er “ fa ta l f la w s.” T hese b egin w ith a n i n ab ility to l e arn f r o m mis ta kes a nd i n clu d e p oor i n te rp ers o nal s k ills , u nw illin gness to a ccep t n ew i d eas, la ck o f a cco unta b ility , a nd a l a ck o f i n iti a ti v e.

Chap te r 7 c o vers th is .

In sig h t 1 6. L ea d ersh ip A ttr ib ute s A re O fte n D evelo p ed in Non ob vio u s W ays Our r e se arc h h as h elp ed u s u nco ver a n ew a p pro ach to b ehav io ra l c hange th at w e hav e a rb itr a rily c alle d n o nlin ear d ev elo pm ent. W e w ill a rg ue th at th e v ast m ajo rity of a cti o n p la ns c re ate d b y l e ad ers u se a l in ear p hilo so phy r e gard in g b ehav io ra l change. B ut, th e p erc ep ti o n o f c o m pete ncy m ay b e s tr e ngth ened i n n o no bvio us ways. W e w ill a rg ue th at c o m pete ncie s a re n o t r e ality b ut a re th e p erc ep ti o ns o f oth ers a b out a g iv en l e ad er. T here m ay b e n o no bvio us w ays to i m pro ve h o w le ad ers a re p erc eiv ed . W e h av e c alle d th ese “ co m pete ncy c o m panio ns,” a nd th ese are b ehav io rs th at a lw ays r is e o r f a ll w ith a no th er c o m pete ncy. A lth o ugh i t i s im possib le to p ro ve c ause a nd e ffe ct b etw een th e tw o, th e f a ct th at th ey a re l a ced so ti g htl y to geth er s u ggests th at s o m eth in g i m porta nt c an b e l e arn ed f r o m th em .

The p ra cti c al i m plic ati o ns o f th is a re h uge. F or e xam ple , a ssu m e th at a l e ad er i n an o rg aniz a ti o n r e ceiv es th e f o llo w in g f e ed back: “ Y our s u b ord in ate s d o n o t s e e yo u a s h ig hly m oti v ati o nal o r i n sp ir a ti o nal. T hey d o n o t f e el e nerg iz e d a fte r th ey in te ra ct w ith y o u. T hey d o n o t f e el th at th eir h o riz o ns a re e xp and ed a fte r m eeti n g with y o u.” The c o m mon a nd s e em in gly p ra cti c al w ay to a d dre ss th is m essa ge a nd c hange th ese p erc ep ti o ns w ould b e to d o th e f o llo w in g:

• E nro ll i n a p ub lic -s p eakin g c o urs e to l e arn h o w to b e m ore c o m pellin g i n pre se nta ti o ns.

• R ead g o od te xts o r a rti c le s o n h um an m oti v ati o n.

• D elib era te ly d is p la y m ore e nth usia sm b y s p eakin g l o ud er a nd m ore r a p id ly , and w ith m ore g estu re s.

• A tte nd m oti v ati o nal s e m in ars w here p ro m in ent, n ati o nally k no w n m oti v ati o nal sp eakers te am u p to p re se nt th eir m essa ges. Y our h o pe w ould b e to g et g o od co nte nt a nd a ls o l e arn f r o m th eir s ty le o f p re se nta ti o n.

Our r e se arc h, h o w ev er, o n th e c o m pete ncy c o m panio n “ in sp ir e s a nd m oti v ate s oth ers ” r e v eals s o m e d iffe re nt w ays to i m pro ve p eo ple ’s p erc ep ti o ns o n th is co m pete ncy. W hen p eo ple s c o re h ig h o n “ in sp ir e s a nd m oti v ate s o th ers ,” th ey a ls o re ceiv e h ig h s c o re s o n “ co m munic ati n g c le ar e xp ecta ti o ns.” A nd w hen p eo ple re ceiv e l o w s c o re s o n “ in sp ir in g a nd m oti v ati n g o th ers ,” th ey r e ceiv e l o w s c o re s on “ co m munic ati n g c le ar e xp ecta ti o ns.” T here i s o bvio usly s o m eth in g a b out b ein g 39 cle ar th at i s c lo se ly l in ked w ith p eo ple f e elin g m oti v ate d a nd i n sp ir e d . S o, managers w ho r e ceiv e th is f e ed back m ig ht w ant to w ork h ard a t b ein g e xtr e m ely cle ar a b out th e e xp ecta ti o ns th ey c o nv ey to o th ers . F urth er, th ey m ay w ant to c heck with o th ers p erio dic ally to s e e i f th eir m essa ge i s c o m in g a cro ss w ith s im plic ity and c la rity . A m anager c o uld a sk q uesti o ns s u ch a s, “ Is th ere a nyth in g th at i s n o t cle ar a b out th is r e q uest? ” “ W ould i t h elp i f w e w ent o ver th is p ro je ct d esc rip ti o n one m ore ti m e?” Ano th er s o m ew hat n o nin tu iti v e c o m pete ncy c o m panio n i s th e p ra cti c e o f “cre ati n g a l e arn in g e nv ir o nm ent.” L ead ers w ho f ig ure o ut w ays f o r th eir co lle agues to d is c o ver f o r th em se lv es h o w i m porta nt s o m eth in g i s , o r to h av e co lle agues d ete rm in e f o r th em se lv es th e b est w ay o f d oin g s o m eth in g, a re th e le ad ers d esc rib ed a s m ost m oti v ati o nal a nd i n sp ir a ti o nal. S o, r a th er th an g iv e an im passio ned “ lo cker-ro om ” s p eech to y o ur te am a b out th e i m porta nce o f b ette r custo m er s e rv ic e, a m ore e ffe cti v e a p pro ach c o uld b e to a sk y o ur te am m em bers to lis te n i n to c usto m er c o m pla in t c alls o r to c all 1 0 c usto m ers w ho h ad c ease d purc hasin g f r o m y o ur f ir m . T hat te chniq ue c o uld b e f a r m ore “ m oti v ati o nal” th an any s p eech d eliv ere d .

Ano th er n o no bvio us c o m pete ncy c o m panio n i s th e p ra cti c e th at s o m e l e ad ers hav e o f s e tti n g e xtr e m ely h ig h s ta nd ard s a nd s tr e tc h g o als . S om e p eo ple m ig ht assu m e th at l e ad ers i n sp ir e a nd m oti v ate th eir tr o ops, a nd h av in g d one th at, th en f a il to p re se nt to th em a c halle ngin g g o al. T hey m ig ht a ssu m e th at p ro perly m oti v ate d peo ple w ill f ig ure o ut th e g o al f o r th em se lv es. O ur r e se arc h, h o w ev er, s u ggests th at th e v ery p ro cess o f s e tti n g a s tr e tc h g o al i s m oti v ati n g a nd i n sp ir in g f o r th e re cip ie nt.

Our m essa ge i s n o t th at r e ad in g a b ook o n m oti v ati o n, o r ta kin g a c la ss i n p ub lic sp eakin g, o r d elib era te ly s h o w in g m ore e nerg y a nd e nth usia sm i s a b ad th in g to d o.

In ste ad , th e m essa ge i s th at m any b ehav io rs a nd p ra cti c es c o m e to geth er to c re ate th e p erc ep ti o n o n th e p art o f s u b ord in ate s th at th eir l e ad er i s m oti v ati o nal a nd in sp ir a ti o nal. U nd ers ta nd in g th e c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns g iv es th e l e ad er ad diti o nal w ays to i m pro ve th at p erc ep ti o n. I t a p pears th at th e m ore o f th ese a le ad er d is p la ys, th e m ore l ik ely th e l e ad er i s to b e p erc eiv ed a s a h ig hly e ffe cti v e “m oti v ato r a nd i n sp ir e r” o f o th ers .

The m ore l in ear, “ hit- it- s tr a ig ht- o n” d ev elo pm ent s e em s b est g eare d f o r m ovin g peo ple f r o m b ad to n eutr a l. I t m ay a ls o b e o f s o m e h elp i n m ovin g p eo ple f r o m neutr a l to th e “ go od” r a nge. T he c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns s e em e sp ecia lly h elp fu l fo r th o se w ho d esir e to m ove f r o m “ go od” to “ gre at” o r “ extr a o rd in ary .” T hey o pen up m any n ew d oors f o r d ev elo pm ent. S om e w ould p erc eiv e th ese a s s id e d oors , mayb e e v en b ack d oors . B ut f o r th o se w ho h av e d iffic ulty i n f o llo w in g th e tr a d iti o nal, l in ear d ev elo pm ent p ro cess, w e b elie v e th at c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns pro vid e e xciti n g n ew p ath s to e xp lo re .

Chap te r 8 e la b ora te s o n th is i d ea a nd g iv es exam ple s o f c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns f o r e ach o f th e 1 6 c o m pete ncie s th at m ake a 40 diffe re nce.

In sig h t 1 7. L ea d ers A re M ad e, N ot B orn This c o ntr o vers y c o nti n ues. T he q uesti o n h as n o t g o ne a w ay. W e a tte st th at l e ad ers are m ad e. A lth o ugh th is i s c erta in ly n o t a n ew p oin t o f v ie w , w e g o o n r e co rd decla rin g th is to b e a f a ct. W e c o nte nd th at s tr o ng e v id ence e xis ts to s u p port th is co nclu sio n. W e r e ad ily a ckno w le d ge th at s o m e p eo ple s ta rt with a d vanta ges o f in te lle ct o r p ers o nality , b ut th e c ase f o r l e ad ers b ein g m ad e c an b e c o nfir m ed b y fin d in g j u st o ne o rg aniz a ti o n th at d oes i t s u ccessfu lly .

Chap te r 9 p re se nts a c ase s tu d y o f a n o rg aniz a ti o n th at m any c o nsid er th e ep ito m e o f e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent. T he U .S . M arin e C orp s h as f o r th e past 2 26 y ears b een d ev elo pin g l e ad ers . W e p re se nt th e a rg um ent th at f r o m th eir lo ng e xp erie nce, th ey h av e a d opte d m any p ra cti c es th at a re o nly n o w b ein g co nfir m ed b y r e se arc h.

In sig h t 1 8. L ea d ers C an I m pro ve T heir L ea d ersh ip E ffe ctiv en ess Thro u gh S elf -D evelo p m en t Fin ally , i n Chap te r 1 0 w e d is c uss th e i m plic ati o ns o f o ur r e se arc h to l e ad ers h ip dev elo pm ent u nd erta ken b y th e i n d iv id ual. T hese i d eas a p ply to a ny p eo ple i n le ad ers h ip p ositi o ns w ho d esir e to i m pro ve th eir o w n l e ad ers h ip s k ills a nd effe cti v eness.

A r e la ti v ely s m all f r a cti o n, a p pro xim ate ly 1 0 p erc ent o f l e ad ers , h av e a pers o nal d ev elo pm ent p la n to w hic h th ey g iv e r e gula r a tte nti o n. T w ic e th at n um ber hav e s o m eth in g o n p ap er, b ut o ne h alf o f th o se a re n o t d oin g a nyth in g to f o llo w u p on th eir d ev elo pm ent.

In sig h t 1 9. T he O rg an iz a tio n , w it h a P erso n ’s I m med ia te B oss, Pro vid es S ig n if ic a n t A ssis ta n ce in D evelo p in g L ea d ersh ip In Chap te r 1 2 , w e p re se nt s o m e i d eas a b out h o w a ny c o rp ora ti o n o r p ub lic a gency co uld i n co rp ora te th ese i d eas i n to th eir o w n l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent o ffe rin gs.

In sig h t 2 0. T he Q ualit y o f L ea d ersh ip in a n O rg an iz a tio n S eld om Exceed s T hat o f t h e P erso n a t t h e T op In a naly zin g o ur m any s e ts o f d ata c o lle cte d f r o m m ulti p le o rg aniz a ti o ns, w e obse rv ed th at th e s c o re s o f l e ad ers i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n r a re ly e xceed ed th e s c o re s o f th e m ost s e nio r l e ad er. T hat p ers o n w as th e c ap o n l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. S ee Chap te r 1 2 a nd Chap te r 2 f o r f u rth er a naly sis o f th is o bse rv ati o n.

41 Con clu sio n Lead ers h ip h as b een s h ro ud ed w ith a “ w oo-w oo” q uality th at d riv es o ur d esir e to make l e ss m yste rio us s o m eth in g th at h as s e em ed s o h o pele ssly b afflin g. O bvio usly , many m ore b ooks o n l e ad ers h ip w ill b e w ritte n. W e h o pe o ur r e se arc h w ill h elp to push th e s tu d y a nd u nd ers ta nd in g o f l e ad ers h ip a ttr ib ute s a nd l e ad ers h ip dev elo pm ent to th e n ext r u ng o n th e l a d der b y r e m ovin g s o m e o f th at m yste ry .

42 2 GREA T L EA D ER S M AK E A G REA T DIF FE R EN CE Good i s th e e nem y o f e xcelle nce.

Lead ers h ip i s th e c halle nge to b e s o m eth in g m ore th an a v era ge.

—Jim R ohn G ood a n d B ad L ea d ers I n o ur r e se arc h, w e f o und c o nclu siv e e v id ence th at l e ad ers w ith p oor l e ad ers h ip s k ills g enera te p oor r e su lts . T hat f in d in g w ill n o t c o m e a s a s h o ck to a nyo ne. I t i s q uite i n tu iti v e to a nyo ne w ho h as w ork ed i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n f o r m ore th an a f e w w eeks. A nd o ur r e se arc h i s e q ually c le ar a b out th e f a ct th at g o od l e ad ers te nd to p ro duce g o od r e su lts f o r th eir o rg aniz a ti o ns.

What’ s m ore , m ost i n d iv id uals d o n o t n eed s o phis ti c ate d m easu re m ent to ols to t e ll th e d iffe re nce b etw een g o od l e ad ers a nd b ad l e ad ers . T hey f e el th e d iffe re nce.

T hey h av e e xp erie nced th e e ffe cts a t a v ery p ers o nal l e v el. I n g enera l, g o od l e ad ers a re m ore e ffe cti v e th an b ad l e ad ers i n a lm ost e v ery d im ensio n, i n clu d in g i m pro vin g p ro ducti v ity , r e d ucin g tu rn o ver, e nhancin g c usto m er s e rv ic e, a nd c re ati n g h ig h l e v els o f e m plo yee c o m mitm ent.

G rea t V ersu s G ood L ea d ers O ur r e se arc h, h o w ev er, s h o w s th at th ere i s a no th er, e v en m ore d ra m ati c , l e v el o f d iffe re nce b etw een g o od a nd e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers . T his i s th e c entr a l th em e o f th is c hap te r a nd a m ajo r s u rp ris e f in d in g o f o ur r e se arc h. W e h ad f a ile d to a p pre cia te f u lly j u st w hat a s ig nific ant d iffe re nce th ere i s b etw een “ o rd in ary ” a nd “ extr a o rd in ary .” In e xam in in g th e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd d esir a b le o utc o m es, th e c o nsis te nt f in d in g i n a ll o ur r e se arc h w as th e i m pact o f th e b est a nd w ors t l e ad ers o n a chie v in g b otto m -lin e r e su lts .

Fig ure 2 -1 i s o la te s th e r e su lts o n a n e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n/c o m mitm ent m easu re ( h ig h s c o re s i n d ic ate g re ate r s a ti s fa cti o n/c o m mitm ent) b y th e r e su lts o f i n d iv id ual l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness 43 bro ken i n to 1 0 l e v els . E ach l e v el r e p re se nts 1 0 p erc enti le p oin ts o n th e l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness m easu re . T he l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness m easu re i s th e o vera ll a v era ge sc o re f r o m th e 1 6 d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s. T his i s a n a ggre gate s tu d y co m pose d o f h und re d s o f d iffe re nt c o m panie s a nd 7 ,3 91 l e ad ers . N ote th e d ra m ati c change i n v olv in g l e ad ers a t b oth th e to p a nd b otto m o f th e r a nkin gs.

The c hara cte ris ti c s o f th e g ra p h i n Fig ure 2 -1 a re e xtr e m ely s ig nific ant i n desc rib in g th e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd b otto m -lin e outc o m es. W e s e e p oor r e su lts a t th e l o w er d ecile s, s u b sta nti a lly m ore p ositi v e re su lts a t th e h ig her d ecile s, a nd f la t r e su lts i n th e m id dle . T his g ra p h p re se nts se v era l i m porta nt f in d in gs:

1. L ead ers h av e a d ra m ati c i m pact a s th ey m ove f r o m “ b ad ” to “ go od.” 2. P oor l e ad ers h av e a n a d vers e i m pact o n th e g ro up s th ey a tte m pt to l e ad .

Fig ure 2 -1 E m plo yee S ati s fa cti o n/C om mitm ent 3. T he i m porta nt c hara cte ris ti c o f th e m id dle d ecile s i s th at r e su lts r e m ain re la ti v ely c o nsis te nt f r o m th e 3 0th to th e 7 0th p erc enti le s. M akin g s m all, in cre m enta l i m pro vem ents i n l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness f o r a l e ad er a t th e 5 0th perc enti le i s c le arly n o t g o in g to h av e m uch i m pact o n e m plo yee c o m mitm ent.

4. T o a chie v e th e n ext l e v el o f i m pact o n e m plo yee c o m mitm ent, a l e ad er w ould hav e to m ove to th e 7 0th , 8 0th , o r 9 0th p erc enti le . T he r e su lts o f s e v era l o th er stu d ie s d em onstr a te th e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd ad diti o nal d esir a b le o utc o m es.

Im pact o n N et P ro fit s a t a M ortg age B an k Fro m m easu re s o n s u b ord in ate c o m mitm ent to th e o rg aniz a ti o n, w e n o w tu rn to measu re s o f f in ancia l p erfo rm ance. A t a m ortg age b ank, w e c o lle cte d d ata o n i ts 44 measu re o f p ro fita b ility , o r n et p ro fits , f o r a s e rie s o f l e ad ers .

Fig ure 2 -2 s h o w s th e re su lts o f o ur s tu d y.

Fig ure 2 -2 N et P ro fit What w e f o und i n th is s tu d y w as th at th e p oor l e ad ers a ctu ally l o st m oney f o r th e co m pany. T heir p erfo rm ance w as s o i n effe cti v e th at i t a p peare d to d riv e c usto m ers aw ay. T he g o od l e ad ers , o n th e o th er h and , m ad e a r e aso nab le p ro fit f o r th e co m pany. T heir p erfo rm ance, c o m pare d w ith th at o f th e b ad l e ad ers , r e p re se nte d a su b sta nti a l c hange. H ow ev er, th e e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers n early d oub le d th e p ro fit genera te d f o r th e c o m pany b y th e g o od l e ad ers . I m agin e th e i m pact o f tr a nsiti o nin g 10 o r 2 0 p erc ent o f l e ad ers f r o m th e “ go od” to th e “ extr a o rd in ary ” c ate go ry . I t would a d d 1 0 to 2 0 p erc ent to th e b otto m l in e o f th e e nti r e c o m pany.

In a r e la te d s tu d y, R ucci, K im , a nd Q uin n f o und w hat th ey c alle d “ th e e m plo yee- custo m er-p ro fit c hain ” a t S ears .

1 T heir s tu d y f o und th at e m plo yee b ehav io rs affe cte d c usto m er b ehav io rs , w hic h i n tu rn a ffe cte d c o m pany f in ancia l perfo rm ance. W hen c usto m ers e nte r a s to re w here e m plo yees a re f r u str a te d a nd unm oti v ate d , i t a ffe cts th eir b uyin g h ab its a nd th eir w illin gness to r e tu rn a nd purc hase m ore i te m s. P le asa nt, c o nsid era te , a nd k no w le d geab le s a le s a sso cia te s had a p ositi v e e ffe ct o n c usto m ers . T hese s a le s a sso cia te s e nco ura ged c usto m ers to buy m ore a nd to c o m e b ack. I n th eir r e se arc h, R ucci e t a l. f o und th at a f iv e-p oin t im pro vem ent i n e m plo yee a tti tu d es r e su lte d i n a 1 .3 p erc ent i m pro vem ent i n custo m er s a ti s fa cti o n, w hic h i n tu rn i n cre ase d r e v enue g ro w th 0 .5 p erc ent.

The i m plic ati o ns o f o ur r e se arc h a re th at a no th er l in k n eed s to b e a d ded to th e 45 chain ; f o r e xam ple , i t s h o uld b e “ th e l e ad ers -e m plo yee-c usto m er-p ro fit c hain .” Fig ure 2 -1 s h o w ed th e i m pact th at l e ad ers h av e o n e m plo yee c o m mitm ent a nd sa ti s fa cti o n, w hic h u lti m ate ly tr a nsla te s i n to th e d ir e ct i m pact o f l e ad ers o n pro fita b ility .

The n ew c hain o f c ause -a nd -e ffe ct e v ents i s Lead ers E m plo yees C usto m ers S to re P ro fits One s h o uld a ls o k eep i n m in d th at th e a d diti o nal i n sig ht th is r e se arc h a d ds to th e pro fit c hain o f e v ents i s th at g re at l e ad ers h av e e v en m ore i m pact o n e m plo yees, who a ffe ct c usto m ers a nd th ere fo re c re ate e v en g re ate r p ro fits f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

Im pact o n T urn over a t a n I n su ra n ce C om pan y Turn o ver c o sts c o m panie s m illio ns o f d olla rs e v ery y ear. J o hn S ulliv an, c hie f ta le nt o ffic er a t A gile nt T echno lo gie s i n P alo A lto , C alifo rn ia , p ut th e c o st o f tu rn o ver f o r a s o ftw are e ngin eer a t $ 200,0 00 to $ 250,0 00 p er d ep arti n g em plo yee.

He w ent o n to s a y th at, “ O ne f ir m I w ork w ith j u st c alc ula te d th e c o st o f a n e ngin eer vacancy i n l o st r e v enue a t $ 7,0 00 p er d ay.” 2 A lth o ugh th ere a re m any r e aso ns f o r tu rn o ver, o ur r e se arc h c o nsis te ntl y b ears o ut th at th e r e la ti o nsh ip a n e m plo yee h as with h is o r h er m anager s u b sta nti a lly i n flu ences th e e m plo yee’s d ecis io n to s ta y with a c o m pany o r m ove o n.

Fig ure 2 -3 s h o w s th e r e su lts f r o m a s tu d y c o nd ucte d a t a l a rg e i n su ra nce co m pany. L ead ers h ip e ffe cti v eness w as d ete rm in ed a nd m atc hed u p w ith y early tu rn o ver r a te s w ith in e ach l e ad er’s g ro up . I n th is s tu d y, h ig her tu rn o ver ( 1 9 p erc ent per y ear) w as c re ate d b y l e ad ers i n th e b otto m th ir d i n te rm s o f th eir l e ad ers h ip ab ility a s s e en b y th eir s u b ord in ate s a nd p eers . T hese l e ad ers p re su m ab ly d id no th in g to f o rc e p eo ple to l e av e, b ut th eir s ty le a nd a p pro ach d id n o t e nco ura ge th em to s ta y. B ette r a chie v em ent c am e f r o m g o od l e ad ers , w ho e xp erie nced 1 4 perc ent tu rn o ver. H ow ev er, e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers c ut th e a v era ge tu rn o ver r a te i n th eir g ro up s b y a no th er 5 p erc ent. R ed uced tu rn o ver h ad a d ir e ct i m pact o n pro fita b ility , c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n, a nd c la im -re so lu ti o n s p eed .

46 Fig ure 2 -3 T urn o ver P erc ent In te n tio n t o L ea ve t h e O rg an iz a tio n In a no th er s tu d y c o nd ucte d w ith o ver 7 ,0 00 l e ad ers f r o m h und re d s o f d iffe re nt org aniz a ti o ns, w e l o oked a t th e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd in te nti o n to s ta y w ith o r l e av e th e c o m pany.

(T hese r e su lts w ere e xtr e m ely c o nsis te nt w ith a n o rg aniz a ti o n’s a ctu al tu rn o ver data . I n m ost o rg aniz a ti o ns, a ctu al tu rn o ver i s a b out o ne-h alf o f th e i n te nti o n to le av e r e su lts . I n o th er w ord s, i f 5 0% o f e m plo yees i n te nd to l e av e, tu rn o ver i s ty p ic ally 2 5% .) I n th is s tu d y, h ig h s c o re s i n d ic ate d a g re ate r i n te nti o n to l e av e, where as l o w s c o re s i n d ic ate d a g re ate r i n te nti o n to s ta y. A s i s a p pare nt f r o m Fig ure 2 -4 , th e e m plo yees o f th e e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers w ere s ig nific antl y m ore co m mitte d to s ta y w ith th e c o m pany. T he i n te nti o n to s ta y th en tr a nsla te s i n to l o w er tu rn o ver f o r th o se w ho w ork w ith th e b est l e ad ers .

Im pact o n C usto m er S atis fa ctio n In a s tu d y d one w ith a h ig h-te ch c o m munic ati o ns c o m pany, w e l o oked a t th e re la ti o nsh ip b etw een l e ad ers h ip a b ility a nd c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n ( Fig ure 2 -5 ).

Once a gain , e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers h av e s u b sta nti a lly b ette r r a ti n gs o n 47 Fig ure 2 -4 I n te nti o n to L eav e th e C om pany Fig ure 2 -5 R ati n gs o f C usto m er S ati s fa cti o n custo m er s a ti s fa cti o n. I n th is s tu d y, h ig h s c o re s i n d ic ate h ig her c usto m er sa ti s fa cti o n. A gain , w e a ssu m e th at th e l e ad er d oes n o t h av e d ir e ct c o nta ct w ith most c usto m ers , b ut i t i s th e l e ad er’s i n flu ence o n th e l e v el o f c o m mitm ent o f th e fr o nt- lin e e m plo yees th at m akes th e d ra m ati c d iffe re nces i n c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n.

In a r e la te d s tu d y c o nd ucte d b y o ur c o lle ague L arry S enn, h e w as a sk ed b y a re ta il c lie nt to c hange th e b ehav io r o f s to re e m plo yees to b e m ore c usto m er s e rv ic e 48 orie nte d . T he c o m pany b egan a n i n te nsiv e p ro gra m a im ed a t c hangin g th e b ehav io r of s to re e m plo yees. A fte r m onth s o f w ork , i t b ecam e a p pare nt th at s o m e s to re s were b ein g s u ccessfu l i n c re ati n g a m ore c usto m er-fr ie nd ly a tm osp here , w here as oth er s to re s w ere n o t. E m plo yees i n b oth th e s u ccessfu l a nd u nsu ccessfu l s to re s h ad re ceiv ed th e s a m e tr a in in g, a nd th e e m plo yees d id n o t a p pear to b e a ny l e ss c ap ab le or e xp erie nced i n u nsu ccessfu l s to re s. A s th e r e se arc hers s tu d ie d th e u nsu ccessfu l sto re s to u nd ers ta nd th e r e aso n f o r th eir f a ilu re , th ey f o und th at m anagers i n unsu ccessfu l s to re s te nd ed to b e o pera ti o nally o rie nte d , w here as s u ccessfu l s to re managers w ere c usto m er o rie nte d . T he o pera ti o nally o rie nte d s to re m anagers re in fo rc ed th e i m porta nce o f tr a ckin g m oney a nd ti m e. C usto m er-o rie nte d s to re managers , on th e o th er h and , r e in fo rc ed th e i m porta nce o f c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n.

Afte r g o in g th ro ugh th e e xp erie nce, th e r e se arc hers c am e to th e c o nclu sio n th at effo rts to c hange e m plo yee b ehav io r h ad to s ta rt b y m akin g s u re th at th eir managers ’ b ehav io rs w ere i n a lig nm ent.

3 Im pact o n P erc en ta ge o f H ig h ly C om mit te d E m plo yees We p erfo rm ed a s tu d y l o okin g a t th e p erc enta ge o f h ig hly c o m mitte d e m plo yees i n a work g ro up . E ach p ers o n w ho d ir e ctl y r e p orte d to a l e ad er w as a sk ed th e e xte nt to whic h th ey f e lt th at th e w ork e nv ir o nm ent w as a p la ce w here p eo ple w ante d to g o th e e xtr a m ile . W e s e le cte d o nly th o se e m plo yees w ho a nsw ere d “ 5 ” o n a 5 -p oin t sc ale . T his i s th e k in d o f e m plo yee th at i s e nth usia sti c a b out th e j o b. H e o r s h e i s excite d to ta ke o n c halle ngin g a ssig nm ents a nd w ill d o w hate v er i s n ecessa ry to g et pro je cts c o m ple te d o n ti m e a nd i n b ud get. E very l e ad er c an i d enti fy a f e w em plo yees th at f it th at d esc rip ti o n. W hat w ould b e th e i m pact o f h av in g m ore o f th is kin d o f e m plo yee o n th e s u ccess o f a ny w ork g ro up ? P ro ducti v ity w ould i n cre ase , mora le w ould b e h ig her, p ro je cts w ould g et d one f a ste r, a nd n o d oub t p ro fita b ility would a ls o g o u p . W hat i m pact d o th ese e m plo yees h av e o n o th er e m plo yees?

When p eo ple a re w alk in g o r r u nnin g a nd s o m eo ne p asse s th em , w hat d o th ey te nd to d o? M ost p eo ple te nd to s p eed u p . I t i s a lm ost a n a uto m ati c r e sp onse . I n w ork gro up s, w hen a h ig h p erc enta ge o f e m plo yees a re h ig hly c o m mitte d a nd g iv in g th eir best e ffo rt, th e r e m ain d er o f th e g ro up i s u su ally n o t f a r b ehin d .

Fig ure 2 -6 s h o w s th e p erc enta ge o f h ig hly c o m mitte d e m plo yees b ase d o n aggre gate d r e su lts f o r h und re d s o f o rg aniz a ti o ns. O nce a gain , l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness i s b ro ken i n to 1 0 l e v els .

It i s i n te re sti n g th at 1 3% o f th e e m plo yees o f th e w ors t l e ad ers a re h ig hly co m mitte d . E vid entl y , th at i s w hat n atu re p ro duces. A s y o u l o ok a t th e c hart, y o u will n o te a s te ad y i n cre ase i n th e p erc enta ge o f h ig hly c o m mitte d e m plo yees w ith th e i n cre ase i n l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness: 4 3% o f th e e m plo yees o f l e ad ers a t th e 80th p erc enti le a re h ig hly c o m mitte d , a nd 5 7% o f e m plo yees o f l e ad ers a t th e 9 0th perc enti le a re h ig hly c o m mitte d . I f y o u w ere a l e ad er o f a w ork g ro up w here 4 0% to 5 0% o f y o ur e m plo yees w ere h ig hly c o m mitte d , w ould i t h av e a s ig nific ant 49 im pact o n th e b otto m l in e? W hen w e h av e a sk ed th at q uesti o n to l e ad ers a ro und th e world , th e a nsw er w as a lw ays a r e so und in g “ Y es.” Fig ure 2 -6 P erc enta ge o f H ig hly C om mitte d E m plo yees Lea d ersh ip H as a n I m pact o n t h e B otto m L in e Our p urp ose i n p re se nti n g th ese s tu d ie s i s to i m pre ss o n th e r e ad er th at th e i m pact of l e ad ers h ip :

• A ffe cts e v ery m easu ra b le d im ensio n o f o rg aniz a ti o n p erfo rm ance • I s l a rg e, n o t tr iv ia l • I s e xtr e m ely c o nsis te nt • H as h ig hly i n te rre la te d a re as o f i m pact Poor l e ad ers h av e a s u b sta nti a l i n flu ence o n a n o rg aniz a ti o n’s s u ccess. T hey co nsis te ntl y a chie v e l e ss e ffe cti v e r e su lts , c re ate g re ate r tu rn o ver, d is c o ura ge em plo yees, a nd f r u str a te c usto m ers . G ood l e ad ers w ill a chie v e g o od r e su lts . A go od l e ad er w ill h av e l o w er tu rn o ver, h ig her p ro fita b ility , a nd m ore e m plo yee co m mitm ent.

In cre m enta l i m pro vem ents i n g o od l e ad ers w ill n o t, h o w ev er, s h o w u p i n im pro ved b otto m -lin e r e su lts . T he n ext j u m p d oes n o t o ccur u nti l th e 7 0th , 8 0th , o r 90th p erc enti le . E xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers w ill c o nsis te ntl y a chie v e r e su lts th at f a r exceed th o se o f th e g o od l e ad ers . T hey w ill c re ate e v en l e ss tu rn o ver, m oti v ate em plo yees to a m uch h ig her d egre e, a nd s a ti s fy c usto m ers to a m uch h ig her l e v el.

50 These s tu d ie s c le arly d em onstr a te th e s ig nific ant d iffe re nce a n e xtr a o rd in ary le ad er m akes o n b otto m -lin e r e su lts a nd c o nfir m th at i f l e ad ers c an m ove f r o m th e “go od” l e v el to th e “ extr a o rd in ary ” l e v el a t a r e aso nab le c o st to th e o rg aniz a ti o n, th e r e tu rn o n th at i n v estm ent w ill b e s u b sta nti a l.

Jim C ollin s c o nd ucte d f a sc in ati n g r e se arc h i n w hic h h e a nd h is r e se arc h te am exam in ed r e su lts f r o m 1 ,4 35 c o m panie s f r o m 1 965 to 1 995. T his r e se arc h f o und 1 1 co m panie s th at m ad e s ig nific ant tr a nsfo rm ati o ns f r o m “ go od to g re at.” T he 1 1 co m panie s h ad a n a v era ge s to ck r e tu rn 6 .9 ti m es h ig her th an th at o f th e g enera l mark et. T hese c o m panie s h eld th at r a te f o r 1 5 y ears a fte r th e p oin t o f tr a nsiti o n. I n lo okin g a t a v arie ty o f v aria b le s a b out th e c ause o f th is s u ccess, C ollin s g av e sp ecific i n str u cti o ns to r e se arc hers to d ow np la y th e r o le o f s e nio r e xecuti v es.

Collin s’ r e se arc hers l o oked a t e v ery p ossib le v aria b le th at m ig ht a ffe ct th e s u ccess of e ach c o m pany. O ver ti m e, h is r e se arc hers f o und th at th ey c o uld n o t i g no re th e co ntr ib uti o ns o f s e nio r e xecuti v es. C ollin s i n d ic ate d th at “ T here w as s o m eth in g co nsis te ntl y u nusu al a b out th em .” C ollin s a nd h is r e se arc h te am f o und th at a ll 1 1 co m panie s c o nsis te ntl y h ad a l e ad er w ho m th ey l a b ele d a “ L ev el 5 e xecuti v e.” “L ev el 5 e xecuti v es b uilt e nd urin g g re atn ess th ro ugh a p ara d oxic al c o m bin ati o n o f pers o nal h um ility p lu s p ro fe ssio nal w ill.” T he l e ad ers h ip w as n o t th e o nly f a cto r th at d iffe re nti a te d th e 1 1 c o m panie s, b ut i t w as o ne o f th e c riti c al v aria b le s. T he re se arc hers i d enti fie d f iv e o th er f a cto rs , b ut e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip p la ys a c riti c al ro le i n th e e xecuti o n o f e ach o ne.

4 Is “ G ood ” G ood E nou gh ?

Tho ugh th e r e su lts f o r e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers a re m uch b ette r th an th o se f o r p oor le ad ers , th e c urre nt p ro ble m i s th at to o m any g o od l e ad ers f e el th at b ein g “ go od” i s go od e no ugh. T hey a re s a ti s fie d th at th ey a re n o t p oor l e ad ers a nd , th ere fo re , re m ain u nchalle nged to g o to th e n ext l e v el. M any o f th ese g o od l e ad ers d o n o t re co gniz e th at c o nti n ued i m pro vem ent i n l e ad ers h ip w ould m ake a s u b sta nti a l diffe re nce i n th e o utc o m es th ey a re a tte m pti n g to p ro duce. M any “ ad eq uate ” l e ad ers sta y w here th ey a re b ecause th ey f a il to u nd ers ta nd th e d iffe re nces b etw een g o od and e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers .

What C au se s G ood L ea d ers t o B e U nch alle n ged t o Chan ge?

1. W hen y o u m enti o n th at th ere i s a l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness p ro ble m , m any peo ple a uto m ati c ally b elie v e th at th e p ro ble m i s p oor l e ad ers . T here e xis ts a 51 natu ra l h um an te nd ency to b la m e p ro ble m s o n l o w p erfo rm ers . W e l ik e to assig n a s c ap ego at a s th e s o urc e o f a ny p ro ble m s. T his c an tu rn i n to w itc h hunts f o r th e “ b ad ” l e ad ers . F re q uentl y , m any o f th e “ b ad ” l e ad ers a re n ew , in exp erie nced s u p erv is o rs w ho n eed ti m e a nd tr a in in g to d ev elo p. I t i s m ore te m pti n g to f e rre t o ut th e b ad l e ad ers th an to f a ce a d iffe re nt r e ality . T his tr o ub lin g te nd ency w as m ost a p tl y e xp re sse d b y W alt K elly ’s c o m ic s tr ip chara cte r P ogo w hen h e o fte n o bse rv ed , “ W e h av e m et th e e nem y a nd h e i s us.” 5 Bla m in g b ad l e ad ers i s a s im ple s o lu ti o n. I t i s m uch m ore d iffic ult to accep t th at th e p ro ble m w ith l e ad ers h ip i s th e n eed f o r e v ery o ne to u nd erta ke so m e l e v el o f i m pro vem ent. T ho se w ho a re g o od c o uld h av e a s u b sta nti a l positi v e i m pact o n th e o rg aniz a ti o n i f th ey m oved f r o m g o od to g re at. I n th e year 1 999, J o hn T ho rn to n, c o -p re sid ent a nd C O O o f G old m an S achs, anno unced to 5 00 to p e xecuti v es o f th e f ir m , “ W e’re n o t a s g o od a s w e n eed to b e.” T heir p erfo rm ance a p pra is a ls a nd p eer f e ed back p ro cesse s s h o w ed se rio us d efic ie ncie s i n p eo ple -m anagem ent s k ills a nd o vera ll l e ad ers h ip str e ngth . T he g ro w th o bje cti v es o f th e f ir m w ere c le arly n o t g o in g to b e m et unle ss th e o vera ll q uality o f l e ad ers h ip w as r a tc hete d to a n ew l e v el.

6 2. T ra in in g p ro gra m s o fte n s e nd a f a ls e i m pre ssio n. W hen o rg aniz a ti o ns s p onso r tr a in in g p ro gra m s p ositi o ned to ta ke b ad l e ad ers a nd m ake th em i n to g o od le ad ers , i t u nw itti n gly s e nd s th e s ig nal th at th o se l e ad ers w ho a re c urre ntl y i n th e “ go od” c ate go ry c an c o ast. B eyo nd th at, m ost s u p erv is o ry a nd m anagem ent tr a in in g c o urs e s a re d esig ned to d ev elo p b asic l e ad ers h ip s k ills . T he f o cus i s on a cq uir in g a nd u nd ers ta nd in g th e f u nd am enta l s k ills r e q uir e d i n a l e ad ers h ip ro le . M any l e ad ers a ct a s i f th e i n tr o ducto ry c o urs e i n a s e rie s i s th e o nly co urs e th at e xis ts o r i s n ecessa ry f o r th em . W e a re a w are o f o nly a h and fu l o f co rp ora te d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s ta rg ete d s p ecific ally to m ake g o od p eo ple gre at.

3. M any 3 60-d egre e l e ad ers h ip a sse ssm ents c o m pare l e ad ers ’ r e su lts a nd s h o w ho w th ey c o m pare w ith th e a v era ge. T he u nin te nd ed m essa ge th at m ost l e ad ers get f r o m th e a sse ssm ents i s th at i f y o u a re i n th e m id ra nge, “ Y ou a re o kay a nd okay i s g o od e no ugh.” Fig ure 2 -7 s h o w s th e r e su lts f r o m a 3 60-d egre e a sse ssm ent. T he d ark backgro und a re a i s th e n o rm , w hic h i s th e a v era ge o f a ll o th ers ta kin g th is asse ssm ent. L ookin g a t th e r e su lts f o r P at B ro w n a gain st th e n o rm g iv es th e im pre ssio n th at P at i s v ie w ed i n a g enera lly p ositi v e l ig ht b y th e r e sp ond ents and i s a g o od l e ad er. T he r e su lts f o r P at a re m ore p ositi v e i n s e v era l a re as th an th e n o rm . E ven a fte r i n fo rm in g l e ad ers th at a n o rm i s th e a v era ge o f th e best a nd w ors t l e ad ers , m ost p eo ple c o nti n ue to l o ok a t a re as w here th ey a re slig htl y m ore p ositi v e th an th e n o rm a s a re as th at a re s tr e ngth s; o nly a re as co nsid era b ly l e ss p ositi v e th an th e n o rm a re v ie w ed a s s e rio us w eaknesse s 52 re q uir in g a ny r e m ed ia l a cti o n.

Fig ure 2 -8 d ep ic ts th e s a m e r e su lts f o r P at B ro w n, b ut th is ti m e th e sta nd ard r e p re se nts th e 9 0th p erc enti le s c o re o n e ach o f th e c o m pete ncie s.

Sho w in g th is n ew ta rg et te nd s to c hange th e f o cus o f th e f e ed back. P at B ro w n is d oin g w ell b ut s ti ll h as a l o ng w ay to g o to m ove f r o m a g o od l e ad er to a n extr a o rd in ary l e ad er. B y c o ntr a sti n g r e su lts w ith a m ean a v era ge, th e m essa ge co m munic ate d i s , “ T he g o al Fig ure 2 -7 A vera ge L ead ers v ers u s P at B ro w n 53 Fig ure 2 -8 B est L ead ers v ers u s P at B ro w n is to b e b ette r th an a v era ge.” C ontr a sti n g r e su lts w ith l e v els o f e xtr a o rd in ary le ad ers s h o w s p eo ple th e d is ta nce th at th ey n eed to m ove to a chie v e a h ig her le v el.

4. G ood l e ad ers o fte n f a il to a p pre cia te a nd u nd ers ta nd th e d iffe re nces b etw een go od l e ad ers h ip a nd g re at l e ad ers h ip .

It i s a lw ays i n te re sti n g to w atc h d iv in g c o m peti ti o ns d urin g th e O ly m pic s.

When o bse rv ers w itn ess th e f ir s t d iv e, m ost a re u su ally i m pre sse d . T he obse rv er’s p oin t o f c o m paris o n i s o fte n a m ate ur d iv in g, a nd c o m pare d w ith th e d iv es o f a m ate ur c o m peti to rs , th e O ly m pia n’s d iv e i s b eauti fu l, g ra cefu l, and e xecute d p re cis e ly . T hen th e s c o re s c o m e u p a nd th ey a re “ 5 ,” “ 6 ,” “ 6 ,” “5 ,” “ 7 ,” a nd th e c o m menta to r s a ys, “ D id y o u s e e th at s p la sh ?” o r “ N oti c e ho w th e k nees w ere b ent a nd th e f e et p oin te d i n d iffe re nt d ir e cti o ns.” Y ou a re ofte n s u rp ris e d a nd c hagrin ed b ecause y o u h ad n o t n o ti c ed a ny o f th o se pro ble m s. A s th e c o m peti ti o n c o nti n ues, th e j u d ges a nd th e c o m menta to rs tr a in ev ery o ne o n th e f in er p oin ts o f c o m peti ti o n d iv in g. A fte r a n h o ur o f w atc hin g div in g c o m peti ti o n, th e a b ility o f p eo ple to j u d ge g re at d iv in g s k ills h as moved f r o m n o nexis te nt to r u d im enta ry . I f a d iv er makes a h uge m is ta ke y o u no ti c e i t, b ut y o u a re s ti ll f r e q uentl y s u rp ris e d w hen y o u j u d ge a d iv e a s excelle nt a nd th e j u d ges m ark i t d ow n b ecause o f a f in e d eta il th at y o u m is se d .

Ju d gin g l e ad ers h ip i s m uch th e s a m e w ay. T oo m any h av e r e m ain ed c asu al obse rv ers o f l e ad ers h ip r a th er th an b eco m in g tr a in ed j u d ges. T hey e xp erie nce 54 le ad ers h ip f r o m o th ers a nd f e el th e e ffe cts ( th at w as g re at l e ad ers h ip o r th at was te rrib le ) b ut l a ck th e i n sig ht o f h o w th e e ffe ct w as c re ate d o r w hat i ts lo nger-la sti n g c o nse q uences w ill b e.

Peo ple f r e q uentl y c o nfu se p ers o nality tr a its f o r l e ad ers h ip . T hey a ssu m e th at a sse rti v eness, o r th e a b ility to m ake a c o m pellin g s p eech o r g iv e p eo ple cris p o rd ers , i s l e ad ers h ip . I t i s n o t.

In o rd er f o r p eo ple to i m pro ve th eir l e ad ers h ip a b ility , th ey n eed to beco m e a stu te o bse rv ers o f l e ad ers h ip . T hey n o t o nly n eed to u nd ers ta nd so m e b asic c o ncep ts a nd b e r e aso nab ly w ell r e ad b ut a ls o n eed to b e a b le to ju d ge e v ery d ay i n te ra cti o ns a nd u nd ers ta nd w hat i s m is sin g.

5. M any g o od l e ad ers b elie v e th at e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers a re p ro dig ie s, h av in g been e nd ow ed w ith s o m e u nusu al g ifts f r o m b ir th . M ost r e co gniz e th at p eo ple with e xcep ti o nal l e ad ers h ip ta le nts e xis t, b ut i t i s d iffic ult f o r o th ers to und ers ta nd th e p ath i n th eir d ev elo pm ent th at b ro ught th em f r o m b ein g g o od le ad ers to b ein g e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers . T he b ar s e t to a chie v e e xtr a o rd in ary le ad ers h ip s e em s to o h ig h to a chie v e, a nd th e p ath to d ev elo p e xte nsiv e s k ills is n o t c le ar. T his i s a kin to w atc hin g a g re at c o ncert p ia nis t a nd a sp ir in g to pla y th e s a m e w ay s h e d oes. T he f a nta sy i s f u n, b ut g iv en th e r e ality o f l o okin g at w hat i t w ould ta ke to a cco m plis h s u ch a f e at, m ost d on’t e v en s ta rt. O ne music s tu d ent d esc rib ed h er e xp erie nce c o m ple ti n g h er d egre e i n m usic ped ago gy. S he i n d ic ate d th at th ere w ere a f e w s tu d ents w ho h ad e xcep ti o nal natu ra l a b ility b ut l a cked d is c ip lin e. W atc hin g th e p ro fe sso rs i n te ra ct w ith th ese s tu d ents , s h e o bse rv ed th at th e p ro fe sso rs w ere n o t v ery e xcite d a b out work in g w ith th ese s tu d ents w ith n atu ra l ta le nt b ut p oor d is c ip lin e. P ro fe sso rs cho se to m ento r s tu d ents w ith s tr o ng d is c ip lin e. W hen a sk ed a b out th eir cho ic es r e gard in g w hic h s tu d ents th ey c ho se to m ento r, o ne o f th e p ro fe sso rs co m mente d , “ D is c ip lin e i s a lw ays m ore i m porta nt th an s o m e n atu ra l a b ility .

With s o m e d ed ic ate d p ra cti c e, th o se w ith d is c ip lin e w ill s u rp ass th o se w ith natu ra l a b ility i n a f e w s e m este rs . W ith o ut d is c ip lin e a nd th e a b ility to l e arn , th o se w ith n atu ra l a b ility w ill n ev er p ro gre ss a b ove th eir c urre nt a b ility .” A g re at d eal o f r e se arc h h as b een d one o n i n d iv id uals w ho a chie v e h ig h le v els o f i n d iv id ual p erfo rm ance. T he r e se arc hers , A nd ers E ric sso n a nd N eil Charn ess, d esc rib ed h av in g e xcep ti o nal a b ility o r ta le nt a s “ exp ert perfo rm ance.” T hese r e se arc hers h av e p ro duced a g re at d eal o f e m pir ic al re se arc h o n th e q uesti o n o f w heth er p eo ple a re b orn w ith “ in nate ta le nt.” 7 Most p eo ple b elie v e th at th ere a re i n d iv id uals p osse ssin g s u p erio r in te llig ence a nd a p ti tu d e w ho d is ti n guis h th em se lv es a nd a re r e fe rre d to a s gifte d . T he p hilo so phy o f g ifte d i n d iv id uals d ate s b ack to p erio ds o f ti m e when k in gs a nd r u le rs w ere c alle d “ ro yalty .” T he i m plic ati o n o f r o yalty i s th at th ere i s s o m e g eneti c o r i n herite d d iffe re nce b etw een i n d iv id uals . T he 55 id ea th at m any i n d iv id uals c an d ev elo p e xcep ti o nal a b ility i s i n co nsis te nt with th e i d ea th at “ o nly m y s o n i s q ualifie d to b e k in g.” A r e v ie w o f th e lite ra tu re r e v eals th at a p pro pria te tr a in in g c an h av e a d ra m ati c i m pact o n perfo rm ance. R ese arc h i n m usic p erfo rm ance r e v eale d th at c hild re n w ho sh o w ed l ittl e s ig n o f m usic al ta le nt b ut w ho w ere tr a in ed w ith th e S uzu ki meth o d a chie v ed e q uiv ale nt l e v els to th o se o f m usic al p ro dig ie s. A c o m mon co ncep ti o n i s th at m ost c hild p ro dig ie s s h o w i n nate a b iliti e s a t a y o ung a ge.

Rese arc h i n to th e b ackgro und s o f th o se w ith e xcep ti o nal ta le nt s h o w s a g re at deal o f e v id ence to w ard th e p ers o nal i n te re sts o f c hild re n b ut v ery l ittl e ev id ence o f a ny i n nate a b ility .

The r e ality i s th at p eo ple w ho a re c o nsid ere d p ro dig ie s i n m usic , c hess, ath le ti c s, o r o th er a re as a ll h ad a v ery c o nsis te nt p atte rn . A ll s h o w ed i n te re st in th eir ta le nts , a nd a ll p ra cti c ed f r o m b etw een tw o to f o ur h o urs a d ay f o r 1 0 years . T he 1 0-y ear m ark w as a n a m azin gly s im ila r f in d in g r e gard le ss o f music al, m ath em ati c al, o r a th le ti c ta le nt. T here i s v ery s tr o ng r e se arc h to sh o w th at e xp erti s e a s a v io lin is t c o rre la te d a lm ost e xactl y w ith th e n um ber o f ho urs o f p ra cti c e. E xp erts p ra cti c e o ver 1 0,0 00 h o urs , th e n ext l e v el a b out 7,5 00 h o urs , a nd th e n ext l e v el 5 ,0 00 h o urs . E ric sso n a nd C harn ess c o nclu d ed th eir a naly sis b y s ta ti n g, “ T he tr a d iti o nal v ie w o f ta le nt, w hic h c o nclu d es th at su ccessfu l i n d iv id uals h av e s p ecia l i n nate a b iliti e s a nd b asic c ap aciti e s, i s no t c o nsis te nt w ith th e r e v ie w ed e v id ence.” T hey w ent o n to s a y th at m ore pla usib le e xp la nati o ns o f i n d iv id ual d iffe re nces “ are f a cto rs th at p re d is p ose in d iv id uals to w ard e ngagin g i n d elib era te p ra cti c e a nd e nab le th em to s u sta in hig h l e v els o f p ra cti c e f o r m any y ears .” Ano th er c hara cte ris ti c o f e xp ert p erfo rm ers w as th at th ey ty p ic ally h ad co aches w ho e nco ura ged th em to p ra cti c e i n te nse ly . S up pose th at a p ers o n decid es s h e w ants to l e arn to p la y g o lf. S he b egin s b y s ig nin g u p f o r s e v era l le sso ns, a nd th en s h e h ir e s a p ers o nal c o ach to p la y w ith h er. A fte r a f e w month s o f l e sso ns, s h e i s p erfo rm in g a t a n a d eq uate l e v el a nd s o s h e b egin s to “p la y” g o lf w ith f r ie nd s. P la yin g i s i n here ntl y m ore f u n th an i n te nse p ra cti c e, but th e l e arn in g c urv e g o es d ow n c o nsid era b ly . T o c o nti n ue to i m pro ve, peo ple n eed to ta ke th e ti m e r e gula rly f o r i n te nse p ra cti c e, a nd th at i s m ost effe cti v e w hen a cco m panie d b y a n e xp erie nced c o ach.

Most i n d iv id uals , a s th ey b eco m e m anagers f o r th e f ir s t ti m e, g o th ro ugh a n in te nse l e arn in g p erio d. T hey r e ceiv e a g re at d eal o f tr a in in g, p ers o nal co achin g, a nd a re o pen to i d eas a nd s u ggesti o ns f r o m e xp erie nced m anagers .

They ta ke ti m e to p la n m eeti n gs, p erfo rm ance r e v ie w s, a nd h o w th ey w ill giv e f e ed back to d ir e ct r e p orts . T hey a ls o p ay c lo se a tte nti o n to o th ers , watc hin g to u nd ers ta nd te chniq ues a nd s k ills . T hey a re p ra cti c in g l e ad ers h ip with a n i n te nt to g et b ette r. T heir l e arn in g c urv e i s h ig h. O nce th ey g et re aso nab ly c o m pete nt a t b ein g m anagers , th ey d o s o m eth in g v ery s im ila r to 56 th e a b ove e xam ple o f g o lf. T hey s w itc h f r o m p ra cti c in g to p la yin g. W hile pla yin g, th e i n te nsity o f th eir l e arn in g g o es d ow n. P la yin g l e ad ers h ip i s in here ntl y m ore f u n th an p ra cti c in g l e ad ers h ip , b ut s k ill d ev elo pm ent i s v ery slo w a nd s o m eti m es s to ps a lto geth er. I n a r e cent m eeti n g a t a l a rg e o il co m pany, w e a sk ed a g ro up o f e xecuti v es i f th ey w ere f o cuse d o n p la yin g o r pra cti c in g l e ad ers h ip . T he c o nse nsu s o f th e g ro up w as th at e v ery o ne w as b usy pla yin g a nd n o body w as p ra cti c in g to g et b ette r.

One i m plic ati o n o f th is r e se arc h i s th at s o m e g re at l e ad ers a re n o t b orn with , b ut a cq uir e a t a n e arly a ge, th e d esir e to m ake th in gs h ap pen w ith o th er peo ple . W e b elie v e th at o th er l e ad ers c an a cq uir e i n cre ase d l e ad ers h ip ab ility w ith p ra cti c e a t a ny a ge. T he r e al k ey i s th at th ey e ngage i n i n te nse pra cti c e. B ad l e ad ers a ssu m e th at d elib era te p ra cti c e m akes n o d iffe re nce, s o th ey c o nti n ue to p erfo rm b ut n ev er i m pro ve.

6. L ead ers a re o nly w illin g to b e a s e ffe cti v e a s th o se w ho i n tu rn l e ad th em .

Tom W ats o n, J r., i s o fte n c re d ite d a s th e k ey a rc hite ct o f I B M ’s c ultu re . O ne manife sta ti o n o f th at c ultu re w as th at m en w ore w hite sh ir ts , d ark s u its , a nd win g-ti p s h o es. H e o nce r e m ark ed th at i f h e w ore a p in k s h ir t to w ork , h e w as su re th at th e f o llo w in g d ay h e w ould s e e h und re d s o f e xecuti v es w earin g p in k sh ir ts .

Lead ers c ast a s ig nific ant s h ad ow i n th e o rg aniz a ti o ns w here th ey w ork . A co lle ague, P aul M cK in no n, d id s o m e r e se arc h s e v era l y ears a go to m easu re th e sh ad ow s o f l e ad ers w ith s e v era l o f h is c lie nts . I n a f o llo w -u p s tu d y w e c o nd ucte d to a naly ze th e s h ad ow s o f l e ad ers , w e f o und th at e m plo yees w ho h av e w ork ed f o r th e s a m e b oss f o r s e v era l y ears te nd to s h are n o t o nly th e s tr e ngth s b ut a ls o th e weaknesse s o f th eir b oss. I n th e s tu d y, w e e xam in ed th e 3 60-d egre e r e su lts f o r a manager a nd i d enti fie d a re as o f s tr e ngth a nd o pportu niti e s f o r i m pro vem ent. T he 360-d egre e r e su lts w ere th en a naly ze d f o r a ll o f th e d ir e ct r e p orts o f th e m anager (w ho w ere a ls o m anagers ). M anagers w ith a l a rg e s h ad ow s h o w ed th e e xact s a m e lis t o f s tr e ngth s a nd o pportu niti e s f o r i m pro vem ent a s th eir d ir e ct r e p orts . T he analy sis c alc ula te d th e p erc ent o verla p b etw een m anagers a nd a ll o f th eir d ir e ct re p orts . T he p erc enta ges v arie d f r o m a s m all s h ad ow ( e .g ., 2 5 p erc ent o verla p ) to a la rg e s h ad ow ( 1 00 p erc ent o verla p ). T his “ sh ad ow ” c an c ut b oth w ays. I f y o u w ork with a n e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad er, th e te nd ency i s th at y o ur l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness w ill be c lo se to th at o f y o ur l e ad er. O n th e o th er h and , i f y o ur b oss i s a n i n effe cti v e le ad er, th e te nd ency i s th at y o u w on’t b e m uch b ette r. I n th e s tu d y, w e f o und th e le ngth o f a l e ad er’s s h ad ow to v ary . T he l e ngth o f ti m e p eo ple s p end w ith th e s a m e boss c an i n cre ase th e s iz e o f th e s h ad ow .

In th e s tu d y, w e f o und th at s o m e l e ad ers a nd th eir d ir e ct r e p orts h ad a 1 00 perc ent o verla p b etw een s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s. B y th eir n atu re , p eo ple th in k th eir a p pro ach to w ork i s b est, a nd b osse s te nd to h ir e e m plo yees w ho h av e a sim ila r s ty le . O ver ti m e, b osse s r e in fo rc e th eir p ositi v e a s w ell a s n egati v e tr a its 57 by u nco nsc io usly r e w ard in g s o m e e m plo yee b ehav io rs w hile d is c o ura gin g o r ig no rin g o th ers . A s a r e su lt, e m plo yees a re c o nd iti o ned to m im ic th o se to w ho m th ey r e p ort.

For e xam ple , a ssu m e a l e ad er w ho i s v ery d eta il o rie nte d , ta sk f o cuse d , a nd te chnic ally p ro fic ie nt, b ut n o t s e nsiti v e to w ard c o -w ork ers r e p orti n g to h im . M ore ofte n th an n o t, th is p ers o n’s s u b ord in ate s g enera lly s h are h is s k ills a nd a re a ls o n o t re gard ed a s e sp ecia lly c o nsid era te o f o th ers . M ost o f th e ti m e, b osse s d o n o t acti v ely e nco ura ge b ru sq ueness, b ut th e m anagers s a w th eir b oss g et a w ay w ith i t and f e lt th ey c o uld , to o. T he p ro cess o f m im ic kin g th e s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s o f one’s b oss i s a n u nco nsc io us p ro cess. P ossib ly , o ne o f th e m ost sta rtl in g p ie ces o f re se arc h th at v alid ate s th ese f in d in gs i s th e s tu d y o f c hild a b use . I t i s w ell esta b lis h ed th at c hild re n w ho a re a b use d h av e a h ig h l ik elih o od o f b eco m in g ab usiv e p are nts . I t s e em s a lm ost i m possib le to c o m pre hend w hy c hild re n w ho dete st a nd s u ffe r f r o m th e w ay th at th eir p are nts tr e at th em o fte n tr e at th eir c hild re n exactl y th e s a m e w ay. M any a d ults h av e e xerte d g re at e ffo rt to s u ccessfu lly b re ak th eir c hild -re arin g p ra cti c es f r o m th e p ast a nd s ta rt a n ew l e gacy o f p ositi v e c hild - re arin g. M any p are nts h av e h ad th e e xp erie nce a s a c hild o f p ro m is in g th em se lv es th at th ey w ould “ nev er tr e at th eir c hild re n th at w ay,” o nly to f in d th em se lv es d oin g exactl y th e s a m e th in g to th eir c hild re n.

A b y-p ro duct o f th e p heno m eno n i s th at e m plo yees a re r a re ly m ore e ffe cti v e th an th eir b osse s. T hat i s g o od n ew s i f th e b oss i s a n e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad er. T he d ir e ct re p orts te nd to r is e to th at l e v el. B ut w e o bse rv ed o ver a nd o ver th at e m plo yees a re only a s g o od a s th eir b osse s. B osse s s e t th e s ta nd ard s, h ig h o r l o w . T he f in d in gs hav e i m plic ati o ns.

• T he e xte nt to w hic h l e ad ers m ere ly e nco ura ge s u b ord in ate s to b e th eir c lo nes beco m es p ro ble m ati c . I n d eed , i t m ay d em onstr a te a l a ck o f a p pre cia ti o n f o r diffe re nt s ty le s a nd a p pro aches, w hic h u lti m ate ly m ay b e d etr im enta l to th e org aniz a ti o n’s g o als .

• L ead ers i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n s h o uld b e m ad e c o gniz a nt o f th e w ays th ey re in fo rc e th eir o w n b ehav io rs i n th eir d ir e ct r e p orts . S up erio rs s h o uld th in k more c o nsc io usly o f th e r o le th ey p la y i n p eo ple ’s l iv es a nd c are ers a nd th e le gacy th ey w ill l e av e o nce th ey a re g o ne.

• S up erio rs n eed to b e r e m in d ed to r e cru it e m plo yees w ith a d iv ers ity o f s k ills and w ork s ty le s th at w ould e nric h a nd c o ntr ib ute to th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

• O rg aniz a ti o ns s e ekin g a c ultu re c hange s h o uld b egin w ith a n i n te rv enti o n a t th e se nio r l e v el, a s th e b est w ay to b rin g r e al c hange i s u su ally to c hange th e le ad ers .

• I t ta kes g re at l e ad ers to d ev elo p g re at l e ad ers . T he i d ea o f “ D o a s I s a y, n o t a s I d o” j u st w on’t w ork w ith l e ad ers h ip .

58 Im agin e th e i m pact o n a ny o rg aniz a ti o n i f 2 0 p erc ent o f th e g o od l e ad ers c o uld move o n to b eco m e e xcelle nt. F ast f o rw ard i n y o ur m in d to th e o rg aniz a ti o nal re su lts th at w ould p ro duce. C onsid er th e p ro fo und i m pact o n c ultu re a nd th e moti v ati o n l e v el o f e m plo yees. I m agin e th e tr a nsfo rm ed w ork e xp erie nce o f a ll in sid e th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

The r e se arc h i s c le ar r e gard in g th e i m pact o f l e ad ers h ip o n d esir a b le o utc o m es.

Good l e ad ers a re s u b sta nti a lly m ore e ffe cti v e th an b ad l e ad ers , b ut g re at l e ad ers make a g re at d iffe re nce.

The P ro p er M ea su re o f “ G rea tn ess” For th e s a ke o f c o nv enie nce, w e h av e s e le cte d “ gre at” l e ad ers b y e xam in in g th e to p 10 p erc ent f r o m a p opula ti o n o f l e ad ers f r o m w ell- re sp ecte d o rg aniz a ti o ns.

How ev er, w e a re th e f ir s t to a ckno w le d ge th at th is i s m ere ly f o r c o nv enie nce. T he pro per m easu re i s a gain st a n o bje cti v e s ta nd ard , a nd th ere i s n o r e aso n w hy a n org aniz a ti o n c o uld n o t h av e 9 0 p erc ent o f i ts f ir s t- le v el m anagers o r s u p erv is o rs who w ere g re at, v ers u s th e a rb itr a ry 1 0 p erc ent th at w e a naly ze d .

In d eed , o ur d efin iti o n c o uld p ro bab ly b e r e v ers e e ngin eere d . W hen y o u c o uld id enti fy a l e ad er w ho p ro duced • H ig h p ro ducti v ity • L ow tu rn o ver • H ig h c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n • H ig h p ro fita b ility • I n no vati o n • P ositi v e r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith s u p plie rs th en y o u c o uld , b y d efin iti o n, s a y th is w as a n e xtr e m ely e ffe cti v e l e ad er. E ffe cti v e le ad ers h ip i s b est d efin ed a nd m easu re d b y th e r e su lts p ro duced , n o t b y s im ply ta kin g a c erta in n um ber f r o m th e to p o f a d is tr ib uti o n.

The O rg an iz a tio n ’s O bje ctiv e The m ore “ gre at” l e ad ers a n o rg aniz a ti o n c an d ev elo p, th e s tr o nger i t w ill b e. T his is tr u e f o r m ulti p le r e aso ns, b ut s o m e o f th o se a re th e f o llo w in g:

• T he c o ntr ib uti o n th ese l e ad ers m ake to th e u nits th ey m anage • T he e xam ple o r r o le m odel th ey s e t f o r th e e nti r e o rg aniz a ti o n • T he c um ula ti v e i m pact th eir p erfo rm ance h as i n c re ati n g a n e nti r e ly n ew 59 cultu re f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n • T he e le v ate d s ta nd ard o f p erfo rm ance th at i s s e t w ith in th e o rg aniz a ti o n We h av e a d vocate d s tr o ngly th at i n d iv id uals f o cus o n th eir s tr e ngth s. B y d oin g th at, th ey g re atl y i n cre ase th e l ik elih o od o f b ein g p erc eiv ed a s g re at l e ad ers . T hat sa m e p rin cip le a p plie s to th e o rg aniz a ti o n. B y i n cre asin g th e n um ber o f h ig h- perfo rm in g l e ad ers , th e o rg aniz a ti o n g ain s g re at s tr e ngth . I t i s a lw ays te m pti n g to atte m pt to f ix th e l o w -p erfo rm in g o nes, b ut th e g re ate st g ain a p pears to c o m e b y help in g m ore l e ad ers b eco m e tr u ly e xcelle nt.

The o nly d ow nsid e o f a ny o rg aniz a ti o n d oin g th at i s th e ta rg et th ey b eco m e f o r head hunte rs . J u st a s G E h as b eco m e th e s p aw nin g g ro und f o r c o rp ora te C EO s, s o will a ny c o m pany th at p ro duces g re at l e ad ers . H ow ev er, th at i s a r e la ti v ely s m all pric e to p ay f o r th e e no rm ous g ain s to b e a chie v ed b y s u ccessfu lly d ev elo pin g g re at le ad ers f o r th e f ir m .

Good V ersu s B ad T hin kin g As a te enager, o ne o f th e a uth o rs h ad th e o pportu nity to h ear a n a str o naut d esc rib e th e c halle nges o f g o in g to th e M oon. H is a nalo gy w as th at th e a ccura cy o f g o in g fr o m E arth to th e M oon w as e q uiv ale nt to s h o oti n g a b ulle t i n N ew Y ork a nd h itti n g a g um ball i n L os A ngele s. I t w as a v ery d ra m ati c e xam ple o f th e i m porta nce o f co rre ct a im a nd m id co urs e c o rre cti o ns. I f th e a im w as o ff j u st a l ittl e i n N ew Y ork , th e ta rg et w ould b e m is se d b y a s ta te o r tw o b arrin g m ajo r c o rre cti o ns. T he m ore we w ork w ith i n d iv id uals a nd o rg aniz a ti o ns, th e m ore i t b eco m es c le ar th at s m all, ev en b are ly n o ti c eab le , a cti o ns c an h av e h uge c o nse q uences o ver ti m e.

One o f th e s m all, b are ly n o ti c eab le p hilo so phie s th at m ost p eo ple h o ld to day i s bin ary th in kin g a b out g o od v ers u s b ad . W e a re c o nsta ntl y a m use d th at w hen tr y in g to u nco ver p ro ble m s i n o rg aniz a ti o ns, th ere i s a s e arc h to i d enti fy th e “ b ad p eo ple .” One o f th e m ost c o m mon te nd encie s i s th at w hen a m is ta ke o ccurs i n a n org aniz a ti o n a nd th ere i s a s e arc h f o r th e c ause , f r e q uentl y a p ers o n o r g ro up i s so ught to b e th e s o urc e o f th e p ro ble m . T he “ fa ll p ers o n” i s b la m ed f o r e v ery th in g.

This i s r a re ly th e tr u th , b ut m ost p eo ple f in d i t m uch m ore c o nv enie nt.

On th e o th er s id e, w e h av e th e s e arc h f o r “ go od.” H av in g c o nd ucte d a v arie ty o f stu d ie s to i d enti fy c hara cte ris ti c s o f h ig h p erfo rm ers , w hat i n ev ita b ly b eco m es a diffic ult ta sk i s to d ete rm in e th e c rite ria f o r i d enti fy in g h ig h p erfo rm ers . T his w ould ap pear to b e a s im ple ta sk , b ut a s th e d iffe re nt m easu re m ents a re l a id o ut i t beco m es a c halle nge. O rg aniz a ti o ns s e arc h f o r s o m e s im ple c rite ria to e asily a nd quic kly p in p oin t th e g o od f r o m th e b ad . I n th is chap te r, w e h av e p re se nte d a n ew philo so phy a b out l e ad ers h ip . T his p hilo so phy e xp and s a p ers o n’s th in kin g f r o m “L ead ers a re e ith er g o od o r b ad ” to “ L ead ers a re b ad , g o od, a nd g re at.” T his i s a 60 sm all c hange f r o m w hat m any c urre ntl y b elie v e, b ut w e b elie v e th is s m all philo so phic al d iffe re nce c an h av e a h uge i m pact o n th e s u ccess o f b oth i n d iv id uals and o rg aniz a ti o ns. F or i n d iv id uals , th is p hilo so phy s h o uld h elp g o od l e ad ers und ers ta nd th at g o od i s n o t g re at. I t n ev er w as a nd n ev er w ill b e. G ood i s g o od, b ut th e u lti m ate ta rg et i s e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers h ip . W e h o pe th is h elp s p eo ple n o t to b e sa ti s fie d w ith g o od p erfo rm ance.

For o rg aniz a ti o ns, th is p hilo so phy o ught to c la rify th e c o m peti ti v e a d vanta ge o f gre at l e ad ers h ip . W hen d is c ussin g th eir l e ad ers h ip ta le nt, e xecuti v es w ill so m eti m es s ta te , “ I d on’t th in k w e h av e a p ro ble m w ith o ur l e ad ers ” ( w hic h w hen tr a nsla te d m eans, w e d on’t h av e b ad l e ad ers ). T he p ro ble m i s n o t a n a b und ance o f bad l e ad ers ; th e p ro ble m i s th e u niv ers a l a ccep ta nce o f g o od l e ad ers a nd a ssu m in g th at th ey d on’t n eed to b e a ny b ette r.

61 3 SIM PL IF Y IN G L EA D ER SH IP I w ould n’t g iv e a f ig f o r th e s im plic ity th is s id e o f c o m ple xity b ut I w ould g iv e m y r ig ht a rm f o r th e s im plic ity o n th e o th er s id e o f c o m ple xity .

—Oliv er W end ell H olm es O ur o bje cti v e i n th is c hap te r i s to p ro vid e s o m e o f th e “ sim plic ity th at l ie s j u st o n t h e o th er s id e o f c o m ple xity .” I n Chap te r 1 , w e p re se nte d m any o f th e d im ensio ns t h at c re ate th e e xtr e m ely c o m ple x n atu re o f l e ad ers h ip . I n th is c hap te r, w e w is h to r e d uce th at c o m ple xity to a m odel o f l e ad ers h ip th at i s m ore e asily u nd ers to od.

M attr esse s a n d T en ts M attr e sse s F or d ecad es, r e se arc hers a nd o bse rv ers h av e tr ie d to f in d th e c o m pete ncy, tr a it, k no w le d ge b ase , p ers o nality d im ensio n, o r th o ught p ro cess th at m akes a p ers o n a g o od l e ad er. T he a naly sis w as e xtr e m ely g ra nula r, b re akin g l e ad ers h ip i n to a s m any d is c re te c o m pete ncie s a s p ossib le . T he o utc o m e w as to d esc rib e l e ad ers h ip b ehav io rs o r c o m pete ncie s a s h ig hly s p ecific , d is c re te , i n d iv id ualiz e d a cts . E ach t r a it o r c hara cte ris ti c w as m ad e s e p ara te a nd d is ti n ct f r o m a ll th e o th ers .

One m eta p ho r c o m pare s th is a p pro ach to u nd ers ta nd in g l e ad ers h ip a s a “ co il- s p rin g m attr e ss.” T his a p pro ach to l e ad ers h ip a ssu m es th at th ese tr a its or c hara cte ris ti c s a re l ik e i n d iv id ually e ncase d c o il s p rin gs i n a n e xp ensiv e m attr e ss.

T he a d verti s e m ents f o r th ese m attr e sse s s h o w a g la ss o f w ate r s ta nd in g o n th e m attr e ss, a nd s o m eo ne d ro ppin g a b ow lin g b all a d ja cent to th e g la ss o f w ate r, a ll w ith o ut s p illin g a d ro p.

In u nd ers ta nd in g l e ad ers h ip , i f th at th eo ry w ere tr u e, a l e ad er c o uld b e e xtr e m ely t e chnic ally c o m pete nt w ith o ut th at a ffe cti n g th e r e la ti o nsh ip s i n a te am . O r th e l e ad er c o uld b e a h ig hly e ffe cti v e m oti v ato r o r i n sp ir e r o f p eo ple b ut to ta lly l a ck t h e a b ility to m ake th in gs h ap pen i n sid e th e o rg aniz a ti o n. T o th e e xte nt th at c o m pete ncie s a re d efin ab le , s p ecific b ehav io rs , i n d ep end ent f r o m a ll o th er b ehav io r, th is b elie f h as g re at l o gic . A nd w e a ckno w le d ge th at th is h ap pens i n s e le cte d i n sta nces.

The m ajo r d efe ct w ith th is e nti r e th eo ry i s th at i t s im ply d oes n o t f it th e e m pir ic al d ata w e h av e a v aila b le . W e w ill p re se nt c o m pellin g e v id ence i n Chap te r 62 4 th at:

1. N ot a ll c o m pete ncie s a re e q uiv ale nt to e ach o th er. S om e a re f a r m ore pow erfu l i n s e p ara ti n g h ig hly e ffe cti v e l e ad ers f r o m th e r e st.

2. L ead ers h ip b ehav io rs a re a ll k nit to geth er, m uch l ik e th e c o m ple x n etw ork o f th e h um an b ra in . T here i s a g re at d eal o f i n te rd ep end ence b etw een th em . E ach of th e 1 6 c o m pete ncie s th at w as m ost p ow erfu l i n s e p ara ti n g l e ad ers w as hig hly c o rre la te d to a ll o f th e o th er 1 6 c o m pete ncie s.

3. E ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip d em and s a b ala nce o f c o m pete ncie s f r o m f iv e d iffe re nt se cto rs .

4. C om bin ati o ns o f c o m pete ncie s, n o t a ny s in gle o ne, p ro duce g re at l e ad ers .

5. T he m ore p eo ple h av e o f th e 1 6 c o m pete ncie s th at tr u ly m ake a d iffe re nce, th e more l ik ely th ey a re to b e p erc eiv ed a s g re at l e ad ers .

Ten ts In ste ad o f a m attr e ss w ith i n d iv id ual s p rin gs, a m ore a ccura te p ic tu re o f l e ad ers h ip is r e p re se nte d b y a l a rg e te nt, a s d ep ic te d i n Fig ure 3 -1 , w ith th e th re e-d im ensio nal sp ace u nd er th e c anv as r e p re se nti n g th e l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness o f th e i n d iv id ual.

The b est l e ad ers h av e th e g re ate st n um ber o f c ub ic y ard s o f s p ace u nd er th eir te nt.

We th in k th is v ie w h elp s to i llu str a te th e tr u e n atu re o f l e ad ers h ip a nd h o w i t i s dev elo ped .

Fig ure 3 -1 L ead ers h ip T ent 63 The d is ti n guis h in g c hara cte ris ti c s o f th is m odel a re 1. L ead ers h ip b ehav io rs a re c lu ste re d i n to f iv e a re as.

2. S tr e ngth i n a c lu ste r b eco m es a “ te nt p ole ” th at l ifts th e l e ad ers h ip o f th at pers o n to a h ig her l e v el.

3. E ffe cti v e l e ad ers p osse ss s k ills i n e ach a re a; s o m ulti p le p ole s a re n ecessa ry to l ift th e te nt.

4. S ta ti s ti c ally s ig nific ant c o rre la ti o ns e xis t b etw een m ost o f th e i m porta nt co m pete ncie s ( th e c anv as i s i n o ne p ie ce).

The k ey to l ifti n g m ore o f th e te nt ( b eco m in g a m ore e ffe cti v e l e ad er) i s to g et multi p le p ole s h ig h i n th e a ir . I f y o u h av e o nly o ne te nt p ole , i t p ulls th e e nti r e te nt aro und th e c ente r o f th e p ole . O ur m eta p ho r u nfo ld s a s f o llo w s. A llo w u s th e lib erty o f h av in g m odern te nt p ole s th at e xte nd th em se lv es l ik e th e a nte nna o n a c ar.

As a p ole i s e xte nd ed , o ne s e cti o n o f th e te nt i s l ifte d u p , a nd i n d oin g, a b ro ad exp anse o f c anv as i s r a is e d . T he m ore th e p ole i s e xte nd ed , th e h ig her th e c anv as i s lifte d . ( R em em ber, th e te nt p ole i s th e d egre e o f s tr e ngth a nd th e n um ber o f co m pete ncie s w ith g re at s tr e ngth i n o ne are a th at a n i n d iv id ual p osse sse s.) S o, assu m e th at th is f ir s t te nt p ole c o m es u p f r o m th e c lu ste r w e h av e l a b ele d “C hara cte r.” A s e co nd p ole ( a ssu m e th is o ne i s c re ate d b y th e c lu ste r “ F ocus o n R esu lts ” ) ele v ate s a n ew s e cti o n o f th e te nt, a nd i n s o d oin g, i t r a is e s th e c anv as th at i s dir e ctl y a b ove i t b ut a ls o r a is e s th e c anv as th at i s b etw een th is n ew p ole a nd th e fir s t o ne. T he c anv as th at w as i n iti a lly a ro und th e f ir s t p ole m oves c lo se r to th e f u ll heig ht o f b oth te nt p ole s. W ith e ach s u cceed in g te nt p ole , l a rg e e xp anse s o f c anv as are l ifte d u nti l u lti m ate ly th ere i s a h uge v olu m e o f s p ace u nd er th e te nt.

The p ole s i n o ur m eta p ho r r e p re se nt k ey “ str e ngth s” o f th e i n d iv id ual l e ad er, esp ecia lly th o se th at h av e b een s h o w n to m ake a d iffe re nce i n s e p ara ti n g th e g re at fr o m th e g o od. T he c anv as r e p re se nts a ll o f th e b ehav io rs a nd c o m pete ncie s possib le to b e d is p la yed b y a l e ad er. ( W e h av e s e en c o m pete ncy m odels f r o m s o m e org aniz a ti o ns i n w hic h th ere w ere 1 73 b ehav io rs d efin ed f o r th e l e ad ers to a sse ss th em se lv es a gain st. T hat s e em s to u s to b e a f e w m ore b ehav io rs th an m ost h um ans can k eep tr a ck o f o n a d aily b asis .) Mak in g a L ea d er We w ill n o w m ore th o ro ughly d esc rib e th ese f iv e m ajo r e le m ents o f l e ad ers h ip attr ib ute s.

Chara cte r— The C en te r P ole o f E very L ea d er 64 We b egin w ith th e c o m ponent th at i s i n d eed a t th e c o re . E very th in g r a d ia te s f r o m i t.

It i s th e c ente r p ole o f th e te nt ( Fig ure 3 -2 ). I t i s s o i m porta nt th at s o m e a uth o rs hav e w ritte n a b out i t a s i f i t w ere s y no nym ous w ith l e ad ers h ip . F or e xam ple :

• W arre n B ennis , o ne o f th e m ost r e sp ecte d w rite rs a nd r e se arc hers o n le ad ers h ip , h as ta lk ed a b out l e ad ers h ip b ein g a ll a b out i n te grity .

• M ax D e P re e, th e C EO o f H erm an M ille r a nd a f r e q uent w rite r o n l e ad ers h ip , has e q uate d l e ad ers h ip w ith p ers o nal c hara cte r.

• J im K ouze s a nd B arry P osn er h av e w ritte n a b ook e nti tl e d Cre d ib ility a nd defin ed p ers o nal c re d ib ility a s th e f o und ati o n o f a ll l e ad ers h ip .

• J im S haffe r w rite s a b out l e ad ers h ip b ein g d efin ed b y “ te llin g th e tr u th .” Fig ure 3 -2 L ead ers h ip T ent F lo or: C hara cte r • S te p hen C ovey h as w ritte n a b out th e i m porta nce o f l e ad ers f o llo w in g prin cip le s i n th eir d aily b ehav io r.

These a re j u st a s a m plin g o f th e m any w riti n gs a b out l e ad ers h ip th at e m phasiz e th e r o le o f p ers o nal c hara cte r i n l e ad ers h ip . O ur r e se arc h c o nfir m s th at p ers o nal chara cte r i s a b so lu te ly a t th e h eart o f e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip .

65 Here a re s o m e o f th e w ays c hara cte r g ets d efin ed :

• M akin g d ecis io ns w ith th e o rg aniz a ti o n p ara m ount i n th eir m in d , v ers u s allo w in g a p ers o nal a gend a to i n flu ence d ecis io ns • K eep in g c o m mitm ents th at a re m ad e • P ra cti c in g s e lf- d ev elo pm ent; c o nsta ntl y l e arn in g • B ein g r e cep ti v e to , a nd s p ecific ally a sk in g f o r, f e ed back f r o m o th ers • B ein g a p pro achab le b y a nyo ne • T re ati n g e v ery o ne th e s a m e— no “ sm ilin g u p a nd k ic kin g d ow n” b ehav io r • T re ati n g th e w aitr e ss a nd b ellh o p w ith d ig nity , a s w ell a s p eo ple o f h ig h s ta tu s • T ru sti n g o th er p eo ple ; a ssu m in g th ey h av e g o od i n te nti o ns • W ork in g c o lla b ora ti v ely w ith o th ers , v ers u s s e ein g e v ery o ne a s a c o m peti to r • N ot a cti n g i n a n a rro gant m anner to w ard o th ers • B ein g te nacio us a nd n o t g iv in g u p b ecause s o m eth in g i s d iffic ult • H av in g e m oti o nal r e silie nce; a d ju sti n g r a p id ly to c hangin g e nv ir o nm ents Many o rg aniz a ti o ns h av e l e arn ed th at f in d in g p eo ple w ith th e r ig ht c hara cte r i s th e a b so lu te r e q uir e m ent f o r l o ng-te rm s u ccess o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

A c o lle ague a sk ed a s e nio r e xecuti v e o f L ouis V uitto n, th e m aker o f h ig h-e nd lu ggage a nd p ers o nal a ccesso rie s, h o w th ey w ent a b out g etti n g p eo ple to p ro duce su ch h ig h-q uality p ro ducts . T he e xecuti v e’s a nsw er w as, “ Y ou l o ok f o r p eo ple w ho se ek q uality i n th eir p ers o nal l ife , a nd i n a ll th e th in gs th ey u se a nd p osse ss. Y ou can’t tr a in th at i n to p eo ple .” The r e ta ile r N ord str o m i s c urre ntl y w ork in g to r e gain th e p ositi o n th at i t o nce held a s th e l e ad in g p ro vid er o f e xcelle nt s e rv ic e. A gain , w hen th e e xecuti v es a re ask ed a b out h o w th ey p la n to d o th at, th eir a nsw er i s “ H ir e n ic e p eo ple .” I t i s m uch easie r to te ach a n ic e p ers o n s e llin g s k ills a nd h o w to u se “ p oin t o f s a le ” e q uip m ent th an i t i s to te ach “ nic eness” to s o m eo ne w ho k no w s h o w to c o m ple te th e pap erw ork f o r a s a le s tr a nsa cti o n.

How ev er, o ur r e se arc h s h o w s th at w hen p eo ple r e ceiv e h ig h s c o re s o n th is im porta nt d im ensio n o f l e ad ers h ip , b ut th is i s a ll th ey s c o re h ig hly o n, th en th e lik elih o od o f th em b ein g p erc eiv ed a s o uts ta nd in g l e ad ers i s a p pro xim ate ly 6 perc ent. A nd i f p eo ple a re g iv en l o w m ark s o n th ese “ chara cte r” d im ensio ns, th ey will a b so lu te ly n o t b e p erc eiv ed a s g re at l e ad ers .

We c o ncur, th ere fo re , w ith th e p eo ple w ho h av e w ritte n o f th e i m porta nce o f le ad ers b ein g p ers o ns o f h ig h c hara cte r. W ith o ut i t, l o ng-te rm f a ilu re i s c erta in .

Where w e p art c o m pany w ith s o m e i s o ur c o nclu sio n th at c hara cte r i s a n ecessa ry , but n o t s u ffic ie nt, e le m ent f o r g re at l e ad ers h ip . T o c o m plic ate th e m atte r e v en 66 fu rth er, th ere a re s o m e p eo ple w ho a re p erc eiv ed a s e ffe cti v e l e ad ers y et w ho s e em to p osse ss m ajo r c hara cte r f la w s. T his w ill p ro bab ly b e k no w n i n l e ad ers h ip lite ra tu re i n d ecad es to c o m e a s th e “ C lin to n p heno m eno n.” I t se em s m ore o fte n to be r e se rv ed f o r p oliti c al l e ad ers th an f o r th o se i n b usin ess a nd i n d ustr y , b ut w e d o no t p re te nd to f u lly u nd ers ta nd th at a no m aly .

In th e a fte rm ath o f th e a tta ck o n th e W orld T ra d e C ente r o n S ep te m ber 1 1, 2 001, Mayo r R ud olp h G iu lia ni s te p ped i n to o rc hestr a te th e C ity o f N ew Y ork ’s r e sp onse to th e s itu ati o n. G iu lia ni r o se to th e o ccasio n w ith h and s-o n, c alm in g, d ecis iv e behav io r th at e arn ed h im e xtr e m ely h ig h m ark s f r o m c iti z e ns a nd th e m ed ia . O ne co m menta to r o n N ati o nal P ub lic R ad io s a id th at “ it w as a s i f th e s itu ati o n e ra se d all th e n egati v e i m ages th at h ad s u rro und ed G iu lia ni.” H e h ad b een th ro ugh a s o rd id div orc e, h ad b een a ccuse d o f r a cia l s lu rs , b een ta gged a s “ M usso lin i o n th e Hud so n,” a nd w as i n g enera l d is fa v or. T hen, s u d denly , a n e v ent a nd th e w ay h e hand le d i t tr a nsfo rm ed h im i n to a h ero .

Perso n al C ap ab ilit y The s e co nd i m porta nt te nt p ole o f l e ad ers h ip i s th e p ers o nal c ap ab ility th e in d iv id ual p osse sse s ( Fig ure 3 -3 ). T his c lu ste r o f a b iliti e s c o m pris e s s k ills o r co m pete ncie s th at a re a b so lu te ly c ru cia l f o r p eo ple to b e h ig hly r e gard ed b y p eers , su b ord in ate s, a nd b osse s. T hese a re n o t s k ills th at w ould ty p ic ally b e d esc rib ed a s le ad ers h ip s k ills , a nd y et o ur r e se arc h p ro ves th ey m ust b e i n p la ce f o r a ny in d iv id ual to b e p erc eiv ed a s a s tr o ng l e ad er.

Som e o f th ese i n d iv id ual c ap ab iliti e s a re • Tech nic a l k n ow le d ge.

R ese arc h w ith a l a rg e n atu ra l r e so urc es p ro ducts co m pany s h o w ed th at th e q uality o r a ttr ib ute th at h ad th e h ig hest c o rre la ti o n with b ein g p erc eiv ed a s a g re at l e ad er w as te chnic al c o m pete nce. T ho se w ho were p erc eiv ed a s th e b est l e ad ers a lw ays s c o re d h ig h o n th is d im ensio n.

Conv ers e ly , th o se i n th e b otto m 1 0 p erc ent o f th e o vera ll s c o re s s c o re d l o w o n te chnic al c o m pete nce.

• Pro duct k n ow le d ge.

A th o ro ugh u nd ers ta nd in g o f w hat th e o rg aniz a ti o n pro duces a nd w hy i t i s s u p erio r to c o m peti ti v e p ro ducts .

• Pro ble m -a naly sis a nd p ro ble m -s o lv in g s k ills .

T he a b ility to d efin e a p ro ble m , analy ze i t, a nd c o m e u p w ith s o lid r e co m mend ati o ns f o r r e so lv in g i t.

• Pro fe ssio nal s k ills .

T hese i n clu d e th e a b ility to w rite a n i n te llig ent, c o ncis e re p ort o r m em ora nd um ; th e a b ility to c o m fo rta b ly m ake a c o m pellin g pre se nta ti o n i n f r o nt o f a g ro up ; a nd th e a b iliti e s to 67 Fig ure 3 -3 L ead ers h ip T ent F lo or: P ers o nal C ap ab ility org aniz e o ne’s w ork i n a n e ffic ie nt m anner, to m onito r p ro gre ss, a nd to a ct with o ut b ein g to ld b y s o m eo ne i n a uth o rity .

• In nova tio n.

T his r e fe rs to th e a b ility to h av e a f r e sh o utl o ok i n a p pro achin g a pro ble m , to s h ake l o ose o f o ld m eth o ds a nd p ro cesse s a nd s e e n ew possib iliti e s. I n no vati o n m eans b ein g a b le to c lim b o ut o f r u ts a nd d o th in gs i n a d iffe re nt f a sh io n.

• In itia tiv e.

T his d esc rib es th e p ers o n w ho s e es s o m eth in g f a llin g i n th e c ra cks betw een o ne d ep artm ent a nd a no th er a nd w ho i m med ia te ly s te p s i n to m ake certa in i t i s h and le d . I t i n v olv es v olu nte erin g w hen s o m eth in g n eed s to b e d one and n o o ne c urre ntl y i s d oin g i t.

• Effe ctiv e u se o f i n fo rm atio n t e ch nolo gy.

T his p ers o n s e ts a n e xam ple i n th e co nsis te nt u se o f e -m ail, p ow erfu l s o ftw are a p plic ati o ns, a nd a ny te chno lo gy th at e sc ala te s p erfo rm ance.

One o f th e m ost u se fu l f r a m ew ork s b y w hic h to u nd ers ta nd h o w p eo ple co ntr ib ute i n th eir c are ers i s th e fo ur s ta ges m odel , o rig in ally d ev elo ped b y G ene Dalto n a nd P aul T ho m pso n.

1 T his m odel d esc rib es f o ur s ta ges o f c are er g ro w th th ro ugh w hic h p eo ple m ay m ove. I n m any c ase s, p eo ple b eco m e l o cked i n to o ne 68 sta ge b ecause th ey d o n o t p osse ss th e n ecessa ry s k ills a nd b ehav io r to m ove fo rw ard . I n o th er c ase s, p eo ple s ta y a t a p arti c ula r s ta ge b ecause i t f its th eir n eed s and a p ti tu d es. T he f o ur s ta ges a re • S ta ge I : d ep end in g o n o th ers • S ta ge I I: c o ntr ib uti n g i n d ep end entl y • S ta ge I II: c o ntr ib uti n g th ro ugh o th ers • S ta ge I V : l e ad in g th ro ugh v is io n Sta ge I .

T he f ir s t s ta ge o f c are ers h as b een d esc rib ed a s dep en din g o n o th ers.

2 I n Sta ge I , p eo ple w illin gly a ccep t d ir e cti o n f r o m o th ers . P eo ple i n S ta ge I dem onstr a te s o m e c o m pete ncy o n a p orti o n o f a l a rg er p ro je ct b ut te nd to f o cus o n perfo rm in g d eta ile d a nd r o uti n e ta sk s. S ta ge I i n d iv id uals s h o w s o m e d ir e cte d cre ati v ity a nd c an b e d ep end ed o n to d eliv er o n ti m e a nd o n b ud get. S ta ge I i s a n im porta nt c are er s te p . I t i s th at ti m e w hen p eo ple l e arn th e r o pes a nd g ain a n i n - dep th u nd ers ta nd in g o f te chno lo gy a nd o rg aniz a ti o nal d ynam ic s. M ost i n d iv id uals sp end l im ite d ti m e i n S ta ge I a t th e b egin nin g o f th eir c are ers o r w hen th ey ta ke o n a new a ssig nm ent. B ecause th e m ajo r p sy cho lo gic al f o cus o f S ta ge I i s dep en den ce , no l e ad ers h ip i s e xhib ite d i n th is s ta ge. P eo ple i n S ta ge I a re l e d ; th ey d o n o t l e ad .

Rese arc h w ith h und re d s o f o rg aniz a ti o ns h as u nco vere d th at s o m e p eo ple n ev er le av e S ta ge I . T hey c o nti n ue to r e ly o n o th ers f o r d ir e cti o n. O th er p eo ple m ake a tr a nsiti o n f r o m S ta ge I e arly i n th eir c are ers b ut th en, b ecause th ey a re o ut o f d ate o r la ck s k ills , tr a nsiti o n b ack l a te r i n th eir c are er.

Sta ge I I.

T he s e co nd s ta ge i s co ntr ib utin g i n dep en den tly .

T his d esc rib es a s e rie s of b ehav io rs th at e nab le a p ers o n to a ssu m e r e sp onsib ility f o r a d efin ab le p ro je ct, no t to r e ly o n a s u p erv is o r b ut, i n ste ad , to w ork a uto no m ously . T his p ers o n pro duces s ig nific ant r e su lts a nd i n s o d oin g d ev elo ps g re ate r te chnic al e xp erti s e , alo ng w ith a s tr o ng r e p uta ti o n. T his p ers o n a ls o b uild s a s tr o ng n etw ork o f p ers o nal re la ti o nsh ip s. T his s ta ge o f c are er g ro w th i s a n a b so lu te g ate w ay to f u rth er pro gre ssio n. I f p eo ple c anno t p erfo rm w ell i n S ta ge I I p ositi o ns, th ey c anno t m ove on s u ccessfu lly to r o le s i n w hic h th ey w ill b e r e sp onsib le f o r a g ro up o f p eo ple .

Hav in g a p ro per s e t o f p ers o nal c ap ab iliti e s i s a no th er w ay o f s a yin g th at th e excelle nt l e ad er m ust h av e m oved s u ccessfu lly th ro ugh S ta ge I I. L ead ers c anno t sk ip th is s ta ge; i f th ey d o, th ey p ay a p ric e a s th ey m ove u p w ard i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n and th en h av e to g o b ack a nd a cq uir e s k ills th at s h o uld h av e b een a cq uir e d e arlie r in th eir c are ers . T his i s th e ti m e w hen s e lf- c o nfid ence m ust b e d ev elo ped , a s w ell as tr u st i n o ne’s o w n p erc ep ti o ns o f s itu ati o ns.

Movin g to o f a st th ro ugh S ta ge I I i s a ls o d angero us. I n m ovin g to o r a p id ly , peo ple d o n o t d ev elo p s e lf- c o nfid ence o r b uild c re d ib ility w ith o th ers i n th e org aniz a ti o n. O ur a naly sis o f th e r e se arc h d ata o n l e ad ers s h o w s th at e ffe cti v e le ad ers l e arn ed p ro fe ssio nal s k ills d urin g th is s ta ge o f th eir c are ers . W ith o ut th ese 69 sk ills , f u rth er p ro gre ss i s s e v ere ly l im ite d . L ead ers h ip i n S ta ge I I i s s o m eti m es desc rib ed a s p ers o nal l e ad ers h ip .

Sta ge I II.

T he th ir d s ta ge i s a b out co ntr ib utin g t h ro ugh o th ers , a nd e v ery e ffe cti v e le ad er o f o th ers i s a t l e ast i n S ta ge I II. M any p eo ple w ho h av e th e ti tl e o f “m anager,” h o w ev er, a re n o t i n S ta ge I II, b ut r e m ain l o cked i n S ta ge I I, e v en th o ugh th ey a re s u rro und ed b y th e tr a p pin gs o f a S ta ge I II l e ad er. T hese a re m anagers w ho co nti n ue to p ro cess c la im f o rm s o r d esig n a n ew p art b ecause i t i s m ore co m fo rta b le to f u ncti o n a s a n i n d iv id ual c o ntr ib uto r th an a s a l e ad er. F re q uentl y , th ey w ill “ cherry -p ic k” th e b est a ssig nm ents a nd c o m pete w ith th eir d ir e ct r e p orts fo r r e co gniti o n a nd r e w ard s. T hey a re u nab le o r u nw illin g to l e av e th eir c o m fo rt zo ne o f b ein g p ers o nally p ro ducti v e u sin g s o m e te chnic al ta sk s.

Sta ge I II b ehav io r r e q uir e s p eo ple to d ev elo p o th ers , to r e p re se nt th e org aniz a ti o n to c lie nts a nd e xte rn al g ro up s, a nd to b uild s tr o ng i n te rn al a nd e xte rn al netw ork s. S ta ge I II c o ntr ib uto rs a chie v e p ositi v e r e su lts a s th ey w ork w ith a nd th ro ugh o th ers . T hey h av e o rg aniz a ti o nal i m pact b y m ento rin g o th ers , b y h ead in g u p a p ro je ct te am , a nd b y ta kin g o n r e sp onsib ility f o r m uch m ore th an th eir o w n perfo rm ance. ( W hat th is m eans, o f c o urs e , i s th at th ere a re m any S ta ge I II p eo ple who d o n o t h av e th e w ord s “ su p erv is o r,” “ m anager,” o r “ d ir e cto r” i n f r o nt o f th eir nam es. T he c re ato rs o f th is u se fu l f r a m ew ork b y w hic h to u nd ers ta nd c are er g ro w th hav e d one r e se arc h th at s h o w s th ere to b e f iv e ti m es a s m any p eo ple i n S ta ge I II who d o n o t h av e a m anageria l ti tl e a s th ere a re th o se w ho h av e a f o rm al r o le a nd ti tl e .) Sta ge I V .

A s m all n um ber o f p eo ple m ove b eyo nd S ta ge I II a nd b eco m e S ta ge I V le ad ers . R ese arc h s h o w s th at o nly 5 p erc ent o f th e w ork in g p opula ti o n e nd s u p i n Sta ge I V f u ncti o ns. T hat m eans, o bvio usly , th at 9 5 p erc ent o f e v ery o ne w ork in g i n org aniz a ti o ns e nd s u p h av in g p erfe ctl y s a ti s fa cto ry c are ers with o ut m ovin g to S ta ge IV . F or th at g ro up , th ere i s o ne m ore te nt p ole th at m ust b e e re cte d to m ake th em co m ple te l e ad ers . F ir s t, l e t’ s e xam in e w hat th ey m ust a cco m plis h .

Sta ge I V l e ad ers a re th at g ro up o f i n d iv id uals i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n w ho :

• C re ate th e o vera rc hin g v is io n f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n • D efin e th e s tr a te gic d ir e cti o n o f th e f ir m • E xerc is e s tr o ng i n flu ence o ver th e c riti c al d ecis io ns th at a re m ad e • R ep re se nt th e o rg aniz a ti o n to th e o uts id e w orld , i n clu d in g c usto m ers , su p plie rs , a nd tr a d e a sso cia ti o ns • A re th e a nte nna to th e o uts id e w orld , c o lle cti n g i n fo rm ati o n a nd s c annin g th e ho riz o n f o r c hange • S hap e th e c ultu re • A llo cate r e so urc es a m ong c o m peti n g g ro up s 70 • T ra nsla te th e s tr a te gic d ir e cti o n i n to p ers o nal o bje cti v es f o r p eo ple For e ach i n d iv id ual a t e ach s ta ge, l e ad ers h ip l o oks d iffe re nt.

Tab le 3 -1 d esc rib es th e n ecessa ry e le m ents o f p ers o nal c ap ab ility f o r S ta ge I I, S ta ge I II, a nd S ta ge I V le ad ers .

Focu s o n R esu lt s Our m odel f o r e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip n o w ta kes o n a n ew d im ensio n ( Fig ure 3 -4 ). I t would b e i d eal i f w e c o uld e re ct th ese n ext tw o te nt p ole s s im ulta neo usly . T hese tw o e le m ents , F ocus o n R esu lts a nd I n te rp ers o nal S kills , r e q uir e th at C hara cte r a nd Pers o nal C ap ab ility b e i n p la ce, b ut i t a p pears to m ake n o d iffe re nce w hic h o f th ese tw o c o m ponents c o m es a fte r th at. I n d eed , th ere e xis ts a r e m ark ab le r e la ti o nsh ip betw een th ese tw o c o m ponents o f l e ad ers h ip .

How d oes a l e ad er f o cus o n r e su lts ? H ere a re s o m e o f th e w ays:

• E sta b lis h es s tr e tc h g o als f o r th eir p eo ple • T akes p ers o nal r e sp onsib ility f o r th e o utc o m es o f th e g ro up • P ro vid es o ngo in g f e ed back a nd c o achin g to h is o r h er p eo ple • S ets l o fti e r ta rg ets f o r th e g ro up to a chie v e • P ers o nally s p onso rs a n i n iti a ti v e o r a cti o n • I n iti a te s n ew p ro gra m s, p ro je cts , p ro cesse s, c lie nt r e la ti o nsh ip s, o r te chno lo gy 71 Table 3 -1 “ P ers o nal C ap ab iliti e s” f o r S ta ges I I, I II, a nd I V • F ocuse s o n o rg aniz a ti o n g o als a nd e nsu re s th at th ey a re tr a nsla te d i n to a cti o ns by h is o r h er d ep artm ent • O pera te s w ith s p eed a nd i n te nsity ; a ccele ra te s th e p ace o f th e g ro up • C ham pio ns th e c ause o f th e c usto m er • B ala nces l o ng-te rm a nd s h o rt- te rm o bje cti v es Tab le 3 -2 s h o w s h o w F ocus o n R esu lts d iffe rs f o r S ta ge I I, I II, a nd I V l e ad ers .

Pro ducin g r e su lts i s a k ey o utc o m e o f e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip . A s D av e U lr ic h, J a ck Zenger, a nd N orm S m allw ood n o te d i n th eir b ook Resu lts -B ase d L ea dersh ip , le ad ers h ip i s u lti m ate ly a b out p ro ducin g r e su lts .

3 W hat w e h av e d esc rib ed i n th is se cti o n a re s o m e o f th o se b ehav io rs , s k ills , a nd c o m pete ncie s th at l e ad d ir e ctl y to th e p ro ducti o n o f p ositi v e r e su lts i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n. T he a uth o rs o f Resu lts -B ase d Lea dersh ip d esc rib ed th ese a s th e “ attr ib ute s” n ecessa ry to p ro duce s p ecta cula r re su lts .

72 Fig ure 3 -4 L ead ers h ip T ent F lo or: F ocus o n R esu lts Table 3 -2 “ F ocus o n R esu lts ” f o r S ta ges I I, I II, a nd I V In o ne s tu d y o f j u st o ver 1 ,0 00 m anagers o f a l a rg e c o rp ora ti o n, w e a naly ze d th e behav io rs th at s e p ara te d th e to p 1 0 p erc ent o f i ts l e ad ers f r o m th e r e st. H ere a re so m e o f th e i te m s:

73 • T his p ers o n b rin gs i d eas i n to a cti o n.

• T his p ers o n p ush es to “ ta ke th e n ext s te p f o rw ard .” • T his p ers o n b rin gs e nerg y, e nth usia sm , a nd u rg ency to h is o r h er w ork .

• T his p ers o n l o oks f o r w ays to i m pro ve h is o r h er j o b a nd o vera ll f u ncti o n.

Noti c e th e p atte rn o f ta kin g a cti o n, c ausin g th in gs to o ccur, p ush in g f o rw ard , a nd co nti n ual i m pro vem ent. T he i m age th at c o m es to m in d i s l e ad ers w ith th eir f o ot o n th e a ccele ra to r— most o f th e ti m e, p re sse d to th e f lo orb oard .

In te rp erso n al S kills The c o m panio n s e t o f s k ills to F ocus o n R esu lts r e q uir e d f o r e ffe cti v e l e ad ers i s “p eo ple ” s k ills o r I n te rp ers o nal S kills ( Fig ure 3 -5 ). T hese a re e xtr e m ely i m porta nt to th e s u ccess o f a ny l e ad er, e sp ecia lly s in ce th e d em is e o f “ co m mand a nd c o ntr o l” sty le s o f l e ad ers h ip . T his te nt p ole , a lo ng w ith th e o ne i n th e c ente r, s u p ports th e most c anv as. I n te rp ers o nal S kills i n clu d es m ore “ d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s” th an does a ny o th er c lu ste r, a nd th ey a re th e m ost f r e q uentl y c o rre la te d w ith a ll o f th e oth er “ d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s.” What a re th e s p ecific s k ills r e q uir e d o f a S ta ge I II l e ad er w ith s tr o ng in te rp ers o nal s k ills ? H ere a re th e c o m pete ncie s:

• C om munic ati n g p ow erfu lly a nd p ro lific ally • I n sp ir in g o th ers to h ig h p erfo rm ance • B uild in g p ositi v e r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith o th ers • D ev elo pin g th e s k ills a nd ta le nts o f s u b ord in ate s • W ork in g i n a c o lla b ora ti v e m anner w ith o th ers • B ein g a n e ffe cti v e te am m em ber • R eco gniz in g a nd r e w ard in g th e c o ntr ib uti o ns o f o th ers • B ein g o pen a nd r e cep ti v e to n ew i d eas • R esp ond in g p ositi v ely to f e ed back • E ffe cti v ely r e so lv in g c o nflic ts w ith in th eir o w n d ep artm ent a nd w ith o th er gro up s o uts id e 74 Fig ure 3 -5 L ead ers h ip T ent F lo or: I n te rp ers o nal S kills • I n flu encin g p eo ple u p w ard i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n, i n a d diti o n to p eers a nd su b ord in ate s • B uild in g th e s e lf- e ste em o f o th ers , g iv in g p ositi v e i n d ic ati o ns o f th eir a b ility to su cceed • T eachin g o th ers i n a h elp fu l m anner Tab le 3 -3 s h o w s h o w I n te rp ers o nal S kills d iffe r f o r S ta ge I I, I II, a nd I V l e ad ers .

Som e w rite rs o n th e s u b je ct o f l e ad ers h ip h av e s u ggeste d th at i n te rp ers o nal sk ills a re th e m ajo r d ete rm in ant o f l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd th at 8 0 p erc ent o f all o rg aniz a ti o ns’ l is ts o f c ru cia l c o m pete ncie s f o r s u ccess w ould b e i n clu d ed i n th e d im ensio n o f i n te rp ers o nal e ffe cti v eness. O ur d ata s h o w , h o w ev er, th at i f le ad ers a re g o od o nly a t i n te rp ers o nal r e la ti o nsh ip s, th ey a gain h av e a f a ir ly l o w pro bab ility o f b ein g i n th e to p 1 0 p erc ent o f a ll l e ad ers i n a f ir m .

75 Table 3 -3 “ In te rp ers o nal S kills ” f o r S ta ges I I, I II, a nd I V The P ow er o f C om bin atio ns.

F ro m a n e xp erie nce o f h is p ro fe ssio nal l ife , o ne o f th e a uth o rs r e co unts th e f o llo w in g s to ry . “ U pon r e tu rn in g f r o m a tr ip , I n o ti c ed th at my a d m in is tr a ti v e a ssis ta nt h ad a s e v ere r a sh o n th e i n sid e o f h er a rm . W e w ork ed fo r a p harm aceuti c al c o m pany, o ne o f w ho se s p ecia lti e s w as d erm ato lo gy. I jo kin gly s a id , ‘ K ath y, y o u a re n’t a v ery g o od a d verti s e m ent f o r o ur p ro ducts .’ S he exp la in ed th at s h e h ad b een to th re e d erm ato lo gis ts , w ho h ad e ach p re sc rib ed diffe re nt m ed ic ati o ns. N oth in g h ad h elp ed . I s a id , ‘W ell, w e h av e a c o nsu lti n g derm ato lo gis t d ow nsta ir s w ho i s c o nsid ere d to b e o ne o f th e b est i n th e w orld — le t’ s g o s e e h im .’ S o, th is e m in ent d erm ato lo gis t l o oked a t i t, to ok a c ultu re f r o m i t, and w hen I r e tu rn ed f r o m a no th er b usin ess tr ip , K ath y’s r a sh w as g o ne. I a sk ed what h ad h ap pened , a nd s h e s a id , ‘ D r. S cho ltz d is c o vere d th at I h ad b oth a f u ngal and b acte ria l i n fe cti o n o n m y a rm . T he p re v io us d octo rs h ad tr e ate d o ne o r th e 76 oth er. H e tr e ate d th em b oth s im ulta neo usly a nd i t c le are d u p .’ I l e arn ed f r o m th is exp erie nce th at d oin g tw o th in gs to geth er c an w ork m agic , w hile d oin g o ne a lo ne ofte n a cco m plis h es n o th in g.” In a s tu d y, w e l o oked a t m anagers w ho w ere i n th e to p q uarti le o n F ocus o n Resu lts b ut w ere n o t i n th e to p q uarti le o n I n te rp ers o nal S kills . T he l ik elih o od o f bein g p erc eiv ed a s a g re at l e ad er w as 1 3 p erc ent. C ontr a sti n g p eo ple i n th e opposite p ositi o n ( e .g ., i n th e to p q uarti le o n I n te rp ers o nal S kills a nd n o t i n th e to p quarti le o n F ocus o n R esu lts ), th ere w as a 9 p erc ent p ro bab ility o f b ein g p erc eiv ed as a g re at l e ad er. W hen w e f o und l e ad ers w ho w ere g o od a t b oth F ocus o n R esu lts and I n te rp ers o nal S kills , th e l ik elih o od o f th at p ers o n b ein g p erc eiv ed a s o ne o f th e to p 1 0 p erc ent l e ap ed to 6 8 p erc ent. T his f a ct p ow erfu lly r e in fo rc es th e i d ea th at effe cti v e l e ad ers a re n o t o ne-c elle d p eo ple , w ho f o cus m ania cally o n j u st o ne th in g.

To th e c o ntr a ry , w e h av e l e arn ed th at g re at l e ad ers d o m any th in gs w ell.

In h is b ook Tea m Z eb ra , 4 S te v e F ra ngo s d esc rib ed h is e ffo rts to tr a nsfo rm th e bla ck-a nd -w hite f ilm d iv is io n o f K odak. O ne p ow erfu l m essa ge i n th e b ook w as th at s u ccess i n c hangin g th e c ultu re o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n c am e f r o m d oin g s e v era l th in gs s im ulta neo usly . N o o ne th in g, b y i ts e lf, d id m uch. B ut th e c o m bin ati o n o f tr a in in g p ro gra m s, s u rv eys, te am b uild in g, q uality c ir c le s, a nd c o achin g i n iti a ti v es was e xtr e m ely p ow erfu l.

Lea d in g O rg an iz a tio n al C han ge What a re th e s p ecific s k ills r e q uir e d f o r L ead in g O rg aniz a ti o nal C hange ( Fig ure 3 - 6 )? H ere a re th e c o m pete ncie s:

• H as th e a b ility to b e a c ham pio n f o r c hange i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n • L ead s p ro je cts o r p ro gra m s, p re se nti n g th em s o th at o th ers s u p port th em • I s a n e ffe cti v e m ark ete r f o r h is o r h er w ork g ro up ’s p ro je cts , p ro gra m s, o r pro ducts • H as a s tr a te gic p ers p ecti v e 77 Fig ure 3 -6 L ead ers h ip T ent F lo or: L ead in g O rg aniz a ti o nal C hange • K no w s h is o r h er w ork r e la te s to th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s b usin ess s tr a te gy ( lin e-o f- sig ht c o nnecti o n) • T ra nsla te s th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s v is io n a nd o bje cti v es i n to c halle ngin g a nd meanin gfu l g o als f o r o th ers • T akes th e l o ng v ie w ; c an b e tr u ste d to b ala nce s h o rt- te rm a nd l o ng-te rm n eed s of th e o rg aniz a ti o n • C onnects th e o uts id e w orld w ith i n te rn al g ro up s • R ep re se nts th e w ork g ro up to k ey g ro up s o uts id e th e g ro up o r d ep artm ent • H elp s p eo ple u nd ers ta nd h o w m eeti n g c usto m ers ’ n eed s i s c entr a l to th e mis sio n a nd g o als o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n Tab le 3 -4 s h o w s h o w L ead in g O rg aniz a ti o nal C hange d iffe rs f o r S ta ge I I, I II, and I V l e ad ers .

78 Table 3 -4 “ L ead in g O rg aniz a ti o nal C hange” f o r S ta ges I I, I II, a nd I V Mea su rin g Y ou r C han ge L ea d ersh ip E ffe ctiv en ess One s tu d y w e c o nd ucte d i n v olv ed th e d iffe re nt te chniq ues th at l e ad ers u se to in tr o duce a s p ecific c hange i n to a w ork g ro up .

Asse ssin g Y ou r C han ge L ea d ersh ip S ty le Take a f e w m om ents to c o m ple te th e f o llo w in g s h o rt q uesti o nnair e o n y o ur u su al ap pro ach to i n tr o ducin g a c hange i n y o ur o rg aniz a ti o n.

Mak in g T actic a l C han ge 79 Lis te d b elo w a re b ehav io rs d esc rib in g d iffe re nt a p pro aches a p ers o n c o uld u se to help c re ate o rg aniz a ti o nal c hange. C ir c le th e l e tte r b esid e th e a cti o n y o u w ould most l ik ely ta ke. E ven i f y o u w ere l ik ely to d o b oth , s e le ct th e o ne a nsw er th at y o u fe el w ould h av e th e g re ate r i m pact o f a s u ccessfu l c hange e ffo rt.

1. A . M ake th e to ugh d ecis io n n ecessa ry to h elp i m ple m ent th e c hanges.

B. E nco ura ge p eo ple to e xp re ss th eir i d eas a nd o pin io ns a b out th e c hanges openly .

2. A . C om munic ate e ffe cti v ely s o o th ers s e e h o w th ese c hanges f it i n to th e pic tu re .

B. I n v olv e p eo ple i n p ro ble m s o lv in g a nd d ecis io n m akin g r e gard in g th e changes.

3. A . W hen p eo ple a re n o t c le ar a b out h o w to m ove f o rw ard o n a c hange, g et th em to c o nsid er a lte rn ati v e a p pro aches to i m ple m enti n g c hanges.

B. A cti v ely s e ek o ut i n fo rm ati o n a b out p eo ple ’s th o ughts a nd p ers p ecti v es re gard in g th e c hanges.

4. A . C lo se ly m onito r, a gain st c le ar s ta nd ard s, th e p ro gre ss p eo ple a re m akin g on th e c hange.

B. S eek e xam ple s o f th e i m pact o f th e c hanges.

5. A . L et p eo ple k no w c le arly w hat i s e xp ecte d o f th em r e gard in g th e c hanges.

B. H elp p eo ple u nd ers ta nd th e r a ti o nale b ehin d d ecis io ns r e gard in g th e changes.

6. A . K eep p eo ple f o cuse d o n th e c hanges to b e m ad e.

B. P ro vid e s u p port w hen p eo ple ta ke r is k s m akin g c hanges, e v en i f th ey fa il.

7. A . F ollo w u p w ith p eo ple o n i n d iv id ual c o m mitm ents th ey m ake to b rin g ab out c hanges.

B. E nco ura ge p eo ple to s h are i n fo rm ati o n a b out w hat’ s w ork in g a nd w hat’ s no t.

8. A . C la rify i n d iv id ual ta sk s a nd r e sp onsib iliti e s a sso cia te d w ith th e c hange effo rt.

B. F in d w ays to c re ate a nd u se d ev elo pm ent o pportu niti e s a sso cia te d w ith th e c hange e ffo rt.

9. A . F in d w ays to p ush th ro ugh th e c hanges r e gard le ss o f u nanti c ip ate d pro ble m s.

B. E nco ura ge p eo ple to r e v eal th eir tr u e f e elin gs, e v en o n h ig hly e m oti o nal 80 co ncern s r e gard in g th e c hanges.

10. A . K eep p eo ple f o cuse d o n th e c hanges, d esp ite a ny f r u str a ti o n o r oppositi o n.

B. A sk p eo ple to p re se nt th eir p oin t o f v ie w e v en w hen i t d iffe rs f r o m y o ur ow n r e gard in g th e c hange.

Tota l “ A ” _ ________ T ota l “ B ” _ ________ Count u p th e n um ber o f ti m es y o u m ark ed a nsw er “ A ” a nd a nsw er “ B .” A s y o u pro bab ly a lr e ad y d is c ern ed , th is q uesti o nnair e i s m easu rin g tw o b asic a p pro aches to i n iti a ti n g a ny c hange.

• T he f ir s t i s d ir e cti n g, m onito rin g, a nd p ush in g to m ake c erta in th e c hange pro cess i s m ovin g f o rw ard i n a s a ti s fa cto ry w ay.

• T he s e co nd a p pro ach d esc rib es th e w ay i n w hic h th e l e ad er c re ate s a c lim ate of p arti c ip ati o n a nd i n v olv em ent f o r a ll c o ncern ed .

We i n v ite th e r e ad er to a nsw er th e q uesti o n, “ W hic h p atte rn o f l e ad er b ehav io r pro duces th e m ost p ositi v e o utc o m es? ” 1. L arg ely d ir e cti v e?

2. H ig hly i n v olv in g a nd p arti c ip ato ry a p pro ach?

3. A 5 0/5 0 m ix o f th e tw o?

A: D ir e ctin g C hange Behav io rs a sso cia te d w ith d ir e cti n g c hange a re Makin g to ugh d ecis io ns i n a ti m ely f a sh io n Pro vid in g v is io n to h elp e m plo yees s e e h o w th e g ro up ’s w ork f its i n to th e b ig pic tu re Monito rin g p ro gra m s a gain st c le ar s ta nd ard s Acti v ely e nco ura gin g p eo ple to f in d n ew a nd b ette r w ays to d o th e j o b Ensu rin g d ep artm enta l/w ork u nit g o als a re c o nsis te nt w ith s tr a te gic b usin ess go als Lead in g b y e xam ple Monito rin g p erfo rm ance a gain st c le ar s ta nd ard s Letti n g e m plo yees k no w w hat i s e xp ecte d Genera ti n g n ew i d eas a b out h o w to c re ate th e c hange Follo w in g u p w ith p eo ple to e nsu re i m ple m enta ti o n B: I n vo lv in g O th ers i n C hange Behav io rs a sso cia te d w ith i n v olv in g o th ers a re 81 Enco ura gin g p eo ple to e xp re ss th eir i d eas a nd o pin io ns o penly Pro m oti n g a s p ir it o f c o opera ti o n a m ong m em bers o f th e w ork g ro up In v olv in g e m plo yees i n p ro ble m -s o lv in g a nd d ecis io n-m akin g a cti v iti e s th at hav e a n i m pact o n th em Enco ura gin g a nd f a cilita ti n g r e so lu ti o n o f c o nflic t w ith in th e w ork g ro up Acti v ely s e ekin g o ut i n fo rm ati o n a b out o th ers ’ th o ughts a nd p ers p ecti v es Moti v ati n g a nd e nco ura gin g e m plo yees Pro vid in g f e ed back i n a c o nstr u cti v e m anner ( i.e ., g iv in g s p ecific e xam ple s) Help in g e m plo yees u nd ers ta nd th e r a ti o nale b ehin d th eir d ecis io ns Cre ati n g d ev elo pm ent o pportu niti e s b y a ssig nin g a p pro pria te a nd c halle ngin g work Pro vid in g s u p port w hen e m plo yees ta ke r is k s, e v en i f th ey f a il In te rp re tin g Y our S co re s.

T his a sse ssm ent m easu re s y o ur f a v ore d te nd ency w hen yo u a p pro ach c hange. I t i s s im ila r to w hic h h and y o u f a v or ( e .g ., r ig ht h and ed , l e ft hand ed , o r a m bid extr o us). A s c o re o f 6 o n e ith er “ A ” o r “ B ” i n d ic ate s th at y o u pro bab ly h av e a s lig ht te nd ency to f a v or th at a p pro ach. A s c o re o f 7 o r m ore in d ic ate s a s tr o ng te nd ency to w ard th at a p pro ach. I t d oes n o t n ecessa rily m ean th at yo u w ould n o t e v er u se th e o th er a p pro ach, b ut y o u w ould p ro bab ly l e ad w ith y o ur fa v ore d a cti o ns.

Effe ctiv e L ea d ers C ham pio n C han ge With m ost o rg aniz a ti o ns to day i n a c o nsta nt s ta te o f c hange— fr o m d ra m ati c g ro w th to d ow nsiz in g a nd r e str u ctu rin g— a c riti c al s k ill f o r l e ad ers i s l e ad in g s u ccessfu l change e ffo rts . A tu rb ule nt b usin ess e nv ir o nm ent p uts l e ad ers to th e te st: e xcelle nt le ad ers h ip c an tu rn a s ig nific ant c hange i n to a p le asa nt j o urn ey, w here as p oor le ad ers h ip m ig ht b e b ette r d esc rib ed a s a “ tr ip to h ell.” We k no w th at th e b est l e ad ers i n sp ir e th eir tr o ops to r a lly a ro und a c hange, where as p oor l e ad ers h av e to p ush , p ers u ad e, o r e v en th re ate n e m plo yees to a ccep t change. T op-p erfo rm in g l e ad ers b eco m e e ffe cti v e m ark ete rs o f pro je cts , p ro gra m s, or p ro ducts , g ain in g s u p port f o r th em a lo ng th e w ay. C onv ers e ly , p oor l e ad ers f a il to e ngage o r c o m mit o th ers to th e c hange.

Too M uch o f a G ood T hin g A k ey l e arn in g f r o m o ur r e se arc h o n l e ad in g c hange w as th at e ith er o f th e tw o ap pro aches a ctu ally c an b e d etr im enta l i f u se d e xclu siv ely . E ffe cti v e l e ad ers u se d both a p pro aches i n a c are fu l b ala nce.

82 The m eta p ho r th at c o m es to m in d i s a p ers o n r o w in g a b oat. F or m axim um co ntr o l a nd s p eed , y o u n eed b oth o ars . O ne o ar a lo ne c ause s y o u to g o i n c ir c le s, no m atte r w hic h o ar y o u c ho ose .

For e xam ple , w hile d ir e cti n g m ay b e a g re at w ay to m ain ta in c o ntr o l, l e ad ers who s ig nific antl y f a v or d ir e cti n g c hange m ay e nd u p w ith e m plo yees f e elin g th at changes a re b ein g d one to th em b ut n o t w ith th em . C onse q uentl y , e m plo yees m ay beco m e r e sis ta nt to c hange a nd b egin to d is tr u st m anagem ent.

Additi o nally , th o se w ho h av e s tr o ng d ir e cti n g te nd encie s ty p ic ally h av e a w ell- org aniz e d p la n a nd c o m munic ate th e c hange p la n a nd p ro vid e f e ed back a b out w hat need s to b e d one d iffe re ntl y . H ow ev er, th ey o fte n f a il to h av e o pen d is c ussio ns with th eir te am a b out th e i m pact o f th e c hange.

Tho se w ho f a v or i n v olv in g o th ers i n c hange o fte n f a il to p ro vid e e no ugh dir e cti o n, l e av in g e m plo yees c o nfu se d a b out n ext s te p s, w hat th eir r o le s a re , a nd what th ey n eed to d o to k eep th e c hange m ovin g f o rw ard . A ls o , a h ig h i n v olv em ent te nd ency m ay i n d ic ate a n u nw illin gness o n th e l e ad er’s p art to ta ke r is k s o r to ta ke a d ecis iv e p ositi o n.

Our r e se arc h s h o w s c le arly th at th ese tw o s e ts o f b ehav io rs a re b oth n ecessa ry in o rd er f o r a l e ad er to m anage c hange e ffe cti v ely . L ead ers w ho d ir e ct c hange h elp th eir p eo ple k no w th e s p ecific s i n v olv ed i n th e c hange. I n v olv in g o th ers i n th e change e ffo rts i n cre ase s e m plo yee c o m mitm ent r a th er th an e m phasiz in g e m plo yee co m plia nce.

The m ore s ig nific ant th e c hange, th e m ore o f b oth i s n eed ed i n o rd er f o r a c hange to w ork e ffe cti v ely . M ayb e th is e xp la in s w hen a s tr e ngth b eco m es a l ia b ility : i t i s when p eo ple u se i t to th e e xclu sio n o f o th er b ala ncin g s k ills .

Lea d ersh ip a n d C han ge One o f th e c o m ple xiti e s o f l e ad ers h ip i s th e i s su e o f c hange. S om e h av e m ad e a co m pellin g a rg um ent th at w hat s e p ara te s “ m anagem ent” f r o m “ le ad ers h ip ” is th at le ad ers h ip h as to d o w ith c hange. W e h av e tr a d iti o nally d efin ed th e m anager’s r o le as p re se rv in g th e s ta b ility o f o rg aniz a ti o ns a nd l e ad ers a s i n str u m ents o f c hange.

But w e a gre e w ith J o hn G ard ner w hen h e w ro te :

Many w rite rs o n l e ad ers h ip ta ke c o nsid era b le p ain s to d is ti n guis h betw een l e ad ers a nd m anagers . I n th e p ro cess l e ad ers g enera lly e nd u p lo okin g l ik e a c ro ss b etw een N ap ole o n a nd th e P ie d P ip er, a nd m anagers lik e u nim agin ati v e c lo ds. T his tr o ub le s m e. I o nce h eard i t s a id o f a m an, “H e’s a n u tte rly f ir s t- c la ss m anager b ut th ere i s n ’t a tr a ce o f th e l e ad er i n him .” I a m b egin nin g to b elie v e th at h e d oes n o t e xis t. E very ti m e I 83 enco unte r u tte rly f ir s t- c la ss m anagers th ey tu rn o ut to h av e q uite a l o t o f th e l e ad er i n th em .

5 The b ig ger i s su e i s th at a ll c hange i s n o t th e s a m e. A ll c hange i s n o t c re ate d eq ual.

Tactic a l C han ge For w ant o f b ette r te rm in o lo gy, w e d esc rib e s o m e c hange a s ta cti c al. F or e xam ple :

• A n ew w ork p ro cess • A h ig her s a le s q uo ta • M ovin g i n to a n ew f a cility • I n tr o ducin g n ew te chno lo gy • I m ple m enti n g n ew p ayro ll p ro ced ure s • C hangin g th e e m plo yee b enefit p la n • I n tr o ducin g a n ew tr a in in g i n iti a ti v e • R ev is in g th e c o m pensa ti o n p la n • H ir in g f r o m th e o uts id e to f ill p ositi o ns r e q uir in g u niq ue n ew s k ills • C hangin g th e f ir m ’s o rg aniz a ti o n s tr u ctu re Tacti c al c hange i n clu d es a s a le s m anager i m ple m enti n g n ew r e p orti n g pro ced ure s to tr a ck s a le s a cti v ity b ette r; o r a c usto m er-s e rv ic e m anager im ple m enti n g a s e rie s o f m eeti n gs to b ette r i n fo rm a g ro up w ho w ill b e r e sp onsib le fo r th e i m ple m enta ti o n o f n ew p ro cesse s f o r tr a ckin g c usto m er r e q uests a nd co m pla in ts .

Str a te g ic C han ge On th e o th er h and , th ere a re s tr a te gic c hanges th at w e l o ok to l e ad ers to b rin g a b out.

In clu d ed i n th at c ate go ry a re • C re ati n g a n ew v is io n f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n • R ed efin in g th e f u nd am enta l f o cus o f th e b usin ess ( c hangin g f r o m a p ro duct- fo cuse d b usin ess to a s e rv ic e b usin ess, o r f r o m a p ro ducti o n c ap ab ility f o cus to a c o nsu m er-m ark eti n g f o cus) • O rc hestr a te a n ew s tr a te gic i n iti a ti v e ( s u ch a s th e i m ple m enta ti o n o f S ix S ig m a th ro ugho ut th e o rg aniz a ti o n) • C hangin g th e c ultu re o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n ( fr o m a “ co m mand a nd c o ntr o l” org aniz a ti o n to o ne w ith h ig her i n v olv em ent a nd p arti c ip ati o n f r o m e v ery o ne) 84 We d efin e s tr a te gic c hange a s th e c hange th at s e ts th e i n sti tu ti o n o ff i n a n ew dir e cti o n. I t m eans a K im berly -C la rk d iv esti n g i ts e lf o f i ts f o re sts a nd p ro ducti o n pla nts a nd b eco m in g a c o nsu m er-m ark eti n g o rg aniz a ti o n. A c o m merc ia l b ank th at changes f r o m a p ro duct- fo cuse d s tr a te gy ( a v arie ty o f u niq ue p ro ducts , e ach d riv en th ro ugh a s e p ara te d ep artm ent) to a c usto m er s tr a te gy ( th e b ank n eed s to i d enti fy th e uniq ue n eed s o f d iffe re nt g ro up s o f c usto m ers a nd d eliv er a ll p ro ducts th ro ugh o ne poin t o f c o nta ct w ith th e c usto m er). S tr a te gic c hange i s F ord d ecla rin g i ts e lf a co nsu m er-m ark eti n g o rg aniz a ti o n, n o t a c ar c o m pany. T his w as a s tr a te gic d ecis io n fr o m w hic h th ey h asti ly r e tr e ate d a nd f o r w hic h th ey p aid a s e rio us p ric e.

Str a te gic a nd ta cti c al c hanges a re b oth i m porta nt. B oth a re “ re al” c hange e ffo rts , but th ey d iffe r i n s c o pe. S tr a te gic c hange ta kes th e o rg aniz a ti o n i n n ew d ir e cti o ns, where as ta cti c al c hange ta rg ets m ake th e o rg aniz a ti o n p erfo rm b ette r i n i ts c urre nt sp here .

We c o nclu d e th at th e c o m bin ati o n o f th e f o ur b uild in g b lo cks th at h av e b een desc rib ed th us f a r, C hara cte r, P ers o nal C ap ab ility , F ocus o n R esu lts a nd In te rp ers o nal S kills , i s f u nd am enta lly a ll th at 9 5 p erc ent o f a ll l e ad ers n eed . M ix in g le ad ers h ip c o m pete ncie s r e q uir e d b y d iffe re nt s ta ges h as g re atl y c o m plic ate d o ur und ers ta nd in g o f l e ad ers h ip .

Brin gin g i n th e l e ad ers h ip r e q uir e m ents o f 5 p erc ent o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n, L ead in g Change, a nd s ti r rin g th o se i n w ith th e l e ad ers h ip r e q uir e m ents f o r a ll th e r e st, co m pound s th e c o m ple xity o f l e ad ers h ip r e se arc h a nd u nd ers ta nd in g.

Our o bje cti v e a gain i s to f in d th e s im plic ity th at l ie s j u st b eyo nd th e n ecessa ry co m ple xity . W e h o pe th at b y s e p ara ti n g o ut th e k in d s o f c hange th at d iffe re nt le ad ers m ust b rin g a b out, a nd b y s e p ara ti n g th em o ut b y s ta ge, w e c an b egin to dis c o ver th at w ond erfu l s im plic ity th at l ie s j u st b eyo nd c o m ple xity .

How T hese F iv e E le m en ts o f t h e M od el I n te rrela te w it h Each O th er As w e h av e n o te d e arlie r, m uch o f p ast th in kin g a b out l e ad ers h ip h as b een th e q uest to f in d o ut, “ Is th e k ey to l e ad ers h ip h av in g h ig h i n te grity , o r i s i t a m biti o n? I s i t dev elo pin g tr u st i n p eo ple , o r i s i t b ein g a g o od p ro ble m s o lv er? ” W e h o pe th at th e re ad er w ill b e p erm anentl y d is a b use d o f th is th in kin g a nd w ill c ease to v ie w le ad ers h ip i n “ o r” te rm s, b ut w ill i n ste ad th in k a b out i t i n “ and ” te rm s. W e w ill atte m pt to d esc rib e w hy th ese l e ad ers h ip e le m ents l o gic ally g o to geth er a nd w hy dev elo pm ent e ffo rts i n o ne a re a i s l ik e f lo odin g th e p ond a nd l ifti n g a ll b oats a t th e sa m e ti m e.

1. C hara cte r i s a t th e h eart o f o ur m odel, a nd e v ery th in g r a d ia te s o ut f r o m i t. I t 85 ti e s s tr o ngly to I n te rp ers o nal S kills . A p ers o n o f q uesti o nab le c hara cte r i s n o t usu ally e ffe cti v e i n te rp ers o nally . I n e yeb all- to -e yeb all c o nv ers a ti o ns, y o u canno t h elp s e ein g i n sid e th e o th er p ers o n. W e r e co il f r o m p ho nie s. W e d o n o t enjo y b ein g w ith to ad ie s w ho b utte r u p p eo ple i n a uth o rity a nd a b use e v ery o ne els e . M ost p eo ple a v oid th o se w ho a re a rro gant o r c o nd esc end in g.

Rela ti o nsh ip s w ith s u ch p eo ple a re d is ta nt a nd s tr a in ed . I f s o m eo ne h as bro ken h er w ord to u s, w e d eal w ith h er i n a c auti o us a nd te nta ti v e w ay. T he lin k b etw een C hara cte r a nd I n te rp ers o nal S kills i s a n e xtr e m ely s tr o ng b ond .

So i s th e l in k b etw een s e lf- d ev elo pm ent ( p ers o nal c hara cte r) a nd d ev elo pin g oth ers ( in te rp ers o nal s k ills ). I t i s a ls o c le ar th at th e a b ility to i n sp ir e a nd moti v ate o th ers i s s tr o ngly l in ked to h o w p eo ple p erc eiv e th e i n te grity o f th e le ad er.

We r e tu rn to th e q uesti o n, “ If l e ad ers c an b e m ad e, th en h o w d o y o u m ake th em ?” T he l in kage b etw een c hara cte r a nd i n te rp ers o nal s k ills i s a g o od exam ple . S ocia l p sy cho lo gis ts c o nfir m th at th e e asie st w ay to c hange p eo ple ’s chara cte r, a s e xp re sse d v ia th eir a tti tu d es, i s b y g etti n g th em to b ehav e i n a new w ay. P eo ple m ake th eir a tti tu d es c o nfo rm to th eir b ehav io r.

Consid er th e c ase o f a n o ld er s u p erv is o r i n a m anufa ctu rin g p la nt. H e h as re ceiv ed n o tr a in in g o n h o w to m anage p eo ple e ffe cti v ely . H is b ehav io r i s patte rn ed a fte r th e w ay h e w as tr e ate d b y h is s u p erv is o rs . W hen a n e m plo yee makes a m is ta ke, th is s u p erv is o r c hasti s e s h im , s o m eti m es i n p ub lic . O fte n th e errin g e m plo yee m ay b e th re ate ned w ith p ote nti a l d is c ip lin e o r te rm in ati o n i f su ch m is ta kes c o nti n ue. I f a c hange n eed s to b e i m ple m ente d , th e s u p erv is o r sa ys w hat m ust n o w b e d one, b ut w ith n o e xp la nati o n o f w hy. T his s u p erv is o r would n ev er s o lic it i d eas a nd o pin io ns f r o m th e e m plo yee g ro up . T urn o ver i s hig her i n th is s u p erv is o r’s a re a, p ro ducti v ity i s b elo w a v era ge, l a b or grie v ances a re m ore f r e q uent, a nd u p per m anagem ent r e co gniz e s th at th is su p erv is o r m ust c hange. B ut h o w ? I s n ’t th is b ehav io r p art o f th is s u p erv is o r’s chara cte r? S ho rt o f e xte nsiv e p sy cho th era p y, h o w c o uld th is b e c hanged ?

Our e xp erie nce i s th at th e m ost s u re -fir e w ay to b rin g a b out b ehav io ra l change i s to h av e th is s u p erv is o r p arti c ip ate i n a tr a in in g p ro cess th at pro vid es a n ew m in d -s e t o r w ay o f th in kin g a nd th en te aches n ew b ehav io rs and s k ills . T he s u p erv is o r i s n o t to ld h o w h e m ust th in k a nd f e el, b ut s im ply i s to ld th at th ere i s g o od e v id ence o f a b ette r w ay to b ehav e. H e l e arn s h o w to desc rib e a p ro ble m i n a c alm , r a ti o nal w ay to a n e m plo yee, to a sk f o r th e em plo yees’ i d eas a b out h o w to s o lv e i t, a nd to a gre e j o in tl y o n th e b est w ay to p ro ceed . T he s u p erv is o r d is c o vers th at th is w ork s w ond ers . T he s a m e o r bette r r e su lts a re a chie v ed w ith a g re at d eal l e ss a nger. H is r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith his e m plo yees i m pro ve s ig nific antl y . T hey g re et h im l ik e a f r ie nd , n o t th e enem y. H is a tti tu d es to w ard h is s u b ord in ate s b eco m e l e ss a d vers a ria l. H e i s open to n ew i d eas th at p re v io usly w ould h av e b een i n sta ntl y r e je cte d . H is 86 chara cte r c hanges. W hy? B ecause h is b ehav io r c hanged , a nd p eo ple m ake th eir a tti tu d es c o nfo rm to th eir b ehav io r. T hat p rin cip le i s e xtr e m ely w ell docum ente d i n s o cia l p sy cho lo gy r e se arc h. I t i s a ls o tr u e, h o w ev er, th at i t beco m es a c ir c ula r p heno m eno n. A s a tti tu d es i m pro ve, b ehav io r b egin s to change a s a r e su lt.

2. C hara cte r a ls o a ffe cts th e c lu ste r l a b ele d F ocus o n R esu lts , b ut p ossib ly i n a le ss o bvio us w ay. P eo ple a ro und th e l e ad er a re o fte n s e nsiti v e to p erc eiv ed moti v es f o r d oin g th in gs. I f th e f o cus o n r e su lts i s f o r r e aso ns o f s e lf- aggra nd iz e m ent, to l o ok g o od to a b oss, to f u rth er a p oliti c al c are er i n th e f ir m , or f o r a ny o th er p erc eiv ed s e lfis h r e aso n, th en p ers o nal c hara cte r d etr a cts fr o m a ny s u ccessfu l d riv e f o r r e su lts .

Dav id M cC le lla nd , a H arv ard p sy cho lo gis t, d id e xte nsiv e r e se arc h o n th e need f o r a chie v em ent a nd i ts r o le i n p eo ple ’s b ehav io r a nd e ffe cti v eness. H is re se arc h s h o w ed th at th e s u ccess o f n ati o ns d ep end s o n th e p re se nce o r ab se nce o f th is n eed f o r a chie v em ent. H e d ev elo ped w ays to m easu re th is quality , b ut m any a ssu m ed th at i t w as s o m eth in g w ith w hic h p eo ple w ere born . M cC le lla nd d ecid ed to e xp erim ent w ith w ays to i n cre ase p eo ple ’s n eed fo r a chie v em ent. O ne te st h e u se d w as th e g am e o f q uo its . Q uo its i s a child re n’s g am e i n v olv in g a w ooden p eg o n a b ase , a nd s e v era l 8 -in ch h o ops of r o pe c alle d q uo its . T he g am e c o nsis ts o f a tte m pti n g to to ss th e q uo its o ver th e p eg f r o m a d is ta nce o f s e v era l f e et. P arti c ip ants w ere a sk ed to p la ce th e peg a nyw here th ey c ho se i n a l a rg e r o om a nd th en g et th e q uo its o nto th e p eg.

Peo ple w ith l o w l e v els o f n eed f o r a chie v em ent w ould e ith er p ut th e p eg n ear th eir f e et a nd d ro p th e q uo its o nto i t, o r th ey w ould p ut th e p eg a t a h uge dis ta nce a nd f lin g th e q uo its to w ard th e p eg w ith l ittl e h o pe o f s u ccess.

Peo ple w ith h ig h n eed f o r a chie v em ent w ould p ut th e p eg a r e aso nab le dis ta nce a w ay, s o th at a c are fu l to ss o f th e q uo its w ould h av e a r e aso nab le chance o f s u ccess. M cC le lla nd to ok th e p eo ple w ho h ad d is p la yed l ittl e o r n o need f o r a chie v em ent a nd h ad th em p erfo rm th is e xerc is e th e “ rig ht” w ay.

Over ti m e, th ese p eo ple f r o m T hir d W orld c o untr ie s d ev elo ped s tr o nger moti v ati o ns to a chie v e. B y g iv in g th em a n e xp erie nce i n f e elin g th e s u ccess o f atta in in g a p ositi v e r e su lt, th eir a tti tu d es a nd c hara cte r b egan to c hange.

6 3. P ers o nal C ap ab ility l in ks to I n te rp ers o nal S kills . T he r e sp ect a nd e ste em w ith whic h a nyo ne i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n i s v ie w ed b egin s w ith h is o r h er P ers o nal Cap ab ility . W e n o te d e arlie r th at i t i s a t S ta ge I I ( “ co ntr ib uti n g in d ep end entl y ”) th at p eo ple d ev elo p a w id e r a nge o f p ers o nal r e la ti o nsh ip s.

The ti m e w hen p eo ple a re d ev elo pin g th eir p ro fe ssio nal a nd te chnic al s k ills i s th e ti m e w hen th ey s h o uld a ls o b e d ev elo pin g s k ills th at w ill e nab le th em to work e ffe cti v ely w ith o th ers . T echnic al a nd p ro fe ssio nal e xp erti s e i s ti g htl y lin ked to d ev elo pin g o th ers a nd b uild in g r e la ti o nsh ip s.

4. P ers o nal C ap ab ility l in ks to F ocus o n R esu lts . O ne o f th e k ey r o le s a ny l e ad er 87 pla ys i s th at o f r o le m odel. W hen th e l e ad er i s p ers o nally e ffe cti v e a nd h ig hly pro ducti v e, th at e xam ple i s v ie w ed b y e v ery o ne i n v olv ed . L ead ers c anno t a sk oth ers to d o w hat th ey a re n o t d oin g.

5. F ocus o n R esu lts i s l in ked to I n te rp ers o nal S kills . W e h av e e arlie r n o te d th e unusu ally c lo se l in k b etw een th ese tw o c hara cte ris ti c s. M any l e ad ers th in k th at th e l in kage b etw een F ocus o n R esu lts a nd I n te rp ers o nal S kills i s a n or r a th er th an a n and.

T hey b elie v e th ey c an b e o ne o r th e o th er b ut n o t b oth . W here as each i s h ig hly d esir a b le b y i ts e lf, th ey a re l ik e a v oic e b ein g a m plifie d b y a gre at s o und s y ste m w hen th ey a re c o m bin ed to geth er. T he c o m bin ati o n o f th e tw o i g nite s a p ow er th at c ata p ults a p ers o n i n to th e h ig hest r e alm s o f e ffe cti v e le ad ers h ip . F ocusin g o n r e su lts a nd s e tti n g s tr e tc h g o als h av e m ulti p le l in ks to th e i n te rp ers o nal s k ills o f “ in sp ir in g a nd m oti v ati n g to h ig h p erfo rm ance” a nd to “ co lla b ora ti o n a nd te am w ork .” 6. C hara cte r l in ks to L ead in g O rg aniz a ti o nal C hange. O rg aniz a ti o ns f o llo w a le ad er w ho i s p erc eiv ed a s b ein g o f h ig h c hara cte r. T he g re ate r th e “co nnecti o n” th at i s f e lt w ith th e l e ad er, th e m ore l ik ely th e o rg aniz a ti o n i s to su p port th e c hange b ein g p ro pose d . T hat s u p port i s ti e d to p erc ep ti o ns o f th e genuin eness, c arin g, a nd i n te grity o f th e l e ad er.

7. F ocus o n R esu lts l in ks to L ead in g O rg aniz a ti o nal C hange. L ead in g org aniz a ti o nal c hange i s m ost o fte n a l o ng-te rm o bje cti v e, a nd e ffe cti v e le ad ers a re a lw ays b ala ncin g s h o rt- te rm a nd l o ng-te rm o bje cti v es. A f o cus o n re su lts i s a n ecessa ry b ala nce to th e l o nger-te rm e m phasis o n s tr a te gic c hange.

8. I n te rp ers o nal S kills l in ks to L ead in g O rg aniz a ti o nal C hange. N ow here i s th ere a h ig her r e q uir e m ent f o r c o nsu m mate i n te rp ers o nal s k ills th an i n th e in tr o ducti o n o f s tr a te gic c hange w ith in th e o rg aniz a ti o n. W heth er i t i s a n atte m pt to c hange th e c ultu re o r to i m ple m ent a m ajo r n ew i n iti a ti v e, tr u st f r o m oth ers a nd th e c o m munic ati o n s k ills o f th e l e ad er a re a b so lu te r e q uir e m ents fo r s u ccess.

88 4 TH E C O M PE TEN CY Q UEST Many w rite rs o n l e ad ers h ip ta ke c o nsid era b le p ain s to d is ti n guis h b etw een le ad ers a nd m anagers . I n th e p ro cess, l e ad ers g enera lly e nd u p l o okin g l ik e a cro ss b etw een N ap ole o n a nd th e P ie d P ip er, a nd m anagers l ik e unim agin ati v e c lo ds. T his tr o ub le s m e. I o nce h eard i t s a id o f a m an, “ H e’s an u tte rly f ir s t- c la ss m anager b ut th ere i s n ’t a tr a ce o f th e l e ad er i n h im .” I a m begin nin g to b elie v e th at h e d oes n o t e xis t. E very ti m e I e nco unte r u tte rly fir s t- c la ss m anagers th ey tu rn o ut to h av e q uite a l o t o f th e l e ad er i n th em .

—Jo hn G ard ner Not th e c ry , b ut th e f lig ht o f th e w ild d uck l e ad s th e f lo ck to f o llo w .

—Chin ese P ro verb T he m ost p re v ale nt a p pro ach to l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent i n r e cent y ears h as b een t h e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent. T he f u nd am enta l p re m is e i s s im ple . I d enti fy a nd d efin e t h e c o m pete ncie s o f e ffe cti v e l e ad ers i n a s p ecific o rg aniz a ti o n. ( C om pete ncie s a re t h e c o m bin ati o n o f k no w le d ge, s k ills , tr a its , a nd a ttr ib ute s th at c o lle cti v ely e nab le s o m eo ne to p erfo rm a g iv en j o b.) T hen, w hen s e le cti n g l e ad ers , c ho ose p eo ple w ho p osse ss th o se c o m pete ncie s b ecause th ey w ill h av e a m uch h ig her l ik elih o od o f s u ccess. I f y o u w ant to d ev elo p l e ad ers i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n, d esig n a cti v iti e s th at d ir e ctl y e xp and o r s tr e ngth en th o se c o m pete ncie s f o r th e l e ad ers i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

For e xam ple , i f A ja x M anufa ctu rin g d ecid ed to e m bark o n a c o m pete ncy-b ase d s y ste m , i t w ould n eed to s tu d y i ts l e ad ers to d ete rm in e w hat th e b est le ad ers h ad i n c o m mon. T o a cco m plis h th is , A ja x m ig ht r e ta in a f ir m e xp erie nced i n th is r e se arc h, a nd th at f ir m w ould f o llo w o ne o f s e v era l p ath s to d ete rm in e th e a p pro pria te c o m pete ncie s. A lte rn ati v es c o uld i n clu d e:

• C ond uct e xte nsiv e f ie ld r e se arc h w ith in th e f ir m b y a naly zin g th e r e q uir e m ents of v ario us l e ad ers h ip p ositi o ns, s tu d yin g 3 60-d egre e f e ed back r e p orts , a nd obse rv in g l e ad er b ehav io r.

• F ro m th eir e xte nsiv e e xp erie nce, p ro vid e th e o rg aniz a ti o n w ith a l is t o f co m pete ncie s, b asic ally d eriv ed f r o m p ast w ork th ey h ad c o m ple te d i n o th er sim ila r o rg aniz a ti o ns.

• A sse m ble a g ro up o f s e nio r e xecuti v es i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n a nd e lic it th eir vie w s o f th e c o m pete ncie s r e q uir e d to s u cceed .

• A sse m ble g ro up s o f p eo ple w ho w ork w ith l e ad ers a nd o bta in th eir c o lle cti v e 89 vie w s a b out th e k no w le d ge, s k ills , tr a its , a nd a ttr ib ute s r e q uir e d f o r s u ccess i n Aja x.

Afte r h av in g f o llo w ed o ne o r m ore o f th o se a v enues w ith th e h elp o f th e o uts id e co nsu lta nts , A ja x m ig ht c o nclu d e th at th e b est l e ad ers c o m monly s h are th e fo llo w in g c o m pete ncie s:

1. A h ig h l e v el o f s e lf- u nd ers ta nd in g 2. G ood p ro ble m -s o lv in g s k ills 3. A s tr o ng s e t o f p ers o nal v alu es 4. E xte nsiv e te chnic al k no w le d ge o f th e i n d ustr y 5. A sse rti v e i n te rp ers o nal b ehav io r i n g ro up m eeti n gs 6. W illin gness to m ake d ecis io ns d esp ite g re at a m big uity 7. A bility to j u ggle s e v era l p ro je cts /a cti v iti e s s im ulta neo usly 8. C om fo rt i n d ealin g w ith a d vers a ria l b ehav io r b y c o lle agues 9. B ro ad s tr a te gic th in kin g th at g o es b eyo nd ta cti c al i s su es 10. W illin gness to m ake d ecis io ns th at c ause o th ers d is c o m fo rt 11. F le xib ility a nd a gility i n f in d in g n ew w ays to a cco m plis h ta sk s 12. F orm ati o n o f s tr o ng b ond s o f tr u st w ith o th ers i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n This l is t o f c o m pete ncie s th en b eco m es th e “ to uchsto ne” b y w hic h f u rth er le ad ers h ip i s s e le cte d a nd a ro und w hic h a ll d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s a re s tr u ctu re d .

This c o m pete ncy a p pro ach s w ep t th ro ugh h um an r e so urc e d ep artm ents . I t h as been e sti m ate d th at a t l e ast 8 0 p erc ent o f c o m panie s h av e c re ate d s u ch c o m pete ncy lis ts . T he c o m pete ncy m ovem ent p ro m is e d to b rin g s c ie nti fic o bje cti v ity to em plo yee s e le cti o n a nd d ev elo pm ent. I n d eed , w e th in k i t b ro ught g re ate r r ig o r th an pre v io usly e xis te d a nd h elp ed to i m pro ve th e h ir in g p ro cess. A nd f o r th e p ast tw o decad es, c o m panie s h av e f o cuse d th eir p eo ple d ev elo pm ent e ffo rts a ro und th ese defin ed c o m pete ncie s. I n s u m , th e a p pro ach h as i m peccab le l o gic to i t.

Why H asn ’t I t W ork ed ?

So, w hy h as th e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent n o t b orn e m ore f r u it? W hy h as i t n o t b een su ccessfu l i n h elp in g o rg aniz a ti o ns p ro duce h ig her-c alib er l e ad ers ? A s J o hn Gard ner w ro te , “ W hy d o w e n o t h av e b ette r l e ad ers h ip ? T he q uesti o n i s a sk ed o ver and o ver. W e c o m pla in , e xp re ss o ur d is a p poin tm ent, o fte n o ur o utr a ge; b ut n o answ er e m erg es.” 1 90 We th in k th e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent h ad s e v era l m ajo r f la w s.

1. I t w as to o c o m ple x. L ead ers h ip , a lo ng w ith e v ery th in g e ls e i n l ife , h as to b e re d uced to s o m e m anageab le s im plic ity . T he c o m pete ncy m ovem ent p ush ed i n exactl y th e o pposite d ir e cti o n.

2. I t w as b ase d o n s o m e f a ulty a ssu m pti o ns. M ost o f th e p ro ble m s w ith th e co m pete ncy m ovem ent s te m f r o m th ese q uesti o nab le b elie fs . O nce r e co gniz e d and c o rre cte d , w e b elie v e th e b asic p re m is e i s s o und a nd h as th e p ote nti a l to make a m uch m ore u se fu l c o ntr ib uti o n.

3. I t p ro duced s e v era l u nin te nd ed c o nse q uences. M any w orth w hile p ro gra m s a nd pro je cts i n o rg aniz a ti o ns p ro duce u nin te nd ed c o nse q uences. T he c o m pete ncy movem ent h as p ro duced a n um ber. A gain , i f th ey a re i d enti fie d , a nd w ays a re fo und to r e m ed y th o se c o nse q uences, th e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent s h o uld g o fo rw ard .

4. I t s u ffe re d f r o m p oor e xecuti o n. A s w ith m ost i n iti a ti v es, th e s tr a te gy c an b e so und , b ut i f th e e xecuti o n i s f la w ed , i t d oes n o t s u cceed . A b ig p orti o n o f th e pro ble m w ith th e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent h as b een a l a ck o f e xecuti o n o n th e fu nd am enta ls th at b egan th e m ovem ent.

Our o bje cti v e i s to h elp th e r e ad er u nd ers ta nd w hat h as g o ne w ro ng, b ut m ore im porta nt, h o w th is b asic a p pro ach c an b e f ix ed a nd m ad e m ore e ffe cti v e.

1. C om ple xit y One l a rg e p ub lic -s e cto r o rg aniz a ti o n h ad a n o uts id e c o nsu lta nt c re ate a l is t o f co m pete ncie s f o r e ach o f th re e p ay b and s i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n. E ach p ay b and ( o r sa la ry g ro up ) h ad 1 73 to 1 75 s p ecific b ehav io rs d efin ed f o r i t, w hic h i n tu rn w ere org aniz e d i n to 1 5 g enera l c o m pete ncie s. I m agin e a l is t o f 1 75 b ehav io rs th at y o u were e xp ecte d to u nd ers ta nd a nd s o m eho w a p ply to y o ur w ork . I t i s p ate ntl y rid ic ulo us. F ew p eo ple c o uld e v er c o m pre hend th e m eanin g o f th is a m ount o f co m ple xity , l e t a lo ne p ut i t i n to a cti o n.

Alth o ugh th at i s a n e xtr e m e e xam ple , i t i s n o t u nusu al to s e e o rg aniz a ti o ns w ith lis ts o f 3 0 to 5 0 c o m pete ncie s f o r th eir l e ad ers to b e e v alu ate d a nd d ev elo ped again st. C om ple xity h as b eco m e a m ajo r d ete rre nt to e ffe cti v e i m ple m enta ti o n.

2. S om e F au lt y A ssu m ptio n s a b ou t C om pete n cie s There a re s e v era l i m porta nt a ssu m pti o ns u nd erly in g th e f o cus o n c o m pete ncie s.

They w ere s e ld om s ta te d o vertl y , s o l e t u s tr y :

1. E ach o rg aniz a ti o n p osse sse s i ts o w n u niq ue s e t o f a ttr ib ute s o r c o m pete ncie s.

2. C om pete ncie s w ith in e ach p ers o n a re d is ti n ct a nd s e p ara te f r o m e ach o th er.

They c an b e i s o la te d a nd s tu d ie d a s i f th ey w ere s e p ara te c hro m oso m es i n a 91 pers o n’s g eneti c m akeup .

3. T he m ore s im ila rity o r c o ngru ence b etw een a n i n d iv id ual a nd th e org aniz a ti o n’s u niq ue p atte rn , th e b ette r l e ad er h e o r s h e w ill b e.

4. C om pete ncie s a re a ll o f r o ughly e q ual i m porta nce.

5. T he b est w ay to d ev elo p a ny c o m pete ncy i s to f o cus d ir e ctl y o n th at s p ecific tr a it o r b ehav io r. W ork in g h ard er a nd l o nger a t i t w ill m ake y o u b ette r a t i t, and th ere fo re m ake y o u a b ette r l e ad er.

Unfo rtu nate ly , i t n o w a p pears th at m ost o f th ese a ssu m pti o ns d o n o t c o in cid e with th e c urre nt r e ality , n o r a re th ey r e in fo rc ed b y o ur c urre nt r e se arc h.

Corre ctin g t h e A ssu m ptio n s Assu m ptio n 1 . C om pete n cie s a re u niq ue t o e a ch o rg aniz a tio n.

Fact:

D esp ite th e e ffo rts to c re ate d is ti n cti v e l is ts o f c o m pete ncie s, th ere i s a re m ark ab le s a m eness a b out th em f r o m o ne c o m pany to a no th er. S ev era l exp la nati o ns f o r th is c o m e to m in d . T he f ir s t i s th at th e r e q uir e m ents to w ork in o ne co m pany o r p ub lic o rg aniz a ti o n a re n o t th at d iffe re nt f r o m th o se i n a no th er. P eo ple are p eo ple w here v er th ey w ork . W hat m akes f o r s u ccess i n o ne f ir m i s a c arb on co py o f w hat c ause s s u ccess i n a no th er.

The a uth o rs h av e l o ng f e lt th at th e d iffe re nces b etw een p eo ple w ith in a ny o ne org aniz a ti o n a re c erta in ly a s l a rg e o r l a rg er th an th o se b etw een o rg aniz a ti o ns i n th e sa m e i n d ustr y , a nd p ro bab ly b etw een a ll o rg aniz a ti o ns. T hat i s , th e d iffe re nces betw een th e p eo ple w ho w ork f o r A ja x M anufa ctu rin g i n q uality a ssu ra nce a nd sa le s, o r th o se i n a cco unti n g a nd m ark eti n g, o r b etw een th e p eo ple i n r e se arc h a nd dev elo pm ent i n c o ntr a st w ith th o se i n m ain te nance— th o se d iffe re nces a re u su ally la rg e, a nd e v ery b it a s l a rg e a s th e d iffe re nces b etw een th e p eo ple f r o m A ja x Manufa ctu rin g a nd th o se f r o m i ts c o m peti to r, B ehem oth M anufa ctu rin g. A nd th ese diffe re nces a re p ro bab ly a s l a rg e a s th e d iffe re nces b etw een A ja x a nd th e C arth age Corp ora ti o n i n th e n eig hb orin g s ta te .

Ano th er e xp la nati o n i s th at th e s a m e c o nsu lti n g f ir m s a re d oin g th e c o m pete ncy analy sis , a nd th eir p ro cesse s f e rre t o ut th e s a m e th in gs w here v er th ey g o . M uch o f th e r e se arc h o n c o m pete ncie s h as b een d one b y a r e la ti v ely s m all g ro up o f co nsu lti n g f ir m s.

Fin ally , i t i s p ro bab le th at th ere a re a h and fu l o f f a cto rs th at w ill a lw ays a cco unt fo r o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. L yle S pencer w rite s i n h is b ook Com pete n ce at W ork “ th at th e c o m pete ncie s o f a chie v em ent o rie nta ti o n, i n flu ence a nd p ers o nal effe cti v eness w ill l ik ely a cco unt f o r 8 0–98 p erc ent o f a ll c o m pete ncy m odels .” 2 Assu m ptio n 2 . C om pete n cie s a re u niq ue a nd d is tin ctiv e t r a its o r q ualitie s posse sse d b y a n i n div id ual.

92 Fact:

O ne o f th e m ost d ra m ati c d is c o verie s o f o ur a naly sis i s th e m assiv e l in kage betw een c o m pete ncie s. T he l in kage w e a re ta lk in g a b out d oes n o t c o nsis t o f a hand fu l o f c o m pete ncie s th at a re s lig htl y l in ked to e ach o th er. I n ste ad , n early e v ery co m pete ncy w e s tu d ie d w as h ig hly c o rre la te d w ith m any o th ers . R ath er th an b ein g se p ara te a nd d is ti n ct, e ach o rg aniz a ti o n’s c o m pete ncie s w ere l ik e a th re e- dim ensio nal s p id er w eb , i n w hic h a ny p la ce y o u to uch i s l in ked to c o untl e ss o th er str a nd s i n th e w eb .

It a p pears th at th e r e se arc hers w ho w ere d riv in g th e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent wante d to m ake c o m pete ncie s a p pear u niq ue a nd d is ti n cti v e. S o th e r e se arc h w as done i n a w ay th at g av e th e a p peara nce o f s e p ara ti o n b etw een th e c o m pete ncie s.

Noth in g i s f u rth er f r o m th e tr u th . W ith s u ch c o m ple x, s tr o ng l in ks b etw een co m pete ncie s, i t b eco m es p ro ble m ati c e v en to g iv e th em i n d iv id ual l a b els .

Let u s a tte m pt o ne m ore m eta p ho r. I m agin e a j a r o f j e lly b eans, a ll d iffe re nt co lo rs a nd f la v ors . A t f ir s t g la nce th ey l o ok s e p ara te . T hen y o u s e e th at ti n y w ir e s are c o nnecti n g th em to geth er. Y ou p ic k u p o ne a nd 2 5 m ore a re r a is e d u p w ith i t.

You c an n am e th e w hite j e lly b ean “ F le xib ility ” a nd p re te nd th at i t i s a n e nti ty to its e lf. B ut th e r e ality i s th at i t c anno t b e s e p ara te d f r o m th e o th ers . T his r a is e s a fa sc in ati n g q uesti o n: I f th e j e lly b eans a re i n extr ic ab ly l in ked to geth er, th en i s th ere su ch a th in g a s th e o ne w hite o ne? O r w ould i t b e m ore a ccura te to l o ok a t th em i n hand fu ls ? W ould i t b e b ette r to f a ce th e r e ality th at th ey a re s tu ck to geth er? W e th in k s o .

Late r i n th is c hap te r w e p re se nt o ur v ie w s o f w hy c o m pete ncie s a re l in ked to geth er. L ate r c hap te rs p re se nt o th er i m porta nt f in d in gs a b out th e i m porta nce o f multi p le c o m pete ncie s, a nd i n sig hts a b out h o w l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n cre ase s when c o m pete ncie s a re s tr a te gic ally p ositi o ned i n d iffe re nt c lu ste rs o f b ehav io rs .

Assu m ptio n 3 . T he m ore c o ngru en ce t h ere i s b etw een t h e o rg aniz a tio n’s d efin ed co m pete n cie s a nd t h e i n div id ual’ s , t h e g re a te r i s t h e l ik elih ood o f s u ccess.

Fact:

T his i s th e o nly o ne o f th e a ssu m pti o ns th at o ur d ata d o n o t c halle nge.

How ev er, th e v alid ity o f th e a ssu m pti o n h in ges o n w heth er th e o rg aniz a ti o n h as em pir ic ally d eriv ed i ts o w n l is t o f c o m pete ncie s a nd w heth er th ere a re g o od w ays to m easu re a n i n d iv id ual’ s c o m pete ncie s. O ur d ata c o nfir m ed th at l e ad ers w ho se pro file s w ere c o m pati b le w ith th e h ig h p erfo rm ers i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n w ere m uch more l ik ely to b e h ig hly r a te d th an th o se w ho w ere n o t.

Assu m ptio n 4 . A ll c o m pete n cie s h ave r o ughly t h e s a m e i m porta nce.

Fact:

T here a re h uge d iffe re nces b etw een c o m pete ncie s’ i m porta nce. A s d esc rib ed earlie r, w e b egan b y i d enti fy in g th e to p ti e r o f a ll l e ad ers a s s e en b y th eir p eers , su b ord in ate s, a nd b osse s, a nd c o m parin g th at g ro up w ith th e l o w est- ra te d g ro up .

The q uesti o n w as, “ W hat s e p ara te s th ese h ig h a nd l o w g ro up s f r o m e ach o th er? ” The r e su lt w as th e i d enti fic ati o n o f 1 6 c o m pete ncie s th at a ctu ally s e p ara te d th e h ig h and l o w g ro up s. T hese c o m pete ncie s, s e le cte d f r o m a p ool o f 5 0 o r m ore , c an b e 93 gro up ed i n to th e s a m e c ate go rie s a s th e m odel w e i n tr o duced i n Chap te r 1 , a nd a re tr e ate d m ore th o ro ughly l a te r i n th is c hap te r.

For e xam ple , a c o m mon m yth i n m any o rg aniz a ti o ns i s th at e ffe cti v e e xecuti v es are p ro m pt a nd p unctu al. T hey a rriv e a t m eeti n gs o n ti m e a nd d on’t k eep o th ers waiti n g. O ur d ata s h o w , h o w ev er, th at th e l o w est- ra te d e xecuti v es w ere a s a p t to be p unctu al f o r m eeti n gs a s th e b est. S o, w hile w e a re i n n o w ay a d vocati n g th at ev ery o ne s h o w s u p l a te to th e n ext s ta ff m eeti n g, w e th in k i t i s als o i m porta nt to poin t o ut th at y o ur p unctu ality w ill n o t e le v ate y o u a b ove o th er p eo ple . S im ply p ut, in effe cti v e e xecuti v es a re a ls o h ig hly p unctu al.

If y o u w ant to w ork o n i m pro vin g y o ur l e ad ers h ip c ap ab iliti e s, w e a d vocate fo cusin g o n b ehav io rs th at tr u ly m ake a d iffe re nce. S o w hat a re th ey? W e p re se nt th ese l a te r i n th is c hap te r.

Assu m ptio n 5 . C om pete n cie s a re b est d evelo ped b y a d ir e ct f o cu s o n t h at s p ecific co m pete n cy.

Fact:

O ur r e se arc h s u ggests th at o ne c o m pete ncy i s d ev elo ped i n th e p ro cess o f dev elo pin g a no th er. T hey a p pear to b e, i n m any c ase s, b y-p ro ducts o f o ne a no th er.

That m eans th at th e d ir e ct l in ear m eth o d i s n o t th e o nly w ay to d ev elo p o r str e ngth en a c o m pete ncy. I n d eed , th ere m ay b e b ette r a nd e asie r w ays th at c o m e i n fr o m th e s id es a nd th e b ack, r a th er th an m ere ly h itti n g i t s tr a ig ht o n.

Chap te r 8 exp and s o n th is c o ncep t.

3. U nin te n ded C on se q uen ces The l a rg est d ra w back o f th e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent m ay h av e b een i ts u nfo re se en by-p ro ducts . W e th in k th at th e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent h as s e nt a s e rie s o f i m plic it messa ges to l e ad ers . T hese i n clu d e:

• C om pete ncie s a re a c hecklis t, a nd th e l e ad er’s o bje cti v e i s to c heck e ach o ne of th em o ff. Y ou e ith er h av e i t o r y o u d o n o t.

• E very o ne n eed s to b e a d eq uate i n a ny g iv en c o m pete ncy.

Chap te r 2 em phasiz e d th at “ ad eq uate ” i s n o t th e c o rre ct ta rg et. T he ta rg et n eed s to b e “extr a o rd in ary ,” n o t a d eq uate .

• T he e m phasis h as b een a lm ost e xclu siv ely o n th o se c o m pete ncie s o n w hic h yo u a re p erc eiv ed a s b ein g d efic ie nt. T he i m plic ati o n i s th at th e g re ate st v alu e co m es f r o m m ovin g a w eakness to a m id dle r a nge w here i t n o l o nger s ta nd s out.

• N o e m phasis h as b een g iv en to ta kin g a r e la ti v e s tr e ngth a nd m akin g i t “ o ff- th e- chart” s tr o ng. U nw itti n gly , th is h as c o ntr ib ute d to o ur g enera l p atte rn o f “aim in g l o w .” • I t h as d riv en o ut o th er p ow erfu l a nd p ra cti c al te chniq ues f o r d ev elo pin g 94 peo ple . M anagem ent e xp erts r a ngin g f r o m P ete r D ru cker to T ho m as G ilb ert hav e p ro pose d a n e xtr e m ely e ffe cti v e w ay to i m pro ve p ro ducti v ity a nd perfo rm ance i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n. T hey a d vocate d i d enti fy in g to p p erfo rm ers a nd th en c are fu lly d ete rm in in g what th ey d o d iffe re ntl y f r o m e v ery o ne e ls e . I n ev ery a cti v ity i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n b ein g p erfo rm ed b y a n um ber o f p eo ple , o ne pers o n f ig ure s o ut e xtr e m ely e ffic ie nt w ays to g et th e j o b d one. T hat m ay co nsis t o f c le v er s h o rtc uts o r s tr e am lin ed w ork p ro cesse s. O r, i t m ay c o nsis t o f more e ffic ie nt w ays to w ork w ith c o lle agues i n o th er d ep artm ents . R ese arc h o n th e p ro ducti v ity o f w ork ers s h o w s h uge d iffe re nces b etw een th e p eo ple d oin g esse nti a lly th e s a m e ta sk s.

To d is c o ver w hat th ese s ta r p erfo rm ers a re d oin g d iffe re ntl y r e q uir e s c are fu l obse rv ati o n o f th em , a lo ng w ith i n te rv ie w s a b out th eir th o ught p ro cesse s a nd te chniq ues. T hen, u sin g th ese s a m e p eo ple ( o r o th er tr a in ers ), te ach e v ery o ne i n th e fir m to a d opt th e b est te chniq ues o f th ese to p p erfo rm ers .

This e xtr e m ely o bvio us a nd l o gic al m eth o d f o r i m pro vin g p erfo rm ance h as m et with g re at r e sis ta nce. F ew o rg aniz a ti o ns u se th is o bvio us m eans o f l ifti n g perfo rm ance to th e r a fte rs . T hat r e sis ta nce c o m es f r o m th e “ m in d -s e t” m any managers h av e th at s e ts m ajo r b ound arie s a ro und w hat th e a v era ge p ers o n i s cap ab le o f b eco m in g o r p ro ducin g. E xecuti v es j u st c anno t b elie v e th at n early ev ery o ne c an p erfo rm a t a h ig h l e v el. M ost e xecuti v es th in k th at p eak p erfo rm ance is r e se rv ed f o r j u st a f e w . T hese e xecuti v es b elie v e th at w e s im ply c anno t e xp ect or a tta in h ig h p erfo rm ance f r o m th e g re at m ajo rity o f o ur p eo ple — in clu d in g o ur managers a nd l e ad ers .

Rig id ly d efin ed c o m pete ncie s a ls o m ay h av e th e u nin te nd ed c o nse q uence o f cre ati n g c o okie -c utte r p eo ple i n sid e th e o rg aniz a ti o n. I f th e c o m pete ncy s y ste m w as im ple m ente d , w ould e v ery o ne a p pear to b e c ut f r o m th e s a m e m old ? H ow , th en, does th e o rg aniz a ti o n a ttr a ct a nd r e ta in th e m av eric k w ho i s s o v alu ab le i n challe ngin g th e s ta tu s q uo ? A re th e w ild d ucks k ille d j u st a fte r th ey h atc h? T he co ncern i s th at, o ver ti m e, s a m eness c re ate s a h o m ogeneity th at b eco m es m in d - num bin g, a nd th e c ultu re d ev olv es i n to o ne o f a nti - in no vati o n.

4. P oor E xecu tio n The b asic p re m is e o f c o m pete ncie s w as th at th ey w ould b e c re ate d f r o m e xte nsiv e analy sis o f h ard d ata , n o t s e nio r e xecuti v es’ p ers o nal s p ecula ti o ns. H ow ev er, th at has n o t o ccurre d . I n d eed , a s o ne w rite r o bse rv ed , “ M ost o f th e c urre nt a cti v ity go in g o n u nd er th e b anner o f c o m pete ncy m odelin g i s r e ally o nly l is t m akin g.” 3 What h ad p ro m is e d to b e e xtr e m ely r ig o ro us h as e v olv ed i n to a p ro cess o f co m pilin g th e c o lle cti v e b elie fs o f s o m e s e nio r m anagers r e gard in g th e im porta nt attr ib ute s o f l e ad ers i n th e f ir m . M axin e D alto n, o f th e C ente r f o r C re ati v e Lead ers h ip , w rite s, “ S ev enty p erc ent o f th e c o m pete ncy m odels I s e e a re j u st l is ts 95 of p ositi v e a ttr ib ute s th at m ay o r m ay n o t h av e a nyth in g to d o w ith m anagem ent effe cti v eness. T hey r e fle ct a h alf- d ay, o ff- s ite m eeti n g w ith s e nio r m anagers i n whic h a l is t i s m ad e w ith th e u nd erly in g i m plic ati o n, ‘ If th e C EO s a ys i t’ s a co m pete ncy, i t’ s a c o m pete ncy.’ ” 4 To b e a p plic ab le to th e e nti r e f ir m , th e c o m pete ncie s o f n ecessity a re q uite bro ad a nd e nco m passin g. T he m ore g enera l th e c o m pete ncie s b eco m e, th e l e ss accura te th ey a re . H ow ev er, m ost l a rg e o rg aniz a ti o ns h av e d ecid ed th at i t i s to o co m plic ate d a nd e xp ensiv e to c re ate c o m pete ncie s f o r e ach d ep artm ent o r s e cti o n of th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

Ano th er e xecuti o n i s su e i s th at c o m pete ncie s a re f o cuse d o n p ast r e q uir e m ents fo r e ffe cti v eness, a nd n o t w hat th e f u tu re w ill r e q uir e o f l e ad ers . T his te nd ency to “lo ok i n th e r e ar-v ie w m ir ro r” te nd s to c re ate l e ad ers w ho l o ok a nd a ct l ik e th e curre nt g ro up , w hic h m ay b e e xactl y w hat k ills th e o rg aniz a ti o n i n th e f u tu re . T o th e exte nt th at c o m pete ncie s a re u se d f o r d ev elo pm enta l p urp ose s, th e c o m pete ncie s sh o uld r e fle ct a b iliti e s a nd b ehav io rs r e q uir e d i n th e f u tu re , n o t th e p ast o r p re se nt.

They s h o uld a ls o d esc rib e th e a b ility to l e arn th o se s k ills r e q uir e d f o r f u tu re su ccess.

The c o m pete ncie s a re n o t b ein g u se d f o r s e le cti o n a nd p ro m oti o n p urp ose s.

Many o rg aniz a ti o ns c o m pla in th at a lth o ugh H um an R eso urc es h as th e l is t o f ap pro ved c o m pete ncie s, th ey a re n o t f in d in g th eir w ay i n to th e d ay-to day h ir in g a nd pro m oti o n o f p eo ple .

• T hey a re e xp ensiv e to d o w ell a nd n eed m ain te nance o ver ti m e, a s org aniz a ti o ns e v olv e, m erg e, d iv est, g lo baliz e , a nd c hange th eir a cti v iti e s.

• D ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s h av e n o t b een ta ilo re d a ro und th em to a ny l a rg e measu re . I t i s c o m plic ate d to f in d d ev elo pm enta l a cti v iti e s f o r m any o f th e co m pete ncie s. P lu s, th e c o m pete ncy l is ts g iv e l ittl e h elp i n g uid in g u s to w ays in w hic h p eo ple m ig ht a tta in th ese s k ills .

Why C om pete n cie s a re L in ked T ogeth er We r e ad ily c o nfe ss th at w e d o n o t c o m ple te ly k no w th e a nsw er to th is q uesti o n.

Our c urre nt r e se arc h m eth o ds d o n o t g iv e u s th e v is ib ility o r e v id ence n eed ed to answ er th is q uesti o n f u lly . W e a re r a th er c o nfid ent, h o w ev er, th at th ere a re fo ur pla usib le e xp la nati o ns. W e th in k a ll a re a t w ork , b ut i t i s i m possib le to d efin e pre cis e ly h o w m uch o f th e l in kage i s a ttr ib ute d to o ne o f th ese f o rc es v ers u s th e oth ers .

The f o ur e xp la nati o ns a re th e f o llo w in g:

1. A s tr e ngth i n o ne c o m pete ncy c re ate s a p ow erfu l “ halo ,” s o th at c o lle agues, 96 wheth er s u b ord in ate s, p eers , o r b osse s, p erc eiv e th e i n d iv id ual a s b ein g effe cti v e i n a n um ber o f o th er a re as b ecause o f a s tr e ngth i n o ne.

2. I n th e p ro cess o f d ev elo pin g a ny o ne s tr e ngth , th e i n d iv id ual d ev elo ps o th er sk ills . G etti n g g o od a t s o m eth in g e nab le s y o u to b e m ore p ro fic ie nt a t s e v era l oth er r e la te d a cti v iti e s. W e h av e l a b ele d th is th e “ cro ss-tr a in in g” e ffe ct.

3. S elf- c o nfid ence i s i n cre ase d w hen a ny s k ill i s a cq uir e d a nd p ro duces s u ccess.

Peo ple o fte n p osse ss s k ills b ut d o n o t u se th em , b ecause th ey l a ck th e s e lf- co nfid ence to tr y th em . S uccess i n d ev elo pin g o ne c o m pete ncy i n cre ase s co nfid ence, w hic h l e ad s to tr y in g a no th er.

4. A sp ir a ti o n l e v el i n cre ase s w hen p eo ple s u cceed i n a ny o ne d im ensio n. I t enco ura ges th e i n d iv id ual to s e t h is o r h er s ig hts h ig her a nd h ig her i n o th er re alm s.

1. T he P ow er o f t h e “ H alo E ffe ct” Solo m on A sc h i n 1 946 d id e xp erim ents o n h o w p eo ple f o rm i m pre ssio ns o f oth ers .

5 H is th eo ry w as th at p erc ep ti o ns a re f o rm ed f r o m o ur v ie w o f a n e nti r e pers o n r a th er th an b y f o cusin g o n i n d iv id ual tr a its a nd c hara cte ris ti c s. I n o th er word s, p eo ple ’s p erc ep ti o ns a re c re ate d f r o m o ur v ie w o f th e w ho le p ers o n r a th er th an a r a ti o nal e v alu ati o n o f e ach i n d iv id ual p ie ce. T o p ro ve th is th eo ry A sc h dev is e d a n i n genio us e xp erim ent. H e g enera te d l is ts o f a ttr ib ute s th at d esc rib ed a n in d iv id ual. T he l is ts w ere r e ad to tw o d iffe re nt e xp erim enta l g ro up s.

Tab le 4 -1 sh o w s th e c hara cte ris ti c s o n e ach l is t.

As c an b e r e ad ily n o te d b y r e ad in g th ro ugh th e tw o l is ts , th ey a re i d enti c al excep t f o r tw o w ord s. L is t A h as th e a ttr ib ute “ W arm ,” w here as L is t B h as “ C old .” Afte r b ein g p ro vid ed e ith er L is t A o r L is t B , e ach g ro up w as th en g iv en a n ad diti o nal l is t o f a ttr ib ute s a nd i n str u cte d to i n d ic ate o th er q ualiti e s a n i n d iv id ual mig ht h av e. S ub sta nti a l d iffe re nces w ere f o und b etw een a ttr ib ute s m ark ed b y gro up s w ho h ad L is t A a nd th o se f r o m g ro up s th at h ad L is t B .

Table 4 -1 L is t o f P ers o nal A ttr ib ute s Gro up s g iv en L is t A w ould c ho ose a d diti o nal q ualiti e s s u ch a s h ap py, im agin ati v e, g o od-n atu re d , g enero us, h um oro us, w is e , h um ane, p opula r, a ltr u is ti c , 97 and s o cia b le . G ro up s g iv en L is t B d id n o t s e le ct th o se s a m e a ttr ib ute s. T here w ere , ho w ev er, s o m e a ttr ib ute s, s u ch a s s e rio us, s tr o ng, r e lia b le , p ers is te nt, h o nest, a nd im porta nt, th at w ere e q ually l ik ely to b e c ho se n o n e ith er l is t.

Fro m a b rie f l is t o f a f e w a ttr ib ute s, p eo ple g enera liz e to a b ro ad er s e t o f attr ib ute s. O nce a gain , th is r e in fo rc es th e b elie f th at p eo ple f o rm a n i m pre ssio n o f a pers o n a s a w ho le , a nd th ere fo re th ey a ttr ib ute a d diti o nal c hara cte ris ti c s e v en th o ugh th ey h av e b een g iv en n o s p ecific i n fo rm ati o n a b out th e p ers o n.

It i s i n tu iti v e to m ost p eo ple , j u st b ase d o n th eir e xp erie nce w ork in g w ith o th ers , th at c erta in tr a its a nd b ehav io rs g o to geth er. T he A sc h e xp erim ents c o nfir m th at, and w e s u sp ect th at th e r e ad er w ill e asily th in k o f m any e xam ple s o f th is . P eo ple ’s dre ss, f a cia l c hara cte ris ti c s, c o untr y o f o rig in , o r m anner o f s p eech a ll tr ig ger ste re o ty p es th at w e h av e i n o ur m in d s. S te re o ty p es p ers is t b ecause th ere i s j u st eno ugh tr u th i n th em to m ake th em c o nti n ue to l iv e.

Ano th er r e se arc her te ste d A sc h’s b asic th eo ry o nly th is ti m e h ad s u b je cts actu ally c o m e i n c o nta ct w ith a p ers o n. H . H . K elly , i n a f o llo w -u p e xp erim ent, h ad stu d ents e v alu ate te achers .

6 B efo re a tte nd in g a b rie f l e ctu re , th e s tu d ents w ere pro vid ed a b rie f b io gra p hic al s k etc h o f e ach te acher. T he d esc rip ti o ns w ere e xactl y th e s a m e e xcep t th at f o r s o m e s tu d ents , a te acher w as d esc rib ed a s w arm , w here as fo r o th er s tu d ents , th e s a m e te acher w as d esc rib ed a s c o ld . T he i n str u cto r th en g av e a 2 0-m in ute l e ctu re . A fte r th e p re se nta ti o n, s tu d ents r a te d th e i n str u cto r. T he stu d ents w ho h ad “ w arm ” a s p art o f th e i n str u cto r’s b io gra p hy e v alu ate d th e in str u cto r m ore p ositi v ely th an d id th o se f o r w ho m “ co ld ” h ad b een l is te d . T his sh o w ed th at th e s tu d ents ’ p erc ep ti o ns w ere s tr o ngly i n flu enced b y th e w ritte n bio gra p hic al s k etc h a nd th at th ese p erc ep ti o ns w ere n o t a lte re d b y s u b se q uent in te ra cti o ns w ith th e p ers o n.

Table 4 -2 L is t o f P ers o nal A ttr ib ute s The A sc h a nd K elly r e se arc h r e in fo rc e a p ow erfu l c o nclu sio n. S om e a ttr ib ute s, su ch a s “ w arm ” o r “ co ld ,” a re c entr a l tr a its . W hen a p ers o n i s p erc eiv ed to p osse ss th at c hara cte ris ti c , o th ers i m med ia te ly i m pute ta g-a lo ng c hara cte ris ti c s. T hese a re glu ed to th e c entr a l tr a it.

We i n v ite th e r e ad er to p arti c ip ate i n a q uic k e xp erim ent th at i llu str a te s th is poin t. I n Tab le 4 -2 , d ra w l in es b etw een th e tr a its th at g o to geth er. M atc h o ne f r o m th e l e ft- h and c o lu m n w ith o ne f r o m th e r ig ht- h and c o lu m n. T his e xam ple c o m es fr o m r e se arc h c o nd ucte d b y th re e p sy cho lo gis ts , R ose nb erg , N els o n, a nd Viv ekananth an, w ho c o nd ucte d a s tu d y i n w hic h p eo ple w ere a sk ed to i n d ic ate th e 98 re la ti o nsh ip s a m ong 6 4 d iffe re nt tr a its .

7 T he r e se arc hers f o und th at v ario us tr a its clu ste r to geth er i n g ro up s. T hat i s , i f I h av e q uality A , th en p eo ple a re v ery l ik ely to belie v e I h av e q uality B .

Fro m th eir r e se arc h, th ey f o und th at th e f o llo w in g tr a its te nd ed to b e c lu ste re d to geth er:

(A ) H onest a nd ( 3 ) M odest (B ) I n te llig ent a nd ( 1 ) S erio us (C ) I r re sp onsib le a nd ( 2 ) W aste fu l (D ) S te rn a nd ( 4 ) C riti c al Their r e se arc h s h o w ed a r e gula r a nd c o nsis te nt p air in g o f tr a its . T he p ow erfu l fin d in g o f th is r e se arc h w as th e c o nsis te ncy w ith w hic h p eo ple l in ked o ne tr a it w ith ano th er.

In th eir r e se arc h, R ose nb erg a nd h is c o lle agues a ls o m easu re d i s su es th at clu ste re d o n f o ur d im ensio ns 8 :

• B ad s o cia l ( e .g ., u np opula r, u nso cia b le , b orin g, c o ld , m oody, d is h o nest) • G ood s o cia l ( e .g ., h o nest, h ap py, p opula r, r e lia b le , m odest, w arm ) • B ad i n te lle ctu al ( e .g ., f o olis h , u nin te llig ent, c lu m sy , w aste fu l, i r re sp onsib le ) • G ood i n te lle ctu al ( e .g ., s c ie nti fic , p ers is te nt, s k illfu l, i m agin ati v e, i n te llig ent) If p eo ple k no w y o u h av e a tr a it i n o ne d im ensio n, th ey a ssu m e y o u a ls o h av e oth er tr a its w ith in th at d im ensio n. H ow ev er, p eo ple w ould n o t a ssu m e, f o r exam ple , th at i f a p ers o n i s m oody, th at p ers o n i s a ls o c lu m sy . M oody a nd c lu m sy are o n d iffe re nt d im ensio ns.

Takeaw ays f r o m th is r e se arc h i n clu d e:

1. P erc ep ti o ns a re c o lo re d b y s m all p ie ces o f i n fo rm ati o n, w hic h m ay o r m ay n o t be c o rre ct. ( T he w ay th e i n str u cto r w as p erc eiv ed w as c o lo re d b y w heth er h e had b een d esc rib ed a s “ w arm ” o r “ co ld .” ) 2. I n iti a l i m pre ssio ns a re u se d to c re ate a n o vera ll v ie w o f a p ers o n. K no w in g a fe w th in gs, w e th en f ill i n th e m is sin g p ie ces i n o ur m in d s. I t i s l ik e s e ein g fr a gm ents o f a p ic tu re a nd i m med ia te ly f illin g i n th e b la nk p arts o f th e c anv as.

(If I f in d y o u to b e u nso cia b le a nd b orin g, th at i s e no ugh f o r m e to f ill i n m any oth er b la nks. U nti l y o u p ro ve o th erw is e , I a ssu m e y o u a re c o ld , m oody, dis h o nest, c lu m sy , w aste fu l, f o olis h , a nd i r re sp onsib le .) 3. W e d o n o t f o rm a n o vera ll v ie w o f s o m eo ne b y p ain sta kin gly a sse m blin g a ll of th e p ie ces.

4. C erta in c hara cte ris ti c s o r a ttr ib ute s a re c o nsis te ntl y l in ked to geth er.

5. A ttr ib ute s a re c lu ste re d i n to v ario us d im ensio ns i n th e m in d s o f m ost p eo ple .

99 Case E xam ple : J ohn B oyer.

J o hn w as a n ew m anager w ho h ad a gre ed to a tte nd a le ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent c o urs e . H e h ad b een i n h is n ew p ositi o n f o r a p pro xim ate ly six m onth s a nd w as i n te re ste d i n th e p erc ep ti o ns o f h is d ir e ct r e p orts . W hen J o hn had ta ken o ver th e g ro up , m ora le w as v ery l o w . S ev era l d ir e ct r e p orts w ere co nsid erin g l e av in g a nd f r u str a ti o n l e v els w ere v ery h ig h. T he p re v io us m anager had u se d h is p ositi o n a s m anager to b enefit h is o w n c are er. H e h ad a te nd ency to ta ke p ers o nal c re d it f o r a ny a cco m plis h m ents i n th e g ro up b ut w as q uic k to b la m e any f a ilu re s o n g ro up m em bers . H is c le v er p oliti c s h ad e arn ed h im a p ro m oti o n b ut le ft a g ro up i n d is a rra y. J o hn’s a p pro ach to m anagin g th e g ro up h ad b een to b e f a ir but f ir m . I t s e em ed th at b ecause p eo ple h ad f e lt s o ta ken a d vanta ge o f b y th e pre v io us m anager, th ey b egan l o okin g f o r w ays to “ get b ack” a t th e c o m pany.

Peo ple w ere f r e q uentl y la te s h o w in g u p i n th e m orn in g, a ssig nm ents w ere o fte n n o t co m ple te d o n ti m e, a nd th e w ork p la ce s h o w ed a n a tti tu d e o f “ W e d on’t c are .” J o hn sta rte d o ut h is te nure a s a n ew m anager b y i n te rv ie w in g e ach e m plo yee. H e to ok care fu l n o te s a nd w as v ery i n te re ste d i n th e c are er a sp ir a ti o ns o f e ach i n d iv id ual.

He a ls o a sk ed q uesti o ns a b out e ach p ers o n’s a re as o f s tr e ngth a nd d ev elo pm enta l need s. H e q uic kly f o und o ut th at th is w as a h ig hly c re ati v e a nd ta le nte d g ro up b ut th ey l a cked a c le ar m is sio n a nd p urp ose . T hey h ad b een r e sp ond in g to e ngin eerin g re q uests f r o m m anufa ctu rin g b ut w ere n o t l o okin g a t l o ng-te rm i m pro vem ents th at would ta ke th em o ut o f d aily f ir e -fig hti n g a cti v iti e s a nd a llo w th em m ore ti m e to work o n m ajo r i n no vati o ns.

Tw o w eeks a fte r J o hn to ok o ver a s m anager, h e p la nned a o ne-d ay o ff- s ite meeti n g. D urin g th e o ff- s ite m eeti n g, h e w ork ed o n te am b uild in g a nd c la rific ati o n of th e g ro up m is sio n a nd o bje cti v es. T he g ro up g av e J o hn s o m e c halle ngin g assig nm ents . T hey i n d ic ate d th at th ey c o uld n o t a cco m plis h l o ng-te rm e ngin eerin g changes u nle ss h e c o uld g et m anufa ctu rin g o ff th eir b acks. T he p re v io us m anager had s im ply a cco m modate d a ll r e q uests f r o m m anufa ctu rin g, r e gard le ss o f th eir prio rity . J o hn b egan to r e aliz e th at th e b est w ay to g ain th e s u p port o f h is g ro up w as to m anage th e g ro up ’s p rio riti e s a nd g o als w ith i n te rn al c usto m ers . H is n ext ta sk was to m eet w ith m anufa ctu rin g m anagers i n o rd er to g ain s u p port f o r th e g ro up ’s go als a nd p la ns. T his w as m uch m ore d iffic ult. T he m anufa ctu rin g o rg aniz a ti o n belie v ed th at i t s h o uld d ir e ct th e a cti v iti e s o f e ngin eerin g. T he p ro ble m w as th at th eir p rio riti e s a nd p ro ble m s c hanged d aily , a nd th e r e su lt w as th at c o ncerte d e ffo rt on s o lv in g m ajo r p ro ble m s n ev er o ccurre d . J o hn h elp ed th ese l e ad ers to s e e th at i f engin eerin g c o uld f o cus th eir e ffo rts o n a f e w to p p rio riti e s, e v ery o ne’s j o b w ould be e asie r. F or th e n ext f iv e m onth s J o hn w ork ed o n r e la ti o nsh ip s b oth w ith in h is gro up a nd w ith m anufa ctu rin g. H e m ad e a c o ncerte d e ffo rt to r e co gniz e th e acco m plis h m ents o f g ro up m em bers . H e s ta rte d to h o ld r e gula r s ta ff m eeti n gs. H e had th e g ro up p arti c ip ate i n s e tti n g p rio riti e s a nd d ecid in g o n ta rg et g o als . S ev era l mem bers o f th e g ro up w ith b ehav io r a nd p erfo rm ance p ro ble m s w ere p ut o n n o ti c e by J o hn b ecause th ey c o nti n ued to s h o w u p l a te f o r w ork a nd m is s d eliv ery dead lin es.

100 As J o hn r e v ie w ed h is l e ad ers h ip a sse ssm ent r e su lts , h e w as g enera lly p le ase d .

His r e su lts w ere s u b sta nti a lly a b ove th e n o rm o n a ll c o m pete ncie s. A s J o hn w ork ed th ro ugh th e d ata w ith h is c o ach, o ne o f h is m ost p ositi v e a re as w as te chnic al kno w le d ge. T he c o ach, k no w in g J o hn d id n o t h av e a n e ngin eerin g b ackgro und , fo und th at v ery u nusu al. “ H ow d o y o u e xp la in th is h ig h s c o re i n te chnic al kno w le d ge?” th e c o ach a sk ed J o hn. J o hn s h o ok h is h ead . “ I c an’t e xp la in i t. I a m no t a n e ngin eer. E very o ne i n th is g ro up k no w s m ore th an I d o. I h av e w ork ed h ard to g et u p to s p eed b ut I s ti ll l a ck d eta ile d k no w le d ge. I c an’t m ake a l o t o f th e te chnic al d ecis io ns s o I r e v ie w e ach o ne w ith te am m em bers w ho d o h av e th e exp erti s e a nd r e ly o n th eir k no w le d ge.” Fit tin g T heory t o O ur D ata .

T he p re v io us e xam ple p ro vid es o ne s tr o ng exp la nati o n f o r th e l in kage b etw een c o m pete ncie s. B asic l in ks o r c o m panio nsh ip s betw een tr a its a re w ell e sta b lis h ed i n p eo ple ’s m in d s. T hey a re g enera liz e d a cro ss all p eo ple w ith in a c ultu re a nd a re n o t s p ecific to i n d iv id uals . T here fo re , w hen a pers o n o bse rv es a l e ad er d is p la yin g a s p ecific c o m pete ncy, th ere i s a n i m med ia te assu m pti o n th at th is i n d iv id ual p osse sse s a n um ber o f o th er c hara cte ris ti c s, d esp ite th e l a ck o f a ny s p ecific e v id ence to s u p port th at.

Many, i f n o t m ost, i m pre ssio ns o th ers h av e o f o ur l e ad ers h ip a b iliti e s a re n o t to ta lly a ccura te . P eo ple a re i n flu enced b y th eir e xp erie nce, a nd b ecause o f th at, th ey f o rm a g enera l i m pre ssio n ( gesta lt ). R ath er th an b ein g a to ta lly a ccura te acco unti n g o f e ach o f o ur c o m pete ncie s a nd a b iliti e s ( e .g ., C om pete ncy a , Com pete ncy b , C om pete ncy c , C om pete ncy d , O vera ll L ead ers h ip A bility ), p eo ple fo rm th eir i m pre ssio ns b ase d o n a n u neq ual w eig hin g o f c o m pete ncie s f r o m b its o f kno w le d ge. E ven th o ugh th ese i m pre ssio ns a re n o t to ta lly a ccura te , p eo ple c anno t be ta lk ed o ut o f th eir i m pre ssio n b y a r a ti o nal, p re cis e a cco unti n g o f o ur co m pete ncie s. P eo ple h av e s tr o ng a tta chm ents to th eir i m pre ssio ns.

Many o bse rv ers r e act to th is a nd s a y th at i t i s u nfa ir th at o th ers a re n o t a ccura te in th eir p erc ep ti o ns. H ow ev er, th is s w ord d efin ite ly c uts tw o w ays. I f o th ers h av e a genera l i m pre ssio n th at a p ers o n i s a p oor l e ad er, th en th ey w ill p ro bab ly b e negati v ely b ia se d i n th eir e v alu ati o ns o f s p ecific c o m pete ncie s a nd u nd erra te th e pers o n’s r e al a b iliti e s. O n th e o th er h and , i f o th ers h av e a g enera l i m pre ssio n th at a pers o n i s a n e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad er, th ey w ill o vere sti m ate th is p ers o n’s s k ills a nd ab iliti e s. T ho ugh b ein g u nd erra te d i s u nfa ir , b ein g o verra te d , th o ugh s ti ll u nfa ir , i s so m eth in g l e ad ers c an u se to th eir a d vanta ge. T he k ey i s to g et th e a ttr ib uti o n pro cess to w ork f o r y o u r a th er th an a gain st y o u.

This h elp s to e xp la in m any o f o ur r e se arc h f in d in gs. F or e xam ple , w e f o und many l e ad ers w ith e xtr e m ely h ig h s c o re s o n a ll c o m pete ncie s a nd w ith n o perc eiv ed w eaknesse s. T he te nd ency f o r e v ery o ne to a ttr ib ute p ositi v e s o cia l behav io r a nd p ositi v e i n te lle ctu al c ap ab iliti e s to s o m eo ne w ho p osse sse s o ne positi v e a ttr ib ute s h ed s l ig ht o n th is p heno m eno n. T he c o m bin ati o n o f c re ati n g a n overa ll p ic tu re o r gesta lt a b out s o m eo ne, c o m bin ed w ith th e s tr o ng l in kage 101 betw een tr a its a nd a ttr ib ute s, p ro vid es i n sig ht i n to th is .

It w as h ard f o r m any p eo ple to b elie v e th at R ic hard M . N ix o n, w ho w as r e are d a Q uaker, w as i n te llig ent a nd w ell e d ucate d , a nd c ap ab le o f b ein g e le cte d to h ig h offic e, w ould u se p ro fa nity l ik e a s a ilo r a nd e ngage i n d is h o nest a cts s u ch a s Wate rg ate . S im ila rly , i t w as h ard f o r m any c iti z e ns o f th e U nite d S ta te s to b elie v e th at B ill C lin to n w ould e ngage i n s e xual m is c o nd uct w ith a n i n te rn i n th e O val Offic e. I t w ould h av e b een m ore u nd ers ta nd ab le i f th is h ad h ap pened w hile h e w as liv in g i n a f r a te rn ity h o use d urin g h is j u nio r y ear o f c o lle ge. B ecause h e w as th e pre sid ent o f th e U nite d S ta te s, a nd a m an o f o bvio us i n te lle ct a nd a b ility , th at behav io r w as i n co nsis te nt w ith p eo ple ’s a ssu m pti o ns.

Why d o w e p re se nt th is r e se arc h a nd th eo ry a b out h o w p erc ep ti o ns a re f o rm ed ?

Und ers ta nd in g th eo ry h elp s i n p la nnin g a s u ccessfu l s tr a te gy. U nd ers ta nd in g h o w oth ers f o rm ula te th eir p erc ep ti o ns h elp s u s to u nd ers ta nd w hy l e ad ers a re su ccessfu l a t ti m es a nd w hy th ey f a il.

2. C ro ss T ra in in g The s e co nd e xp la nati o n f o r th e s tr o ng l in kage b etw een c o m pete ncie s i s s im ply th at in th e c o urs e o f b eco m in g g o od a t o ne th in g, y o u g et b ette r a t s o m eth in g e ls e .

We s e e e v id ence o f th is i n m any o th er a re as o f l ife . A m usic ia n w ho p la ys th e sa xo pho ne w ill o fte n s w itc h b etw een th e c la rin et, a lto s a xo pho ne, a nd te no r sa xo pho ne. L earn in g o ne i n str u m ent i n cre ase s th e e ase o f l e arn in g a nd p erfo rm in g with a d iffe re nt i n str u m ent. T he a th le te w ho i s a r u nner p arla ys th e e nd ura nce a nd str e ngth g ain ed th ro ugh r u nnin g to b eco m e a l o ngd is ta nce s w im mer a nd c yclis t.

Pia no p la yers a re o fte n e xtr e m ely f a st ty p is ts .

Skills A re T ra nsfe ra ble .

I t i s l o gic al to b elie v e th at a cq uir in g th e s k ill o f co nd ucti n g e ffe cti v e m eeti n gs h elp s th e l e ad er to a ls o b e m ore e ffe cti v e w ork in g one-o n-o ne w ith p eers . D ev elo pin g th e s k ills o f c o m munic ati n g p ow erfu lly a nd pro lific ally p ro vid es m any o f th e s a m e s k ills r e q uir e d to i n sp ir e a nd m oti v ate oth ers to h ig h p erfo rm ance.

The s k ill o f s e tti n g s tr e tc h g o als f o r y o ur te am i s r e la te d to th e s k ills r e q uir e d to in iti a te a cti o n a nd f o cus o n r e su lts .

3. S uccess I n cre a se s C on fid en ce When p eo ple e xp erie nce s u ccess i n o ne a re na o f l ife , i t i n cre ase s th eir c o nfid ence and w illin gness to tr y s o m eth in g n ew .

One o f th e a uth o rs ’ g ra nd daughte rs b ecam e i n te re ste d i n d iv in g. G oin g o ff a board i n a ty p ic al b ackyard p ool w as e asy . T hen c am e th e th re e-m ete r b oard , whic h s e em ed f r ig hte nin g to a n 1 1-y ear-o ld . F in ally , th e te am w ent to a d iv in g pool th at i n clu d ed a s ix -m ete r-h ig h d iv in g b oard . ( T hat i s , j u m pin g r o ughly f r o m th e 102 heig ht o f a tw o-s to ry b uild in g i n to th e p ool.) A s s h e w ent to th e e nd o f th e b oard , sh e s ta rte d to tu rn b ack, a nd th e c o ach s a id , “ Y ou c an d o i t— ju st j u m p.” S he d id .

Success a t p re v io us l e v els g av e h er c o nfid ence to tr y . S he w ante d to b e a b le to div e f r o m th e h ig h b oard , a nd i t w as n o l o nger f r ig hte nin g e xcep t to h er p are nts a nd gra nd pare nts .

4. S uccess I n cre a se s A sp ir a tio n L evel We k no w th at s u ccess i n cre ase s p eo ple ’s a sp ir a ti o n to tr y a nd d o m ore . A ny gro w th i n o ne a re a g iv es u s n ew s k ills a nd th e c o nfid ence to s e ek g ro w th i n ano th er. T he l a te A nd ra ll P ears o n w as a h ig h-v is ib ility e xecuti v e, h av in g b een a se nio r d ir e cto r o f M cK in se y a nd C o., th en h ead o f P ep siC o f o r 1 4 y ears , th en a te acher a t th e H arv ard B usin ess S cho ol w ho p ub lis h ed f r e q uentl y i n th e Harv a rd Busin ess R evie w . I n a 1 980 Fortu ne m agazin e a rti c le , h e w as l is te d a s o ne o f Americ a’s to ughest b osse s.

Then, a t a ge 7 6, h e b ecam e c hair m an o f T ric o n G lo bal R esta ura nts , I n c. ( n o w re nam ed Y um ) a nd l e arn ed a n e nti r e ly n ew s e t o f l e ad ers h ip s k ills . H e l e arn ed to go vern r a th er th an c o ntr o l. H e g ain ed a n a p pre cia ti o n f o r th e p ow er o f h um an em oti o n. I n e arlie r y ears h e w ould d is p la y h is o w n i n te lle ct a nd o verp ow er p eo ple with h is a b ility to g ra sp i s su es q uic kly . I n a n e arlie r l e ad ers h ip r o le h e h ad to ld h is co lle agues, “ A r o om f u ll o f m onkeys c o uld d o b ette r th an th is .” Pears o n d esis te d f r o m i s su in g o rd ers to p eo ple , a nd b egan a sk in g q uesti o ns a nd so lic iti n g i d eas. H e b ecam e a m ento r to m any i n th e f ir m . P ears o n a ckno w le d ged th at m any o f h is l e ad ers h ip m eth o ds w ere n ew to h im , a nd th at h is e xp erie nce w as a cap sto ne o f a n a lr e ad y r e m ark ab le c are er.

9 Today, a n ew P ears o n h as d esis te d f r o m i s su in g o rd ers to p eo ple , a nd h e i s ask in g q uesti o ns a nd s o lic iti n g i d eas. H e h as b eco m e a m ento r to m any i n th e f ir m .

Pears o n a ckno w le d ges th at m any o f h is l e ad ers h ip m eth o ds a re n ew to h im , a nd th at his e xp erie nce i s a c ap sto ne o f a n a lr e ad y r e m ark ab le c are er.

9 Ja co b B ro no w sk i w ro te , “ W e h av e to u nd ers ta nd th at th e w orld c an o nly b e gra sp ed b y a cti o n, n o t b y c o nte m pla ti o n. . . . T he m ost p ow erfu l d riv e i n th e a sc ent of m an i s h is p le asu re i n h is o w n s k ills . H e l o ves to d o w hat h e d oes w ell, a nd hav in g d one i t w ell, h e l o ves to d o i t b ette r.” 10 As w e p ond er th e w ays th at c o m pete ncie s a re l in ked to geth er, w e h av e n o w ay of te arin g a p art th e i m pact o f th ese m any f o rc es. I s i t a h alo e ffe ct, o r i s i t th e r e su lt of c ro ss tr a in in g? W hat r o le d oes i n cre ase d c o nfid ence p la y, o r esc ala ti n g asp ir a ti o ns? W e m ay n ev er k no w th e a nsw er, b ut w e a re c o nv in ced th at th e a nsw er lie s i n s o m e c o m bin ati o n o f th e f o ur.

103 Six te en B eh avio rs ( C om pete n cie s) T hat M ak e a Dif fe ren ce i n H ow L ea d ers A re P erceiv ed B y O th ers Hav in g p re se nte d o ur c o ncern s a b out c o m pete ncie s a nd s o m e s u ggesti o ns a b out re m ed yin g th o se c o ncern s, a lo ng w ith a n a naly sis o f w hy th ey a re s o i n tr ic ate ly lin ked , w e n o w p re se nt o ur o w n f r a m ew ork o f c o m pete ncie s th at m ake a diffe re nce.

How a re i m pre ssio ns a b out l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness m ost p ow erfu lly c re ate d ?

Our r e se arc h s h o w s th at r a te rs n o ti c ed s o m e c o m pete ncie s m uch m ore th an th ey d o oth ers . W e b elie v e th at e m phasiz in g th e d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s w ill h elp le ad ers c re ate a m ore f a v ora b le i m pre ssio n. O ur r e se arc h c o nfir m s th at a r e al im pact o n e m plo yee tu rn o ver, c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n, a nd p ro fita b ility o ccurs o nly when l e ad ers h ip i s p erc eiv ed a s b ein g e xtr e m ely b ad o r e xcep ti o nally g o od. B ein g ho rrib le a t a c o m pete ncy g ets n o ti c ed ; b ein g e xtr a o rd in arily g o od g ets n o ti c ed ; b ut bein g a v era ge o r g o od a t s o m eth in g d oes n o t. H ence, th e n eed f o r o ur a d vic e re gard in g f ix in g a f a ta l f la w . I f p eo ple h av e a f a ta l f la w ( s o m e b ehav io r o r co m pete ncy th at i s r a te d v ery n egati v ely ), th is m ay b e th e m ain s o urc e o f th eir negati v e i m pre ssio n. T o c re ate a c hange i n th e gesta lt ( g enera l i m pre ssio n), p eo ple need to m ake n o ti c eab le c hanges.

We g ro up th ese b ehav io rs i n to th e s a m e c o m ponents a s th e e arlie r m odel pre se nte d i n Chap te rs 1 a nd 3 . W hat f o llo w s i s a m ore d eta ile d d esc rip ti o n o f th ese co m pete ncie s, w ith f u rth er i n fo rm ati o n a b out h o w p eo ple w ho s c o re h ig hly o n a parti c ula r c o m pete ncy b ehav e a nd a ls o h o w p eo ple w ho r e ceiv e l o w s c o re s o n i t behav e.

Chara cte r 1. D is p la yin g h ig h i n te grity a nd h o nesty Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• A void s a yin g o ne th in g a nd d oin g a no th er ( i.e ., “ w alk th e ta lk ”) • A ct c o nsis te ntl y w ith th eir w ord s • F ollo w th ro ugh o n p ro m is e s a nd c o m mitm ents • M odel th e c o re v alu es • L ead b y e xam ple Poor p erfo rm ers :

• A re th re ate ned b y o th ers ’ s u ccess • M ake th em se lv es l o ok g o od a t th e e xp ense o f o th er p eo ple 104 • B la m e f a ilu re s o n o th ers Perso n al C ap ab ilit y 2. T echnic al a nd p ro fe ssio nal e xp erti s e Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• A re s o ught o ut b y o th ers f o r a d vic e a nd c o unse l • U se te chnic al k no w le d ge to h elp te am m em bers tr o ub le sh o ot p ro ble m s • H av e c re d ib ility b ecause o f th eir i n -d ep th k no w le d ge o f i s su es o r p ro ble m s Poor p erfo rm ers :

• D o n o t u nd ers ta nd th e j o b w ell • A re te chnic ally o r p ro fe ssio nally i n co m pete nt • H av e b eco m e o ut o f d ate te chnic ally • F ail to u nd ers ta nd th e te chno lo gy/p ro fe ssio n w ell 3. S olv in g p ro ble m s a nd a naly zin g i s su es Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• E xerc is e a h ig h l e v el o f p ro fe ssio nal j u d gm ent • M ake g o od d ecis io ns b ase d o n a m ix tu re o f a naly sis , w is d om , e xp erie nce, and j u d gm ent • E nco ura ge a lte rn ati v e a p pro aches a nd n ew i d eas Poor p erfo rm ers :

• F ail to a nti c ip ate a nd s ta y o n to p o f p ro ble m s • D o n o t c o nsid er a n a p pro pria te r a nge o f a lte rn ati v es b efo re m akin g a decis io n 4. I n no vati o n Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• E nco ura ge a lte rn ati v e a p pro aches a nd n ew i d eas • C onsis te ntl y g enera te c re ati v e, r e so urc efu l s o lu ti o ns to p ro ble m s • C onstr u cti v ely c halle nge th e u su al a p pro ach o f d oin g th in gs a nd f in d n ew and b ette r w ays to d o th e j o b • C re ate a c ultu re o f l e arn in g th at d riv es i n d iv id ual d ev elo pm ent • W ork to i m pro ve n ew i d eas r a th er th an d is c o ura ge th em 105 • E nco ura ge p eo ple to f in d i n no vati v e w ays to a cco m plis h th eir g o als Poor p erfo rm ers :

• H av e a “ o ne r ig ht w ay” m in d -s e t • A re a fr a id to c halle nge e xis ti n g s y ste m s, p ro cesse s, o r a p pro aches • F eel th at n ew o r i n no vati v e a p pro aches w ill c o st to o m uch to i m ple m ent o r cause d is ru p ti o n • S ho ot d ow n n ew i d eas o r a p pro aches 5. P ra cti c in g s e lf- d ev elo pm ent Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• M ake c o nstr u cti v e e ffo rts to c hange a nd i m pro ve b ase d o n f e ed back f r o m oth ers • S eek f e ed back f r o m o th ers to i m pro ve a nd d ev elo p th em se lv es • C onsta ntl y l o ok f o r d ev elo pm enta l o pportu niti e s ( th ey a re e xcite d to l e arn ) Poor p erfo rm ers :

• S eem u nco ncern ed a b out a ny k in d o f s e lf- im pro vem ent • A re c o nte nt w ith th eir c urre nt s k ills a nd a b iliti e s • F ear th at o th ers m ig ht p erc eiv e th eir d ev elo pm ent o f n ew s k ills a s a s ig n o f in co m pete nce o r w eakness Focu s o n R esu lt s 6. F ocus o n r e su lts Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• A ggre ssiv ely p urs u e a ll a ssig nm ents a nd p ro je cts u nti l c o m ple ti o n • D o e v ery th in g p ossib le to m eet g o als o r d ead lin es Poor p erfo rm ers :

• F ail to a chie v e a gre ed -u p on r e su lts w ith in th e ti m e a llo tte d • F ail to a chie v e th e g o als s e t f o r th eir w ork 7. E sta b lis h s tr e tc h g o als Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• M ain ta in h ig h s ta nd ard s o f p erfo rm ance • S et m easu ra b le s ta nd ard s o f e xcelle nce f o r th em se lv es a nd o th ers i n th e work g ro up 106 • P ro m ote a s p ir it o f c o nti n uo us i m pro vem ent Poor p erfo rm ers :

• F ail to b uild h ig h c o m mitm ent a m ong a ll e m plo yees to te am g o als a nd obje cti v es 8. T ake r e sp onsib ility f o r o utc o m es/in iti a ti v e Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• T ake p ers o nal r e sp onsib ility f o r o utc o m es • C an b e c o unte d o n to f o llo w th ro ugh o n c o m mitm ent • G o a b ove a nd b eyo nd w hat n eed s to b e d one w ith o ut b ein g to ld Poor p erfo rm ers :

• B la m e f a ilu re s o n o th ers • L ose i n te re st b efo re p ro je cts a re c o m ple te d a nd f a il to f o llo w th ro ugh In te rp erso n al S kills 9. C om munic ati n g p ow erfu lly a nd p ro lific ally Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• A re s k illfu l a t c o m munic ati n g n ew i n sig hts • P ro vid e th e w ork g ro up w ith a d efin ite s e nse o f d ir e cti o n a nd p urp ose • H elp p eo ple u nd ers ta nd h o w th eir w ork c o ntr ib ute s to b ro ad er b usin ess obje cti v es Poor p erfo rm ers :

• D o a p oor j o b o f c o m munic ati n g p la ns to p eo ple w ho h elp i m ple m ent th em • F ail to e xp la in th e p urp ose a nd /o r i m porta nce o f th e a ssig nm ents 10. I n sp ir in g a nd m oti v ati n g o th ers to h ig h p erfo rm ance Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• E nerg iz e p eo ple to g o th e e xtr a m ile • H av e th e a b ility to g et p eo ple to s tr e tc h a nd r e ach g o als b eyo nd w hat th ey orig in ally th o ught p ossib le Poor p erfo rm ers :

• F ail to i n sp ir e c o m mitm ent, h ig h e nerg y, a nd a w in nin g a tti tu d e 11. B uild in g r e la ti o nsh ip s 107 Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• A re tr u ste d b y w ork g ro up m em bers • B ala nce c o ncern f o r p ro ducti v ity a nd r e su lts w ith s e nsiti v ity f o r e m plo yees’ need s/p ro ble m s • A re a p pro achab le a nd f r ie nd ly • H and le d iffic ult s itu ati o ns c o nstr u cti v ely a nd ta ctf u lly Poor p erfo rm ers :

• A re d iffic ult to g et a lo ng w ith • P eo ple d on’t f e el f r e e to ta ke th eir c o m pla in ts to th em 12. D ev elo pin g o th ers Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• A re g enuin ely c o ncern ed a b out th e d ev elo pm ent o f o th ers ’ c are ers • G iv e i n d iv id uals a n a p pro pria te b ala nce o f p ositi v e a nd c o rre cti v e perfo rm ance f e ed back • G iv e h o nest f e ed back • T ake i n te re st i n th e w ork o f o th ers • S up port o th ers ’ g ro w th a nd s u ccess Poor p erfo rm ers :

• W ait to o l o ng to g iv e o th ers f e ed back • T ry to k eep g o od p eo ple r a th er th an a llo w in g th em to ta ke o n d ev elo pm enta l opportu niti e s 13. C olla b ora ti o n a nd te am w ork Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• H av e d ev elo ped c o opera ti v e w ork in g r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith o th ers i n th e co m pany • P ro m ote a s p ir it o f c o opera ti o n w ith o th er m em bers o f th e w ork g ro up • E nsu re th at th e w ork u nit w ork s w ell w ith o th er g ro up s a nd d ep artm ents Poor p erfo rm ers :

• D o n o t w ork w ell w ith p eo ple w ho h av e d iffe re nt b ackgro und s a nd pers p ecti v es • P ro m ote a s p ir it o f c o m peti ti o n w ith o th er w ork g ro up s 108 Lea d in g O rg an iz a tio n al C han ge 14. D ev elo pin g s tr a te gic p ers p ecti v es Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• K no w h o w w ork r e la te s to th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s b usin ess s tr a te gy ( lin e-o f- s ig ht co nnecti o n) • T ra nsla te th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s v is io n a nd o bje cti v es i n to c halle ngin g a nd meanin gfu l g o als f o r o th ers • C an ta ke th e l o ng v ie w ; c an b e tr u ste d to b ala nce s h o rt- te rm a nd l o ng-te rm need s o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n Poor p erfo rm ers :

• G et c aught u p i n th e “ d ay-to -d ay” a nd f a il to ta ke a l o nger-te rm , b ro ad er pers p ecti v e o n b usin ess d ecis io ns 15. C ham pio nin g c hange Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• B eco m e c ham pio ns f o r p ro je cts o r p ro gra m s, p re se nti n g th em s o th at o th ers su p port th em • A re e ffe cti v e m ark ete rs f o r w ork g ro up s’ p ro je cts , p ro gra m s, o r p ro ducts Poor p erfo rm ers :

• T end to f o llo w th e l e ad o f o th ers i n c hange e ffo rts 16. C onnect i n te rn al g ro up s w ith th e o uts id e w orld Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• H av e d em onstr a te d a b ility to r e p re se nt th e w ork g ro up to k ey g ro up s o uts id e th e g ro up /d ep artm ent • H elp p eo ple u nd ers ta nd h o w m eeti n g c usto m ers ’ n eed s i s c entr a l to th e mis sio n a nd g o als o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n Poor p erfo rm ers :

• M ake d ay-to -d ay d ecis io ns b ase d o n i n te rn al n eed s r a th er th an th e n eed s o f custo m ers • D o n o t h av e a b ro ad n etw ork o uts id e th eir o w n w ork g ro up Asse ssin g I n div id ual C om pete n cie s 109 Afte r d is c o verin g th ese 1 6 d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s a nd u nd ers ta nd in g th e im pact o f d ev elo pin g s tr e ngth s, w e e xam in ed ty p ic al a p pro aches u se d i n a sse ssin g a l e ad er’s e ffe cti v eness u sin g 3 60 d egre e f e ed back. O ur e v alu ati o n o f c o m mon pra cti c es i d enti fie d s e v era l c o nsis te nt p ro ble m s w ith th e d esig n a nd a p pro ach o f most 3 60 a sse ssm ents .

1. M any a sse ssm ents g iv e l e ad ers a f a ls e p ositi v e i m pre ssio n o f th eir a b ility .

Lead ers a ssu m e th at th ey a re d oin g f a ir ly w ell w hen i n f a ct th ey a re o nly av era ge.

2. M ost a sse ssm ents e m phasiz e d i d enti fic ati o n o f w eakness r a th er th an b uild in g str e ngth s.

3. M any c o m pare d o ne i n d iv id ual’ s r e su lts to th e m ean a v era ges, th us r e in fo rc in g th e n o ti o n th at a v era ge l e ad ers h ip w as th e ta rg et.

4. N o a sse ssm ents p ro vid ed a n e v alu ati o n o f th e i m pact l e ad ers h av e o n im porta nt o rg aniz a ti o nal o utc o m es s u ch a s e m plo yee e ngagem ent o r co m mitm ent 5. O pen e nd ed c o m ments r e q ueste d s u ggesti o ns f o r i m pro vem ent. T hese re in fo rc ed th e f o cus o n w eakness b ecause th ey g enera te d l o ng l is ts o f su ggeste d i m pro vem ents .

6. N o a sse ssm ents d ir e ctl y a sk ed f o r i d enti fic ati o n o f f a ta l f la w s o r s ig nific ant weaknesse s. T his m ad e i t d iffic ult f o r l e ad ers to i d enti fy th e d iffe re nce betw een a s k ill th at w as r a te d a s l e ss e ffe cti v e a nd a s k ill th at i f n o t c o rre cte d would h av e a s u b sta nti a l n egati v e e ffe ct o n th eir s u ccess.

Base d o n th ese i n sig hts w e d esig ned a u niq ue a sse ssm ent th at a d dre sse d th ese is su es. W e c re ate d i te m s th at b est d iffe re nti a te d p oor, g o od a nd e xtr a o rd in ary le ad ers a nd th at c o uld b e c o m ple te d i n a p pro xim ate ly 1 5 m in ute s. W e s o ught to giv e l e ad ers a m ore a ccura te v ie w o f th eir s tr e ngth s o r i n sig hts in to a p ote nti a l f a ta l fla w th at w ould c ra te r th eir e ffe cti v eness. R ath er th an c o m pare l e ad ers to a m ean av era ge o f a ll o th ers w e s h o w ed th em h o w th eir s c o re s c o m pare d w ith l e ad ers a t th e 7 5th a nd 9 0th p erc enti le . T his c o m paris o n to th e b est l e ad ers te nd ed to auto m ati c ally r e se t a n i n d iv id ual’ s ta rg et.

We i n co rp ora te d f iv e q uesti o ns th at a sse sse d th e l e v el o f e m plo yee c o m mitm ent and e ngagem ent o f th e p eo ple th at r e p orte d d ir e ctl y to e ach l e ad er. A ll o f o ur re se arc h h as i n d ic ate d th at th ese tw o d im ensio ns a re h ig hly c o rre la te d . U sin g th is data e ach i n d iv id ual l e ad er c o uld g et a n u nd ers ta nd in g o f h o w th eir l e ad ers h ip im pacte d th e s a ti s fa cti o n, c o m mitm ent a nd e xp ecte d tu rn o ver o f te am m em bers . W e hav e c o m e to th e c o nclu sio n th at th is a p pro ach p ro vid es a s tr o nger p la tf o rm f o r change a nd i m pro vem ent.

For a s e lf- a sse ssm ent o n th e 1 6 d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s g o to o ur w eb s ite at www.z e ngerfo lk m an.c o m a nd f o llo w th e E xtr a o rd in ary L ead er l in k.

110 5 LEA D ER S M UST F IT T H EIR ORG AN IZ A TIO N Old th ie v es m ake g o od j a ile rs .

—Germ an P ro verb B ru ce w ork ed i n a d m in is tr a ti o n f o r a l a rg e u niv ers ity , a nd b ecause o f a n e xcelle nt r e fe rra l f r o m a u niv ers ity p ro fe sso r, h e l a nd ed a p ositi o n w ith a s m all c o nsu lti n g f ir m . H is r o le w as to s ta rt o ut a s th e o ffic e a d m in is tr a ti v e m anager, b ut h e w as s la te d to m ove q uic kly i n to th e r o le o f m anagin g d ir e cto r o f th e f ir m . A t th e u niv ers ity , B ru ce h ad b een a s h in in g s ta r. H e w as e xtr e m ely m eti c ulo us i n h is w ork a nd p aid a g re at d eal o f a tte nti o n to d eta il. H e a lw ays m ad e s u re to f e rre t o ut a ll th e i n fo rm ati o n b efo re m akin g a d ecis io n. T hese w ere v alu ed tr a its a t th e u niv ers ity .

A s h e b egan h is r o le i n th e c o nsu lti n g f ir m , h e f o und th e e nv ir o nm ent to b e e xtr e m ely d iffe re nt. A t th e u niv ers ity , th e p ro posa ls m oved s lo w ly th ro ugh c o m mitte es. A mple ti m e w as a llo w ed f o r s tu d y a nd d eb ate .

The s m all c o nsu lti n g f ir m m oved q uic kly . P artn ers , a ll o f w ho m f e lt th ey h ad d ecis io n-m akin g a uth o rity , c o ntr o lle d th e f ir m a s a g ro up . H ow ev er, o ne p artn er w ould m ake a d ecis io n o ne w ay a nd th en a s e co nd p artn er w ould r e v ers e th at d ecis io n. T he p artn ers w ould m eet o ccasio nally to h am mer o ut th e d ecis io n a nd r e so lv e th e d is a gre em ent. P artn er m eeti n gs w ould b e h ard ball d is c ussio ns w here d iffe re nces w ere d eb ate d o penly . T he p artn ers , r a th er th an s ta yin g i n th e o ffic e to i m ple m ent d ecis io ns, w ere c o nsta ntl y a w ay o n co nsu lti n g a ssig nm ents . T hey a ssu m ed th at th e d ecis io ns th ey m ad e w ould b e i m ple m ente d .

Bru ce a p pro ached h is n ew a ssig nm ent w arily a nd d ecid ed th at w hat th e f ir m n eed ed w as m ore d elib era te d ecis io n m akin g, c le ar l in es o f a uth o rity , a nd a c o m mitte e s tr u ctu re to c o nsid er v ario us d ecis io ns. H e w ork ed f o r s ix m onth s to i m ple m ent th ese c hanges. A fte r s ix m onth s, th e o nly th in g B ru ce a cco m plis h ed w as c o nv in cin g e v ery p artn er th at h e n eed ed to l e av e th e f ir m . T he p artn ers u lti m ate ly r e co gniz e d th at th is n ew r o le f o r B ru ce w as n o t w ork in g, n o r w as i t l ik ely th at h e w ould e v er s u cceed . T hey p ro vid ed a s e v era nce p ackage to B ru ce. H e q uic kly l a nd ed a j o b i n a d m in is tr a ti o n a t a h o sp ita l. O ver th e n ext s e v era l y ears , B ru ce w as p ro m ote d i n th e h o sp ita l a nd e njo yed a n e xcelle nt r e p uta ti o n w ith th e s ta ff a nd th e p hysic ia ns.

Was th ere s o m eth in g w ro ng w ith B ru ce? W hy w as h e s o s u ccessfu l a t th e u niv ers ity a nd th e h o sp ita l b ut s u ch a f a ilu re a t th e c o nsu lti n g f ir m ? W as th ere s o m eth in g w ro ng w ith th e c o nsu lti n g f ir m ? T he c o nsu lti n g f ir m c o nti n ued to g ro w 111 and p ro sp er.

What th is s e rie s o f e v ents i llu str a te s i s th at l e ad ers h ip i s s p ecific to th e org aniz a ti o n. S om e c o m bin ati o ns o f i n d iv id uals a nd o rg aniz a ti o ns j u st d o n o t w ork out w ell. A lth o ugh i t w as c erta in ly tr u e i n th is e p is o de th at n eith er w as w ith o ut a sh are o f r e sp onsib ility f o r th e f a ilu re , w hat b eco m es e v id ent to e v ery o ne w ith a varie ty o f w ork e xp erie nces i s th at s o m e o rg aniz a ti o ns f it c erta in i n d iv id uals b ette r th an o th ers . I n d iv id uals h av e u niq ue c o m pete ncie s, b elie fs , a nd e xp erie nce.

Org aniz a ti o ns h av e e xtr e m ely d iffe re nt c ultu re s a nd n eed s. A lth o ugh th ere c an b e so m e a cco m modati o n b y e ith er th e i n d iv id ual o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n a t s o m e p oin t, peo ple a re m ore e ffe cti v e w hen th ey a re th em se lv es. I n h is b ook Ja ck S tr a ig ht fr o m t h e G ut , J a ck W elc h d esc rib es h is e xp erie nce a t G E s h o rtl y a fte r b ein g n am ed chair m an:

At o ne o f m y e arlie st b oard m eeti n gs i n S an F ra ncis c o s h o rtl y a fte r b ein g nam ed v ic e c hair m an, I s h o w ed u p i n a p erfe ctl y p re sse d b lu e s u it, w ith a sta rc hed w hite s h ir t a nd a c ris p r e d ti e . I c ho se m y w ord s c are fu lly . I wante d to s h o w th e b oard m em bers th at I w as o ld er a nd m ore m atu re th an eith er m y 4 3 y ears o r m y r e p uta ti o n. I g uess I w ante d to l o ok a nd a ct l ik e a ty p ic al G E v ic e c hair m an.

Paul A usti n , a l o ng-ti m e G E d ir e cto r a nd c hair m an o f th e C oca-C ola Com pany, c am e u p to m e a t th e c o ckta il p arty a fte r th e m eeti n g.

“Ja ck,” h e s a id , to uchin g m y s u it, “ th is i s n ’t y o u. Y ou l o oked a l o t bette r w hen y o u w ere j u st b ein g y o urs e lf.” Thank G od A usti n r e aliz e d I w as p la yin g a r o le — and c are d e no ugh to te ll m e. T ry in g to b e s o m eb ody I w asn ’t c o uld h av e b een a d is a ste r f o r me.

1 In th is c hap te r, w e w ill e xp lo re th e i n te ra cti o n b etw een o rg aniz a ti o nal r e q uir e m ents and i n d iv id ual a b iliti e s. W e b elie v e th at f in d in g th e r ig ht f it i s a k ey f a cto r o f su ccess. A t l o w er o rg aniz a ti o nal l e v els , f it i s n o t a s c riti c al, b ut a s p eo ple ta ke o n bro ad er r o le s, f it b eco m es a d efin in g f a cto r i n b oth th e s u ccess o f a l e ad er a nd o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

Tw o P ossib le S cen ario s Scen ario 1 What i f r e se arc h r e v eale d th at e v ery l e ad er i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n n eed ed a h ig h l e v el of c o m pete nce i n f iv e s p ecific b ehav io rs — and e v ery o ne n eed ed e xactl y th e s a m e fiv e? A nyo ne a cq uir in g th ese f iv e b ehav io rs w ould b eco m e a s u ccessfu l l e ad er a s 112 lo ng a s th ey w ere d one e xtr e m ely w ell.

Scen ario 2 What i f r e se arc h r e v eale d th at g re at l e ad ers n eed e xcep ti o nal a b ility i n a f e w co m pete ncie s, b ut th e s p ecific b ehav io rs c o uld b e d iffe re nt f o r e ach e ffe cti v e le ad er? G re at l e ad ers c o uld b e u niq ue, w id ely d iffe re nt, o ne-o f- a -k in d v ers io ns.

Consid erin g th ese tw o s c enario s, w hic h w ould y o u l ik e to b e tr u e? O n th e o ne hand , S cenario 1 s e em s to p ro vid e a n a b so lu te a nsw er a s to w hat g re at l e ad ers need to d o, th e a nsw er th at p eo ple h av e s e arc hed to f in d f o r c entu rie s. B y f o cusin g all y o ur a tte nti o n o n d ev elo pin g a nd i m pro vin g th ese f iv e s p ecific b ehav io rs , Scenario 1 w ould p ro vid e a p re cis e f o rm ula f o r s u ccess.

On th e d ow n s id e, i m plic it i n th is s c enario i s th e a ssu m pti o n th at a “ co okie - cutte r” a p pro ach to l e ad ers h ip — th at a ll e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip i s th e s a m e a nd th at in d iv id ual d iffe re nces a nd u niq ue a p pro aches d o n o t w ork — can b e a p plie d .

Scenario 2 p ro vid es th e o pportu nity f o r p eo ple to c ho ose th e b ehav io rs i n w hic h th ey w ill e xcel. T he k ey to S cenario 2 i s d ev elo pin g s tr e ngth i n a f e w c o m pete ncie s th at a re v alu ed b y th e o rg aniz a ti o n i n w hic h o ne w ork s.

Key s t o S uccess a n d F ailu re One o f th e p rim ary f o cuse s e arly i n o ur r e se arc h w as to d is c o ver i f th ere w ere so m e c o m pete ncie s th at a re a b so lu te ly e sse nti a l i n o rd er f o r a l e ad er to b e co nsid ere d g re at. I n o th er w ord s, “ G re at l e ad ers a lw ays d o _ ____ w ell.” I n ad diti o n, w e l o oked f o r c o m pete ncie s th at, i f d one p oorly , w ere a c ause f o r f a ilu re .

Sure ly , th ere m ust b e s o m e b ehav io rs th at c ata p ult l e ad ers to s u ccess; c o nv ers e ly , th ere m ust b e o th ers th at d ra g l e ad ers to f a ilu re . I n th e r e se arc h p ro cess, h o w ev er, it a p peare d th at w henev er w e f o und a r u le , w e a lw ays f o und e xcep ti o ns to th at r u le .

We f o und m uch g re ate r s im ila rity i n th e c ause s o f f a ilu re th an w e f o und i n th e re aso ns f o r e ffe cti v eness. R ath er th an i d enti fy in g a c o nsis te nt p ro file o r s ty le th at alw ays w ork ed f o r e v ery p ers o n, w hat w e f o und w as a tr e m end ous v arie ty i n th e sty le , a p pro ach, a nd m akeup o f e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers . W hat s ta rte d o ut a s a dis a p poin tm ent i n o ur r e se arc h s o on tu rn ed o ut to b e v alu ab le i n sig ht o n l e ad ers h ip .

Extr a o rd in ary l e ad ers a re u niq ue. S om e h av e o ne c lu ste r o f a ttr ib ute s, w here as oth ers h av e a d iffe re nt c lu ste r o f a ttr ib ute s. T his i s n ’t to s a y th at e ach o f th e 1 6 co m pete ncie s w as e q ually p ow erfu l i n p re d ic ti n g o vera ll e ffe cti v eness. I n d eed , o ne co m pete ncy, “ in sp ir e s a nd m oti v ate s o th ers to h ig h p erfo rm ance,” i s th e s in gle m ost pow erfu l c o m pete ncy, a nd th is h as p ro m pte d u s to w rite a s u b se q uent b ook a b out i t, The I n sp ir in g L ea der . 2 113 The c o m monality w e c o uld f in d i n e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers i s th at th ey a re extr e m ely e ffe cti v e a t a f e w th in gs. W here as S cenario 1 w ould m ake l ife s im ple r fo r th o se r e sp onsib le f o r l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent, th at i s n o t th e r e ality . W e s u sp ect most p eo ple a re g la d th at S cenario 1 i s n o t th e w ay th e w orld w ork s. I t w ould b e min d -n um bin gly b orin g.

The g o od n ew s o f o ur r e se arc h i s th at i t r e in fo rc es th e n o ti o n o f i n d iv id uality and th e p ow er o f d ev elo pin g i n d iv id ual ta le nts a nd g ifts . F or th e a uth o rs , th is co m es a s a g re at r e lie f. W here as b oth o f u s h o pe w e p osse ss s o m e s tr e ngth s, o ur str e ngth s d iffe r m ark ed ly f r o m e ach o th er. T his f a ct h as b een o f g re at b enefit i n re se arc hin g a nd w riti n g th is b ook. T he s tr e ngth s o f o ne a uth o r b ala nced th e f la t s id e of th e o th er a uth o r. A fte r m any y ears o f p ers o nal c hange e ffo rts , b ein g extr a o rd in arily ta le nte d a t s o m e c o m pete ncie s c o nti n ues to e v ad e u s. I t i s j u st n o t i n our b ones. ( T his d oes n o t m ean w e a re to ta lly i n co m pete nt a t th ese s k ills , b ut cle arly w e a re n o t e xtr a o rd in ary .) The L ea d ersh ip P ara d ox Lead ers a re b oth u niq ue a nd a lik e. T hey a re u niq ue i n th at e ach o ne h as a d iffe re nt se t o f c o m pete ncie s th at i d eally f its th e o rg aniz a ti o n i n w hic h h e or s h e w ork s. T hey are a lik e i n th at, to b e h ig hly e ffe cti v e, th ey n eed to h av e a t l e ast o ne s tr e ngth i n th e diffe re nt s e cti o ns o f th e te nt. T he n et e ffe ct i s th at l e ad ers d o n o t a p pear to b e a lik e, much l ik e d iffe re nt v ers io ns o f c ars a ll b uilt o n th e s a m e c hassis a p pear to b e diffe re nt. B ut th e b asic c o m ponents a re s im ila r ( s a m e d riv e tr a in , s u sp ensio n, ele ctr ic al s y ste m s, e ngin e), d esp ite th e f a ct th at th ey l o ok v ery d iffe re nt f r o m th e outs id e. I n th e e nd , l e ad ers a re e xtr e m ely d iffe re nt o n th e o uts id e, w ith s e v era l fu nd am enta l s im ila riti e s u nd er th e s u rfa ce.

Dis c o verin g Y ou r G en iu s A p sy cho lo gis t o nce o bse rv ed th at th e s e cre t to l ife i s d is c o verin g w hat “in str u m ent” y o u a re , a nd th en l e arn in g h o w to p la y i t. W oodw in d s a re n o b ette r th an b ra ss, n o r a re c ello s s u p erio r to k ettl e -d ru m s. E ach d oes s o m eth in g e xtr e m ely well, a nd th e m usic al s c o re w ill c all f o r th at u niq ue c o ntr ib uti o n. S om e p eo ple se em to s p end th eir e nti r e l iv es s e arc hin g f o r w hat th at i n str u m ent i s f o r th em .

Oth ers , f o rtu nate ly , d is c o ver th eir i n str u m ent q uite e arly i n l ife .

As i n d iv id uals , w e a ll h av e c o m pete ncie s a nd a b iliti e s th at c o m e to u s m ore easily th an d o o th ers . W e a re d ra w n to s o m e ta sk s a nd r e sis t o th ers . I t i s d iffic ult to kno w i f o ur b ein g d ra w n to s o m e a cti v iti e s r e su lts f r o m p osse ssin g a u niq ue, 114 in here nt s k ill, o r i f b ein g g o od a t s o m eth in g c ause s u s to tr y h ard er a t s o m e s k ills vers u s o th ers . W hate v er th e r e aso n, i t i s n o t d iffic ult to o bse rv e a ny g ro up o f le ad ers i n a ny o rg aniz a ti o n a nd n o ti c e m ark ed i n d iv id ual d iffe re nces. A ll s e em to hav e b oth a c o m bin ati o n o f u niq ue c o m pete ncie s a nd a ls o o th er s k ills w here th ey fa re w ell, b ut a re n o t n ecessa rily g re at. A h and fu l h av e p ro no unced w eaknesse s i n a f e w a re as.

In a n e ffo rt to h elp p eo ple d is c o ver th eir g eniu s, a f o rm er c o lle ague, K urt Sand ho ltz , n o w a t S ta nfo rd U niv ers ity , h as c o nd ucte d r e se arc h w ith th o usa nd s o f peo ple .

3 H is q uest w as to d ete rm in e th e m eth o d w here b y i n d iv id uals h av e a “care er b est” e xp erie nce, o r th at c o nsti tu te s th e h ig h p oin t i n a p ers o n’s c are er. I t re p re se nts a ti m e w hen p eo ple f e lt th ey w ere m akin g a s ig nific ant c o ntr ib uti o n a nd th ey w ere v ery s u ccessfu l. U nd ers ta nd in g th ese “ care er b est” e xp erie nces h elp s peo ple u nd ers ta nd th eir g eniu s. G ene D alto n a nd P aul T ho m pso n f ir s t d ev elo ped th e c o re o f th is i d ea w hen th ey w ro te , “ If i n d iv id uals d on’t u nd ers ta nd th eir u niq ue str e ngth s o r i n te re sts , th ey d on’t h av e a ny b asis f o r d ecid in g w heth er a j o b o r a n assig nm ent m ake s e nse f o r th em . T hey a re v uln era b le to a ttr a cti v e e xte rn al r e w ard s or o rg aniz a ti o nal p re ssu re s. T hey h av e l ittl e b asis o n w hic h to f o rm e no ugh co nv ic ti o n to s a y n o to a n a p pare ntl y a ttr a cti v e o pportu nity . A nsw ers to c are er questi o ns c o m e f r o m w ith in o ne’s s e lf.” 4 To h elp p eo ple d is c o ver w hat th ey d o b est, S and ho ltz a sk s th em , “ W hat i s th e best j o b y o u’v e e v er h ad ?” A fte r e xam in in g th e r e su lts o f th ese s tu d ie s, h e dis c o vere d th at “ care er b ests ” h av e s o m e c o m mon c hara cte ris ti c s.

Fir s t, “ care er b est” ta p s i n to a p ers o n’s ta le nt o r c o m pete ncie s. C om pete ncie s, as n o te d i n Chap te r 4 , a re s k ills a nd b ehav io rs th at a p ers o n p erfo rm s w ell.

Seco nd , a “ care er b est” e xp erie nce te nd s to h ig hlig ht w hat p eo ple a re p assio nate ab out. P assio ns a re th in gs th at w e l o ve to d o, i n d ep end ent o f h o w w ell w e d o th em .

Som e l o ve to s in g i n th e s h o w er, d esp ite k no w in g th ey d o n o t d o i t w ell. T hir d , a “care er b est” a cti v ity i n ev ita b ly a d ds v alu e to th e o rg aniz a ti o n. W hen p eo ple desc rib e th eir j o b, th ey d on’t s a y, “ I w as v ery c o m pete nt a t d oin g th is j o b, I l o ved to d o i t a nd n o body i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n g av e a h o ot.” A b asic r e q uir e m ent o f a “ care er b est” a cti v ity i s d oin g s o m eth in g th at i s v alu ed and p ro vid es b enefit to th e o rg aniz a ti o n. A cco rd in g to S and ho ltz , a cti v iti e s a nd jo bs m enti o ned w ere f r e q uentl y a “ p ro duct o f l u ck r a th er th an p la nnin g.” R ath er th an h av in g p la nned o ut e ach s ta ge i n th eir c are ers , i n d iv id uals te nd ed to s a y o f th eir “ care er b est” th at th ey w ere “ ju st i n th e r ig ht p la ce a t th e r ig ht ti m e.” The C O P M od el In a n a tte m pt to i n cre ase th e f r e q uency o f c are er b ests a nd m ake th em m ore o f a 115 pla nned e v ent r a th er th an a s tr o ke o f l u ck, S and ho ltz a nd R on C uta d ean c am e u p with a m odel th at d esc rib es th e p rim ary d riv ers o f a “ care er b est” e xp erie nce.

5 W e hav e a d ap te d th at m odel a nd c all i t th e C O P m odel, w here C i s C om pete ncie s, O i s Org aniz a ti o nal n eed s, a nd P i s P assio n. W e d is p la y th e C O P m odel g ra p hic ally usin g a V enn d ia gra m w ith th re e i n te rs e cti n g s e ts , a s s h o w n i n Fig ure 5 -1 .

A l e ad ers h ip s w eet s p ot o ccurs w hen th ere i s a n i n te rs e cti o n o f c o m pete ncie s (e .g ., s k ills o r b ehav io rs a p ers o n p erfo rm s w ell) , o rg aniz a ti o nal n eed s ( e .g ., outc o m es th at a n o rg aniz a ti o n v alu es), a nd p assio ns ( e .g ., a cti v iti e s p eo ple l o ve to do).

Com pete n cie s Com pete ncie s a re th o se s k ills , b ehav io rs , a nd a b iliti e s th at a p ers o n d oes e xtr e m ely well. O ur r e se arc h o n th e i m pact o f s tr e ngth s a rb itr a rily d efin es th ese a s b ehav io rs ra te d a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le b y o th er p eo ple . A c o m pete ncy Fig ure 5 -1 T he C O P M odel can a ls o b e a n a re a o f k no w le d ge o r e xp erti s e . A s y o u th in k a b out y o urs e lf a nd y o ur ab iliti e s, s o m e o f th ese c o m pete ncie s a re b ehav io rs th at y o u te nd to b e n atu ra lly go od a t, w here as o th ers h av e b een d ev elo ped o ver y ears o f s te ad y g ro w th a nd pra cti c e. T hey m ay b e s k ills a t c asu al c o nv ers a ti o n, w riti n g, u nd ers ta nd in g c o m ple x pro ble m s, c o ncep tu aliz in g m odels , l is te nin g, g iv in g d ir e cti o n, o r s ta yin g c alm u nd er pre ssu re . T o u nd ers ta nd y o ur c o m pete ncie s, y o u m ig ht a sk y o urs e lf: W hen p eo ple ta lk a b out m y s tr e ngth s, w hat d o th ey m enti o n f ir s t? W here h av e I b een s u ccessfu l i n th e p ast? W hat a b iliti e s d o I s e em to d o b ette r th an o th ers ?

Org an iz a tio n al N eed s The “ O ” i n th e C O P m odel s ta nd s f o r o rg aniz a ti o nal n eed s. I n o rd er f o r l e ad ers to be s u ccessfu l o r f o r a n i n d iv id ual to f in d th e “ le ad ers h ip s w eet s p ot,” th e co m pete ncie s p eo ple h av e a nd th e p assio n f o r w hat th ey w ant to d o h av e to b e 116 valu ed b y th e o rg aniz a ti o n. T yp ic ally , o rg aniz a ti o ns v alu e c o m pete ncie s a nd passio ns o f i n d iv id uals th at h av e a f a ir ly d ir e ct i m pact o n th e s u ccess o f th e org aniz a ti o n. M any o rg aniz a ti o ns s e em to h av e a n arro w s e t o f c o m pete ncie s a nd passio ns th at th ey v alu e. P eo ple c an a rg ue a b out w heth er th e o rg aniz a ti o n “ o ught” to v alu e p arti c ula r c o m pete ncie s w hen i t d oes n o t, b ut th e f a ct r e m ain s th at i n o rd er fo r p eo ple to f in d th e “ le ad ers h ip s w eet s p ot,” th ere n eed s to b e a n i n te rs e cti o n o f co m pete ncie s, o rg aniz a ti o nal n eed , a nd p assio n.

Passio n Ju st b ecause w e h av e c o m pete nce a ro und a s k ill d oes n o t m ean th at w e w ill h av e passio n. I m ig ht h av e a g re at v oic e b ut d ecid e th at th ere i s n o f u tu re i n s in gin g, o r I mig ht d ete st g etti n g u p a nd p erfo rm in g i n f r o nt o f o th ers . C om pete nce, y es, b ut passio n ( I l o ve to d o th is , I w ant to d o th is , d oin g th is g iv es m e a p ers o nal h ig h), no . T he r e su lt i s a n u nd ev elo ped c o m pete ncy. P assio n a nd c o m pete nce c an f u ncti o n in d ep end entl y o f e ach o th er. P eo ple ’s p assio ns m ay b e i n s p orts b ut p hysic ally th ey are u nco ord in ate d , s lo w , a nd w eak. P eo ple i n g enera l h av e a n i n te re sti n g a tti tu d e ab out p assio ns. T hey f e el th at w hat th ey l o ve i s n atu ra lly g iv en to th em . S om e peo ple s e em to b e c o ntr o lle d b y th eir p assio ns a nd r a re ly a tte m pt to b ro ad en th em .

Oth er p eo ple s e e th at th e th in gs th at w e b eco m e p assio nate a b out c an c hange o ver ti m e. W e c an d ev elo p p assio ns f o r th in gs th at w e d id n o t r e ally l ik e a t o ne p oin t i n our l iv es.

To h elp u nd ers ta nd y o ur p assio ns, D alto n a nd T ho m pso n 6 s u ggest y o u m ig ht a sk yo urs e lf th e f o llo w in g q uesti o ns:

• W hat d o I r e ally e njo y d oin g?

• W hat e v ents b rin g m e a g re at d eal o f p ers o nal s a ti s fa cti o n?

• W hic h a cti v iti e s e nerg iz e m e i n s u ch a w ay th at th ey h o ld m y i n te re st?

When d o I l o se a ll s e nse o f ti m e?

• W hat a cti v iti e s d o I d ayd re am a b out o r i m agin e m yse lf d oin g?

Rese a rc h o n P eo p le in t h e S w eet S pot Contr a sti n g p eo ple w ho a re e xp erie ncin g th e s w eet s p ot a gain st o th ers i n th e org aniz a ti o n r e v eals s u b sta nti a l d iffe re nces i n b oth p erfo rm ance a nd a tti tu d e. T ho se who a re i n th e s w eet s p ot:

• A dd m ore v alu e th an d o th eir c o lle agues • A re r a nked a s h ig her p erfo rm ers • G enera lly w ork m ore h o urs p er w eek • A re n o t l o okin g f o r a no th er j o b 117 • A re m ore e ngaged a nd m oti v ate d • A re l e arn in g a nd d ev elo pin g n ew s k ills • A re h av in g f u n . . . a nd a re f u n to w ork w ith Fig ure 5 -2 C a nd O , N o P Barrie rs T hat G et in t h e W ay o f F in din g Y ou r S w eet S pot Com pete ncy p lu s O rg aniz atio nal N eeds b ut N o P assio n.

I n th is s itu ati o n ( Fig ure 5-2 ), a p ers o n h as th e c o m pete nce a nd th e o rg aniz a ti o nal n eed i s p re se nt, b ut th ere is n o p assio n f o r th e j o b. T his p ers o n w ill o fte n f e el b ore d , s tu ck, o r “ p ig eo n- ho le d .” I n th is s itu ati o n, a p ers o n m ig ht h av e a j o b h e h as b een w ork in g a t f o r a lo ng ti m e; h e h as g re at c o m pete nce, b ut h e h as b een i n h is p ositi o n f o r s o l o ng th at he f a ils to s e e a ny c halle nge o r e xcite m ent.

Org aniz atio nal N eeds p lu s P assio n b ut N o C om pete nce .

I n th is s itu ati o n ( Fig ure 5-3 ), a l e ad er w ork s i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n th at h as a n eed a nd w here th e l e ad er h as a gre at d eal o f p assio n, b ut n o t a h ig h l e v el o f c o m pete nce.

Fig ure 5 -3 O a nd P , N o C 118 Passio n a nd d esir e c an n ev er m ake u p f o r c o m pete nce. T his p ers o n i s s o m eti m es vie w ed a s i n co m pete nt, b ut m ore f r e q uentl y h e i s v ie w ed a s a v era ge. I n th is situ ati o n, th e o rg aniz a ti o n n eed s a p arti c ula r c o m pete ncy, a nd th e i n d iv id ual h as a str o ng d esir e to a tte m pt th e c o m pete ncy b ut l a cks th e a b ility to d o th is s k ill w ith ab ove-a v era ge e xp erti s e . I n o ur r e se arc h, w e f o und s e v era l e xam ple s o f th is . O ne was a n o rg aniz a ti o n th at e ngaged i n u p str e am e xp lo ra ti o n f o r o il, a nd th e org aniz a ti o n’s m ost p ro m in ent n eed w as te chnic al c o m pete nce. T he o rg aniz a ti o n was c o m pose d o f g eo physic is ts , e ngin eers , a nd g eo lo gis ts w ho h ad e xte nsiv e exp erti s e a nd a b ility . L ead ers w ho l a cked th e l e v el o f te chnic al k no w le d ge to “keep u p ” w ere o fte n v ie w ed a s th e p oore st l e ad ers .

Com pete nce p lu s P assio n b ut N o O rg aniz atio nal N eeds.

I n th is s itu ati o n ( Fig ure 5-4 ), a l e ad er h as th e r ig ht c o m bin ati o n o f c o m pete nce a nd p assio n, b ut a ll a re b uilt aro und s k ills a nd c o m pete ncie s th at a re n o t n eed ed i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n. T here i s a fa sc in ati n g p hilo so phy th at m any p eo ple h av e th at a n o rg aniz a ti o n o ught to acco m modate th e n eed s a nd p assio ns o f a n i n d iv id ual. H av in g c o ached p eo ple i n th is s itu ati o n, th ey o fte n r e sp ond w ith s o m eth in g l ik e, “ W ell, th is c o m pany n eed s what I h av e to o ffe r, b ut i t i s j u st to o d ense to u nd ers ta nd a nd a p pre cia te h o w I c an co ntr ib ute .” T his i s a b ad f it. N ot e v ery p ers o n i s g o in g to h av e a s a ti s fy in g a nd pro ducti v e c are er i n e v ery o rg aniz a ti o n. F re q uentl y , i n d iv id uals g et a j o b i n a n org aniz a ti o n a nd w hen th ey d is c o ver th at th eir c o ntr ib uti o n i s n o t v alu ed , th ey p ush back a nd tr y to c hange th e o rg aniz a ti o n i n a n e ffo rt to m ake th in gs w ork . T hey assu m e th at th eir i n ab ility to b e s u ccessfu l i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n s a ys s o m eth in g a b out th em . I n r e ality , a ll i t s a ys i s th at th e o rg aniz a ti o n d oes n o t v alu e th eir c o ntr ib uti o n.

They f e el l ik e th ey a re a f a ilu re r a th er th an a b ad f it. S o o fte n w e s e e i n d iv id uals who h av e s tr u ggle d a nd b een m is e ra b le i n o ne o rg aniz a ti o n m ove to a d iffe re nt org aniz a ti o n, o nly to f in d th em se lv es b ein g v alu ed , c o ntr ib uti n g, a nd m akin g a r e al diffe re nce.

Usin g t h e C O P M od el When y o ur c o m pete nce a nd p assio ns i n te rs e ct w ith o rg aniz a ti o nal n eed s, th e outc o m e i s a lw ays p ositi v e f o r th e i n d iv id ual a nd th e o rg aniz a ti o n. T he i n d iv id ual is d oin g s o m eth in g h e o r s h e i s c o m pete nt a t a nd h as e nerg y o r p assio n a b out th e ta sk s to b e a cco m plis h ed . T he o rg aniz a ti o n i s g etti n g g o od 119 Fig ure 5 -4 C a nd P , N o O re su lts i n r e tu rn . O ur r e se arc h h as h elp ed u s u nd ers ta nd th at s o m e c o m pete ncie s a re bette r a t c re ati n g l e v era ge a nd s u ccess i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n.

Chap te r 4 s h o w s th e re se arc h o n 1 6 k ey c o m pete ncie s th at h av e a h ig her l ik elih o od o f l e v era gin g o vera ll le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. T hese 1 6 c o m pete ncie s p ro vid e a g re at d eal o f l a ti tu d e i n te rm s o f s e le cti n g c o m pete ncie s th at a p ers o n c an d ev elo p i n to e xtr a o rd in ary str e ngth s.

Org an iz a tio n al C om pete n cy D riv ers When th ere i s a n i n te rs e cti o n o f c o m pete nce a nd p assio n w ith a n o rg aniz a ti o nal need , th is c re ate s a n o pportu nity f o r a n i n d iv id ual to s h o w e xtr a o rd in ary le ad ers h ip . D is p la yin g e xcep ti o nal s k ill o n a c o m pete ncy w here th ere i s n o org aniz a ti o nal n eed f a ils to p ro vid e m uch c lo ut i n te rm s o f l e v era gin g l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness.

Im agin e th at y o u a re a m em ber o f a s m all te am i n a h ig h-te chno lo gy c o m pany th at h as th e u np le asa nt ta sk o f d ow nsiz in g a g ro up o f p eo ple b y h alf. E ach p ers o n i s dis c usse d . S tr e ngth s a nd a re as o f n eed ed i m pro vem ent a re r e v ie w ed f o r e ach pers o n. A ll o f th e p eo ple a re s e le cte d f o r d is m is sa l e xcep t o ne. I t i s d iffic ult to cho ose b etw een tw o e m plo yees. T here i s a f a ir a m ount o f d is a gre em ent i n th e gro up a b out th e tw o p eo ple . F in ally , th e p ers o n s itti n g n ext to y o u, w ho h as b een a str o ng a d vocate f o r k eep in g o ne o f th em , s a ys, “S he i s a g re at p ia nis t.” W hat w ould be y o ur r e sp onse ? P ro bab ly , y o u w ould s a y, “ W hat d iffe re nce d oes th at m ake?” Alth o ugh b ein g a g re at p ia nis t i s a v ery n ic e s k ill to h av e, u nle ss i t f ills a n org aniz a ti o nal n eed , i t d oes n o t b enefit y o u a t w ork .

In th is c hap te r, w e h av e a v oid ed b ein g p re sc rip ti v e a b out s k ills th at e v ery o ne need s to d o w ell to b e a g re at l e ad er. O ur a d vic e i s to b uild a h ig h l e v el o f co m pete nce i n th re e to f iv e s k ill a re as, b ala nced a cro ss th e m ajo r a re as o f th e te nt we d esc rib ed i n Chap te r 3 .

120 In r e se arc hin g th e p ro file s o f d iffe re nt c o m panie s, i t i s a p pare nt th at d iffe re nt org aniz a ti o ns h av e s p ecific p ro file s th at p oin t to k ey c o m pete ncie s a b so lu te ly re q uir e d to b e s u ccessfu l. O rg aniz a ti o n p ro file s r e v eal o ne, tw o, o r th re e d om in ant chara cte ris ti c s th at te nd to d efin e a k ey c o m pete ncy f o r th at o rg aniz a ti o n. D oin g well o n th is s k ill o r c o m pete ncy p la ces y o u i n g o od c o m pany w ith m ost o th er mem bers o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n. H ow ev er, d oin g e xcep ti o nally w ell o n th is co m pete ncy d oes n o t te nd to l e v era ge o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. T he r e aso n fo r th is i s th at e v ery o ne d oes th e c o m pete ncy w ell s o i t i s a lm ost i m possib le to diffe re nti a te y o urs e lf f r o m m ost o th ers . D oin g p oorly o n th ese c o m pete ncie s, ho w ev er, w ould b e a c erta in p ath to f a ilu re . T hese o rg aniz a ti o nal c o m pete ncy driv ers te nd to h urt m ore th an h elp . T o b e s u ccessfu l i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n, i t i s c riti c al fo r p eo ple to u nd ers ta nd w hat th ese c o m pete ncie s a re a nd to p osse ss a r e aso nab le le v el o f s k ill i n th em .

What O rg an iz a tio n s V alu e An i m plic ati o n o f th e C O P m odel i s th at to b e s u ccessfu l i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n, p eo ple need to c o m bin e th eir c o m pete ncie s w ith th eir p assio ns a nd th en f in d a n org aniz a ti o n th at n eed s w hat th ey h av e to o ffe r. I n th e s a m e w ay th at p eo ple c o m e with d iffe re nt a nd u niq ue p ers o naliti e s, s o d o o rg aniz a ti o ns. N o tw o a re e xactl y th e sa m e. I n th e s a m e w ay th at o ne h as c o urts h ip s w ith a v arie ty o f d iffe re nt p eo ple to fin d th e i n d iv id ual th at b est f its o ne’s o w n p ers o nality , s o s h o uld p eo ple f in d a matc h b etw een th em se lv es a nd th e o rg aniz a ti o n f o r w hic h th ey w ork . M any p eo ple tr y to a cco m modate th eir o w n p ers o nal s ty le a nd d esir e s to th e n eed s o f a n org aniz a ti o n. A lth o ugh th is c an b e d one s u ccessfu lly , f r e q uentl y th is l e ad s to fr u str a ti o n, j o b d is sa ti s fa cti o n, a nd f a ilu re to b e p ro m ote d a nd a d vanced . F in d in g an o rg aniz a ti o n w here th ere i s a g o od f it o fte n a llo w s p eo ple to tr u ly e xcel.

Dif fe re n t S tr o kes f o r D if fe re n t F olk s In th e p ro cess o f b ein g e xte rn al c o nsu lta nts , th e a uth o rs h ad th e o pportu nity to beco m e a cq uain te d w ith m any d iffe re nt o rg aniz a ti o ns. A fte r y ears o f e xecuti n g su ccessfu l p ro je cts i n a v arie ty o f d iffe re nt o rg aniz a ti o ns, o ur f ir m w as i n v ite d to pro pose d oin g a p ro je ct f o r a l a rg e h ealth c are s u p plie r. O ne m onth e arlie r, w e h ad been a sk ed to p ro pose s o m e w ork f o r a te le p ho ne c o m pany. T he p re se nta ti o n w as a win ner; w e r e ceiv ed g re at r e v ie w s a nd w ere a w ard ed th e w ork . W e m odifie d th e pre se nta ti o n s lig htl y a nd p re se nte d e sse nti a lly th e s a m e th in g to th e h ealth c are co m pany. W e d id n’t e v en h av e to w ait f o r th em te ll u s th at w e d id n o t g et th e h ealth care c o ntr a ct. B y th e e nd o f th e p re se nta ti o n i t w as e v id ent. E valu ati n g o ur perfo rm ance, w e d id n o t f e el a ny d iffe re ntl y a b out th e q uality o f o ur p re se nta ti o n fr o m o ne c o m pany to th e n ext, b ut i t w as e v id ent th at th e te le p ho ne c o m pany l o ved us a nd th e h ealth c are c o m pany d id n o t. A fte r ta lk in g w ith o th er c o nsu lta nts , w e cam e to r e aliz e th at th e d iffe re nce w as n o t u s, b ut m ostl y w ith in th em . A gain , l e t u s 121 re ite ra te th at th ere w as n o th in g w ro ng w ith th e h ealth c are c o m pany. B ut th e th in gs th at th ey v alu ed , th eir s ty le , a nd th e w ay th ey th o ught a b out th e p ro je ct i n q uesti o n were c o m ple te ly d iffe re nt th an th e th in gs w e v alu ed , o ur s ty le , a nd th e w ay w e th o ught a b out th e p ro je ct. A s a p osts c rip t to th e s to ry , w e w ere l a te r ta lk in g to ano th er c o nsu lta nt w ho w as f a m ilia r w ith th e h ealth c are c o m pany b ecause o f o th er pro je cts h e h ad d one w ith th em . H e c o m mente d , “ Y ou’re j u st l u cky th ey d id n’t h ir e yo u; y o u w ould h av e h ate d th e p ro je ct.” I t tu rn ed o ut th at th is c o nsu lta nt h ad a sim ila r s ty le to o urs , a nd a fte r c o m ple ti n g h is p ro je ct h e v ow ed n ev er to w ork f o r th em a gain .

Afte r a naly zin g th e r e su lts f r o m 2 2 d iffe re nt o rg aniz a ti o ns, w e h av e i d enti fie d so m e c o m mon o rg aniz a ti o nal p ro file s. T hese p ro file s h ig hlig ht th e th in gs th at org aniz a ti o ns e m phasiz e a s s tr e ngth s. F re q uentl y , a n o rg aniz a ti o n m ig ht h av e se v era l o f th e s tr e ngth s l is te d b elo w b und le d to geth er.

One o f th e a uth o rs r e centl y v is ite d a l a rg e b ank. U pon l o okin g th ro ugh th eir aggre gate d l e ad ers h ip a sse ssm ent d ata , i t b ecam e e v id ent th at th ey w ere a n “av oid in g m is ta kes” /“ custo m er e m phasis ” o rg aniz a ti o n. B oth i s su es w ere v ery str o ng a nd p ositi v e f o r 8 0 p erc ent o f th e l e ad ers . I f y o u w ork f o r a n o rg aniz a ti o n th at h as a p ro file o f b ein g a n e xecuti o n o rg aniz a ti o n, y o u n eed to b e g o od a t executi n g ( e .g ., g etti n g p ro je cts d one o n ti m e a nd w ith in b ud get— no e xcuse s). A mis m atc h h urts a p ers o n’s c hance o f s u ccess, a nd e v ery o ne n eed s a n e nv ir o nm ent where h e o r s h e h as a r e aso nab le c hance to s u cceed .

Org an iz a tio n al P ro file s o f P riz ed C om pete n cie s Base d o n r e se arc h o n 2 2 d iffe re nt o rg aniz a ti o ns, w e f o und 1 3 p ro file s o f co m pete ncie s th at m ay b e v alu ed b y a n o rg aniz a ti o n. I n m ost i n sta nces, org aniz a ti o ns h ad tw o o r th re e o f th e c hara cte ris ti c s th at d esc rib ed w hat th e org aniz a ti o n v alu ed , th o ugh o ne a p peare d to d om in ate . I n a n e ffo rt to h elp r e ad ers asse ss w hat a re th eir o w n o rg aniz a ti o n v alu es, h ere a re s o m e o f th e m ore pro no unced o rg aniz a ti o nal c hara cte ris ti c s. T he o pportu nity h ere i s to j u d ge th e “go odness o f f it” b etw een w hat y o ur o rg aniz a ti o n tr u ly v alu es a nd y o ur o w n p atte rn of c o m pete ncie s.

Tech nolo gy E m phasis In th e te chno lo gy o rg aniz a ti o n, l e ad ers n eed to b e h ig hly k no w le d geab le a nd vie w ed a s h av in g te chnic al e xp erti s e i n th e c o re a cti v ity o f th e f ir m . A lth o ugh y o u would i m agin e th at th ese f ir m s w ere h ig h-te ch c o m panie s, w e h av e f o und th is chara cte ris ti c to b e v ery s tr o ng i n c o nstr u cti o n c o m panie s a nd n atu ra l r e so urc es org aniz a ti o ns a s w ell. I n a te chno lo gy o rg aniz a ti o n, p eo ple th riv e o n te chnic al 122 kno w le d ge a nd e xp erti s e . A f r e q uent s ig n th at y o u a re i n a te chno lo gy c o m pany i s th at p eo ple o fte n ta lk i n c o de. N ew e m plo yees f r e q uentl y n eed a tr a nsla to r to und ers ta nd w hat p eo ple a re s a yin g. A t H P, th e b est te chnic al e xp erts w ere c alle d “G ra yb eard s.” T hese s a ges h ad s p ent th eir l iv es i n sid e H P, d ev elo pin g n ew a nd exciti n g te chnic al i n no vati o ns. T hey w ere l o oked u p on a s h ero es i n th e org aniz a ti o n.

Work in g i n a p harm aceuti c al c o m pany w ith a s tr o ng r e se arc h e m phasis p uts a hig h p re m iu m o n u nd ers ta nd in g c hem is tr y , m ole cula r b io lo gy, a nd p harm aceuti c al sc ie nce. T ho se l a ckin g th at te chno lo gy b ackgro und w ere p erc eiv ed a s “ se co nd - cla ss c iti z e ns.” Advanta ges.

T his o rg aniz a ti o n r u ns o n c utti n g-e d ge te chno lo gy. L ead ers a re exp ecte d to l e arn a nd s ta y a b re ast o f th e l a te st d ev elo pm ents i n th eir f ie ld s. F or peo ple w ho e njo y te chnic al c halle nges, th is o rg aniz a ti o n i s e xtr e m ely f u lfillin g. A s a l e ad er, a p ers o n n eed s to u nd ers ta nd th e te chno lo gy a nd th en c o m bin e th at w ith oth er l e ad ers h ip c o m pete ncie s th at m ake a d iffe re nce.

Dis a dvanta ges.

I n th is o rg aniz a ti o n, th e i n here nt b elie f i s th at y o u c an s o lv e a ny pro ble m w ith te chno lo gy. H ere l in ear th in kin g c an b e c arrie d to a n e xtr e m e. A co lle ague w ork ed f o r a n o il c o m pany i n C anad a d urin g th e 1 980s o il c ris is . A s th e pric e f o r c ru d e w ent u p , th e c o m pany’s p la n f o r e xp lo ra ti o n gre w a t th e s a m e r a te .

Afte r r e v ie w in g a n e xtr e m ely l a rg e e xp ansio n p la n a nd th e p ers o nnel r e q uir e d to sta ff th e p ro je ct, m y f r ie nd c alc ula te d th at th ey w ould n eed to h ir e e v ery geo physic al s c ie nti s t w ho g ra d uate d f r o m e v ery u niv ers ity i n th e U nite d S ta te s a nd Canad a i n o rd er to s ta ff th e e xp ansio n. H is c alc ula ti o n d id n o t f a ze th e p la nners a t all. T he o nly th in g th at s to pped th e p ro je ct w as a c hange i n th e p ric e o f c ru d e o il.

Excelle n t E xecu tio n In th is o rg aniz a ti o n, th ere i s a s u b sta nti a l n eed to d riv e f o rw ard a nd a chie v e r e su lts , to g et th in gs d one o n ti m e, to s ta y i n b ud get, a nd to a lw ays m ake y o ur n um bers .

Lead ers e njo y c halle ngin g r e su lts , a nd th ey o fte n r u n o n a d re nalin e. T here i s co nsta nt e nerg y i n th e a ir . P eo ple i n ev ita b ly c o m e to w ork e arly a nd s ta y l a te . T his org aniz a ti o n a ttr a cts o r e nco ura ges p eo ple w ho a sp ir e to c lim b th e c o rp ora te la d der o f s u ccess. G oals a re a lw ays a ggre ssiv e a nd c halle nge e v ery o ne’s a b iliti e s.

Fre q uentl y , th ese o rg aniz a ti o ns h av e h ig h r e w ard s f o r th e b est p erfo rm ers a nd a pro cess to c o nsta ntl y “ w eed o ut” th e b otto m 1 0 p erc ent.

Advanta ges.

T his o rg aniz a ti o n m oves f a st, a nd c hange h ap pens q uic kly . I f p eo ple enjo y c halle nges a nd l ik e to s tr e tc h th em se lv es, th is o rg aniz a ti o n w ill f it th em w ell.

Peo ple w ho h av e h ig h c are er a sp ir a ti o ns c an b e v ery s u ccessfu l, a nd ty p ic ally th ese org aniz a ti o ns o ffe r a g re at d eal o f m ovem ent a nd p ro m oti o nal o pportu nity .

Em plo yees f r o m a c o m pany th at h ad a s tr o ng r e p uta ti o n f o r b ein g a n e xecuti o n org aniz a ti o n w ould a ls o i n d ic ate th at th eir c o m pany w as a g o od c o m pany to b e 123 fr o m . M any e m plo yees h ad a 1 0-y ear p la n: th ey w ould r is e to a h ig h-le v el p ositi o n, cash i n o n th eir s to ck o pti o ns, a nd th en ta ke a p ositi o n w ith a no th er c o m pany w here th e p ace w as n o t a s q uic k, b ut th ey w ould r e ceiv e a c o m peti ti v e s a la ry a nd h av e le ss r is k a nd l e ss r e w ard .

Dis a dvanta ges.

A s w ith a ny g re at c o nq uest, th ere a re ty p ic ally m any d ead a nd wound ed . T he r e ality i s th at i f y o u d on’t k eep u p , y o u’re o ut. I n d iv id ual s u ccess i s ofte n a f u ncti o n o f c o m pany v ia b ility a nd e co no m ic c o nd iti o ns. I n a b ull m ark et with a g re at p ro duct, th is c an b e e xtr a o rd in ary f u n. B ut i n a b ear s to ck m ark et, w ith a b ad e co no m y, th ese c o m panie s c an b eco m e e xtr e m ely h ars h e nv ir o nm ents . P eo ple le av e b ecause th ere i s o fte n l ittl e l o yalty .

A c o nsu lti n g f ir m w as a sk ed to d o r e se arc h f o r a c o m pany w ho se i n te rn ati o nal executi v es w ere l e av in g th e o rg aniz a ti o n i n h ig h n um bers . T hey w ere a s tr o ng executi o n c o m pany. T he w orld w as i n th e m id dle o f a m oneta ry c ris is , a nd th e bonuse s o f th e e xecuti v es w ere b ase d o n p ro fits i n U .S . d olla rs . E very o ne o f th e executi v es w as u nd erw ate r i n th eir s to ck o pti o ns a nd th eir b onus p la n. T heir l o gic was s im ple : l e av e a nd g o s o m ew here e ls e to g et a f r e sh s ta rt, r a th er th an tr y in g to dig o ut f r o m u nd er a c o m pensa ti o n p la n ty p ic al o f a n e xecuti o n-fo cuse d c o m pany.

There w as n o p ers o nal l o yalty to s e nio r e xecuti v es. I t w as a ll “ head ” a nd v ery l ittl e “heart.” S o w hen th e n um bers w ork ed o ut to m ake i t b ette r to l e av e, th ere w as n o t a mom ent’ s h esita ti o n.

Avo id in g M is ta kes In th is o rg aniz a ti o n, th ere i s a c riti c al n eed to d o th in gs r ig ht. E xcelle nce, q uality , and c o nfo rm ance to s ta nd ard s a re th e o rg aniz a ti o nal b ylin es. H ow ev er, th e r e w ard fo r ta kin g o n a n ew p ro je ct o r ta kin g s o m e i n iti a ti v e i s n o t a s g re at a s th e punis h m ent f o r m akin g a m is ta ke. S o th ere i s a n e no rm ous e m phasis o n c heckin g ev ery w ritte n d ocum ent tw o a nd th re e ti m es. P re se nta ti o ns a re r e hears e d a nd r e - re hears e d . E very c o lu m n o f f ig ure s i s a d ded a nd r e -a d ded to m ake s u re th ere a re n o mis ta kes. T his i s a f r e q uent p heno m eno n i n o rg aniz a ti o ns th at h av e l a rg e c o rp ora te sta ffs . T heir r o le o fte n e v olv es i n to o ne o f “ co p,” w here th e e m phasis i s o n catc hin g m is ta kes m ad e b y a n o pera ti n g c o m pany.

One o f th e a uth o rs w as r e v ie w in g a p re se nta ti o n w ith a c lie nt to b e p re se nte d befo re th eir c hair m an. A fte r s e ein g th e p re se nta ti o n, s h e s a id , “ I h av e s o m e fe ed back f o r y o u.” “ G re at,” I c o m mente d . H er f e ed back w as, “ Y ou n eed to b e a b it more b utto ned u p .” A t f ir s t I w asn ’t q uite s u re w hat s h e m eant. “ W hat d o I n eed to do l e ss o f? ” I a sk ed . H er r e p ly , “ D on’t a sk s o m any q uesti o ns. J u st g iv e th e chair m an th e f a cts . A nd k eep th e p re se nta ti o n s h o rt. T he m ore i n fo rm ati o n w e g iv e th e c hair m an, th e g re ate r th e c hance f o r h is d is a gre ein g w ith s o m eth in g y o u s a y.” The q uality m ovem ent h as c re ate d m any o rg aniz a ti o ns i n w hic h q uality h as perm eate d e v ery a sp ect o f th e c o rp ora te c ultu re . A n a d diti o nal a sp ect o f s o m e o f th ese o rg aniz a ti o ns i s a r e lu cta nce to e ngage i n i n no vati o n, r is k ta kin g, o r c re ati v e 124 th in kin g. T he o rg aniz a ti o n i s r u n b y p olic ie s a nd p ro ced ure s. T here i s a g re at n eed fo r o rd er a nd p re cis io n i n th e w ay th in gs a re d one.

Advanta ges.

L ead ers ta ke p rid e i n o rd er, d eep ly a naly ze e v ery a sp ect o f a p ro je ct, and d o h ig h-q uality w ork . O rg aniz a ti o ns th at e m phasiz e s a fe ty o r q uality s ta nd ard s ofte n h av e th is s tr e ngth . I f y o u e njo y o rd er a nd d oin g th in gs b y th e b ook, th is org aniz a ti o n w ill f it y o u w ell. T yp ic ally , p eo ple i n th ese c o m panie s w ill b e g iv en extr a ti m e to p olis h a nd c o m ple te ly f in is h a ssig nm ents . G etti n g 8 0 p erc ent r ig ht i s no t a b enefic ia l a p pro ach i n th ese o rg aniz a ti o ns. I f a p ers o n c ra v es p re d ic ta b ility , th is i s th e i d eal c o m pany f o r h er.

Dis a dvanta ges.

T he o rg aniz a ti o n i s f r e q uentl y s lo w ed d ow n b y b ure aucra cy a nd excessiv e d eta ils a nd i s f r e q uentl y r is k a v ers e . P eo ple w ho l ik e to o pera te i n a f a st and f r e er m odel s h o uld a v oid th ese c o m panie s.

Custo m er E m phasis Lead ers a re to ta lly f o cuse d o n s a ti s fy in g c usto m er n eed s a nd r e sp ond in g to th eir re q uests . L ead ers ta ke p rid e i n k no w in g c usto m ers , w ork in g p ers o nally w ith th em , and s o lv in g th eir p ro ble m s. C usto m er i n te re sts a re o fte n p la ced b efo re th o se o f th e em plo yees o r th e s h are ho ld ers . I f th ere i s e v er a p ro ble m b etw een a c usto m er a nd an e m plo yee, th e c usto m er i s a ssu m ed to b e r ig ht a nd th e e m plo yee w ro ng.

One o f th e a uth o rs th o ught h e k new w hat i t m eant to b e c usto m er-fo cuse d , b ut th en w as a sk ed to b uild a n a sse ssm ent to ol f o r a c o m pany th at w as o bse sse d w ith custo m ers . S om e o f th e i te m s th at w ere c re ate d to a sse ss th e i n te nsity o f th eir d esir e to u nd ers ta nd c usto m ers i n clu d ed :

1. C onti n ually s e eks i n fo rm ati o n a b out c usto m ers ’ u nd erly in g o r f u tu re n eed s.

2. C an d esc rib e th e c usto m er’s b usin ess f r o m th e c usto m er’s v ie w poin t, n o t th e co m pany’s p oin t o f v ie w .

3. S pend s e no ugh ti m e i n th e m ark etp la ce to u nd ers ta nd th e u nd erly in g, u nm et need s o f c usto m ers .

4. M akes o th er p eo ple g et i n sid e th e c usto m ers ’ w orld .

A m ajo r p art o f l e ad ers ’ e v alu ati o ns w ere b ase d o n th e r e su lts to th ese q uesti o ns.

Advanta ges.

T his c o m pany e njo ys a b so lu te c la rity a b out w hat c usto m ers c urre ntl y want a nd n eed . T yp ic ally , th is o rg aniz a ti o n i s s u ccessfu l a t g enera ti n g a h ig h l e v el of c usto m er l o yalty a nd s a ti s fa cti o n. M any p eo ple i n sid e tr u ly e njo y s e rv in g custo m ers . I t g iv es a n e m pow erin g f e elin g to th e p eo ple i n sid e.

In a n a naly sis f o r a n i n su ra nce c o m pany, i t w as f o und th at e m plo yees w ho re p orte d s u ccess i n b ein g a b le to r e so lv e c usto m er p ro ble m s w ere m uch l e ss lik ely to q uit th eir j o bs. N ot b ein g a b le to f ix c usto m er p ro ble m s m ad e e m plo yees fr u str a te d w ith th eir j o bs. T o b e e ffe cti v e i n a c usto m er-fo cuse d c o m pany, p eo ple 125 need to h av e a s tr o ng o rie nta ti o n to w ard s e rv ic e. C usto m ers c an b e d iffic ult a nd challe ngin g. E xcep ti o nal c usto m er s e rv ic e i s r a re ly c o nv enie nt o r d one w ith o ut so m e a d diti o nal e ffo rt. P eo ple w ho e njo y th is w ork p ro vid e th e s e rv ic es s im ply because th ey e njo y d elig hti n g a c usto m er.

Dis a dvanta ges.

L ead ers a re s o f o cuse d o n p le asin g th e c usto m er th at th ey l o se sig ht o f i n te rn al o pera ti o nal i s su es a nd l o ng-te rm d ir e cti o n. S om e o rg aniz a ti o ns fin d i t i m possib le to s a y “ no ” to a c usto m er, e v en w hen th e r e q uest i s u nre aso nab le .

And m any o rg aniz a ti o ns f in d i t h ard to d efin e p eo ple o r c o m panie s a s “no ncusto m ers ,” b ecause d oin g b usin ess w ith th em i s to o e xp ensiv e o r d iffic ult.

To e njo y th is o rg aniz a ti o n m eans th at p eo ple h av e to l o ve c usto m ers . N ot a ll custo m ers a re e njo yab le to w ork w ith , a nd to d o th is j o b w ell, p eo ple h av e to accep t th e g o od w ith th e b ad . I f y o u e njo y i n te rn al i n te ra cti o n r a th er th an c usto m er in te ra cti o ns, th is m ay n o t b e th e i d eal o rg aniz a ti o n f o r y o u.

The G en te el O rg an iz a tio n Lead ers i n th is o rg aniz a ti o n f o cus o n d ev elo pin g a k in d a nd c o nsid era te org aniz a ti o n. C onfr o nta ti o n n ev er o ccurs . S erio us i s su es a re u su ally s w ep t u nd er th e c arp et. P erfo rm ance r e v ie w s a re a v oid ed o r c o uched i n e xtr e m ely g entl e te rm s.

One o f th e a uth o rs r e co unts , “ I w as w ork in g i n a c o m pany i n M in neso ta a nd ask ed a n i n te rn al e m plo yee w hat i t w as l ik e to w ork i n th e c o m pany. H is r e sp onse was, ‘ W e a re a ll M in neso ta n ic e.’ ‘ W hat i s M in neso ta n ic e?’ I a sk ed . T he em plo yee e xp la in ed th at p eo ple i n th e c o m pany w ere e xtr e m ely p olite w ith e ach oth er. T hey w ere a lw ays p le asa nt. T hey n ev er s a id n egati v e o r d em eanin g th in gs ab out o th er e m plo yees. A fte r h earin g a ll th is I c o m mente d , ‘ S ound s l ik e a g re at pla ce to w ork ,’ to w hic h th e e m plo yee r e sp ond ed , ‘ It i s , b ut y o u n ev er k no w w hat peo ple r e ally th in k o f y o u.’ ” S om e o rg aniz a ti o ns h av e c re ate d a c ultu re th at enco ura ges p eo ple to p la y n ic e.

Advanta ges.

T his o rg aniz a ti o n i s a g ente el p la ce to w ork . E m plo yees a re “ B oy Sco uts ” — th ey a re tr u stw orth y, l o yal, h elp fu l, f r ie nd ly , c o urte o us, k in d , o bed ie nt, cheerfu l, b ra v e, c le an, a nd r e v ere nt. T yp ic ally e m plo yees w ill s ta y w ith th e org aniz a ti o n f o r a l o ng ti m e. T here i s l ittl e u nfo rc ed tu rn o ver.

Dis a dvanta ges.

O fte n, c and or i s m is sin g f r o m th is k in d o f a n o rg aniz a ti o n.

Som eti m es i t i s d iffic ult f o r p eo ple to g ro w a nd p ro gre ss i n th is o rg aniz a ti o n because th ey n eed f o cuse d , to ugh f e ed back b ut n ev er g et i t. C onflic ts r a re ly o ccur, and p eo ple c o nfo rm r a th er th an d is a gre e. I n a r e cent m eeti n g o f a tr a d e a sso cia ti o n, a m em ber o f th e b oard c o m mente d , “ O ur p ro ble m i s th at w e a re j u st l ik e th e co m panie s w e c o m e f r o m . T hese a re a ll r e ally n ic e c o m panie s w here p eo ple a re ple asa nt a nd c o nsid era te o f e ach o th er. W hile I e njo y th at a g re at d eal, i n o rd er to move th is a sso cia ti o n f o rw ard w e n eed to c o nfr o nt s o m e d iffic ult i s su es a nd g iv e each o th er s o m e to ugh f e ed back. I a m n o t s u re w e a re u p to th e ta sk .” F or p eo ple 126 who l ik e to p la y h ard ball, w ork in g i n th is o rg aniz a ti o n c an b e a r e al c halle nge.

Their c are er p ro gre ssio n m ig ht b e l im ite d b ecause th ey a re to o p ush y.

The C an dor O rg an iz a tio n Lead ers i n th is o rg aniz a ti o n “ te ll i t l ik e i t i s .” T yp ic ally , th ere i s a s tr o ng f e ed back cultu re , i n w hic h f e ed back f lo w s r a th er f r e ely b oth u p a nd d ow n th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

Tho se w ho th riv e i n th is c o m pany n eed to b e n o t o nly g o od a t r e ceiv in g f e ed back but a ls o e ffe cti v e a t g iv in g o th ers f e ed back. W hile l is te nin g to a c o nv ers a ti o n betw een tw o l e ad ers i n a c and id o rg aniz a ti o n, o ne a uth o r h eard a l e ad er c o m ment th at a d ir e ct r e p ort d id a n i n effe cti v e j o b o f p re se nti n g h er f in d in gs. T he o th er le ad er i m med ia te ly a sk ed , “ D id y o u g iv e h er th at f e ed back?” “ N o.” T he o th er le ad er r e p lie d , “ W ell, th en, y o u’re i n m ore tr o ub le th an s h e i s .” Advanta ges.

Y ou a lw ays k no w w here y o u s ta nd a nd w hat y o u h av e d one r ig ht. A fe ed back-ric h c o m pany c an b e a g re at o rg aniz a ti o n th at p ro vid es e xcelle nt l e arn in g and g ro w th o pportu niti e s. I f p eo ple h av e a n o pen, a ccep ti n g a tti tu d e a b out fe ed back, th ey w ill e njo y w ork in g f o r a n o rg aniz a ti o n s u ch a s th is .

Dis a dvanta ges.

S om e p eo ple a re n o t r e ad y f o r th is k in d o f h o nesty , o n e ith er th e giv in g o r th e r e ceiv in g e nd . S om e p eo ple l ik e to f ig ure th in gs o ut f o r th em se lv es, and f o r th em th is ty p e o f o rg aniz a ti o n c an f e el e xtr e m ely i n v asiv e.

The L ea rn in g O rg an iz a tio n In a l e arn in g o rg aniz a ti o n, p eo ple l e arn f r o m m is ta kes r a th er th an h id in g th em .

Dev elo pm ent o f s k ills a nd ta le nts i s v alu ed , a nd p eo ple a re c o nsta ntl y lo okin g f o r diffe re nt o r u niq ue l e arn in g o pportu niti e s. T here i s ty p ic ally a s tr o ng v alu e f o r in no vati o n. P eo ple a re c o nsta ntl y c o lle cti n g f e ed back a nd l o okin g f o r a b ette r und ers ta nd in g o f w hat h ap pened a nd w hy.

Advanta ges.

I n th is ty p e o f o rg aniz a ti o n, i t i s p erm is sib le to m ake m is ta kes, b ut i t is n o t o kay i f y o u d on’t l e arn f r o m y o ur m is ta kes. P eo ple a re s tr o ngly f o cuse d o n se lf- d ev elo pm ent a nd p ers o nal i m pro vem ent. T his o rg aniz a ti o n g iv es p eo ple ho m ew ork , a nd i t i s i m porta nt to g et y o ur h o m ew ork d one.

Dis a dvanta ges.

T he c o st o f d ev elo pm ent c an b e e xp ensiv e, a nd e m plo yees ty p ic ally e xp ect r e gula r a nd c o nsis te nt d ev elo pm ent o pportu niti e s. T hese org aniz a ti o ns c an b e a b it d is o rd erly b ecause p eo ple a re a lw ays r e in v enti n g th e wheel. I f y o u h av e d iffic ulty a ccep ti n g n ew i d eas a nd c hangin g, th is m ay n o t b e a go od o rg aniz a ti o nal c ho ic e.

The H ig h -I n te g rit y O rg an iz a tio n Doin g th e r ig ht th in g i s v alu ed b y l e ad ers i n h ig h-in te grity o rg aniz a ti o ns. T here i s a very s tr o ng e m phasis o n h o nesty a nd e th ic al b ehav io r. M any v olu nta ry 127 org aniz a ti o ns f o cuse d o n n o ble c ause s h av e th is s tr e ngth . P eo ple h av e s tr o ng desir e s to p ro m ote th e c ause o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n, a nd ty p ic ally th ere i s a h ig h l e v el of c o ngru ence a m ong o rg aniz a ti o nal m em bers a b out w hat i s a p pro pria te a nd w hat is n o t.

Advanta ges.

I n te grity i s a s tr o ng v ocal v alu e a nd i s e nco ura ged a t a ll l e v els o f th e org aniz a ti o n. S uccess i s m easu re d n o t o nly b y g etti n g r e su lts b ut a ls o b y h o w y o u went a b out g etti n g th em .

Dis a dvanta ges.

I t i s to ugh to p ra cti c e w hat y o u p re ach. S ayin g i t a nd d oin g i t a re tw o d iffe re nt th in gs. S om e o rg aniz a ti o ns s e t th e b ar s o h ig h th at m ost l e ad ers a re vie w ed a s h yp ocrite s w hen th ey w ith ho ld i n fo rm ati o n o r c hange d ir e cti o n. S om e org aniz a ti o ns g et to o z e alo us a b out p ro m oti n g th eir v ers io n o f th e “ rig ht th in g.” This o rg aniz a ti o n e nfo rc es c o m plia nce f r o m p eo ple to f o llo w th e l e ad er. M ake s u re befo re j o in in g a n o rg aniz a ti o n th at i s f o cuse d o n d oin g th e r ig ht th in g th at th eir belie f a b out w hat i s r ig ht s q uare s c lo se ly w ith y o ur b elie f.

The F air O rg an iz a tio n One o f th e m ost f r e q uent c o m pla in ts c o m in g o ut o f o rg aniz a ti o ns i s th at p ro m oti o ns and a d vancem ents a re b ia se d . W heth er i t i s a “ go od o ld b oy” netw ork , a b ia s to w ard M BA s f r o m c erta in s c ho ols o r to w ard g o lfin g b ud die s, th is i s su e i s fr e q uentl y a s o urc e o f d is sa ti s fa cti o n i n m any o rg aniz a ti o ns. O rg aniz a ti o ns th at h av e dev elo ped f a ir n ess a s a k ey s tr e ngth h av e f ig ure d o ut h o w to c re ate a n o rg aniz a ti o n re la ti v ely f r e e f r o m b ia s. L ead ers w ho h av e a s tr o ng d esir e to tr e at p eo ple w ith fa ir n ess l e arn to p ay c are fu l a tte nti o n to th eir b ia se s. F re q uentl y , th ese org aniz a ti o ns h av e f e w er l e v els a nd g re ate r e q uity i n p ay a nd b enefits . T here i s ofte n a p ush to tr e at e v ery o ne th e s a m e r a th er th an h av e o ne ti e r o f b enefits f o r peo ple a t o ne l e v el a nd d iffe re nt b enefits f o r th o se a t a no th er l e v el. T hese org aniz a ti o ns e lim in ate e xecuti v e p ark in g a nd b oond oggle s a lo ng w ith a p ro pensity to h ir e p eo ple o f a c erta in g end er, r a ce, a ge, o r s c ho ol b ackgro und .

Advanta ges.

E m plo yees f e el a s tr o ng p ositi v e f e elin g to w ard th e c o m pany. T hese org aniz a ti o ns a re g o od p la ces to w ork , w ith h ig h c o m mitm ent f r o m e m plo yees.

Fre q uentl y , e m plo yees w ill h av e l o ng te nure w ith th ese o rg aniz a ti o ns.

Dis a dvanta ges.

F or i n d iv id uals w ho e njo y g etti n g a head , th ese o rg aniz a ti o ns beco m e f r u str a ti n g a fte r a s h o rt s ta y. S om e p eo ple w ant to b e s e p ara te d a nd e njo y hav in g th e o pportu nity to g et tw ic e th e b onus a s o th ers . S om eti m es th e d ow nsid e o f fa ir n ess i s th at th in gs a re to o f a ir a nd b ig p erfo rm ance d iffe re nces a re n o t n o ti c ed .

The P olit ic a l O rg an iz a tio n The p oliti c al o rg aniz a ti o n i s o fte n r e fe rre d to a s a “ go od o ld b oys” c lu b . P oliti c s and c o nnecti o ns a re a m ong th e m ost c riti c al f a cto rs i n d ete rm in in g w ho w ill b e pro m ote d a nd w ho w ill g et a r a is e . F or p eo ple w ho w ork i n th ese k in d s o f 128 org aniz a ti o ns, th ere i s a f a ir a m ount o f p re d ic ta b ility . F or th o se w ho k no w th e r u le s and h o w to p la y th e g am e, th is o rg aniz a ti o n c an b e a r e aso nab ly g o od p la ce to work .

Advanta ges.

I f y o u a re o ne o f th e c ho se n f e w , th is o rg aniz a ti o n o ffe rs g re at opportu niti e s. T o s u cceed i n th is o rg aniz a ti o n, a p ers o n h as to h av e a k een s e nse o f politi c s a nd a w illin gness to p la y th e p oliti c al g am e.

Dis a dvanta ges.

I f y o u a re n o t o ne o f th e c ho se n f e w , th is o rg aniz a ti o n w ill b e diffic ult f o r a nyo ne tr y in g to g et a head i n h is o r h er c are er. F or p eo ple w ho d on’t enjo y p la yin g p oliti c s, th is i s n o t a f u n p la ce to w ork .

Cele b ra tio n O rg an iz a tio n The c ele b ra ti o n o rg aniz a ti o n i s b uilt o n i n d iv id ual e ffo rts a nd o pportu niti e s f o r re w ard s. O rg aniz a ti o ns w ith th is s tr e ngth f in d w ays to r e w ard p eo ple w ell f o r str o ng i n d iv id ual e ffo rts .

Advanta ges.

F or p eo ple w ith s tr o ng i n d ep end ent a tti tu d es a nd a w illin gness to work h ard , th is o rg aniz a ti o n o ffe rs u nlim ite d o pportu niti e s.

Dis a dvanta ges.

M any o f th ese o rg aniz a ti o ns a re m ulti la yere d s a le s o rg aniz a ti o ns th at a re d ep end ent o n h av in g e xcep ti o nal p ro ducts .

The B ure a u cra tic O rg an iz a tio n The b ure aucra ti c o rg aniz a ti o n h as e sta b lis h ed s tr o ng b ure aucra ti c p ro cesse s a nd pro ced ure s a nd s ti c ks to th em . M any b ut n o t a ll g o vern m ent o r u ti lity o rg aniz a ti o ns fit th is m odel.

Advanta ges.

T his o rg aniz a ti o n i s v ery p re d ic ta b le . I t i s g re at f o r p eo ple w ho l o ve ord er a nd h ate c hao s.

Dis a dvanta ges.

C an b e b orin g a nd u nchalle ngin g, b ut i t’ s a j o b.

The V ir tu al O rg an iz a tio n The v ir tu al o rg aniz a ti o n i s a n ew ty p e o f o rg aniz a ti o n th at i s e m erg in g. I n th ese org aniz a ti o ns, p eo ple a re c o m bin ed to geth er to f o rm a g ro up b ut w ork in d ep end entl y . T he g ro up m ay o nly m eet to geth er p hysic ally i n a r e nte d c o nfe re nce ro om , a nd th e i n te rc o nnecti o n m ig ht b e th ro ugh a W eb s ite . T his o rg aniz a ti o n atte m pts to l e v era ge th e p ow er o f th e g ro up , b ut e ach p ers o n a cts a s a n i n d ep end ent enti ty .

Advanta ges.

L ow o verh ead . L ots o f i n d ep end ence. T his p ro vid es th e u lti m ate i n fr e ed om f o r th e p ers o n w ho i s s e lf- d is c ip lin ed .

Dis a dvanta ges.

T ry in g to g et e v ery o ne f o cuse d c an b e a b it l ik e h erd in g c ats .

129 Work in g h ere r e q uir e s a w illin gness to ta ke r is k s. I t a ls o r e q uir e s p ati e nce a nd fle xib ility . T he v ir tu al g ro up n eed s to d ev elo p a h ig h l e v el o f tr u st a nd a s e t o f cultu ra l v alu es th at k eep th e g ro up w ork in g to geth er. I t c an a ls o b e e xtr e m ely lo nely .

Im plic a tio n s It i s c riti c al f o r l e ad ers to u nd ers ta nd th eir i n d iv id ual a re as o f c o m pete ncy, th e th in gs th at b rin g th em p assio n, a nd th e n eed s o f th eir o rg aniz a ti o n. T he “ le ad ers h ip sw eet s p ot” th at i s th e i n te rs e cti o n o f th ese th re e e le m ents h o ld s g re at p ro m is e f o r both i n d iv id ual a nd o rg aniz a ti o nal s u ccess. I t i s r a re to f in d a p erfe ct m atc h betw een i n d iv id ual c o m pete nce a nd p assio n a nd o rg aniz a ti o nal n eed s. W e k no w th at i n d iv id uals c an d ev elo p n ew c o m pete ncie s to f it th e n eed s o f a n o rg aniz a ti o n.

We a ls o k no w th at o rg aniz a ti o ns c an c hange th eir c ultu re , w hic h r e q uir e s l e ad ers with d iffe re nt l e ad ers h ip c o m pete ncie s. W e f in d th e i d ea o f th e C O P m odel co m pellin g, b ut w e a ls o f in d p eo ple r a ti o naliz in g th e l a ck o f i n te rs e cti o n i n th eir pers o nal s itu ati o ns. I n d iv id uals w ill c o m pla in th at th e o rg aniz a ti o n r e ally o ught to valu e w hat th ey d o a nd th at o rg aniz a ti o ns a re n arro w -m in d ed i n te rm s o f w hat th ey need . T hese r a ti o naliz a ti o ns d o n o t h elp th e i n d iv id ual o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n to beco m e m ore s u ccessfu l. A k ey to s u ccess f o r l e ad ers i s to f in d th eir o w n p ers o nal “sw eet s p ot.” F or e ach p ers o n, th ere i s s o m eth in g th at h e o r s h e c an d o e xtr e m ely well. T here i s a c o m pete ncy w ith w hic h h e o r s h e c an m ake a n e no rm ous co ntr ib uti o n. T he l a te G ene D alto n s p ent m ost o f h is c are er r e se arc hin g h o w p eo ple achie v e s u ccess i n th eir c are ers . H e f o und th at p eo ple w ho a re s u ccessfu l a re co nsta ntl y f o cuse d o n h o w th ey c an m ake a c o ntr ib uti o n to th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

7 I t m ay ta ke ti m e to d ev elo p a c o m pete ncy. O rg aniz a ti o ns n eed to b e p ati e nt a nd a ssis t w ith th at i n d iv id ual d ev elo pm ent, b ut u lti m ate ly o rg aniz a ti o ns n eed to b e s u ccessfu l o r th ey c ease to e xis t. W hen a n i n d iv id ual c an p ro vid e a n e xtr a o rd in ary c o m pete ncy th at a n o rg aniz a ti o n n eed s, th e o nly o th er c o m ponent th at i s r e q uir e d i s p assio n.

This i s th e e le m ent th at i s m ost u nd erra te d a nd y et p ote nti a lly th e m ost c riti c al p art of th e m odel. L ove, d esir e , m oti v ati o n, i n sp ir a ti o n, a nd p assio n a re i n th e f in al analy sis th e g re ate st d iffe re nces b etw een g o od l e ad ers a nd g re at l e ad ers . F or ad diti o nal to ols w ith w hic h to d ia gno se y o ur o rg aniz a ti o n’s c ultu re , v is it www.z e ngerfo lk m an.c o m . G o to th e i c o n d is p la yin g p ro ducts a nd s e rv ic es.

130 6 G REA T L EA D ER S P O SSE SS M ULTIP L E ST R EN G TH S Most p ro ble m s c anno t b e s o lv ed . M ost p ro ble m s c an o nly b e s u rv iv ed . A nd one s u rv iv es p ro ble m s b y m akin g th em i r re le v ant b ecause o f s u ccess. I t’ s am azin g h o w m any m in o r i lls th e h ealth y b ody c an s ta nd w ith o ut a ny tr o ub le .

One f o cuse s o n s u ccess, e sp ecia lly o n u nexp ecte d s u ccess, a nd r u ns w ith i t.

—Pete r F . D ru cker One s h in in g q uality l e nd s a l u ste r to a no th er, o r h id es s o m e g la rin g d efe ct.

—Willia m H azlitt The a w are ness o f o ur s tr e ngth m akes u s m odest.

—Paul C éza nne A n A ppro ach t o I m pro vem en t I m agin e th at y o u w ere w ork in g to i m pro ve y o ur l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. T o s ta rt t h e p ro cess, y o u p arti c ip ate i n a 3 60-d egre e a sse ssm ent o f y o ur s k ills a nd c o m pete ncie s. T he a sse ssm ent i s g iv en to y o ur b oss, s e v era l p eers , a nd d ir e ct r e p orts . T he r e su lts o f th e a sse ssm ent a re c o m pile d a nd c re ate th e p ro file s h o w n i n F ig ure 6 -1 .

The p ro file s h o w s a s e rie s o f l e ad ers h ip c o m pete ncie s b ase d o n th e a sse ssm ents o f o th ers . F or y o ur c o nv enie nce, e ach o f th e l e ad ers h ip c o m pete ncie s i s s o rte d f r o m t h e m ost p ositi v e c o m pete ncy to th e l e ast p ositi v e. T his g iv es 131 Fig ure 6 -1 S am ple F eedback yo u a q uic k o verv ie w o f y o ur r e su lts . I f th is w ere y o ur l e ad ers h ip p ro file , w hic h is su es w ould y o u s e le ct f o r c hange? M ark th e o nes th at w ould b e y o ur f o cus o f atte nti o n f o r th e n ext s ix m onth s.

In th is p ro file , s o m e o f th e l e ad ers h ip c o m pete ncie s a re m ore p ositi v e th an oth ers , b ut n o th in g s ta nd s o ut a s b ein g e xtr e m ely p ositi v e o r n egati v e. N o co m pete ncy s ta nd s o ut a s e ith er a p ro fo und s tr e ngth o r a te rrib le w eakness. I n o ur exp erie nce, w hen p eo ple g et f e ed back l ik e th is , th ey a lw ays s e em c o m pelle d to fo cus th eir a tte nti o n o n th e l e ast p ositi v e i te m s. T hin gs th at h av e b een s a id e arlie r in th is b ook m ay h av e p ro m pte d y o u to c o nsid er s o m e o f y o ur s tr e ngth s. B ut th at would b e a n e xtr e m ely r a re e v ent i n th e a b se nce of r e ceiv in g th is a p pare ntl y “co unte rin tu iti v e” o r c o ntr a ria n m essa ge. S om eth in g i n o ur c ultu re s a ys th at y o u pass o ver th e h ig her s c o re s a nd g o d ir e ctl y to th e l o w est o nes. I n th is e xam ple , o ne of th e a re as f o r i m pro vem ent w ould l ik ely b e c o m munic ati o ns. T yp ic al p la ns f o r change w ould h av e th e p ers o n s y ste m ati c ally ta ckle th e l o w est s c o re s, g et th o se fix ed , a nd m ove o n to th e n ext l o w est s c o re s. T hat l o gic a ssu m es th at i t i s th e a re as of l o w er e ffe cti v eness th at h urt th is p ers o n’s p erfo rm ance. P eo ple s e em m ore 132 sa ti s fie d w ith a f a ir ly c o nsis te nt p ro file , w ith a ll c o m pete ncie s a t a b out th e s a m e le v el.

Philo so p hie s o f E ffe ctiv en ess Most p eo ple , w heth er c o nsc io usly o r u nco nsc io usly , a d here to a p hilo so phy th at th eir e ffe cti v eness i s s u b sta nti a lly h urt b y l o w er p erfo rm ance i n a ny a re a. T he so lu ti o n i s , o f c o urs e , to f ix th e w eaknesse s. W e a re n o t c erta in o f th e g enesis o f th is b elie f. P ossib ly i t s te m s f r o m o ur e d ucati o nal e xp erie nces. T he r e co lle cti o n many h av e o f s c ho ol i s a f o cus o n w hat th ey d id w ro ng. T hin k b ack. C an y o u re m em ber ta kin g a te st a nd h av in g th e te acher o r p ro fe sso r s p end a d diti o nal ti m e em phasiz in g th e a nsw er th at e v ery o ne i n th e c la ss g o t c o rre ct? O n th e o th er h and , do y o u r e m em ber r e v ie w in g th e a nsw ers th e c la ss g o t w ro ng? ( Y ou c o uld a rg ue th at th ere i s a c erta in l o gic to f o cusin g o n th e p ro ble m s m is se d , o r th e i n fo rm ati o n th at n o o ne c o uld r e call.) We a rg ue, h o w ev er, th at ti m e s p ent e m phasiz in g th e s u ccess p eo ple h ad w ould als o h av e b een e xtr e m ely v alu ab le .

Ano th er e xp la nati o n i s th at w e a ll s e ek to b e w ell- ro und ed “ R enais sa nce peo ple .” T he a ssu m pti o n i s th at w e s h o uld b e g o od a t e v ery th in g. T here i s so m eth in g i n here ntl y w eak o r i n fe rio r a b out a ckno w le d gin g th at th ere a re s o m e th in gs I d o w ell, a nd th ere a re s o m e th in gs I d on’t e v en tr y to d o. W e a d m ir e th e “ir o n m an” w ho r u ns a m ara th o n, s w im s 3 m ile s, a nd th en r id es a b ic ycle f o r ano th er 5 0 m ile s.

Whate v er th e s o urc e, th ere i s a p erv asiv e b elie f th at I s h o uld e lim in ate m y weaknesse s, a nd b y s o d oin g I w ill b eco m e a m ore e ffe cti v e p ers o n. A g ro w in g num ber o f v oic es, h o w ev er, c o nv ey a d iffe re nt m essa ge. F or e xam ple , th e re sp ecte d r e se arc h p sy cho lo gis t M arti n S elig m an w rite s: “ I d o n o t b elie v e th at y o u sh o uld d ev ote o verly m uch e ffo rt to c o rre cti n g y o ur w eaknesse s. R ath er, I b elie v e th at th e h ig hest s u ccess i n l iv in g a nd th e d eep est e m oti o nal s a ti s fa cti o n c o m es f r o m build in g a nd u sin g y o ur s ig natu re s tr e ngth s.” H e c o nti n ues, “ . . . th e g o od l ife i s usin g y o ur s ig natu re s tr e ngth s e v ery d ay to p ro duce auth enti c h ap pin ess a nd ab und ant g ra ti fic ati o n. T his i s s o m eth in g th at y o u c an l e arn to d o i n e ach o f th e m ain re alm s o f y o ur l ife : w ork , l o ve, a nd r a is in g c hild re n.” 1 In w ork s itu ati o ns, p erfo rm ance a p pra is a ls m ost o fte n s e arc h f o r s o m e defic ie ncy. T he a p pro ach o f te llin g p eo ple s o m e g o od n ew s, th en f o cusin g o n a re as where th ey n eed d ev elo pm ent o r i m pro vem ent, a nd f in is h in g u p w ith a p ositi v e co m ment o r tw o i s s ta nd ard p ro ced ure i n m any o rg aniz a ti o ns. ( Is i t a ny w ond er th at peo ple b egin to w in ce w hen th ey h ear th e p ositi v e c o m ments , k no w in g th at i t i s ofte n th e p re curs o r to th e i m porta nt m essa ge o f th eir d efic ie ncie s? ) I t i s b est to h av e 133 fr e q uent c o nv ers a ti o ns th at f o cus o nly o n th e p ositi v e a sp ects o f th e p ers o n’s w ork .

The r e se arc h, i n f a ct, s u ggests th at th e p ositi v e d ia lo gue s h o uld o ccur f iv e ti m es more f r e q uentl y th an n egati v e c o nv ers a ti o ns i f y o u w ant o pti m al p erfo rm ance f r o m yo ur te am . M ed iu m -p erfo rm in g te am s h ad a r a ti o o f j u st u nd er 2 to 1 , a nd th e poorly p erfo rm in g o rg aniz a ti o ns h ad a r a ti o o f r o ughly 3 n egati v e c o m ments f o r ev ery 1 p ositi v e. C am ero n w rite s, “ T he s in gle m ost i m porta nt f a cto r i n p re d ic ti n g org aniz a ti o nal p erfo rm ance— whic h w as m ore th an tw ic e a s p ow erfu l a s a ny o th er fa cto r— was th e r a ti o o f p ositi v e s ta te m ents to n egati v e s ta te m ents .

2 It i s p erfe ctl y u nd ers ta nd ab le th at m anagers w ho c an g iv e o nly 4 p eo ple o ut o f th e 2 0 i n th eir g ro up a s u p erio r r a ti n g w ill f o cus d is c ussio ns o n d efic ie ncie s r a th er th an s tr e ngth s. T his p ro vid es th e r a ti o nale f o r w hy s o m e g et a r a is e w here as o th ers do n o t. I f th e m anager w ere to f o cus o nly o n p ositi v e i s su es a nd g iv e a “ m eets exp ecta ti o ns” r a ti n g, th at m ig ht b e v ery c o nfu sin g to th e d ir e ct r e p orts . E ven th o se who g et a n “ exceed s e xp ecta ti o ns” r a ti n g w ill o fte n b e p ro vid ed f e ed back o n a re as where th eir s k ills a re n o t q uite a s p ositi v e.

You ’r e t h e C oach To u nd ers ta nd th is b asic b elie f m ore o bje cti v ely , w e p ro pose j u m pin g to a n enti r e ly d iffe re nt r e alm . I m agin e th at y o u h av e a gre ed to b e th e s o ccer c o ach f o r a co m peti ti o n s o ccer te am o f 1 2-y ear-o ld s. Y ou a re e xcite d to w ork w ith th e te am .

Afte r a gre ein g to b e th e c o ach, y o u l e arn th at 2 0 c hild re n h av e s ig ned u p to tr y o ut fo r th e te am , b ut th e te am c an o nly f ie ld 1 5 p la yers . B ecause th is i s a c o m peti ti o n so ccer p ro gra m , i t i s n ecessa ry f o r s o m e c hild re n to b e c ut f r o m th e te am . O n th e fir s t d ay o f p ra cti c e, y o u e xp la in th at y o u o nly h av e 1 5 s lo ts o n th e te am a nd th at ev ery o ne i s g o in g to h av e to tr y o ut.

You p ro ceed to r u n th e c hild re n th ro ugh a s e rie s o f d rills . O n e ach d rill, y o u se le ct th e tw o o r th re e c hild re n w ho w ere s u p erio r a nd tw o o r th re e w ho d id n o t perfo rm a s w ell. A fte r a n h o ur o f i n te nsiv e d rills , th re e-o n-th re e “ sh o ot- o uts ,” a nd ra ces, y o ur r o ste r b eco m es i n cre asin gly c le ar. T hre e o f th e c hild re n a re c le arly n o t at th e s a m e l e v el. T hey s h o uld b e m oved to a l e ss c o m peti ti v e l e ague. T w o ad diti o nal c hild re n w ere c lo se , b ut d id n o t p erfo rm w ell o n s e v era l o f th e d rills .

Now c o m es th e to ugh p art. Y ou m ake o ut y o ur te am l is t. Y ou g ath er th e c hild re n to geth er i n a h ud dle a nd th ank th em f o r th eir e ffo rt. Y ou te ll th em th at y o u a re p ro ud of e v ery o ne a nd th at i t ta kes a l o t o f g uts to tr y o ut f o r c o m peti ti o n s o ccer. Y ou th en re ad th e n am es o f th e c hild re n w ho m ad e th e te am . F ifte en c hild re n a re e la te d . F iv e of th e c hild re n l o ok q uite d eje cte d , th o ugh th ey k eep a “ sti ff u p per l ip .” L uckily , th ey h av e k in d a nd s u p porti v e p are nts w ho b ols te r th eir c hild re n. A s y o u b egin to gath er th e e q uip m ent a nd j e rs e ys, o ne o f th e c hild re n w ho w as c ut a p pro aches y o u 134 with a d eje cte d l o ok. T his w as o ne o f th e tw o c hild re n w ho w ere c lo se to m akin g th e te am . S he g ets y o ur a tte nti o n a nd s a ys i n a q uiv ery v oic e, “ C oach, w hy w as I cut? W hat c an I d o to p la y n ext y ear? ” Y ou d esp era te ly w ant to m ake th is c hild f e el bette r. Y ou l o ok a t y o ur n o te s. T here w as o ne d rill w here th e c hild ’s n am e w as jo tte d d ow n a s s u p erio r b ut tw o o th er d rills w here th e c hild d id n o t p erfo rm w ell.

What’ s th e m ost c o nstr u cti v e a nsw er?

If y o u te ll th e c hild a b out w hat w as d one w ell, th at m akes h er f e el g o od, b ut sta rts h er w ond erin g e v en m ore , “ W hy w as I c ut? ” T he ty p ic al r e co m mend ati o n fr o m m ost p eo ple o n h o w b est to a p pro ach th is s itu ati o n i s to s ta rt w ith th e positi v e, b ut th en h elp th e c hild u nd ers ta nd th at y o ur d ecis io n w as j u sti fie d b ecause of s o m e f a ilin g o n th e c hild ’s p art. M any c o aches w ould d esc rib e th e c hild ’s perfo rm ance o n th e tw o d rills w here h er p erfo rm ance w as l o w . T hat w ill e nab le th e c hild to u nd ers ta nd th at y o ur d ecis io n w as f a ir . A g o od w ay to c lo se th e co nv ers a ti o n w ould b e to s a y s o m eth in g l ik e, “ Y ou a re a lm ost th ere , i f y o u k eep pra cti c in g I th in k th at y o u w ill b e p la yin g c o m peti ti o n s o ccer n ext y ear f o r s u re .” As th e c hild w alk s a w ay a nd ta kes th at l o ng d riv e h o m e w ith h er p are nts , s h e will p ro bab ly k eep a sk in g h ers e lf th e q uesti o n, “ W hy w as I c ut? ” T o w hic h s h e will a nsw er, “ B ecause I b le w i t o n tw o d rills .” I n o th er w ord s, f a ilu re s c o m e because o f m is ta kes. B ut w hat w ould h av e h ap pened i f th is c hild h ad b een a n extr e m ely a ccura te k ic ker, o r h ad b een e xtr e m ely g o od a t p la yin g g o alie ? W ould th e m is ta kes o n th e tw o d rills h av e b een i r re le v ant?

The r e ality o f th is s itu ati o n i s th at th e c hild w as c ut b ecause th ere w ere n o outs ta nd in g s tr e ngth s, a nd a b ove th at, h er p erfo rm ance w as p oor o n tw o d rills .

Whic h o f th o se i s m ore i m porta nt? W e th in k m ost c o aches w ould o verlo ok f la w s o n tw o d rills i f th ey s a w te nacio us d ete rm in ati o n a nd c o m peti ti v e s p ir it o r i f th ey s a w str o ng k ic kin g a b ility o r s k ill a t p la yin g g o alie . T he q uesti o n h ere i s n o t o nly w hat to te ll th e c hild a b out w hy s h e w as n o t c ho se n th is y ear, b ut m ore i m porta nt, w hat to te ll h er a b out h o w b est to p re p are f o r n ext y ear.

Our b elie f i s th at e m phasiz in g th e c hild ’s w eak p erfo rm ance o n tw o d rills i s th e wro ng m essa ge. I t w ould b e f a r b ette r to a ckno w le d ge th at a s o f n o w y o u d id n o t se e i m porta nt s tr e ngth s, a nd th at i s w hat th is c hild s h o uld w ork o n i n p re p arin g f o r next y ear. W hat a te rrib le y ear i t w ill b e f o r h er i f h er e nti r e f o cus i s o n “ no t messin g u p o n th e d rill.” H ow m uch b ette r i t w ill b e i f h er f o cus i s o n g etti n g r e ally go od a t s o m e s p ecific s k ills th at m ake p la yers v alu ab le to th e te am . M ost c o aches are l o okin g f o r r a w ta le nt a nd b elie v e th ey c an te ach c hild re n to c o rre ct m is ta kes.

As th ey th in k a b out th is s h o rt s c enario , m ost p eo ple c an r e p la y s e v era l r e al- life situ ati o ns a b out th em se lv es th at a re v ery s im ila r. T hro ugh th is r e in fo rc em ent a nd co nd iti o nin g, p eo ple h av e c o m e to th e c o m mon b elie f th at i t i s th eir m is ta kes, weaknesse s, a nd p oor p erfo rm ance o n ta sk s th at k eep th em f r o m b ein g s u ccessfu l.

In o ur r e se arc h, w e h av e f o und th at l e ad ers w ith v ery n egati v e r a ti n gs o n co m pete ncie s w ere p erc eiv ed l e ss p ositi v ely o vera ll. W e c all th ese i s su es f a ta l 135 fla w s. F ata l f la w s n eed to b e c o rre cte d . T here i s , h o w ev er, a s ig nific ant d iffe re nce betw een f a ta l f la w s a nd a re as th at a re s lig htl y l e ss p ositi v e th an o th ers . L et u s c all th ese r o ugh e d ges. A p ers o n p erfo rm s a t a n a d eq uate l e v el. F or m any l e ad ers , w e hav e n o te d th eir te nd ency to f o cus th eir e ffo rts f o r i m pro vem ent o n r o ugh e d ges, usin g th e s a m e l o gic a s i f i t w ere a f a ta l f la w . M ost p eo ple b elie v e th at l o w er- sc o rin g c o m pete ncie s te nd to h urt m ore th an p ro fo und s tr e ngth s h elp .

Look a t Fig ure 6 -2 . W ho d o y o u b elie v e w ould b e p erc eiv ed a s b ein g m ore effe cti v e a s a l e ad er? S urp ris in gly , i n o ur r e se arc h w ith m ore th an 8 ,0 00 l e ad ers , Pers o n B w as p erc eiv ed to b e m ore e ffe cti v e.

Most p eo ple a re m ore c o ncern ed w ith e lim in ati n g a ny p erc ep ti o ns o f w eakness th an th ey a re f o cuse d o n d ev elo pin g s tr e ngth s. T his a p pro ach i s r e in fo rc ed b y org aniz a ti o nal p ra cti c es th at p unis h p eo ple f o r e ith er w eaknesse s o r r o ugh e d ges but f r e q uentl y f a il to e nco ura ge p eo ple to d ev elo p s tr e ngth s.

Fig ure 6 -2 P erso n A v ersu s P erso n B Reth in kin g t h e P erso n al D ev elo p m en t P la n Look b ack a t Fig ure 6 -1 . L et’ s r e co nsid er th e b est d ev elo pm ent p la n f o r th is in d iv id ual. R ath er th an d rillin g i n to th e l e ss p ositi v e s c o re s a nd a tte m pti n g to ele v ate th em to a h ig her l e v el, w e s tr o ngly c o nte nd th at th is p ers o n w ould b e f a r bette r o ff s e le cti n g o ne to th re e o f th e h ig her s c o re s a nd s tr iv in g to p ush th em to th e hig hest q uarti le . D oin g th at w ill p ro pel th is p ers o n’s c are er f o rw ard f a r m ore s u re - fo ote d ly a nd r a p id ly th an tr y in g to f ix th e l o w er s c o re s.

136 What I s a S tr e n gth ?

A s tr e ngth i s s o m eth in g w e d o w ell. T he q uesti o n i s h o w w ell. M any m anagers se em s a ti s fie d w hen th e r e su lts o f a 3 60-d egre e a sse ssm ent s h o w s lig htl y a b ove- av era ge s c o re s o n a ll c o m pete ncie s. B ut th at s a m e p ers o n w ould b e h ig hly dis a p poin te d i f th eir c hild c am e h o m e f r o m s c ho ol w ith a ll C + ’ s o n h is r e p ort card .

A s tr e ngth i s a ls o s o m eth in g th at i s u se d i n a w id e v arie ty o f s itu ati o ns a nd posse sse s a n e nd urin g e ffe ct. I t l a sts o ver ti m e. W e a sso cia te g o od o utc o m es w ith str e ngth s. T here i s s o m eth in g i n here ntl y v alu ab le a b out th o se q ualiti e s we d eem str e ngth s. T he u se o f a s tr e ngth d oes n o t d etr a ct f r o m o r d im in is h a no th er s tr e ngth .

Str e ngth s a re g enera lly th e o utc o m e o f s o m e e xtr e m ely n atu ra l a b ility w ith w hic h a p ers o n i s e nd ow ed , o r th ey a re th e r e su lt o f i n te nsiv e p ra cti c e a nd e ffo rt. O ur so cie ty r e v ere s th e c la ssic s tr e ngth s, a nd th us th ere a re p ro verb s a nd p ara b le s th at su p port s u ch s tr e ngth s.

Our r e se arc h l e d u s to d efin e 1 6 d iffe re nti a ti n g s tr e ngth s o r c o m pete ncie s th at are d esc rib ed e arlie r i n th e b ook. A s a r e m in d er, th ese i n clu d e q ualiti e s s u ch a s:

1. p osse ssin g h ig h c hara cte r 2. te chnic al c o m pete nce 3. p ro ble m s o lv in g s k ills 4. i n iti a ti v e 5. f o cus o n r e su lts 6. c o lla b ora ti o n a nd te am w ork 7. c o m munic ati n g p ow erfu lly a nd p ro lific ally a nd n in e o th ers .

In o ur r e se arc h, w e f o und a d ra m ati c e ffe ct th at s tr e ngth s c o uld h av e o n th e overa ll p erc ep ti o n o f a l e ad er’s e ffe cti v eness. T hat e ffe ct w as p re se nt o nly w hen a co m pete ncy s to od o ut. L ead ers w ith a v arie ty o f c o m pete ncie s th at w ere p ositi v e but w ith n o ne th at s to od o ut d id n o t s h o w th at s a m e i m pact o n o vera ll l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness.

In a r e la ti v e s e nse , w e h av e d efin ed s tr e ngth s i n m ost o f o ur s tu d ie s o n le ad ers h ip a s a s k ill o r c o m pete ncy a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le . I n a n a b so lu te s e nse , w e defin e a s tr e ngth a s a 4 .5 o r h ig her r a ti n g o n a 5 -p oin t s c ale . T his r a ti n g r e q uir e s a t le ast 5 0 p erc ent o f th e r e sp ond ers to m ark th e m ost p ositi v e r e sp onse a nd th e o th ers to m ark th e n ext m ost p ositi v e r e sp onse . I f a ny l o w er e v alu ati o ns a re g iv en, a majo rity o f th e r e sp onse s o n a 5 -p oin t s c ale n eed to b e th e m ost p ositi v e r e sp onse .

Str e ngth s a re d eep ly r o ote d a nd a re e xhib ite d i n d iffe rin g s itu ati o ns o ver l o ng perio ds o f ti m e. T hey c o nsis te ntl y p ro duce p ositi v e o utc o m es, b ut i n th o se r a re case s w hen th ere i s n o t a n i m med ia te r e su lt, th e s tr e ngth i s s ti ll v alu ed .

137 Im pact o f S tr e n gth s To u nd ers ta nd th e i m pact o f s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s o n o vera ll l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness, w e r e se arc hed r e su lts o f a sse ssm ents f r o m 2 ,0 00 l e ad ers a nd Fig ure 6 -3 A vera ge P erc e ntile S co re w it h 0 S tr e ngth s fo llo w ed th at w ith a s e co nd s tu d y o f m ore th an 6 ,0 00 l e ad ers . T he r e su lts o f th e tw o s tu d ie s w ere r e m ark ab ly c o nsis te nt.

When a sk ed , “ W hat w ould y o u g uess th e o vera ll e ffe cti v eness p erc enti le w ould be f o r p eo ple w ith n o s tr e ngth s? ” m ost p eo ple i n d ic ate d th ey th o ught i t w ould b e ap pro xim ate ly th e 5 0th p erc enti le .

Fig ure 6 -3 s h o w s th e r e su lts .

In o ur s tu d ie s, l e ad ers w ho h ad n o p erc eiv ed s tr e ngth s w ere , o n a v era ge, r a te d at th e 3 4th p erc enti le . P osse ssin g n o s tr e ngth s p lu nges y o u to th e b otto m th ir d i n te rm s o f p erc eiv ed o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness.

Why w ere l e ad ers w ith n o a re a o f s tr e ngth p erc eiv ed o n a v era ge to b e i n th e botto m th ir d f o r o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness? T hey l a ck a r e d eem in g q uality , sk ill, o r a b ility . T hey m ay n o t b e i n effe cti v e a t a nyth in g, b ut th ey a ls o a re n o t te rrib ly e ffe cti v e a t a nyth in g.

Fig ure 6 -4 s h o w s th e r e su lts f o r l e ad ers w ith o ne s tr e ngth . I t i s i m pre ssiv e th at le ad ers w ith o ne s tr e ngth m ove f r o m o n a v era ge th e 3 4th p erc enti le to th e 6 4th perc enti le . I m agin e, a 3 0 p erc ent i n cre ase j u st f o r p osse ssin g o ne s tr e ngth ! T his sh o w s th e p ow erfu l i n flu ence o f b ein g g o od a t a ny o ne c o m pete ncy. C onsid er a hyp oth eti c al s itu ati o n w here y o u a re a sk ed to c ho ose b etw een h ir in g tw o e m plo yee cand id ate s. C and id ate A h as n o a re as o f w eakness b ut n o th in g s ta nd s o ut a s a str e ngth . C and id ate B h as a f e w m in o r w eaknesse s b ut a p ro fo und s tr e ngth i n a n are a c riti c al to a cco m plis h in g th e j o b. W ho m d o y o u h ir e ? M ost p eo ple a d m it th at th e c and id ate w ith th e s tr e ngth w ould m ost l ik ely b e m ore s u ccessfu l. T he d ata i n our s tu d ie s c le arly 138 Fig ure 6 -4 A vera ge P erc e ntile S co re w it h 1 S tr e ngth s dem onstr a te th e p ro fo und i n flu ence o f h av in g o ne th in g th at y o u d o e xtr a o rd in arily well. T his i s a ls o c o nsis te nt w ith th e r e se arc h a b out l e ad ers p re se nte d i n Fig ure 6 - 2 .

Fig ure 6 -5 s h o w s th e i n flu ence o f h av in g m ulti p le s tr e ngth s. N ote th at th e r e su lts in Fig ure 6 -5 s h o w th at l e ad ers w ith th re e s tr e ngth s a re a t th e 8 1st p erc enti le o n av era ge.

Fig ure 6 -5 A vera ge P erc e ntile w it h u p t o 5 S tr e ngth s Lead ers w ith f iv e s tr e ngth s a re a t th e 9 1st p erc enti le . W hen w e h av e c halle nged le ad ers to m ove f r o m th e 5 0th p erc enti le to th e 9 0th p erc enti le , th eir r e sp onse w as most o fte n th at i t s e em ed i m possib le . T heir p erc ep ti o n w as th at th ey n eed ed to b e perfe ct i n a lm ost e v ery c o m pete ncy i n o rd er to b e a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le . T hat cle arly i s n o t s o , b ut i t i s a h ard c o ncep t f o r m any to a b so rb . T o b e a t th e 9 0th perc enti le s im ply r e q uir e d a l e ad er to b e h ig hly s k ille d a t f iv e c o m pete ncie s! T his 139 se em s a chie v ab le to m ost a sp ir in g l e ad ers .

For e xam ple , w e h av e b een w ork in g w ith a l a rg e f in ancia l s e rv ic es c o m pany and d ete rm in ed th at i n o ne l a rg e g ro up , o f th e 1 50 m ost s e nio r e xecuti v es, o ne-th ir d of th em h ad s ix o r m ore c o m pete ncie s a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le . T hat w as th e g o od new s. O n th e o th er h and , 4 6% o f th em h ad n o c o m pete ncy a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le .

This p ro vid ed a h uge o pportu nity f o r d ev elo pm ent w ith in th is e xecuti v e te am .

Afte r p re se nti n g th is r e se arc h a t a c o nfe re nce o ne o f th e c o nfe re nce p arti c ip ants ask ed th e f o llo w in g q uesti o n: “ W hat i s th e m ost s ig nific ant f in d in g f r o m y o ur re se arc h?” T he a nsw er g iv en w as a b it a cad em ic , c are fu lly i n clu d in g m any o f th e vario us i n sig hts c o vere d i n th is b ook. T he p arti c ip ant’ s r e sp onse w as, “ N o, th at stu ff i s a ll i m porta nt, b ut th e th in g th at i s m ost i m pre ssiv e i s y o ur r e se arc h o n th e im pact o f s tr e ngth s o n o vera ll e ffe cti v eness.” T he p arti c ip ant w ent o n to e xp la in h is answ er: “ W hen I s a w th e r e se arc h th at s h o w ed th e i m pact l e ad ers c an h av e o n botto m -lin e r e su lts I w as b oth i m pre sse d a nd d ep re sse d — im pre sse d th at th e i m pact occurs a nd d ep re sse d b ecause I th o ught th ere w as n o w ay to d ev elo p th o se k in d s o f le ad ers . T ho se l e ad ers a re b orn , n o t m ad e. T hen y o u s h o w ed m e th e s tr e ngth re se arc h. W hen y o u u nd ers ta nd th e k ey to b ein g a t th e 8 0th p erc enti le i s h av in g th re e s tr e ngth s, i t s e em s p ossib le . D ev elo pin g f o ur s tr e ngth s a ls o s e em s p ossib le fo r a l a rg e n um ber o f o ur p eo ple . I t a ls o s e em s c le ar to m e th at o ur m anagers h av e in v este d a ll th eir e nerg y i n tr y in g to f ix a n it h ere a nd th ere r a th er th an c o ncentr a ti n g on d ev elo pin g th re e s tr e ngth s.” How M uch S hou ld I B it e O ff?

If a p ers o n h as a s tr a te gy f o r p ers o nal i m pro vem ent th at r e lie s o n i n cre m enta l im pro vem ent o f w eak a re as a nd m ovin g a ll c o m pete ncie s to h ig her a nd h ig her le v els , th is s e em s l ik e a n o verw helm in g, m ayb e i m possib le ta sk . O ur r e se arc h in d ic ate s th at p eo ple c an o nly b e s u ccessfu l a t c hange i f th ey f o cus e ffo rts o n change i n a f e w a re as. W e r e co m mend a m axim um o f th re e a re as o f i m pro vem ent a t any o ne ti m e. I d eally , p eo ple w ould w ork o n b uild in g o ne str e ngth a t a ti m e, m ake pro gre ss th at i s o bse rv ab le b y o th ers , a nd th en m ove o n to th e n ext o pportu nity .

Som eti m es l e ad ers w ant to f ix s o m eth in g th at i s v ery s p ecific a nd r e la ti v ely e asy to c o rre ct. F or e xam ple , a l e ad er r e ceiv ed f e ed back a b out h is l a ck o f r e sp ect f o r oth er p eo ple ’s ti m e w hen h e c am e l a te to m eeti n gs a nd h ad th e e nti r e g ro up w ait while h e w as b rie fe d o n w hat h ad h ap pened p rio r to h is a rriv al. H e a ls o w ante d to work o n b eco m in g m ore i n sp ir a ti o nal a nd m oti v ati o nal. W e o bse rv ed th at th ere a re littl e th in gs a nd b ig th in gs. B ein g o n ti m e to m eeti n gs i s q uite e asy to f ix i f y o u a re se rio us a b out i t. B eco m in g m ore i n sp ir a ti o nal i s m ore c o m ple x a nd a f a r b ig ger is su e.

Can S tr e n gth s B e P ush ed T oo F ar?

140 There i s a c o m monly h eld b elie f th at s tr e ngth s c arrie d to o f a r b eco m e a w eakness.

Kap la n a nd K ais e r e xp re sse d th is v ie w poin t i n th eir a rti c le ti tl e d , “ S to p O verd oin g Your S tr e nghts ” 3 T hey d iv id ed l e ad ers h ip b ehav io r i n to tw o c ate go rie s. T hey l a b el th ese b ehav io rs a s b ein g “ fo rc efu l” v ers u s “ enab lin g” a nd h av e d efin ed th o se tw o cate go rie s a s s tr e ngth s.” T hey o bse rv e th at i f a l e ad er o veru se s w hat th ey h av e la b ele d a “ str e ngth ” b y b ein g c o nsta ntl y d ir e cti v e, a lw ays ta kin g c harg e, m akin g ev ery d ecis io n a nd p ush in g p eo ple ; th e l e ad er’s e ffe cti v eness d im in is h es.

That c o nclu sio n i s o ne m ost w ould a ccep t. H ow ev er, th ese b ehav io rs d o n o t f it th e u su al d efin iti o n o f s tr e ngth s. E arlie r i n th is c hap te r w e g av e o ur d efin iti o n. W e se e b ein g f o rc efu l o r e nab lin g a s b ehav io ra l ta cti c s, n o t s tr e ngth s. T hey a re n o t valu ed i n th eir o w n r ig ht. U sin g o ne i n v aria b ly d im in is h es th e o th er. N eith er o ne i s re v ere d f o r i ts i n here ntl y g o od q ualiti e s. N o p ro verb s a nd p ara b le s s u p port th em .

Our c o ncep ti o n o f s tr e ngth s i s v ery d iffe re nt.

As w e r e v ie w o ur l is t o f 1 6 p ote nti a l s tr e ngth s, w e c an n o t e nv is io n a s itu ati o n where d oin g l e ss o f a ny o ne o f th em w ould b e b ette r th an d oin g m ore . C an s o m eo ne be to o h o nest o r to o s k ille d a t s o lv in g p ro ble m s? C an a p ers o n b e to o te chnic ally co m pete nt o r e xcessiv ely i n no vati v e? I n a ll o f o ur d ata a naly sis , w e f o und n o ev id ence th at e xtr e m ely h ig h s c o re s e v er h ad n egati v e c o nse q uences.

Dif fe re n t W ay t o O ptim iz e S tr e n gth s Kap la n a nd K ais e r s u ggest th at b ackin g o ff s tr e ngth s i s th e r ig ht s o lu ti o n. T he pers o n s e en a s “ to o f o rc efu l” s h o uld b e m ore m odera te . T he “ to o e nab lin g” p ers o n sh o uld b e l e ss e m pow erin g o r l e ss s e nsiti v e to o th ers .

Bala nce i s i m porta nt, b ut o ur r e m ed ie s f o r g etti n g b ala nce d iffe r. F or e xam ple , our d ata c le arly s h o w s th at a l e ad er w ho g ets e xtr e m ely h ig h s c o re s o n “ d riv e f o r re su lts ” w ill b e m ore e ffe cti v e i f th o se s c o re s a re b ala nced w ith h ig h s c o re s o n in te rp ers o nal r e la ti o nsh ip s. W e f r e q uentl y c o ach l e ad ers w ho h av e e xtr e m ely h ig h sc o re s o n d riv in g f o r r e su lts . T hey o fte n c atc h f la ck f r o m c o lle agues a b out th e im pact th ey a re h av in g o n th e o rg aniz a ti o n. B ut a sk in g th is l e ad er to r a tc het d ow n a passio n f o r r e su lts i s n o t th e b est a d vic e. T hat i s p ro bab ly a b ig p art o f w hat g o t th is l e ad er i n to h is o r h er c urre nt p ositi o n. O ur r e co m mend ati o n i s to h ang ti g ht o n hig h s ta nd ard s a nd l o fty e xp ecta ti o ns; b ut b ala nce i t w ith a g re ate r e m phasis o n “p eo ple ” s k ills .

In s h o rt, w e f in d n o e v id ence th at w hat w e a nd o th ers h av e i d enti fie d a s str e ngth s c an e v er b e o verd one. T here fo re , w e c an’t e nv is io n a ti m e w hen w e would a d vis e a l e ad er to to ne d ow n o ne o f th eir s tr e ngth s.

Pow erfu l C om bin atio n s 141 Bre tt S av age, a l o ng-ti m e c o lle ague, to ld th e s e cre t o f h is s u ccess p la yin g h ig h sc ho ol f o otb all. B re tt w as 6 f e et 4 i n ches ta ll, f a ir ly s le nd er, a nd a s tr o ng r u nner.

Bre tt’ s p hysic al a p peara nce w as m ore l ik e th at o f a b ask etb all p la yer th an a fo otb all p la yer. B ut B re tt h ad a no th er ta le nt: h e c o uld c atc h a nyth in g th ro w n anyw here c lo se to h im . A t 6 f e et 4 i n ches, B re tt to w ere d o ver th e d efe nsiv e b acks who a tte m pte d to c o ver h im . H is s u ccess i n f o otb all c am e f r o m a s im ple p la y. B re tt pla yed th e e nd p ositi o n. H e w ould s p rin t o ut f o r a p ass, g et to h is p re d ete rm in ed desti n ati o n, a nd th e q uarte rb ack w ould th ro w th e p ass h ig h. B re tt w ould j u m p to catc h th e p ass, b ut n o d efe nd er c o uld c o m e c lo se to th e b all, b ecause th e d efe nd ers co uld n o t to uch h im w hile th e p ass w as b ein g th ro w n w ith o ut d ra w in g a p enalty .

There w as l ittl e th ey c o uld d o b ut w ait f o r h im to c atc h th e b all, a nd th en th ey would ta ckle h im . T he s tr a te gy w as f la w le ss, a nd a s B re tt e xp la in ed h is s u ccess h e sa id , “ T he c o m bin ati o n o f h eig ht a nd g o od h and s w as p ow erfu l.” When c o nsid erin g s tr e ngth s a nd th e i m pact o f c o m bin ati o ns o f s tr e ngth s o n le ad ers h ip , w e w ere i n te re ste d to s e e i f th e m ost e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ad c o nsis te nt co m bin ati o ns o f c o m pete ncie s. T o r e se arc h th is ( Fig ure 6 -6 ), w e e xam in ed l e ad ers who h ad v ery g o od s k ills a t b uild in g r e la ti o nsh ip s ( e .g ., th is c o m pete ncy i n th e to p quarti le ) b ut w ere n o t r a te d p ositi v ely i n te rm s o f d riv e f o r r e su lts . O f th ese le ad ers , o nly 1 2 p erc ent w ere a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le i n te rm s o f th eir o vera ll le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. N ext, w e l o oked a t l e ad ers w ho w ere i n th e to p q uarti le on d riv e f o r r e su lts b ut w ere n o t a t th e to p q uarti le o n Fig ure 6 -6 P erc e nta ge o f L eaders a t t h e 9 0th P erc e ntile re la ti o nsh ip b uild in g s k ills . I n th is c ase , 1 4 p erc ent o f th ese l e ad ers w ere a t th e 90th p erc enti le i n te rm s o f th eir o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. W e th en s tu d ie d th o se l e ad ers w ho w ere i n th e to p q uarti le f o r b oth d riv e f o r r e su lts a nd b uild in g 142 re la ti o nsh ip s. I n th is c ase , 7 2 p erc ent w ere a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le i n te rm s o f th eir overa ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. C le arly , th is i s a p ow erfu l c o m bin ati o n. B oth sk ills a re v alu ab le a nd l e ad to s u ccess, b ut th e c o m bin ati o n o f b ein g v ery g o od a t both s k ills s u b sta nti a lly i n cre ase d th e p ro bab ility o f o vera ll e ffe cti v eness.

This r e se arc h l e d u s to th e c o nclu sio n th at i t i s n o t s tr e ngth s th at h urt a p ers o n’s effe cti v eness, b ut r a th er s tr e ngth s s ta nd in g a lo ne w ith o ut c o unte rb ala nce. T hat i s what c re ate s th e p erc ep ti o n o f a s tr e ngth p ush ed to o f a r b eco m in g a w eakness. T he more w e r e se arc hed th is p heno m eno n th e m ore i t b ecam e c le ar th at th is p ow erfu l in te ra cti o n e ffe ct i s c re ate d b ecause a p ers o n’s a b ility to d o o ne c o m pete ncy w ell im pro ves th e o th er c o m pete ncy. T hin k o f a p ers o n w ho i s v ery d riv en to a chie v e re su lts . H av in g a s tr e ngth i n b uild in g r e la ti o nsh ip s i m pro ves tr u st a nd th e s e nse th at th e l e ad er d oes n o t j u st c are a b out th e r e su lts , th ey c are a b out e ach m em ber o f th e te am . A no th er p ers o n m ay b e v ery e ffe cti v e a t b uild in g r e la ti o nsh ip s. H av in g a str e ngth i n d riv in g f o r r e su lts h elp s th em to d eliv er o n th eir p ro m is e s.

Pow erfu l c o m bin ati o ns d o n o t r e q uir e th at p eo ple b ack o ff o ne c o m pete ncy i n ord er to d o a no th er w ell. T he s e cre t to b uild in g s u ccess a s a l e ad er i s to b e excelle nt a t p ow erfu l c o m bin ati o ns o f s k ills . W e h av e f o und th at th ere a re m any su ch p ow erfu l c o m bin ati o ns. T he m ore d iffe re nti a te d th e c o m bin ati o n, th e m ore pote nti a lly p ow erfu l i s th e c o m bin ati o n.

The e ffe ct o f p ow erfu l c o m bin ati o ns i s to e re ct a nd l e ngth en th e te nt p ole s th at lift th e o vera ll l e ad ers h ip te nt to n ew h eig hts . P ow erfu l c o m bin ati o ns a ls o dem onstr a te th e i n te rc o nnecti o ns b etw een a ll o f th e d iffe re nt c o m pete ncie s.

The H alo E ffe ct As w e n o te d i n Chap te r 4 , a h alo e ffe ct o ccurs w hen o ur p erc ep ti o ns o f o th ers a re dis to rte d e ith er p ositi v ely o r n egati v ely . A fte r s tu d yin g r e su lts f r o m th o usa nd s o f le ad ers , i t b ecam e e v id ent th at s tr o ng p ositi v e a nd n egati v e h alo e ffe cts o ccur.

Resu lts f o r th e b est l e ad ers s h o w ed th at th e p erc ep ti o ns o f o th ers r a te d a lm ost a ll co m pete ncie s a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le ( th ey c an d o n o w ro ng). R esu lts f o r th e w ors t perfo rm ers s h o w ed th at th e p erc ep ti o ns o f o th ers r a te d a lm ost a ll c o m pete ncie s a t th e 1 0th p erc enti le ( th ey c an d o n o r ig ht) . W e h av e c o m e to b elie v e th at b oth a re a dis to rti o n. W hen l e ad ers p erfo rm e xtr a o rd in arily w ell o n a f e w b ehav io rs , th ey begin to b e v ie w ed i n a v ery p ositi v e l ig ht, a nd o th ers ’ i m pre ssio ns o f th em o n oth er c o m pete ncie s te nd to b e d is to rte d i n a p ositi v e d ir e cti o n. T he o pposite e ffe ct se em s to o ccur f o r th o se w ith a f e w p ro fo und w eaknesse s. C onsid er o ur d ay-to -d ay exp erie nce w ith p eo ple w ho h av e a chie v ed s o m e m easu re o f f a m e. H ow m any ti m es h av e y o u b een d is a p poin te d to h ear a s p eech b y a s ta r a th le te ? W hy d id y o u belie v e th at h e w ould h av e s o m eth in g i n sig htf u l o r e v en i n te re sti n g to s a y? J u st because a p ers o n p erfo rm s a n a th le ti c f e at w ell d oes n o t m ean th at h e h as th e a b ility 143 to s p eak, w rite , o r c o m munic ate w ell. T he n o ti o n o f p ro duct e nd ors e m ent b y fa m ous p eo ple p ro vid es v alid ati o n f o r th e i m pact o f th e h alo e ffe ct. H av in g a fa m ous p ers o n e nd ors e a p ro duct c re ate s m ore s a le s o f th at p ro duct. T his i s th e dir e ct i m pact o f th e h alo e ffe ct. W e s e e th e e ffe ct o n th e n egati v e s id e w hen w e dem oniz e p eo ple w ho h av e m ad e s e rio us m is ta kes.

The h alo e ffe ct i s v ery r e al, a nd e v ery o ne h as e xp erie nced i ts i m pact. T he im porta nt i s su e f o r l e ad ers i s to g et th is e ffe ct to w ork f o r y o u r a th er th an a gain st yo u. W e b elie v e th e k ey to g etti n g th e h alo e ffe ct to w ork f o r y o u i s to b uild u p a fe w p ro fo und s tr e ngth s.

L. A . F esti n ger w ro te a b ook c alle d The T heo ry o f C ognitiv e D is so nance.

4 I n th e b ook, h e d esc rib es th e i d ea th at p eo ple h av e a d iffe re nt s e t o f b elie fs o r kno w le d ge e le m ents to w hic h th ey h o ld . A b elie f m ig ht b e a s s im ple a th o ught a s “ I lik e i c e c re am ,” o r “ M y m anager i s a te rrib le l e ad er.” D is so nance i s c re ate d w hen th ere i s p sy cho lo gic al c o nflic t b etw een d iffe re nt b elie fs ( i.e ., “ M y m anager i s a te rrib le l e ad er” a nd “ M y m anager i s v ery g o od a t s o lv in g c o m ple x a nd d iffic ult pro ble m s” ). T hro ugh h und re d s o f e xp erim ents , F esti n ger a nd o th er r e se arc hers hav e d em onstr a te d th at w hen d is so nance o ccurs , p eo ple w ill d o w hate v er i s necessa ry to r e d uce th e d is so nance. W hen l e ad ers i m pro ve th eir a b iliti e s o n a f e w co m pete ncie s, th is c an c re ate d is so nance i n th e m in d s o f o th ers . P eo ple a sk th em se lv es, “ H ow c an th is l e ad er b e s o e ffe cti v e o n s o m e th in gs b ut l e ss e ffe cti v e on o th ers ? ” T he te nd ency i s f o r o th ers to c lo se th e g ap o n th e d is so nance, a nd ty p ic ally th is i n v olv es a p ositi v e h alo e ffe ct f o r l e ad ers w ho d ev elo p e xtr a o rd in ary str e ngth s.

The i m plic ati o n o f th e h alo e ffe ct i s th at w hen s tr e ngth s a re p ush ed to h ig her le v els , th e h alo e ffe ct te nd s to p ush u p c o m pete ncie s th at a re n o t a s p ositi v e. T his cre ate s a f a ir ly l e v el p ro file . F or th o se w ho w orry th at th ey n eed to i m pro ve o n th eir w eaknesse s b ecause th at i s w hat th eir m anager w ill f o cus o n i n p erfo rm ance dis c ussio ns, th e h alo e ffe ct c an h elp th em . R ath er th an tr y in g to i n cre m enta lly im pro ve a f e w l e ss p ositi v e i s su es, f o cusin g e ffo rts o n s u b sta nti a l i m pro vem ent i n a fe w k ey s tr e ngth s w ill c re ate a p ositi v e h alo e ffe ct i n th e w ay a p ers o n’s m anager perc eiv es h im . A f e w l e ss p ositi v e i s su es f a il to s h o w u p b ecause o f th e p re se nce of a f e w p ro fo und s tr e ngth s. M ost m anagers f o cus o n l e ss p ositi v e i s su es w hen th ey fa il to s e e a ny r e al s tr e ngth s th at d ra w th eir a tte nti o n. T he e xtr a o rd in ary s tr e ngth s are th e k eys to g uara nte ein g p ro m oti o ns, b onuse s, s to ck o pti o ns, a nd h ig h perfo rm ance a p pra is a ls f o r tw o r e aso ns. F ir s t, th o se s tr e ngth s h elp to p ro duce ta ngib le r e su lts . S eco nd , th ey c re ate a p ow erfu l “ halo ” th at s e ttl e s i n a ro und th e pers o n.

Focu sin g o n S tr en gth s T ra n sfo rm s a L ea d er’s V ie w o f 144 Subord in ate s A c lie nt f r o m a te le co m munic ati o ns c o m pany s h are d th e f o llo w in g s to ry w ith u s. I t illu str a te s th e p ow er o f f o cusin g o n s tr e ngth s a s a w ay to c hange b asic b oss- su b ord in ate d ynam ic s. T his p ers o n w as a n a ssis ta nt v ic e p re sid ent i n th e co m plia nce a re na o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n. S he w ro te :

A m anager o n m y te am h ad b een s tr u gglin g w ith h er p erfo rm ance. I h ad in iti a te d s e v era l c o achin g s e ssio ns w ith h er. T he f o cus o f th e s e ssio ns pre v io usly w ere th e are as w here I f e lt s h e w as w eak a nd to geth er w e dev elo ped s tr a te gie s f o r h er to i m pro ve. A fte r a y ear o f s e ein g v ery l ittl e im pro vem ent, I f e lt I h ad n o c ho ic e b ut to s it h er d ow n a nd te ll h er th at s h e need ed to s e ek a p ositi o n e ls e w here a s s h e w as j u st n o t m akin g i t o n m y te am . I w ent a s f a r a s to c o nsu lt w ith h um an r e so urc es to tr y to g et h er pla ced o uts id e m y g ro up .

Unre la te d a nd p ure ly b y c o in cid ence, s o m eo ne to ld m e a b out y o ur b ook The E xtr a ord in ary L ea der . I b ought th e b ook a nd r e ad i t c o ver to c o ver. I was i n tr ig ued b y th e i d ea o f f o cusin g o n a p ers o n’s s tr e ngth s a s a w ay to beco m e a m ore e ffe cti v e l e ad er. W hile m y i n te nt i n r e ad in g th e b ook w as se lf- d ev elo pm ent, I c o uld n o t h elp b ut w ond er w hat e ffe ct i t m ig ht h av e i f I w ent b eyo nd f o cusin g o n m y o w n s tr e ngth s a nd f o cuse d o n th e s tr e ngth s of th is s u b ord in ate m anager. I b egan l o okin g f o r th e th in gs th at s h e d id well a nd b egan to a ckno w le d ge h er f o r th o se b ehav io rs a nd a ssig n h er pro je cts th at u ti liz e d th o se s k ills . W ith in a f e w m onth s I n o ti c ed a n in cre d ib le tu rn aro und i n h er p erfo rm ance. N ot o nly d id s h e h elp th e te am by ta kin g o n th e p ro je cts th at p la yed to h er s tr e ngth s, i t c re ate d a “ halo effe ct” a nd I b egan to s e e i m pro vem ent i n s o m e o f th e a re as th at I h ad pre v io usly i d enti fie d a s b ein g “ w eak.” Pre v io usly I h ad c o ached h er s e v era l ti m es a b out n o t c o m munic ati n g with m e a b out i s su es s h e w as w ork in g o n— by f o cusin g a nd a ssig nin g h er pro je cts th at a lig ned w ith h er s tr e ngth , w hic h w as h er a b ility to g ain co nse nsu s o n d iffic ult i s su es, s h e b egan to s e nd m e u nso lic ite d e -m ails weekly r e cap pin g h er a cti v iti e s th at w eek. I a ls o n o ti c ed b y f o cusin g o n her s tr e ngth s I b egan to c hange m y v ie w o f h er a nd b egan to s e e o th er str e ngth s th at h ad p re v io usly g o ne u nno ti c ed .

Thank y o u f o r e d ucati n g m e a b out th is v ery p ow erfu l to ol. I t g o es beyo nd p ositi v e r e in fo rc em ent. I t c ause d a s h ift i n m y m anagem ent s ty le , whic h h as a llo w ed m e to b ette r u ti liz e th e s k ills o n m y te am , a nd a s a re su lt, th e e nti r e te am i s n o w m ore p ro ducti v e.

145 7 FA TA L F L A W S M UST B E F IX ED The b eard ed l a d y a t th e c ir c us s a id , “ E very b ody’s g o t s o m eth in g w ro ng w ith th em . W ith m e, y o u c an te ll w hat i t i s .” —Ric hard N eed ham Matu rity i s c o m in g to te rm s w ith th at o th er p art o f y o urs e lf.

—Ruth T iffa ny B arn ho use M agnify in g s tr e ngth s to th e f u lle st h as b een o ne o f th e m ain m essa ges th us f a r. I n d oin g s o , w e m ay h av e i m plie d th at w eaknesse s s h o uld n ev er b e th e f o cus o f a p ers o nal d ev elo pm ent p la n. I f th at i s th e c ase , i t s h o uld b e c o rre cte d . I n m any c ase s, f o cus o n a w eakness i s a b so lu te ly th e c o rre ct th in g to d o.

A N atu ra l P la ce t o B eg in A s w e h av e a lr e ad y o bse rv ed , p eo ple c halle nged to i m pro ve th eir l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness o r, f o r th at m atte r, e ffe cti v eness a t a lm ost a nyth in g h av e a n a m azin gly s im ila r p la n f o r i m pro vem ent.

• S te p 1 : A sse ss a re as o f s tr e ngth a nd w eakness. B ein g r e ally g o od o r e v en modera te ly g o od a t s o m eth in g m eans y o u d on’t h av e to w orry a b out i t, s o im med ia te ly l o ok a t y o ur l o w s c o re s.

• S te p 2 : D ecid e w hic h w eakness i s m ost s ig nific ant, u su ally b ecause i t h as th e lo w est s c o re .

• S te p 3 : D ev elo p s o m e p la n o f a cti o n to f ix th e w eakness.

In f a ct, i n s o m e c ase s, w ork in g o n a w eakness i s th e b est a p pro ach to i m pro vin g.

T ho se c ase s i n v olv e a c ate go ry o f a ttr ib ute s th at w e w ill c all f a ta l f la w s. F or e xam ple , w hile l o okin g a t a d ata se t o f 1 1,1 29 l e ad ers w ho w ere a sse sse d o n th e 1 6 d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s w e f o und th at 3 0% o f th e l e ad ers h ad o ne o r m ore p ote nti a l f a ta l f la w s. W e d efin ed a p ote nti a l f a ta l f la w a s a c o m pete ncy a t th e 1 0th p erc enti le . W hen w e l o oked a t th e i m pact o f f a ta l f la w s w e f o und th at th o se w ith o ne o r m ore p ote nti a l f a ta l f la w s a s a g ro up o n a v era ge s c o re d a t th e 1 8th p erc enti le i n te rm s o f o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. L ead ers w ith j u st o ne p ote nti a l f a ta l f la w s c o re d a t th e 3 7th p erc enti le , th o se w ith tw o a t th e 2 7th a nd 146 th o se w ith th re e a t th e 2 2nd p erc enti le . W eaknesse s h av e a d ra m ati c n egati v e im pact o n p erc ep ti o ns o f o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness.

Fata l F la w P ro file Sup pose th at th e p ro file i n Fig ure 7 -1 w as a n a sse ssm ent o f y o ur l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness a s r e p orte d b y y o ur s u b ord in ate s. T he p ro file s h o w s th eir p erc ep ti o ns of y o ur e ffe cti v eness o n a v arie ty o f l e ad ers h ip c o m pete ncie s, A th ro ugh P . T he lo nger th e b ar, th e g re ate r y o ur p erc eiv ed e ffe cti v eness.

Com pete ncy J i s p erc eiv ed b y o th ers a s a n a re a o f s ig nific ant w eakness, a nd f o r th e s a ke o f i llu str a ti o n, s u p pose i te m J i s “ C ap ab le o f l e arn in g f r o m m is ta kes.” A n extr e m ely l o w s c o re o n th is d im ensio n i s a f a ta l f la w . I n o ur r e se arc h, w e f o und th at p eo ple w ith th is p ro file , i f th ey i m pro ve th eir b ehav io r o n i te m J , w ill exp erie nce a d ra m ati c i m pro vem ent o vera ll i n th e w ay th eir s u b ord in ate s p erc eiv e th em . T hat i m pro vem ent l ifts e v ery th in g w ith i t. I f th e f a ta l f la w i s n o t c o rre cte d , i t will a ct a s a d ra g o n th e o vera ll p erc ep ti o n o f l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. I t i s im possib le to p ro ve, o f c o urs e , b ut w e b elie v e th at e v en o ne e xtr e m ely l o w s c o re has a n egati v e h alo e ffe ct. T he e xtr e m ely p oor p erfo rm ance i n th e o ne c o m pete ncy dra gs d ow n th e p erc ep ti o ns o n a ll o th er c o m pete ncie s.

Fre d eric k w as th e d ir e cto r o f r e se arc h f o r a n i n te rn ati o nal p harm aceuti c al co m pany. A b rillia nt c hem is t, h e to w ere d o ver o th ers i n h is g ra sp o f th e te chnic al asp ects o f th e r e se arc h p ro cess. B ut h is p ers o nal m anner w as c urt a nd a b ru p t. H e cut p eo ple o ff i n m eeti n gs. H e r e je cte d s u ggesti o ns o r i d eas f o r p ro ced ure s th at were n o t h is o w n.

147 Fig ure 7 -1 S am ple A sse ssm ent o f Y our L eadersh ip E ffe ctiv eness The o th er d is c ip lin es o f m ole cula r b io lo gy, p harm aceuti c al s c ie nce, a nd c lin ic al med ic in e f e lt th at h e f a ile d to l is te n to th eir i n p ut. A fte r e xte nsiv e f e ed back f r o m oth er p eo ple a nd th ro ugh s u rv eys, F re d eric k b egan to c hange th e w ay h e tr e ate d oth ers . M akin g c hanges i n th is o ne s p ecific a re na c ause d h is o vera ll r a ti n gs to esc ala te to m uch h ig her l e v els . C onclu sio n: I f y o u h av e a f a ta l f la w — fix i t.

Fre q uen cy o f F ata l F la w s a n d S tr e n gth s In o ur r e se arc h w e d is c o vere d th at n early a ll l e ad ers f a ll n eatl y a nd r a th er e q ually in to o ne o f th re e c ate go rie s. A s n o te d e arlie r, w e d efin ed a f la w a s s o m eth in g a t o r belo w th e 1 0th p erc enti le a nd a s tr e ngth a s s o m eth in g a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le a nd ab ove, th en th e p atte rn w e d is c o vere d i s th at n early a ll l e ad ers a re i n o ne o f th re e cate go rie s:

1. th o se w ho p osse ss o ne o r m ore f la w s.

2. th o se w ho h av e n eith er f la w s n o r s tr e ngth s.

3. th o se w ho p osse ss o ne o r m ore s tr e ngth s.

This m eans th at r o ughly o ne th ir d o f a ll l e ad ers p osse ss a w eakness. W heth er th at w eakness r is e s to th e l e v el o f f a ta l f la w d ep end s o n h o w i m porta nt i t i s i n th e le ad er’s c urre nt j o b. ( O nly tw o p erc ent o f l e ad ers h av e b oth f la w s a nd s tr e ngth s.) 148 Fin din g t h e M ost C om mon F ata l F la w s To u nd ers ta nd w hat m ig ht c ause p eo ple to f a il, w e a naly ze d r e su lts f r o m tw o stu d ie s th at u se d to ta lly d iffe re nt a p pro aches. I n o ur f ir s t s tu d y, w e c o lle cte d 3 60- degre e f e ed back d ata o n m ore th an 4 50 e xecuti v es. T hre e y ears a fte r th at d ata w as co lle cte d , w e f o und th at 3 1 o f th e e xecuti v es h ad s e rio usly d era ile d to th e p oin t th at th ey w ere a sk ed to l e av e th e c o m pany. W e c o m pare d th e r e su lts o f th e 3 1 f a ile d le ad ers w ith th e r e m ain d er o f th e d ata s e t to u nd ers ta nd i f th ere w ere e arly id enti fy in g s ig nals th at p re d ic te d th eir l a ck o f s u ccess. I n d eed , a c le ar s e t o f f a cto rs em erg ed .

In th e s e co nd s tu d y, w e a naly ze d th e 3 60-d egre e f e ed back d ata f r o m m ore th an 11,0 00 l e ad ers a nd i d enti fie d th e b otto m 1 0% a nd th e b otto m 1 % o f th o se l e ad ers .

We th en l o oked f o r th e l a rg est d iffe re nces b etw een th o se w ho w ere p erc eiv ed to b e le ss e ffe cti v e a nd a v era ge l e ad ers a nd a no th er c o m paris o n w ith th o se a t th e 9 0th perc enti le o r h ig her. L ookin g a t th e r e su lts o f b oth s tu d ie s, w e f o und h ig hly co nsis te nt th em es. B y c o m bin in g th e c o nclu sio ns f r o m th ese tw o s tu d ie s, w e w ere ab le to i d enti fy 1 0 f a ta l f la w s th at c o nsis te ntl y c o ntr ib ute to a l e ad er’s f a ilu re .

Mult ip le F la w s As w e h av e w ork ed w ith l e ad ers o ver th e y ears , w e h av e f o und th at w hile a ny sin gle b ehav io r c an b e f a ta l, s o m e a re m ore c o m mon th an o th ers . T he p urp ose o f th is r e se arc h w as to i d enti fy th o se th at w ere m ost c o m mon a nd n o ti c eab le . I t ap pears th ey tr a v el i n g ro up s o f th re e o r f o ur. O ne p ro ble m u su ally c re ate s o th er pro ble m s, c ausin g m any o f th e b ehav io rs to a p pear to b e l in ked .

Ten F ata l F la w s T hat C on sis te n tly L ea d t o F ailu re in L ea d ersh ip 1. N ot in sp ir in g d ue t o a la ck o f e n erg y a n d e n th usia sm The m ost n o ti c eab le d iffe re nce i n l e ad ers th at f a ile d w as th eir l a ck o f e nerg y a nd enth usia sm . O ne l e ad er w as d esc rib ed a s “ hav in g th e a b ility to s u ck a ll th e e nerg y out o f a ny r o om .” W e a ll h av e p erio ds o f ti m e w hen o ur e nerg y i s l o w a nd w e a re dra ggin g, b ut th eir e nerg y l e v el s ta ys l o w . M any w ere d elib era te ly u nenth usia sti c and p assiv e. T heir l a ck o f e nerg y c ause d th em to p erc eiv e a ny a d diti o nal assig nm ent o r i n iti a ti v e a s a h uge b urd en.

Vis u aliz e a p ers o n th at i s f lo ati n g o n th e s e a w ith a l ife p re se rv er th at b are ly keep s h is o r h er h ead o ut o f th e w ate r. N ew i n iti a ti v es, c halle nges, a nd c hanges a re all l ik e l e ad w eig hts th at d ra g th e p ers o n u nd erw ate r. N atu ra lly , th is p ers o n r e sis ts new a nd c halle ngin g a ssig nm ents . T he l e ad er’s l a ck o f e nerg y a ffe cts th e w ho le te am , i n clu d in g th e b oss a nd p eers . T his l e ad er p ush es h ard f o r c o nsis te ncy, re gula rity , a nd c o nfo rm ity , w hic h i n th e r ig ht c ir c um sta nces c an b e g o od th in gs.

How ev er, th e l e ad er’s m oti v e i s to e nsu re n o t b ein g o verw helm ed o r 149 overb urd ened . B ecause s u ch l e ad ers f e ar h av in g to o m uch to d o o r b ein g overw helm ed , th ey n ev er v olu nte er a nd r a re ly m ake s u ggesti o ns f o r c hange.

2. A ccep tin g m ed io cre p erfo rm an ce in p la ce o f e xcelle n t r e su lt s This i s th e m ost v is ib le a nd e asily n o ti c ed f a ilu re th at h as a h ig h p ro bab ility o f le ad in g to te rm in ati o n. W hen l e ad ers f a il to a chie v e a gre ed u p on r e su lts , th ere i s a hig h p ro bab ility th at a n u np le asa nt c o nv ers a ti o n w ill f o llo w . E very l e ad er i s c le ar ab out th is , b ut w hat m any l e ad ers a re n o t a s c le ar a b out i s th eir to le ra nce o f med io cre p erfo rm ance. S om e l e ad ers f in d a w ay to s a nd bag th eir g o als a nd ta rg ets , co nv in cin g th eir b oss to a gre e to m in im al e xp ecta ti o ns, to e nsu re th ey w ill b e achie v ed . T hey j u sti fy th is b y r e p eati n g th e p hra se , “ I b elie v e i n ‘ u nd erp ro m is in g and o verd eliv erin g’!” T hese l e ad ers h av e c o nv in ced th em se lv es th at th eir m ed io cre perfo rm ance i s c o m ple te ly a ccep ta b le a nd h ence n ev er l o ok f o r o pportu niti e s to im pro ve.

3. L ack o f c le a r v is io n a n d d ir e ctio n Som e l e ad ers b elie v e th at th eir j o b i s m ere ly to e xecute th e o bje cti v es o f th eir org aniz a ti o n a nd l e t o th er p eo ple d eal w ith s tr a te gy, v is io n, a nd d ir e cti o n. T hey arg ue th at th eir d ir e ct r e p orts h av e a ll th e n ecessa ry i n fo rm ati o n to b e f u lly pro ducti v e. P eo ple k no w w hat to d o a nd w hen to d o i t, th ey d on’t n eed to k no w why i t’ s b ein g d one. B ut th is l e ad er f a ils to u nd ers ta nd th at s u b ord in ate s, w hile n o t need in g to k no w , w ant to k no w w hy s o m eth in g i s r e q uir e d a nd h o w th eir w ork co ntr ib ute s to th e s u ccess o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

Much l ik e a h ik er w ho c auti o usly s ta ys o n th e tr a il, e v ery th in g i s f in e u nti l th ere is a f o rk i n th e tr a il. W ith o ut a c le ar p ic tu re a nd i n sig ht i n to w here th e h ik e i s g o in g, th e p ro bab ility o f s u ccess i s r e d uced a t e ach j u nctu re .

Failu re i n th is a re na a p pears to h av e tw o c o m ponents . I t b egin s w ith th e l e ad er’s murk y v ie w o f th e f u tu re a nd p re cis e ly w hat d ir e cti o n to ta ke. I t i s c o m pound ed b y th e l e ad er’s u nw illin gness to ta ke th e ti m e to c o m munic ate .

4. L oss o f t r u st s te m min g f r o m p erc eiv ed b ad j u dgm en t a n d p oor decis io n s When l e ad ers l o se th e tr u st o f o th ers , i t b eco m es d iffic ult f o r th em to s u cceed . L oss of tr u st o ccurs s e v era l d iffe re nt w ays. P eo ple b egin to d is tr u st a l e ad er b ecause o f poor d ecis io ns. T hey a ls o l o se tr u st b ecause p ro m is e s m ad e a re n o t k ep t. O fte n th ey fe el th at th ey w ere ta ken a d vanta ge o f a nd m is u se d .

Galfo rd a nd D ra p eau c re ate d a p ow erfu l f o rm ula to d esc rib e tr u st th at s ta te s 1 150 This f o rm ula e xp and s th e e le m ents o f tr u st a nd h elp s to e xp la in w hy tr u st i s s o easily e ro ded . C re d ib ility d esc rib es th e d egre e to w hic h p eo ple b elie v e th eir le ad er to b e te chnic ally c o m pete nt a nd to h av e a d eq uate k no w le d ge a b out a n i s su e.

Relia b ility d esc rib es th e c o nsis te ncy a nd p re d ic ta b ility d is p la yed b y th e l e ad er.

In ti m acy d efin es th e w arm th a nd c lo se ness o f th e r e la ti o nsh ip . ( T ru st d im in is h es when s u b ord in ate s f e el a n i c y, d is ta nt a ura a ro und th e l e ad er.) F in ally , th e f o rm ula su ggests th at th e th re e m ain c o m ponents a ll g et d iv id ed b y th e s e lf- in te re st dis p la yed b y th e l e ad er. I f d ecis io ns a re m ad e f o r p ers o nal g ain a nd g lo ry , n o t th e org aniz a ti o n’s w elfa re , th en tr u st p lu m mets .

5. N ot a c o lla b ora tiv e, t e a m p la yer Many o f th e l e ad ers w ho d era ile d h ad a d iffic ult ti m e c o opera ti n g w ith o th er le ad ers . T hey v ie w ed w ork a s a c o m peti ti o n a nd o th er l e ad ers a s o pponents .

Rath er th an d ev elo pin g p ositi v e r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith p eers , th ey a v oid ed th em a nd lo oked f o r w ays to a ct i n d ep end entl y . T heir l a ck o f c o lla b ora ti o n c ause d th em to b e se t a d rift w ith o ut th e h elp o r i n sig hts o f o th ers .

Vir tu ally e v ery s tu d y th at h as b een c o nd ucte d o n th e i m pact o f c o m peti ti o n vers u s c o lla b ora ti o n h as s h o w n th at c o m peti ti o n l o se s. W hy? S uccess i n to day’s world d em and s th e s h arin g o f i n fo rm ati o n a nd r e so urc es. C om peti ti o n e ro des a nd fin ally d estr o ys th at. C om peti ti o n b re ed s s u sp ic io n a nd h o sti lity th at i n tu rn a cti v ely dis c o ura ge a ny s h arin g o f i n fo rm ati o n a nd r e so urc es. F urth erm ore , tr y in g to d o w ell fo r th e o vera ll o rg aniz a ti o n a nd tr y in g to b eat a n i n te rn al c o m peti to r a re tw o to ta lly diffe re nt o bje cti v es. B oth c anno t b e m et a t th e s a m e ti m e.

2 6. N ot a g ood r o le m od el ( fa ilu re t o w alk t h e t a lk ) A h ig hly p re d ic ta b le p ath to f a ilu re i s to b ehav e i n w ays th at a re c le arly o pposite to th e v alu es a nd c ultu re o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n. U nfo rtu nate ly , e xam ple s o f th is a b ound .

The l e ad er a nno unces th at e v ery o ne n eed s to c o ntr o l e xp ense s a nd th en p ro ceed s to book th e m ost e xp ensiv e h o te ls a nd e at i n th e h ig hest p ric ed r e sta ura nts . O r th e le ad er p ub lic ly d ecla re s th at p eo ple a re th e m ost v alu ab le a sse t a nd d ese rv e to b e tr e ate d w ith th e g re ate st r e sp ect, a nd th en p ro ceed s to p ub lic ly b era te a s e cre ta ry to th e p oin t o f te ars . B eyo nd th at, th is i s th e l e ad er w ho n ev er th anks p eo ple f o r th eir co ntr ib uti o ns a nd h ard w ork .

As a r u le , o rg aniz a ti o ns te nd to c ho ose a s th eir l e ad er a p ers o n w ho p ers o nifie s th e v alu es o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n. T he l e ad er o f a s tr e et g ang i s c ho se n f o r b ein g to ugh, fe arle ss, a nd c o m bati v e. T he l e ad ers o f r e lig io us o rd ers a re c ho se n b ecause th ey re p re se nt th e v alu es o f th e o rd er— se lfle ssn ess, c o m passio n, s e rv ic e, a nd in tr o sp ecti o n. S im ila rly , w e e xp ect th e l e ad er o f a b usin ess o r p ub lic a gency to re p re se nt th e v alu es i t p ro cla im s. W hen l e ad ers f a il to d o th at, th is u lti m ate ly l e ad s to th eir d ow nfa ll.

151 7. N o s e lf -d evelo p m en t a n d le a rn in g f r o m m is ta kes There i s a n e xtr e m ely i n te re sti n g b ody o f r e se arc h o n d era ile d e xecuti v es. M org an McC all, J r., a nd M ic hael L om bard o h av e w ritte n e xte nsiv ely r e gard in g e xecuti v es who w ere e xp ecte d to g o a ll th e w ay to th e to p o f th eir o rg aniz a ti o ns, b ut w ho g o t dera ile d . T hese r e se arc hers c o m pare d th o se w ho w ere d era ile d w ith th o se w ho se care ers to ok th em to s e nio r p ositi o ns i n th eir f ir m s. T heir f in d in gs c o nta in s o m e extr e m ely v alu ab le l e sso ns. D era ile d e xecuti v es m ad e a b out th e s a m e n um ber o f mis ta kes a s d id th o se w ho se c are ers c o nti n ued o nw ard a nd u p w ard , b ut d era ile d executi v es d id n o t u se s e tb acks o r f a ilu re a s a l e arn in g e xp erie nce. T hey h id th eir mis ta kes f r o m o th ers , n o t a le rti n g c o lle agues to th e c o nse q uences o f h o w th eir mis ta ke w ould a ffe ct th e c o lle agues’ a cti v iti e s. T hey d id n o t ta ke i m med ia te s te p s to r e cti fy w hat th ey h ad d one. F in ally , th ey te nd ed to b ro od a b out th e m is ta ke, co nsta ntl y r e liv in g i t f o r y ears a fte rw ard .

3 Tho se w ho se c are ers c o nti n ued to s o ar d id e xactl y th e o pposite . T hey r e ad ily ackno w le d ged w hat h ap pened to th o se a b out th em , a le rte d c o lle agues to th e pote nti a l c o nse q uences, d id th eir b est to f ix i t, a nd th en p ro ceed ed to f o rg et a b out i t and m ove o n i n th eir c are ers . O ur r e se arc h c o nfir m s th at th e i n ab ility to l e arn f r o m mis ta kes i s a m ajo r c ause o f f a ilu re . W e c an o nly s p ecula te a b out th e r e aso ns f o r th is . I s f a ilu re to l e arn f r o m m is ta kes a sy m pto m o f n o t b ein g w illin g o r a b le to f a ce re ality b ecause i t i s p ain fu l? O r i s i t s y m pto m ati c o f a rro gance a nd u nw illin gness to move a cro ss th e e m oti o nal h urd le to a ccep t th e f a ct th at “ I” d id s o m eth in g w ro ng?

Or d o th ese p eo ple g enuin ely n o t r e co gniz e th e s e rio us c o nse q uences o f w hat th ey hav e d one? ( “ T hat p ro ble m I h ad w as n o b ig d eal. I t d oesn ’t r e ally m atte r.” ) O r i s it b ecause th ey h av e n ev er l e arn ed th e s k ill o f o bje cti v ely a naly zin g th eir o w n behav io r?

We k no w th e r e aso ns d iffe r a m ong p eo ple , b ut l ittl e r e se arc h h as b een d one o n why s o m e p eo ple l e arn f r o m p ast e xp erie nce, w here as o th ers s e em d esti n ed to re p eat th e s a m e m is ta ke o ver a nd o ver.

An e xecuti v e w ith a b rillia nt m in d a nd m any a cco m plis h m ents h ad o ne f a ta l fla w . H e m ad e q uic k d ecis io ns a b out p eo ple , d is m is sin g s o m e a s b ein g in co m pete nt a fte r a 2 0-m in ute i n te rv ie w .

Oth ers w ere ta gged a s h is “ A ” te am b ecause o f o ne th in g th ey h ad d one o r s a id .

No a m ount o f s u b se q uent d is c o nfir m in g i n fo rm ati o n w ould c hange h is m in d . H e se le cte d o ne e xecuti v e a s h is v ic e p re sid ent o f f in ance. C ountl e ss p eo ple i n th e org aniz a ti o n w arn ed th e C EO o f th is p ers o n’s r e p uta ti o n f o r b acksta b bin g a nd sin is te r p oliti c al b ehav io r. W ors e y et, th is b ehav io r w as e xactl y th e o pposite o f th e cultu re th e C EO w as e sp ousin g th at h e w ante d to c re ate — a c ultu re o f o penness, in no vati o n, a nd tr u st. T he p atte rn o f h asty p ro m oti o n d ecis io ns c o nti n ued to o th er key a p poin tm ents , w ith o ne m is ta ke a fte r a no th er. F in ally , th e v ic e p re sid ent o f fin ance w as s u ccessfu l i n o usti n g th e C EO , th ro ugh a n e nd r u n to th e b oard . S ev era l 152 peo ple c o m mente d , “ W e tr ie d to te ll h im , b ut h e w ould n o t l is te n.” 8. L ack in g in te rp erso n al s k ills This f a ilu re c o m es f r o m tw o s o urc es: s in s o f c o m mis sio n a nd s in s o f o m is sio n.

Sin s o f C om mis sio n.

W hen l e ad ers a re a b ra siv e, i n se nsiti v e, b ro w beati n g, c o ld , arro gant, a nd b ully in g, th is i s a s u re p atte rn th at l e ad s to f a ilu re i n to day’s w orld .

That b ehav io r w as to le ra te d 5 0 y ears a go , b ut l e ss o fte n to day. T his c lu ste r o f behav io rs , c le arly i n te rp ers o nal i n ep tn ess, i s a m ajo r f a cto r i n th e d ow nfa ll o f le ad ers . I n th e H um an R eso urc es p ro fe ssio n th ere h as b een th e s a yin g, “ W e h ir e peo ple f o r th eir te chnic al c o m pete nce a nd f ir e th em f o r th eir i n te rp ers o nal in co m pete nce.” N o a m ount o f o th er ta le nt a nd a b ility i s c ap ab le o f s u rm ounti n g th is defic ie ncy. N o c o m bin ati o n o f i n te llig ence, h ard w ork , b usin ess a cum en, a nd ad m in is tr a ti v e s k ills c o vers o ver th is l a ck o f i n te rp ers o nal s k ills . B ein g in te rp ers o nally b unglin g a nd h am -h and ed i n ev ita b ly s in ks l e ad ers .

Sin s o f O mis sio n.

W e a re o fte n s tu nned to s e e th e n um ber o f p eo ple i n m id dle - managem ent p ositi o ns i n o rg aniz a ti o ns w ho l a ck th e m ost r u d im enta ry o f s o cia l sk ills . T hese b asic h um an s k ills i n clu d e:

• W hen y o u ta lk w ith p eo ple , l o ok th em i n th e e ye.

• L earn a nd u se p eo ple ’s n am es.

• W hen ta lk in g w ith p eo ple , s a y o r d o th in gs th at l e t th e o th er p ers o n k no w y o u are l is te nin g a nd u nd ers ta nd in g.

• D o n o t d om in ate th e c o nv ers a ti o n a nd ta ke a ll th e “ air ti m e.” • S in cere ly i n q uir e a b out o th ers ’ i d eas a nd a cti v iti e s.

• L augh a t o th ers ’ j o kes a nd a tte m pts a t h um or.

• P ra is e o th ers ’ h ard w ork a nd e ffo rts i n f u rth erin g a g o od c ause .

• S m ile w hen m eeti n g a nd g re eti n g o th er p eo ple .

Many a sp ir in g l e ad ers f a il to u se th ese e xtr e m ely f u nd am enta l i n te rp ers o nal s k ills .

Furth erm ore , th ese s k ills b eco m e th e b asic p la tf o rm f o r th e s k ills o f l e ad in g g ro up dis c ussio ns d esig ned to i d enti fy a nd r e so lv e p ro ble m s, g iv in g a nd r e ceiv in g fe ed back, c o achin g, m akin g p ow erfu l p re se nta ti o ns, a nd r u nnin g e ffe cti v e w ork - te am m eeti n gs.

9. R esis ta n t t o n ew id ea s, t h us d id n ot le a d c h an ge o r in nova te This c ause o f f a ilu re c o m es f r o m r e je cti n g s u ggesti o ns f r o m s u b ord in ate s o r p eers , in sis ti n g o n d oin g th in gs th e s a m e o ld w ay, a nd b ein g g enera lly c lo se d to n ew th in kin g. T his i s a m ajo r tu rn o ff f o r s u b ord in ate s. I t p ro duces tw o n egati v e co nse q uences.

153 One i s th e i m pact o n s u b ord in ate s. P eo ple f e el i g no re d , th eir i d eas unap pre cia te d , a nd th eir c o ntr ib uti o n u nd erv alu ed . T his u nw illin gness to c o nsid er new i d eas a ls o c re ate s a s tu lti fy in g c lim ate o f s ta gnati o n. P eo ple ’s d ev elo pm ent i s se rio usly c urta ile d . M ora le d egenera te s, a nd tu rn o ver e sc ala te s.

A s e co nd c o nse q uence i s th at g o od i d eas a nd s o lu ti o ns f a il to g et i m ple m ente d .

The o rg aniz a ti o n b eco m es s tu ck. B ecause g o od i d eas a re s q uelc hed , p eo ple s to p th in kin g a b out b ette r w ays to d o th in gs. T he o rg aniz a ti o n m is se s o ut o n im pro vem ents th at c o m e f r o m a ccep ti n g n ew i d eas f r o m m ulti p le s o urc es. T he to ta l quality m ovem ent v erifie d th at th e b est i d eas f o r p ro cess i m pro vem ents c am e f r o m th e p eo ple w ho w ere w ork in g d ir e ctl y i n th at a re na, n o t f r o m o uts id e e xp erts .

Many c o nsu lti n g f ir m s h av e d ev elo ped a s u ccessfu l p ra cti c e b y i n te rv ie w in g em plo yees a nd s e ekin g th eir o pin io ns a b out th e s e rio us i s su es th e org aniz a ti o n fa ces a nd w hat th ey w ould r e co m mend a s s o lu ti o ns. T hese i d eas a re th en co m bin ed , b ound i n to a n e xp ensiv e l e ath er-b ound r e p ort, p re se nte d to u p per managem ent, a nd th e c o nsu lti n g f ir m th en p re se nts a h efty b ill to th e c o m pany f o r i ts se rv ic es. T he f a ct o f th e m atte r i s th at th e e m plo yees w ould h av e b een w illin g to te ll th e e xecuti v es e xactl y th e s a m e th in gs h ad th ey b een a sk ed . I n f a ct, a cco rd in g to many w e ta lk w ith , th ey h av e u su ally tr ie d to p ass o n th o se m essa ges, b ut n o o ne was l is te nin g. C om panie s c o uld i m pro ve th e l e v el o f c o m mitm ent o f th eir work fo rc e, g et e xcelle nt i d eas f o r i m pro vem ent, a nd s a v e a g o od d eal o f m oney i f th ey w ould s e ek a nsw ers f r o m th eir o w n p eo ple . N ot d oin g s o i s a f a ta l f la w o f le ad ers h ip .

Many o f u s h av e w ork ed f o r l e ad ers w ho se a uto m ati c r e sp onse to e v ery i d ea o r su ggesti o n w as a n egati v e o ne. O ne c o m pany d esc rib es th ese p eo ple a s th eir “ab om in ab le ‘ n o ’ m en.” I t i s i m possib le to c alc ula te th e d am age s u ch a p ers o n d oes in sid e a n o rg aniz a ti o n, m easu re d e ith er i n th e n um ber o f g o od i d eas th at g et perm anentl y s q uelc hed o r b y th e n um ber o f ta le nte d p eo ple w ho p erm anentl y e xit th e o rg aniz a ti o n, c o m ple te ly tu rn ed o ff b y th is l e ad er’s b ehav io r.

The o ne th in g w ors e th an a l e ad er w ho c o nsta ntl y s a ys “ N o” i s th e l e ad er w ho pre te nd s to l is te n a nd th en d oes n o th in g a b out i t. P re te nd in g to l is te n r a is e s th e ho pes o f th e e m plo yee, a nd th ese h o pes a re d ash ed w hen n o a cti o n i s ta ken.

Lead ers a re o fte n b ese t b y tw in d em ons— arro gance a nd c o m pla cency. T he b elie f th at y o ur i d eas a re s u p erio r to e v ery o ne e ls e ’s i s a n u lti m ate e xp re ssio n o f arro gance. U nw illin gness to l is te n to o th ers ’ i d eas a nd e xp erim ent w ith th em i s a fu rth er e xp re ssio n o f a rro gance. T hese l e ad ers f e el th re ate ned b y g o od i d eas co m in g f r o m o th ers . M ayb e th ey g re w u p w ith th e m is ta ken a ssu m pti o n th at b ecause yo u h av e a f o rm al ti tl e o r r o le a s th e m anager o r d ir e cto r, i t m eans y o u s h o uld h av e answ ers to a ll p ro ble m s a nd th at i d eas f o r c hanges s h o uld a ll e m anate f r o m y o u.

Ralp h w as a s e nio r e xecuti v e i n th e r e se arc h d iv is io n o f a s e m ic o nd ucto r co m pany. W hen a nyo ne h ad a n i d ea th at w as r e v olu ti o nary o r o uts id e th e n o rm al way o f d oin g th in gs, th ey w ould g o s e e R alp h. W e a sk ed w hy h e th o ught th at w as 154 th e c ase , a nd h e w as e xceed in gly c le ar a b out th e r e aso ns. “ I d on’t e v er d is c o ura ge a n ew i d ea. I d eas a re te nd er a nd n eed to b e n o uris h ed . S o I a sk l o ts o f q uesti o ns and g iv e th e p ers o n e nco ura gem ent to p urs u e i t, u nle ss I ’ m p ositi v e i t w on’t w ork .

If I h av e th e s lig hte st b elie f i t c o uld s u cceed , I a m e nth usia sti c a b out i t. O ver th e years , th at’ s p aid o ff i n s o m e r e m ark ab le a d vancem ents .” 10. F ocu s is o n s e lf , n ot o n t h e d evelo p m en t o f o th ers In a d diti o n to b ein g h ig hly s e lf- c ente re d , th ese l e ad ers p erc eiv e th e d ev elo pm ent o f th eir s u b ord in ate s a s a n o pti o nal a cti v ity . I t i s “ nic e, w hen a nd i f I h av e s o m e ti m e” but n o t a c entr a l p art o f th eir j o b. T hey a ssu m e th at n o t s p end in g ti m e o n th e dev elo pm ent o f th eir d ir e ct r e p orts d oes n o t a nd s h o uld n o t i m pact th eir o w n pers o nal e ffe cti v eness.

The e v id ence, h o w ev er, i s v ery c le ar th at th o se l e ad ers w ho w ere n o t c o ncern ed ab out h elp in g th eir d ir e ct r e p orts d ev elo p a nd w ere n o t s e en a s c o aches o r m ento rs were m ore l ik ely to f a il. C le arly , th ey w ere p rim arily f o cuse d o n th em se lv es a nd were n o t c o ncern ed f o r th e l o nger-te rm s u ccess o f th eir e m plo yees, th eir dep artm ent o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

What w e k no w a b out l e ad ers w ho a re g o od a t d ev elo pin g th eir d ir e ct r e p orts i s th at th ey a re a b le to g enera te a g re at d eal o f c o m mitm ent a nd e ngagem ent b y enco ura gin g a nd s u p porti n g th e d ev elo pm ent o f o th ers . T he i n cre ase d e ngagem ent ty p ic ally r a is e s th e p erfo rm ance o f th e g ro up . B uild in g th e c ap ab iliti e s o f o th ers als o o fte n a llo w s l e ad ers th e o pportu nity to d ele gate c halle ngin g a ssig nm ents . T his pro vid es th e l e ad er g re ate r l a ti tu d e to s p end m ore ti m e m anagin g a nd l e ad in g th e gro up . W hen p eo ple a re l e arn in g a nd g ro w in g i n th eir j o bs, th ey f e el p ositi v ely ab out th eir w ork a nd th eir l e ad er. O fte n, l e ad ers w ho f a il to f o cus o n th e dev elo pm ent o f th eir d ir e ct r e p orts a re p rim arily f o cuse d o n th eir o w n c are er a nd th eir o w n s u ccess. T hey m ay e v en s to op to ta ke c re d it f o r th e a cco m plis h m ents o f th eir te am . T he d is e ngagem ent o f th e te am a nd l a ck o f m oti v ati o n b y te am m em bers makes a chie v in g d iffic ult ta rg ets a lm ost i m possib le .

What F ata l F la w s H ave in C om mon As w e s tu d y th ese 1 0 p atte rn s o f b ehav io r, th re e th in gs s ta nd o ut.

Fir s t, e ach i s e xtr e m ely o bvio us. T hey a re o bse rv ab le b y a nyo ne w ith e v en th e most c asu al o f c o nnecti o ns to th e l e ad er i n q uesti o n. E very o ne c lo se to th ese le ad ers h ip b ehav io rs f e els th eir i m pact ( o r i n m any c ase s, th eir l a ck o f i m pact) . N o one i s i m mune. T hey h av e a h uge i n flu ence o n th e o rg aniz a ti o n, b ecause th e l e ad er has a n e no rm ous “ rip ple ” e ffe ct i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

Seco nd , th ese f a ta l f la w s te nd to b e m ostl y “ sin s o f o m is sio n.” E ach c ase i s mark ed p rim arily b y a n i n ab ility to d o s o m eth in g. I t i s d efin ed b y f a ilu re to i n iti a te acti v iti e s, n o t d is c o verin g th e c ause s o f f a ilu re , i g no rin g o bvio us n eed s, n o t 155 re achin g o ut, n o t ta kin g i n iti a ti v e, n o t s e ekin g o ut n ew i d eas, n o t co nnecti n g w ith peo ple , a nd n o t e xerti n g e nerg y to m ake th in gs h ap pen. I t c o uld b e s u m med u p a s co m pla cency a nd g enera l a p ath y. T hese a re th e p eo ple w ho a re p erc eiv ed a s lu kew arm a nd “ b la h” b ecause th ey a re n o t e ffe cti v e i n m akin g th in gs h ap pen.

Thir d , th e f a ta l f la w s a re n o t i n te lle ctu al d efic ie ncie s, b ut m uch m ore o n th e “em oti o nal i n te llig ence” o r i n te rp ers o nal s id e o f th e e q uati o n. T hese f la w s a ris e fr o m e m oti o nal a nd b ehav io ra l d im ensio ns a nd s e ld om f r o m a d ir th o f k no w le d ge or te chnic al i n co m pete nce. T he p ers o n w ith th ese f a ta l f la w s b asic ally l a cks th e ab ility o r d is c ip lin e to i n iti a te o r g et th in gs g o in g. I n n early e v ery c ase , a s e rio us effo rt to r e m ed y th at d efic ie ncy w ould r e su lt i n s o m e s ig nific ant c hanges f o r th e bette r.

One o f th e a uth o rs w ork ed w ith a v ic e p re sid ent o f a d m in is tr a ti o n w ho h ad b een re sp onsib le f o r a ll m ain te nance, n ew c o nstr u cti o n, p ers o nnel, p ub lic r e la ti o ns, a nd purc hasin g. H e w as a ty ra nnic al l e ad er a nd l a cked e ffe cti v e i n te rp ers o nal s k ills .

His w ere th e o nly “ go od i d eas,” a nd n o o ne m ad e s u ggesti o ns f o r i m pro vem ents because th ey w ere c erta in th ey w ould b e “ sh o t d ow n.” P eo ple i n sid e h is a re as ofte n ta lk ed a b out “ D on’t r o ck th e b oat.” T he r e su lt w as th e l a ck o f a ny n ew in iti a ti v es.

One f a sc in ati n g b ut tr a gic c o nse q uence w as th e d ev asta ti n g i m pact th is p ers o n had o n e ach o f f iv e s u b ord in ate s. N one w as e v er p ro m ote d . T hey h ad b een s o sm oth ere d b y h is l e ad ers h ip th at th ey b ecam e i n cap ab le o f ta kin g i n iti a ti v e o r em bra cin g n ew i d eas f r o m o th er s o urc es.

Afte r th e te rm in ati o n o f th e v ic e p re sid ent a nd d esp ite a n ew l e ad er w ith a to ta lly d iffe re nt a p pro ach, o ver th e n ext tw o y ears e ach o f th e d ir e cto rs w ho re p orte d to h im u lti m ate ly r e sig ned u nd er s o m e p re ssu re o r w as te rm in ate d . T hey nev er r e co vere d f r o m th eir e xp erie nce o f w ork in g u nd er th is ty ra nt. T his i s th e im pact o f l e ad ers w ith f a ta l f la w s, a nd th is e xam ple i llu str a te s h o w f a ta l f la w s ofte n g o to geth er a nd a m plify e ach o th er.

Fix in g F ata l F la w s.

I f a l e ad er p osse sse s o ne o r m ore o f th ese c hara cte ris ti c s, acti o n s h o uld o bvio usly b e ta ken to r e m ed y th at d efic ie ncy, m ake th at w eakness ir re le v ant, o r to m ove th at p ers o n b ack i n to a r o le o f b ein g a n i n d iv id ual co ntr ib uto r w here th at b ehav io r i s l e ss n ecessa ry . ( In f a ct, h o w ev er, th o se te n f a ta l fla w s w ill a ls o s ta nd i n th e w ay o f th e “ p ro fe ssio nal, i n d iv id ual c o ntr ib uto r” b ein g hig hly e ffe cti v e i n th e l o ng r u n.) Peo ple c an o verc o m e th ese c hara cte ris ti c s. F ir s t, th e o rg aniz a ti o n c an e nsu re th at th e p ers o n k no w s h e p osse sse s o ne o f th ese “ fa ta l f la w s” a nd th e s e rio us co nse q uences th is w ill h av e o n h is c are er. I f th e p ers o n i s w illin g to c hange, h e c an ofte n m ake s ig nific ant c o ntr ib uti o ns to th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

The o rg aniz a ti o n u su ally h as a s iz a b le i n v estm ent i n th is i n d iv id ual, a nd th is no w te sts s e v era l f u nd am enta l c o nv ic ti o ns o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s l e ad ers h ip . T hese 156 in clu d e:

• C an p eo ple r e ally c hange?

• A re p eo ple tr u ly v alu ab le ?

• D oes th e o rg aniz a ti o n h av e a r e sp onsib ility to h elp th e p ers o n w ho i s w illin g to c hange?

• D o p eo ple p osse ss l a te nt ta le nts a nd a b iliti e s?

• I s i t w orth th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s i n v estm ent to h elp a n i n d iv id ual f ix a f a ta l f la w i n th eir l e ad ers h ip s k ills ?

We c o nte nd th at th e o rg aniz a ti o n o w es i t to th e l e ad er to p ro vid e d ev elo pm enta l exp erie nces th at w ill p ro vid e a p ositi v e p ath to r e m ed y d ysfu ncti o nal b ehav io r.

These m ay i n clu d e e xte rn al o r i n te rn al p ro gra m s o r a c o achin g/m ento rin g re la ti o nsh ip th at p ro vid es o ngo in g f e ed back to h elp c hange th e l e ad er.

Chap te r 1 0 pro vid es s e v era l a v enues th at c o uld p ro ve h elp fu l to th e i n d iv id ual w anti n g to change, a nd Chap te r 1 2 p ro vid es s u ggesti o ns f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n a nd i ts e ffo rts to help s u ch l e ad ers .

Pre sc rip tio n: M assiv e D ose s o f F eedback .

T his i s a p erfe ct u se o f th e 3 60-d egre e fe ed back p ro cess. O nce i t h as b een e sta b lis h ed th at a l e ad er h as a m ajo r d efic ie ncy in o ne o f th e a re as d esc rib ed a b ove, i t s h o uld b e m ad e c le ar to th e l e ad er th at change i s e xp ecte d .

One p ow erfu l s tr a te gy i s to i n d ic ate th at 1 5 m onth s f r o m n o w , w e w ill d o a fo llo w -u p r o und o f 3 60-d egre e f e ed back i n str u m ents w ith th e s u b ord in ate s, a nd th e exp ecta ti o n i s th at th ese a re as w ill b e r e m ed ie d . T he s e tti n g o f a c le ar e xp ecta ti o n fo r c hange, a nd th e c re ati o n o f a p ow erfu l s e nse o f u rg ency a b out i t, i s th e m ost lik ely w ay to e ra se f a ta l f la w s.

Why F eedback W ork s.

I n sid e e v ery o ne’s h ead i s a p ic tu re o f h o w th ey s e e th em se lv es. I t d esc rib es w hat s o rt o f p ers o n th ey a re , w hat v alu es th ey p osse ss, th eir o vera ll p atte rn o f b ehav io r, a nd s u m s u p th e i m age th ey h av e o f th em se lv es. I n most c ase s, th e l e ad er w ith a f a ta l f la w i s to ta lly u naw are o f i t. F or e xam ple , th e le ad er w ho i m med ia te ly r e je cts o th ers ’ i d eas w ould i n g re at l ik elih o od d esc rib e hers e lf a s b ein g f u ll o f c o nfid ence a nd h av in g s u ch e xte nsiv e e xp erie nce th at s h e kno w s w hat i d eas w ill s u cceed a nd w hic h w ill f a il. S uch i n d iv id uals a re u su ally unaw are o f th e p erc ep ti o n th at th ey r e je ct e v ery o ne e ls e ’s i d eas. H ow c an th at b e changed ?

Feed back i n th e f o rm o f c o achin g, te am d is c ussio ns, o r 3 60-d egre e s u rv eys ( if ho nest a nd d ir e ct) p ro vid es “ d is c o nfir m in g i n fo rm ati o n.” T he m essa ges c o nv eyed would b e c o ntr a ry to th is l e ad er’s s e lf- p erc ep ti o ns. T his c re ate s a d ile m ma a nd fo rc es s o m e a cti o n. T he l e ad er n o w h as o ne o f s e v era l c ho ic es to m ake.

Fir s t, s h e c an d eny th e i n fo rm ati o n. B ut i f i t c o m es f r o m m ulti p le s o urc es th at a re 157 cle arly r e lia b le a nd h av e n o p ers o nal a xe to g rin d , i t b eco m es e xtr e m ely d iffic ult to deny th is c o nsis te nt p atte rn o f f e ed back.

Seco nd , th e l e ad er c an c ho ose to c hange h er s e lf- c o ncep t. S he c o uld s a y to hers e lf, “ W ell, o kay, I g uess I a m a rro gant a nd th in k m y i d eas a re th e o nly g o od ones th at e xis t.” F or th e p ers o n p osse ssin g s o m e g enera l h ealth o f c hara cte r a nd pers o nality , th is s e lf- c o ncep t i s u naccep ta b le a nd i llo gic al.

Thir d , s h e c an c hange h er b ehav io r. F or m ost p eo ple f a ced w ith a b arra ge o f dis c o nfir m in g i n fo rm ati o n, th e e asie st c o urs e o f a cti o n i s to c hange th e b ehav io r.

That i s th e p ow er o f f e ed back.

Cle arly , s o m e f a ta l f la w s w ill b e s p ecific to th e p ositi o n th e p ers o n o ccup ie s.

For e xam ple , th e d ir e cto r o f r e se arc h a nd d ev elo pm ent w ill n o t u su ally s u rv iv e unle ss h e i s p erc eiv ed a s b ein g h ig hly te chnic ally c o m pete nt. T he h ead o f s a le s w ill no t s u rv iv e i f s h e i s p erc eiv ed a s l a ckin g i m porta nt i n te rp ers o nal s k ills . A p artn er in a C PA f ir m w ill n o t s u rv iv e, r e gard le ss o f h o w g o od a n a ud ito r h e i s , i f h e f a ils to ta ke th e i n iti a ti v e to g enera te r e v enue a nd d ev elo p c usto m er r e la ti o nsh ip s. I n th ese c ase s, th e p ers o n d oes n o t a lw ays n eed to tr a nsfo rm th e w eakness i n to a str e ngth , b ut th e b ehav io r n eed s to b e ta ken f r o m th e l ia b ility c o lu m n a nd m ad e i n to a n eutr a l c hara cte ris ti c a t w ors t.

Dif fe re nt R esp onse s t o F eedback .

P eo ple r e sp ond d iffe re ntl y to f e ed back. T hat i s so m eth in g w e h av e a ll o bse rv ed . T he w ork o f o ne r e se arc her m ay s h ed l ig ht o n th o se d iffe re nces. T ory H ig gin s, c hair m an o f th e D ep artm ent o f P sy cho lo gy a t Colu m bia U niv ers ity , h as b een h o no re d f o r h is d is ti n guis h ed c o ntr ib uti o ns to th e fie ld o f s o cia l p sy cho lo gy. H is r e se arc h c o nclu d es th at p eo ple f a ll i n to o ne o f tw o cam ps i n th eir f u nd am enta l o rie nta ti o n o n h o w th ey r e gula te th eir b ehav io r. T he fir s t o rie nta ti o n i s to w ard a chie v in g p ositi v e o utc o m es. H e l a b ele d th is a “p ro m oti o n” o rie nta ti o n. T his g ro up o f p eo ple w ants to m ake p ositi v e th in gs hap pen. T heir f o cus i s o n a chie v em ent.

4 Pro m otio n O rie nta tio n.

H ig gin s c o nclu d es f r o m h is r e se arc h th at th is g ro up o f in d iv id uals i s h ig hly m oti v ate d b y p ositi v e f e ed back. I t r e in fo rc es th at th ey acco m plis h ed w hat th ey s e t o ut to d o. P ositi v e f e ed back m eans th at o th ers h av e no ti c ed w hat th ey d id . T heir i n te nti o n to p ro duce s o m eth in g o r co m ple te a p ro je ct met w ith s u ccess. P ositi v e f e ed back i s th e r e w ard f o r d oin g th at. I n th e p arla nce o f in v esti n g, th is g ro up s e es s u ccess a s a chie v in g b ig g ain s. Y es, th ere m ig ht b e perio dic l o sse s, b ut s o l o ng a s th e g ain s a re th ere i n th e l o ng r u n, th e s h o rt- te rm lo sse s a re q uite a ccep ta b le .

These p eo ple a re d ev asta te d b y n egati v e f e ed back. I t w ound s th eir s e lf- e ste em .

Their i n te nti o n to d o s o m eth in g w orth w hile h as n o t b een r e co gniz e d o r th eir e ffo rts were a f a ilu re . N egati v e f e ed back i s e xactl y w hat th ey d id n o t w ant to h ear, a nd th us i t b eco m es h ig hly d em oti v ati n g to th em . T hey p ull b ack a nd b eco m e d efla te d by c riti c is m .

158 Pre ventio n O rie nta tio n.

T he s e co nd g ro up o f p eo ple h as a “ p re v enti o n orie nta ti o n.” T heir o bje cti v e i n l ife i s to a v oid n egati v e o utc o m es. A verti n g f a ilu re is w hat l ife i s a b out. T he w ay to a v oid f a ilu re i s c o nsta ntl y to m onito r w hat y o u d o, and i n sta ntl y h ead o ff a ny i m pend in g m is ta ke o r o m is sio n. T hus, s o m eo ne menti o nin g to y o u th at th ere i s a n e rro r i n y o ur d ra ft o f a r e p ort to u p per managem ent i s g re atl y a p pre cia te d . T hat e nab le s y o u to a v oid l o okin g b ad to th o se re ceiv in g th e r e p ort.

As i n v esto rs , th is g ro up i s i n th e c am p o f “ D on’t l o se a nyth in g.” S uccess m eans nev er h av in g a s to ck g o d ow n. I t i s p erfe ctl y a ll r ig ht n o t to h av e s p ecta cula r g ain s, or e v en g ain s th at m ir ro r th e p erfo rm ance o f th e o vera ll m ark et, s o l o ng a s n o th in g is l o st.

Feed back f o r p eo ple w ith a p re ven tio n o rie n ta tio n.

A ny i n fo rm ati o n th at a le rts th is p ers o n to a n i m pend in g p ro ble m o r d iffic ulty w ould b e s o ught a fte r a nd g re atl y ap pre cia te d . I n d iv id uals i n th is g ro up w elc o m e w hat o th ers m ig ht s e e a s “ negati v e fe ed back.” In c o ntr a st, th is g ro up i s n o t e nth ra lle d w ith p ositi v e f e ed back. F or th ese in d iv id uals , i t c o m es a cro ss a t w ors t a s p ho ny a nd h o llo w p ra is e ; o r a t b est a s fa ir ly u se le ss. P ositi v e f e ed back d oes n o t h elp th e i n d iv id ual s te er c le ar o f f a ilu re s, so i t h as l ittl e v alu e.

The ta keaw ay h ere i s th at o ne k in d o f f e ed back m ay b e e xtr e m ely h elp fu l to so m e p eo ple , w here as i t m ay b e i r rita ti n g to o th ers . M uch o f th at h as to d o w ith th eir o rie nta ti o n to l ife . B e a w are th at tw o p eo ple m ay r e sp ond v ery d iffe re ntl y to exactl y th e s a m e f e ed back b ase d o n th eir l ife -o rie nta ti o n.

Fata l f la w s i n t h e p re ven tio n c a m p.

T ho se p eo ple w e d esc rib ed e arlie r w ith f a ta l fla w s m ay b e i n e ith er th e p re v enti o n o r p ro m oti o n c am p. F or th o se i n th e pre v enti o n c am p, th eir b ehav io r i s a lm ost a lw ays c hara cte riz e d b y a l a ck o f openness to n ew i d eas, b ecause n ew i d eas a re r is k y. T here i s a m uch g re ate r possib ility o f m is ta kes h ap penin g w hen y o u tr y s o m eth in g n ew , s o th ey a re th in kin g, “R eje ct n ew p ro cesse s o r a p pro aches a s l o ng a nd h ard a s y o u c an.” Tho se i n th e p re v enti o n o rie nta ti o n g ro up w ould a ls o l ik e to b e d iv orc ed f r o m any a cco unta b ility , b ecause th at w ay th ey c an a v oid th e n egati v e o utc o m es a tte nd ant with p oor p erfo rm ance. T heir p ositi o n: “ N ev er h av e y o ur f in gerp rin ts o n a p ro je ct th at m ig ht f a il.” “ A lw ays g et s o m eo ne i n b etw een y o u a nd a r is k y p ro gra m , s o th at if i t d oes n o t w ork o ut, y o u c an b la m e th em .” M uch o f l ife i s s p ent i n f o llo w in g th e maxim : “ It d oesn ’t m atte r w heth er y o u w in o r l o se , i t’ s h o w y o u p la ce th e b la m e.” They w ant s o m eo ne to b e th e s c ap ego at i n c ase o f f a ilu re .

Fin ally , th is g ro up d oes n o t i n iti a te n ew p ro je cts o r p ro gra m s. W hy? T he l e ss yo u d o, th e l e ss l ik elih o od th ere i s f o r e rro r. T he m ore th in gs y o u g et u nd er w ay, th e g re ate r th e c hances a re f o r s o m eth in g to g o w ro ng. S o, th e k ey i s to d o a s l ittl e as p ossib le a nd s u rv iv e. K eep y o ur h ead d ow n. D on’t d ra w a tte nti o n. D on’t r o ck 159 th e b oat. T hat i s s u ccess. I f s o m eo ne g iv es m e i n fo rm ati o n th at h elp s m e to a v oid fa ilu re , th en I a m f o re v er g ra te fu l.

Hig gin s’ r e se arc h s h ed s l ig ht o n w hy p eo ple r e sp ond s o d iffe re ntl y to f e ed back and h elp s a ll l e ad ers to b e c le are r a b out th e r ig ht ty p e o f f e ed back to g iv e to o th ers , dep end in g o n th eir b asic o rie nta ti o n to l ife .

Ano th er s o cia l p sy cho lo gis t, th en a t C olu m bia U niv ers ity a nd n o w te achin g a t Sta nfo rd , C aro l D w eck, c o nd ucte d e xte nsiv e r e se arc h w ith s c ho ol- c hild re n a nd dev elo ped a f r a m ew ork w ith s o m e s im ila riti e s to th at o f H ig gin s. H er r e se arc h o n fe ed back s h ed s f u rth er, b ut c o nsis te nt, l ig ht o n th is f a sc in ati n g to pic .

Dw eck’s r e se arc h s h o w ed th at p eo ple f e ll i n to tw o c ate go rie s th at s h e c alle d “im pro vin g” a nd “ p ro vin g.” T he f ir s t c ate go ry , “ im pro vin g,” v ie w s th e w orld a s a n opportu nity to l e arn a nd g ro w . P ro ble m s th ey e nco unte r th at a re h ard o r h ig hly ti m e co nsu m in g a re w elc o m ed b ecause th at m eans th ey c an “ im pro ve” th em se lv es.

Mis ta kes a re v ie w ed a s u se fu l f e ed back.

5 The “ p ro vin g” g ro up o f p eo ple v ie w l ife a s a p ro cess o f j u sti fy in g o r p ro vin g th em se lv es to o th ers , p arti c ula rly th o se i n a uth o rity . T here fo re , p ro ble m s th at a re hard o r ti m e c o nsu m in g b eco m e a th re at, b ecause th ey s h o w th at th e p ers o n w as n o t as c ap ab le a s o th ers h ad th o ught. T hese p eo ple , th ere fo re , te nd to s h rin k a w ay f r o m diffic ult ta sk s a nd r e v ert to ta sk s th at a re e asily a cco m plis h ed . T hey d ev elo p a help le ss a nd d ep end ent b ehav io r.

We f in d m uch c o nsis te ncy b etw een th ese tw o r e se arc h e nd eav ors . T he “im pro vin g” a nd “ p ro m oti o n” o rie nta ti o ns s e em q uite a nalo go us. L ik ew is e , th e “p ro vin g” a nd th e “ p re v enti o n” o rie nta ti o ns s e em s im ila r. D w eck’s r e se arc h fo cuse d o n th e r ig ht a nd w ro ng k in d s o f f e ed back to g iv e to a nyo ne. I t d id n o t dis ti n guis h th e f e ed back th at w ould b e m ore a p pro pria te f o r o ne g ro up th an a no th er.

Dw eck c o nclu d ed th at th e w ro ng f e ed back to g iv e w as a nyth in g th at w as g lo bal, genera l, o r th at c o uld b e c o nstr u ed s im ply a s p ra is e . I f a w ell- m eanin g p are nt te lls a c hild , “ Y ou a re r e ally s m art” o r “ Y ou a re a g ifte d s tu d ent,” w hat i s th at c hild to th in k w hen a w eek l a te r h e i s i n a go ny i n a c la ss i n w hic h th e te acher h as g iv en h im a p ro ble m h e c anno t s o lv e? O r, w hat i s th e e m plo yee to th in k a fte r a m anager h as to ld h er w hat a n i n te llig ent a nd ta le nte d e m plo yee s h e i s , a nd n o w s h e h as b een giv en a r e p ort to w rite a nd s h e s im ply i s n o t m akin g a ny p ro gre ss o n i t?

On th e o th er h and , th in k o f th e p ositi v e o utc o m es f r o m th e p are nt w ho te lls th e child , “ I r e ally a d m ir e h o w h ard y o u’v e w ork ed o n l e arn in g th e m ulti p lic ati o n ta b le s” o r “ Y ou h av e r e ally b een c re ati v e a b out l o okin g f o r d iffe re nt w ays to g et th e i n fo rm ati o n f o r y o ur te rm p ap er. W hen y o u c o m bin e th at w ith h o w te nacio us yo u h av e b een, I k no w y o u w ill c o m e u p w ith a g o od p ap er.” 6 Or, c o nsid er th e l e ad er w ho te lls a s u b ord in ate , “ I w ant to c o m plim ent y o u o n ho w h ard y o u h av e b een w ork in g a nd a t y o ur a b ility to o verc o m e th e o bsta cle s i n yo ur p ath o n th is p ro je ct. T he p ro gre ss y o u h av e m ad e i s a r e fle cti o n o n y o ur 160 fo cuse d e ffo rt.” The d iffe re nce i n th ese tw o a p pro aches m ay s e em s u b tl e to s o m e, b ut th ey a re extr e m e o pposite s. T he f ir s t i s f o cuse d o n th e p ers o n a nd h is o r h er i n nate a b iliti e s.

The s e co nd a p pro ach i s f o cuse d o n th e p ro cess h e o r s h e h as u se d to ta ckle a pro je ct o r a p ro ble m . T hat f o cus m ay b e o n th e i n te nsity o f th e e ffo rt, o r o n th e in no vati v e a p pro aches to i t, o r o n th e a b ility to o verc o m e o bsta cle s, o r i t c o uld b e on th e a b ility n o t to b e d is tr a cte d b y o th er th in gs. T he b enefit o f th e s e co nd ap pro ach i s th at a nyti m e l a te r, i f th is p ers o n i s f e elin g a c halle nge i n s o lv in g a pro ble m o r c o m ple ti n g a p ro je ct, h is o r h er th o ught p ro cesse s w ill b e d iffe re nt. T he questi o n w ill n o t b e, “ D id m y p are nt ( o r m y b oss) l ie to m e a b out b ein g s o cap ab le ?” In ste ad , th e th o ught p ro cess a fte r th e s e co nd p atte rn o f f e ed back w ill b e, “ M ayb e I’ m n o t w ork in g h ard e no ugh.” “ P erh ap s I h av en’t b een i n no vati v e i n l o okin g f o r oth er w ays to s o lv e th is p ro ble m .” “ I n eed to w ork h ard er to o verc o m e s o m e o f th e barrie rs th at e xis t i n o ur s y ste m s h ere .” I n s h o rt, th e f o cus i s n o w o n th e p ro cess th at i s b ein g u se d , n o t o n h is o r h er f u nd am enta l i n te llig ence o r w orth a s a p ers o n.

These tw o b odie s o f r e se arc h o n f e ed back h av e g iv en u s b ette r w ays to und ers ta nd th e d iffe re nt r e acti o ns to th e s a m e f e ed back a nd a ls o p ro vid e a go od te m pla te f o r a b ette r a p pro ach to g iv in g f e ed back. F ir s t, e xam in e th e n atu re o f th e in d iv id ual a nd w heth er p ositi v e o r n egati v e f e ed back w ill b e o f m ost v alu e.

Seco nd , w hate v er th e p ers o n i s l ik e, k eep f e ed back f o cuse d o n th e b ehav io r o r pro cess th e p ers o n i s u sin g a nd n o t o n h im o r h er a s a p ers o n. T hese tw o p ow erfu l id eas g re atl y e nhance o ur u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e f e ed back p ro cess a nd h o w i t c an help l e ad ers o verc o m e f a ta l f la w s.

For f u rth er i n fo rm ati o n o n f e ed back i n str u m ents a nd d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s th at help l e ad ers to i d enti fy a nd c o rre ct f a ta l f la w s g o to o ur w eb site a t www.z e ngerfo lk m an.c o m .

161 8 NEW I N SIG H TS I N TO L EA D ER SH IP DEV ELO PM EN T I d re am ed a th o usa nd n ew p ath s. I w oke a nd w alk ed m y o ld o ne.

—Chin ese P ro verb There a re a lw ays m any c ho ic es, m any p ath s to ta ke. O ne i s e asy . A nd i ts o nly re w ard i s th at i t’ s e asy .

—Ano nym ous W arfa re th ro ugh th e 1 700s to th e m id dle o f th e n in ete enth c entu ry w as c hara cte riz e d b y r o w s o f s o ld ie rs m arc hin g s tr a ig ht to w ard th eir e nem y. T he o pposin g f o rc es w ould d o th e s a m e. D esp ite th e f a ct th at c anno ns a nd r ifle s b ein g f ir e d s tr a ig ht a t t h em w ould k ill th o usa nd s, i t w as n o t u nti l th e A meric an R ev olu ti o n th at th is p atte rn w as c halle nged . W hen A meric an r e v olu ti o nary s o ld ie rs f o ught th e B riti s h , th ey h id b ehin d tr e es, l a y p ro ne o n th e g ro und to a v oid b ein g e asy ta rg ets , a nd f o ught a n e nti r e ly d iffe re nt ty p e o f w ar. I n th is c hap te r, w e p ro pose a s im ila rly r a d ic al a p pro ach to d ev elo pin g l e ad ers h ip s k ills . R ath er th an c o nti n uin g th e “ fr o nta l a ssa ult” a p pro ach th at h as b een p opula r f o r s o l o ng, w e p ro pose a d iffe re nt w ay to a tta ck th e p ro ble m .

Sup pose th at i n a n e ffo rt to i m pro ve y o ur l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness y o u w ante d to i m pro ve y o ur p ro fe ssio nal o r te chnic al e xp erti s e . T hin k a b out a n acti o n p la n th at y o u m ig ht f o rm ula te to a cco m plis h th e g o al o f i m pro ved te chnic al/p ro fe ssio nal e xp erti s e . W rite d ow n th e a cti o ns th at y o u w ould ta ke to i m pro ve. T hen, th in kin g a b out y o ur o w n p la n, l o ok a t Tab le 8 -1 to s e e h o w y o ur p la n c o m pare s w ith o nes w e h av e s e en f r o m m any o th ers f a cin g th is c halle nge.

Tab le 8 -1 i s a c la ssic , l in ear p la n. W e d efin e th at a s a p la n th at p lo ts a s tr a ig ht- l in e d ev elo pm ent p ath f r o m th e c urre nt p erfo rm ance to a d esir e d f u tu re s ta te . I t i s a c la ssic f r o nta l a ssa ult. I t i s a ls o e xtr e m ely l o gic al a nd c hara cte ris ti c o f m any p eo ple ’s p ro pensity to i d enti fy a p ro ble m o r c halle nge, p ut th eir h ead s d ow n, a nd r u n s tr a ig ht a t i t w ith f u ll f o rc e. T his p la n w ork s e sp ecia lly w ell i n c ir c um sta nces w here a p ers o n’s p erfo rm ance i s p oor a nd th e n eed f o r s u b sta nti a l i m pro vem ent i s c le ar.

In a r e cent c o nfe re nce w ith p ro fe ssio nals i n e m plo yee d ev elo pm ent f r o m s e v era l d iffe re nt c o m panie s, w e a sk ed r e p re se nta ti v es w hat p erc enta ge o f th e a cti o n p la ns m ad e b y i n d iv id uals w ere l in ear. T heir a nsw er w as th at v ir tu ally a ll a cti o n p la ns 162 are b ase d o n a l in ear l o gic . W e th en a sk ed w hen th e l in ear p la ns w ork ed b est.

Again , a c o nsis te nt a nsw er f r o m a ll p arti c ip ants : “ L in ear p la ns w ork b est f o r peo ple w ho a re m ovin g f r o m p oor p erfo rm ance to g o od p erfo rm ance.” B ut w hat ab out th e s itu ati o n w here a p ers o n’s p erfo rm ance i s g o od a nd th e i n d iv id ual i s tr y in g to m ove to a h ig her l e v el o f p erfo rm ance? W ill th e a p pro ach th at h elp s peo ple m ove f r o m b ad to g o od b e a s e ffe cti v e i n m ovin g f r o m g o od to extr a o rd in ary ?

Case S tu dy.

J a ne L ars o n w as a p ro je ct l e ad er i n a n e xp lo ra ti o n d ep artm ent o f a majo r o il c o m pany. H er c are er h ad p ro gre sse d n ic ely , b ut f o r th e p ast tw o y ears sh e f e lt h er c are er h ad s ta lle d . S ix m onth s a go , s h e p arti c ip ate d i n a 3 60-d egre e fe ed back p ro cess th at p ro vid ed h er w ith a n a sse ssm ent o n a s e rie s o f Table 8 -1 S am ple A cti o n P la n Fig ure 8 -1 C urre nt A ppro ach t o C hange P la ns ( L in ear D evelo pm ent M odel) co m pete ncie s. T o h er s u rp ris e , s h e w as r a te d l o w er th an th e a v era ge o f h er 163 co lle agues o n te chnic al e xp erti s e . I n th is o rg aniz a ti o n, th e o ne q uality th at i s h ig hly valu ed i s te chnic al e xp erti s e . T o J a ne, th ese r e su lts w ere a b la ta nt w akeup c all, a nd so s h e d ecid ed to m ake a s ig nific ant c hange. E ven th o ugh s h e f e lt f a ir ly c urre nt, s h e decid ed to r e d ed ic ate h ers e lf a nd b ro ad en h er u nd ers ta nd in g o f r e la te d f ie ld s. S he atte nd ed a te chnic al c o nfe re nce, r e ad e v ery j o urn al f r o m c o ver to c o ver, a nd s ta rte d an i n d ep end ent r e se arc h p ro je ct w ith a u niv ers ity . T o g et a s e nse o f h o w a ll th is work w as h elp in g, s h e a sk ed h er m anager to h av e a c are er d is c ussio n w ith h er. I n th e d is c ussio n s h e d esc rib ed a ll o f h er e ffo rts to h o ne h er s k ills a nd b uild a b ro ad er kno w le d ge b ase . H er m anager w as p le ase d w ith a ll h er e ffo rts , b ut th en s h e a sk ed th e c riti c al q uesti o n: “ D o y o u th in k th at a ll th is w ork w ill h elp o th ers s e e th at I hav e a g re at d eal o f te chnic al k no w le d ge a nd e xp erti s e ?” H er m anager s a t b ack i n his s e at a nd p ause d to p re p are h is a nsw er c are fu lly . “ W ell, J a ne, I d on’t k no w i f any o f th is i s e v er g o in g to m ake a ny d iffe re nce u nti l y o u h av e th e g uts to s p eak u p in a m eeti n g a nd s h are y o ur k no w le d ge w ith p eo ple . T he p ro ble m i s n ’t h o w m uch yo u k no w , i t’ s w hat y o u d o w ith w hat y o u k no w !” Ja ne L ars o n i s a g o od e xam ple o f a l in ear a cti o n p la n ( s e e Fig ure 8 -1 ) n o t b ein g help fu l. I n r e ality , J a ne d id n o t n eed to ta ke a d diti o nal c la sse s, r e ad j o urn als b ette r, or d o m ore r e se arc h. H er p ro ble m w as th at s h e f a ile d to s h are her k no w le d ge a nd exp erti s e w ith o th ers . T he p erc ep ti o ns o f o th ers w ere b ase d o n th e b ehav io r s h e dem onstr a te d to th em r a th er th an th e k no w le d ge th at s h e h ad p acked i n h er h ead . I n re ality , o th ers c anno t te ll h o w m uch s h e k no w s i f s h e d oes n o t s h are th e in fo rm ati o n.

Non lin ea r D ev elo p m en t P ath s Because a lm ost a ll d ev elo pm ent p la ns a re l in ear ( b ecause th at i s th e p re v ailin g lo gic ), w e l o oked f o r a te chniq ue to h elp p eo ple u nd ers ta nd a lte rn ati v e dev elo pm ent p ath s. I n o ur a p pro ach, w e to ok e ach o f th e 1 6 d iffe re nti a ti n g behav io rs a nd a naly ze d th e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een th at s p ecific b ehav io r a nd th e oth er 1 5, p lu s a n um ber o f o th er b ehav io rs . W hen a n i n d iv id ual s h o w ed a h ig h le v el o f c o m pete nce o n a s p ecific b ehav io r, w e l o oked a t o th er b ehav io rs th at w ere als o h ig hly r a te d . T hen w e a naly ze d l e ad ers w ho w ere r a te d p oorly o n th at diffe re nti a ti n g b ehav io r a nd o bse rv ed th at th e s a m e c o m panio n b ehav io rs w ere a ls o ra te d p oorly .

We c all th ese r e la te d b ehav io rs “ co m pete ncy c o m panio ns.” T hey a re co m panio ns b ecause th ey s e em to b e p erm anentl y g lu ed to geth er. I n th e s p ir it o f Sherlo ck H olm es, w e b elie v e th at th ese c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns p ro vid e e xcelle nt clu es a b out a n a lte rn ati v e w ay to d ev elo p i m porta nt l e ad ers h ip s k ills — and to im pro ve th e l ik elih o od th at y o u w ill b e p erc eiv ed b y th o se a b out y o u a s p osse ssin g an i m porta nt, d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncy.

164 Fig ure 8 -2 p ro vid es tw o e xam ple s o f c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns a sso cia te d w ith te chnic al e xp erti s e . L ead ers p erc eiv ed a s h av in g th e b est te chnic al e xp erti s e w ere als o p erc eiv ed a s h av in g h ig h c o m pete nce i n i n te rp ers o nal s k ills a nd s e tti n g h ig h sta nd ard s o f e xcelle nce. A ls o , th o se p erc eiv ed a s h av in g th e w ors t te chnic al exp erti s e ty p ic ally h ad p oor i n te rp ers o nal s k ills a nd s e t l o w er s ta nd ard s o f perfo rm ance.

If y o u c o nclu d e f r o m th is a naly sis th at h av in g e xcelle nt i n te rp ers o nal s k ills cause s a p ers o n to h av e te chnic al e xp erti s e , y o u a re p ro bab ly w ro ng. B ecause tw o ev ents c o nsis te ntl y h ap pen to geth er d oes n o t p ro ve th at o ne c ause s th e o th er. B ut much o f s c ie nce h as to r e ly o n th e f a ct th at w hen tw o p heno m ena a re c o nsis te ntl y lin ked to geth er, y o u m ake th e p re su m pti o n th at o ne o f th em c ause s th e o th er, th at each h as s o m e i m pact o n th e o th er o r th at th ey a re b oth b ein g i n flu enced b y s o m e oth er c o m mon f o rc e.

In a c o lle ge c o urs e o n d esc rip ti v e s ta ti s ti c s, th e p ro fe sso r w as a tte m pti n g to exp la in th e p urp ose o f d esc rip ti v e s ta ti s ti c s, p arti c ula rly c o rre la ti o n c o effic ie nts .

He c ho se a s a n e xam ple a p heno m eno n i n n atu re . H e s a id , “ T here i s Fig ure 8 -2 E xam ple s o f C om pete ncy C om panio ns A sso cia te d w it h T ech nic a l Expertis e an e xtr e m ely h ig h c o rre la ti o n b etw een th e f r e q uency o f c ric kets c hir p in g a nd th e te m pera tu re .” T here w as a p ause . A s tu d ent r a is e d h is h and a nd s a id , “ P ro fe sso r Pete rs o n, a re y o u s a yin g th at a s th e te m pera tu re r is e s, c ric kets c hir p m ore fr e q uentl y ?” W ith a to ta lly d ead pan e xp re ssio n o n h is f a ce, P ro fe sso r P ete rs o n 165 re p lie d , “ N o, I h av e a lw ays a ssu m ed th at w hen c ric kets c hir p m ore f r e q uentl y , i t cause s th e o utd oor te m pera tu re to r is e .” Most p eo ple w ould h av e a n e xp la nati o n f o r th e r e la ti o nsh ip o f te m pera tu re a nd cric kets c hir p in g, a nd th is c o uld e asily b e p ro ved b y s im ple e xp erim ents . H ow ev er, in m any s itu ati o ns, w hen tw o th in gs h ap pen to geth er, th e m echanis m s th at l in k th em to geth er a re n o t e nti r e ly c le ar. A ll y o u c an s a y i s th at th ey o ccur to geth er, a nd y o u can m ake s o m e e d ucate d g uess a b out th e c ause -a nd -e ffe ct r e la ti o nsh ip th at l in ks th em to geth er.

The L in k B etw een I n te rp erso n al R ela tio n sh ip s a n d T ech nic a l Com pete n ce To r e tu rn to o ur e xam ple o f te chnic al e xp erti s e a nd i n te rp ers o nal s k ills b ein g ti e d to geth er, w e c o uld o ffe r s o m e e xp la nati o ns. T his r e su lt i s s tr o ngly su p porte d b y gro und bre akin g r e se arc h d one b y R obert K elle y a t B ell L ab s. T he r e se arc h l o oked at th e p ro ducti v ity o f s c ie nti s ts . A fte r s tu d yin g h und re d s o f s c ie nti s ts , a ll o f w ho m were e xp erts i n th eir f ie ld s, th e r e se arc hers f o und th at th e e ngin eers w ho w ere m ost su ccessfu l ( th ey d ub bed th em th eir “ sta rs ” ) w ere n o t th o se w ith th e h ig hest I Q s o r th o se w ho w ere th e m ost k no w le d geab le . K elle y w ro te , “ O ur d ata s h o w ed n o ap pre cia b le c o gniti v e, p ers o nal, p sy cho lo gic al, s o cia l o r e nv ir o nm enta l d iffe re nces betw een s ta rs a nd a v era ge p erfo rm ers .” 1 W hat th ey f o und w as th at th ese s ta rs perfo rm ed th eir w ork d iffe re ntl y . T hey d ev elo ped s tr o ng n etw ork s w ith in th e org aniz a ti o n a nd w ork ed w ith o th ers i n a to ta lly d iffe re nt m anner th an d id th e “ no n- sta rs .” To e la b ora te , s o m e o f th e i n te rp ers o nal s k ills i d enti fie d i n th e B ell L ab s re se arc h w ere b ehav io rs s u ch a s:

• H elp in g c o lle agues s o lv e a p ro ble m • H elp in g o th ers to c o m ple te a ta sk • G iv in g o th ers c re d it f o r a ny s u ccess • E xp re ssin g a d esir e to h ear o th ers ’ i d eas • N ot i m posin g th eir i d eas o n o th ers • B ein g c o ncern ed w ith c o -w ork ers ’ p ers o nal n eed s • U sin g th e s k ills o f c o -w ork ers • W ork in g q uie tl y , w ith o ut f a nfa re • P utti n g th e o bje cti v es o f th e te am b efo re th eir o w n 2 For th o se w ho h av e w ork ed i n te chnic al o rg aniz a ti o ns, th ere i s a no th er r e aso n why i t c o m es a s n o s u rp ris e to f in d th at th ere i s a r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een te chnic al exp erti s e a nd i n te rp ers o nal s k ills . I t r e la te s to th e w ay th e “ sta rs ” c o m munic ate d 166 ab out te chnic al i s su es.

We h av e o bse rv ed th at th e m ost a b le te chnic al p eo ple h av e s u ffic ie nt c o nfid ence to e xp re ss c o m ple x i d eas i n l a y te rm s a nd n o t h id e b ehin d j a rg o n. I n se cure sc ie nti s ts a re a fr a id to e xp ose th e f a ct th at th eir d is c ip lin e i s n o t a s p re cis e a s oth ers a re l e d to b elie v e. T o b e p erc eiv ed a s b ein g h ig hly te chnic ally c o m pete nt dem and s a p ers o n w ho c an c o m munic ate e ffe cti v ely a b out th eir d is c ip lin e to m any gro up s.

What H appens W hen I n te rp erso nal S kills a nd T ech nic a l C om pete nce A re Not C onnecte d?

R ecentl y , o ne o f th e a uth o rs w as h av in g d in ner w ith a f r ie nd w ho is c urre ntl y a u niv ers ity p re sid ent. A q uesti o n w as a sk ed a b out w hat k in d o f in te re sti n g a cti v iti e s f ille d h is d ay. H e c o m mente d , “ W ell, to day I h ad to f ir e a pro fe sso r.” S om eo ne a t th e ta b le a sk ed , “ W hy? W hat r u le s d id h e b re ak? W as h e in co m pete nt? ” “ N o, h e w as n o t i n co m pete nt! ” r e p lie d th e p re sid ent. “ H e w as v ery curre nt i n h is f ie ld . T he p ro ble m w as th at n o o ne i n h is d ep artm ent c o uld r e m em ber a s ta ff m eeti n g th at h e a tte nd ed th at d id n o t e nd i n a n a rg um ent. H e w as a b so lu te ly im possib le to g et a lo ng w ith a nd c re ate d s o m uch f r ic ti o n i n th e d ep artm ent th at no th in g w as g etti n g d one.” I n th is c ase , th e p ro fe sso r’s l a ck o f i n te rp ers o nal s k ills mad e th e p ro fe sso r’s te chnic al c o m pete nce i r re le v ant. I t c ease d to m atte r. P eo ple no l o nger p aid a tte nti o n to h is te chnic al c o m pete nce.

In a no th er s itu ati o n, w e w ere w ork in g w ith th e m anagem ent o f a c hem ic al co m pany r e se arc h l a b ora to ry . T heir w ork w as h ig hly s p ecia liz e d w ork a nd th ey had r e cru ite d a b so lu te ly th e b rig hte st a nd b est s c ie nti s ts i n th e w orld . T he pro ducti v ity o f th e l a b h ad c o m e u nd er c o nsid era b le s c ru ti n y. T o u nd ers ta nd b ette r what s o m e o f th e p ro ble m s w ere w ith th is g ro up , m any o f th e s c ie nti s ts w ere in te rv ie w ed . I n a n i n te rv ie w w ith o ne o f th e l e ad in g s c ie nti s ts , th e i n te rv ie w er ask ed h im to d esc rib e a ty p ic al te chnic al r e v ie w . E ach o f th e s c ie nti s ts w as a sk ed to p re se nt n ew r e se arc h s tu d ie s b efo re a ll th e s c ie nti s ts f o r th eir r e v ie w . T he in te rv ie w er a sk ed , “ A re th e te chnic al r e v ie w s h elp fu l? ” The s c ie nti s t r e p lie d , “ N ot a t a ll.” “W hy?” th e i n te rv ie w er a sk ed .

“B ecause w hen n ew s c ie nti s ts p re se nt th eir i d eas f o r a n ew a re a o f s tu d y th ey are n’t a sk in g f o r i n p ut, th ey a re j u st s h o w in g o ff h o w m uch th ey k no w . S ev era l ti m es I h av e l is te ned to s c ie nti s ts ta lk a b out r e se arc h th at w e h av e a lr e ad y dete rm in ed i s n ev er g o in g to w ork . W e h av e tr ie d th e s a m e e xp erim ents b efo re .

They a lw ays f a il. B ut r a th er th an h elp th is i d io t o ut, w e j u st s it b ack a nd i n w ard ly grin b ecause w e k no w th at th ey w ill f a il. B y l e tti n g th em w ork o n th is r e se arc h i t ju st h elp s m y w ork to l o ok e v en b ette r a nd g iv es m e a l o t b ette r c hance o f g etti n g a big b onus.” T he s c ie nti s ts i n th e l a b w ere c o m peti n g a gain st e ach o th er f o r re co gniti o n, r e w ard s, a nd p ro m oti o ns.

Here a gain , th e l a ck o f e ffe cti v e i n te rp ers o nal s k ills s e rio usly e ro des th e 167 perc eiv ed te chnic al c o m pete nce o f th is l a b ora to ry . W e e sti m ate th at th is c ultu re , with h ig h s c ie nti fic a nd l o w i n te rp ers o nal e ffe cti v eness, w as c o sti n g th e c o m pany a min im um o f m illio ns o f d olla rs e ach y ear. T he n um ber c o uld b e i n th e b illio ns i f th e co m paris o n i s m ad e to w hat th at g ro up o f s c ie nti s ts c o uld h av e c re ate d , h ad th ey cre ate d a h ig h-p erfo rm ance w ork e nv ir o nm ent.

Hav in g s tr o ng i n te rp ers o nal s k ills d oes n o t h elp p eo ple b eco m e a ny s m arte r, b ut it d oes h elp th em to s h are th e k no w le d ge th at th ey h av e, in flu ence o th ers effe cti v ely , c o m munic ate th e th in gs th at th ey k no w , a nd b uild c o lla b ora ti v e, tr u sti n g re la ti o nsh ip s w ith o th ers .

The L in k B etw een H avin g H ig h S ta n dard s a n d T ech nic a l Com pete n ce Sim ila rly , h av in g h ig h s ta nd ard s o f e xcelle nce d oes n o t m ake p eo ple s m arte r, b ut i f yo u a p ply th e l o gic o f th e R ose nb erg e t a l. r e se arc h p re se nte d i n Chap te r 4 , a g o od exp la nati o n e m erg es. R ecall th at th e r e se arc h s h o w ed th at th e f o llo w in g a d je cti v es were c lu ste re d to geth er i n p eo ple ’s m in d s:

• S cie nti fic • P ers is te nt • S killfu l • I m agin ati v e • I n te llig ent We s u b m it, th en, th at i n m ost p eo ple ’s p erc ep ti o ns, th e q ualiti e s o f te chnic al co m pete nce ( s c ie nti fic a nd i n te llig ent) a nd h ig h s ta nd ard s o f e xcelle nce (p ers is te nce a nd s k illfu l) a re a ls o l in ked to geth er. I f I s e e y o u d is p la y o ne, I a ssu m e yo u h av e th e o th er.

There fo re , b y c ham pio nin g e xtr e m ely h ig h s ta nd ard s f o r e v ery a cti v ity , I h av e su b tl y c ause d o th ers to h av e a n e le v ate d v ie w o f m y te chnic al c o m pete nce.

Certa in ly , o n th e f lip s id e, a p ers o n w ith m in im al te chnic al c o m pete nce w ould nev er i m pose l o fty s ta nd ard s o f e xcelle nce o n a te am o r o n c o lle agues. S im ila rly , th e l e ad er w ho r e m ark s, “ O h, I d on’t c are i f w e f in is h o n ti m e,” o r “ L et’ s n o t b ust our ta ils o n th is p ro je ct,” i s n o t a p ers o n w e a ssu m e h as g re at te chnic al c re d enti a ls or a b ility .

What A re C om pete n cy C om pan io n s?

Com pete ncy c o m panio ns ( o r b ehav io ra l b ud die s) a re s im ply b est f r ie nd s. T hey 168 te nd to g o e v ery w here to geth er. W hen p eo ple a re e ffe cti v e a t o ne o f th e 1 6 k ey diffe re nti a ti n g b ehav io rs , th ey te nd to d o th e c o m panio n b ehav io rs e q ually w ell.

Conv ers e ly , w hen p eo ple a re i n effe cti v e a t a d iffe re nti a ti n g b ehav io r, th ey te nd to perfo rm th e c o m panio n b ehav io rs p oorly . A gain , w e are n o t i m ply in g th at o ne behav io r c ause s th e o th er. L ate r i n th is c hap te r, w e p ro vid e o ur a naly sis o f v ario us re aso ns f o r w hy th e l in kage o ccurs .

Com pete ncy c o m panio ns p ro vid e e xcelle nt c lu es f o r m akin g s ig nific ant im pro vem ents o n a d iffe re nti a ti n g b ehav io r. P eo ple n eed to e xam in e th eir l e v el o f co m pete nce o n a d iffe re nti a ti n g b ehav io r a nd th en r e v ie w e ach c o m pete ncy co m panio n. T hey c an e xam in e s itu ati o ns f r o m th eir o w n e xp erie nce w hen p oor perfo rm ance o n a c o m pete ncy c o m panio n a ffe cte d th e p erc ep ti o n o f th eir a b ility i n th e d iffe re nti a ti n g b ehav io r. T he q uesti o n to a sk i s “ If I w ere to i m pro ve m y perfo rm ance o n c o m pete ncy c o m panio n A , w ould i t i m pro ve m y p erfo rm ance o n th e d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncy B , o r a t l e ast w ould i t e nhance th e p erc ep ti o ns o f oth ers r e gard in g m y a b ility o n d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncy B ?” L ookin g f o r situ ati o ns o r p ast e xp erie nces w here tw o b ehav io rs m ig ht h av e b een l in ked w ill help p eo ple to i d enti fy a c o m pete ncy c o m panio n th at m ay b e th e k ey to d ev elo pin g extr a o rd in ary ta le nt o n a d iffe re nti a ti n g b ehav io r.

Mech an is m s o f C om pete n cy C om pan io n s Why d o c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns l e v era ge i m pro vem ent i n c erta in b ehav io rs ? W e belie v e th at th ere a re a v arie ty o f r e aso ns f o r th e i m pact th at i s e v id ent w hen b oth th e c o m pete ncy a nd th e c o m pete ncy c o m panio n a re r a te d p ositi v ely . W e a re c le ar th at th ere a re d iffe re nt m echanis m s c re ati n g th e i m pact. T he f o llo w in g i s a l is t o f six m echanis m s th at b est e xp la in th e c o m pete ncy c o m panio n p heno m ena.

1. T he c o m pete ncy a nd th e c o m pete ncy c o m panio n f it to geth er i n p eo ple ’s perc ep ti o nal s y ste m s. T he R ose nb erg e t a l. r e se arc h f o und th at c erta in chara cte ris ti c s f it to geth er i n m ost p eo ple ’s m in d s. I f y o u h av e a ttr ib ute A , peo ple a ssu m e y o u h av e a ttr ib ute B . I f th ey k no w y o u d on’t h av e a ttr ib ute B , th ey q uesti o n i f y o u c o uld p ossib ly h av e a ttr ib ute A . T here fo re , th e f ir s t exp la nati o n o f w hy c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns c re ate i m pact i s th at p erc ep tu ally peo ple b elie v e th ese c hara cte ris ti c s f it to geth er, a nd i m pro vin g o ne h elp s cre ate th e p erc ep ti o n th at th e o th er i s m ore p ositi v e.

2. C om pete ncy c o m panio ns f a cilita te th e e xp re ssio n o f a no th er c o m pete ncy.

Consid er th e l in kage b etw een i n te rp ers o nal s k ills a nd te chnic al s k ills . W hat ap pears to b e h ap penin g i s th at h av in g s tr o ng in te rp ers o nal s k ills f a cilita te s th e s h arin g o f k no w le d ge, th e p ers u asio n o f o th ers to a n ew p ositi o n, a nd positi v e i n te ra cti o ns i n te rm s o f s o lv in g p ro ble m s. W e d o n o t b elie v e th at im pro vin g i n te rp ers o nal s k ills m akes te chnic al k no w le d ge g ro w o r m akes a pers o n s m arte r. I t i s p ossib le th at b ecause o f g o od i n te rp ers o nal s k ills , a pers o n m ay c ho ose to c o ach a nd m ento r c o lle agues. T his m ay i m pro ve a ctu al 169 te chnic al a b ility . F or th e m ost p art, h o w ev er, th e i m pact o f i n te rp ers o nal s k ills on te chnic al a b ility s e em s to b e th at i t f a cilita te s th e c o m munic ati o n o f te chnic al k no w le d ge a nd e nhances th e a p pre cia ti o n o th er p eo ple h av e o f a pers o n’s te chnic al s k ills . W hen J a ne s p eaks u p i n m eeti n gs, o th ers s ta rt to s e e ho w s m art a nd c ap ab le s h e i s , a nd th eir p erc ep ti o n o f h er te chnic al a b ility go es u p .

3. A chie v in g a h ig h l e v el o f s k ill i n o ne b ehav io r h elp s d ev elo p a r e la te d behav io r. F or e xam ple , o ne o f th e s tr o ngest c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns f o r “d ev elo pin g o th er p eo ple ” i s b ein g s k ille d a nd i n te re ste d i n d ev elo pin g yo urs e lf. I f l e ad ers d o n o t h av e a g o od c are er p la n f o r th em se lv es, i t i s m ost diffic ult to a ssis t th eir d ir e ct r e p orts i n c re ati n g c are er p la ns. I f p eo ple f e el stu ck i n th eir c are ers w ith n o p la ce to g o , i t i s h ard er f o r th em to b e o f m uch assis ta nce to o th ers . H ow ev er, i f l e ad ers l e arn to d ev elo p th eir o w n c are ers , th at w ill b e a n i n v alu ab le s ta rt to a ssis ti n g o th ers w ith th e s a m e p ro cess.

4. O ne c o m pete ncy i s a b uild in g b lo ck o r a c o re e le m ent o f th e o th er co m pete ncy. O ne o f th e m ost i n te re sti n g c o m pete ncy c o m panio nsh ip s th at w e fo und r e la te d to i n te grity . A s tr o ng c o m panio n b ehav io r to i n te grity i s c o ncern and c o nsid era ti o n f o r o th er p eo ple . S im ply p ut, th o se p erc eiv ed w ith h ig h in te grity h av e a h ig h l e v el o f c o ncern a nd c o nsid era ti o n f o r o th ers , a nd th o se perc eiv ed w ith l o w i n te grity l a cked c o nsid era ti o n f o r o th ers . C onsid era ti o n fo r o th ers i s a v ita l c o m ponent o f th e b ro ad er c o m pete ncy l a b ele d “ in te grity .” A p ers o n w ho h as n o p ro ble m s ta kin g a d vanta ge o f a no th er p ers o n l a cks in te grity .

5. C om pete ncy c o m panio ns c hange th e c o nte xt i n w hic h w e o pera te . W e f o und a str o ng r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een a p ers o n’s a b ility to c o m munic ate a nd th e e xte nt to w hic h a p ers o n i s tr u ste d . T yp ic ally , w hen p eo ple a tte m pt to i m pro ve th eir ab ility to c o m munic ate , th ey f o cus o n th e m essa ge a nd th e d eliv ery ( e .g ., w hat th ey s a y a nd h o w th ey s a y i t) . T his r e se arc h i n d ic ate s th at i f p eo ple tr u st a le ad er, th en th e l e ad er d oes n o t n eed to g iv e a w orld -c la ss s p eech. T he f a ct th at peo ple h av e a g re at d eal o f tr u st i n th e l e ad er w ill c ause th e m essa ge to b e accep te d . W ith o ut tr u st, h o w ev er, n o a m ount o f g re at o ra ti o n c an m ake p eo ple accep t th e m essa ge.

6. D ev elo pin g a c o m pete ncy c o m panio n c hanges th e p ers o n. M ost p eo ple h av e had th e e xp erie nce o f d ra m ati c ally c hangin g a s k ill a nd th en f in d in g i n te re sti n g sid e e ffe cts . L earn in g to p la y g o lf w ell g iv es a p ers o n i n cre ase d c o nfid ence. A re gula r e xerc is e p ro gra m m akes a p ers o n l e ss s tr e sse d . F ocusin g e ffo rt o n acco m plis h in g a s tr e tc h g o al c ause s d ep re ssio n to g o a w ay. S tr e ngth enin g a co m pete ncy h as th e c ap acity to c hange a p ers o n’s p ers p ecti v e, a tti tu d es, a nd outl o ok o n l ife .

Exa m ple s o f C om pete n cy C om pan io n s 170 We h av e f o und th at f o r e ach c o m pete ncy, th ere a re e ig ht to f o urte en c o m pete ncy co m panio ns. I t i s b eyo nd th e s c o pe o f th is b ook to p ro vid e a n e xhausti v e l is t o f ev ery c o m pete ncy c o m panio n, b ut w e p ro vid e h ere o ne e xam ple f o r e ach o f th e 1 6 diffe re nti a ti n g b ehav io rs . W e h av e o rg aniz e d th ese i n to th e f iv e e le m ents i n o ur le ad ers h ip m odel. W e h av e c o m pile d a c o m ple te g uid e o f c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns.

For f u rth er i n fo rm ati o n o n th is g uid e a nd h o w i t i s u se d to d ev elo p l e ad ers , c o nta ct th e a uth o rs b y g o in g to www.z e ngerfo lk m an.c o m .

Chara cte r— The C en te r P ole o f t h e L ea d ersh ip T en t Im pro vin g I n te grit y .

W hen c hara cte riz in g p eo ple w ith l o w i n te grity , w e v is u aliz e a p ers o n w ho p urp ose ly tr ie s to ta ke a d vanta ge o f o th er p eo ple .

How ev er, m any p eo ple w ho e xp erie nce i n te grity p ro ble m s d on’t a lw ays f it th at mold .

Sean w as a b rig ht a nd v ery h o nest y o ung m an f r o m a f o re ig n c o untr y . H e w as very r e lig io us a nd w as i n h is f in al y ear o f s c ho ol i n th e U nite d S ta te s. I n h is h o m e co untr y , h is f a m ily w as w ell k no w n. H e w as a p pro ached b y a g ro up o f i n v esto rs and o ffe re d a v ery g o od s a la ry to g o b ack to h is h o m e c o untr y a nd s e ll h is f e llo w citi z e ns o n a n i n v estm ent o pportu nity . T he m en w ho a p pro ached S ean w ere r e gula r churc hgo ers , a nd s o h e a ssu m ed th at th ey w ould b e a b le to d eliv er o n th is in v estm ent. H e tr u ste d th ese m en, s o h e d id n o t a sk m any q uesti o ns o r c heck o ut th e via b ility o f th e i n v estm ent. B ecause o f th e r e p uta ti o n o f h is f a m ily , S ean w as v ery su ccessfu l i n s ig nin g u p m illio ns i n i n v estm ents . A fte r a s h o rt ti m e a n i n iti a l paym ent w as m ad e to i n v esto rs .

That m oney w as d is tr ib ute d to e ach i n v esto r. A sh o rt ti m e l a te r, S ean l e arn ed th at th e i n v estm ent s c hem e h ad f a ile d . H e w as l e ft ho ld in g th e b ag.

Many o th er p eo ple r e p ort a n e xp erie nce s im ila r to S ean’s . T hey d o n o t in te nti o nally a tte m pt to d eceiv e o th er p eo ple , b ut i n th e e nd th eir i n te grity i s co m pro m is e d . T hey tr u st a no th er p ers o n b ut f a il to a ggre ssiv ely e nsu re th at pro m is e s m ad e b y o th ers w ill b e k ep t. W hen w e l o oked a t th e c o m pete ncy co m panio ns to i n te grity , w e f o und th at th o se r a te d h ig h i n i n te grity w ere a ls o r a te d hig h o n a sse rti v eness. T ho se r a te d l o w i n i n te grity , o n th e o th er h and , w ere r a te d lo w o n a sse rti v eness. T ho se w ith h ig h i n te grity w ere v ery e ffe cti v e a t s te p pin g fo rw ard a nd a d dre ssin g d iffic ult i s su es, c o nfr o nti n g c o nflic t, b ein g d ir e ct, a nd fa cin g u p to d iffic ult s itu ati o ns.

Perso n al C ap ab ilit y — The S eco n d P ole L if tin g t h e L ea d ersh ip Ten t Beco m in g a B ette r P ro ble m S olv er.

W hat i f a p ers o n w ante d to i m pro ve i n pro ble m -s o lv in g s k ills ? O bvio usly , th at i m pro vem ent c o uld b e i n th e w ay th ey a re perc eiv ed , o r i n a ctu ally i m pro vin g th o se s k ills — and h o pefu lly b oth . W e e xam in ed 171 th e c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns f o r e ffe cti v e p ro ble m s o lv in g a nd a naly ti c al s k ills . W e fo und th at o ne o f th e h ig hest c o rre la te s w as i n iti a ti v e. P eo ple p erc eiv ed a s b ein g go od p ro ble m s o lv ers a nd h ig hly a naly ti c al w ere a ls o p erc eiv ed a s ta kin g a g re at deal o f i n iti a ti v e. T ho se p erc eiv ed a s p oor p ro ble m s o lv ers w ere p erc eiv ed a s hav in g l o w i n iti a ti v e.

Robert K elle y d esc rib es i n iti a ti v e a s th e m ost i m porta nt w ork s tr a te gy i n se p ara ti n g th e “ sta rs ” f r o m th e r e st o f th e p ack a t B ell L ab s. H e i llu str a te s h is p oin t by d esc rib in g tw o n ew h ir e s, b oth w ith s im ila r c re d enti a ls : 3 .8 G PA s f r o m re sp ecte d u niv ers iti e s, s tr o ng s u m mer i n te rn sh ip s a t c o m pute r c o m panie s, a nd lu str o us r e co m mend ati o ns f r o m p ro fe sso rs .

Henry h o le d h im se lf u p i n h is o ffic e a s i f h e w ere w riti n g h is d is se rta ti o n o r stu d yin g f o r a b ar e xam . H e c o lle cte d v olu m es o f te chnic al d ocum ents to a cq uain t him se lf w ith th e l a te st i d eas. H e b egan l e arn in g h o w to u se e xo ti c s o ftw are pro gra m s h e th o ught m ig ht b e h elp fu l i n h is w ork . H e w ould s u rfa ce o nly f o r a bath ro om b re ak o r a m and ato ry s ta ff m eeti n g. “ W hat’ s g o in g to c o unt,” h e re m em bers th in kin g a t th e ti m e, “ is w heth er I c an p ro ve to m y c o -w ork ers h o w sm art I a m .” Lai s e t a sid e th re e h o urs e ach a fte rn o on to w ork o n h er a ssig nm ent. I n w hate v er ti m e w as l e ft o f h er w ork d ay, s h e i n tr o duced h ers e lf to c o -w ork ers and a sk ed questi o ns a b out th eir p ro je cts . I f o ne o f th em n eed ed a h and o r f a ced s c hed ule pre ssu re s, s h e v olu nte ere d to h elp . A nd e v en th o ugh L ai w as n ew to th e w ork p la ce cultu re , h er c o lle agues a p pre cia te d h er w illin gness to h elp th em o ut, e sp ecia lly giv en th at th eir p ro ble m s w ere n o t h ers .

Kelle y c o nti n ues d esc rib in g L ai’ s a cti o ns:

• S he f o und a c o lle ague w ho c o uld n o t g et a s o ftw are p ro gra m to w ork , a nd L ai re calle d a n ew p ro gra m min g to ol s h e h ad p ic ked u p i n a n a d vanced c o urs e i n co lle ge a nd o ffe re d th at s o lu ti o n to th e c o lle ague. S he o ffe re d to w ork o n th e so ftw are p ro ble m w hile th e c o lle ague f in is h ed th e l a rg er p ro je ct.

• W hen n ew s o ftw are to ols n eed ed to b e i n sta lle d o n e v ery o ne’s c o m pute rs , th e assu m pti o n w as th at e v ery o ne w ould u se th e tr a d iti o nal a p pro ach o f i n sta llin g it th em se lv es, l a rg ely b y tr ia l a nd e rro r. L ai h ad i n sta lle d th e s o ftw are d urin g her i n te rn sh ip a nd th o ught i t m ad e m ore s e nse f o r o ne p ers o n to m ove u p th e le arn in g c urv e a nd d o i t f o r e v ery o ne. S he v olu nte ere d . I t e nd ed u p ta kin g tw o weeks, i n ste ad o f th e f o ur d ays s h e h ad e sti m ate d , b ut s h e s tu ck i t o ut a nd co m ple te d a ll o f th e i n sta lla ti o ns.

• A c o lle ague w ho h ad b een s c hed ule d f o r a n a ll- n ig ht l a b te sti n g s e ssio n w as su d denly c alle d a w ay to a f u nera l f o r a f a m ily m em ber. W hen th e m anager co nv ened a m eeti n g to s e e h o w th is a b se nce c o uld b e c o vere d , th ere w as m uch lo okin g a t th e f lo or a nd “ co verin g y o ur f a ce” b ehav io r. A s th e s u p erv is o r w as ab out to m ake a n a rb itr a ry a ssig nm ent to s o m e u nw illin g p ers o n, L ai 172 volu nte ere d . S he l a te r r e calls , “ I f ig ure d th at i t w as m ost i m porta nt to g et accep te d i n to th e te am , a nd w hat b ette r w ay th an to h elp th em o ut.” Lai w as o n h er w ay to b eco m in g a “ sta r” i n th e B ell L ab s v ern acula r. I t h ad littl e to d o w ith b ein g te chnic ally c o m pete nt b ut e v ery th in g to d o w ith ta kin g in iti a ti v e. K elle y w rite s, “ A vera ge p erfo rm ers — who c o nsti tu te 6 0 to 8 0 p erc ent o f th e w ork fo rc e— don’t g et i t. T hat g ro up i s m ost l ik ely to v ie w i n iti a ti v e ta kin g a s acti v ity f o r a cti v ity ’s s a ke, g etti n g s tu ck d oin g s o m eo ne e ls e ’s w ork , o r ta kin g o n work th at i s n o t p art o f th eir j o b d esc rip ti o n. C ynic al a v era ge p erfo rm ers s e e i t a s kis sin g u p to th e b oss o r c o lle agues.” It m ig ht s u rp ris e r e ad ers to k no w th at H enry , th e l o ner B ell L ab s h ir e , b elie v ed he w as ta kin g i n iti a ti v e. “ I g ath ere d u p th e l a te st te chnic al in fo rm ati o n a nd l e arn ed ab out th e l a te st s o ftw are to ols s o th at I c o uld d o a b ang-u p j o b o n m y a ssig nm ent.

Nobody to ld m e to d o a ny o f th at,” h e to ld th e r e se arc hers . W hat L ai u nd ers to od and H enry d id n o t i s th at o nly c erta in a cti o ns e arn th e i n iti a ti v e l a b el.

3 How D o I I m pro ve M y E ffe ctiv eness in D evelo pin g M yse lf ?

A k ey s k ill f o r a ll su ccessfu l l e ad ers i s th e a b ility to c o nti n uo usly i m pro ve th em se lv es. T oo o fte n, le ad ers a chie v e s o m e o ffic e o r p ositi o n a nd th en c o m e to b elie v e th at th e l e arn in g phase o f th eir c are er i s o ver. T hey a ssu m e th at, l ik e g ra d uati o n f r o m s c ho ol, th ere is a ti m e o f l e arn in g a nd a ti m e o f e xecuti o n. O ur r e se arc h p oin te d o ut th e im porta nce o f c o nti n uo us s e lf- im pro vem ent i n o rd er f o r l e ad ers to b eco m e excep ti o nal. L ookin g a t th o se w ho s h o w ed g re at a b ility to p ra cti c e s e lf- dev elo pm ent, w e f o und a s tr o ng r e la ti o nsh ip w ith i n te grity . T hat i s , p eo ple w ho were v ie w ed a s h ig hly c o m pete nt i n te rm s o f d ev elo pin g th em se lv es w ere a ls o vie w ed a s b ein g e xtr e m ely h o nest a nd s tr a ig htf o rw ard . A t f ir s t g la nce, th e tw o behav io rs s e em u nre la te d . W hat d oes s e lf- d ev elo pm ent h av e to d o w ith i n te grity and h o nesty ?

Consid er, h o w ev er, th e r e se arc h d one i n h elp in g p eo ple o verc o m e a lc o ho lis m and d ru g a d dic ti o n. O ne o f th e m ajo r h urd le s i n g etti n g h elp f o r p eo ple to d eal su ccessfu lly w ith a d dic ti o n i s g etti n g th em to a ckno w le d ge th at th ey h av e a pro ble m . A lc o ho lic s i n th e e arly s ta ges a re i n ev ita b ly i n d enia l. A n a lc o ho lic w ho sh o w ed u p f o r a d dic ti o n c o unse lin g w as a sk ed , “ W hy a re y o u h ere ?” H e a nsw ere d , “B ecause m y s p ouse th in ks I h av e a d rin kin g p ro ble m .” T o w hic h th e c o unse lo r re p lie d , “ G o h o m e a nd k eep d rin kin g. I c an’t h elp y o u u nti l y o u th in k th at y o u h av e a p ro ble m .” I n m ost c ase s o f d ru g a nd a lc o ho l a d dic ti o n, i t b eco m es e v id ent to ev ery o ne e ls e th at th e p ers o n h as a p ro ble m b efo re i t b eco m es e v id ent to th e p ers o n him se lf o r h ers e lf. F re q uentl y , y o u h ear th e s to rie s a b out p eo ple w ho h av e to h it ro ck b otto m b efo re th ey f in ally w ake u p a nd s a y to th em se lv es, “ I h av e a d rin kin g pro ble m .” I n m any a d dic ti o n tr e atm ent p ro gra m s, p eo ple u se th e p ra cti c e o f in tr o ducin g th em se lv es b y s a yin g, “ M y n am e i s J o hn, a nd I a m a n a lc o ho lic .” Honesty i s a s tr ik in g f e atu re o f th e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een s e lf- d ev elo pm ent a nd in te grity . P eo ple w ho a re g o od a t s e lf- d ev elo pm ent h av e th e a b ility to e v alu ate 173 th eir s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s h o nestl y a nd to a ckno w le d ge th eir s tr e ngth s i n behav io r A a nd th at th ey a re l e ss e ffe cti v e i n b ehav io r B . K eep i n m in d th at f o r so m e p eo ple , th eir p ro ble m i s th eir l a ck o f f a ith i n th eir s tr e ngth s. T hey d is c o unt th eir o w n a b iliti e s. P eo ple w ho a re p oor a t s e lf- d ev elo pm ent m ig ht b e r a ti o naliz in g th eir p erfo rm ance i n l e ss th an o bje cti v e w ays. T hey te ll th em se lv es th at th ey d id a go od j o b w hen th ey d id a p oor j o b. T hey i g no re f e ed back f r o m o th ers . T hey d eb ate th e r e acti o ns o f o th ers , s a yin g, “ T hey a re o nly s a yin g th at b ecause th ey a re o ut to get m y j o b, o r th ey a re j e alo us o f m y a b iliti e s.” T here a re l e v els o f s e lf- h o nesty .

Som e p eo ple c o m e to a ccep t th e f e ed back o th ers g iv e th em b ut s ti ll r e sis t b ein g perfe ctl y h o nest w ith th em se lv es a b out w hat th ey d o w ell a nd p ro ble m s th at n eed to be i m pro ved . B ein g a b so lu te ly h o nest w ith o ne’s s e lf a nd r e fu sin g th e o pportu nity fo r s e lf- d eceit i s a k ey s k ill f o r e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers .

How C an I B eco m e M ore I n novativ e?

A n e xam in ati o n o f th e c o m pete ncy co m panio ns f o r i n no vati o n f o und th at i n no vati v e l e ad ers w ere a ls o g o od a t l e arn in g fr o m b oth th eir s u ccesse s a nd f a ilu re s. A t f ir s t b lu sh , th is a gain s e em s l ik e a n unlik ely c o m bin ati o n. M ost th in k o f i n no vati o n a s th e a b ility to p ro duce c re ati v e id eas a nd to g et th o se i d eas i m ple m ente d . L earn in g, o n th e o th er h and , i s th e a b ility to a b so rb n ew i n fo rm ati o n, to r e co gniz e p atte rn s, to s e e c ause -a nd -e ffe ct re la ti o nsh ip s— all u lti m ate ly c ulm in ati n g i n n ew b ehav io r.

We th in k i t i s p ro bab le th at th o se w ho a re n o t i n no vati v e h av e l o st s o m e a b ility to l e arn . T hey a re n’t p ayin g a tte nti o n to w hat i s tr a nsp ir in g i n th eir e nv ir o nm ent.

They r a ti o naliz e r a th er th an c hange th eir b ehav io r. G ood l e arn ers c are fu lly o bse rv e th eir e nv ir o nm ent, th ey s tu d y h o w th in gs h ap pen, a nd th ey a re i n q uis iti v e a b out cause -a nd -e ffe ct r e la ti o nsh ip s. A k ey to b ein g i n no vati v e i s i n cre asin g o ne’s a b ility to l e arn .

Focu s o n R esu lt s — Anoth er P ole L if tin g t h e T en t Help in g O th ers A ch ie ve E xce ptio nal R esu lt s .

T he a b ility to s e t s tr e tc h g o als i s a criti c al s k ill th at h elp s m oti v ate p eo ple to a chie v e e xcep ti o nal r e su lts . A s o ne o f th e 1 6 d iffe re nti a ti n g b ehav io rs , s e tti n g s tr e tc h g o als i s a b ehav io r th at i s e asy to ta lk a b out b ut h ard er to d o. S om e p ro pose a s im ple p ath : d ev elo p w hat y o u th in k i s a r e aso nab le g o al, th en m ulti p ly b y tw o. I n th e e nd , m any l e ad ers b ack o ff b ecause th ey a re u nco m fo rta b le a sk in g o th ers to ta ke o n a ta sk th at th ey th em se lv es v ie w a s unre aso nab le o r i m possib le . T he f ir s t s te p i n s e tti n g s tr e tc h g o als i s f o r y o u to belie v e i n th e s tr e tc h c ap acity o f p eo ple . J a ck W elc h s p eaks o fte n o f th e e no rm ous cap acity o f th e w ork fo rc e to d o m ore . H e s a id , “ T here i s a n u nlim ite d a m ount o f ju ic e i n th at l e m on.” 4 We f o und th at l e ad ers w ho w ere e ffe cti v e a t s e tti n g s tr e tc h g o als w ere a ls o effe cti v e a t r is k ta kin g. I t a p pears th at l e ad ers w ho a re w illin g to c halle nge th e sta tu s q uo a nd ta ke r is k s a ls o h av e th e a b ility to c o nv in ce th eir w ork g ro up th at th ey can a chie v e a n a lm ost i m possib le g o al. P eo ple w ho p la y i t s a fe , c are fu lly a naly ze 174 what i s p ossib le , a nd ta ke b ab y s te p s f o rw ard w ill n ev er b e v ery e ffe cti v e a t se tti n g s tr e tc h g o als .

How D o Y ou G et O th ers t o F eel R esp onsib le ?

F re q uentl y , p are nts s tr u ggle w ith child re n i n s c ho ol w ho f o rg et a ssig nm ents , f a il to s tu d y f o r te sts , a nd s e em unm oti v ate d to i m pro ve th eir p erfo rm ance. P are nts o fte n c o m ment, “ W hy c an’t m y child re n j u st b e m ore r e sp onsib le ?” T he i m plic it th eo ry i s th at i f p eo ple h av e re sp onsib le a tti tu d es, th ey w ill a ct r e sp onsib ly .

Recentl y , a d aughte r w as s tr u gglin g i n s c ho ol. I h ad a f a th erly d is c ussio n with h er a nd a sk ed h er to d esc rib e th e p ro ble m . “ I’ m d ep re sse d ,” s h e sa id . “ A nd I c an’t c o ncentr a te o n m y h o m ew ork i f I a m d ep re sse d ,” w as her e xcuse . S he w as o bvio usly d is c o ura ged . I n m y o pin io n, m ost o f h er dis c o ura gem ent c am e f r o m f a ilin g s o m e e xam s i n s c ho ol. I c halle nged h er to g o to w ork a nd s tu d y i n s p ite o f f e elin g d is c o ura ged . K no w in g s h e would p ro bab ly n eed m ore th an a p ep ta lk to s u cceed , I a rra nged a tu to r to meet w ith h er s e v era l ti m es a w eek. T he tu to r p ro vid ed b oth kno w le d geab le a d vic e a nd f r ie nd ly s u p port. S oon th e d aughte r’s g ra d es sta rte d to i m pro ve. A s h er g ra d es i m pro ved , h er d ep re ssio n w ent a w ay.

Once h er s tu d y h ab its h ad c hanged a nd s h e f e lt m ore c o nfid ent th at s h e co uld b e s u ccessfu l, s h e s ta rte d to a ct s u b sta nti a lly m ore r e sp onsib ly .

Rath er th an g o o ut w ith f r ie nd s, s h e w ould s a y, “ S orry , I h av e ho m ew ork .” Som eti m es a tti tu d es d o p re ced e a cti o ns, b ut f r e q uentl y a cti o ns n eed to p re ced e atti tu d es. A n i m porta nt d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncy i s ta kin g r e sp onsib ility f o r outc o m es. O fte nti m es, p eo ple a p pro ach i m pro vem ent b y c o ncentr a ti n g o n im pro vin g th e a tti tu d e. P eo ple b elie v e th at a p ers o n n eed s to f e el m ore r e sp onsib le befo re h e o r s h e c an a ct m ore r e sp onsib ly . O ne o f th e k ey c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns to ta kin g r e sp onsib ility f o r o utc o m es i s ta kin g a cti o n to w ard a chie v in g r e su lts . T his re se arc h i n d ic ate s th at th o se p eo ple w ho a re p erc eiv ed a s a cti n g i n a r e sp onsib le manner f o r o utc o m es a ls o a re s e en a s ta kin g a cti o n to w ard a chie v in g r e su lts . I f peo ple b egin to a ct, i t c o nv eys to o th ers a g re at d eal a b out th eir a tti tu d e. T he b est way to c o nv in ce o th ers th at w e a re r e sp onsib le p eo ple i s b y o ur a cti o ns.

One o f o ur f r e q uent c o nsu lti n g a cti v iti e s i s c o nd ucti n g e m plo yee s u rv eys to asse ss th e a tti tu d es o f e m plo yees o n k ey i s su es th at d riv e th e s u ccess o f a b usin ess.

One o f th e f r e q uent p ro ble m s w ith s u rv eys i s th at s e nio r l e ad ers c an vie w th em a s a nic e a cti v ity b ut n o t e sse nti a l f o r th e s u ccess o f th eir b usin ess. I t i s c riti c al to th e su ccess o f s u ch p ro je cts to g et s e nio r l e ad ers ’ c o m mitm ent to th e p ro je ct. I n o ur usu al a p pro ach, w e e nlis t s e nio r l e ad ers ’ i n v olv em ent a t th e b egin nin g o f th e pro cess. W e i n te rv ie w th em a nd a sk th em f o r th eir o pin io ns o n w hat i s su es a re criti c al f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n to b e s u ccessfu l. F re q uentl y , a l e ad er w ill f in d a n i te m on th e s u rv ey th at i s a lm ost a d ir e ct q uo te f r o m h is o r h er i n te rv ie w . U sin g th e 175 su rv ey to a sse ss th eir s p ecific i s su e c an ta ke l e ad ers f r o m s id elin e s p ecta to rs to quarte rb acks i n th e s u rv ey r o llo ut. T he s u rv ey m oves f r o m b ein g d esc rib ed a s “ th e co nsu lta nt’ s s u rv ey” to “ o ur s u rv ey.” How D o Y ou G et M ore P ro ductiv it y O ut o f O th er P eople ?

O ne o f th e m ost fr e q uentl y u se d c o m pete ncie s i s “ fo cus o n r e su lts .” T he u nd erly in g th em e i s a lw ays th e s a m e: k eep in g o th ers f o cuse d o n th e ta sk , a ggre ssiv ely p urs u in g a ssig nm ents , driv in g h ard to m ake th in gs h ap pen, a nd b ein g to ta lly d ed ic ate d to th e acco m plis h m ent o f th e ta sk . W hen l e ad ers a tte m pt to i m pro ve th eir f o cus o n r e su lts , th ey o fte n p ut a g re at d eal o f e m phasis o n th e d riv e o r p ush f o r r e su lts . W hen d one to e xcess, s u ch l e ad ers b eco m e g ro w nup b ullie s w ho c o nsta ntl y p ro d, c heck, dem and , a nd a nno y o th ers . T hese b ehav io rs c an b e e ffe cti v e i n th e s h o rt r u n, b ut i n th e l o ng r u n, n o body w ants to w ork f o r a ty ra nt.

We a gain f o und a n u nlik ely c o m panio nsh ip . L ead ers w ho w ere e ffe cti v e a t fo cusin g o n r e su lts w ere a ls o e ffe cti v e a t g iv in g o th ers f e ed back a nd p ro vid in g co achin g. L ead ers w ho o nly p ush p eo ple to p erfo rm b ette r ty p ic ally f o cus o n th e outc o m e b ut d on’t h elp p eo ple w ith th e j o urn ey.

Giv in g p eo ple f e ed back i s ti m e c o nsu m in g a nd d iffic ult a nd i s f r e q uentl y n o t done w ell. O ne e m plo yee, c o m menti n g o n h is l a ck o f f e ed back, s a id , “ I d on’t k no w if I a m i n l in e to b e th e j a nito r o r th e c hair m an o f th e b oard . P le ase g iv e m e s o m e fe ed back.” W hy i s i t th at m ost p oor p erfo rm ers a re s u rp ris e d to h ear th at th ey a re re ceiv in g a n u nsa ti s fa cto ry p erfo rm ance r e v ie w ? T he r e aso n i s th at l e ad ers d on’t lik e to g iv e f e ed back. T hey a ssu m e th at e m plo yees w ill f ig ure i t o ut o n th eir o w n.

They b elie v e th at b ecause th ey d id n’t g iv e a r e assu rin g s m ile , e m plo yees w ill fig ure o ut th at th ey a re d oin g s o m eth in g w ro ng. S itti n g d ow n w ith e m plo yees a nd pro vid in g s tr a ig ht, c and id f e ed back c an b e ti m e c o nsu m in g a nd e m oti o nally diffic ult f o r l e ad ers , b ut l e ad ers w ho d o th is w ell a chie v e b ette r r e su lts .

One l e ad er h ad a n e ffe cti v e a p pro ach to g iv in g f e ed back. W henev er s h e s a w a pro ble m , s h e w ould s c hed ule a m eeti n g w ith th e p ers o n a nd s a y, “ O ur p erfo rm ance re v ie w i s s c hed ule d f o ur m onth s f r o m n o w . I w ant to g iv e y o u a positi v e a p pra is a l at th at ti m e, b ut i f i t w ere to h ap pen r ig ht n o w I c o uld n o t d o th at. L et m e e xp la in why, a nd l e t’ s f ig ure o ut a w ay to f ix i t b efo re th en.” S he w ould e xp la in h er co ncern s a b out th is p ers o n’s p erfo rm ance a nd p ro ceed w ith a j o in t p ro ble m - so lv in g d is c ussio n o f h o w to f ix th e i s su e.

Feed back o n p erfo rm ance i s su es n eed s to b e ti m ely a nd i n c lo se a p pro xim ati o n to w hen th e p ro ble m b ehav io r o ccurre d . G ood a th le ti c c o aches p ro vid e a m ple fe ed back. T hey s ta nd o n th e s id elin es a nd y ell, g iv e h alfti m e ta lk s, o r c all ti m e-o uts and g iv e p eo ple c le ar, s p ecific f e ed back.

In te rp erso n al S kills — Anoth er P ole T hat R ais e s t h e T en t What C ould B e M ore P ow erfu l T han a G ood S peech ?

W hen th in kin g a b out h o w 176 a p ers o n c o m munic ate s p ow erfu lly , m ost p eo ple c o ncentr a te o n h o w a m essa ge i s deliv ere d . I t w as i n te re sti n g to l e arn th at o ne o f th e s tr o ngest c o m pete ncy co m panio ns f o r c o m munic ati n g p ow erfu lly i s i n v olv in g o th ers . I n o th er w ord s, th o se w ho w ere v ie w ed a s p ow erfu l c o m munic ato rs a sk ed p eo ple f o r th eir i n p ut, enco ura ged a lte rn ati v e a p pro aches a nd n ew i d eas f r o m o th ers , a nd m ad e s u re th at oth ers w ere i n a gre em ent. L ead ers r a te d l o w i n th eir a b ility to c o m munic ate te nd ed to c o ncentr a te o nly o n g etti n g th eir m essa ge d eliv ere d . T hey g av e th eir s p eech f r o m th eir p re p are d p re se nta ti o n b ut f a ile d to a sk f o r i n p ut f r o m th e a ud ie nce o n w heth er th ey a gre ed a nd h o w th ey v ie w ed th e i s su e.

What I s t h e K ey t o G ettin g M anagers t o D evelo p T heir D ir e ct R eports ?

I n a re cent c o nfe re nce o f e m plo yee d ev elo pm ent e xp erts f r o m s e v era l d iffe re nt co m panie s, w e a sk ed th e q uesti o n, “ W hat i s th e k ey to g etti n g m anagers to d ev elo p th eir d ir e ct r e p orts ? ” S om e o f th e r e co m mend ed a cti o ns w ere :

• T each m anagers h o w to c o ach o th ers .

• D o b ehav io ra l m odelin g s k ills tr a in in g o n h o w to h av e a d ev elo pm enta l dis c ussio n.

• P ub lis h c le ar d ev elo pm ent p ath w ays.

• M ake th e p erfo rm ance a p pra is a l a nd i m pro vem ent p ro cess m ore dev elo pm enta l a nd l e ss j u d gm enta l.

• P ro vid e p eo ple w ith a m odel to h elp th em u nd ers ta nd h o w c are er d ev elo pm ent work s.

• R ew ard m anagers f o r e m plo yee d ev elo pm ent.

We th en a sk ed h o w m any o f th e c o m panie s w ere d oin g m ost o f th e a cti v iti e s o n th e l is t. M ost c o m panie s i n d ic ate d th at th eir m anagers h ad b een ta ught, c o ached , pro vid ed a m odel, a nd r e w ard ed ; b ut th at th eir o rg aniz a ti o n n eed ed m ore . B ase d o n our r e se arc h, w e f o und th at l e ad ers w ho w ere e ffe cti v e a t d ev elo pin g o th ers pra cti c ed s e lf- d ev elo pm ent, w here as th o se w ho w ere i n effe cti v e a t d ev elo pin g oth ers h ad l ittl e i n te re st i n d ev elo pin g th em se lv es. W e th en s u ggeste d , b ase d o n th is re se arc h, th at o ne o f th e b est w ays to g et m anagers i n te re ste d i n d ev elo pin g o th ers was to m ake s u re th ese m anagers h ad a g o od d ev elo pm ent p la n th em se lv es.

This w as c o nfir m ed f r o m o ur e xp erie nce i n a l a rg e f o od c o m pany th at p ro vid ed a tr a in in g p ro gra m f o r m anagers a nd i n d iv id ual c o ntr ib uto rs o n h o w to c re ate a n in d iv id ual d ev elo pm ent p la n. I n e v alu ati n g th e e ffe cti v eness o f th e i n d iv id ual dev elo pm ent p la ns, i t w as f o und th at th o se m anagers w ho w ere i n te re ste d i n th eir ow n i n d iv id ual d ev elo pm ent w ere th e o nes m ost l ik ely to f a cilita te th e c re ati o n o f effe cti v e d ev elo pm ent p la ns w ith th eir d ir e ct r e p orts .

Im agin e a m anager w ho f e els th at s h e i s a t a d ead e nd i n h er c are er o r h as n o se nse o f w hat s h e m ig ht b e d oin g i n th e f u tu re . W hat k in d o f c are er d is c ussio ns 177 would th is l e ad er h av e w ith h er d ir e ct r e p orts ? S he m ig ht b e tr y in g h ard to s a y th e rig ht w ord s, b ut i n sid e s h e w ould s a y to h ers e lf, “ W hy s h o uld I g iv e y o u c are er ad vic e? I f y o u g et p ro m ote d , y o u w ill b e a t th e s a m e d ead e nd th at I ’ m i n . T here i s no f u tu re i n th is c o m pany.” A g o od s o lu ti o n f o r m akin g a n o rg aniz a ti o n m ore f o cuse d o n p eo ple dev elo pm ent i s to m ake s u re th at m anagers a nd l e ad ers h av e a c le ar c are er p la n a nd dev elo pm enta l o pportu niti e s i n th eir f u tu re . L ead ers w ill a ct d ev elo pm enta lly i f th ey a re b ein g d ev elo ped .

How D o Y ou B uild a G re at T eam ?

O ur a naly sis o n th e c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns to te am w ork r e v eale d th at h av in g tr u sti n g r e la ti o nsh ip s i s s tr o ngly a sso cia te d w ith go od te am w ork . M ost r e la ti o nsh ip s d ep end o n tr u st a s a b asis f o r th e r e la ti o nsh ip .

Team s w ith o ut tr u st s u ffe r f r o m c o nflic ts a nd c o m peti ti o n b etw een te am m em bers .

Tho se l e ad ers w ho w ere tr u ste d a ls o h ad th e f o llo w in g c hara cte ris ti c s:

1.

Consid era tio n f o r o th ers.

A k ey b ehav io r to l e v era gin g tr u st i s h av in g a h ig h le v el o f c o ncern f o r h o w o ne’s b ehav io r a ffe cts o th ers . O fte n, l a ck o f co nsid era ti o n i s d em onstr a te d w hen d ead lin es o r p ro ble m s o ccur i n th e g ro up .

It i s e asy to b e c o nsid era te w hen e v ery th in g i s r u nnin g s m ooth ly . B ala ncin g th e need to g et th e j o b d one w ith s e nsiti v ity f o r o th ers ’ n eed s a nd p ro ble m s dem onstr a te s tr u e c o nsid era ti o n.

2.

An o pen , f r ie n dly s ty le .

T ru st i s e arn ed m uch e asie r w hen l e ad ers a re o pen and f r ie nd ly r a th er th an a b ru p t a nd d is m is siv e. T ho se w ho a re v ie w ed a s e asy to g et a lo ng w ith a re a ls o v ie w ed a s tr u stw orth y. L ead ers w ho w ork h ard to win p eo ple o ver to th eir p ositi o n r a th er th an d em and in g th at p eo ple a ccep t th eir p ositi o n a ls o b uild tr u st.

3.

Nonco m petitiv e.

A s p eo ple g o th ro ugh s c ho ol a nd f in is h c o lle ge, th ey o fte n fe el th ey a re i n c o nsta nt c o m peti ti o n w ith o th ers . G ra d in g o n th e c urv e m akes stu d ents v ie w o th ers a s c o m peti to rs w ho c o uld h urt th eir g ra d e. A s n ew em plo yees b egin w ork , e ntr y -le v el j o bs p ro vid e th e s a m e c o nte xt. C onsu lti n g fir m s h ir e h und re d s o f M BA s a nd i n fo rm th em th at h alf w ill b e w eed ed o ut i n one o r tw o y ears . O nly 1 i n 1 0 w ill m ake i t to p artn er.

A k ey tr a nsiti o n f o r l e ad ers i s m ovin g f r o m v ie w in g o th ers a s c o m peti to rs to v ie w in g o th ers a s te am m em bers . B ehav io rs th at k ill tr u st i n clu d e ta kin g pers o nal c re d it f o r th e a cco m plis h m ents o f o th ers o r b ein g th re ate ned b y th e su ccess o f o th er m em bers o f th e w ork g ro up . L ead ers s h o w s u p port f o r te am mem bers b y b ackin g th em u p w hen th ey m ake a n h o nest m is ta ke a nd a ccep ti n g bla m e f o r f a ilu re s o f th e g ro up r a th er th an c riti c iz in g th e p erfo rm ance o f in d iv id ual te am m em bers .

4.

Oth ers h ave c o nfid en ce i n t h e l e a der’s a bilitie s a nd k n ow le d ge.

E xp erti s e build s tr u st. H av in g c o nfid ence i n a l e ad er’s a b ility to a chie v e d iffic ult g o als is a k ey a sp ect o f tr u st. I n a d diti o n to b ein g f r ie nd ly a nd c o nsid era te , b ein g 178 re lia b le a nd r ig ht i s a c riti c al a sp ect o f b uild in g tr u st w ith o th ers .

5.

Care fu l l is te n in g.

I t i s i n te re sti n g to n o te th at th ere i s a s tr o ng r e la ti o nsh ip betw een l is te nin g a nd tr u st. S om e p eo ple m ig ht b elie v e th at y o u ta lk o th er peo ple i n to tr u st. T his f in d in g s u ggests th at l is te nin g i s a m ore p ow erfu l w ay to b uild tr u st.

6.

Candor.

A k ey i n gre d ie nt o f tr u st i s h o nesty . B ein g f r a nk a nd h o nest i n d ealin g with o th er p eo ple i s c riti c al to b uild in g tr u sti n g r e la ti o nsh ip s. T ellin g p eo ple what th ey w ant to h ear i n a n a tte m pt to b e n ic e o r p ro te ct th em f r o m th e tr u th only e ro des tr u st i n r e la ti o nsh ip s. S om eti m es, i n fo rm ati o n i s c o nfid enti a l a nd canno t b e s h are d w ith o th ers . L ead ers w ith c and or c an b e s tr a ig htf o rw ard ab out th e f a ct th at th ey c anno t s h are s p ecific i n fo rm ati o n.

How D o Y ou I n sp ir e O th ers?

W hen p eo ple th in k a b out i n sp ir in g o th ers to h ig h perfo rm ance, th ey o fte n v is u aliz e g iv in g p eo ple a l o cker-ro om –sty le p ep ta lk o r wav in g a f la g w hile l e ad in g o th ers i n to b attl e . W hat m ig ht th e c o m pete ncy co m panio ns to “ in sp ir in g o th ers ” b e? A gain , w e d id n o t f in d th e o bvio us.

5 A s w e hav e c o lle cte d f u rth er d ata o n l e ad ers , o ur i n sig hts i n to i n sp ir a ti o n h av e b een sh arp ened . L ead ers w ho w ere r a te d a s h ig hly i n sp ir a ti o nal w ere a ls o r a te d w ith hig h s c o re s i n th re e c ate go rie s o f b ehav io rs . F ir s t, th ey r e ad ily a ccep t th eir r o le a s le ad er. T hey r e co gniz e th at th ey a re a r o le m odel, l ik e i t o r n o t. T hey a re p erc eiv ed as c ham pio nin g c hange a nd b ein g o ut f r o nt i n ta kin g i n iti a ti v e. T he s e co nd chara cte ris ti c th ey p osse ss i s a n a w are ness a nd c o m fo rt w ith e m oti o n. T hey und ers ta nd th at h um an b ehav io r i s d riv en i n l a rg e p art b y e m oti o n. T hese l e ad ers hav e a ls o c o m e to r e aliz e th at th eir e m oti o ns a re e xtr e m ely c o nta gio us a nd th at th ey can l ift p eo ple to s o arin g n ew h eig hts o r d ep re ss th em to d e-s p ir ite d l o w s.

The th ir d c ate go ry i s s ix r a th er s p ecific b ehav io rs th at i n sp ir in g l e ad ers se le cti v ely u se . T hese b egin w ith s e tti n g s tr e tc h g o als . O th ers i n clu d e p ro vid in g cla rity o f d ir e cti o n a nd v is io n, b ein g a n e ffe cti v e c o m munic ato r, d ev elo pin g o th ers , enco ura gin g te am w ork a nd c o lla b ora ti o n, a nd e nco ura gin g i n no vati o n. I t a p pears th at i n sp ir a ti o nal l e ad ers h av e f a ith i n th e p eo ple w ith w ho m th ey w ork .

They b elie v e th at o th ers a re c ap ab le o f g re at a cco m plis h m ents . T hey b elie v e oth ers w ill w ork h ard , f o llo w th ro ugh o n a ssig nm ents , a nd d o w hate v er i s n eed ed to a cco m plis h g o als . H av in g p ositi v e e xp ecta ti o ns o f o th ers p re d is p ose s l e ad ers to exp ect m ore , c heck l e ss, a nd e nco ura ge p eo ple to g iv e th eir b est. H av in g l o fty exp ecta ti o ns o f o th ers i s c lo se ly r e la te d to i n sp ir in g th em .

To g et a m ore c o m ple te o verv ie w o f h o w l e ad ers c an b e m ore i n sp ir in g r e v ie w a s u b se q uent b ook w e h av e w ritte n c alle d , The I n sp ir in g L ea der . 5 F or f u rth er in fo rm ati o n o n o ur r e se arc h, v is it o ur w eb -s ite a t www.z e ngerfo lk m an.c o m .

Lea d in g O rg an iz a tio n al C han ge— The F in al T en t P ole 179 What I s a P ow erfu l W ay t o G et O th ers t o C hange?

I n o ur a naly sis o f co m pete ncy c o m panio ns f o r c ham pio nin g c hange, w e f o und th at l e ad ers w ho w ere go od a t c re ati n g c hange a ls o w ere p erc eiv ed a s b ein g w illin g to ta ke r is k s a nd challe nge th e s ta tu s q uo . M ost p eo ple c an i d enti fy w ith a c hange e ffo rt w here s o m e se nio r l e ad ers f a ile d to f u lly s u p port th e c hange. I t b eco m es m uch e asie r to g et peo ple i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n to b ehav e i n a p arti c ula r w ay w hen th e l e ad ers a ct a s r o le models o f th e d esir e d b ehav io r. I n f a ct, s o m e c hange a gents arg ue th at i t i s v ir tu ally im possib le f o r a n o rg aniz a ti o n to c hange i ts c ultu re u nti l th e b ehav io r o f i ts l e ad ers is c o nsis te nt w ith th e v alu es o f th e c ultu re . L ead ers w ho w ere m ost e ffe cti v e a b out brin gin g a b out c hange w ere a ls o w illin g to c halle nge th o se w ho d o n o t f u lly su p port th e c hange e ffo rt.

When D av id K earn s w as a tte m pti n g to i n tr o duce a c o m pany-w id e q uality in iti a ti v e, tw o v ic e p re sid ents r e m ain ed c arp in g c riti c s o f th e p ro gra m . B oth h ad been g o od p erfo rm ers i n th eir r o le s, b ut K earn s c o nsta ntl y a d m onis h ed th em to g et on b oard . B y n o t d oin g a nyth in g a b out th ese tw o d is sid ents , K earn s w ould h av e se nt th e m essa ge th at th e q uality c hange i n iti a ti v e w as n o t th at i m porta nt. H e te rm in ate d th em b oth a nd l e t th e o rg aniz a ti o n k no w th at i t w as b ecause o f th eir no nsu p port o f th e q uality i n iti a ti v e.

How D o Y ou G et L eaders t o B e t h e A nte nna t o t h e O uts id e W orld ?

O ne k ey diffe re nti a ti n g b ehav io r th at d is ti n guis h ed e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers w as th eir a b ility to co nnect th eir o rg aniz a ti o n to th e o uts id e w orld . A s te chno lo gy a nd i n no vati o n a ffe ct ev ery a sp ect o f a n o rg aniz a ti o n, h av in g a v is io n f o r w hat i s g o in g o n o uts id e o ne’s ow n o rg aniz a ti o n i s c riti c al f o r e v ery s u ccessfu l l e ad er. O ur a naly sis o f co m pete ncy c o m panio ns f o r c o nnecti n g to th e o uts id e w orld f o und th at a s tr o ng co m panio n b ehav io r w as h av in g a b ro ad f o cus a nd p ers p ecti v e.

One o f th e f a sc in ati n g a sp ects o f g ra d uate e d ucati o n i s th at m ost g ra d uate pro gra m s c o nti n ually n arro w th e f o cus o f o ne’s s tu d y. A n e arly i n d ic ati o n th at a pers o n h as s u cceed ed i n l ife i s th at h e h as m aste re d a s p ecific f ie ld . I n d iv id ual co ntr ib uto rs l e arn q uic kly th at a k ey to s u ccess i s o fte nti m es to n arro w o ne’s f o cus and b eco m e a n e xp ert i n s o m eth in g. M any e arly e xp erie nces i n a p ers o n’s c are er re in fo rc e th at i d ea. W hat w as h elp fu l a t o ne p oin t i n a c are er, h o w ev er, f r e q uentl y beco m es a n o bsta cle a s p eo ple a re p ro m ote d to l e ad ers h ip p ositi o ns th at r e q uir e bro ad er r e sp onsib ility a nd p ers p ecti v e. W ith a n arro w p ers p ecti v e, a tte m pti n g to co nnect to th e o uts id e w orld i s l ik e l o okin g a t th e w orld th ro ugh l o ng tu b es th at only a llo w y o u to s e e a l im ite d p art o f th e w orld . A b ro ad er p ers p ecti v e h elp s le ad ers to r e co gniz e th e i n te rre la ti o nsh ip s a m ong v ario us e v ents a nd th eir i m pacts on te chno lo gy, s o cie ty , a nd g o vern m ent.

How D o I G et O th ers t o A cce pt a N ew S tr a te gic C ourse f o r M y Org aniz atio n?

G ood s tr a te gis ts b elie v e i n l o gic a nd c are fu l a naly sis . M any belie v e th ey c an w in a lm ost a ny a rg um ent a nd s o lv e a ny p ro ble m w ith e no ugh analy sis a nd g o od l o gic . T hey a ls o ty p ic ally b elie v e th at a s l o ng a s a s tr a te gy i s 180 lo gic al, o th ers w ill e m bra ce th e s tr a te gy. T hat i s h o w th ey c am e to e m bra ce th e str a te gy, s o o th ers o ught to d o th e s a m e.

We f o und a n i n te re sti n g r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een s tr a te gic p ers p ecti v e a nd s e lf- co nfid ence. L ead ers w ho w ere v ie w ed a s h av in g e xcelle nt s tr a te gic p ers p ecti v e were a ls o r a te d a s h av in g th e a b ility to i n sp ir e a nd m oti v e o th ers . T he r e la ti o nsh ip here s e em s to b e th at i n o rd er to g et o th ers to b elie v e i n a n ew s tr a te gy a nd dir e cti o n i t ta kes m ore th an j u st c o m pellin g l o gic . S elf- d oub t, h esita ti o n, c hangin g yo ur m in d , o r i n tr o vers io n c an ta ke a w ell- a naly ze d , l o gic al s tr a te gic p la n a nd tu rn it i n to a d ead i s su e. T w o c riti c al i s su es a re r e le v ant h ere i n i n sp ir in g a nd moti v ati n g o th ers to a ccep t a n ew s tr a te gy a nd d ir e cti o n.

Fir s t, th e m ost p ow erfu l to ol th at l e ad ers h av e i s th e u se o f e m oti o n. H av in g th e ab ility to g et o th ers e xcite d a nd p assio nate a b out a n ew d ir e cti o n i s a c riti c al s k ill.

Peo ple n eed to k no w th e l o gic b ut th ey a ls o n eed to f e el th e v alu e a nd p ow er o f a new s tr a te gy.

Seco nd , l e ad ers n eed to m ake s u re th at th eir a cti o ns a re c o nsis te nt w ith th e n ew dir e cti o n. T hey n eed to b e a r o le m odel a nd l o ok c are fu lly a t a ll th eir a cti v iti e s to ensu re th at th eir b ehav io r i s c o nsis te nt w ith th e n ew c o urs e o f a cti o n. W hen a n ew dir e cti o n e m phasiz e s c o ntr o llin g c o sts , l e ad ers n eed to ta ke a v ery h ard l o ok a t th eir p ers o nal e xp end itu re s to e nsu re th at th ey a re a r o le m odel.

A N ew A ppro ach t o D evelo p m en t Our c o m pete ncy c o m panio n r e se arc h p ro vid es a u niq ue p ers p ecti v e o n h o w l e ad ers can c hange. C urre nt a p pro aches to w ard d ev elo pm ent e nco ura ge p eo ple to d ev elo p lin ear d ev elo pm ent p la ns. L in ear p la ns c an b e e ffe cti v e e sp ecia lly i f a p ers o n’s curre nt l e v el o f p erfo rm ance i s p oor. M ost l in ear p la ns h elp l e ad ers m ake th e tr a nsiti o n f r o m p oor to g o od. H ow ev er, th e m ajo r f o cus o f th is b ook i s h elp in g le ad ers tr a nsiti o n f r o m g o od to g re at. T he c o m pete ncy c o m panio n r e se arc h pro vid es l e ad ers w ith a n ew m ap o n h o w to r e ach th eir u lti m ate d esti n ati o n. T his map p ro vid es a lte rn ate r o ute s, w hic h, f o r th e m ost p art, a re u nin tu iti v e.

These n ew r o ute s c o m e o ut o f r e se arc h. T he s ta ti s ti c al a naly sis i n d ic ate d th at tw o b ehav io rs w ere h ig hly i n te rre la te d . W e th en l o oked f o r th e r a ti o nale o f w hy th e one b ehav io r i m pacte d th e o th er. O fte n, w hen l e ad ers tr y to b uild e xcep ti o nal effe cti v eness o n s p ecific c o m pete ncie s, i t b eco m es d iffic ult to f in d a n e ffe cti v e way to i m pro ve. W hen p erfo rm ance o n a c o m pete ncy i s g o od, u sin g a l in ear m in d - se t i s u se le ss b ecause l e ad ers a lr e ad y p erfo rm th e c o m pete ncy r e aso nab ly w ell.

How ev er, th e n o nlin ear a p pro ach s u ggests th at i n ord er to b e h ig hly e ffe cti v e a t co m pete ncy A , I a ls o n eed to b e h ig hly e ffe cti v e a t B a nd C .

Our e xp erie nce i n h elp in g l e ad ers d ev elo p s tr e ngth s b y l o okin g th ro ugh a co m ple te s e t o f c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns i s th at, ty p ic ally , l e ad ers w ill f in d o ne o r tw o o f th e c o m panio n b ehav io rs i n w hic h th eir e ffe cti v eness i s i n ad eq uate o r w here 181 im pro vin g th e l e v el o f p erfo rm ance o n th e c o m panio n b ehav io r w ould h av e a dra m ati c p ositi v e i m pact o n th e d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncy. O ne l e ad er c o m mente d :

“T he c o m panio n b ehav io rs I n eed ed to w ork o n s to od o ut l ik e a s o re th um b. I t w as so o bvio us w hat w as h o ld in g m e b ack.” L ead ers c an u su ally a rriv e a t th eir o w n ra ti o nale f o r w hy p erfo rm in g p oorly o n th e c o m panio n b ehav io r i m pacts th e co m pete ncy o n w hic h th ey a re w ork in g to d ev elo p e xcep ti o nal s tr e ngth . T he a d ded in sig ht p ro vid ed b y th e c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns i s v ery p ow erfu l. O ur a nalo gy o f th e te nt i s u se fu l i n u nd ers ta nd in g h o w c o m panio n b ehav io rs i m pact o vera ll perc ep ti o ns o f l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness.

Again , e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h av e a g re at d eal o f te nt i n th e a ir . T he c o m panio n behav io rs r e p re se nt p ole s th at a re e ith er n o nexis te nt, s h o rt o r i n th e w ro ng p la ce.

By b uild in g th e e ffe cti v eness o f th e c o m panio n b ehav io r, m ore o f th e te nt i s l ifte d in to th e a ir , a nd th e o vera ll p erc ep ti o n o f l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i s i n cre ase d .

Lead ers w ho h av e e xp erie nced th is a p pro ach h av e f o und i t to b e a v alu ab le to ol i n th eir e ffo rts to m ake th e tr a nsiti o n f r o m g o od m anagers to g re at l e ad ers .

To u nd ers ta nd m ore a b out c o m panio n b ehav io rs a nd o bta in m ore i n fo rm ati o n o n th e c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns g o to www.z e ngerfo lk m an.c o m .

182 9 A C ASE S T U DY I N L EA D ER SH IP DEV ELO PM EN T— TH E U .S . M AR IN E CO RPS Lead ers h ip i s a p ote nt c o m bin ati o n o f s tr a te gy a nd c hara cte r. B ut i f y o u m ust b e with o ut o ne, b e w ith o ut s tr a te gy.

—Genera l N orm an S chw arz k o pf A q uesti o n th at c o nti n ues to l in ger o n m ost p eo ple ’s m in d s i s “ C an y o u r e ally d ev elo p l e ad ers ? ” “ A re n’t th ey b orn th at w ay?” T he g enera l p opula ti o n c o nti n ues t o w ond er w heth er th e th in g c alle d “ le ad ers h ip ” i s s o m eth in g i m pla nte d a t b ir th o r i f i t c an b e d ev elo ped . I f i t c o uld b e s h o w n th at e v en o ne o rg aniz a ti o n s u ccessfu lly t r a nsfo rm s “ re gula r” p eo ple i n to e ffe cti v e l e ad ers , th at q uesti o n c o uld b egin to d is a p pear. O ne k ey r e aso n f o r th is c hap te r d esc rib in g th e w ork o f th e U .S . M arin e C orp s i s o ur a tte m pt to p ut th at q uesti o n to b ed , o nce a nd f o r a ll, b y d esc rib in g a n o rg aniz a ti o n th at s u ccessfu lly d ev elo ps l e ad ers .

W hy t h e M arin es?

O ur s p ecific i n te re st i n th e M arin e C orp s a s a n e xam ple o f s u ccess i n d ev elo pin g l e ad ers c am e f r o m s e v era l s o urc es. I n th e m id -1 980s, o ne o f th e a uth o rs c am e to k no w P at T ow nse nd , a r e ti r e d M arin e o ffic er, a w rite r, a nd a l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ra cti ti o ner. T ow nse nd f r e q uentl y n o te d th at th e M arin es e xcelle d i n t h eir a b ility to d ev elo p l e ad ers h ip a nd th at n o o rg aniz a ti o n o n E arth h ad m ore e xp erie nce i n d ev elo pin g l e ad ers h ip th an th e m ilita ry . H e u rg ed th at s e rio us a tte nti o n b e p aid to w hat th e M arin es d id . I n h in d sig ht, w e f e ar th at m essa ge f e ll o n d eaf e ars . I t w as n o t a ti m e w hen th e m ilita ry w as h eld i n h ig h e ste em . T im e p asse d , h o w ev er, a nd i n 1 998 a rti c le s a b out th e M arin es b egan to a p pear i n n ati o nal p ub lic ati o ns.

Then o ne o f th e m ost u se fu l p ie ces o f o rig in al r e se arc h to b e p ro duced o n th e t o pic o f l e ad ers h ip w as c o nd ucte d b y a p artn ers h ip o f M cK in se y a nd C om pany, I n c., a nd T he C onfe re nce B oard . T he o bje cti v e o f th e r e se arc h w as to u nd ers ta nd t h e g enesis o f e nerg iz e d w ork fo rc es, w hic h th ey d efin ed a s “ any g ro up o f e m plo yees w ho se e m oti o nal c o m mitm ent e nab le s th em to m ake o r d eliv er p ro ducts o r s e rv ic es th at c o nsti tu te a s u sta in ab le c o m peti ti v e a d vanta ge f o r th eir e m plo yer.” 1 183 This b ecam e a th re e-y ear e ffo rt i n v olv in g a l a rg e r e se arc h te am . O rg aniz a ti o ns stu d ie d i n clu d ed A von P ro ducts , F ir s t U SA , I n c., T he H om e D ep ot, J o hnso n Contr o ls , K FC , M arrio tt I n te rn ati o nal, M cK in se y a nd C om pany, I n c., S outh w est Air lin es, T exas I n str u m ents , 3 M , th e U .S . M arin es C orp s, a nd th e V ail R eso rts , to nam e a f e w .

Our i n te re st i n th at r e se arc h s te m s l a rg ely f r o m th e i n sig hts i t p ro vid es a b out le ad ers h ip , a s a k ey f a cto r i n p ro ducin g a n e nerg iz e d w ork fo rc e. I f l e ad ers h ip i s ulti m ate ly m easu re d b y r e su lts , th en a n i m porta nt i n te rv enin g v aria b le i s th e energ iz e d o r m obiliz e d w ork fo rc e.

When a sk ed a b out th e m erits o f a ll th e l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro cesse s th at h e had o bse rv ed , J o n K atz e nb ach, th e r e se arc h te am ’s l e ad er, u nhesita ti n gly r e p lie d , “In m y o pin io n, th e b est l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro cess i n th e w orld i s a t th e U .S .

Marin e C orp s.” M any o f h is i n sig hts r e gard in g th at p ro cess h av e b een p ub lis h ed .

2 Earlie r, D av id F re ed m an w ro te a n e xte nsiv e r e v ie w o f th e M arin es’ a p pro ach to le ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent i n a n a rti c le i n In c.

m agazin e.

3 Tom C la ncy w ro te a b ook, Marin e , th at g av e a d eta ile d a nd i n sid e v ie w o f a Marin e E xp ed iti o nary U nit.

4 W e n o w s e ek to l in k th e i n sig hts o f th eir r e se arc h w ith our o w n.

It i s o ur c o nclu sio n th at th e M arin es h av e c o m e to u se s e v era l e xtr e m ely pow erfu l l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ra cti c es. T hey a rriv ed a t th is th ro ugh th eir lo ng exp erie nce a nd s e ein g w hat w ork ed , r a th er th an c o m in g a t i t p rim arily f r o m a ny sc ie nti fic r e se arc h s tu d y. W e f e el th at o ur f in d in gs, p rim arily f r o m a n e m pir ic al re se arc h p ers p ecti v e, a re s o lid ly c o nfir m ed b y th e M arin es’ e xp erie nce. A nd i n ad diti o n to th e f u nd am enta l p rin cip le s, th e M arin es h av e d ev elo ped p ra cti c al meth o ds th ro ugh w hic h to a p ply th ese c o ncep ts . T he c o nfir m ati o n o f th e u nd erly in g tr u th s m ay n o t b e h alf a s i m porta nt a s th eir p ra cti c al e xp erie nce i n m akin g th em work .

Tw o L ea d ersh ip G ro u ps There a re tw o d is ti n ct g ro up s o f M arin e l e ad ers to b e c o nsid ere d .

1. T he M arin es r e cru it y o ung m en a nd w om en to j o in th e C orp s, a nd th eir dev elo pm ent p ath g enera lly ta kes th em to b eco m in g n o nco m mis sio ned offic ers . A s m all p erc enta ge i s l a te r s e nt to c o lle ge, o fte n to th e U .S . N av al Acad em y, to b eco m e o ffic er c and id ate s, b ut th ey a re th e e xcep ti o ns.

2. M ost o ffic er c and id ate s a re r e cru ite d f r o m c o lle ges, a nd th e C orp s r e cru its th e brig hte st a nd m ost q ualifie d p eo ple th ey c an o bta in .

184 The T ale n t B ase f o r N on co m mis sio n ed O ffic ers The M arin es d o a g o od j o b o f r e cru iti n g, m ayb e th e b est o f a ll th e m ilita ry s e rv ic es.

They a ssig n s o m e o f th eir b est p eo ple to s ta ff l o cal r e cru iti n g o ffic es. N in e o ut o f 10 a p plic ants a re r e je cte d , a nd th ey w ill n o t a ccep t h ig h s c ho ol d ro pouts o r so m eo ne w ith a G ED c erti fic ate . T he r e cru ite rs c o nta ct m ore th an 2 50 y o ung peo ple to f in d o ne q ualifie d c and id ate .

How ev er, th e M arin es m ake n o p re te nse o f g etti n g th e b est a nd b rig hte st y o ung peo ple c o m in g o ut o f o ur f in est h ig h s c ho ols a nd c o lle ges a s r e cru its . T he r e ality i s th at th eir r e cru its , f o r w hate v er r e aso n, h av e u su ally d ecid ed n o t to g o o n to co lle ge. S eld om w as th e r e cru it th e s tu d ent b ody p re sid ent o r th e c la ss vale d ic to ria n. O nly i n r a re c ase s h av e th e r e cru its d is ti n guis h ed th em se lv es th ro ugh so m e r e m ark ab le a chie v em ent i n th eir s c ho olin g o r e xtr a curric ula r a cti v iti e s. M any re cru its h av e h ad m in o r c o nv ic ti o ns ( m ost o fte n tr a ffic v io la ti o ns), a nd c asu al u se of a lc o ho l a nd d ru gs i s c o m mon. A l a rg e p erc enta ge c o m es f r o m tr o ub le d h o m es.

Fem ale r e cru its h av e o fte n b een s u b je cte d to s o m e f o rm o f a b use i n th eir h o m es.

Appro xim ate ly 5 0 p erc ent o f th e wom en u lti m ate ly d esc rib e h av in g h ad a n a b usiv e up brin gin g. A ll th e u su al p re d ic to rs o f s u ccess a re n o t g enera lly p re se nt i n th is gro up o f r e cru its . Y et m any o f th em a re tr a nsfo rm ed i n to e ffe cti v e l e ad ers a fte r a tw o- to th re e-y ear p erio d o f ti m e a nd g o o n to d is p la y r e m ark ab le l e ad ers h ip s k ills as th eir c are ers c o nti n ue. I t i s f o r th at r e aso n w e f e lt i t i m porta nt to i n clu d e th is desc rip ti o n o f th is o rg aniz a ti o n’s s u ccess i n l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent. I n s h o rt, i t can b e d one. L ead ers c an b e m ad e.

The T ale n t B ase f o r C om mis sio n ed O ffic ers The c o m mis sio ned o ffic ers o f th e U .S . M arin e C orp s a re c o lle ge g ra d uate s. A f e w offic ers c o m e o ut o f th e U .S . N av al A cad em y a t A nnap olis , b ut th e n um ber i s usu ally l e ss th an o ne-te nth o f th e C orp s’ n eed . M ost o ffic ers h av e b een r e cru ite d fr o m a v arie ty o f c o lle ges i n th e U nite d S ta te s.

These o ffic er c and id ate r e cru its g o to O ffic er C and id ate S cho ol a t Q uanti c o , Vir g in ia . T heir c o urs e r o ughly p ara lle ls th at o f th e g enera l r e cru its , b ut w ith m ore em phasis o n l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent a nd o th er o pera ti o nal s k ills r e q uir e d o f a n offic er. T heir tr a in in g i s e q ually a s p hysic ally d em and in g, a nd th e h o urs p er d ay a re ju st a s l o ng. T hey m ust l e arn to u se a r ifle j u st l ik e a ny o th er M arin e, a nd th ey m ust als o p ass a n a nnual p hysic al f itn ess te st l ik e e v ery o th er M arin e. T his g ro up i s a ls o tr a nsfo rm ed i n to e ffe cti v e l e ad ers . T he p erc enta ge o f s u ccess a nd th e s h o rt ti m e in v olv ed f a r e clip se th at o f a ny p riv ate -s e cto r o rg aniz a ti o n. W e c an l e arn a n um ber of i m porta nt l e sso ns f r o m th e M arin es’ a p pro ach.

Lesso n s f r o m t h e M arin es’ A ppro ach 185 Develo pm ent B egin s w it h U ndersta ndin g t h e U niq ue L eadersh ip T ask s Requir e d . L ead ers h ip i s a te am e ffo rt r a th er th an a s o lo p erfo rm ance. T he M arin es’ em phasis o n te am s c asc ad es th ro ugh th eir l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent. T hey p air a hig hly s e aso ned n o nco m mis sio ned o ffic er w ith a n ew ly a p poin te d l ie ute nant a nd allo w th e tw o o f th em to w ork to geth er f o r s e v era l m onth s. T his e lim in ate s m any mis ta kes. T he n ew o ffic er h as a s o und in g b oard w ith w ho m to th in k a b out s tr a te gie s or ta cti c s.

Ja so n S anta m aria r e co unts h is o w n e xp erie nce o f b ein g p ut i n c harg e o f a 1 25- man c o m bat u nit.

5 H e g av e o rd ers to h av e th e tr o ops i s su ed g as m ask s a nd c le an rifle s i n th e s a m e a fte rn o on. T hat c ause d a ll o f th e M arin es to m is s d in ner. A n exp erie nced f ir s t s e rg eant g av e S anta m aria u se fu l f e ed back.

He e xp la in ed th at h is mis ta ke h ad o ccurre d f r o m h is f a ilu re to c o nsu lt w ith th e e xp erie nced l e ad ers (n o nco m mis sio ned o ffic ers ) o f th e u nit. F ro m th en o n, S anta m aria n o te d th at h e fa ith fu lly c o nsu lte d w ith th ese s e aso ned l e ad ers . T hat i s a l e sso n i n l e ad ers h ip th at does n o t o fte n g et m enti o ned i n a c o nv enti o nal M BA p ro gra m .

Tom C la ncy w ro te a b out th e d ev elo pm ent p ro cess f o r n o nco m mis sio ned offic ers . H e s a id , “ A s a S ta ff S erg eant y o u w ill p ro bab ly b e a ssig ned th at m ost dre ad ed o f d uti e s, a n ew 2 nd L ie ute nant to w atc h o ver a nd h o pefu lly m ake i n to a use fu l o ffic er.” 6 T he c o m mis sio ned o ffic ers l e arn to r e ly h eav ily o n th eir s ta ff o f no nco m mis sio ned o ffic ers .

Every one I s o n t h e T eam . D anie l F re ed m an d esc rib ed th e M arin es’ c ultu re i n th ese te rm s, a s h e to ld o f a c o m ple x m is sio n b ein g p la nned b y a C olo nel M oore .

“M oore w ill m ake th e f in al d ecis io n a m ong th e th re e [ a lte rn ati v es b ein g p ro pose d ], th o ugh h e n o t o nly a llo w s d is a gre em ent b ut p ra cti c ally d em and s i t. T his i s s ta nd ard Marin e th in kin g; e nlis te d m en a nd w om en a nd o ffic ers a lik e a re e xp ecte d to exp re ss c o ncern a b out q uesti o nab le d ecis io ns a nd o rd ers , a nd o ne o f th e b ig gest mis ta kes a n o ffic er c an m ake i s to i g no re o r s q uelc h s u ch q uesti o nin g.” 7 In f a ct, o ne o f th e c o m mon m yth s o f l e ad ers h ip i s th at th ey g o o ff b y th em se lv es, dev is e a c le v er s tr a te gy, a nd th en c o m e b ack to th e o rg aniz a ti o n a nd a nno unce i t to th e e agerly a w aiti n g m asse s. L ead ers h av e o fte n b een r e lu cta nt to s e ek o th ers ’ opin io ns a b out o rg aniz a ti o n s tr u ctu re o r l o ng-ra nge s tr a te gy, f e elin g th at th ese w ere th in gs th ey a lo ne s h o uld b e d oin g. T heir b elie f i s th at to i n v olv e o th ers w ould b e a sig n o f w eakness. F ortu nate ly , th at i d ea h as u nd erg o ne m ajo r c hange. T oday, th e most s o phis ti c ate d l e ad ers r e co gniz e th at th ey a re n o t e xp ecte d to h av e a ll o f th e answ ers o r to d efin e th e s tr a te gy o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n b y th em se lv es.

Leaders M ust B e A ble t o C ope w it h R apid ly C hangin g L eadersh ip P atte rn s .

The M arin es a re c le ar a b out th e o sc illa ti o n th at o ccurs i n o rg aniz a ti o ns b etw een hig hly c o lla b ora ti v e, te am -b ase d o rg aniz a ti o ns i n c o ntr a st w ith s itu ati o ns th at c all fo r a s tr o ng, s in gle l e ad er. E ffe cti v e l e ad ers m ust b e a b le to r e co gniz e th e diffe re nce a nd to f u ncti o n c o m fo rta b ly i n e ith er s itu ati o n. K atz e nb ach a nd 186 Santa m aria a rg ue th at “ cla rity c re ate s tr u st.” 8 Priv ate -s e cto r e xecuti v es a re f o nd o f ta lk in g a b out th eir m anagem ent te am , w hen in r e ality i t h as f e w f u ncti o ns o f a tr u e te am . G ood l e ad ers k no w th e d iffe re nce, c an fu ncti o n w ell i n e ith er e nv ir o nm ent, a nd c an a ct a s a f o llo w er i n a no th er s in gle - le ad er w ork g ro up . P art o f th eir tr a in in g i n v olv es p la nnin g a c o m ple x m is sio n, a nd th en s h o rtl y b efo re e xecuti n g i t, h av in g th e r o le s a nd re sp onsib iliti e s o f th e g ro up changed . F or e xam ple , th e p atr o l l e ad er b eco m es th e m ed ic , a nd a n ew p atr o l le ad er c o m es i n to th e g ro up . C ir c um sta nces c hange r a p id ly , a nd e v ery o ne m ust b e pre p are d to d eal w ith r a p id c hange.

Leadersh ip R equir e s t h e U se o f P eer D is c ip lin e a nd P re ssu re . N ot w anti n g to le t y o ur p eers d ow n i s a m ore p ow erfu l m oti v ati o n to a M arin e th an n o t dis a p poin ti n g a n o ffic er. I n p riv ate -s e cto r c o rp ora ti o ns, th e e m phasis i s m ore o fte n on p le asin g a b oss.

“P ro vin g” b ehav io r i s p erv asiv e i n th e b usin ess w orld , a nd i t i n v olv es th e in d iv id ual h av in g a s tr o ng n eed to l o ok g o od i n th e e yes o f a b oss. B ecause o f th at, th e d is c ip lin e f r o m th e o rg aniz a ti o n c o m es l a rg ely f r o m th e p ers o n w ho c an h ir e and f ir e y o u.

The M arin es, i n c o ntr a st, e m phasiz e g ro up d is c ip lin e. I t h as l o ng b een re co gniz e d th at th eir p rim ary m oti v ati o n i s to p ro te ct th eir c o m ra d es. D is c ip lin e ensu re s a d eep c o m mitm ent to th e o rg aniz a ti o n, to th e u nit, a nd to c o m ra d es. T hus, th e s tr o ngest m oti v ati o nal f o rc es c o m e f r o m w ith in e ach p ers o n a nd th e r e la ti o nsh ip with c o lle agues.

Leadersh ip I n volv es P la nnin g a nd P erfo rm in g U nder I n te nse T im e Pre ssu re . T he M arin es tr a in p eo ple to p la n a m is sio n d ow n to th e s m alle st d eta il, but th e p la nnin g p ro cess i s o fte n c o m pre sse d i n to a f e w h o urs . D av id F re ed m an desc rib es o ne e xerc is e h e w itn esse d a t C am p P end le to n i n th ese w ord s: “ T he Marin es d on’t k no w w hat a w aits th em o n s h o re , b ut th ey a re c o nfid ent th at s ix ho urs o f p la nnin g a nd p re p arin g h av e l e ft th em b ette r e q uip ped to f a ce i t th an m ost milita ry u nits w ould b e a fte r s ix m onth s.” H e g o es o n to n o te , “ T he a rt o f a h ard str ik e d ra w n u p a nd d eliv ere d a t l ig htn in g s p eed m ay o nce h av e s e em ed a s f a r re m oved f r o m th e d om ain o f a b usin ess a s a m oon s h o t. B ut w ith m onth -lo ng h ig h- te ch-p ro duct l ife c ycle s, j u st- in -ti m e m anufa ctu rin g o pera ti o ns a nd o vern ig ht g lo bal curre ncy c ra sh es, th e b usin ess w orld m ig ht j u st b e c o m in g a ro und to th e M arin es’ poin t o f v ie w .” 9 Speed i s o f th e e sse nce i n th e M arin es’ w orld . T hey p re fe r th e b enefits o f a 7 0 perc ent s o lu ti o n th at, th o ugh i m perfe ct, c an b e r e ached i m med ia te ly . T heir p ositi o n is th at r a p id ly e xecute d , m ed io cre d ecis io ns a t l e ast s ta nd s o m e c hance o f s u ccess.

Tho se w ho a re o n th e s c ene o f th e b attl e c an o fte n c o rre ct a ny f la w s. T he 7 0 perc ent d ecis io n i m ple m ente d n o w i s a lw ays b ette r th an a 1 00 p erc ent d ecis io n im ple m ente d l a te .

187 Leadersh ip D em ands R educin g C om ple xit y t o M anageable S im plic it y . T he Marin es a re d ed ic ate d to a “ ru le o f th re e.” T hey o rg aniz e u sin g th is p rin cip le , s o th at a c o rp ora l h as a th re e-p ers o n f ir in g te am , a s e rg eant h as th re e f ir in g te am s re p orti n g to h im , a l ie ute nant a nd a s e rg eant h av e a p la to on th at c o nsis ts o f th re e sq uad s, a nd s o i t c o nti n ues u p w ard .

The s a m e p rin cip le i s a p plie d to s tr a te gy a nd ta cti c s. W hen c o nfr o nte d b y a situ ati o n w ith s e em in gly i n fin ite a lte rn ati v es, th e l e ad er i s ta ught to n arro w th em dow n to th re e p la usib le a lte rn ati v es. ( T he C orp s e xp erim ente d o nce w ith c hangin g th e n um ber to f o ur, a nd n o te d th at p eo ple ’s e ffe cti v eness s a nk d ra m ati c ally .) Hav in g d efin ed th re e r e aso nab le s c enario s, th e ta sk i s th en to a naly ze th ese a nd se le ct th e b est o ne.

When r e ceiv in g a n a ssig nm ent, th e M arin es a re ta ught to ta ke ti m e to d efin e a n ord er’s “ esse nce.” T hey w ork h ard to p ut th e o rd er i n i ts s im ple st f o rm , r e le v ant to all w ho p arti c ip ate , a nd y et to k eep th e s ta te m ent b rie f. I n s o m e w ays th is i s analo go us to a v is io n o r m is sio n s ta te m ent i n a c o m pany, th o ugh i t i s m ore opera ti o nal.

Then th e M arin es a re ta ught to p ause , to d ete rm in e th e te am ’s s tr e ngth s a nd pote nti a l w eaknesse s i n c arry in g o ut th e m is sio n, to s ta te c le arly th e a ssu m pti o ns th at a re b ein g m ad e ( e .g ., th at th e e nem y w ill n o t u se n ucle ar o r b io lo gic al warfa re ), a nd to d efin e th e a cti o ns th ey m ust n o t ta ke ( k illin g c iv ilia ns, d estr o yin g his to ric b uild in gs, o r a lie nati n g th e l o cal p opula ti o n) a nd th e i n fo rm ati o n th ey n eed to e xecute th e m is sio n.

Con tr a st w it h L ea d ersh ip T ask s i n B usin ess a n d In dustr y The M arin es h av e s o m e l e ad ers h ip ta sk s th at m ay d iffe r i n e m phasis f r o m th o se i n busin ess. T he p oin t i s th at th ey h av e s u ccessfu lly d esig ned th eir l e ad ers h ip dev elo pm ent a ro und th o se u niq ue r e q uir e m ents .

In th e p riv ate s e cto r, th ere m ay b e m ore e m phasis o n th e n eed f o r th e l e ad er to perfo rm a w id e v arie ty o f ta sk s, s u ch a s:

• C re ate a v is io n f o r th e g ro up • A ffir m v alu es • D efin e a s tr a te gy • I n sp ir e a nd m oti v ate p eo ple • S te p b ack to s e e th e b ig p ic tu re , s e e l a rg e r e aliti e s 188 • A nti c ip ate th e f u tu re , th in k l o ng te rm • R eso lv e i n te rd ep artm enta l c o nflic ts • A llo cate r e so urc es • C onnect th e g ro up w ith th e o uts id e w orld • I n flu ence p eo ple i n w id e c ir c le s • E xp la in to s ta keho ld er g ro up s th e r e aso ns f o r v ario us a cti o ns • S erv e a s a s y m bol/p erfo rm s y m bolic a cts Obvio usly , m any o f th e l e ad ers h ip f u ncti o ns i n th e M arin es a re e xactl y th e s a m e.

In sp ir in g a nd m oti v ati n g p eo ple a re n ecessa ry i n b oth s itu ati o ns. F ocusin g o n re su lts i s r e q uir e d i n b oth . T he l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent c o nte nt a nd p ro cesse s m ust ad dre ss th e n eed ed ta sk s o r p ro cesse s, b ut th ese a re n o m ore c o m ple x i n th e p riv ate se cto r th an th o se f a ced b y th e M arin es.

Lea d ersh ip A ttr ib ute s Are th e f u nd am enta l a ttr ib ute s r e q uir e d o f a l e ad er i n th e M arin e C orp s th e s a m e a s th o se r e q uir e d i n a p riv ate -s e cto r f ir m o r i n a g o vern m ent a gency? I n e arlie r chap te rs , w e d esc rib ed o ur r e se arc h o n n ecessa ry a ttr ib ute s. W e n o w c o m pare th em w ith th o se th e M arin e C orp s l e ad ers n eed to d ev elo p.

Chara cte r.

M uch o f th e e nti r e i n d ucti o n a nd tr a in in g p ro cess i n th e M arin es i s desig ned to i n culc ate a n ew s e t o f c o re v alu es. T hese e m phasiz e a s tr ic t c o de o f ho no r a nd h o nesty . T he p ro cess b egin s a s r e cru its a re i n d ucte d a nd th en s e nt to th e Parris I s la nd tr a in in g c ente r. E ach n ew r e cru it i s a sk ed i f th ere i s a nyth in g i n h is o r her b ackgro und th at w ould k eep h im o r h er f r o m s e rv in g e ffe cti v ely a s a M arin e.

The r e cru its a re to ld th at a ny l ie s d ete cte d a fte r th is p oin t w ill b e g ro und s f o r im med ia te d is m is sa l. H ow ev er, a n a d m is sio n o f s o m e p ast m is ta ke w ill g enera lly be w ork ed o ut i n a w ay th at w ill n o t d am age th eir c are er.

If a n o ffic er s u ggests th at a n e nlis te d p ers o n f u d ge th e tr u th , th e o ffic er c an b e calle d to ta sk b y th e e nlis te d p ers o n. O ne v is ito r w as a b out to b oard a h elic o pte r, and a s h e w as b ein g e sc o rte d a b oard , a m essa ge c am e th at th e n ecessa ry p ap erw ork fo r th is v is ito r h ad n o t b een c o m ple te d . G etti n g i t d one w ould d ela y th e f lig ht. A n offic er s a id to th e m esse nger, “ W e c o uld j u st a ct a s i f th e o rd er c am e to o l a te .” T he messe nger l o oked th e o ffic er s q uare ly i n th e e ye a nd s a id , “ B ut th at w ould n o t b e co rre ct, s ir .” T he o ffic er s m ile d , a nd s a id , “ Y ou a re a b so lu te ly r ig ht, w e’ll w ait f o r th e p ro per p ap erw ork to b e c o m ple te d .” T his e m phasis o n c hara cte r p ro duces le ad ers w ho a re tr u ste d . L ead ers a sk n o th in g th at th ey a re n o t w illin g to d o th em se lv es. T he e nti r e tr a in in g p ro cess e m phasiz e s te nacity a nd p ers is te nce i n th e fa ce o f to ugh o bsta cle s.

Marin es p ra cti c e s e lf- d ev elo pm ent. T heir o vera ll d ev elo pm ent p ro cess c re ate s 189 enth usia sm a nd p rid e a nd g enera te s a p hilo so phy o f c o nti n ual i m pro vem ent. T he em phasis o n a b so lu te h o nesty a nd c and or i s s o s tr o ng th at i t c ause d a t l e ast o ne obse rv er to w ond er i f th e v alu es o f th e M arin es a re n o t d ev ia ti n g s ig nific antl y f r o m th o se o f o ur s o cie ty a t l a rg e.

The p ers o nal c hara cte r d im ensio n o f l e ad ers h ip i s d efin ed b y a s e t o f p rin cip le s th at g uid e M arin es’ c o nd uct. T he M arin es c re ate d a b ook o f l e ad ers h ip p rin cip le s, and n ew r e cru its a re e xp ecte d to m em oriz e 1 1 l e ad ers h ip p rin cip le s. T hese a re th e to uchsto ne f o r a ll d is c ussio ns o n p ro per l e ad ers h ip b ehav io r.

Perso nal C apability .

T he d ev elo pm ent p ro cess b uild s th e n ecessa ry k no w le d ge ab out th e o vera ll o rg aniz a ti o n, a s w ell a s r e q uir e d te chnic al k no w le d ge a b out se v era l f u ncti o nal a re as. I t te aches a r ig o r i n p ro ble m s o lv in g a nd a naly zin g th o rn y is su es a nd d oes th at v ia c o untl e ss s p ecific e xam ple s p re se nte d b y s e nio r o ffic ers .

These s e ssio ns c o nsu m e 5 0 h o urs a m onth f o r s ix m onth s. T hro ugh p la nnin g multi p le m is sio ns i n s h o rt ti m e s p ans, l e ad ers l e arn to s h arp en th eir p ro ble m - so lv in g te chniq ues. B ein g i n a f e ed back-ric h e nv ir o nm ent e nsu re s th at p eo ple w ill le arn w ays to i m pro ve th eir o w n e ffe cti v eness. I n no vati o n i s e nco ura ged th ro ugh a cultu re th at d oes n o t p unis h f a ilu re o r te ll p eo ple e xactl y h o w to d o th in gs b ut th at em phasiz e s d esir e d e nd s ta te s.

On a m ore m und ane y et i m porta nt l e v el, M arin e o ffic ers l e arn to d re ss th e p art.

Wheth er a cti n g a s a r e cru ite r, w hen d re ss u nifo rm s a re o fte n w orn i n p ub lic gath erin gs, o r a s a d rill i n str u cto r w earin g a n i m macula te u nifo rm a nd th e “ S m okey Bear” h at, h o w th e l e ad er i s d re sse d i s i m porta nt. A lo ng w ith d re ss, o ne p ers o nal cap ab ility th at o ffic ers d ev elo p i s a c o m mand v oic e. C la ncy w rite s, “ L ik e th e fa m ous ‘ re b el y ell’ o f th e C iv il W ar, i t i s i m possib le to d esc rib e, b ut y o u k no w i t when y o u h ear i t.” C la ncy n o te s th at e v ery d rill i n str u cto r a nd S erie s C om mand er has d ev elo ped th is v oic e, a nd th at i t m akes e v ery s ta te m ent, c o m ment, o r o rd er giv en to th e n ew r e cru it “ so und l ik e th e v oic e o f G od h im se lf. T he f ir s t ti m e y o u exp erie nce a d rill i n str u cto r i n f u ll r e galia a nd c o m mand v oic e i s s o m eth in g y o u nev er f o rg et.” 10 Over ti m e, th e M arin es s e ek to b ro ad en th e h o riz o ns o f th eir p eo ple . T hey enco ura ge f u rth er e d ucati o n, i n clu d in g g o in g to c o lle ge. T he M arin es o fte n p ay f o r atte nd ance a t a u niv ers ity . S om e a re e nco ura ged to s e ek a c o m mis sio n a s a n o ffic er by a tte nd in g th e U .S . N av al A cad em y a t A nnap olis .

Focu s o n R esu lts .

T he o bje cti v e o f e v ery m eth o d o f l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent i s to p ro vid e th e to ols f o r a cco m plis h in g s tr a te gic g o als . A s s u ggeste d e arlie r, th is begin s w ith th e p ro cess o f c are fu lly d efin in g th e e sse nce o f th e m is sio n, c re ati n g th re e m eanin gfu l a lte rn ati v es, s e le cti n g o ne o f th o se f o r i m ple m enta ti o n, d efin in g th e d esir e d e nd s ta te , a naly zin g th e s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s o f th e te am th at w ill execute th e m is sio n, d efin in g w hat m ust n o t o ccur, p re p arin g a d eta ile d p la n o f im ple m enta ti o n, a nd i t e nd s w ith e xecuti n g th e p la n. A ll o f th is i s d esig ned to g iv e th e a sp ir in g o ffic er th e to ols w ith w hic h to p ro duce b ette r r e su lts .

190 In te rp erso nal S kills .

O ne M arin e o ffic er w ho w as v is iti n g a p riv ate -s e cto r co m pany w as s tu nned to o bse rv e th at th e m anager d id n o t k no w th e e m plo yees’ nam es. T he M arin e r e m ark ed th at h e w as e xp ecte d n o t o nly to k no w th e n am es o f his p eo ple , b ut a ls o to k no w th e n am es o f a ll th eir f a m ily m em bers . W e d esc rib e els e w here th e e m phasis o n c o ura geo us a nd f r a nk d ia lo gue. M arin es tr e at e ach o th er lik e f a m ily . D urin g tr a in in g th ey a re ta ught a lw ays to b e a le rt to w ays to p re v ent accid ents , a lw ays to h elp a f e llo w M arin e, a nd th ey o fte n r e fe r to e ach o th er a s “sis te r” o r “ b ro th er.” R ela ti o nsh ip s a re c hara cte riz e d b y tr u st a nd m utu al r e sp ect.

Honest b ut c iv il d ia lo gue i s e nco ura ged . T here i s a ls o a s tr o ng e m phasis o n te am acti v iti e s a nd e xte nsiv e c o m munic ati o n w ith in th e te am .

Lea din g O rg aniz a tio nal C hange.

A t l o w er l e v els i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n, th e Marin es’ d ev elo pm ent p ro cess p uts l e ad ers i n a n o pera ti n g r o le b ut d oes n o t em phasiz e th e p ro cesse s f o r b rin gin g a b out o rg aniz a ti o nal c hange. E xecuti n g mis sio ns e ffe cti v ely i s w hat w e h av e e arlie r d esc rib ed a s S ta ge I II b ehav io r, b ut i s no t th e v is io nary , s ta te sm an r o le , n o r th e r o le o f tr a nsfo rm in g th e c ultu re . T he re ality o f m ost o rg aniz a ti o ns i s th at th ey n eed a l im ite d n um ber o f s u ch p eo ple .

Senio r o ffic ers i n th e C orp s a re tr a in ed to th in k a nd a ct o n a l a rg er s c ale a nd a lo nger-te rm b asis .

The P ro cesse s a n d T ools o f L ea d ersh ip D ev elo p m en t The M arin e C orp s te chniq ues f o r d ev elo pin g l e ad ers p ro vid e s e v era l v alu ab le le sso ns.

People D evelo pm ent R equir e s a S ig nif ic a nt C om mit m ent o f T im e f r o m Many in t h e O rg aniz atio n . T he M arin es i n v est e no rm ous a m ounts o f ti m e a nd org aniz a ti o nal r e so urc e i n th eir l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro cess. T he p riv ate se cto r, i f i t b eco m es s e rio us a b out d ev elo pin g s tr o nger l e ad ers h ip , m ust b egin b y gre atl y i n cre asin g th e e m phasis p la ced o n th e tr a in in g o f n ew peo ple . E very f u tu re le ad er m ust b e i n culc ate d w ith th e m is sio n a nd v alu es o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n. R ese arc h has s h o w n th at th o ughtf u lly c o nd ucte d n ew e m plo yee o rie nta ti o n n o t o nly i m pro ves im med ia te p ro ducti v ity b ut a ls o i n cre ase s th e l e ngth o f ti m e p eo ple s ta y w ith th e org aniz a ti o n. P lu s, b ette r-tr a in ed e m plo yees i n tu rn c re ate m ore s a ti s fie d c lie nts , whic h i n tu rn p ro duce g re ate r p ro fita b ility f o r a b usin ess.

The M arin es’ ti m e c o m mitm ent to d ev elo p f ir s t- le v el m anagers p ro vid es a sim ila r c o ntr a st w ith p re v ailin g p ra cti c es i n th e p riv ate s e cto r. Y ears a go , co m panie s p ro vid ed o ne- to tw o-w eek p ro gra m s f o r p eo ple w ho h ad b een in d iv id ual c o ntr ib uto rs to p re p are th em to ta ke o n a n ew r o le a s s u p erv is o rs o r fir s t- le v el m anagers . T oday th ere i s a n e no rm ous p ush to r e d uce ti m e o ff th e j o b.

Org aniz a ti o ns a re s tr iv in g to h av e d ev elo pm ent d ays c ut to h o urs , a nd h o urs c ut to 191 20-m in ute s n ip pets o f l e arn in g. A l a rg e n um ber o f o rg aniz a ti o ns p ro vid e n o f o rm al dev elo pm ent to n ew ly a p poin te d s u p erv is o rs o r m anagers .

In c o ntr a st, th e M arin es s e nd o ffic er c and id ate s to Q uanti c o , V ir g in ia , f o r a 1 0- week s ti n t o f d ev elo pm ent. T here th ey a re e xp ose d to b oth th eo re ti c al a s w ell a s pra cti c al i n fo rm ati o n a b out l e ad ers h ip a nd a v arie ty o f s k ill- b uild in g a cti v iti e s.

Leaders N eed t o F in d T heir N atu ra l S tr e ngth s a nd N ot B e F orc e d in to a n Unnatu ra l M old C re ate d b y t h e O rg aniz atio n . T he M arin es’ a p pro ach to le ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent i s q uite d iffe re nt f r o m th e s te re o ty p es th at e xis t a b out h o w th e m ilita ry d ev elo ps o ffic ers . R ath er th an b ein g r ig id a nd i n sis ti n g th at e v ery o ne perfo rm i n a s im ila r s ty le o r p ro cess, th e M arin es u nd ers ta nd th at th ere a re m any effe cti v e l e ad ers h ip p atte rn s. T he M arin es h av e d is c o vere d th at s o m e o f th eir le ad ers s u cceed b ecause o f th eir te chnic al e xp erti s e . O th ers a re p ow erfu l te am build ers . S ti ll o th ers e xcel i n th eir o rg aniz a ti o nal s k ills . S om e a re e xtr a o rd in ary i n th eir a b ility to s e e th e p ote nti a l i n p eo ple a nd th eir a b ility to b rin g i t o ut. R ath er th an f o rc e-fit th eir l e ad ers i n to a ny o ne m old , th o se r e sp onsib le f o r l e ad ers h ip dev elo pm ent o bse rv e th e n atu ra l s tr e ngth s a nd e nco ura ge th e l e ad er to m agnify th at quality . B y p la cin g o ffic er c and id ate s i n d em and in g s itu ati o ns, s e aso ned o bse rv ers can s p ot l e ad ers h ip s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s. T heir p ro cess i s e xactl y o pposite o f what m any w ould a ssu m e. T heir e m phasis i s o n h elp in g p ote nti a l o ffic ers f in d th eir ow n v oic e a nd m agnify th eir n atu ra l te nd encie s.

Leadersh ip I s B est D evelo ped w it h H ig hly E ngagin g L earn in g M eth ods .

Nearly e v ery th in g th e M arin es d o i n th eir l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro cess i s h ig hly in v olv in g, n o t m ere ly a cad em ic . L ead ers m ake p la ns u nd er s e v ere ti m e p re ssu re and th en e xecute th em . S om e m eth o ds a re p hysic al.

For e xam ple , a sp ir in g l e ad ers are g iv en th e c halle nge o f g etti n g a w ound ed c o m ra d e a cro ss a s m all r iv er, re p orte d to b e m in ed , w ith o nly a f e w b oard s a nd s o m e r o pe.

Oth er a ssig nm ents a re m ore c ere b ra l. A c halle ngin g m is sio n i s d efin ed f o r th em and th ey m ust c o m e u p w ith th re e d eta ile d a lte rn ati v e c o urs e s o f a cti o n i n th e n ext six h o urs a nd th en c ho ose th e b est a lte rn ati v e f r o m th e th re e.

At th e c o nclu sio n o f a p ro je ct, th e g ro up e ngages i n a n “ afte r a cti o n r e v ie w ” th at fo cuse s o n w hat w ent w ell a nd h o w i t c o uld h av e b een i m pro ved . T his i s o ne o f th e most p ow erfu l l e arn in g d ev ic es th e M arin es a nd o th er m ilita ry s e rv ic es u se . I t i s a perfe ct e xam ple o f te am -b ase d l e ad ers h ip . I n th is p ro cess, e v ery o ne i n v olv ed i n a mis sio n c o m es to geth er a nd p sy cho lo gic ally ta kes o ff th eir s tr ip es, a nd th ey c o nd uct a to ta lly o pen, c and id d is c ussio n o f w hat w ent w ell a nd w hat c o uld h av e b een im pro ved . T hese d eta ile d r e v ie w s p ro vid e a n e xtr e m ely v alu ab le l e arn in g p ro cess and e m phasiz e th e d em ocra ti c n atu re o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n. T he f o rm at f o r th is r e v ie w in v olv es a d eta ile d d is c ussio n o f q uesti o ns s u ch a s:

• W hat w as o ur i n te nt?

• W hat a ctu ally h ap pened ?

192 • W hy d id th at h ap pen?

• W hat c an w e l e arn f r o m th o se e v ents ?

• W hat a cti o ns s h o uld w e ta ke n o w i n p re p ara ti o n f o r f u tu re , s im ila r e v ents ?

Actio n L ea rn in g P ro je cts The b ulk o f th e e nti r e d ev elo pm ent p ro cess i n clu d es a v arie ty o f e xtr e m ely engagin g a cti v iti e s, a nd th eir p ow er c o m es f r o m th e f a ct th at th ey a re h ig hly pra cti c al, r e le v ant to th e j o b th e M arin es w ill a ctu ally b e p erfo rm in g, a nd r e q uir e a physic al o r v is c era l i n v olv em ent th at r e p lic ate s th e a ctu al m is sio ns th ey w ill l a te r perfo rm . D urin g a 1 0-w eek-lo ng d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m , l e arn in g te am s c arry o ut a min d -b ogglin g 2 7 m is sio ns, r a ngin g f r o m s e tti n g u p a h um anita ria n a id s ta ti o n to a more tr a d iti o nal a ssa ult.

Contr a st th at w ith th e p atte rn o f m any e xecuti v e d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s, i n w hic h th e p arti c ip ants l is te n to l e ctu re s, a re g iv en e xte nsiv e l is ts o f b ooks a nd a rti c le s to re ad , s e e v id eo ta p es, a nd d is c uss c ase s p re se nte d b y th e f a culty . T he l e v el o f acti o n r e q uir e d , a nd th e e m oti o nal e ngagem ent w ith th e a cti v iti e s, i s e xtr e m ely diffe re nt f r o m th e M arin es’ a p pro ach.

More s o phis ti c ate d p ro gra m s i n i n d ustr y a re m ovin g to w ard h ig her l e v els o f in v olv em ent, i n clu d in g s im ula ti o ns, ta sk f o rc es d ed ic ate d to i m porta nt c o m pany is su es, a nd a cti o n l e arn in g p ro je cts th at a re e xtr e m ely e ngagin g to th e p arti c ip ants .

Tea ch in g L ea d ersh ip w it h P erso n ally R ela te d S to rie s The M arin es h av e s e nio r o ffic ers te ll s to rie s to a sp ir in g s e co nd l ie ute nants o f h o w th ey p ers o nally h and le d a c halle ngin g s itu ati o n. O ne o ffic er r e la te d h o w h e w as giv en th e a ssig nm ent to s e cure a m erc hant s h ip a t s e a, a fte r th e f a ll o f S aig o n. T he sh ip w as f u ll o f r e fu gees, a nd th e a ssig nm ent w as to s e cure th e s h ip f r o m th e dese rti n g S outh V ie tn am ese s o ld ie rs w ho w ere s e iz in g s h ip s a nd k illin g th e c re w s.

The o ffic er h ad n ev er h ad s u ch a n a ssig nm ent b efo re , b ut h e a p plie d th e p rin cip le s he h ad b een ta ught a b out s e curin g b uild in gs. I n g enera l, s ta rt a t th e to p f lo or, s o th at yo u c an d ro p d ow n o n o pponents , a nd m ove f a ste r d ow nw ard th an th ey c an c lim b up w ard to y o u. F urth er, h and g re nad es d o n o t b ounce b ack d ow n o n to y o u.

This r iv eti n g s to ry o f a c halle ngin g a ssig nm ent p ro vid ed a p ow erfu l te achin g dev ic e to i m pla nt th e p rin cip le o f s h ifti n g d ecis io n m akin g to th e p eo ple w ho a re clo se st to th e a cti o n.

And r e co unti n g “ sto rie s” o f h o w th ey a cco m plis h ed a c halle ngin g m is sio n, s u ch as o verta kin g a n e nem y b oat o n th e s e a i n s to rm y w eath er, p ro vid es o pportu nity to exp la in th e th o ught p ro cesse s th at w ent i n to p la nnin g th e m is sio n a s w ell a s th e deta ils o f i ts e xecuti o n. A t th e M arin es’ b asic s c ho ol, n early 3 00 h o urs o ver a s ix - month p erio d a re d ed ic ate d to h av in g i n str u cto rs r e la te th eir s to rie s to th e a sp ir in g 193 le ad ers . I t i s th eir b elie f th at b y d ig esti n g th is e xtr a o rd in ary n um ber o f c ase exam ple s, th e y o ung l ie ute nants b egin to i n d ucti v ely d ev elo p g uid in g p rin cip le s o f behav io r r e gard in g th e b est a p pro ach to c halle ngin g a ssig nm ents .

Leadersh ip D evelo pm ent R equir e s I n fo rm atio n a nd K now le dge a bout Leadersh ip . T he M arin es h av e a p pro xim ate ly 1 00 b ooks o n a r e co m mend ed re ad in g l is t. T he a sp ir in g l e ad ers a re r e q uir e d to r e ad th em , a nd th ese b ooks a re dis c usse d i n m ore a cad em ic s e ssio ns. T hese te xts a re ta ken s e rio usly , a nd o ffic er cand id ate s a re e xp ecte d to h av e r e ad a nd u nd ers to od th em . T here i s a ls o a n o ffic ia l Marin e C orp s m anual w ith w hic h p eo ple a re e xp ecte d to b e h ig hly c o nv ers a nt. I t i s th e o ne b ook f r o m w hic h e v ery o ne m ust b e a b le to q uo te c hap te r a nd v ers e .

Leadersh ip V ersa tilit y I s D evelo ped b y C ro ss T ra in in g in A re as O uts id e One’s A re a o f E xpertis e . L aw yers a re a ssig ned i n fa ntr y u nits to c o m mand , while an i n fa ntr y c o m mand er i s tr a nsfe rre d to h ead u p a s u p ply u nit. A lth o ugh th ere i s cle arly s o m e s a crific e o f s h o rt- te rm p ro ducti v ity , th ere i s a n e no rm ous l o ng-te rm gain i n h av in g a c ad re o f l e ad ers e xp ose d to o th er a re as a nd w ho c an m ove f r o m one v enue to a no th er w ith n o s e rio us l a p se i n p erfo rm ance.

Who i s R esp on sib le f o r L ea d ersh ip D ev elo p m en t?

Every one A ssu m es R esp onsib ilit y f o r L eadersh ip D evelo pm ent . A s n o te d earlie r, th e n o nco m mis sio ned o ffic ers f e el r e sp onsib le f o r d ev elo pin g n ew lie ute nants . T he g unnery s e rg eants f e el r e sp onsib le f o r d ev elo pin g th e l e ad ers h ip sk ills o f th e s e rg eants u nd er th em . T his i s n o t a n a fte rth o ught. I t i s a s ig nific ant p art of e v ery o ne’s r e sp onsib ility . T he M arin es b elie v e th at e v ery o ne m ust b e ta ught to le ad , b ecause o ne n ev er k no w s w hen th e a p poin te d l e ad er m ay b e w ound ed o r kille d , a nd th e m is sio n m ust g o o n.

Leadersh ip D evelo pm ent I s M ost S ucce ssfu l W hen C onducte d b y t h e M ost Effe ctiv e S enio r M em bers o f M anagem ent . W e o bse rv e th at i n m ost co rp ora ti o ns, tr a in ers a re j u nio r p eo ple , h ir e d s p ecific ally f o r th at r o le . M ore o fte n th an n o t, th ey h av e h ad l ittl e o r n o l in e e xp erie nce. T here a re o ccasio nal excep ti o ns. S om e o rg aniz a ti o ns e nlis t l in e m anagers to s e rv e a s tr a in ers , a nd th e re se arc h o n th at p ra cti c e h as c o nsis te ntl y s h o w n th at s u ch tr a in ers p ro duce s u p erio r re su lts to th o se w ho se r o le i s j u st tr a in in g.

A n ew s u p erv is o ry tr a in in g s y ste m w as b ein g i m ple m ente d i n a g ro up o f h ealth care i n sti tu ti o ns. T he o rg aniz a ti o n w as a gre eab le to m easu rin g th e r e su lts o f th is new p ro gra m . M easu re s i n clu d ed th e c hange i n b ehav io r d is p la yed b y th e su p erv is o rs , a s s e en b y th e s u b ord in ate s o ver a s ix -m onth p erio d a fte r th e tr a in in g.

This w as m easu re d th ro ugh q uesti o nnair e s c o m ple te d b y th e s u b ord in ate s.

Measu re m ents w ere ta ken w ith in th re e l a rg e i n sti tu ti o ns i n v olv in g h und re d s o f 194 su p erv is o rs .

In o ne h o sp ita l, th e r e su lts w ere a q uantu m l e ap a b ove th e o th er tw o. Y et e xactl y th e s a m e p ro gra m w as d eliv ere d i n e ach, w ith e xactl y th e s a m e a m ount o f ti m e bein g d ed ic ate d to i t.

Tho se c o nd ucti n g th e r e se arc h c o uld f in d o nly o ne d iffe re nce b etw een th e org aniz a ti o n w ith s u ch s tr o ng r e su lts a nd th e o th er tw o.

The p ers o n w ho c o nd ucte d n early a ll o f th e s e ssio ns i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n w ith th e str o ngest r e su lts w as th e h o sp ita l a d m in is tr a to r. I t a p peare d th at hav in g h is p ers o nal in te re st i n th e p ro cess, a nd th e e m phasis th at h is p re se nce g av e th e p ro gra m , m ad e an i m porta nt d iffe re nce.

No o ne p re te nd s th at th ese s e nio r l e ad ers a re m ore e ffe cti v e i n th e c la ssro om , i f ju d ged b y p re se nta ti o n s k ills , f a cilita ti o n s k ills , o r k no w le d ge o f th e th eo ry .

How ev er, th ey b rin g c re d ib ility a nd p ra cti c al k no w -h o w . T hey c an te ll p ow erfu l sto rie s o f th eir p ers o nal e xp erie nces.

The M arin es c ho ose th eir i n str u cto rs f r o m th e to p 2 5 p erc ent o f no nco m mis sio ned o ffic ers . T o b eco m e a n o nco m mis sio ned o ffic er ( s ta ff s e rg eant) ta kes b etw een 8 a nd 1 2 y ears a nd th en a n a d diti o nal 4 to 6 y ears to b eco m e a “gunny” ( g unnery s e rg eant) . I t i s f r o m th is g ro up th at th e d rill i n str u cto rs a re cho se n. A nd o f th is g ro up , o nly 8 0 p erc ent g et th ro ugh th e d em and in g d ev elo pm ent pro cess. H ow ev er, th e i m pact th ey h av e o n i m pre ssio nab le r e cru its i s i n calc ula b le .

Tom C la ncy w ro te i n h is b ook, Marin e , a b out th e g ra d uati o n c ere m ony f r o m th e fin al p hase o f r e cru it tr a in in g. H e d esc rib ed h o w th e n ew M arin es r u sh ed to in tr o duce th eir f a m ily a nd f r ie nd s to th eir d rill i n str u cto r. “ T hanks f o r g etti n g m e th ro ugh B oot C am p” w as a f r e q uentl y e xp re sse d s e nti m ent. H e th en n o te d w atc hin g pare nts e xp re ss p ro fo und th anks to th e d rill i n str u cto rs f o r th e c hange th ey s a w i n th eir s o ns a nd d aughte rs . C la ncy w rite s, “ I d efy y o u to w atc h th is m om ent a nd n o t sh ed a te ar o r tw o. I d id .” 11 These l e sso ns l e arn ed b y th e M arin es c an e asily b e m ig ra te d to th e p riv ate se cto r. O ver a y ear’s ti m e, s e nio r “ tr a in ers ” c an h av e a n i n d elib le i m pact o n 1 00 to 500 p eo ple . T hey d o i t i n d iffe re nt w ays. R oger E nric o , a f o rm er C EO o f P ep siC o, sp ent o ne w eek w ith g ro up s o f y o unger e xecuti v es, b oth s h arin g h is i d eas a nd se ekin g th eir v ie w s a b out h o w to d ev elo p th e b usin ess. H e a ttr ib ute d th at p ro cess with p ro ducin g m any o f th e b est i d eas f o r d ev elo pin g P ep siC o’s s u ccess. H e te sti fie s th at th is w as s o m e o f th e b est ti m e h e s p ent a s C EO .

For m any y ears , A nd y G ro ve, w ho w as th en th e C EO o f I n te l, p arti c ip ate d i n th e co m pany’s s u p erv is o ry d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m . W hen a sk ed h o w h e c o uld ta ke ti m e to e ngage i n th at a cti v ity , h e to ld th e i n q uir e r, “ W here e ls e c o uld I s p end ti m e th at would h av e th at m uch l a sti n g i m pact o n th e p eo ple w ho m ake o ur o rg aniz a ti o n su cceed ?” I t i s a p ow erfu l m essa ge w hen th e s e nio r-m ost p ers o n i n a f ir m ta kes peo ple d ev elo pm ent s e rio usly .

195 Unfo rtu nate ly , th o se a re m ore th e e xcep ti o n th an th e r u le . I n g enera l, w e o bse rv e th at w hile th e c hair m en a nd C EO s o f l a rg e o rg aniz a ti o ns a re th e o nes w ho s e em most w orrie d a b out th e d ev elo pm ent o f th eir p eo ple , th e a m ount o f ti m e th ey s p end doin g th at i s s o m eti m es m in is c ule . W ors e y et, th e r e st o f th e s e nio r l e ad ers h ip gro up s e em s g enera lly u nin v olv ed i n a ny o rg aniz a ti o nal le ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent pro cess. I n m ost p riv ate -s e cto r o rg aniz a ti o ns, d ev elo pm ent i s m ost o fte n v ie w ed a s so m eo ne e ls e ’s j o b, u su ally s o m eo ne i n H um an R eso urc es.

Lea d ersh ip D ev elo p m en t B oth S hap es a n d R efle cts t h e Cult u re o f t h e O rg an iz a tio n Leadersh ip D evelo pm ent B egin s w it h t h e P olic ie s a nd V alu es o f t h e Org aniz atio n . F or s ta rte rs , d oes th e o rg aniz a ti o n b elie v e i n p ro m oti n g f r o m w ith in , or d oes i t n o rm ally g o o uts id e to f ill k ey p ositi o ns? T his f u nd am enta l p ra cti c e beco m es th e f o und ati o n f o r th e n eed f o r l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent a cti v iti e s a nd affe cts th e l e v el o f s e rio usn ess w ith w hic h i t i s ta ken.

The M arin es ta ke g re at p rid e i n r e cru iti n g a l a rg er p erc enta ge o f th eir o ffic ers fr o m th e e nlis te d r a nks th an d o a ny o f th e o th er s e rv ic es. T hey h av e a d opte d a “G ro w O ur O w n” p ro gra m th at e xp re sse s th eir e m phasis o n p ro m oti o ns f r o m with in .

Leadersh ip D evelo pm ent M ust B e T ak en S erio usly b y t h e E ntir e Org aniz atio n, N ot J ust a F ew P eople in a D evelo pm ent F unctio n . A lth o ugh nearly e v ery c o rp ora te l e ad er w ould p ro no unce th at p eo ple a re th e f ir m ’s m ost im porta nt a sse t, m ost o bse rv ers d o n o t s e e a cti o ns th at r e fle ct th at. I n m any f ir m s, earn in gs c o m e f ir s t, w here as i n o th ers c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n l e ad s o ut. W e s e ld om enco unte r o rg aniz a ti o ns i n w hic h p eo ple b elie v e th ey c o m e f ir s t.

Marin e l e ad ers g o to g re at l e ngth to p ra cti c e p eo ple d ev elo pm ent. T hey g iv e pers o nal a tte nti o n to e v ery o ffic er c and id ate a nd to e v ery a sp ir in g no nco m mis sio ned o ffic er. T hey c o nsid er i t a f a ilu re w hen o ne d ro ps o ut. T hey str iv e to e nhance p eo ple ’s s e lf- e ste em . S etb acks a nd c halle nges a re s e en m ere ly a s fe ed back a nd n o t a s g ro und s f o r e lim in ati n g s o m eo ne.

Leadersh ip D evelo pm ent I n clu des E very one, N ot J ust a F ew E lit e , S o- Calle d H ig h-P ote ntia l P eople . I n c o ntr a st w ith m ost b usin esse s, w hic h g o to m uch exp ense to te st a nd a sse ss p eo ple i n a n a tte m pt to i d enti fy f u tu re e xecuti v es, th e Marin es tr a in e v ery o ne to l e ad . T hey d on’t b uild a g ulf b etw een f o llo w ers a nd le ad ers b ut a ssu m e i n ste ad th at e v ery o ne s h o uld b e tr a in ed to l e ad .

The h ig h l e v el o f c o m mitm ent to p eo ple d ev elo pm ent ta kes th e f o rm o f d oin g a s much f o r th e p eo ple i n th e b otto m h alf o f th e b ell- s h ap ed c urv e a s f o r th o se i n th e 196 to p h alf o f th e c urv e. W e th in k th is p ra cti c e c an g o a l o ng w ay to w ard c re ati n g co m mitm ent a nd l o yalty i n a ny o rg aniz a ti o n. R ath er th an waiti n g f o r p eo ple to f a il and th en g le efu lly s e ein g th em d ep art, th e M arin es w ork h ard to k eep a nyo ne f r o m fa ilin g a nd m easu re s u ccess b y th e h ig h p orti o n o f p eo ple m akin g i t s u ccessfu lly th ro ugh th eir tr a in in g p ro cess.

The c o ntr a st b etw een th is p olic y a nd th at o f m any p riv ate -s e cto r c o m panie s co uld n o t b e m ore s ta rk .

Contin ual I m pro vem ent in t h e Q ualit y o f t h e W ork fo rc e O ccu rs t h ro ugh Develo pm ent, N ot E lim in atio n . M any c o rp ora ti o ns p ro ud ly a nno unce th eir p olic y of e v alu ati n g e v ery o ne o n a r e gula r b asis a nd th en e ach y ear s y ste m ati c ally elim in ate th e b otto m 1 0 to 2 0 p erc ent. T hat h as b een o ne o f th e f a v orite h um an re so urc e p olic ie s o f s o m e o f th e l e gend ary “ to ugh” e xecuti v es.

This p olic y c o nta in s a n um ber o f s e rio us d ra w backs, te rrib le n egati v e co nse q uences to th e o rg aniz a ti o n, a nd i s i n here ntl y u nfa ir . T his “ ra nk a nd s p ank” philo so phy d ese rv es s e rio us q uesti o nin g.

Fir s t, i t a ssu m es th at m anagers a re a ccura te i n th eir a p pra is a l o f s u b ord in ate s’ perfo rm ance, d esp ite a l a rg e b ody o f e v id ence to th e c o ntr a ry . T he c o nsis te ncy o f perfo rm ance a p pra is a ls i s n o to rio usly l o w . I n s o m e s itu ati o ns g o od d ata e xis t, b ut th o se a re m ore th e e xcep ti o n th an th e r u le .

Seco nd , i t p enaliz e s e m plo yees w ork in g f o r a n e xecuti v e w ho h as r e cru ite d a n excep ti o nally ta le nte d g ro up o f p eo ple . T he f ir s t p ers o n to b e te rm in ate d i n G ro up A m ay b e m ore p ro ducti v e a nd c ap ab le th an th e p ers o n i n G ro up B w ho i s a t th e mid poin t o f th at g ro up , s im ply b ecause G ro up A c o nsis te d o f a n e xcep ti o nally ta le nte d g ro up o f p eo ple to s ta rt w ith .

Thir d , i t a ssu m es th at p eo ple a re s ta ti c a nd i n cap ab le o f d ev elo pm ent. Y et m ost of u s h av e s e en p eo ple m ake s ig nific ant c hanges i n th eir p erfo rm ance o ver ti m e.

Fourth , i t a ssu m es th at th e n atu re o f th e j o b p eo ple h av e b een g iv en, th e in flu ence o f th e g ro up a ro und th em , a nd r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith th e i m med ia te m anager are a ll o f n o c o nse q uence. I t d efin es th e i n d iv id ual a s th e o nly v aria b le i n th e eq uati o n.

Fifth , i t p its p eo ple i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n a gain st e ach o th er, r a th er th an esta b lis h in g a p erfo rm ance s ta nd ard to b e r e ached . I t i s m anagem ent’ s a d m is sio n th at th ey a re n o t a b le to s e t u p a n a ccura te p erfo rm ance s ta nd ard b y w hic h to j u d ge peo ple , s o th e s u rro gate f o r d oin g th at i s to c re ate a l is t a nd a rb itr a rily c ut o ff th e botto m 1 0 p erc ent.

Six th , th is “ p ro vin g” o rie nta ti o n h as b een s h o w n to d im in is h r is k ta kin g a nd enco ura ges p eo ple to b e c auti o us a nd te nta ti v e i n th eir w ork . P eo ple w ork in g i n su ch e nv ir o nm ents a re m ore p ro ne to d o j u st w hat th ey a re to ld a nd n o t s e ek to le arn f r o m th eir w ork .

197 Such a p olic y w ork s w hen th ere i s a n u nlim ite d s u p ply o f p eo ple s e ekin g to work f o r a n o rg aniz a ti o n, b ecause o f i ts p re sti g e, i ts h ig h c o m pensa ti o n, o r s o m e oth er f a cto r. E lite u niv ers iti e s p ra cti c e th is w ith j u nio r f a culty .

How ev er, th e ti m e h as c o m e to s e rio usly c halle nge th e w is d om o f th is p olic y.

Turn o ver i s c o stl y . G ood p eo ple a re h ard to f in d a nd e xp ensiv e to d ev elo p. T he im pact o f th is p olic y h as n ev er b een f u lly m easu re d .

Term in ati n g p oor p erfo rm ers w ho r e fu se to w ork h ard a nd te nacio usly i s c le arly th e r ig ht th in g to d o, b ut a rb itr a rily te rm in ati n g th e b otto m 1 0 to 2 0 p erc ent o f th e work fo rc e e ach y ear i s n o t th e m ost e nlig hte ned p olic y. H ars h tr e atm ent o f p eo ple is n o l o nger a ccep ta b le . A s th e l a te A nd ra ll P ears o n n o te d , “ P eo ple h av e s o m any more o pti o ns th an th ey u se d to . T hey c an l e av e— and y o u c an’t f in d m ore ta le nt j u st by tu rn in g o ver th e n ext l o g. S eco nd , th at k in d o f tr e atm ent d em ora liz e s p eo ple .” 12 The M arin es, a nd o th er o rg aniz a ti o ns, h av e d em onstr a te d th at y o u c an w ork h ard to h av e e v ery o ne s u cceed . W eed in g o ut th e b otto m 1 0 p erc ent i s n o t th e m ost effe cti v e w ay to a chie v e a h ig hly p ro ducti v e w ork fo rc e.

Div ersit y S hould B e E nco ura ged, N ot D is c o ura ged . L arg e c o rp ora ti o ns dev elo p c rite ria f o r s e le cti n g f u tu re e xecuti v es. T his u su ally i n v olv es a n a naly sis o f th e c o m pete ncie s d is p la yed b y th e c urre nt e xecuti v e g ro up , s o n ew p eo ple a re cho se n e xactl y i n th eir i m age. T his p ro cess s c re ens o ut th e m av eric k, i n no vati v e pers o n w ho d oes n o t f it th e m old , b ut w ho m ay b e e xactl y w hat th e o rg aniz a ti o n need s. I n d eed , C la yto n C hris te nse n, i n h is h ig hly a p pla ud ed b ook, The I n nova to r’s Dile m ma , h as n o te d th at th e d eclin e o f s o m any l a rg e o rg aniz a ti o ns m ay b e attr ib ute d to th e i n b re d n atu re o f th eir l e ad ers h ip a nd th e f o rm ula ic a p pro ach th ey to ok to r u nnin g th e i n sti tu ti o n. “ G ood m anagem ent w as th e m ost p ow erfu l r e aso n [th ese l e ad in g f ir m s] f a ile d to s ta y a to p th eir i n d ustr ie s. P re cis e ly b ecause th ese fir m s l is te ned to th eir c usto m ers , i n v este d a ggre ssiv ely i n te chno lo gie s th at w ould pro vid e th eir c usto m ers m ore a nd b ette r p ro ducts o f th e s o rt th ey w ante d , a nd because th ey c are fu lly s tu d ie d m ark et tr e nd s a nd s y ste m ati c ally a llo cate d in v estm ent c ap ita l to i n no vati o ns th at p ro m is e d th e b est r e tu rn s, th ey l o st p ositi o ns of l e ad ers h ip .” 13 Every one S hould B e T ra in ed t o B e a n E ffe ctiv e L eader . S ocia l s c ie nti s ts and m anagem ent e xp erts h av e l o ng a rg ued th at s e ld om w as o ne p ers o n th e l e ad er and e v ery o ne e ls e a f o llo w er. I n d eed , l e ad ers h ip i s a f u ncti o n o r s e t o f b ehav io rs th at o fte n g ets p asse d a ro und i n a g ro up . T he p ers o n w ith th e l o fti e st ti tl e a nd su p pose d p ow er i s n o l o nger th e o ne w ith a ll th e a nsw ers a nd i s s e ld om th e o ne to defin e th e s tr a te gy a s a s o lo p erfo rm ance. G iv en th e kno w le d ge th at l e ad ers h ip in d eed g ets p asse d a ro und , th e M arin es’ a p pro ach to tr a in in g e v ery o ne to b e a n effe cti v e l e ad er i s th e m ost l o gic al o ne.

Brig ad ie r G enera l D ougla s O ’D ell w as d esc rib in g th e n ew M arin e Exp ed iti o nary B rig ad e a nti te rro ris t b atta lio n, c re ate d i n th e a fte rm ath o f th e 198 Sep te m ber 1 1, 2 001, te rro ris t a tta cks. H e r e m ark ed , “ T his i s , i n m y v ie w , n o t a genera l’ s w ar, a c o lo nel’ s w ar, o r a c ap ta in ’s w ar. T his i s a c o rp ora l’ s w ar. I t w ill be f o ught i n b ack a lle ys a nd o n r o ofto ps a ro und th e w orld b y s m all u nits a nd in d iv id ual u nits o f M arin es.” 14 Let’ s e num era te s o m e o f th e b enefits o f th e b ro ad -s c ale d ev elo pm ent o f le ad ers h ip .

• E m plo yee c o m mitm ent s o ars . I m agin e th e e ffe ct o n th e l e v el o f c o m mitm ent o f ev ery o ne i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n i f th ey r e aliz e th at th e o rg aniz a ti o n r e ally c are s ab out th em a nd i s w illin g to i n v est i n th eir d ev elo pm ent. R ete nti o n r e se arc h co nsis te ntl y s h o w s a h ig h l e v el o f c o rre la ti o n b etw een p eo ple s ta yin g w ith a n org aniz a ti o n a nd o pportu niti e s f o r d ev elo pm ent.

• B ench s tr e ngth i n cre ase s. C alc ula te th e v alu e o f th e b ench s tr e ngth th is p ro cess pro duces. T he o rg aniz a ti o n c an n o w r e ach e v ery w here a nd f in d p eo ple tr a in ed on th e b asic s o f l e ad ers h ip b ehav io r. N o l o nger i s th e o rg aniz a ti o n h eld ho sta ge b y a f e w h ig h p ote nti a ls w ho se th re ats to l e av e b eco m e g ro und s f o r eno rm ous c o ncessio ns o r e xcep ti o ns.

• O verlo oked ta le nt i s d is c o vere d . W e c o nte nd th at s o m e e xtr e m ely s u ccessfu l le ad ers w ould h av e b een o verlo oked u nd er th e u su al p ro cesse s o f s e le cti o n.

This w ay, e v ery o ne h as a n o pportu nity to b e g ro und ed i n g o od l e ad ers h ip prin cip le s, a nd b ecause o f h ard w ork a nd te nacity , s o m e “ la te b lo om ers ” w ill sh o w u p a s g re at l e ad ers i n th e f u tu re .

• T he c ultu re i s r e in fo rc ed . T he e xp osu re o f e v ery o ne to s e nio r o ffic ers o f th e co m pany m ost c erta in ly b uild s th e l e ad ers h ip s k ills o f th e j u nio r p eo ple b ut als o r e in fo rc es th e c ultu re . N oth in g i s a s p ow erfu l a s m odels o f b ehav io r, b ut ofte n th e o ffic ia ls o f a n o rg aniz a ti o n r e m ain v ery r e m oved a nd d is ta nt f r o m th e fr o nt- lin e p eo ple . T he i n flu ence th at c o m es f r o m c lo se c o nta ct o ver m any h o urs is o rd ers o f m agnitu d e g re ate r th an l is te nin g to a p re p are d s p eech f r o m a n executi v e i n th e c o m pany c afe te ria .

• T he o rg aniz a ti o n c an b e f la tte r. T he M arin e’s h av e 8 .7 e nlis te d p ers o nnel p er offic er, i n c o ntr a st w ith th e U .S . A ir F orc e’s 4 p er o ffic er o r th e U .S . A rm y’s 5 to e ach o ffic er.

Leaders S hould B e H eld A cco unta ble f o r t h e L evel o f C om mit m ent a nd Mora le o f T heir P eople . I n th e p riv ate s e cto r, w e h av e h ad th e s tr a nge n o ti o n th at while th e c o rp ora ti o n o w ned a ll o f th e h ard a sse ts , m oney, a nd i n te lle ctu al pro perty , m anagers c o uld d o w hate v er th ey c ho se w ith th eir p eo ple . S om e h av e been r e lu cta nt to c o nd uct c o m pany-w id e e m plo yee a tti tu d e s u rv eys, l e st th ey b e se en a s i n tr u d in g o n th e l e ad ers ’ d om ain s. W e c o nte nd th at th e c o m pany n eed s to kno w o f d eclin in g m ora le , a nd m anagers s h o uld b e h eld a cco unta b le f o r a ny degenera ti o n i n c o m mitm ent a nd l o yalty to th e f ir m . A nd l e ad ers n eed to b e 199 acco unta b le f o r d ev elo pin g l e ad ers i n th eir s p here o f r e sp onsib ility .

Leadersh ip D evelo pm ent R equir e s a F eedback -R ic h E nvir o nm ent T hat Em phasiz es L earn in g f r o m F ailu re , R ath er T han P unis h m ent f o r M is ta k es .

One o f th e k eys to th e M arin es’ l e ad ers h ip e xp erie nce i s a n e nv ir o nm ent th at cre ate s r e cep ti v ity to , a nd p ro vid es a n a m ple s u p ply o f, f e ed back. T he c ultu re i s extr e m ely to le ra nt o f f a ilu re , r e aliz in g th at f a ilu re i s th e m ost p ow erfu l te acher.

Leadersh ip D evelo pm ent O ccu rs B est in a n E galit a ria n C ult u re . T he Marin es e m phasiz e th e n eed f o r o pen, f r a nk d eb ate o n a ll d ecis io ns. T hat d ia lo gue occurs o nly w hen th e c ultu re r e in fo rc es a n a tti tu d e i n w hic h a uth o rity c an b e challe nged w ith n o n egati v e c o nse q uences. I t a ls o r e q uir e s a c ultu re i n w hic h le ad ers s p ecify e nd r e su lts b ut r e fr a in f r o m te llin g p eo ple th e m eans b y w hic h ta sk s are to b e a cco m plis h ed . T his d ev elo ps i n iti a ti v e a nd c re ati v ity , a lo ng w ith a h ig h se nse o f o w ners h ip .

CO NCLU SIO N It i s o bvio us th at o ver th e 2 34 y ears o f th e M arin e C orp s’ e xis te nce, th e C orp s h as le arn ed a g re at d eal a b out d ev elo pin g l e ad ers . T he M arin e C orp s’ e xp erie nce h as sh ap ed i ts v ie w s r e gard in g th e r e al r e q uir e m ents o f l e ad ers h ip , a s w ell a s th e opti m um w ays to s e le ct a nd d ev elo p i ts l e ad ers . I ts e xp erie nce i n d ev elo pin g le ad ers a p pears to h av e s h ap ed i ts c ultu re , j u st a s i ts s tr o ng c ultu re h as m old ed i ts pra cti c es o f l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent. B ecause o f th e C orp s’ e xtr a o rd in ary s k ills and r e so urc efu ln ess, M arin es tr a nsp ort th e pre sid ent a nd g uard e m bassie s a ro und th e w orld , i n a d diti o n to b ein g c alle d o n f o r th e m ost c halle ngin g s p ecia l assig nm ents . T he M arin e C orp s’ s u ccess s e rv es a s a n e xtr e m ely v alu ab le m odel f o r co rp ora ti o ns to s tu d y. A lth o ugh i t m ay b e p re m atu re to a d vis e a nyo ne to a d opt th eir ways “ lo ck, s to ck, a nd b arre l,” i t a p pears th at a ny o rg aniz a ti o n th at i s s e rio us a b out dev elo pin g p eo ple c an l e arn a g re at d eal f r o m th e U .S . M arin e C orp s. T he M arin es pro ve l e ad ers c an b e d ev elo ped .

For f u rth er i n fo rm ati o n a b out th e k ey i n gre d ie nts o f e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip dev elo pm ent p ro gra m s, v is it o ur w eb -s ite a t www.z e ngerfo lk m an.c o m a nd a ccess th e “ P ro ducts a nd S erv ic es” l in k.

200 10 W HAT I N DIV ID UALS D O T O B EC O M E GREA T L EA D ER S All o ver th is c o untr y , i n c o rp ora ti o ns a nd g o vern m ent a gencie s, th ere a re millio ns o f e xecuti v es w ho i m agin e th at th eir p la ce o n th e o rg aniz a ti o n c hart has g iv en th em a b ody o f f o llo w ers . A nd o f c o urs e i t h asn ’t. I t h as g iv en th em s u b ord in ate s. W heth er th e s u b ord in ate s b eco m e f o llo w ers d ep end s o n wheth er th e e xecuti v es a ct l ik e l e ad ers .

—Jo hn G ard ner The m ost d angero us l e ad ers h ip m yth i s th at l e ad ers a re b orn — th at th ere i s a geneti c f a cto r to l e ad ers h ip . M yth a sse rts th at p eo ple s im ply e ith er h av e certa in c haris m ati c q ualiti e s o r n o t. T hat’ s n o nse nse ; i n f a ct, th e o pposite i s tr u e. L ead ers a re m ad e r a th er th an b orn .

—Warre n G . B ennis T he A ge-O ld Q uestio n s W hen th e s u b je ct tu rn s to l e ad ers h ip , s o m eo ne i n ev ita b ly a sk s th e q uesti o n, “ W ell, a re n’t l e ad ers b orn th at w ay?” T hen c o m es, “ C an I r e ally m ake m yse lf a b ette r l e ad er? ” T he q uesti o ns a ris e s o f r e q uentl y f r o m s a v vy a nd w ell- in te nti o ned p eo ple , w e f e el th e n eed to a d dre ss th em y et o ne m ore ti m e.

O n t h e O ne H an d W e b egin b y a ckno w le d gin g th at th ere i s a l e giti m ate p oin t o f v ie w i n a rg uin g th at l e ad ers a re b orn th at w ay. T he r e v ere d g uru o f m anagem ent, P ete r D ru cker, w ro te i n The P ra ctic e o f M anagem en t th at “ le ad ers h ip c anno t b e ta ught o r l e arn ed .” 1 A dded to th at i s a l o ng s e rie s o f s tu d ie s o n th e p ers o nality d im ensio ns o f l e ad ers h ip a nd th e s tr o ng e v id ence th at p ers o nality d oes n o t c hange a g re at d eal o ver a p ers o n’s l ife ti m e. O th er r e se arc hers h av e a naly ze d th e p ro fo und i n flu ence o f p are nts a nd th eir r o le i n s h ap in g th e v alu es o f a c hild ’s w illin gness to ta ke o n r e sp onsib ility , a nd th e r o le th at h as i n th e c hild ’s d ev elo pin g l e ad ers h ip a b iliti e s.

T ho se c hara cte ris ti c s a p pear to c hange l ittl e o ver a l ife ti m e.

Harris o n G ough, th e e m in ent U niv ers ity o f C alifo rn ia a t B erk ele y p sy cho lo gis t, 201 has n o te d th at th e “ d om in ance” s c ale o f h is C alifo rn ia P sy cho lo gic al I n v ento ry i s a str o ng p re d ic to r o f b ein g s e le cte d a s a l e ad er. O th er p sy cho lo gic al te sts h av e b een use d s u ccessfu lly to s e le ct l e ad ers . L ead ers h ip a b iliti e s a re o fte n f ir s t e xhib ite d i n ju nio r h ig h s c ho ol, h ig h s c ho ol, a nd c o lle ge. L ongitu d in al s tu d ie s o f l e ad ers i n in d ustr y a nd th e m ilita ry s h o w th at k ey c hara cte ris ti c s i n l e ad ers s h o w u p v ery early i n l ife a nd r e m ain q uite f ix ed .

The m ost p ow erfu l p sy cho m etr ic i n str u m ents a re b io gra p hic al i n v ento ry te sts , i n whic h p eo ple a re a sk ed a s e rie s o f q uesti o ns a b out w hat th ey h av e d one i n th eir earlie r l iv es. ( W ere y o u th e c ap ta in o f a ny te am , th e p re sid ent o f a ny s c ho ol g ro up , or d id y o u s ta rt y o ur o w n b usin ess a s a y o ung c hild ?) B ecause th e p ast i s th e b est pre d ic to r o f th e f u tu re , a p ro bin g a naly sis o f p eo ple ’s p ast s tr o ngly p re d ic ts th eir fu tu re , a nd l e ad ers h ip p atte rn s a re o fte n e sta b lis h ed e arly i n l ife .

Add to th at th e e v id ence o n l e ad ers h ip h av in g s o m e c o rre la ti o n w ith p hysic al sta tu re ( ta lle r p eo ple a re m ore a p t to b e p erc eiv ed a s s tr o ng l e ad ers ) o r b ody chem is tr y ( h ig her l e v els o f te sto ste ro ne i n m en a re c o rre la te d w ith l e ad ers h ip positi o ns), a nd y o u c an u nd ers ta nd w hy th e q uesti o n i s r e p eate d ly a sk ed .

On t h e O th er H an d Where as th ere m ay b e s o m e p re d ic ti v e p ow er o f p sy cho lo gic al te sts a nd e arly child ho od e xp erie nce, i t i s c le ar th at th ey f a il to e xp la in w hy a g o od n um ber o f le ad ers s u cceed . T here i s c le arly n o o ne f a cto r th at a nyo ne h as i d enti fie d th at co nsis te ntl y p re d ic ts w ho w ill s u cceed a s a l e ad er. N ota b le c ase s o f “ la te blo om ers ” s u ggest th at p eo ple w ith f a ir ly u nd is ti n guis h ed e arly p orti o ns o f th eir care ers tu rn o ut to b e s tr o ng l e ad ers . T hat c o uld b e s a id o f b oth A bra ham L in co ln and H arry S . T ru m an.

It i s a ls o c le ar th at w ith s u ch w id e v aria ti o n i n o rg aniz a ti o n c ultu re s, i f th e r ig ht matc h i s c re ate d , m any m ore p eo ple c o uld s u cceed i n l e ad ers h ip . T he “ d ot- c o m ” cra ze e nab le d m any to s u cceed te m pora rily w ho w ould n ev er h av e s u cceed ed i n tr a d iti o nal o rg aniz a ti o ns.

In l o ngitu d in al s tu d ie s o f l e ad ers h ip , m ore th an a th ir d o f th e c o lle ge g ra d uate s who w ere p re d ic te d n o t to m ove i n to h ig her r a nks o f th e f ir m a ctu ally d id s o , th us pro vin g th at h ard w ork , p ers e v era nce, a nd te nacity ( a nd p ossib ly l u ck) e nab le d th ese p eo ple to s u cceed .

Our C on clu sio n o n T his D eb ate We s h are th e c o nclu sio n w ith o th ers th at th e r ig ht a nsw er i s b etw een th ese tw o extr e m es. J a m es K ouze s a nd B arry P osn er w ro te , “ W e w ould b e i n te lle ctu ally dis h o nest i f w e d id n o t s a y th at s o m e i n d iv id uals c le arly h av e a h ig her p ro bab ility of s u cceed in g a t l e ad ers h ip th an o th ers . B ut th is d oes n o t m ean th at o rd in ary managers c anno t b eco m e e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers .” 2 202 “A g o od e xecuti v e i s b orn w hen s o m eo ne w ith s o m e n atu ra l e nd ow ments (in te llig ence, v ig o r, a nd s o m e c ap acity f o r i n te ra cti n g w ith h is f e llo w m en) b y d in t of p ra cti c e, l e arn in g, a nd e xp erie nce, d ev elo ps th at e nd ow ment i n to a m atu re sk ill.” 3 Our v ie w m ir ro rs th o se a b ove. T here i s n o q uesti o n th at s o m e p eo ple c o m e i n to th e w orld e nd ow ed w ith s e lf- c o nfid ence a nd a k een i n te lle ct. T hat i s c le arly a n ad vanta ge. B ut o f th at g ro up , o nly a s m all n um ber m ove o n to r e m ark ab le achie v em ents a s l e ad ers . T he d iffe re nce a p pears to b e h ard w ork , th o ughtf u l a nd te nacio us e ffo rt, z e al f o r l e arn in g, a nd a w illin gness to e xte nd b eyo nd o ne’s n o rm al co m fo rt z o ne.

So a g re at d eal o f w hat w e s e e g re at l e ad ers d oin g i s a r e su lt o f p ers o nal e ffo rt.

If y o u s u b sc rib e to th e b elie f th at l e ad ers h ip i s n o t a p ers o n, b ut a s e rie s o f behav io rs th at a re d is p la yed b y a g re at m any i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n, th en i t b eco m es easy to a rg ue th at e v ery o ne c an g et b ette r a t l e ad ers h ip . S o o ur s lig htl y co m pro m is in g s ta te m ents o n th is s u b je ct a re • S om e p eo ple s ta rt w ith c le ar a d vanta ges; b ut • N early a ll p eo ple a re m ad e b ette r l e ad ers f r o m s p ecific d ev elo pm enta l acti v iti e s.

• L ead ers a re a l o t m ore “ m ad e” th an th ey a re “ b orn .” How I n div id uals I m pro ve T hem se lv es In th e b ook Resu lts -B ase d L ea dersh ip , 1 4 s u ggesti o ns a re m ad e r e gard in g th e w ay peo ple c an i m pro ve th eir l e ad ers h ip o utc o m es o r r e su lts .

4 I n th is b ook, w e a re fo cuse d o n d ev elo pin g th e a ttr ib ute s a nd s k ills o f th e l e ad er. F ollo w in g a re 2 5 su ggesti o ns f o r w ays i n w hic h l e ad ers c an i m pro ve th e a ttr ib ute s o r b ehav io rs th at are v ita l i n p ro ducin g th o se r e su lts . T he k ey th in g to r e m em ber i s th at i m pro vem ent yo u m ake o n a ny o ne d im ensio n s p ills o ver to m any o th ers . T here i s n o s u ch th in g as w ork in g o n o nly o ne l e ad ers h ip q uality o r a ttr ib ute . W hen y o u i m pro ve o ne, y o u will i n v aria b ly b e i m pro vin g s e v era l o th ers .

1. D ecid e t o b eco m e a g re a t le a d er This i s a ctu ally tw o d ecis io ns. F ir s t, m ost p eo ple d o n o t th in k o f “ le ad ers h ip ” i n th e s a m e te rm s a s o th er r o le s i n l ife . A t a y o ung a ge a p ers o n m ay a sp ir e to b eco m e a p hysic ia n, a l a w yer, a m ole cula r b io lo gis t, a n a str o naut, o r a r o ck s ta r, b ut chances a re y o u h av e n ev er h eard o f s o m eo ne s a yin g, “ I w ant to g ro w u p to b e a le ad er.” W e th in k o f l e ad ers h ip a s a n a d ju nct o r f r o sti n g o n s o m e o th er r o le .

Som ed ay th at m ay c hange. F or p eo ple i n sid e o rg aniz a ti o ns, h o w ev er, th e f ir s t 203 decis io n i s to s e e th at b ein g a l e ad er i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n i s i m porta nt a nd w orth y o f yo ur c o nti n ued e ffo rt.

The s e co nd d ecis io n i s to b e e xcep ti o nal r a th er th an j u st m ed io cre a t th is r o le o f le ad ers h ip . T his i s th e d ecis io n to g o w ay b eyo nd th e o rd in ary o r a v era ge a nd m ake a h uge d iffe re nce i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

One p ositi v e e le m ent o f th is d ecis io n i s th e f a ct th at i t i s n o t a z e ro -s u m g am e.

Beco m in g a g re at l e ad er i s s o m eth in g e v ery o ne c an a sp ir e to , a nd o ne p ers o n’s effe cti v eness i n n o w ay d etr a cts f r o m o th ers ’ s u ccess. I n th is g am e, e v ery o ne c an win a nd o ne p ers o n’s w in nin g a ctu ally h elp s o th ers to w in . T o b eco m e a h ig hly effe cti v e l e ad er r e q uir e s a r e al d ed ic ati o n to th at ta sk a nd a w illin gness to a ct w ith th e i n te nsity a nd f o cus.

2. D evelo p a n d d is p la y h ig h p erso n al c h ara cte r The l e ad er w alk s a d iffic ult l in e b etw een tw o s e em in gly o pposin g f o rc es. F ir s t, th e le ad er m ust b e w illin g to ta ke th e r o le o f l e ad er. T hat m eans c allin g th e m eeti n g to ord er, p ush in g th e a gend a a lo ng, d ra w in g s o m e p eo ple o ut, a nd to nin g o th ers d ow n.

It m eans s a yin g “ no ” to a b ud get r e q uest th at c an’t b e f u nd ed . I t a ls o m eans h av in g to te rm in ate a l o ng-ti m e f r ie nd w ho i s n o t p erfo rm in g e ffe cti v ely . B ein g a l e ad er means b ein g w illin g to ta ke c harg e a nd m ake c erta in th at th e g ro up p erfo rm s w ell.

We h av e o bse rv ed a n ew ly a p poin te d d ean i n a u niv ers ity w ho w ante d to main ta in c lo se ti e s w ith f o rm er c o lle agues o n th e f a culty a nd , i n f a ct, d id n o t want anyth in g to c hange. S o th e n ew d ean c o nti n ued to a ct e xactl y l ik e a f a culty m em ber and ta lk l ik e a f a culty m em ber ( in clu d in g th e i n ev ita b le c o m pla in ts a b out th e univ ers ity a d m in is tr a ti o n). I n a f e w w eeks, i t b ecam e o bvio us th at th is p ers o n would n o t s u cceed i n h is n ew r o le , b ecause h e w as u nw illin g to ta ke o n th e re q uir e m ents o f th e n ew o ffic e to w hic h h e h ad b een a p poin te d .

That s a m e s c enario p la ys o ut i n g o vern m ent o rg aniz a ti o ns a nd i n i n d ustr y . A le ad er m ust b e w illin g to ta ke th at r o le , i n clu d in g a ll o f th e a cti v iti e s th at a p ers o n occup yin g th at r o le i s e xp ecte d to e ngage i n o r p erfo rm .

The c o unte rfo rc e to ta kin g th e “ ro le ” o f l e ad er i s th at p eo ple a t l o w er l e v els i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n r e se nt a rro gance f r o m th o se i n a uth o rity . T hey d o n o t l ik e th e le ad er w ho c o nv eys a n a tti tu d e o f s u p erio rity , c o nd esc ensio n, o r d is re sp ect. T he lin e b etw een th o se tw o f o rc es i s a v ery f in e o ne.

So, th e c o unse l to a ll l e ad ers i s to m ain ta in a n a tti tu d e o f h um ility . B e w illin g to la ugh a t y o urs e lf. D o n o t f la unt th e a uth o rity y o u h av e. H um ility w ill m ake y o u ap pro achab le . I t o pens th e d oor to b uild in g r e la ti o nsh ip s. T he l e ad er n eed s to f in d so m e m ir ro r f r o m w hic h c an b e l e arn ed th e w ay o th ers p erc eiv e y o ur c hara cte r.

That m ir ro r m ay b e a g o od i n te rn al m ento r. I t c o uld b e a tr u ste d c o lle ague o r su b ord in ate . I t c o uld b e a n e ffe cti v e 3 60-d egre e f e ed back p ro cess. W hate v er i t i s , le ad ers n eed to h av e s o m e s e nse a b out h o w p eo ple p erc eiv e th eir c hara cte r. T hey 204 need to k no w i f th ey a re tr u ste d . W ith o ut th at, i t i s n o t p ossib le to e xert s tr o ng in flu ence o n a w ork g ro up .

Als o , b e c auti o us i n th e c o m mitm ents y o u m ake, a nd th en a lw ays d eliv er. B e care fu l n o t to o vers ta te o r o verp ro m is e . W e a re s u re th at s o m e a re s a yin g, “ B ut c an peo ple j u st i m pro ve th eir c hara cte r? ” “ W hat’ s th e b est w ay to m ake c hanges i n m y fu nd am enta l p ers o nality o r c hara cte r? ” T he a nsw er to th at q uesti o n m ig ht b e su rp ris in g to s o m e. T here h as b een a b elie f th at th e f o llo w in g c hain e xis ts :

The f a ct o f th e m atte r, h o w ev er, i s th at p eo ple m ake th eir a tti tu d es a nd u lti m ate ly th eir c hara cte r c o nfo rm to th eir b ehav io r. T he p la ce to b egin i s w ith b ehav io r.

Thus, p arti c ip ati n g i n p ow erfu l s k ill- b uild in g p ro gra m s d esig ned to i m pro ve in te rp ers o nal s k ills w ill h av e a d ecid ed e ffe ct o n a tti tu d es o f th e p arti c ip ants . W hen peo ple l e arn a nd p ra cti c e n ew b ehav io r, th ere i s a r e m ark ab le tr a nsfo rm ati o n o f th eir a tti tu d es a nd u lti m ate ly th eir c hara cte r:

3. D evelo p n ew s k ills . E nro ll in d evelo p m en ta l e xp erie n ces There a re n um ero us d ev elo pm enta l e xp erie nces a v aila b le to m ost l e ad ers . T hese may b e a v aila b le f r o m w ith in th eir o rg aniz a ti o ns, p aid f o r a nd s p onso re d b y th e org aniz a ti o ns, o r th ey m ay b e a v aila b le f r o m a l o cal u niv ers ity o r c o lle ge. O th ers may b e a v aila b le f r o m v ario us s u p plie rs o f l e arn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent m ate ria ls .

The k ey i s f o r l e ad ers to m ove o uts id e th eir c o m fo rt z o ne to d o s o m eth in g th at w ill pro vid e s o m e r e al d ev elo pm ent. L ead ers m ust b e w illin g to i n v est i n th em se lv es, and m any a cti v iti e s r e q uir e ti m e o ff th e j o b.

One o f th e a uth o rs h as a n a cq uain ta nce w ho i s a l e gend ary e xam ple o f s e lf- dev elo pm ent. O nce a y ear, a g ro up g ets to geth er to m eet, a nd th e f ir s t q uesti o n peo ple a sk i s , “ O kay, D ic k, w hat h av e y o u d one th is y ear? ” E very y ear D ic k em bark s o n s o m e n ew a d ventu re i n to p ers o nal l e arn in g. T hese r a nge f r o m s e ssio ns with “ healin g s h am ans” to s e m in ars o n c o rp ora te r e engin eerin g. E ach a d ds a n ew dim ensio n to D ic k’s c hara cte r a nd u nd ers ta nd in g. T ho ugh e v ery o ne w ould n o t cho ose th e p re cis e d ev elo pm ent e xp erie nces h e c ho ose s, th e p oin t i s h is dis c ip lin ed a p pro ach to ta kin g ti m e e v ery y ear f o r h is o w n p ers o nal g ro w th .

Atte nd a ny d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m y o ur o rg aniz a ti o n p ro vid es, o r th o se o ffe re d by l o cal u niv ers iti e s a nd p riv ate o rg aniz a ti o ns. C onsta ntl y d ev elo p y o urs e lf, wheth er i n th e a b ility to d eliv er c o m pellin g p re se nta ti o ns b efo re a l a rg e g ro up o r th e a b ility to w rite a c o ncis e m em o o n a n i m porta nt b usin ess to pic . W e r e ite ra te th at e v ery n ew s k ill l e arn ed a nd u se d l ifts th at s p ecific s k ill a nd n um ero us o th ers alo ng w ith i t.

205 4. F in d a c o ach Many o rg aniz a ti o ns a re h ir in g p ro fe ssio nal c o aches to w ork w ith th eir k ey executi v es. T hey f in d th at h av in g s o m eo ne w ho i s c ap ab le o f p ro vid in g o bje cti v e, co nstr u cti v e f e ed back to b e w ell w orth th e i n v estm ent. T he h ig her p eo ple m ove i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n, th e l e ss a p t th ey a re to h ear th e tr u th a b out th em se lv es f r o m o th er peo ple , s o th e v alu e o f c o aches m ay i n cre ase a s p eo ple m ove to h ig her l e v els i n th e org aniz a ti o n.

It i s i n str u cti v e to n o te th at w orld -c la ss a th le te s p ay f o r c o aches to w ork w ith th em . T he g re at te nnis p la yers a nd g o lfe rs u su ally e m plo y p ers o nal c o aches.

Ath le te s p la yin g o n th e b est p ro fe ssio nal te am s r e ceiv e c o nsta nt c o achin g f r o m peo ple h ir e d s p ecific ally to d o th at. I n p ro fe ssio nal f o otb all, th ere a re s p ecific co aches f o r th e d efe nse , th e o ffe nse , a nd th e s p ecia l te am s. T here m ay e v en b e a sp ecific q uarte rb ack c o ach.

Som e e xecuti v es h av e c re ate d th eir p ers o nal b oard o f d ir e cto rs w ho se f u ncti o n is to g iv e th em f e ed back o n th e w ay th ey a re m anagin g th eir c are er a nd o n th eir curre nt p erfo rm ance i n th eir j o b.

We s e e th e m ovem ent to w ard c o achin g a s o ne th at w ill c o nti n ue to g ro w . I t i s driv en i n p art b y th e f a ct th at m ost e xecuti v es a re n o t c o m fo rta b le w ith , o r g o od a t, pro vid in g c o nstr u cti v e f e ed back to p eo ple a ro und th em . W hat i s e sp ecia lly effe cti v e i s th e c o ach w ho c alls o n a r e gula r b asis a nd d is c usse s th e l e ad er’s su ccess i n ta kin g s o m e a gre ed -u p on a cti o n s te p s. T his p ro cess b uild s s tr o ng acco unta b ility a nd p ro duces r e m ark ab le b ehav io ra l o utc o m es.

5. I d en tif y y o u r s tr e n gth s Pete r D ru cker a rg ues, “ S elf- d ev elo pm ent i s m akin g o nese lf b ette r a t w hat o ne i s alr e ad y g o od a t. I t a ls o m eans n o t w orry in g a b out th e th in gs o ne c anno t b e g o od at.” 5 T o a cco m plis h th is , D ru cker a d vis e s:

• L is t y o ur m ajo r c o ntr ib uti o ns o ver th e p ast tw o o r th re e y ears .

• S pecify p re cis e ly th e th in gs th e o rg aniz a ti o n e xp ects f r o m y o u a nd f o r w hic h yo u a re h eld a cco unta b le .

• B e c le ar a b out w hat y o u c anno t d o, a s w ell a s w hat y o u c an d o.

• L ook f o r d em and in g a ssig nm ents th at m ake a d iffe re nce.

6 With c hara cte ris ti c w is d om a nd i n sig ht, D ru cker g iv es u se fu l a d vic e to a ll le ad ers . T akin g ti m e to i n v ento ry th e m ajo r c o ntr ib uti o ns y o u h av e m ad e i n th e p ast fe w y ears i s a s te p th at f e w l e ad ers ta ke. B ut w hat b ette r p la ce i s th ere to s ta rt to und ers ta nd y o ur s tr e ngth s? I t a ls o r e v eals w here y o u a re l ik ely to m ake s ig nific ant co ntr ib uti o ns i n th e f u tu re . L is ti n g a cco m plis h m ents a ls o i s a g o od b aro m ete r o f yo ur f o cus o n r e su lts b ehav io r. E very o ne w ho i s a l e ad er, o r a sp ir e s to s e rio us 206 le ad ers h ip , s h o uld b e a b le to i te m iz e a l is t o f c o ntr ib uti o ns to th e o rg aniz a ti o n. I f yo u a re u nab le to d o th at, th en c o nsid er s e rio usly w heth er y o u s u ffe r f r o m th e f a ta l fla w o f i n acti o n.

Rep eate d s tu d ie s i n o rg aniz a ti o ns r e v eal th at p eo ple a re r e la ti v ely u ncle ar a b out what i s e xp ecte d o f th em , a nd e sp ecia lly w hat th ey a re p ers o nally b ein g h eld acco unta b le to p erfo rm b y th eir c o lle agues a nd b osse s. W e h av e a rg ued s tr e nuo usly th at a n e m phasis o n e xp and in g s tr e ngth s i s f a r m ore v alu ab le a nd p ro ducti v e th an slo ggin g a w ay a t tr y in g to r e m ed y w eaknesse s.

We b egin b y a p pealin g to e v ery r e ad er’s o w n e xp erie nce. T hin k b ack to h ig h sc ho ol a nd c o lle ge e xp erie nces. L et’ s a ssu m e f o r a m om ent th at y o u w ere e xtr e m ely ad ep t a t m ath em ati c s a nd a nyth in g q uanti ta ti v e. Y our g ra d es in a lg eb ra , tr ig o no m etr y , a nd c alc ulu s w ere e xcelle nt. O n th e o th er h and , g ra m mar a nd co m positi o n c am e h ard to y o u. Y ou n eith er e njo yed l a nguage s tu d y m uch n o r d id yo u d o w ell a t i t. T o c o nti n ue, y o u h av e d ecid ed to e m bark o n a p ath th at w ould hav e y o u r e co gniz e d a s a n e xcelle nt s tu d ent. W hic h p ath s h o uld y o u c ho ose ? D o yo u w ork h ard a t b eco m in g b ette r a t E nglis h ? O r d o y o u d ecid e to l e v era ge y o ur head s ta rt i n m ath em ati c s a nd e xcel i n th at a re na?

Fir s t, w here w ill y o ur m oti v ati o n b e h ig hest? W e th in k y o ur p assio n to e xcel will c o m e i n th e q uanti ta ti v e a re na. Y ou l ik e th e f u nd am enta l a cti v iti e s i n v olv ed .

Your th o ught p ro cesse s i m med ia te ly g ra v ita te to w ard q uanti ta ti v e a naly sis .

Seco nd , w here a re y o u l ik ely to f e el s o m e c o nsta nt r e w ard ? A gain , w e a rg ue th at y o u a re f a r m ore l ik ely to c o nti n ually r e ceiv e p ositi v e f e ed back w hen y o u a re engaged i n q uanti ta ti v e a cti v iti e s th an i n a nyth in g h av in g to d o w ith l a nguage. I t i s le ss l ik ely th at p eo ple w ill p ra is e y o ur h av in g g o tte n to “ av era ge” i n g ra m mar a nd co m positi o n s k ills .

Thir d , w here a re y o u a p t to m ake th e g re ate st a m ount o f p ro gre ss? Y ou c o uld make th e th eo re ti c al a rg um ent th at p eo ple c o uld i m pro ve m ore i n th o se a re as i n whic h th ey a re w eak. T here i s j u st a l o t m ore r o om to m ove u p . H ow ev er, th e ceilin gs a re s o h ig h i n e v ery d is c ip lin e th at n o m atte r h o w g o od a s tu d ent y o u a re no w , th ere i s h uge r o om to g ro w .

Fourth , w hat i s th e b est p ath b y w hic h to d ev elo p c re d ib ility ? B eco m in g g o od a t so m eth in g c re ate s a h alo e ffe ct o f o vera ll c o m pete nce. I t s o m eti m es g o es to lu d ic ro us e xtr e m es, a s w hen a m ovie a ctr e ss i s a sk ed f o r h er o pin io ns o n th e wis d om o f b uild in g a m is sile d efe nse s y ste m o r a N obel P riz e w in ner i n p hysic s su d denly g ets q uo te d f o r h is v ie w s o n th e r o le o f g eneti c s i n h um an i n te llig ence.

Why? B ecause h e i s e xtr a o rd in arily k no w le d geab le a nd c re ati v e i n o ne a re na, w e assu m e th o se g ifts s p ill o ver i n to o th er a re as. W heth er w arra nte d o r n o t, b ein g g o od at o ne th in g c re ate s a p erc ep ti o n th at a p ers o n i s g o od a t m any th in gs, o r e v ery th in g.

Confid en ce a nd C om pete n ce 207 Why W ork in g o n S tr e n gth s I s M ore L ik ely t o H appen I t i s i m possib le to overe sti m ate th e r o le o f c o nfid ence i n p eo ple d ev elo pin g c o m pete nce. W e fr e q uentl y w itn ess p eo ple w ho a t o ne l e v el w ould b e d eem ed to b e c o m pete nt. I n a sa fe , s a nita ry s itu ati o n, th ey a re a b le to m ake a n e ffe cti v e p re se nta ti o n. H ow ev er, th ey r e fu se to m ake a p re se nta ti o n i n f r o nt o f s e nio r m anagers o r c usto m ers . T heir la ck i s n o t o f k no w in g w hat to d o, o r e v en b ein g a b le to d o it. T heir l a ck i s co nfid ence to b e w illin g to tr y i n a m ore c halle ngin g c ir c um sta nce.

We c o nte nd th at s tr e ngth s b uild c o nfid ence, a nd th at th is c o nfid ence s p re ad s l ik e yeast i n a l u m p o f b re ad d ough a nd e v ery th in g th en r is e s. H ence, w ork in g o n str e ngth s w ill b e f a r m ore l ik ely to o ccur.

Why D evelo pin g S tr e n gth s w ill b e M ore S uccessfu l S ev era l f o rc es a re a t w ork to m ake th e p ro cess o f w ork in g o n s tr e ngth s m ore s u ccessfu l th an w ork in g o n defic ie ncie s.

• W e h av e n o te d th at p eo ple a re m ore p ro ne to d o th in gs th ey l ik e a nd a re g o od at. S o, a n i n iti a l w illin gness to e v en a tte m pt a b ehav io r i s m ore l ik ely w ith a str e ngth th an a w eakness.

• T he b ehav io r w ill c o m e m ore n atu ra lly , w here as s o m eth in g e ls e m ay f e el aw kw ard a nd u nco m fo rta b le .

• E xp and in g s tr e ngth s i s f a r m ore l ik ely to c all f o rth th e p ositi v e r e w ard s a nd pra is e o f o th ers th an r e m ed yin g a d efic ie ncy.

• T he a p plic ati o n o f a n ew s k ill s e ts i n to m oti o n a n um ber o f f o rc es th at o fte n cre ate e v en f u rth er r e w ard . F or e xam ple , th e l e ad er s h arp ens l is te nin g s k ills , and l e arn s th at l is te nin g i s n o t s u ffic ie nt, b ut th at th e k ey i s l is te nin g a nd d oin g so m eth in g a b out i t. S o th e m anager d oes. N ow , th is s e ts i n to m oti o n s e v era l oth er f o rc es:

• T he l e ad er’s c o nnecti o n w ith o th er te am m em bers i m pro ves.

• T hey ta ke o n m ore c halle ngin g a ssig nm ents , p arti a lly s te m min g f r o m th e gre ate r r e sp ect a nd a tte nti o n b ein g p aid to th em .

• T he l e ad er’s b elie f i n th e te am a nd th e l e ad er’s f o cus o n h elp in g p eo ple to le arn s u d denly c ause s p eo ple to p erfo rm a t a h ig her l e v el.

• T hey b eco m e m ore i n sis te nt th at o th ers i m pro ve th eir l e v el o f p erfo rm ance.

• C usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n s c o re s r is e , a s k ey c usto m ers e xp erie nce a n e nti r e ly new l e v el o f p ers o nal a tte nti v eness f r o m th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s k ey p eo ple .

6. I d entif y y our w eak nesse s, a nd t h en f in d w ays t o m ak e t h em ir re le vant T his is a P ete r D ru cker c o ncep t a nd p hilo so phy. N o o ne c an d o e v ery th in g. T hro ugh dele gati o n, th e u se o f o uts id e r e so urc es, o r r e allo cati o n o f w ork a ssig nm ents , w ays can b e f o und to m ake w eaknesse s i r re le v ant.

208 The d is c ip lin e o f d efin in g w hat th in gs y o u c an d o a nd th o se y o u c anno t p erfo rm (o r d o n o t l ik e to d o) i s o f g re at v alu e. T he o bvio us o utc o m e i s to s tr u ctu re y o ur ro le i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n to p la y to y o ur s tr e ngth s a nd to f in d w ays to h av e o th ers f ill in th e g ap s.

7. F ix f a ta l f la w s If y o u b elie v e y o u a re th e p osse sso r o f a ny o ne ( o r m ore ) o f th e f a ta l f la w s id enti fie d i n Chap te r 7 , th en b egin i m med ia te ly to f in d w ays to r e p air th em .

Specific ally r e fle ct o n y o ur e xp erie nce.

What l e sso ns h av e y o u l e arn ed f r o m y o ur e xp erie nce? S pecific ally , w hat d id yo u l e arn f r o m th in gs th at d id n o t g o w ell? W hat h av e y o u d one d iffe re ntl y a s a co nse q uence? W hat w ill p re v ent th at f r o m h ap penin g a gain ?

8. I n cre a se t h e s c o p e o f y o u r a ssig n m en t In o ne o f th e b est s tu d ie s o f th e p ow erfu l d ev elo pm enta l e xp erie nces th at l e ad ers exp erie nce, A nna V ale rio c o nclu d ed th at th e f ir s t a nd m ost i m pactf u l e xp erie nce o n th e j o b w as to b e g iv en a b ro ad er s c o pe i n y o ur c urre nt a ssig nm ent. T hat c o uld co m e v ia p ro m oti o n, b ut c o uld a ls o c o m e a s y o u a re g iv en b ro ad er a ssig nm ents th at in clu d e m ore f u ncti o ns, g re ate r b ud get, o r m ore p eo ple . T he k ey i s th at th e n ew assig nm ent i s b ro ad er a nd d iffe re nt f r o m th o se p re v io usly h eld , a nd a b ove a ll, a n in cre ase i n r e sp onsib ility .

7 In cre ase d s c o pe m ay b e g ra nte d to y o u f r o m s e nio r p eo ple i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n, o r it c an b e s e lf- g enera te d . A pply in g f o r a tr a nsfe r m ay b e o ne w ay to i n cre ase s c o pe and b re ad th . T he i m ple m enta ti o n o f a n ew p ro ced ure , o r th e i n iti a ti o n o f n ew pro je ct, c an a ls o i n cre ase s c o pe.

This i n cre ase d s c o pe p ro vid es a g o od v ehic le f o r th e “ F ocus o n R esu lts ” c lu ste r of b ehav io rs . T o d is p la y th is e v en f u rth er, l e ad ers w illin gly a ccep t s p ecia l pro je cts , i n w hic h w ork in g a lo ne o r w ith a s m all te am , th ey w ork o n a n i m porta nt pro je ct to a d ep artm ent o r th e c o rp ora ti o n. F ro m th is l e ad ers c an l e arn m ore a b out th e to ta l o rg aniz a ti o n a nd a chie v e g re ate r v is ib ility .

9. C on nect w it h g ood r o le m od els Thro ugh c are fu l o bse rv ati o n, l e ad ers g ain b usin ess a cum en a nd h o ne i m porta nt in te rp ers o nal s k ills . O n o ccasio n, th e p eo ple b ein g u se d a s r o le m odels g iv e volu nta ry c o achin g. T hey a re m ost o fte n w illin g to g iv e c o unse l w hen a sk ed .

How ev er, a g re at d eal c an b e l e arn ed f r o m m ere ly w atc hin g a nd l is te nin g. O bse rv e ho w c hild re n l e arn . T hey w atc h a n a d ult e at w ith a s p oon o r f o rk a nd i m ita te th em .

They w atc h a d ults ti e th eir s h o ela ces a nd l e arn b y i m ita ti n g th e a d ults ’ a cti o ns. T his co ncep t, k no w n a s s o cia l l e arn in g th eo ry , may b e e sp ecia lly p ow erfu l i n o ur yo unger y ears , b ut w e n ev er l o se th e a b ility to l e arn b y w atc hin g s o m eo ne e ls e d o 209 so m eth in g w ell. I n f a ct, m uch l e arn in g i s i n fo rm al a nd n o t o bvio us to th e l e arn er.

We j u st f in d o urs e lv es a d opti n g s o m e o f th e e ffe cti v e b ehav io r o f a no th er p ers o n.

Som eti m es th e l e sso ns a re “ w hat n o t to d o,” b ut l e sso ns a re m ost h elp fu l w hen th ey a re g o od e xam ple s o f th e r ig ht th in gs to d o. T hat i s w hy i t i s i m porta nt to l o ok fo r s tr o ng r o le m odels a nd to p ay c lo se a tte nti o n to h o w th ey h and le d iffic ult situ ati o ns.

In i n te rv ie w s w ith l e ad ers , w e n early a lw ays a re to ld a b out s o m e s e nio r p eo ple fo r w ho m th ey w ork ed , w ho m ad e a n i n d elib le i m pre ssio n u p on th em . V ery o fte n, a se nio r p ers o n w ent o ut o f h is o r h er w ay to e xp re ss i n te re st a nd e nco ura gem ent.

The s e nio r p ers o n o fte n to ok a r is k a nd g av e o ut c halle ngin g a ssig nm ents f o r w hic h, in r e tr o sp ect, th e p ers o n k new h e o r s h e w as n o t to ta lly p re p are d . I n s o m e c ase s, th e s e nio r p ers o n i n v ite d th e p ers o n to v is it a n i m porta nt c lie nt o r to a tte nd a sig nific ant i n d ustr y m eeti n g. U nm is ta kab le i n th ese c o nv ers a ti o ns i s th e i n te nse fo nd ness f e lt f o r th is s e nio r l e ad er w ho h ad b eco m e a r o le m odel.

10. L ea rn f r o m m is ta kes a n d n eg ativ e e xp erie n ces We h av e e arlie r n o te d th at o ne o f th e “ fa ta l f la w s” th at c ause s p eo ple to h av e th eir care ers h it a b ric k w all i s th e i n ab ility to l e arn f r o m m is ta kes. T he r e se arc h i s c le ar th at l e arn in g f r o m m is ta kes i s a v ery p ro ducti v e to ol f o r s e lf- d ev elo pm ent. O ne cate go ry o f n egati v e e xp erie nce m ay b e a d iffic ult b oss. A no th er n egati v e exp erie nce m ay b e r e ceiv in g s o m e to ugh f e ed back f r o m s u b ord in ate s. F or a p ers o n who i s w illin g to l e arn , h o w ev er, th ese e xp erie nces c an b e p ow erfu l dev elo pm enta l to ols . A h ealth y a tti tu d e to w ard m is ta kes a nd n egati v e e xp erie nces is c ru cia l to g ro w th a nd i m pro ved p erfo rm ance. M is ta kes a re p art o f th e l e arn in g pro cess, th o ugh s o m e w ould a rg ue w ith th e f o llo w in g s ta te m ent w ritte n b y le gend ary b ask etb all c o ach J o hn W ooden: “ T he te am th at m akes th e m ost m is ta kes win s.” 11. S eek w ays t o g iv e a n d r e ceiv e p ro d uctiv e f e ed back a n d le a rn to a b so rb it in a n e m otio n ally h ea lt h y w ay Most o rg aniz a ti o ns a re n o t g o od a t p ro vid in g f e ed back to a nyo ne— re gard le ss o f le v el o r f u ncti o n. F or p eo ple to r e ceiv e u se fu l f e ed back u su ally r e q uir e s a s in cere re q uest f o r i t.

The l e arn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent p ro cess r e lie s h eav ily o n f e ed back to s u sta in i t.

There i s o fte n a h uge g ap b etw een h o w l e ad ers s e e th em se lv es a nd h o w su b ord in ate s p erc eiv e th em . T he b est w ay to c lo se th at g ap i s w ith f e ed back.

Eno rm ous b arrie rs to f e ed back e xis t i n sid e o rg aniz a ti o ns. T he g o od n ew s i s th at when I a m p re se nte d w ith d is c o nfir m in g i n fo rm ati o n a b out m yse lf, I w ill m ore o fte n change h o w I a ct r a th er th an c hange h o w I s e e m yse lf. T hat i s th e g re at p ow er o f fe ed back.

210 Sub ord in ate s a re i n th e b est p ositi o n to p ro vid e f e ed back, a nd w hen a sk ed f o r i t, th e p ro cess c re ate s a m ore w ho le so m e w ork in g r e la ti o nsh ip . A ccep t f e ed back a s th e v alid p erc ep ti o ns o f o th ers , a nd f ir s t s e ek to u nd ers ta nd th e m eanin g. A ssu m e th e g iv ers h av e p ure , p ositi v e i n te nt. K eep a sk in g f o r f e ed back. I t i s th e g o ld en p ath to c o nti n ual i m pro vem ent.

Tim e a nd a gain w e w itn ess p eo ple r e ceiv in g 3 60-d egre e f e ed back f r o m d ir e ct re p orts , p eers , a nd th eir b oss. O fte n, w ith n o th in g e ls e o ccurrin g, th e i n d iv id ual re co gniz e s w hat s tr e ngth s n eed d ev elo pin g, f ig ure s o ut e xactl y w hat n eed s to b e done a nd h o w to d o i t, a nd p ro ceed s to ta ke th e a p pro pria te s te p s. O ur b ig gest co ntr ib uti o n i s o fte n g etti n g o ut o f th e w ay.

12. L ea rn f r o m w ork e xp erie n ces As l e ad ers e m bark o n e v ery p ro je ct, i t i s u se fu l to m ake n o te s o f w hat i s e xp ecte d to b e a chie v ed a nd i n w hat ti m e f r a m e. T hen, th e l e ad er c an p erio dic ally s e e h o w th e a ctu al r e su lts a re tr a ckin g w ith th e o rig in al e xp ecta ti o ns. T hat w ay, e v ery acti v ity a nd p ro je ct b eco m es a l e arn in g e xp erie nce. T he l e ad er c an th en s e ek to fin d th e a nsw er a b out w hy i t i s g o in g m uch b ette r th an h ad b een e xp ecte d , o r w hy i t is c o sti n g m ore , o r w hy i t r a n i n to r o ad blo cks w ith o th er d ep artm ents . A n i m porta nt part o f s e lf- d ev elo pm ent i s s im ply f in d in g th e m echanis m b y w hic h y o u c an l e arn fr o m e v ery e xp erie nce.

We tu rn a gain to a n e xam ple f r o m th e w orld o f s p orts . M ost f o otb all g am es a re pla yed o n th e w eekend , s o th ere i s th e c la ssic M ond ay r e v ie w o f th e g am e f ilm s.

Why? C oaches w ant th e p la yers to l e arn f r o m th eir e xp erie nce. T hey a re f o rtu nate to h av e f ilm s th at r e co rd th e g am e f r o m s e v era l p ers p ecti v es. L ead ers h av e to cre ate th at p ow erfu l, c o m pellin g f e ed back p ro cess, b ecause i t i s n o l e ss v alu ab le as a w ay to i m pro ve p erfo rm ance i n e v ery a re na.

13. S tu dy t h e c u rre n t r e a lit y t h e o rg an iz a tio n f a ces Good d ev elo pm ent e nco m passe s i m pro vin g o ne’s c hara cte r, o ne’s k no w le d ge, a nd one’s b ehav io r. T his to pic f o cuse s o n k no w le d ge. O ne i m porta nt l e ad ers h ip dev elo pm ent e xerc is e i s to s te p a w ay f r o m y o ur o rg aniz a ti o n a nd l o ok a t i t th ro ugh th e e yes o f a s e curity a naly st. T hen l o ok a t i t a s i f y o u w ere a c o m peti to r. T hen sta nd a w ay a nd s e e h o w i t w ould l o ok i f y o u w ere a s u p plie r. T hen d o th e s a m e th in g f r o m th e p ers p ecti v e o f a c usto m er. B e a w are o f in d ustr y tr e nd s a nd w here yo ur o rg aniz a ti o n f its i n to th at. S ta y a b re ast o f r e le v ant te chno lo gy f a cin g y o ur in d ustr y .

A k ey q uality o f e ffe cti v e l e ad ers i s th e a b ility to s e e r e ality w ith o ut b lin kin g. I t is h ard to l e ad a n o rg aniz a ti o n i n th e b est s tr a te gic p ath s i f y o u a re u nw illin g to f a ce th e r e ality o f w here y o u a re n o w . B ein g b ru ta lly f r a nk w ith y o urs e lf, a nd enco ura gin g to ta l c and or f r o m o th ers , i s th e b est s a fe guard to k eep in g i n to uch w ith 211 yo ur o rg aniz a ti o n’s c urre nt r e ality .

14. L ea rn t o t h in k s tr a te g ic a lly One o f th e f r e q uent c o m pla in ts h eard f r o m e xecuti v es a b out th eir s u b ord in ate s i s th at th ey a re c o m ple te ly ta cti c al i n th eir th in kin g. T hey s im ply d o n o t th in k i n a str a te gic w ay. F or m any, s tr a te gic th in kin g s e em s a c o m ple te m yste ry , a nd th ey s e e no o bvio us w ay to a cq uir e th is e so te ric a b ility . I n f a ct, th ere a re g o od b ooks o n str a te gic th in kin g th at h elp p eo ple u nd ers ta nd th e b asic s o f s tr a te gy. T hey g iv e a ro ad m ap to u nd ers ta nd in g y o ur o w n o rg aniz a ti o n’s s tr a te gic c ho ic es, to und ers ta nd in g w hy o rg aniz a ti o ns c ho ose v ario us s tr a te gic p ath s, a nd g enera lly to beco m in g m ore c o m fo rta b le i n i n te nse s tr a te gic d is c ussio ns.

8 15. C om munic a te w it h s to rie s Learn to r e co unt i m porta nt m essa ges w ith p ow erfu l s to rie s th at c o nnect e m oti o nally with th o se a b out y o u. S to rie s h elp r e d uce c o m ple xity to m anageab le s im plic ity .

They a re m em ora b le . T hey c o nnect w ith th e h eare r a t a m ore p ow erfu l l e v el. T he best i n sig ht i n to a ny o rg aniz a ti o n’s c ultu re c o m es f r o m th e c o lle cte d s to rie s th at cir c ula te a m ong th e p eo ple i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n. S o th e b egin nin g p oin t i s to c o lle ct im porta nt s to rie s a nd e xam ple s th at c an b e u se d i n y o ur d ia lo gue i n sid e th e org aniz a ti o n. T hen, p ra cti c e th e s k ill o f r e co unti n g s to rie s a s th e b est w ay to c o nv ey an i m porta nt m essa ge. I llu str a te th e m ajo r p oin ts y o u w is h to m ake w ith a p pro pria te exam ple s a nd s to rie s.

16. I n fu se e n erg y in to e very s it u atio n One o f th e k eys o f l e ad ers h ip i s to u nd ers ta nd th at l e ad ers b rin g e xcite m ent, enth usia sm , a nd e nerg y to a ny e nd eav or. T hey i g nite o th er p eo ple ’s p assio ns to move f o rw ard . W e a ll k no w p eo ple w ho a re e nerg y a b so rb ers . W hen th ey a re aro und , i t i s a s i f a g ia nt v acuum s u cks th e e nerg y f r o m a d is c ussio n. S eld om i s th at pers o n s e en a s a l e ad er, b ecause l e ad ers n eed to d o j u st th e o pposite . T hey n eed to cap tu re a nd a m plify th e e nth usia sm o f o th ers . T he b est w ay to g et th at s ta rte d i s to in je ct y o ur o w n e nth usia sm i n to a ny d is c ussio n o r a cti v ity . W atc h a v id eo ta p e o f yo urs e lf. L is te n to a r e co rd in g o f y o ur p arti c ip ati o n. A re y o u d ep ositi n g o r with d ra w in g e nerg y f r o m th e p ro cess o r p ro je ct?

17. A llo ca te s p ecif ic t im e t o p eo p le d evelo p m en t A p ow erfu l to ol i n y o ur o w n d ev elo pm ent p ro cess i s to b eco m e i n v olv ed i n th e dev elo pm ent o f p eo ple w ho r e p ort to y o u, o r a nyo ne w ho w ould b enefit f r o m y o ur tu te la ge. W e h av e n o te d e arlie r th at o ne o f th e k eys o f g o od l e ad ers h ip i s th e a b ility to o bta in g o od r e su lts . A lo ng w ith th at, h o w ev er, l e ad ers a ls o n eed to b uild th e cap acity w ith in th e o rg aniz a ti o n to c o nti n ually i m pro ve i ts p erfo rm ance a nd th us b e 212 ab le to p ro duce l o ng-te rm , s u sta in ed r e su lts .

The “ la w o f th e h arv est” ta lk s a b out r e ap in g w hat w e s o w . F or th e o rg aniz a ti o n to c o nsta ntl y r e ap h ig h p ro ducti v ity a nd i n no vati o n f r o m i ts p eo ple , th ere h as to b e “so w in g.” T hat m eans ta kin g th e ti m e, p utti n g f o rth th e e ffo rt, a nd p ossib ly s p end in g th e m oney r e q uir e d to g et f r o nt- lin e a sso cia te s tr a in ed u p .

Som e l e ad ers v ie w p eo ple d ev elo pm ent a s a f r ill— extr a neo us to th eir r e al work . A mid st th e p unis h in g w ork lo ad o f to day’s b usin ess c lim ate , f in d in g ti m e f o r peo ple d ev elo pm ent s e em s i m possib le to th em . H ow ev er, ta kin g th e ti m e to dev elo p p eo ple i s a n i m porta nt b ehav io r o f a l e ad er, n o t o nly f o r w hat i t d oes f o r th e r e cip ie nt, b ut e q ually f o r th e i m pact i t h as o n th e l e ad er. D ev elo pin g o th ers moves y o u f r o m b ein g a n i n d ep end ent p ro fe ssio nal p ers o n, c o ncern ed o nly w ith yo urs e lf, to th e r o le o f th e tr u e l e ad er w ho c re ate s o rg aniz a ti o nal c ap acity a nd build s p eo ple .

18. W eld y o u r t e a m t o geth er Gre at o rg aniz a ti o ns n early a lw ays h av e s tr o ng te am s a t th e to p, c o m pose d o f peo ple w ho g enuin ely l ik e e ach o th er a nd w ho w ant th eir c o lle agues to s u cceed . A str o ng, c o hesiv e te am b eco m es a p ow erfu l d ev elo pm ent to ol a id in g l e ad ers to co nsta ntl y i m pro ve. M any o rg aniz a ti o ns e ngage i n te am -b uild in g a cti v iti e s, oste nsib ly to i m pro ve th e w ork in g r e la ti o nsh ip s o f th e p eo ple o n th e te am , a nd a ls o to e nab le th e g ro up to b e e v en m ore p ro ducti v e. W hat i s o fte n m is se d i s th e f a ct th at a g o od te am -b uild in g e xerc is e i s o ne o f th e m ost p ow erfu l l e arn in g e xp erie nces f o r th e l e ad er. F ir s t, th e te am h as f r e sh , f ir s t- h and d ata a b out th e l e ad er’s b ehav io r a nd re su lts . T hey a re i n th e b est p ositi o n to p ro vid e u se fu l f e ed back to th e l e ad er re gard in g s tr e ngth s a nd a ny a re as o f i m pro vem ent. T hus, a g o od te am -b uild in g se ssio n i s o ne o f th e m ost p ow erfu l a nd p ositi v e d ev elo pm ent a cti v iti e s th at a le ad er c an u nd erta ke.

19. B uild p erso n al d ash board s t o m on it o r le a d ersh ip e ffe ctiv en ess Good o vera ll m easu re s o f l e ad ers h ip d o n o t u su ally e xis t i n m ost o rg aniz a ti o ns.

How d o y o u k no w i f y o u a re p erfo rm in g w ell? W hat o bje cti v e m easu re s e xis t th at would c o nfir m o r d eny th at? I f s u ch m easu re s d o n o t e xis t n o w , th en a n e xcelle nt dev elo pm enta l a cti v ity i s f o r y o u to ta ke th e i n iti a ti v e a nd dev elo p th em f o r yo urs e lf. T hese w ill o bvio usly d iffe r b y o rg aniz a ti o n a nd f u ncti o nal r e sp onsib ility , but s o m e m easu re s th at w ould b e f r e q uentl y u se d i n clu d e:

• R ete nti o n d ata • C usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n m easu re s • P ro ducti v ity m easu re s ( c o sts to c o m ple te a g iv en a cti o n, o r ti m e to c o m ple te an a cti v ity ) 213 • P erfo rm ance a gain st b ud get • R esu lts f r o m o rg aniz a ti o nal c lim ate s u rv eys Hav in g d ev elo ped y o ur o w n “ d ash b oard ” w ith w hic h to m onito r y o ur l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness, i t th en b eco m es p ossib le to ta ke a w eekly o r a t l e ast m onth ly r e ad in g of y o ur e ffe cti v eness a s a l e ad er.

A v is it to a n A ir F orc e b ase i n v olv ed a m eeti n g w ith a m ajo r g enera l, th e co m mand er o f th e b ase . H e w as o bvio usly p ro ud o f th e m anagem ent i n fo rm ati o n sy ste m th at h ad b een d ev elo ped a nd o ffe re d to d em onstr a te w hat i n fo rm ati o n i t co uld p ro vid e. T he g enera l c o uld c all u p 8 46 m easu re s o f p erfo rm ance, r a ngin g fr o m f u el c o nsu m pti o n to p ro ducti v ity m easu re s, a nd th e n um ber o f a rre sts o n th e base i n th e p re v io us e ig ht h o urs . M ost l e ad ers w ill b e c o nte nt w ith f a r f e w er measu re s, b ut w ith o ut s o m e i n fo rm ati o n s y ste m , th e l e ad er i s d riv in g w ith a win d sh ie ld m ad e o f o paq ue g la ss.

20. P la n a n d e xecu te a c h an ge in it ia tiv e A p ow erfu l d ev elo pm enta l a cti v ity f o r a ny l e ad er i s to d efin e a c hange th at s h o uld ap pro pria te ly b e m ad e a nd th en u nd erta ke to m ake th at c hange h ap pen. T he c hange co uld b e a s s im ple a s th e i m ple m enta ti o n o f a n ew r e p orti n g s y ste m , a n ew w ork pro cess b y w hic h w ork g ets a cco m plis h ed , o r a n ew o rg aniz a ti o nal s tr u ctu re .

Whate v er th e c hange, a p ow erfu l d ev elo pm ent p ro cess i n v olv es p la nnin g th e change, d efin in g th e o utc o m es th at w ill r e su lt f r o m th e c hange, i m ple m enti n g th e change, a nd f in ally e v alu ati n g th e r e su lts . T he r e al l e arn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent c o m es fr o m c o m parin g th e f in al r e su lts w ith th e p re d ic te d o utc o m es, a nd th en a tte m pti n g to fin d o ut w hat c ause d th e d iffe re nces. A s M achia v elli n o te d , “ T here i s n o th in g m ore diffic ult to c arry o ut, n o r m ore d oub tf u l o f s u ccess, n o r m ore d angero us to m anage, th an to i n iti a te a n ew o rd er o f th in gs.” C entu rie s l a te r, a n o te d p sy cho lo gis t, K urt Lew in , w ould o bse rv e, “ If y o u r e ally w ant to u nd ers ta nd a n o rg aniz a ti o n, tr y makin g c hanges i n i t.” 21. B eco m e a t e a ch er/t r a in er Appro xim ate ly 8 0 p erc ent o f a ll l e arn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent i s d eliv ere d w ith l iv e, cla ssro om i n str u cti o n. I n a l a rg e p erc enta ge o f th o se c ase s, th e o rg aniz a ti o n h as purc hase d l e arn in g s y ste m s f r o m a n o uts id e s u p plie r, o r th ey h av e d ev elo ped tr a in in g p ro gra m s i n te rn ally . W here as th e o rg aniz a ti o n o fte n h as a tr a in in g dep artm ent, a l a rg e p orti o n o f th at d ev elo pm ent i s d eliv ere d b y h and -p ic ked managers s e le cte d f r o m i n sid e th e o rg aniz a ti o n. T hey a re c ho se n o n th e b asis o f se v era l c rite ria , a nd th ese u su ally i n clu d e:

• W ell r e sp ecte d b y p eers , s u b ord in ate s, a nd u p per m anagem ent • P erc eiv ed a s a h ig h-p ote nti a l p ers o n 214 • A rti c ula te a nd c ap ab le o f m akin g a n e ngagin g p re se nta ti o n • P ra cti c es th e l e ad ers h ip o r m anagem ent p rin cip le s b ein g p re se nte d i n th e dev elo pm ent p ro gra m The p ro cess o f b ein g tr a in ed o n h o w to d eliv er a l e arn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent pro gra m to p eo ple i n sid e th e o rg aniz a ti o n i s o ne th at p ro duces r e al g ro w th i n th e in str u cto r. N oth in g c em ents a b ody o f i n fo rm ati o n i n sid e s o m eo ne m ore th an te achin g i t. I n a d diti o n to p ers o nal g ro w th , i t b rin gs th e i n str u cto r i n to c o nta ct w ith many p eo ple w ith w ho m s h e w ould n ev er h av e h ad c o nta ct. I t e d ucate s th e in str u cto r o n th e c halle ngin g i s su es th e o rg aniz a ti o n i s f a cin g a nd h o w th e p eo ple are r e acti n g to th o se c halle nges. F ro m o ur v anta ge p oin t o f h av in g w atc hed m any org aniz a ti o ns s e le ct a nd tr a in l in e m anagers a s i n -h o use i n str u cto rs , w e h av e s e en i t co nsis te ntl y e nhance th eir c are ers a nd a ccele ra te th eir d ev elo pm ent. S te w art Frie d m an h ead ed u p F ord M oto r’s L ead ers h ip D ev elo pm ent C ente r. H e w ro te , “E very p ro gra m f e atu re s e xte nsiv e u se o f te achers . G ra d uate s o f o ur p ro gra m s se rv e a s l e ad er-te achers , a p ra cti c e th at h elp s p arti c ip ants a nd th e i n str u cto r g ro w and d ev elo p n ew c ap aciti e s f o r l e ad ers h ip . T he c o ncep t o f l e ad er-te acher i s n ’t uniq ue, b ut F ord p la ces a h ig h e m phasis o n te achin g. T he l e sso n b egin s a t th e to p.” 9 22. S tu dy t h e h ig h p erfo rm ers a n d r e p lic a te t h eir b eh avio r w it h oth ers In e v ery o rg aniz a ti o n, th ere a re a h and fu l o f p eo ple w ho h av e f ig ure d o ut h o w to perfo rm a g iv en j o b i n th e b est p ossib le m anner. T hat i s tr u e o f c usto m er s e rv ic e re p re se nta ti v es, s a le sp eo ple , f a cto ry w ork ers , s u p erv is o rs , a nd c o rp ora te v ic e pre sid ents . I t w ill p ro bab ly r e m ain a m yste ry w hy m ore o rg aniz a ti o ns d o n o t id enti fy w ho th ese p eo ple a re a nd ta ke th e ti m e to s tu d y w hat th ey d o a nd h o w th ey do i t. T hen, a rm ed w ith th at i n fo rm ati o n, i t w ould s e em l o gic al to a tte m pt to g et oth ers to p erfo rm o r b ehav e i n th at s a m e w ay.

What m ore v alu ab le p ro cess c o uld o ccur th an i d enti fy in g s o m eo ne w ith a j o b th at i s a c lo se c o unte rp art to y o ur o w n a nd w ho se p erfo rm ance i s r e co gniz e d a s bein g o uts ta nd in g? T hro ugh o bse rv ati o n a nd i n te rro gati o n, f in d o ut w hat th at p ers o n is d oin g th at m akes h im o r h er s o e ffe cti v e. S ee w hic h e le m ents o f w hat th at p ers o n does c o uld b e i n te gra te d i n to y o ur o w n a cti v iti e s.

23. V olu nte er in y o u r c o m munit y The i d eal l e ad er i s o ne w ho i s c o m ple te . S te w art F rie d m an w ro te , “ W e a t F ord a re pio neerin g a n ew d im ensio n o f l e ad ers h ip th at s e eks to i n te gra te a ll a sp ects o f a pers o n’s l ife . W e c all i t ‘ to ta l l e ad ers h ip .’ I t’ s d iffe re nt f r o m m any p rio r l e ad ers h ip models b ecause i t s ta rts w ith y o ur l ife a s a w ho le : y o ur l ife a t w ork , y o ur l ife a t ho m e, a nd y o ur l ife i n th e c o m munity . T ota l l e ad ers h ip i s a b out b ein g a l e ad er i n a ll asp ects o f l ife .” 10 215 It i s c le ar th at p eo ple ’s w ork l ife , h o m e l ife , r e lig io us a cti v ity , a nd c o m munity se rv ic e a re n o t a s s e p ara te a s th ey o nce w ere . T he f o rm erly s h arp l in es a re n o w murk y. P eo ple a re s tr iv in g f o r w ork -life b ala nce, a nd o ne p opula r a p pro ach i s to ble nd th em r a th er th an b uild w alls b etw een th em . B y p ra cti c in g l e ad ers h ip s k ills i n th e o th er a sp ects o f y o ur l ife , l e ad ers h ip s k ills c an b e h o ned a nd p erfe cte d . T he org aniz a ti o n i s e nhanced f in ancia lly a nd o rg aniz a ti o nally , th e c o m munity i s im pro ved , th e c hurc h o r s y nago gue g ets m uch n eed ed ta le nt, a nd th e f a m ily e njo ys th e b enefits f r o m i m pro ved l e ad ers h ip .

24. P ra ctic e a rtic u la tin g y o u r v is io n f o r t h e f ir m a n d y o u r g ro u p Lead ers d esc rib e to a g ro up th eir v is io n o f th e f u tu re a nd o fte n a ssu m e i t h as b een und ers to od a nd i n te rn aliz e d . T im e p asse s a nd p eo ple a sk q uesti o ns: “ O kay, w hat i s our s tr a te gy? I d on’t k no w w here w e’re g o in g.” T he l e ad ers h ip l e sso n i s th at co m munic ati o n o f c o m ple x m essa ges m ust b e r e p eate d o ver a nd o ver. T his i s esp ecia lly tr u e w hen i t c o ncern s a to pic th at c arrie s o ver a l o ng p erio d o f ti m e, a nd one w here p eo ple w ill s c ru ti n iz e th e l e ad er’s b ehav io r to s e e i f i t i s a lig ned w ith th e e arlie r w ord s.

Marrie d p eo ple o r o th ers i n a ny l a sti n g r e la ti o nsh ip h av e l e arn ed th at y o u d o n o t exp re ss y o ur a ffe cti o n a nd c o m mitm ent to th e o th er p ers o n o nce a nd a ssu m e i t h o ld s unti l f u rth er n o ti c e. W ith th e p assa ge o f ti m e, th in gs a re s a id o r d one th at c ause th e oth er p ers o n to q uesti o n w hat w as s a id e arlie r. A nd th e m ere p assa ge o f ti m e d im s th e f o rc e a nd c la rity o f th e w ord s, s o th ey n eed r e p eati n g.

That s a m e p heno m eno n i s a t w ork i n a ny o rg aniz a ti o n. Y es, th e l e ad er s a id w e valu e tr u st a nd o penness, b ut l o ok w hat h ap pened to R alp h w hen h e a sk ed th e questi o n i n th e s ta ff m eeti n g. O r, r u m ors b egin to s w ir l i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n a nd th ey are q uite c o ntr a d ic to ry o f e arlie r m essa ges. I t i s f o r th o se r e aso ns th at m essa ges o f vis io n, v alu es, m is sio n, a nd s tr a te gy n eed to b e r e p eate d o ver a nd o ver. H ow m any ti m es? S om e h av e s a id th at p eo ple r e ally d o n o t ta ke a m essa ge s e rio usly u nti l th e se v enth ti m e th ey h ear i t. T he n um ber i s p ro bab ly d iffe re nt f o r e ach o f u s, dep end in g o n th e to pic a nd w hat i s h ap penin g i n o ur l iv es. H ow ev er, i t i s c le ar th at th e m essa ge n eed s f r e q uent r e p eati n g. W e a d vocate th at y o u p ra cti c e r e p eati n g th o se m essa ges f r e q uentl y to th e a sso cia te s w ith w ho m y o u w ork .

25. P re p are f o r y o u r n ext j o b . T hin k a h ea d r e g ard in g t h e s k ills yo u w ill n eed One m is ta ke th at m any l e ad ers m ake i s n o t to s ta rt g etti n g p re p are d f o r th eir n ext assig nm ent o r r o le . L ik e th e c hess p la yer w ho s e es tw o o r th re e m oves a head , s o are w is e l e ad ers l o okin g i n to th e f u tu re f o r th e r o le s th ey w ill b e p la yin g, a nd th en pre p arin g th em se lv es w ith th e s k ills th at w ill b e n eed ed i n th o se n ew r o le s. W ill th e f u tu re r e q uir e m ore te chnic al e xp erti s e ? M ore s tr a te gic th in kin g s k ills ? A diffe re nt k in d o f b usin ess a cum en? W hate v er th o se n ew r e q uir e m ents m ay b e, i t i s 216 nev er to o e arly to b e i d enti fy in g th em a nd ta kin g a cti v e s te p s to a d d th em to y o ur sk ill s e t.

Con clu sio n There a re th o se w ho a rg ue th at a ll d ev elo pm ent i s s e lf- d ev elo pm ent. I t h as b een esti m ate d th at m ore th an 8 0 p erc ent o f w hat p eo ple l e arn w hile w ork in g i n org aniz a ti o ns h as b een g ain ed o n th e j o b, c asu ally a nd i n fo rm ally . N o m atte r h o w pow erfu l th e c la ssro om e xp erie nce, i t p ale s i n c o m paris o n w ith th e l e arn in g th at co m es f r o m e xp erie nce. H ow m uch p eo ple g ain f r o m th eir e xp erie nce i s n early a ll up to th em . R egard le ss o f th e p erc enta ge, i t i s c le ar th at l e ad ers c an m ake h uge str id es b y ta kin g r e sp onsib ility f o r th eir o w n d ev elo pm ent. T hey s h o uld n o t c o unt on th e o rg aniz a ti o n to d o th at f o r th em .

The 2 5 s u ggesti o ns o f th in gs to d ev elo p y o ur o w n l e ad ers h ip a b iliti e s w ere meant to c o nv ey th e m essa ge th at a ll l e ad ers c an d o a g re at d eal o n th eir o w n. D o no t r e ly o n th e o rg aniz a ti o n to m ake y o u a n e v en b ette r l e ad er. T here a re e xte nsiv e and p ow erfu l s te p s y o u c an ta ke to m ove y o u w ell d ow n th e p ath to b eco m in g a n extr a o rd in ary l e ad er. F or f u rth er i n fo rm ati o n a b out p ro gra m s a nd m ate ria ls desig ned to h elp l e ad ers i m pro ve th eir s k ills p le ase g o to o ur w eb site a t www.z e ngerfo lk m an.c o m .

217 11 DEV ELO PIN G L EA D ER SH IP T EA M S No m an i s w is e e no ugh b y h im se lf.

—Pla utu s The w ay a te am p la ys a s a w ho le d ete rm in es i ts s u ccess. Y ou m ay h av e th e gre ate st b unch o f i n d iv id ual s ta rs i n th e w orld , b ut i f th ey d on’t p la y to geth er, th e c lu b w on’t b e w orth a d im e.

—Bab e R uth T ra d iti o nally , l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent u ti liz in g 3 60-d egre e f e ed back h as b een a n i n d iv id ual d ev elo pm ent e ffo rt. I n m ost o rg aniz a ti o ns, p arti c ip ants c o m e to a t r a in in g e v ent w ith a g ro up o f p eo ple th ey d on’t k no w . T his f o rm at c re ate s a s a fe l e arn in g e xp erie nce a nd a ls o e nab le s p arti c ip ants to b uild a n etw ork o uts id e o f t h eir n arro w er w ork g ro up . M ulti r a te r o r 3 60-d egre e f e ed back i s g iv en to e ach i n d iv id ual a nd u se d to h elp th em u nd ers ta nd th eir s tr e ngth s a nd o pportu niti e s f o r i m pro vem ent.

One o f o ur c lie nts r e q ueste d th at w e c o nd uct th e tr a in in g s e ssio ns w ith i n ta ct t e am s. I n a d diti o n to d oin g th e tr a in in g w ith th e i n ta ct te am , w e s u ggeste d th at a t e am l e ad ers h ip p ro file b e c re ate d b y a ggre gati n g a ll i n d iv id ual 3 60-d egre e f e ed back i n to o ne c o m posite r e p ort.

Afte r c o m pilin g h und re d s o f te am p ro file s, w e f o und th em q uite r e m ark ab le i n t h eir a b ility to c ap tu re th e p ers o nality o f a te am . T he p ro file s a re a s uniq ue a nd d iffe re nt a s th o se o f i n d iv id uals . T he te am p ro file h elp s te am m em bers u nd ers ta nd t h e s tr e ngth s o f th e te am a nd a ls o p ote nti a l te am f la w s. B ecause a ll o f th e i n d iv id ual r e p orts a re a ggre gate d , i n d iv id ual a no nym ity i s p ro te cte d . U nd ers ta nd in g t h is p ro file e nab le s a te am to u nd ers ta nd i ts o vera ll l e ad ers h ip c ap ab ility .

A T A LE O F T W O T E A M S A s a n e xam ple o f th e p ow er o f th is a p pro ach, l e t u s c o nsid er tw o d iffe re nt te am s i n t h e s a m e o rg aniz a ti o n. O ne o f th e te am s w as f o cuse d o n r u nnin g a p arti c ula r b usin ess ( T eam A ), w here as th e o th er te am l e d a s ta ff f u ncti o n ( T eam B ).

O vera ll L ea d ersh ip E ffe ctiv en ess 218 It i s v ery h elp fu l to g iv e th e m em bers o f a te am s o m e s e nse o f th eir o vera ll effe cti v eness a s l e ad ers . T o d o th is , w e c re ate a n i n d ex b ase d o n a ll o f th e 3 60 ite m s a sse ssin g th e e ffe cti v eness o f i n d iv id ual l e ad ers a nd c alc ula te a n o vera ll le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n d ex. W e a naly ze th e r e su lts f r o m m anagers , p eers , d ir e ct re p orts , a nd o th ers a s a c o lle cti v e g ro up a nd c o m pare th ese r e su lts w ith th o se o f our E xtr a o rd in ary L ead er n o rm b ase .

Noti c e th at b oth g ro up s s c o re v ery w ell i n te rm s o f th eir o vera ll l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness. T eam A i s a n a ggre gate o f 1 6 l e ad ers , a nd T eam B i n clu d es e ig ht le ad ers . I n o rd er f o r th e 1 6 l e ad ers to h av e a n a v era ge o vera ll l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness s c o re a t th e 7 7th p erc enti le , th is g ro up h ad to i n clu d e r e su lts f r o m se v era l e xcelle nt l e ad ers ( Fig ure 1 1-1 ). I n f a ct, s e v en o f th e l e ad ers i n T eam A sc o re a b ove th e 8 0th p erc enti le o n th e o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n d ex.

How ev er, th e r a nge o f s c o re s i n T eam A i s a ls o s u b sta nti a l. L ead ers i n T eam A ra nge i n th eir o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness f r o m th e 3 3rd p erc enti le to th e 9 8th perc enti le .

Team B a ls o c o nta in ed s o m e v ery e ffe cti v e l e ad ers w ith th re e o f th eir l e ad ers sc o rin g a t th e 8 0th p erc enti le o r h ig her. T he r a nge o f s c o re s i n T eam B i s f r o m th e 24th p erc enti le to th e 9 8th p erc enti le . B oth g ro up s h ad a f e w h ig hly c o m pete nt le ad ers a nd a f e w l e ss c o m pete nt l e ad ers . T he g o od n ew s i s th at th e s tr o ng l e ad ers se t a n e xam ple a nd m ento r th o se th at n eed i m pro vem ent. B oth te am s h ad a b ove- av era ge l e ad ers h ip c ap ab ility , b ut a ls o s a w th e n eed f o r c o nti n ued i m pro vem ent.

Fig ure 1 1-1 O vera ll L eadersh ip E ffe ctiv eness P erc e ntile S co re s Em plo yee S atis fa ctio n a n d C om mit m en t As p art o f o ur s ta nd ard 3 60-d egre e a sse ssm ent, w e i n clu d e f iv e s u rv ey i te m s asse ssin g th e l e v el o f e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n a nd c o m mitm ent o f e ach o f th e l e ad er’s dir e ct r e p orts . I n th is s e cti o n, w e a sk th e d ir e ct r e p orts to i n d ic ate th eir c o nfid ence 219 in th e s u ccess o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n, th e e xte nt to w hic h th e o rg aniz a ti o n h as a w ork env ir o nm ent w here p eo ple w ill g o th e e xtr a m ile , th eir w illin gness to r e co m mend th e o rg aniz a ti o n to a f r ie nd a s a g o od p la ce to w ork , th e l ik elih o od o f th em q uitti n g, and th eir o vera ll l e v el o f s a ti s fa cti o n w ith th e c o m pany.

Fig ure 1 1-2 s h o w s th e re su lts f o r a ll o f th e d ir e ct r e p orts o f th e l e ad ers o f th e tw o te am s c o m pare d w ith our n o rm ati v e d ata b ase .

Note i n th e g ra p h o f Fig ure 1 1-2 th e c o rre la ti o n b etw een th e sa ti s fa cti o n/c o m mitm ent o f e m plo yees a nd th e e ffe cti v eness o f th eir l e ad ers . T eam A l e ad ers a re 1 0 p erc enti le p oin ts m ore e ffe cti v e a s l e ad ers a nd th eir e m plo yees are 1 5 p erc enti le p oin ts m ore s a ti s fie d a nd c o m mitte d . T his c o rre la ti o n i s o ne o f th e m ost c o nsis te nt i n a ll o ur r e se arc h a nd r e in fo rc es th e f a ct th at h av in g e ngaged , co m mitte d , a nd s a ti s fie d e m plo yees r e q uir e s h ig hly e ffe cti v e l e ad ers . N ote th at th e perc enti le s c o re s f o r s a ti s fa cti o n/c o m mitm ent l a g b ehin d th e l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness p erc enti le s c o re s. T his o rg aniz a ti o n w as e xp erie ncin g d iffic ult eco no m ic ti m es a nd s ig nific ant o rg aniz a ti o nal c halle nges. F ro m th is r e p ort, e ach le ad ers h ip te am o bta in ed a n e xcelle nt u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e l e v el o f s a ti s fa cti o n a nd co m mitm ent o f th eir d ir e ct r e p orts .

Fig ure 1 1-2 E m plo yee C om mit m ent P erc e ntile S co re s We th en a naly ze d th e d ata to u nd ers ta nd w hat l e ad ers h ip b ehav io rs w ould m ost lik ely i n cre ase e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n a nd c o m mitm ent. T he c o ntr a st b etw een th e tw o te am s i s e nlig hte nin g ( Tab le 1 1-1 ).

It i s c le ar th at e m plo yees i n T eam A w ante d l e ad ers w ho w ere d riv en a nd fo cuse d o n a chie v in g b usin ess r e su lts . T hey w ante d a l e ad er w ho w ould s e t c le ar dir e cti o n a nd s e t s tr e tc h g o als . T hese e m plo yees w ere f r u str a te d a b out th e a b ility o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n to s u ccessfu lly a cco m plis h b usin ess o bje cti v es. O n th e o th er h and , em plo yees i n T eam B w ante d l e ad ers to a ccep t th e f e ed back th at h ad b een pro vid ed to e ach l e ad er. I t i s c le ar th at th ere a re s o m e i s su es o f tr u st i n T eam B a nd 220 fr u str a ti o n a b out th e te am ’s a b ility to p ro m ote i ts p ro gra m s. T his a naly sis p ro vid ed extr a o rd in ary i n sig ht f o r e ach te am a b out Table 1 1-1 D evelo pm enta l R eco m mendatio ns f o r T eam s t o I m pro ve Com mit m ent S co re s what w ould m ake a s u b sta nti a l d iffe re nce i n th e e ngagem ent a nd c o m mitm ent l e v el of th eir d ir e ct r e p orts .

Tea m P ro file s It i s a ls o f a sc in ati n g to e xam in e th e p ro file s o f th e tw o te am s o n th e 1 6 diffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s. I n Fig ure s 1 1-3 a nd 11-4 , th e r e sp ecti v e co m pete ncie s a re s o rte d b y p erc enti le s c o re f r o m h ig hest to l o w est.

The p ro file s o f th e tw o te am s p ro vid e i n sig ht i n to th eir d iffe re nt c ap ab iliti e s.

Som e o f th e c o m pete ncie s th at a re th e g re ate st s tr e ngth s o f o ne te am e nd u p b ein g th e l e ast p ositi v e c o m pete ncie s o f o th er te am . E ach p ro file p ro vid es th e r e sp ecti v e te am w ith i n sig hts th at h av e o fte n g o ne u nno ti c ed . R em em ber th at “ fis h d is c o ver wate r l a st.” In a n a d diti o nal a naly sis , w e e xam in ed th e i n d iv id ual d ata to l o ok f o r h o w m any of th e l e ad ers h ad a s tr e ngth a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le o n e ach o f th e c o m pete ncie s. W e fo und th at f o r T eam A , a ll o f th e c o m pete ncie s h ad a t l e ast tw o p eo ple w ith pro fo und s tr e ngth s i n th at c o m pete ncy. E ven T eam w ork a nd C olla b ora ti o n, w hic h was th e te am ’s l e ast p ositi v e c o m pete ncy, h ad tw o l e ad ers w ith p ro fo und s tr e ngth s at th e 9 0th p erc enti le . T eam B , a m uch s m alle r te am , h ad a t l e ast o ne p ers o n w ith a pro fo und s tr e ngth o n 1 5 o f th e 1 6 c o m pete ncie s.

221 Fig ure 1 1-3 P ro file o f T eam A Fig ure 1 1-4 P ro file o f T eam B In o ur E xtr a o rd in ary L ead er r e se arc h, w e c o nclu d ed th at a l e ad er w ith th re e pro fo und s tr e ngth s w ould h av e a n o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness r a ti n g o n av era ge a t th e 8 0th p erc enti le . O ut o f th is r e se arc h, w e c am e to th e c o nclu sio n th at what m ad e l e ad ers g re at w as n o t th e a b se nce o f w eakness b ut r a th er th e p re se nce o f a f e w p ro fo und s tr e ngth s. A s w e h av e d is c usse d th is f in d in g w ith g ro up s a ro und th e world , w e h av e a sk ed l e ad ers to th in k o f a n e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad er th at th ey h av e kno w n. W e th en a sk th em to i d enti fy th e l e ad er’s p ro fo und s tr e ngth . T his i s e asy f o r peo ple , a nd w e f o und a g re at v arie ty o f d iffe re nt s tr e ngth s. S om e l e ad ers w ere vis io nary , o th ers te chnic al g uru s, o th ers c haris m ati c , o th ers c o m munic ate d 222 extr e m ely w ell, w hile o th ers w ere c arin g a nd c o nsid era te . T he c o nclu sio n c o m in g fr o m th at e xerc is e i s th at l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i s d eriv ed f r o m a n a m azin gly div ers e a rra y o f b ehav io rs . T here i s n o t o ne u niv ers a l c o m pete ncy n ecessa ry f o r le ad ers to b e g re at.

We u su ally c o nti n ue th e e xerc is e b y a sk in g i f th at l e ad er h ad a ny w eaknesse s.

Every o ne c o ncurs w ith c o m ments th at g enera lly c o nv ey, “ Y es, I k no w th at l e ad er was n o t p erfe ct.” O ne c o nclu sio n f r o m th is e xerc is e i s th at i f th e b est l e ad ers y o u kno w o f w ere n o t p erfe ct, w hy d o y o u th in k th at y o u n eed to b e p erfe ct?

When p eo ple c o nclu d e a nd a ccep t th at n o t e v ery l e ad er i s p erfe ct, th ey th en s ta rt to a sk th e o bvio us q uesti o n, “ H ow d o w e e xecute a ll o f th e co m pete ncie s w ell? ” I f ev ery c o m pete ncy i s c riti c ally i m porta nt to th e s u ccess o f a n o rg aniz a ti o n, a nd n o le ad er i s p erfe ct, h o w d oes e ach g et a cco m plis h ed ? T hat i s w here a te am c o m es to th e r e sc ue. T eam s th at v alu e p eo ple w ith u niq ue a b iliti e s c an a sse m ble th e r ig ht mix o f ta le nt to s o lv e v ir tu ally a ny p ro ble m .

Not a ll te am s, h o w ev er, a re w ell b ala nced . S om e te am s a re o verlo ad ed o n j u st a fe w o f th e c o m pete ncie s. T he e ffe ct o f a p oorly b ala nced te am i s s u b opti m al perfo rm ance. A t th is p oin t, y o u m ay b e w ond erin g w hat th e p ro file l o oks l ik e f o r yo ur te am . T hat i s a n i m porta nt q uesti o n, a nd i t i s i m porta nt to g et a n a ccura te answ er.

The T ea m T en t Base d o n a c o m posite o f th e s tr e ngth s o f e ach te am m em ber, w e a re a b le to d ra w a custo m iz e d l e ad ers h ip te nt f o r e ach te am ( Fig ure s 1 1-5 a nd 11-6 ).

The l e ad ers h ip te nt p ro vid es a v is u al p ic tu re o f th e e ffe cti v eness o f a te am .

We k no w th at i n d iv id ual 3 60-d egre e f e ed back c an p ro vid e i n v alu ab le h elp to peo ple w ho d esir e to i m pro ve th eir l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. B y a ggre gati n g th e in d iv id ual f e ed back a nd a naly zin g i t f o r te am s, v alu ab le a d diti o nal i n sig hts c an b e genera te d . T eam s s ta rt to m ore c le arly u nd ers ta nd th eir c ultu re a nd p ers o nality .

Peo ple w ith w ho m w e s p end ti m e a nd w ith w ho m w e i n te ra ct h av e a p ro fo und im pact o n u s. W e u nco nsc io usly m im ic e ach o th er i n b oth o ur s tr e ngth s a nd o ur weaknesse s, b ut th ese d iffe re nces a re r a re ly a p pare nt to g ro up m em bers . T he le ad ers h ip te am p ro file p ro vid es a h elp fu l 223 Fig ure 1 1-5 T eam A T ent Fig ure 1 1-6 T eam B T ent pla tf o rm to u nd ers ta nd th e c ultu re a nd s k ills o f e ach te am . A n a d ded b enefit o f work in g w ith i n ta ct te am s i s th e s u p port th at e ach te am m em ber a nd th e te am l e ad er can p ro vid e f o r i n d iv id ual b ehav io ra l c hange. F or f u rth er i n fo rm ati o n o n te am pro file s a nd te am d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s, v is it o ur w eb s ite a t www.z e ngerfo lk m an.c o m , a nd f o llo w th e E xtr a o rd in ary L ead er l in k.

224 12 TH E O RG AN IZ A TIO N’S R O LE I N DEV ELO PIN G L EA D ER S I s ta rt w ith th e p re m is e th at th e r o le o f l e ad ers i s to p ro duce m ore l e ad ers , n o t more f o llo w ers .

—Ralp h N ad er The h o use s h o w s th e o w ner.

—Geo rg e H erb ert I n th is c hap te r, w e s e ek to p ro vid e th e l e ad ers o f o rg aniz a ti o ns ( a s w ell a s h um an r e so urc es p ra cti ti o ners ) s o m e th o ughts a b out h o w to m ake th ese i d eas o pera ti o nal.

T he e nti r e th ru st o f th is b ook i s a b out l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent. O ur p rim ary c o ncern h as b een to h elp o rg aniz a ti o ns r e th in k th eir f u nd am enta l a p pro ach to th is i m porta nt n eed . W e h av e d elib era te ly a v oid ed a ny d is c ussio n o f l e ad ers h ip s e le cti o n. W e h av e a ls o a v oid ed th e d eb ate a b out th e d is ti n cti o ns o f “ tr a nsfo rm ati o nal” v ers u s “ tr a nsa cti o nal” l e ad ers h ip . W e h av e d elib era te ly s k ir te d t h e c o m ple x i s su es o f th e p sy cho lo gic al m akeup o f l e ad ers .

The f a ct o f th e m atte r i s th at w e a re s im ply n o t p ro ducin g l e ad ers a t th e r a te a t w hic h th ey a re n eed ed . T his w ill b e c o m pound ed b y th e d em ogra p hic tr e nd s i n th e U nite d S ta te s, w hic h w ill h av e a s h o rtf a ll o f 1 0 m illio n w ork ers b egin nin g i n th e y ear 2 010, w ith a n a tte nd ant s h o rtf a ll o f l e ad ers .

Com pound in g th e d em ogra p hic s i s th e f a ct th at th e r e q uir e m ents f o r l e ad ers c o nti n ue to e sc ala te . I n a s tu d y b y th e f o rm er A nd ers e n C onsu lti n g o rg aniz a ti o n ( n o w A ccentu re ) ti tl e d The E vo lv in g R ole o f E xecu tiv e L ea dersh ip , r e se arc hers c o lle cte d d ata f r o m 7 5 r e sp ond ents , w orld w id e, r e gard in g th e s k ills r e q uir e d to f u ncti o n i n a l e ad ers h ip r o le i n th e p ast, th e p re se nt, a nd th o se th ey b elie v ed n ecessa ry to f u ncti o n w ell i n th e f u tu re . O ne d ra m ati c r e su lt w as th at, a cro ss 1 4 d im ensio ns th ey a naly ze d , th e d iffe re nces b etw een th e s k ills r e q uir e d i n th e p ast, t h o se d em and ed a t p re se nt, a nd th o se b elie v ed to b e n ecessa ry i n th e f u tu re w ere s ta ti s ti c ally s ig nific ant. I n s h o rt, th e d em and s o n o ur l e ad ers a re e sc ala ti n g s h arp ly .

1 A dop t a M od el o f L ea d ersh ip 225 We h av e m ad e th e c ase th at l e ad ers h ip o n th e o ne h and h as b een a n e xtr e m ely myste rio us c o ncep t a nd o n th e o th er h and h as b een h ig hly c o ntr o vers ia l. W e h av e pre se nte d a m odel o f l e ad ers h ip th at a llo w s p eo ple to ta lk a b out th e v ario us ele m ents w ith m ore c la rity . W heth er th e o rg aniz a ti o n a d opts o ur m odel i s l e ss im porta nt th an th e f a ct th at th ere i s s o m e w ay f o r p eo ple to ta lk i n te llig entl y a b out le ad ers h ip .

It i s f r u str a ti n g to h av e a g re at d eal o f r h eto ric f r o m s e nio r e xecuti v es a b out th e need f o r “ le ad ers h ip ” o n th e p art o f o th er p eo ple b ut to l e av e th e c o ncep t i ll- defin ed a nd n eb ulo us. T he c o nse q uence i s th at p eo ple a re b oth c o nfu se d a nd fr u str a te d b ecause th ey d o n o t k no w w hat i s e xp ecte d o f th em .

Many m em ora b le p hra se s h av e b een c o in ed o n th e s u b je ct o f l e ad ers h ip , s u ch as:

Managers d o th in gs r ig ht. L ead ers d o th e r ig ht th in gs.

—Warre n B ennis Lead ers h ip i s th e a rt o f a cco m plis h in g m ore th an th e s c ie nce o f m anagem ent sa ys i s p ossib le .

—Colin P ow ell How ev er, th ese c atc hy p hra se s d o n o t f u lly s a ti s fy th e p ers o n w ho s in cere ly wants to b eco m e a b ette r l e ad er.

Part o f a n e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro cess s h o uld r e q uir e p arti c ip ants to w rite a s h o rt e ssa y o n w hat l e ad ers h ip m eans to th em a nd h o w th ey h av e p ut th eo ry to geth er i n to a p ra cti c al, l iv in g d ocum ent to g uid e th eir o w n l e ad ers h ip pra cti c es.

Decid e W ho W ill R eceiv e L ea d ersh ip D ev elo p m en t Our f o cus h as b een e nti r e ly o n h o w a ny o rg aniz a ti o n c an b ette r u se th e p eo ple curre ntl y i n i ts e m plo y. W e s tr o ngly e cho th e c o nclu sio ns o f P ete r D ru cker, w ho arg ues th at “ th e ta sk [ o f m anagem ent] i s to m ulti p ly th e p erfo rm ance c ap acity o f th e who le b y p utti n g to u se w hate v er s tr e ngth , w hate v er h ealth , w hate v er a sp ir a ti o n th ere i s i n i n d iv id uals .” 2 The m ain d ecis io n a p pears to b e th e c ho ic e b etw een a n e liti s t a p pro ach a nd a more e galita ria n p ostu re . M any o rg aniz a ti o ns i n th e p ast h av e f o cuse d a ll th eir le ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent e ffo rts o n a s m all h and fu l o f p eo ple w ho w ere c urre ntl y i n se nio r p ositi o ns o r w ho w ere p erc eiv ed a s b ein g “ hig h p ote nti a l” b ecause o f s o m e 226 psy cho lo gic al te sti n g a nd i n te rv ie w in g o r a sse ssm ent c ente r p ro ced ure s.

In m ark ed c o ntr a st a re th e o rg aniz a ti o ns s u ch a s th e U .S . M arin e C orp s a nd South w est A ir lin es, w hic h h av e c o nclu d ed th at th e o rg aniz a ti o n w ill b e s tr o nger i f ev ery o ne i s a c and id ate f o r d ev elo pm ent. T his a p pro ach i s e sp ecia lly a p pealin g to th o se w ho b elie v e th at l e ad ers h ip i s n ecessa ry a t a ll l e v els o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n— no t ju st a t th e to p. I t a ls o a p peals to th o se w ho b elie v e th at m any p eo ple , n o t j u st th o se who o ccup y p ositi o ns o f a uth o rity o r w ho h av e m ulti p le s u b ord in ate s, c an p ra cti c e le ad ers h ip .

Dav id G arv in , i n Lea rn in g i n A ctio n , s ta te s, “ th e b est s im ula ti o ns c o m bin e re alis m , v arie ty a nd l o w r is k .” H e g o es o n to s ta te : “ P ilo ts , f o r e xam ple , h av e l o ng been s e le cte d f o r th eir te chnic al p ro fic ie ncy a nd s e lf- re lia nce— th e e lu siv e ‘ rig ht stu ff.’ ” Y et o ver th e p ast 2 0 y ears , a ir c arrie r a ccid ents a nd i n cid ents h av e co nsis te ntl y b een tr a ced “ to i n ad eq uacie s i n l e ad ers h ip q ualiti e s, c o m munic ati o n sk ills , c re w c o ord in ati o n, o r d ecis io n m akin g. T oday’s L in e-O rie nte d F lig ht Tra in in g ( L O FT ) p re se nts p ilo ts a nd c re w s w ith c o m ple x, s im ula te d p ro ble m s th at dem and p re cis e ly th ese ta le nts . L O FT a ls o p ro vid es th e o pportu nity to e xp erie nce, in a d vance, s u ch r a re b ut i m porta nt e v ents a s e q uip m ent f a ilu re s.” 3 We s tr o ngly c o nte nd th at m ost o rg aniz a ti o ns a re ta p pin g o nly a f r a cti o n o f th e pote nti a l o f th e p eo ple c urre ntl y i n i ts e m plo y. W e b elie v e th at p eo ple i n g enera l hav e th e c ap acity to r is e to m uch h ig her l e v els o f p erfo rm ance i f th e o rg aniz a ti o n cre ate s th e p ro per c lim ate .

This d ecis io n s te m s l a rg ely f r o m th e b elie f s y ste m s o f th e e xecuti v es. I f th ey belie v e th at p eo ple h av e f ix ed a b iliti e s f r o m b ir th a nd th ere i s l ittl e l ik elih o od o f peo ple g ro w in g o r e xp and in g th ro ugh th eir l ife ti m es, th en th ere i s l e ss in centi v e to in v est i n th eir d ev elo pm ent. T his n o ti o n th at i n te llig ence a nd o th er p ers o nal tr a its are l o cked i n a t b ir th h as b een ta ught i n P sy cho lo gy 1 01 c o urs e s f o r th e p ast 1 00 years . I t h as b eco m e a w id ely h eld b elie f.

Recent r e se arc h, h o w ev er, c o ntr a d ic ts th at n o ti o n. I n ste ad , i t h as b een f o und th at challe ngin g m enta l a cti v ity c re ate s n ew n eura l n etw ork s i n th e b ra in a nd th at p eo ple actu ally b eco m e s m arte r o ver ti m e. T his f a ct i s w ell e sta b lis h ed b y v ir tu e o f th e in cre asin g I Q s c o re s p eo ple o bta in a s th e n um ber o f y ears o f s c ho olin g th ey r e ceiv e in cre ase s.

Jo n K atz e nb ach, a uth o r o f Pea k P erfo rm ance , b elie v es th at th e d ev elo pm ent o f peo ple a t a ll l e v els , a nd th e e q ual o pportu nity g iv en to p eo ple r e gard le ss o f w here th ey a re p erc eiv ed to b e o n th e “ b ell- s h ap ed c urv e,” w ill d efin e th e m ost s u ccessfu l org aniz a ti o ns o f th e f u tu re .

4 The I m porta n ce o f D evelo p in g S en io r L ea d ers Our r e se arc h r e v eale d a n i n te re sti n g th o ugh n o t s u rp ris in g f a ct. T he l e ad ers h ip sk ills p osse sse d b y th e m ost s e nio r p eo ple i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n b eco m e th e 227 le ad ers h ip c eilin g. T hat i s , i t i s e xtr e m ely r a re to f in d a nyo ne w ho se l e ad ers h ip sk ills e xceed th o se o f th e p eo ple a t th e to p.

We r e aliz e th at i t c o uld b e a rg ued th at th e b est l e ad ers a re p ro m ote d to th e m ost se nio r p ositi o ns, a nd w e c o ncur. H ow ev er, i n th o se c ase s w here s e nio r p eo ple h ad med io cre s c o re s, th ere s e em s to b e r o om f o r s o m e h ig hly s k illfu l y o ung l e ad er to blo sso m , a nd th at w as n o t th e c ase : th e s e nio r p eo ple w ere th e c ap .

This a rg ues s tr o ngly f o r c o nti n ued d ev elo pm ent o f th e s e nio r p eo ple , s o th at th e le ad ers h ip te nt i s l ifte d , m akin g r o om f o r o th ers to g ro w . M ayb e i t i s th eir e xam ple th at i s s o i m porta nt, o r i t c o uld b e th eir c o achin g a nd m ento rin g th at i s n eed ed .

Whate v er th e r e aso ns, g re at l e ad ers a t th e to p a re n ecessa ry f o r g re at l e ad ers to dev elo p a t a ny l e v el i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n.

Man agem en t D evelo p m en t a n d L ea d ersh ip D evelo p m en t Som e o rg aniz a ti o ns m ake a d is ti n cti o n b etw een l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent a nd managem ent d ev elo pm ent. T hey d efin e to pic s s u ch a s te am w ork , v is io n, v alu es, cla rity o f m is sio n, m anagin g c hange, c o m munic ati o n, a nd c ultu re a s p art o f th e le ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro cess. Y ou c o uld a rg ue th at th e e m phasis h ere i s o n peo ple , b oth o ne a t a ti m e a nd i n g ro up s. M anagem ent d ev elo pm ent, o n th e o th er hand , i s a ll a b out th e “ hard ” s k ills . I t i n clu d es fin ancia l a cum en, p ro je ct managem ent, s tr a te gy, o rg aniz in g s k ills , p ro cess i m pro vem ent, f in ancia l c o ntr o l, and i n fo rm ati o n te chno lo gy.

We u nd ers ta nd th at d is ti n cti o n a nd f in d i t to b e c o ncep tu ally h elp fu l b ut h ard to im ple m ent i n th e r e al w orld . F ir s t, f e w p eo ple h av e th e l u xury o f f u ncti o nin g o nly as a l e ad er o r a m anager. M ost e v ery o ne i n a p ositi o n o f a uth o rity w ho m w e h av e obse rv ed i s p re sse d i n to b oth l e ad ers h ip a nd m anagem ent a cti v iti e s. T hese acti v iti e s s e em to b e i n extr ic ab ly m ix ed to geth er i n d ay-to -d ay w ork i n e v ery org aniz a ti o n. T hey c o nnect w ith e ach o th er i n o bvio us a nd s u b tl e w ays. W e f in d makin g a d is ti n cti o n to b e a b it l ik e g o in g to a te nnis c am p a nd h av in g th e i n str u cto r fo cus e nti r e ly o n th e f o re hand g ro und s tr o ke, a nd th en b ein g to ld th at w e c an c o m e back i n a m onth o r s o a nd h av e s im ila r i n str u cti o n o n th e b ackhand s tr o ke. Y es, w e und ers ta nd th e d iffe re nce, b ut i f y o u w ant to p la y te nnis , y o u n eed th em b oth , a nd yo u c an n ev er p re d ic t w hen o ne o r th e o th er w ill b e n eed ed .

Defin e t h e R esu lt s Y ou S eek f r o m L ea d ers a n d H ow Those R esu lt s L in k t o t h e S tr a te g y o f t h e O rg an iz a tio n Lead ers h ip i s n o t a n e nd , b ut a m eans to a n e nd . T hat e nd n eed s to b e m ad e e xp lic it.

If a n i m porta nt p art o f b ein g a g o od l e ad er i s to p ro duce e xcelle nt r e su lts , th o se 228 re su lts m ust b e c le arly d efin ed s o th at l e ad ers w ill k no w w hen th ey a re s u cceed in g.

We h av e p re se nte d e v id ence th at e ffe cti v e l e ad ers p ro duce i m pro vem ents i n pro ducti v ity , p ro duct a nd s e rv ic e q uality , a nd c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n, a nd th at th e willin gness o f p eo ple to w ork h ard a nd e xp end e nerg y i n v aria b ly r is e s.

Cle arly , th o se r e su lts m ust f lo w f r o m th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s b ro ad er s tr a te gy.

Help in g l e ad ers to u nd ers ta nd th at s tr a te gy, a nd h o w to th in k a b out th e m ain str a te gic a lte rn ati v es th eir o rg aniz a ti o n f a ces, i s a v alu ab le e le m ent o f a l e ad ers h ip dev elo pm ent p ro cess. W e h ig hly r e co m mend P erry , S to tt, a nd S m allw ood’s Rea l- Tim e S tr a te g y: I m pro vis in g T ea m -B ase d P la nnin g f o r a F ast- C hangin g W orld .

5 We r e ite ra te th e m essa ge i n U lr ic h, Z enger, a nd S m allw ood’s Resu lts -B ase d Lea dersh ip r e gard in g th e i m porta nce o f r e su lts b ein g b ala nced , l o ng-te rm , a nd se lfle ss, a nd th at th e n ecessa ry b ala nce w e s e ek i s b etw een th e i n te re sts o f custo m ers , e m plo yees, o rg aniz a ti o n, a nd th e s h are ho ld ers .

6 Som e e xecuti v es h av e c o m e i n to o rg aniz a ti o ns a nd i m med ia te ly i m pose d massiv e l a yo ffs , s la sh ed r e se arc h a nd d ev elo pm ent, e lim in ate d e m plo yee dev elo pm ent, a nd s lo w ed d ow n l o ng-te rm m ain te nance o f e q uip m ent. F or a re la ti v ely s h o rt ti m e, th e r e su lts l o ok s p ecta cula r. E arn in gs s o ar— te m pora rily .

There i s o fte n e no ugh ti m e f o r th is e xecuti v e to e xerc is e h is s to ck o pti o ns, c ash o ut, and b e g o ne b efo re a ll th e d am age h e d id h as h ad ti m e to s in k i n .

It i s a ls o c le ar th at e ffe cti v e r e su lts c anno t b e d riv en b y p ers o nal a gend as a nd decis io ns th at p rim arily f e ath er th e p ers o nal n est o f th e e xecuti v e. T he r e su lts th at co unt m ust b e a chie v ed w ith th e w elfa re o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n i n m in d .

Som e o f th e m ost u se fu l d ev elo pm ent f o r a ny l e ad er i s to d ev elo p c ry sta l c la rity re gard in g w hat i s e xp ecte d i n th e w ay o f o utp uts . T ho se o utp uts n eed to b e cate go riz e d i n to “ W hat d oes th e o rg aniz a ti o n e xp ect f r o m m y d ep artm ent? ” A diffe re nt q uesti o n i s “ W hat d oes th e o rg aniz a ti o n e xp ect f r o m m e p ers o nally ?” I t i s usu ally e ye-o penin g f o r a ny l e ad er to g o a b out a sk in g s e le cte d p eers , s u b ord in ate s, and a b oss f o r th e a nsw er to th at q uesti o n.

Set E xtr em ely H ig h E xp ecta tio n s f o r L ea d ers For r e se arc h p urp ose s, w e a rb itr a rily s e t th e 9 0th p erc enti le a s th e c uto ff p oin t f o r bein g “ gre at” o n s o m e c o m pete ncy. W e w ould m uch p re fe r to h av e a b so lu te , obje cti v e s ta nd ard s b y w hic h to m ake m easu re m ents , b ut l a ckin g th o se m easu re s, we u se d p erc enti le s a s th e s u rro gate m easu re s.

We c o nte nd th at b y g etti n g y o ur b est l e ad ers to e xcel e v en m ore , e v ery o ne benefits . A gain , w e r e co gniz e th e te m pta ti o n to f o cus o n th e l o w est- p erfo rm in g le ad ers a nd a tte m pt to e le v ate th eir p erfo rm ance. T hat h as a n ic e l o gic to i t. I n ste ad , 229 we u rg e h elp in g th e b est o f y o ur c urre nt g ro up o f l e ad ers to b eco m e e v en b ette r.

Pete r D ru cker p oin ts o ut th at m ajo r a d vances i n m any f ie ld s c o m e w hen a f e w le ad in g p ra cti ti o ners b re ak n ew g ro und .

7 A s u rg eo n d ev elo ps a n ew p ro ced ure b y whic h to d o l e ss i n v asiv e h eart s u rg ery . T hen, i n a f e w y ears th e te chniq ue i s b ein g use d b y a w id e g ro up o f s u rg eo ns. A n i n v estm ent b ankin g f ir m d ev elo ps a n ew ap pro ach to f in ancin g s ta rt- u p o rg aniz a ti o ns. I n ti m e, a n um ber o f o th er f ir m s fo llo w . O ne u niv ers ity r e gis tr a r i m ple m ents a to ta lly o nlin e p ro cess th at e nab le s stu d ents to s ig n u p f o r c la sse s, g o th ro ugh f ir s t- y ear o rie nta ti o n, a nd p la ce o rd ers fo r b ooks a nd s u p plie s, a ll o n th e I n te rn et. W ith in a y ear, m any o th er i n sti tu ti o ns will b e d oin g th e s a m e th in g.

The p oin t i s th at w hen g o od p eo ple o r g o od o rg aniz a ti o ns e xcel, i t d oes m ore to lift th e e nti r e p opula ti o n th an s im ila r e ffo rts b y th e m id dle g ro up . W ith in a f ir m , ev ery o ne b enefits b y h elp in g th e s tr o ng to s e t e v en h ig her g o als . T hey b la ze th e tr a il. T hey s e t th e b ar to a n ew h eig ht, a nd m any w ho a re c urre ntl y i n th e ti e r b elo w will a d ju st th eir p erfo rm ance to th e n ew e xp ecta ti o n. O n a ny te am , th e p re se nce o f one o r tw o p eo ple w ho a re p utti n g f o rth H erc ule an e ffo rt, a nd w ork in g to th eir hig hest i n te nsity , r a is e s th e p erfo rm ance o f th e e nti r e g ro up .

Many p eo ple c an l e arn f r o m l e ad ers w ho a re e xcellin g. I n f a ct, n early e v ery o ne can. T hey c an o bse rv e b oth w hat i s b ein g d one a nd h o w i t i s b ein g e xecute d . T hese excelle nt l e ad ers s e em in gly c ause th e ti d e to r is e , a nd th at ti d e l ifts a ll b oats .

In volv e S en io r E xecu tiv es i n L ea d ersh ip D ev elo p m en t Senio r e xecuti v e i n v olv em ent g iv es tr a cti o n to a ny d ev elo pm ent e ffo rt. I t i s possib le to c re ate a s p ectr u m o f i n v olv em ent th at s h o uld h elp p la ce w here y o ur org aniz a ti o n c urre ntl y i s a nd w here y o u f e el i t s h o uld b e i n th e f u tu re . T he s p ectr u m is th e f o llo w in g.

• Tole ra nce.

S up pose a n e xecuti v e c o nd ones th e h um an r e so urc es f u ncti o n sp onso rin g s o m e p ro gra m s a nd a p pro ves th e b ud get. H ow ev er, th e s e nio r executi v es h av e n o k no w le d ge o f th e c o nte nt o r th e o bje cti v es o f w hat i s b ein g done. T he p ro cess i s to ta lly o ff th e e xecuti v e’s r a d ar s c re en.

• Cosm etic s u pport.

T he s e nio r e xecuti v es s e nd m em os i n s u p port o f th e dev elo pm ent e ffo rt a nd ta lk a b out i t i n l a rg e c o m pany m eeti n gs. T hey k no w th ey s h o uld b e s u p porti n g th is , b ut i t i s w ay d ow n th eir p rio rity l is t.

• Dabblin g.

A t th is s ta ge i n o ur c o nti n uum o f s u p port, th e e xecuti v es i n q uir e ab out th e ta rg ets f o r th e d ev elo pm enta l e ffo rts , a nd th ey m ay c o m e to a n ev enin g s e ssio n a nd d eliv er a ta lk . T his i s a to ken e ffo rt to g iv e th e a p peara nce th at s e nio r e xecuti v es a re c o ncern ed , b ut th eir c o ncern i s q uite s u p erfic ia l.

230 • Atte n dance.

A t th is p oin t, e xecuti v es w ill o fte n a tte nd th e p ro gra m a s parti c ip ants , r e aliz in g th at i f th ey th in k th is i s g o od f o r o th er p eo ple , th ey sh o uld s e t th e e xam ple . S o, e ach e xecuti v e ta kes h is o r h er tu rn atte nd in g a se ssio n. C le arly , th eir p re se nce s e nd s a n i m porta nt s ig nal to th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

Willin gness to c o m mit ti m e to th is a cti v ity i s o ne m easu re o f s u p port. W e co ncur w ith th o se w ho s a y th at k ey e xecuti v es n eed to b e s p end in g o ne-th ir d to one-h alf o f th eir ti m e i n p eo ple -d ev elo pm ent a cti v iti e s.

• Ownersh ip .

I t i s c le ar th at u p to th is p oin t, th e s ta ff o w ns th e l e ad ers h ip dev elo pm ent p ro cess a nd th e s e nio r e xecuti v es a re b ysta nd ers . B egin nin g a t th is l e v el o f s u p port, th e s e nio r e xecuti v es f e el a s tr o ng s e nse o f o w ners h ip .

They s e t th e o bje cti v es. T hey r e v ie w a nd a p pro ve th e a cti v iti e s. T hey o fte n co m e to p arti c ip ate i n th e d ev elo pm ent p ro cess. A p rim e e xam ple o f th is behav io r w as J a ck W elc h g o in g to G E’s C ro to nv ille e v ery tw o w eeks f o r 1 5 years to p arti c ip ate a cti v ely w ith a v arie ty o f m anagers a s th ey w ent th ro ugh parts o f th eir d ev elo pm ent p ro cess. W elc h p ro ud ly s ta te d , “ I h av e n ev er mis se d a s e ssio n.” 8 Top-e xecuti v e o w ners h ip i s th e s u re fir e w ay to a v oid th e “ sn ic ker f a cto r” i n a n org aniz a ti o n. I f p eo ple s e e th at th e e xecuti v es a re s o lid ly b ehin d th e d ev elo pm ent pro cess, th en th e s n id e r e m ark s a b out “ no t w alk in g th e ta lk ” g o a w ay.

One k ey i s su e i s h o w th e s e nio r te am h and le s p eo ple w ho a re o penly h o sti le o r who s h o w d is d ain f o r th e l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent e ffo rt. T his i s a n a cid te st o f le ad ers h ip .

Senio r l e ad ers ’ w illin gness to a ct a s m ento rs to y o unger, p ro m is in g s ta ff i s ano th er w ay o f d is p la yin g s e rio us c o m mitm ent to th e l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent effo rt. T hey c an p ro vid e u se fu l i n sig ht i n to o rg aniz a ti o n c ultu re , e xp la in u nw ritte n ru le s o f c o nd uct, e nsu re th at th e y o unger p ers o n n av ig ate s a ro und p itf a lls a nd tr a p s, giv e e nco ura gem ent d urin g d iffic ult s tr e tc h a ssig nm ents , a nd i n g enera l p ro vid e access to th e th in kin g o f th e p eo ple a t th e to p o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

Focu s D ev elo p m en t E ffo rts o n S tr en gth s Jo hn F la herty , i n s u m min g u p P ete r D ru cker’s th in kin g, w rite s:

Dru cker w as u nash am ed ly d ogm ati c a nd to ok a n a b so lu ti s t s ta nce o n th e pro positi o n th at h um an p erfo rm ance c ap ab ility d ep end ed o n s tr e ngth s a nd no t o n w eaknesse s. O f c o urs e , w eaknesse s h ad to b e a ckno w le d ged a nd neutr a liz e d , b ut th ey w ere i n cap ab le o f p ro ducin g r e su lts . I n h is c o nsu lti n g work h e f o llo w ed th e prin cip le o f a v oid in g a ny d is c ussio n o f w hat h is clie nts c o uld n o t d o, e m phasiz in g i n ste ad w hat th ey w ere c ap ab le o f d oin g 231 and w hat i t m ad e s e nse f o r th em to d o.

Because th e o nly p urp ose f o r h ir in g p eo ple w as to p ro duce r e su lts , em plo yees s h o uld b e p aid o nly i n c o nsid era ti o n o f th eir s tr e ngth s, n o t th eir w eaknesse s. B ut i n r e ality , th e o pposite w as o fte n th e c ase . T he org aniz a ti o n h ad a p ro cliv ity to f o cus o n h um an d efe cts , to c riti c iz e a nd harp o n th e n egati v e a sp ects o f i n d iv id uals , to s e e p eo ple a s th re ats r a th er th an o pportu niti e s, a nd to e ste em th e p ote nti a l o f c re d enti a ls i n ste ad o f co m pete ncy.

9 Dru ck er w ro te :

Conv ers e ly , th e e ffe cti v e e xecuti v e m akes s tr e ngth p ro ducti v e. H e k no w s th at o ne c anno t b uild o n w eakness. T o a chie v e r e su lts , o ne h as to u se a ll th e a v aila b le s tr e ngth s— th e s tr e ngth s o f a sso cia te s, th e s tr e ngth s o f th e su p erio r, a nd o ne’s o w n s tr e ngth s. T he s tr e ngth s a re th e tr u e o pportu niti e s.

To m ake s tr e ngth p ro ducti v e i s th e u niq ue p urp ose o f o rg aniz a ti o n. I ts ta sk is to u se th e s tr e ngth o f e ach m an a s a b uild in g b lo ck f o r j o in t perfo rm ance.

10 We c anno t e m phasiz e e no ugh th e p ositi v e i m pact th is h as o n o rg aniz a ti o n cultu re . R ath er th an p eo ple f e elin g c o nsta nt p re ssu re a nd g uilt r e gard in g th e th in gs th ey a re i n cap ab le o f d oin g, th ere i s a c o m ple te ly d iffe re nt to ne to th e o rg aniz a ti o n th at c ele b ra te s s tr e ngth .

Footb all te am s u se h ig hly s p ecia liz e d p la yers . O ne o f th e k ey p la yers i s th e kic ker. V ery o fte n th ese i n d iv id uals a re s lig ht o f b uild a nd n o t c ap ab le o f d oin g many o f th e th in gs th eir f e llo w te am mate s a re d oin g r e gula rly . S eld om a re th ey gre at r u nners o r p ass r e ceiv ers . H ow ev er, th ey a re u su ally a m ong th e h ig h s c o re rs on th e te am . N o o ne s e em s to m in d th ese “ w eaknesse s” o f th e k ic ker, s o l o ng a s th e kic ker c o m ple te s f ie ld g o als a nd g ets th e p oin ts a fte r to uch-d ow ns. E very o ne i s co nte nt to f o cus o n s tr e ngth s a nd i g no re e v ery th in g e ls e .

Every l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro cess s h o uld c o nta in ti m e a nd v ehic le s to ensu re th at th e l e ad ers th o ro ughly a nd a ccura te ly u nd ers ta nd th eir s tr e ngth s. A lo ng with th at, h o w ev er, th e o rg aniz a ti o n m ust c o nsta ntl y b e v ig ila nt a b out th e e v olv in g natu re o f th e s tr e ngth s th at th e o rg aniz a ti o n r e q uir e s. B ein g te chnic ally c o m pete nt may h av e b een a k ey s tr e ngth w hen th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s c halle nge w as d is c o verin g more o il. B ut i f th e c o m pany i s n o w a c o nsu m er m ark eti n g o rg aniz a ti o n w ith a str o ng r e ta il e m phasis , th en n ew s tr e ngth s m ay b e r e q uir e d f o r s u ccess.

Use P ow erfu l L ea rn in g M eth od s T hat C han ge 232 Beh avio r In th e p ast, w e h av e c o nd ucte d d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s i n w hic h p eo ple a re g iv en genera l i n str u cti o n w ith o ne o f f o ur o bje cti v es:

1.

Theo ry /k n ow le d ge.

I n th is a p pro ach, w e p our i n fo rm ati o n i n to a f u nnel o ver th e ti p ped h ead o f th e p arti c ip ant. O ne a ssu m pti o n i s th at “ if p eo ple k new bette r, th ey’d d o b ette r,” a nd a ll w e n eed to d o i s f ill th eir th eo ry b in s.

Ano th er w ay to e xp re ss th e a ssu m pti o n i s , “ T he m ore i n fo rm ati o n th e l e ad er posse sse s, th e b ette r w ill b e h is o r h er p erfo rm ance.” 2.

In sig ht.

T his a p pro ach a ssu m es th at l e ad ers a re p ro duced th ro ugh d ev elo pin g gre ate r s e lf- a w are ness. W hat i s w ro ng w ith l e ad ers i s th eir l a ck o f s e lf- in sig ht and th eir f la w ed i n ner f e elin gs a nd th o ughts .

3.

In sp ir a tio n.

T his a p pro ach a ssu m es th at l e ad ers n eed a n i n fu sio n o f enth usia sm a nd m oti v ati o n. P erfo rm ance i s d efic ie nt b ecause o f a d efic ie ncy in c o m mitm ent. T his i s th e o ne p la ce a nd ti m e w here s o m eo ne m ay h in t a t th e opportu nity to b e g re at, b ut th e n atu re o f i n sp ir a ti o nal p ro gra m s i s th eir s h o rt half- life . N o m echanis m s a re b uilt to m ain ta in th e e nth usia sm o r l o ck i n to pla ce n ew r e so lu ti o ns. F or a d eta ile d d is c ussio n o f h o w a l e ad er “ in sp ir e s and m oti v ate s o th ers to h ig h p erfo rm ance,” r e fe r to o ur s u b se q uent b ook, The In sp ir in g L ea der . 11 4.

Skills .

T his d ev elo pm enta l a p pro ach a ssu m es p eo ple n eed to b e a b le to d o th in gs th at th ey h av e n o t b een a b le to d o o r to d o th in gs b ette r th an th ey h av e been d oin g. T he o utc o m es o f th ese p ro gra m s a re l o nger-la sti n g, b ut th eir obje cti v e i s s e ld om e xp re sse d a s “ hitti n g th e b all o ut o f th e p ark .” We s u b m it th at i f o ur o bje cti v e i s to b uild g re at l e ad ers , o ur d ev elo pm enta l pro cesse s m ust u nd erg o m ajo r tr a nsfo rm ati o n a nd b e b uilt o n a r a d ic ally d iffe re nt min d -s e t. T he m in d -s e t m ust b e o ne o f e xp ecti n g h ig h p erfo rm ance f r o m n early ev ery o ne. W ith th at w e s h o uld i n sis t o n h ard w ork a nd te nacio us e ngagem ent i n a ll th ey d o. H ard w ork w ill th en p ro duce s ig nific ant i m pro vem ents i n p erfo rm ance.

Dev elo pm enta l p ra cti c es m ust h o ld o ut th e e xp ecta ti o n a nd p ro vid e th e to ols f o r peo ple to m ove b eyo nd a v era ge to g o od, a nd m ove b eyo nd g o od to b eco m in g g re at.

His to ric ally , l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s w ere c o nd ucte d b y u niv ers iti e s on th eir c am puse s. T hen c o m panie s b egan d oin g th eir o w n i n -h o use p ro gra m s b ut sti ll r e lie d h eav ily o n a cad em ic s to c o nd uct th em . T he i n str u cti o nal m eth o ds w ere tr a nsp orte d f r o m a cad em ia a nd m ir ro re d th e w ay p ro fe sso rs ta ught i n th e c o lle ge cla ssro om . T he tr a d iti o nal l e arn in g m eth o ds f o r l e ad ers h ip p ro gra m s, th ere fo re , were • L ectu re s 233 • C ase s tu d ie s • E xte nsiv e r e ad in g a ssig nm ents • S m all g ro up d is c ussio ns • S peeches f r o m c o m pany e xecuti v es • V id eo a nd f ilm p re se nta ti o ns What w e a re p ro posin g i s a d ra m ati c s h ift to n ew l e arn in g m eth o ds. T he prin cip le s th at s h o uld g uid e th e s e le cti o n o f l e arn in g m eth o ds a re • P ra cti c ality • I m med ia te o pportu nity to a p ply k no w le d ge o r s k ill • C oncre te v ers u s a b str a ct • J o b-re la te d • A cti o n-o rie nte d • E m oti o nally e ngagin g • P ers o naliz e d • O ngo in g v ers u s a o ne-ti m e e v ent • B uilt- in a cco unta b ility f o r i m ple m enta ti o n In p ra cti c e, th is l e ad s to th e u se o f s o m e m ark ed ly d iffe re nt i n str u cti o nal meth o ds.

• Feed back . I t m eans th e g re ate r u se o f p ers o naliz e d f e ed back p ro ced ure s, s u ch as 3 60-d egre e f e ed back i n str u m ents . M ost l e ad ers a re n o t g o od a t r e fle cti o n and s e lf- a naly sis . T he p ace o f th eir w ork does n o t a llo w i t, a nd th at p ace se em s to a ccele ra te c o nsta ntl y . O ur s o cie ty a nd c ultu re h as n o t p ro vid ed g o od models o f m echanis m s f o r p eo ple to g iv e th o se i n a uth o rity o ver th em a ny ho nest r e acti o ns to w hat th ey d o o r h o w th ey a re d oin g i t. F urth er, th ere a re str o ng p oliti c al p re ssu re s i n m ost o rg aniz a ti o ns th at b lo ck th e tr u th f r o m b ein g passe d f r o m s u b ord in ate s to th eir s u p erio rs . P eo ple a re s u b tl y to ld , “ D on’t ro ck th e b oat,” a nd “ m esse ngers g et k ille d .” T hat i s w hy a ny m echanis m th at unclo gs th e p ip es b etw een p eo ple i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n i s o f g re at v alu e. T ools su ch a s 3 60-d egre e f e ed back i n str u m ents o r s k ip -le v el m eeti n gs p erfo rm th at fu ncti o n.

• Coach in g . C oachin g a nd m ento rin g a re p ow erfu l d ev elo pm enta l p ro cesse s.

There i s a r a p id ly g ro w in g tr e nd to p ro vid e c o aches to l e ad ers a nd n o t w aiti n g unti l th ey a re i n tr o ub le . C oaches a re s e en a s a w ay to h elp th e g o od b eco m e much b ette r. T hey o bse rv e m eeti n gs, r e v ie w m em os, c riti q ue s p eeches, a nd i n genera l a ssis t i n b uild in g b ehav io ra l s k ills .

234 • Sim ula tio ns . C om pute r-b ase d s im ula ti o ns m eet th e c rite ria e sta b lis h ed a b ove.

Sim ula ti o ns c an b e e xtr e m ely j o b-re la te d . T hey c all f o r f r e q uent d ecis io ns.

The c o nse q uences b eco m e c le ar i m med ia te ly . T here i s a cco unta b ility , a nd th ey are e ngagin g.

• Tea m -b uild in g a ctiv itie s.

A cti v iti e s th at i n v olv e te am s a ctu ally d oin g so m eth in g, s u ch a s b uild in g a p ro duct, a sse m blin g a te nt w hile b lin d fo ld ed , o r cre ati n g a n ew a d verti s in g c am paig n, a re p ow erfu l l e arn in g m eth o ds.

• Pla nnin g b ack-h om e a pplic a tio n o f n ew l e a rn in g.

W e r e co m mend ti m e s p ent in d ev elo pm ent s e ssio ns a cti v ely p la nnin g th e b ack-h o m e i m ple m enta ti o n o f what h as b een l e arn ed . T his g re atl y i n cre ase s th e l ik elih o od o f i t b ein g a cte d on.

• Cre a tin g m ea su re m en t d ash board s.

W hat b ette r a cti v ity c o uld th ere b e th an to cre ate s im ple , e ffe cti v e m easu re s b y w hic h to g auge l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness?

• Sen io r p eo ple c o m e i n t o r e la te “ w ar” s to rie s.

I t i s o ne th in g to h av e a n executi v e c o m e i n to d eliv er a p re p are d s p eech o n s o m e a sp ect o f th e i n d ustr y or r e gard in g th e s ta te o f th e e co no m y. I t i s q uite d iffe re nt i f th e e xecuti v e w ill co m e i n a nd r e la te p ers o nal e xp erie nces r e gard in g w ays to h and le d iffic ult custo m er s itu ati o ns, to ugh n ego ti a ti o ns w ith su p plie rs , o r c halle ngin g b attl e s with c o m peti to rs . T he l a tte r a re m em ora b le a nd p ow erfu l te achin g d ev ic es.

You w ill h ear s o m e p eo ple s a y th at l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent i s s o m eth in g th at org aniz a ti o ns i n v est i n f o r th e l o ng r u n a nd th at n o o ne s h o uld e xp ect a n i m med ia te payo ff. W e ta ke e xactl y th e o pposite s ta nce. Y ou s h o uld b e a b le to s e e r e su lts r ig ht aw ay, a nd i n th at w ay y o u w ill b e g uara nte ed s ig nific ant l o ng-te rm r e su lts . I f y o u do n o t s e e r e su lts r e la ti v ely q uic kly , w e d oub t y o u e v er w ill.

One o f th e a uth o rs w as s itti n g b y th e h ead o f l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent f o r a Fortu ne 5 00 c o m pany d urin g a l u nch a nd i n q uir e d o f h im , “ W hat a re y o u d oin g i n yo ur l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent e ffo rts th at y o u f e el r e ally g o od a b out— so m eth in g th at y o u c an s e e r e ally m akes a d iffe re nce? T he e xecuti v e u nhesita ti n gly r e p lie d , “W e d on’t a nti c ip ate s e ein g a ny p ayo ff f r o m w hat w e’re d oin g f o r a t l e ast f iv e o r te n y ears .” W e a d m ir e th e e xecuti v es o f a f ir m w ho a re w illin g to i n v est i n so m eth in g f o r w hic h th ey c an s e e n o n ear-te rm p ayo ut a nd f o r w hic h th e l o ng-te rm payo ut i s to ta lly i m possib le to m easu re . H ow ev er, w hile a d m ir in g th em , w e questi o n th eir j u d gm ent.

As w e n o te d e arlie r, i f p eo ple c anno t g o b ack to th eir j o bs a nd a p ply w hat th ey hav e l e arn ed a lm ost i m med ia te ly , w e s e rio usly d oub t th ey e v er w ill. W e d o n o t help o urs e lv es g ain c re d ib ility b y p ortr a yin g w hat w e d o a s h av in g n o i m med ia te payo ff, n o r h av in g a ny w ay to m easu re i t. T hat f e els l ik e w e a re p urv eyo rs o f “ fa ir y dust.” 235 The P ow er o f B ette r T ea ch in g M eth od s It i s e asy to u nd ere sti m ate th e e no rm ous p ow er o f i m pro ved l e arn in g a nd te achin g meth o ds. A g ro up o f 1 9 s c ho ol d is tr ic ts i n th e C hic ago a re a h av e b and ed to geth er to fo rm th e F ir s t i n th e W orld C onso rti u m . T hese s c ho ols h av e f o cuse d o n i m pro vin g th eir te achin g m eth o ds. T he o utc o m e i s th at i f th ese 1 9 d is tr ic ts w ere c o nsid ere d to be a “ co untr y ,” i t w ould r a nk n um ber 1 , 2 , o r 3 i n th e w orld o n s c o re s i n math em ati c s a nd s c ie nce a t s e v era l g ra d e l e v els . T he s tu d ents , m any f r o m i n ner-c ity sc ho ols , p erfo rm b ette r th an s tu d ents i n S in gap ore , K ore a, a nd J a p an, d esp ite th e fa ct th at U .S . s tu d ents o vera ll a re i n th e l o w er h alf o f w orld w id e c o m para ti v e sc o re s.

How w as th at a cco m plis h ed ? T eachers a ct a s c o aches a nd f a cilita to rs . S tu d ents are a cti v ely e ngaged . L ectu re s a re s e ld om u se d . T he s tu d ents w ork o n p ro je cts th at are e xciti n g to th em . T hey a re f a r m ore e m oti o nally e ngaged th an i n a n o rm al cla ssro om s e tti n g.

12 Em phasiz e A ctio n L ea rn in g P ro je cts — or W ork o n Pro je cts T hat M atte r The p re ced in g s e cti o n d esc rib ed h o w l e arn in g m eth o ds c an m ake a b ig d iffe re nce.

In a d diti o n to th e m eth o dolo gy, th ere i s a w ay to f o cus th e d ev elo pm ent p ro cess aro und h o nest- to -g o odness i s su es th e o rg aniz a ti o n f a ces. R ath er th an s p end in g ti m e analy zin g a c o m pany i n a to ta lly d iffe re nt i n d ustr y , w hy n o t f o cus th e d ev elo pm ent pro cess o n th e m ost i m porta nt, th o rn ie st, c halle ngin g i s su es th e o rg aniz a ti o n actu ally h as? T his i d ea, d ub bed “ acti o n l e arn in g,” w as p io neere d b y R egin ald Rev ans, a m anagem ent p ro fe sso r a t O xfo rd U niv ers ity i n E ngla nd .

13 T he i d ea m et with s u ch s u ccess th at i t h as b eco m e w id ely u se d i n th e m ost s o phis ti c ate d le ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s a ll o ver th e w orld .

The S ie m ens o rg aniz a ti o n g av e te am s o f p arti c ip ants i n i ts l e ad ers h ip dev elo pm ent p ro cess th e p ro ble m s th at i n ti m es p ast i t w ould h av e g iv en to a h ig h- pro file c o nsu lti n g c o m pany s u ch a s M cK in se y, B ain , o r B CG . S ie m ens e sti m ate d th at th e r e co m mend ati o ns c o m in g f r o m th e a cti o n l e arn in g te am s s a v ed th e co rp ora ti o n b etw een $ 3 m illio n a nd $ 4 m illio n i n c o nsu lti n g c o sts a nd r e ap ed re co m mend ati o ns th at p ro duced $ 11 m illio n i n s a v in gs i n o ne y ear. T hus, S ie m ens’ le ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro cess m oved f r o m b ein g a h uge e xp end itu re a nd c ash dra in to b ein g a v ehic le to i m pro ve p erfo rm ance. T ake th e s a v in gs f r o m th e te am ’s re co m mend ati o ns a nd th en a d d th e f e es S ie m ens w ould h av e p aid th e e xte rn al fir m s, a nd th e p ayo ff w as h and so m e.

14 236 The o th er c o m pellin g a rg um ent i n f a v or o f a cti o n l e arn in g, h o w ev er, i s th e hig hly e ngagin g n atu re o f i t. P eo ple g enera lly f in d th ese a cti v iti e s to b e m ore in v olv in g. A cti o n l e arn in g p ro je cts m eet n early a ll o f th e c rite ria w e d esc rib ed .

They a re e m in entl y p ra cti c al, b ecause th ey h av e b een s e le cte d w ith th o se c rite ria i n min d . T hey a re v ery j o b-re la te d b ecause th ey s p rin g f r o m w ith in th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

They l e nd th em se lv es to r a p id i m ple m enta ti o n. T he p ro je cts a re e xtr e m ely co ncre te . T yp ic ally , th e g ro up s s p end s e v era l w eeks to s e v era l m onth s w ork in g o n th e p ro je ct, s o th at i t b eco m es a l o ng-te rm l e arn in g e xp erie nce r a th er th an a n e v ent.

Noth in g c o uld b e m ore j o b-re la te d . V ery o fte n, th e te am s d oin g th e a naly sis o f a n is su e o r p ro ble m a re th en a sk ed to b e i n v olv ed i n p la nnin g f o r, a nd a ctu ally im ple m enti n g, th eir r e co m mend ati o ns.

Our v ie w i s th at th e g re at p ow er o f a cti o n l e arn in g i s th e f a ct th at i t s o co m ple te ly m eets th e c rite ria f o r e ffe cti v e l e arn in g m eth o ds. I t i s a p erfe ct w ay to ta p i n to th e e no rm ous w ells p rin g o f ta le nt, i n no vati o n, a nd k no w le d ge th at exis ts with in e v ery f ir m . T he p eo ple i n v olv ed a re e nerg iz e d w hen a sk ed to a d dre ss a to pic o f s u ch o bvio us i m porta nce a nd v alu e to th e f ir m .

One i n te re sti n g a p pro ach i n l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent i n v olv es e ach p arti c ip ant defin in g a p ers o nal a cti o n l e arn in g p ro je ct. F ord M oto r C om pany h as u se d th is te chniq ue. T hey c all i t th eir Q IP ( Q uantu m I d ea P ro je ct) a cti v ity . I t i s a c ente rp ie ce of th eir N ew B usin ess L ead er P ro gra m d esig ned f o r f ir s t- le v el s u p erv is o rs o f sa la rie d e m plo yees.

Ste w art F rie d m an o bse rv es th e r e su lts th is h ad a t F ord :

Acti o n l e arn in g c re ate s b usin ess i m pact. T he p ro je cts p arti c ip ants c ho ose must h av e a b usin ess b enefit i n te rm s o f c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n, c o st re d ucti o n, o r e nhanced r e v enue. O ne o f th e m ost n o ta b le e xam ple s i s th e QIP — th e Q uantu m I d ea P ro je ct. I t’ s th e k ey to o ur N ew B usin ess L ead er Pro gra m — The Q IP , i n te nd ed to d riv e r e v olu ti o nary c hange a t F ord , str e tc h a n i n d iv id ual’ s c ap acity to th in k c riti c ally , i n no vate d arin gly , ev alu ate c ho ic es s tr a te gic ally , a nd s u p port b usin ess o bje cti v es w is e ly . I n th e p ro cess, a m anager b egin s to d ev elo p l e ad ers h ip s k ills th at h e/s h e c an use e v ery d ay. T he Q IP p ro cess i s o rg aniz e d a cco rd in g to k ey m ile sto nes, check-o ffs , a nd e v alu ati o n p ro cesse s i n here nt to a p ro je ct. A dditi o nally , our p ro gra m s i n sti ll a s e nse o f a cco unta b ility . P arti c ip ants a re e v alu ate d on th e o utc o m e o f th eir p ro je cts a nd h o w w ell th ey p erfo rm ed a s l e ad ers .

For e xam ple , h o w d id th ey i n te ra ct w ith th eir p eers ? D id th ey n etw ork su ccessfu lly ? D id th ey l e arn n ew w ays o f d oin g th in gs?

15 Most a cti o n l e arn in g p ro je cts i n v olv e s iz a b le te am s, o fte n r e p re se nti n g d iffe re nt fu ncti o nal a re as o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n a nd d iffe re nt c o untr ie s. T hey m eet f a ce-to -fa ce on s o m e o ccasio ns a nd s u p ple m ent s u ch m eeti n gs w ith te le co nfe re nces o r c hat ro om s o n th e I n te rn et.

237 One k ey e le m ent i s th e p ro cess o f e nsu rin g th at l e arn in g i s ta kin g p la ce a s th e te am w ork s o n a r e al i s su e o r p ro ble m . O uts id e r e so urc es, s u ch a s te chnic al exp erts , a re o fte n m ad e a v aila b le to th e te am , b ut i t i s th e te am ’s r e sp onsib ility to ask f o r a nd u se th ese r e so urc es. P arti c ip ants a re o fte n w ork in g o n a n i s su e th at i s outs id e th e n o rm al s p here o f th eir r e sp onsib ility . T he te am s a re n early a lw ays dev oid o f a ny h ie ra rc hy. I n ste ad th ey a re c o m pose d o f “ o rg aniz a ti o nal c o usin s” — peo ple a t g enera lly th e s a m e l e v el b ut f r o m d iffe re nt “ fa m ilie s” i n sid e th e f ir m .

Ofte n, a f a cilita to r i s a ssig ned to w ork w ith th e te am to e nsu re th at ti m e i s ta ken perio dic ally to p ause a nd r e fle ct o n w hat th ey h av e l e arn ed a nd to e nco ura ge diffe re nt a p pro aches i n th e f u tu re .

16 We r e co m mend th e r e ad er o bta in M ic hael M arq uard t’ s b ook Actio n L ea rn in g . 17 It i s a p ra cti c al d is c o urs e o n a cti o n l e arn in g a nd h o w to i m ple m ent i t i n a ny org aniz a ti o n. T here i s a ls o a n e xcelle nt c hap te r ( Chap te r 4 ) o n a cti o n l e arn in g i n Dav id A . G arv in ’s Lea rn in g i n A ctio n . 18 Crea te a C ult u re o f F eed back Lead ers h ip d ev elo pm ent i s s ig nific antl y e nhanced i n a c ultu re i n w hic h c o nti n ual fe ed back i s c o m mon. A v arie ty o f m echanis m s e xis ts to h elp m ake th is h ap pen, a nd we th in k th ey a re h ig hly u se fu l.

Som e o f th o se a re • 3 60-d egre e f e ed back p ro ced ure s • F re q uent p erfo rm ance d is c ussio ns b etw een b osse s a nd s u b ord in ate s • T eam -b uild in g s e ssio ns • C oachin g r e la ti o nsh ip s • S kip -le v el m eeti n gs We o fte n th in k o f f e ed back a s c o nsis ti n g o f h ars h o r d iffic ult m essa ges. N oth in g is m ore u ntr u e. S om e o f th e m ost v alu ab le f e ed back i n o rg aniz a ti o ns i s l e tti n g peo ple k no w th at w hat th ey a re d oin g i s a p pre cia te d a nd h elp fu l to o th ers . T his i s very m uch i n k eep in g w ith o ur b asic m essa ge o f f o cusin g o n s tr e ngth s. P eo ple o fte n do n o t a p pre cia te th eir s tr e ngth s b ecause m uch o f th e f e ed back th ey h av e r e ceiv ed th ro ugh th eir l iv es h as b een a b out w hat th ey f a ile d to d o, d efic ie ncie s th ey h av e, o r mis ta kes th ey h av e m ad e. O ne w ay o f h av in g p eo ple m ore f u lly c o m pre hend th eir str e ngth s i s f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n to p ro vid e f r e q uent f e ed back to th em . M ost fe ed back c an b e f r a m ed a s s u ggesti o ns, i d eas to c o nsid er, o r th in gs th e p ers o n mig ht w is h to th in k a b out. F or m any p eo ple , th at i s a ll th at i s r e q uir e d .

There i s , o n th e o th er h and , v alu e i n p eo ple b ein g a b le to d eliv er d iffic ult 238 messa ges to e ach o th er i n a c o nstr u cti v e w ay. P ossib ly th e m ost c o m mon f a ilin g w e se e i n e xecuti v es i s a n u nw illin gness to c o nfr o nt p erfo rm ance i s su es w ith p eo ple .

They a re s o a fr a id o f h urti n g th e o th er p ers o n’s f e elin gs a nd s o a fr a id th at th e re la ti o nsh ip w ill b e d am aged th at th ey a v oid a ny s u ch d is c ussio n. P erfo rm ance o f th e p ers o n o fte n c o nti n ues to s p ir a l d ow nw ard u nti l th e ti m e c o m es w hen th e manager h as n o a lte rn ati v e b ut to te rm in ate h im . T hen c o m es th e w eir d co nv ers a ti o n i n w hic h th e s u b ord in ate s a ys, “ W hy d id n’t y o u te ll m e th at I h ad perfo rm ance p ro ble m s? ” T o w hic h th e m anager r e p lie s, “ I d id n o t w ant to h urt y o ur fe elin gs.” The h ealth ie st f e ed back i n o rg aniz a ti o ns c o m es w hen p eo ple c an f r e ely exchange v ie w s w ith e ach o th er. M ax d e P re e, th e r e ti r e d C EO o f H erm an M ille r, sta te d , “ I n o w w ork w ith a b out te n p eo ple , a ll o f w ho m s e e m e a s o ne o f th eir mento rs . I n o rd er f o r a m ento rs h ip to w ork , i t h as to b e a c o -m ento rin g a rra ngem ent.

You c an’t h av e a te acher a nd a s tu d ent. Y ou b oth h av e to b e a te acher a nd a s tu d ent.

That k eep s m e a liv e. I k eep l e arn in g.” 19 Tra n sfo rm C om ple x it y i n to S im plic it y We l iv e i n a ti m e i n w hic h d urin g th e d ay, a ty p ic al m anager r e ceiv es 3 4 p ho ne calls , h und re d s o f e -m ails , 6 f a xes, a nd s p end s 2 to 3 h o urs i n m eeti n gs. I t i s a ti m e of d ata o verlo ad . W e h av e a ccess to s e em in g w are ho use s o f i n fo rm ati o n o n ev ery th in g i m agin ab le , i n clu d in g m ost b usin ess i s su es. R ath er th an b ein g f o rc ed to cho ose b etw een o ne g o od a lte rn ati v e a nd o ne b ad o ne, m ost l e ad ers f in d th em se lv es i n th e s itu ati o n o f h av in g to c ho ose a m ong a t l e ast a h and fu l o f g o od alte rn ati v es.

It i s n o l o nger th e c ho ic e b etw een r ig ht o r w ro ng ta cti c s o r s tr a te gy. T he c ho ic e is a m ong m ulti p le a v enues a nd tr y in g to f ig ure o ut w hic h i s b est. T he f o rm er Fortu ne m agazin e e d ito r T ho m as S te w art h as w ritte n o f th o se c o nflic ts i n a n a rti c le ab out th e C anad ia n I m peria l B ank o f C om merc e. A fte r i n te rv ie w in g a ll o f th e se nio r m anagem ent, th e p eo ple i n c harg e o f a n ew l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent c ente r id enti fie d n in e d ile m mas l e ad ers f a ce:

1. A cti n g i n a “ get o ut w ith th e tr o ops” a p pro ach, v ers u s a s tr o ng, c haris m ati c , hig hly v is ib le m anner.

2. H av in g a n i n d ep end ent, e ntr e p re neuria l c ultu re v ers u s b ein g a g o od te am pla yer a nd a cti n g i n te rd ep end entl y w ith o th ers .

3. M anagin g f o r th e s h o rt te rm v ers u s th e l o ng te rm .

4. H av in g a c ultu re o f h ig h c re ati v ity v ers u s o ne o f d is c ip lin e.

5. T ru st v ers u s c hange. T he a rg um ent h ere i s th at e v ery ti m e y o u i n sti tu te m ajo r 239 change, y o u r is k d am agin g th e f e elin gs o f tr u st th at p eo ple h av e f o r y o u.

6. B ure aucra cy b usti n g v ers u s w ork in g to w ard e co no m ie s o f s c ale .

7. E m phasis o n p eo ple v ers u s h ig h p ro ducti v ity .

8. M anagem ent v ers u s l e ad ers h ip . D o w e e m phasiz e th e te chnic al a nd ad m in is tr a ti v e i s su es o r s w in g to e m phasiz e p eo ple , m is sio n, a nd v is io n?

9. R ev enue g ro w th v ers u s c o st c o nta in m ent.

20 The j o b o f th e l e ad er i s o ne o f c o nsta ntl y d ealin g w ith c o m ple xity a nd am big uity . L ead ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro cesse s m ust h elp th em to d eal w ith th at.

Som e m echanis m s m ay b e i n sti tu ti o nal, l ik e th e P ro cte r & G am ble p ra cti c e o f lim iti n g a ll m em os to o ne p age. T hat f o rc es y o u to m ove c o m ple xity i n to s im plic ity .

Our e arlie r d is c ussio n o f th e U .S . M arin es C orp s’ a p pro ach i s y et a no th er w ay of g o in g a b out i t. I n sis t th at e v ery m ajo r p ro ble m o r m is sio n b e d is ti lle d to th re e alte rn ati v es, a b out w hic h s o m e a naly sis i s p erfo rm ed a nd a s e le cti o n i s m ad e o f th e best a lte rn ati v e. T hen d eta ile d p la ns a re m ad e f o r th e f in al s e le cti o n. T he p ro cess of ta kin g a ny p ro ble m o r m is sio n a nd w in no w in g i t d ow n to th re e a lte rn ati v es i s a pow erfu l p ro ced ure .

In volv e Y ou r L ea d ers a s T ea ch ers In v olv in g l e ad ers a s te achers h as a n um ber o f b enefits . F ir s t, y o u n ev er l e arn so m eth in g m ore e ffe cti v ely th an w hen y o u h av e to te ach i t. S o th e p ro cess o f engagin g l e ad ers a s te achers i s a p ow erfu l w ay to l e t th em b eco m e h ig hly co nv ers a nt w ith a ny b ody o f c o nte nt o r n ew i n iti a ti v e. S eco nd , i t i s a g re at dev elo pm enta l to ol. T he te achers g ain n ew s k ills , b oth i n te achin g a nd a s a r o le model o f w hate v er i t i s th ey a re te achin g. T hir d , th eir p re se nce l e nd s h ig h cre d ib ility to w hat i s b ein g ta ught.

The u se o f l e ad ers a s c o aches to a cti o n l e arn in g te am s i s o ne o bvio us e xam ple of th is p ra cti c e. E ach a cti o n l e arn in g te am n eed s s o m eo ne to b e i ts o ffic ia l s p onso r, or “ angel.” T he te am a ls o n eed s s o m eo ne to r u n i n te rfe re nce w hen r e q uir e d , a s well a s s o m eo ne to m ento r th e g ro up th ro ugh th e p ro cess. I n s u ch a r o le , n um ero us opportu niti e s a ris e f o r c o achin g o n l e ad ers h ip b ehav io r f o r a ll o f th e p arti c ip ants .

Mak e D ev elo p m en t a L on ger-T erm P ro cess, N ot a n Even t 240 Lead ers h ip d ev elo pm ent a cti v iti e s h av e l o ng b een v ie w ed a s e v ents . T hat e v ent co uld b e a w eekend , a n e nti r e w eek, o r, i n s o m e c ase s, i t c o uld str e tc h to a s m any as 1 3 w eeks. ( W e a re r e m in d ed o f th e e xecuti v e w ho a sk ed h is b oss a b out atte nd in g a 1 3-w eek e xecuti v e d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m , a nd th e b oss r e p lie d , “ If I c an sp are y o u f o r 1 3 w eeks, I c an s p are y o u.” ) W hat w e a re a d vocati n g i s n o t multi w eek-lo ng p ro gra m s. I n ste ad , w e a re s tr o ngly a d vocati n g th e p ra cti c e o f makin g a ny d ev elo pm ent p ro cess p art o f o ngo in g w ork a cti v iti e s a nd th at i t b e vie w ed a s p art o f “ life lo ng l e arn in g.” In c o nd ucti n g f o cus g ro up s w ith s e nio r e xecuti v es, i t i s c le ar th at th ey p re fe r sh o rt b urs ts o f ti m e o ff th e j o b w ith m eanin gfu l a cti v iti e s ta kin g p la ce b etw een s u ch meeti n gs. W ith th e m ajo rity o f p eo ple i n l e ad ers h ip r o le s w ork in g m ore th an 5 0 ho urs p er w eek, th e p re ssu re to m in im iz e ti m e o ff th e j o b i s v ery r e al. F or e xam ple , in th e G old m an S achs l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent o pera ti o n, th e l o ngest ti m e a nyo ne i s off th e j o b i s tw o d ays.

One u se fu l tr e nd i s to w ard “ b le nd ed s o lu ti o ns,” o r p ro gra m s th at c o m bin e W eb - deliv ere d c o nte nt a lo ng w ith f a cilita te d s e ssio ns. T his a llo w s a ny c o ncep tu al mate ria l o r c o nte nt to b e d eliv ere d o ver th e I n te rn et. W hen c o m ple te d , p arti c ip ants th en a tte nd a f a cilita te d s e ssio n i n w hic h th o se i d eas a re a p plie d to r e al s itu ati o ns and d urin g w hic h p arti c ip ants c an p ra cti c e n ew s k ills . A fte rw ard , th e p arti c ip ants hav e a ccess to o nlin e s im ula ti o ns th at r e in fo rc e a ll th e c o nte nt a nd th e s k ills th ey hav e l e arn ed .

The b le nd ed s o lu ti o n, b y i ts v ery n atu re , b eco m es a n e xte nd ed p ro cess o f dev elo pm ent. M any o f th ese i n clu d e th e c re ati o n o f a c o achin g r e la ti o nsh ip w ith ano th er p ers o n i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n, a nd th ey m ay a ls o o ffe r o nlin e m ento rin g f o r peo ple w ith q uesti o ns o r i s su es th ey w is h to a d dre ss. T his c o m bin ati o n o f m ulti p le le arn in g m eth o ds, a ll p ro vid ed o ver a n e xte nd ed p erio d o f ti m e, i s a g o od e xam ple of l e arn in g b ein g a l o ng-te rm p ro cess a nd n o t a o neti m e e v ent.

Build A cco u nta b ilit y i n to t h e D ev elo p m en t P ro cess One o f th e s tr a nge a no m alie s o f l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s i n th e p ast h as been th e i s su e o f a cco unta b ility . T here h as b een a cco unta b ility o n th e p art o f th o se who w ere o rg aniz in g a nd c o nd ucti n g th e p ro cess. S om e h av e j o kin gly d esc rib ed th ese a s th e “ F ” m easu re m ents . T hat i s , w e h av e c o lle cte d d ata a b out h o w th e parti c ip ants l ik ed th e f a ciliti e s, th e f o od, th e f a culty , a nd th e f u n.

Where th ere h as b een n o a cco unta b ility h as b een o n th e p arti c ip ants ’ s id e o f th e eq uati o n. D id th e p arti c ip ants l e arn a nd r e ta in th at i n fo rm ati o n? D id th ey e v er atte m pt to u se i t? W hat r e su lts d id th ey a chie v e? H ow h av e th ey p asse d i t o n to peo ple w ho w ork a ro und th em ? A re th ere a ny c o ncre te b usin ess i n d ic ato rs s u ch a s 241 pro ducti v ity i m pro vem ent, r e v enue g enera ti o n, c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n, c o st re d ucti o n, o r e m plo yee r e te nti o n n um bers to i n d ic ate th at th e p arti c ip ants h ad im ple m ente d w hat th ey l e arn ed ?

Som e p re v io us s tu d ie s o f l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s s u ggeste d th at peo ple l ik ed th e e xp erie nce b ut s e ld om d id a nyth in g w ith i t. O bvio usly , th is dep end s a g o od d eal o n th e o bje cti v es o f th e l e arn in g p ro cess a nd w hat w as d one.

We a rg ue th at th e ti m e h as c o m e f o r o rg aniz a ti o ns to b e c le ar a b out th e b usin ess obje cti v es o f l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent a nd to m easu re th e o utc o m es.

Chap te r 1 4 will m ore th o ro ughly a d dre ss th e i m porta nce o f f o llo w -th ro ugh f o r a ll d ev elo pm ent acti v iti e s.

Pla n D ev elo p m en ta l E xp erie n ces f o r L ea d ers Lead ers h ip d ev elo pm ent i s m ore th an a “ tr a in in g s ta ti o n.” Y es, c la ssro om exp erie nces c an h av e v alu e, b ut m ost th o ughtf u l o bse rv ers c o nclu d e th at ap pro xim ate ly 8 0 p erc ent o f w hat w e l e arn i s c asu al a nd i n fo rm al.

Tim e s p ent i n f o rm al l e arn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent i s m in is c ule c o m pare d w ith ho urs s p ent o n th e j o b. I t i s v ita l, th ere fo re , to p ut a sp ir in g l e ad ers i n to env ir o nm ents f r o m w hic h th ey c an l e arn a g re at d eal i n a s h o rt ti m e.

The r e se arc h i s s o c le ar a b out e xp erie nces m akin g a h uge d iffe re nce i n a le ad er’s d ev elo pm ent th at i t i s o bvio us th at th o ughtf u l p la nnin g a b out th ese exp erie nces i s m and ato ry . E ach l e ad er s h o uld b e c o nsid ere d b y th e o rg aniz a ti o n and d ecis io ns m ad e r e gard in g r o ta ti o nal a ssig nm ents , w hic h c o uld i n clu d e m ovin g fr o m o ne d iv is io n to a no th er, m ovem ent f r o m l in e to s ta ff, f r o m d om esti c o pera ti o ns to a n i n te rn ati o nal a ssig nm ent, o r o nto s o m e s p ecia l ta sk f o rc e th at i s a ssig ned a n im porta nt p ro je ct o f v ita l i n te re st to th e f ir m .

Challe ngin g a ssig nm ents a ccele ra te th e p ace o f l e arn in g. T hey i m mers e p eo ple in th e n itty -g ritty o f th e i n d ustr y , th e c o m pany, o r s o m e f u ncti o nal a re a w ith in i t.

They l e arn f ir s t- h and th e e no rm ous v alu e o f te am w ork .

We r e co m mend th e b ook The L esso ns o f E xp erie n ce b y M org an M cC all, J r., Mic hael L om bard o, a nd A nn M orris o n. I t g iv es p ra cti c al i n sig hts i n to h o w w ork exp erie nces l e ad to th e d ev elo pm ent o f l e ad ers .

21 Cele b ra te S uccesse s When p ositi v e r e su lts a re a chie v ed , th ey n eed to b e c ele b ra te d . T he o rg aniz a ti o n need s to s e e th e l in k b etw een a b usin ess r e su lt a nd th e d ev elo pm ent e ffo rts th at 242 help ed a chie v e th at. W hen c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n n um bers g o u p a s a r e su lt o f th e acti o ns ta ken b y r e cent a lu m ni o f a l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent e ffo rt, i t s h o uld b e wid ely b ro ad cast.

Con clu sio n The s u ccess o f a ll o f th e a b ove r e co m mend ati o ns h in ges o n th e b one-d eep b elie fs of th e s e nio r l e ad ers o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n. D o th ey r e ally b elie v e th at th eir p eo ple can b eco m e g re at l e ad ers ? O r d o th ey h o ld th e o ld v ie w th at i n te llig ence a nd a b ility are f ix ed a t b ir th a nd p eo ple r e ally c anno t c hange a g re at d eal? A re th ey w illin g to in v est th eir ti m e i n g iv in g l e ad ers h ip to th is l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent e ffo rt? W e hav e o fte n f o cuse d o n th e f in ancia l c o m mitm ent th e s e nio r l e ad ers m ust m ake, b ut th eir p ers o nal c o m mitm ent a nd ti m e a re f a r m ore i m porta nt.

Are th e s e nio r l e ad ers w illin g to s e t th e e xp ecta ti o ns a t a v ery h ig h l e v el a nd in sis t th at e v ery o ne s tr iv e to b e a n e xcelle nt l e ad er? F or th e o rg aniz a ti o ns th at m ake th is c o m mitm ent, th e r e w ard s a re e xtr e m ely h ig h. F or th o se w ho c ho ose n o t to , th e fu tu re i s h ig hly q uesti o nab le .

Why T his A ppro ach P ro m is e s G re a te r S uccess in D evelo p in g Lea d ers Fir s t, w e s u b m it th at a f o cus o n d ev elo pin g g re at l e ad ers r a th er th an m ere ly o n “le ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent” g iv es a n ew p ers p ecti v e to w hat w e d o. I t r a is e s o ur sig hts a nd c re ate s a s o m ew hat d iffe re nt m in d -s e t f o r m easu rin g o ur s u ccess. M any of th e l e ad ers c urre ntl y i n th e “ go od” c ate go ry s e em s a ti s fie d w ith th eir c urre nt le v el o f e ffe cti v eness. T his i s m uch l ik e th e e xp erie nce o ne h as w hen c lim bin g a hig h m ounta in . A fte r a s u b sta nti a l h ik e, y o u c an l o ok u p th e m ounta in a nd s e e w hat yo u th in k i s th e to p. A s y o u a p pro ach th at p oin t, y o ur e xcite m ent g ro w s b ecause o f yo ur a cco m plis h m ent. I f y o u w ere to s it d ow n b elo w w hat y o u th o ught w as th e su m mit, y o u m ig ht n ev er f in d o ut th at w hat y o u th o ught w as th e to p w as o nly a p eak th at s tu ck o ut f r o m th e mounta in , h id in g th e r e al s u m mit f r o m v ie w . M any o f th o se who p ro fe ss to b e l e ad ers a re o nly h alfw ay u p th e m ounta in .

Seco nd , a n e m phasis o n s tr e ngth s i s m ore p ala ta b le th an l o okin g f o r b le m is h es and w eaknesse s. M ost o f u s e njo y d oin g th in gs w e a re g o od a t. W e c o nte nd th at i t i s much e asie r f o r a l e ad er to f in d w ays to m agnify s tr e ngth s th an i t i s to o verc o m e weaknesse s. I t c o m es m ore n atu ra lly . B eco m in g r e ally g o od a t s o m eth in g i s m ore energ iz in g th an a tte m pti n g to p atc h f la w s. Y ou a re g etti n g “ re w ard s” f o r th e behav io r y o u a re e nhancin g f r o m d ay o ne. T hat i n tu rn i n cre ase s y o ur a sp ir a ti o ns, and i n tu rn m akes i t e asie r to w ork o n th in gs y o u d o n o t d o w ell. F ew er p eo ple w ill re sis t th e m essa ge to g et b ette r a t th in gs th ey a re g o od a t, i n c o ntr a st w ith i m pro vin g 243 to a v era ge o n s o m e p erc eiv ed w eakness.

Thir d , p eo ple a re m ore w illin g to p ra cti c e s k ills th ey a re g o od a t. R ecent re se arc h o n “ exp ert p erfo rm ers ” a ttr ib ute s e xtr a o rd in ary p erfo rm ance to d ilig ent pra cti c e, n o t to s o m e u niq ue q uality b esto w ed b y d eity . G re at m usic ia ns, s p orts fig ure s, a nd c hess p la yers g o t th ere th e s a m e w ay. T ig er W oods, i t i s a rg ued , i s gre at b ecause , w ith th e h elp o f a d ed ic ate d c o ach, h e h as p ra cti c ed a b out 1 0,0 00 more h o urs th an m ost g o lfe rs , b egin nin g a t a v ery e arly a ge. T o g et r e ally g o od a t anyth in g r e q uir e s p ra cti c e. L ead ers h ip i s n o e xcep ti o n.

Fourth , w e s u b m it th at b y m easu rin g th e p erc ep ti o ns o f s u b ord in ate s a nd p eers , we h av e a to ol f o r th e i m med ia te a nd o bje cti v e m easu re m ent o f l e ad ers h ip .

Fre q uent a nd p re cis e m easu re m ents a re p ossib le a nd r e la ti v ely e co no m ic al.

Fifth , c hange n eed n o t ta ke f o re v er. T he a uth o rs f r e q uentl y a sk p ra cti ti o ners o f le ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent, “ W hat a re y o u d oin g th at s e em s to b e p ayin g o ff? ” A s w e no te d e arlie r, th e m ost f r e q uent a nsw er i s s o m eth in g l ik e, “ W ell, i t i s to o e arly to te ll.” R ead in g b etw een th e l in es, th e a nsw er r e ally s a ys, “ W e c an’t s e e th at anyth in g i s c hangin g o r h as c hanged .” “ W e d on’t w ant to b e h eld a cco unta b le f o r change, b ut w e h o pe s o m eth in g s h o w s u p th re e o r f o ur y ears f r o m n o w .” Tw o th in gs a re tr o ub lin g a b out th is r e sp onse . L ead ers h ip i s a ll a b out c hange, s o if th e l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro cess i s n o t p ro ducin g c hange, th en i t p ro bab ly i s no t w ork in g. O ur e xp erie nce w ith c hange s u ggests th e o pposite c o nclu sio n f r o m th e one w e h ear a b out c o m in g i n f u tu re y ears .

Tw o p ro fe sso rs a t th e S ta nfo rd b usin ess s c ho ol ta ught q uanti ta ti v e m eth o ds i n th eir e xecuti v e p ro gra m . T hey d ecid ed to w rite p arti c ip ants w ho h ad a tte nd ed th e pro gra m a nd a sk th em tw o q uesti o ns: “ D id y o u a p ply a ny o f th e c o nte nt y o u l e arn ed in o ur s e ssio n?” “ If s o , w hen d id y o u d o th at? ” T he o vera ll n um ber o f p eo ple w ho had d one s o m eth in g w as d is c o ura gin gly l o w , b ut th e i n str u cti v e p art w as i n th e se co nd q uesti o n. I f th e p arti c ip ants h ad d one s o m eth in g, th ey d id s o i n th e f ir s t tw o weeks a fte r r e tu rn in g h o m e o r i t d id n’t h ap pen a t a ll. I n f a ct, o ne r e sp ond ent’ s r e p ly was p arti c ula rly i n te re sti n g. H e h ad l e ft i n th e m id dle o f o ne o f th e p ro fe sso rs ’ pre se nta ti o ns. T hey a ssu m ed h e th o ught i t b orin g o r i r re le v ant o r b oth . T hey w ere delig hte d to g et th e r e sp onse b ack th at th is p arti c ip ant h ad i n d eed i m ple m ente d so m eth in g. H e n o te d , “ I l e ft h alf- w ay i n y o ur p re se nta ti o n to g o o ut a nd c all m y s ta ff and a sk ed th em to s ta rt th at a naly sis . I k new i f I w aite d , I p ro bab ly w ould n o t h av e done i t.” That s q uare s e xactl y w ith o ur e xp erie nce. I f y o u w ait, n o th in g h ap pens. T o belie v e th at c hange w ill s h o w u p y ears a fte r a n e xecuti v e d ev elo pm ent p ro cess i s co ntr a ry to a ll th e e v id ence.

Apply Y ou r “ E xp erie n ce” T est Thin k o f th e b est e xecuti v es f o r w ho m y o u e v er w ork ed .

244 • W hat i m pact d id th ey h av e o n y o u a nd y o ur p erfo rm ance?

• W ere th eir g ro up s a l ittl e m ore p ro ducti v e a nd c re ati v e th an o th ers o r w ere th ey a l o t m ore p ro ducti v e?

• D id y o u p erc eiv e th at th ey p osse sse d m ulti p le s tr e ngth s?

• W as th eir s u ccess d riv en b y th eir s tr e ngth s o r w as i t th at th ey l a cked a ny weakness?

• D id th eir s u ccess p ush o th er l e ad ers ’ p erfo rm ance d ow n o r d id th eir s u ccess help to e le v ate o th ers ?

• D id th ey h av e a ny d ra m ati c f la w s?

• W hat i m pact d id th ey h av e o n th e c are ers o f th e p eo ple w ho r e p orte d to th em ?

We th in k m ost r e ad ers w ill c o nfir m th e v alid ity o f o ur th esis f r o m th eir o w n exp erie nces. W e b egan th is b ook b y p ro posin g 2 0 i n sig hts a b out l e ad ers h ip . I n th e vern acula r o f th e o ld p re acher, w e b egan b y te llin g y o u w hat w e w ere g o in g to te ll yo u, th en w e d id o ur b est to te ll y o u, a nd n o w w e h av e s u m mariz e d w hat w e to ld yo u. O ur h o pe i s th at th e l e ad ers h ip te nts o f e v ery o ne i n y o ur o rg aniz a ti o n w ill co nsta ntl y e xp and a s y o u ta ke th ese s te p s.

245 13 MEA SU RIN G L EA D ER SH IP IM PR O VEM EN T A T G EN ER AL M IL LS If i t c an’t b e e xp re sse d i n f ig ure s, i t i s n o t s c ie nce; i t i s o pin io n.

— R obert H ein le in Measu re m ent i s th e f ir s t s te p th at l e ad s to c o ntr o l a nd e v entu ally to im pro vem ent. I f y o u c an’t m easu re s o m eth in g, y o u c an’t u nd ers ta nd i t. I f y o u can’t u nd ers ta nd i t, y o u c an’t c o ntr o l i t. I f y o u c an’t c o ntr o l i t, y o u c an’t im pro ve i t.

— H . J a m es H arrin gto n C ase S tu dy: G en era l M ills B uild in g G rea t L ea d ers G enera l M ills h as a n i n te rn ati o nal r e p uta ti o n a s a n e xcelle nt p la ce to w ork , a n a d m ir e d c o m pany, a g re at c o rp ora te c iti z e n, a nd o ne o f th e b est- le d c o m panie s i n t h e w orld . E very y ear th ey r e ceiv e n um ero us a w ard s a nd a cco la d es. I n 2 003, K ev in W ild e, th e C hie f L earn in g O ffic er, u p date d th eir a p pro ach to l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent b y i n co rp ora ti n g th e a p pro ach a nd p hilo so phy f r o m th e E xtr a o rd in ary L ead er r e se arc h i n to a n ew d ev elo pm ent p ro cess c alle d “ B uild in g G re at L ead ers .” W ild e w as i m pre sse d w ith m essa ges f r o m th e re se arc h th at e m phasiz e d th e d iffe re nce b etw een g o od l e ad ers a nd g re at l e ad ers . C le arly , G enera l M ills h ad th e s a m e p hilo so phy; th ey n eed ed g re at l e ad ers . H e a ls o w as i m pre sse d w ith th e s tr e ngth -b uild in g p hilo so phy. “ A s a b ra nd -c entr ic c o m pany, w e h av e a lw ays b elie v ed i n b uild in g b ra nd s a nd l e ad ers a s o ur p rim ary m is sio n. A s w ith a s tr o ng b ra nd s u ch a s C heerio s o r Y opla it, i t i s m ore e ffe cti v e to b uild o n s u ccess a nd a d d t o s tr e ngth ,” s a id W ild e. T o h elp l e ad ers b uild th eir s tr e ngth s, a c usto m iz e d c o m pete ncy c o m panio n d ev elo pm ent g uid e w as d ev elo ped . T he c o m panio n g uid e p ro vid ed l e ad ers w ith n ew i n sig hts o n s p ecific ally w hat th ey n eed ed to d o to i m pro ve a s tr e ngth . “ W e a d ap te d th e c o m panio n g uid e a s th e k ey ‘ ta ke a w ay’ f r o m t h e tr a in in g a nd c o achin g,” W ild e a d ded .

In 2 003 a nd 2 004, a ll o ffic ers a nd d ir e cto rs a t G enera l M ills r e ceiv ed 3 60- d egre e f e ed back, tr a in in g o n th e s tr e ngth -b uild in g p hilo so phy, a nd i n str u cti o ns o n h o w to u se c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns to b uild s tr e ngth s. L ead ers a ls o r e ceiv ed o ne- o n-o ne c o achin g o n th eir f e ed back a nd th eir d ev elo pm ent p la ns. T he e xte rn al 246 executi v e c o aches u se d w ere s p ecific ally tr a in ed i n th e l o gic a nd m eth o dolo gy o f str e ngth -b uild in g a nd th e C om pete ncy C om panio n G uid e. T he e ffo rts f o r im pro vem ent w ere r e in fo rc ed i n 2 005 a nd 2 006 w ith a d diti o nal tr a in in g a nd su p port to k eep d ev elo pm ent m om entu m g o in g. I n 2 007, a ll o ffic ers a nd d ir e cto rs re ceiv ed a f o llo w -u p 3 60-d egre e a sse ssm ent to m easu re th eir p ro gre ss. W e w ere ab le to c o m pile a d ata s e t o f 1 81 l e ad ers w ith b oth p re -te st a nd p ost- te st r e su lts .

This e nab le d u s to a sse ss th e i m pact o f th e E xtr a o rd in ary L ead er a p pro ach.

A c o m paris o n o f th e o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness r a ti n g o n th e p re -te st re su lts w ith th e p ost- te st r e su lts s h o w ed a s ta ti s ti c ally s ig nific ant i m pro vem ent i n overa ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. F or a n o rg aniz a ti o n th at i s a lr e ad y w ell l e d , to sh o w s ig nific ant i m pro vem ent s u ggests th at e v ery o rg aniz a ti o n, n o m atte r h o w g o od th ey a re , c an g et e v en b ette r.

We w ere p rim arily i n te re ste d i n th e l e ad ers w ho m ad e s ig nific ant i m pro vem ents in th eir l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. W e e lim in ate d l e ad ers i n th e d ata s e t w ho w ere a t th e 8 0th p erc enti le o r h ig her i n th e p re -te st r e su lts . T hese a re l e ad ers th at w ere alr e ad y q uite e xtr a o rd in ary . L ookin g a t th e r e su lts f o r th e r e m ain in g 1 41 l e ad ers , we f o und th at 3 4 p erc ent h ad m ad e s u b sta nti a l i m pro vem ent i n th eir l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness. S ix p erc ent w ere s u b sta nti a lly l e ss e ffe cti v e. W e h av e a lw ays f o und in o ur p re -te st a nd p ost- te st r e se arc h th at a s m all p erc enta ge o f l e ad ers g et n egati v e post- te st r e su lts . T yp ic ally , th ese a re l e ad ers w ho h ad m oved to m uch m ore challe ngin g j o bs a nd h ad n o t y et m aste re d th e c o m ple xiti e s o f th eir n ew assig nm ents .

Fig ure 1 3-1 O vera ll C hange C om parin g P re -te st a nd P ost-te st R esu lt s The r e m ain in g 6 0 p erc ent w ere a b out th e s a m e i n th e p ost- te st a s th ey w ere i n th e pre -te st ( Fig ure 1 3-1 ).

(L ead ers w ho w ere r a te d a s m ore e ffe cti v e w ere th o se w ho i n cre ase d th eir 247 overa ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness s c o re b y 0 .3 o n a f iv e p oin t s c ale . T he o vera ll le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness s c o re i s a n a v era ge o f 3 2 i te m s a sse ssin g l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness. A 0 .3 d iffe re nce i s h ig hly s ig nific ant.) We w ere a ls o i n te re ste d i n th e i m pact o f l e ad ers w ho w ork ed o n b uild in g o n str e ngth s v ers u s th o se w ho p rim arily c o ncentr a te d o n f ix in g w eaknesse s. W e id enti fie d s tr e ngth s a s i te m s i n th e p re -te st r e su lts th at w ere a b ove a v era ge.

Weaknesse s, o n th e o th er h and , w ere i te m s th at w ere b elo w a v era ge. W e th en lo oked f o r l e ad ers w ho h ad i m pro ved a n i n d iv id ual i te m b y 0 .5 , w hic h i s a su b sta nti a l i n cre ase . W e w ere s u rp ris e d th at d esp ite o ur e m phasis i n th e o rig in al tr a in in g s e ssio ns o n b uild in g s tr e ngth s, th e m ajo rity o f l e ad ers ( 8 3) f o cuse d o nly o n fix in g w eaknesse s.

Once a gain , o ur p hilo so phy r e co gniz e d th e n eed to f ix f a ta l f la w s, b ut w e belie v e a p pro xim ate ly 3 0 p erc ent o f l e ad ers h av e f a ta l f la w s. T hir ty -s ix p erc ent o f th e l e ad ers f o cuse d th eir c hange e ffo rts o n b oth s tr e ngth s a nd w eakness. I t i s in str u cti v e to l o ok a t th e i m pact o f th e tw o a p pro aches.

Fig ure 1 3-2 s h o w s th e p re - te st a nd p ost- te st p erc enti le s c o re s f o r b oth g ro up s.

Note th at th e g ro up th at i m pro ved o n b oth s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s i m pro ved b y 36 p erc enti le p oin ts . H ow ev er, th e g ro up th at w as f o cuse d Fig ure 1 3-2 I m pro vem ent C om parin g P re -te st t o P ost-te st exclu siv ely o n f ix in g w eaknesse s o nly i n cre ase d b y 1 2 p erc enti le p oin ts . I t i s g o od new s th at b oth a p pro aches w ork , b ut th o se th at i m pro ved s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s mad e s u b sta nti a lly m ore p ro gre ss.

This c ase s tu d y p ro vid es s o m e e xcelle nt e v id ence: f ir s t, th at th e e ffe cti v eness o f le ad ers c an b e i m pro ved , a nd s e co nd , th at th e s tr e ngth -b uild in g a p pro ach i s a pow erfu l to ol i n h elp in g l e ad ers to i m pro ve.

We a ls o o bse rv ed th at th o se w ho w ork ed o n s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s s h o w ed 248 im pro vem ent i n a n um ber o f o th er a re as, w hile th o se w ho w ork ed o nly o n weaknesse s s h o w ed n o s u ch “ sp re ad in g” o r “ exte nd in g” e ffe ct to o th er b ehav io rs .

“W e f o und th ese r e su lts a m azin g a nd a t th e s a m e ti m e, c o nfir m in g o ur s tr a te gy o f dev elo pm ent th ro ugh s tr e ngth b uild in g” s a id W ild e. “ W hile m any l e ad ers w ere in iti a lly s k ep ti c al o f th is a p pro ach, w e e v entu ally w on th em o ver a nd th e r e su lts o f th is s tu d y w ill r e in fo rc e o ur a p pro ach a nd c o nti n ued f o cus o n l e ad er d ev elo pm ent movin g f o rw ard .” For f u rth er i n fo rm ati o n o n m easu rin g c hange f o r th o se i n v olv ed i n d ev elo pm ent pro gra m s, g o to www.z e ngerfo lk m an.c o m a nd “ clic k o n S erv ic es.” 249 14 TH E I M PO RTA N CE O F F O LLO W - TH RO UG H “In g o lf a s i n l ife i t i s th e f o llo w th ro ugh th at m akes th e d iffe re nce.” ( A no n.) “I c an g iv e y o u a s ix -w ord f o rm ula f o r s u ccess: “ T hin k th in gs th ro ugh— th en fo llo w th ro ugh.” — S ir W alte r S co tt M odern m ed ic in e h as e njo yed p erio dic b re akth ro ughs o f e no rm ous s ig nific ance.

S ulfa d ru gs, p enic illin , a nti b io ti c s, c hem oth era p y, C A T s c ans, a nd th e r e cent a d vent o f s ta ti n d ru gs th at l o w er b lo od p re ssu re a re e xam ple s o f i m porta nt p harm aceuti c al a d vances th at tr a nsfo rm ed th e p ra cti c e o f m ed ic in e.

Is i t p ossib le th at l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent m ig ht e njo y s u ch d ra m ati c a d vancem ents ? W hat c o uld h ap pen th at w ould c ata p ult u s to a n e nti r e ly n ew p la te au o f r e su lts ? A nd w here i s th at b re akth ro ugh m ost l ik ely to o ccur? T alk to a ny g ro up o f l a ym en o r p ro fe ssio nals a b out w hat’ s b ro ken i n th e c urre nt l e arn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent p ro cess, a nd m ost w ill te ll y o u i t’ s th e l a ck o f s e rio us p osttr a in in g f o llo w -th ro ugh. D ep end in g o n h o w a nd w hat y o u c o unt, th ere ’s a p pro xim ate ly U S$50 b illio n s p ent i n th e U nite d S ta te s e ach y ear o n l e arn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent a nd r e la te d p ro gra m s. T ho se e xp end itu re s r e su lt i n a r a nge o f b enefic ia l i m pro vem ents .

But w hat i f th o se r e su lts c o uld b e s ig nific antl y g re ate r b y r e allo cati n g o ur e ffo rts a nd r e so urc es to b ette r a lig n w ith th e o bvio us n eed f o r a d diti o nal f o llo w -u p a cti v iti e s?

S eg m en tin g t h e D ev elo p m en t P ro cess F or c o ncep tu al c la rity , l e t’ s d iv id e th e l e arn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent p ro cess i n to th e f o llo w in g th re e p hase s w hile r e ad ily a d m itti n g th at th e l in es a re f u zzy :

Phase 1 c o nsis ts o f a ll th e a cti v iti e s th at h ap pen p rio r to s o m eo ne p hysic ally atte nd in g a s e ssio n. T hat i n clu d es a rti c le s a nd b ooks to r e ad , q uesti o nnair e s to be c o m ple te d , o r d ata to b e c o lle cte d .

Phase 2 d esc rib es th e l e arn in g e v ent i ts e lf. T he e v ent m ay b e tw o h o urs i n l e ngth or th re e m onth s l o ng. I t m ay i n v olv e p arti c ip ants c o ngre gati n g i n th e s a m e 250 ro om o r p arti c ip ants c o m munic ati n g v ia v id eo -c o nfe re ncin g o r s o m e o th er fo rm o f d is ta nce l e arn in g.

Phase 3 b egin s a fte r th e l e arn in g e v ent. I t i n clu d es th e s u b se q uent a cti v iti e s th at are d esig ned to r e in fo rc e a nd s tr e ngth en th e a p plic ati o n o f th e l e arn in g.

FU ND A LLO CATIO N F O R E A CH P H ASE We’re n o t a w are o f a ny r e lia b le d ata th at a ccura te ly b re aks o ut w hat o rg aniz a ti o ns sp end o n e ach p hase o f th e p ro cess. B ut a fte r c o nfe rrin g w ith m any c o lle agues, w e esti m ate th at m ost o rg aniz a ti o ns s p end l e ss th an 1 0 p erc ent o f th eir e ffo rt a nd dolla rs o n P hase 1 . L ess th an th at, p ro bab ly 5 p erc ent, i s s p ent o n P hase 3 .

1 Cle arly , l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent e ffo rts a nd d olla rs a re f o cuse d p rim arily o n Phase 2 . B ut a cco rd in g to r e se arc h d one b y B re nt P ete rs o n w hile s e rv in g a s dir e cto r o f r e se arc h f o r th e F ra nklin C ovey o rg aniz a ti o n, th e v alu e th at e ach o f th o se s e cto rs c o ntr ib ute s to th e u lti m ate e ffe cti v eness o f a ny l e arn in g e ffo rt i s dra m ati c ally d iffe re nt f r o m h o w w e c urre ntl y f u nd th em . T hat d is p arity b etw een pote nti a l i m pact a nd a ctu al f u nd in g i s e v id ent i n Fig ure 1 4-1 .

Furth er r e in fo rc in g th e i m porta nce o f f r e q uent o r c o nsis te nt f o llo w -u p i s th e re se arc h c o nd ucte d b y G old sm ith a nd H olm an.

2 T hey s tu d ie d v ario us l e v els o f fo llo w -u p o n th e u lti m ate o utc o m e o f a m anagem ent d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m co nd ucte d i n s ix d iffe re nt o rg aniz a ti o ns. P arti c ip ants , w ho n um bere d m ore th an 12,0 00, w ere a sk ed to i d enti fy s ix p eo ple w ho w ere f a m ilia r w ith th eir w ork perfo rm ance. T hese s ix p eo ple w ere a sk ed to r e sp ond to a q uesti o n th at a sk ed f o r a co m paris o n o f th is p ers o n’s p erfo rm ance to day i n c o ntr a st w ith th eir p erfo rm ance se v era l m onth s p rio r.

Parti c ip ants w ere d iv id ed i n to d iffe re nt c ate go rie s, b ase d o n th eir o w n s e lf- re p ort o f th e a m ount o f f o llo w -u p th ey h ad u nd erta ken s in ce th e d ev elo pm ent 251 Fig ure 1 4-1 I m pact o f T ra in in g P hase s o n L earn in g pro gra m . T he r e su lts a re r a th er d ra m ati c . W e’ll s h o w o nly tw o i n Exhib it 1 4-1 a nd Exhib it 1 4-2 .

It i s o bvio us th at v ery l ittl e c hange h as o ccurre d w ith th e g ro up i n Exhib it 1 4-1 .

Now c o ntr a st th is g ro up w ith th o se l e ad ers w ho h ad d one f r e q uent o r c o nsis te nt fo llo w -u p ( Exhib it 1 4-2 ).

These d ata c le arly c o nfir m th at th e u lti m ate r e su lt o f a ny l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent effo rt h in ges s tr o ngly o n w hat h ap pens a fte r th e e v ent. I t g iv es g re at s u p port to th e im porta nce o f P hase 3 i n th is d ev elo pm ent p ro cess.

We’re n o t a d vocati n g th at e xp end itu re s m ust e xactl y p ara lle l th e v alu e d eriv ed fr o m e ach p hase . B ut i t’ s a p pare nt th at w e’re s ig nific antl y u nd er-fu nd in g a nd und ere m phasiz in g P hase 3 a cti v iti e s.

LEA DER SH IP D EV ELO PM EN T O BJE C TIV ES We e ngage i n l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent a cti v iti e s b ecause w e w ant to p ro duce s o m e measu ra b le r e su lt. A lth o ugh w e a lw ays w ant p eo ple to f e el g o od a b out th eir exp erie nce a nd ti m e s p ent, th e r e acti o ns th ey h av e to th e d ev elo pm ent p ro cess a re cle arly n o t th e m ost r e le v ant m easu re . W e w ould c erta in ly e xp ect 252 Exhib it 1 4-1 I m pro vem ent R ati n gs w ith N o F ollo w -U p Exhib it 1 4-2 I m pro vem ent R ati n gs w ith C onsis te nt F ollo w -U p th at g re ate r k no w le d ge h ad b een g ain ed i n a r e la ti v ely p erm anent w ay a nd th at behav io r a nd s k ills w ould i m pro ve. U lti m ate ly , w e h o pe f o r th ere to b e s o m e ta ngib le r e tu rn o n th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s i n v estm ent.

253 It i s e xtr e m ely c le ar, h o w ev er, th at i f w e w ant a ny o f th ese h ig her o rd er c hanges to o ccur, w e m ust p ay g re ate r a tte nti o n to th e f o llo w -o n p ro cess.

TH E P O W ER O F P H ASE 3 An e ffe cti v e P hase 3 p ro cess p ro vid es a n e no rm ous b enefit to a n o rg aniz a ti o n because i t e nhances th e d egre e to w hic h a ny l e arn in g i s p ut i n to p ra cti c e; th us, i t le v era ges th e i n v estm ent m ad e i n P hase 2 l e arn in g e v ents . T o i m pro ve P hase 3 , a new e nv ir o nm ent m ust b e c re ate d th at p ro vid es p erio dic r e m in d ers to p arti c ip ants ab out th e l e arn ed b ehav io r a nd e nco ura ges th at b ehav io r’s u se .

Effe cti v e P hase 3 e ffo rts a re c hara cte riz e d b y i m ple m enta ti o ns i n w hic h • A ny d esir e d n ew b ehav io rs a re m ad e s p ecific • P arti c ip ants m ake c le ar, p ub lic c o m mitm ents to c o m ple te a ta sk b y a c erta in ti m e • P arti c ip ants k no w th at th ere w ill b e a c o nsis te nt m echanis m th at h o ld s th em acco unta b le • P arti c ip ants a re r e gula rly r e m in d ed to p la n f o r th e n ext p hase o f im ple m enta ti o n • O bsta cle s a re a nti c ip ate d , p la ns a re p ut i n p la ce to o verc o m e th o se o bsta cle s, and “ v accin ati o ns” a re p re p are d to p re v ent b ackslid in g o r h av in g i n d iv id uals ’ effo rts g ra d ually d ilu te d • G ood m easu re m ent to ols a re a v aila b le to l e t m anagers a nd a d m in is tr a to rs o f th e l e arn in g p ro cess m onito r th e p ro gre ss o f th e i n d iv id ual a nd g ro up .

Specif y n ew b eh avio rs.

A f r e q uent c o m pla in t a b out m any l e arn in g o r dev elo pm ent p ro cesse s i s th at p arti c ip ants a re n’t c le ar a b out w hat th ey a re to d o when th ey r e tu rn to w ork . T hey’v e a cq uir e d n ew i n fo rm ati o n; th ey’v e r e hears e d new s k ills ; th ey m ay h av e a lte re d s o m e a tti tu d es. A d ecid ed f u zzin ess s ti ll e xis ts , ho w ev er, a b out w hat’ s s p ecific ally b ein g a sk ed o f th em o n th e j o b. T hus, o ne k ey to effe cti v e P hase 3 f o llo w -u p i s a h ig h d egre e o f s p ecific ity a b out w hat’ s e xp ecte d o f parti c ip ants .

Make c le a r, p u blic c o m mitm en ts .

T he l ik elih o od th at a d esir e d a cti o n w ill occur i n cre ase s w hen p arti c ip ants m ake o ra l a nd w ritte n c o m mitm ents to o th ers .

Rese arc h h as s h o w n th at th e m ore n ear-te rm th o se g o als a re , th e m ore l ik ely i t i s th at th ey’ll b e i m ple m ente d . G ood i n te nti o ns a re n’t n early a s e ffe cti v e a s w ritte n co m mitm ents .

Eva lu ate .

M ost l e arn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent p ro cesse s i n clu d e a f a ir a m ount o f 254 ev alu ati o n. F eed back i n str u m ents o fte n r a te th e “ F s” — fo od, f a culty , f a ciliti e s, a nd fu n. N oti c eab ly m is sin g f r o m th e ty p ic al e v alu ati o n i s a ny a sse ssm ent o f w hat parti c ip ants h av e d one w ith w hat th ey l e arn ed . L earn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent m ust in v olv e r ig o ro us i m ple m enta ti o n a cco unta b ility o r i t i s to n o a v ail. T he g re at b ulk of th at a cco unta b ility c an o nly ta ke p la ce w hen p arti c ip ants l e av e th e l e arn in g exp erie nce a nd k no w th ey’ll b e a sk ed to r e p ort b ack w ith th eir r e su lts .

Pla n t h e n ex t p h ase .

W hen p arti c ip ants r e tu rn f r o m a l e arn in g e v ent, th ey’re cast b ack i n to th e m aels tr o m th at i s w ork . O ne o f th e r e al b enefits o f a f o rm al le arn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent p ro cess i s th at i t p ro te cts p arti c ip ants f r o m th eir j o bs f o r a s h o rt a m ount o f ti m e a nd a llo w s th em to f o cus o n l e arn in g. B ut i n P hase 3 , th at sh ie ld i s g o ne. C om mitm ents a re d ilu te d , a nd p arti c ip ants a re d is tr a cte d . S om e mechanis m h as to r e m in d th em o f th e l e arn in g c o m mitm ents th ey m ad e, f o rc e th em to a sse ss th eir p ro gre ss p erio dic ally , a nd h elp th em p la n th eir n ext s te p s. T ho se re m in d ers m ay b e s e lf- g enera te d o r c o m e f r o m e xte rn al s o urc es.

Pre ve n t r e la pse .

R etu rn in g to a j o b i n ev ita b ly b rin gs th e d ilu ti o n o f m any o th er acti v iti e s a nd th e s tr o ng te m pta ti o n to r e v ert to p re v io us b ehav io rs . R ela p se pre v enti o n c an b e e ffe cti v e. J u st ta kin g th e ti m e to p re d ic t b arrie rs a nd d is tr a cti o ns and d ecid in g i n a d vance h o w to r e act to th o se p re ssu re s c an b e a n i m porta nt f ir s t ste p .

Mon ito r i n div id u al a n d g ro u p p ro gre ss.

S eld om h av e o rg aniz a ti o ns b uilt i n effe cti v e m echanis m s b y w hic h to o bta in a ny k in d o f g ra nula r a naly sis r e gard in g th e in d iv id ual a nd g ro up o utc o m es o f a l e arn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent p ro cess. W ho i s ta kin g a cti o n? W hat n ew b ehav io r a re th ey i m ple m enti n g? W here a re th ey h av in g gre ate st s u ccess? W here a re th e b ig gest c halle nges? H ow m uch e ffo rt a re th ey putti n g f o rth ? A nd h o w m uch p ro gre ss h as b een m ad e?

The I n flu en ce o f F ollo w -U p A ctiv it ie s To f u rth er m easu re th e i m pact o f f o llo w -u p a cti v iti e s, 1 ,1 65 m anagers p arti c ip ate d in a n e m plo yee s u rv ey. E ach m anager w as g iv en a f e ed back r e p ort th at (S ho w in g th e p erc enta ge o f e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n i n e ach c ate go ry u nd er c o nd iti o ns 255 of f o llo w -u p o r n o f o llo w -u p o n a n e m plo yee s u rv ey p erfo rm ed f o r a l e ad er’s gro up .) Exhib it 1 4-3 E m plo yee S ati s fa cti o n R esu lts su m mariz e d th e p erfo rm ance r e su lts o f h is o r h er w ork g ro up . M anagers w ere ask ed to p erfo rm tw o s im ple ta sk s a s f o llo w -th ro ugh o n th e s u rv ey:

• H old a f e ed back m eeti n g w ith th eir w ork te am s.

• T ake a cti o n o n o ne i s su e.

One y ear a fte r th e i n iti a l s u rv ey, a p osts u rv ey w as c o nd ucte d i n w hic h em plo yees w ere a sk ed i f th eir w ork g ro up s u se d th e s u rv ey to m ake i m pro vem ents .

A c o m paris o n o f e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n w as m ad e b etw een th e g ro up s th at d id o r did n o t f o llo w u p u sin g th e s u rv ey.

Exhib it 1 4-3 s h o w s th o se e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n re su lts .

As i s e v id ent f r o m Exhib it 1 4-3 , g ro up m em bers r e sp ond ed 7 9 p erc ent positi v ely o n a n e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n i n d ex w hen f o llo w -u p m eeti n gs a nd c hange effo rts o ccurre d . O n th e o th er h and , o nly 3 4 p erc ent o f th e g ro up m em bers re sp ond ed p ositi v ely o n e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n w hen n o f o llo w -u p w ork h ad ta ken pla ce. T he c o st a nd e ffo rt a sso cia te d w ith th e e m plo yee s u rv ey p ro cess w as l a rg ely in c re ati n g th e s u rv ey a nd e nsu rin g th at e v ery e m plo yee c o m ple te d i t. T he r e q ueste d fo llo w -u p m eeti n gs d id n’t r e p re se nt a s u b sta nti a l i n cre ase i n ti m e o r e ffo rt f o r e ach manager, b ut a s ig nific ant p orti o n o f m anagers n ev er f in d th e ti m e to h o ld s u ch meeti n gs u nle ss a g re at d eal o f p re ssu re i s p la ced o n th em .

Ste p s f o r B ette r F ollo w -U p In th e T + D a rti c le “ T he N ew L ead ers h ip D ev elo pm ent,” th e a uth o rs w ro te :

“L ead ers h ip p ro gra m s h av e tr a d iti o nally b een o ne o r tw o-w eek e v ents . I n parti c ip ants ’ m in d s, w hen th e e v ent w as o ver, l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent f o r th e y ear was o ver. T he m ost e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s in th e f u tu re w ill tr a nsfo rm a n e v ent i n to a p ro cess th at l a sts a parti c ip ant’ s e nti r e c are er.

“In l ie u o f a tw o-w eek s e ssio n, w e s tr o ngly f a v or th e tw o-to -fiv e d ay se ssio ns s p aced o ver 1 8 to 2 4 m onth s. B etw een f o rm al s e ssio ns, o th er le arn in g m echanis m s c an o ccur. F orm aliz e d s e ssio ns a re v alu ab le because th ey s h ie ld p arti c ip ants f r o m th eir j o bs. B ecause p eo ple a re work in g l o nger h o urs a nd e v ery o ne’s p ace h as q uic kened , th ere ’s a n eed fo r f o rm al p ro te cti o n to te m pora rily p ro te ct p arti c ip ants f r o m th e pre ssu re s o f w ork . H ow ev er, f o rm al s e ssio ns s h o uld b e v ie w ed a s punctu ati o n m ark s, n o t th e te xt.

256 “In th e i n te rv enin g ti m es, o nlin e o r te le p ho ne c o achin g c an b e u se fu l, a s are b ud dy g ro up s. I n a d diti o n, a s e rie s o f e m ail m essa ges c an m ain ta in parti c ip ants ’ c o nnecti o n. T here s h o uld b e a c o nsta nt r e v ie w o f th e m etr ic s sh o w in g r e su lts , i n clu d in g p erio dic r e m in d ers o f th e c o m mitm ent a nd th e changes th at w ere a gre ed to .” 3 Tho se p ara gra p hs i n tr o duce a n um ber o f p ro m is in g te chniq ues:

Space l e a rn in g e ve n ts o ve r t im e.

O ne c hange th at m any o rg aniz a ti o ns h av e im ple m ente d i s to s p ace l e arn in g e v ents to c re ate o pportu niti e s f o r a p plic ati o n a nd th en c o m in g b ack to r e p ort, e v alu ate , a nd b e r e energ iz e d .

Cre a te b u ddy s yste m s o r s u pport g ro u ps.

A t th e c o nclu sio n o f a ny l e arn in g ev ent, b ud dy s y ste m s c an b e c re ate d o r l u nch g ro up s e sta b lis h ed to k eep th e im ple m enta ti o n o f l e arn in g m ovin g f o rw ard b y m eeti n g o n a r e gula r b asis .

Coach o n lin e o r b y t e le p h on e.

A r e gula rly s c hed ule d te le p ho ne c all f r o m so m eo ne a v aila b le to d is c uss i m ple m enta ti o n s te p s o r a ny c halle nges th at a parti c ip ant h as e nco unte re d h as b een s h o w n to g re atl y i n cre ase th e d egre e o f im ple m enta ti o n.

Enco u ra ge m en to rsh ip s.

S im ila rly , s o m eo ne i n sid e th e o rg aniz a ti o n w ho c an mento r a no th er e m plo yee p erfo rm s a v alu ab le s e rv ic e. B y p erio dic ally to uchin g base , a m ento r s h o w s i n te re st i n h is o r h er p arti c ip ant’ s p ro gre ss a nd o ffe rs assis ta nce w hen n eed ed .

In itia te j o b d is c u ssio n s.

A m anager o r s u p erv is o r w ho r e gula rly p ro vid es re m in d ers to p ra cti c e n ew b ehav io rs i s a n a sse t. E vid ence s h o w s th at a b oss w ho in iti a te s f r e q uent d is c ussio ns a b out j o b p ro gre ss a nd c are er i n te re sts p ro duces im pro ved e m plo yee p erfo rm ance a nd p ro ducti v ity .

Man age y o u rse lf .

B ehav io ra l s e lf- m anagem ent, s u ch a s e nte rin g a cti v iti e s i n a pla nner o r a d herin g to a c hecklis t, i s th e b est k in d o f m anagem ent. I f e m plo yees cre ate m echanis m s to h elp th em r e m em ber n ew b ehav io rs o r to e lim in ate in ap pro pria te b ehav io rs , th at’ s a m ore p ow erfu l to ol th an m ost exte rn al i n flu ences.

But o nly a s m all p erc enta ge o f p eo ple a re s u ccessfu l i n c re ati n g th o se m echanis m s and s ti c kin g w ith th em .

Sen d e -m ail r e m in ders.

T echno lo gy h as p ro vid ed a c o st- e ffe cti v e a nd no nin tr u siv e to ol y o u c an u se to r e m in d p arti c ip ants o f th e c o m mitm ents th ey m ad e in a ny l e arn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent p ro cess: e -m ail. E -m ail r e p re se nts a n e no rm ous bre akth ro ugh f o r o ur p ro fe ssio n. I n d eed , i t m ay b e o ur m ir a cle d ru g.

Revie w m etr ic s.

B ecause o f th e l a ck o f f o llo w -u p a cti v iti e s, l e arn in g a nd dev elo pm ent p ro fe ssio nals h av e to g le an f e ed back a b out th e l e arn in g p ro cess f r o m anecd ote s a nd g enera l i m pre ssio ns. N ew te chno lo gy a nd s o ftw are p ro vid es deta ile d i n fo rm ati o n a b out th e e ffe cti v eness o f d ev elo pm ent o n a g ro up a nd e nab le s yo u to tr a ck th e i n flu ence o f th at d ev elo pm ent o n i n d iv id uals .

257 Use 3 60-d eg re e f e ed back s u rve ys.

G iv e p arti c ip ants , th eir p eers , a nd th eir bosse s a 3 60-d egre e f e ed back s u rv ey, a nd y o u c an c o m bin e th e o bta in ed in fo rm ati o n i n to a r e p ort th at p arti c ip ants c an u se to a id i n th eir d ev elo pm ent. A fte r re v ie w in g th e r e p ort, p arti c ip ants c an s e le ct a f e w b ehav io rs th at th ey w is h to im pro ve. Y ou c an n o w c o nd uct m in is u rv eys th at a re e asy a nd c o st- e ffe cti v e a nd fo cus s p ecific ally o n th e s e le cte d b ehav io rs .

The E ffe ct o f t h e I n te rn et Giv en th e p ace a nd c o m ple xity o f c urre nt w ork p atte rn s, th e I n te rn et a p pears to b e an e ffe cti v e to ol to a id i n th e i m ple m enta ti o n a nd f o llo w -u p p ro cess. W here as th e benefits o f h av in g a m ento r c all e v ery w eek o r tw o to d is c uss a n e m plo yee’s pro gre ss i s o bvio us, e -m ail i s a m ore e co no m ic al v ehic le to r e ach p arti c ip ants . A n e-m ail c an s e rv e a s a f r ie nd ly r e m in d er, a sk f o r a b rie f a sse ssm ent o f p ro gre ss, a nd enco ura ge p arti c ip ants to p la n n ext s te p s to m eet c o m mitm ents m ad e d urin g th e le arn in g p ro cess. B y c o m bin in g e -m ail c o nta ct w ith te le p ho ne c o nta ct, r e fr e sh er se ssio ns, a nd th e o pportu nity to c o m ple te f u rth er a sse ssm ents , s u ch a s 3 60-d egre e fe ed back s u rv eys, y o u e nhance p ote nti a l s u ccess o f P hase 3 . Y ou c an a ggre gate a nd analy ze th e d ata c o m pile d th ro ugh th o se p ro cesse s i n m any w ays. Y ou c an f in d o ut whic h p arti c ip ants a re f o llo w in g th ro ugh w ith th eir c o m mitm ents ; y o u c an a naly ze th e ty p e o f g o als o r c o m mitm ents p arti c ip ants a re s e le cti n g ( a nd i g no rin g); a nd y o u can e v alu ate th o se g o als a nd p ro vid e m ore c halle ngin g o nes a t a l a te r d ate .

Com parin g th e e ffe cti v eness o f o ne tr a in in g o r d ev elo pm ent i n te rv enti o n w ith ano th er i s a ls o n o w p ossib le .

Phase 3 P ote n tia l It’ s o bvio us th at m ore a tte nti o n a nd r e so urc es n eed to f o cus o n P hase 3 o f th e le arn in g p ro cess. E no rm ous s u m s o f m oney h av e b een s p ent o n d esig nin g e ngagin g work sh o ps a nd s e m in ars . E ven l a rg er s u m s a re s p ent to d ev elo p h ig hly so phis ti c ate d e -le arn in g. B ut u nti l n o w , m in im al c re ati v ity , i n no vati o n, a nd f u nd in g hav e b een f o cuse d o n th e p art o f th e l e arn in g p ro cess th at e nsu re s th at l e arn in g sti c ks. I f a f r a cti o n o f th e e ffo rt th at h as b een p ut i n to P hase 2 i s s h ifte d to P hase 3 , le arn in g a nd d ev elo pm ent p ro fe ssio nals w ill a chie v e th eir g o al o f tr a nsfe rrin g le arn in g b ack to th e w ork p la ce.

For a d diti o nal i n fo rm ati o n o n w ays to i m pro ve i m ple m enta ti o n a nd f o llo w - th ro ugh v is it o ur w eb -s ite a t www.z e ngerfo lk m an.c o m a nd a ccess i n fo rm ati o n ab out A cti o nP la n/M ap per, a s o ftw are to ol d esig ned s p ecific ally f o r th is p urp ose .

258 Req uest a f r e e c o py o f “ Im ple m enta ti o n M atte rs ,” a b ookle t th at f o cuse s sp ecific ally o n th is i s su e.

259 Appen dix RESE A R CH M ETH ODO LO GY A sse ssin g t h e R ela tio n sh ip B etw een M an ageria l E ffe ctiv en ess a n d E m plo yee C om mit m en t ( F ig u re 2 -1 ) W e a d m in is te re d 3 60-d egre e a sse ssm ents to 4 8,7 69 e m plo yees f r o m a v arie ty o f d iffe re nt o rg aniz a ti o ns ( p ub lic , p riv ate , g o vern m ent) th at c ut a cro ss a b ro ad s e t o f b usin ess s e cto rs . T he s u rv ey c o nta in ed b oth a 4 9-ite m l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness m easu re b ase d o n th e E xtr a o rd in ary L ead er 1 6 d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s a nd a f iv e-ite m e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n/c o m mitm ent i n d ex. T he tw o i n d exes w ere h ig hly c o rre la te d . A P ears o n c o rre la ti o n c o effic ie nt b etw een th e tw o i n d exes w as c alc ula te d a t 0 .5 1 ( P C 0 .0 00). T he r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een th e tw o v aria b le s i n d ic ate d th at 2 6 p erc ent o f th e v aria nce i n e m plo yee c o m mitm ent c o uld b e a cco unte d f o r b y p erc ep ti o ns o f m anageria l e ffe cti v eness. T yp ic ally , th e c o rre la ti o ns a re s u b sta nti a lly h ig her i n i n d iv id ual o rg aniz a ti o ns. F or e xam ple , tw o o rg aniz a ti o ns i n th e s a m ple h av e c o rre la ti o ns o f 0 .7 5 a nd 0 .7 1 i n w hic h c ase th e p erc ent o f v aria nce w ould b e 5 0 p erc ent to 5 6 p erc ent, r e sp ecti v ely . T o p ro duce t h e g ra p h i n Fig ure 2 -1 , i n d iv id ual r e sp onse s f r o m e ach l e ad er w ere a ggre gate d b y l e ad er. T he s tu d y i n clu d ed r e su lts f r o m 7 ,3 91 l e ad ers . T he l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n d ex w as d iv id ed i n to 1 0 g ro up s b ase d o n th e d is tr ib uti o n o f th e d ata . T he g ro up s r a nged i n s iz e f r o m 7 81 to 6 09 l e ad ers . A ll e m plo yees w ere d ir e ct r e p orts to th e l e ad er. T he g ra p h s h o w s th e r a w m ean s c o re o n th e e m plo yee c o m mitm ent i n d ex f o r e ach o f th e 1 0 d ecile g ro up s.

E valu atin g t h e R ela tio n sh ip B etw een M an ageria l E ffe ctiv en ess a n d P ro fit a b ilit y ( F ig u re 2 -2 ) A to ta l o f 1 ,6 72 a sse ssm ents w ere d is tr ib ute d to e m plo yees, w ho a sse sse d m anagers i n 3 5 r e gio ns o f a m ortg age b ank. M anagers h ad a n a v era ge o f n in e a sse ssm ents d one o n th em b y th eir b oss, p eers , a nd d ir e ct r e p orts . T he 3 60-d egre e a sse ssm ent w as c usto m -d esig ned to m easu re s p ecific c o m pete ncie s th o ught to d iffe re nti a te h ig h- a nd l o w -p erfo rm in g m anagers . T he a sse ssm ent s u rv ey h ad 6 5 i te m s. A l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n d ex c o m pose d o f 1 5 s u rv ey i te m s w as c o rre la te d w ith th e n et p ro fit f o r e ach r e gio n. T he P ears o n c o rre la ti o n b etw een th e l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n d ex a nd n et p ro fit w as 0 .4 0 ( P C 0 .0 00). T he l e ad ers h ip 260 effe cti v eness i n d ex w as th en d iv id ed i n to th re e c ate go rie s b ase d o n th e d is tr ib uti o n of th e i n d ex.

The th re e c ate go rie s w ere : b otto m 1 0 p erc ent, m id dle 8 0 p erc ent, a nd to p 1 0 perc ent.

Fig ure 2 -2 s h o w s th e s tr o ng i m pact o f p oor a nd e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers h ip .

Evalu atin g t h e R ela tio n sh ip B etw een M an ageria l Effe ctiv en ess a n d T urn over ( F ig u re 2 -3 ) An i n su ra nce c o m pany a d m in is te re d a s u rv ey to w ork g ro up s i n w hic h l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness w as a sse sse d . E ig hty -n in e g ro up s m atc hed u p a ggre gate d s u rv ey re su lts w ith a nnual tu rn o ver d ata . T he l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness m easu re d w as co m pose d o f 1 0 s u rv ey i te m s a sse ssin g th e e ffe cti v eness o f th e w ork g ro up manager. T he P ears o n c o rre la ti o n b etw een th e l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n d ex a nd tu rn o ver w as 0 .2 9 ( P C 0 .0 07). T he n egati v e c o rre la ti o n w as c re ate d b ecause th e hig her ( m ore p ositi v e) th e l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness m easu re , th e l o w er th e tu rn o ver.

The l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness m easu re w as d iv id ed i n to th re e c ate go rie s ( b otto m 3 0 perc ent, m id dle 6 0 p erc ent, a nd to p 1 0 p erc ent) to c re ate Fig ure 2 -3 . T he c ut p oin ts on th e c ate go rie s w ere c ho se n b ecause o f th e c o nsis te ncy o f tu rn o ver w ith in e ach o f th e g ro up in gs.

Evalu atin g t h e R ela tio n sh ip B etw een M an ageria l Effe ctiv en ess a n d I n te n tio n t o L ea ve ( F ig u re 2 -4 ) The s a m e d ata s e t th at w as u se d to c re ate Fig ure 2 -1 w as a ls o u se d to m easu re in te nti o n to l e av e. T his w as th e c o m bin ed r e su lts f r o m h und re d s o f d iffe re nt org aniz a ti o ns. A to ta l o f 7 ,4 84 l e ad ers w ere a sse sse d o n th eir l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness, a nd th eir d ir e ct r e p orts w ere a sk ed to i n d ic ate th e e xte nt to w hic h th ey c o nsid ere d l e av in g th eir j o bs a nd g o in g to a no th er o rg aniz a ti o n. T he perc enta ges r e p re se nt th e p erc ent o f e m plo yees w ho r e sp ond ed i n a n eutr a l o r negati v e w ay to th e i te m . I n te nti o n to l e av e i s a n e xcelle nt p re d ic to r o f a ctu al tu rn o ver w ith a b out 5 0% o f th e e m plo yees w ho th in k a b out q uitti n g a ctu ally tu rn in g over. T he l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n d ex w as d iv id ed i n to 1 0 g ro up s b ase d o n th e dis tr ib uti o n o f th e d ata . T he g ro up s r a nged i n s iz e f r o m 7 81 to 6 09 e m plo yees.

Evalu atin g t h e R ela tio n sh ip B etw een M an ageria l 261 Effe ctiv en ess a n d C usto m er S atis fa ctio n ( F ig u re 2 -5 ) A h ig h-te ch c o m munic ati o ns c o m pany c o nd ucte d a c o m pany-w id e e m plo yee s u rv ey and th e s a m e y ear c o lle cte d 3 60-d egre e s u rv ey r e su lts f r o m 6 12 m anagers . T he 360-d egre e s u rv ey r e su lts w ere m erg ed w ith th e e m plo yee s u rv ey d ata . T he 3 60- degre e s u rv ey w as c usto m iz e d w ith 5 0 i te m s d esig ned to m easu re o vera ll le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. T he a ggre gate o f th e 3 60-d egre e s u rv ey i te m s f o rm ed th e le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n d ex. T he e m plo yee s u rv ey w as a ggre gate d a nd m erg ed with th e a ggre gate 3 60-d egre e r e su lts . T he d ata s e t a ls o c o nta in ed a d diti o nal dem ogra p hic s. T he e m plo yee s u rv ey c o nta in ed a s e rie s o f i te m s m easu rin g custo m er s a ti s fa cti o n. P erc enti le s c o re s w ere c alc ula te d o n th e c usto m er a nd in te nti o n to s ta y m easu re s f o r th e 6 12 m anagers . P erc enti le s c o re s f o r th e le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n d ex w ere c alc ula te d a nd th en d iv id ed i n to th e b otto m 2 0 perc ent, th e m id dle 6 0 p erc ent, a nd th e to p 2 0 p erc ent.

Rep lic a tio n s o f F in din gs Sin ce p ub lis h in g th e o rig in al v ers io n o f th is b ook, w e h av e b een e ngaged w ith hund re d s o f o rg aniz a ti o ns i n r e p lic ati n g th e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness a nd c riti c al o rg aniz a ti o nal o utc o m es. A fte r c o nd ucti n g a ll o f th ese stu d ie s, i t h as b eco m e c le ar th at th ere i s c o nsis te ncy i n th e f in d in gs. W e h av e n ev er stu d ie d a n o rg aniz a ti o n w here th ere w as n o t a s tr o ng r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n/c o m mitm ent. T he s tu d ie s o n in te nti o n to q uit a nd p erc enta ge o f h ig hly c o m mitte d e m plo yees a re a ls o v ery co nsis te nt. I n s p ite o f te llin g o ur c lie nts a b out th e n um ber o f r e p lic ati o ns o f th e re se arc h, th ey a re a lw ays m ore f a sc in ate d b y s e ein g th e re p lic ati o n o f th eir o w n data . I n m ost o rg aniz a ti o ns, l e ad ers s ti ll a sk th e q uesti o n, “ Is th at tr u e i n o ur org aniz a ti o n?” W hen l e ad ers s e e h o w th eir o w n d ata s h o w s th at g re at l e ad ers cre ate s u b sta nti a lly h ig her l e v els o f e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n a nd c o m mitm ent, th ey begin to b e m ore s e rio us a nd d ed ic ate d i n th eir e ffo rts to b eco m e e xtr a o rd in ary le ad ers .

We f r e q uentl y g et q uesti o ns a b out d iffe re nces b etw een U .S . a nd i n te rn ati o nal le ad ers . A s w e h av e u se d th e E xtr a o rd in ary L ead er a p pro ach a ro und th e w orld , w e hav e f o und a l a rg e n um ber o f s im ila riti e s b etw een l e ad ers i n d iffe re nt c ultu re s. T he gra p h i n Fig ure A -1 s h o w s r e su lts f r o m f o ur d iffe re nt c o untr ie s. T he r e su lts w ere genera te d f r o m th e f o llo w in g:

• 8 1 l e ad ers f r o m a g o vern m ent o rg aniz a ti o n i n th e U nite d A ra b E m ir a te s • 3 61 l e ad ers f r o m a v arie ty o f d iffe re nt o rg aniz a ti o ns i n S pain 262 • 7 27 l e ad ers f r o m a v arie ty o f d iffe re nt o rg aniz a ti o ns i n th e U nite d K in gd om • 4 4 l e ad ers f r o m a f in ancia l s e rv ic es c o m pany i n I n d ia Lead ers h ip e ffe cti v eness w as m easu re d b y a 4 9-ite m i n d ex a sse ssin g th e Extr a o rd in ary L ead er 1 6 d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s. E m plo yee sa ti s fa cti o n/c o m mitm ent w ere m easu re d b y a f iv e-ite m i n d ex. I t i s c le ar f r o m Fig ure A -1 th at th e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd e m plo yee sa ti s fa cti o n/c o m mitm ent i n th ese f o ur d iffe re nt c o untr ie s i s v ery s im ila r to th e fin d in gs f r o m N orth A meric a.

Fig ure A -1 E m plo yee S atis fa ctio n/C om mit m ent in F our C ountr ie s Six te en C om pete n cie s T hat B est D if fe ren tia te H ig h - an d L ow -P erfo rm in g L ea d ers ( C hap te r 4 ) To a cco m plis h th is a naly sis , th ir ty -tw o 3 60-d egre e f e ed back d ata s e ts w ere analy ze d , c o nta in in g r e su lts f r o m m ore th an 1 00 d iffe re nt c o m panie s.

Tab le A -1 pro vid es a l is ti n g o f th e d iffe re nt d ata s e ts u se d i n th e a naly sis .

The a naly sis w as c o m ple te d u sin g r e su lts f r o m 2 37,1 23 s u rv ey r e sp onse s o n 26,3 14 l e ad ers . E ach o f th e d iffe re nt d ata s e ts r e p re se nte d d iffe re nt c usto m iz e d 360-d egre e s u rv eys. A to ta l o f 1 ,9 56 3 60-d egre e i te m s w ere u se d . V ery f e w o f th e ite m s w ere r e p eate d i n th e d iffe re nt s u rv eys. T his p ro vid ed a n e xtr a o rd in arily r ic h data s e t o f c o m pete ncie s a nd i te m s f r o m a v arie ty o f d iffe re nt o rg aniz a ti o ns.

Exte nsiv e a naly sis w as d one o n e ach d ata s e t. F ir s t, d ata s e ts w ere c o m pile d in to a ggre gate d f o rm at b y c o m puti n g a n o vera ll a v era ge o f a ll r e sp onse s ( e .g ., b oss, 263 peers , d ir e ct r e p orts , o th ers ), w ith th e s e lf- re sp onse e xclu d ed . T his w as d one f o r each l e ad er i n th e d ata s e t. N ext, a n o vera ll s c o re w as c o m pute d b y a v era gin g a ll 360-d egre e i te m s i n to a n o vera ll i n d ex. W e n ext d ete rm in ed f r o m th e o vera ll s c o re th e to p 1 0 p erc ent o f h ig hest- s c o rin g l e ad ers a nd th e b otto m 1 0 p erc ent o f l o w est- sc o rin g l e ad ers . U sin g th ese tw o g ro up s, a n i n d ep end ent t -te st w as p erfo rm ed o n each i te m . T he t -v alu es f r o m th e t -te st w ere th en s o rte d f o r a ll s u rv ey i te m s. T he 1 0 to 1 5 i te m s w ith th e l a rg est d iffe re nces w ere th en s e le cte d f r o m e ach d ata a naly sis and p ut i n to a c o m bin ed s e t o f k ey d iffe re nti a ti n g i te m s. O nce a ll o f th e a naly sis was c o m ple te d , th e c o m bin ed l is t w as a gain s o rte d , s e le cti n g o nly th o se w ith th e hig hest t -v alu es. E ach i te m w as th en p ut o n a 3 -in ch b y 5 -in ch c ard . T he c ard s w ere so rte d i n to g ro up s s e p ara te ly b y b oth a uth o rs , a nd a fte r s e v era l i te ra ti o ns th e i te m s were g ro up ed i n to 1 6 d iffe re nt c lu ste rs . B ecause th e s u rv ey i te m s c ro sse d o ver 3 2 diffe re nt d ata s e ts , w e w ere n o t a b le to p erfo rm a f a cto r a naly sis o n th e o vera ll re su lts , b ut w e d id p erfo rm a f a cto r a naly sis o n i n d iv id ual d ata s e ts , w hic h h elp ed in c re ati n g th e a p pro pria te c lu ste rs .

Im pact o f P ro fo u nd S tr en gth s o n O vera ll L ea d ersh ip Effe ctiv en ess ( C hap te r 6 ) In Chap te r 6 , a s tu d y w as p re se nte d a sse ssin g th e i m pact o f p ro fo und s tr e ngth s o n overa ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness.

Fig ure A -2 p re se nts a n u p date d s tu d y. T he d ata fr o m th e s tu d y c am e f r o m th e a ggre gate d r e su lts o f 7 ,1 95 l e ad ers f r o m a v arie ty o f diffe re nt o rg aniz a ti o ns. T he 3 60-d egre e a sse ssm ent w as b ase d o n th e 264 Table A -1 C om positi o n o f 3 2 D ata S ets U se d i n th e K ey D iffe re nti a to r A naly sis Fig ure A -2 I m pact o f S tr e ngth s o n O vera ll E ffe ctiv eness Extr a o rd in ary L ead er 3 60-d egre e a sse ssm ent a nd th e 1 6 d iffe re nti a ti n g co m pete ncie s. T o c o nd uct th e s tu d y, w e c alc ula te d p erc enti le s c o re s o n e ach o f th e 16 d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s. W e d ete rm in ed th at a p ro fo und s tr e ngth w as a co m pete ncy a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le o r h ig her. W e a ls o c alc ula te d p erc enti le s c o re s on th e o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n d ex, w hic h i s th e o vera ll a v era ge o f 4 9 ite m s a sse ssin g l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. N ote th at th e r e su lts o n th is b ro ad er s tu d y are v ery c lo se to th e r e su lts l is te d i n Chap te r 6 .

Afte r th e p ub lic ati o n o f th e f ir s t e d iti o n o f The E xtr a ord in ary L ea der , th ere w as 265 so m e c riti c is m r e gard in g th is s tu d y. T he c riti c is m c ente re d o n th e f a ct th at th e overa ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n d ex a nd e ach o f th e i n d iv id ual c o m pete ncie s use d to d ete rm in e s tr e ngth s w ere p art o f th e s a m e m easu re . T hat b ein g s a id , i t i s n o su rp ris e th at w ith th e a d diti o n o f s tr e ngth s, th e o vera ll e ffe cti v eness p erc enti le sc o re i n cre ase d . W hat i m pre sse d u s i n th e r e se arc h w as n o t th at th e s c o re s w ent u p but r a th er th e s u b sta nti a l i n cre ase th at c am e f r o m j u st a f e w s tr e ngth s. T o s h o w th e im pact o f s tr e ngth s, w e d id a n a d diti o nal s tu d y w ith 1 ,0 40 l e ad ers . I n th is s tu d y, w e exam in ed s o m e a d diti o nal i n d ep end ent m easu re s th at s h o w ed th e i m pact o f str e ngth s. T he 3 60-d egre e a sse ssm ent d ata w as c o lle cte d f r o m m anagers , p eers , and d ir e ct r e p orts . L ead ers w ere a sse sse d o n 1 6 d im ensio ns. L ead ers w ith str e ngth s ( e .g ., a c o m pete ncy a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le ) w ere i d enti fie d . T he to ta l re su lts ( e .g ., a v era ge o f m anager, p eers , a nd d ir e ct r e p orts ) w ere a sse m ble d . T his data s e t a ls o i n clu d ed a se rie s o f r a ti n g b y d ir e ct r e p orts o n e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n.

One i te m a sse sse d th e o vera ll e ffe cti v eness o f e ach m anager ( e .g ., “ O vera ll, I f e el my i m med ia te s u p erv is o r/m anager i s d oin g a g o od j o b.” ) T his i te m w as n o t o ne o f th e 3 60 i te m s u se d to c alc ula te th e l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n d ex. L ead ers w ith str e ngth s w ere c o m pare d w ith th e l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n d ex ( th e a v era ge o f a ll 360 i te m s), a n i n d ep end ent r a ti n g o f m anageria l e ffe cti v eness ( th e i te m , “ O vera ll I fe el th at m y m anager i s d oin g a g o od j o b”) a nd a n e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n i n d ex ( 1 2 ite m s a sse ssin g s a ti s fa cti o n w ith th e c o m pany, j o b, d ir e cti o n o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n, etc .) R esu lts o f th is s tu d y a re p re se nte d b elo w i n Fig ure A -3 .

Note th at Fig ure A -3 s h o w s i n th e f ir s t c o lu m n th e o vera ll l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness d ata . I t s h o uld n o t b e s u rp ris in g th at th ese r e su lts a re v ery s im ila r to th e r e su lts f o und i n o ur o rig in al r e se arc h b ecause th is p art o f th e s tu d y w as d one i n th e s a m e w ay. T he s e co nd c o lu m n ( R ati n g o f M anageria l E ffe cti v eness) p re se nts re su lts f r o m th e i n d ep end ent r a ti n g o f o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. T his dis p la ys th e r e su lts f r o m th e o ne i te m a sse ssin g th e o vera ll e ffe cti v eness o f a manager a s s e en b y h is o r h er d ir e ct r e p orts . T ho ugh n o t a s c o m pre hensiv e a s th e le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n d ex, i t p ro vid es a n o vera ll e v alu ati o n o f th e m anager b y dir e ct r e p orts . N ote th at th e r e su lts tr a ck v ery 266 Fig ure A -3 I m pact o f S tr e ngth s o n T hre e M easu re s co nsis te ntl y w ith th o se i n c o lu m n o ne ( a lth o ugh s lig htl y l o w er a t 3 to 5 s tr e ngth s).

Colu m n 3 r e p re se nts a m easu re o f e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n. T his 1 2-ite m i n d ex a ls o fo llo w s a c o nsis te nt tr e nd . T he i n sig hts f r o m o ur o rig in al r e se arc h w ere th at “ T he key to d ev elo pin g g re at l e ad ers h ip i s to b uild s tr e ngth s.” W e n o te d th at b uild in g str e ngth s c re ate d a s u b sta nti a l p ositi v e i m pact o n o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness.

This l a te r r e se arc h p ro vid es e v en m ore e v id ence f o r th at c la im .

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4. P ola nyi, M ic hael, Perso nal K now le d ge: T ow ard s a P ost- C ritic a l P hilo so phy , Univ ers ity o f C hic ago P re ss, C hic ago , 1 958, p . 5 3.

5. U lr ic h, D av e, J a ck Z enger, a nd N orm S m allw ood, Resu lts -B ase d L ea dersh ip , Harv ard B usin ess S cho ol P re ss, B osto n, 1 999.

C hap te r 2 1. R ucci, A nth o ny J ., S te v en P . K im , a nd R ic hard T . Q uin n, “ T he E m plo yee- Custo m er-P ro fit C hain a t S ears ,” Harv a rd B usin ess R evie w , J a nuary – Feb ru ary 1 998, p p. 8 2–98.

2. J o hnso n, C arla , “ R ecru itm ent: C ap tu rin g T urn o ver C osts ,” HR M agazin e , J u ly 2000, V ol. 4 5, N o. 7 , p p. 1 07–119.

3. S enn, L arry E ., a nd J o hn R . C hild re ss, The S ecre ts o f R esh apin g C ultu re , T he Lead ers h ip P re ss, 1 999 ( a v aila b le o n K in d le .) 4. C ollin s, J im , “ L ev el 5 L ead ers h ip : T he T riu m ph o f H um ility a nd F ie rc e Reso lv e,” Harv a rd B usin ess R evie w , J a nuary 2 001, p p. 6 7–76.

5. K elly , W alt, c re ato r o f P ogo , 1 917–1973.

6. “ If I t w as G ood E no ugh f o r J a ck W elc h. . .,” Busin ess W eek , O cto ber 1 5, 2001, O nlin e.

7. E ric sso n, A nd ers K ., a nd N eil C harn ess, “ E xp ert P erfo rm ance, I ts S tr u ctu re and A cq uis iti o n,” Am eric a n P sy ch olo gis t , 1 994, V ol. 4 9, N o. 8 , p p. 7 25–747.

268 Chap te r 3 1. D alto n, G ene, a nd P aul T ho m pso n, Nova tio ns: S tr a te g ie s f o r C are er Managem en t , H arp er & R ow , N ew Y ork , 1 966.

2. S and ho ltz , K urt, The 4 S ta ges o f C are er G ro w th , B T. N ovati o ns P ub lic ati o n, Pro vo, U T, 2 001, p . 2 .

3. U lr ic h, D av e, J a ck Z enger, a nd N orm S m allw ood, Resu lts -B ase d L ea dersh ip , Harv ard B usin ess S cho ol P re ss, B osto n, 1 999.

4. F ra ngo s, S te v e, Tea m Z eb ra , O liv er W rig ht P ub lic ati o ns, O mneo , E sse x Ju ncti o n, V T, 1 993.

5. G ard ner, J o hn, On L ea dersh ip , F re e P re ss, N ew Y ork , 1 990, p p. 3 –4.

6. M cC le lla nd , D av id , “ A chie v em ent M oti v ati o n C an B e D ev elo ped ,” Harv a rd Busin ess R evie w , V ol. 4 3, 1 965, p . 1 78.

Chap te r 4 1. G ard ner, J o hn W ., On L ea dersh ip , T he F re e P re ss, N ew Y ork , 1 990.

2. S pencer, L yle M ., Com pete n ce a t W ork , W ile y, N ew Y ork , 1 993.

3. D alto n, M axin e, “ A re C om pete ncy M odels a W aste ?” Tra in in g a nd Develo pm en t , O cto ber 1 997, p p. 4 6–49.

4. I b id .

5. A sc h, S . E ., “ F orm in g I m pre ssio ns o f P ers o nality ,” Jo urn al o f A bnorm al a nd Socia l P sy ch olo gy , V ol. 4 1, 1 946, p p. 2 58–290.

6. K elly , H . H ., “ T he W arm -C old V aria b le i n F ir s t I m pre ssio ns o f P ers o ns,” Jo urn al o f P erso nality , V ol. 1 8, 1 950, p p. 4 31–439.

7. R ose nb erg , S ., C . N els o n, a nd P . S . V iv ekananth an, “ A M ulti d im ensio nal Appro ach to th e S tr u ctu re o f P ers o nality I m pre ssio ns,” Jo urn al o f P erso nality and S ocia l P sy ch olo gy , V ol. 9 , 1 968, p p. 2 83–294.

8. I b id .

9. D ors e y, D av id , “ A nd y P ears o n F in d s L ove,” Fast C om pany , V ol. 4 9, A ugust 2001, p p. 7 8–82.

10. B ro no w sk i, J a co b, The A sc en t o f M an , L ittl e , B ro w n, B osto n, 1 974, p p. 1 15– 116.

269 Chap te r 5 1. W elc h, J a ck, Ja ck S tr a ig ht f r o m t h e G ut , W arn er B usin ess B ooks, N ew Y ork , 2001, p . x iv .

2. Z enger, J o hn H ., J o se p h F olk m an, a nd S co tt E din ger, The I n sp ir in g L ea der:

Unlo ckin g t h e S ecre ts o f H ow E xtr a ord in ary L ea ders M otiv a te , M cG ra w - Hill, N ew Y ork , 2 009.

3. S and ho ltz , K urt, “ A chie v in g Y our C are er B est,” Natio nal B usin ess Em plo ym en t W eekly , J u ly 1 1–17, 1 999.

4. D alto n, G ene, a nd P aul T ho m pso n, Nova tio ns: S tr a te g ie s f o r C are er Managem en t , S co tt, F ore sm an, G le nv ie w , I L , 1 986.

5. S and ho ltz , J u ly 1 1-1 7, 1 999.

6. D alto n a nd T ho m pso n, p p. 2 18-2 36.

7. I b id .

Chap te r 6 1. S elig m an, M arti n , Auth en tic H appin ess , F re e P re ss, N ew Y ork , 2 002, p . 1 3.

2. C am ero n, K im , Positiv e L ea dersh ip , B erre tt- K oehle r, S an F ra ncis c o , p p. 5 2– 53.

3. K ap la n, R obert a nd R obert K ais e r, “ S to p O verd oin g Y our S tr e ngth s, Harv a rd Busin ess R evie w , F eb . 2 009, p p. 3 6–41.

4. F esti n ger, L . A ., The T heo ry o f C ognitiv e D is so nance , S ta nfo rd U niv ers ity Pre ss, S ta nfo rd , C A , 1 957.

Chap te r 7 1. G alfo rd , R obert, a nd A nne S eib old D ra p eau, The T ru ste d L ea der , F re e P re ss, New Y ork , 2 002.

2. Z enger, J o hn, J o se p h F olk m an, a nd S co tt E din ger, The I n sp ir in g L ea der , McG ra w -H ill, N ew Y ork , 2 009.

3. M cC all, M . W ., J r., a nd M . M . L om bard o, “ O ff th e T ra ck: W hy a nd H ow Successfu l E xecuti v es G et D era ile d ,” T ech R ep ort N o. 2 1, C ente r f o r 270 Cre ati v e L ead ers h ip , G re ensb oro , N C, 1 983.

4. H ig gin s, E . T ory , “ R egula to ry F ocus T heo ry : I m plic ati o ns f o r th e S tu d y o f Em oti o ns a t W ork ,” Org aniz a tio nal B eh avio r a nd H um an D ecis io n Pro cesse s, S pecia l I s su e: A ffe ct a t W ork , V ol. 8 6, S ep te m ber 2 001, p p. 3 5– 66.

5. D w eck, C aro l S ., a nd E lle n L . L eggett, “ A S ocia l- C ogniti v e A ppro ach to Moti v ati o n a nd P ers o nality ,” Psy ch olo gic a l R evie w , V ol. 9 5, N o. 2 , 1 988, p p.

256–273.

6. D w eck, C aro l S ., Self- T heo rie s: T heir R ole i n M otiv a tio n, P erso nality , and Develo pm en t , P sy cho lo gy P re ss, P hila d elp hia , 1 999.

Chap te r 8 1. K elle y, R obert E ., How t o B e a S ta r a t W ork , T im es B usin ess, N ew Y ork , 1998, p p. 4 3–44.

2. K elle y, R obert E ., a nd J a net C ap la n, “ H ow B ell L ab s C re ate s S ta r Perfo rm ers ,” Harv a rd B usin ess R evie w , V ol. 7 1, J u ly – A ugust 1 993, p p. 1 28– 139.

3. K elle y, How t o B e a S ta r a t W ork , p p. 4 3–44.

4. K ra m es, J e ffr e y, The J a ck W elc h L exic o n o f L ea dersh ip , M cG ra w -H ill, N ew York , 2 002, p . 1 23.

5. Z enger, J o hn, J o se p h F olk m an, a nd S co tt E din ger, The I n sp ir in g L ea der , McG ra w -H ill, N ew Y ork , 2 009.

Chap te r 9 1. K atz e nb ach, J o n, Pea k P erfo rm ance , H arv ard B usin ess S cho ol P re ss, B osto n, 2000, p . i x .

2. K atz e nb ach, J o n, a nd J a so n S anta m aria , “ F ir in g u p th e F ro nt- L in e,” Harv a rd Busin ess R evie w , M ay– Ju ne 1 999, p p. 1 07–117.

3. F re ed m an, D av id , “ C orp s V alu es,” In c.

, A pril 1 998, p p. 5 5–64.

4. C la ncy, T om , Marin e , B erk le y, N ew Y ork , 1 996.

5. K atz e nb ach a nd S anta m aria , p p. 1 07–117.

271 6. C la ncy.

7. F re ed m an, p . 6 4.

8. K atz e nb ach a nd S anta m aria , p . 1 13.

9. F re ed m an, p p. 5 5–64.

10. C la ncy, p p. 5 2–53.

11. I b id ., p . 5 7.

12. D ors e y, D av id , “ A nd y P ears o n F in d s L ove,” Fast C om pany , A ugust 2 001, p p.

49–78.

13. C hris te nse n, C la yto n, The I n nova to r’s D ile m ma , H arv ard B usin ess S cho ol Pre ss, B osto n, 1 997.

14. O ’D ell, D ougla s ( B rig ad ie r G enera l) , New sw eek , N ovem ber 1 2, 2 001, p . 6 .

Chap te r 1 0 1. D ru cker, P ete r F ., The P ra ctic e o f M anagem en t , H arp er & R ow , N ew Y ork , 1954.

2. K ouze s, J a m es M ., a nd B arry Z . P osn er, “ O n B eco m in g a L ead er” i n Gro w th Str a te g ie s , A meric an M anagem ent A sso cia ti o n, N ew Y ork , N Y, S ep te m ber 1987.

3. S im on, H . A ., The S cie n ce o f M anagem en t D ecis io ns , P re nti c e H all, Engle w ood C liffs , N J, 1 977.

4. U lr ic h, D av e, J a ck Z enger, a nd N orm S m allw ood, Resu lts -B ase d L ea dersh ip , Harv ard B usin ess S cho ol P re ss, B osto n, 1 999, p p. 1 69–180.

5. F la herty , J o hn E ., Pete r D ru cker: S hapin g t h e M anageria l M in d , J o sse y- Bass, S an F ra ncis c o , 1 999, p . 3 35.

6. I b id ., p p. 3 36–337.

7. V ale rio , A nna M ., “ A S tu d y o f th e D ev elo pm enta l E xp erie nces o f M anagers ,” in Mea su re s o f L ea dersh ip ( K enneth E . a nd M ir ia m B . C la rk , e d s.) , Lead ers h ip L ib ra ry o f A meric a, W est O ra nge, N J, 1 990, p p. 5 21–533.

8. P erry , L ee T om , R and all G . S to tt, a nd W . N orm an S m allw ood, Rea l- T im e Str a te g y: I m pro vis in g T ea m -B ase d P la nnin g f o r a F ast- C hangin g W orld , Wile y, N ew Y ork , 1 993.

9. F rie d m an, S te w art, “ L ead ers h ip D NA: T he F ord M oto r S to ry ,” T& D J o urn al , Marc h 2 001, p . 2 5.

272 10. I b id ., p . 2 7.

Chap te r 1 2 1. A nd ers e n C onsu lti n g I n sti tu te f o r S tr a te gic C hange, The E vo lv in g R ole o f Execu tiv e L ea dersh ip , P ub lic ati o n 9 9-0 382, 1 999, a v aila b le f r o m A ccentu re , offic es i n m ajo r c iti e s.

2. D ru cker, P ete r, The E ffe ctiv e E xecu tiv e , H arp erC ollin s, N ew Y ork , 1 967, p .

99.

3. G arv in , D av id A ., Lea rn in g i n A ctio n: A G uid e t o P uttin g t h e L ea rn in g Org aniz a tio n t o W ork , H arv ard B usin ess S cho ol P re ss, B osto n, 2 000, p . 1 20.

4. K atz e nb ach, J o n, Pea k P erfo rm ance , H arv ard B usin ess S cho ol P re ss, B osto n, 2000.

5. P erry , L ee T om , R and all G . S to tt, a nd W . N orm an S m allw ood, Rea l- T im e Str a te g y: I m pro vis in g T ea m -B ase d P la nnin g f o r a F ast- C hangin g W orld , Wile y, N ew Y ork , 1 993.

6. U lr ic h, D av e, J a ck Z enger, a nd N orm S m allw ood, Resu lts -B ase d L ea dersh ip , Harv ard B usin ess S cho ol P re ss, B osto n, 1 999.

7. F la herty , J o hn E ., a nd P ete r D ru cker, Shapin g t h e M anageria l M in d , J o sse y- Bass, S an F ra ncis c o , 1 999, p p. 3 29–330.

8. K ra m es, J e ffr e y, The J a ck W elc h L exic o n o f L ea dersh ip , M cG ra w -H ill, N ew York , 2 002, p . 6 8.

9. F la herty a nd D ru cker, p p. 3 29–330.

10. D ru cker, The E ffe ctiv e E xecu tiv e , p . 4 5.

11. Z enger, J o hn H ., J o se p h F olk m an, a nd S co tt E din ger The I n sp ir in g L ea der:

Unlo ckin g t h e S ecre ts o f H ow E xtr a ord in ary L ea ders M otiv a te , M cG ra w - Hill, N ew Y ork , 2 009.

12. “ W hy J o hnny M ay L earn to A dd,” Busin ess W eek , D ecem ber 1 3, 1 999, p p.

108–114.

13. R ev ans, R egin ald W ., The O rig in s a nd G ro w th o f A ctio n L ea rn in g , Stu d entl itte ra tu r, L und , S w ed en, 1 982.

14. “ S ie m ens: B uild in g a ‘ B -S cho ol’ i n I ts O w n B ack Y ard ,” Busin ess W eek , Novem ber 1 5, 1 999, p . 2 81.

15. F rie d m an, S te w art D ., “ L ead ers h ip D NA: T he F ord M oto r S to ry ,” Tra in in g & 273 Develo pm en t, A ST D , M arc h 2 001, p p. 2 3–29.

16. M ars ic k, V ic to ria J ., L ars T urn er, E rn ie C ed erh o lm , a nd T ony P ears o n, “A cti o n R efle cti o n L earn in g,” T& D , A ugust 1 992, p p. 6 3–67.

17. M arq uard t, M ic hael, Actio n L ea rn in g , D av is -B la ck, P alo A lto , C A , 1 999.

18. G arv in , p p. 8 9–136.

19. d e P re e, M ax, “ F our P io neers R efle ct o n L ead ers h ip ,” Tra in in g & Develo pm en t , J u ly 1 998, p p. 4 1–48.

20. S te w art, T ho m as, “ N in e D ile m mas L ead ers F ace,” Fortu ne , M arc h 1 8, 1 996, pp. 1 12–113.

21. M cC all, M org an, J r., M ic hael L om bard o, a nd A nn M orris o n, The L esso ns o f Exp erie n ce , L exin gto n B ooks, N ew Y ork , 1 988.

Chap te r 1 4 This c hap te r w as o rig in ally p ub lis h ed i n th e T ra in in g a nd D ev elo pm ent J o urn al und er th e ti tl e , “ T he P ow er o f P hase 3 ”. I t i s i n clu d ed h ere w ith th e g ra cio us perm is sio n o f th e A meric an S ocie ty o f T ra in in g a nd D ev elo pm ent.

1. T hat d ata i s r e in fo rc ed b y th e o ft- c ite d 1 988 s tu d y b y L is e . M . S aari, T . R .

Jo hnso n, S . D . M cL aughlin , a nd D . M . Z im merle , “ A S urv ey o f M anagem ent Tra in in g a nd E ducati o n P ra cti c es i n U .S . C om panie s,” P ers o nnel P sy cho lo gy, v. 4 1, W in te r 1 988, p p. 7 31–743, w hic h c o nclu d ed a ny f o rm o f f o llo w -u p w as ra re .

2. M ars h all G old sm ith a nd H ow ard M org an, Str a te g y + Busin ess , J a nuary 2 005.

Is su e 3 6, p p. 7 1–79.

3. Z enger, J o hn H , D av id U lr ic h, a nd N orm S m allw ood, “ T he N ew L ead ers h ip Dev elo pm ent,” Tra in in g & Develo pm en t ( A ST D ), J a nuary 2 000, p p. 3 2–38.

274 IN DEX A ccentu re , 240 A cco unta b ility , 257 –258 A cti o n l e arn in g p ro je cts , 202 –203, 252 –254 A ctio n L ea rn in g , 254 A gile nt T echno lo gie s, 32 A naly ti c al s k ills , 57 A sc h e xp erim ents , 91 , 92 B ain , 252 B CG , 252 B ehav io r r e v is io n, 35 –36 B ennis , W arre n, 2 , 54 B in ary th in kin g, 48 –49 B oss-s u b ord in ate d ynam ic s, 146 –147 B ro ad -s c ale l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent, 208 –210 B ro no w sk i, J a co b, 97 B ure aucra ti c o rg aniz a ti o n, 128 C alifo rn ia P sy cho lo gic al I n v ento ry te st, 214 C and or o rg aniz a ti o n, 125 C ele b ra ti o n o rg aniz a ti o n, 128 C hange, 69 –76, 187 –188, 200 asse ssm ent o f l e ad ers h ip , 69 cham pio nin g o f, 72 in v olv em ent o f o th ers , 72 le ad ers h ip a nd , 17 le ad in g, 103 –104 str a te gic , 75 –76 ta cti c al, 70 –72, 74 C hange i n iti a ti v e, 227 C hara cte r, 12 –13, 54 –57, 98 –99, 177 –178, 198 , 216 –217 defin iti o n o f, 55 –56 275 Chris te nse n, C la yto n, 208 Cla ncy, T om , 195 , 199 , 206 Coachin g, 218 Collin s, J im , 38 Com pete n ce a t W ork , 85 Com pete ncie s, 17 –18 asse ssin g i n d iv id ual, 104 –105 co m bin in g o f, 20 –21 co m panio ns i n , 23 lin kin g o f, 18 Com pete ncy a p pro ach, 81 –105 asp ir a ti o n l e v el, 97 –98 co nfid ence, 96 –97 cro ss tr a in in g, 96 fla w s, 83 –89 halo e ffe ct, 90 –96 pers o nal a ttr ib ute s, 91 , 92 poor e xecuti o n, 88 –89 su ccess, 96 –97 Com pete ncy b ehav io rs , 98 –104 chara cte r, 98 –99 in te rp ers o nal s k ills , 101 –103 le ad in g c hange, 103 –104 pers o nal c ap ab ility , 99 re su lts , 100 –101 Com pete ncy c o m panio ns, 170 –172, 174 –189 chara cte r, 177 –178 effe cti v eness, 180 –181 in no vati v e, 181 in te grity , 176 in te rp ers o nal s k ills , 184 –187 mechanis m s o f, 175 –177 org aniz a ti o nal c hange, 187 –188 pers o nal c ap ab ility , 178 276 pro ducti v ity , 183 –184 re sp onsib ility , 182 ris k ta kin g, 181 –182 str a te gy, 188 –189 str e tc h c ap acity , 181 tr u st, 176 Com pete ncy d riv ers , 117 –118 Confid ence, 96 –97 CO P M odel, 112 –114 Covey, S te p hen, 55 Cre d ib ility , 54 Cro ss tr a in in g, 96 , 203 –204 Custo m ers em phasis o n, 123 –124 sa ti s fa cti o n, 34 –36 Dalto n, G ene, 59 , 89 , 111 , 129 De P re e, M ax, 54 , 255 Dep end ency, 59 Dev elo pm ent p ro cess, 268 Dir e ct r e p ort d ev elo pm ent, 184 –185 Dir e cti n g c hange, 71 –72 Div ers ity , 208 Dra p eau, 154 Dru cker, P ete r, 87 , 219 –221, 241 , 244 , 247 Dw eck, C aro l, 164 Effe cti v eness, 180 –181 philo so phie s r e , 133 –134 Egalita ria n c ultu re , 210 Eis e nho w er, G enera l D w ig ht, 18 Em plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n, 233 –235 Em plo yees, c o m mitte d , 36 Enric o , R oger, 206 Evo lv in g R ole o f E xecu tiv e L ea dersh ip , T he , 240 277 Exp ecta ti o ns, 244 –245 Fair n ess, w ith in o rg aniz a ti o n, 126 –127 Fata l f la w s, 23 , 136 , 149 –166 co m mon ty p es, 152 co m monality o f, 159 –166 fix in g o f, 222 fr e q uency o f, 151 –152 multi p le , 152 re p air in g, 160 –162 ty p es, 152 –159 Feed back, 210 , 223 –224, 254 –255 fa ta l f la w s a nd , 161 –162 Festi n ger, L .A ., 146 Fla herty , J o hn, 246 Focus o n r e su lts c o ncep t, 13 Follo w -th ro ugh, 267 –276 Ford M oto r C o., 75 , 228 , 253 Fortu ne , 97 , 255 Four s ta ges m odel, 59 –61 Fra ngo s, S te v e, 67 Fre ed m an, D anie l, 195 Frie d m an, S te w art, 228 –229 Fund a llo cati o n, 268 –269 Galfo rd , 154 Gard ner, J o hn, 74 Garv in , D av id A ., 241 , 254 Genera l E le ctr ic , 48 , 108 Genera l M ills , 263 –266 Gente el o rg aniz a ti o n, 124 –125 Gilb ert, T ho m as, 87 Giu lia ni, R ud olp h, 5 , 57 Gold m an S achs, 39 , 257 Gold sm ith a nd H olm an, 268 278 Gough, H arris o n, 214 Gro ve, A nd y, 205 Halo e ffe ct, 90 –96, 145 –146 Harv a rd B usin ess R evie w , 97 Herm an M ille r, 54 , 255 Hig gin s, T ory , 162 Hom e D ep ot, 192 IB M , 44 In c.

M agazin e, 192 In iti a ti v e, 58 , 178 In no vati o n, 58 In no vati v e b ehav io r, 181 In nova to r’s D ile m ma, T he , 208 In sp ir a ti o n, 187 In sp ir in g L ea der, T he , 110 , 187 , 248 In te grity , 176 In te l, 206 In te rn et, e ffe ct o f, 275 In te rp ers o nal r e la ti o nsh ip s, 171 –174 In te rp ers o nal s k ills , 13 –14, 61 –62, 64 –67, 101 –103, 184 –187, 200 diffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s, 64 dir e ct r e p ort d ev elo pm ent, 184 –185 in sp ir a ti o n, 187 la ck o f, 156 –157 te am b uild in g, 185 –186 In v olv ed l e arn in g m eth o ds, 201 –202 Ja ck S tr a ig ht f r o m t h e G ut , 108 Jo hnso n C ontr o ls , 192 Kais e r, 142 Kap la n, 142 Kate nzb ach, 7 , 192 , 195 , 242 279 Kearn s, D av id , 188 Kelly , H .H ., 91 , 92 KFC , 192 Kim berly -C la rk , 75 Kodak, 67 Kouze s, J a m es, 54 , 215 Language, 8 –9 Lead er e d ucati o n, 258 Lead ers as te achers , 256 go od v s. b ad , 29 gre at v s. g o od, 29 –30 makin g o f, 25 –26 Lead ers h ip a ttr ib ute s, 54 –76, 198 –200 change, 200 chara cte r, 54 –57, 198 co m mand v oic in g, 199 in te rp ers o nal s k ills , 200 in te rre la ti o n o f, 76 –79 pers o nal c ap ab ility , 199 pers o nal c ap ab ility , 57 –61 re su lts o rie nte d , 199 –200 se lf- d ev elo pm ent, 199 Lead ers h ip c o m pete ncie s, 111 –112 Lead ers h ip e ffe cti v eness, 226 –227, 232 Lead ers h ip i n sig hts , 14 –26, 51 –79 Lead ers h ip m odel, 240 Lead ers h ip p atte rn s, 195 –196 Lead ers h ip ta sk s, 194 –195 Lead ers h ip te am s, d ev elo pm ent o f, 231 –238 Lead ers h ip T ent m odel, 11 –14, 237 –238 Lead in g o rg aniz a ti o nal c hange, 67 –69 Lea rn in g i n A ctio n , 241 , 254 280 Learn in g l e ad ers h ip , 213 –230 Learn in g m eth o ds, 201 –202, 248 –251 Learn in g o rg aniz a ti o n, 125 –126 Lesso ns o f E xp erie n ce , The , 258 Lin co ln , A bra ham , 215 Lin ear l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p la n, 168 –170 Lin e-O rie nte d F lig ht T ra in in g, 241 Louis V uitto n, 56 3M , 192 MacA rth ur, G enera l D ougla s, 18 Managem ent d ev elo pm ent, 242 –243 Marin e , 192 , 206 Marq uard t, M ic hael, 254 Marrio tt I n te rn ati o nal, 192 McK in no n, P aul, 45 McK in se y a nd C o., 97 , 153 , 192 , 252 Mis ta kes av oid in g o f, 122 le arn f r o m , 155 –156, 223 Natu ra l s tr e ngth s, 201 Nels o n, 92 , New B usin ess L ead er P ro gra m , 253 Nix o n, R ic hard M ., 95 Nonlin ear d ev elo pm ent, 170 –171 Nord str o m , 56 Org aniz a ti o n s p ecific l e ad ers h ip , 19 Org aniz a ti o n v alu es, 206 Org aniz a ti o nal c hange, l e ad in g o f, 14 , 67 –69 Org aniz a ti o ns, 107 –129 co m mon p ro file s, 119 –128 bure aucra ti c , 128 cand or, 125 281 cele b ra ti o n, 128 custo m er e m phasis , 123 –124 executi o n, 121 fa ir , 126 –127 gente el, 124 –125 hig h-in te grity , 126 le arn in g, 125 –126 mis ta kes, 122 politi c al, 127 te chno lo gy, 120 vir tu al, 128 co m pete ncy d riv ers , 117 –118 Pea k P erfo rm ance , 7 , 242 Pears o n, A nd ra ll, 97 , 208 Peer p re ssu re , 196 Peo ple d ev elo pm ent, 226 Pep siC o, 97 , 206 Perfo rm ance b enefits , 16 –17 Perry , S to tt a nd S m allw ood, 243 Pers o nal a ttr ib ute s, 91 , 92 Pers o nal c ap ab ility , 13 , 57 –61, 99 , 178 , 199 Perso nal K now le d ge, 1 0 Pola nyi, M ic hael, 10 Politi c al o rg aniz a ti o n, 127 Posn er, B arry , 54 , 215 Pra ctic e o f M anagem en t, T he , 214 Pre v enti o n o rie nta ti o n, 163 –166 Pro duct k no w le d ge, 57 Pro fita b ility , l e ad ers h ip a nd , 31 –32, 37 –38 Pro m oti o n o rie nta ti o n, 162 –163 Quality o f w ork fo rc e, i m pro vem ent, 207 –208 Quality , l e ad ers h ip a nd , 26 Quantu m I d ea P ro je ct, 253 282 Quin n, 32 Rea l- T im e S tr a te g y: I m pro vis in g T ea m -B ase d P la nnin g f o r a F ast C hangin g World , 243 Resp onsib ility , 182 Resu lts , 100 –101 defin in g o f, 243 –244 driv en l e ad ers h ip , 61 fo cus, 199 –200 Resu lts -B ase d L ea dersh ip , 13 , 62 , 216 , 243 Rev ans, R egin ald , 252 Ris k ta kin g, 181 –182 Role m odels , 222 –223 Rose nb erg , 92 , 174 Rucci, 32 Rule o f T hre e, 196 Sand ho ltz , K urt, 111 , 112 Sears , 32 Self- d ev elo pm ent, 199 im porta nce o f, 26 Selig m an, M arti n , 133 Senio r l e ad ers , d ev elo pm ent o f, 242 Senio r m anagem ent, l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent a nd , 204 –206, 245 –246 Senn, L arry , 35 Shad ow s o f l e ad ers , 45 Shaffe r, J im , 54 Sie m ens O rg aniz a ti o n, 252 Skills , 57 –58 Skills d ev elo pm ent, 218 Sm allw ood, N orm , 62 Socia l l e arn in g th eo ry , 222 –223 South w est A ir lin es, 192 , 241 Spencer, L yle , 85 Ste w art, T ho m as, 255 283 Str a te gic c hange, 75 –76 Str a te gic th in kin g, 225 Str a te gy, c hange i n , 188 –189 Str e ngth b uild in g, 19 –20 Str e ngth s, 137 –147, 219 –221, 246 –247 Str e tc h c ap acity , 181 Sub ord in ate s, 10 Success, 96 –97 cele b ra ti o n o f, 259 Sulliv an, J o hn, 32 Tacti c al c hange, 70 –72, 74 dir e cti n g o f, 71 –72 Tale nt, 42 –44 Teachers , l e ad ers a s, 256 Team -b ase d l e ad ers h ip , 202 Team b uild in g, 185 –186, 195 Team p la yin g, l a ck o f, 154 Tea m Z eb ra , 67 Technic al c o m pete nce, 171 –174 Technic al k no w le d ge, 57 Techno lo gy, 6 , 58 , 120 Tent m odel, 52 –76 Texas I n str u m ents , 192 Theo ry o f C ognitiv e D is so nance, T he , 146 Tho m pso n, P aul, 59 , 111 Tho rn to n, J o hn, 39 Tim e p re ssu re s, 196 Tow nse nd , P at, 192 Tric o n G lo bal R esta ura nts , 97 Tru m an, H arry S ., 215 Tru st, 176 –177 la ck o f, 154 Turn o ver, l e ad ers h ip a nd , 32 –34 284 U.S . M arin e C orp ., 9 , 191 –211, 241 , 256 co m mis sio ned o ffic ers , 194 le ad ers h ip a ttr ib ute s, 198 –200 le ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent, 200 –210 le ad ers h ip , 194 –196 manageab le s im plic ity , 196 –197 no nco m mis sio ned o ffic ers , 193 –194 peer d is c ip lin e, 196 peer p re ssu re , 196 ru le o f th re e, 196 te am build in g, 195 ti m e p re ssu re s, 196 Ulr ic h, D av e, 62 Ulr ic h, Z enger a nd S m allw ood, 243 Vail R eso rts , 192 Valu es, l a ck o f, 155 Vir tu al o rg aniz a ti o n, 128 Vis io n, 229 –230 Viv ekananth an, 92 Volu nte erin g, 229 Wats o n, J r., T om , 44 –45 Weakness i n l e ad ers h ip , 21 –23 Weaknesse s, 221 –222 Welc h, J a ck, 108 –109 Wild e, K ev in , 263 Zenger, J a ck, 62 285 ABO UT T H E A U TH ORS J oh n H . ( J ack ) Z en ger J o hn H . ( J a ck) Z enger i s th e c o -fo und er a nd C EO o f Z enger-F olk m an, a p ro fe ssio nal s e rv ic es f ir m p ro vid in g c o nsu lti n g, l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s, a nd i m ple m enta ti o n s o ftw are f o r o rg aniz a ti o nal e ffe cti v eness i n iti a ti v es. H e i s c o nsid ere d a w orld e xp ert i n th e f ie ld o f l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent a nd i s a h ig hly r e sp ecte d a nd s o ught- a fte r s p eaker, c o nsu lta nt, a nd e xecuti v e c o ach.

Ja ck’s c are er h as c o m bin ed e ntr e p re neuria l, c o rp ora te , a nd a cad em ic a cti v iti e s.

I n 1 977, h e c o -fo und ed Z enger-M ille r a nd s e rv ed a s i ts p re sid ent a nd C EO u nti l 1 991. T he Wall S tr e et J o urn al n am ed i t o ne o f th e 1 0 b est s u p plie rs o f e xecuti v e d ev elo pm ent.

Because o f h is c o ntr ib uti o ns to th e f ie ld o f l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent a nd tr a in in g, J a ck w as i n d ucte d i n to th e H um an R eso urc es D ev elo pm ent H all o f F am e. H is c o lle agues i n th e tr a in in g i n d ustr y a w ard ed h im th e “ T ho ught L ead ers h ip A w ard ” i n 2 007. H e w as h o no re d a s a d is ti n guis h ed c iti z e n b y th e S ta nfo rd A re a C ouncil o f B oy S co uts o f A meric a. H e r e ceiv ed a d octo ra te i n b usin ess a d m in is tr a ti o n f r o m t h e U niv ers ity o f S outh ern C alifo rn ia , a n M BA d egre e f r o m U CLA , a nd a b achelo r’s d egre e i n p sy cho lo gy f r o m B rig ham Y oung U niv ers ity .

Ja ck h as a uth o re d o r c o -a uth o re d 5 0 a rti c le s o n l e ad ers h ip , p ro ducti v ity , e - l e arn in g, tr a in in g, a nd m easu re m ent. H e i s th e c o -a uth o r o f f o ur b ooks o n l e ad ers h ip , i n clu d in g Resu lts -B ase d L ea dersh ip ( H arv ard B usin ess S cho ol P re ss, 1 999), v ote d b y S H RM a s th e B est B usin ess B ook i n th e y ear 2 000; th e b est- s e llin g T he E xtr a ord in ary L ea der: T urn in g G ood M anagers i n to G re a t L ea ders ( M cG ra w -H ill, 2 002); a nd Handbook f o r L ea ders ( M cG ra w -H ill, 2 004).

He i s a c o -a uth o r o f th re e b ooks o n te am s, i n clu d in g th e b est- s e llin g Self- D ir e cte d W ork T ea m s: T he N ew A m eric a n C halle n ge ( Ir w in P ro fe ssio nal P ub lis h in g, 1 990), Lea din g T ea m s ( Ir w in P ro fe ssio nal P ub lis h in g, 1 993), a nd K eep in g T ea m s o n T ra ck ( Ir w in P ro fe ssio nal P ub lis h in g, 1 996).

He a nd h is w ife , H olly , r e sid e i n M id w ay, U ta h.

286 Jose p h R . F olk m an Jo e F olk m an i s th e c o -fo und er a nd p re sid ent o f Z enger-F olk m an, a f ir m th at u se s ev id ence-d riv en, s tr e ngth s-b ase d m eth o ds to i m pro ve o rg aniz a ti o ns a nd th e p eo ple with in th em . H e i s a r e sp ecte d a uth o rity o n a sse ssm ent a nd c hange a nd a n accla im ed k eyno te s p eaker a t c o nfe re nces a nd s e m in ars th e w orld o ver. H is to pic s fo cus o n a v arie ty o f s u b je cts r e la te d to l e ad ers h ip , f e ed back, a nd i n d iv id ual a nd org aniz a ti o nal c hange.

As o ne o f th e n ati o n’s r e no w ned p sy cho m etr ic ia ns, h is e xte nsiv e e xp erti s e fo cuse s o n s u rv ey r e se arc h a nd c hange m anagem ent. H e h as m ore th an 3 0 y ears o f exp erie nce c o nsu lti n g w ith s o m e o f th e w orld ’s m ost p re sti g io us a nd s u ccessfu l org aniz a ti o ns. H is u niq ue m easu re m ent to ols a re d esig ned u sin g a d ata b ase co m pose d o f m ore th an a h alf- m illio n a sse ssm ents o n a lm ost 5 0,0 00 l e ad ers .

Because th ese to ols s p ecific ally a d dre ss c riti c al b usin ess r e su lts , f a cilita ti n g dev elo pm ent a nd c hange i s th e m ain f o cus o f m easu re m ent e ffo rts .

Jo e’s r e se arc h h as b een p ub lis h ed i n s e v era l p ub lic ati o ns i n clu d in g th e Wall Str e et J o urn al’ s N atio nal B usin ess E m plo ym en t W eekly , Tra in in g a nd Develo pm en t M agazin e , a nd Execu tiv e E xcelle n ce .

A d is ti n guis h ed e xp ert i n th e f ie ld o f s u rv ey d esig n a nd d ata a naly sis , J o e co nsu lts w ith o rg aniz a ti o ns l a rg e a nd s m all, p ub lic a nd p riv ate . H e h as h ad engagem ents w ith c lie nts s u ch a s A T& T, B oein g, C ono co P hillip s, C IB C, G enera l Mills , H unt C onso lid ate d , K och I n d ustr ie s, M ara th o n O il, N orte l, F id elity , F ir s t Americ an, R eed -E ls e v ie r, S afe w ay, T ho m so n R eute rs , U .S . N av y, U CSD , W ells Farg o , a nd W eyerh aeuse r. T he d iv ers ity o f i n d ustr ie s a nd b usin ess m odels h as pro vid ed h im w ith a p ow erfu l l e arn in g o pportu nity a nd a n e xcep ti o nal r e se arc h base .

Jo e h o ld s a d octo ra te i n s o cia l a nd o rg aniz a ti o nal p sy cho lo gy a nd a m aste r’s i n org aniz a ti o nal b ehav io r f r o m B rig ham Y oung U niv ers ity . H e i s th e a uth o r o r c o - auth o r o f s e v en b ooks, i n clu d in g Em plo yee S urv eys t h at M ake a D iffe re n ce (E xecuti v e E xcelle nce, 1 998), th e b est- s e llin g Extr a ord in ary L ea der: T urn in g Good M anagers i n to G re a t L ea ders ( M cG ra w -H ill, 2 002), The H andbook f o r Lea ders ( M cG ra w -H ill, 2 004), a nd The P ow er o f F eed back ( W ile y, 2 006).

287 Jo e a nd h is f a m ily r e sid e a t th e b ase o f th e W asa tc h M ounta in s i n O re m , U ta h.

288