leadership development program

PR AIS E F O R TH E E XTR AO RD IN ARY L E AD ER “ T he Z enger F olk m an l e ad ers h ip m odel i s d is ti n guis h ed f r o m o th ers i n th at i t i s b acked u p b y r e se arc h a nd d ata . T hat d ata v alid ate s th e e ffe cti v eness o f i d enti fy in g a n i n d iv id ual’ s s tr e ngth s a nd d ev elo pin g th em , r a th er th an f o cusin g o n w eaknesse s.

T he Z enger F olk m an p hilo so phy h as i ts e ye o n th e r ig ht g o al – r e al, m easu ra b le r e su lts .” —Bill B la se Senio r E xecuti v e V ic e P re sid ent Hum an R eso urc es AT& T C orp .

“ I f e ll i n l o ve w ith The E xtr a ord in ary L ea der o n p age 1 . F ro m th e m om ent I s ta rte d r e ad in g I r e ally g o t j a zze d , a nd m y e nth usia sm o nly i n cre ase d th e m ore I r e ad . Y ou s e e, I ’ m j u st m ad a b out b ooks th at a tta ck c heris h ed b ut u nsu p porta b le a ssu m pti o ns a b out a nyth in g, e sp ecia lly l e ad ers h ip . T hat’ s e xactl y w hat J a ck Z enger a nd J o e F olk m an d o, a nd th ey d o i t p ers u asiv ely , p re cis e ly , a nd p ro fe ssio nally .

The E xtr a ord in ary L ea der i s n o h ackneyed r e hash in g o f ti r e d n o str u m s. T hro ugh th eir e xcep ti o nal r e se arc h, th e a uth o rs d em onstr a te a nd p ro ve th at l e ad ers h ip does m ake a d iffe re nce a nd th at yo u c an l e arn to l e ad . T here a re s o m e p ro fo und i n sig hts i n th is b ook, a nd w heth er y o u’v e s tu d ie d l e ad ers h ip f o r o ver 2 0 y ears , a s I h av e, o r y o u a re b ra nd n ew to th e s u b je ct, Z enger a nd F olk m an g iv e y o u m uch m ore th an y o ur m oney’s w orth . A nd w hile th eir r e se arc h g iv es th e b ook d is ti n cti v e c re d ib ility , t h eir e xam ple s a nd p ra cti c al a p plic ati o ns g iv e i t l ife . T his i s a b ook th at s c ho la rs a nd p ra cti ti o ners w ill b e r e fe rrin g to f o r y ears to c o m e.

If y o ur g o al i s to b e a b ette r l e ad er th an y o u a re to day, th en y o u m ust r e ad th is b ook.” —Ja m es M . K ouze s Chair m an E m eritu s, T om P ete rs C om pany Coauth o r o f The L ea dersh ip C halle n ge a nd Enco ura gin g t h e H ea rt “ Jo e F olk m an a nd J a ck Z enger h av e p ro ved th em se lv es to b e e xtr a o rd in ary t h in kers . I n th eir n ew b ook, The E xtr a ord in ary L ea der, th ey u nfo ld th e m ost i n tr ig uin g a nd p ro vocati v e n ew r e se arc h o n l e ad ers h ip th at I h av e e nco unte re d i n m any y ears . T his b ook i s a ‘ m ust r e ad ’ f o r a nyo ne f a ced w ith th e d ay-to -d ay c halle nges o f d ev elo pin g e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers h ip ta le nt w ith in a n o rg aniz a ti o n.” —Annie L aB om bard Dir e cto r o f L ead ers h ip Fir e m an’s F und I n su ra nce C om pany “ R ead th is b ook! I ts a p pro ach to u nd ers ta nd in g l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent i s u niq ue:

I t u se s d ata , n o t o pin io n! S om e o f th e i n sig hts a re i n tu iti v e, b ut m any a re 2 co unte rin tu iti v e. E xtr a o rd in arily r e ad ab le , th is b ook r e p re se nts s o m e o f th e b est th in kin g o n l e ad ers h ip I ’ v e s e en i n a l o ng w hile .” —E. D av id S pong Pre sid ent, M ilita ry A ero sp ace S up port The B oein g C om pany “O rd in arily , I ’ d s a y th e l a st th in g w e n eed i s a no th er b ook o n l e ad ers h ip . B ut The Extr a ord in ary L ea der b y J a ck Z enger a nd J o e F olk m an i s r e fr e sh in gly d iffe re nt.

Rath er th an s e rv e u p y este rd ay’s a necd ote s, th ey’v e p erfo rm ed th e h eav y l ifti n g o f em pir ic al d ata c o lle cti o n a nd a naly sis . T he f o re w ord p ro m is e s c la rity , s im plic ity , and u ti lity i n a d dre ssin g th e r e al- w orld c halle nges o f d ev elo pin g l e ad ers , a nd th is book d eliv ers th at a nd m ore . T his i s a m ust r e ad .” —Jo n Y ounger, P h.D .

Senio r V ic e P re sid ent, L ead ers h ip D ev elo pm ent Nati o nal C ity C orp ora ti o n “T he a uth o rs ’ p ro m is e o n th e b otto m o f p age 3 to d o th eir b est ‘ to u nra v el th e myste ry o f l e ad ers h ip th ro ugh c are fu l a naly sis a nd o bse rv ati o n’ o f a h uge data b ase ‘b y e m ula ti n g S herlo ck H olm es,’ g ra b bed m y a tte nti o n. A lw ays a n a v id m yste ry re ad er, I f o und m yse lf c o m puls iv ely tu rn in g p ages, d ev ourin g th e e nti r e b ook, l ik e any g o od m yste ry , i n o ne s itti n g. I e sp ecia lly a p pre cia te d th e w is d om f o und i n In sig hts 1 to 2 0, th e n o no bvio us c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns, a nd th e d is ti n cti o ns betw een m attr e ss a nd te nt l e ad ers h ip m odels . B y th e l a st c hap te r ( w hen a ll a t l a st had b een r e v eale d ), I h ad d ed uced a f a r b ette r w ay to h elp m y o rg aniz a ti o n b eco m e a c o m pany o f l e ad ers th an I ’ v e b een a b le to f ig ure o ut i n th e p ast 2 0 y ears !” —Sallie T . H ig hto w er, E d.D .

Cono co U niv ers ity Cono co , I n c.

“F in ally s o m eo ne h as m oved b eyo nd th eo ry a nd c o m plic ate d m odels to te ll u s w hat gre at l e ad ers r e ally b rin g to th e p arty . Z enger a nd F olk m an h av e e ffe cti v ely su m mariz e d d ata o n 2 0,0 00 l e ad ers th at h elp u s u nd ers ta nd w hat r e ally m akes le ad ers ti c k. A ny s e rio us s tu d ent o f l e ad ers h ip w ill b oth e njo y th is b ook’s j o urn ey and w alk a w ay w ith u se fu l n ew i n sig hts th at w ill h elp th em a nd o th ers .” —Ralp h C hris te nse n Senio r V ic e P re sid ent, H um an R eso urc es Hallm ark C ard s, I n c.

“T his b ook h as c hanged th e w ay I th in k! I f y o u w ant to m ove f r o m g o od to g re at a s a l e ad er, d on’t f o cus o n a w eakness; i n ste ad , ta ke a s tr e ngth a nd b uild o n i t. J a ck 3 Zenger a nd J o e F olk m an h av e w ritte n a n i m porta nt b ook, f u ll o f i n sig ht a nd b ase d on s o und r e se arc h. I t w ill s h ap e th e w ay w e h elp o ur c lie nts d ev elo p e xecuti v es.” —Dougla s D . A nd ers o n Found er a nd M anagin g P artn er Cente r f o r E xecuti v e D ev elo pm ent– B osto n “T his i s a ‘ m ust r e ad ’ f o r c o aches, l e ad ers , a nd th o se w ho d ev elo p th em .

The Extr a ord in ary L ea der g o es b eyo nd a necd ote s o r ‘ w ar s to rie s’; i t b uild s u p on co m pre hensiv e r e se arc h. I t i s d esti n ed to b e a c la ssic i n o ur f ie ld .” —Mars h all G old sm ith Nam ed b y Forb es a s o ne o f f iv e to p e xecuti v e c o aches a nd o ne o f th e Wall S tr e et J o urn al’ s “ T op 1 0” e xecuti v e e d ucato rs 4 TH E E XTR AO RDIN AR Y L EA D ER 5 CO M PLETELY R EV IS E D A N D E XPA N DED E D IT IO N 6 TH E EX TR AO RDIN ARY L EA DER TU RNIN G G OOD M AN AG ER S IN TO G REA T L EA D ER S JO HN H . Z E N G ER & J O SE PH R . F O LK M AN 7 C opyrig ht © 2 009 b y T he M cG ra w -H ill C om panie s, I n c. A ll r ig hts r e se rv ed .

E xcep t a s p erm itte d u nd er th e U nite d S ta te s C opyrig ht A ct o f 1 976, n o p art o f th is p ub lic ati o n m ay b e r e p ro duced o r d is tr ib ute d i n a ny f o rm o r b y a ny m eans, o r s to re d i n a d ata b ase o r r e tr ie v al s y ste m , w ith o ut th e p rio r w ritte n p erm is sio n o f th e p ub lis h er.

I S B N : 9 78-0 -0 7-1 63003-0 M HID : 0 -0 7-1 63003-1 T he m ate ria l i n th is e B ook a ls o a p pears i n th e p rin t v ers io n o f th is ti tl e : I S B N :

9 78-0 -0 7-1 62808-2 , M HID : 0 -0 7-1 62808-8 .

e B ook c o nv ers io n b y c o deM antr a V ers io n 2 .0 A ll tr a d em ark s a re tr a d em ark s o f th eir r e sp ecti v e o w ners . R ath er th an p ut a t r a d em ark s y m bol a fte r e v ery o ccurre nce o f a tr a d em ark ed n am e, w e u se n am es i n a n e d ito ria l f a sh io n o nly , a nd to th e b enefit o f th e tr a d em ark o w ner, w ith n o i n te nti o n o f i n fr in gem ent o f th e tr a d em ark . W here s u ch d esig nati o ns a p pear i n th is b ook, th ey h av e b een p rin te d w ith i n iti a l c ap s.

M cG ra w -H ill e B ooks a re a v aila b le a t s p ecia l q uanti ty d is c o unts to u se a s p re m iu m s a nd s a le s p ro m oti o ns, o r f o r u se i n c o rp ora te tr a in in g p ro gra m s. T o c o nta ct a r e p re se nta ti v e p le ase v is it th e C onta ct U s p age a t w ww.m hp ro fe ssio nal.c o m .

T ER M S O F U SE T his i s a c o pyrig hte d w ork a nd T he M cG ra w -H ill C om panie s, I n c. ( “ M cG ra w - H ill” ) a nd i ts l ic enso rs r e se rv e a ll r ig hts i n a nd to th e w ork . U se o f th is w ork i s s u b je ct to th ese te rm s. E xcep t a s p erm itte d u nd er th e C opyrig ht A ct o f 1 976 a nd th e r ig ht to s to re a nd r e tr ie v e o ne c o py o f th e w ork , y o u m ay n o t d eco m pile , d is a sse m ble , r e v ers e e ngin eer, r e p ro duce, m odify , c re ate d eriv ati v e w ork s b ase d u p on, tr a nsm it, d is tr ib ute , d is se m in ate , s e ll, p ub lis h o r s u b lic ense th e w ork o r a ny p art o f i t w ith o ut M cG ra w -H ill’ s p rio r c o nse nt. Y ou m ay u se th e w ork f o r y o ur o w n n o nco m merc ia l a nd p ers o nal u se ; a ny o th er u se o f th e w ork i s s tr ic tl y p ro hib ite d . Y our r ig ht to u se th e w ork m ay b e te rm in ate d i f y o u f a il to c o m ply w ith t h ese te rm s.

T H E W ORK I S P R O VID ED “ A S I S .” M cG RA W -H IL L A ND I T S L IC EN SO RS M AKE N O G UA RA NTEES O R W ARRA NTIE S A S T O T H E A CCURA CY , A DEQ UA CY O R C O M PLE TEN ESS O F O R R ESU LT S T O B E O BTA IN ED F R O M U SIN G T H E W ORK , I N CLU D IN G A NY I N FO RM ATIO N T H AT C A N B E A CCESSE D T H RO UG H T H E W ORK V IA H YPE R LIN K O R O TH ER W IS E , A ND E X PR ESSLY D IS C LA IM A NY W ARRA NTY , E X PR ESS O R I M PLIE D , I N CLU D IN G B UT N OT L IM IT ED T O I M PLIE D W ARRA NTIE S O F M ER CH ANTA BIL IT Y O R F IT N ESS F O R A P A RTIC ULA R P U RPO SE .

8 McG ra w -H ill a nd i ts l ic enso rs d o n o t w arra nt o r g uara nte e th at th e f u ncti o ns co nta in ed i n th e w ork w ill m eet y o ur r e q uir e m ents o r th at i ts o pera ti o n w ill b e unin te rru p te d o r e rro r f r e e. N eith er M cG ra w -H ill n o r i ts l ic enso rs s h all b e l ia b le to y o u o r a nyo ne e ls e f o r a ny i n accura cy, e rro r o r o m is sio n, r e gard le ss o f c ause , i n th e w ork o r f o r a ny d am ages r e su lti n g th ere fr o m . M cG ra w -H ill h as n o re sp onsib ility f o r th e c o nte nt o f a ny i n fo rm ati o n a ccesse d th ro ugh th e w ork . U nd er no c ir c um sta nces s h all M cG ra w -H ill a nd /o r i ts l ic enso rs b e l ia b le f o r a ny i n d ir e ct, in cid enta l, s p ecia l, p uniti v e, c o nse q uenti a l o r s im ila r d am ages th at r e su lt f r o m th e use o f o r i n ab ility to u se th e w ork , e v en i f a ny o f th em h as b een a d vis e d o f th e possib ility o f s u ch d am ages. T his l im ita ti o n o f l ia b ility s h all a p ply to a ny c la im o r cause w hats o ev er w heth er s u ch c la im o r c ause a ris e s i n c o ntr a ct, to rt o r o th erw is e .

9 We d ed ic ate th is b ook to th e th o usa nd s o f l e ad ers w ho c o ura geo usly s e ek fe ed back f r o m c o lle agues i n th eir q uest to i m pro ve th eir l e ad ers h ip sk ills . T hey s e t a l a ud ab le e xam ple b y r is in g o ut o f th eir c o m fo rt z o ne and w ork in g d ilig entl y to b eco m e b ette r l e ad ers .

10 CO NTEN TS F OREW ORD A CK NOW LED GM EN TS I NTR O DUCTIO N C HAPTER 1 D EM YST IF Y IN G L EA DER SH IP C HAPTER 2 G REA T L EA DER S M AKE A G REA T D IF FE R EN CE C HAPTER 3 S IM PLIF Y IN G L EA DER SH IP C HAPTER 4 T HE C OM PETEN CY Q UEST C HAPTER 5 L EA DER S M UST F IT T HEIR O RGA NIZ A TIO N C HAPTER 6 G REA T L EA DER S P OSSE SS M ULTIP LE S TR EN GTH S C HAPTER 7 F ATA L F LA W S M UST B E F IX ED C HAPTER 8 N EW I NSIG H TS I N TO L EA DER SH IP D EV ELO PM EN T C HAPTER 9 A C ASE S TU DY I N L EA DER SH IP D EV ELO PM EN T —T HE U .S . M ARIN E C ORPS C HAPTER 1 0 W HAT I NDIV ID UALS D O T O B EC O M E G REA T L EA DER S C HAPTER 1 1 D EV ELO PIN G L EA DER SH IP T EA M S C HAPTER 1 2 T HE O RGA NIZ A TIO N’S R OLE I N D EV ELO PIN G L EA DER S 11 C HAPTER 1 3 M EA SU RIN G L EA DER SH IP I MPR O VEM EN T A T G EN ER A L M IL LS C HAPTER 1 4 T HE I MPO RTA NCE O F F OLLO W -T H RO UGH A PPEN DIX R ESE A RCH M ETH ODOLO GY E NDNOTES I NDEX 12 FO REW ORD T oday’s b usin ess c lim ate d em and s l e ad ers h ip th ro ugho ut th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

The E xtr a ord in ary L ea der d ra w s o n d ata f r o m m ore th an 2 00,0 00 i n d iv id uals w ho h av e r a te d m ore th an 2 5,0 00 l e ad ers to s h o w h o w l e ad ers c an g o f r o m b ein g g o od t o b ein g g re at, f r o m b ein g a v era ge to b ein g e xtr a o rd in ary . T he b ook f o cuse s o n th e t o p 1 0 p erc ent o f l e ad ers , a s d efin ed b y th eir s ta keho ld ers . T hese l e ad ers a re e xem pla rs a nd s h o uld b eco m e th e s ta nd ard to w hic h o th ers a sp ir e .

The E xtr a ord in ary L ea der b oth c o m ple m ents a nd a d vances th e w ork w e b egan i n Resu lts -B ase d L ea dersh ip . I n th at e arlie r w ork , w e a rg ued th at l e ad ers h ip i s a c o m bin ati o n o f a ttr ib ute s a nd r e su lts , b ut w e f o cuse d th ere o n th e “ re su lts ” s id e o f t h e e q uati o n; i n th is b ook, th e a uth o rs e m phasiz e th e “ attr ib ute s” s id e o f th e e q uati o n a nd th us m ove to w ard a m ore c o m ple te p ic tu re o f l e ad ers h ip . T o th is e nd , t h ey a re a p ply in g th e l o gic f r o m J im C ollin s’ e xcelle nt w ork o n h o w o rg aniz a ti o ns c an g o f r o m g o od to g re at p erfo rm ance o n th e p ers o nal s id e o f l e ad ers h ip . R ath er t h an s e ekin g q uic k f ix es th at d on’t l a st, th is b ook p ro pose s a l e ad ers h ip s c ie nce th at w ill o ffe r s u sta in in g a nd e nd urin g l e ad ers h ip v alu e. T he b ook s u ccessfu lly l in ks t h ese tw o a p pro aches to geth er, s h o w in g h o w th e a ttr ib ute s th at m ake a d iffe re nce to s u b ord in ate s a nd p eers a re e xactl y th e o nes th at p ro duce b ette r r e su lts f o r th e s h are ho ld ers .

Lead ers h ip r e q uir e s b oth a ttr ib ute s a nd r e su lts . T here a re tw o w ays to d is c o ver t h ese a ttr ib ute s. F ir s t, f in d th o se a ttr ib ute s th at d riv e f in ancia l a nd o th er r e su lts .

S eco nd , u se “ 3 60-d egre e f e ed back” to d efin e a ttr ib ute s th at a re r ig ht “ in th e e ye o f t h e b eho ld er.” S uch 3 60-d egre e i n str u m ents h elp l e ad ers d ete rm in e w hat i s e xp ecte d f r o m th o se th ey l e ad . T hey h elp l e ad ers k no w th e i n te nd ed a ttr ib ute s th at m ean th e m ost to th o se b ein g l e d .

This b ook i s i n fo rm ati v e b ecause o f i ts r ic h a nd th o ro ugh c o nte nt, a nd i t i s u se fu l b ecause i t c o nta in s i d eas w ith i m pact, w hic h w ill h elp l e ad ers b eco m e s e en a s e xtr a o rd in ary b y th eir a sso cia te s. I t l in ks p erc ep tu al d ata w ith h ard , q uanti ta ti v e b usin ess r e su lts , i n clu d in g u nit p ro fita b ility , r e te nti o n s ta ti s ti c s, c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n, a nd e m plo yee c o m mitm ent m easu re s.

An i m porta nt m essa ge o f th e b ook i s th at l e ad ers c an c hange. L ead ers c an g o f r o m b ein g g o od to b ein g g re at, f r o m b ein g s e en a s a d eq uate to b ein g s e en a s e xtr a o rd in ary . T he p ro cess f o r g etti n g f r o m g o od to g re at m ay d iffe r s o m ew hat f o r e ach p ers o n, b ut th ere i s a p atte rn . T his p atte rn e nab le s l e ad ers to d is c ern w hat th ey n eed to d o to d eliv er m ore v alu e.

The b ook o ffe rs a p le th o ra o f c o nte nt a nd n ew w ays to th in k a b out l e ad ers h ip b ase d o n b oth r e se arc h a nd e xp erie nce. I t g iv es th e r e ad er m ulti p le p ers p ecti v es o f l e ad ers h ip , b ut a m id st a ll th at c o m ple xity , th e b ook p ro m is e s s im plic ity . T he 13 auth o rs g iv e th e r e ad er a c o ncep tu al f r a m ew ork b y w hic h to u nd ers ta nd l e ad ers h ip attr ib ute s. T heir “ te nt” m odel i s a p ow erfu l w ay to d esc rib e l e ad ers h ip . I b elie v e most r e ad ers w ill a p pre cia te th is g ra p hic d ep ic ti o n o f a n e xtr e m ely c o m ple x ( a nd so m eti m es o btu se ) s u b je ct. F urth er, th e m odel m oves b eyo nd s im ply d esc rib in g le ad ers h ip to a ls o d esc rib in g i d eal l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent m eth o ds— exp and in g str e ngth s v ers u s d ith erin g a b out w eaknesse s. T he a uth o rs e m phasiz e th at th e b est way to r a is e a te nt i s to e xte nd th e p ole s s k yw ard , n o t to g o l o okin g f o r th e dro opin g p ie ce o f c anv as a nd p ro ppin g i t u p .

One te st o f a b usin ess b ook i s h o w i t i n fo rm s p ra cti c e a nd a cti o n. T he obse rv ati o ns m ad e i n th is b ook w ill h av e i m pact w hen th ey c hange h o w l e ad ers th in k a nd /o r b ehav e. W ith th is i n m in d , l e t m e s h are w hat I w ould a d vis e a l e ad er to do, b ase d o n th e i d eas i n th is b ook. I a ssu m e th at th is l e ad er w ants to m ove f r o m bein g g o od to b ein g e xtr a o rd in ary , f r o m b ein g s e en b y s u b ord in ate s, p eers , a nd su p erv is o rs a s a v era ge to b ein g i n th e to p 1 0 p erc ent i n a 3 60-d egre e f e ed back o r sim ila r e xerc is e .

• Dis p la y h ig h p erso nal c h ara cte r.

E very th in g a b out g re at l e ad ers h ip r a d ia te s fr o m c hara cte r. P ers o nal c hara cte r i m pro ves th e p ro bab ility o f e xhib iti n g str o ng i n te rp ers o nal s k ills . S om e o f th is p erc eiv ed c hara cte r i s i n nate a nd base d o n a p ers o nal v alu e s e t; b ut m ore i s d riv en b y th e l e ad er’s s e lf- aw are ness a nd i n te ra cti o ns w ith o th ers .

• Sta rt s m all.

G oin g f r o m g o od to g re at f o llo w s a n “ S ” c urv e o f l e arn in g.

Sta rti n g s m all m eans d oin g s o m eth in g n o w , s o m eth in g w ith in y o ur c o ntr o l th at will h av e i m med ia te i m pact. A s s m all th in gs c um ula te , b ig ger th in gs w ill hap pen. A l e ad er s h o uld i d enti fy s o m e q uic k, s im ple , a nd r e ad ily v is ib le th in gs th at c an b e d one a lo ng th e “ S ” c urv e p ath .

• Excel a t s o m eth in g.

T he w ors t l e ad ers ( 3 4th p erc enti le , o r b otto m th ir d ) h av e an “ av era ge” p ro file , w ith n o g re at s tr e ngth s o r w eaknesse s. T hey a re v anilla le ad ers , n o t s ta nd in g o ut o n a nyth in g. T he i m pact o f o ne p erc eiv ed s tr e ngth moves l e ad ers to th e 6 4th p erc enti le , a nd th re e str e ngth s m oves th em to th e 81st p erc enti le . M y a d vic e to y o u a s a l e ad er i s to f ig ure o ut w hat y o u a re g o od at a nd i m pro ve i t to th e 9 0 p erc ent l e v el. B e g o od a t s o m eth in g, th en a f e w th in gs.

• Connect c o m pete n cie s a nd l e vera ge c o m bin atio ns . Y ou a re a b ette r l e ad er when y o u c o nnect c o m pete ncie s a nd s e e th e p ow er o f c o m bin ati o ns. F or exam ple , l e ad ers w ho a re h ig hly c o m pete nt a t F ocus o n R esu lts a nd In te rp ers o nal S kills h av e a p ow erfu l c o m bin ati o n. W ith a s in gle s tr e ngth i n In te rp ers o nal S kills , o nly 9 p erc ent a re a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le . W ith a s in gle str e ngth i n F ocus o n R esu lts , o nly 1 3 p erc ent a re a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le . W ith a co m bin ati o n ( b oth I n te rp ers o nal S kills a nd F ocus o n R esu lts p erc eiv ed a s str e ngth s), 6 6 p erc ent a re a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le .

14 • Use a n onlin ea r a ppro ach t o b eco m in g a b ette r l e a der.

F or e xam ple , i f y o u get l o usy f e ed back o n te chnic al s k ills , th e b est a p pro ach m ay n o t b e to w ork o n im pro vin g y o ur te chnic al s k ills . T he a uth o rs ’ p ro posa l f o r c o m pete ncy co m panio ns s u ggests th at i t m ay b e i n y o ur i n te re st to i m pro ve y o ur in te rp ers o nal s k ills a s th e b est w ay to i m pro ve th e p erc ep ti o n o f y o ur te chnic al sk ills .

• Build o n y o ur s tr e n gth s.

F ig ure o ut w hat y o u d o w ell a nd m agnify i t. I t o nly ta kes s tr e ngth i n a f e w ( tw o to f o ur) a ttr ib ute s w hile b ein g a v era ge i n th e r e st to a chie v e a h ig h p ro bab ility o f b ein g s e en a s a g re at l e ad er. S o, a l e ad er need s to b uild o n s tr e ngth s. F in d w hat y o u d o w ell, th en f in d th e c o m bin ati o n of c o m pete ncie s th at y o u s h o uld d o w ell to b e s e en a s m ore e ffe cti v e.

• Rem ed y f a ta l f la w s.

T he a uth o rs p ro vid e d ata s h o w in g th at th ese a re a n in ab ility to l e arn f r o m m is ta kes a nd d ev elo p n ew s k ills ; b ein g i n te rp ers o nally in ep t; b ein g c lo se d to n ew i d eas; f a ilu re to b e a cco unta b le f o r r e su lts ; n o t ta kin g i n iti a ti v e. A sse ss y o urs e lf a nd s e e h o w o th ers a sse ss y o u o n th ese f iv e fa ta l f la w s. I f a ny s h o w u p , w ork o n th em f a st a nd f u rio usly .

These s u ggesti o ns a re j u st th e b egin nin g o f i d eas w ith i m pact th at y o u c an d ra w fr o m th is b ook. H ow ev er, th ese i d eas r e p re se nt th e c o nte nt th at m ay h elp y o u a s a le ad er to m ove f r o m b ein g g o od to b ein g g re at. I n th e c o nte xt o f to day’s org aniz a ti o ns, a p ply in g th ese i d eas w ill n o t o nly h elp l e ad ers i m pro ve b ut a ls o h elp org aniz a ti o ns b eco m e m ore c o m peti ti v e.

Dave U lr ic h 15 AC K NO W LED G M EN TS T his b ook b egan s e v era l y ears a go a s I w as w alk in g d ow n th e h all l o okin g o ver s o m e s ta ti s ti c al o utp ut a nd b um ped i n to J a ck Z enger. J a ck’s q uesti o n w as, “ A re y o u d oin g a nyth in g th at’ s i n te re sti n g?” M y r e sp onse w as, “ F unny y o u s h o uld a sk , l o ok a t th is d ata .” W hat b egan a s a f a sc in ati o n w ith s o m e s ta ti s ti c al a naly sis g re w i n to a c o m pellin g b ody o f e v id ence th at m odifie d s u b sta nti a lly th e c o nv enti o nal w is d om p eo ple h av e a b out w hat m akes g re at l e ad ers a nd h o w th ey d ev elo p.

To a nyo ne w ho r e ad s a n um ber o f b ooks o n l e ad ers h ip , i t b eco m es a p pare nt th at m ore th an 9 0 p erc ent o f w hat y o u r e ad h as b een s a id b efo re . T he p ackagin g i s d iffe re nt, th e e xam ple s a m usin g, b ut f u nd am enta lly th ere i s l ittl e th at i s n ew . I h ad n o i n te re st i n w riti n g th at k in d o f b ook. O ur a p pro ach w as to d o r ig o ro us r e se arc h a nd th en f o rm ula te a th eo ry to e xp la in th e r e su lts . I n p re se nta ti o ns o n o ur f in d in gs to c lie nts , w e h av e b een v ery p le ase d w ith th e “ A h-h a’s ” th at a re a p pare nt a s w e p re se nt th e i n sig hts f r o m o ur r e se arc h. I a m h o pefu l th at r e ad ers o f th is b ook w ill h av e a s im ila r e xp erie nce.

One o f th e m ost i n te re sti n g f in d in gs f r o m o ur r e se arc h i s s o m eth in g c alle d “ p ow erfu l c o m bin ati o ns.” A p ow erfu l c o m bin ati o n o ccurs w hen l e ad ers c o m bin e t w o u niq ue s k ills , w hic h r e su lts i n a s u b sta nti a l i n cre ase i n o vera ll e ffe cti v eness. I n t h in kin g a b out th e p ro cess o f g etti n g th is b ook w ritte n, I a m v ery c o nfid ent th at n eith er J a ck n o r I c o uld h av e a cco m plis h ed th is r e se arc h a nd w ritte n th is b ook a lo ne. T he c o m bin ati o n o f J a ck’s e xp erie nce, k no w le d ge, a nd c o ncep tu al s k ills w ith m y r e se arc h, m easu re m ent, a nd c hange m anagem ent b ackgro und c re ate d a v ery p ow erfu l c o m bin ati o n.

Work in g th ro ugh th e l a b orio us a nd d em and in g p ro cess o f w riti n g th is b ook w ith J a ck h as b een a n a b so lu te d elig ht. I a m g ra te fu l f o r h is p ati e nce, g entl e p ers u asio n, a nd p ers is te nce.

Many p eo ple c o ntr ib ute d s u b sta nti a lly b y d oin g r e se arc h a nd e d iti n g o n th e b ook. T hanks to b oth o ur c o lle agues, s ta ff m em bers a nd c lie nts f o r th eir c o ntr ib uti o ns a nd s u ggesti o ns.

As i s a lw ays th e c ase w ith p ro je cts s u ch a s th is , i t w as i m possib le to p ro duce r e co rd r e v enues, c arry a f u ll c lie nt l o ad , w rite a b ook, a nd m anage m y r e sp onsib iliti e s a s a h usb and a nd f a th er. I t w as m y w ife a nd f a m ily w ho g av e u p th e m ost a nd v olu nta rily c arrie d a n i n cre ase d l o ad . I a p pre cia te th eir w illin gness to d o s o v ery m uch. I r e co gniz e i n th em m uch th at i s e xtr a o rd in ary .

Fin ally , I w ould l ik e to d ed ic ate th is b ook to m y c lie nts . I a m e xtr e m ely g ra te fu l t o b rillia nt c lie nts i n a b ro ad r a nge o f i n d ustr ie s. U niv ers a lly , th ey a re d ed ic ate d to i m pro vin g o rg aniz a ti o ns a nd th e i n d iv id uals w ho w ork i n th em . T hey a re c o nti n ually l o okin g f o r w ays to m ake p eo ple m ore s u ccessfu l. T he d ata , w hic h i s 16 th e f o und ati o n o n w hic h th is b ook i s b uilt, c am e f r o m th em .

Jo e F olk m an As a r e la ti v ely y o ung b oy, I w ork ed a t th e h o sp ita l f o r w hic h m y f a th er w as th e ad m in is tr a to r. F ro m h im I l e arn ed m uch a b out l e ad ers h ip a nd th e c halle nges o f bein g th e s e nio r e xecuti v e. H is r e le ntl e ss p urs u it o f i m pro vem ent a nd w illin gness to a b and on s y ste m s th at w ere w ork in g f o r th e p ro m is e o f s o m eth in g b ette r w ere gre at e xam ple s to m e.

My a cad em ic i n te re sts i n l e ad ers h ip b egan a t U CLA a s a r e se arc h a ssis ta nt i n th e H um an R ela ti o ns R ese arc h G ro up . I a p pre cia te th e tu te la ge o f R obert Tannenb aum a nd th e l a te I r v W esc hle r. T hen a t U SC c am e a n a sso cia ti o n w ith B ill Woolf, w ho e xp ose d m e to a s o cio lo gic a nd a nth ro polo gic v ie w o f l e ad ers h ip .

Many o th ers i n flu enced m y th in kin g, i n clu d in g M el S orc her, th e c re ato r o f behav io ra l m odelin g tr a in in g i n i n d ustr y .

I h ad m any c o lle agues a t Z enger-M ille r w ho i n flu enced m e, b egin nin g w ith D ale Mille r, S te v e M ann, E d M usse lw hite , B ob S herw in , a nd d oze ns o f o th ers . T heir asso cia ti o n e nric hed m y th in kin g a b out l e ad ers h ip a nd s im ulta neo usly h elp ed b uild an e xtr a o rd in ary c o m pany. T o th em a ll I e xp re ss a p pre cia ti o n. I w is h to th ank m y curre nt c o lle agues w ho n o t o nly m ake th e o rg aniz a ti o n r u n s m ooth ly b ut a ls o a re th e genesis o f c o untl e ss g o od i d eas. I c o uld n o t a sk f o r a m ore d ed ic ate d g ro up w ith who m to w ork .

I w ould n ev er h av e i m agin ed th at I ’ d b e w riti n g a b ook w ith a s ta ti s ti c ally in clin ed o rg aniz a ti o nal p sy cho lo gis t. J o e F olk m an’s a cad em ic i n te re sts h av e b een quite o pposite f r o m m in e, b ut th e e xp erie nce h as b een e xtr e m ely p ositi v e.

Diffe re nces w ere q uic kly a nd p ain le ssly r e so lv ed . T he b ook i s s o m eth in g th at neith er o f u s c o uld h av e d one a lo ne.

Fin ally , I e xte nd m y d eep est a p pre cia ti o n to m y c o m bin ed f a m ily . F ro m o ur child re n, th eir s p ouse s, a nd m any g ra nd child re n h av e c o m e g re at l e sso ns i n le ad ers h ip , a lo ng w ith o pportu niti e s to a p ply s o m e o f w hat I h av e l e arn ed . T o m y wife , H olly , I e xp re ss s p ecia l th anks. B esid es b ein g a g o od c riti c o f w hate v er I write , h er o rg aniz a ti o n o f o ur l ife to geth er c re ate s th e ti m e a nd e nv ir o nm ent i n whic h i t i s p ossib le to w rite a b ook.

Ja ck Z en ger 17 IN TR O DUCTIO N “ W hat w ill I g ain f r o m r e ad in g th is b ook?” “W ill i t b e w orth th e e ffo rt I e xp end i n p lo w in g i n to i ts c o nte nts ? ” “W ill th ere b e a g o od r e tu rn o n th e ti m e I i n v est i n r e ad in g a nd s tu d yin g i t? ” “W hat a b out th is b ook i s d iffe re nt th an o th er b ooks o n th e s u b je ct o f ‘ le ad ers h ip ’? ” Tho se a re j u sti fia b le q uesti o ns. T he m ore y o u k no w a b out o ur o bje cti v es a nd th e n atu re o f th is b ook, th e e asie r i t w ill b e f o r y o u to a rriv e a t g o od a nsw ers to th o se q uesti o ns. P urc hasin g a ny b ook l ig hte ns y o ur p urs e o r w alle t a ta d , b ut th e r e al i n v estm ent i s n o t d olla rs . R ead in g a ny b ook c o nsu m es a n e xtr e m ely v alu ab le c o m modity — yo ur ti m e.

We h ad th re e p rim ary o bje cti v es i n w riti n g th is b ook. F ir s t w as s im plic ity . W e i n sis te d th at th e b ook p ro vid e a c le ar, u nd ers ta nd ab le m essa ge. N oth in g i s m ore i r rita ti n g th an to r e ad a b ook o n a to pic o f g re at p ers o nal i n te re st a nd th en c lo se th e b ook a nd n o t b e a b le to s u m mariz e th e b ook’s p oin t o f v ie w o r b asic th esis . W e d o n o t e xp ect e v ery o ne to a gre e f u lly w ith a ll th e c o nclu sio ns w e p ut f o rth .

But a gre e o r n o t, th is b ook c o nta in s a s im ple m odel o f l e ad ers h ip , o ur a nsw er a b out w heth er l e ad ers h ip c an b e d ev elo ped , h o w l e ad ers h ip c an b e d ev elo ped b y i n d iv id uals th em se lv es, a nd w hat o rg aniz a ti o ns c an d o to d ev elo p l e ad ers . W e p re se nt a c ase s tu d y o f a n o rg aniz a ti o n th at s u ccessfu lly tr a nsfo rm s p eo ple i n to e ffe cti v e l e ad ers . W e p re se nt 2 0 i n sig hts , m any o f th em n ew i d eas, a b out l e ad ers h ip . T hese c re ate th e f r a m ew ork o f th e b ook.

Our s e co nd o bje cti v e w as th at th e c o nte nts b e a cti o nab le . W e d o n o t e xp ect th at e v ery i d ea i n th e b ook w ill b e s o m eth in g y o u c an i m ple m ent i m med ia te ly ; b ut s u ccess f o r u s w ill b e y o ur a b ility to ta ke a g re at p orti o n o f o ur f in d in gs a nd b e a b le to d o s o m eth in g w ith th em . W e b elie v e th at r e al l e arn in g s h o w s u p i n n ew b ehav io r.

If th is b ook i s a s e rio us v ehic le o f l e arn in g, th en th e w ay to m easu re i ts v alu e i s v ia th e n ew a cti o ns y o u ta ke. I n l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s, th ere i s th e p ere nnia l p le a to th e i n str u cto rs f o r “ W hat d o I d o o n Mond ay m orn in g?” B ooks o n l e ad ers h ip s h o uld m eet th e s a m e te st. M ost r e co m mend ati o ns a re o nes th at m ere m orta ls c an u se c o m fo rta b ly — on M ond ay m orn in g.

Our th ir d o bje cti v e w as th at th e b ook b e e m pir ic al. W e i n sis te d th at i t b e b ase d o n h ard d ata , f a cts , a nd s ta ti s ti c al a naly se s. H uge s e ts o f d ata w ere th e to uchsto ne t o w hic h w e c o nsta ntl y r e tu rn ed .

Fra nkly , w e ti r e o f b ooks b y e xecuti v es a nd b usin ess w rite rs th at p rim arily e xp re ss p ers o nal p hilo so phie s a nd b elie fs , e sp ecia lly w hen th ey a re s o 18 in co nsis te nt. T he d is c ip lin e o f l e ad ers h ip a nd th o se c o m mitte d to d ev elo pin g le ad ers i n sid e o rg aniz a ti o ns s u re ly d ese rv e b ette r. O ur s ta nd ard w as to h av e e v ery co nclu sio n g ro und ed i n o bje cti v e d ata . T he c o m bin ati o n o f h ard d ata a nd s ta ti s ti c al analy se s w ere to b e th e p oin t o f th e s p ear. I t th en b ecam e o ur ta sk to m ake s e nse o f th e d ata a nd to p ut l o gic al e xp la nati o ns a ro und o ur f in d in gs.

We w elc o m e f e ed back f r o m r e ad ers . T he to pic d ese rv es a g re at d eal o f dia lo gue f r o m a ll o f u s w ho a re c o ncern ed w ith th e f u tu re o f o ur g re at i n sti tu ti o ns— univ ers iti e s, s c ho ols , h o sp ita ls , g o vern m ent a gencie s, a nd b usin esse s. T hese a ll need l e ad ers to f lo uris h . O ur h o pe i s th at th e i n fo rm ati o n th at f o llo w s w ill i n s o m e sm all w ay a id i n th e d ev elo pm ent o f th o se m uch-n eed ed l e ad ers .

19 1 DEM YST IF Y IN G L EA D ER SH IP Lead ers h ip i s o ne o f th e m ost o bse rv ed a nd l e ast u nd ers to od p heno m ena o n Earth .

—J. M . B urn s The a ura w ith w hic h w e te nd to s u rro und th e w ord s l e ad er a nd l e ad ers h ip makes i t h ard to th in k c le arly . G ood s e nse c alls f o r d em ysti fic ati o n.

—Jo hn G ard ner T he M yste ry R em ain s W hile w e w ere s e ate d a t a d in ner ta b le r e centl y , i t b ecam e k no w n th at w e w ere w riti n g a b ook. A d in ner g uest i m med ia te ly i n q uir e d , “ W hat i s th e b ook a b out? ” “It i s a b out l e ad ers h ip ,” o ne o f u s r e p lie d .

With o ut h esita ti o n th e g uest i n q uir e d , “ D o y o u r e ally th in k p eo ple c an b e d ev elo ped i n to l e ad ers ? A re n’t th ey b orn th at w ay?” ( W e’d l ik e to h av e a d olla r f o r e v ery ti m e th at q uesti o n h as b een a sk ed o f u s o ver th e p ast d ecad es.) T he q uesti o n s e em s a s h ard y a s c o ckro aches o r c ro co dile s. P eo ple i n g enera l h av e th at q uery a t th e to ps o f th eir m in d s a nd s o d o a l o t o f C EO s a nd p ub lic o rg aniz a ti o n l e ad ers .

And th e q uesti o n i s r e ally i n tw o p arts . I f th e q uesti o n i s a nsw ere d u sin g th e p opula r p arty l in e th at s a ys, “ O f c o urs e y o u c an d ev elo p l e ad ers h ip i n peo ple ,” th e i m med ia te f o llo w -u p q uesti o n i s , “ H ow d o y o u d o th at? ” I t i s to th o se tw o b asic q uesti o ns th at w e a d dre ss th is b ook.

Does th e w orld n eed a nyth in g m ore w ritte n o n th e s u b je ct o f l e ad ers h ip ? O n th e o ne h and , i t c o uld b e a rg ued th at th e a nsw er i s a l o ud “ N o!” C onsid er th e f a ct th at m ore th an 1 0,0 00 a rti c le s h av e b een p ub lis h ed a b out l e ad ers h ip i n th e p ast c entu ry .

W here as s o m e a re b ase d o n r e se arc h, m ost r e fle ct th e p ers o nal o pin io ns o f th e a uth o rs r e gard in g l e ad ers h ip , d eriv ed f r o m th eir o w n e xp erie nces o r th eir o bse rv ati o ns o f l e ad ers . M any a re w ritte n b y s u ccessfu l b usin ess e xecuti v es a nd r e fle ct th eir o w n b elie fs a b out w hat m ad e th em s u ccessfu l.

Add to th at a p pro xim ate ly a th o usa nd r e se arc h s tu d ie s th at h av e b een c o nd ucte d o n l e ad ers h ip a nd p ub lis h ed i n s c ho la rly j o urn als . T hen a d d n early a th o usa nd b ooks th at h av e b een w ritte n a b out l e ad ers h ip o ver th e p ast 1 00 y ears . M any o f 20 th ese w ere w ritte n b y p ra cti c in g l e ad ers , a nd o th ers w ere w ritte n b y a cad em ic ia ns and c o nsu lta nts w ho s o ught to e xp la in th is i m porta nt r o le th at s o m e p eo ple p erfo rm .

Giv en th at i m mense b ody o f l ite ra tu re , i t w ould s e em f u ti le to a d d y et o ne m ore book.

The R ea so n s f o r O ne M ore B ook Desp ite th at e xte nsiv e l ite ra tu re , l e ad ers h ip r e m ain s s h ro ud ed i n m yste ry . R ath er th an m akin g th e s u b je ct c le are r, o ne r e co gniz e d l e ad ers h ip e xp ert, W arre n B ennis , su m med i t u p b y s a yin g “ th e m ore th at i s w ritte n a b out l e ad ers h ip , th e l e ss w e s e em to k no w .” Regard in g th e e no rm ous n um ber o f r e se arc h s tu d ie s th at h av e b een c o nd ucte d , ano th er r e sp ecte d s c ho la r o bse rv ed , “ T he r e su lts o f m any o f th ese s tu d ie s a re co ntr a d ic to ry o r l a ck a ny c le ar c o nclu sio n.” 1 How M yste rie s A re S olv ed ?

There i s a n a sto nis h in g d esc rip ti o n o f o ne a p pro ach to s o lv in g a m yste ry i n S ir Arth ur C onan D oyle ’s c la ssic S herlo ck H olm es ta le .

The S ig n o f F our.

D r. W ats o n r e m ark s to S herlo ck H olm es, “ I h av e a g o ld w atc h in m y p osse ssio n. W ould y o u h av e th e k in d ness to l e t m e h av e a n o pin io n u p on th e chara cte r o r h ab its o f th e l a te o w ner? ” W ats o n w as te sti n g H olm es a nd a tte m pti n g to to ne d ow n h is a rro gant m anner. H olm es th en c o m pla in ed th at b ecause th e w atc h had r e centl y b een c le aned , h e w as r o bbed o f th e m ost u se fu l d ata . B ut a fte r care fu lly e xam in in g th e w atc h, H olm es th en p ro ceed ed to te ll W ats o n a s e rie s o f hyp oth ese s a b out th e o w ner. T hese i n clu d ed :

• T he w atc h b elo nged to h is o ld er b ro th er, w ho i n herite d i t f r o m h is f a th er.

• H e w as a m an o f u nti d y h ab its .

• H e h ad g o ne th ro ugh a p erio d o f p overty , w ith i n te rv als o f p ro sp erity .

• H e h ad ta ken to h eav y d rin kin g b efo re h e d ie d .

Wats o n s p ra ng f r o m h is c hair a nd a ccuse d H olm es o f h av in g m ad e i n q uir ie s i n to th e h is to ry o f h is u nhap py b ro th er a nd th en p re te nd in g to d ed uce i t f r o m h is obse rv ati o ns o f th e g o ld p ocket w atc h. H e c o nclu d ed b y s a yin g, “ It i s u nkin d a nd , to s p eak p la in ly , h as a to uch o f c harla ta nis m i n i t.” Holm es p ro ceed ed to e xp la in h o w h e h ad c o m e to e ach o f h is c o nclu sio ns b y sim ply o bse rv in g i m porta nt d ata a nd s e ein g th eir i m plic ati o ns. T he i n iti a ls o n th e watc h’s b ack, “ H .W .,” s u ggeste d a f a m ily m em ber, a nd g o ld w atc hes u su ally w ere 21 passe d f r o m f a th er to th e e ld er s o n.

The w atc h w as 5 0 y ears o ld . T he i n iti a ls a p peare d to b e a s o ld a s th e w atc h, and s o i t w as m ost l ik ely th e f a th er’s w atc h, p asse d to D r. W ats o n’s b ro th er. T he ow ner’s u nti d y h ab its w ere r e v eale d b y th e d ents a nd s c ra tc hes th at c am e f r o m carry in g th is e xp ensiv e w atc h i n th e s a m e p ocket w ith o th er h ard o bje cts s u ch a s co in s o r k eys. I n sid e th e c ase o f th e w atc h w ere s c ra tc hed i n p in p oin t th e n um bers of a p aw nb ro ker’s ti c ket, s u ggesti n g th at th e o w ner h ad g o ne th ro ugh a p erio d o f dir e p overty . T he f a ct th at h e r e gain ed p osse ssio n o f th e w atc h w ould i m ply th at h e als o h ad p erio ds o f p ro sp erity . T he o w ner’s d rin kin g p ro ble m w as r e v eale d b y th o usa nd s o f s c ra tc hes a ro und th e k eyho le w here th e w in d in g k ey h ad s lip ped a nd sc ra tc hed th e c ase . H olm es n o te d , “ T hat i s c hara cte ris ti c o f a d ru nkard ’s w atc h, n o t a s o ber m an’s .” Solv in g t h e M yste ry o f L ea d ersh ip Our h o pe i s to ta ke a n e no rm ous a m ount o f d ata c o lle cte d a b out a nd f r o m l e ad ers and , th ro ugh c are fu l a naly sis a nd o bse rv ati o n, b egin to u nra v el th e m yste ry o f le ad ers h ip . W e w ill d o o ur b est to e m ula te S herlo ck H olm es. I t w ould s e em th at i f care fu l a tte nti o n i s g iv en to th e c lu es th at l ie i n sid e h uge d ata b ase s, th e c o nti n uin g myste ry o f l e ad ers h ip m ig ht b e p enetr a te d .

Our o bje cti v e i s to p ro vid e th e r e ad er w ith a n e m pir ic al a naly sis o f l e ad ers h ip , a s im ple a nd p ra cti c al c o ncep tu al m odel o f w hat l e ad ers h ip i s , a nd a p ra cti c al guid e to h elp in g l e ad ers d ev elo p “ gre atn ess.” O ur a p pro ach a nd u nd ers ta nd in g co m es f r o m o ur a naly sis o f h und re d s o f th o usa nd s o f l e ad ers h ip a sse ssm ents f r o m th e d ir e ct r e p orts o f l e ad ers , th eir p eers , th eir b osse s, a nd th em se lv es. W e l e t o ur fin d in gs g uid e o ur d ev elo pm ent o f a p ra cti c al th eo ry .

Because to geth er th e a uth o rs h av e r o ughly th re e-q uarte rs o f a c entu ry o f exp erie nce i n l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent, w e w ere s u rp ris e d th at th e r e se arc h c hanged so m e l o ng-h eld b elie fs a b out th e n atu re o f l e ad ers h ip a nd h o w b est to d ev elo p i t.

The C om ple x it y o f D efin in g a n d D esc rib in g Lea d ersh ip , o r W hy t h e M yste ry E xis ts Every o ne r e co gniz e s th e c halle nge o f tr y in g to s o lv e a ny p ro ble m th at c o nta in s multi p le u nkno w ns. T hat i s p re cis e ly th e p ro ble m i n tr y in g to s o lv e th e l e ad ers h ip dile m ma. T here a re a t o nce a s ig nific ant n um ber o f u nkno w ns, a nd m any o f th em a re co nsta ntl y c hangin g.

Six te en o f th o se v aria b le s a re d esc rib ed b elo w .

1. T here a re d iffe re nces i n th e l e ad ers h ip b ehav io rs a nd p ra cti c es r e q uir e d a t 22 diffe re nt l e v els o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n. W hat w e n eed f r o m a C EO o r th e s e cre ta ry of th e D efe nse D ep artm ent i s d iffe re nt th an th e l e ad ers h ip r e q uir e m ents o f a nig ht- s h ift s u p erv is o r a t M cD onald ’s .

2. L ead ers h ip o ccurs i n e xtr e m ely d iv ers e e nv ir o nm ents . S om e l e ad ers h ip pro duces p re sc rib ed r e su lts i n a r e la ti v ely d efin ed a nd e sta b lis h ed org aniz a ti o n. S uch l e ad ers h ip m ay s p eed a p ro duct to m ark et o r e sc ala te th e re v enue f r o m a s a le s f o rc e, b ut i t i s n o t c o nceiv in g n ew d ir e cti o ns o r str a te gie s f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n. O th er l e ad ers h ip i s e xhib ite d i n a s ta rt- u p org aniz a ti o n i n w hic h th ere i s n o s tr u ctu re o r f o rm , a nd th e l e ad er m ust c re ate it f r o m s c ra tc h.

3. D iffe re nt s k ills a re r e q uir e d a t d iffe re nt s ta ges i n a p ers o n’s c are er. T he re se arc h o n c are er s ta ges s h o w s th at p eo ple ’s c are ers g o th ro ugh v ery pre d ic ta b le s ta ges. E arly o n, p eo ple s ta rt a s a p pre nti c es, l e arn in g s o m e new dis c ip lin e. T hey th en m ove to b eco m e m ore i n d ep end ent i n th eir w ork . F ro m th ere , s o m e p eo ple m ove i n to m anageria l p ositi o ns i n w hic h th ey o vers e e th e work o f o th ers o r m ove f r o m a n arro w f o cus o n th eir o w n w ork to a b ro ad er fo cus th at i n v olv es c o achin g o th ers to d ev elo p s k ill a nd e xp erti s e . F in ally , a hand fu l o f p eo ple b eco m e p ath fin d ers a nd v is io narie s w ho l e ad b ro ad -s c ale org aniz a ti o n c hange a nd a re th e “ sta te sm en” o f th eir o rg aniz a ti o n. C are er sta ges a re e asily c o nfu se d w ith o rg aniz a ti o nal l e v els , b ut th ey a re n o t id enti c al. P eo ple w ho a re p ro m ote d i n to m anageria l p ositi o ns o fte n c o nti n ue to f u ncti o n a s p ro fe ssio nal, i n d iv id ual c o ntr ib uto rs . T hey r e v ert to th e w ork th ey f in d m ost c o m fo rta b le a nd n ev er ta ke o n th e r o le o f c o ach, m ento r, o r dir e cto r o f o th ers . T hey c o nti n ue d oin g te chnic al w ork a t w hic h th ey a re h ig hly pro fic ie nt. H ow ev er, th e s ta ge o f a p ers o n’s c are er i s a no th er v aria b le o f th e le ad ers h ip e q uati o n.

4. L ead ers h ip i s d riv en b y m ajo r e v ents . M ayo r R ud olp h G iu lia ni o f N ew Y ork was c ata p ulte d i n to th e n ati o nal l im elig ht b ecause o f h is h and lin g o f th e te rro ris t a tta cks o n th e W orld T ra d e C ente r. P rio r to th at, h is c are er h ad b een wanin g. C hurc hill h ad s o ught s e v era l l e ad ers h ip p ositi o ns, b ut i t w as n o t u nti l th e e v ents o f D unkir k th at h is ta le nts w ere r e co gniz e d . T hro ugh W orld W ar I I he w as a p re m ie r l e ad er, a nd th en w hen th e w ar w as o ver, h is c o untr y m en vote d h im o ut o f o ffic e. W hen a f r ie nd s u ggeste d th at th is w as a b le ssin g i n dis g uis e , C hurc hill g ro w le d b ack, “ If i t i s , th e d is g uis e i s p erfe ct.” 5. T he a cti v iti e s o f l e ad ers h ip a re n o t a ll th e s a m e. F or e xam ple , n o t a ll l e ad ers are r e q uir e d to “ le ad c hange.” S om e l e ad ers s p end a g re at d eal o f ti m e o n peo ple -d ev elo pm ent a cti v iti e s, w here as o th ers a re r iv ete d to th e o pera ti o nal or p ro ducti o n e le m ents o f th eir r o le s.

6. W e c o nfu se s u ccess a nd e ffe cti v eness a s th e g enera l b enchm ark o f l e ad ers h ip .

If s u ccess i s m easu re d b y d olla rs a nd ti tl e s, th at i s c le arly n o t th e s a m e th in g 23 as e ffe cti v eness, o r tr u ly p ro ducin g th e r e su lts th at th e o rg aniz a ti o n n eed s. W e belie v e th is i s p ro bab ly b est m easu re d b y th e f e ed back f r o m s u b ord in ate s w ho exp erie nce th at l e ad ers h ip . M uch o f th e r e se arc h o n l e ad ers h ip m akes n o dis ti n cti o n b etw een s u ccess a nd e ffe cti v eness.

7. W e l a ck a gre ed -u p on m easu re s, s o i t h as b een f r u str a ti n gly d iffic ult to g et agre em ent o n w ho i s a g o od l e ad er a nd w ho i s n o t. W e l a ck r o bust m easu re s of l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd e sp ecia lly h av e n o co m pre hensiv e m easu re s th at tr a ck th e l e ad er’s i m pact o n c usto m ers , e m plo yees, o rg aniz a ti o ns, a nd sh are ho ld ers .

8. W e h av e n o t ta ken i n to a cco unt th e e v olv in g n atu re o f l e ad ers h ip . T hat i s , w e hav e a naly ze d l e ad ers h ip a ro und th e c hara cte ris ti c s th at a re r e q uir e d f o r su ccess o r e ffe cti v eness to day b ut h av e n o t g iv en m uch a tte nti o n to th e co m pete ncie s th at w ill b e r e q uir e d i n th e f u tu re . T hus, m uch o f th e l e ad ers h ip analy sis a nd d ev elo pm ent h as b een “ lo okin g i n th e r e arv ie w m ir ro r” a nd n o t lo okin g o ut o ver th e h o riz o n.

9. T here h as b een n o w ay to d efin e th e d iffe re nt c o nsti tu encie s o f th e l e ad er.

Thus, i f a l e ad er i s i n c harg e o f “ B ab y B oom ers ” b orn f r o m 1 945 to 1 955, th is would c all f o r s o m e d iffe re nt v alu es, m oti v es, a nd s k ills th an i f th e l e ad er w as re sp onsib le f o r a g ro up o f “ G en-X ers ” b orn f r o m l 9 75 to 1 985. T hat co m ple xity i s n o w c o m pound ed w ith “ G enera ti o n Y ,” th o se b orn f r o m 1 986 to 2000, a nd th e s o on to c o m e “ G enera ti o n Z ,” b orn i n 2 001 a nd b eyo nd .

10. S ti ll a no th er v aria b le i s w heth er th e l e ad er i s o pera ti n g a lo ne v ers u s a cti n g a s part o f a l e ad ers h ip te am . C le arly th ere a re o rg aniz a ti o ns i n w hic h o ne p ers o n pla ys a n e xtr e m ely d om in ant p art a nd e xerc is e s c o ntr o l a nd i n flu ence o ver th e big i s su es, a lo ng w ith th e d ay-to -d ay ta cti c s. O th er o rg aniz a ti o ns h av e a le ad ers h ip te am th at a cts i n c o ncert. I n s o m e c ase s, a f o rm al “ o ffic e o f th e pre sid ent” h as p eo ple w ho a ct q uite i n te rc hangeab ly i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

11. A f u rth er d im ensio n i s th e i m pact o f te chno lo gy. E ffe cti v eness i n s o m e org aniz a ti o ns w ould d em and a h ig h l e v el o f c o m fo rt w ith th e l a te st c o m pute r and i n fo rm ati o n te chno lo gy, w here as o th ers w ould to le ra te a l e ad er w ho c o uld neith er s e nd n o r r e ceiv e e -m ail. N ew te chno lo gie s e xis t to c o nd uct v ir tu al meeti n gs, a nd i n s o m e o rg aniz a ti o ns a c o m fo rt a nd f a m ilia rity w ith s u ch te chno lo gy w ould b e a “ m ust.” A D ell C om pute r e m plo yee r e p orte d , “ M y boss s p ent th e e nti r e w eekend r e ty p in g a 2 5-p age p ro posa l th at o nly n eed ed co rre cti o ns. S he c la im s th e f ile I g av e h er w as c o rru p te d a nd s h e c o uld n o t ed it i t. T he P D F f ile I g av e h er w as ‘ re ad o nly ,’ b ut a ll s h e h ad to d o w as co py i t i n to a w ord -p ro cessin g p ro gra m a nd m ake th e c o rre cti o ns.” 12. A n ew d im ensio n o f l e ad ers h ip i s o ne o f g eo gra p hy. S om e l e ad ers i n te ra ct with a v ir tu al te am , w here as o th ers h av e th eir s ta ffs o n-s ite .

This c an b e e v en fu rth er c o m plic ate d b y th e f a ct th at g ro up s a re o fte n s c atte re d a cro ss w id ely 24 diffe re nt ti m e z o nes, th us m akin g th e l e ad ers h ip ta sk e v en m ore c o m ple x. F or exam ple , h o ld in g m eeti n gs a t o ne p oin t i n ti m e c an b e c um bers o m e.

13. A no th er v aria b le i s th e w id e v arie ty o f l e ad ers h ip s ty le s u se d w ith in d iffe re nt org aniz a ti o ns to m oti v ate a nd i n sp ir e th e f r o nt l in e. S om e o f th e b est r e se arc h in th is r e gard c o m es f r o m J o n K atz e nb ach a nd i s d esc rib ed i n h is b ook Pea k Perfo rm ance.

2 I n th at b ook, h e d esc rib es f ir m s th at w ere e xtr e m ely e ffe cti v e and s u ccessfu l b ut th at u se d v ery d iffe re nt a p pro aches to g etti n g h ig h perfo rm ance f r o m th e p eo ple w ith in . H e d esc rib ed f iv e o f th ese :

• Mis sio n, v a lu es, a nd p rid e.

I n th is a p pro ach, th e o rg aniz a ti o n i m mers e s ev ery o ne i n th e tr a d iti o ns, th e s p ir it, th e c o re v alu es, a nd th e m is sio n o f th e org aniz a ti o n. T his i n tu rn g enera te s g re at p rid e, a nd p eo ple p ro duce a t h ig h le v els b ecause o f th at p rid e i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n. T he U .S . M arin e C orp s i s a go od e xam ple o f th is .

• Reco gnitio n a nd c ele b ra tio n.

M any o rg aniz a ti o ns h e s tu d ie d p ra cti c ed exte nsiv e r e co gniti o n f o r th eir p eo ple a nd w ent to g re at l e ngth s to c ele b ra te su ccesse s. S outh w est A ir lin es i s a c la ssic e xam ple o f th is a p pro ach.

• Pro cess m etr ic s.

M any o rg aniz a ti o ns p ost d eta ile d c harts s h o w in g pro ducti v ity a nd q uality m etr ic s f o r e v ery d ep artm ent. P eo ple a re tr a in ed to und ers ta nd th ese m etr ic s, a nd th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s s u ccess i s m easu re d a nd re w ard ed b y p erfo rm ance a gain st th ese m etr ic s.

• In div id ual a ch ie vem en t.

O th er o rg aniz a ti o ns e xcel b y a llo w in g i n d iv id uals to a cco m plis h e xtr a o rd in ary th in gs. O rg aniz a ti o nal e ffe cti v eness i s th e ad diti o n o f a ll th ese e xcellin g i n d iv id uals . P ro fe ssio nal s e rv ic e f ir m s fu ncti o n th is w ay, a nd M cK in se y a nd C om pany i s a g o od e xam ple .

• Entr e p re n eu ria l s p ir it.

S ti ll a no th er a p pro ach to m oti v ati n g p eo ple to h ig h perfo rm ance i s to l e t th em e njo y a h uge f in ancia l s ta ke i n th e p ote nti a l su ccess o f th e f ir m . M any h ig h-te ch s ta rt- u p s h av e r e lie d o n th is a p peal to so m eo ne’s e ntr e p re neuria l s p ir it, a nd th is h as e nab le d s u ch o rg aniz a ti o ns to excel.

This i s a g o od e xam ple o f th e c o m ple xity o f l e ad ers h ip . A ll f iv e o f th e ab ove a p pro aches w ork w ell. O ne i s n o t r ig ht a nd th e o th ers w ro ng.

What co uld e nd u p b ein g “ w ro ng” i s f o r a r e co gniti o n a nd c ele b ra ti o n l e ad er to atte m pt to f u ncti o n th at w ay i n a p ro cess m etr ic s o rg aniz a ti o n. C hances a re th e org aniz a ti o n w ould r e je ct s u ch a l e ad er a s th e h um an b ody r e je cts a ny f o re ig n su b sta nce i m pla nte d i n i t.

14. W ho d ecid es th o se w ho a re g o od l e ad ers ? W e h av e b een u ncle ar r e gard in g who i s i n th e b est p ositi o n to e v alu ate l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. O rg aniz a ti o ns hav e o fte n r e lie d o n p erfo rm ance a p pra is a ls f r o m th e l e v el a b ove to e v alu ate th e e ffe cti v eness o f a l e ad er. W e h av e s tu d ie s f r o m s e v era l o rg aniz a ti o ns 25 sh o w in g a b so lu te ly n o c o rre la ti o n b etw een p erfo rm ance a p pra is a ls a nd th eir 360-d egre e f e ed back i n str u m ents . Y et th e r e se arc h f o r p ast d ecad es h as s h o w n th at s u b ord in ate s w ere i n th e b est p ositi o n to a p pra is e a ny l e ad er’s effe cti v eness. R ese arc h i n th e m ilita ry p ro ved th at h av in g th e e nlis te d m en se le ct s e rg eants w as m ore e ffe cti v e th an h av in g h ig her-ra nkin g o ffic ers m ake th o se s e le cti o ns.

15. S ev era l “ co m panio ns” o f l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness h av e c lo ud ed th e i s su e. F or exam ple , a ll o f th e f o llo w in g h av e b een s h o w n to h av e s o m e c o rre la ti o n to le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness:

• I n te llig ence, a s m easu re d b y I Q s c o re s • P hysic al c hara cte ris ti c s, s u ch a s h eig ht • E m oti o nal o r p ers o nality c hara cte ris ti c s, s u ch a s a sse rti v eness a nd outg o in gness • B io chem ic al c hara cte ris ti c s, s u ch a s te sto ste ro ne l e v els i n m en Because s o m e c o rre la ti o n e xis ts b etw een th ese e le m ents a nd l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness, th ere h as b een a l o gic al te m pta ti o n to a ssu m e th ere to b e a cause -a nd -e ffe ct r e la ti o nsh ip . A t th e s a m e ti m e, th ere w as h ig h i n te re st i n su ch c o nclu sio ns f r o m th o se r e sp onsib le f o r l e ad ers h ip s e le cti o n; th e a b ove ele m ents d id n o t h elp f u rth er th e w ork o f th o se c o ncern ed w ith d ev elo pm ent.

16. L anguage h as a n i m pact. I s th e l a ck o f a d eq uate l a nguage p artl y r e sp onsib le fo r th e m yste ry th at s u rro und s l e ad ers h ip ? T he I n uit ( o r a s s o m e c all th em , Esk im os) h av e s o m e 2 3 w ord s to d esc rib e s n o w . T hey c an d esc rib e i ts hard ness, te xtu re , m ois tu re c o nte nt, c o lo r, a ge, a nd c ry sta llin e s tr u ctu re w ith th eir r ic her v ocab ula ry . W e, o n th e o th er h and , h av e r o ughly th re e w ord s a t best, a s w e ta lk a b out p ow der, s lu sh , a nd c o rn s n o w . I t i s p ossib le th at i f o ur vocab ula ry w ere m ore p re cis e a nd r o bust, w e c o uld b ette r s u cceed i n desc rib in g w hat le ad ers h ip i s a nd h o w to m ore e ffe cti v ely d ev elo p i t. G iv en our c urre nt c o nd iti o n, l e ad ers h ip i s s ti ll n early i m possib le to d efin e o r desc rib e i n d eta il o r s p ecific ity . H ow ev er, a s P ro fe sso r K arl W eic k h as su ggeste d , a ny i d ea c an b e “ sim ple , g enera l o r a ccura te , b ut n ev er a ll th re e.” 3 We w ill s tr iv e to b e g enera l a nd a ccura te , b ut n o t s p ecific . T hat a p pears to b e th e b est w ay to i m pro ve o ur u nd ers ta nd in g o f th is m ost i m porta nt to pic .

Rese a rch -b ase d B ook Our h o pe i s to p re se nt a w ay f o r p eo ple to th in k a b out l e ad ers h ip i n a h ig hly pra cti c al a nd y et s im ple w ay. W e w ill n o t r e v ie w th e p ast l ite ra tu re o n l e ad ers h ip .

26 Oth ers h av e d one th at. N or w ill w e d w ell o n th e th eo re ti c al. N or w ill w e a tte m pt to desc rib e a ll o f th e ta sk s o r a cti v iti e s o f l e ad ers . O th ers h av e d one th at a ls o . I n ste ad , we w ant to p re se nt a w ay f o r y o u p ers o nally to th in k a b out y o ur o w n l e ad ers h ip ab iliti e s a nd h o w y o u m ig ht g o a b out i n cre asin g th o se , i f y o u c ho ose . A nd f o r th o se who h av e s u b ord in ate s, w e p ro vid e s u ggesti o ns a b out w hat th ey a nd th eir org aniz a ti o ns c an d o to d ev elo p l e ad ers h ip i n th e p eo ple w ho r e p ort to th em .

We b elie v e th is i s b est d one b y e xam in in g a h uge b ody o f d ata c o lle cte d a b out le ad ers f r o m th eir p eers , s u b ord in ate s, b osse s, a nd th em se lv es. R ath er th an desc rib e o ur p ers o nal b elie fs a nd p re ju d ic es a b out l e ad ers h ip , w e w ill tu rn to m ore obje cti v e d ata . W e th in k i t e nab le s u s to d is c o ver s o m e p ro fo und i n sig hts i n to th e re al n atu re o f l e ad ers h ip . W here m yste rie s s ti ll r e m ain , w e c all th at to y o ur atte nti o n a nd p ass o n o ur b elie fs .

To a nsw er i n te llig entl y th e q uesti o n “ A re l e ad ers b orn o r m ad e?” a nd th e s e q uel “If th ey a re m ad e, th en h o w d o y o u d o th at? ” w e b egin b y p ro vid in g th e r e ad er w ith a m odel o f l e ad ers h ip th at b eco m es o ur o pera ti o nal d efin iti o n o f a l e ad er. T hat model th en p ro vid es a w ork ab le v ehic le w ith w hic h to d esc rib e a p ra cti c al w ay to make g o od m anagers i n to g re at l e ad ers . L ate r i n th e b ook, w e p re se nt a n e xam ple o f an o rg aniz a ti o n th at h as e xcelle d a t ta kin g w hat s o m e w ould d esc rib e a s a v era ge peo ple a nd tr a nsfo rm in g th em i n to h ig hly e ffe cti v e l e ad ers . T hat o rg aniz a ti o n i s th e U.S . M arin e C orp s. W e a ls o p re se nt a c ase s tu d y o f a c o rp ora ti o n th at s u ccessfu lly dev elo ps i ts l e ad ers a nd th e c o m pellin g s u p port th is g iv es to d ev elo pin g s tr e ngth s ra th er th an w eaknesse s.

This b ook e xam in es th e l e ad er a s s e en th ro ugh th e e yes o f th o se b ein g l e d (s u b ord in ate s) a nd i n flu enced ( p eers ), o f th o se w ho m anage th e l e ad ers ( th e bosse s), a nd o f th e l e ad ers th em se lv es. T his p ro cess h as b eco m e k no w n as 3 60- degre e f e ed back, b ecause o f i ts c o m pre hensiv e v ie w o f a l e ad er’s b ehav io r, l o oked at f r o m a b ove, th e s id e, a nd b elo w . I n d eed , w e l a te r d esc rib e o ur d ata b ase o f s o m e 200,0 00 r e sp onse s, u sin g 3 60-d egre e q uesti o nnair e s. W e f o cus o n th e q uesti o n:

What d o th ese th re e g ro up s ( s u b ord in ate s, p eers , a nd b osse s) n o ti c e? W hat d o th ey se e i n “ gre at l e ad ers ” th at s e ts th em a p art f r o m th e a v era ge o nes?

Of th o se th re e p ers p ecti v es, w e c o nclu d e th at th e b est w ay to u nd ers ta nd le ad ers h ip i s to e xam in e th e i m pact l e ad ers h av e o n th e p eo ple th ey l e ad . I t i s th e su b ord in ate s’ v ie w w e v alu e th e m ost, b ecause w e b elie v e th ey h av e th e m ost co m ple te a nd a ccura te d ata .

Peers a nd b osse s s e e s lic es o f a l e ad er’s b ehav io r, b ut th ere i s g o od e v id ence to co nclu d e th at th eir p erc ep ti o ns a re l e ss a ccura te th an th o se o f th e p eo ple w ho re p ort to th e l e ad er.

We s tr o ngly b elie v e th at th is c o m pre hensiv e p ool o f d ata i s f a r m ore p ow erfu l and a ccura te th an i n fo rm ati o n th at w ould c o m e f r o m i n te rv ie w s o f l e ad ers th em se lv es. A s M ic hael P ola nyi n o te d i n h is b ook Perso nal K now le d ge , “ m ost hig hly s k ille d p erfo rm ers i n a ny a cti v ity , w heth er i t b e m usic , s p orts , o r v io lin 27 makin g, c anno t a ccura te ly te ll y o u w hat m akes th em s o e ffe cti v e. T heir b ehav io r i s ofte n h ig hly i n tu iti v e. Y ou m ust a ctu ally o bse rv e th em to a ccura te ly d ete rm in e th e tr u e c ause o f th eir s u ccess.” 4 This d ata b ase o f a p pro xim ate ly 2 00,0 00 q uesti o nnair e s c o m ple te d b y su b ord in ate s, p eers , a nd b osse s a b out l e ad ers c o lle cti v ely d esc rib es m ore th an 20,0 00 l e ad ers . T hey c o m e f r o m w id ely d iv ers e i n d ustr ie s. T hese l e ad ers a re f r o m North A meric a, a lo ng w ith m any f r o m E uro pe, th e P acific R im , a nd S outh A meric a.

To m ake o ur d ata b ase a nd a naly sis m ore r o bust, w e e xam in ed m ore th an 2 5 diffe re nt l e ad ers h ip a sse ssm ent i n str u m ents . R ath er th an d ep end in g o n th e s a m e s e t of a sse ssm ent i te m s f o r a ll 2 0,0 00 l e ad ers , w e e xam in ed a v arie ty o f d iffe re nt asse ssm ents , e ach b uilt o n d iffe re nt a ssu m pti o ns. T his p ro vid ed u s w ith a d ata b ase ric h i n d iv ers ity a nd h elp ed g iv e u s a m uch c le are r s e nse o f w hat m akes e ffe cti v e le ad ers h ip a nd w hat d oesn ’t. A ll to geth er, w e i n clu d ed i n o ur a naly sis m ore th an 2,0 00 u niq ue a sse ssm ent i te m s.

Rese a rc h M eth od olo gy We b egan o ur a naly sis b y i d enti fy in g th e to p 1 0 p erc ent o f m anagers a s s e en th ro ugh th e e yes o f th eir s u b ord in ate s, p eers , a nd b osse s a nd c o m pare d th em w ith th e b otto m 1 0 p erc ent. T he to p 1 0 p erc ent, w ith th e h ig hest a ggre gate sc o re s, becam e a h ig h-p erfo rm in g g ro up , a nd th e 1 0 p erc ent w ith th e l o w est a ggre gate sc o re s w ere p la ced i n th e b otto m g ro up . N ext w e a sk ed th e q uesti o n: W hat w ere th e c o m pete ncie s o r a ttr ib ute s th at s e p ara te d th ese g ro up s?

We w ere s u rp ris e d b y th e r e su lts th at c am e f r o m a naly zin g a ll o f th ese d ata . I t opened o ur th in kin g to s o m e h ig hly p ro m is in g n ew w ays to l o ok a t l e ad ers h ip a nd pro vid ed n ew d ir e cti o ns i n th e w ays w e g o a b out d ev elo pin g l e ad ers .

Movin g C om ple x it y T ow ard S im plic it y If y o u a nd 1 0 c o lle agues w ere a sk ed to d esc rib e a c o m pute r, th ere w ould b e s o m e genera l c o nsis te ncy a m ong th e a nsw ers , b ut th e a nsw ers w ould m ost l ik ely f o cus o n what a c o m pute r d oes, n o t w hat i s g o in g o n i n sid e i t. I n d eed , f o r m ost p eo ple , w hat go es o n i n sid e a l a p to p o r d esk to p c o m pute r i s a c o m ple te m yste ry . M ost h av e nev er l o oked i n sid e o ne. W hat’ s m ore , y o u d on’t n eed to . T he o utp ut f r o m th e co m pute r i s a ll y o u c are a b out; th at c an b e s p re ad sh eets , c o m pute r g ra p hic s, d esig n sim ula ti o ns, e -m ail, o r s im ple w ord p ro cessin g.

Many p eo ple k no w th at th ere i s a h ard d riv e i n sid e a nd r o ughly k no w i ts cap acity . T hey a ls o k no w th ere i s a m ic ro pro cesso r, a nd th ey h av e s o m e i d ea a b out its s p eed . T hey k no w th ere i s s o m e m em ory c ap acity a nd a p pro xim ate ly w hat th e 28 RA M o f th eir c o m pute r i s . I n s h o rt, th ey k no w s o m e g enera l th in gs a b out i t a nd what i t p ro duces.

That i s th e l e v el o f u nd ers ta nd in g th at p ra cti c in g l e ad ers n eed to h av e a b out le ad ers h ip . T hey d o n o t n eed to k no w th e d eta ils , b ut i t i s h elp fu l to h av e s o m e genera l u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e c o m ponents th at c o m e to geth er to m ake a g re at l e ad er.

The L ea d ersh ip T en t— a C on cep tu al F ra m ew ork We p ro pose a p pro achin g l e ad ers h ip i n th e s a m e w ay. W e w ill n o t a d d o ne m ore desc rip ti o n o f th e i n ner c hara cte r tr a its o r th o ught p ro cesse s o f g re at l e ad ers . T he co ncep tu al m odel w e p ro pose i s r a th er s im ple a nd i n v olv es f iv e e le m ents , w hic h we w ill c o m pare w ith th e p ole s i n a te nt.

Our e m pir ic al f a cto r a naly sis o f h uge a m ounts o f d ata c o lle cte d o n l e ad ers ’ co m pete ncie s r e v eals th at a ll v ita l a nd d iffe re nti a ti n g l e ad ers h ip c o m pete ncie s Fig ure 1 -1 T he L ead ers h ip T ent F lo or can b e g ro up ed i n to f iv e c lu ste rs . F or th e s a ke o f e ase i n r e m em berin g a nd a naly sis , we h av e c re ate d a d ia gra m i n th e f o rm o f a te nt f lo or ( Fig ure 1 -1 ) th at s h o w s th e re la ti o nsh ip o f th ese b uild in g b lo cks to e ach o th er.

29 Chara cte r Our m odel i n Fig ure 1 -1 s ta rts w ith a c ente r p ole r e p re se nti n g th e “ chara cte r” o f a n in d iv id ual. T here i s a h uge b ody o f w riti n g o n th is s u b je ct. I n d eed , s o m e w rite rs and r e se arc hers h av e a rg ued th at l e ad ers h ip i s to ta lly a b out c hara cte r o r i n te grity .

We d o n o t s h are th at v ie w , b ut w e d o a gre e th at p ers o nal c hara cte r i s th e c o re o f a ll le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. W e s tr o ngly c o ncur th at th e e th ic al s ta nd ard s, i n te grity , and a uth enti c ity o f th e l e ad er a re e xtr e m ely i m porta nt.

With a s tr o ng p ers o nal c hara cte r, th e l e ad er i s n ev er a fr a id to b e o pen a nd tr a nsp are nt. I n f a ct, th e m ore p eo ple c an s e e i n sid e, th e m ore h ig hly r e gard ed th e le ad er w ill b e. W ith o ut th at p ers o nal c hara cte r, o n th e o th er h and , l e ad ers a re fo re v er i n d anger o f b ein g d is c o vere d . T hey a re l ik e a H olly w ood s e t th at f r o m o ne sid e l o oks a ttr a cti v e, b ut a fte r w alk in g a ro und i t, th e i llu sio n i s d is p elle d a nd th e ho llo w ness i s o bvio us.

Perso n al C ap ab ilit y On o ne s id e o f th e te nt f lo or i s th e p ole o f p ers o nal c ap ab ility . T his d esc rib es th e in te lle ctu al, e m oti o nal, a nd s k ill m akeup o f th e i n d iv id ual. I t i n clu d es a naly ti c al and p ro ble m -s o lv in g c ap ab iliti e s, a lo ng w ith th e te chnic al c o m pete nce th e p ers o n posse sse s. I t r e q uir e s a n a b ility to c re ate a c le ar v is io n a nd s e nse o f p urp ose f o r th e org aniz a ti o n. G re at l e ad ers n eed a s tr o ng c o lle cti o n o f th ese p ers o nal c ap ab iliti e s.

Lead ers h ip c anno t b e d ele gate d to o th ers . T he l e ad er m ust b e e m oti o nally r e silie nt, tr u st o th ers , a nd b e s e lf- c o nfid ent e no ugh to r u n e ffe cti v e m eeti n gs a nd s p eak i n pub lic .

Focu s o n R esu lt s The th ir d te nt p ole o f l e ad ers h ip r e p re se nts th e b ehav io rs th at c an b ro ad ly b e desc rib ed a s “ fo cusin g o n r e su lts .” I t d esc rib es th e a b ility to h av e a n i m pact o n th e org aniz a ti o n. I t m eans b ein g c ap ab le o f g etti n g th in gs a cco m plis h ed . W e f u lly su b sc rib e to th e m ain th esis i n th e b ook Resu lts -B ase d L ea dersh ip , 5 w hic h a rg ues th at l e ad ers m ay b e w ond erfu l h um an b ein gs, b ut i f th ey d on’t p ro duce s u sta in ed , bala nced r e su lts , th ey s im ply a re n o t g o od l e ad ers . W e w ill l a te r e xam in e th e in te rp la y o f th ese th re e e le m ents a s a p ow erfu l p re d ic to r o f l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness.

In te rp erso n al S kills The f o urth te nt p ole o f l e ad ers h ip p uts i n to o ne c lu ste r a ll o f th e i n te rp ers o nal o r peo ple s k ills . T here i s a n e no rm ous b ody o f e v id ence th at s a ys l e ad ers h ip i s exp re sse d th ro ugh th e c o m munic ati o n p ro cess a nd i s th e i m pact th at o ne p ers o n ( th e le ad er) h as o n a g ro up o f o th er p eo ple . I t i s th e d ir e ct e xp re ssio n o f th e c hara cte r o f th e i n d iv id ual a nd i s o fte n th e w in d ow b y w hic h p eo ple u nd ers ta nd th e p ers o nal 30 chara cte r o f th e l e ad er. ( N ote , h o w ev er, th at l e ad ers h ip d oes n o t e q ual a ny o ne co m pete ncy. I t i s e xp re sse d i n a r e su lt. Y es, th e c o m pete ncy i s th e to ol o r th e manners i n w hic h th at r e su lt i s o bta in ed . A s s u ch, i t i s w orth y o f u nd ers ta nd in g, b ut a c o m pete ncy i s n ev er a n o utc o m e, and l e ad ers h ip i s u lti m ate ly a b out o utc o m es.) We h av e a rb itr a rily s e p ara te d th e l e ad er’s i m pact o n p eo ple f r o m th e l e ad er’s ab ility to o bta in g o od r e su lts i n o th er a re nas, s u ch a s f in ancia l o utc o m es, pro ducti v ity i m pro vem ent, e nhanced c usto m er r e la ti o ns, o r g re ate r o rg aniz a ti o nal cap ab ility .

Lea d in g O rg an iz a tio n al C han ge Fifth , a s n o te d e arlie r, a no th er e xp re ssio n o f l e ad ers h ip c o m es i n th e a b ility to pro duce c hange w ith in a n o rg aniz a ti o n. T he h ig hest e xp re ssio n o f l e ad ers h ip in v olv es c hange. C are ta ker m anagers c an k eep th in gs g o in g o n a s te ad y p ath , b ut le ad ers a re d em and ed i f th e o rg aniz a ti o n i s to p urs u e a n ew p ath o r r is e to a sig nific antl y h ig her l e v el o f p erfo rm ance.

A k ey p oin t h ere i s th at f o r m any l e ad ers h ip r o le s, th e f ir s t f o ur te nt p ole s m ay be a ll th at a re r e q uir e d . I t i s n o t u nti l a p ers o n g ets i n to l e ad in g b ro ad , s tr a te gic change th at th e f in al te nt p ole i s r e q uir e d .

An O verv ie w o f I m porta n t I d ea s i n t h is B ook There a re 2 0 i n sig hts p re se nte d i n th is b ook. T he f o llo w in g c hap te rs p re se nt f u rth er analy sis o f th ese i d eas.

In sig h t 1 . G re a t L ea d ers M ake a H uge D if fe re n ce W hen Com pare d w it h M ere ly G ood L ea d ers We h av e k no w n f o r s o m e ti m e th at h uge d iffe re nces e xis t b etw een to p p erfo rm ers and a v era ge p erfo rm ers i n a ny j o b c ate go ry . O ne m eta -a naly sis ( a s y nth esis o f so m e 8 0 w ell- c o nd ucte d s tu d ie s o n p ro ducti v ity ) s h o w ed th at f o r h ig h-le v el j o bs (a nd l e ad ers c erta in ly f it th at c ate go ry ), th e p ro ducti v ity d iffe re nce b etw een th e to p pers o n o ut o f 1 00 a nd th e g re at m ajo rity i s h uge. F or e xam ple , th e to p p ers o n perfo rm in g h ig h-c o m ple xity j o bs i s 1 27 p erc ent m ore p ro ducti v e th an th e m ean av era ge p ers o n a nd i n fin ite ly m ore p ro ducti v e th an th e 1 00th p ers o n i n th at c urv e.

The r e se arc hers s a id “ in fin ite ly ” b ecause th e n um ber w as s o l a rg e th at i t w ould b e la ckin g p re cis io n to s a y a nyth in g o th er th an “ in fin ite .” Our r e se arc h w ith a l a rg e m ortg age c o m pany s h o w ed th at th e l e ad ers i n th e to p decile o f r a ti n gs ( 9 0th to 9 9th ), a s r a te d b y th eir m anagers , s u b ord in ate s, and p eers , pro duced tw ic e a s m uch n et r e v enue to th e o rg aniz a ti o n ( th eir te rm f o r p ro fita b ility ) 31 as th at o f m anagers i n th e 1 1th th ro ugh 8 9th p erc enti le s. S o th e d iffe re nce b etw een re ally g re at l e ad ers a nd th e o th ers i s e xtr a o rd in ary . W e h av e f o und s tr o ng sta ti s ti c ally s ig nific ant r e la ti o nsh ip s b etw een l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd a v arie ty of d esir a b le b usin ess o utc o m es s u ch a s p ro fita b ility , tu rn o ver, e m plo yee co m mitm ent, c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n, a nd i n te nti o n o f e m plo yees to l e av e. I n a lm ost ev ery s tu d y w here w e h av e u nd erta ken to u nd ers ta nd th e i m pact o f v ario us dim ensio ns o f o rg aniz a ti o nal e ffe cti v eness, l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness h as co nsis te ntl y h ad s u b sta nti a l i m pact. T his i s d is c usse d i n Chap te r 2 .

In sig h t 2 . O ne O rg an iz a tio n C an H ave M an y G re a t L ea d ers Bein g a g re at l e ad er c an b e d efin ed b y s e le cti n g th e to p 5 o r 1 0 p erc ent f r o m a ny dis tr ib uti o n, b ut th is i s a rti fic ia l. I t w as d one f o r th e s a ke o f e ase a nd o bje cti v ity i n our r e se arc h. H ow ev er, g re atn ess s h o uld u lti m ate ly b e d efin ed a gain st a s ta nd ard ra th er th an m ere ly c o m parin g p eo ple a gain st e ach o th er. T here i s n o r e aso n w hy half th e l e ad ers i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n c o uld n o t b e g re at i f th ey w ere d ev elo ped pro perly . B ette r s ti ll, w hy n o t a ll? G re at l e ad ers h ip i s n o t a c o m peti ti v e a cti v ity i n whic h o ne p ers o n’s s u ccess d etr a cts f r o m a no th er’s s u ccess.

Four g re at g o lfe rs c an p la y to geth er a nd a ll f o ur c an c o m e i n 1 0 s tr o kes o r m ore und er p ar o n th e c o urs e . I f a nyth in g, p la yin g w ith o th er g re at p la yers e le v ate s th e pla y o f e ach i n d iv id ual. L ik ew is e , a n o rg aniz a ti o n c an h av e l a rg e n um bers o f le ad ers p erfo rm in g a t a h ig h l e v el a nd h av in g p ositi v e i m pact o n th eir p eo ple a nd pro ducin g e xcelle nt b usin ess r e su lts . T he g o al s h o uld b e to h av e a ll l e ad ers perfo rm in g a t a n e xtr e m ely h ig h l e v el, a nd th ere i s n o r e aso n w hy th is c anno t o ccur.

Ja ck W elc h’s l e gacy a t G E w as a s tr o ng e m phasis o n d ev elo pin g a l a rg e n um ber of g re at l e ad ers , m any o f w ho m w ent o n to l e ad m ajo r d iv is io ns o f G E, a nd s o m e who l e ft to h ead u p o th er m ajo r c o rp ora ti o ns. S om eho w w e m ust c hange th e menta lity th at h o ld s th at a ny o rg aniz a ti o n c an h av e o nly a f e w r e ally g o od l e ad ers .

Chap te r 2 c o vers th is to pic .

In sig h t 3 . W e H ave B een A im in g T oo L ow in O ur L ea d ersh ip Develo p m en t A ctiv it ie s We c o nte nd th at o ne o f th e m ajo r f a ilin gs i n l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s h as been th e te nd ency to a im l o w . M ic hela ngelo s a id , “ T he g re ate st danger f o r m ost o f us i s n o t th at o ur a im i s to o h ig h a nd w e m is s i t, b ut th at i t i s to o l o w a nd w e r e ach it.” We h av e o fte n s e t th e ta rg et a s “ getti n g a l ittl e b it b ette r.” W e h av e n o t s e t o ur sig hts o n g etti n g p eo ple to b eco m e o uts ta nd in g l e ad ers . T he m ore g re at l e ad ers a n org aniz a ti o n d ev elo ps, th e m ore i t w ill b eco m e a n o uts ta nd in g o rg aniz a ti o n. T here is n o r e aso n to a ccep t m ed io crity i n l e ad ers h ip a ny m ore th an i n s o ftw are pro gra m min g, c usto m er s e rv ic e, o r s e llin g. T his i s m ore f u lly c o vere d i n Chap te r 2 .

32 In sig h t 4 . T he R ela tio n sh ip B etw een I m pro ved L ea d ersh ip a n d In cre a se d P erfo rm an ce O utc o m es I s N eit h er P re cis e ly In cre m en ta l N or I s I t L in ea r Afte r e v alu ati n g a v arie ty o f d iffe re nt a sse ssm ents c o m parin g l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness w ith o utc o m es a s m enti o ned a b ove, a d is ti n ct p atte rn e m erg ed i n alm ost a ll o f o ur s tu d ie s. P oor l e ad ers ( th o se u p to th e 2 0th p erc enti le ) h ad p oor re su lts , w here as l e ad ers a b ove th e 8 0th p erc enti le a chie v ed e xcep ti o nal r e su lts .

Lookin g a t o nly th o se tw o d ata p oin ts , th e r e la ti o nsh ip a p pears f a ir ly l in ear, b ut i n each c ase w here w e e xam in ed th o se l e ad ers w ith g o od r e su lts ( 2 0th to 8 0th perc enti le s), th ey a chie v ed a p pro xim ate ly th e s a m e l e v el o f o utc o m es e v en th o ugh th eir e ffe cti v eness r a nged f r o m th e 2 0th to th e 8 0th p erc enti le . T he c o ncep t th at le ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i s n o t p re cis e ly i n cre m enta lly r e la te d to p erfo rm ance outc o m es m eans th at i n cre m enta l i m pro vem ents i n l e ad ers h ip w ill n o t c re ate in cre m enta l i m pro vem ents i n p erfo rm ance o utc o m es. P erh ap s i f i t d id , p eo ple would b e m ore f o cuse d o n i m pro vem ent. T hey w ould s e e th at a s lig ht i m pro vem ent in th eir l e ad ers h ip a b ility c re ate d i m pro ved j o b p erfo rm ance. L ead ers w ho se effe cti v eness r a ti n gs a re a t th e 4 0th o r 5 0th p erc enti le e nd u p a chie v in g a b out th e sa m e p erfo rm ance a s l e ad ers a t th e 6 0th o r 7 0th p erc enti le . T ho se a t th e 4 0th o r 50th p erc enti le a nd w ho c ho ose to c o nse rv e th e e nerg y i n v olv ed i n c hange m ig ht ask th em se lv es, “ W hat’ s th e p oin t? M y r e su lts a re th e s a m e a s th o se o f o th ers w ho are w ork in g to i m pro ve th eir l e ad ers h ip .” T he l a ck o f i n cre m enta l m ovem ent o f le ad ers h ip a nd p erfo rm ance m akes i t d iffic ult f o r p eo ple to m ake th e j u m p to extr a o rd in ary p erfo rm ance. A nd s o m ost c ho ose to b e s a ti s fie d w ith g o od perfo rm ance r a th er th an to m ove f o rw ard to h ig her l e v els . S om e o rg aniz a ti o ns, a s well, a p pear to b e s a ti s fie d w ith l e ad ers th at a re g o od.

Chap te r 2 p re se nts f u rth er ev id ence a nd i n fo rm ati o n o n th is i s su e.

In sig h t 5 . G re a t L ea d ersh ip C on sis ts o f P osse ssin g S evera l “B uild in g B lo ck s” o f C ap ab ilit ie s, E ach C om ple m en tin g t h e Oth ers We h av e d esc rib ed th e “ b uild in g b lo cks” o f:

• C hara cte r • P ers o nal c ap ab iliti e s • F ocus o n r e su lts • I n te rp ers o nal s k ills • L ead in g o rg aniz a ti o nal c hange Each o f th ese c o nsis ts o f s e v era l f a ir ly d is ti n ct c o m pete ncie s o r s e ts o f b ehav io rs .

These a re d esc rib ed i n s o m e d eta il l a te r i n th e b ook, b ut a k ey i n sig ht i s th at 33 posse ssin g o nly o ne o f th em i s n o t l ik ely to h av e y o u p erc eiv ed a s a n e ffe cti v e le ad er. I n f a ct, l e ad ers p osse ssin g o ne c o m pete ncy a s a s tr e ngth a t th e 9 0th perc enti le w ould n o t b e r a te d a t th e 9 0th p erc enti le i n te rm s o f o vera ll l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness.

Chap te r 3 e la b ora te s o n th is c o ncep t.

In sig h t 6 . L ea d ersh ip C ulm in ate s in C ham pio n in g C han ge The h ig hest e xp re ssio n o f l e ad ers h ip i n v olv es c hange, a nd th e h ig hest o rd er o f change i s g uid in g a n o rg aniz a ti o n th ro ugh a n ew s tr a te gic d ir e cti o n, c hangin g i ts cultu re , o r c hangin g th e f u nd am enta l b usin ess m odel. T hus, c hange i s a n i m porta nt and u lti m ate c rite rio n b y w hic h to m easu re l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness.

Chap te r 3 dis c usse s th is .

In sig h t 7 . A ll C om pete n cie s A re N ot E qual. S om e D if fe re n tia te Good f r o m G re a t L ea d ers, W here a s O th ers D o N ot There h as b een a n e no rm ous a m ount o f m oney s p ent, m ostl y b y l a rg e c o rp ora ti o ns, to d efin e c o m pete ncie s. T he i m plic ati o n o f th ese l is ts h as o fte n b een th at a ll o f th ese w ere o f e q ual i m porta nce a nd th at th e w is e m anager w ould d ev ote ti m e to bein g g o od a t a ll o f th em .

Our r e se arc h, o n th e c o ntr a ry , s u ggests th at s o m e c o m pete ncie s to w er a b ove oth ers , a nd w hic h o nes a re m ost i m porta nt o fte n d ep end s o n th e org aniz a ti o n. F or exam ple , i n o ne o rg aniz a ti o n w e s tu d ie d , th e d ata s h o w ed th at th e s in gle m ost im porta nt c o m pete ncy f o r a l e ad er w as to b e s e en a s te chnic ally c o m pete nt.

Conv ers e ly , th e q uality th at p ut l e ad ers i n to th e b otto m r u ng w as th eir l a ck o f te chnic al c o m pete nce. T his o ne c hara cte ris ti c w as f a r m ore i m porta nt th an th e se co nd o r th ir d d is ti n guis h in g c ap ab ility .

The p oin t i s th at i f p eo ple s e ek to b e p erc eiv ed a s g re at l e ad ers , i t b eho oves th em to k no w w hic h c o m pete ncie s r e ally m ake a d iffe re nce i n th eir o rg aniz a ti o ns.

Our r e se arc h i d enti fie d 1 6 c o m pete ncie s th at a ctu ally s e p ara te d th e to p 1 0 p erc ent of a ll l e ad ers f r o m th e r e st. W e b elie v e th ese a re th e c o m pete ncie s o n w hic h m ost le ad ers s h o uld f o cus. T his c o m pris e s Chap te r 4 o f th e b ook.

In sig h t 8 . L ea d ersh ip C om pete n cie s A re L in ked C lo se ly T ogeth er Alth o ugh a n e ffo rt h as b een m ad e to m ake th em a p pear u niq ue a nd s p ecific , th e f a ct of th e m atte r i s th at l e ad ers h ip c o m pete ncie s a re h ig hly i n te rtw in ed . S ev era l f o rc es ap pear to b e a t w ork to m ake th is h ap pen. O ne i s th at b eco m in g g o od a t o ne co m pete ncy a p pears to m ake p eo ple b ette r a t a no th er. T his i s th e “ cro ss-tr a in in g effe ct.” T he s e co nd w ay th ey b eco m e l in ked a p pears to b e f r o m “ attr ib uti o n” o r th e cre ati o n o f a “ halo e ffe ct.” I f a l e ad er i s p erc eiv ed a s b ein g h ig hly e ffe cti v e i n work in g w ith p eo ple , th en i t i s e asy to a ttr ib ute to th at p ers o n th e s k ills o f b ein g co m mitte d to th e d ev elo pm ent o f s u b ord in ate s. S ee Chap te r 4 .

34 In sig h t 9 . E ffe ctiv e L ea d ers H ave W id ely D if fe re n t P erso n al Sty le s. T here I s N o O ne R ig h t W ay t o L ea d Milita ry l e ad ers p ro vid e s o m e o f th e c le are st c o ntr a sts i n l e ad ers h ip b ehav io r.

Eis e nho w er w as a n a b le a d m in is tr a to r a nd b uild er o f c o aliti o ns a nd g enera lly s e lf- effa cin g. M acA rth ur w as s tr a te gic ally f o cuse d , s e nsiti v e to th e c ultu re o f th e e nem y, and h ig hly f la m boyant. P atto n w as i m petu o us, p assio nate , a nd a “ lo ne-ra nger.” W e no w h av e s o lid r e se arc h e v id ence o f th ese w id ely d iffe re nt s ty le s, e sp ecia lly vie w ed f r o m o ne o rg aniz a ti o n to th e n ext.

In o ur r e se arc h w e tr ie d d ilig entl y to d is c o ver th e o ne, tw o, o r th re e c ap ab iliti e s th at w ere c o m mon f o r a ll e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers . W e f a ile d . O ur r e se arc h c o nfir m s what h as b een s u ggeste d f r o m c lin ic al s tu d ie s o f o rg aniz a ti o ns a nd l e ad ers . T here cle arly i s n o o ne p atte rn th at c o vers a ll o rg aniz a ti o ns or l e ad ers w ith in a ny o ne org aniz a ti o n. O ur d ata s u p port th e c o nclu sio n th at e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip i s i n cre d ib ly co m ple x a nd d iv ers e . P ro vid in g o ne s im ple k ey to l e ad ers h ip i s j u st n o t w ork ab le .

Our i n ab ility to f in d th ese u niv ers a l i s su es w as i n m any w ays o ne o f o ur m ost pro fo und f in d in gs. T he r e se arc h s u ggests th at e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers c o m e i n a ll sh ap es a nd s iz e s. S om e h av e s tr e ngth s i n s o m e c o m pete ncie s w hile o th ers co m ple m ent th em b ecause o f th eir s tr e ngth s i n d iffe re nt c o m pete ncie s. F or a n org aniz a ti o n to h av e e xcep ti o nal l e ad ers h ip a b ility , i t n eed s to a sse m ble th e r ig ht te am w ith a m ple d iv ers ity a nd ta le nt to m axim iz e th e c o lle cti v e i n flu ence o f th e te am .

Chap te r 5 e la b ora te s o n th is p rin cip le .

In sig h t 1 0. E ffe ctiv e L ea d ersh ip P ra ctic es A re S pecif ic t o a n Org an iz a tio n Countl e ss l e ad ers w ho w ere s u ccessfu l i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n s w itc h to a no th er a nd th en f a il. T his i s c o m pellin g e v id ence th at l e ad ers m ust f it th e o rg aniz a ti o n. O ur re se arc h s h o w ed w id e v aria ti o ns b etw een o rg aniz a ti o ns r e gard in g th e s p ecific co m pete ncie s th at w ere v alu ed m ost b y e ach o ne. L ead ers h ip a lw ays o ccurs i n a co nte xt. S ee Chap te r 5 f o r f u rth er i n fo rm ati o n.

In sig h t 1 1. T he K ey t o D evelo p in g G re a t L ea d ersh ip I s t o B uild Str e n gth s When p eo ple a re c halle nged to i m pro ve th eir l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness, th ey a lm ost auto m ati c ally a ssu m e th at th e b est a p pro ach f o r i m pro vem ent i s f ix in g w eaknesse s.

In f a ct, m ost l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent p ro cesse s r e su lt i n l e ad ers d ev elo pin g a n acti o n p la n th at f o cuse s p rim arily o n w eaknesse s. O ur r e se arc h h as l e d u s to co nclu d e th at g re at l e ad ers a re n o t d efin ed b y th e a b se nce o f w eakness, b ut r a th er by th e p re se nce o f c le ar s tr e ngth s. G re at l e ad ers , a s s e en th ro ugh th e e yes o f su b ord in ate s a nd p eers , p osse ss m ulti p le s tr e ngth s, a nd o ur r e se arc h s h o w s a re la ti v ely s tr a ig ht- lin e p ro gre ssio n. T he m ore s tr e ngth s p eo ple h av e, th e m ore 35 lik ely th ey a re to b e p erc eiv ed a s g re at l e ad ers . F or e xam ple , o ne l a rg e g ro up o f managers h ad th is p atte rn :

• N o s tr e ngth p uts th em i n th e 3 0th p erc enti le o f a ll l e ad ers i n th at g ro up .

• O ne s tr e ngth p la ced th em a t th e 6 0th p erc enti le .

• T hre e s tr e ngth s p ut th em a t th e 8 0th p erc enti le .

• F iv e s tr e ngth s c ata p ulte d th em i n to th e 9 0th p erc enti le .

These s tr e ngth s a re n o t a lw ays th e s a m e o nes. O f th e 1 6 c o m pete ncie s th at w e dis c o vere d , g re at l e ad ers d id n o t h av e th e s a m e f o ur s tr e ngth s. H ow ev er, th ese str e ngth s c anno t a ll b e f r o m th e s a m e c lu ste r. T hey m ust b e d is tr ib ute d a m ong th e vario us b uild in g b lo cks d esc rib ed e arlie r.

In g enera l, i n e xam in in g a ll o f o ur d ata , i t i s c le ar th at th e g re ate r th e n um ber o f str e ngth s y o u h av e, th e m ore l ik ely y o u a re to b e c o nsid ere d a g re at l e ad er. T his h as eno rm ous i m plic ati o ns f o r e xecuti v e s e le cti o n p ro cesse s, w hic h s e em o fte n to b e se ekin g p eo ple w ho p osse ss n o f la w s. I t s e em s th at th e e m phasis s h o uld b e o n se ekin g p eo ple w ith r e m ark ab le c o nfig ura ti o ns o f s tr e ngth s. P ro ven tr a ck r e co rd s o f acco m plis h m ent s te m min g f r o m c o m pete ncie s a p pear to b e th e k ey to f in d in g g re at le ad ers . T his a ls o h as e no rm ous i m plic ati o ns f o r l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent. I n th e past, w e h av e o fte n f o cuse d o ur e ffo rts o n p atc hin g o ver w eaknesse s. W hen executi v es a re g iv en a 3 60-d egre e f e ed back r e p ort, th e c o nsis te nt r e acti o n i s to ig no re th e p ages d esc rib in g th eir s tr e ngth s, a nd i m med ia te ly f o cus o n w eaknesse s, whic h i n m ost c ase s a re s im ply b ehav io rs th at a re r a te d a s l e ss p ositi v e r a th er th an re al f a ta l f la w s. I t i s a s i f s tr e ngth s a re g iv ens, a nd th e th in g to w ork o n i s weaknesse s o r l e ss p ositi v e a re as. I n cre asin gly w e a re c o nv in ced th is i s a m is ta ke.

It i s f a r b ette r to m agnify s tr e ngth s, o r c re ate s tr e ngth s o ut o f th o se c hara cte ris ti c s th at a re i n p ositi v e te rrito ry b ut n o t f u lly d ev elo ped . L ead ers w ho a re m odera te ly effe cti v e a nd p re o ccup y th em se lv es w ith i n cre m enta l i m pro vem ent o f l e ss p ositi v e is su es w ill n ev er m ove f r o m g o od to g re at.

Chap te r 6 e xp and s th is i d ea.

Dev elo pm ent i s f a r m ore s u ccessfu l w hen th e l e ad er f o cuse s p rim arily o n str e ngth s r a th er th an b ein g o nly c o ncern ed w ith r e p air in g w eaknesse s. I n m any case s, i t w ork ed w ell to h av e a c o m bin ati o n o f s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s a s th e dev elo pm ent ta rg et. B ut th e o vera ll i m pro vem ent o f th o se w ork in g o nly o n weaknesse s w as o nly a th ir d o f th e p ro gre ss o f th o se w ho w ork ed o n s tr e ngth s o r a co m bin ati o n o f s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s.

In sig h t 1 2. P ow erfu l C om bin atio n s P ro d uce N ea rly E xp on en tia l Resu lt s Bein g g o od a t o ne th in g i s s u ffic ie nt f o r s o m e a th le te s o r m usic ia ns, b ut s e ld om f o r le ad ers . O ur r e se arc h c o nfir m ed th at a c o m bin ati o n o f c o m pete ncie s is th e k ey to bein g h ig hly e ffe cti v e. F or e xam ple , th e p ers o n w ho i s f o cuse d o nly o n g etti n g 36 re su lts o fte n f a ils to o bta in th o se r e su lts . W hy? I t i s a kin to a p ers o n a tte m pti n g to ro w a b oat w ith o ne p ad dle . I n ste ad , g o od r e su lts c o m e f r o m a c o m bin ati o n o f sk ills , e sp ecia lly th o se j o in in g th e e m phasis o n r e su lts w ith s tr o ng i n te rp ers o nal behav io r a nd r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith p eo ple . N eith er o ne, b y i ts e lf, ta kes y o u v ery f a r.

Togeth er, th ey p ro duce s p ecta cula r o utc o m es. I n o ne s tu d y, w e f o und th at i f y o u a re in th e to p q uarti le i n I n te rp ers o nal S kills b ut r a te d p oorly o n F ocus o n R esu lts , th e lik elih o od o f y o u b ein g p erc eiv ed a s a g re at l e ad er i s o nly 9 p erc ent. I f y o u a re i n th e to p q uarti le o n F ocus o n R esu lts b ut g iv en l o w r a ti n gs o n I n te rp ers o nal S kills , th e l ik elih o od o f b ein g p erc eiv ed a s a g re at l e ad er i s 1 3 p erc ent. B ut i f y o u p osse ss both s tr o ng I n te rp ers o nal S kills a nd a F ocus o n R esu lts , th en y o ur p ro bab ility o f bein g p erc eiv ed a s a g re at l e ad er j u m ps to 6 6 p erc ent. I t i s th e p ow erfu l co m bin ati o n o f th o se f a cto rs th at m akes a h uge d iffe re nce.

Wheth er y o u a re w ork in g w ith c o m ple x o rg aniz a ti o ns o r w ith o ne s u b ord in ate , th ere i s s e ld om a ny o ne th in g r e sp onsib le f o r p ro ducin g a p ositi v e o utc o m e.

In ste ad , i t i s th e c o m bin ati o n o f s e v era l f o rc es th at p ro duces d esir e d o utc o m es. I n genera l, l e ad ers a re m ost e ffe cti v e w hen th ey p osse ss s tr e ngth s i n e ach o f th e m ajo r clu ste rs o f c o m pete ncie s.

Chap te r 6 p ro vid es f u rth er i n sig ht i n to th is f in d in g, a lo ng with e m pir ic al e v id ence f o r th is c o nclu sio n.

In sig h t 1 3. G re a tn ess I s N ot C au se d b y t h e A bse n ce o f W ea kn ess Our d ata r e v eal th at a l a rg e p erc enta ge o f l e ad ers , a p pro xim ate ly 8 4 p erc ent, d o n o t posse ss a ny s e v ere w eakness, a nd y et th ey a re n o t p erc eiv ed a s s tr o ng l e ad ers .

They a re “ b la h.” S ub ord in ate s d o n o t s in gle o ut a ny o ne w eakness a s th e r o ot c ause of th e l e ad er b ein g w eak. I n ste ad , th e c o m bin ati o n o f b ein g i n th e “ m id ra nge” o n a num ber o f d im ensio ns i s th e p atte rn o f th e m ed io cre m anager. I n s u m , th e a b se nce of w eaknesse s c o m bin ed w ith th e a b se nce o f a ny p ro no unced s tr e ngth s c o m mits y o u to b ein g n o b ette r th an a v era ge.

Our r e se arc h s h o w s th at th e s e lf- e v alu ati o n o f m ost l e ad ers i n th is c ate go ry i s hig hly d is to rte d . T hey f e el l ik e th ey a re g o od l e ad ers . P ossib ly b ecause th ey a re n o t re ally b ad a t a ny o ne a re a o f l e ad ers h ip , th ey c o m e to b elie v e th at th ey a re g o od.

But r a th er th an tr y in g to c o nv in ce th em th at th ey a re b ad l e ad ers , w e th in k i t f a r more v alu ab le to h elp th is g ro up s e e w hat th ey c an d o to beco m e o uts ta nd in g i n se v era l a re as, a nd th at w hen th ey d o, th ey w ill i n a ll l ik elih o od b e p erc eiv ed a s hig hly e ffe cti v e l e ad ers .

Our r e se arc h i n d ic ate s th at g o od l e ad ers a re , i n f a ct, p ro ducin g b ette r o utc o m es th an th o se o f l e ad ers w ho a re b ad . G ood i s b ette r th an b ad , b ut n eith er th ey th em se lv es n o r th eir l e ad ers a p pear to r e co gniz e th e s u b sta nti a l c o ntr ib uti o n th ey co uld m ake b y m ovin g f r o m b ein g m ere ly g o od to g re at.

An e xam ple o f th e f o cus m ost e xecuti v es h av e i n f ix in g w eaknesse s w as dem onstr a te d i n th e f o llo w in g c o nsu lti n g e ngagem ent:

37 We c o nd ucte d a n o rg aniz a ti o n-w id e s tu d y to d ete rm in e th e k ey f a cto rs in flu encin g th e s u ccess o f 1 00 f ie ld o ffic es. W e s u b m itte d a r e p ort th at f o und th at th e m ost p ow erfu l f a cto r i n flu encin g th e s u ccess o f f ie ld o ffic es w as th e effe cti v eness o f th e o ffic e m anager. A fte r s tu d yin g th e r e p ort c are fu lly , th e executi v e te am c am e o ut w ith a r e co m mend ati o n to “ fin d th e b ad m anagers a nd f ix th em .” H ow ev er, a fte r f in d in g th e “ b ad ” m anagers , i t w as d ete rm in ed th at th ere were n o t e no ugh o f th em to e xp la in th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s o vera ll p oor p erfo rm ance.

The e xecuti v es c am e b ack d oub ti n g th e v alid ity o f o ur s tu d y. W ith f u rth er a naly sis , ho w ev er, w e c o lle cti v ely c am e to th e c o nclu sio n th at th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s p oor perfo rm ance p ro ble m w as n o t b ecause o f b ad m anagers b ut w as th e r e su lt o f h av in g a l a rg e n um ber o f m ed io cre o nes. T heir p erfo rm ance p ale d i n c o m paris o n w ith th at of th e f e w e xcep ti o nal m anagers , a nd th e k ey to r a is in g th e o vera ll p erfo rm ance o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n w as to h elp f a cilita te th e i m pro vem ent o f th e m ed io cre m anagers to th e l e v el o f th e e xcep ti o nal o nes. G re atn ess i s d riv en b y s tr e ngth s, w ith “ th e m ore th e b ette r” b ein g th e s im ple f a ct.

Chap te r 6 e la b ora te s o n th is i m porta nt i d ea.

In sig h t 1 4. G re a t L ea d ers A re N ot P erc eiv ed a s H avin g M ajo r Wea kn esse s One o f th e c o m mon b its o f f o lk w is d om a b out l e ad ers i s th at g re at l e ad ers h av e gre at s tr e ngth s, b ut th at s tr e ngth s ta ken to o f a r b eco m e w eaknesse s. F urth erm ore , n o one i s p erfe ct, s o g re at l e ad ers m ust h av e h ig hly v is ib le f la w s. W e w ere f u lly exp ecti n g to f in d th at n o ti o n c o nfir m ed b y o ur d ata .

To o ur s u rp ris e , th ere i s n o h in t o f th at. I n ste ad , o ur d ata d esc rib e th e l e ad ers who a re s e en a s h ig hly e ffe cti v e b y th eir s u b ord in ate s a s n o t h av in g f la w s. T heir sc o re s a cro ss a ll c o m pete ncy c ate go rie s w ere r e m ark ab ly s im ila r o n th e h ig h s id e.

Fra nkly , w e w ond ere d i f th ere w as n o t a p erv asiv e h alo e ffe ct th at c ause d p eo ple who a re r e ally e ffe cti v e a t a f e w s k ills to b e p erc eiv ed a s b ein g go od a t e v ery th in g.

We f e ar th e c o nv ers e m ay a ls o b e tr u e: th at l e ad ers w ho a re n o t s e en a s s ta nd in g out o n s e v era l d im ensio ns a re p erc eiv ed a s n o t s ta nd in g o ut o n a ny d im ensio n.

In r e cent d ecad es, o ur p oliti c al l e ad ers h av e s e em ed to d is p la y g re at s tr e ngth s th at a re a cco m panie d b y s e rio us f la w s. ( N ota b le e xam ple s a re R ic hard N ix o n, a nd Bill C lin to n.) W heth er p riv ate - a nd p ub lic -s e cto r l e ad ers r e ally d iffe r f r o m e le cte d le ad ers , o r w heth er th ere i s j u st m ore i n te nse p ub lic s c ru ti n y p la ced o n e le cte d politi c al l e ad ers , i s th e s u b je ct o f a g o od d eal m ore r e se arc h. ( Chap te r 6 c o vers th is .) In sig h t 1 5. F ata l F la w s M ust B e F ix ed Alth o ugh o ur f o cus w ill b e o n d ev elo pin g s tr e ngth s, th ere a re s o m e c ir c um sta nces when a f o cus o n w eaknesse s i s w arra nte d . T his o fte n h ap pens w hen th e n atu re o f th e w eakness j e o pard iz e s th e c ente r p ole o f th e “ le ad ers h ip te nt” : c hara cte r. I f a pers o n i s n o t h o no ra b le , d oes n o t k eep p ro m is e s, d oes n o t te ll th e tr u th to p eo ple , 38 or i f th is p ers o n p la ces p ers o nal g ain a b ove th e n eed s o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n, th at f la w will c ause th e p ers o n to b e i n effe cti v e.

There a re o th er “ fa ta l f la w s.” T hese b egin w ith a n i n ab ility to l e arn f r o m mis ta kes a nd i n clu d e p oor i n te rp ers o nal s k ills , u nw illin gness to a ccep t n ew i d eas, la ck o f a cco unta b ility , a nd a l a ck o f i n iti a ti v e.

Chap te r 7 c o vers th is .

In sig h t 1 6. L ea d ersh ip A ttr ib ute s A re O fte n D evelo p ed in Non ob vio u s W ays Our r e se arc h h as h elp ed u s u nco ver a n ew a p pro ach to b ehav io ra l c hange th at w e hav e a rb itr a rily c alle d n o nlin ear d ev elo pm ent. W e w ill a rg ue th at th e v ast m ajo rity of a cti o n p la ns c re ate d b y l e ad ers u se a l in ear p hilo so phy r e gard in g b ehav io ra l change. B ut, th e p erc ep ti o n o f c o m pete ncy m ay b e s tr e ngth ened i n n o no bvio us ways. W e w ill a rg ue th at c o m pete ncie s a re n o t r e ality b ut a re th e p erc ep ti o ns o f oth ers a b out a g iv en l e ad er. T here m ay b e n o no bvio us w ays to i m pro ve h o w le ad ers a re p erc eiv ed . W e h av e c alle d th ese “ co m pete ncy c o m panio ns,” a nd th ese are b ehav io rs th at a lw ays r is e o r f a ll w ith a no th er c o m pete ncy. A lth o ugh i t i s im possib le to p ro ve c ause a nd e ffe ct b etw een th e tw o, th e f a ct th at th ey a re l a ced so ti g htl y to geth er s u ggests th at s o m eth in g i m porta nt c an b e l e arn ed f r o m th em .

The p ra cti c al i m plic ati o ns o f th is a re h uge. F or e xam ple , a ssu m e th at a l e ad er i n an o rg aniz a ti o n r e ceiv es th e f o llo w in g f e ed back: “ Y our s u b ord in ate s d o n o t s e e yo u a s h ig hly m oti v ati o nal o r i n sp ir a ti o nal. T hey d o n o t f e el e nerg iz e d a fte r th ey in te ra ct w ith y o u. T hey d o n o t f e el th at th eir h o riz o ns a re e xp and ed a fte r m eeti n g with y o u.” The c o m mon a nd s e em in gly p ra cti c al w ay to a d dre ss th is m essa ge a nd c hange th ese p erc ep ti o ns w ould b e to d o th e f o llo w in g:

• E nro ll i n a p ub lic -s p eakin g c o urs e to l e arn h o w to b e m ore c o m pellin g i n pre se nta ti o ns.

• R ead g o od te xts o r a rti c le s o n h um an m oti v ati o n.

• D elib era te ly d is p la y m ore e nth usia sm b y s p eakin g l o ud er a nd m ore r a p id ly , and w ith m ore g estu re s.

• A tte nd m oti v ati o nal s e m in ars w here p ro m in ent, n ati o nally k no w n m oti v ati o nal sp eakers te am u p to p re se nt th eir m essa ges. Y our h o pe w ould b e to g et g o od co nte nt a nd a ls o l e arn f r o m th eir s ty le o f p re se nta ti o n.

Our r e se arc h, h o w ev er, o n th e c o m pete ncy c o m panio n “ in sp ir e s a nd m oti v ate s oth ers ” r e v eals s o m e d iffe re nt w ays to i m pro ve p eo ple ’s p erc ep ti o ns o n th is co m pete ncy. W hen p eo ple s c o re h ig h o n “ in sp ir e s a nd m oti v ate s o th ers ,” th ey a ls o re ceiv e h ig h s c o re s o n “ co m munic ati n g c le ar e xp ecta ti o ns.” A nd w hen p eo ple re ceiv e l o w s c o re s o n “ in sp ir in g a nd m oti v ati n g o th ers ,” th ey r e ceiv e l o w s c o re s on “ co m munic ati n g c le ar e xp ecta ti o ns.” T here i s o bvio usly s o m eth in g a b out b ein g 39 cle ar th at i s c lo se ly l in ked w ith p eo ple f e elin g m oti v ate d a nd i n sp ir e d . S o, managers w ho r e ceiv e th is f e ed back m ig ht w ant to w ork h ard a t b ein g e xtr e m ely cle ar a b out th e e xp ecta ti o ns th ey c o nv ey to o th ers . F urth er, th ey m ay w ant to c heck with o th ers p erio dic ally to s e e i f th eir m essa ge i s c o m in g a cro ss w ith s im plic ity and c la rity . A m anager c o uld a sk q uesti o ns s u ch a s, “ Is th ere a nyth in g th at i s n o t cle ar a b out th is r e q uest? ” “ W ould i t h elp i f w e w ent o ver th is p ro je ct d esc rip ti o n one m ore ti m e?” Ano th er s o m ew hat n o nin tu iti v e c o m pete ncy c o m panio n i s th e p ra cti c e o f “cre ati n g a l e arn in g e nv ir o nm ent.” L ead ers w ho f ig ure o ut w ays f o r th eir co lle agues to d is c o ver f o r th em se lv es h o w i m porta nt s o m eth in g i s , o r to h av e co lle agues d ete rm in e f o r th em se lv es th e b est w ay o f d oin g s o m eth in g, a re th e le ad ers d esc rib ed a s m ost m oti v ati o nal a nd i n sp ir a ti o nal. S o, r a th er th an g iv e an im passio ned “ lo cker-ro om ” s p eech to y o ur te am a b out th e i m porta nce o f b ette r custo m er s e rv ic e, a m ore e ffe cti v e a p pro ach c o uld b e to a sk y o ur te am m em bers to lis te n i n to c usto m er c o m pla in t c alls o r to c all 1 0 c usto m ers w ho h ad c ease d purc hasin g f r o m y o ur f ir m . T hat te chniq ue c o uld b e f a r m ore “ m oti v ati o nal” th an any s p eech d eliv ere d .

Ano th er n o no bvio us c o m pete ncy c o m panio n i s th e p ra cti c e th at s o m e l e ad ers hav e o f s e tti n g e xtr e m ely h ig h s ta nd ard s a nd s tr e tc h g o als . S om e p eo ple m ig ht assu m e th at l e ad ers i n sp ir e a nd m oti v ate th eir tr o ops, a nd h av in g d one th at, th en f a il to p re se nt to th em a c halle ngin g g o al. T hey m ig ht a ssu m e th at p ro perly m oti v ate d peo ple w ill f ig ure o ut th e g o al f o r th em se lv es. O ur r e se arc h, h o w ev er, s u ggests th at th e v ery p ro cess o f s e tti n g a s tr e tc h g o al i s m oti v ati n g a nd i n sp ir in g f o r th e re cip ie nt.

Our m essa ge i s n o t th at r e ad in g a b ook o n m oti v ati o n, o r ta kin g a c la ss i n p ub lic sp eakin g, o r d elib era te ly s h o w in g m ore e nerg y a nd e nth usia sm i s a b ad th in g to d o.

In ste ad , th e m essa ge i s th at m any b ehav io rs a nd p ra cti c es c o m e to geth er to c re ate th e p erc ep ti o n o n th e p art o f s u b ord in ate s th at th eir l e ad er i s m oti v ati o nal a nd in sp ir a ti o nal. U nd ers ta nd in g th e c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns g iv es th e l e ad er ad diti o nal w ays to i m pro ve th at p erc ep ti o n. I t a p pears th at th e m ore o f th ese a le ad er d is p la ys, th e m ore l ik ely th e l e ad er i s to b e p erc eiv ed a s a h ig hly e ffe cti v e “m oti v ato r a nd i n sp ir e r” o f o th ers .

The m ore l in ear, “ hit- it- s tr a ig ht- o n” d ev elo pm ent s e em s b est g eare d f o r m ovin g peo ple f r o m b ad to n eutr a l. I t m ay a ls o b e o f s o m e h elp i n m ovin g p eo ple f r o m neutr a l to th e “ go od” r a nge. T he c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns s e em e sp ecia lly h elp fu l fo r th o se w ho d esir e to m ove f r o m “ go od” to “ gre at” o r “ extr a o rd in ary .” T hey o pen up m any n ew d oors f o r d ev elo pm ent. S om e w ould p erc eiv e th ese a s s id e d oors , mayb e e v en b ack d oors . B ut f o r th o se w ho h av e d iffic ulty i n f o llo w in g th e tr a d iti o nal, l in ear d ev elo pm ent p ro cess, w e b elie v e th at c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns pro vid e e xciti n g n ew p ath s to e xp lo re .

Chap te r 8 e la b ora te s o n th is i d ea a nd g iv es exam ple s o f c o m pete ncy c o m panio ns f o r e ach o f th e 1 6 c o m pete ncie s th at m ake a 40 diffe re nce.

In sig h t 1 7. L ea d ers A re M ad e, N ot B orn This c o ntr o vers y c o nti n ues. T he q uesti o n h as n o t g o ne a w ay. W e a tte st th at l e ad ers are m ad e. A lth o ugh th is i s c erta in ly n o t a n ew p oin t o f v ie w , w e g o o n r e co rd decla rin g th is to b e a f a ct. W e c o nte nd th at s tr o ng e v id ence e xis ts to s u p port th is co nclu sio n. W e r e ad ily a ckno w le d ge th at s o m e p eo ple s ta rt with a d vanta ges o f in te lle ct o r p ers o nality , b ut th e c ase f o r l e ad ers b ein g m ad e c an b e c o nfir m ed b y fin d in g j u st o ne o rg aniz a ti o n th at d oes i t s u ccessfu lly .

Chap te r 9 p re se nts a c ase s tu d y o f a n o rg aniz a ti o n th at m any c o nsid er th e ep ito m e o f e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent. T he U .S . M arin e C orp s h as f o r th e past 2 26 y ears b een d ev elo pin g l e ad ers . W e p re se nt th e a rg um ent th at f r o m th eir lo ng e xp erie nce, th ey h av e a d opte d m any p ra cti c es th at a re o nly n o w b ein g co nfir m ed b y r e se arc h.

In sig h t 1 8. L ea d ers C an I m pro ve T heir L ea d ersh ip E ffe ctiv en ess Thro u gh S elf -D evelo p m en t Fin ally , i n Chap te r 1 0 w e d is c uss th e i m plic ati o ns o f o ur r e se arc h to l e ad ers h ip dev elo pm ent u nd erta ken b y th e i n d iv id ual. T hese i d eas a p ply to a ny p eo ple i n le ad ers h ip p ositi o ns w ho d esir e to i m pro ve th eir o w n l e ad ers h ip s k ills a nd effe cti v eness.

A r e la ti v ely s m all f r a cti o n, a p pro xim ate ly 1 0 p erc ent o f l e ad ers , h av e a pers o nal d ev elo pm ent p la n to w hic h th ey g iv e r e gula r a tte nti o n. T w ic e th at n um ber hav e s o m eth in g o n p ap er, b ut o ne h alf o f th o se a re n o t d oin g a nyth in g to f o llo w u p on th eir d ev elo pm ent.

In sig h t 1 9. T he O rg an iz a tio n , w it h a P erso n ’s I m med ia te B oss, Pro vid es S ig n if ic a n t A ssis ta n ce in D evelo p in g L ea d ersh ip In Chap te r 1 2 , w e p re se nt s o m e i d eas a b out h o w a ny c o rp ora ti o n o r p ub lic a gency co uld i n co rp ora te th ese i d eas i n to th eir o w n l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent o ffe rin gs.

In sig h t 2 0. T he Q ualit y o f L ea d ersh ip in a n O rg an iz a tio n S eld om Exceed s T hat o f t h e P erso n a t t h e T op In a naly zin g o ur m any s e ts o f d ata c o lle cte d f r o m m ulti p le o rg aniz a ti o ns, w e obse rv ed th at th e s c o re s o f l e ad ers i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n r a re ly e xceed ed th e s c o re s o f th e m ost s e nio r l e ad er. T hat p ers o n w as th e c ap o n l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. S ee Chap te r 1 2 a nd Chap te r 2 f o r f u rth er a naly sis o f th is o bse rv ati o n.

41 Con clu sio n Lead ers h ip h as b een s h ro ud ed w ith a “ w oo-w oo” q uality th at d riv es o ur d esir e to make l e ss m yste rio us s o m eth in g th at h as s e em ed s o h o pele ssly b afflin g. O bvio usly , many m ore b ooks o n l e ad ers h ip w ill b e w ritte n. W e h o pe o ur r e se arc h w ill h elp to push th e s tu d y a nd u nd ers ta nd in g o f l e ad ers h ip a ttr ib ute s a nd l e ad ers h ip dev elo pm ent to th e n ext r u ng o n th e l a d der b y r e m ovin g s o m e o f th at m yste ry .

42 2 GREA T L EA D ER S M AK E A G REA T DIF FE R EN CE Good i s th e e nem y o f e xcelle nce.

Lead ers h ip i s th e c halle nge to b e s o m eth in g m ore th an a v era ge.

—Jim R ohn G ood a n d B ad L ea d ers I n o ur r e se arc h, w e f o und c o nclu siv e e v id ence th at l e ad ers w ith p oor l e ad ers h ip s k ills g enera te p oor r e su lts . T hat f in d in g w ill n o t c o m e a s a s h o ck to a nyo ne. I t i s q uite i n tu iti v e to a nyo ne w ho h as w ork ed i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n f o r m ore th an a f e w w eeks. A nd o ur r e se arc h i s e q ually c le ar a b out th e f a ct th at g o od l e ad ers te nd to p ro duce g o od r e su lts f o r th eir o rg aniz a ti o ns.

What’ s m ore , m ost i n d iv id uals d o n o t n eed s o phis ti c ate d m easu re m ent to ols to t e ll th e d iffe re nce b etw een g o od l e ad ers a nd b ad l e ad ers . T hey f e el th e d iffe re nce.

T hey h av e e xp erie nced th e e ffe cts a t a v ery p ers o nal l e v el. I n g enera l, g o od l e ad ers a re m ore e ffe cti v e th an b ad l e ad ers i n a lm ost e v ery d im ensio n, i n clu d in g i m pro vin g p ro ducti v ity , r e d ucin g tu rn o ver, e nhancin g c usto m er s e rv ic e, a nd c re ati n g h ig h l e v els o f e m plo yee c o m mitm ent.

G rea t V ersu s G ood L ea d ers O ur r e se arc h, h o w ev er, s h o w s th at th ere i s a no th er, e v en m ore d ra m ati c , l e v el o f d iffe re nce b etw een g o od a nd e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers . T his i s th e c entr a l th em e o f th is c hap te r a nd a m ajo r s u rp ris e f in d in g o f o ur r e se arc h. W e h ad f a ile d to a p pre cia te f u lly j u st w hat a s ig nific ant d iffe re nce th ere i s b etw een “ o rd in ary ” a nd “ extr a o rd in ary .” In e xam in in g th e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd d esir a b le o utc o m es, th e c o nsis te nt f in d in g i n a ll o ur r e se arc h w as th e i m pact o f th e b est a nd w ors t l e ad ers o n a chie v in g b otto m -lin e r e su lts .

Fig ure 2 -1 i s o la te s th e r e su lts o n a n e m plo yee s a ti s fa cti o n/c o m mitm ent m easu re ( h ig h s c o re s i n d ic ate g re ate r s a ti s fa cti o n/c o m mitm ent) b y th e r e su lts o f i n d iv id ual l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness 43 bro ken i n to 1 0 l e v els . E ach l e v el r e p re se nts 1 0 p erc enti le p oin ts o n th e l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness m easu re . T he l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness m easu re i s th e o vera ll a v era ge sc o re f r o m th e 1 6 d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s. T his i s a n a ggre gate s tu d y co m pose d o f h und re d s o f d iffe re nt c o m panie s a nd 7 ,3 91 l e ad ers . N ote th e d ra m ati c change i n v olv in g l e ad ers a t b oth th e to p a nd b otto m o f th e r a nkin gs.

The c hara cte ris ti c s o f th e g ra p h i n Fig ure 2 -1 a re e xtr e m ely s ig nific ant i n desc rib in g th e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd b otto m -lin e outc o m es. W e s e e p oor r e su lts a t th e l o w er d ecile s, s u b sta nti a lly m ore p ositi v e re su lts a t th e h ig her d ecile s, a nd f la t r e su lts i n th e m id dle . T his g ra p h p re se nts se v era l i m porta nt f in d in gs:

1. L ead ers h av e a d ra m ati c i m pact a s th ey m ove f r o m “ b ad ” to “ go od.” 2. P oor l e ad ers h av e a n a d vers e i m pact o n th e g ro up s th ey a tte m pt to l e ad .

Fig ure 2 -1 E m plo yee S ati s fa cti o n/C om mitm ent 3. T he i m porta nt c hara cte ris ti c o f th e m id dle d ecile s i s th at r e su lts r e m ain re la ti v ely c o nsis te nt f r o m th e 3 0th to th e 7 0th p erc enti le s. M akin g s m all, in cre m enta l i m pro vem ents i n l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness f o r a l e ad er a t th e 5 0th perc enti le i s c le arly n o t g o in g to h av e m uch i m pact o n e m plo yee c o m mitm ent.

4. T o a chie v e th e n ext l e v el o f i m pact o n e m plo yee c o m mitm ent, a l e ad er w ould hav e to m ove to th e 7 0th , 8 0th , o r 9 0th p erc enti le . T he r e su lts o f s e v era l o th er stu d ie s d em onstr a te th e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd ad diti o nal d esir a b le o utc o m es.

Im pact o n N et P ro fit s a t a M ortg age B an k Fro m m easu re s o n s u b ord in ate c o m mitm ent to th e o rg aniz a ti o n, w e n o w tu rn to measu re s o f f in ancia l p erfo rm ance. A t a m ortg age b ank, w e c o lle cte d d ata o n i ts 44 measu re o f p ro fita b ility , o r n et p ro fits , f o r a s e rie s o f l e ad ers .

Fig ure 2 -2 s h o w s th e re su lts o f o ur s tu d y.

Fig ure 2 -2 N et P ro fit What w e f o und i n th is s tu d y w as th at th e p oor l e ad ers a ctu ally l o st m oney f o r th e co m pany. T heir p erfo rm ance w as s o i n effe cti v e th at i t a p peare d to d riv e c usto m ers aw ay. T he g o od l e ad ers , o n th e o th er h and , m ad e a r e aso nab le p ro fit f o r th e co m pany. T heir p erfo rm ance, c o m pare d w ith th at o f th e b ad l e ad ers , r e p re se nte d a su b sta nti a l c hange. H ow ev er, th e e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers n early d oub le d th e p ro fit genera te d f o r th e c o m pany b y th e g o od l e ad ers . I m agin e th e i m pact o f tr a nsiti o nin g 10 o r 2 0 p erc ent o f l e ad ers f r o m th e “ go od” to th e “ extr a o rd in ary ” c ate go ry . I t would a d d 1 0 to 2 0 p erc ent to th e b otto m l in e o f th e e nti r e c o m pany.

In a r e la te d s tu d y, R ucci, K im , a nd Q uin n f o und w hat th ey c alle d “ th e e m plo yee- custo m er-p ro fit c hain ” a t S ears .

1 T heir s tu d y f o und th at e m plo yee b ehav io rs affe cte d c usto m er b ehav io rs , w hic h i n tu rn a ffe cte d c o m pany f in ancia l perfo rm ance. W hen c usto m ers e nte r a s to re w here e m plo yees a re f r u str a te d a nd unm oti v ate d , i t a ffe cts th eir b uyin g h ab its a nd th eir w illin gness to r e tu rn a nd purc hase m ore i te m s. P le asa nt, c o nsid era te , a nd k no w le d geab le s a le s a sso cia te s had a p ositi v e e ffe ct o n c usto m ers . T hese s a le s a sso cia te s e nco ura ged c usto m ers to buy m ore a nd to c o m e b ack. I n th eir r e se arc h, R ucci e t a l. f o und th at a f iv e-p oin t im pro vem ent i n e m plo yee a tti tu d es r e su lte d i n a 1 .3 p erc ent i m pro vem ent i n custo m er s a ti s fa cti o n, w hic h i n tu rn i n cre ase d r e v enue g ro w th 0 .5 p erc ent.

The i m plic ati o ns o f o ur r e se arc h a re th at a no th er l in k n eed s to b e a d ded to th e 45 chain ; f o r e xam ple , i t s h o uld b e “ th e l e ad ers -e m plo yee-c usto m er-p ro fit c hain .” Fig ure 2 -1 s h o w ed th e i m pact th at l e ad ers h av e o n e m plo yee c o m mitm ent a nd sa ti s fa cti o n, w hic h u lti m ate ly tr a nsla te s i n to th e d ir e ct i m pact o f l e ad ers o n pro fita b ility .

The n ew c hain o f c ause -a nd -e ffe ct e v ents i s Lead ers E m plo yees C usto m ers S to re P ro fits One s h o uld a ls o k eep i n m in d th at th e a d diti o nal i n sig ht th is r e se arc h a d ds to th e pro fit c hain o f e v ents i s th at g re at l e ad ers h av e e v en m ore i m pact o n e m plo yees, who a ffe ct c usto m ers a nd th ere fo re c re ate e v en g re ate r p ro fits f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

Im pact o n T urn over a t a n I n su ra n ce C om pan y Turn o ver c o sts c o m panie s m illio ns o f d olla rs e v ery y ear. J o hn S ulliv an, c hie f ta le nt o ffic er a t A gile nt T echno lo gie s i n P alo A lto , C alifo rn ia , p ut th e c o st o f tu rn o ver f o r a s o ftw are e ngin eer a t $ 200,0 00 to $ 250,0 00 p er d ep arti n g em plo yee.

He w ent o n to s a y th at, “ O ne f ir m I w ork w ith j u st c alc ula te d th e c o st o f a n e ngin eer vacancy i n l o st r e v enue a t $ 7,0 00 p er d ay.” 2 A lth o ugh th ere a re m any r e aso ns f o r tu rn o ver, o ur r e se arc h c o nsis te ntl y b ears o ut th at th e r e la ti o nsh ip a n e m plo yee h as with h is o r h er m anager s u b sta nti a lly i n flu ences th e e m plo yee’s d ecis io n to s ta y with a c o m pany o r m ove o n.

Fig ure 2 -3 s h o w s th e r e su lts f r o m a s tu d y c o nd ucte d a t a l a rg e i n su ra nce co m pany. L ead ers h ip e ffe cti v eness w as d ete rm in ed a nd m atc hed u p w ith y early tu rn o ver r a te s w ith in e ach l e ad er’s g ro up . I n th is s tu d y, h ig her tu rn o ver ( 1 9 p erc ent per y ear) w as c re ate d b y l e ad ers i n th e b otto m th ir d i n te rm s o f th eir l e ad ers h ip ab ility a s s e en b y th eir s u b ord in ate s a nd p eers . T hese l e ad ers p re su m ab ly d id no th in g to f o rc e p eo ple to l e av e, b ut th eir s ty le a nd a p pro ach d id n o t e nco ura ge th em to s ta y. B ette r a chie v em ent c am e f r o m g o od l e ad ers , w ho e xp erie nced 1 4 perc ent tu rn o ver. H ow ev er, e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers c ut th e a v era ge tu rn o ver r a te i n th eir g ro up s b y a no th er 5 p erc ent. R ed uced tu rn o ver h ad a d ir e ct i m pact o n pro fita b ility , c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n, a nd c la im -re so lu ti o n s p eed .

46 Fig ure 2 -3 T urn o ver P erc ent In te n tio n t o L ea ve t h e O rg an iz a tio n In a no th er s tu d y c o nd ucte d w ith o ver 7 ,0 00 l e ad ers f r o m h und re d s o f d iffe re nt org aniz a ti o ns, w e l o oked a t th e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd in te nti o n to s ta y w ith o r l e av e th e c o m pany.

(T hese r e su lts w ere e xtr e m ely c o nsis te nt w ith a n o rg aniz a ti o n’s a ctu al tu rn o ver data . I n m ost o rg aniz a ti o ns, a ctu al tu rn o ver i s a b out o ne-h alf o f th e i n te nti o n to le av e r e su lts . I n o th er w ord s, i f 5 0% o f e m plo yees i n te nd to l e av e, tu rn o ver i s ty p ic ally 2 5% .) I n th is s tu d y, h ig h s c o re s i n d ic ate d a g re ate r i n te nti o n to l e av e, where as l o w s c o re s i n d ic ate d a g re ate r i n te nti o n to s ta y. A s i s a p pare nt f r o m Fig ure 2 -4 , th e e m plo yees o f th e e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers w ere s ig nific antl y m ore co m mitte d to s ta y w ith th e c o m pany. T he i n te nti o n to s ta y th en tr a nsla te s i n to l o w er tu rn o ver f o r th o se w ho w ork w ith th e b est l e ad ers .

Im pact o n C usto m er S atis fa ctio n In a s tu d y d one w ith a h ig h-te ch c o m munic ati o ns c o m pany, w e l o oked a t th e re la ti o nsh ip b etw een l e ad ers h ip a b ility a nd c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n ( Fig ure 2 -5 ).

Once a gain , e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers h av e s u b sta nti a lly b ette r r a ti n gs o n 47 Fig ure 2 -4 I n te nti o n to L eav e th e C om pany Fig ure 2 -5 R ati n gs o f C usto m er S ati s fa cti o n custo m er s a ti s fa cti o n. I n th is s tu d y, h ig h s c o re s i n d ic ate h ig her c usto m er sa ti s fa cti o n. A gain , w e a ssu m e th at th e l e ad er d oes n o t h av e d ir e ct c o nta ct w ith most c usto m ers , b ut i t i s th e l e ad er’s i n flu ence o n th e l e v el o f c o m mitm ent o f th e fr o nt- lin e e m plo yees th at m akes th e d ra m ati c d iffe re nces i n c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n.

In a r e la te d s tu d y c o nd ucte d b y o ur c o lle ague L arry S enn, h e w as a sk ed b y a re ta il c lie nt to c hange th e b ehav io r o f s to re e m plo yees to b e m ore c usto m er s e rv ic e 48 orie nte d . T he c o m pany b egan a n i n te nsiv e p ro gra m a im ed a t c hangin g th e b ehav io r of s to re e m plo yees. A fte r m onth s o f w ork , i t b ecam e a p pare nt th at s o m e s to re s were b ein g s u ccessfu l i n c re ati n g a m ore c usto m er-fr ie nd ly a tm osp here , w here as oth er s to re s w ere n o t. E m plo yees i n b oth th e s u ccessfu l a nd u nsu ccessfu l s to re s h ad re ceiv ed th e s a m e tr a in in g, a nd th e e m plo yees d id n o t a p pear to b e a ny l e ss c ap ab le or e xp erie nced i n u nsu ccessfu l s to re s. A s th e r e se arc hers s tu d ie d th e u nsu ccessfu l sto re s to u nd ers ta nd th e r e aso n f o r th eir f a ilu re , th ey f o und th at m anagers i n unsu ccessfu l s to re s te nd ed to b e o pera ti o nally o rie nte d , w here as s u ccessfu l s to re managers w ere c usto m er o rie nte d . T he o pera ti o nally o rie nte d s to re m anagers re in fo rc ed th e i m porta nce o f tr a ckin g m oney a nd ti m e. C usto m er-o rie nte d s to re managers , on th e o th er h and , r e in fo rc ed th e i m porta nce o f c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n.

Afte r g o in g th ro ugh th e e xp erie nce, th e r e se arc hers c am e to th e c o nclu sio n th at effo rts to c hange e m plo yee b ehav io r h ad to s ta rt b y m akin g s u re th at th eir managers ’ b ehav io rs w ere i n a lig nm ent.

3 Im pact o n P erc en ta ge o f H ig h ly C om mit te d E m plo yees We p erfo rm ed a s tu d y l o okin g a t th e p erc enta ge o f h ig hly c o m mitte d e m plo yees i n a work g ro up . E ach p ers o n w ho d ir e ctl y r e p orte d to a l e ad er w as a sk ed th e e xte nt to whic h th ey f e lt th at th e w ork e nv ir o nm ent w as a p la ce w here p eo ple w ante d to g o th e e xtr a m ile . W e s e le cte d o nly th o se e m plo yees w ho a nsw ere d “ 5 ” o n a 5 -p oin t sc ale . T his i s th e k in d o f e m plo yee th at i s e nth usia sti c a b out th e j o b. H e o r s h e i s excite d to ta ke o n c halle ngin g a ssig nm ents a nd w ill d o w hate v er i s n ecessa ry to g et pro je cts c o m ple te d o n ti m e a nd i n b ud get. E very l e ad er c an i d enti fy a f e w em plo yees th at f it th at d esc rip ti o n. W hat w ould b e th e i m pact o f h av in g m ore o f th is kin d o f e m plo yee o n th e s u ccess o f a ny w ork g ro up ? P ro ducti v ity w ould i n cre ase , mora le w ould b e h ig her, p ro je cts w ould g et d one f a ste r, a nd n o d oub t p ro fita b ility would a ls o g o u p . W hat i m pact d o th ese e m plo yees h av e o n o th er e m plo yees?

When p eo ple a re w alk in g o r r u nnin g a nd s o m eo ne p asse s th em , w hat d o th ey te nd to d o? M ost p eo ple te nd to s p eed u p . I t i s a lm ost a n a uto m ati c r e sp onse . I n w ork gro up s, w hen a h ig h p erc enta ge o f e m plo yees a re h ig hly c o m mitte d a nd g iv in g th eir best e ffo rt, th e r e m ain d er o f th e g ro up i s u su ally n o t f a r b ehin d .

Fig ure 2 -6 s h o w s th e p erc enta ge o f h ig hly c o m mitte d e m plo yees b ase d o n aggre gate d r e su lts f o r h und re d s o f o rg aniz a ti o ns. O nce a gain , l e ad ers h ip effe cti v eness i s b ro ken i n to 1 0 l e v els .

It i s i n te re sti n g th at 1 3% o f th e e m plo yees o f th e w ors t l e ad ers a re h ig hly co m mitte d . E vid entl y , th at i s w hat n atu re p ro duces. A s y o u l o ok a t th e c hart, y o u will n o te a s te ad y i n cre ase i n th e p erc enta ge o f h ig hly c o m mitte d e m plo yees w ith th e i n cre ase i n l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness: 4 3% o f th e e m plo yees o f l e ad ers a t th e 80th p erc enti le a re h ig hly c o m mitte d , a nd 5 7% o f e m plo yees o f l e ad ers a t th e 9 0th perc enti le a re h ig hly c o m mitte d . I f y o u w ere a l e ad er o f a w ork g ro up w here 4 0% to 5 0% o f y o ur e m plo yees w ere h ig hly c o m mitte d , w ould i t h av e a s ig nific ant 49 im pact o n th e b otto m l in e? W hen w e h av e a sk ed th at q uesti o n to l e ad ers a ro und th e world , th e a nsw er w as a lw ays a r e so und in g “ Y es.” Fig ure 2 -6 P erc enta ge o f H ig hly C om mitte d E m plo yees Lea d ersh ip H as a n I m pact o n t h e B otto m L in e Our p urp ose i n p re se nti n g th ese s tu d ie s i s to i m pre ss o n th e r e ad er th at th e i m pact of l e ad ers h ip :

• A ffe cts e v ery m easu ra b le d im ensio n o f o rg aniz a ti o n p erfo rm ance • I s l a rg e, n o t tr iv ia l • I s e xtr e m ely c o nsis te nt • H as h ig hly i n te rre la te d a re as o f i m pact Poor l e ad ers h av e a s u b sta nti a l i n flu ence o n a n o rg aniz a ti o n’s s u ccess. T hey co nsis te ntl y a chie v e l e ss e ffe cti v e r e su lts , c re ate g re ate r tu rn o ver, d is c o ura ge em plo yees, a nd f r u str a te c usto m ers . G ood l e ad ers w ill a chie v e g o od r e su lts . A go od l e ad er w ill h av e l o w er tu rn o ver, h ig her p ro fita b ility , a nd m ore e m plo yee co m mitm ent.

In cre m enta l i m pro vem ents i n g o od l e ad ers w ill n o t, h o w ev er, s h o w u p i n im pro ved b otto m -lin e r e su lts . T he n ext j u m p d oes n o t o ccur u nti l th e 7 0th , 8 0th , o r 90th p erc enti le . E xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers w ill c o nsis te ntl y a chie v e r e su lts th at f a r exceed th o se o f th e g o od l e ad ers . T hey w ill c re ate e v en l e ss tu rn o ver, m oti v ate em plo yees to a m uch h ig her d egre e, a nd s a ti s fy c usto m ers to a m uch h ig her l e v el.

50 These s tu d ie s c le arly d em onstr a te th e s ig nific ant d iffe re nce a n e xtr a o rd in ary le ad er m akes o n b otto m -lin e r e su lts a nd c o nfir m th at i f l e ad ers c an m ove f r o m th e “go od” l e v el to th e “ extr a o rd in ary ” l e v el a t a r e aso nab le c o st to th e o rg aniz a ti o n, th e r e tu rn o n th at i n v estm ent w ill b e s u b sta nti a l.

Jim C ollin s c o nd ucte d f a sc in ati n g r e se arc h i n w hic h h e a nd h is r e se arc h te am exam in ed r e su lts f r o m 1 ,4 35 c o m panie s f r o m 1 965 to 1 995. T his r e se arc h f o und 1 1 co m panie s th at m ad e s ig nific ant tr a nsfo rm ati o ns f r o m “ go od to g re at.” T he 1 1 co m panie s h ad a n a v era ge s to ck r e tu rn 6 .9 ti m es h ig her th an th at o f th e g enera l mark et. T hese c o m panie s h eld th at r a te f o r 1 5 y ears a fte r th e p oin t o f tr a nsiti o n. I n lo okin g a t a v arie ty o f v aria b le s a b out th e c ause o f th is s u ccess, C ollin s g av e sp ecific i n str u cti o ns to r e se arc hers to d ow np la y th e r o le o f s e nio r e xecuti v es.

Collin s’ r e se arc hers l o oked a t e v ery p ossib le v aria b le th at m ig ht a ffe ct th e s u ccess of e ach c o m pany. O ver ti m e, h is r e se arc hers f o und th at th ey c o uld n o t i g no re th e co ntr ib uti o ns o f s e nio r e xecuti v es. C ollin s i n d ic ate d th at “ T here w as s o m eth in g co nsis te ntl y u nusu al a b out th em .” C ollin s a nd h is r e se arc h te am f o und th at a ll 1 1 co m panie s c o nsis te ntl y h ad a l e ad er w ho m th ey l a b ele d a “ L ev el 5 e xecuti v e.” “L ev el 5 e xecuti v es b uilt e nd urin g g re atn ess th ro ugh a p ara d oxic al c o m bin ati o n o f pers o nal h um ility p lu s p ro fe ssio nal w ill.” T he l e ad ers h ip w as n o t th e o nly f a cto r th at d iffe re nti a te d th e 1 1 c o m panie s, b ut i t w as o ne o f th e c riti c al v aria b le s. T he re se arc hers i d enti fie d f iv e o th er f a cto rs , b ut e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip p la ys a c riti c al ro le i n th e e xecuti o n o f e ach o ne.

4 Is “ G ood ” G ood E nou gh ?

Tho ugh th e r e su lts f o r e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers a re m uch b ette r th an th o se f o r p oor le ad ers , th e c urre nt p ro ble m i s th at to o m any g o od l e ad ers f e el th at b ein g “ go od” i s go od e no ugh. T hey a re s a ti s fie d th at th ey a re n o t p oor l e ad ers a nd , th ere fo re , re m ain u nchalle nged to g o to th e n ext l e v el. M any o f th ese g o od l e ad ers d o n o t re co gniz e th at c o nti n ued i m pro vem ent i n l e ad ers h ip w ould m ake a s u b sta nti a l diffe re nce i n th e o utc o m es th ey a re a tte m pti n g to p ro duce. M any “ ad eq uate ” l e ad ers sta y w here th ey a re b ecause th ey f a il to u nd ers ta nd th e d iffe re nces b etw een g o od and e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers .

What C au se s G ood L ea d ers t o B e U nch alle n ged t o Chan ge?

1. W hen y o u m enti o n th at th ere i s a l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness p ro ble m , m any peo ple a uto m ati c ally b elie v e th at th e p ro ble m i s p oor l e ad ers . T here e xis ts a 51 natu ra l h um an te nd ency to b la m e p ro ble m s o n l o w p erfo rm ers . W e l ik e to assig n a s c ap ego at a s th e s o urc e o f a ny p ro ble m s. T his c an tu rn i n to w itc h hunts f o r th e “ b ad ” l e ad ers . F re q uentl y , m any o f th e “ b ad ” l e ad ers a re n ew , in exp erie nced s u p erv is o rs w ho n eed ti m e a nd tr a in in g to d ev elo p. I t i s m ore te m pti n g to f e rre t o ut th e b ad l e ad ers th an to f a ce a d iffe re nt r e ality . T his tr o ub lin g te nd ency w as m ost a p tl y e xp re sse d b y W alt K elly ’s c o m ic s tr ip chara cte r P ogo w hen h e o fte n o bse rv ed , “ W e h av e m et th e e nem y a nd h e i s us.” 5 Bla m in g b ad l e ad ers i s a s im ple s o lu ti o n. I t i s m uch m ore d iffic ult to accep t th at th e p ro ble m w ith l e ad ers h ip i s th e n eed f o r e v ery o ne to u nd erta ke so m e l e v el o f i m pro vem ent. T ho se w ho a re g o od c o uld h av e a s u b sta nti a l positi v e i m pact o n th e o rg aniz a ti o n i f th ey m oved f r o m g o od to g re at. I n th e year 1 999, J o hn T ho rn to n, c o -p re sid ent a nd C O O o f G old m an S achs, anno unced to 5 00 to p e xecuti v es o f th e f ir m , “ W e’re n o t a s g o od a s w e n eed to b e.” T heir p erfo rm ance a p pra is a ls a nd p eer f e ed back p ro cesse s s h o w ed se rio us d efic ie ncie s i n p eo ple -m anagem ent s k ills a nd o vera ll l e ad ers h ip str e ngth . T he g ro w th o bje cti v es o f th e f ir m w ere c le arly n o t g o in g to b e m et unle ss th e o vera ll q uality o f l e ad ers h ip w as r a tc hete d to a n ew l e v el.

6 2. T ra in in g p ro gra m s o fte n s e nd a f a ls e i m pre ssio n. W hen o rg aniz a ti o ns s p onso r tr a in in g p ro gra m s p ositi o ned to ta ke b ad l e ad ers a nd m ake th em i n to g o od le ad ers , i t u nw itti n gly s e nd s th e s ig nal th at th o se l e ad ers w ho a re c urre ntl y i n th e “ go od” c ate go ry c an c o ast. B eyo nd th at, m ost s u p erv is o ry a nd m anagem ent tr a in in g c o urs e s a re d esig ned to d ev elo p b asic l e ad ers h ip s k ills . T he f o cus i s on a cq uir in g a nd u nd ers ta nd in g th e f u nd am enta l s k ills r e q uir e d i n a l e ad ers h ip ro le . M any l e ad ers a ct a s i f th e i n tr o ducto ry c o urs e i n a s e rie s i s th e o nly co urs e th at e xis ts o r i s n ecessa ry f o r th em . W e a re a w are o f o nly a h and fu l o f co rp ora te d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s ta rg ete d s p ecific ally to m ake g o od p eo ple gre at.

3. M any 3 60-d egre e l e ad ers h ip a sse ssm ents c o m pare l e ad ers ’ r e su lts a nd s h o w ho w th ey c o m pare w ith th e a v era ge. T he u nin te nd ed m essa ge th at m ost l e ad ers get f r o m th e a sse ssm ents i s th at i f y o u a re i n th e m id ra nge, “ Y ou a re o kay a nd okay i s g o od e no ugh.” Fig ure 2 -7 s h o w s th e r e su lts f r o m a 3 60-d egre e a sse ssm ent. T he d ark backgro und a re a i s th e n o rm , w hic h i s th e a v era ge o f a ll o th ers ta kin g th is asse ssm ent. L ookin g a t th e r e su lts f o r P at B ro w n a gain st th e n o rm g iv es th e im pre ssio n th at P at i s v ie w ed i n a g enera lly p ositi v e l ig ht b y th e r e sp ond ents and i s a g o od l e ad er. T he r e su lts f o r P at a re m ore p ositi v e i n s e v era l a re as th an th e n o rm . E ven a fte r i n fo rm in g l e ad ers th at a n o rm i s th e a v era ge o f th e best a nd w ors t l e ad ers , m ost p eo ple c o nti n ue to l o ok a t a re as w here th ey a re slig htl y m ore p ositi v e th an th e n o rm a s a re as th at a re s tr e ngth s; o nly a re as co nsid era b ly l e ss p ositi v e th an th e n o rm a re v ie w ed a s s e rio us w eaknesse s 52 re q uir in g a ny r e m ed ia l a cti o n.

Fig ure 2 -8 d ep ic ts th e s a m e r e su lts f o r P at B ro w n, b ut th is ti m e th e sta nd ard r e p re se nts th e 9 0th p erc enti le s c o re o n e ach o f th e c o m pete ncie s.

Sho w in g th is n ew ta rg et te nd s to c hange th e f o cus o f th e f e ed back. P at B ro w n is d oin g w ell b ut s ti ll h as a l o ng w ay to g o to m ove f r o m a g o od l e ad er to a n extr a o rd in ary l e ad er. B y c o ntr a sti n g r e su lts w ith a m ean a v era ge, th e m essa ge co m munic ate d i s , “ T he g o al Fig ure 2 -7 A vera ge L ead ers v ers u s P at B ro w n 53 Fig ure 2 -8 B est L ead ers v ers u s P at B ro w n is to b e b ette r th an a v era ge.” C ontr a sti n g r e su lts w ith l e v els o f e xtr a o rd in ary le ad ers s h o w s p eo ple th e d is ta nce th at th ey n eed to m ove to a chie v e a h ig her le v el.

4. G ood l e ad ers o fte n f a il to a p pre cia te a nd u nd ers ta nd th e d iffe re nces b etw een go od l e ad ers h ip a nd g re at l e ad ers h ip .

It i s a lw ays i n te re sti n g to w atc h d iv in g c o m peti ti o ns d urin g th e O ly m pic s.

When o bse rv ers w itn ess th e f ir s t d iv e, m ost a re u su ally i m pre sse d . T he obse rv er’s p oin t o f c o m paris o n i s o fte n a m ate ur d iv in g, a nd c o m pare d w ith th e d iv es o f a m ate ur c o m peti to rs , th e O ly m pia n’s d iv e i s b eauti fu l, g ra cefu l, and e xecute d p re cis e ly . T hen th e s c o re s c o m e u p a nd th ey a re “ 5 ,” “ 6 ,” “ 6 ,” “5 ,” “ 7 ,” a nd th e c o m menta to r s a ys, “ D id y o u s e e th at s p la sh ?” o r “ N oti c e ho w th e k nees w ere b ent a nd th e f e et p oin te d i n d iffe re nt d ir e cti o ns.” Y ou a re ofte n s u rp ris e d a nd c hagrin ed b ecause y o u h ad n o t n o ti c ed a ny o f th o se pro ble m s. A s th e c o m peti ti o n c o nti n ues, th e j u d ges a nd th e c o m menta to rs tr a in ev ery o ne o n th e f in er p oin ts o f c o m peti ti o n d iv in g. A fte r a n h o ur o f w atc hin g div in g c o m peti ti o n, th e a b ility o f p eo ple to j u d ge g re at d iv in g s k ills h as moved f r o m n o nexis te nt to r u d im enta ry . I f a d iv er makes a h uge m is ta ke y o u no ti c e i t, b ut y o u a re s ti ll f r e q uentl y s u rp ris e d w hen y o u j u d ge a d iv e a s excelle nt a nd th e j u d ges m ark i t d ow n b ecause o f a f in e d eta il th at y o u m is se d .

Ju d gin g l e ad ers h ip i s m uch th e s a m e w ay. T oo m any h av e r e m ain ed c asu al obse rv ers o f l e ad ers h ip r a th er th an b eco m in g tr a in ed j u d ges. T hey e xp erie nce 54 le ad ers h ip f r o m o th ers a nd f e el th e e ffe cts ( th at w as g re at l e ad ers h ip o r th at was te rrib le ) b ut l a ck th e i n sig ht o f h o w th e e ffe ct w as c re ate d o r w hat i ts lo nger-la sti n g c o nse q uences w ill b e.

Peo ple f r e q uentl y c o nfu se p ers o nality tr a its f o r l e ad ers h ip . T hey a ssu m e th at a sse rti v eness, o r th e a b ility to m ake a c o m pellin g s p eech o r g iv e p eo ple cris p o rd ers , i s l e ad ers h ip . I t i s n o t.

In o rd er f o r p eo ple to i m pro ve th eir l e ad ers h ip a b ility , th ey n eed to beco m e a stu te o bse rv ers o f l e ad ers h ip . T hey n o t o nly n eed to u nd ers ta nd so m e b asic c o ncep ts a nd b e r e aso nab ly w ell r e ad b ut a ls o n eed to b e a b le to ju d ge e v ery d ay i n te ra cti o ns a nd u nd ers ta nd w hat i s m is sin g.

5. M any g o od l e ad ers b elie v e th at e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers a re p ro dig ie s, h av in g been e nd ow ed w ith s o m e u nusu al g ifts f r o m b ir th . M ost r e co gniz e th at p eo ple with e xcep ti o nal l e ad ers h ip ta le nts e xis t, b ut i t i s d iffic ult f o r o th ers to und ers ta nd th e p ath i n th eir d ev elo pm ent th at b ro ught th em f r o m b ein g g o od le ad ers to b ein g e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers . T he b ar s e t to a chie v e e xtr a o rd in ary le ad ers h ip s e em s to o h ig h to a chie v e, a nd th e p ath to d ev elo p e xte nsiv e s k ills is n o t c le ar. T his i s a kin to w atc hin g a g re at c o ncert p ia nis t a nd a sp ir in g to pla y th e s a m e w ay s h e d oes. T he f a nta sy i s f u n, b ut g iv en th e r e ality o f l o okin g at w hat i t w ould ta ke to a cco m plis h s u ch a f e at, m ost d on’t e v en s ta rt. O ne music s tu d ent d esc rib ed h er e xp erie nce c o m ple ti n g h er d egre e i n m usic ped ago gy. S he i n d ic ate d th at th ere w ere a f e w s tu d ents w ho h ad e xcep ti o nal natu ra l a b ility b ut l a cked d is c ip lin e. W atc hin g th e p ro fe sso rs i n te ra ct w ith th ese s tu d ents , s h e o bse rv ed th at th e p ro fe sso rs w ere n o t v ery e xcite d a b out work in g w ith th ese s tu d ents w ith n atu ra l ta le nt b ut p oor d is c ip lin e. P ro fe sso rs cho se to m ento r s tu d ents w ith s tr o ng d is c ip lin e. W hen a sk ed a b out th eir cho ic es r e gard in g w hic h s tu d ents th ey c ho se to m ento r, o ne o f th e p ro fe sso rs co m mente d , “ D is c ip lin e i s a lw ays m ore i m porta nt th an s o m e n atu ra l a b ility .

With s o m e d ed ic ate d p ra cti c e, th o se w ith d is c ip lin e w ill s u rp ass th o se w ith natu ra l a b ility i n a f e w s e m este rs . W ith o ut d is c ip lin e a nd th e a b ility to l e arn , th o se w ith n atu ra l a b ility w ill n ev er p ro gre ss a b ove th eir c urre nt a b ility .” A g re at d eal o f r e se arc h h as b een d one o n i n d iv id uals w ho a chie v e h ig h le v els o f i n d iv id ual p erfo rm ance. T he r e se arc hers , A nd ers E ric sso n a nd N eil Charn ess, d esc rib ed h av in g e xcep ti o nal a b ility o r ta le nt a s “ exp ert perfo rm ance.” T hese r e se arc hers h av e p ro duced a g re at d eal o f e m pir ic al re se arc h o n th e q uesti o n o f w heth er p eo ple a re b orn w ith “ in nate ta le nt.” 7 Most p eo ple b elie v e th at th ere a re i n d iv id uals p osse ssin g s u p erio r in te llig ence a nd a p ti tu d e w ho d is ti n guis h th em se lv es a nd a re r e fe rre d to a s gifte d . T he p hilo so phy o f g ifte d i n d iv id uals d ate s b ack to p erio ds o f ti m e when k in gs a nd r u le rs w ere c alle d “ ro yalty .” T he i m plic ati o n o f r o yalty i s th at th ere i s s o m e g eneti c o r i n herite d d iffe re nce b etw een i n d iv id uals . T he 55 id ea th at m any i n d iv id uals c an d ev elo p e xcep ti o nal a b ility i s i n co nsis te nt with th e i d ea th at “ o nly m y s o n i s q ualifie d to b e k in g.” A r e v ie w o f th e lite ra tu re r e v eals th at a p pro pria te tr a in in g c an h av e a d ra m ati c i m pact o n perfo rm ance. R ese arc h i n m usic p erfo rm ance r e v eale d th at c hild re n w ho sh o w ed l ittl e s ig n o f m usic al ta le nt b ut w ho w ere tr a in ed w ith th e S uzu ki meth o d a chie v ed e q uiv ale nt l e v els to th o se o f m usic al p ro dig ie s. A c o m mon co ncep ti o n i s th at m ost c hild p ro dig ie s s h o w i n nate a b iliti e s a t a y o ung a ge.

Rese arc h i n to th e b ackgro und s o f th o se w ith e xcep ti o nal ta le nt s h o w s a g re at deal o f e v id ence to w ard th e p ers o nal i n te re sts o f c hild re n b ut v ery l ittl e ev id ence o f a ny i n nate a b ility .

The r e ality i s th at p eo ple w ho a re c o nsid ere d p ro dig ie s i n m usic , c hess, ath le ti c s, o r o th er a re as a ll h ad a v ery c o nsis te nt p atte rn . A ll s h o w ed i n te re st in th eir ta le nts , a nd a ll p ra cti c ed f r o m b etw een tw o to f o ur h o urs a d ay f o r 1 0 years . T he 1 0-y ear m ark w as a n a m azin gly s im ila r f in d in g r e gard le ss o f music al, m ath em ati c al, o r a th le ti c ta le nt. T here i s v ery s tr o ng r e se arc h to sh o w th at e xp erti s e a s a v io lin is t c o rre la te d a lm ost e xactl y w ith th e n um ber o f ho urs o f p ra cti c e. E xp erts p ra cti c e o ver 1 0,0 00 h o urs , th e n ext l e v el a b out 7,5 00 h o urs , a nd th e n ext l e v el 5 ,0 00 h o urs . E ric sso n a nd C harn ess c o nclu d ed th eir a naly sis b y s ta ti n g, “ T he tr a d iti o nal v ie w o f ta le nt, w hic h c o nclu d es th at su ccessfu l i n d iv id uals h av e s p ecia l i n nate a b iliti e s a nd b asic c ap aciti e s, i s no t c o nsis te nt w ith th e r e v ie w ed e v id ence.” T hey w ent o n to s a y th at m ore pla usib le e xp la nati o ns o f i n d iv id ual d iffe re nces “ are f a cto rs th at p re d is p ose in d iv id uals to w ard e ngagin g i n d elib era te p ra cti c e a nd e nab le th em to s u sta in hig h l e v els o f p ra cti c e f o r m any y ears .” Ano th er c hara cte ris ti c o f e xp ert p erfo rm ers w as th at th ey ty p ic ally h ad co aches w ho e nco ura ged th em to p ra cti c e i n te nse ly . S up pose th at a p ers o n decid es s h e w ants to l e arn to p la y g o lf. S he b egin s b y s ig nin g u p f o r s e v era l le sso ns, a nd th en s h e h ir e s a p ers o nal c o ach to p la y w ith h er. A fte r a f e w month s o f l e sso ns, s h e i s p erfo rm in g a t a n a d eq uate l e v el a nd s o s h e b egin s to “p la y” g o lf w ith f r ie nd s. P la yin g i s i n here ntl y m ore f u n th an i n te nse p ra cti c e, but th e l e arn in g c urv e g o es d ow n c o nsid era b ly . T o c o nti n ue to i m pro ve, peo ple n eed to ta ke th e ti m e r e gula rly f o r i n te nse p ra cti c e, a nd th at i s m ost effe cti v e w hen a cco m panie d b y a n e xp erie nced c o ach.

Most i n d iv id uals , a s th ey b eco m e m anagers f o r th e f ir s t ti m e, g o th ro ugh a n in te nse l e arn in g p erio d. T hey r e ceiv e a g re at d eal o f tr a in in g, p ers o nal co achin g, a nd a re o pen to i d eas a nd s u ggesti o ns f r o m e xp erie nced m anagers .

They ta ke ti m e to p la n m eeti n gs, p erfo rm ance r e v ie w s, a nd h o w th ey w ill giv e f e ed back to d ir e ct r e p orts . T hey a ls o p ay c lo se a tte nti o n to o th ers , watc hin g to u nd ers ta nd te chniq ues a nd s k ills . T hey a re p ra cti c in g l e ad ers h ip with a n i n te nt to g et b ette r. T heir l e arn in g c urv e i s h ig h. O nce th ey g et re aso nab ly c o m pete nt a t b ein g m anagers , th ey d o s o m eth in g v ery s im ila r to 56 th e a b ove e xam ple o f g o lf. T hey s w itc h f r o m p ra cti c in g to p la yin g. W hile pla yin g, th e i n te nsity o f th eir l e arn in g g o es d ow n. P la yin g l e ad ers h ip i s in here ntl y m ore f u n th an p ra cti c in g l e ad ers h ip , b ut s k ill d ev elo pm ent i s v ery slo w a nd s o m eti m es s to ps a lto geth er. I n a r e cent m eeti n g a t a l a rg e o il co m pany, w e a sk ed a g ro up o f e xecuti v es i f th ey w ere f o cuse d o n p la yin g o r pra cti c in g l e ad ers h ip . T he c o nse nsu s o f th e g ro up w as th at e v ery o ne w as b usy pla yin g a nd n o body w as p ra cti c in g to g et b ette r.

One i m plic ati o n o f th is r e se arc h i s th at s o m e g re at l e ad ers a re n o t b orn with , b ut a cq uir e a t a n e arly a ge, th e d esir e to m ake th in gs h ap pen w ith o th er peo ple . W e b elie v e th at o th er l e ad ers c an a cq uir e i n cre ase d l e ad ers h ip ab ility w ith p ra cti c e a t a ny a ge. T he r e al k ey i s th at th ey e ngage i n i n te nse pra cti c e. B ad l e ad ers a ssu m e th at d elib era te p ra cti c e m akes n o d iffe re nce, s o th ey c o nti n ue to p erfo rm b ut n ev er i m pro ve.

6. L ead ers a re o nly w illin g to b e a s e ffe cti v e a s th o se w ho i n tu rn l e ad th em .

Tom W ats o n, J r., i s o fte n c re d ite d a s th e k ey a rc hite ct o f I B M ’s c ultu re . O ne manife sta ti o n o f th at c ultu re w as th at m en w ore w hite sh ir ts , d ark s u its , a nd win g-ti p s h o es. H e o nce r e m ark ed th at i f h e w ore a p in k s h ir t to w ork , h e w as su re th at th e f o llo w in g d ay h e w ould s e e h und re d s o f e xecuti v es w earin g p in k sh ir ts .

Lead ers c ast a s ig nific ant s h ad ow i n th e o rg aniz a ti o ns w here th ey w ork . A co lle ague, P aul M cK in no n, d id s o m e r e se arc h s e v era l y ears a go to m easu re th e sh ad ow s o f l e ad ers w ith s e v era l o f h is c lie nts . I n a f o llo w -u p s tu d y w e c o nd ucte d to a naly ze th e s h ad ow s o f l e ad ers , w e f o und th at e m plo yees w ho h av e w ork ed f o r th e s a m e b oss f o r s e v era l y ears te nd to s h are n o t o nly th e s tr e ngth s b ut a ls o th e weaknesse s o f th eir b oss. I n th e s tu d y, w e e xam in ed th e 3 60-d egre e r e su lts f o r a manager a nd i d enti fie d a re as o f s tr e ngth a nd o pportu niti e s f o r i m pro vem ent. T he 360-d egre e r e su lts w ere th en a naly ze d f o r a ll o f th e d ir e ct r e p orts o f th e m anager (w ho w ere a ls o m anagers ). M anagers w ith a l a rg e s h ad ow s h o w ed th e e xact s a m e lis t o f s tr e ngth s a nd o pportu niti e s f o r i m pro vem ent a s th eir d ir e ct r e p orts . T he analy sis c alc ula te d th e p erc ent o verla p b etw een m anagers a nd a ll o f th eir d ir e ct re p orts . T he p erc enta ges v arie d f r o m a s m all s h ad ow ( e .g ., 2 5 p erc ent o verla p ) to a la rg e s h ad ow ( 1 00 p erc ent o verla p ). T his “ sh ad ow ” c an c ut b oth w ays. I f y o u w ork with a n e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad er, th e te nd ency i s th at y o ur l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness w ill be c lo se to th at o f y o ur l e ad er. O n th e o th er h and , i f y o ur b oss i s a n i n effe cti v e le ad er, th e te nd ency i s th at y o u w on’t b e m uch b ette r. I n th e s tu d y, w e f o und th e le ngth o f a l e ad er’s s h ad ow to v ary . T he l e ngth o f ti m e p eo ple s p end w ith th e s a m e boss c an i n cre ase th e s iz e o f th e s h ad ow .

In th e s tu d y, w e f o und th at s o m e l e ad ers a nd th eir d ir e ct r e p orts h ad a 1 00 perc ent o verla p b etw een s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s. B y th eir n atu re , p eo ple th in k th eir a p pro ach to w ork i s b est, a nd b osse s te nd to h ir e e m plo yees w ho h av e a sim ila r s ty le . O ver ti m e, b osse s r e in fo rc e th eir p ositi v e a s w ell a s n egati v e tr a its 57 by u nco nsc io usly r e w ard in g s o m e e m plo yee b ehav io rs w hile d is c o ura gin g o r ig no rin g o th ers . A s a r e su lt, e m plo yees a re c o nd iti o ned to m im ic th o se to w ho m th ey r e p ort.

For e xam ple , a ssu m e a l e ad er w ho i s v ery d eta il o rie nte d , ta sk f o cuse d , a nd te chnic ally p ro fic ie nt, b ut n o t s e nsiti v e to w ard c o -w ork ers r e p orti n g to h im . M ore ofte n th an n o t, th is p ers o n’s s u b ord in ate s g enera lly s h are h is s k ills a nd a re a ls o n o t re gard ed a s e sp ecia lly c o nsid era te o f o th ers . M ost o f th e ti m e, b osse s d o n o t acti v ely e nco ura ge b ru sq ueness, b ut th e m anagers s a w th eir b oss g et a w ay w ith i t and f e lt th ey c o uld , to o. T he p ro cess o f m im ic kin g th e s tr e ngth s a nd w eaknesse s o f one’s b oss i s a n u nco nsc io us p ro cess. P ossib ly , o ne o f th e m ost sta rtl in g p ie ces o f re se arc h th at v alid ate s th ese f in d in gs i s th e s tu d y o f c hild a b use . I t i s w ell esta b lis h ed th at c hild re n w ho a re a b use d h av e a h ig h l ik elih o od o f b eco m in g ab usiv e p are nts . I t s e em s a lm ost i m possib le to c o m pre hend w hy c hild re n w ho dete st a nd s u ffe r f r o m th e w ay th at th eir p are nts tr e at th em o fte n tr e at th eir c hild re n exactl y th e s a m e w ay. M any a d ults h av e e xerte d g re at e ffo rt to s u ccessfu lly b re ak th eir c hild -re arin g p ra cti c es f r o m th e p ast a nd s ta rt a n ew l e gacy o f p ositi v e c hild - re arin g. M any p are nts h av e h ad th e e xp erie nce a s a c hild o f p ro m is in g th em se lv es th at th ey w ould “ nev er tr e at th eir c hild re n th at w ay,” o nly to f in d th em se lv es d oin g exactl y th e s a m e th in g to th eir c hild re n.

A b y-p ro duct o f th e p heno m eno n i s th at e m plo yees a re r a re ly m ore e ffe cti v e th an th eir b osse s. T hat i s g o od n ew s i f th e b oss i s a n e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad er. T he d ir e ct re p orts te nd to r is e to th at l e v el. B ut w e o bse rv ed o ver a nd o ver th at e m plo yees a re only a s g o od a s th eir b osse s. B osse s s e t th e s ta nd ard s, h ig h o r l o w . T he f in d in gs hav e i m plic ati o ns.

• T he e xte nt to w hic h l e ad ers m ere ly e nco ura ge s u b ord in ate s to b e th eir c lo nes beco m es p ro ble m ati c . I n d eed , i t m ay d em onstr a te a l a ck o f a p pre cia ti o n f o r diffe re nt s ty le s a nd a p pro aches, w hic h u lti m ate ly m ay b e d etr im enta l to th e org aniz a ti o n’s g o als .

• L ead ers i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n s h o uld b e m ad e c o gniz a nt o f th e w ays th ey re in fo rc e th eir o w n b ehav io rs i n th eir d ir e ct r e p orts . S up erio rs s h o uld th in k more c o nsc io usly o f th e r o le th ey p la y i n p eo ple ’s l iv es a nd c are ers a nd th e le gacy th ey w ill l e av e o nce th ey a re g o ne.

• S up erio rs n eed to b e r e m in d ed to r e cru it e m plo yees w ith a d iv ers ity o f s k ills and w ork s ty le s th at w ould e nric h a nd c o ntr ib ute to th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

• O rg aniz a ti o ns s e ekin g a c ultu re c hange s h o uld b egin w ith a n i n te rv enti o n a t th e se nio r l e v el, a s th e b est w ay to b rin g r e al c hange i s u su ally to c hange th e le ad ers .

• I t ta kes g re at l e ad ers to d ev elo p g re at l e ad ers . T he i d ea o f “ D o a s I s a y, n o t a s I d o” j u st w on’t w ork w ith l e ad ers h ip .

58 Im agin e th e i m pact o n a ny o rg aniz a ti o n i f 2 0 p erc ent o f th e g o od l e ad ers c o uld move o n to b eco m e e xcelle nt. F ast f o rw ard i n y o ur m in d to th e o rg aniz a ti o nal re su lts th at w ould p ro duce. C onsid er th e p ro fo und i m pact o n c ultu re a nd th e moti v ati o n l e v el o f e m plo yees. I m agin e th e tr a nsfo rm ed w ork e xp erie nce o f a ll in sid e th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

The r e se arc h i s c le ar r e gard in g th e i m pact o f l e ad ers h ip o n d esir a b le o utc o m es.

Good l e ad ers a re s u b sta nti a lly m ore e ffe cti v e th an b ad l e ad ers , b ut g re at l e ad ers make a g re at d iffe re nce.

The P ro p er M ea su re o f “ G rea tn ess” For th e s a ke o f c o nv enie nce, w e h av e s e le cte d “ gre at” l e ad ers b y e xam in in g th e to p 10 p erc ent f r o m a p opula ti o n o f l e ad ers f r o m w ell- re sp ecte d o rg aniz a ti o ns.

How ev er, w e a re th e f ir s t to a ckno w le d ge th at th is i s m ere ly f o r c o nv enie nce. T he pro per m easu re i s a gain st a n o bje cti v e s ta nd ard , a nd th ere i s n o r e aso n w hy a n org aniz a ti o n c o uld n o t h av e 9 0 p erc ent o f i ts f ir s t- le v el m anagers o r s u p erv is o rs who w ere g re at, v ers u s th e a rb itr a ry 1 0 p erc ent th at w e a naly ze d .

In d eed , o ur d efin iti o n c o uld p ro bab ly b e r e v ers e e ngin eere d . W hen y o u c o uld id enti fy a l e ad er w ho p ro duced • H ig h p ro ducti v ity • L ow tu rn o ver • H ig h c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n • H ig h p ro fita b ility • I n no vati o n • P ositi v e r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith s u p plie rs th en y o u c o uld , b y d efin iti o n, s a y th is w as a n e xtr e m ely e ffe cti v e l e ad er. E ffe cti v e le ad ers h ip i s b est d efin ed a nd m easu re d b y th e r e su lts p ro duced , n o t b y s im ply ta kin g a c erta in n um ber f r o m th e to p o f a d is tr ib uti o n.

The O rg an iz a tio n ’s O bje ctiv e The m ore “ gre at” l e ad ers a n o rg aniz a ti o n c an d ev elo p, th e s tr o nger i t w ill b e. T his is tr u e f o r m ulti p le r e aso ns, b ut s o m e o f th o se a re th e f o llo w in g:

• T he c o ntr ib uti o n th ese l e ad ers m ake to th e u nits th ey m anage • T he e xam ple o r r o le m odel th ey s e t f o r th e e nti r e o rg aniz a ti o n • T he c um ula ti v e i m pact th eir p erfo rm ance h as i n c re ati n g a n e nti r e ly n ew 59 cultu re f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n • T he e le v ate d s ta nd ard o f p erfo rm ance th at i s s e t w ith in th e o rg aniz a ti o n We h av e a d vocate d s tr o ngly th at i n d iv id uals f o cus o n th eir s tr e ngth s. B y d oin g th at, th ey g re atl y i n cre ase th e l ik elih o od o f b ein g p erc eiv ed a s g re at l e ad ers . T hat sa m e p rin cip le a p plie s to th e o rg aniz a ti o n. B y i n cre asin g th e n um ber o f h ig h- perfo rm in g l e ad ers , th e o rg aniz a ti o n g ain s g re at s tr e ngth . I t i s a lw ays te m pti n g to atte m pt to f ix th e l o w -p erfo rm in g o nes, b ut th e g re ate st g ain a p pears to c o m e b y help in g m ore l e ad ers b eco m e tr u ly e xcelle nt.

The o nly d ow nsid e o f a ny o rg aniz a ti o n d oin g th at i s th e ta rg et th ey b eco m e f o r head hunte rs . J u st a s G E h as b eco m e th e s p aw nin g g ro und f o r c o rp ora te C EO s, s o will a ny c o m pany th at p ro duces g re at l e ad ers . H ow ev er, th at i s a r e la ti v ely s m all pric e to p ay f o r th e e no rm ous g ain s to b e a chie v ed b y s u ccessfu lly d ev elo pin g g re at le ad ers f o r th e f ir m .

Good V ersu s B ad T hin kin g As a te enager, o ne o f th e a uth o rs h ad th e o pportu nity to h ear a n a str o naut d esc rib e th e c halle nges o f g o in g to th e M oon. H is a nalo gy w as th at th e a ccura cy o f g o in g fr o m E arth to th e M oon w as e q uiv ale nt to s h o oti n g a b ulle t i n N ew Y ork a nd h itti n g a g um ball i n L os A ngele s. I t w as a v ery d ra m ati c e xam ple o f th e i m porta nce o f co rre ct a im a nd m id co urs e c o rre cti o ns. I f th e a im w as o ff j u st a l ittl e i n N ew Y ork , th e ta rg et w ould b e m is se d b y a s ta te o r tw o b arrin g m ajo r c o rre cti o ns. T he m ore we w ork w ith i n d iv id uals a nd o rg aniz a ti o ns, th e m ore i t b eco m es c le ar th at s m all, ev en b are ly n o ti c eab le , a cti o ns c an h av e h uge c o nse q uences o ver ti m e.

One o f th e s m all, b are ly n o ti c eab le p hilo so phie s th at m ost p eo ple h o ld to day i s bin ary th in kin g a b out g o od v ers u s b ad . W e a re c o nsta ntl y a m use d th at w hen tr y in g to u nco ver p ro ble m s i n o rg aniz a ti o ns, th ere i s a s e arc h to i d enti fy th e “ b ad p eo ple .” One o f th e m ost c o m mon te nd encie s i s th at w hen a m is ta ke o ccurs i n a n org aniz a ti o n a nd th ere i s a s e arc h f o r th e c ause , f r e q uentl y a p ers o n o r g ro up i s so ught to b e th e s o urc e o f th e p ro ble m . T he “ fa ll p ers o n” i s b la m ed f o r e v ery th in g.

This i s r a re ly th e tr u th , b ut m ost p eo ple f in d i t m uch m ore c o nv enie nt.

On th e o th er s id e, w e h av e th e s e arc h f o r “ go od.” H av in g c o nd ucte d a v arie ty o f stu d ie s to i d enti fy c hara cte ris ti c s o f h ig h p erfo rm ers , w hat i n ev ita b ly b eco m es a diffic ult ta sk i s to d ete rm in e th e c rite ria f o r i d enti fy in g h ig h p erfo rm ers . T his w ould ap pear to b e a s im ple ta sk , b ut a s th e d iffe re nt m easu re m ents a re l a id o ut i t beco m es a c halle nge. O rg aniz a ti o ns s e arc h f o r s o m e s im ple c rite ria to e asily a nd quic kly p in p oin t th e g o od f r o m th e b ad . I n th is chap te r, w e h av e p re se nte d a n ew philo so phy a b out l e ad ers h ip . T his p hilo so phy e xp and s a p ers o n’s th in kin g f r o m “L ead ers a re e ith er g o od o r b ad ” to “ L ead ers a re b ad , g o od, a nd g re at.” T his i s a 60 sm all c hange f r o m w hat m any c urre ntl y b elie v e, b ut w e b elie v e th is s m all philo so phic al d iffe re nce c an h av e a h uge i m pact o n th e s u ccess o f b oth i n d iv id uals and o rg aniz a ti o ns. F or i n d iv id uals , th is p hilo so phy s h o uld h elp g o od l e ad ers und ers ta nd th at g o od i s n o t g re at. I t n ev er w as a nd n ev er w ill b e. G ood i s g o od, b ut th e u lti m ate ta rg et i s e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad ers h ip . W e h o pe th is h elp s p eo ple n o t to b e sa ti s fie d w ith g o od p erfo rm ance.

For o rg aniz a ti o ns, th is p hilo so phy o ught to c la rify th e c o m peti ti v e a d vanta ge o f gre at l e ad ers h ip . W hen d is c ussin g th eir l e ad ers h ip ta le nt, e xecuti v es w ill so m eti m es s ta te , “ I d on’t th in k w e h av e a p ro ble m w ith o ur l e ad ers ” ( w hic h w hen tr a nsla te d m eans, w e d on’t h av e b ad l e ad ers ). T he p ro ble m i s n o t a n a b und ance o f bad l e ad ers ; th e p ro ble m i s th e u niv ers a l a ccep ta nce o f g o od l e ad ers a nd a ssu m in g th at th ey d on’t n eed to b e a ny b ette r.

61 3 SIM PL IF Y IN G L EA D ER SH IP I w ould n’t g iv e a f ig f o r th e s im plic ity th is s id e o f c o m ple xity b ut I w ould g iv e m y r ig ht a rm f o r th e s im plic ity o n th e o th er s id e o f c o m ple xity .

—Oliv er W end ell H olm es O ur o bje cti v e i n th is c hap te r i s to p ro vid e s o m e o f th e “ sim plic ity th at l ie s j u st o n t h e o th er s id e o f c o m ple xity .” I n Chap te r 1 , w e p re se nte d m any o f th e d im ensio ns t h at c re ate th e e xtr e m ely c o m ple x n atu re o f l e ad ers h ip . I n th is c hap te r, w e w is h to r e d uce th at c o m ple xity to a m odel o f l e ad ers h ip th at i s m ore e asily u nd ers to od.

M attr esse s a n d T en ts M attr e sse s F or d ecad es, r e se arc hers a nd o bse rv ers h av e tr ie d to f in d th e c o m pete ncy, tr a it, k no w le d ge b ase , p ers o nality d im ensio n, o r th o ught p ro cess th at m akes a p ers o n a g o od l e ad er. T he a naly sis w as e xtr e m ely g ra nula r, b re akin g l e ad ers h ip i n to a s m any d is c re te c o m pete ncie s a s p ossib le . T he o utc o m e w as to d esc rib e l e ad ers h ip b ehav io rs o r c o m pete ncie s a s h ig hly s p ecific , d is c re te , i n d iv id ualiz e d a cts . E ach t r a it o r c hara cte ris ti c w as m ad e s e p ara te a nd d is ti n ct f r o m a ll th e o th ers .

One m eta p ho r c o m pare s th is a p pro ach to u nd ers ta nd in g l e ad ers h ip a s a “ co il- s p rin g m attr e ss.” T his a p pro ach to l e ad ers h ip a ssu m es th at th ese tr a its or c hara cte ris ti c s a re l ik e i n d iv id ually e ncase d c o il s p rin gs i n a n e xp ensiv e m attr e ss.

T he a d verti s e m ents f o r th ese m attr e sse s s h o w a g la ss o f w ate r s ta nd in g o n th e m attr e ss, a nd s o m eo ne d ro ppin g a b ow lin g b all a d ja cent to th e g la ss o f w ate r, a ll w ith o ut s p illin g a d ro p.

In u nd ers ta nd in g l e ad ers h ip , i f th at th eo ry w ere tr u e, a l e ad er c o uld b e e xtr e m ely t e chnic ally c o m pete nt w ith o ut th at a ffe cti n g th e r e la ti o nsh ip s i n a te am . O r th e l e ad er c o uld b e a h ig hly e ffe cti v e m oti v ato r o r i n sp ir e r o f p eo ple b ut to ta lly l a ck t h e a b ility to m ake th in gs h ap pen i n sid e th e o rg aniz a ti o n. T o th e e xte nt th at c o m pete ncie s a re d efin ab le , s p ecific b ehav io rs , i n d ep end ent f r o m a ll o th er b ehav io r, th is b elie f h as g re at l o gic . A nd w e a ckno w le d ge th at th is h ap pens i n s e le cte d i n sta nces.

The m ajo r d efe ct w ith th is e nti r e th eo ry i s th at i t s im ply d oes n o t f it th e e m pir ic al d ata w e h av e a v aila b le . W e w ill p re se nt c o m pellin g e v id ence i n Chap te r 62 4 th at:

1. N ot a ll c o m pete ncie s a re e q uiv ale nt to e ach o th er. S om e a re f a r m ore pow erfu l i n s e p ara ti n g h ig hly e ffe cti v e l e ad ers f r o m th e r e st.

2. L ead ers h ip b ehav io rs a re a ll k nit to geth er, m uch l ik e th e c o m ple x n etw ork o f th e h um an b ra in . T here i s a g re at d eal o f i n te rd ep end ence b etw een th em . E ach of th e 1 6 c o m pete ncie s th at w as m ost p ow erfu l i n s e p ara ti n g l e ad ers w as hig hly c o rre la te d to a ll o f th e o th er 1 6 c o m pete ncie s.

3. E ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip d em and s a b ala nce o f c o m pete ncie s f r o m f iv e d iffe re nt se cto rs .

4. C om bin ati o ns o f c o m pete ncie s, n o t a ny s in gle o ne, p ro duce g re at l e ad ers .

5. T he m ore p eo ple h av e o f th e 1 6 c o m pete ncie s th at tr u ly m ake a d iffe re nce, th e more l ik ely th ey a re to b e p erc eiv ed a s g re at l e ad ers .

Ten ts In ste ad o f a m attr e ss w ith i n d iv id ual s p rin gs, a m ore a ccura te p ic tu re o f l e ad ers h ip is r e p re se nte d b y a l a rg e te nt, a s d ep ic te d i n Fig ure 3 -1 , w ith th e th re e-d im ensio nal sp ace u nd er th e c anv as r e p re se nti n g th e l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness o f th e i n d iv id ual.

The b est l e ad ers h av e th e g re ate st n um ber o f c ub ic y ard s o f s p ace u nd er th eir te nt.

We th in k th is v ie w h elp s to i llu str a te th e tr u e n atu re o f l e ad ers h ip a nd h o w i t i s dev elo ped .

Fig ure 3 -1 L ead ers h ip T ent 63 The d is ti n guis h in g c hara cte ris ti c s o f th is m odel a re 1. L ead ers h ip b ehav io rs a re c lu ste re d i n to f iv e a re as.

2. S tr e ngth i n a c lu ste r b eco m es a “ te nt p ole ” th at l ifts th e l e ad ers h ip o f th at pers o n to a h ig her l e v el.

3. E ffe cti v e l e ad ers p osse ss s k ills i n e ach a re a; s o m ulti p le p ole s a re n ecessa ry to l ift th e te nt.

4. S ta ti s ti c ally s ig nific ant c o rre la ti o ns e xis t b etw een m ost o f th e i m porta nt co m pete ncie s ( th e c anv as i s i n o ne p ie ce).

The k ey to l ifti n g m ore o f th e te nt ( b eco m in g a m ore e ffe cti v e l e ad er) i s to g et multi p le p ole s h ig h i n th e a ir . I f y o u h av e o nly o ne te nt p ole , i t p ulls th e e nti r e te nt aro und th e c ente r o f th e p ole . O ur m eta p ho r u nfo ld s a s f o llo w s. A llo w u s th e lib erty o f h av in g m odern te nt p ole s th at e xte nd th em se lv es l ik e th e a nte nna o n a c ar.

As a p ole i s e xte nd ed , o ne s e cti o n o f th e te nt i s l ifte d u p , a nd i n d oin g, a b ro ad exp anse o f c anv as i s r a is e d . T he m ore th e p ole i s e xte nd ed , th e h ig her th e c anv as i s lifte d . ( R em em ber, th e te nt p ole i s th e d egre e o f s tr e ngth a nd th e n um ber o f co m pete ncie s w ith g re at s tr e ngth i n o ne are a th at a n i n d iv id ual p osse sse s.) S o, assu m e th at th is f ir s t te nt p ole c o m es u p f r o m th e c lu ste r w e h av e l a b ele d “C hara cte r.” A s e co nd p ole ( a ssu m e th is o ne i s c re ate d b y th e c lu ste r “ F ocus o n R esu lts ” ) ele v ate s a n ew s e cti o n o f th e te nt, a nd i n s o d oin g, i t r a is e s th e c anv as th at i s dir e ctl y a b ove i t b ut a ls o r a is e s th e c anv as th at i s b etw een th is n ew p ole a nd th e fir s t o ne. T he c anv as th at w as i n iti a lly a ro und th e f ir s t p ole m oves c lo se r to th e f u ll heig ht o f b oth te nt p ole s. W ith e ach s u cceed in g te nt p ole , l a rg e e xp anse s o f c anv as are l ifte d u nti l u lti m ate ly th ere i s a h uge v olu m e o f s p ace u nd er th e te nt.

The p ole s i n o ur m eta p ho r r e p re se nt k ey “ str e ngth s” o f th e i n d iv id ual l e ad er, esp ecia lly th o se th at h av e b een s h o w n to m ake a d iffe re nce i n s e p ara ti n g th e g re at fr o m th e g o od. T he c anv as r e p re se nts a ll o f th e b ehav io rs a nd c o m pete ncie s possib le to b e d is p la yed b y a l e ad er. ( W e h av e s e en c o m pete ncy m odels f r o m s o m e org aniz a ti o ns i n w hic h th ere w ere 1 73 b ehav io rs d efin ed f o r th e l e ad ers to a sse ss th em se lv es a gain st. T hat s e em s to u s to b e a f e w m ore b ehav io rs th an m ost h um ans can k eep tr a ck o f o n a d aily b asis .) Mak in g a L ea d er We w ill n o w m ore th o ro ughly d esc rib e th ese f iv e m ajo r e le m ents o f l e ad ers h ip attr ib ute s.

Chara cte r— The C en te r P ole o f E very L ea d er 64 We b egin w ith th e c o m ponent th at i s i n d eed a t th e c o re . E very th in g r a d ia te s f r o m i t.

It i s th e c ente r p ole o f th e te nt ( Fig ure 3 -2 ). I t i s s o i m porta nt th at s o m e a uth o rs hav e w ritte n a b out i t a s i f i t w ere s y no nym ous w ith l e ad ers h ip . F or e xam ple :

• W arre n B ennis , o ne o f th e m ost r e sp ecte d w rite rs a nd r e se arc hers o n le ad ers h ip , h as ta lk ed a b out l e ad ers h ip b ein g a ll a b out i n te grity .

• M ax D e P re e, th e C EO o f H erm an M ille r a nd a f r e q uent w rite r o n l e ad ers h ip , has e q uate d l e ad ers h ip w ith p ers o nal c hara cte r.

• J im K ouze s a nd B arry P osn er h av e w ritte n a b ook e nti tl e d Cre d ib ility a nd defin ed p ers o nal c re d ib ility a s th e f o und ati o n o f a ll l e ad ers h ip .

• J im S haffe r w rite s a b out l e ad ers h ip b ein g d efin ed b y “ te llin g th e tr u th .” Fig ure 3 -2 L ead ers h ip T ent F lo or: C hara cte r • S te p hen C ovey h as w ritte n a b out th e i m porta nce o f l e ad ers f o llo w in g prin cip le s i n th eir d aily b ehav io r.

These a re j u st a s a m plin g o f th e m any w riti n gs a b out l e ad ers h ip th at e m phasiz e th e r o le o f p ers o nal c hara cte r i n l e ad ers h ip . O ur r e se arc h c o nfir m s th at p ers o nal chara cte r i s a b so lu te ly a t th e h eart o f e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip .

65 Here a re s o m e o f th e w ays c hara cte r g ets d efin ed :

• M akin g d ecis io ns w ith th e o rg aniz a ti o n p ara m ount i n th eir m in d , v ers u s allo w in g a p ers o nal a gend a to i n flu ence d ecis io ns • K eep in g c o m mitm ents th at a re m ad e • P ra cti c in g s e lf- d ev elo pm ent; c o nsta ntl y l e arn in g • B ein g r e cep ti v e to , a nd s p ecific ally a sk in g f o r, f e ed back f r o m o th ers • B ein g a p pro achab le b y a nyo ne • T re ati n g e v ery o ne th e s a m e— no “ sm ilin g u p a nd k ic kin g d ow n” b ehav io r • T re ati n g th e w aitr e ss a nd b ellh o p w ith d ig nity , a s w ell a s p eo ple o f h ig h s ta tu s • T ru sti n g o th er p eo ple ; a ssu m in g th ey h av e g o od i n te nti o ns • W ork in g c o lla b ora ti v ely w ith o th ers , v ers u s s e ein g e v ery o ne a s a c o m peti to r • N ot a cti n g i n a n a rro gant m anner to w ard o th ers • B ein g te nacio us a nd n o t g iv in g u p b ecause s o m eth in g i s d iffic ult • H av in g e m oti o nal r e silie nce; a d ju sti n g r a p id ly to c hangin g e nv ir o nm ents Many o rg aniz a ti o ns h av e l e arn ed th at f in d in g p eo ple w ith th e r ig ht c hara cte r i s th e a b so lu te r e q uir e m ent f o r l o ng-te rm s u ccess o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

A c o lle ague a sk ed a s e nio r e xecuti v e o f L ouis V uitto n, th e m aker o f h ig h-e nd lu ggage a nd p ers o nal a ccesso rie s, h o w th ey w ent a b out g etti n g p eo ple to p ro duce su ch h ig h-q uality p ro ducts . T he e xecuti v e’s a nsw er w as, “ Y ou l o ok f o r p eo ple w ho se ek q uality i n th eir p ers o nal l ife , a nd i n a ll th e th in gs th ey u se a nd p osse ss. Y ou can’t tr a in th at i n to p eo ple .” The r e ta ile r N ord str o m i s c urre ntl y w ork in g to r e gain th e p ositi o n th at i t o nce held a s th e l e ad in g p ro vid er o f e xcelle nt s e rv ic e. A gain , w hen th e e xecuti v es a re ask ed a b out h o w th ey p la n to d o th at, th eir a nsw er i s “ H ir e n ic e p eo ple .” I t i s m uch easie r to te ach a n ic e p ers o n s e llin g s k ills a nd h o w to u se “ p oin t o f s a le ” e q uip m ent th an i t i s to te ach “ nic eness” to s o m eo ne w ho k no w s h o w to c o m ple te th e pap erw ork f o r a s a le s tr a nsa cti o n.

How ev er, o ur r e se arc h s h o w s th at w hen p eo ple r e ceiv e h ig h s c o re s o n th is im porta nt d im ensio n o f l e ad ers h ip , b ut th is i s a ll th ey s c o re h ig hly o n, th en th e lik elih o od o f th em b ein g p erc eiv ed a s o uts ta nd in g l e ad ers i s a p pro xim ate ly 6 perc ent. A nd i f p eo ple a re g iv en l o w m ark s o n th ese “ chara cte r” d im ensio ns, th ey will a b so lu te ly n o t b e p erc eiv ed a s g re at l e ad ers .

We c o ncur, th ere fo re , w ith th e p eo ple w ho h av e w ritte n o f th e i m porta nce o f le ad ers b ein g p ers o ns o f h ig h c hara cte r. W ith o ut i t, l o ng-te rm f a ilu re i s c erta in .

Where w e p art c o m pany w ith s o m e i s o ur c o nclu sio n th at c hara cte r i s a n ecessa ry , but n o t s u ffic ie nt, e le m ent f o r g re at l e ad ers h ip . T o c o m plic ate th e m atte r e v en 66 fu rth er, th ere a re s o m e p eo ple w ho a re p erc eiv ed a s e ffe cti v e l e ad ers y et w ho s e em to p osse ss m ajo r c hara cte r f la w s. T his w ill p ro bab ly b e k no w n i n l e ad ers h ip lite ra tu re i n d ecad es to c o m e a s th e “ C lin to n p heno m eno n.” I t se em s m ore o fte n to be r e se rv ed f o r p oliti c al l e ad ers th an f o r th o se i n b usin ess a nd i n d ustr y , b ut w e d o no t p re te nd to f u lly u nd ers ta nd th at a no m aly .

In th e a fte rm ath o f th e a tta ck o n th e W orld T ra d e C ente r o n S ep te m ber 1 1, 2 001, Mayo r R ud olp h G iu lia ni s te p ped i n to o rc hestr a te th e C ity o f N ew Y ork ’s r e sp onse to th e s itu ati o n. G iu lia ni r o se to th e o ccasio n w ith h and s-o n, c alm in g, d ecis iv e behav io r th at e arn ed h im e xtr e m ely h ig h m ark s f r o m c iti z e ns a nd th e m ed ia . O ne co m menta to r o n N ati o nal P ub lic R ad io s a id th at “ it w as a s i f th e s itu ati o n e ra se d all th e n egati v e i m ages th at h ad s u rro und ed G iu lia ni.” H e h ad b een th ro ugh a s o rd id div orc e, h ad b een a ccuse d o f r a cia l s lu rs , b een ta gged a s “ M usso lin i o n th e Hud so n,” a nd w as i n g enera l d is fa v or. T hen, s u d denly , a n e v ent a nd th e w ay h e hand le d i t tr a nsfo rm ed h im i n to a h ero .

Perso n al C ap ab ilit y The s e co nd i m porta nt te nt p ole o f l e ad ers h ip i s th e p ers o nal c ap ab ility th e in d iv id ual p osse sse s ( Fig ure 3 -3 ). T his c lu ste r o f a b iliti e s c o m pris e s s k ills o r co m pete ncie s th at a re a b so lu te ly c ru cia l f o r p eo ple to b e h ig hly r e gard ed b y p eers , su b ord in ate s, a nd b osse s. T hese a re n o t s k ills th at w ould ty p ic ally b e d esc rib ed a s le ad ers h ip s k ills , a nd y et o ur r e se arc h p ro ves th ey m ust b e i n p la ce f o r a ny in d iv id ual to b e p erc eiv ed a s a s tr o ng l e ad er.

Som e o f th ese i n d iv id ual c ap ab iliti e s a re • Tech nic a l k n ow le d ge.

R ese arc h w ith a l a rg e n atu ra l r e so urc es p ro ducts co m pany s h o w ed th at th e q uality o r a ttr ib ute th at h ad th e h ig hest c o rre la ti o n with b ein g p erc eiv ed a s a g re at l e ad er w as te chnic al c o m pete nce. T ho se w ho were p erc eiv ed a s th e b est l e ad ers a lw ays s c o re d h ig h o n th is d im ensio n.

Conv ers e ly , th o se i n th e b otto m 1 0 p erc ent o f th e o vera ll s c o re s s c o re d l o w o n te chnic al c o m pete nce.

• Pro duct k n ow le d ge.

A th o ro ugh u nd ers ta nd in g o f w hat th e o rg aniz a ti o n pro duces a nd w hy i t i s s u p erio r to c o m peti ti v e p ro ducts .

• Pro ble m -a naly sis a nd p ro ble m -s o lv in g s k ills .

T he a b ility to d efin e a p ro ble m , analy ze i t, a nd c o m e u p w ith s o lid r e co m mend ati o ns f o r r e so lv in g i t.

• Pro fe ssio nal s k ills .

T hese i n clu d e th e a b ility to w rite a n i n te llig ent, c o ncis e re p ort o r m em ora nd um ; th e a b ility to c o m fo rta b ly m ake a c o m pellin g pre se nta ti o n i n f r o nt o f a g ro up ; a nd th e a b iliti e s to 67 Fig ure 3 -3 L ead ers h ip T ent F lo or: P ers o nal C ap ab ility org aniz e o ne’s w ork i n a n e ffic ie nt m anner, to m onito r p ro gre ss, a nd to a ct with o ut b ein g to ld b y s o m eo ne i n a uth o rity .

• In nova tio n.

T his r e fe rs to th e a b ility to h av e a f r e sh o utl o ok i n a p pro achin g a pro ble m , to s h ake l o ose o f o ld m eth o ds a nd p ro cesse s a nd s e e n ew possib iliti e s. I n no vati o n m eans b ein g a b le to c lim b o ut o f r u ts a nd d o th in gs i n a d iffe re nt f a sh io n.

• In itia tiv e.

T his d esc rib es th e p ers o n w ho s e es s o m eth in g f a llin g i n th e c ra cks betw een o ne d ep artm ent a nd a no th er a nd w ho i m med ia te ly s te p s i n to m ake certa in i t i s h and le d . I t i n v olv es v olu nte erin g w hen s o m eth in g n eed s to b e d one and n o o ne c urre ntl y i s d oin g i t.

• Effe ctiv e u se o f i n fo rm atio n t e ch nolo gy.

T his p ers o n s e ts a n e xam ple i n th e co nsis te nt u se o f e -m ail, p ow erfu l s o ftw are a p plic ati o ns, a nd a ny te chno lo gy th at e sc ala te s p erfo rm ance.

One o f th e m ost u se fu l f r a m ew ork s b y w hic h to u nd ers ta nd h o w p eo ple co ntr ib ute i n th eir c are ers i s th e fo ur s ta ges m odel , o rig in ally d ev elo ped b y G ene Dalto n a nd P aul T ho m pso n.

1 T his m odel d esc rib es f o ur s ta ges o f c are er g ro w th th ro ugh w hic h p eo ple m ay m ove. I n m any c ase s, p eo ple b eco m e l o cked i n to o ne 68 sta ge b ecause th ey d o n o t p osse ss th e n ecessa ry s k ills a nd b ehav io r to m ove fo rw ard . I n o th er c ase s, p eo ple s ta y a t a p arti c ula r s ta ge b ecause i t f its th eir n eed s and a p ti tu d es. T he f o ur s ta ges a re • S ta ge I : d ep end in g o n o th ers • S ta ge I I: c o ntr ib uti n g i n d ep end entl y • S ta ge I II: c o ntr ib uti n g th ro ugh o th ers • S ta ge I V : l e ad in g th ro ugh v is io n Sta ge I .

T he f ir s t s ta ge o f c are ers h as b een d esc rib ed a s dep en din g o n o th ers.

2 I n Sta ge I , p eo ple w illin gly a ccep t d ir e cti o n f r o m o th ers . P eo ple i n S ta ge I dem onstr a te s o m e c o m pete ncy o n a p orti o n o f a l a rg er p ro je ct b ut te nd to f o cus o n perfo rm in g d eta ile d a nd r o uti n e ta sk s. S ta ge I i n d iv id uals s h o w s o m e d ir e cte d cre ati v ity a nd c an b e d ep end ed o n to d eliv er o n ti m e a nd o n b ud get. S ta ge I i s a n im porta nt c are er s te p . I t i s th at ti m e w hen p eo ple l e arn th e r o pes a nd g ain a n i n - dep th u nd ers ta nd in g o f te chno lo gy a nd o rg aniz a ti o nal d ynam ic s. M ost i n d iv id uals sp end l im ite d ti m e i n S ta ge I a t th e b egin nin g o f th eir c are ers o r w hen th ey ta ke o n a new a ssig nm ent. B ecause th e m ajo r p sy cho lo gic al f o cus o f S ta ge I i s dep en den ce , no l e ad ers h ip i s e xhib ite d i n th is s ta ge. P eo ple i n S ta ge I a re l e d ; th ey d o n o t l e ad .

Rese arc h w ith h und re d s o f o rg aniz a ti o ns h as u nco vere d th at s o m e p eo ple n ev er le av e S ta ge I . T hey c o nti n ue to r e ly o n o th ers f o r d ir e cti o n. O th er p eo ple m ake a tr a nsiti o n f r o m S ta ge I e arly i n th eir c are ers b ut th en, b ecause th ey a re o ut o f d ate o r la ck s k ills , tr a nsiti o n b ack l a te r i n th eir c are er.

Sta ge I I.

T he s e co nd s ta ge i s co ntr ib utin g i n dep en den tly .

T his d esc rib es a s e rie s of b ehav io rs th at e nab le a p ers o n to a ssu m e r e sp onsib ility f o r a d efin ab le p ro je ct, no t to r e ly o n a s u p erv is o r b ut, i n ste ad , to w ork a uto no m ously . T his p ers o n pro duces s ig nific ant r e su lts a nd i n s o d oin g d ev elo ps g re ate r te chnic al e xp erti s e , alo ng w ith a s tr o ng r e p uta ti o n. T his p ers o n a ls o b uild s a s tr o ng n etw ork o f p ers o nal re la ti o nsh ip s. T his s ta ge o f c are er g ro w th i s a n a b so lu te g ate w ay to f u rth er pro gre ssio n. I f p eo ple c anno t p erfo rm w ell i n S ta ge I I p ositi o ns, th ey c anno t m ove on s u ccessfu lly to r o le s i n w hic h th ey w ill b e r e sp onsib le f o r a g ro up o f p eo ple .

Hav in g a p ro per s e t o f p ers o nal c ap ab iliti e s i s a no th er w ay o f s a yin g th at th e excelle nt l e ad er m ust h av e m oved s u ccessfu lly th ro ugh S ta ge I I. L ead ers c anno t sk ip th is s ta ge; i f th ey d o, th ey p ay a p ric e a s th ey m ove u p w ard i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n and th en h av e to g o b ack a nd a cq uir e s k ills th at s h o uld h av e b een a cq uir e d e arlie r in th eir c are ers . T his i s th e ti m e w hen s e lf- c o nfid ence m ust b e d ev elo ped , a s w ell as tr u st i n o ne’s o w n p erc ep ti o ns o f s itu ati o ns.

Movin g to o f a st th ro ugh S ta ge I I i s a ls o d angero us. I n m ovin g to o r a p id ly , peo ple d o n o t d ev elo p s e lf- c o nfid ence o r b uild c re d ib ility w ith o th ers i n th e org aniz a ti o n. O ur a naly sis o f th e r e se arc h d ata o n l e ad ers s h o w s th at e ffe cti v e le ad ers l e arn ed p ro fe ssio nal s k ills d urin g th is s ta ge o f th eir c are ers . W ith o ut th ese 69 sk ills , f u rth er p ro gre ss i s s e v ere ly l im ite d . L ead ers h ip i n S ta ge I I i s s o m eti m es desc rib ed a s p ers o nal l e ad ers h ip .

Sta ge I II.

T he th ir d s ta ge i s a b out co ntr ib utin g t h ro ugh o th ers , a nd e v ery e ffe cti v e le ad er o f o th ers i s a t l e ast i n S ta ge I II. M any p eo ple w ho h av e th e ti tl e o f “m anager,” h o w ev er, a re n o t i n S ta ge I II, b ut r e m ain l o cked i n S ta ge I I, e v en th o ugh th ey a re s u rro und ed b y th e tr a p pin gs o f a S ta ge I II l e ad er. T hese a re m anagers w ho co nti n ue to p ro cess c la im f o rm s o r d esig n a n ew p art b ecause i t i s m ore co m fo rta b le to f u ncti o n a s a n i n d iv id ual c o ntr ib uto r th an a s a l e ad er. F re q uentl y , th ey w ill “ cherry -p ic k” th e b est a ssig nm ents a nd c o m pete w ith th eir d ir e ct r e p orts fo r r e co gniti o n a nd r e w ard s. T hey a re u nab le o r u nw illin g to l e av e th eir c o m fo rt zo ne o f b ein g p ers o nally p ro ducti v e u sin g s o m e te chnic al ta sk s.

Sta ge I II b ehav io r r e q uir e s p eo ple to d ev elo p o th ers , to r e p re se nt th e org aniz a ti o n to c lie nts a nd e xte rn al g ro up s, a nd to b uild s tr o ng i n te rn al a nd e xte rn al netw ork s. S ta ge I II c o ntr ib uto rs a chie v e p ositi v e r e su lts a s th ey w ork w ith a nd th ro ugh o th ers . T hey h av e o rg aniz a ti o nal i m pact b y m ento rin g o th ers , b y h ead in g u p a p ro je ct te am , a nd b y ta kin g o n r e sp onsib ility f o r m uch m ore th an th eir o w n perfo rm ance. ( W hat th is m eans, o f c o urs e , i s th at th ere a re m any S ta ge I II p eo ple who d o n o t h av e th e w ord s “ su p erv is o r,” “ m anager,” o r “ d ir e cto r” i n f r o nt o f th eir nam es. T he c re ato rs o f th is u se fu l f r a m ew ork b y w hic h to u nd ers ta nd c are er g ro w th hav e d one r e se arc h th at s h o w s th ere to b e f iv e ti m es a s m any p eo ple i n S ta ge I II who d o n o t h av e a m anageria l ti tl e a s th ere a re th o se w ho h av e a f o rm al r o le a nd ti tl e .) Sta ge I V .

A s m all n um ber o f p eo ple m ove b eyo nd S ta ge I II a nd b eco m e S ta ge I V le ad ers . R ese arc h s h o w s th at o nly 5 p erc ent o f th e w ork in g p opula ti o n e nd s u p i n Sta ge I V f u ncti o ns. T hat m eans, o bvio usly , th at 9 5 p erc ent o f e v ery o ne w ork in g i n org aniz a ti o ns e nd s u p h av in g p erfe ctl y s a ti s fa cto ry c are ers with o ut m ovin g to S ta ge IV . F or th at g ro up , th ere i s o ne m ore te nt p ole th at m ust b e e re cte d to m ake th em co m ple te l e ad ers . F ir s t, l e t’ s e xam in e w hat th ey m ust a cco m plis h .

Sta ge I V l e ad ers a re th at g ro up o f i n d iv id uals i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n w ho :

• C re ate th e o vera rc hin g v is io n f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n • D efin e th e s tr a te gic d ir e cti o n o f th e f ir m • E xerc is e s tr o ng i n flu ence o ver th e c riti c al d ecis io ns th at a re m ad e • R ep re se nt th e o rg aniz a ti o n to th e o uts id e w orld , i n clu d in g c usto m ers , su p plie rs , a nd tr a d e a sso cia ti o ns • A re th e a nte nna to th e o uts id e w orld , c o lle cti n g i n fo rm ati o n a nd s c annin g th e ho riz o n f o r c hange • S hap e th e c ultu re • A llo cate r e so urc es a m ong c o m peti n g g ro up s 70 • T ra nsla te th e s tr a te gic d ir e cti o n i n to p ers o nal o bje cti v es f o r p eo ple For e ach i n d iv id ual a t e ach s ta ge, l e ad ers h ip l o oks d iffe re nt.

Tab le 3 -1 d esc rib es th e n ecessa ry e le m ents o f p ers o nal c ap ab ility f o r S ta ge I I, S ta ge I II, a nd S ta ge I V le ad ers .

Focu s o n R esu lt s Our m odel f o r e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip n o w ta kes o n a n ew d im ensio n ( Fig ure 3 -4 ). I t would b e i d eal i f w e c o uld e re ct th ese n ext tw o te nt p ole s s im ulta neo usly . T hese tw o e le m ents , F ocus o n R esu lts a nd I n te rp ers o nal S kills , r e q uir e th at C hara cte r a nd Pers o nal C ap ab ility b e i n p la ce, b ut i t a p pears to m ake n o d iffe re nce w hic h o f th ese tw o c o m ponents c o m es a fte r th at. I n d eed , th ere e xis ts a r e m ark ab le r e la ti o nsh ip betw een th ese tw o c o m ponents o f l e ad ers h ip .

How d oes a l e ad er f o cus o n r e su lts ? H ere a re s o m e o f th e w ays:

• E sta b lis h es s tr e tc h g o als f o r th eir p eo ple • T akes p ers o nal r e sp onsib ility f o r th e o utc o m es o f th e g ro up • P ro vid es o ngo in g f e ed back a nd c o achin g to h is o r h er p eo ple • S ets l o fti e r ta rg ets f o r th e g ro up to a chie v e • P ers o nally s p onso rs a n i n iti a ti v e o r a cti o n • I n iti a te s n ew p ro gra m s, p ro je cts , p ro cesse s, c lie nt r e la ti o nsh ip s, o r te chno lo gy 71 Table 3 -1 “ P ers o nal C ap ab iliti e s” f o r S ta ges I I, I II, a nd I V • F ocuse s o n o rg aniz a ti o n g o als a nd e nsu re s th at th ey a re tr a nsla te d i n to a cti o ns by h is o r h er d ep artm ent • O pera te s w ith s p eed a nd i n te nsity ; a ccele ra te s th e p ace o f th e g ro up • C ham pio ns th e c ause o f th e c usto m er • B ala nces l o ng-te rm a nd s h o rt- te rm o bje cti v es Tab le 3 -2 s h o w s h o w F ocus o n R esu lts d iffe rs f o r S ta ge I I, I II, a nd I V l e ad ers .

Pro ducin g r e su lts i s a k ey o utc o m e o f e ffe cti v e l e ad ers h ip . A s D av e U lr ic h, J a ck Zenger, a nd N orm S m allw ood n o te d i n th eir b ook Resu lts -B ase d L ea dersh ip , le ad ers h ip i s u lti m ate ly a b out p ro ducin g r e su lts .

3 W hat w e h av e d esc rib ed i n th is se cti o n a re s o m e o f th o se b ehav io rs , s k ills , a nd c o m pete ncie s th at l e ad d ir e ctl y to th e p ro ducti o n o f p ositi v e r e su lts i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n. T he a uth o rs o f Resu lts -B ase d Lea dersh ip d esc rib ed th ese a s th e “ attr ib ute s” n ecessa ry to p ro duce s p ecta cula r re su lts .

72 Fig ure 3 -4 L ead ers h ip T ent F lo or: F ocus o n R esu lts Table 3 -2 “ F ocus o n R esu lts ” f o r S ta ges I I, I II, a nd I V In o ne s tu d y o f j u st o ver 1 ,0 00 m anagers o f a l a rg e c o rp ora ti o n, w e a naly ze d th e behav io rs th at s e p ara te d th e to p 1 0 p erc ent o f i ts l e ad ers f r o m th e r e st. H ere a re so m e o f th e i te m s:

73 • T his p ers o n b rin gs i d eas i n to a cti o n.

• T his p ers o n p ush es to “ ta ke th e n ext s te p f o rw ard .” • T his p ers o n b rin gs e nerg y, e nth usia sm , a nd u rg ency to h is o r h er w ork .

• T his p ers o n l o oks f o r w ays to i m pro ve h is o r h er j o b a nd o vera ll f u ncti o n.

Noti c e th e p atte rn o f ta kin g a cti o n, c ausin g th in gs to o ccur, p ush in g f o rw ard , a nd co nti n ual i m pro vem ent. T he i m age th at c o m es to m in d i s l e ad ers w ith th eir f o ot o n th e a ccele ra to r— most o f th e ti m e, p re sse d to th e f lo orb oard .

In te rp erso n al S kills The c o m panio n s e t o f s k ills to F ocus o n R esu lts r e q uir e d f o r e ffe cti v e l e ad ers i s “p eo ple ” s k ills o r I n te rp ers o nal S kills ( Fig ure 3 -5 ). T hese a re e xtr e m ely i m porta nt to th e s u ccess o f a ny l e ad er, e sp ecia lly s in ce th e d em is e o f “ co m mand a nd c o ntr o l” sty le s o f l e ad ers h ip . T his te nt p ole , a lo ng w ith th e o ne i n th e c ente r, s u p ports th e most c anv as. I n te rp ers o nal S kills i n clu d es m ore “ d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s” th an does a ny o th er c lu ste r, a nd th ey a re th e m ost f r e q uentl y c o rre la te d w ith a ll o f th e oth er “ d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s.” What a re th e s p ecific s k ills r e q uir e d o f a S ta ge I II l e ad er w ith s tr o ng in te rp ers o nal s k ills ? H ere a re th e c o m pete ncie s:

• C om munic ati n g p ow erfu lly a nd p ro lific ally • I n sp ir in g o th ers to h ig h p erfo rm ance • B uild in g p ositi v e r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith o th ers • D ev elo pin g th e s k ills a nd ta le nts o f s u b ord in ate s • W ork in g i n a c o lla b ora ti v e m anner w ith o th ers • B ein g a n e ffe cti v e te am m em ber • R eco gniz in g a nd r e w ard in g th e c o ntr ib uti o ns o f o th ers • B ein g o pen a nd r e cep ti v e to n ew i d eas • R esp ond in g p ositi v ely to f e ed back • E ffe cti v ely r e so lv in g c o nflic ts w ith in th eir o w n d ep artm ent a nd w ith o th er gro up s o uts id e 74 Fig ure 3 -5 L ead ers h ip T ent F lo or: I n te rp ers o nal S kills • I n flu encin g p eo ple u p w ard i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n, i n a d diti o n to p eers a nd su b ord in ate s • B uild in g th e s e lf- e ste em o f o th ers , g iv in g p ositi v e i n d ic ati o ns o f th eir a b ility to su cceed • T eachin g o th ers i n a h elp fu l m anner Tab le 3 -3 s h o w s h o w I n te rp ers o nal S kills d iffe r f o r S ta ge I I, I II, a nd I V l e ad ers .

Som e w rite rs o n th e s u b je ct o f l e ad ers h ip h av e s u ggeste d th at i n te rp ers o nal sk ills a re th e m ajo r d ete rm in ant o f l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness a nd th at 8 0 p erc ent o f all o rg aniz a ti o ns’ l is ts o f c ru cia l c o m pete ncie s f o r s u ccess w ould b e i n clu d ed i n th e d im ensio n o f i n te rp ers o nal e ffe cti v eness. O ur d ata s h o w , h o w ev er, th at i f le ad ers a re g o od o nly a t i n te rp ers o nal r e la ti o nsh ip s, th ey a gain h av e a f a ir ly l o w pro bab ility o f b ein g i n th e to p 1 0 p erc ent o f a ll l e ad ers i n a f ir m .

75 Table 3 -3 “ In te rp ers o nal S kills ” f o r S ta ges I I, I II, a nd I V The P ow er o f C om bin atio ns.

F ro m a n e xp erie nce o f h is p ro fe ssio nal l ife , o ne o f th e a uth o rs r e co unts th e f o llo w in g s to ry . “ U pon r e tu rn in g f r o m a tr ip , I n o ti c ed th at my a d m in is tr a ti v e a ssis ta nt h ad a s e v ere r a sh o n th e i n sid e o f h er a rm . W e w ork ed fo r a p harm aceuti c al c o m pany, o ne o f w ho se s p ecia lti e s w as d erm ato lo gy. I jo kin gly s a id , ‘ K ath y, y o u a re n’t a v ery g o od a d verti s e m ent f o r o ur p ro ducts .’ S he exp la in ed th at s h e h ad b een to th re e d erm ato lo gis ts , w ho h ad e ach p re sc rib ed diffe re nt m ed ic ati o ns. N oth in g h ad h elp ed . I s a id , ‘W ell, w e h av e a c o nsu lti n g derm ato lo gis t d ow nsta ir s w ho i s c o nsid ere d to b e o ne o f th e b est i n th e w orld — le t’ s g o s e e h im .’ S o, th is e m in ent d erm ato lo gis t l o oked a t i t, to ok a c ultu re f r o m i t, and w hen I r e tu rn ed f r o m a no th er b usin ess tr ip , K ath y’s r a sh w as g o ne. I a sk ed what h ad h ap pened , a nd s h e s a id , ‘ D r. S cho ltz d is c o vere d th at I h ad b oth a f u ngal and b acte ria l i n fe cti o n o n m y a rm . T he p re v io us d octo rs h ad tr e ate d o ne o r th e 76 oth er. H e tr e ate d th em b oth s im ulta neo usly a nd i t c le are d u p .’ I l e arn ed f r o m th is exp erie nce th at d oin g tw o th in gs to geth er c an w ork m agic , w hile d oin g o ne a lo ne ofte n a cco m plis h es n o th in g.” In a s tu d y, w e l o oked a t m anagers w ho w ere i n th e to p q uarti le o n F ocus o n Resu lts b ut w ere n o t i n th e to p q uarti le o n I n te rp ers o nal S kills . T he l ik elih o od o f bein g p erc eiv ed a s a g re at l e ad er w as 1 3 p erc ent. C ontr a sti n g p eo ple i n th e opposite p ositi o n ( e .g ., i n th e to p q uarti le o n I n te rp ers o nal S kills a nd n o t i n th e to p quarti le o n F ocus o n R esu lts ), th ere w as a 9 p erc ent p ro bab ility o f b ein g p erc eiv ed as a g re at l e ad er. W hen w e f o und l e ad ers w ho w ere g o od a t b oth F ocus o n R esu lts and I n te rp ers o nal S kills , th e l ik elih o od o f th at p ers o n b ein g p erc eiv ed a s o ne o f th e to p 1 0 p erc ent l e ap ed to 6 8 p erc ent. T his f a ct p ow erfu lly r e in fo rc es th e i d ea th at effe cti v e l e ad ers a re n o t o ne-c elle d p eo ple , w ho f o cus m ania cally o n j u st o ne th in g.

To th e c o ntr a ry , w e h av e l e arn ed th at g re at l e ad ers d o m any th in gs w ell.

In h is b ook Tea m Z eb ra , 4 S te v e F ra ngo s d esc rib ed h is e ffo rts to tr a nsfo rm th e bla ck-a nd -w hite f ilm d iv is io n o f K odak. O ne p ow erfu l m essa ge i n th e b ook w as th at s u ccess i n c hangin g th e c ultu re o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n c am e f r o m d oin g s e v era l th in gs s im ulta neo usly . N o o ne th in g, b y i ts e lf, d id m uch. B ut th e c o m bin ati o n o f tr a in in g p ro gra m s, s u rv eys, te am b uild in g, q uality c ir c le s, a nd c o achin g i n iti a ti v es was e xtr e m ely p ow erfu l.

Lea d in g O rg an iz a tio n al C han ge What a re th e s p ecific s k ills r e q uir e d f o r L ead in g O rg aniz a ti o nal C hange ( Fig ure 3 - 6 )? H ere a re th e c o m pete ncie s:

• H as th e a b ility to b e a c ham pio n f o r c hange i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n • L ead s p ro je cts o r p ro gra m s, p re se nti n g th em s o th at o th ers s u p port th em • I s a n e ffe cti v e m ark ete r f o r h is o r h er w ork g ro up ’s p ro je cts , p ro gra m s, o r pro ducts • H as a s tr a te gic p ers p ecti v e 77 Fig ure 3 -6 L ead ers h ip T ent F lo or: L ead in g O rg aniz a ti o nal C hange • K no w s h is o r h er w ork r e la te s to th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s b usin ess s tr a te gy ( lin e-o f- sig ht c o nnecti o n) • T ra nsla te s th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s v is io n a nd o bje cti v es i n to c halle ngin g a nd meanin gfu l g o als f o r o th ers • T akes th e l o ng v ie w ; c an b e tr u ste d to b ala nce s h o rt- te rm a nd l o ng-te rm n eed s of th e o rg aniz a ti o n • C onnects th e o uts id e w orld w ith i n te rn al g ro up s • R ep re se nts th e w ork g ro up to k ey g ro up s o uts id e th e g ro up o r d ep artm ent • H elp s p eo ple u nd ers ta nd h o w m eeti n g c usto m ers ’ n eed s i s c entr a l to th e mis sio n a nd g o als o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n Tab le 3 -4 s h o w s h o w L ead in g O rg aniz a ti o nal C hange d iffe rs f o r S ta ge I I, I II, and I V l e ad ers .

78 Table 3 -4 “ L ead in g O rg aniz a ti o nal C hange” f o r S ta ges I I, I II, a nd I V Mea su rin g Y ou r C han ge L ea d ersh ip E ffe ctiv en ess One s tu d y w e c o nd ucte d i n v olv ed th e d iffe re nt te chniq ues th at l e ad ers u se to in tr o duce a s p ecific c hange i n to a w ork g ro up .

Asse ssin g Y ou r C han ge L ea d ersh ip S ty le Take a f e w m om ents to c o m ple te th e f o llo w in g s h o rt q uesti o nnair e o n y o ur u su al ap pro ach to i n tr o ducin g a c hange i n y o ur o rg aniz a ti o n.

Mak in g T actic a l C han ge 79 Lis te d b elo w a re b ehav io rs d esc rib in g d iffe re nt a p pro aches a p ers o n c o uld u se to help c re ate o rg aniz a ti o nal c hange. C ir c le th e l e tte r b esid e th e a cti o n y o u w ould most l ik ely ta ke. E ven i f y o u w ere l ik ely to d o b oth , s e le ct th e o ne a nsw er th at y o u fe el w ould h av e th e g re ate r i m pact o f a s u ccessfu l c hange e ffo rt.

1. A . M ake th e to ugh d ecis io n n ecessa ry to h elp i m ple m ent th e c hanges.

B. E nco ura ge p eo ple to e xp re ss th eir i d eas a nd o pin io ns a b out th e c hanges openly .

2. A . C om munic ate e ffe cti v ely s o o th ers s e e h o w th ese c hanges f it i n to th e pic tu re .

B. I n v olv e p eo ple i n p ro ble m s o lv in g a nd d ecis io n m akin g r e gard in g th e changes.

3. A . W hen p eo ple a re n o t c le ar a b out h o w to m ove f o rw ard o n a c hange, g et th em to c o nsid er a lte rn ati v e a p pro aches to i m ple m enti n g c hanges.

B. A cti v ely s e ek o ut i n fo rm ati o n a b out p eo ple ’s th o ughts a nd p ers p ecti v es re gard in g th e c hanges.

4. A . C lo se ly m onito r, a gain st c le ar s ta nd ard s, th e p ro gre ss p eo ple a re m akin g on th e c hange.

B. S eek e xam ple s o f th e i m pact o f th e c hanges.

5. A . L et p eo ple k no w c le arly w hat i s e xp ecte d o f th em r e gard in g th e c hanges.

B. H elp p eo ple u nd ers ta nd th e r a ti o nale b ehin d d ecis io ns r e gard in g th e changes.

6. A . K eep p eo ple f o cuse d o n th e c hanges to b e m ad e.

B. P ro vid e s u p port w hen p eo ple ta ke r is k s m akin g c hanges, e v en i f th ey fa il.

7. A . F ollo w u p w ith p eo ple o n i n d iv id ual c o m mitm ents th ey m ake to b rin g ab out c hanges.

B. E nco ura ge p eo ple to s h are i n fo rm ati o n a b out w hat’ s w ork in g a nd w hat’ s no t.

8. A . C la rify i n d iv id ual ta sk s a nd r e sp onsib iliti e s a sso cia te d w ith th e c hange effo rt.

B. F in d w ays to c re ate a nd u se d ev elo pm ent o pportu niti e s a sso cia te d w ith th e c hange e ffo rt.

9. A . F in d w ays to p ush th ro ugh th e c hanges r e gard le ss o f u nanti c ip ate d pro ble m s.

B. E nco ura ge p eo ple to r e v eal th eir tr u e f e elin gs, e v en o n h ig hly e m oti o nal 80 co ncern s r e gard in g th e c hanges.

10. A . K eep p eo ple f o cuse d o n th e c hanges, d esp ite a ny f r u str a ti o n o r oppositi o n.

B. A sk p eo ple to p re se nt th eir p oin t o f v ie w e v en w hen i t d iffe rs f r o m y o ur ow n r e gard in g th e c hange.

Tota l “ A ” _ ________ T ota l “ B ” _ ________ Count u p th e n um ber o f ti m es y o u m ark ed a nsw er “ A ” a nd a nsw er “ B .” A s y o u pro bab ly a lr e ad y d is c ern ed , th is q uesti o nnair e i s m easu rin g tw o b asic a p pro aches to i n iti a ti n g a ny c hange.

• T he f ir s t i s d ir e cti n g, m onito rin g, a nd p ush in g to m ake c erta in th e c hange pro cess i s m ovin g f o rw ard i n a s a ti s fa cto ry w ay.

• T he s e co nd a p pro ach d esc rib es th e w ay i n w hic h th e l e ad er c re ate s a c lim ate of p arti c ip ati o n a nd i n v olv em ent f o r a ll c o ncern ed .

We i n v ite th e r e ad er to a nsw er th e q uesti o n, “ W hic h p atte rn o f l e ad er b ehav io r pro duces th e m ost p ositi v e o utc o m es? ” 1. L arg ely d ir e cti v e?

2. H ig hly i n v olv in g a nd p arti c ip ato ry a p pro ach?

3. A 5 0/5 0 m ix o f th e tw o?

A: D ir e ctin g C hange Behav io rs a sso cia te d w ith d ir e cti n g c hange a re Makin g to ugh d ecis io ns i n a ti m ely f a sh io n Pro vid in g v is io n to h elp e m plo yees s e e h o w th e g ro up ’s w ork f its i n to th e b ig pic tu re Monito rin g p ro gra m s a gain st c le ar s ta nd ard s Acti v ely e nco ura gin g p eo ple to f in d n ew a nd b ette r w ays to d o th e j o b Ensu rin g d ep artm enta l/w ork u nit g o als a re c o nsis te nt w ith s tr a te gic b usin ess go als Lead in g b y e xam ple Monito rin g p erfo rm ance a gain st c le ar s ta nd ard s Letti n g e m plo yees k no w w hat i s e xp ecte d Genera ti n g n ew i d eas a b out h o w to c re ate th e c hange Follo w in g u p w ith p eo ple to e nsu re i m ple m enta ti o n B: I n vo lv in g O th ers i n C hange Behav io rs a sso cia te d w ith i n v olv in g o th ers a re 81 Enco ura gin g p eo ple to e xp re ss th eir i d eas a nd o pin io ns o penly Pro m oti n g a s p ir it o f c o opera ti o n a m ong m em bers o f th e w ork g ro up In v olv in g e m plo yees i n p ro ble m -s o lv in g a nd d ecis io n-m akin g a cti v iti e s th at hav e a n i m pact o n th em Enco ura gin g a nd f a cilita ti n g r e so lu ti o n o f c o nflic t w ith in th e w ork g ro up Acti v ely s e ekin g o ut i n fo rm ati o n a b out o th ers ’ th o ughts a nd p ers p ecti v es Moti v ati n g a nd e nco ura gin g e m plo yees Pro vid in g f e ed back i n a c o nstr u cti v e m anner ( i.e ., g iv in g s p ecific e xam ple s) Help in g e m plo yees u nd ers ta nd th e r a ti o nale b ehin d th eir d ecis io ns Cre ati n g d ev elo pm ent o pportu niti e s b y a ssig nin g a p pro pria te a nd c halle ngin g work Pro vid in g s u p port w hen e m plo yees ta ke r is k s, e v en i f th ey f a il In te rp re tin g Y our S co re s.

T his a sse ssm ent m easu re s y o ur f a v ore d te nd ency w hen yo u a p pro ach c hange. I t i s s im ila r to w hic h h and y o u f a v or ( e .g ., r ig ht h and ed , l e ft hand ed , o r a m bid extr o us). A s c o re o f 6 o n e ith er “ A ” o r “ B ” i n d ic ate s th at y o u pro bab ly h av e a s lig ht te nd ency to f a v or th at a p pro ach. A s c o re o f 7 o r m ore in d ic ate s a s tr o ng te nd ency to w ard th at a p pro ach. I t d oes n o t n ecessa rily m ean th at yo u w ould n o t e v er u se th e o th er a p pro ach, b ut y o u w ould p ro bab ly l e ad w ith y o ur fa v ore d a cti o ns.

Effe ctiv e L ea d ers C ham pio n C han ge With m ost o rg aniz a ti o ns to day i n a c o nsta nt s ta te o f c hange— fr o m d ra m ati c g ro w th to d ow nsiz in g a nd r e str u ctu rin g— a c riti c al s k ill f o r l e ad ers i s l e ad in g s u ccessfu l change e ffo rts . A tu rb ule nt b usin ess e nv ir o nm ent p uts l e ad ers to th e te st: e xcelle nt le ad ers h ip c an tu rn a s ig nific ant c hange i n to a p le asa nt j o urn ey, w here as p oor le ad ers h ip m ig ht b e b ette r d esc rib ed a s a “ tr ip to h ell.” We k no w th at th e b est l e ad ers i n sp ir e th eir tr o ops to r a lly a ro und a c hange, where as p oor l e ad ers h av e to p ush , p ers u ad e, o r e v en th re ate n e m plo yees to a ccep t change. T op-p erfo rm in g l e ad ers b eco m e e ffe cti v e m ark ete rs o f pro je cts , p ro gra m s, or p ro ducts , g ain in g s u p port f o r th em a lo ng th e w ay. C onv ers e ly , p oor l e ad ers f a il to e ngage o r c o m mit o th ers to th e c hange.

Too M uch o f a G ood T hin g A k ey l e arn in g f r o m o ur r e se arc h o n l e ad in g c hange w as th at e ith er o f th e tw o ap pro aches a ctu ally c an b e d etr im enta l i f u se d e xclu siv ely . E ffe cti v e l e ad ers u se d both a p pro aches i n a c are fu l b ala nce.

82 The m eta p ho r th at c o m es to m in d i s a p ers o n r o w in g a b oat. F or m axim um co ntr o l a nd s p eed , y o u n eed b oth o ars . O ne o ar a lo ne c ause s y o u to g o i n c ir c le s, no m atte r w hic h o ar y o u c ho ose .

For e xam ple , w hile d ir e cti n g m ay b e a g re at w ay to m ain ta in c o ntr o l, l e ad ers who s ig nific antl y f a v or d ir e cti n g c hange m ay e nd u p w ith e m plo yees f e elin g th at changes a re b ein g d one to th em b ut n o t w ith th em . C onse q uentl y , e m plo yees m ay beco m e r e sis ta nt to c hange a nd b egin to d is tr u st m anagem ent.

Additi o nally , th o se w ho h av e s tr o ng d ir e cti n g te nd encie s ty p ic ally h av e a w ell- org aniz e d p la n a nd c o m munic ate th e c hange p la n a nd p ro vid e f e ed back a b out w hat need s to b e d one d iffe re ntl y . H ow ev er, th ey o fte n f a il to h av e o pen d is c ussio ns with th eir te am a b out th e i m pact o f th e c hange.

Tho se w ho f a v or i n v olv in g o th ers i n c hange o fte n f a il to p ro vid e e no ugh dir e cti o n, l e av in g e m plo yees c o nfu se d a b out n ext s te p s, w hat th eir r o le s a re , a nd what th ey n eed to d o to k eep th e c hange m ovin g f o rw ard . A ls o , a h ig h i n v olv em ent te nd ency m ay i n d ic ate a n u nw illin gness o n th e l e ad er’s p art to ta ke r is k s o r to ta ke a d ecis iv e p ositi o n.

Our r e se arc h s h o w s c le arly th at th ese tw o s e ts o f b ehav io rs a re b oth n ecessa ry in o rd er f o r a l e ad er to m anage c hange e ffe cti v ely . L ead ers w ho d ir e ct c hange h elp th eir p eo ple k no w th e s p ecific s i n v olv ed i n th e c hange. I n v olv in g o th ers i n th e change e ffo rts i n cre ase s e m plo yee c o m mitm ent r a th er th an e m phasiz in g e m plo yee co m plia nce.

The m ore s ig nific ant th e c hange, th e m ore o f b oth i s n eed ed i n o rd er f o r a c hange to w ork e ffe cti v ely . M ayb e th is e xp la in s w hen a s tr e ngth b eco m es a l ia b ility : i t i s when p eo ple u se i t to th e e xclu sio n o f o th er b ala ncin g s k ills .

Lea d ersh ip a n d C han ge One o f th e c o m ple xiti e s o f l e ad ers h ip i s th e i s su e o f c hange. S om e h av e m ad e a co m pellin g a rg um ent th at w hat s e p ara te s “ m anagem ent” f r o m “ le ad ers h ip ” is th at le ad ers h ip h as to d o w ith c hange. W e h av e tr a d iti o nally d efin ed th e m anager’s r o le as p re se rv in g th e s ta b ility o f o rg aniz a ti o ns a nd l e ad ers a s i n str u m ents o f c hange.

But w e a gre e w ith J o hn G ard ner w hen h e w ro te :

Many w rite rs o n l e ad ers h ip ta ke c o nsid era b le p ain s to d is ti n guis h betw een l e ad ers a nd m anagers . I n th e p ro cess l e ad ers g enera lly e nd u p lo okin g l ik e a c ro ss b etw een N ap ole o n a nd th e P ie d P ip er, a nd m anagers lik e u nim agin ati v e c lo ds. T his tr o ub le s m e. I o nce h eard i t s a id o f a m an, “H e’s a n u tte rly f ir s t- c la ss m anager b ut th ere i s n ’t a tr a ce o f th e l e ad er i n him .” I a m b egin nin g to b elie v e th at h e d oes n o t e xis t. E very ti m e I 83 enco unte r u tte rly f ir s t- c la ss m anagers th ey tu rn o ut to h av e q uite a l o t o f th e l e ad er i n th em .

5 The b ig ger i s su e i s th at a ll c hange i s n o t th e s a m e. A ll c hange i s n o t c re ate d eq ual.

Tactic a l C han ge For w ant o f b ette r te rm in o lo gy, w e d esc rib e s o m e c hange a s ta cti c al. F or e xam ple :

• A n ew w ork p ro cess • A h ig her s a le s q uo ta • M ovin g i n to a n ew f a cility • I n tr o ducin g n ew te chno lo gy • I m ple m enti n g n ew p ayro ll p ro ced ure s • C hangin g th e e m plo yee b enefit p la n • I n tr o ducin g a n ew tr a in in g i n iti a ti v e • R ev is in g th e c o m pensa ti o n p la n • H ir in g f r o m th e o uts id e to f ill p ositi o ns r e q uir in g u niq ue n ew s k ills • C hangin g th e f ir m ’s o rg aniz a ti o n s tr u ctu re Tacti c al c hange i n clu d es a s a le s m anager i m ple m enti n g n ew r e p orti n g pro ced ure s to tr a ck s a le s a cti v ity b ette r; o r a c usto m er-s e rv ic e m anager im ple m enti n g a s e rie s o f m eeti n gs to b ette r i n fo rm a g ro up w ho w ill b e r e sp onsib le fo r th e i m ple m enta ti o n o f n ew p ro cesse s f o r tr a ckin g c usto m er r e q uests a nd co m pla in ts .

Str a te g ic C han ge On th e o th er h and , th ere a re s tr a te gic c hanges th at w e l o ok to l e ad ers to b rin g a b out.

In clu d ed i n th at c ate go ry a re • C re ati n g a n ew v is io n f o r th e o rg aniz a ti o n • R ed efin in g th e f u nd am enta l f o cus o f th e b usin ess ( c hangin g f r o m a p ro duct- fo cuse d b usin ess to a s e rv ic e b usin ess, o r f r o m a p ro ducti o n c ap ab ility f o cus to a c o nsu m er-m ark eti n g f o cus) • O rc hestr a te a n ew s tr a te gic i n iti a ti v e ( s u ch a s th e i m ple m enta ti o n o f S ix S ig m a th ro ugho ut th e o rg aniz a ti o n) • C hangin g th e c ultu re o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n ( fr o m a “ co m mand a nd c o ntr o l” org aniz a ti o n to o ne w ith h ig her i n v olv em ent a nd p arti c ip ati o n f r o m e v ery o ne) 84 We d efin e s tr a te gic c hange a s th e c hange th at s e ts th e i n sti tu ti o n o ff i n a n ew dir e cti o n. I t m eans a K im berly -C la rk d iv esti n g i ts e lf o f i ts f o re sts a nd p ro ducti o n pla nts a nd b eco m in g a c o nsu m er-m ark eti n g o rg aniz a ti o n. A c o m merc ia l b ank th at changes f r o m a p ro duct- fo cuse d s tr a te gy ( a v arie ty o f u niq ue p ro ducts , e ach d riv en th ro ugh a s e p ara te d ep artm ent) to a c usto m er s tr a te gy ( th e b ank n eed s to i d enti fy th e uniq ue n eed s o f d iffe re nt g ro up s o f c usto m ers a nd d eliv er a ll p ro ducts th ro ugh o ne poin t o f c o nta ct w ith th e c usto m er). S tr a te gic c hange i s F ord d ecla rin g i ts e lf a co nsu m er-m ark eti n g o rg aniz a ti o n, n o t a c ar c o m pany. T his w as a s tr a te gic d ecis io n fr o m w hic h th ey h asti ly r e tr e ate d a nd f o r w hic h th ey p aid a s e rio us p ric e.

Str a te gic a nd ta cti c al c hanges a re b oth i m porta nt. B oth a re “ re al” c hange e ffo rts , but th ey d iffe r i n s c o pe. S tr a te gic c hange ta kes th e o rg aniz a ti o n i n n ew d ir e cti o ns, where as ta cti c al c hange ta rg ets m ake th e o rg aniz a ti o n p erfo rm b ette r i n i ts c urre nt sp here .

We c o nclu d e th at th e c o m bin ati o n o f th e f o ur b uild in g b lo cks th at h av e b een desc rib ed th us f a r, C hara cte r, P ers o nal C ap ab ility , F ocus o n R esu lts a nd In te rp ers o nal S kills , i s f u nd am enta lly a ll th at 9 5 p erc ent o f a ll l e ad ers n eed . M ix in g le ad ers h ip c o m pete ncie s r e q uir e d b y d iffe re nt s ta ges h as g re atl y c o m plic ate d o ur und ers ta nd in g o f l e ad ers h ip .

Brin gin g i n th e l e ad ers h ip r e q uir e m ents o f 5 p erc ent o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n, L ead in g Change, a nd s ti r rin g th o se i n w ith th e l e ad ers h ip r e q uir e m ents f o r a ll th e r e st, co m pound s th e c o m ple xity o f l e ad ers h ip r e se arc h a nd u nd ers ta nd in g.

Our o bje cti v e a gain i s to f in d th e s im plic ity th at l ie s j u st b eyo nd th e n ecessa ry co m ple xity . W e h o pe th at b y s e p ara ti n g o ut th e k in d s o f c hange th at d iffe re nt le ad ers m ust b rin g a b out, a nd b y s e p ara ti n g th em o ut b y s ta ge, w e c an b egin to dis c o ver th at w ond erfu l s im plic ity th at l ie s j u st b eyo nd c o m ple xity .

How T hese F iv e E le m en ts o f t h e M od el I n te rrela te w it h Each O th er As w e h av e n o te d e arlie r, m uch o f p ast th in kin g a b out l e ad ers h ip h as b een th e q uest to f in d o ut, “ Is th e k ey to l e ad ers h ip h av in g h ig h i n te grity , o r i s i t a m biti o n? I s i t dev elo pin g tr u st i n p eo ple , o r i s i t b ein g a g o od p ro ble m s o lv er? ” W e h o pe th at th e re ad er w ill b e p erm anentl y d is a b use d o f th is th in kin g a nd w ill c ease to v ie w le ad ers h ip i n “ o r” te rm s, b ut w ill i n ste ad th in k a b out i t i n “ and ” te rm s. W e w ill atte m pt to d esc rib e w hy th ese l e ad ers h ip e le m ents l o gic ally g o to geth er a nd w hy dev elo pm ent e ffo rts i n o ne a re a i s l ik e f lo odin g th e p ond a nd l ifti n g a ll b oats a t th e sa m e ti m e.

1. C hara cte r i s a t th e h eart o f o ur m odel, a nd e v ery th in g r a d ia te s o ut f r o m i t. I t 85 ti e s s tr o ngly to I n te rp ers o nal S kills . A p ers o n o f q uesti o nab le c hara cte r i s n o t usu ally e ffe cti v e i n te rp ers o nally . I n e yeb all- to -e yeb all c o nv ers a ti o ns, y o u canno t h elp s e ein g i n sid e th e o th er p ers o n. W e r e co il f r o m p ho nie s. W e d o n o t enjo y b ein g w ith to ad ie s w ho b utte r u p p eo ple i n a uth o rity a nd a b use e v ery o ne els e . M ost p eo ple a v oid th o se w ho a re a rro gant o r c o nd esc end in g.

Rela ti o nsh ip s w ith s u ch p eo ple a re d is ta nt a nd s tr a in ed . I f s o m eo ne h as bro ken h er w ord to u s, w e d eal w ith h er i n a c auti o us a nd te nta ti v e w ay. T he lin k b etw een C hara cte r a nd I n te rp ers o nal S kills i s a n e xtr e m ely s tr o ng b ond .

So i s th e l in k b etw een s e lf- d ev elo pm ent ( p ers o nal c hara cte r) a nd d ev elo pin g oth ers ( in te rp ers o nal s k ills ). I t i s a ls o c le ar th at th e a b ility to i n sp ir e a nd moti v ate o th ers i s s tr o ngly l in ked to h o w p eo ple p erc eiv e th e i n te grity o f th e le ad er.

We r e tu rn to th e q uesti o n, “ If l e ad ers c an b e m ad e, th en h o w d o y o u m ake th em ?” T he l in kage b etw een c hara cte r a nd i n te rp ers o nal s k ills i s a g o od exam ple . S ocia l p sy cho lo gis ts c o nfir m th at th e e asie st w ay to c hange p eo ple ’s chara cte r, a s e xp re sse d v ia th eir a tti tu d es, i s b y g etti n g th em to b ehav e i n a new w ay. P eo ple m ake th eir a tti tu d es c o nfo rm to th eir b ehav io r.

Consid er th e c ase o f a n o ld er s u p erv is o r i n a m anufa ctu rin g p la nt. H e h as re ceiv ed n o tr a in in g o n h o w to m anage p eo ple e ffe cti v ely . H is b ehav io r i s patte rn ed a fte r th e w ay h e w as tr e ate d b y h is s u p erv is o rs . W hen a n e m plo yee makes a m is ta ke, th is s u p erv is o r c hasti s e s h im , s o m eti m es i n p ub lic . O fte n th e errin g e m plo yee m ay b e th re ate ned w ith p ote nti a l d is c ip lin e o r te rm in ati o n i f su ch m is ta kes c o nti n ue. I f a c hange n eed s to b e i m ple m ente d , th e s u p erv is o r sa ys w hat m ust n o w b e d one, b ut w ith n o e xp la nati o n o f w hy. T his s u p erv is o r would n ev er s o lic it i d eas a nd o pin io ns f r o m th e e m plo yee g ro up . T urn o ver i s hig her i n th is s u p erv is o r’s a re a, p ro ducti v ity i s b elo w a v era ge, l a b or grie v ances a re m ore f r e q uent, a nd u p per m anagem ent r e co gniz e s th at th is su p erv is o r m ust c hange. B ut h o w ? I s n ’t th is b ehav io r p art o f th is s u p erv is o r’s chara cte r? S ho rt o f e xte nsiv e p sy cho th era p y, h o w c o uld th is b e c hanged ?

Our e xp erie nce i s th at th e m ost s u re -fir e w ay to b rin g a b out b ehav io ra l change i s to h av e th is s u p erv is o r p arti c ip ate i n a tr a in in g p ro cess th at pro vid es a n ew m in d -s e t o r w ay o f th in kin g a nd th en te aches n ew b ehav io rs and s k ills . T he s u p erv is o r i s n o t to ld h o w h e m ust th in k a nd f e el, b ut s im ply i s to ld th at th ere i s g o od e v id ence o f a b ette r w ay to b ehav e. H e l e arn s h o w to desc rib e a p ro ble m i n a c alm , r a ti o nal w ay to a n e m plo yee, to a sk f o r th e em plo yees’ i d eas a b out h o w to s o lv e i t, a nd to a gre e j o in tl y o n th e b est w ay to p ro ceed . T he s u p erv is o r d is c o vers th at th is w ork s w ond ers . T he s a m e o r bette r r e su lts a re a chie v ed w ith a g re at d eal l e ss a nger. H is r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith his e m plo yees i m pro ve s ig nific antl y . T hey g re et h im l ik e a f r ie nd , n o t th e enem y. H is a tti tu d es to w ard h is s u b ord in ate s b eco m e l e ss a d vers a ria l. H e i s open to n ew i d eas th at p re v io usly w ould h av e b een i n sta ntl y r e je cte d . H is 86 chara cte r c hanges. W hy? B ecause h is b ehav io r c hanged , a nd p eo ple m ake th eir a tti tu d es c o nfo rm to th eir b ehav io r. T hat p rin cip le i s e xtr e m ely w ell docum ente d i n s o cia l p sy cho lo gy r e se arc h. I t i s a ls o tr u e, h o w ev er, th at i t beco m es a c ir c ula r p heno m eno n. A s a tti tu d es i m pro ve, b ehav io r b egin s to change a s a r e su lt.

2. C hara cte r a ls o a ffe cts th e c lu ste r l a b ele d F ocus o n R esu lts , b ut p ossib ly i n a le ss o bvio us w ay. P eo ple a ro und th e l e ad er a re o fte n s e nsiti v e to p erc eiv ed moti v es f o r d oin g th in gs. I f th e f o cus o n r e su lts i s f o r r e aso ns o f s e lf- aggra nd iz e m ent, to l o ok g o od to a b oss, to f u rth er a p oliti c al c are er i n th e f ir m , or f o r a ny o th er p erc eiv ed s e lfis h r e aso n, th en p ers o nal c hara cte r d etr a cts fr o m a ny s u ccessfu l d riv e f o r r e su lts .

Dav id M cC le lla nd , a H arv ard p sy cho lo gis t, d id e xte nsiv e r e se arc h o n th e need f o r a chie v em ent a nd i ts r o le i n p eo ple ’s b ehav io r a nd e ffe cti v eness. H is re se arc h s h o w ed th at th e s u ccess o f n ati o ns d ep end s o n th e p re se nce o r ab se nce o f th is n eed f o r a chie v em ent. H e d ev elo ped w ays to m easu re th is quality , b ut m any a ssu m ed th at i t w as s o m eth in g w ith w hic h p eo ple w ere born . M cC le lla nd d ecid ed to e xp erim ent w ith w ays to i n cre ase p eo ple ’s n eed fo r a chie v em ent. O ne te st h e u se d w as th e g am e o f q uo its . Q uo its i s a child re n’s g am e i n v olv in g a w ooden p eg o n a b ase , a nd s e v era l 8 -in ch h o ops of r o pe c alle d q uo its . T he g am e c o nsis ts o f a tte m pti n g to to ss th e q uo its o ver th e p eg f r o m a d is ta nce o f s e v era l f e et. P arti c ip ants w ere a sk ed to p la ce th e peg a nyw here th ey c ho se i n a l a rg e r o om a nd th en g et th e q uo its o nto th e p eg.

Peo ple w ith l o w l e v els o f n eed f o r a chie v em ent w ould e ith er p ut th e p eg n ear th eir f e et a nd d ro p th e q uo its o nto i t, o r th ey w ould p ut th e p eg a t a h uge dis ta nce a nd f lin g th e q uo its to w ard th e p eg w ith l ittl e h o pe o f s u ccess.

Peo ple w ith h ig h n eed f o r a chie v em ent w ould p ut th e p eg a r e aso nab le dis ta nce a w ay, s o th at a c are fu l to ss o f th e q uo its w ould h av e a r e aso nab le chance o f s u ccess. M cC le lla nd to ok th e p eo ple w ho h ad d is p la yed l ittl e o r n o need f o r a chie v em ent a nd h ad th em p erfo rm th is e xerc is e th e “ rig ht” w ay.

Over ti m e, th ese p eo ple f r o m T hir d W orld c o untr ie s d ev elo ped s tr o nger moti v ati o ns to a chie v e. B y g iv in g th em a n e xp erie nce i n f e elin g th e s u ccess o f atta in in g a p ositi v e r e su lt, th eir a tti tu d es a nd c hara cte r b egan to c hange.

6 3. P ers o nal C ap ab ility l in ks to I n te rp ers o nal S kills . T he r e sp ect a nd e ste em w ith whic h a nyo ne i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n i s v ie w ed b egin s w ith h is o r h er P ers o nal Cap ab ility . W e n o te d e arlie r th at i t i s a t S ta ge I I ( “ co ntr ib uti n g in d ep end entl y ”) th at p eo ple d ev elo p a w id e r a nge o f p ers o nal r e la ti o nsh ip s.

The ti m e w hen p eo ple a re d ev elo pin g th eir p ro fe ssio nal a nd te chnic al s k ills i s th e ti m e w hen th ey s h o uld a ls o b e d ev elo pin g s k ills th at w ill e nab le th em to work e ffe cti v ely w ith o th ers . T echnic al a nd p ro fe ssio nal e xp erti s e i s ti g htl y lin ked to d ev elo pin g o th ers a nd b uild in g r e la ti o nsh ip s.

4. P ers o nal C ap ab ility l in ks to F ocus o n R esu lts . O ne o f th e k ey r o le s a ny l e ad er 87 pla ys i s th at o f r o le m odel. W hen th e l e ad er i s p ers o nally e ffe cti v e a nd h ig hly pro ducti v e, th at e xam ple i s v ie w ed b y e v ery o ne i n v olv ed . L ead ers c anno t a sk oth ers to d o w hat th ey a re n o t d oin g.

5. F ocus o n R esu lts i s l in ked to I n te rp ers o nal S kills . W e h av e e arlie r n o te d th e unusu ally c lo se l in k b etw een th ese tw o c hara cte ris ti c s. M any l e ad ers th in k th at th e l in kage b etw een F ocus o n R esu lts a nd I n te rp ers o nal S kills i s a n or r a th er th an a n and.

T hey b elie v e th ey c an b e o ne o r th e o th er b ut n o t b oth . W here as each i s h ig hly d esir a b le b y i ts e lf, th ey a re l ik e a v oic e b ein g a m plifie d b y a gre at s o und s y ste m w hen th ey a re c o m bin ed to geth er. T he c o m bin ati o n o f th e tw o i g nite s a p ow er th at c ata p ults a p ers o n i n to th e h ig hest r e alm s o f e ffe cti v e le ad ers h ip . F ocusin g o n r e su lts a nd s e tti n g s tr e tc h g o als h av e m ulti p le l in ks to th e i n te rp ers o nal s k ills o f “ in sp ir in g a nd m oti v ati n g to h ig h p erfo rm ance” a nd to “ co lla b ora ti o n a nd te am w ork .” 6. C hara cte r l in ks to L ead in g O rg aniz a ti o nal C hange. O rg aniz a ti o ns f o llo w a le ad er w ho i s p erc eiv ed a s b ein g o f h ig h c hara cte r. T he g re ate r th e “co nnecti o n” th at i s f e lt w ith th e l e ad er, th e m ore l ik ely th e o rg aniz a ti o n i s to su p port th e c hange b ein g p ro pose d . T hat s u p port i s ti e d to p erc ep ti o ns o f th e genuin eness, c arin g, a nd i n te grity o f th e l e ad er.

7. F ocus o n R esu lts l in ks to L ead in g O rg aniz a ti o nal C hange. L ead in g org aniz a ti o nal c hange i s m ost o fte n a l o ng-te rm o bje cti v e, a nd e ffe cti v e le ad ers a re a lw ays b ala ncin g s h o rt- te rm a nd l o ng-te rm o bje cti v es. A f o cus o n re su lts i s a n ecessa ry b ala nce to th e l o nger-te rm e m phasis o n s tr a te gic c hange.

8. I n te rp ers o nal S kills l in ks to L ead in g O rg aniz a ti o nal C hange. N ow here i s th ere a h ig her r e q uir e m ent f o r c o nsu m mate i n te rp ers o nal s k ills th an i n th e in tr o ducti o n o f s tr a te gic c hange w ith in th e o rg aniz a ti o n. W heth er i t i s a n atte m pt to c hange th e c ultu re o r to i m ple m ent a m ajo r n ew i n iti a ti v e, tr u st f r o m oth ers a nd th e c o m munic ati o n s k ills o f th e l e ad er a re a b so lu te r e q uir e m ents fo r s u ccess.

88 4 TH E C O M PE TEN CY Q UEST Many w rite rs o n l e ad ers h ip ta ke c o nsid era b le p ain s to d is ti n guis h b etw een le ad ers a nd m anagers . I n th e p ro cess, l e ad ers g enera lly e nd u p l o okin g l ik e a cro ss b etw een N ap ole o n a nd th e P ie d P ip er, a nd m anagers l ik e unim agin ati v e c lo ds. T his tr o ub le s m e. I o nce h eard i t s a id o f a m an, “ H e’s an u tte rly f ir s t- c la ss m anager b ut th ere i s n ’t a tr a ce o f th e l e ad er i n h im .” I a m begin nin g to b elie v e th at h e d oes n o t e xis t. E very ti m e I e nco unte r u tte rly fir s t- c la ss m anagers th ey tu rn o ut to h av e q uite a l o t o f th e l e ad er i n th em .

—Jo hn G ard ner Not th e c ry , b ut th e f lig ht o f th e w ild d uck l e ad s th e f lo ck to f o llo w .

—Chin ese P ro verb T he m ost p re v ale nt a p pro ach to l e ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent i n r e cent y ears h as b een t h e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent. T he f u nd am enta l p re m is e i s s im ple . I d enti fy a nd d efin e t h e c o m pete ncie s o f e ffe cti v e l e ad ers i n a s p ecific o rg aniz a ti o n. ( C om pete ncie s a re t h e c o m bin ati o n o f k no w le d ge, s k ills , tr a its , a nd a ttr ib ute s th at c o lle cti v ely e nab le s o m eo ne to p erfo rm a g iv en j o b.) T hen, w hen s e le cti n g l e ad ers , c ho ose p eo ple w ho p osse ss th o se c o m pete ncie s b ecause th ey w ill h av e a m uch h ig her l ik elih o od o f s u ccess. I f y o u w ant to d ev elo p l e ad ers i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n, d esig n a cti v iti e s th at d ir e ctl y e xp and o r s tr e ngth en th o se c o m pete ncie s f o r th e l e ad ers i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

For e xam ple , i f A ja x M anufa ctu rin g d ecid ed to e m bark o n a c o m pete ncy-b ase d s y ste m , i t w ould n eed to s tu d y i ts l e ad ers to d ete rm in e w hat th e b est le ad ers h ad i n c o m mon. T o a cco m plis h th is , A ja x m ig ht r e ta in a f ir m e xp erie nced i n th is r e se arc h, a nd th at f ir m w ould f o llo w o ne o f s e v era l p ath s to d ete rm in e th e a p pro pria te c o m pete ncie s. A lte rn ati v es c o uld i n clu d e:

• C ond uct e xte nsiv e f ie ld r e se arc h w ith in th e f ir m b y a naly zin g th e r e q uir e m ents of v ario us l e ad ers h ip p ositi o ns, s tu d yin g 3 60-d egre e f e ed back r e p orts , a nd obse rv in g l e ad er b ehav io r.

• F ro m th eir e xte nsiv e e xp erie nce, p ro vid e th e o rg aniz a ti o n w ith a l is t o f co m pete ncie s, b asic ally d eriv ed f r o m p ast w ork th ey h ad c o m ple te d i n o th er sim ila r o rg aniz a ti o ns.

• A sse m ble a g ro up o f s e nio r e xecuti v es i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n a nd e lic it th eir vie w s o f th e c o m pete ncie s r e q uir e d to s u cceed .

• A sse m ble g ro up s o f p eo ple w ho w ork w ith l e ad ers a nd o bta in th eir c o lle cti v e 89 vie w s a b out th e k no w le d ge, s k ills , tr a its , a nd a ttr ib ute s r e q uir e d f o r s u ccess i n Aja x.

Afte r h av in g f o llo w ed o ne o r m ore o f th o se a v enues w ith th e h elp o f th e o uts id e co nsu lta nts , A ja x m ig ht c o nclu d e th at th e b est l e ad ers c o m monly s h are th e fo llo w in g c o m pete ncie s:

1. A h ig h l e v el o f s e lf- u nd ers ta nd in g 2. G ood p ro ble m -s o lv in g s k ills 3. A s tr o ng s e t o f p ers o nal v alu es 4. E xte nsiv e te chnic al k no w le d ge o f th e i n d ustr y 5. A sse rti v e i n te rp ers o nal b ehav io r i n g ro up m eeti n gs 6. W illin gness to m ake d ecis io ns d esp ite g re at a m big uity 7. A bility to j u ggle s e v era l p ro je cts /a cti v iti e s s im ulta neo usly 8. C om fo rt i n d ealin g w ith a d vers a ria l b ehav io r b y c o lle agues 9. B ro ad s tr a te gic th in kin g th at g o es b eyo nd ta cti c al i s su es 10. W illin gness to m ake d ecis io ns th at c ause o th ers d is c o m fo rt 11. F le xib ility a nd a gility i n f in d in g n ew w ays to a cco m plis h ta sk s 12. F orm ati o n o f s tr o ng b ond s o f tr u st w ith o th ers i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n This l is t o f c o m pete ncie s th en b eco m es th e “ to uchsto ne” b y w hic h f u rth er le ad ers h ip i s s e le cte d a nd a ro und w hic h a ll d ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s a re s tr u ctu re d .

This c o m pete ncy a p pro ach s w ep t th ro ugh h um an r e so urc e d ep artm ents . I t h as been e sti m ate d th at a t l e ast 8 0 p erc ent o f c o m panie s h av e c re ate d s u ch c o m pete ncy lis ts . T he c o m pete ncy m ovem ent p ro m is e d to b rin g s c ie nti fic o bje cti v ity to em plo yee s e le cti o n a nd d ev elo pm ent. I n d eed , w e th in k i t b ro ught g re ate r r ig o r th an pre v io usly e xis te d a nd h elp ed to i m pro ve th e h ir in g p ro cess. A nd f o r th e p ast tw o decad es, c o m panie s h av e f o cuse d th eir p eo ple d ev elo pm ent e ffo rts a ro und th ese defin ed c o m pete ncie s. I n s u m , th e a p pro ach h as i m peccab le l o gic to i t.

Why H asn ’t I t W ork ed ?

So, w hy h as th e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent n o t b orn e m ore f r u it? W hy h as i t n o t b een su ccessfu l i n h elp in g o rg aniz a ti o ns p ro duce h ig her-c alib er l e ad ers ? A s J o hn Gard ner w ro te , “ W hy d o w e n o t h av e b ette r l e ad ers h ip ? T he q uesti o n i s a sk ed o ver and o ver. W e c o m pla in , e xp re ss o ur d is a p poin tm ent, o fte n o ur o utr a ge; b ut n o answ er e m erg es.” 1 90 We th in k th e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent h ad s e v era l m ajo r f la w s.

1. I t w as to o c o m ple x. L ead ers h ip , a lo ng w ith e v ery th in g e ls e i n l ife , h as to b e re d uced to s o m e m anageab le s im plic ity . T he c o m pete ncy m ovem ent p ush ed i n exactl y th e o pposite d ir e cti o n.

2. I t w as b ase d o n s o m e f a ulty a ssu m pti o ns. M ost o f th e p ro ble m s w ith th e co m pete ncy m ovem ent s te m f r o m th ese q uesti o nab le b elie fs . O nce r e co gniz e d and c o rre cte d , w e b elie v e th e b asic p re m is e i s s o und a nd h as th e p ote nti a l to make a m uch m ore u se fu l c o ntr ib uti o n.

3. I t p ro duced s e v era l u nin te nd ed c o nse q uences. M any w orth w hile p ro gra m s a nd pro je cts i n o rg aniz a ti o ns p ro duce u nin te nd ed c o nse q uences. T he c o m pete ncy movem ent h as p ro duced a n um ber. A gain , i f th ey a re i d enti fie d , a nd w ays a re fo und to r e m ed y th o se c o nse q uences, th e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent s h o uld g o fo rw ard .

4. I t s u ffe re d f r o m p oor e xecuti o n. A s w ith m ost i n iti a ti v es, th e s tr a te gy c an b e so und , b ut i f th e e xecuti o n i s f la w ed , i t d oes n o t s u cceed . A b ig p orti o n o f th e pro ble m w ith th e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent h as b een a l a ck o f e xecuti o n o n th e fu nd am enta ls th at b egan th e m ovem ent.

Our o bje cti v e i s to h elp th e r e ad er u nd ers ta nd w hat h as g o ne w ro ng, b ut m ore im porta nt, h o w th is b asic a p pro ach c an b e f ix ed a nd m ad e m ore e ffe cti v e.

1. C om ple xit y One l a rg e p ub lic -s e cto r o rg aniz a ti o n h ad a n o uts id e c o nsu lta nt c re ate a l is t o f co m pete ncie s f o r e ach o f th re e p ay b and s i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n. E ach p ay b and ( o r sa la ry g ro up ) h ad 1 73 to 1 75 s p ecific b ehav io rs d efin ed f o r i t, w hic h i n tu rn w ere org aniz e d i n to 1 5 g enera l c o m pete ncie s. I m agin e a l is t o f 1 75 b ehav io rs th at y o u were e xp ecte d to u nd ers ta nd a nd s o m eho w a p ply to y o ur w ork . I t i s p ate ntl y rid ic ulo us. F ew p eo ple c o uld e v er c o m pre hend th e m eanin g o f th is a m ount o f co m ple xity , l e t a lo ne p ut i t i n to a cti o n.

Alth o ugh th at i s a n e xtr e m e e xam ple , i t i s n o t u nusu al to s e e o rg aniz a ti o ns w ith lis ts o f 3 0 to 5 0 c o m pete ncie s f o r th eir l e ad ers to b e e v alu ate d a nd d ev elo ped again st. C om ple xity h as b eco m e a m ajo r d ete rre nt to e ffe cti v e i m ple m enta ti o n.

2. S om e F au lt y A ssu m ptio n s a b ou t C om pete n cie s There a re s e v era l i m porta nt a ssu m pti o ns u nd erly in g th e f o cus o n c o m pete ncie s.

They w ere s e ld om s ta te d o vertl y , s o l e t u s tr y :

1. E ach o rg aniz a ti o n p osse sse s i ts o w n u niq ue s e t o f a ttr ib ute s o r c o m pete ncie s.

2. C om pete ncie s w ith in e ach p ers o n a re d is ti n ct a nd s e p ara te f r o m e ach o th er.

They c an b e i s o la te d a nd s tu d ie d a s i f th ey w ere s e p ara te c hro m oso m es i n a 91 pers o n’s g eneti c m akeup .

3. T he m ore s im ila rity o r c o ngru ence b etw een a n i n d iv id ual a nd th e org aniz a ti o n’s u niq ue p atte rn , th e b ette r l e ad er h e o r s h e w ill b e.

4. C om pete ncie s a re a ll o f r o ughly e q ual i m porta nce.

5. T he b est w ay to d ev elo p a ny c o m pete ncy i s to f o cus d ir e ctl y o n th at s p ecific tr a it o r b ehav io r. W ork in g h ard er a nd l o nger a t i t w ill m ake y o u b ette r a t i t, and th ere fo re m ake y o u a b ette r l e ad er.

Unfo rtu nate ly , i t n o w a p pears th at m ost o f th ese a ssu m pti o ns d o n o t c o in cid e with th e c urre nt r e ality , n o r a re th ey r e in fo rc ed b y o ur c urre nt r e se arc h.

Corre ctin g t h e A ssu m ptio n s Assu m ptio n 1 . C om pete n cie s a re u niq ue t o e a ch o rg aniz a tio n.

Fact:

D esp ite th e e ffo rts to c re ate d is ti n cti v e l is ts o f c o m pete ncie s, th ere i s a re m ark ab le s a m eness a b out th em f r o m o ne c o m pany to a no th er. S ev era l exp la nati o ns f o r th is c o m e to m in d . T he f ir s t i s th at th e r e q uir e m ents to w ork in o ne co m pany o r p ub lic o rg aniz a ti o n a re n o t th at d iffe re nt f r o m th o se i n a no th er. P eo ple are p eo ple w here v er th ey w ork . W hat m akes f o r s u ccess i n o ne f ir m i s a c arb on co py o f w hat c ause s s u ccess i n a no th er.

The a uth o rs h av e l o ng f e lt th at th e d iffe re nces b etw een p eo ple w ith in a ny o ne org aniz a ti o n a re c erta in ly a s l a rg e o r l a rg er th an th o se b etw een o rg aniz a ti o ns i n th e sa m e i n d ustr y , a nd p ro bab ly b etw een a ll o rg aniz a ti o ns. T hat i s , th e d iffe re nces betw een th e p eo ple w ho w ork f o r A ja x M anufa ctu rin g i n q uality a ssu ra nce a nd sa le s, o r th o se i n a cco unti n g a nd m ark eti n g, o r b etw een th e p eo ple i n r e se arc h a nd dev elo pm ent i n c o ntr a st w ith th o se i n m ain te nance— th o se d iffe re nces a re u su ally la rg e, a nd e v ery b it a s l a rg e a s th e d iffe re nces b etw een th e p eo ple f r o m A ja x Manufa ctu rin g a nd th o se f r o m i ts c o m peti to r, B ehem oth M anufa ctu rin g. A nd th ese diffe re nces a re p ro bab ly a s l a rg e a s th e d iffe re nces b etw een A ja x a nd th e C arth age Corp ora ti o n i n th e n eig hb orin g s ta te .

Ano th er e xp la nati o n i s th at th e s a m e c o nsu lti n g f ir m s a re d oin g th e c o m pete ncy analy sis , a nd th eir p ro cesse s f e rre t o ut th e s a m e th in gs w here v er th ey g o . M uch o f th e r e se arc h o n c o m pete ncie s h as b een d one b y a r e la ti v ely s m all g ro up o f co nsu lti n g f ir m s.

Fin ally , i t i s p ro bab le th at th ere a re a h and fu l o f f a cto rs th at w ill a lw ays a cco unt fo r o vera ll l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness. L yle S pencer w rite s i n h is b ook Com pete n ce at W ork “ th at th e c o m pete ncie s o f a chie v em ent o rie nta ti o n, i n flu ence a nd p ers o nal effe cti v eness w ill l ik ely a cco unt f o r 8 0–98 p erc ent o f a ll c o m pete ncy m odels .” 2 Assu m ptio n 2 . C om pete n cie s a re u niq ue a nd d is tin ctiv e t r a its o r q ualitie s posse sse d b y a n i n div id ual.

92 Fact:

O ne o f th e m ost d ra m ati c d is c o verie s o f o ur a naly sis i s th e m assiv e l in kage betw een c o m pete ncie s. T he l in kage w e a re ta lk in g a b out d oes n o t c o nsis t o f a hand fu l o f c o m pete ncie s th at a re s lig htl y l in ked to e ach o th er. I n ste ad , n early e v ery co m pete ncy w e s tu d ie d w as h ig hly c o rre la te d w ith m any o th ers . R ath er th an b ein g se p ara te a nd d is ti n ct, e ach o rg aniz a ti o n’s c o m pete ncie s w ere l ik e a th re e- dim ensio nal s p id er w eb , i n w hic h a ny p la ce y o u to uch i s l in ked to c o untl e ss o th er str a nd s i n th e w eb .

It a p pears th at th e r e se arc hers w ho w ere d riv in g th e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent wante d to m ake c o m pete ncie s a p pear u niq ue a nd d is ti n cti v e. S o th e r e se arc h w as done i n a w ay th at g av e th e a p peara nce o f s e p ara ti o n b etw een th e c o m pete ncie s.

Noth in g i s f u rth er f r o m th e tr u th . W ith s u ch c o m ple x, s tr o ng l in ks b etw een co m pete ncie s, i t b eco m es p ro ble m ati c e v en to g iv e th em i n d iv id ual l a b els .

Let u s a tte m pt o ne m ore m eta p ho r. I m agin e a j a r o f j e lly b eans, a ll d iffe re nt co lo rs a nd f la v ors . A t f ir s t g la nce th ey l o ok s e p ara te . T hen y o u s e e th at ti n y w ir e s are c o nnecti n g th em to geth er. Y ou p ic k u p o ne a nd 2 5 m ore a re r a is e d u p w ith i t.

You c an n am e th e w hite j e lly b ean “ F le xib ility ” a nd p re te nd th at i t i s a n e nti ty to its e lf. B ut th e r e ality i s th at i t c anno t b e s e p ara te d f r o m th e o th ers . T his r a is e s a fa sc in ati n g q uesti o n: I f th e j e lly b eans a re i n extr ic ab ly l in ked to geth er, th en i s th ere su ch a th in g a s th e o ne w hite o ne? O r w ould i t b e m ore a ccura te to l o ok a t th em i n hand fu ls ? W ould i t b e b ette r to f a ce th e r e ality th at th ey a re s tu ck to geth er? W e th in k s o .

Late r i n th is c hap te r w e p re se nt o ur v ie w s o f w hy c o m pete ncie s a re l in ked to geth er. L ate r c hap te rs p re se nt o th er i m porta nt f in d in gs a b out th e i m porta nce o f multi p le c o m pete ncie s, a nd i n sig hts a b out h o w l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness i n cre ase s when c o m pete ncie s a re s tr a te gic ally p ositi o ned i n d iffe re nt c lu ste rs o f b ehav io rs .

Assu m ptio n 3 . T he m ore c o ngru en ce t h ere i s b etw een t h e o rg aniz a tio n’s d efin ed co m pete n cie s a nd t h e i n div id ual’ s , t h e g re a te r i s t h e l ik elih ood o f s u ccess.

Fact:

T his i s th e o nly o ne o f th e a ssu m pti o ns th at o ur d ata d o n o t c halle nge.

How ev er, th e v alid ity o f th e a ssu m pti o n h in ges o n w heth er th e o rg aniz a ti o n h as em pir ic ally d eriv ed i ts o w n l is t o f c o m pete ncie s a nd w heth er th ere a re g o od w ays to m easu re a n i n d iv id ual’ s c o m pete ncie s. O ur d ata c o nfir m ed th at l e ad ers w ho se pro file s w ere c o m pati b le w ith th e h ig h p erfo rm ers i n th e o rg aniz a ti o n w ere m uch more l ik ely to b e h ig hly r a te d th an th o se w ho w ere n o t.

Assu m ptio n 4 . A ll c o m pete n cie s h ave r o ughly t h e s a m e i m porta nce.

Fact:

T here a re h uge d iffe re nces b etw een c o m pete ncie s’ i m porta nce. A s d esc rib ed earlie r, w e b egan b y i d enti fy in g th e to p ti e r o f a ll l e ad ers a s s e en b y th eir p eers , su b ord in ate s, a nd b osse s, a nd c o m parin g th at g ro up w ith th e l o w est- ra te d g ro up .

The q uesti o n w as, “ W hat s e p ara te s th ese h ig h a nd l o w g ro up s f r o m e ach o th er? ” The r e su lt w as th e i d enti fic ati o n o f 1 6 c o m pete ncie s th at a ctu ally s e p ara te d th e h ig h and l o w g ro up s. T hese c o m pete ncie s, s e le cte d f r o m a p ool o f 5 0 o r m ore , c an b e 93 gro up ed i n to th e s a m e c ate go rie s a s th e m odel w e i n tr o duced i n Chap te r 1 , a nd a re tr e ate d m ore th o ro ughly l a te r i n th is c hap te r.

For e xam ple , a c o m mon m yth i n m any o rg aniz a ti o ns i s th at e ffe cti v e e xecuti v es are p ro m pt a nd p unctu al. T hey a rriv e a t m eeti n gs o n ti m e a nd d on’t k eep o th ers waiti n g. O ur d ata s h o w , h o w ev er, th at th e l o w est- ra te d e xecuti v es w ere a s a p t to be p unctu al f o r m eeti n gs a s th e b est. S o, w hile w e a re i n n o w ay a d vocati n g th at ev ery o ne s h o w s u p l a te to th e n ext s ta ff m eeti n g, w e th in k i t i s als o i m porta nt to poin t o ut th at y o ur p unctu ality w ill n o t e le v ate y o u a b ove o th er p eo ple . S im ply p ut, in effe cti v e e xecuti v es a re a ls o h ig hly p unctu al.

If y o u w ant to w ork o n i m pro vin g y o ur l e ad ers h ip c ap ab iliti e s, w e a d vocate fo cusin g o n b ehav io rs th at tr u ly m ake a d iffe re nce. S o w hat a re th ey? W e p re se nt th ese l a te r i n th is c hap te r.

Assu m ptio n 5 . C om pete n cie s a re b est d evelo ped b y a d ir e ct f o cu s o n t h at s p ecific co m pete n cy.

Fact:

O ur r e se arc h s u ggests th at o ne c o m pete ncy i s d ev elo ped i n th e p ro cess o f dev elo pin g a no th er. T hey a p pear to b e, i n m any c ase s, b y-p ro ducts o f o ne a no th er.

That m eans th at th e d ir e ct l in ear m eth o d i s n o t th e o nly w ay to d ev elo p o r str e ngth en a c o m pete ncy. I n d eed , th ere m ay b e b ette r a nd e asie r w ays th at c o m e i n fr o m th e s id es a nd th e b ack, r a th er th an m ere ly h itti n g i t s tr a ig ht o n.

Chap te r 8 exp and s o n th is c o ncep t.

3. U nin te n ded C on se q uen ces The l a rg est d ra w back o f th e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent m ay h av e b een i ts u nfo re se en by-p ro ducts . W e th in k th at th e c o m pete ncy m ovem ent h as s e nt a s e rie s o f i m plic it messa ges to l e ad ers . T hese i n clu d e:

• C om pete ncie s a re a c hecklis t, a nd th e l e ad er’s o bje cti v e i s to c heck e ach o ne of th em o ff. Y ou e ith er h av e i t o r y o u d o n o t.

• E very o ne n eed s to b e a d eq uate i n a ny g iv en c o m pete ncy.

Chap te r 2 em phasiz e d th at “ ad eq uate ” i s n o t th e c o rre ct ta rg et. T he ta rg et n eed s to b e “extr a o rd in ary ,” n o t a d eq uate .

• T he e m phasis h as b een a lm ost e xclu siv ely o n th o se c o m pete ncie s o n w hic h yo u a re p erc eiv ed a s b ein g d efic ie nt. T he i m plic ati o n i s th at th e g re ate st v alu e co m es f r o m m ovin g a w eakness to a m id dle r a nge w here i t n o l o nger s ta nd s out.

• N o e m phasis h as b een g iv en to ta kin g a r e la ti v e s tr e ngth a nd m akin g i t “ o ff- th e- chart” s tr o ng. U nw itti n gly , th is h as c o ntr ib ute d to o ur g enera l p atte rn o f “aim in g l o w .” • I t h as d riv en o ut o th er p ow erfu l a nd p ra cti c al te chniq ues f o r d ev elo pin g 94 peo ple . M anagem ent e xp erts r a ngin g f r o m P ete r D ru cker to T ho m as G ilb ert hav e p ro pose d a n e xtr e m ely e ffe cti v e w ay to i m pro ve p ro ducti v ity a nd perfo rm ance i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n. T hey a d vocate d i d enti fy in g to p p erfo rm ers a nd th en c are fu lly d ete rm in in g what th ey d o d iffe re ntl y f r o m e v ery o ne e ls e . I n ev ery a cti v ity i n a n o rg aniz a ti o n b ein g p erfo rm ed b y a n um ber o f p eo ple , o ne pers o n f ig ure s o ut e xtr e m ely e ffic ie nt w ays to g et th e j o b d one. T hat m ay co nsis t o f c le v er s h o rtc uts o r s tr e am lin ed w ork p ro cesse s. O r, i t m ay c o nsis t o f more e ffic ie nt w ays to w ork w ith c o lle agues i n o th er d ep artm ents . R ese arc h o n th e p ro ducti v ity o f w ork ers s h o w s h uge d iffe re nces b etw een th e p eo ple d oin g esse nti a lly th e s a m e ta sk s.

To d is c o ver w hat th ese s ta r p erfo rm ers a re d oin g d iffe re ntl y r e q uir e s c are fu l obse rv ati o n o f th em , a lo ng w ith i n te rv ie w s a b out th eir th o ught p ro cesse s a nd te chniq ues. T hen, u sin g th ese s a m e p eo ple ( o r o th er tr a in ers ), te ach e v ery o ne i n th e fir m to a d opt th e b est te chniq ues o f th ese to p p erfo rm ers .

This e xtr e m ely o bvio us a nd l o gic al m eth o d f o r i m pro vin g p erfo rm ance h as m et with g re at r e sis ta nce. F ew o rg aniz a ti o ns u se th is o bvio us m eans o f l ifti n g perfo rm ance to th e r a fte rs . T hat r e sis ta nce c o m es f r o m th e “ m in d -s e t” m any managers h av e th at s e ts m ajo r b ound arie s a ro und w hat th e a v era ge p ers o n i s cap ab le o f b eco m in g o r p ro ducin g. E xecuti v es j u st c anno t b elie v e th at n early ev ery o ne c an p erfo rm a t a h ig h l e v el. M ost e xecuti v es th in k th at p eak p erfo rm ance is r e se rv ed f o r j u st a f e w . T hese e xecuti v es b elie v e th at w e s im ply c anno t e xp ect or a tta in h ig h p erfo rm ance f r o m th e g re at m ajo rity o f o ur p eo ple — in clu d in g o ur managers a nd l e ad ers .

Rig id ly d efin ed c o m pete ncie s a ls o m ay h av e th e u nin te nd ed c o nse q uence o f cre ati n g c o okie -c utte r p eo ple i n sid e th e o rg aniz a ti o n. I f th e c o m pete ncy s y ste m w as im ple m ente d , w ould e v ery o ne a p pear to b e c ut f r o m th e s a m e m old ? H ow , th en, does th e o rg aniz a ti o n a ttr a ct a nd r e ta in th e m av eric k w ho i s s o v alu ab le i n challe ngin g th e s ta tu s q uo ? A re th e w ild d ucks k ille d j u st a fte r th ey h atc h? T he co ncern i s th at, o ver ti m e, s a m eness c re ate s a h o m ogeneity th at b eco m es m in d - num bin g, a nd th e c ultu re d ev olv es i n to o ne o f a nti - in no vati o n.

4. P oor E xecu tio n The b asic p re m is e o f c o m pete ncie s w as th at th ey w ould b e c re ate d f r o m e xte nsiv e analy sis o f h ard d ata , n o t s e nio r e xecuti v es’ p ers o nal s p ecula ti o ns. H ow ev er, th at has n o t o ccurre d . I n d eed , a s o ne w rite r o bse rv ed , “ M ost o f th e c urre nt a cti v ity go in g o n u nd er th e b anner o f c o m pete ncy m odelin g i s r e ally o nly l is t m akin g.” 3 What h ad p ro m is e d to b e e xtr e m ely r ig o ro us h as e v olv ed i n to a p ro cess o f co m pilin g th e c o lle cti v e b elie fs o f s o m e s e nio r m anagers r e gard in g th e im porta nt attr ib ute s o f l e ad ers i n th e f ir m . M axin e D alto n, o f th e C ente r f o r C re ati v e Lead ers h ip , w rite s, “ S ev enty p erc ent o f th e c o m pete ncy m odels I s e e a re j u st l is ts 95 of p ositi v e a ttr ib ute s th at m ay o r m ay n o t h av e a nyth in g to d o w ith m anagem ent effe cti v eness. T hey r e fle ct a h alf- d ay, o ff- s ite m eeti n g w ith s e nio r m anagers i n whic h a l is t i s m ad e w ith th e u nd erly in g i m plic ati o n, ‘ If th e C EO s a ys i t’ s a co m pete ncy, i t’ s a c o m pete ncy.’ ” 4 To b e a p plic ab le to th e e nti r e f ir m , th e c o m pete ncie s o f n ecessity a re q uite bro ad a nd e nco m passin g. T he m ore g enera l th e c o m pete ncie s b eco m e, th e l e ss accura te th ey a re . H ow ev er, m ost l a rg e o rg aniz a ti o ns h av e d ecid ed th at i t i s to o co m plic ate d a nd e xp ensiv e to c re ate c o m pete ncie s f o r e ach d ep artm ent o r s e cti o n of th e o rg aniz a ti o n.

Ano th er e xecuti o n i s su e i s th at c o m pete ncie s a re f o cuse d o n p ast r e q uir e m ents fo r e ffe cti v eness, a nd n o t w hat th e f u tu re w ill r e q uir e o f l e ad ers . T his te nd ency to “lo ok i n th e r e ar-v ie w m ir ro r” te nd s to c re ate l e ad ers w ho l o ok a nd a ct l ik e th e curre nt g ro up , w hic h m ay b e e xactl y w hat k ills th e o rg aniz a ti o n i n th e f u tu re . T o th e exte nt th at c o m pete ncie s a re u se d f o r d ev elo pm enta l p urp ose s, th e c o m pete ncie s sh o uld r e fle ct a b iliti e s a nd b ehav io rs r e q uir e d i n th e f u tu re , n o t th e p ast o r p re se nt.

They s h o uld a ls o d esc rib e th e a b ility to l e arn th o se s k ills r e q uir e d f o r f u tu re su ccess.

The c o m pete ncie s a re n o t b ein g u se d f o r s e le cti o n a nd p ro m oti o n p urp ose s.

Many o rg aniz a ti o ns c o m pla in th at a lth o ugh H um an R eso urc es h as th e l is t o f ap pro ved c o m pete ncie s, th ey a re n o t f in d in g th eir w ay i n to th e d ay-to day h ir in g a nd pro m oti o n o f p eo ple .

• T hey a re e xp ensiv e to d o w ell a nd n eed m ain te nance o ver ti m e, a s org aniz a ti o ns e v olv e, m erg e, d iv est, g lo baliz e , a nd c hange th eir a cti v iti e s.

• D ev elo pm ent p ro gra m s h av e n o t b een ta ilo re d a ro und th em to a ny l a rg e measu re . I t i s c o m plic ate d to f in d d ev elo pm enta l a cti v iti e s f o r m any o f th e co m pete ncie s. P lu s, th e c o m pete ncy l is ts g iv e l ittl e h elp i n g uid in g u s to w ays in w hic h p eo ple m ig ht a tta in th ese s k ills .

Why C om pete n cie s a re L in ked T ogeth er We r e ad ily c o nfe ss th at w e d o n o t c o m ple te ly k no w th e a nsw er to th is q uesti o n.

Our c urre nt r e se arc h m eth o ds d o n o t g iv e u s th e v is ib ility o r e v id ence n eed ed to answ er th is q uesti o n f u lly . W e a re r a th er c o nfid ent, h o w ev er, th at th ere a re fo ur pla usib le e xp la nati o ns. W e th in k a ll a re a t w ork , b ut i t i s i m possib le to d efin e pre cis e ly h o w m uch o f th e l in kage i s a ttr ib ute d to o ne o f th ese f o rc es v ers u s th e oth ers .

The f o ur e xp la nati o ns a re th e f o llo w in g:

1. A s tr e ngth i n o ne c o m pete ncy c re ate s a p ow erfu l “ halo ,” s o th at c o lle agues, 96 wheth er s u b ord in ate s, p eers , o r b osse s, p erc eiv e th e i n d iv id ual a s b ein g effe cti v e i n a n um ber o f o th er a re as b ecause o f a s tr e ngth i n o ne.

2. I n th e p ro cess o f d ev elo pin g a ny o ne s tr e ngth , th e i n d iv id ual d ev elo ps o th er sk ills . G etti n g g o od a t s o m eth in g e nab le s y o u to b e m ore p ro fic ie nt a t s e v era l oth er r e la te d a cti v iti e s. W e h av e l a b ele d th is th e “ cro ss-tr a in in g” e ffe ct.

3. S elf- c o nfid ence i s i n cre ase d w hen a ny s k ill i s a cq uir e d a nd p ro duces s u ccess.

Peo ple o fte n p osse ss s k ills b ut d o n o t u se th em , b ecause th ey l a ck th e s e lf- co nfid ence to tr y th em . S uccess i n d ev elo pin g o ne c o m pete ncy i n cre ase s co nfid ence, w hic h l e ad s to tr y in g a no th er.

4. A sp ir a ti o n l e v el i n cre ase s w hen p eo ple s u cceed i n a ny o ne d im ensio n. I t enco ura ges th e i n d iv id ual to s e t h is o r h er s ig hts h ig her a nd h ig her i n o th er re alm s.

1. T he P ow er o f t h e “ H alo E ffe ct” Solo m on A sc h i n 1 946 d id e xp erim ents o n h o w p eo ple f o rm i m pre ssio ns o f oth ers .

5 H is th eo ry w as th at p erc ep ti o ns a re f o rm ed f r o m o ur v ie w o f a n e nti r e pers o n r a th er th an b y f o cusin g o n i n d iv id ual tr a its a nd c hara cte ris ti c s. I n o th er word s, p eo ple ’s p erc ep ti o ns a re c re ate d f r o m o ur v ie w o f th e w ho le p ers o n r a th er th an a r a ti o nal e v alu ati o n o f e ach i n d iv id ual p ie ce. T o p ro ve th is th eo ry A sc h dev is e d a n i n genio us e xp erim ent. H e g enera te d l is ts o f a ttr ib ute s th at d esc rib ed a n in d iv id ual. T he l is ts w ere r e ad to tw o d iffe re nt e xp erim enta l g ro up s.

Tab le 4 -1 sh o w s th e c hara cte ris ti c s o n e ach l is t.

As c an b e r e ad ily n o te d b y r e ad in g th ro ugh th e tw o l is ts , th ey a re i d enti c al excep t f o r tw o w ord s. L is t A h as th e a ttr ib ute “ W arm ,” w here as L is t B h as “ C old .” Afte r b ein g p ro vid ed e ith er L is t A o r L is t B , e ach g ro up w as th en g iv en a n ad diti o nal l is t o f a ttr ib ute s a nd i n str u cte d to i n d ic ate o th er q ualiti e s a n i n d iv id ual mig ht h av e. S ub sta nti a l d iffe re nces w ere f o und b etw een a ttr ib ute s m ark ed b y gro up s w ho h ad L is t A a nd th o se f r o m g ro up s th at h ad L is t B .

Table 4 -1 L is t o f P ers o nal A ttr ib ute s Gro up s g iv en L is t A w ould c ho ose a d diti o nal q ualiti e s s u ch a s h ap py, im agin ati v e, g o od-n atu re d , g enero us, h um oro us, w is e , h um ane, p opula r, a ltr u is ti c , 97 and s o cia b le . G ro up s g iv en L is t B d id n o t s e le ct th o se s a m e a ttr ib ute s. T here w ere , ho w ev er, s o m e a ttr ib ute s, s u ch a s s e rio us, s tr o ng, r e lia b le , p ers is te nt, h o nest, a nd im porta nt, th at w ere e q ually l ik ely to b e c ho se n o n e ith er l is t.

Fro m a b rie f l is t o f a f e w a ttr ib ute s, p eo ple g enera liz e to a b ro ad er s e t o f attr ib ute s. O nce a gain , th is r e in fo rc es th e b elie f th at p eo ple f o rm a n i m pre ssio n o f a pers o n a s a w ho le , a nd th ere fo re th ey a ttr ib ute a d diti o nal c hara cte ris ti c s e v en th o ugh th ey h av e b een g iv en n o s p ecific i n fo rm ati o n a b out th e p ers o n.

It i s i n tu iti v e to m ost p eo ple , j u st b ase d o n th eir e xp erie nce w ork in g w ith o th ers , th at c erta in tr a its a nd b ehav io rs g o to geth er. T he A sc h e xp erim ents c o nfir m th at, and w e s u sp ect th at th e r e ad er w ill e asily th in k o f m any e xam ple s o f th is . P eo ple ’s dre ss, f a cia l c hara cte ris ti c s, c o untr y o f o rig in , o r m anner o f s p eech a ll tr ig ger ste re o ty p es th at w e h av e i n o ur m in d s. S te re o ty p es p ers is t b ecause th ere i s j u st eno ugh tr u th i n th em to m ake th em c o nti n ue to l iv e.

Ano th er r e se arc her te ste d A sc h’s b asic th eo ry o nly th is ti m e h ad s u b je cts actu ally c o m e i n c o nta ct w ith a p ers o n. H . H . K elly , i n a f o llo w -u p e xp erim ent, h ad stu d ents e v alu ate te achers .

6 B efo re a tte nd in g a b rie f l e ctu re , th e s tu d ents w ere pro vid ed a b rie f b io gra p hic al s k etc h o f e ach te acher. T he d esc rip ti o ns w ere e xactl y th e s a m e e xcep t th at f o r s o m e s tu d ents , a te acher w as d esc rib ed a s w arm , w here as fo r o th er s tu d ents , th e s a m e te acher w as d esc rib ed a s c o ld . T he i n str u cto r th en g av e a 2 0-m in ute l e ctu re . A fte r th e p re se nta ti o n, s tu d ents r a te d th e i n str u cto r. T he stu d ents w ho h ad “ w arm ” a s p art o f th e i n str u cto r’s b io gra p hy e v alu ate d th e in str u cto r m ore p ositi v ely th an d id th o se f o r w ho m “ co ld ” h ad b een l is te d . T his sh o w ed th at th e s tu d ents ’ p erc ep ti o ns w ere s tr o ngly i n flu enced b y th e w ritte n bio gra p hic al s k etc h a nd th at th ese p erc ep ti o ns w ere n o t a lte re d b y s u b se q uent in te ra cti o ns w ith th e p ers o n.

Table 4 -2 L is t o f P ers o nal A ttr ib ute s The A sc h a nd K elly r e se arc h r e in fo rc e a p ow erfu l c o nclu sio n. S om e a ttr ib ute s, su ch a s “ w arm ” o r “ co ld ,” a re c entr a l tr a its . W hen a p ers o n i s p erc eiv ed to p osse ss th at c hara cte ris ti c , o th ers i m med ia te ly i m pute ta g-a lo ng c hara cte ris ti c s. T hese a re glu ed to th e c entr a l tr a it.

We i n v ite th e r e ad er to p arti c ip ate i n a q uic k e xp erim ent th at i llu str a te s th is poin t. I n Tab le 4 -2 , d ra w l in es b etw een th e tr a its th at g o to geth er. M atc h o ne f r o m th e l e ft- h and c o lu m n w ith o ne f r o m th e r ig ht- h and c o lu m n. T his e xam ple c o m es fr o m r e se arc h c o nd ucte d b y th re e p sy cho lo gis ts , R ose nb erg , N els o n, a nd Viv ekananth an, w ho c o nd ucte d a s tu d y i n w hic h p eo ple w ere a sk ed to i n d ic ate th e 98 re la ti o nsh ip s a m ong 6 4 d iffe re nt tr a its .

7 T he r e se arc hers f o und th at v ario us tr a its clu ste r to geth er i n g ro up s. T hat i s , i f I h av e q uality A , th en p eo ple a re v ery l ik ely to belie v e I h av e q uality B .

Fro m th eir r e se arc h, th ey f o und th at th e f o llo w in g tr a its te nd ed to b e c lu ste re d to geth er:

(A ) H onest a nd ( 3 ) M odest (B ) I n te llig ent a nd ( 1 ) S erio us (C ) I r re sp onsib le a nd ( 2 ) W aste fu l (D ) S te rn a nd ( 4 ) C riti c al Their r e se arc h s h o w ed a r e gula r a nd c o nsis te nt p air in g o f tr a its . T he p ow erfu l fin d in g o f th is r e se arc h w as th e c o nsis te ncy w ith w hic h p eo ple l in ked o ne tr a it w ith ano th er.

In th eir r e se arc h, R ose nb erg a nd h is c o lle agues a ls o m easu re d i s su es th at clu ste re d o n f o ur d im ensio ns 8 :

• B ad s o cia l ( e .g ., u np opula r, u nso cia b le , b orin g, c o ld , m oody, d is h o nest) • G ood s o cia l ( e .g ., h o nest, h ap py, p opula r, r e lia b le , m odest, w arm ) • B ad i n te lle ctu al ( e .g ., f o olis h , u nin te llig ent, c lu m sy , w aste fu l, i r re sp onsib le ) • G ood i n te lle ctu al ( e .g ., s c ie nti fic , p ers is te nt, s k illfu l, i m agin ati v e, i n te llig ent) If p eo ple k no w y o u h av e a tr a it i n o ne d im ensio n, th ey a ssu m e y o u a ls o h av e oth er tr a its w ith in th at d im ensio n. H ow ev er, p eo ple w ould n o t a ssu m e, f o r exam ple , th at i f a p ers o n i s m oody, th at p ers o n i s a ls o c lu m sy . M oody a nd c lu m sy are o n d iffe re nt d im ensio ns.

Takeaw ays f r o m th is r e se arc h i n clu d e:

1. P erc ep ti o ns a re c o lo re d b y s m all p ie ces o f i n fo rm ati o n, w hic h m ay o r m ay n o t be c o rre ct. ( T he w ay th e i n str u cto r w as p erc eiv ed w as c o lo re d b y w heth er h e had b een d esc rib ed a s “ w arm ” o r “ co ld .” ) 2. I n iti a l i m pre ssio ns a re u se d to c re ate a n o vera ll v ie w o f a p ers o n. K no w in g a fe w th in gs, w e th en f ill i n th e m is sin g p ie ces i n o ur m in d s. I t i s l ik e s e ein g fr a gm ents o f a p ic tu re a nd i m med ia te ly f illin g i n th e b la nk p arts o f th e c anv as.

(If I f in d y o u to b e u nso cia b le a nd b orin g, th at i s e no ugh f o r m e to f ill i n m any oth er b la nks. U nti l y o u p ro ve o th erw is e , I a ssu m e y o u a re c o ld , m oody, dis h o nest, c lu m sy , w aste fu l, f o olis h , a nd i r re sp onsib le .) 3. W e d o n o t f o rm a n o vera ll v ie w o f s o m eo ne b y p ain sta kin gly a sse m blin g a ll of th e p ie ces.

4. C erta in c hara cte ris ti c s o r a ttr ib ute s a re c o nsis te ntl y l in ked to geth er.

5. A ttr ib ute s a re c lu ste re d i n to v ario us d im ensio ns i n th e m in d s o f m ost p eo ple .

99 Case E xam ple : J ohn B oyer.

J o hn w as a n ew m anager w ho h ad a gre ed to a tte nd a le ad ers h ip d ev elo pm ent c o urs e . H e h ad b een i n h is n ew p ositi o n f o r a p pro xim ate ly six m onth s a nd w as i n te re ste d i n th e p erc ep ti o ns o f h is d ir e ct r e p orts . W hen J o hn had ta ken o ver th e g ro up , m ora le w as v ery l o w . S ev era l d ir e ct r e p orts w ere co nsid erin g l e av in g a nd f r u str a ti o n l e v els w ere v ery h ig h. T he p re v io us m anager had u se d h is p ositi o n a s m anager to b enefit h is o w n c are er. H e h ad a te nd ency to ta ke p ers o nal c re d it f o r a ny a cco m plis h m ents i n th e g ro up b ut w as q uic k to b la m e any f a ilu re s o n g ro up m em bers . H is c le v er p oliti c s h ad e arn ed h im a p ro m oti o n b ut le ft a g ro up i n d is a rra y. J o hn’s a p pro ach to m anagin g th e g ro up h ad b een to b e f a ir but f ir m . I t s e em ed th at b ecause p eo ple h ad f e lt s o ta ken a d vanta ge o f b y th e pre v io us m anager, th ey b egan l o okin g f o r w ays to “ get b ack” a t th e c o m pany.

Peo ple w ere f r e q uentl y la te s h o w in g u p i n th e m orn in g, a ssig nm ents w ere o fte n n o t co m ple te d o n ti m e, a nd th e w ork p la ce s h o w ed a n a tti tu d e o f “ W e d on’t c are .” J o hn sta rte d o ut h is te nure a s a n ew m anager b y i n te rv ie w in g e ach e m plo yee. H e to ok care fu l n o te s a nd w as v ery i n te re ste d i n th e c are er a sp ir a ti o ns o f e ach i n d iv id ual.

He a ls o a sk ed q uesti o ns a b out e ach p ers o n’s a re as o f s tr e ngth a nd d ev elo pm enta l need s. H e q uic kly f o und o ut th at th is w as a h ig hly c re ati v e a nd ta le nte d g ro up b ut th ey l a cked a c le ar m is sio n a nd p urp ose . T hey h ad b een r e sp ond in g to e ngin eerin g re q uests f r o m m anufa ctu rin g b ut w ere n o t l o okin g a t l o ng-te rm i m pro vem ents th at would ta ke th em o ut o f d aily f ir e -fig hti n g a cti v iti e s a nd a llo w th em m ore ti m e to work o n m ajo r i n no vati o ns.

Tw o w eeks a fte r J o hn to ok o ver a s m anager, h e p la nned a o ne-d ay o ff- s ite meeti n g. D urin g th e o ff- s ite m eeti n g, h e w ork ed o n te am b uild in g a nd c la rific ati o n of th e g ro up m is sio n a nd o bje cti v es. T he g ro up g av e J o hn s o m e c halle ngin g assig nm ents . T hey i n d ic ate d th at th ey c o uld n o t a cco m plis h l o ng-te rm e ngin eerin g changes u nle ss h e c o uld g et m anufa ctu rin g o ff th eir b acks. T he p re v io us m anager had s im ply a cco m modate d a ll r e q uests f r o m m anufa ctu rin g, r e gard le ss o f th eir prio rity . J o hn b egan to r e aliz e th at th e b est w ay to g ain th e s u p port o f h is g ro up w as to m anage th e g ro up ’s p rio riti e s a nd g o als w ith i n te rn al c usto m ers . H is n ext ta sk was to m eet w ith m anufa ctu rin g m anagers i n o rd er to g ain s u p port f o r th e g ro up ’s go als a nd p la ns. T his w as m uch m ore d iffic ult. T he m anufa ctu rin g o rg aniz a ti o n belie v ed th at i t s h o uld d ir e ct th e a cti v iti e s o f e ngin eerin g. T he p ro ble m w as th at th eir p rio riti e s a nd p ro ble m s c hanged d aily , a nd th e r e su lt w as th at c o ncerte d e ffo rt on s o lv in g m ajo r p ro ble m s n ev er o ccurre d . J o hn h elp ed th ese l e ad ers to s e e th at i f engin eerin g c o uld f o cus th eir e ffo rts o n a f e w to p p rio riti e s, e v ery o ne’s j o b w ould be e asie r. F or th e n ext f iv e m onth s J o hn w ork ed o n r e la ti o nsh ip s b oth w ith in h is gro up a nd w ith m anufa ctu rin g. H e m ad e a c o ncerte d e ffo rt to r e co gniz e th e acco m plis h m ents o f g ro up m em bers . H e s ta rte d to h o ld r e gula r s ta ff m eeti n gs. H e had th e g ro up p arti c ip ate i n s e tti n g p rio riti e s a nd d ecid in g o n ta rg et g o als . S ev era l mem bers o f th e g ro up w ith b ehav io r a nd p erfo rm ance p ro ble m s w ere p ut o n n o ti c e by J o hn b ecause th ey c o nti n ued to s h o w u p l a te f o r w ork a nd m is s d eliv ery dead lin es.

100 As J o hn r e v ie w ed h is l e ad ers h ip a sse ssm ent r e su lts , h e w as g enera lly p le ase d .

His r e su lts w ere s u b sta nti a lly a b ove th e n o rm o n a ll c o m pete ncie s. A s J o hn w ork ed th ro ugh th e d ata w ith h is c o ach, o ne o f h is m ost p ositi v e a re as w as te chnic al kno w le d ge. T he c o ach, k no w in g J o hn d id n o t h av e a n e ngin eerin g b ackgro und , fo und th at v ery u nusu al. “ H ow d o y o u e xp la in th is h ig h s c o re i n te chnic al kno w le d ge?” th e c o ach a sk ed J o hn. J o hn s h o ok h is h ead . “ I c an’t e xp la in i t. I a m no t a n e ngin eer. E very o ne i n th is g ro up k no w s m ore th an I d o. I h av e w ork ed h ard to g et u p to s p eed b ut I s ti ll l a ck d eta ile d k no w le d ge. I c an’t m ake a l o t o f th e te chnic al d ecis io ns s o I r e v ie w e ach o ne w ith te am m em bers w ho d o h av e th e exp erti s e a nd r e ly o n th eir k no w le d ge.” Fit tin g T heory t o O ur D ata .

T he p re v io us e xam ple p ro vid es o ne s tr o ng exp la nati o n f o r th e l in kage b etw een c o m pete ncie s. B asic l in ks o r c o m panio nsh ip s betw een tr a its a re w ell e sta b lis h ed i n p eo ple ’s m in d s. T hey a re g enera liz e d a cro ss all p eo ple w ith in a c ultu re a nd a re n o t s p ecific to i n d iv id uals . T here fo re , w hen a pers o n o bse rv es a l e ad er d is p la yin g a s p ecific c o m pete ncy, th ere i s a n i m med ia te assu m pti o n th at th is i n d iv id ual p osse sse s a n um ber o f o th er c hara cte ris ti c s, d esp ite th e l a ck o f a ny s p ecific e v id ence to s u p port th at.

Many, i f n o t m ost, i m pre ssio ns o th ers h av e o f o ur l e ad ers h ip a b iliti e s a re n o t to ta lly a ccura te . P eo ple a re i n flu enced b y th eir e xp erie nce, a nd b ecause o f th at, th ey f o rm a g enera l i m pre ssio n ( gesta lt ). R ath er th an b ein g a to ta lly a ccura te acco unti n g o f e ach o f o ur c o m pete ncie s a nd a b iliti e s ( e .g ., C om pete ncy a , Com pete ncy b , C om pete ncy c , C om pete ncy d , O vera ll L ead ers h ip A bility ), p eo ple fo rm th eir i m pre ssio ns b ase d o n a n u neq ual w eig hin g o f c o m pete ncie s f r o m b its o f kno w le d ge. E ven th o ugh th ese i m pre ssio ns a re n o t to ta lly a ccura te , p eo ple c anno t be ta lk ed o ut o f th eir i m pre ssio n b y a r a ti o nal, p re cis e a cco unti n g o f o ur co m pete ncie s. P eo ple h av e s tr o ng a tta chm ents to th eir i m pre ssio ns.

Many o bse rv ers r e act to th is a nd s a y th at i t i s u nfa ir th at o th ers a re n o t a ccura te in th eir p erc ep ti o ns. H ow ev er, th is s w ord d efin ite ly c uts tw o w ays. I f o th ers h av e a genera l i m pre ssio n th at a p ers o n i s a p oor l e ad er, th en th ey w ill p ro bab ly b e negati v ely b ia se d i n th eir e v alu ati o ns o f s p ecific c o m pete ncie s a nd u nd erra te th e pers o n’s r e al a b iliti e s. O n th e o th er h and , i f o th ers h av e a g enera l i m pre ssio n th at a pers o n i s a n e xtr a o rd in ary l e ad er, th ey w ill o vere sti m ate th is p ers o n’s s k ills a nd ab iliti e s. T ho ugh b ein g u nd erra te d i s u nfa ir , b ein g o verra te d , th o ugh s ti ll u nfa ir , i s so m eth in g l e ad ers c an u se to th eir a d vanta ge. T he k ey i s to g et th e a ttr ib uti o n pro cess to w ork f o r y o u r a th er th an a gain st y o u.

This h elp s to e xp la in m any o f o ur r e se arc h f in d in gs. F or e xam ple , w e f o und many l e ad ers w ith e xtr e m ely h ig h s c o re s o n a ll c o m pete ncie s a nd w ith n o perc eiv ed w eaknesse s. T he te nd ency f o r e v ery o ne to a ttr ib ute p ositi v e s o cia l behav io r a nd p ositi v e i n te lle ctu al c ap ab iliti e s to s o m eo ne w ho p osse sse s o ne positi v e a ttr ib ute s h ed s l ig ht o n th is p heno m eno n. T he c o m bin ati o n o f c re ati n g a n overa ll p ic tu re o r gesta lt a b out s o m eo ne, c o m bin ed w ith th e s tr o ng l in kage 101 betw een tr a its a nd a ttr ib ute s, p ro vid es i n sig ht i n to th is .

It w as h ard f o r m any p eo ple to b elie v e th at R ic hard M . N ix o n, w ho w as r e are d a Q uaker, w as i n te llig ent a nd w ell e d ucate d , a nd c ap ab le o f b ein g e le cte d to h ig h offic e, w ould u se p ro fa nity l ik e a s a ilo r a nd e ngage i n d is h o nest a cts s u ch a s Wate rg ate . S im ila rly , i t w as h ard f o r m any c iti z e ns o f th e U nite d S ta te s to b elie v e th at B ill C lin to n w ould e ngage i n s e xual m is c o nd uct w ith a n i n te rn i n th e O val Offic e. I t w ould h av e b een m ore u nd ers ta nd ab le i f th is h ad h ap pened w hile h e w as liv in g i n a f r a te rn ity h o use d urin g h is j u nio r y ear o f c o lle ge. B ecause h e w as th e pre sid ent o f th e U nite d S ta te s, a nd a m an o f o bvio us i n te lle ct a nd a b ility , th at behav io r w as i n co nsis te nt w ith p eo ple ’s a ssu m pti o ns.

Why d o w e p re se nt th is r e se arc h a nd th eo ry a b out h o w p erc ep ti o ns a re f o rm ed ?

Und ers ta nd in g th eo ry h elp s i n p la nnin g a s u ccessfu l s tr a te gy. U nd ers ta nd in g h o w oth ers f o rm ula te th eir p erc ep ti o ns h elp s u s to u nd ers ta nd w hy l e ad ers a re su ccessfu l a t ti m es a nd w hy th ey f a il.

2. C ro ss T ra in in g The s e co nd e xp la nati o n f o r th e s tr o ng l in kage b etw een c o m pete ncie s i s s im ply th at in th e c o urs e o f b eco m in g g o od a t o ne th in g, y o u g et b ette r a t s o m eth in g e ls e .

We s e e e v id ence o f th is i n m any o th er a re as o f l ife . A m usic ia n w ho p la ys th e sa xo pho ne w ill o fte n s w itc h b etw een th e c la rin et, a lto s a xo pho ne, a nd te no r sa xo pho ne. L earn in g o ne i n str u m ent i n cre ase s th e e ase o f l e arn in g a nd p erfo rm in g with a d iffe re nt i n str u m ent. T he a th le te w ho i s a r u nner p arla ys th e e nd ura nce a nd str e ngth g ain ed th ro ugh r u nnin g to b eco m e a l o ngd is ta nce s w im mer a nd c yclis t.

Pia no p la yers a re o fte n e xtr e m ely f a st ty p is ts .

Skills A re T ra nsfe ra ble .

I t i s l o gic al to b elie v e th at a cq uir in g th e s k ill o f co nd ucti n g e ffe cti v e m eeti n gs h elp s th e l e ad er to a ls o b e m ore e ffe cti v e w ork in g one-o n-o ne w ith p eers . D ev elo pin g th e s k ills o f c o m munic ati n g p ow erfu lly a nd pro lific ally p ro vid es m any o f th e s a m e s k ills r e q uir e d to i n sp ir e a nd m oti v ate oth ers to h ig h p erfo rm ance.

The s k ill o f s e tti n g s tr e tc h g o als f o r y o ur te am i s r e la te d to th e s k ills r e q uir e d to in iti a te a cti o n a nd f o cus o n r e su lts .

3. S uccess I n cre a se s C on fid en ce When p eo ple e xp erie nce s u ccess i n o ne a re na o f l ife , i t i n cre ase s th eir c o nfid ence and w illin gness to tr y s o m eth in g n ew .

One o f th e a uth o rs ’ g ra nd daughte rs b ecam e i n te re ste d i n d iv in g. G oin g o ff a board i n a ty p ic al b ackyard p ool w as e asy . T hen c am e th e th re e-m ete r b oard , whic h s e em ed f r ig hte nin g to a n 1 1-y ear-o ld . F in ally , th e te am w ent to a d iv in g pool th at i n clu d ed a s ix -m ete r-h ig h d iv in g b oard . ( T hat i s , j u m pin g r o ughly f r o m th e 102 heig ht o f a tw o-s to ry b uild in g i n to th e p ool.) A s s h e w ent to th e e nd o f th e b oard , sh e s ta rte d to tu rn b ack, a nd th e c o ach s a id , “ Y ou c an d o i t— ju st j u m p.” S he d id .

Success a t p re v io us l e v els g av e h er c o nfid ence to tr y . S he w ante d to b e a b le to div e f r o m th e h ig h b oard , a nd i t w as n o l o nger f r ig hte nin g e xcep t to h er p are nts a nd gra nd pare nts .

4. S uccess I n cre a se s A sp ir a tio n L evel We k no w th at s u ccess i n cre ase s p eo ple ’s a sp ir a ti o n to tr y a nd d o m ore . A ny gro w th i n o ne a re a g iv es u s n ew s k ills a nd th e c o nfid ence to s e ek g ro w th i n ano th er. T he l a te A nd ra ll P ears o n w as a h ig h-v is ib ility e xecuti v e, h av in g b een a se nio r d ir e cto r o f M cK in se y a nd C o., th en h ead o f P ep siC o f o r 1 4 y ears , th en a te acher a t th e H arv ard B usin ess S cho ol w ho p ub lis h ed f r e q uentl y i n th e Harv a rd Busin ess R evie w . I n a 1 980 Fortu ne m agazin e a rti c le , h e w as l is te d a s o ne o f Americ a’s to ughest b osse s.

Then, a t a ge 7 6, h e b ecam e c hair m an o f T ric o n G lo bal R esta ura nts , I n c. ( n o w re nam ed Y um ) a nd l e arn ed a n e nti r e ly n ew s e t o f l e ad ers h ip s k ills . H e l e arn ed to go vern r a th er th an c o ntr o l. H e g ain ed a n a p pre cia ti o n f o r th e p ow er o f h um an em oti o n. I n e arlie r y ears h e w ould d is p la y h is o w n i n te lle ct a nd o verp ow er p eo ple with h is a b ility to g ra sp i s su es q uic kly . I n a n e arlie r l e ad ers h ip r o le h e h ad to ld h is co lle agues, “ A r o om f u ll o f m onkeys c o uld d o b ette r th an th is .” Pears o n d esis te d f r o m i s su in g o rd ers to p eo ple , a nd b egan a sk in g q uesti o ns a nd so lic iti n g i d eas. H e b ecam e a m ento r to m any i n th e f ir m . P ears o n a ckno w le d ged th at m any o f h is l e ad ers h ip m eth o ds w ere n ew to h im , a nd th at h is e xp erie nce w as a cap sto ne o f a n a lr e ad y r e m ark ab le c are er.

9 Today, a n ew P ears o n h as d esis te d f r o m i s su in g o rd ers to p eo ple , a nd h e i s ask in g q uesti o ns a nd s o lic iti n g i d eas. H e h as b eco m e a m ento r to m any i n th e f ir m .

Pears o n a ckno w le d ges th at m any o f h is l e ad ers h ip m eth o ds a re n ew to h im , a nd th at his e xp erie nce i s a c ap sto ne o f a n a lr e ad y r e m ark ab le c are er.

9 Ja co b B ro no w sk i w ro te , “ W e h av e to u nd ers ta nd th at th e w orld c an o nly b e gra sp ed b y a cti o n, n o t b y c o nte m pla ti o n. . . . T he m ost p ow erfu l d riv e i n th e a sc ent of m an i s h is p le asu re i n h is o w n s k ills . H e l o ves to d o w hat h e d oes w ell, a nd hav in g d one i t w ell, h e l o ves to d o i t b ette r.” 10 As w e p ond er th e w ays th at c o m pete ncie s a re l in ked to geth er, w e h av e n o w ay of te arin g a p art th e i m pact o f th ese m any f o rc es. I s i t a h alo e ffe ct, o r i s i t th e r e su lt of c ro ss tr a in in g? W hat r o le d oes i n cre ase d c o nfid ence p la y, o r esc ala ti n g asp ir a ti o ns? W e m ay n ev er k no w th e a nsw er, b ut w e a re c o nv in ced th at th e a nsw er lie s i n s o m e c o m bin ati o n o f th e f o ur.

103 Six te en B eh avio rs ( C om pete n cie s) T hat M ak e a Dif fe ren ce i n H ow L ea d ers A re P erceiv ed B y O th ers Hav in g p re se nte d o ur c o ncern s a b out c o m pete ncie s a nd s o m e s u ggesti o ns a b out re m ed yin g th o se c o ncern s, a lo ng w ith a n a naly sis o f w hy th ey a re s o i n tr ic ate ly lin ked , w e n o w p re se nt o ur o w n f r a m ew ork o f c o m pete ncie s th at m ake a diffe re nce.

How a re i m pre ssio ns a b out l e ad ers h ip e ffe cti v eness m ost p ow erfu lly c re ate d ?

Our r e se arc h s h o w s th at r a te rs n o ti c ed s o m e c o m pete ncie s m uch m ore th an th ey d o oth ers . W e b elie v e th at e m phasiz in g th e d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s w ill h elp le ad ers c re ate a m ore f a v ora b le i m pre ssio n. O ur r e se arc h c o nfir m s th at a r e al im pact o n e m plo yee tu rn o ver, c usto m er s a ti s fa cti o n, a nd p ro fita b ility o ccurs o nly when l e ad ers h ip i s p erc eiv ed a s b ein g e xtr e m ely b ad o r e xcep ti o nally g o od. B ein g ho rrib le a t a c o m pete ncy g ets n o ti c ed ; b ein g e xtr a o rd in arily g o od g ets n o ti c ed ; b ut bein g a v era ge o r g o od a t s o m eth in g d oes n o t. H ence, th e n eed f o r o ur a d vic e re gard in g f ix in g a f a ta l f la w . I f p eo ple h av e a f a ta l f la w ( s o m e b ehav io r o r co m pete ncy th at i s r a te d v ery n egati v ely ), th is m ay b e th e m ain s o urc e o f th eir negati v e i m pre ssio n. T o c re ate a c hange i n th e gesta lt ( g enera l i m pre ssio n), p eo ple need to m ake n o ti c eab le c hanges.

We g ro up th ese b ehav io rs i n to th e s a m e c o m ponents a s th e e arlie r m odel pre se nte d i n Chap te rs 1 a nd 3 . W hat f o llo w s i s a m ore d eta ile d d esc rip ti o n o f th ese co m pete ncie s, w ith f u rth er i n fo rm ati o n a b out h o w p eo ple w ho s c o re h ig hly o n a parti c ula r c o m pete ncy b ehav e a nd a ls o h o w p eo ple w ho r e ceiv e l o w s c o re s o n i t behav e.

Chara cte r 1. D is p la yin g h ig h i n te grity a nd h o nesty Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• A void s a yin g o ne th in g a nd d oin g a no th er ( i.e ., “ w alk th e ta lk ”) • A ct c o nsis te ntl y w ith th eir w ord s • F ollo w th ro ugh o n p ro m is e s a nd c o m mitm ents • M odel th e c o re v alu es • L ead b y e xam ple Poor p erfo rm ers :

• A re th re ate ned b y o th ers ’ s u ccess • M ake th em se lv es l o ok g o od a t th e e xp ense o f o th er p eo ple 104 • B la m e f a ilu re s o n o th ers Perso n al C ap ab ilit y 2. T echnic al a nd p ro fe ssio nal e xp erti s e Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• A re s o ught o ut b y o th ers f o r a d vic e a nd c o unse l • U se te chnic al k no w le d ge to h elp te am m em bers tr o ub le sh o ot p ro ble m s • H av e c re d ib ility b ecause o f th eir i n -d ep th k no w le d ge o f i s su es o r p ro ble m s Poor p erfo rm ers :

• D o n o t u nd ers ta nd th e j o b w ell • A re te chnic ally o r p ro fe ssio nally i n co m pete nt • H av e b eco m e o ut o f d ate te chnic ally • F ail to u nd ers ta nd th e te chno lo gy/p ro fe ssio n w ell 3. S olv in g p ro ble m s a nd a naly zin g i s su es Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• E xerc is e a h ig h l e v el o f p ro fe ssio nal j u d gm ent • M ake g o od d ecis io ns b ase d o n a m ix tu re o f a naly sis , w is d om , e xp erie nce, and j u d gm ent • E nco ura ge a lte rn ati v e a p pro aches a nd n ew i d eas Poor p erfo rm ers :

• F ail to a nti c ip ate a nd s ta y o n to p o f p ro ble m s • D o n o t c o nsid er a n a p pro pria te r a nge o f a lte rn ati v es b efo re m akin g a decis io n 4. I n no vati o n Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• E nco ura ge a lte rn ati v e a p pro aches a nd n ew i d eas • C onsis te ntl y g enera te c re ati v e, r e so urc efu l s o lu ti o ns to p ro ble m s • C onstr u cti v ely c halle nge th e u su al a p pro ach o f d oin g th in gs a nd f in d n ew and b ette r w ays to d o th e j o b • C re ate a c ultu re o f l e arn in g th at d riv es i n d iv id ual d ev elo pm ent • W ork to i m pro ve n ew i d eas r a th er th an d is c o ura ge th em 105 • E nco ura ge p eo ple to f in d i n no vati v e w ays to a cco m plis h th eir g o als Poor p erfo rm ers :

• H av e a “ o ne r ig ht w ay” m in d -s e t • A re a fr a id to c halle nge e xis ti n g s y ste m s, p ro cesse s, o r a p pro aches • F eel th at n ew o r i n no vati v e a p pro aches w ill c o st to o m uch to i m ple m ent o r cause d is ru p ti o n • S ho ot d ow n n ew i d eas o r a p pro aches 5. P ra cti c in g s e lf- d ev elo pm ent Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• M ake c o nstr u cti v e e ffo rts to c hange a nd i m pro ve b ase d o n f e ed back f r o m oth ers • S eek f e ed back f r o m o th ers to i m pro ve a nd d ev elo p th em se lv es • C onsta ntl y l o ok f o r d ev elo pm enta l o pportu niti e s ( th ey a re e xcite d to l e arn ) Poor p erfo rm ers :

• S eem u nco ncern ed a b out a ny k in d o f s e lf- im pro vem ent • A re c o nte nt w ith th eir c urre nt s k ills a nd a b iliti e s • F ear th at o th ers m ig ht p erc eiv e th eir d ev elo pm ent o f n ew s k ills a s a s ig n o f in co m pete nce o r w eakness Focu s o n R esu lt s 6. F ocus o n r e su lts Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• A ggre ssiv ely p urs u e a ll a ssig nm ents a nd p ro je cts u nti l c o m ple ti o n • D o e v ery th in g p ossib le to m eet g o als o r d ead lin es Poor p erfo rm ers :

• F ail to a chie v e a gre ed -u p on r e su lts w ith in th e ti m e a llo tte d • F ail to a chie v e th e g o als s e t f o r th eir w ork 7. E sta b lis h s tr e tc h g o als Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• M ain ta in h ig h s ta nd ard s o f p erfo rm ance • S et m easu ra b le s ta nd ard s o f e xcelle nce f o r th em se lv es a nd o th ers i n th e work g ro up 106 • P ro m ote a s p ir it o f c o nti n uo us i m pro vem ent Poor p erfo rm ers :

• F ail to b uild h ig h c o m mitm ent a m ong a ll e m plo yees to te am g o als a nd obje cti v es 8. T ake r e sp onsib ility f o r o utc o m es/in iti a ti v e Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• T ake p ers o nal r e sp onsib ility f o r o utc o m es • C an b e c o unte d o n to f o llo w th ro ugh o n c o m mitm ent • G o a b ove a nd b eyo nd w hat n eed s to b e d one w ith o ut b ein g to ld Poor p erfo rm ers :

• B la m e f a ilu re s o n o th ers • L ose i n te re st b efo re p ro je cts a re c o m ple te d a nd f a il to f o llo w th ro ugh In te rp erso n al S kills 9. C om munic ati n g p ow erfu lly a nd p ro lific ally Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• A re s k illfu l a t c o m munic ati n g n ew i n sig hts • P ro vid e th e w ork g ro up w ith a d efin ite s e nse o f d ir e cti o n a nd p urp ose • H elp p eo ple u nd ers ta nd h o w th eir w ork c o ntr ib ute s to b ro ad er b usin ess obje cti v es Poor p erfo rm ers :

• D o a p oor j o b o f c o m munic ati n g p la ns to p eo ple w ho h elp i m ple m ent th em • F ail to e xp la in th e p urp ose a nd /o r i m porta nce o f th e a ssig nm ents 10. I n sp ir in g a nd m oti v ati n g o th ers to h ig h p erfo rm ance Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• E nerg iz e p eo ple to g o th e e xtr a m ile • H av e th e a b ility to g et p eo ple to s tr e tc h a nd r e ach g o als b eyo nd w hat th ey orig in ally th o ught p ossib le Poor p erfo rm ers :

• F ail to i n sp ir e c o m mitm ent, h ig h e nerg y, a nd a w in nin g a tti tu d e 11. B uild in g r e la ti o nsh ip s 107 Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• A re tr u ste d b y w ork g ro up m em bers • B ala nce c o ncern f o r p ro ducti v ity a nd r e su lts w ith s e nsiti v ity f o r e m plo yees’ need s/p ro ble m s • A re a p pro achab le a nd f r ie nd ly • H and le d iffic ult s itu ati o ns c o nstr u cti v ely a nd ta ctf u lly Poor p erfo rm ers :

• A re d iffic ult to g et a lo ng w ith • P eo ple d on’t f e el f r e e to ta ke th eir c o m pla in ts to th em 12. D ev elo pin g o th ers Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• A re g enuin ely c o ncern ed a b out th e d ev elo pm ent o f o th ers ’ c are ers • G iv e i n d iv id uals a n a p pro pria te b ala nce o f p ositi v e a nd c o rre cti v e perfo rm ance f e ed back • G iv e h o nest f e ed back • T ake i n te re st i n th e w ork o f o th ers • S up port o th ers ’ g ro w th a nd s u ccess Poor p erfo rm ers :

• W ait to o l o ng to g iv e o th ers f e ed back • T ry to k eep g o od p eo ple r a th er th an a llo w in g th em to ta ke o n d ev elo pm enta l opportu niti e s 13. C olla b ora ti o n a nd te am w ork Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• H av e d ev elo ped c o opera ti v e w ork in g r e la ti o nsh ip s w ith o th ers i n th e co m pany • P ro m ote a s p ir it o f c o opera ti o n w ith o th er m em bers o f th e w ork g ro up • E nsu re th at th e w ork u nit w ork s w ell w ith o th er g ro up s a nd d ep artm ents Poor p erfo rm ers :

• D o n o t w ork w ell w ith p eo ple w ho h av e d iffe re nt b ackgro und s a nd pers p ecti v es • P ro m ote a s p ir it o f c o m peti ti o n w ith o th er w ork g ro up s 108 Lea d in g O rg an iz a tio n al C han ge 14. D ev elo pin g s tr a te gic p ers p ecti v es Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• K no w h o w w ork r e la te s to th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s b usin ess s tr a te gy ( lin e-o f- s ig ht co nnecti o n) • T ra nsla te th e o rg aniz a ti o n’s v is io n a nd o bje cti v es i n to c halle ngin g a nd meanin gfu l g o als f o r o th ers • C an ta ke th e l o ng v ie w ; c an b e tr u ste d to b ala nce s h o rt- te rm a nd l o ng-te rm need s o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n Poor p erfo rm ers :

• G et c aught u p i n th e “ d ay-to -d ay” a nd f a il to ta ke a l o nger-te rm , b ro ad er pers p ecti v e o n b usin ess d ecis io ns 15. C ham pio nin g c hange Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• B eco m e c ham pio ns f o r p ro je cts o r p ro gra m s, p re se nti n g th em s o th at o th ers su p port th em • A re e ffe cti v e m ark ete rs f o r w ork g ro up s’ p ro je cts , p ro gra m s, o r p ro ducts Poor p erfo rm ers :

• T end to f o llo w th e l e ad o f o th ers i n c hange e ffo rts 16. C onnect i n te rn al g ro up s w ith th e o uts id e w orld Hig h p erfo rm ers :

• H av e d em onstr a te d a b ility to r e p re se nt th e w ork g ro up to k ey g ro up s o uts id e th e g ro up /d ep artm ent • H elp p eo ple u nd ers ta nd h o w m eeti n g c usto m ers ’ n eed s i s c entr a l to th e mis sio n a nd g o als o f th e o rg aniz a ti o n Poor p erfo rm ers :

• M ake d ay-to -d ay d ecis io ns b ase d o n i n te rn al n eed s r a th er th an th e n eed s o f custo m ers • D o n o t h av e a b ro ad n etw ork o uts id e th eir o w n w ork g ro up Asse ssin g I n div id ual C om pete n cie s 109 Afte r d is c o verin g th ese 1 6 d iffe re nti a ti n g c o m pete ncie s a nd u nd ers ta nd in g th e im pact o f d ev elo pin g s tr e ngth s, w e e xam in ed ty p ic al a p pro aches u se d i n a sse ssin g a l e ad er’s e ffe cti v eness u sin g 3 60 d egre e f e ed back. O ur e v alu ati o n o f c o m mon pra cti c es i d enti fie d s e v era l c o nsis te nt p ro ble m s w ith th e d esig n a nd a p pro ach o f most 3 60 a sse ssm ents .

1. M any a sse ssm ents g iv e l e ad ers a f a ls e p ositi v e i m pre ssio n o f th eir a b ility .

Lead ers a ssu m e th at th ey a re d oin g f a ir ly w ell w hen i n f a ct th ey a re o nly av era ge.<