Questions and Answers of a text

Sla ves o f t h e S ta te

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Sla v es o f t h e S ta te

Bla ck I n ca rc era tio n f r o m t h e C hain G an g t o t h e P en it e n tia ry

Dennis C hild s

Univ ers it y o f M in neso ta P re ss

Min neapolis

London

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ******

C hapte r 1 w as p re vio usly p ublis h ed a s “ ‘Y ou A in ’t S een N oth in ’ Y et’ :

Belo ved

, th e A meric an C hain G ang, a nd th e M id dle P assa ge R em ix ,”

Am eric a n Q uarte rly

6 1, n o. 2 ( J u ne

2 009): 2 71– 97; r e prin te d w it h p erm is sio n o f

Am eric a n Q uarte rly

P ortio ns o f c hapte r 3 w ere p re vio usly p ublis h ed a s “ A ngola , C onvic t L easin g, a nd th e A nnulm ent o f F re edom ,” in

Vio le n ce a nd th e B ody: R ace, G en der, a nd th e S ta te ,

e d.

A rtu ro A ld am a ( B lo om in gto n: I n dia na U niv ers it y P re ss, 2 003); r e prin te d b y p erm is sio n o f I n dia na U niv ers it y P re ss.

C opyrig ht 2 015 b y th e R egents o f th e U niv ers it y o f M in neso ta

A ll r ig hts r e se rv ed. N o p art o f th is p ublic atio n m ay b e r e pro duced, s to re d in a r e tr ie val s y ste m , o r tr a nsm it te d, in a ny f o rm o r b y a ny m eans, e le ctr o nic , m echanic al, p hoto copyin g,

r e cord in g, o r o th erw is e , w it h out th e p rio r w rit te n p erm is sio n o f th e p ublis h er.

P ublis h ed b y th e U niv ers it y o f M in neso ta P re ss

1 11 T hir d A venue S outh , S uit e 2 90

M in neapolis , M N 5 5401-2 520

h ttp :/ /w ww.u pre ss.u m n.e du

L ib ra ry o f C ongre ss C ata lo gin g-in -P ublic atio n D ata

C hild s, D ennis .

S la ves o f th e s ta te : b la ck in carc era tio n f ro m th e c hain g ang to th e p enit e ntia ry / D ennis C hild s.

I n clu des b ib lio gra phic al r e fe re nces a nd in dex.

I S B N 9 78-1 -4 529-4 364-0

1 . A fric an A meric an p ris o ners — His to ry . 2 . S la very — Unit e d S ta te s— His to ry . 3 . D is c rim in atio n in c rim in al ju stic e a dm in is tr a tio n— Unit e d S ta te s. 4 . U nit e d S ta te s— Race

r e la tio ns. I . T it le .

H V9471.C 473 2 015

3 65´.6 08996073— dc23

2 014019929

T he U niv ers it y o f M in neso ta is a n e qual- o pportu nit y e ducato r a nd e m plo yer.

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** For S ara nella a nd K ahlil, a nd a ll p ris o n s la ves p ast a nd p re se n t

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Con te n ts

I n tr o ducti o n. “ In hum an P unis h m ent” : T he

(U n)d ea d B ook

o f C hatte l C arc era lity

1 . “ Y ou A in ’t S een N oth in ’ Y et” :

Belo ved

a nd th e M id dle P assa ge C arc era l M odel

2 . “ E xcep t a s P unis h m ent f o r a C rim e”: T he T hir te enth A mend m ent a nd th e R eb ir th o f C hatte l I m pris o nm ent

3 . A ngo la P enite nti a ry : T he O nce a nd F utu re S la v e P la nta ti o n

4 . T he W arfa re o f N orth ern N eo sla v ery i n C heste r H im es’s

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry

A ck now le d gm en ts

N ote s

I n dex

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** In tr o d uctio n

“In hum an P unis h m en t”

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** ******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** The

(U n)d ea d B ook

o f C hatte l C arc era lit y

Sla very a nd f re edom

They is m ostly th e s a m e

No d if fe re nce h ard ly

Except in th e n am e.

—Georg ia c hain -g ang s o ng ( c . e arly 1 900s)

The a dm in is tr a to rs h ave s tr ip ped u s o f a ll b ut th e b are n ecessit ie s a nd a re n ow ta kin g th ose a ls o . T he b eatin g a nd r a pes d on’t h elp m atte rs e it h er. T he m ale g uard s

tr e at u s a s if w e w ere c hatte l.

—Eliz a beth B .,

Revo lu tio nary P ris o ners S pea k

( 1 999)

T HIS

BO OK

REPR ESE N TS

ATTEM PT

a t a nsw erin g a c all I fir s t h eard m any y ears a go a s a g ra d uate stu d ent liv in g in O akla nd ,

Califo rn ia — one e m itti n g fr o m a n a rti c le b y A ngela D av is e nti tl e d “ R acia liz e d P unis h m ent a nd P ris o n A boliti o n.” T he ra d ic al,

co unte r-h is to ric al d ir e cti v e I r e ceiv ed f r o m th is p ie ce i s c ry sta lliz e d m ost s u ccin ctl y a t a m om ent i n w hic h D av is d is ti n guis h es h er

neo -a b oliti o nis t e nco unte r w ith th e U .S . c arc era l s ta te f r o m th at o f M ic hel F oucault o n th e b asis o f th e c ultu ra lly a nd l e gally c ra fte d

“so ulle ss” c hara cte r o f th e c ap ti v e “ N egro ”:

If, a s F oucault s u ggests , th e lo cus o f th e n ew E uro pean m ode o f p unis h m ent s h ifte d fr o m th e b ody to th e s o ul,

bla ck sla v es in th e U S w ere la rg ely p erc eiv ed a s la ckin g a so ul th at m ig ht b e sh ap ed a nd tr a nsfo rm ed b y

punis h m ent.

With in th e in stitu tio n o f s la very, its e lf a fo rm o f in ca rc era tio n,

ra cia liz e d fo rm s o f p unis h m ent

dev elo ped a lo ngsid e th e e m erg ence o f th e p ris o n sy ste m w ith in a nd a s a n egati v e a ffir m ati o n o f th e “ fr e e

world .” . . . A s w hite m en a cq uir e d th e p riv ile ge to b e p unis h ed in w ays th at a ckno w le d ged th eir

eq uality a nd

th e r a cia liz e d u niv ers a lity o f l ib erty , th e p unis h m ent o f b la ck s la v es w as c o rp ore al, c o ncre te a nd p arti c ula r.

With in t h e i n stitu tio n o f s la very, i ts e lf a f o rm o f i n ca rc era tio n.

I h ad r e ad m y F oucault b efo re e nco unte rin g th is h ugely s ig nific a nt

yet la rg ely unengaged bla ck ra d ic al ep is te m ic phra se ; befo re re ad in g

Sole d ad Bro th er

; befo re re ad in g A ssa ta Shakur’s

auto bio gra p hy; b efo re I f in ally r e co gniz e d th at T oni M orris o n’s

Belo ved

i s

not

s o le ly c o ncern ed w ith p re -1 865 f o rm ati o ns o f c hatte l

sla v ery ; b efo re m y in iti a l c o nv ers a ti o n w ith R obert H illa ry K in g o f th e “ A ngo la 3 ” fo llo w in g h is h ard -w on re le ase fr o m n early

th ir ty y ears o f s o lita ry c o nfin em ent; b efo re h earin g th e s p ectr a l n eo sla v e s o und in gs o f O dea M ath ew s a nd R obert P ete W illia m s;

befo re b ein g s u m moned to a n ati o nal w hite s u p re m acis t to uris t s ite s itu ate d a t th e th re sh o ld o f a f u lly o pera ti o nal e ig hte en-th o usa nd -

acre s la v e p la nta ti o n b y o ne o f i ts h is to ric ally a no nym ous a nd u ncere m onio usly b urie d b la ck c ap ti v es. W hile F oucault b are ly m akes

menti o n o f s la v ery in h is c o m pellin g h is to ry o f th e m odern p ris o n, th e w riti n gs, s o und in gs, a nd s u rv iv al p ra cti c es o f D av is a nd

co untl e ss o th er b la ck p ris o ners a nd f o rm er p ris o ners d efin e c hatte l s la v ery a s a p rim ord ia l a nd te nacio usly u nd ead c arc era l r e gim e

of Euro -A meric an m odern ity — as th e le gal, politi c al, arc hite ctu ra l, and cultu ra l lin chp in of ra cia l cap ita lis t m is o gynis t

im pris o nm ent i n th e U nite d S ta te s a s i t h as m orp hed f r o m th e s la v e-s h ip h o ld s a nd b arra co ons o f th e M id dle P assa ge, to th e p orta b le

boxcar c ages o f e arly J im C ro w a p arth eid , to th e c o ffin -s im ula ti n g b oxcar c ells o f to day’s p ris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x ( P IC ).

In d eed ,

when r e ad a s o ne o vera rc hin g, c ro ss-fe rti liz in g, a nd te m pora lly u nfix ed n etw ork o f r a cia l a nd s p ati a l te rro r, th e U .S . s y ste m o f m ass

im pris o nm ent r e p re se nts a c entu rie s-o ld r e gim e o f c hatte liz e d p ris o n– in d ustr ia l g eno cid e th at b egan w ell b efo re th e te rm P IC w as

ev er u tte re d — a lib era l w hite s u p re m acis t m is o gynis t “ sh it- s te m ,” a s P ete r T osh m ig ht h av e d ub bed it, th at h as s u b m itte d a n a s y et

uncalc ula te d (n o r c o m ple te d ) n um ber o f b la ck p eo ple a nd o th er ra cia lly a nd c rim in ally s ti g m ati z e d g ro up s to c o lle cti v iz e d n ata l

alie nati o n, e xcre m enta l i n te rn m ent, ( u n)p ro ducti v e f o rc ed l a b or, s e ria liz e d c o rp ore al r u p tu re , l e gally u nre d re ssa b le s e xual v io le nce,

co erc ed p erfo rm ance, a nd m anifo ld f o rm s o f d eath , r a ngin g f r o m th e s o cia l, to th e c iv il, to th e b io lo gic al.

Notw ith sta nd in g th e te nd ency w ith in U .S . ju rid ic al, le gis la ti v e, and penal la w to dis a v ow th e chatte l orig in s of m odern

in carc era ti o n, th ere h av e b een k ey m om ents in w hic h p ostb ellu m lib era l le gal d is c o urs e h as o ffe re d b old fa ce a rti c ula ti o n o f th e

sta te ’s e nsla v in g a nd m urd ero us b earin g to w ard

crim in ally a nd ra cia lly s ti g m ati z e d b odie s. In

Ruffin v. C om monw ea lth

(1 871),

Ju sti c e J . C hris ti a n s u p plie s j u st th is s o rt o f o pen d ecla ra ti o n o f th e l a w ’s r e -c hatte liz in g f u ncti o nality v is -à -v is f o rm er s la v es i n h is

oste nsib ly c o lo r-b lin d c o nstr u cti o n o f th e c iv illy d ead n o np ositi o n o f th e c rim in ally b ra nd ed f e lo n: “ H e h as, a s a c o nse q uence o f h is

crim e, n o t o nly f o rfe ite d h is l ib erty , b ut a ll h is p ers o nal r ig hts e xcep t th o se w hic h th e l a w i n i ts h um anity a cco rd s to h im . H e i s f o r

th e ti m e b ein g th e

sla ve o f t h e S ta te .

H e i s

civ ilite r m ortu us

[ c iv illy d ead ]; a nd h is e sta te , i f h e h as a ny, i s a d m in is te re d l ik e th at o f

a d ead m an.”

W hat w ould th e la w ’s in canta to ry p ro cla m ati o n o f p enal e nsla v em ent in r e sp ect to a ll c rim in ally b ra nd ed s u b je cts

mean fo r th o se bein gs w ho had been defin ed as m eta p hysic ally in co rrig ib le , le gally fu ngib le , and so cia lly dis p osa b le fo r

genera ti o ns b efo re 1 871? A s s u ggeste d i n D av is ’s d is c ussio n o f th e r a cia liz e d d im ensio ns o f c hatte l i m pris o nm ent, th e a b je ct s ta tu s

of c iv il d eath w ould b e ta ken to its z e ro d egre e a s p ostb ellu m w hite s u p re m acis t la w s e t its s ig hts o n th o se p uta ti v ely s o ulle ss

su b je cts w ho se s la v ery a nd s o cia l d eath r e ste d a t th e v ery f o und ati o n o f f r e e/w hite s o cia l, c iv il, a nd c ultu ra l l ife i n th e U nite d S ta te s

sin ce its in cep ti o n a s a g eno cid al c o lo ny o f th e B riti s h E m pir e . F ar fr o m re p re se nti n g a ju rid ic al a no m aly o r a n a nachro nis ti c

th ro w back to th e fe ud al o rig in s o f E uro -A meric an c o m mon la w ,

Ruffin

c o nsti tu te d a n a ll- to o-a ccura te ra cia l g o th ic o m en o f th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** te rro ris ti c tr a je cto rie s o f m odern im pris o nm ent a s it h as b een w aged a gain st fo rm er s la v es a nd p uta ti v ely “ fr e e” b la ck p eo ple —

fr o m c o nv ic t l e asin g, to c hain g angs, to p eo nage c am ps, to th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n, to th e p enite nti a ry . I n a tte m pti n g to o ffe r a n a p ertu re

of n ecro m anti c a d dre ss f o r th e ( liv in g) d ead o f U .S . n eo sla v ery , h o w ev er, th is b ook c o nsid ers w hat a m ounts to a c o lle cti v ely i s su ed

re fu ta ti o n o f th e o rg aniz in g fa sc is t lo gic w ith in J . C hris ti a n’s m atte r-o f- fa ct p ro no uncem ent o f th e c iv illy d ead s ta tu s o f th e p ris o n

sla v e; th at is , w hat th e s p ectr a l v oic es, te sti m onie s, a nd s u rv iv al p ra cti c es o f b la ck p ris o ners m ake c le ar is th at r a cia liz e d p ris o n

sla v ery h as h ad littl e to d o w ith th e a lle ged c rim in al a cts o f in d iv id ual b la ck p eo ple a nd e v ery th in g to d o w ith th e so cia lly

co nstr u cte d c rim e o f b ein g b orn b la ck ( o r I n d ig eno us o r b ro w n o r p oor) i n a p arth eid “ A meric a.”

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** The

Tem pora l B oxes

o f N eo sla very

If, a s S aid iy a H artm an s u ggests , “ th e g ra nd n arra ti v e o f E m ancip ati o n c o nti n ues to h o ld s w ay o ver o ur i m agin ati o n,” n o tw ith sta nd in g

th e f o rm s o f c hatte liz e d l e gal a nd e xtr a le gal te rro r th at p ro life ra te d i n f r e ed om ’s w ake,

th en th e w riti n gs, te sti m onie s, s o und in gs, a nd

life w ays of bla ck neo sla v es fr o m 1865 to th e pre se nt offe r a nearly in exhausti b le , if la rg ely unheed ed , se t of gho stl y

dem ysti fic ati o ns o f th at ti m e-h o no re d m aste r n arra ti v e.

I w ant to b e c le ar h ere th at w hen I u se th e te rm

ghostly

I a m n o t s p eakin g

meta p ho ric ally . M y u se o f th e te rm is in k eep in g w ith A very G ord on’s p iv ota lly im porta nt a sse rti o n th at, in th e n am e o f s o cia l a nd

his to ric al ju sti c e fo r th e p erilo usly a liv e a nd th e d ese cra te d d ead , w e m ust a tte m pt to o ffe r

gra cio us, h osp ita ble , a nd a tte n tiv e

lis te n in g

to th e co untl e ss m ate ria l re v enants th at hav e accum ula te d und er th e lo ng-s ta nd in g crim in al re ig n o f ra cia l cap ita lis t

mis o gyny.

T his b ook c alls o ur a tte nti o n to h o w th e l a w ’s g o th ic tr a nsm uta ti o n o f l iv in g, n o m in ally r ig hts -b earin g, h um an b ein gs i n to

“sla v es o f th e s ta te ” h as p ro duced a n u nacco unte d -fo r e xcess in th e fo rm o f a s u b te rra nean p oeti c s, p oliti c s, a nd e p is te m ic s o f th e

liv in g d ead — an u nq uie tl y b urie d a sse m bla ge o f b la ck n eo sla v e s o und a nd th eo ry ( a nd l e gally d is a p peare d b odie s) th at c o nsti tu te s a

haunti n g

unhis to ric a l

c o unte r to th e w ell- e ntr e nched U .S . n ati o nal f a b le o f s la v ery ’s n in ete enth -c entu ry d em is e .

In a p ie ce e nti tl e d “ T eete rin g o n th e B rin k: B etw een D eath a nd L ife ,” th e b la ck ra d ic al p oliti c al p ris o ner M um ia A bu-J a m al

offe rs j u st th is s o rt o f s p ectr a l d is e nchantm ent o f th e f ic ti v e s la v ery /fr e ed om b ord erlin e. H e d oes s o b y o utl in in g th e d egre e to w hic h

co lle cti v iz e d n ata l a lie nati o n— one o f th e fo und ati o nal e le m ents o f w orld -h is to ric al sla v ery a nd so cia l d eath th at is p erfo rm ed

th ro ugh th e s la v e’s s y ste m ati c s e v era nce fr o m lo ved o nes— in sin uate d its e lf in to th e la te tw enti e th c entu ry fo r h im se lf a nd o th ers

who m h e d esc rib es a s b ein g “

en to m bed in a ju rid ic a l, p sy ch ic , a nd te m pora l b ox.

” H e e xp re sse s h o w th is c hatte liz in g te chniq ue

re su rfa ced th ro ugh th e s ta te ’s p ro sc rip ti o n o f f a m ilia l to uch f o r th o se i t h as b ra nd ed a s c o nd em ned f e lo ns:

The u lti m ate e ffe ct o f n o nco nta ct v is its is to w eaken, a nd fin ally to s e v er, fa m ily ti e s. T hro ugh th is p olic y a nd

pra cti c e th e s ta te s k illfu lly a nd i n te nti o nally d enie s th o se i t c o nd em ns a f u nd am enta l e le m ent a nd e xp re ssio n o f

hum anity — th at o f to uch a nd p hysic al c o nta ct— and slo w ly e ro des fa m ily ti e s a lr e ad y m ad e te nuo us b y th e

dis ta nce b etw een h o m e a nd th e p ris o n. T hus p ris o ners a re a s is o la te d p sy cho lo gic ally a s th ey a re te m pora lly

and s p ati a lly . B y s ta te a cti o n,

th ey b eco m e “ dea d” to th ose w ho k n ow a nd lo ve th em , a nd th ere fo re d ea d to

th em se lv es.

Fro m th e a b je ct l e gal p ositi o n o f b ein g c arg o ed w ith in a

j u rid ic a l, p sy ch ic , a nd t e m pora l b ox

s itu ate d in sid e P ennsy lv ania ’s d eath

ro w , th e im pris o ned b la ck r a d ic al in te lle ctu al th eo riz e s n eo sla v ery a s a r itu aliz e d p re d ic am ent o f liv in g d eath w ro ught th ro ugh th e

mutu ally c o nsti tu ti v e s ta te -te rro r m odaliti e s o f te m pora l d is lo cati o n, s tr u ctu ra l d ehum aniz a ti o n, a nd c o lle cti v iz e d n ata l a lie nati o n. I n

th is se nse , th e cellu la r zo ne o f liv in g b uria l, sta te -m urd er p re p ara ti o n, and fa m ilia l ru p tu re th at A bu-J a m al d esc rib es as th e

“te m pora l b ox” e nacts b oth a ti m e/b ody fr e eze — with th e d eath -s im ula ti n g r o uti n e o f im pris o nm ent in iti a ti n g a v ir tu al s to ppage o f

ti m e— and a ti m e/b ody w arp , w here in th e c iv il d eath o f p enal e nto m bm ent p erfo rm s h o rrify in g re p eti ti o n o f th e s o cia l d eath o f

chatte l e nsla v em ent.

H ere w e se e h o w A bu-J a m al’s th eo re ti c al v oic e, lik e th o se o f o th er in carc era te d b la ck ra d ic als su ch a s

Angela D av is , A ssa ta S hakur, S und ia ta A co li, G eo rg e J a ckso n, a nd H erm an W alla ce, c alls u p on u s to re co gniz e th e fa ct th at th e

bir th p la ce o f e p is te m ic a rti c ula ti o ns o f a nd a gain st n eo sla v ery h as n o t b een th e lib era l b ourg eo is a cad em y ( a n in sti tu ti o n c entr a lly

im plic ate d in th e c ro ss-g enera ti o nal m ass p ro ducti o n a nd c o nsu m pti o n o f c rim in ally ra cia liz e d h um an b ein gs), b ut th e sp ace o f

neo sla v ery its e lf. A s Jo y Ja m es a sse rts in h er g ro und bre akin g w ork o n (a nti ) p ris o n ra d ic alis m , th e n eo sla v e n arra ti v e, a nd th e

th eo re ti c al c o m ponent o f w hat s h e d esc rib es a s “ cap ti v e i n su rg ent a b oliti o nis m ,” th e te rm “ ‘p ub lic i n te lle ctu al’ e nco m passe s th e o ft-

fo rg o tte n ‘ p ris o n in te lle ctu al’ . L ik e h is o r h er v is ib le c o unte rp arts , th e im pris o ned in te lle ctu al r e fle cts u p on s o cia l m eanin g, e th ic s

and ju sti c e; o nly s /h e d oes s o in d ete nti o n c entr e s a nd p ris o ns w hic h fu ncti o n a s in te lle ctu al a nd p oliti c al s ite s u nauth o ris e d b y th e

sta te .”

How ev er, i f i n carc era te d a nd f o rm erly i m pris o ned b la ck r a d ic als s u ch a s A bu-J a m al, S hakur, A co li, D av is , J a ckso n, a nd W alla ce

re p re se nt r e la -ti v ely s u b m erg ed v oic es o f b la ck i n te lle ctu alis m a nd n eo -a b oliti o nis m , th en w hat te rm s d o w e h av e a t o ur d is p osa l to

desc rib e th e s o nic , w ritte n, p erfo rm ati v e, a nd r e sis ti v e p ra cti c es o f th e c o untl e ss h is to ric ally a no nym ous b la ck n eo sla v es w ho w ere

su b je cte d to c hatte lis m ’s p ost- 1 865 r e tu rn fo r g enera ti o ns b efo re th e a d vent o f th e 1 960s a nd 1 970s M ovem ent e ra ; w ho h av e u n-

Google -a b le n am es s u ch a s H arrie t P urd y, G assa w ay P ric e, J o hn M cE lr o y, J a m es B ru ce, a nd A ub ert L aC arlto n C ollin s; w ho se

sto rie s c anno t b e tr a ced b y w ay o f b ook b arc o des o r IS B N n um bers ; a nd w ho se te rro riz e d liv es a nd u ncere m onio us d eath s h av e

ra re ly b een c ate go riz e d a s “ p oliti c al,” “ ra d ic al,” o r “ in te lle ctu al” ? W as s o m eth in g lik e a th eo ry o f “ neo sla v ery ” p ro duced lo ng

befo re G eo rg e J a ckso n c o in ed a nd th eo riz e d th e

te rm w hile b ein g h eld d eep w ith in th e b ow els o f w hat h e d esc rib ed a s o ne o f

Califo rn ia ’s l a nd -b ase d s la v e s h ip s? I n w hat w ays w as th e n eo -a b oliti o nis t i m puls e th at w e r ig htl y a sso cia te w ith b la ck, I n d ig eno us,

Lati n a/o , a nd o th er a llie d r a d ic al fo rm ati o ns o f th e M ovem ent e ra p re fig ure d in th e c ultu re s a nd p oliti c s o f th o se s u b je cte d to th e

orig in al sy ste m s o f U .S . neo sla v ery su ch as th e chain gang, th e co nv ic t le ase cam p, th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n, and th e p ub lic ally

culti v ate d b ra nd s o f p riv ati z e d neo chatte lis m kno w n as p eo nage and crim in al su re ty ? W hat d o th e unre q uite d d ead o f p ris o n

sla v ery ’s p ast h av e to te ll u s a b out o ur c urre nt m om ent o f p ris o n– in d ustr ia l g eno cid e, n am ely , s in ce e v ery o ne o f th e m ore th an 2 .3

millio n h um an b ein gs c urre ntl y e nto m bed u nd er to day’s P IC ( b oth d om esti c ally a nd g lo bally ) r e p re se nts n o th in g if n o t a r e new ed

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** dese cra ti o n of th e unnam ab le , unhera ld ed , and unro m anti c iz a b le casu alti e s of earlie r fo rm ati o ns of neo sla v ery ? H ere I am

su ggesti n g th e p ossib ility th at if in d eed th e d ead h av e y et to b e s a v ed fr o m th e d efilin g r e p eti ti o n o f th e r a v ages o f th e p ast w ith in

our c urre nt m om ent, th en th e p erilo us p re se nt is a ls o u ncle ar o f th e re -m em berin g a nd w ailin g, a nd p re se nce(s ) o f th o se w ho se

re m ain s lie b urie d w ith in th e u nm ark ed g ra v es o f a p ris o n p la nta ti o n s u garc ane fie ld a nd th e s e p ulc her-lik e te m pora l b oxes o f th e

maste r a rc hiv e.

One s u ch i n co m ple te ly i n te rre d v oic e o f e arly n eo sla v ery s ti ll c alls o ut f r o m a m ong a m ounta in -s iz e d p ile o f b oxes c o lle cte d a nd

file d a w ay b y th e U .S . D ep artm ent o f J u sti c e i n r e sp ect to i ts i n v esti g ati o n o f p eo nage c ase s f r o m 1 901 to 1 945— bla ck a p pariti o nal

te sti m ony f r o m L aro nia , G eo rg ia , i n th e f o rm o f a l e tte r a d dre sse d to P re sid ent T heo dore R oose v elt, i n O cto ber 1 903:

Mr. P re sid ent,

Dear S ir :

I w rit e y ou th is le tte r to in fo rm y ou th at m y h usb and ( J a ckso n M orris o n, c ol’ d ) is b ein g m ade to s e rv e a n u nla w fu l te rm a t C ol. J a m es M . S m it h ’s

cam p a t S m it h onia , G a., in O gle th orp e c ounty ,

Events o f th e c ase :

(1 ) H e w as s e nte nced a t C arn sv ille , G a. to th e [ c hain ] G ang f o r 1 2 m onth s f ro m S ept. 2 7th , 1 901, o r p ay a f in e o f $ 100.0 0.

(2 ) H e w as b ought o ut b y a M r. M ose J o rd an o f C orn er, G a. to w hom h e g ave 8 m onth s w hic h m ade 2 0 m onth s.

(3 ) M r. J o rd an, a fte r w ork in g M orris o n o nly tw o m onth s s o ld h im to C ol. J a m es M . S m it h , o n N ov. 3 0th , 1 901.

(4 ) C ol. S m it h a gre ed to lib era te M orris o n o n th e 3 0th d ay o f M ay 1 903.

(5 ) C ol. S m it h a ls o in duced m e to w ork b y s a yin g th at if I la bore d o n h is fa rm h e w ould p ay m e fo r m y w ork , o r e ls e h e w ould a llo w it to b e

cre dit e d to m y h usb and s e nts . in o rd er to s h orte n h is te rm , b ut h e d id n ot d o e it h er. I w ork ed f o r 1 8 m onth s h ard la bor a nd h e ( C ol. S m it h ) d id n ot p ay

me a nyth in g n eit h er d id c re dit a ny o f m y tim e to . . . th at o f m y h usb and.

(6 ) I w ent to C ol. C m it h ’s C am p o n N ov. 3 0th , 1 901, a nd s ta yed th ere till J u ly 7 th 1 903, a nd w ork ed a ll th e tim e a nd w hen I le ft h e to ok a ll o f m y

house hold p osse ssio ns.

(7 ) M y h usb and, J a ckso n M orris o n’s tim e e xpir e d o n M ay 3 0th 1 903, b ut S m it h w ould n ot tu rn h im f re e. H e, ( M orris o n) w ork ed o n till J u ly 7 th o n

whic h d ay h e le ft th e c am p.

(8 ) O n S ept. 11 , 1 903 h e, M orris o n, w as c aptu re d b y S m it h ’s sh erif f a nd c arrie d b ack to th e c am p a nd th en lo dged in th e L exin gto n ja il in

Ogle th orp e c ounty .

(9 ) C ol. S m it h in flic ts in hum an p unis h m ent o n th e p ers o n o f h is c onvic ts , a nd w hip s th em u nm erc if u lly .

(1 0) M r. P re sid ent, I a ppeal to y ou, a s th e E xecutiv e H ead o f o ur N atio n to p le ase d o so m eth in g fo r m y h usb and. W ill y ou p le ase c ause a n

in vestig atio n o f th at C am p to b e m ade in th e fu tu re , a nd w hile d oin g s o it w ill b e fo und th at th ere a re n um bers o f p ers o ns (b oth m en a nd w om en)

se rv in g a s s la ves th ere f o r m any m onth s a nd d ays a fte r th eir te rm s h ave e xpir e d. I h ave o ne c hild 3 y ears o ld a nd a m in g re at n eed o f m y h usb and’s

assis ta nce.

I h ave th e h onor to b e, S ir ,

Your o bedie nt S erv ant,

Menth a M orris o n, C ol’ d

We w ill n ev er k no w w heth er M enth a M orris o n a nd h er th re e-y ear-o ld c hild e v er s a w J a ckso n M orris o n a gain . W e w ill a ls o n ev er

kno w th e f u ll b re ad th o f u nsp eakab le te rro r th at i s m ad e to f a ll u nd er th e s ig n o f “ in hum an p unis h m ent” i n s e cti o n 9 o f M enth a’s te n-

poin t a p peal to th e p re sid ent o f th e U nite d S ta te s to “ d o s o m eth in g” a b out h er h usb and ’s ( a nd h er o w n) e nsla v em ent. W hat w e d o

kno w is th at b esid es w hat s h e d esc rib es a s th e m odern re in tr o ducti o n o f th e a nte b ellu m p uniti v e m easu re o f th e p la nta ti o n w hip ,

neo sla v es w ere ro uti n ely s u b je cte d to ra p e; “ lo ng-c hain in g,”

boxcar a nd s to ckad e “ ti g ht- p ackin g;” “ can’t to c an’t s e e” la b or a nd

te rro r in th e h o use , fie ld , o r m in e; c o fflin g o ver g re at d is ta nces; b lo odho und m aulin gs; o utr ig ht m urd er; a nd c o erc ed m usic al a nd

th eatr ic al p erfo rm ance. W hat w e als o kno w is th at— sim ila r to th e o verw helm in g m ajo rity o f case s in w hic h b la ck su b je cts

atte m pte d to m ake s u b sta nti v e u se o f la te n in ete enth - a nd e arly tw enti e th -c entu ry le gal p ro sc rip ti o ns o f (fic ti v e) d eb t p eo nage—

executi v e, le gis la ti v e, a nd ju rid ic al a re nas o f U .S . lib era l w hite s u p re m acis t la w u lti m ate ly d id a b so lu te ly n o th in g to re d re ss th e

grie v ances o f M enth a M orris o n, h er h usb and , a nd th eir n ew ly fa th erle ss c hild . In fa ct, a s n o te d a b ove in r e fe re nce to

Ruffin ,

th ese

bra nches o f U .S . n ati o nal la w a nd g o vern ance a re c entr a lly im plic ate d in e ach o f th e h o rrify in g re gim es o f p ub lic a nd p riv ate

neo sla v ery th at o ccurre d a t p la ces s u ch a s J a m es S m ith ’s tw enty -th o usa nd -a cre i n d ustr ia liz e d n eo sla v e p la nta ti o n ( o th erw is e k no w n

as “ S m ith o nia ”), th e “ G ang” th at J a ckso n M orris o n w as a b le to a v oid o nly b y b ein g c o nv erte d i n to f u ngib le c o urth o use c hatte l, a nd

th e j a il i n w hic h h e w as h eld a fte r a tte m pti n g to e sc ap e f r o m th e n eo pla nta ti o n. I n d eed , a s I d is c uss i n c hap te r 2 , th e v ery d ocum ent

th at s ig nale d th e d e j u re l ib era ti o n o f A fr ic an s la v es s o m e th ir ty -s ix y ears b efo re J a ckso n M orris o n’s a rre st a nd c o urtr o om “ sa le ” i n

1901— th e T hir te enth A mend m ent to th e U .S . C onsti tu ti o n— actu ally s e rv ed a s th e s in e q ua n o n o f h is p enal e nsla v em ent a nd th at o f

unto ld num bers o f o th er p uta ti v ely “fr e e” b la ck p eo ple . A s M enth a M orris o n’s grip pin g entr e aty m akes cle ar, th e

sla very or

in vo lu nta ry s e rv itu de a s p unis h m en t fo r a c rim e

e xcep ti o n w ith in th e “ E m ancip ati o n A mend m ent” a llo w ed c o urth o use s o f J im

Cro w a p arth eid to fu ncti o n a s v ir tu al a ucti o n b lo cks in w hic h c rim in ally b ra nd ed b la ck p eo ple w ere e ith er d is a p peare d to th e

pub lic p ro fite erin g v enues o f th e c hain g ang, th e le v ee c am p, a nd th e s ta te p ris o n p la nta ti o n, o r in w hic h, lik e J a ckso n M orris o n,

th ey w ere s u b m itte d to th e d esig ns o f e nte rp ris in g w hite p la nte rs a nd i n d ustr ia lis ts w ho c o uld l ite ra lly p urc hase , l e ase , o r s u b le ase

th e b odie s o f b la ck m en, w om en, a nd c hild re n th ro ugh th e p ub lic ally b ro kere d “ p riv ate ” m achin ati o ns o f c o nv ic t le asin g, p eo nage,

th e “ fin e/fe e s y ste m ,” a nd c rim in al s u re ty .

The p ostb ellu m e xp erie nce o f ra cia liz e d c rim in al s a ncti o n th at th e M orris o ns e nd ure d , a s w ell a s a n u nta b ula ta b le n um ber o f

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** oth er b la ck p eo ple , s p eaks to th e ro uti n iz e d m anner b y w hic h w hite s u p re m acis t ju rid ic al, s ta tu to ry , a nd p enal la w c o nju re d th e

no m in ally f r e e b la ck c iv il s u b je ct i n to a c rim in aliz e d , n ata lly a lie nate d , a nd f u ngib le c o m modity .

I n d eed , n o tw ith sta nd in g th e o th er

ho rrify in g a sp ects o f M enth a M orris o n’s te sti m ony,

one is str u ck b y th e u tte rly b anal n atu re o f h er g estu re s to w ard th e a rre st,

co nv ic ti o n, c o urth o use sa le , a nd p riv ate su b le asin g o f h er h usb and ’s “ co l’ d ” b ody/fle sh a s w ould -b e c hain -g ang p ris o ner a nd

fic ti v ely i n d eb te d p eo n. H ow d oes th e r a th er m atte r-o f- fa ct n atu re o f h er “ re m em ory ” o f h er h usb and b ein g a rre ste d , s e nte nced to th e

chain gang, only to be “b ought” and “so ld ” to a pris o n pla nta ti o n as a pie ce of crim in ally bra nd ed m erc hand is e alte r our

und ers ta nd in g o f th e liv in g h is to ry o f s o uth ern n eo sla v ery ?

If th e T hir te enth A mend m ent w as th e p rim ary le gal w eap on o f b la ck

neo sla v ery , th en w hat w ere th e id eo lo gic ally d ete rm in in g fa cto rs th at a llo w ed fo r th e p ro fits a nd p le asu re s a sso cia te d w ith th e

aucti o nin g, le asin g, and su b le asin g o f b la ck b odie s in th e co urth o use , th e p la nta ti o n fie ld , and th e co al m in e in th e age o f

em ancip ati o n?

Stu d ie s o f th e so uth ern p ostb ellu m tu rn to “ co nv ic t la b or” h av e o fte n e xp la in ed th e u np re ced ente d d em ogra p hic sh ift in th e

South ’s o ffic ia l s p aces o f in carc era ti o n th at o ccurre d a fte r th e C iv il W ar— with th e n um ber o f o ffic ia lly im pris o ned b la ck p eo ple

in cre asin g fr o m le ss th an o ne p erc ent b efo re 1 861 to a s m uch a s 9 0 p erc ent in c erta in c o unti e s a nd s ta te s a fte r 1 865— in te rm s o f

politi c al e co no m y. A cco rd in g to th is l in e o f a naly sis , th e m ove to p ris o n s la v ery f u lfille d th e n eed f o r th e r e cup era ti o n o f a f o rm erly

ensla v ed l a b or f o rc e a nd th e r e sto ra ti o n a nd m odern iz a ti o n o f a w ar-to rn a nd “ b ackw ard ” s o uth ern e co no m y.

T he u lti m ate m essa ge

of th is i n te rp re ti v e f r a m ew ork h as b een: i f r a cis m w as a n i m porta nt i m med ia te /lo cal f a cto r i n th e n ew s o uth ern p ris o n s y ste m , th en

th e n ati o nal a nd g lo bal m acro eco no m ic fa cto rs o f c ap ita lis t p ro fit a nd in d ustr ia l m odern iz a ti o n w ere its d ete rm in ant h is to ric al

fo rc es. H ow ev er, M orris o n’s u nhis to ric al a cco unt o f th e c o urth o use a ucti o nin g o f h er h usb and c alls u p on u s to re co gniz e th at th e

co rp ore al e co no m ie s o f w hite s u p re m acy a nd b la ck f u ngib ility r e p re se nte d f u nd am enta l c o nd iti o ns o f p ossib ility f o r th e f o rm ati o ns

of te rro r, s u b je cti o n, a nd g eno cid al d om in ati o n th at b la ck p eo ple h av e e nd ure d u nd er c o nv ic t le asin g, th e c hain g ang, th e p ris o n

pla nta ti o n, f ic ti v e-d eb t p eo nage, a nd th e p enite nti a ry . T o i n v oke S ylv ia W ynte r, th e l ib era l w hite s u p re m acis t c ultu ra l m anufa ctu re o f

bla ckness a s

meta physic a l a fflic tio n

w as th e s o cia l a nd p hilo so phic al e d ific e u p on w hic h s o uth ern c ap ita lis t n eo sla v ery w as b uilt

and th e i d eo lo gic al d riv in g f o rc e b ehin d th e r o uti n iz e d d is a p peara nce a nd r e ensla v em ent o f n o m in ally “ fr e e” b la ck c iv il s u b je cts .

Menth a M orris o n’s te sti m ony i llu str a te s h o w th e i n hum an q uality o f p ostb ellu m p unis h m ent w as a p ro duct o f th e n ati o nally p ro je cte d

onto lo gic al m yth o s o f th e “ N egro ” o r “ N ig ger” a s

in co rrig ib le a nd

in hum an b ein g

—a fa ta l, m ate ria l, a nd so cia lly d ete rm in in g

fa b le th at h ad b een fo rg ed a t la w a nd c usto m fo r h und re d s o f y ears b efo re h er h us-b and ’s c o urth o use a ucti o nin g.

F in ally , th e fa ct

th at J a ckso n M orris o n’s c rim in ally b ra nd ed a nd s o ld b ody e nd ed u p b ein g c o ffle d to a g eo gra p hy o f r a cia l i n te rn m ent th at h ad b een

in o pera ti o n s in ce w ell b efo re th e C iv il W ar u nd erlin es h o w th e s u p pose d h is to ric al s h ift in p enal d em ogra p hy th at o ccurre d a fte r

1865 w as n o t re ally so m uch o f a sh ift a t a ll— th at A fr ic ans h ad fa ced m ass in hum an p unis h m ent a nd in d ustr ia liz e d p la nta ti o n

im pris o nm ent o n g ro und s s u ch a s S m ith o nia , P arc hm an ( M is sis sip pi) , a nd “ A ngo la ” ( L ouis ia na) fo r g enera ti o ns b efo re th e o penly

decla re d tu rn to “ N egro c o nv ic t l a b or.”

Giv en h er a ll- to o-a cute l iv ed u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e w ays i n w hic h th e U .S . s y ste m o f i n hum an p unis h m ent d id i n d eed a m ount to a

pre d ic am ent o f d e j u re r e ensla v em ent f o r h er o w n f a m ily a nd o th ers w ith in h er c ir c le , w e c an i m agin e th at M enth a M orris o n k new

fu ll w ell th at th ere w as littl e c hance th at a s in gle “ C ol’ d ” w om an’s m is siv e to o ne o f th e m ost p ow erfu l w hite m en o n th e p la net

would y ie ld a nyth in g m ore th an i t d id . H ow ev er, i t i s o ur r e co gniti o n o f h er l ik ely u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e v ery i m possib ility o f h er ta sk

of c allin g o n n ati o nal w hite s u p re m acis t la w to fr e e h er h usb and fr o m lo cal w hite s u p re m acis t la w th at u nd erlin es th e h aunti n g

fu tu re -o rie nta ti o n o f th e neo -a b oliti o nis t ap peal th at can sti ll b e heard em itti n g fr o m her le tte r w ell o ver a centu ry afte r its

co m positi o n. A s tr id ent b la ck a p pariti o nal d em and o n th e n eo sla v ery p re se nt fr o m d eep w ith in th e n eo sla v ery p ast c an b e h eard

most c le arly in s e cti o n 1 0—

Will y o u p le a se c a use a n in vestig atio n o f th at C am p to b e m ade in th e fu tu re , a nd w hile d oin g s o it

will b e f o und t h at t h ere a re n um bers o f p erso ns ( b oth m en a nd w om en ) s e rv in g a s s la ves t h ere .

I f M orris o n’s a p peal c an b e ta ken

as l e ss o f a d ead l e tte r th an a n u nd ead i n d ic tm ent o f a p ast th at h as n ev er p eris h ed , o f a l iv in g H is to ry th at c o nti n ues to s e e m assiv e

num bers o f p erso ns

(

both m en a nd w om en

[ a nd g end er-n o nco nfo rm in g p eo ple ])

se rv in g a s s la ves

in m odern liv in g d eath c am ps

su ch a s th o se th at c urre ntl y e nto m b o ne o ut o f e v ery n in e b la ck m en i n th e U nite d S ta te s b etw een th e a ges o f tw enty a nd th ir ty -fo ur

—or th e sc o re s o f im mig ra nt d ete nti o n c am ps th at n o w lin e “ A meric a’s ” h yp erm ilita riz e d a nd im peria lly e re cte d b ord er w ith

Mexic o — th en it fo rc es u s to u nd ers ta nd th at fo rm ati o ns o f th e d egre e to w hic h fo rm ati o ns o f c hatte liz e d im pris o nm ent su ch a s

Sm ith o nia (G eo rg ia ), C um min s (A rk ansa s), B anner M in e (A la b am a), P arc hm an (M is sis sip pi) , a nd A ngo la (L ouis ia na) a re n o t

anachro nis ti c fig m ents o f so uth ern

white su p re m acis t e xcep ti o nalis m o r p re m odern a nachro nis m , b ut le gal, m eth o dolo gic al, a nd

cultu ra l fo und ati o ns o f th e c urre nt U .S . m ass p ro ducti o n, c o nsu m pti o n, a nd in hum an p unis h m ent o f in carc era te d b la ck, In d ig eno us,

bro w n, p oor, a nd M uslim b odie s.

Here I w ant to c la rify th at m y e ngagem ent w ith th e n eo -a b oliti o nis t d em and o f th o se s u ch a s M orris o n, A bu-J a m al, a nd D av is f o r

us to r e co gniz e th e v ic io us c o nti n uiti e s o f r a cia liz e d i n carc era ti o n a s i t h as r e ached a cro ss th e w ell- e ntr e nched b ound arie s o f l ib era l

bourg eo is h is to ric al p erio diz a ti o n is n o t a n a rg um ent fo r a fla tte nin g o r e lid in g o f p oliti c al, e xp erie nti a l, o r so cia l d iffe re nce

betw een th e p ast a nd p re se nt o f U .S . ra cia l g eno cid e. R ath er, th e a p pariti o nal v oic es o f s la v es o f th e s ta te d em and th at w e p ay

se rio us a tte nti o n to th e w ays i n w hic h th e c hatte l p rin cip le h as i n fu se d th e s o cia lity o f b la ck f r e ed om f r o m th e m om ent o f i ts d e j u re

bir th .

A gain , i n th e s p ir it o f p urp ose fu l r e p eti ti o n, th e i n se p ara b ility o f f r e ed om a nd r e ensla v em ent i s a nalo giz e d m ost a ud acio usly

with in th e J a nus-h ead ed la nguage o f th e v ery le gal d ocum ent th at is a d verti s e d a s th e g enesis o f b la ck c iv il p ers o nho od a nd th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** exti n guis h m ent o f “ N egro ” c hatte lh o od. M y re ad in g o f lib era l le gality a nd m odern ra cia liz e d c arc era lity th ro ugh th e th eo re ti c al,

ep is te m olo gic al, a nd p ed ago gic al g uid ance o f n eo sla v es p ast a nd p re se nt p re su p pose s a c o ncentr ic /a ccum ula ti v e v ie w o f h is to ry

ra th er th an a lin ear/s e q uenti a l o ne— an e xp erie nti a lly in fo rm ed c o ncep ti o n o f th e d ynam ic in te rfa cin g o f p enal ti m e, ra cia liz e d

carc era l sp ace, a nd te rro riz e d b la ck u nfr e e e xp erie nce th at d is c ern s g rim c o ngru ence in th e v ery p la ces th at th e lib era l w hite

su p re m acis t sta te im pla nts th e so cia lly se d ucti v e illu sio n o f p ro gre ss a nd th e re p re ssiv e id eo lo gic al m achin ery o f “ p ostr a cia l”

am nesia .

T he a d am ant r e fu sa l o f th e l ib era l w hite n ati o nalis t n arra ti v e o f p ro gre ss th at u nfo ld s w ith in th is b ook d oes n o t tr e at th e

past a nd p re se nt a s h o m olo gic al ( o r e xactl y th e s a m e); r a th er, i t r e p re se nts a p oliti c ally i n te re ste d u nv eilin g o f th e g o th ic p re se nce o f

chatte l s la v ery a t th e m ate ria l s u b str a tu m o f U .S . m odern ity — a p re se nce th at e m bodie s n o t a “ p re m odern ” o r “ p re cap ita lis t” m ode

of p ro ducti o n, b ut a n u nd ead s o urc e o f m odern s o cia l r e p ro ducti o n a nd th e g enealo gic al m atr ix o f o ur c urre nt c ata str o phe o f m ass

in hum an ento m bm ent. W hen enco unte re d in th is lig ht, th e v oic es heard th ro ugho ut th is b ook ulti m ate ly sig nal ho w th e ra cia l

cap ita lis t m is o gynis t s ta te h as s u b je cte d m illio ns o f b la ck p eo ple a nd o th er r a cia lly a nd c rim in ally s ti g m ati z e d p eo ple s to c o nd iti o ns

th at r e nd er th e d iffe re nces b etw een p ast a nd p re se nt m odes o f d om in ati o n v ir tu ally i n d ecip hera b le , i f n o t c o m ple te ly n o nexis te nt.

Robert P ete W illia m s b ecko ns u s fu rth er in to n ecessa ry re cko nin g w ith th e v erti g in o us c o nti n uiti e s o f th e

th en

o f “ so uth ern ”

pris o n s la v ery a nd B la ck A tl a nti c c hatte l s la v ery , a nd th e

now

o f U .S . (in te r)n ati o nal p ris o n– in d ustr ia l g eno cid e, in “ P ris o ner’s

Talk in g B lu es,” a s o ng h e p erfo rm ed o n a d ay in th e la te 1 950s w hile h eld c ap ti v e a t th e la st o f th e p ris o n p la nta ti o ns m enti o ned

ab ove— Louis ia na’s “ A ngo la ”— an e ig hte en-th o usa nd -a cre p lo t o f f e rti le M is sis sip pi r iv er-b otto m l a nd th at h as o pera te d a s a s la v e

pla nta ti o n s in ce th e e arly n in ete enth c entu ry a nd n o w s e rv es a s th e l a rg est m axim um -s e curity p ris o n i n th e c o untr y :

Lord , I f e el s o b ad s o m etim e,

Seem s lik e th at I ’m w eakenin ’ e very d ay.

You k now I ’v e b egin to g re y s in ce I g ot h ere

Well a w hole lo t o f w orry in ’ c ausin ’ th at

But I c an f e el m yse lf w eakenin ’

I d on’t k eep w ell n o m ore . . . I k eeps s ic kly .

I ta kes a lo t o f m edic in e b ut it d on’t lo ok lik e it d o n o g ood.

All I h ave to d o is p ra y, th at’s th e o nly th in g th at’ ll h elp m e h ere .

One f o ot in th e g ra ve it lo ok lik e

And th e o th er o ne o ut.

Som etim e it lo ok lik e m y b est d ays, g otta b e m y la st d ays.

Som etim es I f e el lik e I ’m a n ever s e e, m y lit tle o l’ k id s a nym ore .

But if I d on’t e ver s e e ‘ e m n o m ore , le ave ‘ e m in th e h ands o f G od. . . .

In a w ay, I w as g la d m y p oor m oth er h ad ’ c ease d’

because s h e s u ffe re d w it h h eart tr o uble , a nd tr o uble b ehin d m e

su re w ould h ave w ent h ard w it h h er.

But if s h e w ere liv in ’, I c ould c all o n h er s o m etim e.

But m y o l’ f a th er d ead to o.

That m ake m e, b e m oth erle ss a nd f a th erle ss. . . .

Lord m y w orry , s u re c arry in ’ m e d ow n

Lord m y w orry , s u re is c arry in ’ m e d ow n

Som etim e I f e el lik e, b aby, c om mit tin ’ s u ic id e

Yah, s o m etim e I f e el, f e el lik e c om mit tin ’ s u ic id e

I g ot th e n erv e, if I ju st h ad s o m eth in ’ to d o it w it h .

I’m g oin ’ d ow n s lo w , s o m eth in ’ w ro ng w it h m e.

Yes, I ’m g oin ’ d ow n s lo w , s o m eth in ’ w ro ng w it h m e.

As w ith M enth a M orris o n a nd M um ia A bu-J a m al, th e b la ck a p pariti o nal w ord s o f W illia m s illu m in ate th e d egre e to w hic h th e

exp erie nce o f n eo sla v ery sh uttl e s th e liv in g, b re ath in g, lo vin g su b je ct to a n in su ffe ra b le life /d eath b ord erla nd — a zo ne o f c iv il

murd er e re cte d th ro ugh th e le gal in te rfa cin g o f n ata l a lie nati o n a nd ra cia liz e d c rim in al s a ncti o n. E xcep t in W illia m s’s c ase , th e

in te nsity o f th e n eo sla v e’s w ritte n a rti c ula ti o n o f th e e xp erie nces o f f a m ilia l r u p tu re a nd p la nta ti o n te rro r i s h eig hte ned b y th e a d ded

aesth eti c d im ensio ns o f D elta -in fle cte d “ w orrie d n o te s” a nd th e h aunti n g c ho ru s-lik e to nes o f a tw elv e-s tr in g g uita r. In lis te nin g to

th e re co rd in g, o ne is im med ia te ly str u ck b y th e w ays in w hic h th e se m anti c d ep th , ep is te m ic fo rc e, and sp ectr a l urg ency o f

Willia m s’s s e lf- a d dre sse d d ir g e a re fe lt a s m uch, if n o t m ore , in th e w heeze s o f h is th ro at a nd th e r e v erb era ti n g to nes o f h is g uita r

(m ela ncho lic s o und s th at h o ver a t th e m arg in s o f n early e v ery ly ric al lin e) th an in th e w ord s th em se lv es. In fa ct, th ese e le m ents o f

no nv erb al p ris o n sla v e c o m munic ati o n w ork to p ro duce a c lo aked e xp ansio n o f m eanin g ra th er th an a tr a nsp are nt e xp osu re o f

meanin g.

H ere , a s in m y la te r d is c ussio ns o f b la ck in carc era te d p erfo rm ance, I a m s u ggesti n g h o w o ur a tte nti v e lis te nin g to th e

aesth eti c a nd p oliti c al r e m ain s o f th e d ead a nd l iv in g d ead m ust ta ke i n to a cco unt th e f a ct th at th e f u ll r a nge o f u nhis to ric al m eanin g,

ped ago gic al p urp ose , a nd te rro riz e d e xp erie nce h eld w ith in th eir so und in gs, te sti m onie s, a nd su rv iv al p ra cti c es is n ecessa rily

unav aila b le to u s, e v en a s w e a ccep t th e u rg ent r e sp onsib ility o f h earin g a nd a cti n g u p on w hat th ese s p ecte rs o f n eo sla v ery s ti ll n eed

to s a y.

In th is r e sp ect, th e w ord s o f S aid iy a H artm an, f o llo w in g E douard G lis sa nt, r e gard in g th e o pacity , o r r e sis ti v e n o ntr a nsp are ncy, o f

th e s o ngs th at is su ed fr o m th e “ o rc hestr a te d a m use m ents ” o f th e c hatte l s la v e a re v ita lly in str u cti v e fo r o ur e ngagem ent w ith th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** puniti v e p erfo rm ances o f th e p ris o n s la v e:

[T ]h e sig nific ance of opacity [is ] pre cis e ly th at w hic h enab le s so m eth in g in excess of th e orc hestr a te d

am use m ents o f th e e nsla v ed a nd w hic h s im ila rly tr o ub le s th e d is ti n cti o ns b etw een jo y a nd s o rro w a nd to il a nd

le is u re . F or th is o pacity , th e s u b te rra nean

and v eile d c hara cte r o f s la v e s o ng m ust b e c o nsid ere d in r e la ti o n to

th e d om in ati v e im positi o n o f tr a nsp are ncy a nd th e d egra d in g h yp er-v is ib ility o f th e e nsla v ed , a nd , b y th e s a m e

to ken, s u ch c o ncealm ent s h o uld b e c o nsid ere d a f o rm o f r e sis ta nce.

The d ir e ct r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een th e h yp erv is ib ility o f th e e nsla v ed a nd th e r e cesse d s e m anti c a sp ects o f c hatte liz e d p erfo rm ance i s

fu nd am enta lly g erm ane to o ur u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e c ir c um sc rib ed , fr a ught, a nd p ain ed c hara cte ris ti c s o f p ostb ellu m b la ck p ris o ner

perfo rm ance i n s p aces s u ch a s th e A ngo la p ris o n p la nta ti o n, o r “ T he F arm ,” a s i t i s e up hem is ti c ally a nd p asto ra lly d esig nate d b y th e

sta te . In d eed th is d ynam ic is re d ole nt in th e v ery m om ent o f n eo sla v e a b oliti o nis t s o und th at W illia m s p ro duced in “ P ris o ner’s

Talk in g B lu es.” T hat i s , a s m uch a s w e a re a b le to g le an a r e d re ssiv e o r r e sis ti v e q uality i n W illia m s’s s o nic r e nam in g, r e d efin in g,

and re cla m ati o n o f his exp erie nce o f im pris o nm ent— with his v oic e and guita r p erfo rm in g a co unte r-c o nju ra ti o n o f th e le gal

narra ti v e o f “ N egro ” c rim in ality a nd i n hum an i n co rrig ib ility i n to a b la ck a p pariti o nal s to ry o f k id nap pin g, n eo sla v ery , l iv in g d eath ,

and s ta te c rim in ality

—th e c o nd iti o ns in w hic h th e fie ld re co rd in g w as m ad e lim n th e lo ng-s ta nd in g im bric ati o ns o f (n eo )s la v e

perfo rm ance a nd p unis h m ent, l e is u re a nd te rro r, a nd i m pris o ned p riv ile ge a nd p uniti v e s u ffe ra nce th at H artm an c harts s o m aste rfu lly

Scen es o f S ubje ctio n.

H ere w hat I a m g estu rin g to w ard a re th e w ays in w hic h th e m ela ncho lic s tr a in s h eard o n th e W illia m s

re co rd in g w ere a s a ttr ib uta b le to th e v exed c o nd iti o ns u nd er w hic h th ey w ere p ro duced a s to th e o th er h o rrify in g r e gim ents o f b la ck

neo sla v e la b or th at th e s in ger e nd ure d o n “ T he F arm .” S pecific ally , o n th e d ay th at “ P ris o ner’s T alk in g B lu es” w as r e co rd ed , a nd

Willia m s w as o rd ere d o ut o f th e c ane fie ld s, to le av e h is d om esti c d uti e s in th e h o use o f a n A ngo la p ris o n p la nta ti o n g uard , o r to

te m pora rily s u sp end s o m e o th er q uo ti d ia n n eo pla nta ti o n ta sk , a nd to ld to g ra b h o ld o f h is tw elv e-s tr in g g uita r a nd s in g fo r a w hite

fo lk lo ric p ris o n p la nta ti o n to uris t, th e b lu es m aestr o w as fu ncti o nin g in a r o le th at h ad b een e sta b lis h ed o n th e p la nta ti o n s in ce th e

nin ete enth c entu ry — th at o f “ m usic al s la v e.” I n d eed , o n th at d ay i n th e l a te 1 950s, R obert P ete W illia m s w as th e l a te st i n a l o ng l in e

of b la ck s u b je cts w ho h ad b een a llo tte d th e p erv ers e p riv ile ge o f e nte rta in in g w hite f o lk lo ric a nd n o nacad em ic to uris ts , p oliti c ia ns,

lo cal to w nsp eo ple , fe llo w p ris o ners , a nd p ris o n-g uard fa m ilie s a nd th eir g uests a t th e p la nta ti o n— th e m ost fa m ous o f w ho m w ere

Willia m s a nd H ud die L ed bette r ( a ka L ead B elly ), w ho w ere

“d is c o vere d ” a t th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n a s a fo lk a nd b lu es p ro dig y b y

Jo hn a nd A la n L om ax i n th e e arly 1 930s.

While th e i n carc era te d p erfo rm ances o f W illia m s a nd L ead B elly h av e a tta in ed s o m eth in g o f a l e gend ary s ta tu s w ith in h is to rie s o f

blu es a nd fo lk m usic , th e re la ti o nsh ip b etw een s u ch m om ents o f w hite a cad em ic p ris o n p la nta ti o n e njo ym ent a nd “ d is c o very ” to

sp ecta cle s o f co erc ed p erfo rm ance d urin g chatte l sla v ery has go ne co m ple te ly unm enti o ned . B y o utl in in g th e w ays in w hic h

perfo rm ati v e “p riv ile ge” and p uniti v e re cre ati o n hav e b een d ep lo yed as centr a l m echanis m s o f p ris o n m anagem ent, p erv ers e

ple asu re , a nd fr e e w hite c iv il su b je ct fo rm ati o n, I c o nsid er th e p ara d oxic al fa ct th at th e n eo sla v e’s v ery a tte m pt a t fa sh io nin g

so m eth in g o f a “ se lfh o od” th ro ugh so nic , th eatr ic al, o r te sti m onia l re d re ss is a ls o w hat q ualifie s th e p ostb ellu m e xp erie nce o f

im pris o nm ent a s so d ub io usly re m in is c ent o f c hatte l e nsla v em ent. S im ila r to th e ritu aliz e d p uniti v e th eatr ic s o f th e a nte b ellu m

perio d, w hen sla v es w ere fo rc ed to sin g a nd d ance o n th e d ecks o f sla v e sh ip s, a ucti o n b lo cks, a nd d urin g p la nta ti o n h o lid ay

cele b ra ti o ns i n o rd er to s im ula te th e A fr ic an’s “ co nte nte d ness” w ith b ond age, b la ck p ostb ellu m p ris o ners h av e b een r e gula rly u se d

as th eatr ic al, m usic al, a th le ti c , a nd f ilm ic s h o w pie ces a t A ngo la a nd o th er z o nes o f n eo sla v ery . A lo ng w ith b ein g f o rc ed to w ork i n

th e p la nta ti o n h o m es o f A ngo la g uard s a nd l o cal to w nsp eo ple a s f ie ld l a b ore rs a nd d om esti c s e rv ants , th o se l a te n in ete enth - to m id -

tw enti e th -c entu ry n eo sla v es w ho w ere c o nsid ere d a rti s ti c ally ta le nte d w ere u se d b y A ngo la g uard a nd w ard en f a m ilie s— or r e nte d

out to w hite s i n th e “ fr e e w orld ”— as p riv ate m usic al s la v es. W hile r e la ti v ely w ell- k no w n i m pris o ned f o lk a nd b lu es a rti s ts s u ch a s

Willia m s a nd L ead B elly w ere re co gniz e d a s p ro dig ie s b y w hite fo lk lo ris ts — a la b el th at in W illia m s’s c ase le d d ir e ctl y to h is

re le ase o n “ se rv itu d e p aro le ” to a lo cal w hite la nd ow ner— most o f th e m usic al, th eatr ic al, a nd a th le ti c p ris o ners a t A ngo la a nd

oth er site s o f neo sla v ery hav e nev er su cceed ed in sin gin g, d ancin g, acti n g, o r ro deo -in g th eir w ay to fr e ed om o r his to ric al

re co gniti o n. In d eed , ra th er th an b ein g a m odality o f p ub lic accla im , early p ris o n re le ase , o r re cre ati o nal le v ity , in carc era te d

perfo rm ance a nd o th er fo rm s o f p uniti v e p riv ile ge a t c hain g angs, p ris o n p la nta ti o ns, le v ee c am ps, a nd p enite nti a rie s h av e a ctu ally

been p art a nd p arc el o f p ris o n s la v e m anagem ent, te rro r, a nd r a cia liz e d p ub lic a nd p riv ate d is h o no r. I u lti m ate ly c o nsid er h o w th is

la rg ely o verlo oked h is to ry o f b la ck in carc era te d p erfo rm ance d em onstr a te s th e d egre e to w hic h th e

(u n)p ro ductiv e tr a va ils

o f

sla v es o f th e s ta te o n p la nta ti o n h o use p orc hes, in g uard fa m ily k itc hens, a nd o th er

le ss v is ib le v enues, s u ch a s th e p ris o n m aste r’s

bed ro om , h av e b een a s f u nd am enta l to th e l ib era l w hite s u p re m acis t p enal a nd s o cia l o rd er a s th eir “ p ro ducti v e” l a b ors i n r a ilr o ad

cam ps, l e v ee c am ps, i r o n-o re m in es, c o tto n r o w s, a nd p enite nti a ry s w eats h o ps.

Again , th is is n o t to u nd ere sti m ate th e in arg uab ly c entr a l ro le th at p ro fit- m akin g a nd p ro ducti v e la b or h av e p la yed u nd er U .S .

carc era l m odern ity , b ut to r e gis te r th e d egre e to w hic h c hatte liz e d in carc era ti o n h as a lw ays b een c ata ly ze d in a p oly -d ete rm in ant

fa sh io n i n v olv in g d ia le cti c s o f u nfr e e l a b or e xp ro pria ti o n a nd b odily s u b je cti o n, e co no m ic d is p osse ssio n a nd l e galiz e d d om in ati o n,

and ra ti o naliz e d p ro fit a nd s a d is ti c p riv ate a nd p ub lic e njo ym ent. H ere th e w ord s o f W illia m G oodell in re sp ect to th e

re s

, o r

obje ct, sta tu s of th e chatte l sla v e are dis tu rb in gly pre sc ie nt to our enco unte r w ith th e se em in gly in fin ite so cia l, politi c al,

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** psy cho lo gic al, a nd v is c era l u ti lity o f th e b la ck n eo sla v e in th e U nite d S ta te s sin ce 1 865: “ S la v es, a s P ro perty , m ay b e

use d ,

ab so lu te ly b y th eir o w ners a t w ill,

fo r t h eir o w n p ro fit o r p le a su re .

” 28

I n d eed , e v en w hen th e m oneta ry p ro fits o f p ris o n p la nta ti o ns

su ch a s A ngo la b egan to w ane in th e e arly tw enti e th c entu ry , a nd it b ecam e c le ar th at s o uth ern s ta te s w ould b e u nab le to m atc h th e

huge p ro fits th at c o nv ic t- le asin g c o m panie s c le are d in th e la te n in ete enth - to e arly tw enti e th -c entu ry , th e fr e e/w hite c iv il s u b je ct

co nti n ued to gain in num era b le fo rm s of bodily enjo ym ent, psy chic ple asu re , and id enti fic ato ry se lf- a ugm enta ti o n th ro ugh th e

hyp erv is ib ility , d is p osa b ility , a nd f u ngib ility o f ( in )h um an s ta te p ro perty .

While lo okin g th ro ugh a no th er o f th e in fin ite te m pora l b oxes th at o ffe r h is to ric ally m ute d e xp osu re o f th e m yth o lo gic al d iv id e o f

sla v ery a nd f r e ed om , I e nco unte re d a p ho to gra p h ( F ig ure 1 ) th at s p eaks v olu m es v is -à -v is th e p erv ers e p riv ate a nd p ub lic p le asu re s

asso cia te d w ith b la ck n eo -e nsla v em ent. T he im age fe atu re s a h unte d b la ck m an, in p ris o n s tr ip es, a tte m pti n g to c lim b a tr e e in th e

mid dle o f a s la v e p la nta ti o n fie ld , w hile a w hite A ngo la g uard c ap ta in s ic ks a p ack o f p enite nti a ry b lo odho und s o n h is b ody. In

lo okin g a t th e p ho to gra p h, th e v ie w er is im med ia te ly c o nfr o nte d w ith w hat I re fe rre d to a b ove a s th e ti m e-b end in g p ow er o f th e

ra cia liz e d c arc era l. T hat i s , a sid e f r o m th e ti m e-lo cati n g e ffe ct o f th e p ris o n s tr ip es, w hic h w ere s u re ly s o w n b y b la ck w om en w ho

were i m pris o ned a t th e n eo pla nta ti o n u nti l 1 966, th e m om ent c o uld h av e b een s n atc hed f r o m a ny d ay i n th e m ore th an tw o-h und re d -

year h is to ry o f A ngo la o r a ny o th er s la v e p la nta ti o n, c hain g ang, c o nv ic t le ase c am p, o r p ris o n p la nta ti o n. In d eed , a s S ara J o hnso n

re v eals in h er s u p erb tr e atm ent o f th e u se o f

dogs a s w eap ons o f r a cia l w arfa re fr o m th e fifte enth c entu ry th ro ugh th e c urre nt U .S .

in v asio n/o ccup ati o n o f A fg hanis ta n a nd Ir a q (a nd e ls e w here ), su ch sc enes o f in hum an p unis h m ent h av e o ccurre d th ro ugho ut th e

Weste rn H em is p here f r o m th e v ery o uts e t o f c hatte l s la v ery a nd U .S . c o lo nia l g eno cid e.

How ev er, a c lo se r lo ok a t th e p ho to gra p h a llo w s th e v ie w er to e ngage w ith th e lo ng-s ta nd in g tr a d iti o n o f p riv ate a nd p ub lic

enjo ym ent th at h as a ccru ed to th e s p ecta cula r p erfo rm ance o f r a ce te rro r a nd th e d egre e to w hic h s u ch r itu als o f r a cia l d om in ati o n

hav e n ev er b een r e str ic te d to th e “ p riv ate ” d om ain s o f e xtr a le gal ly nchin g. A lo ng th ese lin es, I w ant to c o nsid er th e o vertl y s ta ged

quality o f a n i m age th at c asts i ts e lf a s a n a cti o n s h o t o f a p ris o n p la nta ti o n o ffic ia l f u lfillin g th e h ero ic d uty o f a p pre hend in g a b la ck

fu giti v e n eo sla v e. T his is r e nd ere d m ost c le arly in th e g uard ’s v is ib le s m ir k — a lo ok s u ggesti v e o f h o w th is m om ent w as a s m uch

ab out th e r a cia l s e lf- re aliz a ti o n a nd s e lf- a ggra nd iz e m ent o f th e f r e e w hite l a w man a s a n o ffic ia l d ocum enta ti o n o f a n e sc ap ed b la ck

pris o ner’s a p pre hensio n. A lo ng th ese l in es, w e c an b e s u re th at th is p ho to , l ik e th e i n calc ula b le

num ber o f o th er h o rrific i m ages j u st

lik e it, w as p la ced in a fa m ily p ho to a lb um , s c ra p book, o r o n a p la nta ti o n h o use w all a s a n ite m o f fa m ilia l a nd s o cia l e njo ym ent

lo ng b efo re i t e v er b ecam e a p art o f th e h is to ric al a rc hiv e. A no th er c le ar i n d ic ati o n o f th e d ra m ati z e d a sp ect o f th e p ho to i s th e w ay

in w hic h th e g uard ’s h o rs e i s s h o w n i n th e b ackgro und c alm ly g ra zin g o n p la nta ti o n g ra ss a t a m om ent o f s u p pose d f r e neti c p urs u it.

These e le m ents o f p uniti v e s ta gin g a re jo in ed b y s o m eth in g, o r ra th er s o m eo ne, p ositi o ned a t th e m arg in s o f th e p ho to gra p h— th e

penite nti a ry ’s

Neg ro d og-s e rg ea nt

—an a b se nt p re se nce w ho se ta sk a s in m ate g uard (o r “ T ru sty p la nta ti o n N egro ”) w ould h av e

in v olv ed g uid in g th e f o ur b lo odho und s i n p urs u it o f h is f e llo w b la ck p ris o ner a head o f th e h ero ic w hite m an o n h o rs e b ack.

Fig ure 1 .

H ellh ound o f N eosla very : A f u git iv e n eosla ve “ tr e ein g,” L ouis ia na S ta te P ris o n P la nta tio n, c . 1 930s. H enry L . F uqua, J r., L ytle P hoto gra ph C olle ctio n a nd

Papers , L ouis ia na a nd L ow er M is sis sip pi V alle y C olle ctio ns, L SU L ib ra rie s, B ato n R ouge.

The v is ib le a nd i n v is ib le th eatr ic s o f th e p ho to l e av e u s to w ond er j u st h o w l o ng th e w hite g uard , th e p ris o ner, th e d og-s e rg eant,

and th e p ho to gra p her w ould h av e b een p ositi o ned n ear th is tr e e in o rd er to a chie v e th is s c ene. J u st w ho is th e p ers o n b ehin d th e

cam era a nd h o w l o ng d id i t ta ke f o r h im to s e t u p th is d ra m ati c s h o t? I s th e p ris o ner w ho i s a b out to b e m aule d a n a ctu al w ould -b e

fu giti v e o r o ne o f th e m any b la ck m en o n th e n eo pla nta ti o n w ho a v oid ed c ane a nd c o tto n fie ld la b or b y a ssu m in g th e r o le o f d og-

se rg eant’ s a ssis ta nt, o r “ d og-b oy”— cap ti v e m en w ho b ore th e v io la ti v e a nd c o erc iv e p riv ile ge o f s im ula ti n g n eo sla v e h unts b y

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** allo w in g th em se lv es to b ein g c hase d , b itte n, a nd “ tr e ed ” b y p la n ta ti o n b lo odho und s in tr a in in g? D id th e “ N egro ” p ris o ner h av e to

clim b th e tr e e m ulti p le ti m es i n o rd er to c ap tu re j u st th e r ig ht l o ok o f u nassa ila b le p ow er o n h is c ap to r’s f a ce? W as th e g uard c ap ta in

jo in ed o n th is p arti c ula r n eo sla v e h unt b y f r ie nd s, f a m ily , a nd to uris ts e njo yin g a p ris o n p la nta ti o n h o lid ay? A nd j u st h o w m any s u ch

tr e ein gs o f fu giti v e n eo sla v es c ulm in ate d in a ll- o ut le gal ly nchin gs? A t is su e h ere is th e v ir tu al in d is ti n guis h ab ility o f n eo sla v e

punis h m ent, in carc era te d perfo rm ance, and w hite su p re m acis t ple asu re . T he ele m ents of puniti v e co ntr iv ance and perv ers e

am use m ent re gis te re d w ith in th is m om ent o f n eo pla nta ti o n p ortr a itu re s u ggest h o w th e le gal a tr o city o f p ris o n s la v ery h as b een

ev acuate d th ro ugh th e p asto ra liz in g, c rim in aliz in g, a nd d ehum aniz in g le ns o f w hite su p re m acis t m nem onic re p ro ducti o n. S ta te d

diffe re ntl y , th e im agin g o f ra cia l d om in ance p re se nte d h ere w as b oth a n id eo lo gic al w eap on— where b y b la ck re ensla v em ent a nd

neo sla v e re b ellio n w ere co nju re d in to th e lib era l w hite nati o nalis t le gend s o f “N egro ” in co rrig ib ility , un-d is h o no ra b ility , and

se rv ile tr a cta b ility — and a n o nto lo gic al to ol, in v olv in g th e v is u al p ro je cti o n o f th e d om in ati v e s o cia l p ositi o n o f th e w hite p ris o n

maste r a nd o th er fr e e w hite s u b je cts

who re ap ed p sy cho lo gic al s a ti s fa cti o n a nd ra cis t e njo ym ent fr o m th e o pen d is p la y o f s u ch

pho to gra p hs in p ris o n p la nta ti o n h o m es a nd lo cal n ew sp ap ers . A s s u ch, th e v is u al m em ento s o f r a cia l s ta te te rro r s e rv e a s im ila r

purp ose to th e m ore o fte n d is c usse d p ic to ria l a nd c o rp ore al re lic s o f e xtr a le gal ly nchin gs th at w ere e xchanged b etw een w hite

su b je cts th ro ugho ut th e co untr y unti l th e m id -tw enti e th centu ry — th at is , th ey p erfo rm ed th e ra cia liz e d o nto lo gic al fu ncti o n o f

so lid ify in g th e d om in ati v e a nd f r e e s ta tu s o f w hite ness th ro ugh th e v is u al r e p ro ducti o n o f b la ck e nsla v em ent, c o rp ore al r u p tu re , a nd

dehum aniz a ti o n.

I n f a ct, s u ch i m ages o f s o uth ern n eo sla v ery a nd th e c ir c um sta nces o f p uniti v e a b je cti o n th at i n fo rm ed th em a ctu ally

poin t to th e w ays in w hic h s tr u ctu ra l w hite s u p re m acy s tr ip ped th e w ord “ d ehum aniz a ti o n” o f a ny s o cia l v alu e in re sp ect to th e

pris o n s la v e th ro ugh th e i d eo lo gic al r e p ro ducti o n o f b la ck s u b hum anity .

But, a s s ta te d a b ove, th e s p ectr a l v oic es o f A meric an n eo sla v ery w ill n o t a llo w u s th e l ib era l n ati o nalis t c o m fo rt o f r e ceiv in g th is

im age a s a n e m balm ed s o cia l a rti fa ct o r a r e lic o f a p re his to ric r a cia l p ast. R ath er, th ey d em and th at w e v ie w th is s o cia lly h aunti n g

obje ct a nd th e s y ste m o f in hum an p unis h m ent th at it s y m boliz e s a s a n e m ble m o f th e e xp erie nti a l c o m munio n b etw een y este rd ay’s

neo sla v es a nd th o se w ho c o nti n ue to fa ce s u ch r itu als o f le gal v io le nce in o ur c urre nt m om ent. L est w e u nhear th is e le m ent o f th e

neo -a b oliti o nis t th eo re ti c al c halle nge p ose d b y th e w ord s, s o und s, a nd r e sis ti v e c ultu ra l p ra cti c es o f p ris o ners s u ch a s M um ia A bu-

Ja m al, M enth a M orris o n, a nd R obert P ete W illia m s, I w ant to d ra w a tte nti o n to a n ew s ite m th at a p peare d in th e

Sava nnah N ew s-

Pre ss

( G eo rg ia ), f r o m N ovem ber 1 8, 1 990:

A P ris o n N ig h tm are : I n m ate U se d a s B lo odh ou nd B ait

Austi n , T exas. R ic hard K aelin w as

a p ris o n ‘ d og b oy

’ i n T exas a nd h e h as th e s c ars to p ro ve i t.

All a cro ss h is h and s. A nd h is a rm s.

Even on th e back of his le gs w here sn ap pin g ho und s dre w blo od as he se rv ed as hum an “b ait” — a

co ntr o vers ia l p ra cti c e h e s a id h e p arti c ip ate d in a b out tw o d oze n ti m es d urin g a 1 0-m onth s ti n t in [E asth am ]

pris o n.

“It w as a n ig htm are ,” s a id K aelin , a 3 2-y ear-o ld f a th er o f th re e w ho w as p aro le d f iv e m onth s a go .

“I’ v e h ad to f ig ht o ff 1 0 o r 1 2 a tta ckin g d ogs w ith n o p ro te cti v e c lo th in g w hats o ev er. S een d ogs r ip c hunks o ut

of a no th er c o nv ic t’ s

le g. S een th em p ull a m an to th e g ro und , te ar o pen th e p ad ded c lo th in g.

“I’ v e g o t b it e v ery ti m e I w ent o ut” . . . .

He s a id h e in iti a lly a sk ed fo r th e a ssig nm ent, b ecause h e h ad tr a in ed D oberm ans fo r y ears — and b ecause h e

knew i t c arrie d w ith i t a h ig hly p riz e d tr u sty s ta tu s w ith in th e p ris o n s y ste m . . . .

Kaelin s a id h e a sk ed fo r a tr a nsfe r, b ut p ris o n o ffic ia ls m ad e it c le ar th at h is n ext jo b w ould b e u nd esir a b le

work — lik e c le anin g o ut h o g p ens o r c attl e b arn s. A nd h e c o uld lo se h is tr u sy sta tu s, w hic h g iv es in m ate s

in cre ase d r e sp onsib iliti e s i n r e tu rn f o r m ore

good-tim e c re d its

to b e a p plie d to w ard p aro le .

Here th e e xp erie nces o f a B ush 4 1–era “ d og-b oy” in L ovela d y, T exas, p re se nt h o rrify in g e v id ence o f th e fu tu re -h aunti n g p ow er o f

th e m anageria l a nd p uniti v e m eth o dolo gie s d ep ic te d in a lo ng-b urie d p ho to gra p h fr o m A ngo la , L ouis ia na. M ore s p ecific ally , th is

pub lic ally d is se m in ate d a nd s o cia lly d is q ualifie d d is p atc h fr o m a la te tw enti e th -c entu ry p ris o n p la nta ti o n e xp re sse s th e a b so lu te

in ap plic ab ility o f n o ti o ns o f h egem onic c o nse nt i n r e sp ect to th e p re d ic am ent o f m odern c hatte l i m pris o nm ent. L ik e th eir a nte b ellu m

pre d ecesso rs , s p aces o f U .S . n eo sla v ery h av e fu ncti o ned a s

pse u doheg em onic

a re nas o f d om in ati o n w here in c arc era l p riv ile ge,

voliti o n, a nd “ go od-ti m e(s )” h av e a m ounte d to c o erc ed s e lf- im mola ti o n, p uniti v e a b je cti o n, a nd l iv in g d eath .

How ev er, a lo ng w ith is su in g a te m pora l th eo ry th at a llo w s u s to v ie w th e n eo sla v e-tr e ein g p ho to gra p h a s a m ark er o f a b je ct

exp erie nti a l c o m munio n b etw een y este rd ay’s n eo sla v es a nd th o se w ho fa ce s u ch r itu als o f le gal te rro r a s I w rite th ese w ord s, th e

his to ric ally m ute d v oic es o f U .S . n eo sla v ery a ls o o ffe r a n e sse nti a l le sso n in p oliti c al g eo gra p hy— one th at c alls fo r u s to r e ceiv e

su ch i m ages n o t a s p eculia rly “ so uth ern ” h o rro rs b ut a s u nhis to ric al f r e eze -fr a m es o f a n ati o nal p ro cess o f r itu aliz e d s ta te te rro r th at

has e xte nd ed f r o m A ngo la , to A tti c a, to A bu G hra ib ( a nd b ack a gain ). F urth erm ore , a nyo ne w ho h as s e en o ne o f th e c o untl e ss c ab le

te le v is io n d ocum enta rie s a d verti s e d a s e xp osé s o f th e “ re aliti e s” o f life in sid e U .S . ja ils a nd p ris o ns— or w ho h as w atc hed o ne o f

th e s e em in gly in fin ite s ta nd -u p ro uti n es, te le v is io n s h o w s, a nd H olly w ood film s th at d ep lo y th e “ d on’t d ro p th e s o ap ” ritu al o f

tr a nsp osin g p ris o n ra p e a nd s e x tr a ffic kin g in to s o urc es o f c o m ed ic p le asu re — und ers ta nd s th at th e s p ecta cula riz a ti o n a nd b anal

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** pub lic e njo ym ent o f ra cia l sta te te rro r, n ata l a lie nati o n, a nd

in hum an p unis h m ent a re fa r fr o m d is ti n ctl y so uth ern p heno m ena.

In d eed , th e c o nsta nt b om bard m ent o f th e U .S . s o cia l f ie ld w ith s u ch c rim in aliz in g a nd d ehum aniz in g i m agery h as a g re at d eal to d o

with th e f a ct th at m odern m ass e nto m bm ent r e m ain s b oth s o cia lly a ccep ta b le a nd s o cia lly p le asu ra b le . A s s ta te d a b ove, th e i m ages,

so und s, a nd te sti m onie s o f n eo sla v ery w ith in th is b ook a re n o t to b e r e ceiv ed a s r e lic s o f a d ead “ so uth ern ” h is to ry , b ut a s g ho stl y

re m in d ers o f th e w ays i n w hic h th e v io le nce o f th e p ast c o nti n ues to b e v is ite d u p on th e l iv es o f m illio ns o f b la ck, b ro w n, a nd p oor

peo ple e v ery d ay— wheth er p erfo rm ed b y a m odern K -9 u nit o n a g hetto o r b arrio s tr e et c o rn er, o r b y a p ris o n r io t- s q uad i n a S H U

“exerc is e ” y ard th at i s h id den i n p la in s ig ht.

This b ook’s e ngagem ent w ith th e m ate ria l g ho sts o f U .S . c hatte l i m pris o nm ent a nd r a cia l c ap ita lis t m is o gynis t te rro r a s u nle ash ed

on b oth s id es o f th e M aso n-D ix o n lin e a nd th e fic ti v e h is to ric al b ord er o f 1 865 h as b een g re atl y in flu enced b y th e a esth eti c

and

ep is te m ic in te rv enti o ns o f T oni M orris o n— parti c ula rly a s e xp re sse d in h er m ost a ccla im ed n o vel,

Belo ved .

In c hap te r 1 , “ ‘Y ou

Ain ’t S een N oth in ’ Y et’ :

Belo ved

a nd th e M id dle P assa ge C arc era l M odel,” I o ffe r a r e asse ssm ent o f th is o fte n-re v is ite d te xt, o ne

th at e xam in es th e w ays i n w hic h i t r e p re se nts a c riti c ally i m porta nt e p is te m ic a nd u nhis to ric al g uid e i n to th e w ork in gs o f c hatte liz e d

in carc era ti o n o n b oth s id es o f th e f ic ti v e 1 865 b ord er. M any c riti c s h av e d esc rib ed th e te xt a s a “ neo sla v e n arra ti v e,” a g eneric ta g

th at d eno te s a s e t o f m odern n o vels th at o ffe rs r e tr o sp ecti v e a cco unts o f c hatte l s la v ery f r o m a p osts la v ery c o nte xt. I c halle nge th is

re ad in g b y d esc rib in g

Belo ved

a s a

narra tiv e o f n eo sla very,

a te rm I u se — in a m anner s im ila r to th e l e ad in g c riti c al p ris o n s tu d ie s

sc ho la r J o y J a m es— to d esc rib e p ris o n a nd c hain -g ang-c ente re d s o und in gs, w riti n gs, te sti m onie s, a nd s o cia l p ra cti c es in w hic h th e

unse ttl in g c o nti n uiti e s o f s la v ery a nd fr e ed om a re b ro ught in to o vert r e lie f.

W hen r e ad in r e la ti o n to M orris o n’s p ortr a yal o f th e

Mid dle P assa ge, th e n o vel’s c hain -g ang s c ene fo caliz e s th e in te rc o nnecti o ns o f a nte - a nd p ostb ellu m fo rm ati o ns o f in carc era ti o n—

nam ely , i n so fa r a s i t i llu str a te s th e u ncanny s im ila rity b etw een c hatte liz e d p enal a rc hite ctu re s s u ch a s th e b arra co on, th e s la v e-s h ip

ho ld , th e s la v e p en, th e c hain -g ang c age, a nd th e s o lita ry -c o nfin em ent c ell. T his d is c ussio n o f th e ta nd em o pera ti o n o f r a cia l a nd

sp ati a l te rro r a cro ss s u p pose d ly s ta ti c h is to ric al b ord ers le nd s its e lf to a th eo re ti c al d is c ussio n o f th e w ays in w hic h ra cia liz e d

arc hite ctu re s su b je ct neo sla v es to sta te s o f le galiz e d excep ti o n th at are gro und ed in th e cultu ra l b ra nd in g o f b la ckness as a

bio m eta p hysic al

excep ti o n to w hite , n o rm ati v e h um anity . A lo ng w ith su ggesti n g th e “ fo rw ard h aunti n g” p ro pensiti e s o f c hatte l

carc era lity , P aul D ’s c hain -g ang e xp erie nce u nv eils th e p ara d oxic al fa ct th at s ite s o f n eo sla v ery h av e o fte n d oub le d a s s p aces o f

bla ck v ern acula r c ultu ra l p ro ducti o n. A s s u ch, h is p erfo rm ance o f c hain -g ang s o ngs th ro ugho ut th e te xt q ualifie s h im a s a n arra ti v e

analo gue o f s c o re s o f b la ck b lu es a nd fo lk a rti s ts w ho w ere “ d is c o vere d ” w hile b ein g h eld a s p ub lic s la v es a t c hain g angs a nd

pris o n p la nta ti o ns— and w ho u se d m usic a s a m eans o f r e tr ie v in g s o m eth in g o f a l ife o ut o f c o nd iti o ns b ord erin g o n d eath . I n l a yin g

out th e th eo re ti c al a nd c o unte r-h is to ric al te rra in o f th e e nti r e b ook, m y d is c ussio n o f

Belo ved

a llo w s fo r a n ew u nd ers ta nd in g o f

Morris o n’s n o vel a s a c riti c ally im porta nt e p is te m olo gic al, th e o re ti c al, a nd c o unte r-h is to ric al d ocum ent e xp re ssiv e o f th e lo ng-

sta nd in g c entr a lity o f r a cia liz e d i n carc era ti o n w ith in E uro -A meric an m odern ity .

Chap te r 2 , “ ‘E xcep t a s P unis h m ent f o r a C rim e’: T he T hir te enth A mend m ent a nd th e R eb ir th o f C hatte l I m pris o nm ent,” f o cuse s o n

th e le gis la ti v e a nd ju rid ic al h is to ry o f th e e m ancip ati o n a m end m ent a nd h o w th is m om ent o f p uta ti v e b la ck lib era ti o n a ctu ally

sig nale d th e c o nd iti o n o f p ossib ility fo r p ub lic re ensla v em ent a nd th e le gal re b ir th o f th e M id dle P assa ge c arc era l m odel. T he

am end m ent’ s p uniti v e e xcep ti o n a llo w in g fo r “ sla v ery a nd in v olu nta ry se rv itu d e” u p on o ne’s “ d ue c o nv ic ti o n” o f a c rim e h as

re p re se nte d o ne o f th e m ost d ev asta ti n g m om ents o f lib era l le gal d is c o urs e in U .S . h is to ry . T he e xcep ti o n c la use w as th e p rim ary

mechanis m w here b y a n u nto ld n um ber o f b la ck s u b je cts w ere le gally d is a p peare d in to c o nv ic t le ase c am ps, c hain g angs, p ris o n

pla nta ti o ns, a nd p eo nage c am ps. B y tr a cin g th e o rig in s o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent’ s p uniti v e e xcep ti o n to th e sta tu to ry a nd

le gis la ti v e h and lin g o f p re cario usly “ fr e e” b la ck b odie s d urin g th e a nte b ellu m p erio d, a nd to th e c o ngre ssio nal d eb ate s th at a tte nd ed

th e l e gis la ti o n’s p assin g, th e c hap te r a llo w s f o r n ew u nd ers ta nd in g o f a d ocum ent o f p ro gre ssiv e d ehum aniz a ti o n th at, i n s p ite o f i ts

dev asta ti n g im pact, h as r e ceiv ed o nly e p is o dic tr e atm ent b y p ris o ners , p ris o n a cti v is ts , a nd a s m all n um ber o f le gal h is to ria ns a nd

pris o n s tu d ie s s c ho la rs . T he c hap te r c o nclu d es b y c o nsid erin g th e s h ro ud ed p re se nce o f th e p uniti v e e xcep ti o n w ith in m om ents o f

ap pare nt l ib era l l e galis m , s u ch a s

US v . R eyn old s

( 1 914), a l a rg ely i g no re d S up re m e C ourt c ase th at d ealt w ith th e s o cia liz e d f o rm

of n eo sla v ery k no w n a s “ p eo nage.” B y d is c ussin g th e S up re m e C ourt’ s p ro ble m ati c c o nte nti o n th at a v ers io n o f p eo nage c alle d

“crim in al- s u re ty ” w as s tr ic tl y a “ p riv ate ” o r c o ntr a ctu al d om ain , I

unco ver h o w th e s ta te r e asse rte d i ts d iv in e r ig ht to tr a nsm ute th e

fr e e c iv il s u b je ct in to a c iv illy d ead o bje ct e v en w ith in th o se m om ents w hen it s e em ed to o ffe r a m odic um o f le gal p ro te cti o n to a

co lle cti v ely te rro riz e d a nd d is p osse sse d b la ck p opula ti o n.

The d ev asta ti n g re al- life o utc o m es o f th e la w ’s tr a nsm uta ti o n o f c hat- te l s la v ery in to p enal n eo sla v ery a re a ls o th e s u b je ct o f

chap te r 3 , “ A ngo la P enite nti a ry : T he O nce a nd F utu re S la v e P la nta ti o n.” H ere I f o cus s p ecific ally o n th e h is to ric al a nd p re se nt- d ay

manife sta ti o ns o f n eo sla v ery a t “ A ngo la ” p ris o n p la nta ti o n— th e

still- o pera tio nal

e ig hte en-th o usa nd -a cre s la v e p la nta ti o n th at w as

co nv erte d i n to L ouis ia na’s s ta te p enite nti a ry f o llo w in g th e C iv il W ar. T he c hap te r c ente rs o n th e n eo pla nta ti o n’s b la ckfa ce m in str e l

tr o up e a nd m y g ho stl y e nco unte r w ith i ts l e ad er d urin g a r e se arc h tr ip to th e p ris o n’s o n-s ite m use um . I d is c uss h o w th e p ra cti c e o f

fo rc in g p ris o ners to a ct a s m usic al a nd th eatr ic al s la v es l e d to a n u nacco unte d -fo r e xcess i n th e f o rm o f a s p ectr a l p oeti c s o f l iv in g

death a nd a s u b te rra nean p oliti c s o f re sis ta nce. T his s e cti o n o f th e c hap te r is a ls o w here I b egin to in co rp ora te q ueer-o f- c o lo r

criti q ue in o rd er to r e gis te r th e h yp erc rim in aliz a ti o n a nd d iffe re nti a l te rro r fa ced b y b odie s b ra nd ed a s b oth r a cia lly a nd s e xually

ab erra nt. I a ls o s h o w h o w m odern -d ay A ngo la c o nti n ues to c o m bin e p uniti v e l e is u re a nd te rro r th ro ugh p ub lic s p ecta cle s s u ch a s th e

pris o n ro deo a nd in v is ib le m odaliti e s o f v io le nce su ch a s in d efin ite so lita ry c o nfin em ent. I c o nclu d e th at su ch p ra cti c es m ark

Ango la a s a g eo gra p hic a nalo gue o f th e i m possib le s e v era nce o f

so uth ern

a nd

north ern

—and

pre m odern

a nd

modern

—modaliti e s

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** of c hatte liz e d i n carc era ti o n.

The fo urth a nd fin al c hap te r, “ T he W arfa re o f N orth ern N eo sla v ery in C heste r H im es’s

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry,

” o ffe rs a

re ad in g o f H im es’s m ost c riti c ally ig no re d n o vel, a fic ti o nal a uto bio gra p hy o f th e w rite r’s s e v en-y ear im pris o nm ent in th e O hio

Sta te P enite nti a ry . I arg ue th at H im es’s fic ti o naliz e d tr e atm ent o f his actu al exp erie nce as a su rv iv or o f th e E aste r M ond ay

penite nti a ry fir e o f 1 930 su ggests th at th e D ep re ssio n-e ra no rth ern p ris o n re p re se nte d a re p re ssiv e analo gue o f ra th er th an a

dis c ip lin ary e xcep ti o n to th e c hain g angs a nd p ris o n p la nta ti o ns o f th e S outh . H im es e xp ose s th e d egre e to w hic h th e n o rth ern p ris o n,

lik e its m ore n o to rio us s o uth ern c o unte rp art, a m ounte d to a re gim e o f d om esti c w arfa re a gain st th o se b ra nd ed a s c o nta m in ati n g

ele m ents w ith in th e s o cia l b ody. T he s p ecta cula r s a crific e o f p ris o ners ’ b odie s in th e fir e s c ene r e p re se nts a d ra m ati c in sta nti a ti o n

of th e b anal p ra cti c e o r p re m atu re , liv in g, a nd c iv il d eath in z o nes o f n eo sla v ery , a q uo ti d ia n o pera ti o n th at is re p re se nte d

most

cle arly in th e n o vel b y th e s ta te ’s h yp erc rim in aliz a ti o n o f r a cia liz e d a nd n o nhete ro no rm ati v e b odie s. A s in c hap te r 3 , I d ep lo y th e

th eo re ti c al ru b ric o f q ueer-o f- c o lo r criti q ue as a m eans o f unco verin g th e se xualiz e d and gend ere d d im ensio ns o f ra cia liz e d

in carc era ti o n— parti c ula rly a s th ey a re e xp re sse d i n th e s ta te ’s p uniti v e r e sp onse to th e m ain c hara cte r’s r o m anti c b ond w ith a b la ck

mig ra nt c hain -g ang s u rv iv or n am ed “ P rin ce R ic o .” B y e xp osin g th e d ynam ic in te rp la y b etw een w hite s u p re m acis t, c ap ita lis t, a nd

ho m o/tr a nsp ho bic s ta te te rro r in th e D ep re ssio n-e ra p enite nti a ry , th e c hap te r s h ed s lig ht o n a to ta lly ig no re d e le m ent o f g end er a nd

se xual c o m ple xity w ith in th e o euv re o f a “ hard -b oile d ” b la ck w rite r m ost c o m monly p ortr a yed a s s im plis ti c ally h ete ro no rm ati v e

and hyp erm asc ulin is t. T he chap te r co nclu d es by dis c ussin g th e degre e to w hic h P rin ce R ic o ’s pre se nce in th e te xt as both

im pris o ned w rite r a nd s in ger o f c hain -g ang w ork s o ngs g estu re s to w ard th e h aunti n g p re se nce o f th e b la ck m ig ra to ry s u b je ct in th e

no vel, a nd th e in sid io usly su ccessfu l m ig ra ti o n o f p uta ti v ely so uth ern m odels o f ra cia l c ap ita lis t m is o gynis t h o m o/tr a nsp ho bic

im pris o nm ent i n to n o rth ern to pogra p hie s o f n eo sla v ery . I h o pe th at i n o ffe rin g a s m all o penin g o f u nhis to ric al r e entr y f o r n eo sla v es

ra ngin g b ack to 1 865, th is b ook w ill s e rv e a s a b la ck a p pariti o nal g enealo gy o f o ur c urre nt m om ent o f p ris o n– in d ustr ia l g eno cid e—

one th at r e p re se nts a n o pportu nity f o r u s to b e p ush ed f u rth er to w ard a ccep ti n g th e m ela ncho lic c ue o ffe re d b y M enth a M orris o n a nd

co untl e ss o th er h is to ric ally a no nym ous n eo sla v es f o r a ll o f u s to

do s o m eth in g

i n th e n am e o f p ris o n s la v ery a b oliti o n a nd c o lle cti v e

so cia l l ib era ti o n e v en a s th e r a cia l c ap ita lis t m is o gynis t s ta te

has n ot

( y et)

cea se d t o b e v ic to rio us.

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Chap te r 1

“Y ou A in ’t S een N oth in ’ Y et”

Belo ved

a n d t h e M id dle P assa ge C arc era l M od el

There is a la w o f

pro gre ssiv e d eh um aniz a tio n

in a ccord ance w it h w hic h h encefo rth o n th e a genda o f th e b ourg eois ie th ere is — th ere c an b e— noth in g b ut v io le nce,

corru ptio n, a nd b arb aris m .

—Aim é C ésa ir e ,

Dis c o urse o n C olo nia lis m

Wors e th an th e ta unts a nd th e th re ats o f th e ja ile rs , w ors e th an th e to rtu re s th ey in flic te d u pon m e, w ors e th an th e h orrib le c ondit io ns u nder w hic h I liv ed, w as th e

way tim e d ra gged a nd d ra gged f o r m e. E very m in ute b ecam e a n e te rn it y o f s u ffe rin g.

—Angelo H ern don,

Let M e L iv e

I N N

OVEM BER

1994,

a s th e n um ber o f p ris o ners i n th e U nite d S ta te s w as a b out to r e ach 1 .6 m illio n,

th e N orth C aro lin a D ep artm ent o f

C orre cti o n ( D OC) i s su ed a p re ss r e le ase a nno uncin g th at i t h ad u nearth ed a r e lic o f A meric a’s c arc era l p ast a t o ne o f i ts f a ciliti e s.

T he re le ase re ad in p art: “ [T he] C om munity R eso urc e C ouncil fo r th e A le xand er C orre cti o nal C ente r a rra nged fo r th e N ati o nal

G uard to f o rk lift th e c age o ut o f th e m ud a nd v in es. T he o rig in al th re e-in ch c o ncre te f lo or, a s m all to ile t a nd b ra id ed m eta l b ars a re

a ll th at r e m ain o f th e p ris o n c age w here 1 2 c o nv ic ts s le p t.”

T he n ew s ite m g o es o n to p oin t o ut th at “ th e c age” is o ne o f th e tw o

r e m ain in g e xam ple s i n th e s ta te o f th e p orta b le p ris o ns w ith in w hic h, u nti l th e 1 930s, c hain -g ang c ap ti v es w ere h aule d f r o m p la ce to

p la ce a s th ey w ere w ork in g to b uild th e N orth C aro lin a h ig hw ay s y ste m ( F ig ure 2 ). It th en r e la te s h o w s u ch c ages w ere p urc hase d

f o r $ 500 a p ie ce fr o m a G eo rg ia c o m pany c alle d “ M anly J a il W ork s,” w hic h in its a d verti s e m ent fo r th e “ m ovin g p ris o ns” b oaste d

t h at a “ b ucket o f d is in fe cta nt o nce o r tw ic e a m onth a nd a b ucket o f p ain t o nce a y ear w ill k eep th is c age

cle an, s a nita ry a nd v erm in

p ro of,” a nd th at th e c age w as “ o ffic ia lly e nd ors e d b y s ta te a nd c o unty p ris o n b oard s a ll o ver th e S outh .”

Early tw enti e th -c entu ry N orth C aro lin a c hain -g ang a nd p ris o n o ffic ia ls m ore th an c o rro bora te d th e c o m pany’s c la im s, s ta ti n g th at

t h e c age a llo w ed f o r f e w er g uard s a t th e c hain -g ang c am ps a nd th at i t a ctu ally b ecam e a s o urc e o f c ap ti v e c o m fo rt a nd g o od c heer:

“ A s s o on a s w e b egan to u se c ages o ur m en a t o nce im pro ved in h ealth a nd s p ir its . T hey h av e p ro ved th em se lv es to b e c o ol in

s u m mer, w arm and w ell v enti la te d in th e w in te r, and th e m en are m uch m ore co m fo rta b le th an w hen ho use d in te nts o r th e

s to ckad e.”

A fte r a llu d in g to th e h o rrify in g s ta ti s ti c th at th e a v era ge life e xp ecta ncy o f th o se w ork in g o n th e s ta te ’s c hain g ang w as

n o m ore th an fiv e y ears , th e D OC p re ss r e le ase c o nclu d es b y r e la ti n g h o w th e s ta te p la nned to e nsh rin e o ne o f th e tw o u nco vere d

c hain -g ang c ages i n a tr a nsp orta ti o n m use um : “ A t l e ast o ne o f th ese c ages s h o uld b e r e sto re d a s a s ta rk r e m in d er o f h o w f a r w e h av e

c o m e in p eno lo gy in th is c entu ry .” T his c hap te r c o nsid ers h o w th e u nb uria l o f th e c hain -g ang ir o n c age in 1 994 w as a ctu ally

a nti c ip ate d s e v en y ears e arlie r b y i ts l ite ra ry r e su rre cti o n i n

Belo ved ,

T oni M orris o n’s m ost a ccla im ed n o vel. A s th e l a rg ely i g no re d

e xp erie nce o f P aul D a nd h is fo rty -fo ur fe llo w c hain -g ang c ap ti v es in th e n o vel r e v eals , n o th in g a b out th e c hain -g ang e xp erie nce

w as “ cle an,” “ sa nita ry ,” o r “ v erm in p ro of.”

Even th o ugh th e g angs c am e a b o ut a s a “ P ro gre ssiv e E ra ” r e fo rm o f c o nv ic t l e asin g, th e tr a nsfe r o f s o uth ern s ta te s’ m ostl y b la ck

p ris o n a nd j a il p opula ti o ns f r o m p riv ate to s ta te c o ntr o l r e p re se nte d a c o nti n uance r a th er th an a n a b ate m ent o f r a cia l c ap ita lis t te rro r

a nd a b je cti o n. A s A le x L ic hte nste in p oin ts o ut in

Tw ic e th e W ork o f F re e L abor,

h is p ath b re akin g b ook o n J im C ro w a p arth eid

c o nv ic t la b or, th e h is to ry o f th e A meric an c hain g ang illu m in ate s th e d egre e to w hic h n o rth ern lib era lis m a nd s o uth ern c hauv in is m ,

l ib era l b ourg eo is m odern ity a nd “ b ackw ard ” s o uth ern b arb arity , h av e b een m utu ally c o nsti tu ti v e u nd er U .S . e m pir e . In s o d oin g,

L ic hte nste in p oin ts to th e c entr a l r o le o f th e fe d era l g o vern m ent in s u p porti n g w hat w as to h av e b een a m odern iz in g r e fo rm o f th e

c o nv ic t le ase s y ste m : “ W ith th e h elp a nd e nco ura gem ent o f fe d era l in te rv enti o n [ in th e fo rm o f fu nd in g a nd lo gis ti c al s u p port] , th e

p ro gre ss e m bodie d in a m odern tr a nsp orta ti o n n etw ork a nd th e tr a d iti o n o f u nfr e e b la ck la b or p ro ved s y m bio ti c .”

H e g o es o n to

r e la te h o w , th ro ugh th e p ro pagati o n o f a m yth o s o f b la ck i n d ole nce— th at i s , th e i d ea th at f r e ed b la cks w ere o nly s u ite d f o r “ nig ger

w ork ” a nd w ould o nly w ork b y c o erc iv e m eans s u ch a s f lo ggin g, “ str e tc hin g,” a nd a m odern v ers io n o f th e f e ud al s to cks— th e S outh

w as

ab le to p ro gre ss to w ard e co no m ic m odern iz a ti o n th ro ugh p ris o n sla v ery w ith c o unty c hain g angs p la yin g a c entr a l ro le in

p ro je cts s u ch a s ra ilr o ad a nd h ig hw ay c o nstr u cti o n, c o al a nd ir o n-o re m in in g, a nd fo re st in d ustr ie s. A s o ne fo rm er p ris o ner o f a

F lo rid a c hain g ang re co unts , c ap ti v es e xp erie nced a b anality o f te rro r th at b lu rre d th e lin e b etw een life a nd d eath a nd o ffe re d a

d ub io us r e p la y o f c o erc ed p erfo rm ance s p ecta cle s th at to ok p la ce o n th e s la v e s h ip , th e c o ffle , a nd th e p la nta ti o n: “ W e w ere s e nt to

t h e s w am ps to d o lo ggin g a nd la y r a ils . A fte r 2 4 h o urs th ere

we p ra yed fo r d ea th .

. . . If w e d id n o t w ork fa st e no ugh w e w ere

w hip ped c ru elly . [ A nd ] a fte r b eati n g u s a ll w eek [ th e g uard c ap ta in ] a nd

his g uard s w ould c o m e a nd m ake u s s in g a nd d ance fo r

t h em .

” 5

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Fig ure 2 .

T he L and-B ase d S la ve S hip . O uts id e v ie w o f a c hain -g ang c age in G eorg ia , e arly 1 930s. P hoto gra ph b y J o hn S piv ak. T he o rig in al c aptio n r e ad: “ T he C age:

where c onvic ts a re h erd ed lik e b easts in th e ju ngle . T he p an u nder it is th e to ile t r e cepta cle . T he s te nch o f it h angs lik e a p all o ver th e w hole a re a” ( J o hn S piv ak,

Geo rg ia

Nig ger

[ M ontc la ir , N .J .: P atte rs o n S m it h , 1 969]). P hoto gra phy C olle ctio n, H arry R anso m C ente r, U niv ers it y o f T exas a t A ustin .

Belo ved ,

M orris o n’s d ep ic ti o n o f th e s la v e s h ip , th e p la nta ti o n, a nd th e c hain g ang d is a llo w s a r e ad in g o f f o rm ati o ns o f r a cia l

te rro r a nd g eno cid e a s a b erra nt o r p re m odern e xcep ti o ns to th e ru le o f U .S . c ap ita lis m , W este rn p eno lo gy, a nd m odern ity . T he

re su rfa cin g o f th e c hain -g ang c age i n h er n o vel, a lo ng w ith i ts r e su rre cti o n o f a g ho stl y s u rv iv or o f th e M id dle P assa ge, e xem plifie s

th e c entr a lity o f a rc hite ctu re s s u ch a s th e s la v e-s h ip h o ld , th e a nte b ellu m s la v e p la nta ti o n, a nd c hain -g ang c age w ith r e sp ect to U .S .

em pir e . H er w ork e xp re sse s w hat I d esc rib e a s th e “ M id dle P assa ge c arc era l m odel” — a p ara d ig m o f r a cia l c ap ita lis t in te rn m ent

and v io le nce th at n ecessita te s a s h ifti n g o f w hite -s u b je ct– cente re d p enal h is to rio gra p hy. T his r e m ap pin g o f th e c arc era l th ro ugh th e

le ns o f e p ochal r a ce te rro r r e ad s th e b arra co ons, m aro on D ep ósito s, c o ffle s, s la v e h o ld s, a nd p la nta ti o ns o f th e M id dle P assa ge a nd

pla nta ti o n sla v ery as centr a l to th e E uro -A meric an im peria lis t pro je ct— as sp ati a l, id eo lo gic al, onto lo gic al, and eco no m ic

analo gues o f m odern p unis h m ent th at h aunte d th eir w ay i n to th e p re se nt b y w ay o f f o rm ati o ns o f s p ati a l v io le nce s u ch a s th e c hain -

gang c age.

A lo ng th ese l in e s, I w ant to c o nsid er th e d egre e to w hic h

Belo ved

r e p re se nts a s m uch o f a n e p is te m ic in te rv enti o n a s a

narra ti v e o ne— ho w it c an b e c o nceiv ed a s o ffe rin g a k in d o f b la ck d ia sp oric c o unte r-p eno lo gy th at n o t o nly d is in te rs la rg ely

unheard a sp ects o f th e u nhis to ric al p re d ic am ent o f e arly b la ck n eo sla v ery , b ut th at a ls o o ffe rs a fu nd am enta l re asse ssm ent o f th e

pre se nt m om ent o f m ass (in )h um an e nto m bm ent th ro ugh its c ente rin g o f c hatte l s la v ery a nd th e c hain g ang a s p rim ary s o urc es o f

modern r a cia l c ap ita lis t m is o gynis t i m pris o nm ent.

What I d esc rib e a s th e “ fo rw ard -h aunti n g” a sp ects o f M orris o n’s o ste nsib ly p ast- o bse sse d te xt a ls o s u ggest th at g o th ic p enal

arc hite ctu re s su ch a s th e c hain -g ang c age a re n o t re ad y to b e m em oria liz e d in m use um s a s e m ble m s

of a b ygo ne e ra o f w hite

su p re m acy a nd n asc ent s o uth ern c ap ita lis m — th at is , if s u ch m em oria liz a ti o n w ith in th e c o nte xt o f w hite s u p re m acis t c ultu re c an

am ount to a nyth in g m ore th an a d is q ualific ati o n o f th e s u rv iv als o f u nfr e ed om .

Belo ved

u nd ers c o re s th at th e te rro r m odaliti e s o f

chatte l sla v ery h av e n o t o nly su rv iv ed th e p uta ti v ely sta ti c b ord erlin e o f 1 865, b ut h av e in fa ct re ached th eir a p ogee w ith th e

“S ecurity H ousin g U nits ” a nd “ S up erm ax” p ris o ns o f to day’s p ris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x.

T hro ugh th is n ew a p pro ach to M orris o n’s

most c riti c ally s c ru ti n iz e d te xt, I a rg ue th at f o rm ati o ns o f c hatte l s la v ery h av e r e su rfa ced i n u p date d f o rm s i n th e c o nte xt o f a s y ste m

of m ass l iv in g d eath a nd h um an

i n ca pacita tio n

( to u se R uth W ils o n G ilm ore ’s te rm )— whic h, a s o f th is w riti n g, e nto m bs m ore th an

2.3 m illio n h um an b ein gs— and , m ore s p ecific ally , a m odern p enite nti a ry s y ste m th at n o w e ncages o ne o ut o f e v ery n in e b la ck m en

in th e U nite d S ta te s b etw een th e a ges o f tw enty a nd th ir ty -fo ur.

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** The N arra tiv e o f

Neo sla very

Lite ra ry c riti c al d is c ussio ns o f T oni M orris o n’s

Belo ved

o fte n d esc rib e th e te xt a s a “ neo sla v e n arra ti v e.” T his d esig nati o n s ig nifie s

an A fr ic an A meric an n arra ti v e m ode o f r e tr o sp ecti o n, w here b y m odern b la ck w rite rs s u ch a s M arg are t W alk er, D av id B ra d le y, G ayl

Jo nes, O cta v ia B utl e r, a nd Is h m ael R eed h av e o ffe re d re -v is io ns o f th e v io le nce a nd s u b je cti o n o f th e tr a nsa tl a nti c s la v e tr a d e

th ro ugh th e le ns o f th e “ p ost” sla v ery m om ent.

In w hat fo llo w s, I p ro ble m ati z e th is p re v ailin g c o ncep ti o n o f te m pora lity a nd

his to ric ity w ith re sp ect to M orris o n’s m ost a ccla im ed n o vel a nd to U .S . h is to ry in g enera l. I d o s o b y re ad in g th e te xt n o t a s a

neo sla v e n arra ti v e b ut ra th er a s a “ narra ti v e o f n eo sla v ery ,” a te rm th at s ig nifie s n arra ti v e, s o nic , te sti m onia l, a nd p erfo rm ati v e

exp re ssio ns of postb ellu m ra cia liz e d in carc era ti o n th at unv eil th e ho rrify in g m eth o dolo gic al in ti m acie s of chatte l and penal

ensla v em ent.

T he in te rn m ent e xp erie nces o f th o se s u ch a s B elo ved , S eth e, P aul D ( a nd S eth e’s m oth er, w ho is ly nched a b oard a

sla v e s h ip ) u nd ers c o re h o w fo r th e A fr ic an a nd th o se o f A fr ic an d esc ent, th e m odern p ris o n d id n o t b egin w ith J e re m y B enth am ’s

Pano pti c o n, th e W aln ut S tr e et J a il, o r th e A ub urn S yste m , b ut w ith th e c o ffle s, b arra co ons, s la v e s h ip s, a nd s la v e “ p ens” o f th e

Mid dle P assa ge. A s D yla n R odríg uez a rg ues i n th is r e gard :

A g enealo gy o f th e c o nte m pora ry p ris o n r e gim e a w akens b oth th e h is to ric al m em ory a nd th e s o cio politi c al l o gic

of th e M id dle

Passa ge. T he p ris o n has co m e to fo rm a haunti n gly sim ila r sp ati a l and te m pora l co nti n uum

betw een s o cia l a nd b io lo gic al n o ti o ns o f life a nd d eath , b anal lib era l c iv ic fr e ed om a nd to ta liz in g u nfr e ed om ,

co m munity a nd a lie nati o n, a gency a nd l iq uid ati o n, th e “ hum an” a nd th e s u b hum an/n o nhum an. I n a r e co nstr u cti o n

of th e M id dle P assa ge’s c o nsti tu ti v e lo gic , th e re in v ente d p ris o n re gim e is a rti c ula ti n g a nd s e lf- v alo riz in g a

co m mitm ent to e ffic ie nt a nd e ffe cti v e b odily im mobiliz a ti o n w ith in th e m ass-b ase d o nto lo gic al s u b je cti o n o f

hum an b ein gs.

Belo ved ,

th e tr a nsa cti o nal r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een c arc era l s p aces s itu ate d o n o pposin g s id es o f th e 1 865 b ord er u nd erlin es a m ode

of r a d ic al c o unte r-h is to ric al th eo riz a ti o n w ith in M orris o n’s te xt. T hat i s , th e c entr a l r o le o f p ris o n a rc hite ctu re s v is -à -v is th e n o vel’s

overa ll se v erin g of lin ear te m pora lity und erlin es its ro le as narra ti v e re o rie nta ti o n of occid enta l peno lo gy by w ay of a

no nd ia chro nic , b la ck d ia sp oric ti m elin e— or, m ore p ro perly s p eakin g, a te m pora l c ir c ula rity , a b out w hic h o ste nsib ly o bso le te o r

pre m odern te rro r m odaliti e s r e su rfa ce r ig ht a lo ng w ith th e te xt’ s p uta ti v ely d ead g ho st- c hild .

As R obert B ro ad h as p oin te d o ut, B elo ved r e p re se nts th e r e tu rn n o t o nly o f S eth e’s “ cra w lin g a lr e ad y” b ab y, b ut a ls o o f a ll th o se

who w ere m urd ere d a s a d ir e ct r e su lt o f th eir e nto m bm ent in th e h o ld s, h alf- , a nd q uarte rd ecks o f s la v e s h ip s d urin g th e M id dle

Passa ge— th e “ 6 0 m illio n a nd m ore ” r e fe rre d to in th e n o vel’s e p ig ra p h.

B elo ved m akes r e fe re nce to h er h o rrify in g tr a nsa tl a nti c

exp erie nce i n a s tr e am -o f- c o nsc io usn ess i n te rlu d e th at o ccurs w ell i n to th e te xt:

All o f i t i s n ow i t i s a lw ays n ow t h ere w ill n ever b e a t im e w hen I a m n ot c ro uch in g a nd w atc h in g o th ers w ho

are c ro uch in g to o

I a m a lw ays c ro uchin g

th e m an o n m y fa ce is d ea d

h is fa ce is n o t m in e . . . s o m e w ho e at

nasty th em se lv es . . . a t n ig ht I c anno t s e e th e d ead m an o n m y fa ce . . . s m all r a ts d o n o t w ait fo r u s to s le ep

so m eo ne i s th ra sh in g b ut th ere i s n o r o om to d o i t i n i f w e h ad m ore to d rin k w e c o uld m ake te ars . . . w e a re a ll

tr y in g to le av e o ur b odie s b ehin d . . . in th e b egin nin g w e c o uld v om it n o w w e d o n o t n o w w e c anno t . . .

so m eo ne is tr e m blin g . . . h e is fig htin g h ard to le a ve h is b ody w hic h is a s m all b ir d tr e m blin g th ere is n o

ro om t o t r e m ble s o h e i s n ot a ble t o d ie . . . t h ose a ble t o d ie a re i n a p ile .

Com pare B elo ved ’s te sti m ony to th at g iv en in 1 788 b y th e R ev ere nd Jo hn N ew to n a fte r h e h ad w itn esse d c o nd iti o ns a b oard

Euro pean s la v e v esse ls . H e d esc rib es th e s p aces i n w hic h th e c ap ti v es w ere p acked ,

so m eti m es m ore th an fiv e fe et h ig h a nd s o m eti m es le ss; a nd th is h eig ht is d iv id ed to w ard th e m id dle fo r th e

sla v es lie in tw o ro w s [o n p la tf o rm s] o ne a b ove th e o th er, o n e ach s id e o f th e s h ip , c lo se to e ach o th er lik e

books o n a s h elf. I h av e k no w n th em s o c lo se th at th e s h elf w ould n o t e asily c o nta in o ne m ore .

The p oor c re atu re s, th us c ra m ped , a re lik ew is e in ir o ns fo r th e m ost p art w hic h m akes it d iffic ult fo r th em to

tu rn o r m ove o r a tte m pt to r is e o r to l ie d ow n w ith o ut h urti n g th em se lv es o r e ach o th er. E very m orn in g . . .

in sta nces t h an o ne a re f o und o f t h e l iv in g a nd t h e d ea d f a ste n ed t o geth er.

Both te sti m onie s d esc rib e a W este rn p hilo so phy o f i m pris o nm ent th at w as u se d f r o m th e e arly m odern p erio d th ro ugh th e n in ete enth

centu ry a b oard sla v e v esse ls , a sy ste m k no w n a s “ ti g ht- p ackin g.” T he te le o lo gy o f th is m ass-in te rn m ent sy ste m h ad to d o w ith

maxim iz in g th e p ro fita b ility o f th e tr a d e in h um an c o m moditi e s b y re q uir in g th at s la v es b e c ra m med in to e v ery in ch o f a v aila b le

sp ace. T he b odie s o f s la v e-s h ip p ris o ners w ere h o riz o nta lly p re sse d to geth er a nd v erti c ally s ta cked u p on e ach o th er i n a m anner th at

im mobiliz e d cap ti v e m en, w om en, and child re n to su ch an exte nt th at sh ifti n g o ne’s p ositi o n o r sitti n g up str a ig ht w as o fte n

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** im possib le . T ho se e nto m bed in th e s la v e h o ld w ere o fte n fo rc ed to lie in th eir o w n e xcre m ent fo r th e e nti r e tr a nsa tl a nti c jo urn ey.

Such m eth o ds o f sa d is ti c ra cia l c ap ita lis t m is o gynis t a rc hite ctu ra l c alc ula ti o n a re e v id enced in th e n o w -in fa m ous sk etc h o f th e

Liv erp ool sla v er

Bro okes.

T he d ia gra m p ic tu re s 4 51 c arto on-lik e b la ck fig ure s p la ced “ sp oon” sty le in to th e h o ld s a nd ti e re d

pla tf o rm s o f th e s h ip , a n um ber th at w as th re e s h o rt o f w hat i n 1 788 w as d eem ed l e gal f o r a s h ip o f i ts s iz e . T his s a rd in e-lik e ti e rin g

of h um an c arg o th eo re ti c ally a llo tte d a s p ace o f s ix fe et lo ng b y s ix te en in ches w id e ( a nd a p pro xim ate ly tw o fe et h ig h) fo r e v ery

man; f iv e f e et, te n i n ches l o ng b y s ix te en i n ches w id e f o r e v ery w om an; f iv e f e et b y f o urte en i n ches f o r e v ery b oy; a nd f o ur f e et b y

six i n ches f o r e v ery g ir l. T hat th e

Bro okes

c arrie d a s m any a s 6 09 p ris o ners ( 1 55 m ore th an i ts c ap acity ) a cro ss th e A tl a nti c b efo re

th e 1 788 la w w as p asse d e xem plifie s th e d ehum aniz in g sp ati a l te chniq ues b y w hic h e arly m odern ity ’s fir s t ra cia liz e d p ris o ns

pro duced

mass b io lo gic al d eath o f g eno cid al p ro porti o ns.

B etw een 1 5 p erc ent a nd 2 0 p erc ent o f th o se w ho b egan th e “ p assa ge” i n

th e c o ffle s a nd b arra co ons o f A fr ic a p eris h ed b efo re r e achin g th e A meric as— a f ig ure th at a m ounte d to a t l e ast 1 2 m illio n p re m atu re

death s.

For m y p urp ose s, h o w ev er, it is im porta nt to re co gniz e h o w th e in cid ence o f b io lo gic al d eath th at o ccurre d in th e c o ffle s,

barra co ons, “ fa cto rie s,” s h ip s, a nd “ p ens” o f th e M id dle P assa ge d oes n o t o ffe r a c o m ple te m easu re o f th e g eno cid al n atu re o f

modern w hite s u p re m acis t c arc era lity .

T hat b oth B elo ved a nd D r. N ew to n s p eak o f th e liv in g a nd th e d ead b ein g p ile d o n to p o f

one a no th er a nd fa ste ned to geth er b y c hain s in th e h o ld s o f s la v e s h ip s g ra p hic ally te sti fie s to h o w th e k illin g o f th e A fr ic an s la v e

in v olv ed m ore th an th e ta kin g o f h er b io lo gic al l ife . S ta te d s im ply , B la ck A tl a nti c a nd “ N ew W orld ” m ass i n te rn m ent, e nsla v em ent,

and geno cid e w ere and

are

pro duced as m uch th ro ugh th e m ass re p ro ducti o n of

liv in g dea th

as th ro ugh th e pro ducti o n of

bio lo gic ally e xp ir e d b odie s. H ere w e m ig ht th in k o f th e r a d ic al i m port o f S eth e’s o nly m ono lo gue, i n w hic h s h e e xp la in s th e u nto ld

re aso n b ehin d h er o ste nsib ly i n sa ne a ct o f i n fa nti c id e: “

If I h adn’t k ille d h er s h e w ould h ave d ie d

a nd th at i s s o m eth in g I c o uld n o t

bear.”

If w e ta ke in to a cco unt liv in g d eath a s a fu nd am enta l a sp ect o f M id dle P assa ge a nd p la nta ti o n im pris o nm ent, th en th e

num ber o f th o se k ille d in th e tr a d e d oes in d eed a p pro ach th e s e em in gly m is c alc ula te d d eath c o unt o f “ 6 0 m illio n a nd m ore ” th at

ap pears in

Belo ved

’s e p ig ra p h. A nd , a s w e s h all s e e b elo w , 6 0 m illio n a nd m ore b eco m es a n e v en m ore a ccura te c o unt if w e

co nsid er h o w s la v ery ’s d eath to ll r e aches a cro ss th e b ord er o f E m ancip ati o n. T he i n clu sio n o f th e c ate go ry o f l iv in g d eath w ith in th e

te chniq ues o f s ta te a nd c o rp ora te k illin g a ls o a llo w s u s to a tte nd to th e w ays in w hic h to day’s m odern v ers io n o f m ass h um an

ware ho usin g— th e w hite su p re m acis t cap ita lis t m is o gynis t p enite nti a ry — re p re se nts an exte nsio n o f ra th er th an an anti th esis to

Mid dle P assa ge g eno cid e. A s C olin D ayan s ta te s w ith r e sp ect to th e c o nnecte d p ositi o naliti e s o f s la v e a nd c rim in al: “ D eath ta kes

many f o rm s, i n clu d in g l o ss o f s ta tu s b eyo nd w hic h l ife c ease s to b e p oliti c ally r e le v ant.”

The s ta tu s lo ss th at a cco m panie d th e m ass e nto m bm ent a nd n ata l a lie nati o n o f tr a nsa tl a nti c im pris o nm ent w as e nacte d o n th e

id eo lo gic al a nd o nto lo gic al l e v el th ro ugh th e q uesti o nin g o f th e s la v e’s m em bers h ip i n th e c o m munity o f h um ans.

I n o th er w ord s, i f

th e c ap ti v e c o uld b e p ro je cte d a s in hum an o r s u b hum an, th en

deh um aniz a tio n

c o uld b e e m pti e d o f a ny s e m anti c v alu e, th ere b y

dis q ualify in g b la ck in ju ry .

S ylv ia W ynte r

use s th e te rm

bio lo gic a l id ea lis m

to d esc rib e th e id eo lo gic al s y ste m th at tr a nsm ute d

Afr ic an h um anity in to q uasi- b esti a lity a nd b la ck p ers o nho od in to o bje cth o od. F or h er, th e “ nig ger” w as m ad e to re p re se nt “ th e

ulti m ate ze ro degre e cate go ry of an oste nsib ly

‘p rim al’

hum an natu re w ho se diffe re nti a ti o n fr o m a lu rk in g besti a lity w as

dangero usly im pre cis e a nd u ncerta in , s o u ncerta in a s to c all fo r a q uesti o n m ark to b e p la ced w ith r e sp ect to th e h um anity o f th is

ze ro -d egre e c ate go ry .”

T he r e p eate d r e fe re nces to th e d is p osse ssio n o f m anho od a nd w om anho od o n th e p art o f S eth e, P aul D , a nd

th e r e st o f th e “ S w eet H om e m en”— “

yo u g ot t w o l e g s n ot f o ur

;

I h ad a b it in m y m outh

”— re p re se nt th e r e in tr o ducti o n w ith in th e

“p ost” s la v ery m om ent o f th e id eo lo gic al c o nstr u ct o f b la ck s u b hum anity , d is c urs iv e b ra nd in g p ro cesse s th at b egan w ith c hatte l

sla v ery a nd th at w ere s p ecific ally i n augura te d w ith th e m ass p hysic al b ra nd in g, r a p e, a nd c arg o in g o f h um an b ein gs a b oard th e s la v e

sh ip . C onse q uentl y , th e r e alm o f id eo lo gy— th e c asti n g o f b la ckness a s a n a nth ro polo gy o f m eta p hysic al d efic it

—was a s m uch a

dev asta ti n g w eap on i n th e p ro ducti o n o f m ass s o cia l a nd l iv in g d eath a s w hip s, c hain s, a nd p is to ls .

In o ne i n sta llm ent o f a s e rie s o f e p is to la ry n arra ti v es f r o m 1 795 to 1 796, G eo rg e P in kard , a B riti s h m ed ic al d octo r, a tte sts to th e

warfa re f u ncti o nality o f r a cis t i d eo lo gy th ro ugh h is v ery a tte m pt a t e lid in g th e te rro r o f th e M id dle P assa ge. A fte r i n sin uati n g th at a

gro up o f A fr ic an w om en a b oard a s la v e s h ip flir te d w ith h im a nd o th er w hite m ale s h ip to uris ts b y g iv in g th em “ an e xp re ssiv e

lo ok . . . o r s ig nific ant g estu re ,” P in kard a tte m pts a r a ti o naliz a ti o n o f s la v e s h ip te rro r th at p re fig ure s th e p la nta ti o n r o m ances o f l a te

nin ete enth - a nd tw enti e th -c entu ry A meric an l ite ra ry a nd p opula r c ultu re :

Their s le ep in g b erth s w ere th e n aked b oard s. D iv id ed i n to tw o c ro w ded p arti e s th ey r e p ose d , d urin g th e n ig ht,

up on th e b are p la nks b elo w — th e m ale s o n th e m ain d eck— th e f e m ale s u p on th e d eck o f th e a ft c ab in . I n th e d ay

ti m e th ey . . . w ere k ep t m ostl y u p on th e o pen d eck, w here th ey w ere m ad e to e xerc is e , a nd e nco ura ged b y th e

music o f th eir b elo ved b anjo r

[s ic ]

, to

dancin g a nd c h eerfu ln ess.

W e s a w th em d ance a nd h eard th em s in g. In

dancin g th ey s c arc ely m oved th eir fe et, b ut th re w a b out th eir a rm s a nd tw is te d a nd w rith ed th eir b odie s in to a

multi tu d e o f d is g usti n g a nd i n d ecent a tti tu d es. T heir s o ng w as a w ild a nd s a v age y ell, d ev oid o f a ll s o ftn ess a nd

harm ony, a nd l o ud ly c hante d i n m ono to ny.

Their fo od is c hie fly r ic e w hic h th ey p re p are b y p la in a nd s im ple b oilin g. A t th e ti m e o f m essin g th ey s q uat

aro und th e b ow l i n l a rg e b odie s, u p on th eir h eels a nd h aunches,

lik e m onkie s

[

sic

], e ach p utti n g h is p aw i n to th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** pla tte r to c la w o ut w ith h is fin gers . W e s a w s e v era l o f th em e m plo yed in b eati n g th e re d h usk s o ff th e ric e,

whic h w as d one b y p ound in g th e g ra in in w ooden m orta rs . . . . T his a p peare d to b e a la b or o f c heerfu ln ess.

They b ea t t h e p estle i n t im e t o t h e s o ng a nd s e em ed h appy

;

yet n oth in g o f in dustr y m ark ed th eir to il

; fo r th e

pound in g w as p erfo rm ed b y i n d ole ntl y r a is in g th e p estl e a nd th en l e av in g i t f a ll b y i ts o w n w eig ht.

Here th e p hysic al b ra nd in g th at s la v es r e ceiv ed u p on th eir k id nap pin g o nto th e c o ffle a nd s la v e s h ip i s c o up le d w ith th eir e p is te m ic

bra nd in g a s a nim alis ti c , in fa nti le , a nd la zy ; a s s u ch, th e fo re b ears o f th e p la nta ti o n “ d ark y” a re in cap ab le o f fe elin g th e p ain o f

in te rn m ent, o f r e co gniz in g th e e no rm ity o f th eir d is p osse ssio n, o r o f p erfo rm in g in d ustr io us la b or w ith o ut th e s p ur o f p unis h m ent.

For th o se h um ans b ra nd ed a s s a v age “ m onkeys,” te rro r a nd c o lle cti v e d is a p peara nce a re a n o ccasio n fo r jo via lity , m errim ent, a nd

so ng. A s i n th e te sti m ony a b ove o f a tw enti e th -c entu ry c hain -g ang c ap ti v e, w hat i s a b se nt f r o m th is a cco unt i s th at s u ch “ hap pin ess”

on th e p art o f th e s la v e-s h ip p ris o ner w as o nly m ad e p ossib le th ro ugh th e e nactm ent o r th re at o f p hysic al te rro r. In c o ntr a st, a s

Said iy a H artm an s u ggests , w hat w as a t is su e fo r th e s la v ery a p olo gis t ( a nd o fte n th e s e lf- a v ow ed lib era l a b oliti o nis t) w hen a cti n g

as sp ecta to r o f b la ck su ffe rin g w as n o t v era city w ith re sp ect to th e e xp erie nce o f th e e nsla v ed b ut th e tr a nsm uta ti o n o f b la ck

su ffe ra nce i n to a s ta ge o f e njo ym ent: “ T he te rm s o f th is d is a v ow al a re s o m eth in g l ik e: N o th e s la v e i s n o t i n p ain . P ain i s n ’t r e ally

pain fo r th e e nsla v ed , b ecause o f th eir lim ite d s e nti e nce, te nd ency to fo rg et, a nd e asily c o nso la b le g rie f. L astl y th e s la v e is h ap py

and . . . h is h ap pin ess e xceed s o ur o w n . . . th e in iti a l r e v uls io n a nd h o rro r in d uced b y th e s ig ht o f s h ackle d a nd m anacle d b odie s

giv es w ay to r e assu ra nces a b out b la ck p le asu re .”

Wheth er th ro ugh its sta gin gs o f b la ck in urn m ent to p ain o r th ro ugh th e d ir e ct e nactm ent o f c o lle cti v e te rro r, th e sla v e sh ip

sy m boliz e d th e m anner i n w hic h n ata l a lie nati o n, th e s la v e’s to ta l b anis h m ent f r o m l in es o f k in sh ip a nd m odes o f s o cio cultu ra l l ife ,

cata ly ze d m ass l iv in g d eath , th e z e ro d egre e o f e nsla v em ent’ s s e ria liz e d s o cia l d eath . I n s o d oin g, i t f u ncti o ned a s a n u np re ced ente d

peno lo gic al c o nfig ura ti o n o f e arly m odern ity , o ne

th at tu rn ed th e A tl a nti c i n to a

necro politic a l

g eo gra p hy ( to u se A chille M bem be’s

te rm ), a n o ceanic d eath -s c ap e, w here in th e b ord er s e p ara ti n g l ife a nd d eath b ecam e v ir tu ally i n d ecip hera b le .

Belo ved ’s p re se nce in M orris o n’s n o vel ta kes o n a n ew m eanin g if w e a tte nd to h o w h er u nd ead o r d ead -liv in g s ta te r e p re se nts

th e o bvers e o f th e liv in g d eath c o nd iti o n o f M id dle P assa ge p ris o ners . H er liv ed r e m em bra nce o f tr a nsa tl a nti c im pris o nm ent g iv es

us a p rim e e xam ple o f h o w in anim ate s p aces c an a cq uir e d ev asta ti n g a gency th ro ugh r a d ic al a sy m metr ie s o f p ow er. In th e c ase o f

th e s la v e s h ip , a tr a nsfe r o f s u b je cti v ity to ok p la ce w here in a n in anim ate a rc hite ctu re a cq uir e d “ a life o f its o w n” b y s ip ho nin g th e

life o f th e c ap ti v e. In B elo ved ’s m ono lo gue, w e s e e h o w th e c ra m ped c o nd iti o ns o f th e s la v e s h ip p la yed a d ete rm in in g ro le in

so cia l r e la ti o ns e v en a s th ey w ere a p ro duct o f th o se r e la ti o ns. I n te rm s o f i ts v io le nt a nd d ehum aniz in g e ffe cts o n th e c ap ti v e b ody,

th e s la v e/p ris o n s h ip c arrie d w hat L ouis A lth usse r w ould d esc rib e a s a “ re la ti v e a uto no m y” v is -à -v is th e r e p ro ducti o n o f r e la ti o ns

of d om in ance.

T his p ow erfu l a gency o f p la ce i s r e p re se nte d e ls e w here i n

Belo ved

b y D env er’s r e acti o n w henev er s h e a p pro ached

124, a h o use th at s h e r e gard ed “ as a p ers o n r a th er th an a s tr u ctu re . A p ers o n th at w ep t, s ig hed , tr e m ble d a nd f e ll i n to f its .”

In h er

narra ti v e r e -c re ati o n o f th e s la v e-s h ip h o ld , M orris o n e xp ose s a s p ace w ho se s u b je cti v ity a nd p urp ose w ere d efin ed b y th e p ow er

to i m mobiliz e , to rtu re , a nd k ill.

Lite ra ry c riti q ues o f th e r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een p ers o nal m em ory a nd c o lle cti v e h is to ry i n

Belo ved

h av e o fte n d esc rib ed c hara cte rs ’

re liv in g o f th e e xp erie nce o f s la v ery in s tr ic tl y s y m bolic te rm s. A cco rd in g to th is a p pro ach, th e p re se nce o f th e M id dle P assa ge in

th e te xt r e p re se nts th e n eed o f th o se s u ch a s S eth e a nd P aul D to r e v is it r e p re sse d h o rro rs o f th e p ast i n o rd er to b egin th e p ro cess o f

se lf- p osse ssio n a nd to in iti a te th e h ealin g p ro cess. In S eth e’s c ase , B elo ved ’s p re se nce in iti a te s h er r e co lle cti o n o f a c o nv ers a ti o n

sh e h ad w ith N an r e gard in g th e r e p eate d r a p e o f S eth e’s m oth er a b oard a s la v e s h ip . T hus, i n s u ch a p sy cho analy ti c al a p pro ach, th e

fir s t lin e o f B elo ved ’s m ono lo gue— “

All o f it is n ow . . . it is a lw ays n ow . . . th ere w ill n ever b e a tim e w hen . . . I a m n ot

cro uch in g a nd w atc h in g o th ers w ho a re c ro uch in g t o o

”— would r e p re se nt h o w th e m em ory o f th e a tr o citi e s o f th e M id dle P assa ge

and , b y e xte nsio n, o f “ S w eet H om e” p la nta ti o n i s s ti ll a liv e w ith in th e p sy che o f th e n ew ly f r e ed b la ck s u b je ct. A lth o ugh th e v alid ity

of th is a rg um ent is in la rg e m easu re v alid , I w ant to s u ggest h o w it m ig ht a ls o b e in co m ple te . A c lo se r lo ok a t th e re la ti o nsh ip

betw een

Belo ved ’s m ono lo gue a nd th e n o vel’s c hain -g ang s c ene r e q uir e s u s to r e exam in e M orris o n’s r e nd erin g o f th e s la v e s h ip a nd

pla nta ti o n a s s ite s o f A fr ic an d ia sp oric l iv in g m em ory , o r w hat S eth e d esc rib es a s h er “ re m em ory .” T he tr a nsa cti o nal r e la ti o nsh ip o f

Bla ck A tl a nti c , p la nta ti o n, and Jim C ro w p ris o n arc hite ctu re s acro ss b ound arie s o f sp ace and ti m e re gis te rs th e sa lie nce o f

Ste p hanie S m allw ood’s th eo re ti c al a sse rti o n o f th e te m pora l b ound le ssn ess o f th e M id dle P assa ge— th at, w hile tr a p ped w ith in th e

pris o n-s h ip h o ld , i t w as “ eno rm ously d iffic ult f o r A fr ic ans to c le arly d is ti n guis h th e p hase s o f th eir j o urn ey, o r to a nti c ip ate th e e nd

of o ne p hase a nd th e b egin nin g o f a no th er.” T he e xp erie nce o f P aul D a nd f o rty -fiv e o th er b la ck m en i n a c hain -g ang c am p i n A lfr e d ,

Geo rg ia , r e gis te rs th e p ossib ility th at w hat S m allw ood d esc rib es a s th e “ te m pora l a nd s p ati a l e ntr a p m ent” o f th e M id dle P assa ge

nev er e nd ed — th at i n d eed ,

it i s a lw ays n ow

—ev en, o r e sp ecia lly , a fte r th e C iv il W ar.

In a s e cti o n o f th e n o vel th at h as r e ceiv ed littl e c riti c al a tte nti o n ( a nd th at is a ls o c o nsp ic uo usly a b se nt fr o m J o nath an D em me’s

cin em ati c a d ap ta ti o n o f th e te xt) , P aul D r e co unts h is e xp erie nce o f b ein g s o ld b y S cho olte acher— a p unis h m ent th at r e su lte d fr o m

his a tte m pte d e sc ap e f r o m S w eet H om e. W hile b ein g l e d i n a c o ffle a cro ss th e s ta te b ord er f r o m K entu cky to V ir g in ia w ith te n o th er

sla v es, P aul D a tte m pts to k ill B ra nd yw in e, h is n ew o w ner. H is e ffo rts fa il; a nd , a s a r e su lt o f th e “ crim e” o f a tte m pti n g to a tta in

fr e ed om , h e i s s e nt to a p re – C iv il W ar c hain -g ang c am p i n G eo rg ia . M orris o n o pens th e c hain -g ang c hap te r w ith a d esc rip ti o n o f th e

meth o d th at w as u se d to w are ho use P aul D a nd h is f o rty -fiv e f e llo w p ris o n s la v es:

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** The d itc hes, th e o ne th o usa nd fe et o f e arth — fiv e fe et d eep , fiv e fe et w id e, in to w hic h w ooden b oxes h ad b een

fitte d . A d oor o f b ars th at y o u c o uld f it o n h in ges l ik e a c age o pened i n to th re e w alls a nd a r o of o f s c ra p l u m ber

and r e d d ir t. T w o f e et o f i t o ver h is h ead ; th re e f e et o f o pen tr e nch i n f r o nt o f h im w ith a nyth in g th at c ra w le d o r

sc urrie d w elc o m e to s h are

th at g ra ve c a llin g i ts e lf q uarte rs.

For P aul D , th e tr a um a o f liv in g b uria l w ith in th e p ris o n c am p “ b ox” m anife sts its e lf p hysic ally in th e fo rm o f u nco ntr o lla b le b ody

movem ents . T he n arra to r d esc rib es th e p oin t a t w hic h “ th ey s h o ved [ D ] i n to th e b ox a nd d ro pped th e c age d oor d ow n, h is h and s q uit

ta kin g in str u cti o n. O n th eir o w n th ey tr a v ele d . N oth in g c o uld s to p th em o r g et th eir a tte nti o n. T hey

would n o t h o ld h is p enis to

urin ate o r a s p oon to s c o op lim a b eans. . . . T he m ir a cle o f th eir o bed ie nce c am e w ith th e h am mer a t d aw n.”

T ellin gly , th e w ord

Morris o n u se s i n th is c hap te r a nd o th er s e cti o ns o f th e te xt to d esc rib e th e u nco ntr o lla b le p hysic al s ig ns o f P aul D ’s tr a um a-in d ucin g

exp erie nce o f u nd erg ro und l iv in g b uria l i s

tr e m blin g

, th e v ery s a m e w ord th at B elo ved u se s r e p eate d ly to d esc rib e th e c o nd iti o n o f

a fe llo w c ap ti v e in th e u nd erw ate r to m b o f th e s la v e-s h ip h o ld —

so m eo ne is tr e m blin g . . . h e is fig htin g h ard to le a ve h is b ody

whic h is a s m all b ir d tr e m blin g . . . th ere is n o r o om to tr e m ble s o h e is n ot a ble to d ie . . . th ose a ble to d ie a re in a p ile .

T hat

Paul D , th e c hain -g ang p ris o ner, a nd th e a no nym ous s la v e-s h ip p ris o ner a re d esc rib ed a s h av in g a n id enti c al s o m ati c r e sp onse to

cap ti v ity s u ggests h o w s p aces o f r a cis t te rro r h av e a s m uch s p ectr a l fo rc e in th e n o vel a s S eth e’s g ho st- c hild — th at w hat M orris o n

desc rib es a s B elo ved ’s “ m ir a culo us r e su rre cti o n” i s c o in cid ent w ith a nd c o nti n gent u p on th e r e v iv al o f th e M id dle P assa ge c arc era l

model w ith in th e e xp erie nti a l p re se nt o f c hara cte rs i n th e te xt.

This n ew u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e re la ti o nsh ip b etw een e p ochal ra cia l a nd s p ati a l v io le nce a nd th e in elu cta b le re su rfa cin g o f th e

dead in th e n o vel o ffe rs a n a lte rn ati v e p oin t o f e ntr y in to th e m eanin g o f B elo ved a nd P aul D ’s s e xual e ngagem ents . M ost c riti c al

in q uir ie s in to th is s e xual b ond h av e tr e ate d it s o le ly fr o m th e p ers p ecti v e o f P aul D . H is p hysic al e nco unte rs w ith th e g ho st- c hild -

wom an i n th e v ery s h ed w here s h e w as k ille d r e p re se nt th e b egin nin g o f h is c o nfr o nta ti o n w ith th e e m oti o nal c o nte nts o f a n i n ju re d

se lfh o od th at h e h as k ep t h id den, o r re p re sse d , w ith in w hat M orris o n d esc rib es a s h is “ to bacco ti n ”— his s e ale d -o ff h eart.

A n

ele m ent o f th is b ond th at c riti c s h av e la rg ely ig no re d u nti l n o w , h o w ev er, is its m eanin g fr o m th e p oin t o f v ie w o f B elo ved . W hat

littl e h as b een w ritte n o n th e s u b je ct h as fo cuse d o n its o bvio us m eanin g: h er in sti g ati o n o f th e u nio n s im ply r e fle cts h er je alo usy

with r e sp ect to D ’s in ti m acy w ith S eth e. T his w ould s u ggest th at B elo ved u se s s e x w ith P aul D a s a p ra gm ati c ta cti c , o ne th at s h e

kno w s w ill l e ad to D ’s s e lf- im pose d b anis h m ent f r o m 1 24, a p la ce th at, f r o m h er p ers p ecti v e, h as n o r o om f o r th e p re se nce o f a m an

—nam ely , o ne w ho se in iti a l entr a nce in to th e d w ellin g le d to her o w n te m pora ry b anis h m ent, and , m ore im porta nt, o ne w ho

re p re se nts a c o m peti n g f o rc e f o r th e a tte nti o n o f S eth e.

How ev er, if w e k eep in m in d B elo ved ’s s tr e am -o f- c o nsc io usn ess re m em ory o f h er s la v e-s h ip e xp erie nce, w e re aliz e th at s e x

with P aul D re p re se nts m uch m ore th an a m ere fit o f je alo usy o ver S eth e’s lo ve. A lo ng w ith th e

man w ho is d esc rib ed as

“tr e m blin g,” a nd w ho d ie s w hile p re sse d a gain st B elo ved ’s b ody o n th e s la v e s h ip , B elo ved a ls o re m em bers a no th er s la v e-h o ld

pris o ner w ho w as a n o bje ct o f h er a ffe cti o n, a s e nti m ent th at r e su lts f r o m th is p arti c ula r u nnam ed m an’s g ift o f s o ng: “ S to rm s r o ck u s

and m ix th e m en in to th e w om en a nd th e w om en in to th e m en th at is w hen I b egin to b e o n th e b ack o f th e m an. . . . I lo ve h im

because h e h as a s o ng w hen h e tu rn ed to d ie I s e e th e te eth h e s a ng th ro ugh . . . h is s in gin g w as s o ft . . . h is s o ng i s g o ne n o w I l o ve

his p re tty te eth i n ste ad .”

T his d esc rip ti o n r e m in d s u s th at o ne o f P aul D ’s d efin in g c hara cte ris ti c s i s h is te nd ency to b re ak o ut i n to

th e s o ngs h e le arn ed w hile s la v in g o n th e c hain g ang a t a ny g iv en m om ent, h is u ncanny a b ility to ta p in to S eth e’s o w n re p re sse d

mem orie s a nd fe elin gs: “ E m oti o ns s p ed to th e s u rfa ce in h is c o m pany. T hin gs b ecam e w hat th ey w ere : d ra b ness lo oked d ra b ; h e at

was h o t. W in d ow s s u d denly h ad v ie w .

And w ould n’t y o u k n ow h e’d b e a s in gin g m an.

” 37

F ro m B elo ved ’s p ers p ecti v e, P aul D ’s

sin gin g v oic e r e p re se nts th e p ossib ility th at th e s in gin g m an s h e h ad l o st to d eath i n th e s la v e-s h ip h o ld h as b een r e in carn ate d — th at

sh e i s n o t th e o nly e m bodie d g ho stl y p asse nger o f th e M id dle P assa ge w ho h as m ate ria liz e d i n th e s p ace o f 1 24. B elo ved a nd P aul

D’s l o vem akin g th ere b y s ig nifie s a n a tte m pt o n B elo ved ’s p art a t r e -c re ati n g th e

mix in g o f m an a nd w om an

th at o ccurre d a b oard th e

sla v e v esse l o n s o m eth in g c lo se to h er o w n te rm s r a th er th an th o se i m pose d b y th e s la v e tr a d er. S he d esir e s a c o nsu m mati o n o f tw o

“liv in g” b odie s r a th er th an th e c o m min glin g o f th e d ead a nd l iv in g d ead th at o ccurre d i n th e h o ld . I n th is s e nse , B elo ved ’s s p ectr a l

ro le i s o ne n o t j u st o f i n d is c rim in ate r a ge, j e alo usy, a nd “ b re ak-n eck p osse ssiv eness” : h er y earn in g f o r ( re )u nio n w ith P aul D i s a n

exp re ssio n o f h o w sla v es a tte m pte d to fa sh io n se xual a gency, in ti m acy, a nd lo ve o ut o f c o nd iti o ns b ord erin g o n d eath . F or m y

purp ose s, th e q uesti o n o f w heth er P aul D i s a ctu ally th e s in gin g m an w ho m B elo ved d esir e d ( o r th e tr e m blin g m an w ho d id n o t h av e

eno ugh r o om to a chie v e b io lo gic al d eath ) d urin g th e A tl a nti c c ro ssin g i s i m mate ria l. W hat I a m c o ncern ed w ith i s th e w ays i n w hic h

th e e xp erie nce o f te rro r th at D fa ced a s a c hain -g ang p ris o ner e lic ite d th e s o rt o f s o m ati c s ig ns, e m oti o nal r e sp onse s, a nd m usic al

so und in gs th at c o uld e asily b e ( m is )re co gniz e d a s e m anati o ns o f th e s la v e-s h ip e xp erie nce.

In d is c ussin g th e r e curre nce o f s o m eth in g p erilo usly a kin to th e s la v e s h ip w ith in th e e xp erie nti a l p re se nt o f c hara cte rs i n th e te xt,

se v era l q uesti o ns a ris e . W hy d oes M orris o n c ho ose to fo cus o n th e c hain -g ang c am p a s th e p rim ary c o nnecti n g lin k to th e “ p ast”

ho rro rs o f th e s la v e s h ip ?

What is th e fu ncti o n o f th e s o uth ern p ris o n c am p in a n o vel fix ate d o n th e h aunti n g p ow er o f “ S w eet

Hom e” s la v e p la nta ti o n? W hat d oes th e la w ’s c o nju rin g o f P aul D a nd S eth e’s a tte m pts a t e sc ap in g b ond age in to c rim in al o ffe nse

sa y a b out th e n atu re o f b la ck fr e ed om a fte r fo rm al e m ancip ati o n? A nd , fin ally , h o w d o th e e xp re ssio ns o f a p oliti c s o f w ound ed

ra d ic ality o n th e p art o f th o se s u ch a s S eth e, P aul D , a nd h is fe llo w c hain -g ang c ap ti v es r e p re se nt th e v exin g c o nto urs o f a gency

with in z o nes o f c o lle cti v e u nfr e ed om ? A gain , I a m i n te re ste d i n h o w th e e xp erie nce o f P aul D a nd h is f o rty -fiv e f e llo w c hain -g ang

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** cap ti v es i n p arti c ula r, a lo ng w ith th e d ynam ic s o f r a cia liz e d i m pris o nm ent i n th e te xt i n g enera l, r e v eals h o w M orris o n’s c hara cte rs

and a cti o n a re h aunte d a s m uch b y th e f u tu re a s th ey a re b y th e p ast.

P ut a no th er w ay, I a m i n te re ste d i n h o w M orris o n’s c hara cte rs

exp erie nce a c yclic al o r b ack-a nd -fo rth te m pora lity a nd h is to ric ity w here in th e p ast, p re se nt, a nd fu tu re e xis t in c o nsta nt in te rfa c e.

Fro m th e p ers p ecti v e o f th e n o vel’s l a te a nte b ellu m p lo t, th e l a b elin g o f th e r u naw ay s la v e a s a tr a nsg re ssin g

crim in al

r e p re se nts a n

om in o us p re fig ura ti o n o f th e p ostb ellu m b ra nd in g o f th e b la ck “ crim in al” a s

sla ve o f th e s ta te

. 40

M ore o ver,

Belo ved

r e gis te rs h o w

acts o f c o lle cti v e r a cia l c ap ita lis t m is o gynis t te rro r a nd e nsla v em ent h av e n o t b een ( a nd w ill n o t b e) r e ceiv ed w ith o ut r a d ic al, if

in ju rio us, r e sp onse s o n th e p art o f th e u nfr e e.

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** The R acia l E xcep tio n a s R ule o f A m eric a n L aw : T he R ad ic a l R esu rre ctio n o f t h e “ A lf r e d 4 6”

In o ne o f

Belo ved ’s

n um ero us f la sh b acks, P aul D r e calls h o w , a fte r th e c o lle cti v e e sc ap e a tte m pt o f h im se lf, S eth e, H alle , S ix o , P aul

A, a nd P aul F h ad b een f o ile d , S cho olte acher p la ced a b it i n h is m outh . H e w as s u b se q uentl y d ra gged a w ay f r o m S w eet H om e b y a

ro pe, o ne e nd o f w hic h w as l a sso ed a ro und h is n eck, w ith th e o th er a tta ched to th e b ack o f h is n ew o w ner’s c arria ge. I t w as a t th is

mom ent th at h e c aught a g lim pse o f “ M is te r,” th e p la nta ti o n r o oste r— a b ir d w ho i n th e e sti m ati o n o f P aul D h ad b een f r e e to e xp re ss

more “ m anho od” th an h e h ad a t S w eet H om e. D r e m em bers th e l o ok o n M is te r’s f a ce a s th e f o rm er w as b ein g h aule d a w ay f r o m th e

pla nta ti o n: “ T hen h e s a w . . . th e r o oste r, s m ilin g a s i f to s a y,

Yo u a in ’t s e en n oth in g y et.

H ow c o uld a r o oste r k no w a b out A lfr e d ,

Geo rg ia ?” M is te r’s fo re b odin g e xp re ssio n is c o rro bora te d b y th e tr e atm ent P aul D re ceiv es im med ia te ly u p on h is a rriv al a t th e

pris o n c am p, a p oin t s y m boliz e d b y th e fa ct th at it w as th e e xp erie nce o f liv in g b uria l a t A lfr e d , G eo rg ia — no t h is

ensla v em ent a t

Sw eet H om e— th at l e d to D ’s tr e m blin g f its . I n d eed , th e n arra to r a llu d es to th e p eculia r e ffe cts o f th e c am p e arly i n th e te xt, th e d ay

afte r D a rriv es a t 1 24, w ell b efo re th e c hain -g ang s c ene a ctu ally u nfo ld s: “ T he b ox h ad d one to h im w hat S w eet H om e h ad n o t;

Dro ve h im c ra zy s o h e w ould n’t l o se h is m in d .”

I w ant to p urs u e th e p ossib ility th at th e d ub io us lo ok o f k no w in g in th e r o oste r’s e yes a s P aul D is b ein g h aule d a w ay fr o m th e

sla v e p la nta ti o n r e fe rs to m uch m ore th an D ’s im min ent e xp erie nce o f te rro r a nd d ehum aniz a ti o n in G eo rg ia — th at th e “ yo u” o f th e

yo u a in ’t se en n oth in ’ y et

h as a c o lle cti v e re so nance th at re aches fo rw ard in to th e a ctu al liv ed re ality o f b la ck p eo ple a fte r

Em ancip ati o n. W hen v ie w ed fr o m th e e xp erie nti a l p re se nt o f th e n o vel’s m ain c hara cte rs — and fr o m th e p re se nt c o nte xt o f th e

pris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x— Mis te r’s g la nce n o t o nly p orte nd s P aul D ’s p ers o nal e nco unte r w ith th e c hain g ang b ut a ls o h era ld s th e

co lle cti v e o rd eal o f m any fr e ed m en, w om en, a nd c hild re n w ho h av e b een s u b je cte d to p ris o n s la v ery a nd to a n o vera ll s ta te o f

sie ge a nd d om esti c w arfa re a fte r th e a tta in m ent o f d e j u re f r e ed om . R ead i n th is l ig ht, th e o m en P aul D g arn ers f r o m M is te r’s s ta re

re gis te rs th e u nse ttl in g r e ality th at th e tr a nsiti o n fr o m s la v ery to fr e ed om w ould le ad to a n a m plific ati o n r a th er th an a b ate m ent o f

in ju ry , l iv in g d eath , a nd m urd er f o r m any f o rm er s la v es. T his i s s y m boliz e d b y th e c le ar c o rre la ti o n b etw een M orris o n’s a nte b ellu m

chain -g ang c am p a nd th e c o unty c hain -g ang c am ps o f th e p ostb ellu m e ra .

To fu lly u nd ers ta nd w hat I m ean b y th e “ fu tu re o rie nta ti o n” o f

Belo ved

a nd th e r o le o f im pris o nm ent in p ro ducin g th e fo rw ard -

haunti n g a sp ects o f th e n o vel, w e m ust f ir s t i d enti fy w hat c an b e th o ught o f a s M orris o n’s u se o f

str a te g ic a nach ro nis m

i n th e c hain -

gang sc ene. W ith th is te rm , I a m re fe rrin g to h er in te nti o nal p la cem ent o f a p uniti v e re gim e n o rm ally a sso cia te d w ith th e la te

nin ete enth to m id -tw enti e th c entu ry in to th e c o nte xt o f th e la te a nte b ellu m p erio d. T he m echanis m th at th e A lfr e d , G eo rg ia , p ris o n-

cam p a uth o riti e s u se to e nto m b P aul D a nd h is fe llo w c ap ti v e fu giti v es, th e “ b ox” th at “ re se m ble s a c age,” h as a r e al p ostb ellu m

his to ric al re fe re nt: th e p orta b le c hain -g ang “ cage,” o r “ m ovin g p ris o n,” m any o f w hic h w ere b uilt in G eo rg ia a nd d is tr ib ute d

th ro ugho ut th e s o uth ern s ta te s. B oth ra d ic al s c ho la rs h ip a nd m uckra kin g a cco unts o f e arly J im C ro w a p arth eid b elie th e e arlie r

re fe re nced c la im s o n th e p art o f c hain -g ang a d m in is tr a to rs to th e “ co m fo rt” a nd “ sa nita ry ” n atu re o f th e m ovin g p ris o n. I n a

Harp er’s

Month ly M agazin e

a rti c le f r o m 1 933, W alte r W ils o n o ffe rs a m ore a ccura te p ic tu re :

The s te el c age . . . w ago n i s o rd in arily a b out 1 8 f e et l o ng, 8 f e et h ig h, a nd 8 f e et w id e w ith tw o o r th re e ti e rs o f

bunks i n e ach c age. T his i s th e s le ep in g a nd l iv in g r o om f o r a b out 2 0 m en. B ecause i t c an e asily b e m oved w ith

th e p ro gre ss o f th e jo b, th e c age is e sp ecia lly s u ite d fo r r o ad w ork , if o ne d oesn ’t c o nsid er th e w elfa re o f th e

pris o ners . It is a s ig ht n o t s o on fo rg o tte n to s e e th e c ages, w hic h lo ok a ll th e w orld

lik e a nim al c a ges in a

cir c u s

. . . a s th ey m ove to a no th er jo b. C ountr y p eo ple flo ck to th e fr o nt g ate s to w atc h a nd lis te n a s th e

pro cessio n o f c ages, lo ad ed w ith v erm in in fe ste d m en, c re aks a nd ra sp s a lo ng th e h o t, s a nd y, d usty ro ad . In

ra in y w eath er a ta rp aulin fla p is d ro pped o ver th e w alls o f th e c age to s h ut o ut th e w ate r; it a ls o s h uts o ff

venti la ti o n a nd lig ht. A tu b u nd ern eath a h o le in th e flo or is th e to ile t. A h o rrib le s te nch a ris e s fr o m it. . . . O n

Sund ays, n ig hts , a nd h o lid ays th e m en a re l o cked i n th e c ages.

A l o ng c h ain i s p asse d t h ro ugh t h e l e g c h ain s o f

ea ch p ris o ner

—th ese la tte r a re p erm anentl y riv ete d o n b y th e b la cksm ith . In th is w ay a ll th e p ris o ners a re

fa ste ned to a s in gle c hain a nd c an b e r e le ase d o nly b y a g uard u nlo ckin g th em . O bvio usly s u ch a n a rra ngem ent

has its g o od p oin ts , fo r fe w er g uard s a re n ecessa ry to w atc h fe tte re d p ris o ners in a s te el c age, a nd m oney is

sa v ed .

The p orta b le a b ovegro und v ers io n o f M orris o n’s b ox w as d esig ned to h o ld f r o m tw elv e to tw enty -fo ur m en o r b oys. T o f it s o m any

pris o ners in to s u ch a s m all s p ace, th e “ cage” c o nsis te d o f tw o p ara lle l s e cti o ns o f th re e-ti e re d b unks w ith a n a ccess p ath r u nnin g

dow n th e c ente r a nd a h o le c ut in th e m id dle o f th e w alk w ay, th ro ugh w hic h p ris o ners w ere fo rc ed to u rin ate a nd d efe cate in to a

bucket p la ced o n th e g ro und b elo w . T he o ute r s h ell o f th ese s tr u ctu re s w as e ith er a la tti c e o f w ooden o r m eta l b ars th at le ft th e

chain -g ang c ap ti v e o pen to s u rv eilla nce b y c am p g uard s a nd th e p ub lic o r fo ur w in d ow le ss w ooden w alls ( F ig ure 3 ).

T his la tte r

vers io n o f th e r o llin g c age l e ft p ris o ners w ith n o v ie w o f th e o uts id e w orld a nd a llo w ed th em o nly a m in usc ule s u p ply o f b re ath ab le

air — th ro ugh a n arro w s lit r u nnin g a lo ng th e to p o f th e s tr u ctu re .

A s i n th e c ase o f th e s la v e s h ip , th e m ovin g c age i m mobiliz e d i ts

chain ed p ris o ners to s u ch a n e xte nt th at s itti n g u p s tr a ig ht w as i m possib le .

The d ehum aniz in g and su ffo cati n g asp ects o f th ese sp aces o f ra cia l cap ita lis t te rro r re gis te r th e affilia ti o ns o f th e p ris o n

arc hite ctu re s o f s la v ery a nd fr e ed om . M ore s p ecific ally , in te rm s o f its p ro perti e s o f d efile m ent

and ti e r-s ty le h um an c arg o in g, th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** la nd -b ase d m ovin g p ris o n o f J im C ro w a p arth eid re v iv ed , o n a s m alle r s c ale , th e h o rro r e nd ure d b y th o se e nto m bed w ith in th e

wate r-b ase d m ovin g p ris o ns o f th e A tl a nti c . T hat M orris o n s itu ate s h er v ers io n o f th e c hain -g ang c age w ith in th e la te a nte b ellu m

perio d r a th er th an i ts “ p ro per” p la ce i n p osts la v ery h is to ry a nalo giz e s th e p oro us a nd v erti g in o us n atu re o f th e 1 865 b ord er f r o m th e

sta nd poin t of bla ck cap ti v es. T he doub lin g of ra cia liz e d pris o n arc hite ctu re s acro ss oste nsib ly se p ara te his to ric al ju nctu re s

hig hlig hts th e te m pora l a nd s p ati a l d is lo cati o n th at th e e nsla v ed p ris o ner e xp erie nced , w here b y a ny a tte m pt a t d is ti n guis h in g p ast

and p re se nt m odaliti e s o f e nto m bm ent i s r e nd ere d n early i m possib le .

Fig ure 3 .

T w o p ris o n s la ves c hain ed in sid e a G eorg ia c hain -g ang “ b ox,” e arly 1 930s. P hoto gra ph b y J o hn S piv ak. P hoto gra phy C olle ctio n, H arry R anso m C ente r,

Univ ers it y o f T exas a t A ustin .

Lik e P aul D a nd h is fo rty -fiv e fe llo w p ris o ners in th e la te a nte b ellu m c hain g ang, th o se fr e e b la ck p eo ple w ho w ere r o und ed u p

and d eta in ed a t c hain -g ang c am ps fo r m is d em eano r “ crim es” s u ch a s v agra ncy, b re ach o f c o ntr a ct, p etty la rc eny, lo ite rin g, p ub lic

nuis a nce, d rin kin g, a nd g am blin g f a ced c ir c um sta nces b ord erin g o n, a nd c ro ssin g th e b ord er i n to , w hat G io rg io A gam ben d esc rib es

as “

co nditio in hum ana.

” 45

F or A gam ben, th e ho rrify in g co nd iti o ns o f th e N azi co ncentr a ti o n cam p re su lte d fr o m a “sta te o f

excep ti o n”— an e xtr e m e p oliti c al s itu ati o n w here in th e s o vere ig n o r s ta te e xecuti v e s u sp end s c o nsti tu ti o nal rig hts a nd th e ru le o f

la w in o rd er to “ p ro te ct” th e s ta te a gain st a re p ute d e nem y. T he d ecla ra ti o n o f th e e xcep ti o n in re la ti o n to J e w s, G yp sie s, q ueer

su b je cts , c o m munis ts , a nd o th ers la b ele d a s “ in te rn al a nd e xte rn al e nem ie s o f th e s ta te ” r e su lte d in th e N azi c o ncentr a ti o n c am p, a

sp ace w here in h um an “ life ” w as tu rn ed in to a n a p pro xim ati o n o f d eath . A s A gam ben e xp la in s, “ B ecause [c am p p ris o ners ] w ere

la ckin g a lm ost a ll th e r ig hts a nd e xp ecta ti o ns th at w e c usto m arily a ttr ib ute to h um an e xis te nce, a nd y et w ere s ti ll b io lo gic ally a liv e,

th ey c am e to b e s itu ate d a t a lim it z o ne b etw een life a nd d eath .”

H e a d ds th at th ese c o nd iti o ns o f liv in g d eath , a lo ng w ith th e

se ria liz e d m urd er th at to ok p la ce a t th e c am p, re p re se nte d th e d ep lo ym ent b y th e N azi s ta te o f w hat h e c alls “ th anato politi c s,” a

more o penly c o erc iv e a nd s a nguin ary f o rm o f F oucault’ s “ b io politi c s,” w here m odern s ta te p ow er h as m ore to d o w ith th e p ow er to

kill th an it d oes w ith th e m ic ro m anagem ent a nd d is c ip lin in g o f th e liv in g. A lo ng th ese lin es, a m ain fu ncti o n o f s ta te s o vere ig nty in

th e m odern e ra h as to d o w ith c ra fti n g a n e nem y s o d efa m ed th at th ey c o m e to re p re se nt a “ life th at m ay b e k ille d w ith o ut th e

co m mis sio n o f h o m ic id e.”

F or A gam ben, th e c o ncentr a ti o n c am p is th e u lti m ate s y m bol o f th e z o ne o f e xcep ti o n, w ho se p la ce

outs id e la w c le arly d is ti n guis h es it

fr o m w hat F oucault d esc rib es a s “ th e m odern p ris o n.” A gam ben in sis ts th at th e e xcep ti o n is

exem plifie d in th e “ cam p— and

not th e p ris o n,

” th at “

pris o n la w c o nstitu te s a p artic u la r s p here o f p en al la w a nd is n ot o uts id e

th e n orm al o rd er,

th e ju rid ic al c o nste lla ti o n th at g uid es th e c am p . . . is m arti a l la w a nd th e s ta te o f s ie ge. T his is w hy it is n o t

possib le to i n sc rib e th e a naly sis o f th e c am p i n th e tr a il o pened b y th e w ork s o f F oucault.”

Belo ved

, M orris o n’s p ortr a yal o f th e c arc era l a cco rd in g to a b la ck d ia sp oric h is to ric al a nd te m pora l a xis b lu rs a ny s u ch c le ar

dis ti n cti o n b etw een th e e xcep ti o nal c o nd iti o ns o f th e c o ncentr a ti o n c am p a nd th e v ario us f o rm ati o ns o f i m pris o nm ent to w hic h b la ck

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** cap ti v es a nd o th er T hir d W orld p eo ple s h av e b een s u b je cte d f r o m th e c o lo nia l p erio d i n th e A meric as th ro ugh th e p re se nt.

A m ajo r

pro ble m w ith A gam ben’s c o m paris o n o f “ th e c am p” to “ th e p ris o n” h as to d o m ore w ith h is to rio gra p hy th an m eth o dolo gy. H e r e lie s

up on M ic hel F oucault’ s p ris o n h is to ry , o ne th at s o m eho w m anages to o ffe r a d eta ile d a cco unt o f W este rn c arc era l re gim es fr o m

fe ud alis m to m odern ity w ith o ut g iv in g a s m uch a s a p assin g re fe re nce to h o w s la v ery o r c o lo nia lis m fit in to th e p ic tu re : p ris o n

sp aces s u ch a s th e b arra co on, th e s la v e s h ip , s la v e p en, p la nta ti o n, a nd c hain -g ang c am p a re n o t c o unte d a s n o des o n w hat h e

desc rib es a s th e W este rn “ carc era l a rc hip ela go .” T hese g la rin g o m is sio ns d is c lo se h o w th e fe ud al- m odern p ola rity o utl in ed in

Dis c ip lin e a nd P unis h

d ep end s o n a c o m ple te d is re gard fo r th e c entr a lity o f s la v ery a nd c o lo nia lis m in th e p ro ducti o n o f W este rn

carc era l fo rm ati o ns a nd in th e u nfo ld in g o f o ccid enta l m odern ity a s a w ho le . M orris o n’s c ente rin g o f th e M id dle P assa ge a nd th e

pla nta ti o n a s p rim al s ite s o f r a cia liz e d p unis h m ent fo rc es u s to r e ev alu ate w hat w e a re r e fe rrin g to w hen w e s p eak o f th e “ m odern

pris o n.” S he re v eals h o w th e sla v e sh ip a nd th e p la nta ti o n o pera te d a s sp ati a l, ra cia l, a nd e co no m ic te m pla te s fo r su b se q uent

models o f c o erc ed la b or a nd h um an w are ho usin g— as A meric a’s o rig in al p ris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x. H er c hara cte rs ’ e xp erie nces

sy m boliz e th e d egre e to w hic h, fr o m sla v ery to neo sla v ery , su rv eilla nce, in carc era ti o n, and co lle cti v e p unis h m ent hav e m ad e

norm al l ife

ta nta m ount to a s ta te o f s ie ge, i f n o t a ll- o ut w ar, f o r th o se b ra nd ed a s i n te rn al a lie ns o r n atu ra l- b orn e nem ie s o f th e s ta te

on th e b asis o f th e s o cia l c o nstr u ct o f r a ce.

As J o y J a m es h as p oin te d o ut in r e sp ect to th e d om in ati v e n atu re o f le gal a nd e xtr a le gal te rro r a gain st b la ck p eo ple , a naly sis o f

th e in te gra l fu ncti o nality o f w hite su p re m acy in re la ti o n to U .S . c arc era l m odes in p arti c ula r, a nd to W este rn im peria lis t m ass

vio le nce in g enera l, sh o rt- c ir c uits th e

majo r h is to ric al c la im o f F oucault’ s p ro je ct— th at w ith th e tr a nsiti o n fr o m fe ud alis m to

modern ity , punis h m ent becam e le ss pub lic and physic ally re p re ssiv e, and m ore psy cho lo gic ally co erc iv e, re fin ed , and

“ad m in is tr a ti v ely d ecent.”

T his h is to ric al a nd th eo re ti c al b lin d s p ot e xp la in s F oucault’ s m is ta ken c la im th at th e c hain g ang w as

dis c o nti n ued a s a p uniti v e in sti tu ti o n in th e e arly n in ete enth c entu ry , w hen it e nd ed in F ra nce, a n ir o nic h is to rio gra p hic o vers ig ht

co nsid erin g th at A meric a’s m ore r e p re ssiv e b ra nd o f th e c hain -g ang s y ste m w ould o pera te w ell in to th e tw enti e th c entu ry : th at is ,

unti l s o m e tw o d ecad es b efo re th e p ub lic ati o n o f

Dis c ip lin e a nd P unis h .

A lth o ugh th e th eo re ti c al i m port o f F oucault’ s a naly sis o f

modern d is c ip lin ary r e gim es c anno t b e d enie d , th e e xp erie nce o f A fr ic ans, in d ig eno us p eo ple s, a nd o th er c o lo niz e d a nd e nsla v ed

co lle cti v es w ith in lo cale s o f W este rn im peria lis m b elie a ny c ate go ric al s e p ara ti o n o f p re m odern a nd m odern m eth o ds o f v io le nce

and so cia l d om in ati o n. H ere w e a re re m in d ed o f C ed ric R obin so n’s a sse rti o n in B la ck M arx is m o f th e e v er-e ncro achin g a nd

decid ed ly u nd ead p re se nce o f s la v ery w ith in E uro -A meric an m odern ity : “ T he e xp ansio n o f s la v ery in to th e n in ete enth c entu ry w as

no t a n a nachro nis m b ut a f o re w arn in g.”

A gain , th e m easu re o f n ecro politi c s a nd th e s ta te o f l e galiz e d e xcep ti o n i n s p aces s u ch a s

th e sla v e-s h ip h o ld , th e c hatte l- s la v e p la nta ti o n, th e p ostb ellu m p ris o n p la nta ti o n, a nd th e p orta b le c hain -g ang c am p c anno t b e

re d uced to b io lo gic al d eath r a te s— th o ugh, a s D av id O sh in sk y h as p oin te d o ut, s u ch r a te s in th e c ase o f p ostb ellu m p ris o n c am ps

ra nged fr o m 1 0 p erc ent to 4 0 p erc ent.

F or th o se su ch a s P aul D a nd th e re al- life re fe re nts fo r h is e xp erie nce o f n eo sla v ery ,

co nd iti o ns of te rro r and ab je cti o n m ad e bio lo gic al life ta nta m ount to liv in g death . To lim it our co ncep ti o n of th anato - or

necro politi c s to b io lo gic al d eath c o unts is to n egate th e g eno cid al r e ach o f im peria lis t s o vere ig nty in its p ro te an m eth o dolo gie s o f

killin g.

If th e ra d ic al te m pora lity o f M orris o n’s narra ti v e o f neo sla v ery is re gis te re d la rg ely b y its exp ositi o n o f th e ti m e-b end in g

cap aciti e s o f r a cia liz e d i m pris o nm ent, th en i ts f u ll m easu re c anno t b e u nd ers to od w ith o ut a tte nd in g to th e m odes o f r e sis ta nce w ith in

th e te xt th at fu ncti o n a s r e p la ys o f tr a nsa tl a nti c a nd p la nta ti o n r e b ellio n. In a m om ent th at r e calls th e p erilo us a nd te nuo us n atu re o f

co lle cti v e r e b ellio n d urin g c hatte l s la v ery , th e “ A lfr e d 4 6” a re d eliv ere d fr o m th eir u nd erg ro und liv in g b uria l. A s th e w ate rs o f a

to rre nti a l ra in sto rm fill th e m ud dy tr e nch in w hic h th ey are b urie d , th e fo rty -s ix chain -g ang cap ti v es act in unis o n to re le ase

th em se lv es b y y ankin g th e “ lo ng-c hain ” th at h eld th em in th e u nd erg ro und c age: “ T hey

ta lk ed th ro ugh th e c hain lik e S am M ors e

and . . . th ey a ll c am e u p . L ik e

th e u nsh riv en d ea d,

z o m bie s o n th e lo ose ,

hold in g th e c h ain s in th eir h an ds,

th ey tr u ste d th e r a in

and th e d ark , y es, b ut m ostl y . . . e ach o th er.”

Morris o n’s d esc rip ti o n o f th e n ew ly fr e ed m en a s “ zo m bie s” r e gis te rs b oth th e p ara d oxic al c ap aciti e s o f a tte m pte d a gency a nd

co lle cti v e a cti o n o n th e p art o f th o se f a cin g th e m ost a b je ct f o rm s o f d om in ance a nd h o w , w ith in th e c o nte xt o f c o nti n ued c o lle cti v e

su b je cti o n, th e “ su ccess” o f s u ch a cts o f r e b ellio n c anno t m ost o fte n b e m easu re d b y a “ cle an b re ak” f r o m u nfr e ed om . I n d eed , a s th e

arw hoolie ,

o r w ork s o ng, th at th e fo rty -s ix m en p erfo rm b efo re th eir p ris o n b re ak m akes c le ar,

th e h is to ry o f b la ck d ia sp oric

re sis ta nce to fo rm ati o ns o f p ris o n te rro r h as a s m uch to d o w ith th e r e cla m ati o n o f th e s to ry o f o ne’s s e rv itu d e a s it d oes w ith a

mir a culo us i n v ers io n o f p ow er d ynam ic s. D urin g th e s o ng, th ey i m agin e b eati n g th eir c hain -g ang b oss to a p ulp , e v en a s th ey s o und

th eir c o lle cti v e s ta te o f liv -in g d eath : “ M ore th an th e r e st, th ey k ille d th e flir t w ho m fo lk s c alle d L ife fo r le ad in g th em o n. M akin g

th em th in k th e n ext s u nris e w ould b e w orth i t; th at a no th er s tr o ke o f ti m e w ould d o i t a t l a st.”

P aul D ’s r e arre st a nd e nsla v em ent i n

Dela w are b y a c o m pany te llin gly c alle d “

North poin t

B ank a nd R ailw ay” s o on a fte r h is e sc ap e f r o m th e c hain g ang b rin gs i n to s ta rk

re lie f th e te nacio usn ess o f fo rm ati o ns o f s la v ery , e v en fo r th o se w ho r e ach p oin ts n o rth o f th e M aso n-D ix o n lin e. M ore o ver, P aul

D’s te nd ency to r e -s o und th e s o ngs h e l e arn ed i n A lfr e d , G eo rg ia , th ro ugho ut th e n o vel e xp re sse s h o w M orris o n c o nceiv ed o f D a nd

her o th er c hain -g ang c hara cte rs a s fic ti v e e m ble m s o f th e c o untl e ss ( a nd m ostl y n am ele ss) b la ck m en w ho h av e a tte m pte d to s te al

mom ents o f e xp re ssiv e re fu ge in th e fa ce o f u nend ura b le h o rro r in c hain g angs, le v ee c am ps, p ris o n p la nta ti o ns, a nd so lita ry -

co nfin em ent c ells f r o m 1 865 to th e p re se nt.

Again , n o tw ith sta nd in g th e e m oti v e p ow er o f b la ck ( a nti ) p ris o n s o ngs a s th ey h av e e xte nd ed f r o m th e s p ir itu als a nd f ie ld h o lle rs

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** of a nte b ellu m s la v es, to th e c hain -g ang a nd p ris o n p la nta ti o n s o ngs o f i n carc era te d b lu es m aestr o s, to th e p ris o n-c ente re d v ers e s o f

modern h ip -h o p a rti s ts — th e h is to ric al e no rm ity o f M id dle P assa ge im pris o nm ent in th e U nite d S ta te s a nd its c o nti n ued a ccre ti o n

in to o ur c urre nt m om ent b oth d om esti c ally a nd g lo bally d is a llo w s a ny m odel o f ti d y o r tr iu m phalis t re sis ta nce. In h er lite ra ry

exhum ati o n o f th e A meric an c hain -g ang b ox f r o m th e G eo rg ia m ud ( a nd f r o m th e d ustb in o f r a cis t l ib era l h is to rio gra p hy), M orris o n

re so und s A mílc ar C ab ra l’s w arn in g to g lo bal fr e ed om fig hte rs to “ cla im n o e asy v ic to rie s.”

C ab ra l’s re m in d er is e sp ecia lly

re le v ant in re sp ect to th e

re aliti e s th at re al- w orld b la ck p ris o ners h av e fa ced in th e w ake o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent, b odie s

who se tr a nsm uta ti o n in to s ta te -c ra fte d s la v es h av e ra re ly le d to a nyth in g c lo se to th e m ir a culo us e sc ap e o f th e “ A lfr e d 4 6,” a nd

who se m ost v ia b le f o rm s o f r e sis ta nce h av e te nd ed to r e nd er th e w ord “ v ic to ry ” v ir tu ally m eanin gle ss.

For th o se w ho , u p to th e p oin t o f th is w riti n g, c o nti n ue to c o nte nd w ith m odern r e co nfig ura ti o ns o f th e s la v e s h ip a nd th e c hain -

gang b ox, w hat S aid iy a H artm an d efin es a s “ re d re ssiv e a cti o n,” c an o fte n b e in d exed o nly a t th e le v el o f th e c ap ti v e’s a b ility to

re nd er a n a lte rn ati v e tr u th to th at w hic h le d to h er c ap ti v ity — a d e-m arg in aliz a ti o n o f d is q ualifie d s to rie s.

M orris o n’s n arra ti v e

unb uria l o f th e c hain -g ang b ox s h o w s h o w th e a ct o f s u b verti n g m aste r n arra ti v es o f b la ck c rim in ality a nd n o ti o ns o f l ib era l p ro gre ss

is a m ain m echanis m b y w hic h re d re ss c an b e e nacte d e v en a s sta te b io lo gic al a nd liv in g d eath c o unts c o nti n ue to m ount a nd

co lle cti v e s u b sta nti v e f r e ed om s e em s a ll b ut i m possib le . I t i n v olv es a sse rti n g th e r ig ht to te sti fy to o ne’s o w n s itu ati o n o f a b je cti o n

ra th er th an a llo w in g i t b e tr a nsm ute d i n to th e w ell- w orn n ati o nal f a b le o f n atu ra l- b orn b la ck c rim in ality . I n th is l ig ht, th e o w ners h ip

of o ne’s o w n s to ry o f te rro r— a te sti fy in g to o ne’s o w n p ain — sig nals a b ra nch o f b la ck a nd s u b alte rn a gency th at r e aches a s f a r b ack

as th e s la v e s h ip . T his e le m ent o f c ir c ula r te m pora lity r e p re se nts th e in co m ple te n atu re o f d om in ati o n a nd th e d egre e to w hic h th e

Mid dle P assa ge c arc era l m odel p ro duces i ts o w n e xcesse s, “ zo m bie s” w ho se r e su rfa cin g c halle nges w hite s u p re m acis t p lo tl in es o f

his to ry .

In h is r e unio n w ith S eth e a t th e c lo se o f

Belo ved ,

P aul D r e co gniz e s h is o w n h ard -w on p ow er o f n arra ti n g, o f s a yin g th e

unsa yab le th at h e h as r e p re sse d f o r s o l o ng: “ O nly th is w om an S eth e c o uld h av e l e ft h im h is m anho od. . . . H e w ants to p ut h is s to ry

next to h ers .”

R ead in th is lig ht, M orris o n’s n arra ti v e o f n eo sla v ery — th e p la cem ent o f th e s to rie s o f th e M id dle P assa ge, th e

pla nta ti o n, a nd th e c hain g ang a t th e c ente r o f U .S . n ati o n b uild in g— re p re se nts a r a d ic al r e cla m ati o n o f s to le n h is to rie s a nd b odie s.

In d eed , h er c o unte r-h is to ric al r e cla m ati o n p ro je ct h eld v ita l ( if la rg ely ig no re d ) p oliti c al u rg ency g iv en th e fa ct th at b la ck b odie s

were b ein g l e gally k id nap ped i n to U .S . p enite nti a rie s e n m asse a t th e v ery m om ent o f

Belo ved

’s p ub lic ati o n i n 1 987.

As J o y J a m es r e m in d s u s, m odes o f r a d ic al th eo riz a ti o n a re n o t th e s o le p ro perty o f a cad em ic s— ra d ic al e p is te m olo gie s ( o r w hat

th e l a te V èV è C la rk o fte n d esc rib ed a s “ ep is te m ic b re aks” )— ofte n e m erg e f r o m s p aces o f d eath a nd a b je cti o n r a th er th an f r o m th o se

of l ib era l b ourg eo is p riv ile ge.

N o w ork w ritte n f r o m th e p ositi o n o f e nto m bm ent b ette r c ap tu re s th e

exp lo sio n o f f a cile m odels o f

dia chro nic h is to ry b y th e n eo sla v ery n arra ti v e th an G eo rg e J a ckso n’s

Sole d ad B ro th er

(1 970), a n e p is to la ry m anife sto c o m pose d

while h e w as a p oliti c al p ris o ner i n C alifo rn ia p enite nti a rie s f o r te n y ears , s e v en o f w hic h w ere s p ent i n s o lita ry c o nfin em ent. F ro m

th is p ers p ecti v e, J a ckso n’s le tte rs r e p re se nt w hat c an b e th o ught o f a s m om ents in w hic h a r e al- w orld P aul D w as a b le to te ll h is

ow n s to le n s to ry a nd th eo ry o f r a cia l c ap ita lis t in carc era ti o n. In fa ct, J a ckso n’s s u b je cti o n to p ro tr a cte d is o la ti o n o pera te d a s th e

co nd iti o n o f p ossib ility f o r w hat, to m y k no w le d ge, c o nsti tu te s th e f ir s t f u ll th eo riz a ti o n o f w hat h e d efin es a s

neo sla very.

H ow ev er,

where as m uch o f th e b la ck r a d ic al s o cia lis t’ s d is c ussio n o f th e te rm r e fle cts a M arx is t i n te rp re ta ti o n o f c la ss r e la ti o ns i n th e U nite d

Sta te s, w here b y w ork in g-c la ss b la ck p eo ple s u ch a s h is fa th er w ere tu rn ed in to “ w age s la v es,” J a ckso n’s e xp erie nce o f in d efin ite

is o la ti o n p ro duces a p oeti c th eo ry o f n eo sla v ery th at e xceed s th e e xp la nato ry c ap aciti e s o f h is so cia lis t tr a in in g in so fa r a s it

und erlin es h o w w hite s u p re m acis t in carc era ti o n s u b m its th e ra cia lly /c rim in ally s ti g m ati z e d s u b je ct to a p re d ic am ent a kin to th e

su p pose d ly p re m odern e xp erie nce o f c hatte l s la v es.

In a le tte r d ate d A pril 1 970, c o m pose d a fte r h e h ad a lr e ad y e nd ure d se v en y ears o f so lita ry c o nfin em ent fo r h is in te rra cia l

org aniz in g a nd r a d ic al w riti n gs f r o m b ehin d p ris o n w alls , J a ckso n r e gis te rs i n p oeti c f o rm th e c o nti n uiti e s o f h is e xp erie nce a nd th at

of s la v e-s h ip p ris o ners :

My re ca ll is n ea rly p erfe ct, tim e h as fa ded n oth in g

. I re call th e v ery fir s t k id nap .

I’v e liv ed th ro ugh th e

passa ge, d ie d o n th e p assa ge

, la in in th e u nm ark ed , s h allo w g ra v es o f th e m illio ns w ho h av e fe rti liz e d th e

Amerik an so il w ith th eir co rp se s; co tto n and co rn gro w in g out of m y chest, “unto th e th ir d and fo urth

genera ti o n,” th e te nth , th e h und re d th . M y m in d r a nges b ack a nd fo rth th ro ugh th e u nco unte d g enera ti o ns, a nd

fe el a ll t h at t h ey h ave f e lt, b ut d ouble .

I c an’t h elp i t; th ere a re to o m any th in gs to r e m in d m e o f th e 2 3½ h o urs

[a d ay] th at I ’ m i n th is c ell. N ot te n m in ute s p ass w ith o ut a r e m in d er. I n b etw een, I ’ m l e ft to s p ecula te o n w hat

fo rm th e r e m in d er w ill ta ke.

Ja ckso n’s c o rp ore aliz e d to ta l r e call o f c hatte l s la v ery is c ata ly ze d b y th e m ate ria l a nd e xp erie nti a l im bric ati o ns o f th e s la v e

hold

and pris o n

hole

—with th e pro cess of carc era l dehum aniz a ti o n fo rc in g a defin iti o n of neo sla v ery th at deriv es le ss fr o m an

in te lle ctu al e ngagem ent w ith th e b la ck

su b je ct’ s p la ce i n p ro le ta ria n l a b or h is to ry th an J a ckso n’s e m bodie d f e elin g o f b ein g s h uttl e d

to a s u p pose d ly d ead p la ce i n c hatte liz e d c arc era l h is to ry . T he s o lita ry p ris o ner i s n o t o nly r e m oved f r o m l in es o f b io lo gic al k in sh ip

but fr o m s o cia l c o nta ct a lto geth er, a fa ct th at e xp la in s h is te sti m ony o f fe elin g e v ery th in g th at c hatte l s la v es fe lt “ b ut d oub le .” L ik e

th e c hain -g ang c age, M id dle P assa ge im pris o nm ent e xp re sse d a s in d efin ite s o lita ry in v olv es a ra d ic al d is o rie nta ti o n o f te m pora l

exp erie nce; i n o th er w ord s, th e a rti c ula ti o n o f r a cia l a nd s p ati a l te rro r i n th e c o nte xt o f th e m odern p ris o n w arp s ti m e i n so fa r a s th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** exp erie nti a l p re se nt is h aunte d in a m ate ria l fa sh io n b y

past,

o r

so uth ern ,

m odes o f r a cia l c ap ita lis t d om in ati o n.

A s C olin D ayan

su ggests , a lth o ugh “ th e r e su rre cti o n o f s la v ery i s o fte n d is c usse d i n th e tu rn to c o nv ic t l a b or a nd th e c rim in aliz a ti o n o f b la cks i n th e

postb ellu m S outh . . . th e p enite nti a ry . . . e sp ecia lly ‘ s o lita ry ,’ a ls o k no w n a s ‘ th e d is c ip lin e’ o r ‘ th e s e p ara te s y ste m ’— offe re d a n

unse ttl in g c o unte r to s e rv itu d e, a n i n v enti o n o f c rim in ality a nd p re sc rip ti o ns f o r tr e atm ent th at tu rn ed h um ans i n to th e l iv in g d ead .”

The u nse ttl in g c o nti n uiti e s b etw een J a ckso n’s e xp erie nce a nd th at o f c hatte l s la v es p ast i s r e gis te re d i n h is p oeti c r e m ap pin g o f th e

“p assa ge” a s m ore th an s im ply a s o uth ern o r w ate r-b ase d p heno m eno n. F or h im , “ th e m illio ns w ho h av e fe rti liz e d th e A merik an

so il” c anno t b e s e p ara te d fr o m th e c o untl e ss b ones lin in g th e A tl a nti c . T hro ugh h is e xp erie nti a lly b ase d p oeti c s o f liv in g d eath ,

Ja ckso n in sis ts th at th e p ro cess o f m ass m urd er th at b egan o n th e A tl a nti c c o nti n ued r ig ht th ro ugh h is o w n e nto m bm ent in a “ la nd -

base d sla v e sh ip ” on th e lib era l W est C oast, a sp ace of w hite su p re m acis t te rro r th at he als o re p eate d ly desc rib ed as a

“co ncentr a ti o n c am p.”

Again , th e p urp ose o f r e ad in g th e M id dle P assa ge a s f o und ati o nal to W este rn c arc era l f o rm ati o ns i s n o t to tr e at o f s p aces s u ch a s

th e s la v e s h ip , th e p la nta ti o n, th e U .S p ris o n c am p, a nd th e G erm an c o ncentr a ti o n c am p a s h o m olo gic al, a s e xactl y th e s a m e, b ut to

re call C ésa ir e ’s c riti c ally i m porta nt a sse rti o n th at th e s y ste m ati c r e p ro ducti o n o f b anis h ab le , e nsla v ab le , a nd m urd era b le m asse s b y

way o f r a cis t id eo lo gic al w arfa re is a p ro cess th at d id n o t b egin w ith o r e nd w ith th e d efe at o f th e T hir d R eic h.

A lo ng w ith th e

co lo niz e d p eo ple s o f th e G lo bal S outh , th e “ fr e e” b la ck su b je ct o f th e Jim C ro w a p arth eid e ra re p re se nte d life th at h ad b een

dev alu ed to th e e xte nt th at i t c o uld b e r e ensla v ed , k ille d , d is p osse sse d , o r s u b je cte d to l iv in g d eath w ith i m punity . T he e xis te nce o f

th e m ovin g p ris o n— and i ts d ir e ct r e la ti o n to th e d ehum aniz in g c arc era l s p ace o f th e s la v e s h ip — re v eals h o w , i n th e U nite d S ta te s,

what A gam ben d esc rib es a s

co nditio

in hum ana

h as o fte n b een a fu ncti o n o f r a th er th an a n e xcep ti o n to th e “ no rm al” p ro cesse s o f

la w and o rd er. In th e w ord s o f W alte r B enja m in , th e exp erie nces o f th o se ento m bed w ith in su ch ra cia l cap ita lis t m is o gynis t

arc hite ctu re s sig nify h o w th e “ tr a d iti o n o f th e o ppre sse d te aches u s th at th e ‘s ta te o f e m erg ency’ in w hic h w e liv e is n o t th e

excep ti o n b ut th e r u le .”

I n d eed , s u ch c o nd iti o ns f o r b la cks u nd er b oth th e l a w o f s la v ery a nd th e l a w o f n eo sla v ery h av e h ad to d o

no t w ith th e s ta te ’s c re ati o n o f a n e xcep ti o n to th e l a w , b ut w ith th e f a ct th at th e “ N egro ” s u b je ct h as h is to ric ally b een v ie w ed a s a

bio lo gic a l a nd m eta physic a l excep tio n to th e ru le o f (w hite ) h um anity

—as th e anti th esis o f o rd er, ra ti o nality , m ora lity , and

pro ducti v ity — and a s a n atu ra l- b orn e nem y o r “ P ro ble m ” o f th e s ta te .

In te rm s o f th e c hain g ang a nd e arly p ostb ellu m p ris o n s la v ery in g enera l, th e id eo lo gic al c o nstr u cti o n o f b la cks a s q uasi- h um an

was n o t s im ply a n e xam ple o f s o uth ern a nachro nis m , a fa ct in d exed b y th e d ir e ct fu nd in g o f th e c hain g ang b y fe d era l p ub lic -ro ad s

monie s. O ne p arti c ula r e ngi- n eer re p re se nti n g th e fe d era l O ffic e o f P ub lic R oad s re gis te re d n o rth ern c ulp ab ility w ith re sp ect to

so uth ern n eo sla v ery in a w ay th at riv ale d th e w ors t p ate rn alis m o f p la nta ti o n s la v ery . H e a rg ued th at th e “

hum an m ate ria l d ea lt

with

[ o n th e c hain g ang]

. . .

so r a dic a lly d iffe re n t

fr o m o th er s e cti o ns” th at it d em and ed te chniq ues th at w ould b e c o nsid ere d

in hum ane i f d ep lo yed a gain st w hite s.

O nly i n th is c ase , a s L ic hte nste in p oin ts o ut, c hain -g ang n eo sla v ery d iffe re d u niq uely f r o m i ts

agra ria n fo re ru nner in th at th e e nsla v ed w ould b e e xp lo ite d in th e se rv ic e o f re v am pin g th e so uth ern e co no m y in th e im age o f

no rth ern m odern ity a nd i n d ustr ia liz a ti o n.

The d ir e ct c o rre la ti o n b etw een M orris o n’s “ b ox” a nd th e p ostb ellu m “ cage” su ggests th at, in c re ati n g th e c hain -g ang sc ene,

Morris o n w as a cute ly a w are o f h o w th e d ehum aniz in g m eth o ds f o und o n th e s la v e s h ip n o t o nly r e em erg ed i n a nte b ellu m s p aces o f

ho rro r s u ch a s S w eet H om e p la n ta ti o n, b ut th at th e s la v e s h ip a ls o h aunte d th e e xp erie nce o f b la ck p eo ple a fte r e m ancip ati o n. A lo ng

th ese lin es, S te p hanie S m allw ood’s th eo riz a ti o n o f th e in su ffic ie ncy o f lin ear m odels o f sp ace-ti m e in re fe re nce to th e sla v e’s

exp erie nce o f tr a nsa tl a nti c im pris o nm ent a p plie s d ir e ctl y to th e b la ck e xp erie nce o f c o lle cti v e e nto m bm ent a fte r E m ancip ati o n. A s

Sm allw ood p oin ts o ut, “ T he sla v e sh ip c harte re d n o c o urs e o f n arra ti v e c o nti n uity b etw een th e A fr ic an p ast a nd th e A meric an

pre se nt, b ut r a th er m em oria liz e d a n

in dete rm in ate p assa ge

m ark ed b y

th e i m possib ility o f f u ll n arra tiv e c lo su re .

” 71

That th e c hatte liz e d c arc era l p ra cti c es d ep ic te d in

Belo ved

c o nti n ued to d efy n arra ti v e a nd m ate ria l c lo su re in th e U nite d S ta te s

by h aunti n g th eir

way f o rw ard i n to th e l iv es o f b la ck p eo ple a fte r th e a d vent o f d e j u re f r e ed om i s r e p re se nte d i n c hillin g f a sh io n i n

Westb ro ok v . T he S ta te

( 1 909), a r e la ti v ely o bsc ure le gal c ase fr o m th e e arly tw enti e th c entu ry th at in m any r e sp ects r e p re se nts a

sp ectr a l m ate ria liz a ti o n o f M orris o n’s c hain -g ang s c ene.

A t th e s a m e ti m e, th e l o ng-fo rg o tte n e v ents th at l e d to th is c ase a ls o s ig nal

ho w n o f ic ti o naliz e d p ortr a it o f n eo sla v ery c an b egin to a p pro ach th e h o rro rs o f th e r e al a s e xp erie nced i n p la ces l ik e a n A meric an

chain -g ang c am p i n th e e arly 1 900s. T he c ase i n v olv ed th e c o nv ic ti o n o f a b la ck m an n am ed C le v ela nd W estb ro ok f o r th e m urd er o f

a fe llo w p ris o ner, a no th er b la ck m an n am ed J a m es D av is , a t a n a ctu al G eo rg ia c hain g ang in th e s o uth ern r e gio n o f th e s ta te . A fte r

th e T ift C ounty su p erio r c o urt is su ed a g uilty v erd ic t, W estb ro ok c halle nged h is c o nv ic ti o n o n th e h o m ic id e c harg e in th e sta te

su p re m e c o urt b ase d o n h is c o nte nti o n th at h is k illin g o f th e m an c o ffle d n ext to h im o n th e lo ng-c hain a ctu ally a m ounte d to s e lf-

defe nse — th at h e h ad s ta b bed D av is in a la st- d itc h d esp era te re sp onse to b ein g w hip ped b y th e c am p’s w ard en a nd h av in g th e

cam p’s l o ng-c hain ti g hte ned a ro und h is l e gs a nd a nkle s b y h is f e llo w p ris o ners .

Westb ro ok’s v ers io n o f th e e v ents le ad in g to h is m urd er c o nv ic ti o n is u lti m ate ly c o rro bora te d b y th e c hain -g ang w ard en, J . M .

Dav is , w ho u p on c ro ss-e xam in ati o n b y th e p ris o ner’s a tto rn ey, r e v eale d th at h e h ad w hip ped W estb ro ok r e p eate d ly a cro ss h is f a ce

while o rd erin g m em bers o f th e c hain -g ang c o ffle to l a y h o ld o f th eir c hain s a nd s q ueeze W estb ro ok i n to c o m plia nce w ith h is o rd ers

fo r th e l a tte r to d ro p a k nife h e h ad b een u sin g to c arv e a p ie ce o f w ood. A fte r r e la ti n g h o w h e a lw ays a llo w ed h is p ris o ners to s in g

and p la y g am es a ro und a c am pfir e b efo re r iv eti n g th em i n sid e th eir “ car” — th e T ift C ounty v ers io n o f th e c hain -g ang r o llin g c age—

th e c am p’s w ard en o ffe re d th is a cco unt o f w hat o ccurre d a fte r h e h ad o verh eard a n a p pare nt a lte rc ati o n b etw een s o m e o f h is “ b oys

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** on th e c hain ”:

When I w ent o ut th ere I h ad m y s tr a p i n m y h and . W hen I to ld h im to g et r e ad y f o r th e w hip pin g h e h ad th e k nife

in h is h and . H e s te p ped o ut a nd p ulle d o ff h is c o at a nd l a id i t o n th e b ench, a nd s te p ped b ack a s te p o r tw o a nd

lo oked a t th e c hain a nd lo oked a t m e a nd s a id “ I d on’t th in k y o u o ught to w hip m e.” I s a id to h im “ T hro w th e

knife o ut h ere a nd g et d ow n a cro ss th e b ench.” H e d ro pped h is h ead a nd th o ught a m in ute a nd s a id , “ N o, s ir, y o u

or n o o th er m an d on’t w hip m e.’

The b oys b eg an t ig hte n in g t h e c h ain

. . . . I c alle d o n M r. D av is , th e tr u sty , a nd

th e b oys o n th e

chain , to a ssis t i n g etti n g th e k nife a w ay f r o m h im . H e j u st m ad e a s p rin g a t th at b oy, th e f ir s t o ne

on th e c hain n ext to h im ; a fte r h e h ad c ut a t h im h e r u sh ed o ver a t m e; w hen h e s ta b bed to h it th e b oy I s tr u ck h im

in th e f a ce w ith m y s tr a p , a nd h e m ad e a t m e. H e h ad n’t a tte m pte d to s tr ik e m e b efo re th at. H e to ld th em to s ta nd

back o r h e w ould k ill th e f ir s t o ne th at c am e a t h im . T hen I s tr u ck h im i n th e f a ce, a nd h e tu rn ed o n m e. I h it h im

so m e e ig ht o r te n ti m es; th en h e tu rn ed a nd s ta b bed th e b oy, a nd th en tu rn ed b ack o n m e. I h it h im o ver th e h ead ;

th ey k ep t t ig hte n in g t h e c h ain .

T hen h e tu rn ed a nd s ta b bed th e b oy a gain .

Here th e s e nse o f c o m munal r e co gniti o n a nd c o lle cti v e r e sis ta nce e xp re sse d i n th e l ib era ti o n o f th e “ A lfr e d 4 6” i s c o nto rte d th ro ugh

th e u nsp eakab le le ns o f th e r e al. R ath er th an c o m munic ati n g w ith o ne a no th er in u nifie d r e sis ta nce to p re m atu re d eath , th e c hain -

lin ked M ors e c o de e nacte d b y th e “ te n o r tw elv e” b la ck m en r iv ete d to o ne a no th er a t th e T ift C ounty c am p r e p re se nts th e d egre e to

whic h n eo sla v es— lik e th eir p re -1 865 c o unte rp arts — hav e o fte n b een c o erc ed in to a cti n g a s te rro ris ti c p ro xie s o f th e m aste r in

se curin g o ne a no th er’s e xp erie nce o f r itu aliz e d r u p tu re . I n th is s e nse , W estb ro ok’s s ta tu s a s a n i n d iv id ually r e calc itr a nt n eo sla v e—

one w ho se “ re sis ta nce” a m ounte d sim ply to a n a d am ant re fu sa l to b end o ver a b ench fo r a h id in g b y th e w ard en o r a “ negro

tr u sty ”— offe rs a te rrib ly in str u cti v e d ocum enta ry re fr a cti o n o f P aul D ’s in te rn al m ono lo gue at th e m om ent o f his lib era ti o n:

Som eb ody y a nked t h e c h ain . . . h ard e n ough t o c ro ss h is l e g s a nd t h ro w h im i n t h e m ud. H e n ever f ig ure d o ut h ow h e k n ew — how

anyb ody d id — and h e t o ok b oth h is h ands a nd y a nked t h e l e n gth o f c h ain a t h is l e ft, s o t h e n ext m an w ould k n ow .

F ully r e cep ti v e

of th e k no w le d ge th at h e r e ceiv ed f r o m e v ery y ank o f th e c hain th at h is o w n f e llo w s la v es o f th e s ta te w ere a cti n g a s a c o lle cti v iz e d

exte nsio n o f th e p ris o n m aste r, W estb ro ok c ho se th e o nly a v aila b le a v enue o f s e lf- d efe nse i n th e m om ent b y s ta b bin g th e s o le b ody

th at th e ti g hte nin g c o ffle w ould a llo w h is a rm s to r e ach.

In re v ers in g th e lo w er c o urt’ s d ecis io n, th e s ta te s u p re m e c o urt u lti m ate ly fo und th at th e ju d ge in th e e arlie r c ase h ad e rre d in

negle cti n g to o ffe r th e j u ry i n str u cti o ns a s to s ta tu to ry p ro vis io ns th at w ould h av e a llo w ed f o r th e c harg e o f h o m ic id e to b e r e d uced

to v olu nta ry m ansla ughte r. In h is o pin io n fo r th e c ase , J . A tk in so n c ite d p enal c o de 1 1 47 ( 1 895), w hic h r e p re se nte d th e s ta te ’s d e

ju re re gula ti o n o f th e p ra cti c e o f w hip pin g in its c hain -g ang a nd c o nv ic t le ase c am ps: “ N o w hip pin g s h all b e a d m in is te re d to a

co nv ic t b y a w hip pin g-b oss o r o th er o ffic er o r p ers o n, e xcep t in c ase s w here it is re aso nab ly n ecessa ry to e nfo rc e d is c ip lin e o r

co m pel w ork o r la b or b y th e c o nv ic t.”

F or th e c o urt, W estb ro ok’s v io le nt r e sp onse to b ein g w hip ped a nd s q ueeze d b y th e lo ng-

chain r e p re se nte d a n u nd ers ta nd ab le “ p assio nate ” r e acti o n to th e w ard en’s a ssa ult o n h is p ers o n— a c la im th at c o uld b e m ad e a t l a w

because o f th e f a ct th at th e “ co nv ic t” w as a “ hum an” a nd n o t a s la v e:

The c o nv ic t o ccup ie s a d iffe re nt a tti tu d e fr o m th e s la v e to w ard s o cie ty . H e is n o t m ere p ro perty w ith o ut a ny

civ il r ig hts , b ut h as a ll th e r ig hts o f a n o rd in ary c iti z e n th at a re n o t e xp re ssly o r b y n ecessa ry i m plic ati o n ta ken

fr o m h im b y la w . W hile th e la w d oes ta ke h is lib erty , a nd im pose s a d uty o f se rv itu d e a nd o bse rv ance o f

dis c ip lin e fo r th e re gula ti o n o f co nv ic ts , it d oes no t d eny his rig ht to p ers o nal se curity again st unla w fu l

in v asio n. T he c o nv ic t i s h um an, a nd h is p assio ns a re s u b je ct to i n flu ence a nd a s l ia b le to b eco m e u nco ntr o lla b le

as if he w ere no t a co nv ic t. T he la w w hic h p ro vid es fo r re d ucin g a ho m ic id e fr o m m urd er to v olu nta ry

mansla ughte r m akes n o e xcep ti o n o f a c o nv ic t, b ut c o nte m pla te s th at n o h o m ic id e b y a ny p ers o n s h all b e c la sse d

as m urd er w here th ere is a n a b se nce o f m alic e. . . . W hile it is th e d uty o f a c o nv ic t to fa ith fu lly e xecute h is

se nte nce a nd o bse rv e th e ru le s o f d is c ip lin e la w fu lly fix ed fo r h is g o vern m ent, h e is n o t b ound to s u b m it to

unauth o riz e d a cts o f v io le nce p erp etr a te d o r a tte m pte d a gain st h is p ers o n.

Alth o ugh c ite d in c o nte m pora neo us le gal te xts a s a re fu ta ti o n o f th e p ro no uncem ent in

Ruffin v. C om monw ea lth

(1 871) th at th e

co nv ic t is a “ sla v e o f th e s ta te ,” th e

Westb ro ok

d ecis io n u nv eils th e d egre e to w hic h th e la w ’s v ery d is a v ow al o f n eo sla v ery is a s

pote nt a n e xem pla r o f i ts n ecro politi c al p ow er to r e -c hatte liz e th e “ fr e e” b la ck c iv il s u b je ct a s J u sti c e C hris ti a n’s o pen e xp re ssio n

of th is c o m monly p ra cti c ed d iv in e r ig ht i n

Ruffin .

I n a n a sto und in g e xam ple o f w hat D ayan r e fe rs to a s th e o ccult r h eto ric al p ra cti c e

of th e la w , th e c o urt’ s d ep lo ym ent o f th e d is c o urs e s o f re gula to ry e ffic ie ncy a nd lib era l le gal h um anis m sh ro ud th e su b sta nti v e

re aliti e s th at o verd ete rm in ed th e d eath o f J a m es D av is , th e to rtu re o f C le v ela nd W estb ro ok, a nd th e n eo -e nsla v em ent o f a n u nto ld

num ber o f b la ck p eo ple i n th e s ta te o f G eo rg ia a nd th ro ugho ut th e U nite d S ta te s a fte r 1 865.

That is , in pro ffe rin g an oste nsib le ju rid ic al check on an is o la te d in sta nce of w hat it deem ed to be an ir re gula r and

“unre aso nab le ” a p plic ati o n o f th e w hip , th e c o urt r e in sc rib es th e p enal s o vere ig n’s p ow er to s u b m it th e b la ck s u b je ct to e v ery f o rm

of c hatte liz e d e nto m bm ent th at to ok p la ce a t s p aces s u ch a s th e T ift C ounty c hain g ang. T his is r e p re se nte d c le arly in th e e xcep ti o n

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** cla use o f th e v ery s ta tu to ry m easu re u p on w hic h th e c o urt b ase s its d ecis io n— th at w hic h a llo w ed fo r th e w hip pin g o f c hain -g ang

cap ti v es i n “ re aso nab ly n ecessa ry ” c ase s w here in s u ch te rro r w as f o und to h av e b een d ep lo yed i n th e s e rv ic e o f l a b or c o m puls io n

or n o rm al p enal d is c ip lin e. A cco rd in g to th is s ta nd ard o f r e aso nab le n ecessity , W estb ro ok’s a p peal w ould h av e n ev er b een h eard

were it o nly to h av e o ccurre d a s a r e su lt o f h is r e fu sa l to g o to w ork , w hic h r e p re se nts th e s in gle m ost c o m mon r e aso n th at p enal

ad m in is tr a to rs h av e u se d to r a ti o naliz e th eir d ep lo ym ent o f th e w hip a nd o th er fo rm s o f c o rp ore al r u p tu re o n c hain g angs, c o nv ic t

le ase c am ps, p ris o n p la nta ti o ns, a nd m odern p enite nti a rie s f r o m th eir i n cep ti o n. T he l ib era l l e gal p ro sc rip ti o n o f a s in gle i n sta nce o f

“ir re gula r” w hip pin g a nd “ unla w fu l in v asio n” th ere b y o ffe rs a b ackd oor n o rm aliz a ti o n o f th e v ery c o nd iti o n o f p ossib ility fo r

Westb ro ok’s to rtu re a nd J a m es D av is ’s b io lo gic al d eath — th at i s , th e c hain -g ang s y ste m i ts e lf.

When r e ad a lo ng w ith th e p ortr a yal o f th e c hain g ang i n

Belo ved

—and a gain st th e b ackd ro p o f th e a ctu al e xp erie nces o f G eo rg ia ’s

bla ck p ris o ners w ho fa ced th e q uo ti d ia n

la w fu l in va sio ns

o f w hip pin g, sc ato lo gic al c arg o in g in ro llin g c ages, n ata l a lie nati o n,

se ria liz e d s e xual v io le nce, a nd p erp etu al c o fflin g d urin g b oth p ro ducti v e a nd “ unp ro ducti v e” m om ents o f c hatte liz e d im pris o nm ent

—th e c o urt’ s p ositi n g o f a d efin iti v e lin e b etw een th e s o cia l d eath o f s la v ery a nd th e c iv il d eath o f im pris o nm ent r in gs c ynic al a t

best. O ne w ond ers h o w l ib era l l e gal a ssu ra nces th at th e “ hum ane” p ra cti c e o f th e A meric an c hain g ang w as n o t s la v ery w ould h av e

so und ed to J a m es D av is a s h e la y d yin g in a p ool o f h is o w n b lo od, c hain ed to th e m an w ho se d esp era te a tte m pt a t a v oid in g a n

“unre aso nab le ” w hip pin g w as th e s u b sta nti v e c ause o f h is b io lo gic al d eath ; o r h o w s u ch p la ti tu d es w ould h av e b een r e ceiv ed b y th e

te ns o f th o usa nd s o f b la ck m en, w om en, a nd c hild re n w ho la id c hain ed to a nd s ta cked a to p o ne a no th er in sid e m odern A meric an

barra co ons s u ch a s th e T ift C ounty c hain -g ang c age a t th e v ery m om ent J u sti c e A tk in so n c ra fte d h is d ecis io n. W hat i s a t i s su e h ere i s

th e n ecessity o f o ur a tte nd in g to th e e xp erie nti a l a s th e s u b sta nti v e r e gis te r o f n eo sla v ery a nd th e d egre e to w hic h th e lib era l w hite

su p re m acis t m is o gynis t p ra cti c e o f p ost- 1 865 la w re sts a t th e v ery c o re o f

th at e xp erie nce, e v en w hen, o r e sp ecia lly w hen, it

atte m pts to d eny th at n eo sla v ery e xis ts . In fa ct, a s m enti o ned b rie fly a b ove, th e m ost lib era l le gal d ocum ent in U .S . h is to ry , th e

Thir te enth A mend m ent to th e U .S . C on-s ti tu ti o n ( 1 865), s ta nd s a s th e c le are st e xam ple o f th e te rro ris ti c c ap aciti e s o f “ hum ane” a nd

“p ro gre ssiv e” le gal p ra cti c e a s le v ie d a gain st n o m in ally fr e e b la ck b odie s. In w hat fo llo w s, I u nco ver a la rg ely u nto ld le gis la ti v e,

sta tu to ry , a nd p hilo so phic al g enealo gy o f th is d ocum ent o f p ro gre ssiv e d ehum aniz a ti o n a nd th e in canta to ry m eans b y w hic h th e

postb ellu m w hite s u p re m acis t s ta te h as u se d th e e m ancip ati o n a m end m ent’ s e xcep ti o n c la use to tr a nsm ute c o untl e ss p re cario usly

civ il r a cia liz e d s u b je cts i n to p ub lic ly a nd p riv ate ly te rro riz e d s la v es o f th e s ta te .

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Chap te r 2

“E xcep t a s P unis h m en t f o r a C rim e”

The T hir te en th A m en dm en t a n d t h e R eb ir th o f C hatte l I m pris o n m en t

Sla very w as b oth th e w et n urs e a nd b asta rd o ffs p rin g o f lib erty .

—Said iy a H artm an,

Scen es o f S ubje ctio n

It is tr u e, th at s la very c annot e xis t w it h out la w . . .

—Jo se ph B ra dle y,

The C iv il R ig hts C ase s

A NYONE

PER U SIN G

TH E

a d verti s e m ents s e cti o n o f lo cal n ew sp ap ers s u ch a s th e

Annapolis G aze tte

in M ary la nd , d urin g D ecem ber

1 866, w ould h av e c o m e a cro ss th e f o llo w in g n o ti c es:

Pub lic S ale — The u nd ers ig ned w ill s e ll a t th e C ourt H ouse D oor in th e c ity o f A nnap olis a t 1 2 o ’c lo ck M ., o n

Satu rd ay 8 th D ecem ber, 1 866, A N egro m an n am ed R ic hard H arris , fo r s ix m onth s, c o nv ic te d a t th e O cto ber

te rm , 1 866, o f th e A nne A ru nd el C ounty C ir c uit C ourt fo r la rc eny a nd s e nte nced b y th e c o urt to b e s o ld a s a

sla v e.

Term s o f s a le — cash .

WM. B ry an,

Sheriff A nne A ru nd el C ounty .

Dec. 8 , 1 866

Pub lic S ale — The u nd ers ig ned w ill o ffe r fo r S ale , a t th e C ourt H ouse D oor, in th e c ity o f A nnap olis , a t e le v en

O’C lo ck A .M ., o n S atu rd ay, 2 2d o f D ecem ber, a n egro

[s ic ]

m an n am ed J o hn J o hnso n, a ged a b out F orty y ears .

The sa id n egro w as c o nv ic te d th e O cto ber T erm , 1 866, o f th e C ir c uit C ourt fo r A nne A ru nd el c o unty , fo r;

Larc eny, a nd s e nte nced to b e s o ld , i n th e S ta te , f o r th e te rm o f o ne y ear, f r o m th e 1 2th o f D ecem ber, 1 866.

Als o a n egro m an c o nv ic te d o f a fo re sa id , n am ed G assa w ay P ric e, a ged a b out T hir ty y ears , to b e s o ld fo r a

te rm o f o ne y ear i n th e S ta te ,

Als o , a n egro w om an, c o nv ic te d a s a fo re sa id , n am ed H arrie t P urd y, a ged a b out tw enty -fiv e y ears , to b e s o ld

fo r a te rm o f o ne y ear i n th e S ta te ,

Als o a n egro w om an, c o nv ic te d a s a fo re sa id , n am ed D illy H arris , a ged a b out T hir ty y ears , to b e s o ld fo r a

te rm o f tw o y ears i n th e S ta te .

Term s o f s a le — Cash .

WM. B ry an,

Sheriff A nne A ru nd el C ounty

Dec. 2 6th , 1 866.

C ongre ssio nal te sti m ony a nd c o urt d ockets r e la ti n g to th ese p ost– C iv il W ar p ris o n s la v e a ucti o ns r e v eal th at e ach “ negro ” s o ld o n

t h e c o urth o use s te p s o f A nnap olis w as a ctu ally c harg ed w ith “ p eti t l a rc eny”— a s m all- s c ale p ro perty c rim e. I n th e m en’s c ase s, th e

l is t o f a lle ged o ffe nse s i n clu d ed th e th eft o f “ 6 b arre ls o f c o rn ,” “ ½ b ush els o f w heat,” a nd “ a h o g”; a nd , i n th e c ase s o f th e w om en,

i t in clu d ed ta kin g “ a p air o f g aite r b oots ” a nd “ ste alin g c lo th es fr o m a la d y.” T he d ocket a ls o c ata lo gues h o w th e fiv e b la ck

p ris o ners w ere s o ld fo r p ric es r a ngin g fr o m $ 27 to $ 50— and , w hile n o t in clu d in g th e n am es o f e ach p urc hase r, d oes in d ic ate th at

H arrie t P urd y w as “ so ld fo r $ 34.0 0 to E lija h L . R ockho ld .”

T his s m all s e t o f fa cts a nd fig ure s, a lo ng w ith th o se c o nta in ed in th e

a d verti s e m ents p la ced i n th e l o cal n ew s b y th e c o unty s h eriff, r e p re se nt th e e xte nt o f i n fo rm ati o n s u p plie d b y th e h is to ric al a rc hiv e

i n r e sp ect to th e l iv es o f th ese f iv e “ fr e e” b la ck p eo ple a fte r b ein g b ra nd ed a s

Neg ro c rim in al

b y M ary la nd ’s l e gal s y ste m . M ost o f

w hat w e h av e in th e w ay o f a ny s o rt o f e nco unte r w ith th eir liv es o nce th ey w ere c o nv erte d in to fu ngib le b la ck p ro perty fo r th e

a lle ged th ie v in g o f w hite p ro perty is th e u nsp eakab le c o nje ctu re a llo w ed u s b y s o nic , te sti m onia l, a nd lite ra ry fr a gm ents o f s la v es

a nd p ris o n s la v es— re m em orie s g le aned fr o m th e w re ckage o f r a cia l g eno cid e a s it p ile d o ver th e m yth o lo gic al h is to ric al d iv id e

e re cte d to c o nv in ce u s th at s c enes s u ch a s s la v e a ucti o ns h ad b ee n f o re v er v anq uis h ed w ith th e c ulm in ati o n o f th e C iv il W ar a nd th e

p assa ge o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent i n 1 865.

How ev er, a s m uch a s w e d o n o t k no w r e gard in g th e s p ecific f a te o f o ne s u ch a s H arrie t P urd y, w ho th ro ugh h er i m pute d th eft o f a

p air o f w hite “ la d y’s ” b oots w as l ite ra lly s o ld , o r a t l e ast

re n te d f o r a y ea r

, to a w hite m an o n th e s te p s o f th e A nnap olis c o urth o use

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** —th e te rro r o f w hat w e d o k no w , e sp ecia lly in te rm s o f th e “ in fin ite u se s” to w hic h th e c hatte liz e d b la ck b ody h ad b een s u b je cte d

fo r w ell o ver tw o c entu rie s l e ad in g u p to h er a ucti o n d ay, o ffe rs s ta rk g ro und in g f o r r u m in ati o n. S o f a r, m y d is c ussio n o f th is e le m ent

of r e cesse d k no w le d ge h as m ostl y fo cuse d o n th e w ays in w hic h b la ck w riti n g, s o ng, a nd te sti m ony a llo w fo oth o ld s o f e nco unte r

with th e te rro r, e no rm ity , a nd u nre p re se nta b ility o f n eo sla v ery . H ow ev er, w hile d oin g s o , I h av e a ls o n o te d a n e q ually im porta nt

are na o f n eo sla v ery n arra ti o n— th at o f th e l a w . T he v ario us m odes o f l e gal d is c o urs e th at a llo w ed f o r th e s a le o r l e ase o f c o nv ic te d

bodie s s u ch a s th o se o f P urd y, R ic hard H arris , J o hn J o hnso n, a nd D illy H arris th ro ugh c rim in al s a ncti o n s u p ply a g re at d eal o f

criti c al i n fo rm ati o n i n so fa r a s th ey e lu cid ate th e c o nd iti o ns o f p o ssib ility f o r th e c o lle cti v e v io le nce th at b la ck p eo ple h av e e nd ure d

in th e c o nte xt o f d e j u re f r e ed om .

In d eed , a s Jo y Ja m es h as p oin te d o ut, n o d is c ussio n o f n eo sla v e n arra ti v es in th e U nite d S ta te s w ould b e c o m ple te w ith o ut

cente rin g th e s to ry te llin g d ev ic es e m plo yed b y th e r a cia l c ap ita lis t p atr ia rc hal s ta te th ro ugh th e d ev asta ti n g fic ti v e p ra cti c es o f th e

la w .

T his lin e o f analy sis is esp ecia lly im porta nt giv en th e la w ’s d ub io us cap acity to co nju re th e fr e e b la ck su b je ct in to a

re ensla v ed o bje ct, a v io le nt f u ncti o nality th at i t h ad e xhib ite d w ith a ll- to o-e ffic ie nt a cum en w ell b efo re D ecem ber 1 866. T he b ord er

sta te o f M ary la nd , w here th ese c o urth o use a ucti o nin gs o f f r e e b la ck p eo ple o ccurre d , i s a ctu ally a n i llu m in ati n g p oliti c al g eo gra p hy

with w hic h to b egin s u ch a d is c ussio n, s in ce, b ecause o f i ts l im in al p hysic al a nd p oliti c al p ositi o nin g d urin g th e a nte b ellu m p erio d,

th e s ta te w as h o m e to e asily th e la rg est p opula ti o n o f

fr e e N eg ro es

in th e c o untr y fr o m th e c o lo nia l p erio d th ro ugh th e C iv il W ar.

There fo re , w hen to w nsp eo ple w alk in g by th e A nnap olis C ounty co urth o use on D ecem ber 8 and 26, 1866, bore w itn ess to

poste m ancip ati o n a ucti o ns, th e o nly n o vel a sp ect o f th e s c ene o f a c all fo r b id s o n “ fr e e” b la ck b odie s w as th e fa ct th at it w as

occurrin g a fte r th e p assa ge o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent; fo r c rim in aliz e d fr e ep ers o ns in th e s la v e s ta te h ad b een th e s u b je ct o f

dis p ro porti o nate im pris o nm ent a nd r a cia lly e xclu siv e fo rm s o f p unis h m ent ( b oth c o rp ore al a nd c ap ita l) s in ce its in cep ti o n.

S uch

pre cario usly fr e e s u b je cts h ad a ls o b een v uln era b le to th e s p ecta cle o f p ub lic a ucti o nin g s in ce 1 835, w hen, u nd er its B la ck C ode,

Mary la nd la w makers p asse d th e fir s t o f th re e s ta tu to ry p ro vis io ns th at c alle d fo r th e s a le o r le ase o f c rim in ally s ti g m ati z e d fr e e

Afr ic ans.

The f iv e a ucti o ned b la ck s u b je cts m enti o ned a b ove c o uld v ery l ik ely h av e r e sid ed i n th e s ta te w hen th e 1 858 v ers io n o f th e c o de

—th at w hic h le d to th eir o w n p ub lic s a le — was e sta b lis h ed b y “ an a ct to m odify th e p unis h m ent o f fr e e n egro es, c o nv ic te d o f

Larc eny a nd o th er c rim es a gain st th is S ta te .” T he b egin nin g o f th e l e gis la ti o n r e ad s:

SE C TIO N 1 . B e it e nacte d b y th e G enera l A sse m bly o f M ary la nd , T hat in a ll c ase s h ere afte r, w here fr e e

negro es

[s ic ]

s h all b e c o nv ic te d o f th e c rim e o f s im ple la rc eny, to th e v alu e o f fiv e d olla rs a nd u p w ard s, o r

accesso ry th ere to b efo re th e f a ct, th ey s h all b e s e nte nced to b e s o ld a s s la v es f o r th e p erio d o f n o t l e ss th an tw o

no r m ore th an fiv e y ears . . . a nd e v ery fr e e n egro w ho s h all b e c o nv ic te d o f r o bbery , m ay in th e d is c re ti o n o f

th e c o urt, b e e ith er s e nte nced to c o nfin em ent in th e p enite nti a ry , a s n o w p ro vid ed b y la w , o r b e s o ld e ith er

with in o r b eyo nd th e l im its o f th e S ta te , a s a s la v e f o r th e p erio d o f te n y ears .

In d ic ati v e o f th e p oliti c ally and geo gra p hic ally lim in al p ositi o n o f M ary la nd , S ecti o n 3 24 o f its S la v e/B la ck C ode o f 1 858

em bodie s th e d is a v ow ed in ti m acie s o f s o uth ern a nd n o rth ern w hite s u p re m acis t la w in so fa r a s it h ad n early e xact r e p lic as, p ub lic

aucti o nin g i n clu d ed , w ith in th e r a cia lly r e str ic ti o nis t s ta te c o nsti tu ti o ns o f n o rth ern s ta te s s u ch a s I n d ia na, O hio , a nd I llin o is u nti l a s

la te a s 1 864.

Furth erm ore , a s I w ill d is c uss l a te r i n th is c hap te r, i ts h aunti n g r e ap peara nce i n a p arti c ula r b ra nch o f a s e em in gly i n fin ite a rra y o f

“co lo r-b lin d ” c rim in al s ta tu te s th at c ata ly ze d th e n ati o nally s a nc ti o ned a nd a d m in is te re d p oste m ancip ati o n tr a d e in s o uth ern b la ck

co nv ic ts fu rth er illu str a te s th e p ro ble m ati c h is to ric al c o rd onin g o f c hatte l s la v ery a s a p re -1 865 p heno m eno n. R ela ti v e to its p re -

em ancip ati o n c o unte rp arts in th e fo rm er N orth w est T errito rie s, h o w ev er, M ary la nd ’s v ers io n c am e w ith a n e sp ecia lly te rro ris ti c

pro vis io n d ealin g w ith th o se f r e e b la ck p ers o ns w ho m ay h av e e xhib ite d r e v olu ti o nary i n clin ati o ns:

[I] f a ny fr e e n egro s h all a fte r th e p assa ge o f th is a ct, b e c o nv ic te d o f w illfu lly b urn in g a ny . . . C ourt H ouse ,

co unty o r p ub lic p ris o n, o r th e p enite nti a ry , p oor h o use , w are ho use o r a ny b uild in g b elo ngin g

to th e S ta te . . .

su ch fr e e n egro , h is a id ers o r a b etto rs a nd c o unse lo rs , b ein g fr e e n egro es, a nd e ach o f th em s h all b e s e nte nced

to b e p unis h ed b y h angin g b y th e n eck a s n o w p ro vid ed b y l a w , o r i n th e d is c re ti o n o f th e c o urt to b e s o ld e ith er

with in o r b eyo nd th e l im its o f th e S ta te , a s a s la v e f o r l ife .

The d is c re ti o nary p ow er o f th e sta te to d is p ose o f th e w ould -b e-fr e e A fr ic an b ody th ro ugh e ith er th e p ub lic se rv itu d e o f th e

penite nti a ry , th e p riv ate s e rv itu d e o f c hatte l s la v ery , o r c ap ita l p unis h m ent e nacte d b y th e l y nch r o pe d ra m ati z e s th e g o th ic e xchanges

of c iv il, s o cia l, a nd p re m atu re d eath th at w ould c o nti n ue to d efin e b la ck (a nd In d ig eno us) in carc era te d e xis te nce a fte r c o lle cti v e

em ancip ati o n. W heth er re b ir th ed in th e fo rm of th e openly decla re d B la ck C odes of pre sid enti a l R eco nstr u cti o n, or th o se

ad m in is te re d u nd er th e c o lo r o f c o lo r-b lin d la w s th at h av e re ig ned sin ce th e la te n in ete enth c entu ry , th e la te a nte b ellu m w hite

su p re m acis t l e gal c o des s ta nd a s s ta rk e m bodim ents o f th e p ro cess o f f o rw ard h aunti n g th at I d is c usse d i n c hap te r 1 i n r e fe re nce to

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** th e c hain -g ang s c ene i n

Belo ved .

T hat i s , th e th re e i n ti m ate ly c o nnecte d a nd c ro ss-fe rti liz in g m eth o dolo gie s o f l e gally a d m in is te re d

ra cia l te rro r sa ncti o ned in M ary la nd ’s sta tu to ry “m odific ati o n” of its punis h m ent of em ancip ate d pers o ns— im pris o nm ent,

ensla v em ent, a nd ly nchin g— re p re se nte d n ecro politi c al p re curs o rs to le gal a nd e xtr a le gal fo rm ati o ns o f v io le nce w aged a gain st

co untl e ss fr e e b la ck s u b je cts fo r g enera ti o ns a fte r th e C iv il W ar. T his fo rw ard -h aunti n g q uality o f th e M ary la nd B la ck C ode a nd

th o se o f o th er s o uth ern s ta te s— alo ng w ith th at o f th e “ N egro C odes” a nd “ B la ck L aw s” o f th e n o rth ern U nite d S ta te s— dis tu rb s a

re m ark m ad e b y R ep ub lic an s e nato r J o hn C re sw ell o f M ary la nd , w ho a tte m pte d to a cco unt f o r p ost- 1 865 p ub lic s a le s o f f r e e b la ck

peo ple b y s ta ti n g th at th e “ la w u nd er w hic h th ese d ecre es h av e b een p asse d . . . a nd th ese s a le s h av e b een m ad e is a r e lic o f th at

co de i n i ts w ors t a sp ect,” a “ v esti g e o f [ a n] o ld s p ir it.”

As I w ill d is c uss a t g re ate r l e ngth b elo w , th e m ix o f p ub lic a nd p riv ate m aste ry e xhib ite d i n th e a nte b ellu m B la ck C ode’s h and lin g

of th e p ro ble m ati c p re se nce o f th e fr e e “ N egro ” w ith in th e c iv il b ody w as fa r fr o m a d ead o r flic kerin g le tte r b y th e ti m e o f th e

pub lic le asin g o f c rim in ally b ra nd ed fr e e p ers o ns. T he s ta te ’s w ie ld in g o f th e p ow er to s u b m it th e b la ck s u b je ct to th e o ffic ia l

in carc era ti o n o f th e p ris o n, th e s o cia l i n carc era ti o n o f th e i n d iv id ual c o nv ic t p urc hase r, o r o utr ig ht p ub lic e xte rm in ati o n r e p re se nte d

a c hillin g p re fig ura ti o n, a s ta tu to ry d re ss r e hears a l, f o r th e l a rg e-s c ale

sta te -a d m in is te re d p ub lic /p riv ate c arc era l h yb rid s th at w ould

co m e to d efin e z e ro -d egre e b la ck u nfr e ed om a fte r 1 865: th e c o nv ic t l e ase c am p, th e c hain -g ang c am p, th e c o unty f a rm , th e p eo nage

cam p, th e pris o n pla nta ti o n, and th e “m odern ” penite nti a ry . S ta te d diffe re ntl y , th e aucti o nin g, im pris o nm ent, and ly nchin g of

no m in ally fr e e b la ck s u b je cts u nd er th e la w o f s la v ery is su ed s p ecte rs o f c hatte lh o od th at w ould s e cre te a cro ss th e fa b le d fr o nte ra

of f r e ed om a s th e s ta te a ssu m ed f u ll- fle d ged m aste ry o ver th e a lw ays a lr e ad y c rim in aliz e d “ fr e e” b la ck b ody. R ead i n th is l ig ht, th e

ritu aliz e d le gal s p ecta cle o f th e c o urth o use s la v e a ucti o n w as n o t a n e p is o dic o r a nachro nis ti c r e m nant o f a s o on-to -b e c o m ple te ly

vanq uis h ed s y ste m o f le gal v io le nce a nd p ub lic p ro fite erin g: th is a p pariti o n fr o m c hatte l s la v ery

was a ls o a p re m oniti o n o f th e

sta te ’s prim ary ro le in th e pro ducti o n, in d ustr ia liz a ti o n, and dir e ct ad m in is tr a ti o n of sp ecta cula r and banal m echanis m s of

neo sla v ery f r o m th e c hain g ang to th e p ris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x.

Fig ure 4 .

“ P osts la very ” p ris o n s la ve a dvertis e m ent f ro m “ S ale o f N egro es in M ary la nd,” a h earin g o f th e U .S . H ouse o f R epre se nta tiv es C om mit te e o n th e J u dic ia ry ,

Ja nuary 1 1 , 1 867, u npublis h ed tr a nsc rip t.

But th is lin e o f a rg um ent in re sp ect to th e u nd ead , o r fo rw ard -h aunti n g, p ro pensiti e s o f la te a nte b ellu m re ensla v em ent s ta tu te s

begs th e v ita lly im porta nt q uesti o n o f m eth o d. T hat is , ju st h o w , in th e c o nte xt o f th e g ra nd n arra ti v e o f e m ancip ati o n, w ere s u ch

docum ents o f le gal s o rc ery a b le to r e -a nim ate in th e fo rm o f p ostb ellu m B la ck C odes a nd th e r a cia lly m oti v ate d a nd a d m in is te re d

“co lo r-b lin d ” s ta tu te s th at r e p la ced th em , s u ch a s th o se d ealin g w ith v agra ncy, b re ach o f c o ntr a ct, p ub lic d is o rd erlin ess, g am blin g,

and p etty l a rc eny, s o cia lly m anufa ctu re d “ crim es” a sso cia te d w ith s tr u ctu ra l b la ck d is p osse ssio n, l a nd le ssn ess, a nd v uln era b ility to

le gal a nd e xtr a le gal te rro r? W hat w as th e m ain le gal c hannel w here b y th e p ub lic a ucti o nin gs o f b la ck fr e ep ers o ns o n c o urth o use

ste p s in sta te s ra ngin g fr o m S outh C aro lin a, to M ary la nd , to Illin o is , w ould tr a nsfig ure in to th e genera liz e d co urtr o om and

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** board ro om re nti n gs of em ancip ate d bla ck bodie s th at defin ed posts la v ery im pris o nm ent? H ow exactl y w as th e sta tu to ry

crim in aliz a ti o n o f b la ck fr e ed om th at o ccurre d in th e a nte b ellu m p erio d la w fu lly p ro pelle d in to th e fu tu re , p ro ducin g v ario us

fo rm ati o ns o f n eo sla v ery fr o m th e p riv ati z e d p ub lic d om in ati v e r e gim es o f c o nv ic t le asin g, p eo nage, a nd c rim in al- s u re ty to th e n o

le ss d om in ati v e a nd e co no m ic ally i n te re ste d p ub lic s y ste m s o f th e c o unty c hain g ang, th e C ounty F arm , a nd p enite nti a ry p la nta ti o n?

How , f o r i n sta nce, w as i t p ossib le f o r th e p overty - a nd h unger-in d uced c rim e o f h o g-s te alin g to m ove s o n im bly f r o m b ein g d eem ed

“p etty l a rc eny” b y M ary la nd ’s s ta te l e gis la tu re ( a d is c urs iv e g estu re th at p ro ffe re d a r a ti o nale f o r th e a ucti o nin g a nd r e ensla v em ent

of G assa w ay P ric e in A nnap olis in 1 866) to b ein g d ub bed “ gra nd la rc eny” b y M is sis sip pi’s s ta te le gis la tu re a fte r th e s u p pose d

su sp ensio n o f its B la ck C odes (s u p ply in g o ne o f th e k ey “ co lo r-b lin d ” s ta tu to ry p illa rs fo r th e s ta te ’s p enal re ensla v em ent a nd

murd er o f th o usa nd s o f b la ck p eo ple a fte r its p assa ge in 1 876)?

P ut m ore d ir e ctl y , w hat w as th e le gal c o nju rin g m eth o d th at

allo w ed fo r

im pris o ned s la ve a uctio nin g

to s e am le ssly tr a nsiti o n in to b oth o ffic ia lly a nd c usto m arily s a ncti o ned

en sla ved c o nvic t

le a sin g

The c entr a l a nsw er to th ese q uesti o ns r e p re se nts o ne o f th e m ost d ev asta ti n g d ocum ents o f lib era l le gal s o rc ery e v er p ro duced

und er o ccid enta l m odern ity : th e T hir te enth A mend m ent to th e U .S . C onsti tu ti o n i ts e lf. A s I b rie fly a rti c ula te d e arlie r i n r e fe re nce to

th e p rim ary l e gal m echanis m b y w hic h th e M id dle P assa ge c arc era l m odel w as a b le to l a y h o ld to

poste m ancip ati o n b la ck life , th e

very a m end m ent to th e C onsti tu ti o n th at w as to h av e p erfo rm ed th e m ir a culo us c o nv ers io n o f “ chatte l i n to m an” a ctu ally f a cilita te d

his

and

h er r e -c hatte liz a ti o n th ro ugh im pris o nm ent: “ N eith er s la v ery n o r in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e,

excep t a s p unis h m en t fo r a c rim e

where o f th e p arty s h all h ave b een d uly c o nvic te d ,

s h all e xis t w ith in th e U nite d S ta te s, o r a ny p la ce s u b je ct to th eir ju ris d ic ti o n.”

The g ra nd est e m ancip ato ry g estu re in U .S . h is to ry c o nta in ed a r h eto ric al tr a p door, a lo opho le o f s ta te r e p re ssio n, a llo w in g fo r th e

co nti n ued c o hab ita ti o n o f lib era l b ourg eo is la w a nd r a cia l c ap ita lis t te rro r; th e in te re ste d in v asio n o f “ o bje cti v e,” “ co lo r-b lin d ,”

and “ d uly ” p ro cesse d le gality b y s u m mary ju sti c e a nd w hite s u p re m acis t c usto m ; a nd th e c o nsti tu ti o nal s a ncti o nin g o f s ta te -b orn e

pris o n– in d ustr ia l g eno cid e.

That m y a tta chm ent o f s u ch g ra v ity a nd e p ochal m eanin g to th e e xcep ti o n c la use i s n o c ase o f p oliti c al h yp erb ole i s r e gis te re d b y

th e p ub lic ly a ir e d d eb ate i t c ause d , b oth a t th e ti m e o f i ts p assa ge a nd i n th e y ears s u rro und in g th e i m ple m enta ti o n o f th e p ostb ellu m

Bla ck C odes. C arl S churz s p oke d ir e ctl y to th e im min ent r e ensla v in g p urp ose s to w hic h p oste m ancip ati o n s ta tu to ry la w w ould b e

mars h ale d i n f ilin g a r e p ort o n s o uth ern r a ce r e la ti o ns j u st a fte r th e C iv il W ar:

The e m ancip ati o n o f th e s la v es i s s u b m itte d to o nly i n s o f a r a s c hatte l s la v ery i n th e o ld f o rm c o uld n o t b e k ep t

up . B ut a lth o ugh th e f r e ed m an i s n o l o nger c o nsid ere d th e p ro perty o f th e i n d iv id ual m aste r, h e i s c o nsid ere d th e

sla v e o f so cie ty , and all th e in d ep end ent sta te le gis la ti o n w ill sh are th e te nd ency to m ake him su ch. T he

ord in ances a b olis h in g s la v ery p asse d b y th e c o nv enti o ns u nd er th e p re ssu re o f c ir c um sta nces w ill n o t b e l o oked

up on a s b arrin g th e e sta b lis h m ent o f a n ew f o rm o f s e rv itu d e.

An e xp lic it a cco unt o f th e p rim ary r o le o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent in th e r e ensla v em ent o f fr e e b la ck p eo ple w as o ffe re d a t th e

Jo in t C om mitte e o n R eco nstr u cti o n in 1 866, th e sa m e y ear th at th e n eo sla v e a ucti o ns a d verti s e m ents w ere p oste d in M ary la nd

new sp ap ers . I n h is te sti m ony, a n o rth ern c le rg ym an te sti fie d to h av in g h ad a c o nv ers a ti o n w ith a w hite s o uth ern p re acher w ho m ad e

a b ra ze n d ecla ra ti o n r e gard in g th e s u rre p ti ti o usly te rro ris ti c u ti lity o f th e e m ancip ati o n a m end m ent, o ne th at in its b ru ta l a ccura cy

exp re sse s ho w th e w hite su p re m acis t o pportu nity affo rd ed b y th e excep ti o n cla use w as a m atte r o f so uth ern co m mon se nse :

“A llu d in g

to th e a m end m ent to th e C onsti tu ti o n th at s la v ery s h o uld n o t p re v ail, e xcep t a s p unis h m ent fo r a c rim e, [th e s o uth ern

pre acher s a id ] ‘ w e m ust n o w m ake a c o de th at w ill s u b je ct m any c rim es to th e p enalty o f in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e, a nd s o r e d uce th e

Negro es u nd er s u ch p enalty a gain to p ra cti c al s la v ery .’ ”

While th e s o uth ern m in is te r’s r e fe re nce to a “ co de” o f v ir tu al r e ensla v em ent o bvio usly r e fe rs to th e o penly r a cis t B la ck C odes

th at w ould im med ia te ly b egin to te rro riz e th e b la ck p opula ti o n a fte r th e w ar’s c essa ti o n, in th e re m ain d er o f th is c hap te r I w ill

exp lo re th e w ays i n w hic h th e e xcep ti o n c la use h ad te m pora l r e v erb era ti o ns th at e xte nd ed l o ng a fte r th e a p pare nt d em is e o f o pen ly

ra cis t s ta tu to ry l a w , a s w ell a s a g eo gra p hic al r e ach th at w as i n n o w ay c o rd oned to p oin ts s o uth o f th e M aso n-D ix o n l in e. T hro ugh

my d is c ussio n o f c o ngre ssio nal d eb ate s, th e p eo nage c ase s

, a nd th e h yb rid f o rm ati o ns o f p ub lic /p riv ate n eo sla v ery th at p la ced f r e e

bla ck p eo ple i n a c o nsta nt s ta te o f c o lle cti v e j e o pard y, I u nd erlin e th e d egre e to w hic h “ co lo r-b lin d ” j u rid ic al, l e gis la ti v e, a nd p enal

la w a ll p la yed c entr a l r o le s in c o nstr u cti n g a n o vera ll

co de o f r e en sla vem en t

—sta te s o f le galiz e d a nd r a cia liz e d e xcep ti o n m ad e

possib le i n l a rg e m easu re b y th e T hir te enth A mend m ent’ s p uniti v e e xcep ti o n.

Asid e fr o m e p is o dic in te rv enti o ns b y p ris o ners , a nti p ris o n a cti v is ts , a nd a s m all n um ber o f s c ho la rs in r e sp ect to its d om in ati v e

effe cti v ity , th e e xcep ti o n c la use h as r e ceiv ed v ery l ittl e i n th e w ay o f s u sta in ed tr e atm ent w ith in l e gal, s o cia l, a nd p oliti c al h is to rie s

of R eco nstr u cti o n, s o uth ern n eo sla v ery , a nd th e n ati o nal s y ste m o f r a cia l c ap ita lis t p atr ia rc hal p unis h m ent th at c o nti n ues to r a v age

bla ck, b ro w n, In d ig eno us, a nd p oor p eo ple .

L egal h is to rie s th at d o n o t s im ply la ud th e a m end m ent a s a m ark er o f lib era l le gal

pro gre ss h av e f o cuse d a lm ost e nti r e ly o n s o m e a sp ect o f th e s h ifti n g j u rid ic al i n te rp re ta ti o n o f i ts p ro hib ito ry d im ensio ns r e la ti v e to

sla v ery and its “b ad ges.” R ead co lle cti v ely , th ese dis c ussio ns fo cus on th e w ays in w hic h th e am end m ent’ s co m mon la w

co nstr u cti o n d urin g th e f ir s t f ifty y ears o f e m ancip ati o n v acilla te d f r o m a r e la ti v ely e xp ansiv e v ie w d urin g R eco nstr u cti o n ( m ark ed

by c ase s u p ho ld in g th e c o nsti tu ti o nality o f th e C iv il R ig hts A ct o f 1 866); to a r e str ic ti v e v ie w i n k eep in g w ith L ochner-E ra l a is se z-

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** fa ir e i d eo lo gy a nd th e l ib era l w hite s u p re m acis t s a ncti o nin g o f J im C ro w a p arth eid ( s ig nale d m ost i n fa m ously w ith th e

Civ il R ig hts

Case s

[1 883]); to a m om ent o f b rie f re exp ansio n in th e e arly tw enti e th c entu ry w ith th e S up re m e C ourt’ s ru lin gs in th e p eo nage

case s (

Baile y v . A la bam a

[ 1 911 ] a nd

U.S . v . R eyn old s

[ 1 914]).

Cente rin g th e le gis la ti v e a nd ju rid ic al tr e atm ent o f th e p enal e xcep ti o n, a nd its o m in o usly s h ro ud ed p re se nce w ith in m om ents o f

oste nsib le le gal p ro gre ssiv is m s u ch a s th at e xhib ite d in

Reyn old s

, a llo w s u s to e ngage w ith c o unte r-h is to ric al re aliti e s re nd ere d

la rg ely in v is ib le b y th is fo cus o n th e a m end m ent’ s p ro hib ito ry fu ncti o n. It u nv eils th e w ays in w hic h th e T hir te enth A mend m ent

offe re d l e gal c o ver a nd s o cia l a c cep ta b ility f o r J im C ro w a p arth eid a t i ts m ost a b je ct a nd m urd ero us d egre e w ith in s p aces s u ch a s

th e c hain g ang, th e c o nv ic t le ase c am p, a nd th e p eo nage c am p— ho w th ese p ub lic /p riv ate h yb rid s o f n eo sla v ery w ere e nacte d n o t

th ro ugh th e em ancip ati o n am end m ent’ s ju rid ic al re str ic ti o n but th ro ugh its very dep lo ym ent as a Ja nus-h ead ed w eap on of

re ensla v em ent. A gain , I a m c o ncern ed w ith th e fa ct th at th e v ery a ct o f lib era l le gality th at r e gis te re d d e ju re r e co gniti o n o f h ard -

won b la ck J u b ile e a ctu ally r e in sti tu te d e nsla v em ent th ro ugh c rim in al s a ncti o n. A lo ng th ese l in es, I w ant to e xp lo re h o w a c ente rin g

of th e e xcep ti o n c la use a nd th e c hatte liz e d p enal la w th at it p ro duced a llo w s fo r a c riti c al d is e nchantm ent o f th e s ta te ’s r a cia liz e d ,

gend ere d , a nd c la ss-c o ded d is c o urs e s o f “ p ub lic s a fe ty ,” “ la w a nd o rd er,” a nd “ p enal r e fo rm .” J u st a s i m porta nt, i n th e r e m ain d er o f

th e c hap te r I s h o w h o w a c ente rin g o f th e e xcep ti o nal l o opho le w ith in th e e m ancip ati o n a m end m ent e xp ose s th e l e gal, c ultu ra l, a nd

peno lo gic al c hannels w here b y l ib era l b ourg eo is w hite s u p re m acis t l a w r e su sc ita te d b oth th e b ad ges

and

fe tte rs — th e in cid ents

a nd

fu nd am ents — of c hatte l s la v ery a nd th e M id dle P assa ge c arc era l m odel.

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** What’s in a N am e?

In vo lu nta ry S erv itu de

a s L ib era l L eg al E uphem is m

Tro ub le d a b out th e p ossib le r e gre ssiv e c o nse q uences th at c o uld u nfu rl s h o uld th e e xcep ti o n c la use b e a llo w ed i n to th e c o nsti tu ti o nal

am end m ent o utl a w in g s la v ery , M assa chuse tts s e nato r C harle s S um ner a tte m pte d to s o und a n a la rm o f o ppositi o n d urin g th e S enate ’s

orig in al d eb ate s o n th e a m end m ent’ s w ord in g. In fa ct, b efo re w agin g h is c riti q ue o f w hat e nd ed u p b ein g th e fin al v ers io n o f th e

le gis la ti o n, S um ner s u b m itte d h is o w n v ers io n, i n sp ir e d b y th e F re nch D ecla ra ti o n o f R ig hts ( 1 787), a j o in t r e so lu ti o n b ase d o n th e

lib era l p rin cip le s o f “ natu ra l r ig hts ” a nd e q uality b efo re th e la w : “ E very w here w ith in th e lim its o f th e U nite d S ta te s, a nd o f e ach

sta te o f T errito ry th ere o f, a ll p ers o ns a re e q ual b efo re th e la w , s o th at n o p ers o n c an h o ld a no th er a s a s la v e.” R ealiz in g th at h is

pro pose d v ers io n

was a d ead le tte r, th e c o ngre ssm an fo cuse d o n c halle ngin g th e fin al v ers io n o f th e a m end m ent c o auth o re d b y

Senato r J o hn H end ers o n o f M is so uri, w ho w as a s la v eho ld er h im se lf ( a t le ast u nti l th e C iv il W ar). S um ner d esc rib ed h o w in its

nearly e xact r e p eti ti o n o f th e la nguage o f A rti c le S ix o f T ho m as J e ffe rs o n’s N orth w est O rd in ance o f 1 787

—whic h in o ste nsib ly

outl a w in g s la v ery i n th e N orth w est T errito rie s a ls o c o nta in ed a p ro vis io n f o r e nsla v em ent u p on “ d ue c o nv ic ti o n” b y l a w — Congre ss

was i n d anger o f r e su sc ita ti n g th e v ery s y ste m i t w as p urp orti n g to c ast i n to o bliv io n:

There a re w ord s h ere . . . w hic h a re e nti r e ly i n ap plic ab le to o ur ti m e. T hey a re th e l im ita ti o n, “ o th erw is e th an i n

th e p unis h m ent o f c rim es w here o f th e p arty s h all h av e b een d uly c o nv ic te d .” N ow , u nle ss I e rr, th ere is a n

im plic ati o n fr o m th o se w ord s th at m en m ay b e e nsla v ed a s p unis h m ent o f c rim es w here o f th ey s h all h av e b een

duly c o nv ic te d . T here w as a r e aso n . . . fo r a t th at ti m e . . . I u nd ers ta nd it w as th e h ab it in c erta in p arts o f th e

co untr y to c o nv ic t p ers o ns o r d oom th em a s s la v es f o r l ife a s p unis h m ent f o r c rim e, a nd i t w as n o t p ro pose d to

pro hib it th is h ab it.

But s la very in o ur d ay is s o m eth in g d is tin ct,

p erfe ctl y w ell k no w n, r e q uir in g n o w ord s o f

dis ti n cti o n o uts id e o f i ts e lf.

In m akin g h is c ase a gain st th e e xcep ti o n c la use , th e a b oliti o nis t s e nato r b ase d h is a rg um ent o n th e p re m is e th at th ere w as a c le arly

dis c ern ib le lin e o f d is ti n cti o n b etw een in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e a nd c hatte l s la v ery in 1 864, a d iv erg ence th at n ullifie d th e n eed to

re p eat th e e xcep ti o n c la use i n a n a m end m ent a tta ckin g c hatte l s la v ery . H is a rg um ent a ls o r e ste d o n th e f a ct th at J e ffe rs o n’s o rd in ance

cate re d to th e n ati o nal “ hab it” in th e la te e ig hte enth c entu ry o f s u b m itti n g fr e e a nd fu giti v e A fr ic ans to p riv ate s la v ery r a th er th an

pub lic penal se rv itu d e as punis h m ent fo r crim es asso cia te d w ith lib era te d bla ckness (a poin t als o sig nifie d by Je ffe rs o n’s

unm enti o ned i n clu sio n o f a f u giti v e s la v e p ro vis io n i n th e o rig in al l a nguage o f th e o rd in ance). S um ner c o nclu d ed th at th e l e gis la ti o n

re lie d o n a “ la nguage th at is n o t h ap py” in so fa r a s it c o uld b e in te rp re te d a s a lo opho le fo r r e ensla v em ent. O th er m em bers o f th e

ju d ic ia ry c o m mitte e, in clu d in g fe llo w R ep ub lic an L ym an T ru m bull, w ho w as a cti n g c hair, fe lt th at S um ner’s r a d ic alis t p ositi o n o n

th e w ord in g a m ounte d to n o th in g b ut a stu b born a nd m is p la ced g ra m mati c al fa sti d io usn ess: “ I d o n o t k no w th at I sh o uld h av e

ad opte d th ese w ord s, b ut a m ajo rity o f th e c o m mitte e th o ught th ey w ere th e b est

word s; th ey a cco m plis h th e o bje ct; a nd I c anno t s e e

why th e s e nato r f r o m M assa chuse tts s h o uld b e s o p erti n acio us a b out p arti c ula r w ord s.”

Sum ner f e lt th at h e h ad u nco vere d i r re fu ta b le p ro of th at h is s u p pose d f it o f g ra m mati c al n itp ic kin g w as a ctu ally b ase d o n a c le ar

and p re se nt d anger w hen, o n J a nuary 3 , 1 867, n early th re e y ears a fte r o rig in ally p osin g h is m is g iv in gs in r e sp ect to th e e xcep ti o n

cla use , he o pened a S enate d eb ate o n a co ngre ssio nal re so lu ti o n callin g fo r a “su p ple m enta ry am end m ent” to th e T hir te enth

Amend m ent. H e b egan th e d is c ussio n b y h o ld in g u p th e v ery a d verti s e m ent fo r th e c o urth o use a ucti o nin g o f R ic hard H arris th at is

illu str a te d a b ove (F ig ure 4 ), a n e v ent th at h ad o ccurre d in A nnap olis ju st o ne m onth b efo re S um ner’s s p eech. A fte r re la yin g th e

co nte nts o f th e a d verti s e m ent, h e p ro ceed ed to r e ad a tr a nsc rip ti o n o f th e o th er p ub lic n o ti c e th at I m enti o ned e arlie r f o r th e s a le o f

Jo hn J o hnso n, G assa w ay P ric e, H arrie t P urd y, a nd D illy H arris , a g ro up n eo sla v e a ucti o n a b out w hic h S um ner re p orte d to h av e

been in fo rm ed b y a p ers o nal “ co rre sp ond ent” w ho s a w th e b la ck p ris o ners “ so ld in h is p re se nce, b efo re h is v ery e yes.” M eant to

aro use h o rro r, d is a p pro bati o n, a nd d is b elie f, S um ner’s e xp osu re o f th e o dio us s c ene o f b la ck b odie s b ein g s o ld a t p ub lic a ucti o n

nearly w ith in s ite o f th e n ati o n’s c ap ito l p arto ok o f a l o ng-e sta b lis h ed a b oliti o nis t tr o polo gy th at r e ste d o n u nv eilin g th e s p ecta cula r

dep ra v iti e s o f c hatte l s la v ery o f w hic h w hip s, c hain s, a nd a ucti o n b lo cks w ere e sse nti a l s y m bols .

F or h im , it w as n o t th e fa ct o f

no rm aliz e d a rre st a nd i m pris o nm ent o f f r e e b la ck p ers o ns th at w as th e p ro ble m , b ut th e u nse em ly m anner i n w hic h i t w as c o nd ucte d ;

th e pris o ner aucti o n w as pro of positi v e th at so m eth in g beyo nd “no rm al” pub lic ly ad m in is te re d in v olu nta ry se rv itu d e w as

fu ncti o nin g u nd er th e b anner o f th e p uniti v e e xcep ti o n, a llo w in g f o r th e i n sti tu ti o n o f a r e v iv ed f o rm o f p riv ate c hatte l s la v ery . “ B ut I

pre su m e th at th e S enate , a t th e ti m e th ey p asse d u p on th e a m end m ent s u p pose d th at th e p hra se ‘in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e, e xcep t fo r

crim e w here o f th e p arty h as b een d uly c o nv ic te d ,’ w as s im ply a p plic ab le to

ord in ary i m pris o nm en t.

” S um ner w ent o n to r e call th at

at th e ti m e o f th e a m end m ent’ s p assa ge h e “ fe are d th at it w as n o t e xclu siv ely a p plic ab le to

what w e c o m monly u ndersta nd b y

im pris o nm en t,

a nd th at i t m ig ht b e e xte nd ed s o a s to c o ver s o m e f o rm o f s la v ery .”

The M assa chuse tts co ngre ssm an w as jo in ed in th is d ra m ati c unv eilin g o f th e M ary la nd ad verti s e m ents b y Jo hn K asso n, a

Rep ub lic an r e p re se nta ti v e f r o m I o w a, w ho h eld th em a lo ft i n th e H ouse o f R ep re se nta ti v es j u st f iv e d ays a fte r S um ner’s s p eech. A s

in th e M assa chuse tts s e nato r’s c ase , K asso n r e ste d h is a rg um ents f o r r e v is iti n g th e e m ancip ati o n a m end m ent

on w hat h e p erc eiv ed to

be a c le ar-c ut b ound ary se p ara ti n g in v olu nta ry se rv itu d e to th e sta te , a s re p re se nte d b y “ o rd in ary ” im pris o nm ent, a nd p riv ate

se rv itu d e to a n i n d iv id ual, a s s y m boliz e d b y th e a b ho rre nt s p ecta cle o f th e c o urth o use a ucti o n b lo ck:

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** I a p pre hend th at fe w m em bers o f th is H ouse o r o f C ongre ss, a t th e ti m e o f th e p assa ge o f th e a m end m ent,

su p pose d th at i n th e v ery s e nte nce a b olis h in g s la v ery th ro ugho ut th e U nite d S ta te s th ey h ad a ls o m ad e p ro vis io n

fo r i ts r e v iv al u nd er a no th er f o rm a nd th ro ugh th e a cti o n o f th e c o urts o f th e c o untr y . T he f a cts c erti fie d to u s b y

th e n ew sp ap ers o f th e S outh , f r o m w eek to w eek, s h o w th at th e r e su lt o f th at a cti o n, a s i t i s th ere c o nstr u ed , i s to

re v iv e th e in sti tu ti o n o f c hatte l sla v ery in a ll its o dio us c hara cte ris ti c s; th at fr e e m en . . . a re p ut u p on th e

aucti o n-b lo ck to day a nd s o ld to th e h ig hest b id der i n to s la v ery .

Kasso n c o uld fe el s o e m bold ened to s tr ik e a t th e e xcep ti o n c la use p artl y b ecause o f a m ore d efin iti v e s y nta cti c al p arti ti o nin g o f

“sla v ery ” a nd “ in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e” w ith in h is o w n s ta te ’s c o nsti tu ti o n, i n w hic h th e l a nguage o f J e ffe rs o n’s N orth w est O rd in ance

was c o nv erte d in to a m ore o vertl y a b oliti o nis t p hra se o lo gy: “ S la v ery , b ein g in co m pati b le w ith a fr e e G overn m ent, is fo re v er

pro hib ite d i n th e U nite d S ta te s; a nd i n v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e s h all b e p erm itte d o nly a s a p unis h m ent f o r c rim e.”

In th e s p ir it o f th is o ste nsib ly d efin iti v e s e p ara ti o n o f tw o s y ste m s o f p uniti v e d om in ati o n, K asso n in tr o duced a b ill ( H .R . N o.

956) th at w ould h av e c rim in aliz e d a ny

unoffic ia l su bje ctio n to sla very

[o f] p ers o ns w ho m ay b e c o nv ic te d o f o ffe nse s a gain st th e la w , b y re aso n

where o f c erta in in fe rio r tr ib unals h av e a d ju d ged fr e e c iti z e ns o f th e U nite d S ta te s to b e s o d is p ose d o f a s to

re esta b lis h c hatte l s la v ery fo r life o r fo r y ears , a gain st th e p rin cip le s o f th e C hris ti a n r e lig io n, o f c iv iliz a ti o n,

and th e C onsti tu ti o n . . . w hic h n o w r e co gniz e s n o i n v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e e xcep t to th e l a w a nd to th e o ffic ers o f

its a d m in is tr a ti o n.

He c o nclu d ed b y p ositi n g w hat h e c o nsid ere d to b e a h erm eneuti c al c o rre cti v e i n r e sp ect to th e a m end m ent’ s i n te nd ed e m ancip ato ry

fu ncti o n b y s ta ti n g th at “ no s u ch th in g a s s e llin g a m an i n to s la v ery c an p ossib ly e xis t i n

th e p re se nt c o nd iti o n o f th e C onsti tu ti o n a nd

th e l a w s o f th e c o untr y ; th at th ere m ust b e a d ir e ct c o nd em nati o n i n to th at c o nd iti o n u nd er th e c o ntr o l o f th e o ffic ers o f th e l a w , l ik e

th e s e nte nce o f a m an to h ard l a b or i n th e S ta te p ris o n i n r e gula r a nd o rd in ary c o urs e o f l a w a nd th at i s th e o nly k in d o f i n v olu nta ry

se rv itu d e k no w n to th e C onsti tu ti o n a nd th e l a w .”

F or K asso n a nd S um ner, th e a uc ti o n b lo ck c o nse q uentl y o pera te d a s s o m eth in g o f

an a b oliti o nis t f e ti s h , a n e m ble m o f a n u nciv iliz e d , o bso le te , a nd d om esti c m odality o f i n carc era ti o n a nd u nfr e ed om u nd er a p riv ate

maste r th at w ould i n elu cta b ly m ake w ay f o r a m ore r e gula te d , r a ti o nal, a nd h um ane te chniq ue o f h um an e nto m bm ent: “ H ard l a b or i n

th e S ta te p ris o n.”

The m ost c urs o ry g la nce a t s u ch a rti c ula ti o ns l e nd s i ts e lf i m med ia te ly to a c o unte rin g o f th e l ib era l a b oliti o nis t a tte m pt a t p ositi n g

a d efin iti v e b ord erlin e b etw een th e a ucti o n b lo ck a nd th e c ellb lo ck, b etw een p enal a nd c hatte l s e rv itu d e. E ven w ith in i ts o w n te rm s,

th e lo gic o f S um ner’s a nd K asso n’s s e lf- a ssu re d s ta te m ents in th is re gard fa ll a p art a t th e s e am s, p oin ti n g to w ard a n o pen s e cre t

ly in g a t th e c o re o f th eir lib era l v is io n a nd a t th e c ente r o f E uro -A meric an c arc era l m odern ity a s a w ho le . K asso n m ost c le arly

exhib its th e unte nab le natu re of th e m yth ic al priv ate /p ub lic carc era l bin ary w hen in th e co urs e of re enacti n g his ow n sta te

co nsti tu ti o n’s s y nta cti c al s e v era nce o f “ sla v ery ” a nd “ in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e,” h e r e p eate d ly p erfo rm s th eir r e unific ati o n. T his fir s t

ap pears i n th e w ord in g o f h is p ro pose d b ill to c rim in ally s a ncti o n a nyo ne ta kin g p art i n th e s a le o f “ fr e e” h um an b ein gs, w here in h e

desc rib es p riv ate s e rv itu d e a s a n “ uno ffic ia l s u b je cti o n to s la v ery ,” a p hra se th at i m med ia te ly s ig nifie s a n u nsp oken O th er w ork in g

alo ngsid e s u ch o dio usly u nre gula te d p riv ate a rra ngem ents — th at i s , a n “ o ffic ia l” o r p ro perly p ub lic f o rm o f s la v ery i s su in g f r o m th e

quo ti d ia n, p re d ic ta b le , a nd “ hum ane” o pera ti o n o f th e s ta te p olic e p ow er. T he s p ecte r o f p ub lic p enal e nsla v em ent th en r e ap pears i n

one o f K asso n’s m ost a p pare ntl y s e lf- c erta in a sse rti o ns o f th e u nco nsti tu ti o nality o f o ne p ers o n b ein g h eld a s c hatte l b y a no th er

pers o n, “ th at th ere m ust b e

a d ir e ct c o ndem natio n i n to t h at c o nditio n u nder t h e c o ntr o l o f o ffic ers o f t h e l a w ,

l ik e th e s e nte nce o f a

man to h ard l a b or i n th e S ta te p ris o n.” F ar f r o m d is lo dgin g th e r h eto ric ally w ed ded te rm s

sla very

a nd

in vo lu nta ry s e rv itu de,

lib era l

pro no uncem ents o f th e p uta ti v ely “ o rd in ary ” a nd “ o ffic ia l” o pera ti o n o f ju rid ic al a nd p enal la w u lti m ate ly p erfo rm th e a b so lu te

im possib ility o f th eir d iv orc e. A s n o te d in m y e arlie r d is c ussio n o f th e N orth A meric an c hain g ang, th ere a re a n u nto ld n um ber o f

dis a v ow ed s to rie s o f u nfr e ed om , c o rp ore al r u p tu re , p sy chic te rro r, a nd c hatte liz e d e nto m bm ent s u ggeste d in

Kasso n’s in ad verte nt

dis c urs iv e a ckno w le d gm ent o f th e filia ti o ns o f “ o rd in ary im pris o nm ent” a nd

th at c o nditio n

k no w n a s s la v ery — his to ric ally s e ale d

necro politi c al e xp erie nces th at u nd erlin e th e d egre e to w hic h “ in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e” w ork s a s a l ib era l l e gal e up hem is m s h ro ud in g

lo ng-s ta nd in g i n ti m acie s o f p enal a nd c hatte l i n carc era ti o n.

In d eed , th e m eth o dolo gic al i n te rc o nnecti o ns o f th e tw o o ste nsib ly d is ti n ct s y ste m s a re l a rg ely i n d exab le w ith in th e h is to ry o f th e

very o rd in ance fo r th e N orth w est T errito rie s th at o ccup ie d th e c ente r o f th e d eb ate re gard in g th e T hir te enth A mend m ent. T his

criti c ally i m porta nt g enealo gy p oin ts to th e f a ct th at i n a d opti n g th e p unis h m ent e xcep ti o n i n r e sp ect to

in vo lu nta ry s e rv itu de

—th at

is , s ta te e nfo rc ed “ hard la b or” a s p unis h m ent fo r a d uly c o nv ic te d o ffe nse — Je ffe rs o n re p lic ate d th e re fo rm ato ry lo gic o f C esa re

Beccaria , th e in flu enti a l Ita lia n crim in o lo gis t and p enal re fo rm er o f th e E nlig hte nm ent era w ho m th e A meric an sla v e-o w nin g

sta te sm an h eld i n e xtr e m ely h ig h e ste em .

H ow ev er, i n o ffe rin g h is v is io n o f w hat F oucault w ould c o m e to d esc rib e a s m odern ity ’s

in cre m enta l m ovem ent aw ay fr o m th e blo od-rid den m odaliti e s of pre m odern fe ud al punis h m ent to a “d is c ip lin ary ” and

“d is e m bodie d ” p enal p hilo so phy, B eccaria u nv eils h o w lib era l r e fo rm , m odern iz a ti o n, a nd r a ti o naliz a ti o n w ere fo und ed u p on th e

su b sti tu ti o n o f th e c o nv ic t’ s s a nguin ary d eath b y s o m eth in g d eem ed m ore p ro ducti v ely a nd p ed ago gic ally “ grie v ous” — his lite ra l

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** ensla v em ent. “ If it b e s a id th at p erm anent p enal s e rv itu d e is a s g rie v ous a s d eath , a nd th ere fo re a s c ru el, I r e p ly th at, if w e a d d u p

all th e u nhap py m om ents o f s la v ery , p erh ap s i t i s e v en m ore s o , b ut th e l a tte r a re s p re ad o ut o ver a n e nti r e l ife , w here as th e f o rm er

exerts i ts f o rc e a t a s in gle m om ent.”

For B eccaria , th e “ unhap py” c iv il d eath p ro duced th ro ugh p enal e nsla v em ent w ould n o t o nly fu ncti o n a s a n in te nsific ati o n o f

bio lo gic al d eath b ut w ould e clip se i ts c o unte rp art a s a m ore e ffic ie nt te chniq ue o f c rim in al d ete rre nce th ro ugh th e te rro r o f te m pora l

in d efin ite ness: “ It i s n o t th e i n te nsity , b ut

th e e xte n t o f p unis h m en t

w hic h m akes th e g re ate st i m pre ssio n o n th e h um an s o ul. . . . I t i s

no t th e te rrib le b ut f le eti n g s ig ht o f th e f e lo n’s d eath w hic h i s th e m ost p ow erfu l b re ak o n c rim e, b ut th e l o ng d ra w n-o ut e xam ple o f a

man d ep riv ed o f f r e ed om , w ho

havin g b eco m e a b ea st o f b urd en

, r e p ays th e s o cie ty h e h as o ffe nd ed w ith h is l a b our.”

T he m atte r-

of- fa ct a sp ect o f B eccaria ’s a rg um ent fo r th e p ed ago gic al v alu e o f p enal e nsla v em ent h ig hlig hts th e te rro r a nd d om in ati o n th at

und erla y w hat h as b een c ast h is to ric ally a s “ p enal r e fo rm ” fr o m th e E nlig hte nm ent th ro ugh th e b ir th o f th e “ m odern ” p enite nti a ry .

Beccaria w as nearly sin gula r am ong

his p eers , ho w ev er, in his o pen ackno w le d gm ent o f th e in ti m acie s o f p enal and chatte l

se rv itu d e, a c ro ss-fe rti liz a ti o n th at r a nges a t le ast a s fa r b ack a s th e c re ati o n o f th e

se rv u s-p oeo nae

—or c rim in ally b ra nd ed p ub lic

sla v e— in R om an la w ,

a nd th at c o nti n ued in to m odern ity w ith th e tr a nsm is sio n o f p la nta ti o n te chniq ues o f “ la b or m anagem ent,”

su rv eilla nce, a nd c o rp ore al r u p tu re i n to E uro pean a nd U .S . p ris o ns.

In d eed , a s D av id B rio n D av is h as p oin te d o ut, th e p eno lo gic al id eas o f J e re m y B enth am , th e E nglis h p eno lo gic al th eo ris t m ost

clo se ly a sso cia te d w ith d is c ip lin ary c arc era lity , re p re se nte d a “ v ir tu al c aric atu re o f th e p la nte r’s id eal.”

T he in v ento r o f th e

pano pti c o n w as i n cre d ulo us, h o w ev er, a s to a sse rti o ns th at s u b je cti o n to i n v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e a m ounte d to a ny s o rt o f tr a nsa tl a nti c

blo w back o f th e c o lo nia l c hatte l p rin cip le o f p ro ducti v e in te rn m ent; b ut, a s in K asso n’s c ase , h e ra is e s th e s p ecte r o f th e c hatte l

moorin gs o f m odern i m pris o nm ent e v en w hile d is a v ow in g th em :

With r e gard to th e p opula rity o f th is s p ecie s o f p unis h m ent in th is c o untr y . Im pati e nt s p ir its to o e asily k in d le d

with th e f ir e o f i n d ep end ence h av e a w ord f o r i t, w hic h r e p re se nts a n i d ea s in gula rly o bno xio us to a p eo ple w ho

prid e th em se lv es s o m uch o n th eir f r e ed om . T he w ord i s s la v ery . S la v ery th ey s a y i s a p unis h m ent to o d egra d in g

fo r a n E nglis h m an, e v en in r u in s. T his p re ju d ic e m ay b e c o nfu te d b y o bse rv in g, 1 st, th at

public s e rv itu de is a

diffe re n t th in g fr o m s la very

. 2 dly , T hat

if it w ere n ot

th is w ould b e n o r e a so n fo r d is m is sin g th is s p ecie s o f

punis h m en t w ith out e xa m in atio n.

I f th en u p on e xam in ati o n i t i s f o und n o t to b e p osse sse d , i n r e q uis ite d egre e,

of th e p ro perti e s to b e w is h ed f o r i n a m ode o f p unis h m ent th at, a nd n o t th e n am e i t h ap pens to b e c alle d b y, i s a

re aso n f o r i ts r e je cti o n: i f i t d oes n o t p osse ss th em , i t i s n o t a ny n am e th at c an b e g iv en to i t th at c an c hange i ts

natu re .

Leav in g a sid e fo r th e m om ent th e ta uto lo gic al a sp ect o f h is c la im th at p ub lic s e rv itu d e s im ply “ is ” a s p ecie s o f s e rv itu d e d is ti n ct

fr o m sla v ery , I a m in te re ste d in B enth am ’s d ep ic ti o n o f a n im age o f sin gula rly “ o bno xio us d egra d ati o n” a ris in g in th e m in d o f

Englis h c o m moners a t th e m ere p ro sp ect o f c iv il d eath . N otw ith sta nd in g th e p enal p hilo so pher’s in iti a l w ord s to th e c o ntr a ry , th is

gro te sq ue s o cia l v is io n w as b ase d o n th e te rrify in g a nd u tte rly u nth in kab le p ro sp ect th at c rim in al s ti g m ati z a ti o n w ould tr a nsm ute th e

“w hite ” c o nv ic t in to a n o nto lo gic al d oub le o f th e m ost “ d egra d ed ”

no t- q uite -h um an b ein g in th e m odern w orld — th o se u nits o f

ensla v ed A fr ic an l a b or d efin ed a t l a w a s o bje cts o f g lo baliz e d c o m merc e a nd l o caliz e d s a d is m .

E qually i m porta nt to n o te h ere i s

th e m anner in w hic h B enth am ’s r u m in ati o ns u lti m ate ly e xp re ss a to ta lita ria nis t a nim us e m bed ded w ith in h is u ti lita ria nis t v is io n. In

th e e nd , th e s o cia l- e ngin eerin g d re am o f p ro ducin g a p oor p opula ti o n in to ta l c o nfo rm ity w ith th e le gal, p oliti c al, a nd e co no m ic

dic ta te s o f l ib era l b ourg eo is m ark et c ultu re j u sti fie s a ny m eth o d, i n clu d in g a p enal v ers io n o f th at m enta lly a nd p hysic ally te rro riz in g

th in g th at th e ta rg ets o f s ta te s o vere ig nty w ould “ call” s la v ery . T his is n o t to s a y th at th e w hite E nglis h c o m moner fa ced th e s a m e

fo rm ati o ns o f c hatte lis m i n th e p ris o n th at th e A fr ic an s la v es f a ced i n th e b arra co on, th e s la v e s h ip , o r th e p la nta ti o n, b ut to h ig hlig ht

th e f a ct th at th e “ w hite ness” o f th e E nglis h c o m moner w as p la ced i n r e la ti v e j e o pard y th ro ugh th e s ti g m ata o f c rim in ality . I t i s a ls o

to s u ggest a c hannel b y w hic h th e f e ud al m oorin gs o f m odern i m pris o nm ent w ould u lti m ate ly b e g ho ste d i n to p enal m odern ity o n a n

unp re ced ente d s c ale o nce th e c arc era l s ta te s e t its s ig hts o n th o se w ho se c hatte l e nsla v em ent la id a t th e fo und ati o n o f w hite c iv il

pers o nho od.

The re p re ssiv e a sp ects o f th e B enth am ite p hilo so phy w ould fin d th eir w ay in to n in ete enth -c entu ry p ris o ns s u ch a s A ub urn a nd

Sin g S in g, th e la tte r o f w hic h w as a ctu ally b uilt th ro ugh th e “ in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e” o f p ris o ners tr a nsfe rre d fr o m th e fo rm er. E la m

Lynd s, th e w ard en w ho o vers a w th e co ntr a ct la b or and p ris o ner tr a nsfe r p ro je ct in th e la te 1 820s, w as uneq uiv ocal in his

re co gniti o n o f th e a ffin iti e s o f h is r o le a nd th at o f s la v e m aste r: “ A cco rd in g to m y e xp erie nce, it is n ecessa ry th at th e d ir e cto r o f a

pris o n . . . s h o uld b e in v este d w ith a n a b so lu te a nd c erta in p ow er. . . . M y p rin cip le h as a lw ays b een, th at in o rd er to re fo rm a

pris o n, it is w ell to c o ncentr a te w ith in th e s a m e in d iv id ual, a ll p ow er a nd a ll re sp onsib ility .” F or L ynd s, s u ch to ta l d is c ip lin a ry

dom in io n w as u nth in kab le w ith o ut r e co urs e to th e m ost c o m monp la ce “ se aso nin g” in str u m ent o f th e p la nta ti o n, th e lite ra l r e fe re nt

fo r w hat B enth am c alle d

th e la sh o f th e la w

: “ I c o nsid er it im possib le to g o vern a la rg e p ris o n w ith o ut a w hip . . . . If y o u h av e a t

once c o m ple te ly c urb ed th e p ris o ner u nd er th e y o ke o f d is c ip lin e y o u m ay w ith o ut d anger e m plo y h im i n th e l a b or w hic h y o u th in k

best.”

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Not to b e o utd one b y h is tr a nsa tl a nti c c o unte rp art, B enth am h im se lf o nce e nv is io ned a “ d is c ip lin ary ” to ol th at h as re ceiv ed a

gre at d eal le ss d is c ussio n th an h is p ano pti c o n. W hile h is p urp orte d ly d is e m bodie d s y ste m o f p ris o ner s u rv eilla nce h as r is e n to th e

le v el o f a m eta -s y m bol w ith in c riti c al

tr e atm ents o f m odern c arc era lity , h is id ea fo r a s lig htl y le ss s u b tl e r e fo rm o f fe ud al m eth o ds

of p ub lic ly a d m in is te re d c o rp ore al p unis h m ent ( w hic h a gain w as to b e r e se rv ed e xp re ssly f o r th e E nglis h p oor) s p eaks v olu m es f o r

th e p ara lle l, i n te rs e cti o nal, a nd m utu ally c o nsti tu ti v e d esig ns o f “ m odern ” p unis h m ent a nd “ p re m odern ” e nsla v em ent:

A m achin e m ig ht b e m ad e, w hic h s h o uld p ut in m oti o n c erta in e la sti c r o ds o f c ane o r w hale b one, th e n um ber

and s iz e o f w hic h m ig ht b e d ete rm in ed b y l a w . T he b ody o f th e d elin q uent m ig ht b e s u b je cte d to s tr o kes o f th ese

ro ds, and th e fo rc e and ra p id ity w ith w hic h th ey sh o uld be ap plie d , pre sc rib ed by a Ju d ge: [w ith ] th is

ev ery th in g w hic h is a rb itr a ry m ig ht b e re m oved . A p ub lic o ffic er . . . m ig ht p re sid e o ver th e in flic ti o n o f

punis h m ent; a nd w hen th ere w ere m any d elin q uents to b e p unis h ed , h is ti m e m ig ht b e s a v ed , a nd th e te rro r o f th e

sc ene h eig hte ned , w ith o ut in cre asin g a ctu al s u ffe rin g, b y in cre asin g th e n um ber o f m achin es, a nd s u b je cti n g a ll

th e o ffe nd ers to p unis h m ent a t th e s a m e ti m e.

That m odern p ris o n s e rv itu d e o rig in ally a m ounte d to a p ub lic s im ula ti o n o f th e “ p riv ate ” p ra cti c e o f c hatte l s la v ery r a is e s i m porta nt

questi o ns in re sp ect to S um ner’s a nd K asso n’s a tte m pte d a b oliti o nis t in te rv enti o n o n b ehalf o f th e e m ancip ate d . If a t its o uts e t

modern s ta te -b orn e p enal s e rv itu d e a llo w ed fo r th e w hite in d ustr ia l w ork er to b e s u b je cte d to s o m e o f th e v ery m echanis m s o f

co rp ore al r u p tu re , p riv ate p ro fite erin g, d is p osse ssio n, a nd s o cia l s ti g m ati z a ti o n th at w ere e sse nti a l to c hatte l c arc era lity ( w hile a ls o

im agin in g in no vati o ns a nd c alib ra ti o ns o f th at te rro ris ti c m odality s u ch a s th e B enth am ite w hip pin g m achin e), th en w hat w ere th e

le gal o r so cia l g ro und s fo r c halle ngin g th e sta te ’s w ho le sa le a ucti o nin g o f b odie s w ho m w hite su p re m acis t c ultu re d efin ed a s

meta p hysic ally unp ro ducti v e, in co rrig ib le , ata v is ti c , and w ho m lib era l w hite su p re m acis t la w and custo m had defin ed as

und is h o no ra b le b ein gs i n cap ab le o f f e elin g th e p hysic al o r p sy chic d egra d ati o n o f c hatte lh o od? W hat w as th e l o gic o f p enal r e fo rm

and c rim in al d ete rre nce to d o w ith th e l ite ra l “ b easts o f b urd en” w ho w ere th e o bje cti fie d c o rre la ti v es f o r B eccaria ’s m eta p ho ric s

of c iv il d eath a nd w ho w ere th o ught in cap ab le o f e ith er s p ir itu al r e fo rm ati o n o r p ro ducti v e in d ustr ia l d is c ip lin e?

W hat w ere th e

lim its o f a l ib era l a b oliti o nis m th at e xp re sse d h o rro r a t th e s ite o f f r e e b la ck p eo ple b ein g a ucti o ned o n c o urth o use s te p s, b ut w ho se

so lu ti o n f o r s u ch o dio us s ite s i n v olv ed a n e nsh rin em ent o f m ore

“o rd in ary ” f o rm ati o ns o f i n v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e th at b egan to e nto m b

fr e e b la ck p eo ple i n m assiv e n um bers i m med ia te ly u p on th e p assa ge o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent? H ow d id th eir n arro w f o cus o n

is o la te d in sta nces o f w hat th ey c o nsid ere d to b e a n a nachro nis ti c h o ld over fr o m c hatte l s la v ery o bsc ure th e la rg er s ta te “ p ub lic

sa fe ty ” p ro je ct th at w ould m ake th e d is c urs iv e l in k b etw een “ N egro ” a nd “ crim in al” a s i n se p ara b le a fte r e m ancip ati o n a s “ A fr ic a n”

and “ sla v e” h ad b een b efo re i t? F in ally , w hat d id th e l o ng-s ta nd in g i n fu sio n o f p riv ate i n d ustr ia l i n te re st i n to th e p uta ti v ely n o rm al

im pris o nm ent o f w hite b odie s in th e N orth m ean fo r s u b je cts w ho h ad b een d efin ed a t la w a s n o th in g b ut fu ngib le , c ulp ab le , a nd

dis p osa b le s in ce th e M id dle P assa ge?

At is su e h ere is w hat H artm an h as d esc rib ed a s th e u nte nab ility o f c ate go ric al d is ti n cti o ns b etw een th e p ub lic a nd p riv ate in

re sp ect to b oth c hatte l a nd p enal s e rv itu d e, a nd th e d egre e to w hic h i n p ro ffe rin g s u ch d is ti n cti o ns S um ner’s a nd K asso n’s c halle nge

of th e e xcep ti o n c la use a ctu ally a m ounte d to a r e affir m ati o n o f its m ost e sse nti a l te rm s.

In o th er w ord s, e v en w ere C ongre ss to

hav e p asse d th e l e gis la ti o n th at K asso n p ro pose d to o utl a w th e s a le o f o ne i n d iv id ual b y a no th er— and h ad a m end ed th e T hir te enth

Amend m ent to r e ad c lo se r to th e m ore c le arly a rti c ula te d d is ti n cti o n b etw een c hatte l a nd p enal s u b je cti o n in Io w a’s c o nsti tu ti o n—

th e n ati o nal s ta te p olic e p ow er w ould s ti ll h av e in v olv ed th e n ecro politi c al r ig ht n o t o nly to k ill fr e e b la ck p eo ple b ut to s u b m it

th em to in num era b le p ub lic /p riv ate carc era l hyb rid s th ro ugh th e hyp erc rim in aliz a ti o n o f b la ck b ein g and th e p ro ducti v e le gal

eup hem is m o f “ in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e.”

As if to m ake p erfe ctl y c le ar th at th e s e curity o f th e ra cia l s ta te re ste d o n th e s o vere ig n rig ht to te rro riz e th e b la ck s u b je ct in

whate v er fo rm ( a nd b y w hate v er n am e) it d eem ed n ecessa ry , th e S enate J u d ic ia ry C om mitte e in d efin ite ly p ostp oned K asso n’s b ill

afte r its p assa ge in th e H ouse b y c la im in g th at a ny is su es r e la ti n g to th e p uniti v e r e ensla v em ent o f “ d uly c o nv ic te d ” fr e e p ers o ns

were m iti g ate d b y th e C iv il R ig hts A ct o f 1 866.

T he o utr ig ht c yn ic al q uality o f th is c la im r e sts o n th e fa ct th at, in its o ste nsib le

pro te cti o n o f s o uth ern b la ck p eo ple a gain st o penly d is c rim in ato ry p ostb ellu m B la ck C odes, th e o rig in al C iv il R ig hts B ill r e p eate d ly

in v oked th e v ery e xcep ti o n c la use th at K asso n a nd S um ner a tte m pte d to c halle nge. O n i ts f a ce, “ A n A ct to P ro te ct A ll P ers o ns i n th e

Unite d S ta te s i n T heir C iv il R ig hts , a nd F urn is h th e M eans o f T heir V in d ic ati o n” r e p re se nte d a p ositi v e a ffir m ati o n a nd c la rific ati o n

of th e c iti z e nsh ip r ig hts g ra nte d b y th e T hir te enth A mend m ent a nd th e l e gis la ti v e b ir th p la ce o f l ib era l c o nstr u cti o ns

of “ co lo r-b lin d ”

co m mon l a w i n r e fe re nce to f o rm er s la v es a nd o th er r a cia lly s ti g m ati z e d p ers o ns. T he f ir s t tw o s e cti o ns o f th e b ill r e ad a s f o llo w s:

Be it enacte d b y th e S enate and H ouse o f R ep re se nta ti v es o f th e U nite d S ta te s o f A meric a in C ongre ss

asse m ble d , T hat a ll p ers o ns b orn in th e U nite d S ta te s a nd n o t s u b je ct to a ny fo re ig n p ow er, e xclu d in g In d ia ns

no t ta xed , a re h ere b y d ecla re d to b e c iti z e ns o f th e U nite d S ta te s; a nd s u ch c iti z e ns, o f e v ery ra ce a nd c o lo r,

with o ut r e gard to a ny p re v io us c o nd iti o n o f s la v ery o r i n v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e,

excep t a s p unis h m en t f o r a c rim e

where o f t h e p arty s h all h ave b een d uly c o nvic te d ,

s h all h av e th e s a m e r ig ht, i n e v ery S ta te a nd T errito ry . . . to

make a nd e nfo rc e c o ntr a cts , to s u e, b e p arti e s, a nd g iv e e v id ence, to in herit, p urc hase , le ase o r s e ll, h o ld , a nd

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** co nv ey r e al a nd p ers o nal p ro perty , a nd to f u ll a nd e q ual b enefit o f th e l a w s a nd p ro ceed in gs f o r th e s e curity o f

pers o n a nd p ro perty , a s e njo yed b y w hite c iti z e ns, a nd s h all b e s u b je ct to l ik e p unis h m ents , p ain s, a nd p enalti e s,

and to n o ne o th er, a ny l a w , s ta tu te , o rd in ance, r e gula ti o n, o r c usto m , to th e c o ntr a ry n o tw ith sta nd in g.

Sec. 2 . A nd b e i t f u rth er e nacte d , T hat a ny p ers o n, w ho u nd er c o lo r o f a ny l a w , s ta tu te , o rd in ance, r e gula ti o n,

or c usto m , s h all s u b je ct, o r c ause to b e s u b je cte d , a ny in hab ita nt o f a ny S ta te o r T errito ry to th e d ep riv ati o n o f

any rig ht s e cure d o r p ro te cte d b y th is a ct, o r to d iffe re nt p unis h m ent, p ain s, o r p enalti e s o n a cco unt o f s u ch

pers o n h av in g a t o ne ti m e b een h eld in a c o nd iti o n o f s la v ery o r in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e,

excep t a s p unis h m en t

fo r a c rim e w here o f th e p arty sh all h ave b een d uly c o nvic te d ,

o r b y re aso n o f h is c o lo r o r ra ce, th an is

pre sc rib ed fo r th e p unis h m ent o f w hite p ers o ns, s h all b e d eem ed g uilty o f a m is d em eano r, a nd , o n c o nv ic ti o n,

sh all b e p unis h ed b y a fin e n o t e xceed in g o ne th o usa nd d olla rs , o r im pris o nm ent n o t e xceed in g o ne y ear, o r

both , a t th e d is c re ti o n o f th e c o urt.

What a p pears to f u ncti o n a s a “ v in d ic ati o n” o f th e f u ll- b lo w n p ositi v e p ow er o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent v is -à -v is i ts g ra nti n g o f

citi z e nsh ip a nd c iv il lib erti e s to a ll p ers o ns b orn in th e U nite d S ta te s ( b esid es u nta xed “ In d ia ns” ) a ctu ally jo in s th e e m ancip ati o n

am end m ent a s a n o utr ig ht j u sti fic ati o n o f th e s ta te ’s r ig ht to d ep lo y c rim in al s a ncti o n a s th e m ost a cti o nab le

and p ow erfu l m eans o f

dealin g w ith th e “ p ro ble m ” o f th e b la ck ( a nd I n d ig eno us) p re se nce w ith in th e n ati o nal b ody. N ote h o w a n a ct th at w as to h av e p ut to

re st th e “ w ho le su b je ct” o f b la ck p enal re ensla v em ent— and m ore sp ecific ally th e lite ra l a ucti o nin g o f b la ck b odie s— no t o nly

negle cts to o ffe r a n o utr ig ht b an o n th e s a le o r le ase o f h um an b ein gs b y th e s ta te , b ut a ctu ally re in fo rc es th at s o vere ig n rig ht b y

re p eati n g th e e xcep ti o n c la use i n b oth o f i ts m ost i m porta nt s e cti o ns. T he m ain r e aso n th at s u ch a n o utr ig ht p ro sc rip ti o n a gain st b la ck

fu ngib ility c o uld n o t o ccur w as th at th e n ati o nal g o vern m ent w as b usy in augura ti n g th e w ho le sa le r e nti n g-to -d eath o f b la ck b odie s

bra nd ed a s b oth “ fe lo n” a nd “ m is d em eanant,” o th erw is e k no w a s c o nv ic t le asin g, a t th e v ery m om ent o f th e b ill’s c ra fti n g. T his

his to ric al sy nerg y h as o fte n b een ig no re d in sc ho la rly tr e atm ents o f “ so uth ern ” p ris o n sla v ery d urin g R eco nstr u cti o n; o r, w hen

bro ached a t a ll, i t h as b een m ysti fy in gly d is m is se d a s a m atte r o f “ accid enta l” r a cis m a nd p oliti c al- e co no m ic e xp ed ie nce r a th er th an

a p iv ota l c o nju nctu re b ase d o n th e m ate ria l fo rc e o f w hite s u p re m acy a nd th e c entr a lity o f u nfr e e b la ck la b or to th e in te rc o nnecte d

postb ellu m n ati o nal p ro je cts o f e m pir e b uild in g a nd s o uth ern i n d ustr ia liz a ti o n.

In f a ct, th e e ase w ith w hic h l o cal a nd s ta te r e gim es o f r a cia l a p arth eid w ould b e a b le to m ain ta in w hite s u p re m acis t l e gal p ra cti c e

und er th e c o lo r o f c o lo r-b lin d l a w h ad a lr e ad y b een m ad e c le ar w ell b efo re th e a ct’ s p assa ge w ith th e p ro life ra ti o n o f B la ck C odes

th at w ere r a cia lly n o nsp ecific b ut te le o lo gic ally w hite s u p re m acis t. A s D onald N ie m an h as in d ic ate d , m any o f th e m ost e xtr e m ely

ra cis t s ta tu te s th at w ere c o nd ucti n g th o usa nd s o f b la ck p eo ple i n to c o nv ic t l e ase c am ps, c hain g angs, a nd p eo nage a t th e ti m e o f th is

su p pose d “ v in d ic ati o n” o f b la ck c iv il rig hts , im med ia te ly e sc ap ed a ny p ossib ility o f ju d ic ia l s c ru ti n y u nd er th e a ct’ s c o lo r-b lin d

doctr in e d ue to th e r e m oval o f a ny m enti o n o f r a ce f r o m th eir w ord in g: “ R ath er th an b ein g b la ta ntl y d is c rim in ato ry , th e b la ck c o des

of 1 866, w hile c are fu lly d esig ned to c o ntr o l th e fr e ed m en, w ere o n th eir fa ce n o n-d is c rim in ato ry . T hro ugh c o ntr a ct a nd v agra ncy

la w s th at a p plie d [fo rm ally ] to w hite s a nd b la cks a lik e, th ey g av e s ta te a nd lo cal o ffic ia ls a ll th e a uth o rity th ey n eed to p ro vid e

pla nte rs w ith a c heap a nd d ep end ab le la b or fo rc e.”

In d eed , th is lo opho le e v en m ad e p ossib le th e r e new al o f th e la te a nte b ellu m

sla v e c o de. U nd er th e “ co lo r-b lin d ” a nd “ eq ual p unis h m ent” p ro vis io ns o f th e b ill, a ll th e M ary la nd s ta te le gis la tu re w ould h av e

need ed to d o in o rd er to r e su sc ita te th e s la v e c o de a llo w in g fo r th e s a le o r le ase o f fr e e b la ck s u b je cts w as to r e m ove th e w ord

“N egro ” f r o m i ts w ord in g a nd th e o dio us

sc enes o f f r e e b la cks b ein g m ad e i n to c o m modifie d o bje cts o n c o urth o use s te p s c o uld h av e

co nti n ued a p ace.

How ev er, a s th e h is to ry o f r a cia liz e d n eo sla v ery h as e xp ose d f o r o ver o ne h und re d y ears a fte r th e p assa ge o f th e a ct “ p ro te cti n g”

bla ck c iv il rig hts , th e le gal re p ro ducti o n o f b la ck fu ngib ility n o t o nly c o nti n ued b ut a ctu ally e xp and ed to a la rm in g p ro porti o ns

th ro ugh th e l ib era l l o opho le s o f th e e xcep ti o n c la use a nd th e c o lo r-b lin d r a cia l s ta tu te s th at p ut th e p uniti v e e xcep ti o n i n to m ate ria l

moti o n. I n a n e xam ple o f i ts a b ility to p ra cti c e a c erta in a m ount o f p ro ducti v e s e lf- d is c ip lin in g, th e r a cia l c ap ita lis t p atr ia rc hal s ta te

re m oved w hat f o r th e l ib era l o nlo oker r e p re se nte d th e u nsig htl y s c ene o f c o urth o use a ucti o nin g f r o m p ub lic v ie w w hile c o nti n uin g a

de fa cto n eo sla v e tr a d e in sid e c o urth o use c ham bers , a le gal r itu al o f h um an c o m modific ati o n th at s u b je cte d a s w ellin g n um ber o f

bla ck pris o ners to m ulti p le varie ti e s of

opus public u m

(p ub lic hard la b or) and

vin cu la public a

(p ub lic chain s) und er th e

no rm aliz in g o ste nt o f “d ue co nv ic ti o n.”

T hat is , v ario us fo rm s o f ig no m in io us p ub lic unfr e e w ork and p unis h m ent th at d id

ulti m ate ly b egin to b e c ast i n to th e a sh b in o f h is to ry f o r w hite s u b je cts a s f a r b ack a s th e l a te e ig hte enth c entu ry w ere r e in v ig o ra te d

and e xp and ed th ro ugh th e b anal o pera ti o n o f m unic ip al, sta te , a nd n ati o nal p enal la w — re p re se nti n g a le gal p ro se cuti o n o f th e

nati o nal cultu ra l m yth o s th at fr a m ed su ch dis re p uta b le la b or and bodily ru p tu re as co m mensu ra te w ith th e su p pose d in b orn

crim in ality , u nb re achab le jo via lity , a nd in hum anly h ig h p ain th re sh o ld o f fo rm er sla v es. In o th er w ord s, th e la w e xchanged th e

offe nsiv e s ite o f th e o pen-a ir n eo sla v e a ucti o n f o r th e n o l e ss a b je ct, i f s o cia lly a ccep ta b le , s c ene o f b la ck n eo sla v e l a b or a nd te rro r

on th e c hain g ang, th e c o nv ic t l e ase c am p, a nd th e p eo n c am p.

Again , w hen re ad in th is lig ht, th e M ary la nd a ucti o nin g o f th e fr e e is u nv eile d a s a “ p ost” sla v ery a nalo gue o f th e v ario us

modaliti e s o f r a cia l c o m modific ati o n th at s e cre te d a cro ss th e f ic ti v e b ord er o f e m ancip ati o n. I t i s a ls o e xp ose d a s a f u tu ris ti c r e lic

of s o rts , d em onstr a ti n g th e lib era l le gal c hannels w here b y v ario us m odaliti e s o f s p ecta cula r a nd b anal d ehum aniz a ti o n e sse nti a l to

chatte l s la v ery w ere r e anim ate d a nd r e co nfig ure d th ro ugh th e b ir th o f th e c o nv ic t le ase s y ste m , p eo nage, th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n, a nd

th e c hain g ang. T his la st p oin t is v iv id ly r e calle d b y R ic hard W rig ht’ s b oyho od p ers o na in

Bla ck B oy

( 1 945), w ho in m is ta kin g a

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Mis sis sip pi c hain -g ang c o ffle fo r a h erd o f tr u nk-ti e d “ ele p hants ” — or s tr ip e-c la d “ ze b ra s” — dis e nchants th e d is c o urs e s o f c o lo r-

blin d j u ris p ru d ence a nd p ub lic s a fe ty th at c ra fte d th e s o cia l a ccep ta nce o f n eo sla v ery :

I s a w th at th ey w ere tw o l in es o f c re atu re s th at l o oked l ik e m en o n e ith er s id e o f th e r o ad ; th at th ere w ere a f e w

white f a ces a nd a g re at m any b la ck f a ces. I s a w th at th e w hite f a ces w ere th e f a ces o f w hite m en a nd th ey w ere

dre sse d in o rd in ary c lo th in g; b ut th e b la ck fa ces w ere m en w earin g w hat s e em ed to m e to b e e le p hants [o r

ze b ra ] c lo th in g. A s th e str a nge a nim als c am e a b re ast o f m e I sa w th e le gs o f th e b la ck a nim als w ere h eld

to geth er b y i r o ns a nd th eir a rm s w ere l in ked w ith h eav y c hain s th at c la nked s o ftl y a s th eir m usc le s m oved .

Fro m th e se em in gly n aiv e p urv ie w o f c hild ho od re m em bra nce, w e a re a llo w ed a m om enta ry g lim pse a t u nsp eakab le re aliti e s

ho verin g a t th e p erip hery o f th e s ta te ’s m aste r n arra ti o ns o f la w , o rd er, a nd “ N egro P ro ble m ” r e so lu ti o n. S uch te sti m ony s u p plie s

necessa rily i n co m ple te , c o nti n gent, a nd h is to ric ally o bsc ure d e ntr y i n to h o w th e e xcep ti o n c la use a nd th e w hite s u p re m acis t r u se o f

co lo r-b lin d s ta tu to ry la w re p re se nte d n o t th e c essa ti o n o f b la ck fu ngib ility a nd d ehum aniz a ti o n b ut th eir le galiz e d tr a nsfe r fr o m

co urth o use s te p s i n to c o urtr o om s, b oard ro om s, a nd “ o ffic ia l” n eo sla v e c o ffle s. A s H artm an r e m in d s u s i n r e sp ect to th e p ro ducti v e

am nesia o f l ib era l l e gal c o lo r-b lin d ness, “ T he r e fu sa l to s e e r a ce n eith er d im in is h es th at o rig in ary v io le nce n o r g uara nte es e q uality

but m ere ly e nab le s th is v io le nce to b e c o nd ucte d u nd er th e g uis e o f n eutr a lity .”

For th e r e m ain d er o f th is c hap te r, I w ill fo cus o n la rg ely o bstr u cte d a nd d is to rte d le gal a nd s o cia l c o nju nctu re s w here in b la ck

fu ngib ility w as tr a nsp la nte d f r o m a s la v e c o de f u nnelin g f r e e a nd f u giti v e A fr ic an b odie s i n to “ p riv ate ” c hatte lh o od to a c o lo r-b lin d

co de of re ensla v em ent th at has dis a p peare d co untl e ss fr e e bla ck peo ple and oth er so cia lly sti g m ati z e d pers o ns in to hyb rid

fo rm ati o ns o f p ub lic /p riv ate s ta te -a d m in is te re d b ond age.

T his tr a je cto ry o ffe rs a m ap pin g o f th e l a w ’s a m oeb a-lik e f u ncti o nality i n

tr a nsp osin g th e d is c urs iv ely o pen ra cia l la nguage o f th e S la v e C odes a nd B la ck C odes in to th e d ecid ed ly m ore te nacio us ra cis t

pra cti c e o f c o lo r-b lin d p ro vis io ns d ealin g w ith c rim es o f d is p osse ssio n a nd b asic b la ck e xis te nce s u ch a s v agra ncy, p eti t la rc eny,

pub lic d ru nkenness a nd d is o rd erlin ess, g am blin g, a nd b re ach o f c o ntr a ct (b ehav io rs th at o fte n a m ounte d to ta lk in g, w alk in g, o r

bre ath in g in th e p re se nce o f th e w ro ng w hite p ers o n). It a ls o c harts th e p ro cess b y w hic h fr e e b la ck p eo ple w ere c o nv erte d in to

co m modifia b le u nits o f u nfr e e la b or a nd s a d is ti c p le asu re th ro ugh b anal c o urtr o om b ure aucra ti c r itu als s u ch a s th e b ail o r fin e/fe e

hearin g.

A s n o te d

ab ove, th e fo rm ati o ns o f n eo sla v ery is su in g fr o m su ch le gal v io le nce ra nged fr o m th e p uta ti v ely re gula te d ,

ord in ary , a nd n o np ecunia ry “ in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e” fo und o n th e c hain g ang a nd p ris o n p la nta ti o n to z o nes o f o penly p riv ati z e d

penal s la v ery , s u ch a s c o nv ic t l e asin g a nd th e c o unty -le v el c o nso rt o f th at g eno cid al s y ste m k no w n a s

crim in al- s u re ty .

B y fo cusin g

main ly o n th e l a tte r a nd l e sse r k no w n o f th ese tw o m echanis m s o f th e b la ck n eo sla v e tr a d e, I w ill a d dre ss th e j u rid ic al m yth m akin g

and c o lo r-b lin d s ta tu to ry v io le nce th at g av e a n a ll- to o-p ow erfu l a nd d ura b le a fte rlife to C hap te r 3 24 o f M ary la nd ’s 1 858–66 s la v e

co de, a nd th at o ffe re d e sse nti a l le gal c o ver to th e o vera ll p ostb ellu m m ass se iz u re , ru p tu re , a nd te rro riz in g o f fr e e b la ck m en,

wom en, a nd c hild re n d oub ly b ra nd ed a s

Neg ro

a nd

crim in al

—tw o m onik ers o f “ o nto lo gic al su b ord in ati o n” th at h av e b een a s

pro ducti v ely i n se p ara b le to U .S . e m pir e a s

sla very

a nd

in vo lu nta ry s e rv itu de.

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** “S om eo n e t o G o M y B ail” :

US v . R eyn old s

a n d t h e E ver-T urn in g W heel o f N eo sla very

The fo llo w in g s u rre al e xchange a nd b it o f e arly tw enti e ty -c entu ry s o cia l c o m menta ry r e p re se nts th e o penin g o f E . S ta gg W hiti n ’s

Pen al S erv itu de

( 1 912):

“W ill y o u b uy m e, S ah?” a sk ed a b oy c o nv ic t in a n A la b am a c o nv ic t c am p, w hen a p pro ached b y th e w rite r.

“W on’t y o u b uy m e o ut, S ah?” h e r e ite ra te d to th e r e jo in d er, “ I’ m n o t b uyin g n ig gers .” “ It’ ll o nly c o st y o u $ 20,

Sah, a n’ I’ ll w ork fe r y o u a s lo ng a s y o u s a y. I’s e fin ed $ 1.0 0, S ah, a nd g o t $ 75 c o sts . I’s e w ork ed o ff a ll b ut

$20. D o b uy m e o ut, S ah, p le ase d o.” T he w ail w as r a is e d b y a s m all b oy o f f o urte en y ears , w ith b la ck s k in , i n

a p arti c ula r c am p, y et th e a p peal i s th e a p peal o f m any th o usa nd s w ho f r o m w ant, d is e ase , o r e v il e nv ir o nm ent

hav e p asse d f o r a ti m e o ut o f o ur w orld i n to th e h ell o n e arth w hic h w e, i n o ur w is d om , h av e p re p are d f o r th em ;

th e a p peal r e co gniz e d th e e co no m ic s ta tu s o f o ur p enal s y ste m .

The s ta tu s o f th e c o nv ic t i s th at o f o ne i n p enal s e rv itu d e— th e l a st s u rv iv in g v esti g e o f th e o ld s la v e s y ste m .

Whiti n ’s te xt w as a p ris o n r e fo rm is t w ork s p onso re d b y th e N ati o nal C om mitte e o n P ris o n L ab or, a n o rg aniz a ti o n th at p ro m ote d a

co nv ers io n o f th e p ro fit- c ente re d n ati o nal p enite nti a ry s y ste m i n to a w age-b ase d , r e gula te d ,

and u nifo rm s y ste m o f i n d ustr ia l tr a in in g

and r e d em pti v e in d iv id ual r e fo rm . N otw ith sta nd in g its p ro m in ent p la cem ent a t th e h ead o f th e te xt, W hiti n ’s e xchange w ith th e b oy

“w ith b la ck s k in ”— alo ng w ith a h o rrify in g p ho to o f a g ro up o f s tr ip e-c la d b la ck m en a nd a y o ung b oy s h o w n s e ate d , s h ackle d , a nd

lo ng-c hain ed to a tr e e a t a n u nid enti fie d c hain -g ang c am p— re p re se nt th e e xte nt o f th e b ook’s tr e atm ent o f th e r a cia l d im ensio ns o f

what th e p enal r e fo rm er d esc rib es a s “ th e l a st v esti g e o f th e o ld s la v e s y ste m .” D esp ite h is a tte m pte d n arra ti v e e v acuati o n f r o m th e

site o f s o uth ern n eo sla v ery , h o w ev er, th e w rite r’s b rie f i n te ra cti o n w ith th e i m pris o ned a d ole sc ent c hild f o rc es u s to h alt a t th e v ery

mom ent h e w ould h av e u s d ep art a lo ng th e m ain v ecto rs o f th e te xt. W hiti n ’s r e sp onse to th e u nnam ed b oy’s a tte m pte d m ark eti n g o f

his o w n b ody i n th e n am e o f f r e ein g h im se lf f r o m th e c o nv ic t c am p—

I’m n ot b uyin g n ig gers

—carrie s e no ugh i n th e w ay o f l o ad ed

meanin g to d em and th at w e s ta y w ith th e y o ung b oy, a t a p la ce a nd ti m e th at a f o otn o te to th e e nco unte r te rs e ly i n fo rm s u s i s “ B anner

Min e, A la b am a, M ay 1 911 .”

In d eed , th e d ate lin e a lo ne c arrie s a g rim e cho o f th e u rg ency h eard in th e u nnam ed p ris o ner’s e ntr e aty fo r th e n o rth ern to uris t to

“b uy” h im o ut o f th e c am p. T hat i s , th e “ w ail” h e d esc rib es a s e m itti n g f r o m a s o lita ry

nig ger b oy

a ctu ally a m ounte d to a c ho ru s o f

haunti n g to nes, th e l o ud est o f w hic h w ere th o se s ti ll r e v erb era ti n g f r o m th e c lo se ly b urie d c o rp se s o f 1 11 o f th e c hild ’s f e llo w b la ck

male p ris o n s la v es w ho w ere k ille d i n a n e xp lo sio n a t th e c o al m in e j u st d ays b efo re W hiti n ’s a rriv al.

W ith th e a b se nt p re se nce o f

th is re v enant c ho ru s in m in d , I a m c o ncern ed w ith h o w th e w hite n o rth ern re fo rm er’s o ffh and ed b ra nd is h in g o f th e q uin te sse nti a l

sig nifie r o f b la ck s u b hum anity , fu ngib ility , a nd z e ro -d egre e a lte rity a ctu ally b ears c riti c al s ig nific ance in re sp ect to th e d ecla re d

su b je ct m atte r o f his b ook in so fa r as it exp re sse s in sta rk fa sh io n th e d egre e to w hic h w hite su p re m acy— wheth er

so uth ern -

anach ro nis tic

o r

north ern

- pro gre ssiv e

—re ste d a t th e f o und ati o n o f th e s y ste m o f n ati o nal p enal s e rv itu d e th at W hiti n w as h o pin g to

fa sh io n i n to a m ore “ ev olv ed ” i m age. A lo ng th ese l in es, a m ore s p ecific c o ncern i n r e sp ect to th e s c ene h as to d o w ith th e v ery f a ct

th at th e w hite p enal r e fo rm er c o uld h av e a ctu ally p urc hase d ( o r a t le ast r e nte d ) a b la ck n eo sla v e c hild fo r $ 20 a t a c o nv ic t le ase

cam p n early fifty y ears a fte r th e A nnap olis c o urth o use a ucti o nin gs o f H arrie t P urd y, R ic hard H arris , a nd th e o th er c rim in ally

bra nd ed “ fr e e” b la ck b odie s th at I i n tr o duced a t th e b egin nin g o f th is c hap te r. N otw ith sta nd in g W hiti n ’s a tte m pt a t u sin g th e e xchange

as a re p re se nta ti v e p oin t o f d ep artu re fo r h is

dis c ussio n o f in d ustr ia liz e d p unis h m ent in n o rth ern p enite nti a rie s, so m eth in g v ery

parti c ula r w as a t w ork i n th e f a ct th at th e u nnam ed b oy k new f u ll w ell th at th e c o nv ic t l e ase c am p i n w hic h h e a nd h und re d s o f o th er

bla ck m ale s w ere e nto m bed c o uld b e c o nv erte d i n to a v ir tu al a ucti o n b lo ck— th at a s a l e gally f u ngib le b ody h e c o uld b e s u b le ase d

as e asily a s h e w as o rig in ally le ase d , th ere b y e xchangin g o ne fo rm o f p riv ati z e d p ub lic n eo sla v ery , th e c o nv ic t le ase c am p, fo r

ano th er, “ crim in al- s u re ty .”

A v aria nt o f a w id esp re ad a nd n eb ulo us s ta te -p ro fite erin g a p para tu s o f le asin g p ub lic s la v es to p riv ate p la nte rs a nd in d ustr ia l

co ncern s, th e s u re ty s y ste m w as to ute d a s a “ hum ane” c o ntr a ctu a l a v enue b y w hic h c rim in ally b ra nd ed b la ck s u b je cts c o uld a v o id

th e b ru ta liti e s o f th e c hain g ang a nd c o nv ic t le ase c am p th ro ugh b eco m in g p arty to a c o urt- a d m in is te re d p ris o n la b or c o ntr a ct.

Usu ally o ccurrin g w hile th e b la ck s u b je ct w as l ite ra lly s itti n g i n a j a il c ell o r s ta nd in g b efo re a l o cal j u d ge f a cin g th e p ossib ility o f

bein g s e nt to a “ hell o n e arth ” s u ch a s B anner M in e, it in v olv ed a p uta ti v ely c o nse nsu al a gre em ent w here b y a n in d iv id ual w hite

neo sla v e b uyer, e up hem is ti c ally d esc rib ed a s th e “ su re ty ,” w ould p ost th e e xo rb ita nt fe es a nd c o sts a sso cia te d w ith th e b la ck

su b je ct’ s a lle ged p etty c rim e in e xchange fo r h is “ co nfe ssio n o f ju d gm ent.” U pon s ig nin g a c o urt- a p pro ved c o ntr a ct w ith th e w hite

bond ho ld er, th e b la ck s u b je ct w as le gally c o nju re d fr o m a w ould -b e p ub lic s la v e in to a p ub lic ly b orn e p riv ate p eo n w ho w as

fo rc ed to s u p -p ly u nfr e e la b or— am ong v ario us o th er u nsp oken a nd u neco no m ic fo rm s o f te rro r-rid den tr a v ail— to th e s u re ty u nti l

th e a m ount p oste d h ad b een “ w ork ed o ff.” In A la b am a a nd G eo rg ia , w here s u ch a rra ngem ents w ere c o difie d in s ta te la w , th e s ta te

su p plie d a s ta tu to ry g uara nte e th at th e in d iv id ual c o nv ic t- le sse e w ould r e ceiv e a r e tu rn o n h is in v estm ent b y m akin g th e p ris o ner’s

bre ach o f c o ntr a ct w ith th e s u re ty a c rim in al o ffe nse . I n s u ch c ase s, th e b la ck s u b je ct c o uld , a t th e d is c re ti o n o f th e c o urt, e ith er b e

re arre ste d a nd s e nt to th e c hain g ang o r r e b ound to a p riv ate m aste r f o r a n e v en l o nger p erio d th an s ti p ula te d i n th e o rig in al l e ase .

The fr e q uency o f s u ch n eo sla v e c o ntr a cts w as s o g re at in c erta in s o uth ern m unic ip aliti e s th at th eir c o urth o use s b ecam e d e fa cto

unfr e e l a b or a gencie s f o r l o cal p la nte rs a nd i n d ustr ia lis ts . A s h is to ria n W alte r W ils o n p oin ts o ut i n a n a rti c le p ub lis h ed i n

Harp er’s

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Month ly

in th e e arly 1 930s, th e p ecunia ry g ain a sso cia te d w ith c o nv ic t le asin g, c rim in al- s u re ty , a nd o th er c usto m ary “ fe e/c o st”

cata ly ze d s y ste m s o f b la ck p ris o ner tr a d in g w as n o t lim ite d to th e n ear-a b so lu te s u rp lu s v alu e o ffe re d to p riv ate c o ncern s; th at is ,

ju st i n th e c ase o f c o nv ic t l e asin g, th e s u b m is sio n o f a n u nto ld n um ber o f

bla ck p ris o ners to c rim in al- s u re ty a nd o th er r a cia liz e d b ail

arra ngem ents d esig ned s p ecific ally f o r m is d em eanants w as b ase d o n a l u cra ti v e s y ste m o f l o caliz e d

public p ro fite erin g

th at fe d a n

overa rc hin g p ub lic /p riv ate n eo sla v ery c o m ple x: “ A sid e fr o m p ris o n o ffic ia ls a nd p riv ate b usin ess m en w ho p ro fit fr o m c o nv ic t

la b or, th ere is a no th er g ro up o f m en w ho p ro fit fr o m c o nv ic t sla v es. S heriffs , ju d ges, c le rk s, a nd o th ers se rv e a s e m plo ym ent

agents . . . . U nd er th e n o to rio us f e e s y ste m l a w -a nd -o rd er e nfo rc em ent, o ffic ia ls a re p aid c o m mis sio n o n th e b asis o f th e n um ber o f

arre sts a nd c o nv ic ti o ns th ey s e cure .” A fte r c iti n g th e v ery in sta nce ju st d is c usse d o f th e c hild a t B anner M in e h av in g to w ork o ff

se v enty -fiv e d olla rs in “ co sts ” fo r a p etty o ffe nse th at d em and ed o nly a o ne-d olla r fin e, W ils o n g o es o n to d esc rib e th e lu cra ti v e

natu re o f th e w id esp re ad lo cal tr a d e in b la ck c o nv ic ts fo r p ub lic o ffic ia ls in b oth M is sis sip pi a nd A la b am a— in clu d in g th e v ery

co unty in w hic h th e y o ung b oy w as lik ely c o nv ic te d b efo re b ein g d is a p peare d to B anner M in e: “ A cco rd in g to le ad in g c iti z e ns o f

Ala b am a, th e s h eriff o f J e ffe rs o n c o unty i n 1 912 w as e arn in g $ 50,0 00 to $ 80,0 00 a y ear i n f e es. A c le rk sh ip i n th e c o unty s e at w as

worth a t le ast $ 25,0 00 in fe es. S ev era l s h eriffs in M is sis sip pi in 1 930 e arn ed o ver $ 20,0 00 e ach. T he le ad in g o ne m ad e $ 24,3 50.

The a v era ge f o r e ig hty -tw o c o unti e s w as o nly s lig htl y l e ss th an $ 6,0 00.”

A dju ste d f o r i n fla ti o n, th e $ 50,0 00 c o nse rv ati v e e sti m ate

of th e J e ffe rs o n c o unty s h eriff ’s b ounty fr o m th e c o nv ic t tr a d e in 1 912 w ould e q ual w ell o ver $ 1.1 m illio n in to day’s d olla rs ; a nd ,

ev en th e $ 6,0 00 D ep re ssio n-e ra a v era ge f o r s h eriffs i n th e r e sp ecti v e M is sis sip pi c o unti e s c ite d i n W ils o n’s p oll w ould e q uate to a

yearly n eo sla v e tr a d e c o m mis sio n o f a p pro xim ate ly $ 81,3 00.

This l a rg ely i g no re d p ub lic d im ensio n o f th e o vera ll p ro fite erin g o n i m pris o ned s o uth ern b la ck b odie s th ro w s i n to s ta rk r e lie f th e

earlie r r e fe re nced p ro ducti v e h yb rid ity a nd v ir tu al i n d iv is ib ility o f p ub lic a nd p riv ate f o rm ati o ns o f te rro r a nd i n carc era ti o n w aged

again st th e fr e e b la ck p opula ti o n as a w ho le sin ce th e p assa ge o f th e T hir te enth A mend m ent. H ow ev er, no tw ith sta nd in g th is

in cestu o us i n te rfa ce o f p ub lic a nd p riv ate i n te re sts i n th e p ro je ct o f b la ck r e ensla v em ent, j u rid ic al i n te rv enti o ns a gain st th e o vera ll

sy ste m o f p ostb ellu m s ta te -s a ncti o ned “ in d eb te d s e rv itu d e” d efin ed p eo nage i n g enera l, a nd c rim in al- s u re ty i n p arti c ula r, th ro ugh th e

lib era l f r a m es o f c o ntr a ct, i n d iv id ual o blig ati o n, a nd p riv ate h o sti lity r a th er th an a s s ta te -s a ncti o ned n eo sla v ery b ase d o n s tr u ctu ra l

white s u p re m acy.

I n

US v . R eyn old s

( 1 914), th e f ir s t o f th e S up re m e C ourt p eo nage c ase s d ealin g s p ecific ally w ith c rim in al- s u re ty ,

th is p arti ti o nin g o f th e p ub lic a nd p riv ate w as ta ken to its m ost a b su rd e xtr e m e g iv en th e s ta te ’s c entr a l r o le a s tr a d er,

bro ker, a nd

neo sla v e p atr o lle r w ith in th at s y ste m . In d eed , a s in th e c ase o f th e s u p pose d “ v in d ic ati o n” o f b la ck c iti z e nsh ip fo und in th e C iv il

Rig hts A ct o f 1 866, th e o ste nsib le a v enue o f re d re ss p ro ffe re d in

Reyn old s

a gain st a p arti c ula r fo rm o f in v olu nta ry se rv itu d e

ulti m ate ly r e p re se nte d a f u rth er s o lid ific ati o n o f th e s ta te ’s s o vere ig n r ig ht to r e ensla v e th e c o nta m in ati n g b la ck p re se nce w ith in th e

nati o nal b ody.

The c ase in v olv ed a b la ck m an, E d R iv ers , w ho w as a rre ste d in M onro e C ounty , A la b am a, in M ay 1 910, a nd c harg ed w ith th e

crim e o f p etty l a rc eny. J u st a s i n th e c ir c um sta nce o f th e y o ung b oy a t B anner M in e, R iv ers ’s p overty a nd d is p osse ssio n w ere l e gally

tr a nsm ute d i n to th e c o nd iti o n o f p ossib ility f o r h is p enal e nsla v em ent th ro ugh th e b anal o pera ti o n o f i n here ntl y e xcessiv e b ail. W hile

th e fin e a sso cia te d w ith h is a lle ged p etty th eft a m ounte d to $ 15.0 0, th e fe es th at w ere le v ie d b y th e c o urt a m ounte d to $ 43.7 5— an

utte rly u nim agin ab le a m ount f o r a l a nd le ss a gra ria n s u b je ct w ho m ost c erta in ly w ould h av e n ev er h ad a nyth in g c lo se to th at s u m o f

cash o n h and a t a ny p oin t in h is life . A t th e in ev ita b le a ckno w le d gm ent o f R iv ers ’s in ab ility to r a is e n early $ 60, th e la w ’s s w iv el

pre ro gati v e in re sp ect to its hand lin g o f th e crim in aliz e d b la ck b ody sw ung in to im med ia te and effic ie nt m oti o n. In o rd er to

re cup era te R iv ers ’s m anufa ctu re d d eb t to s o cie ty , th e s ta te ’s p enal c o de a llo w ed th e c o urt l a ti tu d e e ith er to tr a nsp ort h im d ir e ctl y to

th e c hain g ang, th ere b y g le anin g th e m oney th ro ugh h is p ub lic n eo sla v e l a b or, o r l e ase h im a s a p riv ate “ se rv ant” ( o r p eo n), th ere b y

re tr ie v in g th e m oney in th e fo rm o f th e s u re ty ’s b ond p aym ent. In o rd er to a v oid th e p ro te an fo rm s o f d eath th at h e k new h e w ould

fa ce in a t le ast s ix ty -e ig ht d ays o n a s o uth ern A la b am a c hain g ang, R iv ers e le cte d to s ig n a s u re ty c o ntr a ct w ith a w hite m an, J . A .

Reyno ld s, w ho , u nlik e W hiti n , w as in d eed in te re ste d in “ b uyin g n ig gers ” w hen h e a rriv ed a t th e M onro e C ounty c o urth o use o n a

sp rin g d ay i n 1 910.

Riv ers u lti m ate ly s ig ned a d ocum ent w ith h is s u re ty , w hic h r e ad i n p art:

I . . . E d R iv ers , a gre e to w ork a nd la b or fo r h im , th e s a id J . A . R eyno ld s o n h is p la nta ti o n in M onro e C ounty ,

Ala b am a, a nd u nd er h is d ir e cti o n a s a f a rm h and to p ay f in e a nd c o sts f o r th e te rm o f 9 m onth s a nd 2 4 d ays, a t

th e r a te o f $ 6.0 0 p er m onth , to geth er w ith m y b oard , l o dgin g, a nd c lo th in g d urin g th e s a id ti m e o f h ir e , s a id ti m e

co m mencin g o n th e 4 th d ay o f M ay, 1 910, a nd e nd in g o n th e 2 8th d ay o f F eb y., 1 911 , p ro vid ed s a id w ork i s n o t

dangero us i n c hara cte r.

Riv ers w ould s e rv e o nly a m onth ’s ti m e o n R eyno ld s’s p la nta ti o n b efo re a tte m pti n g to e xtr ic ate h im se lf f r o m th e c o urt- a d m in is te re d

peo nage c o ntr a ct. U pon h is e sc ap e, h e w as im med ia te ly r e arre ste d u nd er th e p ro vis io ns o f A la b am a c rim in al c o de ( 1 907), s e cti o n

6846, w hic h c alle d fo r th e c ap tu re o f a ny s u b je ct w ho “ w ith o ut g o od a nd s u ffic ie nt e xcuse ” fa ile d “ to d o th e a ct, o r p erfo rm th e

se rv ic e” o w ed to th e s u re ty . T he c o de a ls o a llo w ed f o r a n a sse ssm ent o f m ore f in es a nd c o sts , a nd f o r th e p ris o ner to b e e ith er s e nt

to th e c hain g ang o r r e so ld i n to p eo nage f o r a n e v en l o nger d ura ti o n. I n R iv ers ’s c ase , h e w as g iv en a s y m bolic o ne-c ent f in e o n to p

of w hat w as l e ft o f th e o rig in al $ 15.0 0, a lo ng w ith a no th er $ 87.0 5 i n p hanto m “ co sts .” A fte r th e n ew b ond w as p ro no unced , R iv ers

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** once a gain a tte m pte d to a v oid th e c hain g ang b y sig nin g y et a no th er su re ty c o ntr a ct w ith G . W . B ro ughto n— a d ocum ent th at,

acco rd in g to th e i n cre ase d a m ount o f f e es l e v ie d a fte r h is f ir s t e sc ap e, c alle d f o r R iv ers to w ork a s a p eo n f o r w ell o ver a y ear. T he

fa cts r e p orte d i n th e c ase c ulm in ate d w ith R iv ers a gain e sc ap in g h is p eo n m aste r, o nly to b e r e arre ste d o nce a gain .

In o ffe rin g th e o pin io n f o r th e c ase , J u sti c e D ay to ok p ain s to p ro ve th e r a th er a sto nis h in g th esis th at c rim in al- s u re ty r e p re se nte d a

co m ple te ly p riv ate a ffa ir b etw een tw o fr e ely c o ntr a cti n g in d iv id uals , a p ortr a yal th at n egle cte d to h o ld c ulp ab le th e c entr a l s ta te

acto rs — th e p olic e, th e c o urt, a nd th e g enera l r a cis t l e gal s tr u ctu re — with o ut w ho m th e s u re ty “ co ntr a ct” w ould n ev er h av e o ccurre d

in th e f ir s t p la ce. I n s p ite o f th e s ta te ’s c entr a l r o le i n e v ery s te p o f th e p ro cess, th e c o urt c la im ed th at th e m om ent R iv ers ’s b ond w as

paid a nd h e w alk ed o ut o f th e c o urth o use w ith R eyno ld s, h e i m med ia te ly c ease d to b e a p ris o ner a nd b ecam e p arty to a c o nse nsu al

co ntr a ct b etw een a

work er

a nd a n

em plo yer,

th ere b y m akin g h is la b or u nd er th e th re at o f a rre st fo r b re ach o f c o ntr a ct a s p ecie s o f

priv ate i n v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e b ase d o n d eb t, o r p eo nage:

When th us a t l a b or,

th e c o nvic t i s w ork in g u nder a c o ntr a ct

w hic h h e h as m ad e w ith h is s u re ty . H e i s to w ork

unti l th e a m ount w hic h th e s u re ty h as p aid h im — th e s u m o f th e f in e a nd c o sts — is p aid . T he s u re ty h as p aid th e

Sta te a nd th e s e rv ic e r e nd ere d i s to r e im burs e h im . T his i s th e r e al s u b sta nce o f th e tr a nsa cti o n. T he te rm s o f th e

co ntr a ct a re a gre ed u p on b y th e c o ntr a cti n g p arti e s, a s th e r e su lt o f th eir o w n n ego ti a ti o ns . . . i n r e gard to w hic h

th e S ta te h as n o t b een c o nsu lte d . ( 1 46)

The c ir c um sc rip ti o n o f th e sta te -b orn e sy ste m o f c rim in al- s u re ty w ith in th e n arro w p ara m ete rs o f “ fr e e” la b or n ego ti a ti o n a nd

exp lo ita ti o n w as ta ken e v en fu rth er in J o hn W . D av is ’s b rie f fo r th e U nite d S ta te s: “ T he te rm s, ti m e, a nd c hara cte r o f s e rv ic e a re

matte rs o f

pure ly p riv a te c o ntr a ct

b etw een tw o p arti e s, w ith w hic h th e s ta te h as n o c o ncern , n o tw ith sta nd in g th e re q uir e m ent o f

ap pro val b y th e ju d ge; a nd u nti l th e c o nv ic t h as in s o m e w ay b ro ken h is a gre em ent th e S ta te h as

wash ed its h ands o f th e w hole

tr a nsa ctio n.

” 56

In th e c le are st p ossib le r e nd erin g o f th e la w ’s a b su rd a p plic ati o n o f th e lib era l d is c o urs e o f c o ntr a ctu al “ fr e e w ill” to z o nes o f

ra cia l a p arth eid , c o lle cti v e d is p osse ssio n, a nd s ta te d om in ati o n, th e c o urt tu rn ed a b lin d e ye to th e a ctu al c ir c um sta nces o f te rro r

and p hysic al j e o pard y f a ced b y th e s u p pose d ly w illfu l a gent w ho m i t u nco nsc io usly r e fe rs to a s “ th e c o nv ic t.”

M ore o ver, i n d o in g

so , it a ls o n egle cte d to r e co gniz e th e s ta te ’s p ecunia ry in te re st in th e p ostb ellu m r e p ro ducti o n o f b la ck a lie nab ility — ho w fa r fr o m

bein g d is in te re ste d r e fe re es o f th e s u re ty a rra ngem ent, l o cal m unic ip aliti e s, c o urts , p olic e, l a w yers , a nd c le rk s w ere a ctu ally a w ash

in th e m oney a nd p ow er g enera te d a t e v ery sta ge o f th is p arti c ula r v ecto r o f th e o vera ll tr a d e in c rim in aliz e d so uth ern b la ck

bodie s.

S uch c o nsid era ti o ns a llo w u s to r e co gniz e th at in s u b m itti n g to w ork a s R eyno ld s’s p eo n, R iv ers w as n o t “ agre ein g” to a

co ntr a ct b ut h o pin g to a v oid th e z e ro -d egre e te rro r, n ata l a lie nati o n, a nd a b je cti o n th at c erta in ly a w aite d h im o n th e c hain g ang. In

th is re gard , his su p pose d fr e ely nego ti a te d “co nse nt” to th e su re ty arra ngem ent actu ally am ounte d to a H obso n’s cho ic e— a

sa gacio us b lu es r e cko nin g w ith th e g ra d ie nt n atu re o f c iv il, l iv in g, a nd p re m atu re d eath i n c arc era l A meric a. I n o th er w ord s, n o o ne

in a c o m munity r a v aged b y th e g eno cid al o pera ti o ns o f th e c hain g ang a nd th e s y ste m o f c o nv ic t le asin g w ould e v er c ho ose

not

av oid b ein g c o ffle d o n a s o uth ern c hain g ang o r a t B anner c o al m in e e v en fo r a d ay, a nd e v en w hen s u ch “ cho ic e” in v olv ed b ein g

tr a nsm ute d i n to a n o bje ct o f l iq uid m erc hand is e a nd s u b m is sio n to y et a no th er h o rrify in g s p ecie s o f n eo sla v ery i n th e f o rm o f s ta te -

ad m in is te re d p eo nage.

Furth erm ore , a ny n o ti o n o f a s tr ic tl y p riv ate a sp ect to th e s u re ty a rra ngem ent i s e xp lo ded b y th e f a ct th at n o w hite m an w ould e v er

hav e a gre ed to s u p ply th e f e es a nd c o sts a sso cia te d w ith a b la ck p ers o n’s a lle ged p etty c rim e w ere i t n o t f o r th e c o erc iv e th re at o f

re arre st is su ed b y th e s ta te , a fa ct th at th e c o urt a ctu ally a d m its e v en a s it a tte m pts to r e d uce th e s u re ty s y ste m to a p ure ly p riv ate

affa ir : “ T his l a b or i s p erfo rm ed u nd er th e c o nsta nt

th re at o f c o erc io n a nd th re at o f a no th er p ossib le a rre st a nd p ro se cuti o n i n c ase h e

vio la te s th e la b or c o ntr a ct w hic h h e h as m ad e w ith th e s u re ty , a nd th is fo rm o f c o erc io n is a s p ote nt a s it w ould h av e b een h ad th e

la w p ro vid ed fo r th e s e iz u re a nd c o m puls o ry s e rv ic e o f th e c o nv ic t” (1 46). A s s ta te d a b ove, th e s p ectr u m o f c o erc io n u nd er th e

“hum ane” sy ste m s of crim in al- s u re ty and peo nage exte nd ed fa r beyo nd th e th re at of re arre st, ho w ev er; in th e th o usa nd s of

co m pla in ts r e gis te re d a t th e D ep artm ent o f J u sti c e b y b la ck p eo nage p ris o ners , th e r a nge o f v io le nt r e p re ssio n in clu d es b ut is n o t

lim ite d to r a p e, w hip pin g, k id nap pin g, a nd m ass m urd er.

Day’s co nstr u cti o n of crim in al- s u re ty as a m atte r of excep ti o nal priv ate la b or exp lo ita ti o n ra th er th an a m atte r of banal

pub lic /p riv ate n eo sla v ery c ulm in ate s w ith h is c la im th at th e c o urt- a d m in is te re d p eo nage c o ntr a ct a ctu ally s u b m itte d R iv ers to a

more p ain fu l b ra nd o f in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e th an h e w ould h av e fa ced o n a c hain g ang— th at is , th e v ery s p ace o f a b je cti o n th at h e

and c o untl e ss o th er b la ck p eo ple tr ie d s o d esp era te ly to a v oid i n e le cti n g to b ein g s o ld i n o pen c o urt a s p eo ns. F or th e c o urt, th e f a ct

th at, u nd er th e te rm s o f th e o rig in al c o ntr a ct, R iv ers f a ced a th eo re ti c ally g re ate r d ura ti o n o f l a b or a t th e h and s o f R eyno ld s th an h e

would h av e w hile c hain ed to o th er b la ck m en a s a n o ffic ia lly re co gniz e d sla v e o f th e sta te q ualifie d th e sy ste m o f su re ty a s

decid ed ly w ors e th an its p ub lic co unte rp art: “U nd er th e A la b am a C ode, he m ig ht hav e b een se nte nced to hard la b or fo r th e

co unty . . . f o r 6 8 d ays a s h is m axim um s e nte nce. . . . U nd er th e c o ntr a ct n o w b efo re u s, h e w as r e q uir e d to l a b or f o r n in e m onth s a nd

tw enty -fo ur d ays, th us b ein g r e q uir e d to p erfo rm a m uch m ore o nero us s e rv ic e th an if h e h ad b een s e nte nced u nd er th e s ta tu te , a nd

co m mitte d to h ard la b or.” T he c o urt g o es o n to c o nte nd th at th e s ta tu to ry a llo w ance o f th e p eo n’s r e arre st a nd th e e v er-in cre asin g

deb t o w ed to th e s u re ty f o r f u rn is h in g h is b ond f u rth er i llu str a te th e r e la ti v e h ein o us q uality o f th is s y ste m o f p eo nage i n c o m paris o n

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** to o ffic ia l i n v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e: “ U nd er th is s ta tu te , th e s u re ty m ay c ause th e a rre st o f th e c o nv ic t f o r v io la ti o n o f h is l a b or c o ntr a ct.

He m ay b e s e nte nced a gain a nd p unis h ed fo r th is n ew o ffe nse , a nd . . . th e c o nv ic t is th us

ch ain ed to a n e ver-tu rn in g w heel o f

se rv itu de

” ( 1 46–47). O f c o urs e , g iv en th e c o urt’ s s tr a in ed a tte m pt a t d esc rib in g R iv ers ’s r o le i n th e s u re ty a rra ngem ent a s th at o f a

willfu lly c o ntr a cti n g fr e e la b ore r, th e q uesti o n th at im med ia te ly a ris e s is w hy— giv en th at h e w ould h av e k no w n in fin ite ly m ore

ab out th e in tr ic acie s o f th e s o uth ern “ w heel o f s e rv itu d e” th an th e h o no ra b le ju d ge c o uld e v er im agin e— would R iv ers w illfu lly

asse nt to th e s u re ty a rra ngem ent if it w ere s o m uch m ore a rd uo us

th an th e e xp erie nce o f o ffic ia l “ hard la b or” ? In h is c o ncurrin g

opin io n, O liv er W end ell H olm es atte m pte d to exp la in th is co ntr a d ic ti o n w ith in th e co urt’ s dep lo ym ent of th e dis c o urs e of

co ntr a ctu al f r e e w ill b y c allin g u p on th e ti m e-h o no re d r a cis t m yth o s o f b la ck i m pro vid ence, i g no ra nce, a nd i r re sp onsib ility : “ T here

se em s to m e n o th in g in th e T hir te enth A mend m ent o r th e R ev is e d [ p eo nage] S ta tu te s th at p re v ents a S ta te fr o m m ak-in g b re ach o f

co ntr a ct . . . a c rim e a nd p unis h in g i t a s s u ch. B ut i m puls iv e p eo ple w ith l ittl e i n te llig ence o r f o re sig ht m ay b e e xp ecte d to l a y h o ld

of a nyth in g th at a ffo rd s a r e lie f f r o m p re se nt p ain e v en th o ugh i t w ill c ause g re ate r tr o ub le b y a nd b y” ( 1 50).

Far fr o m a n a b erra nt m om ent o f ra cia l rh eto ric w ith in a n o th erw is e p ro gre ssiv e d ecis io n, H olm es’s o penly w hite s u p re m acis t

co m ment a ctu ally r e p re se nts a b old fa ce e xp re ssio n o f th e lib era l m yo pia a nd p ro ducti v e r a cia l a m nesia e xhib ite d in th e m ajo rity

opin io n its e lf, w hic h re m ark ab ly a tte m pts to u se th e fa cile a nd e co no m ic ally d ete rm in is ti c in d ex o f re la ti v e la b or-ti m e to is o la te

crim in al s u re ty a s e xcep ti o nally o nero us w hile n o rm aliz in g tw o o f th e m ost b ru ta l r e gim es o f o ffic ia l p unis h m ent in U .S . h is to ry —

th e c o unty c hain g ang a nd th e s ta te c o nv ic t le ase c am p. T he s p ecte r o f th ese tw o p ub lic /p riv ate p enal fo rm ati o ns h o vers o ver th e

enti r e d ecis io n, b ely in g th e a p pare nt e m pir ic al c erta in ty o f D ay’s p ortr a yal o f c rim in al- s u re ty a s m ore a rd uo us th an its n o m in ally

pub lic co unte rp arts and unv eilin g a fo und ati o nal ele m ent o f sta te te rro r ly in g at th e co re o f his p erfo rm ance o f lib era l le gal

pro gre ssiv is m . I n d eed , th e h aunti n g p re se nce o f th ese d om in ati v e a nd p ro fit- c ente re d s y ste m s o f p ub lic c arc era l te rro r i s a llu d ed to

in d ocum ents p erta in in g to th e c ase th at th e c o urt n egle cts to i n clu d e i n i ts s ta te m ent o f “ th e f a cts .” I n c o rre sp ond ence w ith th e U .S .

atto rn ey g enera l in p re p ara ti o n o f

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a s a te st c ase o f th e c o nsti tu ti o nality o f c rim in al- s u re ty , th e U .S . a tto rn ey fo r th e

South ern D is tr ic t o f A la b am a, W illia m H . A rm bre cht, r e v eals a s c ene th at i s c o nv enie ntl y l e ft o ut o f th e c o urt’ s n eat c o m puta ti o ns o f

th e re la ti v ely hum ane, o rd ere d , and te m pora lly d efin ite q ualiti e s o f p ub lic in v olu nta ry se rv itu d e: “It d oes no t ap pear in th e

in d ic tm ent, b ut it is tr u e th at R iv ers w as s e nt to h ard la b or fo r th e C ounty fo r m ore th an a y ear. In o rd er to b rin g h im b efo re th e

Gra nd J u ry I h ad to g et a n o rd er fr o m th e C ourt d ir e cti n g th at h e b e b ro ught h ere .

He w as b ro ught h ere in c h ain s w ith s h ackle s

riv ete d to h is le g s.

A fte r h e g av e te sti m ony to th e G ra nd J u ry , th e M ars h all to ok h im b ack to th e tu rp enti n e c am p w here h e w as

perfo rm in g h ard l a b or f o r th e C ounty .”

It is n o t c le ar o n w hic h d ay o f h is “ o ver a y ear” s e nte nce R iv ers w as le d fr o m a c o unty c hain -g ang c am p s itu ate d d eep in th e

woods o f s o uth ern A la b am a to th e g ra nd ju ry h earin g in s h ackle s a nd c hain s. H is o bje cti fic ati o n a nd m uzzlin g w ith in th e r itu aliz e d

le gal s to ry te llin g a re na o f th e c o urt o pin io n a ls o d is a llo w s a ny d is c ern ib le p orta l in to th e q uo ti d ia n r e gim ent o f th re ate ned d eath ,

chatte liz e d i n te rn m ent, a nd u nsp eakab le p ain th at h e e xp erie nced w ith e v ery p assin g m in ute a s h e w as d riv en u nd er a “ re d -h eife r,” a

bla ck-ja ck, o r a r ifle to th e f o re st, c o ffle d to o th er b la ck m en ( a nd b oys), a nd m ad e to d riv e “ cup s” a nd “ gutte rs ” i n to tr e es to “ catc h

re sin th at o oze d fr o m w ound s o pened b y a xe c uts th ro ugh th e b ark .”

W e a ls o a re n o t g iv en d eta ils a s to e xactl y h o w m uch m oney

was p ro cure d b y th o se p ro fit- a nd p le asu re -s e ekin g w hite m en in v olv ed in e v ery fa cet o f th e p uta ti v ely p ub lic tu rp enti n e c o ncern .

Was th e c am p o pera te d b y th e c o unty its e lf o r a p riv ate c o rp ora ti o n th at h ad s u ccessfu lly b id to le ase th e b odie s o f R iv ers a nd h is

fe llo w n eo sla v es fo r “ $ 11 a h e ad ”? H ow m any o f th e c am p p ris o ners w ere s u b je cte d to th e tu rp enti n in g c o ffle w ell a fte r th eir

offic ia l r e le ase d ate b ecause o f a n e sc ap e a tte m pt o r b ecause b oth th eir d ate a nd b ody h ad b een o blite ra te d f r o m r e tr ie v ab le m em ory

th ro ugh th e s o rc ery o f r a cia l s ta te d ocum enta ti o n? H ow m any b la ck c ap ti v es w ere b urie d in u nm ark ed g ra v es in th e m id dle o f th e

woods a fte r d yin g f r o m “ natu ra l c ause s” a t th e a ge o f tw enty , o r b ein g “ str u ck b y l ig htn in g” o n a b rig ht s u nny d ay? D id th ese b uria l

mound s in clu d e th e d is h o no re d a nd d is (re )m em bere d b odie s o f b la ck w om en a nd g ir ls in te rn ed a t th e c am p ju st o ver a d ecad e

pre v io usly w hen w om en w ere s ti ll

mix ed i n to t h e m en

a t s u ch s p aces o f w hite s u p re m acis t m is o gynis t h o rro r? H ow m any c hild re n

of th ese w om en, b orn in to th is h ell o n e arth a s a re su lt o f th eir m oth ers h av in g b een ra p ed b y c am p g uard s, w ere a m ong th e

unre m em bere d d ead ? D id th e g uard s r e gula rly c ure fits o f b ore d om o n r a re o ff- d ays b y o rd erin g p ris o ners to “ str ik e it u p liv ely ”

with a f id dle o r d ance th e “ b uck a nd w in g”?

W hat i s c le ar f r o m m y e arlie r d is c ussio n o f th e te rro ris ti c o pera ti o n o f th e c hain g ang,

ho w ev er, is th at n o m atte r w heth er h e w as s h uttl e d to th e c o urth o use o n d ay o ne o r d ay o ne h und re d o f h is s e nte nce, th e te rro r a nd

ab je cti o n th at R iv ers f a ced , a s w ell a s c o untl e ss o th er b la ck s u b je cts w ho w ere l ite ra lly c hain ed to th e “ ev er-tu rn in g w heel” o f U .S .

neo sla v ery , o verflo w s th e c o urt’ s c ynic al r e d ucti o n o f th e “ o nero us” q ualiti e s o f im pris o nm ent to th e d ura ti o n o f in v olu nta ry la b or

su p plie d to th e c o nv ic t- s la v e m aste r o r e v en th e a m ount o f s u rp lu s v alu e e xtr a cte d f r o m th e e nto m bed b la ck b ody.

The e xam ple o f j u rid ic al m yth m akin g o ffe re d i n

Reyn old s

b ears a s ta rk r e se m bla nce to th e “ p ro gre ssiv e d ehum aniz a ti o n” f o und i n

Kasso n’s and S um ner’s earlie r le gis la ti v e call fo r th e su sp ensio n of th e co urth o use aucti o n blo ck and th e use of “no rm al”

in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e a s a m ore p ro per m eans o f d ealin g w ith th e p ro ble m o f fr e e in co rrig ib le b la ckness. H ow ev er, th e m ode o f

le gal lib era lis m p ro ffe re d in

Reyn old s

re p re se nts a n e v en m ore c hillin g e xp ositi o n o f th e v io le nt c ap aciti e s o f th e la w , s in ce in

offe rin g a n o m in al c heck o n a h yp erp ub lic v ers io n o f th e s u p pose d ly h erm eti c s y ste m o f p eo nage, th e c o urt d id n o t e v en p re te nd to

questi o n th e v alid -ity o f th e sta te ’s g enera liz e d le asin g o f b la ck b odie s; n o r w ould it d eig n to a ckno w le d ge th e p ub lic ly a ir e d

geno cid al e ffe cts th at th e le gal tr a nsp ositi o n o f fr e e b la ck p eo ple in to “ d uly c o nv ic te d ” c o m modifie d o bje cts w as p ro ducin g a t th e

very m om ent th e d ecis io n w as c ra fte d . L ik e th e p eo nage c ase s a s a w ho le ,

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w ould o ffe r o nly te p id re p ro of o f w hat it

co nstr u cte d a s a n a b erra nt a nd im pro perly e xecute d “ p riv ate ” b ra nch o f th e g enera l p ub lic /p riv ate tr a d e in b la ck c o nv ic ts . T he

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** co urt’ s s e em in g b lin d ness to th e re al e ffe cts o f p ub lic n eo sla v ery a ctu ally re p re se nte d a n in te re ste d lib era l a m nesia , a ju rid ic al

acco m modati o n a nd re p ro ducti o n o f th e h ugely p ro fita b le a nd s o cia lly e d ify in g d is a p peara nce, s a le , le as-in g, a nd s u b le asin g o f

bla ck p eo ple to p la ces lik e th e c o unty tu rp enti n e c am p a nd th e c hatte liz e d in d ustr ia l o pera ti o ns p osin g a s “ sta te p enite nti a rie s”

opera te d b y c o m panie s s u ch a s U .S . S te el, T ennesse e C oal a nd I r o n ( T C I) , a nd P ra tt C onso lid ate d C oal C om pany. A gain , a cco rd in g

to th e a b ho rre nt c o lo r-b lin d r a cia l l o gic o f th e c o urt, R iv ers ’s e xp erie nce o f b ein g “ chain ed ” to th e “ w heel o f s e rv itu d e” w ould h av e

been a lle v ia te d w ere h e o nly to h av e b een im med ia te ly d is a p peare d to th e p urp orte d ly m ore h um ane, r e gula riz e d , a nd p re d ic ta b le

liv in g d eath h e e nd ed u p e nd urin g o n th e c hain g ang.

Far fr o m c halle ngin g th e fu ngib le , d is p osa b le , a nd e nsla v ab le n atu re o f e m ancip ate d b la ckness,

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a ctu ally o ffe re d a

backd oor a ffir m ati o n o f th e g eno cid al s ta te -a d m in is te re d tr a d e i n b la ck b odie s th at b egan i m med ia te ly a fte r e m ancip ati o n, th e m ost

obvio us fo rm ati o n o f w hic h w as c o nv ic t le asin g ( a p riv ati z e d s y ste m th at w as n o th in g if n o t a s ta te -le v el v ers io n o f th e lo caliz e d

re nta l o f b la ck p ris o ners fo und in c rim in al- s u re ty ). T his e le p hant in th e w hite s u p re m acis t c o urtr o om is o penly a ckno w le d ged in

Dav is ’s b rie f fo r th e U nite d S ta te s: “ W e c o nced e . . . th at w hen a s e nte nce to h ard la b or h as b een im pose d it is e nti r e ly c o m pete nt

fo r th e S ta te e ith er to e m plo y th e c o nv ic t f o r i ts e lf o r to h ir e h im o ut f o r i ts p ro fit. H is ti m e

and la b or h av e b een c o nfis c ate d b y th e

Sta te a nd , w ith in C onsti tu ti o nal l im its ,

it m ay u se t h em a s i t s e es f it.

” 63

As I n o te d a b ove in m y d is c ussio n o f th e e up hem is ti c v io le nce o f th e te rm “ in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e,” p ost- 1 865 la w p re se nte d

vir tu ally n o lim it to th e p ain , te rro r, a nd p hysic al/p sy chic ru p tu re th e ra cia l s ta te c o uld v is it u p on th e “ d uly ” c o nv ic te d “ N egro .”

This d ub io usly c o nsti tu ti o nal fa ct is u nd erlin ed a t th e v ery e nd o f

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w ith th e tr u ncate d y et h o rrify in gly fa ta l a p peara nce o f

th e e xcep ti o n c la use : “ T here c an b e n o d oub t th at th e S ta te h as th e a uth o rity to i m pose i n v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e a s a

punis h m en t fo r a

crim e

. T his f a ct i s r e co gniz e d i n th e T hir te enth A mend m ent.” I n d eed th is u nim peachab le s o vere ig n r ig ht to r e ensla v e th e c rim in ally

and r a cia lly s ti g m ati z e d b ody i s a ctu ally r e p eate d i n e v ery s ta te a nd f e d era l c ase d ealin g w ith p eo nage f r o m

Cly a tt v . U nite d S ta te s

(1 904) o nw ard . T he g o th ic re em erg ence o f th e p enal e xcep ti o n in

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, a d ecis io n th at w as to h av e o ffe re d th e fr e e b la ck

popula ti o n a m odic um o f r e d re ss a gain st w hat h ad b een c ast a s a m ig ra ti o n o f v ario us a rc haic fo rm s o f in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e a nd

sla v ery in to th e tw enti e th c entu ry , u nd erlin es th e n ati o nal, s tr u ctu ra l, a nd p ub lic c hara cte r o f th e a p pare ntl y e xcep ti o nal, e p is o dic ,

and p riv ate b ra nd s o f w hite s u p re m acy f o und i n th e s p ecific s ta tu to ry p ra cti c e o f c rim in al- s u re ty a nd th e w id er s y ste m o f “ so uth ern ”

neo sla v ery . In fa ct, th e b ackd oor a llo w ance o f p ub lic n eo sla v ery in

Reyn old s

th ro ugh th e c o urt’ s m atte r-o f- fa ct w ie ld in g o f th e

excep ti o n c la use h as b een r e p lic ate d i n U .S . c o m mon l a w u p to o ur c urre nt m om ent o f m ass i n carc era ti o n, s in ce n early e v ery c ase i n

whic h a p ris o ner h as a tte m pte d to l a y c la im to th e e m ancip ati o n a m end m ent’ s s u p pose d p ro te cti o ns a gain st s la v ery a nd i n v olu nta ry

se rv itu d e h as b een q uash ed , w ith th e s ta te r e p eate d ly m ain ta in in g th at th e “ T hir te enth A mend m ent h as n o a p plic ati o n to a s itu ati o n

where a p ers o n i s h eld to a nsw er f o r v io la ti o ns o f a p enal s ta tu te .”

Read in th is lig ht, th is re la ti v ely o bsc ure c ase b egin s to ta ke o n a ra th er o m in o us g ra v ity , c o nnecti n g it to m ore c o m monly

re co gniz e d m om ents o f l e gal w hite s u p re m acy s u ch a s

Ple ssy v . F erg uso n

( 1 896), th e

Civ il R ig hts C ase s

( 1 883), a nd

Dre d S co tt v .

Sanfo rd

(1 857). U nlik e th ese m ore w ell- k no w n case s fr o m th e m id - to la te nin ete enth centu ry , ho w ev er,

Reyn old s

and o th er

decis io ns p erta in in g to p eo nage a p pearin g in th e e arly tw enti e th c entu ry re p re se nt s o m eth in g o f a h id den b ut te nacio usly p re se nt

danger— esp ecia lly w hen c o nsid ere d w ith r e sp ect to th e c urre nt m anife sta ti o n o f A meric a’s c entu rie s-o ld c o m ple x o f i n d ustr ia liz e d

chatte l c arc era lity . In so fa r a s th ey o ffe re d a p pare nt r e lie f fr o m o ne fo rm o f p riv ate s e rv itu d e w hile

sim ulta neo usly re affir m in g th e

div in e r ig ht o f th e l a w to tr e at th e c rim in aliz e d b la ck b ody

as i t s e es f it

, s u ch c ase s r e p re se nt th e w ays i n w hic h c o lo r-b lin d l ib era l

le gality c o nti n ues to f u ncti o n a s a n a ll- to o-d ura b le s a nctu ary f o r v ario us m odaliti e s o f r a cia l c ap ita lis t p atr ia rc hal d om in ati o n. T hey

als o s ig nal h o w th e g eno cid al p ra cti c es o f U .S . e m pir e r e m ain c lo aked u nd er th e p la ceb o-lik e d is c o urs e s o f lib era l r e fo rm , r ig hts

re co gniti o n, a nd c o lo r-b lin d in clu sio n. L ik e th e e m ancip ati o n a m end m ent its e lf, th e p ro gre ssiv e “ p ro te cti o n” o ffe re d in

Reyn old s

am ounte d to a lib era l le gal re p ro ducti o n and entr e nchm ent o f th e sta te ’s necro politi c al rig ht to p ub lic ly re ensla v e th e b la ck

popula ti o n a nd to m ake th e p enal e nsla v em ent o f a ll b odie s s ti g m ati z e d a s “ crim in al” a m atte r o f p ub lic in v estm ent to th e e nd o f

priv ate p ro fits ( a nd s a d is ti c p le asu re s) th at b oth c o rp ora te in te re sts a nd p uta ti v ely d is in te re ste d p urv eyo rs o f th e la w c o nti n ue to

enjo y.

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Chap te r 3

Angola P en it e n tia ry

The O nce a n d F utu re S la ve P la n ta tio n

We c harg e g enocid e— not o nly o f th e p ast, b ut o f th e f u tu re .

—Ossie D avis , P re fa ce to

We C harg e G en ocid e

The w hip it s e lf d id n ot m ake s la very w hat it w as. I t w as a le gal s y ste m , it w as a s y ste m o f le galit y . . . . S la very o nly to ok o n a noth er f o rm : in p ris o ns.

—Robert H illa ry K in g

J O HN

C E LR O Y

UNKNOW N

HIS T O RY.

H is n am e d oes n o t

re gis te r a m ong th e ra nks o f b la ck lib era ti o n fig hte rs , m usic ia ns, a nd

a th le te s w ho se im ages fille d pla ces lik e m y co lle ge dorm ito ry ro om in th e early 1990s— when, lik e m any of m y peers in

C alifo rn ia ’s p re -2 09 e ra ,

I p la ced p oste rs o f th o se s u ch a s M alc o lm X , B illie H olid ay, a nd T he C oup o n m y w alls , j ig sa w s ty le , i n

o rd er to a sse rt a b ud din g p oliti c al a nd s o cia l c o nsc io usn ess a nd to c o unte r th e h is to ric al e ra su re th at b arre d e v en th e i c o ns o f b la ck

p oliti c al a nd a rti s ti c l ife f r o m a n y s e rio us c o nsid era ti o n w ith in U .S . m ass m ed ia a nd e d ucati o nal c urric ula . N ot e v en b y th e ti m e th at

I b egan w ork in g o n th is b ook p ro je ct i n e arn est, y ears l a te r, a nd f o und m yse lf b ein g p ulle d n o rth w ard a lo ng U .S . H ig hw ay 6 1 f r o m

B ato n R ouge to A ngo la , L ouis ia na, d id I h av e a ny n o ti o n o f w ho J o hn M cE lr o y w as, a nd h o w m y g ho stl y e nco unte rs w ith h im d urin g

t h is re se arc h tr ip w ould b eco m e so fu nd am enta l to m y a tte m pt a t u nearth in g so m eth in g o f th e u nto ld a nd la rg ely u nre co vera b le

e xp erie nces o f c o untl e ss p ris o n s la v es w ho h av e b een o blite ra te d f r o m m em ory o nce d is a p peare d i n to d om ain s o f r a cia l s ta te te rro r

s u ch a s A ngo la , S ugarla nd ( T exas), P arc hm an ( M is sis sip pi) , a nd C um min s ( A rk ansa s). W hat w as c le ar to m e w hen I b egan th e h o ur-

l o ng d riv e f r o m th e s ta te c ap ito l to th e h eart o f W est F elic ia na P aris h w as th at I h ad a n i r re p re ssib le p itl ik e f e elin g i n m y s to m ach, a

l ite ra l n ause a

th at g re w s tr o nger th e c lo se r I c am e to th e f r o nt g ate s o f th e f u lly o pera ti o nal e ig hte en-th o usa nd -a cre s la v e p la nta ti o n

— a p la ce th at fir s t b egan c o nv erti n g b la ck m en, w om en, a nd c hild re n in to c hatte l in th e e arly n in ete enth c entu ry — and a g eo gra p hy

t h at to th is d ay c o nti n ues to p erfo rm s u ch m ass ( in )h um an c o nv ers io n u nd er i ts o ffic ia l n am e, L ouis ia na S ta te P enite nti a ry ( L SP).

The p it in m y s to m ach h ad a g re at d eal to d o w ith m y re co gniti o n th at a s I w as h ead in g to w ard th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n, I w as

r e tr a cin g a w ell- w orn g ro ove in a r o ad d esig nate d m ost o fte n fo r y o ung c rim in ally b ra nd ed b la ck m en fr o m p la ces lik e th e L ow er

N in th W ard in N ew O rle ans. I k new th at fo r th em th is r id e m ust fe el m ore lik e a p lu m meti n g to d eath a s th ey s it h and cuffe d in th e

b ack o f c o untl e ss p ris o n b use s a nd s h uttl e d i n m odern -d ay c o ffle s th ro ugh th e p ic tu re sq ue L ouis ia na c o untr y sid e, a nd a d ded to m ore

t h an f iv e th o usa nd a lr e ad y e nto m bed b odie s— 75 p erc ent to 8 0 p erc ent o f w ho m a re b la ck— and m any o f w ho m c an b e f o und a t th e

m om ent I a m w riti n g th ese w ord s, b ent a t th e w ais t, p ic kin g c o tto n, s o yb eans, a nd c o rn u nd er a rm ed g uard s o n h o rs e b ack, to ilin g a s

“ tw o-c ent m en” i n th e s a m e f ie ld s i n w hic h b la ck p ris o ners h av e b een s la v in g f o r w ell o ver tw o c entu rie s ( F ig ure 5 ).

I a sk ed m yse lf h o w d iffe re nt a tw enty -fiv e-y ear-o ld f r o m th e L ow er N in th W ard , o r N ew O rle ans E ast, o r S hre v ep ort, c o uld f e el

w hile b ein g d riv en to “ A ngo la ” u nd er a s e nte nce o f “ natu ra l l ife ,” th an th o se s u ch a s O la ud ah E quia no , o r c o untl e ss ( a nd n am ele ss)

o th ers f r o m A fr ic a’s w est c o ast a nd h in te rla nd , w ho , a s th ey a p pro ached th e s la v e s h ip w ere s u re th ey w ere to b e d ev oure d b y th e

c re w o r th o se a w aiti n g th em o n th e o th er s id e o f th e A tl a nti c . A re n o t th e in num era b le b lu es s o und in gs a nd s to rie s th at h av e b een

p asse d d ow n f o r g enera ti o ns w ith in b la ck c o m muniti e s a b out th e f a te o f th o se s e nt to th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n d is a rm in gly s im ila r to th e

h o rro r ta le s s h are d a m ong A fr ic an c o m moners o f w hat w as to b efa ll th em s h o uld th ey b e c o ffle d to th e b arra co on, s h elv ed w ith in

t h e b ow els o f th e sla v e sh ip , and tr a nsp orte d as fu ngib le co m moditi e s to p la ces su ch as th e v ery p la nta ti o n I w as ste ad ily

a p pro achin g o n a b eauti fu l s u m mer’s d ay i n th e e arly tw enty -fir s t c entu ry ?

Don’t c o m e to A ngola , th is is m urd er’s h om e . . .

T his w as th e c auti o nary re fr a in o f th e liv in g d ead te sti fy in g to A meric a’s

s e em in gly in te rm in ab le M id dle P assa ge th at I h eard e cho in g in m y m in d a s I c o nti n ued in elu cta b ly to w ard w hat is th e la rg est

e xp anse o f o ffic ia l p ris o n l a nd i n th e c o untr y ( if n o t th e w orld )— a r e v enant s o und f ir s t e m itte d b y b la ck c ap ti v es i n th e

early to m id -

t w enti e th c entu ry , w hen th ey w ere s ti ll p ro ducin g a s m uch a s tw elv e m illio n p ound s o f r e fin ed s u garc ane a t A ngo la i n a g iv en y ear

— a “ hell f a cto ry i n th e f ie ld s” o f W est F elic ia na P aris h , w hic h i s g re ate r i n to ta l a re a th an th e i s la nd o f M anhatta n.

As I tu rn ed o ff th e 6 1 a nd h ead ed n o rth w est a lo ng th e “ T unic a T ra ce,” a r o ad th at b egin s s o m e tw enty -tw o m ile s fr o m th e fr o nt

g ate s o f th e p ris o n, I w as s tr u ck b y a n aggin g th o ught th at h ad r e m ain ed w ith m e s in ce th e f ir s t ti m e I w ro te a b out A ngo la p la nta ti o n,

o r “ T he F arm ” (a s th e p ris o n is e up hem is ti c ally n ic knam ed ). T hat is , I c o nsid ere d th e a b so lu te im pond era b ility

of th e fa ct th at I

c o uld b e d riv in g to w ard m ore th an f iv e th o usa nd b odie s w are ho use d o n a n u nd ead s la v e p la nta ti o n— ev en i f th at m ass c ap ti v ity w as

p erfo rm ed und er th e nati o nal ra cia liz e d and narc o ti c iz in g dis c o urs e s of “co rre cti o ns,” “p ub lic sa fe ty ,” and sta te -s a ncti o ned

r e tr ib uti o n. A no th er w ay to th in k o f th is i s i n th e f o rm o f a h yp oth eti c al: W hat i f, i n m odern -d ay G erm any o r P ola nd , a J e w is h p ers o n

c o nv ic te d o f a c rim e w as s e nt to a f u lly o pera ti o nal A usc hw itz o r B uchenw ald to p ay h is “ d eb t to s o cie ty ”? W hat w ould th e w orld ’s

r e sp onse b e to su ch a sc enario ? W ould th e b ra nd in g o f a Je w is h (o r fo r th at m atte r a R om a, S in ti , o r c o m munis t) su b je ct a s

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** “crim in al” r a ti o naliz e h is d is a p peara nce o nto a r e no vate d c o ncentr a ti o n c am p fo r th e r e m ain d er o f h is “ natu ra l life ”?

W hat is it

ab out th e s o cia l a nd o nto lo gic al p ositi o n o f th e b la ck s u b je ct in th e U nite d S ta te s th at m akes h is d is a p peara nce o nto a m odern iz e d

sla v e p la nta ti o n b oth s o cia lly to le ra b le a nd e xp erie nti a lly n o rm al? W here w as th e o utc ry a gain st th is n ati o nal a tr o city ? W hy w asn ’t

th e tw enty -tw o-m ile s tr e tc h o f r o ad f r o m S t. F ra ncesv ille to A ngo la r id dle d w ith b anners a nd th ro ngs o f p ro te sto rs f r o m a ro und th e

Unite d S ta te s a nd th e g lo be a tte m pti n g to b lo ck th e s e em in gly in fin ite p ro cessio n o f b la ck, b ro w n, a nd p oor w hite b odie s in to a n

Americ an p ris o n s la v e c am p th at h as n ev er o nce b een c lo se d fo r b usin ess s in ce th e e arly n in ete enth c entu ry , n o t e v en fo r a d ay? If

th ere w as n o m ass p ub lic o utr a ge a t th e e xis te nce o f a lite ra l p ris o n p la nta ti o n, th en w hat w ere th e p ossib iliti e s fo r in citi n g m ass

mobiliz a ti o ns a gain st th e e nti r e p ris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x th at c urre ntl y w are ho use s a nd te rro riz e s m ore th an 2 .3 m illio n p eo ple , n o t

ju st in th e S outh b ut w ith in n o rth ern a nd in te rn ati o nal sp aces o f U .S . n eo sla v ery su ch a s C ho w chilla (C alifo rn ia ), P elic an B ay

(C alifo rn ia ), F lo re nce A DX ( C olo ra d o), J a ckso n ( M ic hig an), A tti c a ( N ew Y ork ), a nd G uantá nam o B ay, C ub a?

Fig ure 5 .

“ K in g C otto n,” A ngola P ris o n P la nta tio n, 1 999. P hoto gra ph b y W ilb ert R id eau. C ourte sy o f th e a rtis t.

At is su e h ere is th e tr a nste m pora l w hite s u p re m acis t s o cia l in v estm ent in b la ckness a s u nciv il, u nd is h o no ra b le , a nd u nin ju ra b le

bein g, a nd h o w th e lib era l h um anita ria n a llo tm ents o f p ub lic o utr a ge a nd a tr o city re co gniti o n a re a lw ays a lr e ad y d is q ualifie d in

re sp ect to a c o lle cti v ity w ho se p enal s la v ery a nd c iv il d eath h av e b een a s c entr a l to th e p ostb ellu m v is io n o f w hite c iv il b elo ngin g

as th e A fr ic an’s c hatte l e nsla v em ent a nd s o cia l d eath w ere to w hite c iv il p ers o nho od b efo re 1 865.

W hen v ie w ed i n th is m anner, th e

sig ht o f th e b la ck n eo sla v e la b orin g in th e p la nta ti o n fie ld a t A ngo la b eco m es le ss o f a n e xcep ti o nal s c ene o f s o uth ern b arb aris m

th an a s p ecta cula r r e p re se nta ti o n o f a b anal p ro cess o f s o cia lly a ccep ta b le ( a nd p le asu ra b le ) r a cia l c ap ita lis t c arc era l g eno cid e th at

co nti n ues to s tr e tc h a cro ss

th e m yth o lo gic al b ord erlin e o f s la v ery a nd fr e ed om . In d eed , a s I d is c usse d in c hap te r 2 in r e fe re nce to

th e f u tu re h aunti n g o f th e l a te n in ete enth -c entu ry p ub lic s p ecta cle o f b la ck p ris o ners a ucti o ned a s s la v es o n c o urth o use s te p s i n s ta te s

su ch a s M ary la nd a nd I llin o is , to v ie w A ngo la a s a n e xcep ti o n to th e l a rg e-s c ale h um an c arg o in g ta kin g p la ce i n th e c urre nt s ta ge o f

Americ a’s c entu rie s-o ld c o m ple x o f c hatte liz e d im pris o nm ent w ould b e to d is e ngage fr o m th e re ality th at th is str u ctu ra l m odus

opera nd i o f A meric an e m pir e is d efin ed n o t s o m uch b y th e fo rm in w hic h m ass r a cia liz e d in carc era ti o n o ccurs b ut b y th e fa ct o f

mass ra cia liz e d in carc era ti o n its e lf. R ead in th is lig ht, A ngo la b eco m es le ss o f a s o uth ern a nachro nis m a nd m ore o f a d ub io usly

in str u cti v e liv in g m onum ent to th e ti m ele ss n ati o nal p ra cti c es o f h um an e nto m bm ent a nd e nsla v em ent— a p oin t r e fle cte d b y M um ia

Abu J a m al i n h is a sse ssm ent o f L ouis ia na’s p ris o n p la nta ti o n: “ If th ere e v er w as a q uesti o n o f

th e s la ve p are n ta ge o f t h e A m eric a n

pris o n s y ste m ,

o ne g la nce a t th e m assiv e p enite nti a ry k no w n a s A ngo la . . . r e m oves a ll d oub t.”

How ev er, a s I c o nti n ued a lo ng th e r o ad to A ngo la , th ere w ere n o l ib era ti o n b anners o r w ould -b e n eo sla v e l ib era to rs . W hat I d id

se e w as a n a sso rtm ent o f h ig hw ay b illb oard s a d verti s in g r o m anti c p la nta ti o n b ed -a nd -b re akfa st g eta w ays a im ed a t c ap ita liz in g o n

to uris ts ’ w ell- in gra in ed v is io ns o f a p asto ra l, g alla nt, a nd “ in tr ig uin g” a nte b ellu m S outh ( F ig ure 6 ). W ith th ese v is u al e m ble m s o f th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** nati o nal te nd ency to sc re en th e geno cid al o pera ti o n o f th e ante b ellu m sla v e p la nta ti o n as an id yllic co untr y ro m ance and a

pla ygro und fo r n ati o nal w hite su p re m acis t fa nta sy a nd n o sta lg ia , I w as g iv en u nse ttl in g e v id ence o f a ra cis t c ultu ra l o rd er th at

allo w s fo r no p ris o n p la nta ti o n p ro te sto rs (a nd th at p ro duces an im med ia te d is q ualific ati o n o f th o se w ho hav e in d eed sto od

defia ntl y a t th e g ate s o f A ngo la a nd o th er U .S . p ris o ns). I n f a ct, th e o th er m ain e xp la nati o n f o r th e n ause o us f e elin g I h ad d urin g th e

enti r e ty o f th e jo urn ey fr o m B ato n R ouge w as m y k no w le d ge th at, a sid e fr o m a s m atte rin g o f fa m ily m em bers c o m in g to v is it th eir

lo ved o nes, th e o nly o th er c iv ilia n “ fr e ep ers o ns” I w as l ik ely to e nco unte r a s I p ulle d u p to th e p enite nti a ry w ould b e a s u b se t o f th e

th o usa nd s o f to uris ts th at v is it A ngo la e v ery y ear f r o m a ll o ver th e U nite d S ta te s a nd E uro pe.

Lik e m any o th er a nte b ellu m s la v e p la nta ti o n s ite s i n L ouis ia na a nd e ls e w here i n th e S outh , L SP h as s u ccessfu lly tr a nsfo rm ed i ts e lf

in to a to uris t a ttr a cti o n th at tr e ats th e ( u n)h allo w ed g ro und o f r a cia l g eno cid e a s a n o ccasio n f o r f u n, r e la xati o n, a nd th e r e p ro ducti o n

of w hite su p re m acis t

his to ric al m yth o lo gy— excep t in th e case o f A ngo la p la nta ti o n, th e ho rro rs o f sla v ery are su ccessfu lly

ev acuate d , m ute d , and co nto rte d in sp ite o f and th ro ugh th e ev er-p re se nce o f p ris o n sla v es.

In ste ad o f b ein g re co gniz e d as

em bodim ents o f th e a ccre ti o n o f s la v ery i n to th e p re se nt, th e i m pris o ned b ody o n th e l iv in g p la nta ti o n i s d ep lo yed a s a r e so urc e f o r

pub lic a m use m ent, w hite s e lf- d efin iti o n, a nd th e n o rm aliz a ti o n o f r a cia l c ap ita lis t a tr o city , a f a ct s y m boliz e d m ost i n fa m ously b y th e

pris o n’s a nnual r o deo a nd h o bby-c ra ft fa ir — oth erw is e k no w n a s “ T he W ild est S ho w in th e S outh ”— in w hic h te ns o f th o usa nd s o f

peo ple c o nv erg e o n A ngo la d urin g tw o m onth s o f th e y ear to w itn ess u ntr a in ed p ris o ner “ ro deo c o w boys” p erfo rm i n e v ents s u ch a s

“C onv ic t P oker” a nd “ G uts a nd G lo ry .” I n th e f ir s t e v ent, a c lo w n p la ces a c ard ta b le i n th e m id dle o f th e s ix -th o usa nd -p ers o n r o deo

are na, a ro und w hic h fo ur p ris o ners s it a nd p re te nd to p la y a g am e o f c ard s. A m odest m oneta ry p riz e is a w ard ed to th e m an w ho

re m ain s s e ate d th e lo ngest a s a b ull a tte m pts to g o rg e a ll fo ur c o nte sta nts . F or th e s e co nd e v ent, a la rg e n um ber o f s tr ip e-c la d m en

atte m pt to r e m ove a p oker c hip ti e d b etw een th e h o rn s o f a b ull. P ris o ners a re r e gula rly to sse d o ver tw enty

fe et i n th e a ir b y th e tw o-

th o usa nd -p ound anim als . T hey als o ro uti n ely su ffe r fr o m b ro ken b ones, d eep la cera ti o ns, and co ncussio ns as a re su lt o f th is

sp ecta cle . O ne p ris o ner i s k no w n to h av e u lti m ate ly d ie d f r o m a h eart a tta ck r e su lti n g f r o m h is p arti c ip ati o n i n o ne o f th e e v ents .

Fig ure 6 .

B illb oard a lo ng th e r o ad to A ngola . P hoto gra ph b y th e a uth or.

Tho se w ho h av e e ngaged c riti c ally w ith su ch sc enes o f p erv ers e a m use m ent, p erfo rm ati v e d ehum aniz a ti o n, a nd sp ecta to ria l

punis h m ent a t A ngo la h av e c o rre ctl y d ra w n a llu sio n to th eir s im ila rity w ith th e a ncie nt R om an p ra cti c e o f fo rc in g s la v es to fig ht

with a nim als a nd o ne a no th er in th e g la d ia to ria l a re na.

T hat re cent o penin g c ere m onie s o f th e ro deo h av e c ulm in ate d w ith th e

pris o n’s c urre nt w ard en e nte rin g A ngo la ’s a re na in a h o rs e -d ra w n c hario t d riv en a ro und its p erim ete r b y p ris o ners d oes m uch to

co rro bora te th is c o m paris o n. H ow ev er, u p on m y a rriv al a t th e p ris o n m use um p ark in g l o t s itu ate d j u st o uts id e th e p enite nti a ry ’s f r o nt

gate a nd d ir e ctl y a cro ss th e r o ad f r o m th e v is ito r’s p ark in g a re a, I w as f o cuse d o n th e c o nnecti o n b etw een th e r o deo a nd f o rm ati o ns

of c hatte l e nte rta in m ent th at a re m uch c lo se r to h o m e, b oth te m pora lly a nd g eo gra p hic ally , th an a ncie nt R om e. In d eed , th e m ain

re aso n f o r m y v is it to A ngo la w as to tr y to l o cate a s e t o f p ho to gra p hs i n a b ox a t th e m use um th at r a nged a s f a r b ack a s th e e arly to

mid -tw enti e th c entu ry — a p erio d w hen p la nta ti o n e nte rta in m ents s u ch a s th e p ris o n-s p onso re d b la ckfa ce m in str e l s h o w w ere b ein g

held o n A ngo la ’s g ro und s a nd in v ario us “ fr e e” c o m muniti e s in a nd a ro und W est F elic ia na.

In fa ct, I h o ped th at I m ig ht c o m e

acro ss a n im age o f o ne o f th ese b la ckfa ce tr o up es, a v is u al r e p re se nta ti o n o f th e d egre e to w hic h s p ecta cle s o f n eo sla v ery s u ch a s

th e p ris o n r o deo d ra w u p on a l o ng h is to ry o f p ris o n p la nta ti o n e nte rta in m ent. T he m odern g enealo gic al r o ots o f th ese s p ecta cle s g o

as fa r b ack a s th e M id dle P assa ge a nd a nte b ellu m p la nta ti o n, w hen, a s S aid iy a H artm an s u ggests , s la v es w ere fo rc ed to s im ula te

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** co nse nt to b ond age th ro ugh s o ng, d ance, a nd o th er l e ss p ub lic f o rm s o f r itu aliz e d “ unp ro ducti v e” tr a v ail th at w ere a s e sse nti a l to th e

fo rm ati o n o f w hite m aste ry a s th eir “ p ro ducti v e” l a b or i n c o tto n, r ic e, to bacco , a nd s u garc ane f ie ld s.

Im med ia te ly u p on e nte rin g th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n m use um , th e d re ad I h ad fe lt d urin g th e e nti r e d riv e to A ngo la w as c o nfir m ed . I

was c o nfr o nte d w ith th e p ate ntl y a b su rd n atu re o f a tte m pti n g to c o nd uct “ arc hiv al w ork ” in a s p ace o f m ass liv in g d eath — nam ely ,

one th at d oub le s a s a s ta gin g g ro und o f a m use m ent a nd id enti fic ato ry fa nta sy fo r th e fr e e c iv il s u b je ct. O n m y w ay to fin d th e s ta ff

mem ber w ho w as to h elp m e l o cate th e p ho to gra p hs, I w alk ed th ro ugh th e g ift s h o p, w hic h i s th e f ir s t r o om o ne s e es

up on e nte rin g

th e m use um s ite . H ere , i n e asily th e l a rg est a re a w ith in w hat i s g enera lly a r a th er s m all b uild in g, o ne c an c ho ose b etw een a n a rra y o f

pris o n-p la nta ti o n– th em ed o bje cts i n te nd ed to e lic it c huckle s a nd d olla rs f r o m p atr o ns, i n clu d in g h and cuff k ey c hain s, r e p lic as o f th e

str ip ed s h ir ts th at A ngo la p ris o ners w ere m ad e to w ear u nti l th e m id -tw enti e th c entu ry , s w eats h ir ts e m bla zo ned w ith th e w ord s

“A ngo la : A G ate d C om munity ,” s tu ffe d a nim als i n th e l ik eness o f th e b lo odho und s th at h av e b een u se d to te rro riz e f u giti v e p ris o ners

at A ngo la s in ce ( a t l e ast) th e l a te n in ete enth c entu ry , a nd a f r u it s p re ad c alle d “ S tr a w berry F ie ld s,” w hic h i s m ad e w ith p ro duce th at

curre nt p ris o ners h av e p la nte d a nd p ic ked in s la v e p la nta ti o n fie ld s. I lo oked o n a s d oze ns o f v is ito rs n o nchala ntl y p eru se d th ese

ite m s, a nd w hile o ne m oth er to ok a d vanta ge o f a p ho to o pportu nity i n a s e cti o n o f th e m use um a d ja cent to th e g ift s h o p th at i n v olv ed

pla cin g h er tw o y o ung c hild re n— th e o ld er o f w ho m w as w earin g h is b ra nd -n ew p ris o n-s tr ip ed s h ir t— in to a m ock p ris o n c ell. T he

sc ene o f w hite to uris ts i n d ulg in g i n c o m ed ic r e cre ati o n, c o nsu m pti v e p le asu re , a nd f a m ilia l b ond in g th ro ugh w hat, a fte r i ts s a d is ti c

Rom an c o unte rp art, m ig ht b e c alle d a

pris o n p la nta tio n h olid ay,

s to od i n s ta rk c o ntr a st to th e f e elin gs o f d is p osse ssio n, b ro kenness,

and i n ju ry e xp re sse d o n th e f a ces o f th e m ourn fu l p ro cessio n o f b la ck p eo ple I s a w o n th e o th er s id e o f th e r o ad l e ad in g to A ngo la ’s

fr o nt g ate — th o se w ho h ad m ad e l o ng tr e ks f r o m L ouis ia na’s u rb an c ente rs i n o rd er to v is it th eir d is a p peare d s o ns, f a th ers , b ro th ers ,

uncle s, c o usin s, a nd fr ie nd s, a nd w ho d id n o t, fo r a m om ent, lo ok a cro ss th e T unic a T ra ce to w ard th e m use um b efo re c ro ssin g th e

th re sh o ld o f th e n eo pla nta ti o n.

The d is p arity b etw een th e s c ene o f g o th ic a m use m ent a nd c o nsu m er f u lfillm ent i n sid e th e m use um a nd th e s c ene o f m ourn in g a nd

nata l a lie nati o n j u st a cro ss th e r o ad w as e xacerb ate d b y m y k no w le d ge th at, a s I w alk ed th ro ugh th e “ his to ric al s ite ” i n s e arc h o f th e

liv in g d ead o f A ngo la ’s p ast, th ere w ere m ore th an fiv e th o usa nd liv in g d ead o f th e p la nta ti o n’s p re se nt ju st a cro ss th e r a zo r-w ir e

gate s th at s e p ara te d m e fr o m th e p ris o n. T his r e ality w ork ed a t o dds w ith th e m use um ’s n arra ti v e fr a m in g a s a s p ace w here in th e

ab je ct v io le nce o f A ngo la ’s p ast h as b een s u ccessfu lly a rti fa cte d a s a n e m ble m o f th e m odern , “ re fo rm ato ry ” n atu re o f th e c urre nt

penal o rd er. T he m use um ’s b ro chure e ncap su la te s its n arra ti v e o f th e o bso le sc ence o f re p re ssiv e p la nta ti o n m anagem ent a nd th e

pris o n’s s u p pose d c o m ple te d p assa ge i n to th e o xym oro nic l ib era l r e p re ssiv e e chelo n o f “ hum ane” m ass e nto m bm ent: “ O nce k no w n

as th e ‘ b lo odie st p ris o n i n A meric a,’ th e L ouis ia na S ta te P enite nti a ry a t A ngo la h as e m erg ed a s o ne o f th e m ost

pro gre ssiv e a nd w ell

managed p ris o ns i n th e c o untr y . I n o rd er to f u lly a p pre cia te th e a cco m plis h m ents o f th is p ris o n, o ne m ust f ir s t v is it i ts p ast.” W hile

walk in g th ro ugh th e m use um s p ace o ne i s a sk ed to b ear w itn ess to th e v era city o f th e s ta te ’s c la im s to p ro gre ssiv e m odern iz a ti o n, to

th e d eath o f “ o ld A ngo la ,” a nd th e p ris o n’s c o nv ers io n in to a n a re na o f “ w ell- m anaged ” h um an c arg o in g. T his c o nju ra ti o n is

perfo rm ed b y w ay o f e xhib its d is p la yin g v ario us to rtu re d ev ic es th at h av e b een u se d a gain st p ris o ners o ver th e y ears , in clu d in g

whip s, g uns, b ats , a nd a x h and le s. J u xta p ose d w ith th ese e xhib iti o ns o f th e p uta ti v ely e m balm ed p ra cti c e o f r e p re ssiv e p unis h m ent a t

th e p ris o n a re d is p la ys in te nd ed to s h o w th e o ste nsib ly h um ane, r e hab ilita ti v e, a nd r e cre ati o nal b ra nd o f m odern im pris o nm ent a t

Ango la , s u ch a s r o deo p oste rs , a s e em in gly in fin ite v arie ty o f e v angelic al r e ed u-c ati o n p ro gra m s, a nd m em ora b ilia fr o m th e m any

film s th at h av e b een s h o t a t th e p la nta ti o n, i n clu d in g a n a cto r’s c hair a uto gra p hed b y B illy B ob T ho rn to n w hen A ngo la w as u se d a s a

se t f o r th e f ilm in g o f

Monste r’s B all.

Consp ic uo usly ab se nt fr o m th e m use um ’s in sta lla ti o ns ded ic ate d to th e th em e of penal pro gre ss are so m e of L SP’s m ost

pro to ty p ic ally m odern a nd p ostm odern a rc hite ctu ra l a nd r e p re ssiv e a p para tu se s. T o in v oke A im é C ésa ir e o nce a gain , p eno lo gic al

ad vancem ent a t th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n h as tr a nsla te d i n to a s y ste m o f “ p ro gre ssiv e d ehum aniz a ti o n” w here b y th e r e al m easu re o f th e

fa cility ’s a sc ensio n to “ no rth ern ” sta nd ard s o f m ass h um an d is a p peara nce is th e d egre e to w hic h it h as su ccessfu lly e xchanged

puta ti v ely a nachro nis ti c b ru ta liz a ti o n te chniq ues, s u ch a s th e w hip , “ b at,” a nd “ sw eatb ox,” fo r m ore “ hum ane” o nes, s u ch a s fo ur-

poin t r e str a in t ta b le s, th e “ b ody s h eet,” te ar g as, “ b la ck b ox” h and cuffs , a nd m odern iz e d p unis h m ent u nits in w hic h p ris o ners a re

su b je cte d to in d efin ite s o lita ry c o nfin em ent a nd o th er fo rm s o f le gally s a ncti o ned to rtu re .

T he im porta ti o n a nd s e d im enta ti o n o f

su ch s ta te -o f- th e-a rt m echanis m s o f e nto m bm ent a nd p hysic al/p sy chic te rro r m ark s th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n a s a n illu m in ati n g s p ati a l

sy m bol o f th e m utu ally c o nsti tu ti v e a nd c ro ss-fe rti liz in g r e la ti o nsh ip o f s o uth ern a nd n o rth ern w hite s u p re m acis t p enal l a w . A nd a s I

will d is c uss b elo w , th e e asy c o hab ita b ility a nd e ffe cti v e in d is ti n guis h ab ility o f p ast, p re se nt, a nd fu tu ris ti c m odes o f te rro r a t th e

neo pla nta ti o n e xp ose th e d egre e to w hic h th e p ro gre ssiv e p ath o f p enal m odern ity h as re m ain ed ti g htl y b ound to its m oorin gs in

chatte l s la v ery .

Aeria l p ho to gra p hs o f th e l a rg est m axim um -s e curity p ris o n i n th e c o untr y o ffe r s ta rk e v id ence o f th e d ynam ic a nd i n te rd ep end ent

fu sio n o f “ o ld ” a nd “ new ” a t th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n th ro ugh v ie w s o f L SP’s a sso rtm ent o f

postm odern “ te le p ho ne-p ole ”– sty le c ell-

blo ck c am ps a s th ey h av e b een g ra fte d o nto its th o usa nd s o f a cre s o f s la v e p la nta ti o n fie ld s.

A s I s a t o uts id e th e fr o nt g ate s, I

co nsid ere d th at p erh ap s th e m ost h o rrify in g a sp ects o f im pris o nm ent a t A ngo la o ccur n o t in its c o tto n, c o rn , a nd s o yb ean r o w s b ut

in sid e its m ost m odern , and su p pose d ly p osts la v ery , p uniti v e arc hite ctu re s— sp aces su ch as th e C CR “d ungeo n” and C am p J

punis h m ent c ells , w here in A lb ert W oodfo x a nd th e l a te H erm an W alla ce o f th e A ngo la 3 ( h av e) s p ent m ore th an f o rty -o ne y ears , o r

ab out fifte en th o usa nd d ays, in so lita ry c o nfin em ent.

If th e e xp erie nce o f e ig ht y ears o f p oliti c al im pris o nm ent a nd in d efin ite

so lita ry c o nfin em ent i n S ole d ad a nd S an Q uenti n m ad e th eir f e llo w B la ck P anth er G eo rg e J a ckso n f e el th at h e h ad b een s h uttl e d i n to

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** a p erm anent M id dle P assa ge w ith “ co tto n a nd c o rn g ro w in g o ut o f [h is ] c hest,” th en, a s tw o o f th e lo ngest- s ta nd in g p oliti c al

pris o ners i n th e w orld , W oodfo x a nd W alla ce m ust f e el ( a nd h av e f e lt) a s i f th ey h av e b een b urie d e v en f u rth er w ith in th e b ow els o f

th e la nd -b ase d s la v e s h ip , e sp ecia lly g iv en th e lite ra l c o tto n a nd c o rn c ro ps th at c o nti n ue to b e g ro w n a nd p ic ked b y th eir fe llo w

pris o n s la v es j u st o uts id e th eir “ m odern ” s o lita ry c ells .

Walla ce a tte m pts to g iv e w ord s to th e u nsp eakab le tr e atm ent th at “ fr e em en” le v ie d a gain st p oliti c al p ris o ners , th e m enta lly ill,

and th o se b ra nd ed a s “ gang m em bers ” o r “ th e w ors t o f th e w ors t” w ith in w hat is e up hem is ti c ally d esc rib ed a s

adm in is tr a tiv e

se g re g atio n

I h av e w itn esse d g uard s f r o m 2 002 to 2 004 w hile I w as i n A ngo la ’s . . . [ m ost] r e str ic ti v e p unis h m ent u nit, w ho

hav e th ro w n b uckets o f i c e w ate r ( in w in te r) o n m en w ho w ere o n 4 -p oin t r e str a in t, w earin g o nly p ap er g o w ns.

I’ v e s e en g uard s s n atc h fo od tr a ys o ut o f [ a ] p ris o ner’s c ell b ars a nd th ro w th e tr a y a gain st th e w all, th en c all

SW AT te am s to g as a nd b eat th e p ris o ner fo r th ro w in g th e fo od. A fte r S W AT te am is d one w ith th e p ris o ner,

th ey ta ke h im to th e i n fir m ary a nd th en th e p ris o ner g o es to [ in te rn al p ris o n] c o urt, i s f o und g uilty , s e nte nced to

begin th e p uniti v e p ro gra m fr o m th e b egin nin g . . . a s w ell a s p ay fo r h is m ed ic al tr e atm ent a nd r e sti tu ti o n fo r

dam agin g th e p ain t o n th e w all.

Giv en th e quo ti d ia n occurre nce of su ch m odern iz e d te rro r m eth o dolo gie s at th e neo pla nta ti o n, th e m use um ’s narra ti v e of

pro gre ssiv is m a ctu ally s e rv es to th ro w th e u nd ead n atu re o f its r e gre ssiv e “ p ast” in to m ore p alp ab le

re lie f. F ar fr o m s u ccessfu lly

dis a sse m blin g i ts r o ote d ness i n c hatte l s la v ery , th e c o nv ic t l e ase s y ste m , a nd th e e arly p ris o n p la nta ti o n, th e s ta te ’s f r a m in g o f p enal

pro gre ss th ro ugh th e le nse s o f p uniti v e p erfo rm ance, p ub lic e njo ym ent, a nd re p re ssiv e le nie nce a ctu ally se rv es to e xp re ss th e

im possib le s e v era nce o f th e

now

o f “ m odern ” p enal e nto m bm ent f r o m th e

th en

o f “ p re m odern ” c arc era l e nsla v em ent. W hen r e ad i n

co m bin ati o n w ith L SP’s m ore a p pare ntl y o vert re p re ssiv e p ra cti c es, p uniti v e s p ecta cle s s u ch a s th e ro deo , th e u se o f th e p ris o n

pla nta ti o n a s m ovie s tu d io , a nd th e ritu al o f to uris ts d onnin g s tr ip es a nd p osin g fo r p ho to s in m ock p ris o n c ells s u ggest h o w th e

his to ry a nd p re se nt o f s ta te te rro r a t A ngo la ( a nd th ro ugho ut th e r e st o f A meric a’s a rc hip ela go o f n eo sla v ery ) a re w ritte n b oth in

co rp ore al ru p tu re a nd te rro r-rid den p le asu re . T hat ro deo s, film c re w s, a nd m use um v is ito rs fu ncti o n to c o nv ert th e s ite o f n eo -

ensla v em ent in to a s ta gin g g ro und fo r p ub lic e njo ym ent a nd

crim in al m in str e ls y

—with th e b urn t c o rk o f th e m in str e l s h o w b ein g

re p la ced b y th e f a ux h and cuffs , b ars , a nd p ris o n s tr ip es o f th e n eo pla nta ti o n to ur— exp re sse s th e d egre e to w hic h r a cia l te rro r, l iv in g

death , a nd c hatte liz e d im pris o nm ent h av e m ost o fte n b een a cco m panie d b y a nd p erfo rm ed th ro ugh p ain fu lly fr a ught a m use m ent, th e

ru se o f ensla v ed p ris o ner co nte ntm ent, th e in str u m enta l b esto w al o f p uniti v e “p riv ile ge,” and th e o bsc ene p ub lic d is p la y and

sp ecta to ria l c o nsu m pti o n o f h um an s ta te p ro perty .

While w aiti n g a t a ta b le in a c o rn er o f o ne o f th e m use um ’s r o om s fo r th e p ho to gra p hs th at I h o ped w ould c o nta in e v id ence o f

Ango la ’s b la ckfa ce tr o up e o f th e e arly to m id -tw enti e th c entu ry , I c o nsid ere d h o w th e s ig ht o f tw enty -fir s t- c entu ry p la nta ti o n to uris ts

modelin g s tr ip ed s h ir ts a nd la ughin g a s th ey to ok p ho to s o f o ne a no th er in sid e m ock p ris o n c ells r e p re se nte d a d is tu rb in gly fitti n g

co nte m pora ry acco m panim ent fo r m y atte m pt at a co unte r-h is to ric al unb uria l of th e pra cti c e of puniti v e perfo rm ance at th e

pla nta ti o n. T he ta b le au o f fr e e c iv il b odie s im mers in g th em se lv es in “ co nv ic t” d ra g a t th e v ery s ite w here in m ass c iv il d eath w as

bein g sim ulta neo usly v is ite d up on th o usa nd s o f p ris o ners re p re se nte d a gro te sq ue m odern -d ay analo gue o f th e lo ng-s ta nd in g

in ti m acie s of (n eo )s la v e ab je cti o n and pub lic ple asu re , pris o ner dehum aniz a ti o n and fr e e w hite se lf- d efin iti o n, and cap ti v e

perfo rm ance a nd th e e nactm ent o f r a cia liz e d v io le nce w ith in s ite s o f c hatte l c arc era lity .

A s th e o nly o th er b la ck m an p re se nt i n th e

muse um a p pro ached m e, d re sse d in a ll w hite , w ith a d olly h o ld in g fo ur d usty b oxes h e h ad p lu cked fr o m o ne o f th e m use um ’s

clo se ts , I w as f u rth er d is a b use d o f a ny n o ti o n th at w hat I w as c o nd ucti n g a t th e

pla nta ti o n th at d ay c o uld i n a ny w ay b e m is ta ken f o r

a b ackw ard lo ok-in g “ arc hiv al” jo urn ey in to a c o m ple te d o r d ead h is to ry . A s I s to od u p to g re et th is m an a nd h e q uic kly s h o ok m y

hand a nd th en r a th er n erv ously a tte m pte d to r e fu se m y a id i n m ovin g th e b oxes to th e ta b le , I w as i m med ia te ly h it w ith a s h ud der o f

aw are ness a s to h is s ta ti o n. T his m an w as n o t a “ w ork er” a t th e m use um : h e w as i n f a ct a p ris o ner, a m an w ho se l a b orin g p re se nce

sig nifie d h is s ta tu s a s “ tr u sty ,” th at i s , o ne w ho se o ffic ia lly r e co gniz e d a d here nce to th e p enal s o vere ig n’s d ecre es o f p ro per c ap ti v e

co m portm ent a llo w ed h im a c hannel a w ay fr o m p la nta ti o n fie ld s a nd th e so lita ry c ell w hile a ffo rd in g h im th e “ p riv ile ge” o f

perfo rm in g th e r o le o f a ll- p urp ose s e rv ant to th e m use um s ta ff.

The tr u sty ’s p re se nce a t th e s ite o f m y a tte m pte d e nco unte r w ith th e p ast w as s u ggesti v e o f th e e xtr e m e d iffic ulty , o r a b so lu te

in ap plic ab ility , o f th e w ord “ arc hiv e” in r e fe re nce to th e s tu d y o f A ngo la a nd o th er p oliti c al g eo gra p hie s o f n eo sla v ery . T he w ord

“arc hiv e” p ro no unces a nd r e enacts th e d eath o f th e o bje ct o f a naly sis — nam ely , w hen th at “ o bje ct” is a ctu ally a h um an b ein g w ho

has b een lite ra lly o bje cti fie d b y th e la w .

B eho ld in g th is m an a s h e w as o rd ere d to p erfo rm a s e em in gly e nd le ss lita ny o f ta sk s

(in clu d in g s e rv in g m y n eed s a s r e se arc her), a nd m in d fu l o f th e i n fin ite r o uti n es o f l a b or, p ain , a nd r u p tu re b ein g s u ffe re d a t th at v ery

mom ent b y th o usa nd s o f o th er p la nta ti o n c ap ti v es n o t a ffo rd ed th e p riv ile ge o f w ork in g a s m use um s e rv ant, I a sk ed m yse lf h o w I

co uld p ro perly e ngage w ith a p ast th at h as n ev er d ie d . W hen I b egan to lo ok th ro ugh th e b oxes, I k new th at I w as e m bark in g o n a

pro cess o f m nem onic e nco unte r w ith p re se nt- d ay ra cia l g eno cid e a s m uch a s a n a rc hiv al s e arc h fo r s u b te rra nean e le m ents o f a

fo rg o tte n o r g ro ssly d is to rte d p ast. T his a gain i s th e e p is te m ic a nd e xp erie nti a l p urc hase o f T oni M orris o n’s c o ncep t o f r e m em ory ; i t

is a ls o w hat J a m aic a K in caid m eant i n d esc rib in g th e b la ck s u b alte rn ’s p ositi o n a s b ein g c aught b y a nd i n h is to ry , w here b y th e p ast

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** is e xp erie nced n o t a s a n o bje ct o f i n te lle ctu al i n q uir y b ut i s f e lt a s a n “ o pen w ound ” th at k eep s r e o penin g w ith e v ery b re ath .

I n th is

lig ht, th e q uesti o n i s n o t s im ply w hat h is to ric al a nte ced ents h av e l e d u s to o ur c urre nt p erilo us p re d ic am ent, b ut w hy th e “ no w ” i s s o

re m in is c ent, r e fle cti v e, a nd p ain fu lly r e so nant w ith th e g eno cid al “ th en.”

Fro m th is p ers p ecti v e, th e u b iq uito us a nd u nav oid ab le p re se nces th at e m it fr o m th e h is to ric al a nd c o nti n ued m anufa ctu re o f th e

civ illy , n ata lly , a nd s o cia lly d ead a t th e A meric an n eo pla nta ti o n r e p re se nt d ub io us a nd u nsp eakab le r e so lu ti o n to w hat, i n

Lose Y o ur

Moth er,

H artm an p re se nts as

th e nearly im possib le ta sk o f re co verin g th e gho sts o f chatte l sla v ery w ith in th e b arra co on-lik e

enclo su re s o f th e m aste r a rc hiv e a nd th e d eso la te a nd l o ng i n o pera ti v e s la v e d ungeo ns o f E lm in a a nd C ap e C oast C astl e s i n G hana.

As I s a t d ow n to w ork a t th e p re cip ic e o f A meric a’s “ A ngo la ,” a nd w hat s ta nd s a s th e l o ngest o pera ti n g s la v e f o rtr e ss i n th e W este rn

hem is p here , if n o t th e w orld , m y fr u str a ti o n w as n o t th at th ere w ere n o d ead “ re v enants lu rk in g in th e d ungeo n” to r e cla im , it w as

with th e r e ality th at a m ong th e m odern -d ay b arra co ons o f th e p ris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x th ere a re fa r to o m any liv in g r e v enants to

co unt. I n d eed , th e l iv in g p la nta ti o n r e p re se nts a n a ll- to o-lite ra l e m bodim ent o f H artm an’s c o nte nti o n th at i f “ th e g ho st o f s la v ery s ti ll

haunts o ur p re se nt, i t i s b ecause w e a re s ti ll l o okin g f o r a n e xit f r o m th e p ris o n.”

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Min str e l S how a t C am p A : T he E xcesse s o f N eo p la n ta tio n M an agem en t

The p hoto gra ph . . . ta kes it s p la ce in th is c onte st o f h auntin g.

—Avery G ord on,

Ghostly M atte rs

It d id n o t ta ke lo ng a t a ll. A fte r s te alin g a s u rre p ti ti o us b it o f c o nv ers a ti o n w ith th e A ngo la “ tr u sty ,” w ho h ad u nearth ed fo ur b oxes

fr o m a b ackro om i n th e m use um — a h ush ed e xchange i n w hic h h e l e t m e k no w w ith h is e yes a s m uch a s h is w ord s th at h is b ody a nd

so ul k new m ore th an I c o uld e v er c o nceiv e i n m y m in d a b out n eo sla v ery — I h ad o nly to f lip th ro ugh th re e p ho to s b efo re I s a w J o hn

McE lr o y w ith o ut k no w in g th at I w as s e ein g h im a nd th at h e w as a ls o ( lite ra lly ) s e ein g m e. T here h e w as/is , s ta nd in g o n c ru tc hes,

with a d is m em bere d r ig ht le g, in a p ris o n-s tr ip ed v ers io n o f a tu xed o ja cket, p ositi o ned fr o nt a nd c ente r o f th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n’s

“N egro o rc hestr a ” a nd e ig hte en f e llo w m em bers o f A ngo la ’s b la ckfa ce m in str e l tr o up e ( F ig ure s 7 a nd 8 ). B efo re I d is c o vere d th at i t

was C am p A p ris o ner n um ber “ 3 7708” s ta rin g o ut r e so lu te ly fr o m th e c ente r o f a p ho to gra p h in te nd ed to s ta ge b la ck c o nte ntm ent

with a nd i n ure m ent to th e p re d ic am ent o f p enal c hatte lh o od, a nd d ays p rio r to th e m om ent th at h e w ould r e ach o ut d ir e ctl y f r o m th e

gra v e a nd m ake m e a w are o f w hat h e h ad to te ll m e (a nd e v ery o ne e ls e w ith in str ik in g d is ta nce o f th ese w ord s), I w as fu lly

co nv in ced th at in s n atc hin g th is

unhis to ric a l e ven t

fr o m th e w ell- fo rti fie d o bliv io n o f o ffic ia l h is to ry , I h ad c o m ple te d a r e se arc h

ta sk o f m y o w n c ho osin g.

Fig ure 7 .

C am p A m in str e l tr o upe, A ngola P ris o n P la nta tio n, c . 1 947. J o hn M cE lr o y, th e tr o upe le ader, is s h ow n f ro nt a nd c ente r w it h c ru tc hes. C ourte sy A ngola M use um ,

Louis ia na S ta te P enit e ntia ry .

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Fig ure 8 .

C lo se -u p o f J o hn M cE lr o y, th e m in str e l tr o upe le ader a t A ngola .

The h aunti n g q uality o f th e p ho to gra p h w as n o t lo st o n m e b efo re I w as a p pro ached b y its m ost p ro m in ent u nq uie t p re se nce. F or

in sta nce, I k new th at th e c o stu m ed p ris o n u nifo rm s w orn in th e s h o t— in clu d in g th e tu xed o ja ckets , th e v erti c ally s tr ip ed p ants a nd

sh ir ts , th e s tr ip ed h at b and s, a nd th e h o riz o nta lly s tr ip ed s o cks w orn b y o ne o f th e th re e p erfo rm ers i n d ra g— had b een p atte rn ed a nd

se w n b y b la ck w om en a t “ th e W illo w s,” th e m elliflu o us “ S w eet H om e”-s o und in g n am e g iv en to th e s e cti o n o f A ngo la ’s e ig hte en

th o usa nd a cre s a llo tte d to th e e nto m bm ent o f w om en, th e o verw helm in g m ajo rity o f w ho m w ere b la ck. I k new th at, a lo ng w ith

sla v in g in th e p la nta ti o n’s c o tto n fie ld s u nd er a rm ed g uard , w ork in g a s n annie s to c hild re n o f w hite p ris o n e m plo yees, a nd o th er

tr a d iti o nally u nsp oken fo rm s o f ru p tu ro us la b or, th ey m ost c erta in ly w ould h av e s u ffe re d a s d om esti c n eo sla v es in th e h o m es o f

white m en, th ese w om en w ere ta sk ed w ith m akin g a ll o f L ouis ia na’s p ris o n u nifo rm s f r o m th e e arly tw enti e th c entu ry u nti l th ey w ere

ev entu ally tr a nsp orte d to a w om en’s p enal “ fa rm ” a t S t. G ab rie l i n 1 962.

With th e a b se nt p re se nce o f th ese w om en i n m in d , I f ir s t s a t l o okin g a t th e g ro up o f b la ckfa ced , c ro ss-d re sse d , a nd p ris o n-s tr ip ed

men p osin g o n a p la nta ti o n h o use c o ncre te p orc h m ad e to d oub le a s a m in str e l s ta ge w ith w hat F re d M ote n d esc rib es a s a s o nic

“in te rio r e xte rio rity o f th e p ho to gra p h” e m anati n g in m y e ars in th e fo rm o f th e v oic e o f O dea M ath ew s.

T he im age e m itte d a

gho stl y r e v erb o f a s o rro w /s u rv iv al s o ng th at th is p arti c ula r b la ck w om an p ris o ner o nce d eliv ere d in to th e m ic ro pho ne o f a w hite

fo lk lo ric to uris t to th e n eo pla nta ti o n w hile sh e sa t, h er h and s a nd fe et b ound to th eir d aily m anip ula ti o n o f a se w in g m achin e,

positi o ned in p hysic al p ro xim ity to th e p la ce I w as no w sitti n g and o n a d ay no t fa r re m oved fr o m th e o ne up on w hic h th e

pho to gra p h w as ta ken.

There ’s s o m eth in ’ w it h in m e, O h L ord ,

That h old s in th e r a in ( y es it is ).

Som eth in ’ w it h in m e,

Oh c hild I c annot e xpla in ( y es it is ).

Som eth in ’ w it h in m e,

Oh L ord I c annot e xpla in ( o h y es),

All I c an s a y, p ra is e G od, s o m eth in ’ w it h in .

Have y ou s o m eth in ’ w it h in y ou ( O h y es),

That’s b urn in ’ in sid e? ( Y es it is ),

Som eth in ’ w it h in y ou, O h c hild , y ou k now it n ever g ets tir e d.

Som eth in ’ w it h in y ou, O h L ord it n ever g ets tir e d,

And a ll I c an s a y, p ra is e G od, s o m eth in ’ w it h in .

With a n e nth ra llin g v ib ra to th at s o und s e erily s im ila r to th e D in ah W ash in gto n o f “ T his B itte r E arth ,” M ath ew s g estu re s to w ard ,

lo ngs fo r, a nd p ro duces a n u nnam ab le , u nlo cata b le , a nd in exp lic ab le lo opho le o f ( d is )e m bodie d r e tr e at th at is s itu ate d d eep w ith in

her r e ifie d , r u p tu re d , a nd r u le d b ody.

T hro ugh a n a ct o f s p ir itu al m arro nage th at c o uld ju st a s e asily h av e b een r e nd ere d d urin g

Ango la ’s b ir th -ti m e a s a n a nte b ellu m p la nta ti o n m ore th an 1 20 y ears b efo re th e r e co rd in g, th e in carc era te d , n ata lly a lie nate d , a nd

chatte liz e d su b je ct te sti fie s to and re -c re ate s an unfu ngib le so m eth in ’ w ith in and b eyo nd th e p ub lic ly o w ned and p hysic ally

exhauste d c o rp ore al s e lf th at h as b een m echaniz e d , c rim in aliz e d , a nd c o lo niz e d b y th e s ta te . H ow ev er, i n so fa r a s h er a tte m pte d s e lf-

re cla m ati o n d ep end s o n a nd i s p erfo rm ed th ro ugh th e d eta chm ent o f h er “ ti r e le ss” s p ir it f r o m h er i m pris o ned b ody, M ath ew s’s a ct o f

so nic r e d re ss e xp re sse s th e b urd ened , d is p osse sse d , a nd te rro riz e d c o lle cti v e p re d ic am ent o f th e l iv in g d ead th ro ugh th e v ery a ct o f

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** so und in g c la im to a m odic um o f i n d iv id ual f r e ed om . A fte r a ll, w hat i s th e n ecessa ry s e v era nce o f th e w ould -b e-fr e e s p ir it f r o m th e

physic ally to rtu re d b ody i f n o t a n early e xact s im ula ti o n o f th e u nti m ely te rm in ati o n o f l ife ?

Som eth in ’ w ith in m e, O h L ord , th at h old s in th e r a in

—The r e d re ssiv e d is in te gra ti o n o f th e s p ir itu al s e lf fr o m th e p ain ed b la ck

body, b ound in th e ra in (o r re ig n) o f a lite ra l h ell o n e arth , se em ed a fitti n g so nic a cco m panim ent fo r m y fir s t c o nta ct w ith a

pho to gra p h in w hic h th e b odie s o f M ath ew s’s fe llo w p ris o ners are cap tu re d in a m om ent o f p ris o n p la nta ti o n “d ow nti m e,”

perfo rm in g in th e q uin te sse nti a l w hite s u p re m acis t c ultu ra l m odality o f s p ecta to ria l d ehum aniz a ti o n a nd b la ck d is fig ure m ent. T he

gro te sq ue p enal r e su rfa cin g o f th e b la ckfa ce m ask b ecko ns u s to th e p ho to ’s c entr a lly p ositi o ned s u b je ct a nd th e h is to ric ally v oid ed

cap ti v e e xp erie nces re gis te re d b y h is c arc era l d is m em berm ent. In d eed , n o th in g sh o w n in th e m in str e l tr o up e p ho to gra p h m ore

cle arly s ig nifie s th e p uniti v e d im ensio ns o f b la ck c ap ti v e p erfo rm ance a nd th e te rro ris ti c te rm s u nd er w hic h th e p ris o n s la v e w ould

hav e e le cte d to p erfo rm i n b la ckfa ce m ore th an th e r e d ole nt o nsta ge a b se nt p re se nce o f h is a m puta ti o n. A s I s a t a t th e f o ot o f th e v ery

pla ce w here th e p ho to gra p h w as sh o t, w ith M ath ew s’s h aunti n g re fr a in re v erb era ti n g in m y e ars , I c o nsid ere d h o w th e b la ck

pris o ner’s m is sin g r ig ht l e g s ig nals th e f a ct th at th e r e d re ssiv e s p ir it- b ody d eta chm ent o f th e n eo sla v e i s m ost o fte n c o up le d w ith a nd

dep lo yed in r e sp onse

to w hat H orte nse S pille rs d esc rib es a s th e r itu aliz e d te arin g a p art o r m orti fic ati o n o f b la ck c ap ti v e fle sh — a

ro uti n e o f s a d is ti c s ta te v io le nce th at in th is in sta nce h as m ore th an lik ely le d to th e p erm anent d eta chm ent o f th e im pris o ned b ody

fr o m o ne o f i ts m ain p arts .

As I p ulle d a w ay f r o m A ngo la ’s f r o nt g ate , I k new th at I w ould r e tu rn to th is a no nym ous f ig ure ( a nd h is d is a p peare d l im b) w hen I

re tu rn ed h o m e fr o m L ouis ia na. B ut I a ls o k new th at, in d oin g s o , I w ould h av e to c o nd uct a n a ct o f c o unte r-h is to ric al im agin ati o n

sin ce th e l e ad er o f A ngo la ’s m in str e l tr o up e h ad b een o blite ra te d f r o m h is to ry , a lo ng w ith c o untl e ss o th er b la ck p ris o ners w ho h ad

been e nsla v ed o n th e p la nta ti o n s in ce th e e arly n in ete enth c entu ry .

T here w as n o p ath w ay f o r r e co verin g th is p arti c ula r b urie d s to ry

—or s o I th o ught. T hre e d ays a fte r I re tu rn ed to B ato n R ouge, I fo und m yse lf s itti n g a t th e L ouis ia na S ta te A rc hiv es, s c annin g a

ra th er u nfo rth co m in g m ic ro fo rm r e el o f c o rre sp ond ence p erta in in g to th e L ouis ia na S ta te P enite nti a ry . I h ad h o ped th at th e file o f

le tte rs w ritte n to a nd fr o m th e S ta te A tto rn ey G enera l’s o ffic e fr o m th e la te 1 940s to th e 1 950s w ould c o nta in c le m ency s ta te m ents

writte n b y A ngo la p ris o ners — te sti m ony th at, h o w ev er m ed ia te d , w ould a t le ast g iv e a m easu re o f “ b lo od to th e s c ra p s” th at I h ad

been a b le to r e co ver to th at p oin t.

A s I h eard th e v oic e o f o ne o f th e a rc hiv e’s s ta ff a d dre ss p atr o ns o ver th e i n te rc o m i n fo rm in g u s

th at th e f a cility w ould s o on b e c lo sin g, I h ad f o und n ext to n o th in g.

On a w him , I d ecid ed to s c an th e r e el a gain , tu rn in g th e a d vance k no b c lo ckw is e a s fa r a s it w ould g o . W ith th e im ages fla sh in g

over th e s c re en a t th e h ig hest s p eed , I s to pped th e r e el a nd l a nd ed s q uare ly o n th e f o llo w in g l e tte r:

Angola L A C am p A

Marc h 3 — 49

Dear S ir M r K im p,

I h av r e civ e a f e w L ette rs f ro m y ou. A nd a s y et I h aven’t g ot a ny o ne to h elp m e a s y ou h ave s e nt w ord f o r th em to h elp m e. A s I h ave a lr e ady to ld

you th at I h ave lif e h ere . O n s ir c um sta nce e verd ence I a m a o ne le g m an. A nd I d o n ot h ave a ny o ne to h elp m e a t a ll. B ut y ou. S o w ill y ou tr y to

Get S om e o ne to G et m e o ut o n a p ertin al p ard on a re th ey s e rc h la w a s th at S o if y ou w ill p le ase s ir w rit e m e a t o nce

Yours T ru ly S ir

Fro m J o hn M cE lr o y 3 7708

Cam p A A ngola L a

Answ er S oon.

I k new th e w ord s w ere s ig nific ant. B ut I a ls o k new th at th ere w as n o w ay I c o uld p ossib ly b e h earin g th e v oic e o f th e s a m e “ o ne l e g

man” I h ad fir s t s e en a t A ngo la th re e d ays b efo re in th e m in str e l s h o w p ho to gra p h. N o w ay. I w as n o t p re p are d to re ceiv e th e

sp ectr a l s u m mons c o nta in ed i n th e d esp era te r e fr a in ,

help m e

. . .

se n t w ord

. . .

to h elp m e

. . .

I a m a o ne l e g m an

. . .

I d on’t h ave

anyo ne t o h elp m e a t a ll. B ut y o u.

I q uic kly p rin te d th e l e tte r a nd m oved o n to th e n ext i m age ( F ig ure 9 ):

Jo hn M cE lr o y is u nkno w n to h is to ry . In d eed , h e w as im pris o ned , e nsla v ed , a nd d is (re )m em bere d b y a liv in g h is to ry th at k ills —

th at c o nto rts , d is q ualifie s, a nd a nnih ila te s th e e xp erie nces a nd th e tr u th s u tte re d b y th e u nto ld m illio ns w ho m ake u p th e d ese cra te d

and u nq uie t d ead o f A meric an r a cia l g eno cid e. B oth h is n am e a nd h is life w ere to h av e b een fo re v er e ra d ic ate d th ro ugh th e le gal

sti g m ata o f b la ck c rim in aliz a ti o n a nd n eo -e nsla v em ent. T hey w ere to h av e b een s te ncile d o ver b y th e p uniti v e m ark o f “ 3 7708”— a

bra nd in g th at r e p re se nts a tw enti e th -c entu ry p enal r e in sc rip ti o n o f th e v ery d is -n am in g a nd c ata lo guin g p ra cti c es th at b egan i n E uro -

Americ an m odern ity ’s o rig in al r a cia l c ap ita lis t m is o gynis t p ris o ns: th e b arra co ons, “ fa cto rie s,” h o ld s, p ens, a nd p la nta ti o ns o f th e

Mid dle P assa ge a nd a nte b ellu m c hatte l s la v ery .

But th ere h e w as/is . T he v ery “ o ne l e g m an” I th o ught I h ad f o und b urie d i n a b ox a t A ngo la h ad a ctu ally f o und m e. A t th is m om ent

I h ad to r e cko n n o t o nly w ith a l ite ra l g ho st, o r z o m bie , o f th e m aste r a rc hiv e b ut a ls o w ith th e f a ct th at th e ta sk I th o ught I h ad b een

engin eerin g o n m y o w n, o f s e arc hin g o ut th e r e m nants o f p uniti v e p erfo rm ance a t th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n, h ad a ctu ally b een c o nd ucte d

all a lo ng b y o ne o f its liv in g re v enants — th e le ad er o f C am p A ’s “ co lo re d ” m in str e l tr o up e— a m an w ho se re p eate d c all fo r

lib era ti o n h ad b een m ute d f o r d ecad es w ith in A ngo la ’s s la v e p la nta ti o n f ie ld s ( a nd p erfo rm ance s ta ges) a nd b y th e e nclo su re s o f th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** maste r a rc hiv e, b ut w ho n o neth ele ss h ad c o nti n ued w ailin g a n in carc era te d b lu es r e fr a in th at h ad fin ally b een h eard :

Help m e . . .

help m e . . . I a m a o ne l e g m an . . . I d on’t h ave a nyo ne t o h elp m e a t a ll. B ut y o u. I a m . J o hn M cE lr o y

. . . A nd th ere I w as. H e

was c allin g o ut to m e ( a nd e v ery o ne w ith in s tr ik in g d is ta nce o f th ese w ord s) f r o m a n u nlo cata b le g ra v e to u n-d ese cra te h is d eath , to

re m em ber h is sto le n a nd d is h o no re d n am e a nd b ody, a nd to lis te n to h is u nacco unte d -fo r g ho stl y e nco unte r w ith a str u ctu re o f

necro politi c al te rro r th at co nti n ues to d enig ra te his m em ory and th at o f his fe llo w cap ti v es th ro ugh th e m ass p ro ducti o n and

co nsu m pti o n o f n eo sla v es, s u ch a s th e “ natu ra l l ife r” w ho h ad d eliv ere d th e m in str e l

sh o w i m age to m e i n a b ox th re e d ays b efo re a t

Ango la . In d eed th is w as th e v ery s o rt o f m om ent A very G ord on, in c o nv ers a ti o n w ith D errid a, h ad s p oken o f in s u ggesti n g th at if

“th e g ho st i s a liv e,” w e “ are i n r e la ti o n to i t a nd i t h as d esig ns o n u s s u ch th at w e m ust r e cko n w ith i t g ra cio usly , a tte m pti n g to o ffe r

it h o sp ita b le m em ory

out o f a c o ncern f o r j u stic e.

O ut o f a c o ncern f o r j u sti c e w ould b e th e o nly r e aso n to b oth er.”

Fig ure . 9 .

J o hn M cE lr o y to L ouis ia na A tto rn ey G enera l, B oliv ar K em p J r., L ouis ia na S ta te P enit e ntia ry , G enera l C orre sp ondence ( m ic ro fo rm ), 1 951– 52. L ouis ia na S ta te

Arc hiv es, B ato n R ouge.

How ev er, a s I b egan th e w ork o f re sp ectf u lly a nd h o sp ita b ly a tte nd in g to o ne w ho , o ut o f h is o w n p osth um ous c o ncern fo r a

co unte r-ju rid ic al v arie ty o f j u sti c e, h ad l ite ra lly r e ached o ut f r o m th e i n ho sp ita b le to m b o f o ffic ia l h is to ry , I w as a w are th at, i n m any

re sp ects , m y ta sk w as a s i m possib le a s i t w as n ecessa ry . T he f ir s t a nd m ost o bvio us th in g th at m ust b e s a id a lo ng th ese l in es i s th at

no a m ount o f a tte nti v e e ngagem ent w ith J o hn M cE lr o y’s s p ectr a l p re se nce w ill d o a nyth in g to r e p air th e b re ach in flic te d u p on h is

life , th at o f h is e nti r e f a m ily , a nd th o se o f o th er r a cia lly a nd c rim in ally s ti g m ati z e d p ers o ns w ho h av e b een s u b je cte d to n eo sla v ery

in m ass n um bers a t p la ces su ch a s A ngo la , P arc hm an, S ugarla nd , C um min s, B anner M in e, a nd A tti c a sin ce th e p assa ge o f th e

Thir te enth A mend m ent. A sid e fr o m th is , o ne m ust r e sp ectf u lly a ckno w le d ge th e c hasm b etw een o ur d esir e to w elc o m e o ne s u ch a s

McE lr o y in to r e m em ory a nd th e e p is te m ic e ra su re a nd s e iz u re th at c o nsti tu te th e u nhis to ric al p ositi o nality o f th e n eo sla v e. In d eed

th ere w as e no ugh in th e w ay o f u nav aila b le a nd in accessib le k no w le d ge a cco m panyin g th e g ho stl y re su rfa cin g o f th e A ngo la

bla ckfa ce m in str e l p ho to gra p h, a nd tw o la st- d itc h m is siv es fr o m th e tr o up e’s “ o ne le g” le ad er, a s to m ake th e im pera ti v e d uty o f

care fu l l is te nin g s e em v exin g a t b est. F or i n sta nce, w hat e xactl y w as th e a lle ged c rim e f o r w hic h J o hn M cE lr o y r e ceiv ed a l ife te rm

of c iv il d eath ? W ere h is m oth er a nd f a th er s ti ll a liv e w hen h e a tte m pte d to c o nv in ce A tto rn ey G enera l B oliv ar K em p J r. to a llo w h is

min str e l tr o up e th e “ fa v or” o f r e su rre cti n g th e a nte b ellu m “ d ark y” fo r th e c iti z e ns o f H am mond , L ouis ia na? B y w hat s u rre p ti ti o us

and s u rp ris in gly b old e xp re ssiv e m eans d id h e a nd h is f e llo w b la ck p ris o n s la v es i n co rp ora te th e b lu es v oic e th at i n hab its h is l e tte rs

in to th eir sta ge p erfo rm ances o f neo sla v e jo via lity , su b hum anity , and co nte ntm ent? H ow m any child re n d id he and his w ife ,

“B erth a,” h av e b efo re h e w as d is a p peare d to th e n eo sla v e p la nta ti o n, a nd h o w m any o f th ese c hild re n w ould u lti m ate ly fin d

th em se lv es i m pris o ned a t A ngo la , a l o cal “ C ounty F arm ,” a c hain g ang, o r a n o rth ern p enite nti a ry ? J u st h o w l o ng h ad M cE lr o y b een

ensla v ed in W est F elic ia na b efo re w riti n g h is fir s t le tte rs to K em p (h e

menti o ns th at c o rre sp ond ence b egan in 1 948)? D o th ese

unre co vera b le l e tte rs c o nta in d eta ils o f th e e xact m anner b y w hic h h e b ecam e d is p osse sse d o f h is r ig ht l e g?

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** But h ere w e a re m et w ith a n e q ually im porta nt q uesti o n: H ow c an o ne e nte r in to a re cko nin g w ith th e g ho stl y p re se nces o f

neo sla v ery w ith a ny e xp ecta ti o n o f h is to ric al, e xp erie nti a l, o r e xp re ssiv e tr a nsp are ncy o n th e p art o f o ne o f i ts r e v enants , e v en o ne

th at a p pro aches u s w ith th e h ead -o n ( a nd l e g-o ff) i n te nsity o f J o hn M cE lr o y? A s H artm an ( fo llo w in g E douard G lis sa nt) a d vis e s u s,

anyo ne ta kin g o n s u ch a ta sk m ust r e sp ect “ th e r ig ht to o bsc urity ” o f th o se w ho h av e e nd ure d th e u nsa yab le , th e u nth in kab le , a nd th e

ir re p ara b le .

A d esir e fo r tr a nsp are ncy, c la rity , a nd fu ll s e m anti c d is c lo su re o n th e p art o f e v en th e m ost u nq uie t r e v enant o f th e

chatte liz e d c arc era l d is re sp ects a nd d is re gard s th e m agnitu d e o f th e v ery u nav ow ed a tr o city w e a re a tte m pti n g to h o no r th ro ugh o ur

care fu l l is te nin g. A s S eth e’s “ cra w lin g a lr e ad y” b ab y a nd g ho stl y s u rv iv or o f th e M id dle P assa ge r e m in d s u s th ro ugho ut

Belo ved

—

but w ith m ost a rre sti n g in te nsity in th e a nti g ra m mati c al m ono lo gue I d is c usse d in c hap te r 1 — th o se w ho e m erg e fr o m o bliv io n

hungry f o r r e m em ory d o n o t a nd c anno t s p eak, w rite , s in g, w ail, o r s c re am i n c o m ple te s e nte nces ( o r s o und s). R ath er, i t i s th e v ery

in co m ple te , c ut- o ff, b ro ken, a nd i n co m pre hensib le n atu re o f th e a ura l, w ritte n, a nd v is u al r e m ain d ers o f th e s o cia lly a nd c iv illy d ead

th at q ualify th eir s e m anti c d ep th a nd s o cia l u rg ency, a nd th at s ig nal th e c o unte r-h is to ric al, c o unte r-e p is te m olo gic al, a nd c o unte r-

ped ago gic al v alu e o f th eir m uzzle d a nd s u b m erg ed tr a nsm is sio ns f r o m th e m any u nm ark ed g ra v es o f A meric an r a cia l g eno cid e. H ere

we m ig ht th in k o f th e e llip se s a nd s ile nces o f b oth th e A ngo la m in str e l s h o w p ho to gra p h a nd M cE lr o y’s tw o “ kite s” f r o m C am p A a s

bearin g a g ra v ity a kin to th e e cho -la d en s ile nces a nd c aesu ra s th at a cco m pany J o hn C oltr a ne’s te no r s a xo pho ne in “ A la b am a” ( h is

dir g e to A ddie M ae C ollin s, D enis e M cN air, C aro le R oberts o n, a nd C ynth ia W esle y); o r w hat F re d eric k D ougla ss d esc rib es a s th e

in co m pre hensib le b ut in esti m ab ly “ d eep m eanin g” o f th e s la v e s o ngs h e fir s t h eard in b oyho od, w ho se m ere m nem onic r e curre nce

was e no ugh to b rin g te ars to h is e yes a s h e w ro te h is a uto bio gra p hy o f 1 845; o r th e u nsp eakab le th in g th at S ta m p P aid fe lt in h is

hand a nd s p ir it d urin g th e tr a v esti e d “ fr e ed om ” ti m e o f 1 874, w hen h e r e ached in to th e O hio R iv er a nd p ulle d o ut w hat h e th o ught

was a c ard in al fe ath er b ut w as a ctu ally a “ re d rib bon k no tte d a ro und a c url o f w et w ooly h air, c lin gin g s ti ll to a b it o f [a b la ck

gir l’s ] s c alp .”

Lik e a rib boned b it o f h air a nd s c alp re tr ie v ed fr o m th e w ate ry g ra v e c utti n g K entu cky fr o m O hio , th e m ute d , fr a gm ente d , a nd

su b te rra nean tr a nsm is sio ns o f th e n eo sla v e a re r e so und in gly c le ar in th eir e xp re ssio n o f th e te rro r, d is p osse ssio n, a nd r u p tu re th at

hav e u nd erp in ned th e p re d ic am ent o f lib era l d e ju re fr e ed om fo r b la ck p eo ple in th e U nite d S ta te s. A nd , lik e a v esti g e o f a n

ano nym ously m urd ere d b la ck g ir l i n 1 874 ( o r a p ub lic ly s la in b la ck b oy i n 2 012),

J o hn M cE lr o y’s p hanto m r ig ht l e g— or r a th er h is

phanta sm al r e asse rti o n o f it— dis a sse m ble s d om in ant h is to ric al, c ultu ra l, a nd le gal tr u th s th at h av e a tte nd ed th e c ro ss-g enera ti o nal

puniti v e v io la ti o n o f th e c rim in aliz e d , d ehum aniz e d , a nd d is h o no re d b la ck s u b je ct f r o m c hatte l s la v ery to p ris o n s la v ery . M cE lr o y’s

sp ectr a liz e d c o unte r-d ep lo ym ent o f h is d is m em bere d b ody b oth i n h is l e tte rs a nd o n th e n eo pla nta ti o n s ta ge s u ggests h o w a t th e z e ro

degre e o f c hatte liz e d e nto m bm ent th e o nly a cts o f “ re sis ta nce” o fte n m ad e a v aila b le to th e c ap ti v e in v olv e a n e m bra ce, e xhib iti o n,

and e v en a fu rth era nce o f o ne’s v ery c o nd iti o n o f b ro kenness, r u p tu re , a nd d is p osse ssio n.

In o th er w ord s, w hen k eep in g in m in d

th at h e l ik ely n ev er a chie v ed f r e ed om , a nd th at h is o nly m eth o d o f g etti n g b eyo nd A ngo la ’s g ate s m ay h av e b een th ro ugh th e p erv ers e

priv ile ge o f p erfo rm in g th e “ d ark y’s ” c heerfu l a ccep ta nce o f th e v ery c o nd iti o n o f e nsla v em ent th at h e tr ie d so d esp era te ly to

esc ap e, M cE lr o y’s a p pariti o nal b ody a nd v oic e p re se nt l e ss o f a c la im f o r r e p ara ti o n th an a d em and f o r a ttu ned a ckno w le d gm ent o f

th e e no rm ity o f th e u nhis to ric al c rim e o f s ta te s la v ery a nd th e i r re p ara b le p ain a sso cia te d w ith u nachie v ed l ib era ti o n.

Here w e m ig ht th in k o f th e h is to ric ally a no nym ous n eo sla v e’s p erfo rm ati v e a nd w ritte n r e d ep lo ym ent o f h is c ap ti v e b ody a s a n

unre co gniz e d a nd u nro m anti c a nalo gue o f o th er e m bodie d a cts o f in ju rio us re sis ta nce, s u ch a s th e h unger s tr ik e, th at h av e b een

perfo rm ed b y “ ra d ic al” o r “ p oliti c al” p ris o ners . B y o penly d ecla rin g th e r e ality o f h is p uniti v e r u p tu re , b ra nd is h in g i t o nsta ge, a nd

dis c urs iv ely f u sin g i t to h is i d enti ty u nd er c iv il d eath i n h is r e p eate d l e tte rs to th e s ta te ’s p re em in ent p urv eyo r o f th e l a w ( a nd to u s)

— I a m a o ne l e g m an . . . I a m t h e s a m e o ne l e g m an

—th e u nd ead s o cia l a nd p oliti c al p re se nce w ho i s J o hn M cE lr o y tr a nsm ute s

th e d is m em bere d p art o f h is b ody in to a p ain fu lly e lo quent a nd “ ra d ic al” a b se nce th at d is e nchants th e w hite s u p re m acis t m yth o s

su rro und in g th e to rtu ro us s p ecta cle o f b la ck c ap ti v e p erfo rm ance, in clu d in g th e m in str e l s h o w th at h e s o ught to b ook to a s p ace

anyw here

o uts id e th e c o nfin es o f th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n a fte r h is r e p eate d c alls f o r a ctu al d eliv era nce r e ceiv ed n o a nsw er.

In d eed , w here as n o ne o f p ris o ner n um ber 3 7708’s l e tte rs i m plo rin g th e s ta te ’s a tto rn ey g enera l to o ffe r h im a p ard on f r o m “ life ”

at A ngo la re ceiv ed a ny re al a tte nti o n, h is p re se nta ti o n o f th e id ea o f d ir e cti n g a p ris o n-s tr ip ed b la ckfa ce s h o w in th e o ffic ia l’s

ho m eto w n e lic ite d a n i m med ia te a nd c o ngenia l r e sp onse .

Dear J o hn— I w as v ery g la d to g et y our le tte r a nd to le arn th at a ctiv it ie s s u ch a s m in str e l s h ow s, e tc . a re b ein g o rg aniz e d a nd c arrie d o n b y th e

in m ate s. T hin gs o f th is k in d n ot o nly m ake a s ta y a t th e in stit u tio n m ore b eara ble b ut a re b ound to b e a h elp in p re parin g y ou f o r th e o rd eals o f lif e

when y ou a re d is c harg ed. R ig ht a t th e p re se nt I d o n ot k now h ow b ookin g o f y our m in str e l s h ow c ould b e a ccom plis h ed, b ut I e xpect to b e a t A ngola

sh ortly a nd w ill d is c uss y our le tte r w it h th e o ffic ia ls th ere .

Wit h R egard s, I a m

Sin cere ly Y ours ,

Boliv ar E . K em p, J r.

Atto rn ey G enera l

For K em p, th e “ gla d ness” -in sp ir in g i m age o f b la ck p ris o ners p erfo rm in g th e r e su rre cti o n o f th e c o nte nte d -to -b e-e nsla v ed “ d ark y” a t

th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n m ust h av e s e em ed l ik e a w ell- ti m ed a nd n o rm aliz in g p allia ti v e f o r th e m om ento us p ub lic r e la ti o ns p ro ble m th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** sta te w as f a cin g i n r e sp ect to A ngo la a t th e v ery m om ent h e r e ceiv ed “ Jo hn’s ” b id to b rin g C am p A ’s m in str e l tr o up e to H am mond ,

Louis ia na, in A ugust 1 951. In fa ct, th e u p -c o m in g v is it to th e p la nta ti o n h e m enti o ns in h is le tte r m ore th an lik ely h ad to d o w ith

ano th er c o lle cti v e p ris o ner p erfo rm ance th at h ad o ccurre d i n F eb ru ary o f th e s a m e y ear, a n a ct o f d esp era te a nd i n ju rio us r e sis ta nce

ta ken b y a g ro up o f p ris o ners f r o m A ngo la ’s o nly w hite “ d orm ito ry ,” C am p E , w ho b ecam e k no w n a s th e “ H eel- S tr in g G ang.” I n a n

acti o n th at le d to th e b ig gest p ris o n s c and al in s ta te h is to ry , a nd th at g av e A ngo la th e d ub io us d is ti n cti o n o f “ b lo odie st p ris o n in

Americ a,” th ir ty -s e v en w hite m en u se d r a zo r b la d es to s e v er th eir A chille s te nd ons i n p ro te st a gain st L SP’s r itu aliz e d v io le nce a nd

“can’t to c an’t s e e” fie ld la b or

—th e v ery d om in ati v e r e gim e th at c o untl e ss b la ck p ris o ners h ad e nd ure d w ith o ut a n io ta o f p ub lic

outr a ge s in ce L ouis ia na r e cla im ed i ts p riv ate ly l e ase d “ N egro ” p ris o n s la v es f r o m th e e sta te o f S am uel L aw re nce J a m es i n 1 901.

By th e ti m e o f th e heel- s tr in g in cid ent, A ngo la ’s b la ck cap ti v es had lo ng re so rte d to acts o f la st- d itc h p ro te st and b odily

end angerm ent th at r e ceiv ed s c arc e c o vera ge in lo cal o r n ati o nal n ew sp ap ers . T hese a cti o ns in clu d ed b ut w ere n o t lim ite d to s e lf-

muti la ti o n, v io le nt s e lf- d efe nse , th e d estr u cti o n o f to ols , p ois o nin g g uard f a m ilie s’ f o od, a nd e sc ap e a tte m pts w ho se l e ast h o rrify in g

co nclu sio n o fte n co nsis te d o f an enco unte r w ith th e p la nta ti o n’s b lo odho und s fo llo w ed b y a hid in g fr o m a fiv e-fo ot clu b o r

bla cksn ake w hip .

B ut a r e ad in g o f th is h is to ry in c o ncert w ith th e u nheed ed c all th at c o nti n ues to e m anate fr o m M cE lr o y’s le tte rs

and a n u nb urie d p ho to gra p h o f th e C am p A m in str e l e nse m ble f o rc es s o m e i m porta nt q uesti o ns i n to v ie w . F or i n sta nce, d oes n o t th e

bla ck c ap ti v e’s la st- re so rt e ffo rt a t s e curin g a te nuo us a nd a lw ays a lr e ad y in co m ple te r e p rie v e fr o m th e p enite nti a ry ’s in num era b le

oth er sta gin g gro und s o f p uniti v e te rro r th ro ugh p ain ti n g o n th e m ask o f b la ck se lf- im mola ti o n re p re se nt an act as d esp era te ,

in ju rio us, a nd v exin g a s s e lf- m uti la ti o n? C an w e n o t d is c ern th e s ta te o f le galiz e d e xcep ti o n a s r e ad ily in th e o utl in e o f th e p ris o n

min str e l’s s m ile a s in th e c o nto urs o f th e w hip -s c ars , b ite m ark s, k nife w ound s, a nd b ulle t h o le s th at c o vere d m any o f th e tr o up e

mem bers ’ b odie s?

S uch q uesti o ns fo rc e in to v ie w th o se w ho a re p re se nt a t th e m in str e l s h o w b ut w ho a re n o t c aught w ith in th e

fr a m e o f th e p ho to gra p h— th e p enite nti a ry e m plo yees a nd v is ito rs w ho a re s itu ate d a t th e w in d ow s o f th e p la nta ti o n h o use a nd o n th e

oth er s id e o f th e p la nta ti o n s u rv eilla nce c am era . T he h arro w in g u nse en d im ensio ns o f th e p ho to gra p h le av e u s w ond erin g ju st h o w

many m em bers o f th e A ngo la m in str e l tr o up e w ere f o rc ib ly r e m oved f r o m s la v in g i n th e f ie ld s o r th e p la nta ti o n h o use a nd m ad e to

perfo rm in fr o nt o f e m plo yee fa m ilie s a nd w hite v is ito rs u nd er th e p ain o f b ein g w hip ped , b lu d geo ned w ith th e “ lin e p ush er,” o r

kille d b y a g un-to ti n g p ris o ner tr u sty ;

o r h o w m any o f th em h ad p re v io usly b een s h o t w ith b ulle ts is su in g fr o m th e s h o tg un o f th e

sa m e “ C ap ta in ” o r “ S erg eant” w ho w as i n c harg e o f s h o oti n g th e m in str e l p ho to . F ro m K em p’s p ers p ecti v e, h o w ev er, s u ch r e aliti e s

were im pond era b le , o r a t le ast u nacti o nab le . T he u rg ent p le a th at h e c o nfr o nte d in M cE lr o y’s e arlie r le tte rs w as a lw ays a lr e ad y

muzzle d and sh uttl e d th ro ugh th e co m fo rti n g im age o f S am bo’s re tu rn , ev en if th e co nju ra ti o n o f th at im age d ep end ed o n th e

in te re ste d e lis io n o f p ris o ner n um ber 3 7708’s p re v io us c o m munic ati o ns f r o m m em ory a nd a w illfu l s u sp ensio n o f a ckno w le d gm ent

of th e f a ct th at th is p arti c ula r c rim in ally b ra nd ed “ S am bo” w as a p pearin g o n th e n eo pla nta ti o n s ta ge n o t a s a c o nte nte d p ris o n s la v e

but a s a

one-le g m an

w ho se a p pare nt s m ile s c re am ed o ut f o r

help .

Fro m th e p ers p ecti v e o f K em p, a nd th o se f r e e w hite p eo ple w ho d id h av e th e o pportu nity to r e ap e njo ym ent f r o m i n te re ste d m is -

hearin gs o f th e “ re els ,” b lu es, ja zz, “ w ork so ngs,” a nd sp ir itu als o f th o se su ch a s M cE lr o y a nd M ath ew s o ver th e y ears , th e

sp ecta cle o f p ic are sq ue “nig gers ” p la yin g th e “hap py-g o -lu cky” sla v e re p re se nte d sta rk v is u al o ppositi o n to th e unru ly w hite

pris o ner’s e nactm ent o f p ain ed r e sis ta nce a nd o vert d efia nce in th e fa ce o f c iv il d eath — a d ic ho to m y th at s e cure d th e o nto lo gic al

parti ti o nin g of w hite ness and bla ckness no tw ith sta nd in g th e crim in al sti g m ati z a ti o n of th e w hite pris o ner. T he onto lo gic al,

ped ago gic al, a nd l ite ra l c urre ncy th at a tta ched to th e p ris o n s la v e’s p erfo rm ati v e a nd d om esti c n eo sla v e l a b or a t A ngo la f u ncti o ned

in d ia le cti c al in te rfa ce w ith th e e co no m ic r e tu rn s a sso cia te d w ith h is u se a s “ p ro ducti v e” la b ore r in p la nta ti o n fie ld s.

F or m any

white w ork in g-c la ss e m plo yees a nd th eir f a m ilie s w ho r e sid ed i n th e d e f a cto f r e e m unic ip ality th at g re w w ith in th e b ord ers o f th e

pris o n, th e se nse o f ra cia l su p erio rity d eriv ed fr o m th e fu ngib le b la ck b ody se rv ed as a criti c al p sy cho lo gic al and m ate ria l

su p ple m ent fo r th e r e la ti v ely m odest m oneta ry w ages o ffe re d to m any p ris o n g uard s a nd a d m in is tr a to rs o f a n in d ustr ia liz e d p ub lic

neo sla v ery c o ncern th at o pera te d a t a te chnic al lo ss th ro ugh m ost y ears o f its e xis te nce. P ats y D re her, th e d aughte r o f a n A ngo la

guard c ap ta in , e xp re sse s th is d ynam ic th ro ugh a n o sta lg ic r e call o f a n i d yllic c hild ho od a t th e n eo pla nta ti o n w hen a s te ad y s u p ply o f

all- p urp ose b la ck m en

w ere p la ced a t th e d is p osa l o f h er f a m ily a nd th o se o f o th er w hite e m plo yees: “ A ngo la w as a p le asa nt p la ce

to l iv e b ack th en. A v egeta b le c art c am e b y e v ery m orn in g. W hat y o u d id n’t g et i n p ay, y o u g o t i n b enefits . Y ou . . . c o uld g et i n m ate s

as c o oks, y ard b oys, h o use b oys; y o u c o uld h av e tw o o r th re e o f th em i f y o u w ante d . W e h ad a n o ld c o ok n am ed L eo n w ho c rie d l ik e

a b ab y w hen h e g o t p aro le d ; h e s a id o urs w as th e o nly h o m e h e h ad k no w n i n a l o ng ti m e.”

T he s e em in gly l im itl e ss p ub lic /p riv ate

uti lity a nd s ta tu s-a ugm enti n g e ffic acy o f th e tr u stw orth y a nd f a ith fu lly i m pris o ned “ N egro b oy” w as a ls o e njo yed w ith in th e s o cia lly

in carc era ti n g s tr u ctu re s o f A ngo la ’s s u rro und in g c o m muniti e s, n o t s im ply th ro ugh o ccasio nal fr e e-w orld c o ncerts s u ch a s th e o ne

McE lr o y h o ped to b ook to H am mond b ut a ls o th ro ugh a n i n fo rm al c o nv ic t l e nd /le ase s y ste m w here b y b la ck tr u sti e s w ere d is p ense d

to l o cal w hite f a m ilie s a s f ie ld -, h o use -, a nd

music a l s la ves

: “ T he a d ja cent p aris h es a nd f e w s m all c o m muniti e s i n

th e a re a g re a tly

ben efite d fr o m th e la bor a nd ta le n ts o f th e in m ate s.

In m ate s w ere u no ffic ia lly ‘ lo aned a s s k ille d la b ore rs , s k ille d w ork ers , a nd

ev en e nte rta in ers .’ ”

The l ib era l u ti liz a ti o n a nd p ub lic d is se m in ati o n o f th e p ostb ellu m “ N egro ” p ris o ner a s e ith er f ie ld s la v e, h o use s la v e, o r m usic al

sla v e u nd erlin es th e in se p ara b ility o f “ p ro ducti v e” fo rm s o f m ark et- o rie nte d la b or a nd “ unp ro ducti v e” fo rm s o f la b or, te rro r, a nd

dis h o no r w ith in s p aces o f n eo sla v ery , a nd th e d egre e to w hic h g eo gra p hie s s u ch a s A ngo la p la nta ti o n h av e b een b uilt a s m uch o n th e

re p ro ducti o n o f w hite s u p re m acis t p le asu re a nd d om in ati o n a s o n th e p ro ducti o n o f c ash c ro ps a nd m oneta ry p ro fits . H ere w e a re

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** re m in d ed o f W illia m G oodell’s e arlie r s ta te m ent f r o m th e e arly 1 850s r e gard in g th e f u ngib ility , o r s e em in gly l im itl e ss e co no m ic a nd

so cia l u ti lity , o f th e b la ck c ap ti v e— th at “ S la v es, a s P ro perty , m ay b e

use d

, a b so lu te ly b y th eir o w ners a t w ill, fo r th eir o w n p ro fit

or p le asu re .”

R ead in th is lig ht, w hat I h av e d esc rib ed a b ove a s th e “ unhis to ric al” a sp ect o f c ap ti v e p erfo rm ance a t A ngo la n o t

only r e fe rs to th e o cclu sio n o f th o se s u ch a s J o hn M cE lr o y a nd O dea M ath ew s f r o m th e m aste r a rc hiv e, b ut to th e v ir tu al a b se nce o f

th eir e xp erie nces o f n eo sla v ery w ith in l ib era l a nd “ ra d ic al” h is to rio gra p hic tr e atm ents o f th e s u b je ct o f p ostb ellu m c o nv ic t l a b or—

many o f w hic h e ith er d ow np la y th e c o nnecti o n b etw een th at d om in ati v e s y ste m a nd c hatte l s la v ery o r d esc rib e p enal n eo sla v ery a s

so m eth in g th at o nly h ap pened “ d ow n th ere ” o r “ b ack th en.”

S uch d is c ussio ns h av e te nd ed to re d uce th e re p re ssiv e sc o pe o f

ra cia liz e d im pris o nm ent e ith er to th e lib era l h um anita ria n te rm s o f re la ti v e d eath ra te s, o r to th e “ ra d ic al” e co no m is ti c te rm s o f

pro ducti o n a nd l a b or e xp lo ita ti o n w ith o ut a cco unti n g f o r th e w ays i n w hic h ( 1 ) b la ck p ostb ellu m i m pris o nm ent i s i ts e lf a f o rm ati o n

of m ass c iv il a nd liv in g d eath g ro und ed in th e m ass so cia l d eath o f c hatte l sla v ery ; (2 ) h o w , fa r fr o m o pera ti n g sim ply a s a n

“eco no m ic ” sy ste m , ra cia liz e d in carc era ti o n (a nd b y th is te rm I am again re fe rrin g to th e necro politi c al o rd er o f gend ere d ,

eco no m ic , sp ati a l, and ra cia l te rro r th at b egan und er th e M id dle P assa ge) has re p re se nte d a m ode o f “cultu ra l im positi o n,”

onto lo gic al su b ord in ati o n, a nd le gal d om in ati o n fu nd am enta l to fr e e/w hite c o lle cti v e se lf- im agin in g a nd to th e o vera ll m ate ria l

str u ctu rin g of A meric an em pir e .

T he atr o citi e s of sla v ery and neo sla v ery canno t be fu lly co nte m pla te d w ith in th e narro w

eco no m is ti c i n d ic es o f p ro ducti o n a nd l a b or e xp lo ita ti o n, n am ely w hen w e a tte m pt to a p pro ach th em f r o m th e n early i m possib le -to -

re co ver p ositi o n o f th e c o rp ore ally a nd p sy chic ally te rro riz e d b la ck c ap ti v e. In o th er w ord s, th e u nhis to ric al e xp erie nces o f th o se

su ch a s M cE lr o y a nd M ath ew s u nv eil h o w c hatte l c arc era lity is n o t s im ply a m ode o f e co no m ic p ro ducti o n: it is a ls o a p ro cess o f

onto lo gic al, c o rp ore al, s p ati a l, l e gal, a nd c ultu ra l d om in ati o n r e sid in g i n th e D NA o f o ccid enta l m odern ity .

Alo ng w ith re gis te rin g th e unhis to ric al im port o f b la ck neo sla v e p er-fo rm ance as a m odality o f w hite su p re m acis t cultu ra l

re p ro ducti o n and co m munal se lf- fa b ric ati o n, K em p’s allu sio n to th e w ay in w hic h th e re cre ati o nal priv ile ge of m in str e ls y

su ccessfu lly m ad e th e b la ck n eo sla v e’s e xp erie nce o f p la nta ti o n im pris o nm ent “ m ore b eara b le ” r e p re se nts a m id -tw enti e th -c entu ry

re d ep lo ym ent o f th e r a cia liz e d c arc era l d is c o urs e s o f n atu ra l “ N egro ” c o nte ntm ent, s u b m is siv eness, a nd s la v e-w orth in ess th at h ad

been p art a nd p arc el o f th e c hatte liz a ti o n o f b la ck b ein g a nd th e c o nso lid ati o n o f w hite ness s in ce th e M id dle P assa ge. F ro m its

begin nin gs o n th e d ecks o f s la v e s h ip s, th e c o ffle s th at h erd ed A fr ic ans to th e a ucti o n b lo ck, a nd w ith th e w eekend a nd h o lid ay

“fr o lic s” o f th e a nte b ellu m s la v e p la nta ti o n, th e s ta gin g o f c ap ti v e a m use m ent h ad b een im ple m ente d a s a p rim ary m echanis m o f

managin g th e e nsla v ed a nd im pris o ned b la ck b ody, o f c ulti v ati n g th e p sy chic w ell- b ein g, s o cia l d om in io n, a nd p le asu re -d riv es o f

th e w hite c iv il su b je ct, a nd o f n o rm aliz in g th e c o lle cti v e ru p tu re , te rro r, a nd a b je cti o n b la ck c ap ti v es fa ced u nd er c entu rie s o f

chatte liz e d i n carc era ti o n.

A s H artm an s u ggests i n h er s e m in al th eo riz a ti o n o f th e i n str u m enta l d ep lo ym ent o f th e b la ck p erfo rm ati v e

body in th e a nte b ellu m p erio d, th e o rc hestr a ti o n o f c ap ti v e g aie ty , m usic ality , a nd d ocility d urin g o ste nsib ly “ unp ro ducti v e” o ff-

ti m es l a id a t th e f u lc ru m o f p la nta ti o n r e la ti o ns, r e gis te rin g th e d egre e to w hic h th e “ ho urs o f s u nd ow n to s u nup w ere a s i m porta nt a s

th o se s p ent in th e fie ld in c ulti v ati n g th e p ro ducti v ity o f th e p la nta ti o n h o use ho ld a nd m ain ta in in g s o cia l c o ntr o l.” S he a d ds th at

durin g th e m id -n in ete enth c entu ry ,

su ch d iv ers io ns w ere a n im porta nt e le m ent in p la nta ti o n m anagem ent, a s th e in te rn aliz a ti o n o f d is c ip lin e a nd

re w ard w as c o nsid ere d e sse nti a l to th e g o od o rd er o f th e p la nta ti o n. . . . P riz e w in nin g e ssa ys o n th e id eals o f

managem ent h eld th at ‘ in d ustr y a nd g o od c o nd uct s h o uld b e e nco ura ged [ a nd ] th e ta ste f o r i n no cent a m use m ents

gra ti fie d .’ T hese d esig ns fo r m aste ry

tr o uble d th e d is tin ctio ns b etw een le is u re a nd la bor

a nd e m plo yed a n

exte nsiv e n o ti o n o f d is c ip lin e th at i n clu d ed e v ery th in g f r o m th e ta sk s y ste m to th e m odes o f s in gin g a llo w ed . . . .

Acco rd in g to th e p la nte r, th e w hip u se d s p arin gly , th e f id dle , a nd th e B ib le f o rm ed th e h o ly tr in ity .

As i f c o pyin g i ts d esig n f o r s ta te m aste ry d ir e ctl y f r o m o ne o f th ese p riz e w in nin g a nte b ellu m e ssa ys, A ngo la ’s a d m in is tr a ti o n o f th e

early 1 940s

desc rib ed its id eal p hilo so phy fo r m anagin g “ N egro ” p ris o n s la v es a s a p erfe ctl y b ala nced a p porti o nm ent o f

physic a l

re p re ssio n a nd

sp ir itu al

h egem ony:

To k eep th e c o nv ic t s e p ara te fr o m s o cie ty is p artl y a p hysic al a nd p artl y a s p ir itu al p ro ble m . A s a p hysic al

pro ble m i t i n v olv es i r o n f e nces, b ars o f s te el, l e ath er s tr a p s, c lu b s, a nd g uns. A s a s p ir itu al p ro ble m i t i n v olv es

hum ane tr e atm ent; a fr ie nd ly a tti tu d e, ta sk s su ite d to th e str e ngth a nd ta le nts , tr u sts a nd lo yalti e s, w ork a nd

re cre ati o n. T he s p ir itu al f a cto rs a re th e m ost p ro m is in g a nd r e lia b le th o ugh th e p hysic al f a cto rs a re a n ecessa ry

la st re so rt. T here fo re w e re ly o n k in d a nd ju st tr e atm ent o f th e p ris o ners . . . [th eir ] life s h o uld b e m ad e a s

hap py a s p ossib le .

That b la ck p ris o ners a re k no w n to h av e s u ffe re d fr o m w ell o ver te n th o usa nd

re p orte d

w hip pin gs d urin g th e d ecad e le ad in g u p to

th is s ta te m ent r e p re se nts th e q uo ti d ia n f u ncti o nality o f s o -c alle d l a st- re so rt te rro r a p para tu se s w ith in th e p se ud ohegem onic a re na o f

ra cia liz e d c iv il d eath a nd th e d egre e to w hic h la b or, le is u re , a nd te rro r h av e b een a s v ir tu ally in d is ti n guis h ab le a nd m utu ally

co nsti tu ti v e und er th e sla v ery o f p ris o n as d urin g th e p ris o n o f sla v ery .

F ar fr o m re p re se nti n g an anachro nis ti c re m nant o f

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** pre m odern m echanis m s of te rro r, dis h o no r, and perv ers e cap to r ple asu re , th e “fu n” sid e of th e M id dle P assa ge m odel of

im pris o nm ent c am e to re p re se nt a fo und ati o nal e le m ent o f c arc era l m odern ity a s a w ho le — no t o nly in th e A meric an c hain g ang,

pris o n p la nta ti o n, a nd p enite nti a ry b ut in o th er ra cia liz e d n ecro politi c al s p aces s u ch a s A usc hw itz a nd B ir k enau w here in c erta in

pris o n s la v es w ere a llo tte d th e “ p riv ile ge” o f a cti n g a s m usic al a nd a th le ti c e nte rta in ers in th e c o ncentr a ti o n c am p v ers io n o f th e

afo re -m enti o ned

pla nta tio n holid ay.

If th e te le o lo gy of ante b ellu m m aste ry calle d fo r th e cre ati o n of a kin d of geno cid al

eq uilib riu m b ase d u p on th e c alib ra te d a p plic ati o n a nd fu sio n o f “ p ro ducti v e” a nd “ unp ro ducti v e” fo rm s o f c ap ti v e tr a v ail r a ngin g

fr o m fie ld /h o use w ork , to c o rp ore al r u p tu re , to “ in no cent” a nd /o r “ sp ir itu al” d iv ers io ns s u ch a s s in g-in g, d ancin g, a nd th e B ib le ,

th en th e p ra cti c e o f c ap ti v e p erfo rm ance a t A ngo la a nd o th er U .S . p ris o ns, C ounty F arm s, a nd c hain g angs r e gis te rs th e d egre e to

whic h th is te rro ris ti c m atr ix o f c hatte l i n carc era ti o n h aunte d i ts w ay i n to th e e xp erie nti a l r e ality o f b la ck p eo ple f o r g enera ti o ns a fte r

th e C iv il W ar.

The c entr a lity o f w eap ons o f r e cre ati o nal d iv ers io n a nd o ste nsib ly u np ro ducti v e f o rm s o f l a b or to th e p ro je ct o f n eo -e nsla v em ent

can b e g le aned e v en a m ong th e m ost a p pare ntl y p ro sa ic d esc rip ti o ns o f b la ck c ap ti v e “ w ork ” o n th e “ sta te p enal fa rm .” F or

in sta nce, in an arti c le th at ap peare d in th e

Louis ia na M unic ip al R evie w

in 1 943, w hat is in te nd ed to b e a str a ig htf o rw ard

cata lo guin g o f A ngo la ’s in d ustr ia l c ap aciti e s e nd s u p p ro ducin g a n eo pla nta ti o n p asto ra l s c ene in w hic h th e ti m e-h o no re d s o uth ern

pla nte r a nd n o rth ern “ ro m anti c r a cia lis t” m yth o s o f m aste r-s la v e h arm ony a nd r e cip ro city i s r e su sc ita te d th ro ugh th e e v ocati o n o f th e

pla nta ti o n h o lid ay a nd th e e up hem is ti c i n tr o ducti o n o f th e W orld W ar I I e d iti o n o f th e C am p A m in str e ls :

A c o m bin ati o n o f m ule a nd tr a cto r p ow er is u se d . F orty m ile s o f r a ilr o ad tr a v ers e th e c ane fie ld s, fr o m w hic h

tw o tr a in s tr a nsp ort c ane to th e s u gar r e fin ery w hic h c an h and le 1 ,4 00 to ns o f c ane

daily . T he 3 0 m ile s o f g ra v el

ro ad s in te rs e cti n g th e p la nta ti o n m ake it c o nv enie nt to s u p ple m ent th e h aulin g o f c ane w ith tr a cto rs a nd c ane

buggie s. T he r e fin ery i s o pera te d c o nti n uo usly o n a 2 4-h o ur b asis th ro ugh th e c ane s e aso n, w hic h i n 1 942 l a ste d

65 d ays.

Fig ure 1 0.

T he te rro r/la bor o f n eosla ve “ le is u re .” A tc hafa la ya R iv er L evee C am p s e ctio n o f L ouis ia na S ta te P enit e ntia ry , c . 1 900— ju st f o ur y ears a fte r th e c am p d eath

ra te h ad r e ached 2 0 p erc ent. T he o rig in al c aptio n f o r th e p hoto gra ph, w hic h a ppeare d in th e a nnual r e port o f th e B oard o f C ontr o l f o r th e s ta te p enit e ntia ry f o r 1 901, r e ad,

“F un in le vee c am p.” H enry L . F uqua J r. L ytle P hoto gra ph C olle ctio n a nd P apers , L ouis ia na a nd L ow er M is sis sip pi V alle y C olle ctio ns, L SU L ib ra rie s, B ato n R ouge.

The m en w ork th ro ugh th e h arv est r e gard le ss o f w eath er, f o r m uch o f th e s u ccess o f a c ane c ro p d ep end s u p on

th e s p eed w ith w hic h i t i s g ath ere d . A fte r th e h arv est, th ere i s a c ele b ra ti o n p erio d d urin g w hic h tu rk eys r a is e d

on th e fa rm a nd o th er d elic acie s g ro w n a t th e p enite nti a ry a re c o m bin ed fo r fe sti v e d in ners a t th e c am p. T he

pris o ners a re a llo w ed th e p riv ile ge o f p utti n g o n a v aud ev ill

[s ic ]

s h o w w ith a c ast c o m pose d e xclu siv ely o f

in m ate s. W ith th eir p ent- u p e m oti o ns r e le ase d i n h ealth y l a ughte r, th ey u su ally e njo y o ne n ig ht a nd tw o a fte rn o on

perfo rm ances o f th e s h o w . W ard en B aze r i s g enero usly h elp fu l i n m akin g p ro vis io ns f o r a nd d ir e cti n g th e s h o w .

The s u gar r e fin ery i s s u p ple m ente d b y a r a ilr o ad s h o p a nd f o und ry , l ig ht p la nt, a nd a m achin e e le ctr ic al s h o p.

There [ is ] a ls o a l e ath er s h o p.

The in tr u sio n o f th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n h arv est fe sti v al a nd “ v aud ev ill[ e ] sh o w ” in to a n o th erw is e ro uti n e o utl in e o f su garc ane

pro ducti o n a nd o th er f o rm s o f i n d ustr ia liz e d n eo sla v ery a t A ngo la i llu str a te s th e d egre e to w hic h th e r o und -th e-c lo ck l a b or r e gim ent

of th e n eo pla nta ti o n w as i n n o w ay l im ite d to th e s ix ty -fiv e-d ay c ane-p ro cessin g s e aso n— ho w th e p ain fu l “ w ork ” o f p ris o n s la v ery

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** was f e lt o n a tw enty -fo ur-h o ur b asis e v en i n m om ents o f a p pare nt r e p rie v e. N oth in g s ig nals th e i m bric ati o ns o f p enal r e cre ati o n a nd

co rp ore al re p re ssio n— of m anageria l le nie nce and carc era l su rv eilla nce— more th an th e w ard en’s tr ip arti te ro le as in d ustr ia l

pla nta ti o n fie ld c o m mand er, b esto w er o f p erfo rm ati v e p riv ile ge, a nd “ d ir e cto r” o f th e v ery b re ak fr o m p ro ducti v e s la v e la b or th at

he g ra nts th e b la ck p ris o ner. A cco rd in gly , th e n arra ti v e b ears s tr ik in g r e so nance w ith n um ero us a cco unts o ffe re d b y fo rm er s la v es

th at e xp ose th e v ita l fu ncti o n o f s u ch “ cele b ra ti o n p erio ds” in th e a tte m pte d s c ie nti fic m anagem ent o f th e c hatte liz e d b ody, p sy che,

and s p ir it b efo re 1 865. C om pare th e p erv ers e n o ti o n p ro ffe re d h ere th at th e p ris o n m aste r’s b enev ole nt c o nfe rra l a nd d ir e cto ria l

orc hestr a ti o n o f p uniti v e p riv ile ge in th e fo rm o f th e b la ckfa ce s h o w o ffe re d th e s ta te s la v e a m om ent in w hic h th e “ em oti o ns”

asso cia te d w ith b ond -a ge c o uld b e “ re le ase d i n h ealth y l a ughte r” to D ougla ss’s d eco nstr u cti o n o f

sim ila r h o lid ay e nte rta in m ents h e

pers o nally e xp erie nced w hile in carc era te d a s a c hatte l s la v e in M ary la nd : “ F ro m w hat I k no w o f th e e ffe ct o f th ese h o lid ays u p on

th e sla v e, I b elie v e th em to b e a m ong th e m ost e ffe cti v e m eans in th e h and s o f th e sla v eho ld er in k eep in g d ow n th e sp ir it o f

in su rre cti o n. . . . T hese h o lid ays s e rv e a s c o nd ucto rs , o r s a fe ty -v alv es, to c arry o ff th e r e b ellio us s p ir it o f e nsla v ed h um anity .”

While D ougla ss’s re co lle cti o n of th e pla nta ti o n ho lid ay offe rs an in te gra l dem ysti fic ati o n of th e m ale v ole nt desig ns th at

und erp in ned th e s ta gin g o f p ris o n m aste r b enev ole nce a nd c ap ti v e p erfo rm ance, i t d oes s o w ith o ut a cco unti n g f o r th e w ays i n w hic h

“th e r e b ellio us s p ir it o f e nsla v ed h um anity ” o fte n m aneuv ere d i ts w ay i n to th e v ery f e sti v e e v ents th e m aste r a tte m pte d to e m plo y a s

weap ons o f p uniti v e p acific ati o n a nd p erv ers e p le asu re . H ow ev er, a s d is c usse d a b ove i n r e fe re nce to M cE lr o y’s s p ectr a l i m age a nd

voic e, th e ru p tu ro us lo w er-fr e q uency p ra cti c es o f re sis ta nce e m plo yed b y th e p ris o n sla v e w ill m ost o fte n le av e o ne g ro ssly

unsa ti s fie d if in c o nsid erin g th em o ne im ple m ents a fr a m in g o f th e “ in su rre cti o nary ” s im ila r to th at w hic h D ougla ss h im se lf o ffe rs

im med ia te ly p rio r to h is d esc rip ti o n o f th e p la nta ti o n h o lid ay— th at is , h is e p ic , e xcep ti o nal, a nd “ m anly ” o verc o m in g o f E dw ard

Covey.

I n d eed , b efo re c lo sin g th is c hap te r, I w ant to i n tr o duce h o w th e c riti c al s u sp ensio n o f a p re su p pose d n o rm ati v e m anlin ess

and a s e lf- p osse sse d h ero ic m odel o f r e sis ta nce in r e sp ect to th e h yp erc ir c um sc rib ed p ositi o nality o f th e d om in ate d r e p re se nts a n

ap posite p oin t o f e ntr y i n to a no th er s p ectr a l e le m ent o f th e C am p A m in str e l p ho to gra p h.

If w e r e tu rn fo r a m om ent to th e c lo se -u p o f th e p ho to gra p h, w e s e e a p ers o n s ta nd in g to J o hn M cE lr o y’s fa r r ig ht, c la p pin g h er

hand s, w earin g a f lo ra l p rin t s k ir t a nd b lo use a nd a n eatl y ti e d s c a rf o n h er h ead . I n d ra w in g a tte nti o n to th is u nkno w n s u b je ct, I w ant

to b e c le ar th at m y u sa ge o f th e g end er-s p ecific p ro no un “ her” r e p re se nts a n a ct o f ( u n)h is to ric ally i n fo rm ed i m agin ati o n r a th er th an

a d esir e to “ narro w d ow n” o r r e ify th is p ers o n’s g end er o r s e xual i d enti ty . T he p ris o ner c o uld j u st a s e asily h av e i d enti fie d a s a g ay

man, a s b i o r q uesti o nin g, o r a s a h ete ro m ale w ho h ap pened to p erfo rm o n th e p la nta ti o n m in str e l s ta ge i n d ra g.

A ny d is c ern m ent

of th e p ris o n s la v e’s g end er o r s e xual i d enti ty i s m ad e a ll th e m ore v exin g w hen p ose d i n r e la ti o n to a c hatte liz e d p uniti v e a p para tu s

in w hic h s e xual v io le nce a nd d om in ati o n h av e a lw ays r e p re se nte d d e fa cto e le m ents o f th e p ris o n s e nte nce a nd w here in m any a re

co erc ed in to assu m in g certa in gend er and se xual ro le s as a m eans o f av oid in g an in te nsific ati o n o f co rp ore al ru p tu re o r o f

pre se rv in g th eir b io lo gic al l ife .

T he r e ifie d , f u ngib le ,

and o bje ct s ta tu s o f th e s la v e o f th e s ta te e xp ose s th e l im its o f th e c o ncep t o f

se lf- id enti fic ati o n w ith in s p aces o f l e galiz e d r a p e, to rtu re , a nd c iv il m urd er o f th e “ se lf.” M ore o ver, th e h is to ric al m ed ia ti o ns I h av e

sp oken o f i n r e fe re nce to M cE lr o y a nd o th er n eo sla v es a re th at m uch m ore p ro hib iti v e i n r e sp ect to th is i m pris o ned f ig ure a nd o th ers

cap tu re d i n th e p ho to gra p h— pers o ns f o r w ho m w e h av e n o u nb urie d l e tte rs to o ffe r u s e v en a p erip hera l g lim pse i n to th eir p ers o nal

bio gra p hy o r th eir p arti c ula r e xp erie nce o f n eo -e nsla v em ent. F ully a w are o f th ese c ru cia l c o ncern s, I h av e c ho se n to e nact th e

im agin ati v e l e ap o f i s o la ti n g th is ta ll a nd s le nd er “ w om an” o ut o f a s tr o ng f e elin g th at th is c o uld q uite p ossib ly b e a p ic to ria l v esti g e

of a n A ngo la tr u sty n am ed J a m es B ru ce, a p ers o n w ho w ould h av e f e atu re d r e gula rly a s a d ra g q ueen i n M cE lr o y’s m in str e l tr o up e

in th e m id - to la te 1 940s, a nd w ho , a s a lo ngti m e d om esti c a nd p erfo rm ati v e n eo sla v e a t A ngo la , re p re se nts a h aunti n g in te rn al

extr e m ity o f th e p ho to gra p h m ad e n o l e ss p ow erfu l b y o ur i n ab ility to v erify i f s /h e i s i n d eed th e o ne s ta nd in g b ehin d M cE lr o y i n th e

im age. F urth erm ore , I d o s o w ith th e c o nv ic ti o n th at e v en i f th e p ers o n i s n o t w ho I th in k s /h e m ay b e, th at m y u nco verin g o f a s liv er

of B ru ce’s sto ry v ia th e channelin g acco m panim ent o f th e C am p A m in str e l tr o up e im age m ay lim n im porta nt asp ects o f th e

unsp eakab le , u nsp oken, a nd u ncla im ed o rd eals o f c hatte liz e d c ap ti v ity , in carc era te d p erfo rm ance, a nd n eo sla v e r e sis ta nce s p ecific

to th e e xp erie nce o f th e l e gally d is a p peare d a nd h is to ric ally a no nym ous b la ck q ueer/tr a ns p ris o n s la v e.

McE lr o y a ctu ally e nab le s o ur r e cko nin g w ith B ru ce’s a p pariti o nal p re se nce w ith in th e m in str e l p ho to gra p h i n h is s e co nd l e tte r to

Kem p, i n w hic h h e i d enti fie s C ap ta in “ Jo hnnie ” S pillm an a s th e “ care o f” a d dre sse e f o r w hat h e h o pes w ill b e th e a tto rn ey g enera l’s

affir m ati v e r e sp onse to h is b id to b ook th e C am p A s h o w to H am mond , L ouis ia na. J o hn S pillm an w as a s e co nd -g enera ti o n A ngo la

guard w ho b egan h is a p pre nti c esh ip in th e o vers e ein g, d riv in g, a nd v ir tu al o w ners h ip o f c rim in aliz e d b la ck b odie s a t th e p ris o n

pla nta ti o n i n 1 916 a s a te enager, a nd w ho , b y th e ti m e o f M cE lr o y’s i n iti a l c le m ency l e tte rs i n 1 948, w ould h av e l o ng b een i n c harg e

of C am p A , o ne o f th re e s e cto rs o f th e s p ra w lin g p enite nti a ry th at w ere k no w n in th e lo cal w hite s u p re m acis t p arla nce a s “ Ju ngle

Cam ps.” F or M cE lr o y, B ru ce, a nd th eir f e llo w p ris o n s la v es, a m ore a p pro pria te n am e f o r th is s p ace o f r a cia liz e d l iv in g d eath a nd

oth ers lik e it o n th e n eo sla v e p la nta ti o n w ould h av e b een— to r e so und G eo rg e J a ckso n’s te rm in o lo gy, a n

Am eric a n c o ncen tr a tio n

ca m p

—one i n w hic h w hat I d efin ed e arlie r a s th e M id dle P assa ge c arc era l m odel w as e xecute d i n a m anner th at r e p re se nte d a s ta te -

le v el

sim ula ti o n o f th e h yp erc o nstr ic te d , s u ffo cati n g, a nd s c ato lo gic al s p ati a l a rra ngem ents o f th e c o unty c hain -g ang’s p orta b le c age.

One o f th e m ore c le ar-c ut e xam ple s o f th e “ la nd -b ase d s la v e s h ip ” m odel o f h um an e nto m bm ent a t A ngo la c am e in th e fo rm o f

Cam p A ’s “ sw eatb ox,” a n a rc hite ctu re S pillm an a nd o th er a d m in is tr a to rs d ep lo yed to p unis h , s e gre gate , a nd to rtu re th o se d eem ed

“unru ly ” o r “ la zy ” f o r d ecad es l e ad in g u p to th e h eel- s tr in g i n cid ent, a nd o ne r e se rv ed e xclu siv ely f o r th e b la ck n eo sla v e. I n d eed , a s

in th e c ase o f th e se p ulc her-fa sh io ned b oxcars in w hic h c hain -g ang p ris o ners th ro ugho ut th e so uth ern U nite d S ta te s w ere lo ng-

chain ed a nd s ta cked a to p o ne a no th er, th e s w eatb ox r e p re se nte d a d ub io us a ctu ati o n o f th e “ b ox” w ith in w hic h P aul D a nd h is f o rty -

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** fiv e fe llo w c hain -g ang p ris o ners w ere b urie d u nd erg ro und in

Belo ved .

E dw ard S ta gg o ffe re d th is d esc rip ti o n o f th e C am p A

is o la ti o n/p unis h m ent u nit a fte r h e a nd a g ro up o f f e llo w j o urn alis ts c o nd ucte d a s u rp ris e v is it to A ngo la f o llo w in g th e C am p E h eel-

str in g a cti o n:

One o f th e p eculia riti e s w e c am e u p on a p peare d to b e a s o lid b lo ck o f c o ncre te . T hre e i r o n p ip es s tu ck u p f r o m

th e to p l ik e p eris c o pes.

On c lo se r e xam in ati o n, w e d is c o vere d th re e s te el d oors o n o ne s id e o f th e b lo ck. E ach w as o f s o lid m eta l,

excep t f o r a s m all l o uv ere d r e cta ngle n ear th e b otto m , s im ila r to th e d ra ft v ent b eneath th e g ra te o f a f u rn ace.

We b anged o n th e d oor w ith o ur f is ts . A m an’s v oic e a nsw ere d f r o m w ith in ! W e s a w th at th e d oor w as l o cked ,

and th at th ere w as n o o ne a ro und w ho c o uld o pen i t. W e a sk ed th e m an i n sid e i f h e w as a ll r ig ht, a nd h e s a id h e

was. W e s a w th at th e s e co nd d oor w as l o cked , a nd w e a ssu m ed th ere w as a m an b ehin d i t, to o. W hen w e c am e

to th e th ir d d oor, w e f o und i t to b e u nlo cked a nd s w ung i t o pen.

The w alls a nd c eilin g w ere p ain te d b la ck. T here w ere n o w in d ow s. T he o nly s o urc es o f lig ht o r a ir w ere

se v en-in ch w id e, d ow n-ti lte d s lits i n th e b otto m o f th e d oor a nd a tw o-in ch h o le i n th e c eilin g. T he h o le l e d i n to

a p ip e o n th e r o of th at w as b ent i n th e o pposite d ir e cti o n o f th e p re v ailin g w in d .

A b ed s to od a lo ng th e w all. I n a n o pposite c o rn er w as a c o ncre te b ox f o r a to ile t. T he e nti r e c ub ic le w as th e

siz e o f a s m all c lo th es c lo se t. I n to th is s ti flin g s p ace a s m any a s s e v en m en w ere j a m med a t a ti m e. A t l e ast o ne

man h ad b een r e m oved i n a s ta te j u st s h o rt o f r o asti n g.

Tho se o f C ap ta in S pillm an’s “ N egro es” w ho m anaged to a v oid b ein g b urie d a liv e a nd r o aste d w ith in th e s w eatb ox w ere s u b je cte d

ca n’t t o c a n’t s e e

f ie ld l a b or u nd er r ifle , w hip , a nd b at— and w ere th en h erd ed i n to a w ooden s h ack i n w hic h th ey w ere s ta cked

on to p o f o ne a no th er in tr ip le -b unk fo rm ati o n, a nd w here n o m ore th an fo ur to ile ts w ere a llo cate d to n early th re e h und re d m en. It

was in th e s a m e a rti c le fr o m 1 952 th at a n in d ir e ctl y q uo te d a nd a no nym ous p ris o ner fr o m C am p A c ap tu re d in a s in gle tr u ncate d

phra se w hat v olu m es o f h is to ry o n th e s u b je ct o f im pris o nm ent in th e U nite d S ta te s h ad n o t: a cco rd in g to h im , th e “ d orm ito ry ” in

whic h h e w as h eld e m itte d a “

stin k l ik e t h e h old o f a s la ve s h ip

.”

Ango la ’s im ple m enta ti o n o f th e M id dle P assa ge c arc era l m odel re p re se nte d a n e sse nti a l c o ntr ib uti n g fa cto r to th e n eo sla v e’s

desp era te a tte m pts a t se curin g a ny c hannel o f p ossib le re p rie v e fr o m th e m ost p hysic ally b ru ta l c o nd iti o ns fo und a t th e p ris o n

pla nta ti o n. I n d eed , th e h o m e o f C ap ta in “ Jo hnnie ” S pillm an h im se lf— lik e th o se o f o th er g uard c ap ta in s a nd n um ero us w hite m en a nd

wom en o uts id e A ngo la w ho w ere g iv en th e o pportu nity to re nt o r b orro w its d om esti c n eo sla v es— re p re se nte d o ne s u ch z o ne o f

re la ti v e a nd r u p tu ro us r e sp ite fr o m th e z e ro -d egre e d eath r e hears a ls fo und in th e s u garc ane a nd c o tto n fie ld s, th e n eo fe ud al s to cks,

th e C am p A s to ckad e, a nd th e s w eatb ox. I t th ere fo re c o m es a s n o s u rp ris e th at s h o rtl y f o llo w in g h is d is a p peara nce i n to C am p A i n

1935 o n a b urg la ry c o nv ic ti o n, a y o ung b la ck N ew O rle ania n n am ed J a m es B ru ce s e iz e d u p on th e c hance o f w ork in g f o r S pillm an a s

a d om esti c n eo sla v e. S /h e w ould e nd u p d oin g s o fo r a p pro xim ate ly th ir te en y ears , fu ncti o nin g v ario usly a s c o ok, “ yard -b oy,” a nd

“ho use b oy”— positi o ns th at, a lo ng w ith th e m ore o fte n d is c usse d ro le o f c o nv ic t g uard , re p re se nte d th e m ost c o m mon sta ti o ns

occup ie d b y th o se p ris o ners w ho w ere b ra nd ed a s

Tru sty N eg ro es.

H ere th e s ta te ’s u se o f th e le tte r “ y” in ste ad o f to day’s m ore

fa m ilia r “ ee” a t th e e nd o f th e s ig nifie r d eno ti n g a c ap ti v e o f p uta ti v e p riv ile ge, illu str a te s th e d egre e to w hic h in s p aces s u ch a s

Ango la , P arc hm an, C um min s, a nd S ugarla nd , th e “ tr u sty ” n eo sla v e w as c o nceiv ed o f a s a p ost- 1 865 re in carn ati o n o f th e e v er-

fa ith fu l, e v er-d uti fu l, a nte b ellu m “ ho use s la v e”— th e “ M am mie s” a nd “ U ncle s” o f th e w hite s u p re m acis t c ultu ra l im agin ary w ho

were c ast a s m ain ta in in g a n u nb re achab le f id elity to th e m aste r, a s e lfle ss a nd b ound le ss l o yalty , th at w as o ffe re d a s e v id ence o f th e

pate rn al b enev ole nce o f th e p la nta ti o n, a nd th e in fa nti lis m , a ta v is m , a nd n atu ra l s la v e-w orth in ess o f th e c o lle cti v ity o f “ nig gers ”

held p ris o ner w ith in i t.

The d ub io usly lite ra l p osse ssiv e in v estm ent in su ch sto ck im ages b y w hite re sid ents o f A ngo la ’s fr e e to w nsh ip is re nd ere d

gra p hic ally in th e p ho to a lb um s o f S pillm an a nd o th er g uard c ap ta in s, w hic h a re r e p le te w ith p ortr a its o f “ tr u sty ” b la ck p ris o ners

cap tu re d in c hatte liz e d p asto ra l ta b le au a lo ngsid e h ead o f c attl e , h o rs e s, d ogs, v ario us c ro ps p ro duced a t th e n eo pla nta ti o n, a nd

yo ung w hite c hild re n fo r w ho m th e tr u sti e s a cte d a s “ U ncle s,” “ M am mie s,” a nd a ta v is e d p la ym ate s (F ig ure 1 1 ).

In fa ct, it w as

th ro ugh th e c hild ho od r e m em bra nce o f S pillm an’s o w n d aughte r, J o A n, w ho w as r a is e d a t th e p enite nti a ry f r o m b ir th , th at I w as f ir s t

mad e a w are o f J a m es B ru ce. M uch o f w hat th e g uard c ap ta in ’s d aughte r h as to s a y in r e sp ect to th e “ so rt o f c ho co la te c o lo re d . . .

ta ll, s k in ny, m ula tto m an”

s h e r e calls fr o m h er c hild ho od a t A ngo la r e ad s lik e a p erfe ctl y s y nchro niz e d n arra ti v e a cco m panim ent

fo r th e p ortr a itu re o f d om esti c tr a nq uillity , (u n)p ro ducti v e ab und ance, and b la ck su b se rv ie nce o n th e neo pla nta ti o n. B ru ce is

desc rib ed a s h av in g a cte d a s a p erfe ctl y d om esti c ate d p ris o n s la v e w ho w ent a b out h is i n te rm in ab le d uti e s w ith a j o yfu l e xub era nce.

Wheth er h e w as b usy

co okin g th e fa m ily ’s m eals , “ m ovin g th eir d ir t fr o m o ne p la ce to th e o th er,”

te nd in g to ( o th er) liv esto ck, o r

cra nkin g th e h and le o f a h o m em ad e ic e-c re am m aker in p re p ara ti o n fo r o ne o f J o A n’s y early b ackyard b ir th d ay c ele b ra ti o ns s h e

ho ste d f o r n eig hb orin g w hite c hild re n, B ru ce i s r e m em bere d a s a h ap py-g o -lu cky s o rt o f tr u sty N egro . A cco rd in g to J o A n, h e w as “ a

very g o od w ork er, k ep t th e h o use i m macula te , c o oked g o od f o od a nd e v ery th in g” a nd w as “ alw ays w his tl in g o r s in gin g; y o u’d h av e

th o ught h e w as th e h ap pie st p ers o n in th e w orld .” T he s ta te ’s g o th ic tr a nsm uta ti o n o f B ru ce a nd o th er b la ck in carc era te d s u b je cts

in to th e p ers o nal a cco utr e m ent, o r

hum an p ro duce,

o f w hite g uard fa m ilie s g av e J o A n th e s e nse th at ti m e h ad fr o ze n, o r p lu nged

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** backw ard , d urin g h er p la nta ti o n u p brin gin g— th at, a lo ng w ith h er m oth er a nd fa th er, s h e h ad liv ed a re al- w orld p ro ducti o n o f a n

id yllic a nd a ris to cra ti c c o untr y r o m ance: “ It w as w ond erfu l. I w as th e p rin cess a nd m y d ad dy a nd m oth er w ere th e k in g a nd q ueen,

and w e h ad s e rv ants , a nd w e d id n’t w ant f o r a nyth in g. A nd I w as L ittl e M is s J o , o r [ th e tr u sti e s] c alle d m e C urly o r S hir le y T em ple ,

because I h ad c urly h air. A nd i t w as j u st a s to ry b ook c hild ho od.”

Fig ure 1 1 .

B la ck p ris o n s la ve w it h w hit e c hild s ta ndin g o n a lo ad o f s e ed c otto n, L ouis ia na S ta te P enit e ntia ry , A ngola P ris o n P la nta tio n, c . 1 901. H enry L . F uqua J r. L ytle

Photo gra ph C olle ctio n a nd P apers , L ouis ia na a nd L ow er M is sis sip pi V alle y C olle ctio ns, L SU L ib ra rie s, B ato n R ouge.

If th e y o ungest m em ber o f th e S pillm an h o use ho ld w as e nv is io ned a s A ngo la ’s v ers io n o f A meric a’s “ littl e c urly to p”— Shir le y

Tem ple — th en J a m es B ru ce fu ncti o ned a s a n in carc era te d d oub le fo r B ill “ B oja ngle s” R obin so n, w ho se fa m ous s ta ir c ase d ance

perfo rm ance w ith T em ple in

The L ittle C olo nel

( 1 935) a p peare d in U .S . m ovie h o use s in th e v ery s a m e y ear th at B ru ce w as fir s t

ento m bed a t C am p A . In d eed , a s in th e c ase o f R obin so n’s c hara cte r in th e d ep re ssio n-e ra r o m anti c iz e d a nd s a niti z e d p ortr a yal o f

1870s K entu cky p la nta ti o n life , B ru ce’s a ll- to o-re al ro le a s m id -tw enti e th -c entu ry im pris o ned “ ho use b oy” w as n o t re str ic te d to

co okin g, b utl e rin g, a nd c le anin g f o r th e S pillm ans. H e, l ik e m any o th er b la ck m en a nd w om en a t A ngo la , a ls o s e rv ed i n th e c ap acity

of m usic al s la v e; s p ecific ally , a s m enti o ned a b ove, B ru ce w as o ne o f th e fe atu re d p erfo rm ers in M cE lr o y’s m in str e l tr o up e d urin g

most o f h is th ir te en y ears a t th e p enite nti a ry . F urth erm ore , w hile W ard en D . D . B aze r w as c re d ite d i n th e p ie ce f r o m th e

Louis ia na

Munic ip al R evie w

a s b ein g th e tr o up e’s a d m in is tr a ti v e s p onso r a nd d ir e cto r, it w as in fa ct J o A n’s fa th er, C ap ta in “ Jo hnnie ,” w ho

acte d a s d e f a cto m anager o f th e C am p A m in str e ls . N ot o nly d id S pillm an o vers e e th o se o f h is n eo sla v es w ho p erfo rm ed f o r f e llo w

in m ate s, h o no re d g uests , a nd to uris ts to th e s ta te p la nta ti o n, b ut h e a ls o s u p erv is e d th e tr a nsp orta ti o n o f M cE lr o y, B ru ce, a nd o th er

mem bers o f th e tr o up e w ell b eyo nd A ngo la ’s b ord ers w here th ey p erfo rm ed fo r w hite a ud ie nces in to w ns s u ch

as Ja ckso n a nd

Pin ev ille , L ouis ia na, th e la tte r o f w hic h is s itu ate d m ore th an 1 20 m ile s fr o m th e fr o nt g ate s o f th e p ris o n. W hile th ese to urs lik ely

genera te d a b it o f u no ffic ia l r e v enue f o r S pillm an a nd o th er m em bers o f A ngo la ’s a d m in is tr a ti o n, th ey a ls o s e rv ed a s f a m ily o uti n gs

fo r th e g uard c ap ta in a nd h is y o ung d aughte r, w ho m h e o fte n b ro ught a lo ng s o th at s h e c o uld w itn ess th e fa m ily ’s c o lle cti o n o f

music al N egro tr u sti e s p erfo rm i n d is ta nt “ fr e e-w orld ” e nv ir o nm ents .

We h av e n o w ay o f k no w in g w hat s p ecific s o ng-a nd -d ance n um bers th e C am p A m in str e l e nse m ble u se d a s te m pora ry ti c kets

outs id e A ngo la ’s g ro und s. H ow ev er, a d eep r e cess in th e h is to ric al a rc hiv e d oes in fo rm u s th at B ru ce d id n o t d on th e “ b urn t c o rk ”

fo r th ese sh o w s a s d id m any o f h is fe llo w tr o up e m em bers — th at a s o ne o f th e sta rs o f M cE lr o y’s e nse m ble s/h e p erfo rm ed

exclu siv ely in d ra g. A gain , a s s ta te d a b ove, th e fa ct th at s /h e p erfo rm ed a t A ngo la a nd s u rro und in g to w ns a s a n im pris o ned d ra g

queen d oes n o th in g to c la rify h o w B ru ce a ctu ally liv ed in te rm s o f g end er o r se xuality . T he se v ere ly c ir c um sc rib ed ra nge o f

in fo rm ati o n th at w e a re o ffe re d in re sp ect to th e e xp erie nces o f th e n eo sla v e m ost o fte n p re clu d es d efin iti v e a sse ssm ent o f a ny

asp ect o f “ se lfh o od,” le t a lo ne h er g end er id enti ty a nd c ho se n b ond s o f in ti m acy. E ven o n th e ra re o ccasio ns in w hic h w e a re

allo w ed th in s tr a nd s o f d eta il i n r e sp ect to B ru ce’s “ p ers o nal” o r “ so cia l” w orld , s u ch i n fo rm ati o n i s r e nd ere d v exin g a t b est w hen

re ad i n r e la ti o n to th e o bje cti fie d , v entr ilo quiz e d , a nd v io la te d p osts o cia l p ositi o n o f th o se w ho m th e l a w h as m orp hed i n to f u ngib le

sta te p ro perty . T his p ro ble m ati c i s th at m uch m ore s a lie nt i n r e sp ect to r a cia liz e d b odie s a ls o l a b ele d a b no rm al i n r e sp ect to g end er

and /o r s e xuality , a nd w ho se c arc era l s u b je cti o n th ere b y i n clu d es z e ro -d egre e v uln era b ility to th e “ in v is ib le p unis h m ents ” a sso cia te d

with s e xually a nd g end ere d c iv il d eath .

W heth er i n sti g ate d b y s ta te a cto rs o r o th er s la v es o f th e s ta te , s u ch p re d ati o ns i n clu d e b ut

are n o t l im ite d to r a p e, s e xual a u cti o nin g, th e p uniti v e s e v era nce o f a ny

re la tiv ely

c o nse nsu al in ti m ate a tta chm ent, a nd h o m opho bic

and tr a nsp ho bic b ru ta lity .

Alo ng w ith th e e lis io n o f th e p ris o n sla v e’s te rro r-rid den e xp erie nce a fte r b ein g d is a p peare d to a p la ce lik e A ngo la , ra cia l

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** cap ita lis t patr ia rc hal crim in aliz a ti o n als o w ork s to pro duce a re tr o acti v e era su re of th e neo sla v e’s pers o nal his to ry befo re

co nv ic ti o n, e sp ecia lly w hen ta rg eti n g o ne s u ch a s B ru ce w ho se o ffic ia l im pris o nm ent w as p re d ic ate d o n th e s o cia lly in carc era ti n g

str u ctu re o f J im C ro w a p arth eid — and w ho , u p on le galiz e d d is a p peara nce, w as s u b je cte d to a p re d ic am ent o f s ta te -b orn e n ata l

alie nati o n th at fo re sta lls a ny sy ste m ati c g ath erin g o f “ fa cts ” a s to p ers o nal o r

fa m ilia l h is to ry . In fa ct, if B ru ce w as in d eed a

tr a nsg end er o r g ay b la ck p ers o n, th en th e h is to ric al e nclo su re s I re fe re nced e arlie r in re sp ect to th e c arc era l e xp erie nce o f th o se

su ch a s J o hn M cE lr o y a nd O dea M ath ew s a re e v en m ore i n su rm ounta b le g iv en th e n early to ta l a b se nce o f a ny s u b sta nti v e d is c ussio n

of b la ck q ueer/tr a ns b odie s w ith in h is to rie s o f J im C ro w “ co nv ic t l a b or” a nd n eo sla v ery . T his c o nte xt o f h is to ric al e ra su re c erta in ly

le av es u s w ith m ore in th e w ay o f in te re ste d q uesti o ns th an c la rify in g a nsw ers v is -à -v is th e e xp erie nce o f th e c rim in aliz e d a nd

in v is ib le b la ck tr a ns/q ueer s u b je ct. F or i n sta nce, w hat c an a n ( u n)h is to ric ally i n fo rm ed e ngagem ent w ith th e s o cia l c o nte xt i n w hic h

s/h e w as a rre ste d in N ew O rle ans in th e e arly 1 940s te ll u s a b o ut th e c o nd iti o ns o f p ossib ility fo r B ru ce’s d om esti c a nd m usic al

ensla v em ent? I f B ru ce d id s e e h ers e lf a s a tr a ns b la ck w om an o r g ay b la ck m ale , th en w as h er i n carc era ti o n a d ir e ct o utc o m e o f th e

so cia l is o la ti o n a nd e co no m ic d is p osse ssio n th at w ould h av e b efa lle n a b ody b ra nd ed a s b oth “ N egro ” a nd s e xually “ fr e akis h ”?

Does th is c o m bin ati o n o f r a cia l, g end er, a nd “ se xual e ccentr ic ity ” h elp e xp la in w hy B ru ce h ad to r e so rt to b re akin g th e te rm s o f h er

in iti a l p aro le f r o m A ngo la b y s te alin g $ 200 f r o m h er r o om mate i n a N ew O rle ans h o usin g p ro je ct i n 1 945?

If s /h e d id i n d eed h o ne th e p erfo rm ati v e ta le nts th at m ad e h er o ne o f th e s ta rs o f M cE lr o y’s m in str e ls b efo re s /h e w as d is a p peare d

fo r a s e co nd ti m e o nto th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n, th en B ru ce’s f in al a rre st c o uld w ell h av e o ccurre d i n th e M agno lia H ousin g P ro je ct— a

str u ctu re o f u rb an a p arth eid th at s a t d ir e ctl y a cro ss fr o m L asa lle S tr e et’ s fa m ous D ew D ro p In n.

A s a r e gula r a ud ie nce m em ber

and /o r p erfo rm er a t th is u p to w n c ab are t, B ru ce w ould h av e b een a b le to d ev elo p a n e xp ansiv e r e p erto ir e o f b la ck v aud ev ille , te nt

sh o w , m in str e l, a nd r h yth m a nd b lu es n um bers b y w atc hin g th e lik es o f Ir v in g A le , a ka P ats y V ald alia , th e w ell- k no w n d ra g q ueen

who s a ng, d anced , a nd e m ceed a t th e v enue a nd w ho a ls o h o ste d i ts a nnual “ G ay B all” — th e i n te rra cia l a nd th ere b y i lle gal a ffa ir th at

began to ta ke p la ce b etw een B ru ce’s f ir s t a nd s e co nd te rm s a t th e p ris o n p la nta ti o n.

I n f a ct, i f s /h e d id h av e r e gula r o pportu niti e s to

watc h s ta ge s h o w s a t th e D ew D ro p, B ru ce a ls o w ould h av e b een a b le to e nhance h er a p pre nti c esh ip i n d ra g p erfo rm ance b y ta kin g

no te o f th e in co m para b le te chniq ue o f a no th er ta le nte d d ra g a rti s t n am ed P rin cess L av onne, w ho , ju st b efo re h er d is c o very a t th e

Dew D ro p, c hanged h er n am e to “ L ittl e R ic hard .”

F in ally , a nd m ost im porta nt, if B ru ce w as a r e gula r p erfo rm er a nd /o r a ud ie nce

mem ber in th is re la ti v ely tr a ns/q ueer fr ie nd ly s p ace, s /h e w ould h av e e xp erie nced

re p eate d v io le nt e nco unte rs w ith th e la w th at

went u nre p orte d o n h er o ffic ia l c rim in al r e co rd . S pecific ally , s /h e w ould h av e b een a m ong th o se ta rg ete d a nd a rre ste d i n th e r e gula r

polic e r a id s th at o ccurre d a t th e c lu b — a s y ste m ati c p ro filin g th at o ccurre d a s a r e su lt o f th e c ity ’s a d here nce to th e n ati o nal p ra cti c e

of g end ere d r a cia l a p arth eid c allin g f o r th e r e str ic ti o n o f

public

r a ce-m ix in g a nd

public

d is p la ys o f n o nhete ro no rm ati v e b ehav io r to

bla ck n eig hb orh o ods, o r “ v ic e d is tr ic ts .”

Conje ctu ra l a sse rti o ns o f B ru ce’s p ossib le s o cia l in carc era ti o n a nd c rim in aliz a ti o n a s a b la ck tr a ns o r g ay s u b je ct b efo re h er

se co nd d is a p peara nce to A ngo la r e p re se nt a g re at d eal m ore th an tr iv ia l s p ecula ti o n. A t th e r is k o f b ela b orin g th e p oin t, i t m ust b e

re p eate d th at th e s ta kes in v olv ed in r e cla im in g th e “ w om an” s h o w n s ta nd in g a t M cE lr o y’s fa r r ig ht in th e C am p A m in str e l s h o w

im age a re e xtr e m ely h ig h g iv en th e n ear c o m ple te s ile nce o f e v en th e m ost s e lf- c o nsc io usly r a d ic al a nd c ultu ra lly a tte nti v e h is to ric al

and l ite ra ry s c ho la rs h ip i n r e sp ect to th e b la ck q ueer/tr a ns s u b je ct’ s e xp erie nce o f s la v ery a nd J im C ro w p ris o n s la v ery .

I n f a ct, i t

is th is v ery arc hiv al and his to rio gra p hic sile nce in re sp ect to th e b la ck q ueer (n eo )s la v e exp erie nce th at fo rc es up on us th e

re sp onsib ility o f engagin g th e gho stl y tr a ces o f th at exp erie nce w ith a kin d o f p oliti c ally in te re ste d unhis to ric al im agin ati o n.

More o ver, e v en if B ru ce d id n o t id enti fy a s a tr a nsg end er p ers o n, o ne o f th e o th er tw o o th er c ro ss-d re sse d tr o up e p erfo rm ers

cap tu re d i n th e p ho to gra p h m ay w ell h av e; a nd , a t th e l e ast, e v en i f n o ne o f th e b odie s s h o w n i n d ra g b ehin d th at o f M cE lr o y w ere

actu ally tr a ns o r q ueer, th en th e b la ck m ale ’s d ep lo ym ent o f p erfo rm ati v e g end er-tr a nsg re ssio n o n th e p orc h o f a n eo pla nta ti o n h o use

offe rs sy m bolic ally illu m in ati n g exp re ssio n of th e im porta nce of atte nd in g to th e sti g m ati z e d , crim in aliz e d , and his to ric ally

dis q ualifie d p re d ic am ent o f th e q ueer/tr a ns b la ck c ap ti v e— unhis to ric al e xp erie nces th at m ost c erta in ly

did ( a nd d o) h appen

e v en i f

th ey re m ain u ncla im ed , u nacco unte d fo r, a nd h is to ric ally u nav aila b le . In B ru ce’s c ase , h er p ossib le s e xual a nd /o r g end er a lte rity

would h av e c erta in ly m ark ed h er a s a p rim e ta rg et f o r th e s o rt o f r itu aliz e d p hysic al tr a um a a nd s e xual p re d ati o n th at i s a sso cia te d

with th e im pris o nm ent o f q ueer/tr a ns b odie s. In fa ct, th e b la ck n eo sla v e’s v uln era b ility to s u ch v io le nt e nco unte rs w ith g uard s a nd

oth er s la v es o f th e s ta te in p la ces lik e th e C am p A s to ckad e fu rth er e lu cid ate s th e h o rrify in g te rm s u nd er w hic h B ru ce w ould h av e

cho se n to av oid co nta ct w ith A ngo la ’s genera l p opula ti o n as m uch as p ossib le b y su b m itti n g hers e lf to th e p eculia r te rro rs

asso cia te d w ith a cti n g a s th e S pillm an’s y ard -b oy, h o use b oy, a nd m usic al “ b oy.”

If, a s I h av e s u ggeste d , B ru ce is in d eed th e a p pare ntl y tr a ns b la ck p ers o n to M cE lr o y’s fa r r ig ht in th e m in str e l p ho to gra p h, th en

th e f a ct th at s /h e i s s h o w n w earin g a f lo ra l p rin t s k ir t a nd b lo use o n th e S pillm an h o use p orc h r e p re se nts a h aunti n g v is u al s ig nal o f

why th is h is to ric ally in v is ib le s u b je ct e nte rs in to th e a rc hiv e a t a ll b eyo nd th e s m all n um ber o f le gal d ocum ents p erta in in g to h er

arre sts i n 1 935 i n B ato n R ouge f o r b urg la ry , a nd f o r h er a lle ged th eft o f $ 200 i n N ew O rle ans. I t w as j u st th is s o rt o f f lo w ere d p rin t

th at J o A n’s m oth er, R ub ye S pillm an, w as k no w n to h av e b een fo nd o f w earin g in a nd a ro und th e fa m ily h o m e a nd w hile a tte nd in g

fo rm al s o cia l g ath erin gs o uts id e A ngo la .

B ru ce w ould h av e k no w n o f th is p enchant fo r flo ra l p rin ts o n th e p art o f th e “ Q ueen” o f

Cam p A . In fa ct, o ver th e c o urs e o f th ir te en y ears o f d om esti c n eo sla v ery , th e tr u sty w ould h av e d ev elo ped a n a cute a w are ness o f

most o f R ub ye’s p ers o nal p re fe re nces, p arti c ula rly th o se re la ti n g to p la nta ti o n h o use ho ld m anagem ent. B ru ce’s k no w le d ge in th is

vein w ould h av e r a nged f r o m th e m ore g enera l, s u ch a s th e m anner i n w hic h M rs . S pillm an’s tr u sti e s w ere e xp ecte d to c o nd uct th e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** la und erin g, b ab ysitti n g, h o use keep in g, a nd m eal p re p ara ti o n, to th e m ore m in ute , s u ch a s w hic h d oors th ey w ere a llo w ed to w alk

th ro ugh ( a nd a t w hat ti m e o f d ay); e xactl y w hic h s o ngs s h e a sk ed h er h o use p ris o ners to p erfo rm f o r h o use guests o n m uggy s u m mer

ev enin gs b efo re th ey h ad to h urrie d ly tr a ce th e w afti n g s c ent o f s h it b ack to th e C am p A s to ckad e i n ti m e f o r th e 8 p .m . h ead c o unt;

and th e p re cis e a m ount o f w ate r s h e l ik ed h er “ nig gers ” to p our o nto th e s w eet- s m ellin g g la d io la s a nd c hry sa nth em um s s h e r e gula rly

carrie d to m ark et i n B ato n R ouge i n o rd er to m ake e xtr a s p end in g m oney.

In a m anner a kin to h is fe llo w n eo sla v es w ho to ile d d aily u nd er a rm ed g uard in A ngo la ’s c ane a nd c o tto n fie ld s, B ru ce’s k een

aw are ness o f R ub ye S pillm an’s s p ecific r e q uir e m ents fo r h er w ork d ay w as h o ned th ro ugh a lib era l a p plic ati o n o f w hat th e a b ove-

quo te d A ngo la a d m in is tr a to r e up hem is ti c ally d esc rib es a s th e “ p hysic al fa cto r” o f n eo sla v e m anagem ent. A lo ng w ith b ein g s h o t,

beate n, a nd to rtu re d b y th e p ris o n’s o ffic ia l sta ff a nd a d m in is tr a to rs d urin g h er ti m e a t L SP, B ru ce w as su b je cte d to q uo ti d ia n

physic al a nd p sy chic te rro r b y th e “ Q ueen,” o r d e fa cto “ m is tr e ss,” o f th e S pillm an h o use . In a m om ent th at u nd erc uts h er o vera ll

portr a yal o f life a t A ngo la a s a n e d enic p asto ra l s c ene in w hic h h er fa m ily a nd its “ w his tl in g a nd s in gin g” d om esti c n eo sla v es

co exis te d in p ic tu re sq ue w hite su p re m acis t h arm ony, Jo A n d is c usse s h o w sh e u lti m ate ly le arn ed d eta ils o f B ru ce’s h o rrify in g

tr e atm ent u nd er h er m oth er f r o m o th er w hite s u b je cts a t

The

Farm

: “ F ro m w hat I g ath er f r o m o th er p eo ple a nd f a m ily m em bers , s h e

was m ean to h im . . . . I d on’t h av e a ny f ir s t- h and k no w le d ge o f i t, b ecause a ll I k no w w as h o w s h e tr e ate d m e. . . . B ut s h e u se d to h it

him w ith a b ro om sti c k w hen h e d id n’t d o s o m eth in g th at s h e w ante d .”

Notw ith sta nd in g i ts h yp erm ed ia te d f o rm , s u ch s ta te m ents r e gard in g th e p re d ic am ent o f d om esti c n eo sla v ery a t A ngo la s ig nal h o w ,

as in th e c ase o f its c hatte l s la v ery c o unte rp art, th e w hite s u p re m acis t o rd er o f th e n eo pla nta ti o n h o use ho ld w as p re d ic ate d o n a

re p re ssiv e p ed ago gy th at l in ked g ru elin g p hysic al l a b or, p sy cho lo gic al te rro r, a nd s e ria liz e d c o rp ore al r u p tu re . B ru ce’s e xp erie nce

in th is r e gard r e calls th at o f M ary P rin ce, w ho , i n h er a uto bio gra p hic al r e nd erin g o f h er o rd eals a s a d om esti c s la v e i n B arb ad os i n

th e e arly 1 800s, s p eaks i n g ra p hic d eta il a b out th e d ub io us e p is te m olo gy o f c hatte l d om esti c ity . I n o ne s u ch i n sta nce, th e n in ete enth -

centu ry s la v e g iv es v oic e to B ru ce’s s u b m erg ed , s a niti z e d , a nd v entr ilo quiz e d e xp erie nce o f tw enti e th -c entu ry n eo sla v ery th ro ugh

re co lle cti o n o f h er f ir s t f u ll d ay o f

hands-o n i n str u ctio n

u nd er o ne o f h er o w n w hite m is tr e sse s:

The n ext m orn in g [ s h e] s e t a b out i n str u cti n g m e i n m y ta sk s. S he ta ught m e to d o a ll s o rts o f h o use ho ld w ork ; to

wash a nd b ake, p ic k c o tto n a nd w ool, a nd w ash f lo ors , a nd c o ok. A nd s h e ta ught m e ( h o w c an I e v er f o rg et i t! )

more th in gs th an th ese ; s h e c ause d m e to k no w th e e xact d iffe re nce b etw een th e s m art o f th e r o pe, th e c art- w hip ,

and th e co w -s k in , w hen ap plie d to m y naked b ody b y her o w n cru el hand . A nd th ere w as sc arc ely any

punis h m ent m ore d re ad fu l th an th e b lo w s I r e ceiv ed o n m y fa ce a nd h ead fr o m h er h ard h eav y fis t. S he w as a

fe arfu l w om an, a nd a s a v age m is tr e ss to h er s la v es.

Such te sti m ony d is tu rb s a ny a tte m pt a t d elin eati n g a c le ar lin e o f s e p ara ti o n b etw een th e p riv ate /u np ro ducti v e s p here o f c ap ti v e

“p riv ile ge” a nd th e p ub lic /p ro ducti v e d om ain o f c ap ti v e te rro r o n th e p la nta ti o n; a nd , in so fa r a s th ey g iv e la nguage to e xp erie nces

th at B ru ce w as n ev er a b le to u tte r in p ub lic , P rin ce’s w ord s o ffe r a n in str u cti v e c o unte r-n arra ti v e to th e d is c o urs e s o f s a v agery ,

in co rrig ib ility , a nd s e xual m onstr o sity th at w ould s u rro und th e c ir c um sta nces o f B ru ce’s f in al e sc ap e f r o m A ngo la o n th e f ir s t d ay o f

cane c utti n g, O cto ber 1 9, 1 948.

When s/h e a w akened a t su nris e o n th at c le ar a utu m n d ay to th e p utr id sm ell o f sh it, sw eat, se m en, a nd b lo od, th e S pillm an

ho use b oy fe lt fo r th e

bru sh th at re ste d w ith in a littl e b ra id ed s tr a w b ask et s /h e h ad ti e d b esid e h er v erm in -fille d m attr e ss. A fte r

le ap in g d ow n f r o m h er s lo t i n o ne o f th e i n num era b le tr ip le -b unks o ld -ti m e n eo sla v es h ad b een f o rc ed to w ed ge i n sid e th e C am p A

sto ckad e, B ru ce h urrie d ly r a n h er h and s o ver h er s h o rt- c ro pped h air a s s /h e d id e v ery o th er d ay b efo re s /h e w as e xp ecte d a t th at

la d y’s h o use . A nd , a s a lw ays, s /h e c o uld f e el th e b ru sh b ris tl e s s lid e e asily o ver th e s te el p la te s itu ate d j u st a b ove h er r ig ht te m ple

—a p ie ce o f m eta l th at h ad b een i m pla nte d ( ju st i n ti m e) tw o d ays a fte r th ey h ad f ir s t tr ie d to m urd er h er s o m e y ears b ack.

B ru ce

re p la ced th e b ru sh , e xite d th e s to ckad e ( b ecause s /h e n ev er a tte m pte d to u se

th at

“ to ile t” u nle ss s /h e c o uld n o t h elp it) , a nd b egan

re tr a cin g th e w ell- w orn g ro ove s /h e a nd c o untl e ss o th er h o use b oys h ad tr u d ged in to th e lo ng d ir t tr a il le ad in g d ir e ctl y fr o m th e

Ju ngle C am p to C ap ta in J o hnnie ’s h o use . A dju sti n g h er n eatl y ti e d h ead s c arf, s /h e d ra gged h er r ig ht l e g b ehin d th e r e st o f h er b ody

as f a st a s s /h e c o uld , p assin g a l in e o f “ B ig S tr ip e” s u garc ane m en w ho se w his tl e s a cco m panie d h er e ntr a nce o nto th e p ath l e ad in g

to h er d esig nate d s ta rti n g p ositi o n o n th at l a d y’s b ack p orc h. S /h e w as m ad e e v en m ore b re ath le ss th an u su al b y th e e ffo rt b ecause i t

was i m pera ti v e th at s /h e a rriv ed a t h er p ost a l ittl e e arly o n th at p arti c ula r T uesd ay m orn in g.

Acco rd in g to B ato n R ouge n ew sp ap ers , th e h o use b oy d id n o t n eed to e m plo y th e S pillm ans’ ic e p ic k a fte r s h e h ad fa lle n. In

para p hra sin g th e d ep uty c o ro ner’s a uto psy, th e re p orts in d ic ate d th at s h e h ad a lr e ad y d ie d fr o m a b ro ken n eck s u sta in ed fr o m a

se v ere b lo w to th e c hin b efo re h er “ tr u sty ” N egro ra is e d th e w eap on. T he h alf- d oze n s ta b w ound s w ere b elie v ed to h av e b een

in flic te d p ostm orte m b ecause o f th e “ co m para ti v e la ck o f b lo od” fo und a t th e s c ene a t w hic h R ub ye S pillm an’s b ody w as fo und

slu m ped o ver, i n h er n ig htg o w n, h id den b ehin d a n a rm oir e i n h er d aughte r’s b ed ro om , a t 2 :3 0 a .m ., W ed nesd ay, O cto ber 2 0, 1 948.

Over th e n ext e le v en d ays, th e n ew sp ap ers w ould o ffe r d aily c o vera ge o f th e k illin g a lo ng w ith u p date s o n th e th re e-h und re d -p ers o n

manhunt th at e nsu ed o nce th e g uard c ap ta in ’s w ife w as fo und d ead in J o A n’s r o om . W e a re in fo rm ed th at C am p A g uard s b ecam e

ala rm ed s e v era l h o urs b efo re th e d is c o very o f R ub ye’s c o rp se b y th e f a ct th at th e f a m ily ’s “ p ris o n h o use b oy” d id n o t s h o w u p a t th e

sto ckad e f o r h ead -c o unt a nd l o ckd ow n th e n ig ht o f th e k illin g— th at th ey s e arc hed f o r B ru ce th ro ugho ut th e p enite nti a ry g ro und s u nti l

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** th ey a rriv ed a t th e S pillm an r e sid ence a nd l o cate d R ub ye’s b ody. W e a re a ls o m ad e a w are th at m uch o f w hat o ccurre d o n th e d ay o f

th e in cid ent s e em ed to fit in to th e b anal r o uti n e o f d om esti c s la v ery a nd m aste ry th at h ad ta ken

pla ce fo r d ecad es a t th e C am p A

pla nta ti o n h o use — th at B ru ce b usie d h im se lf p re p arin g m orn in g b re akfa st fo r th e fa m ily , a nsw erin g p ho ne c alls , o ffe rin g Jo A n

assis ta nce a s s h e p re p are d f o r a n o vern ig ht s ta y a t th e h o m e o f a y o ung c o usin w ho r e sid ed a t C am p H , a nd p re p arin g l a te a fte rn o on

din ner fo r J o hn S pillm an a fte r h e h ad re tu rn ed fr o m o vers e ein g th e fir s t d ay o f th e s u garc ane h arv est.

F or h er p art, th e g uard

cap ta in ’s w ife s p ent h er ti m e e arly th at d ay g iv in g h er tr u sty n eo sla v e

deta ile d in str u ctio n

a s to th e ta sk s s h e w ante d c o m ple te d

ahead o f h er d ep artu re fo r o ne o f th e m ost im porta nt s o cia l e ngagem ents o f th at c ale nd ar y ear in L ouis ia na. T he lo cal c o vera ge

chro nic le s h o w s h e a nd o th er A ngo la w iv es w ere s c hed ule d to a tte nd a n “ afte rn o on te a” i n h o no r o f M rs . E arl K . L ong, th e w ife o f

th e s ta te ’s g o vern o r— a s o cie ty -p age fu ncti o n h eld a t “ A fto n V illa ,” a fo rty -ro om F re nch-G oth ic m ansio n o n th e o uts k ir ts o f S t.

Fra ncesv ille th at w as o rig in ally b uilt b y th e h and s o f s la v es i n 1 849.

The l o cal r e p orts th en r e la te h o w , a fte r k illin g th e n eo pla nta ti o n m is tr e ss ( a nd s o m eho w m anagin g to c o nceal h er d ead b ody f r o m

her h usb and fo r a n um ber o f h o urs ), B ru ce s h ed h er “ b lo ody p ris o n u nifo rm ,” d is g uis e d h ers e lf in th e h ig h-h eele d s h o es, w hite

glo ves, a nd n ew

dark -c o lo re d d re ss w ith b ig flo w ers

R ub ye h ad p la nned to w ear to A fto n V illa , a nd e sc ap ed th ro ugh th e A ngo la

cane f ie ld s to w ard th e M is sis sip pi R iv er u nd er c o ver o f d ark ness. I n r e ad in g th e a cco unts o f th e “ fe m ale i m pers o nati n g” tr u sty , o ne

is im med ia te ly re m in d ed o f a p ara lle l u se o f fu giti v e c ro ss-d re ssin g in W illia m C ra ft’ s

Runnin g a T housa nd M ile s to F re ed om

(1 860), in w hic h a s la v e w om an, C ra ft’ s w ife , E lle n, u se s th e fa ct o f h er lig ht c o m ple xio n to d is g uis e h ers e lf a s a w hite “ in v alid

gentl e m an” tr a v elin g w ith a s la v e a tte nd ant ( W illia m ), a nd s u ccessfu lly s h uttl e s h ers e lf a nd h er h usb and a w ay fr o m G eo rg ia to th e

“fr e e” c ity o f B osto n, M assa chuse tts .

In d eed , a s in th e c ase o f th e C ra fts ’ th eft o f th eir o w n b odie s in th e la te 1 850s, r e b ellio us

agency o n th e p art o f th e S pillm ans’ d om esti c a nd m usic al n eo sla v e c o uld o nly b e c ast a s c ulp ab ility w ith in th e r a cis t c ultu ra l a nd

le gal i m agin ati o n o f th e l a te 1 940s.

How ev er, th e s im ila riti e s b etw een th e a cts o f r a d ic al b la ck f u giti v ity o n th e p art o f E lle n C ra ft a nd J a m es B ru ce e v acuate a lm ost

as q uic kly a s th ey a ris e . T he f ir s t th in g th at m ust b e s a id h ere i s th at, u nlik e h er “ p assin g” c o unte rp art f r o m th e n in ete enth c entu ry , n o

am ount o f cro ss-d re ssin g co uld hav e d is g uis e d th e p heno ty p ic al b la ckness th at m ark ed B ru ce and ev ery o th er b la ck b ody in

Louis ia na a nd s u rro und in g s ta te s a s b oth n atu ra lly s u sp ect a nd ( e xtr a )le gally d is p osa b le — nam ely , w hen th is l e galiz e d

bra nd in g a nd

hunti n g p ro cess w as in v oked in r e sp onse to th e u nim agin ab le o ccurre nce o f a w hite “ la d y” b ein g k ille d b y h er “ N egro h o use b oy.”

Seco nd , g iv en th e d ual n atu re o f B ru ce’s tr a nsg re ssio n o f h er s ta tu s a s s la v e o f th e s ta te — th at is , h er th eft o f h er o w n b ody a nd its

acco m panyin g a ct o f v io le nce a gain st th e b ody o f th e g uard c ap ta in ’s w ife — th e e sc ap ed b la ck n eo sla v e w ould h av e b een d ev oid o f

any s o cia l e q uiv ale nt to th e w hite a b oliti o nis t c o m munity o f th e l a te n in ete enth c entu ry th at h elp ed th e C ra fts r e ach th e r e la ti v ely s a fe

physic al g eo gra p hy o f th e n o rth ern U nite d S ta te s. In o th er w ord s, g iv en th e b ro ad -b ase d s o cia l c o nse nsu s in p ostb ellu m A meric a

re gard in g b oth th e o ste nsib le d eno uem ent o f s la v ery a nd th e “ natu ra l” c rim in ality o f th e fr e ed b la ck s u b je ct— as w ell a s B ru ce’s

ra d ic al v io la ti o n o f th e n ati o nal ta b oo a gain st v io le nt s e lf- d efe nse a nd s e lf- re cla m ati o n o n th e p art o f th e i m pris o ned — th ere w ould

hav e b een n o m odern e q uiv ale nt to th e U nd erg ro und R ailr o ad f o r th e n eo sla v e f u giti v e to s e ek o ut a s s /h e m ad e h er w ay th ro ugh th e

woods s u rro und in g A ngo la p la nta ti o n.

N or w ould th ere h av e b een a r e la ti v ely s e cure p hysic al s p ace a nyw here i n th e U nite d S ta te s

to w hic h h er s o cia lly a nd le gally s ti g m ati z e d b ody c o uld b e s p ir ite d a w ay in th e e v ent th at s u ch a n etw ork d id in d eed e xis t. T he

fin al a nd m ost i m porta nt d is ti n cti o n to b e m ad e b etw een B ru ce’s f u giti v e a cti o n a nd th at o f E lle n C ra ft h as to d o w ith o ur k no w le d ge

th at th e a ct o f m ale im pers o nati o n o n th e p art o f th e n in ete enth -c entu ry b la ck w om an r e p re se nte d a te m pora ry m om ent o f g end er-

bend in g in th e s e rv ic e o f a n a tte m pt a t la yin g c la im to s o m eth in g o f th e h ete ro no rm ati v e p re ro gati v e o f le gal m arria ge b etw een a

“m an and a w om an”— a ra cia liz e d p atr ia rc hal sta tu s th at w as p re clu d ed b y fia t fo r chatte liz e d b odie s, and th at su b se q uentl y

re p re se nte d a c o m fo rti n g i m age o f n o rm ati v e c o nju gal a sp ir a ti o n b efitti n g th e e xp ecta ti o ns o f th e w hite l ib era l C hris ti a n a ud ie nce to

whic h th e s la v e n arra ti v e w as d ir e cte d .

While w e a re g iv en n o th in g in th e w ay o f p ers o nal te sti m ony o r r e lia b le d ocum enta ti o n in r e sp ect to J a m es B ru ce’s g end er o r

se xual id enti ty , th e h yp erm ed ia te d a nd d em oniz in g p ers p ecti v es o ffe re d b y w hite A ngo la re sid ents a nd in n ew sp ap er a cco unts

fo llo w in g R ub ye S pillm an’s d eath u nd erlin e th e d egre e to w hic h th e e sc ap ed “ ho use b oy” w as p ub lic ly in te rp ella te d a s th e v ery

anti th esis o f w hite h ete ro no rm ati v e m asc ulin ity . W hile th e f ir s t r e p ort d esc rib es B ru ce’s u ti liz a ti o n o f S pillm an’s f lo w er-p rin t d re ss

as a “ clu m sy b ut a p pare ntl y s u ccessfu l d is g uis e a tte m pt,” s u b se q uent c o vera ge w ould u se th e fa ct o f h er r e gula r p erfo rm ances in

dra g a s p ro of- p ositi v e th at th e e sc ap ed n eo sla v e’s ta cti c al o utw ard d is g uis e w as a ctu ally

exp re ssiv e o f a p erv ers e i n ner o nto lo gic al

re ality . I n th e l a nguage o f o ne s u ch p ie ce, B ru ce c am e to b e d efin ed a s a “ fe m in in e ty p e”— one w ho h ad n o t s im ply w orn w om en’s

clo th in g i n a n i s o la te d i n sta nce o f d esp era te r e b ellio n, b ut w ho a ctu ally “

delig hte d i n p la yin g f e m ale p arts

i n a m ate ur th eatr ic als a t

th e p ris o n.”

T he p ro je cti o n o f o nto lo gic al a b erra nce o nto th e n eo sla v e’s a p pare nt q ueern ess is a ls o re gis te re d in th e c hild ho od

re co lle cti o ns o f J o A n S pillm an, w ho , w hile d efin in g B ru ce a s a h ap py-g o -lu cky h o use b oy, a ls o r e calle d th at s /h e w as b oth “ a l itt l e

str a nge” a nd “ a l ittl e p ris sy.”

E ven i f s /h e d id a ctu ally i d enti fy a s a s tr a ig ht m an a t th e ti m e o f h er d esp era te a tte m pt a t e sc ap in g th e

pris o n p la nta ti o n, th e i n te rp ella ti n g v oic es o f w hite A ngo la r e sid ents a nd l o cal m ed ia c la ssifie d B ru ce a s a m ong th e c o lle cti v ity o f

crim in aliz e d su b je cts b anis h ed to L SP a nd o th er U .S . p ris o ns w ho se c rim in aliz a ti o n a nd p re d ic am ent o f c iv il d eath h ad b een

accentu ate d w ith a nd e xacerb ate d b y th e s ti g m ati c ta gs o f s e xual

perv ersio n

a nd

deg en era cy.

O ffe re d in lie u o f a ny d is c ussio n o f

her a ctu al m oti v es f o r k illin g th e g uard c ap ta in ’s w ife ( o r a ny o ffic ia l e v id enti a ry p ro ceed in g o r tr ia l) , B ru ce’s i m pute d g end er a nd

se xual a b erra nce s e rv ed to a sc rib e a s e co nd le v el o f a lte rity a nd a b no rm ality o nto a b ody th at h ad a lr e ad y b een p re ap poin te d a s

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** exp end ab le d ue to th e b io m eta p hysic al a fflic ti o n o f b la ckness.

W hen d ep lo yed in c o m bin ati o n w ith h er r a cia l d iffe re nce, B ru ce’s

im pute d g end er/s e xual d ev ia nce r e p re se nte d a p rio ri s o cia l a d ju d ic ati o n o f th e u nq uesti o nab le g uilt o f th e e rs tw hile “ T ru sty ” N egro ,

and h er u tte r d is p osa b ility a s th e ta rg et o f th e th re e-h und re d -m an “ p osse ” th at h unte d h er w ith b lo odho und s, g uns, s h ackle s, a nd

(le gal l y nch) r o pes th ro ugh L ouis ia na’s w oods a nd u rb an c ente rs a fte r th e d is c o very o f S pillm an’s d ead b ody.

In d eed , h er u nse em ly “ p ris sin ess” w as re p eate d ly a sse rte d in th e la st a p peara nce B ru ce w ould m ake in th e lo cal p re ss, o n

Octo ber 3 1, 1 948— a d ay a fte r h er d ead b ody w as a lle ged ly d is c o vere d flo ati n g fa ced ow n in th e M is sis sip pi R iv er w ith b uzza rd s

cir c lin g o verh ead . “ T ho se s e ein g th e b ody i m med ia te ly s u sp ecte d i t w as B ru ce’s b ecause o f th e f e m ale c lo th in g. B ru ce w as w earin g

wom en’s ’ u nd erg arm ents , s ilk h o sie ry , a b lu e d re ss, a g re en s w eate r a nd a w om an’s w ig . T he w ig , it w as s a id , b elo nged to th e

pris o n. B ru ce h ad u se d i t w hen p la yin g th e p art o f a w om an i n p ris o n th eatr ic als .” I n a n a tte m pt to d is p el th e n o ti o n th at i m med ia te ly

cir c ula te d a m ong th e p ris o ner p opula ti o n a t A ngo la th at th e “ fe m in in e ty p e” f u giti v e h ad b een l y nched b y J o hn S pillm an o r a no th er

of th e th re e h und re d p ris o n s la v e c atc hers th at s ta lk ed h er a lo ng th e r iv er’s p ath , o ffic ia ls a sse rte d th at B ru ce’s d eath w as th e r e su lt

of a n “ accid enta l d ro w nin g.” T o le giti m iz e th is

narra ti v e, A ngo la o ffic ia ls a nd s ta te p olic e o rd ere d th at th e m ed ic al in q uest b e

perfo rm ed a t a n u nq uesti o nab ly “ N egro ” s ite . “ T he ju ry , im panele d in a n egro

[s ic ]

fu nera l h o m e, b ro ught in a v erd ic t o f d eath b y

accid enta l d ro w nin g. D r. R oberts d ecla re d th at B ru ce d efin ite ly d ro w ned . ‘ I e xam in ed h im f r o m ti p to ti p ,’ h e s a id , ‘ a nd th ere w as

no t a s in gle m ark o f v io le nce o r a p erfo ra ti o n o n th e b ody.’ ” C la im s to th e u nv io la te d a nd “ un-p erfo ra te d ” s ta te o f th e n eo sla v e’s

co rp se a re im med ia te ly s u b verte d in th e v ery n ext s e cti o n o f th e a rti c le in w hic h a lo cal s h eriff n o nchala ntl y e xp la in s w hy h e w as

ab le to o ffe r p ositi v e id enti fic ati o n o f th e p arti a lly d eco m pose d a nd s u p pose d ly d ro w ned p ris o ner: “ M arti n s ta te d th at h e c o uld

id enti fy th e b ody b y a b ulle t w ound h e h im se lf h ad in flic te d in 1 936 w hen B ru ce h ad tr ie d to e sc ap e [ fr o m A ngo la ] b ut w as fo und

tw o d ays la te r.”

T he c o ntr a d ic to ry n atu re o f o ffic ia l c la im s to a la ck o f v io le nt e nco unte r w ith B ru ce’s c hro nic ally r u p tu re d b ody

had a lr e ad y b een m ad e c le ar in e arlie r c o vera ge o f h er e sc ap e w hen o ffic ia ls w ere q uo te d a s h av in g fo und th e fu giti v e’s tr a cks

base d o n a d is a b ility s /h e h ad in curre d o n th e n eo pla nta ti o n; th ey in ti m ate d h o w th e m ain r e aso n A ngo la ’s tr u sty “ N egro d og-b o y”

and h is p ack o f C ub an a nd E nglis h b lo odho und s w ere a b le to o verc o m e B ru ce’s u se o f a s c ent- c o verin g m ix tu re o f tu rp enti n e a nd

garlic w as th e d efin iti v e n atu re o f th e tr a cks le ft b y a “ co nv ic t [ w ho ] d ra gged o ne fo ot a s h e w alk ed .”

U nm enti o ned in a ny o f th e

re p orts , h o w ev er, w as th e o th er p erm anent d is fig ure m ent B ru ce lik ely s u ffe re d a s a h o use s la v e— th e s k ull fr a ctu re th at le d to th e

in se rti o n o f a m eta l p la te i n to h er h ead .

Notw ith sta nd in g th e fa ctu al m urk in ess th at su rro und s h er u lti m ate lo ss o f b io lo gic al life , th e d ecla re d a nd u nd ecla re d sta te -

in flic te d in ju rie s to h er e nto m bed a nd p re yed -u p on b ody u nd ers c o re h o w th e p re d ic am ent o f r a cia liz e d , g end ere d , a nd s e xualiz e d

neo sla v ery w as th e s u b sta nti v e c ause o f J a m es B ru ce’s ( a nd R ub ye S pillm an’s ) p re m atu re d eath . I n d eed , g iv en th e p ate nt a b su rd ity

of th e s ta te ’s c la im s o f in no cence in re sp ect to a s u b je ct w ho m it h ad tr a nsm ute d in to a fu ngib le p ub lic /p riv ate o bje ct, o ne c an

im agin e th at J o hn M cE lr o y w ould h av e b een i n cre d ulo us a s to th e o ffic ia l n arra ti v e th at a cco m panie d th e l o ss o f o ne o f th e s ta rs o f

his C am p A m in str e l s h o w . T he n ecessa ry o pacity o f th e u nhis to ric al e xp erie nce o f n eo -e nsla v em ent f o rc es u s to s p ecula te r e gard in g

what r a n th ro ugh th e m in d o f th e “ o ne-le gged m an” w hen h e h eard th e n ew s o f th e h o rrify in g c o nclu sio n to B ru ce’s f r e ed om b id f r o m

with in th e c am p s to ckad e, a g uard c ap ta in ’s k itc hen, o r w hile o ffe rin g m usic al e nte rta in m ent to o ne o f th e n eo pla nta ti o n’s y o ung

white c hild re n. D id th e p ris o n g ra p ev in e o ffe r

him a c le ar v is io n o f th e s p ecific o rd eals th at h is l e ad in g p erfo rm er f a ced i n h er l a st

ho urs a s s/h e w as sta lk ed b y m em bers o f n early e v ery se cto r o f L ouis ia na’s la w -a nd -o rd er a p para tu s? M ore sp ecific ally , d id

McE lr o y o r o ne o f h is fe llo w b la ck p ris o n s la v es w ork a s a d om esti c in th e h o m e o f th e A ngo la g uard w ho w as k no w n to o penly

dis p la y a s e t o f p ho to gra p hs o f B ru ce’s c o rp se fo r th e p le asu re o f w hite h o use guests — im ages d ep ic ti n g h er h unte d a nd to rtu re d

body a s it r e ste d p ro ne o n a M is sis sip pi R iv er s a nd bar a fte r s /h e h ad p urp orte d ly “ d ro w ned ”?

W hat s ig nific ant d eta ils a p pear in

th ese im ages th at w ere n ev er a llo w ed to re ach th e d aily n ew s? D id th ey s h o w s o m e o f L ouis ia na’s n eo sla v e p atr o lle rs p osin g

behin d B ru ce’s r e m ain s a fte r th eir f u giti v e h unt h ad r e ached s u ccessfu l c lim ax? I f s o , w hat l o oks a p peare d o n th eir f a ces? A nd w ere

th ese p ho to s ta ken w ith th e v ery su rv eilla nce c am era th at h ad o nce c ap tu re d M cE lr o y, B ru ce(? ), a nd th eir fe llo w im pris o ned

min str e ls p erfo rm in g o n th e s te p s o f C ap ta in J o hnnie S pillm an’s p la nta ti o n h o use ? W ere a ny o f B ru ce’s fe llo w p ris o ners fo rc ed to

act a s g ra v e d ig gers fo r h er c o rp se w hen n o fa m ily m em ber o r lo ved o ne w ould o r c o uld s h o w u p a t th e fr o nt g ate s o f “ m urd er’s

ho m e” to c la im h er b ody? A nd , f in ally , w hat s o rt o f b lu es-la d en n o te s c o uld b e h eard e m anati n g th ro ugh th e T unic a h ills a s th e C am p

A m in str e l tr o up e a p peare d a t th e A ngo la s u garc ane h arv est “ cele b ra ti o n” o f 1 948? W as o ne o f th o se o nsta ge o r in a tte nd ance

actu ally a l o ver s ti ll i n m ourn in g?

The fa ct is th at w e w ill lik ely n ev er b e a llo w ed to a tta in d efin iti v e a nsw ers to m ost o f o ur q uesti o ns c o ncern in g B ru ce’s d eath .

How ev er, th e p ain o f w hat w e d o k no w in r e sp ect to th e q uo ti d ia n h o rro rs th at s /h e, J o hn M cE lr o y, O dea M ath ew s, th e A ngo la 3 ,

and a n i n calc ula b le n um ber o f o th ers h av e f a ced w hile e nd urin g “ life ” a t L SP a llo w s u s to r e co gniz e h o w th ir te en y ears o f d om esti c

and m usic al s la v ery w as e no ugh to d riv e th e s ta r o f th e C am p A m in str e l tr o up e to a l a st- d itc h a ct o f r a d ic al b la ck s u ic id e. I n f a ct, a s

sta te d a b ove i n r e fe re nce to th e o ne-le gged l e ad er o f th e tr o up e, B ru ce’s d esp era te a tte m pt a t s e curin g f r e ed om r e gis te rs th e f a ct th at

th e m ask o f b la ck c o nte ntm ent a nd h ap py-g o -lu cky “ tr u sty -n ess” o fte n c o nta in ed a m ilita nt d esir e fo r s e lf- p osse ssio n— a c lo aked

neo sla v e i n su rre cti o nis t i m puls e th at, i n B ru ce’s c ase , f o und e xp re ssio n i n a f o rm o f i n d iv id ualiz e d r a d ic al v io le nce th at r e calls th e

co lle cti v iz e d re v olu ti o nary b la ck a b oliti o nis m o f N at T urn er. B ut e v en a s h er d esp era te a ct o f s e lf- re cla m ati o n m ay b e re ad a s

“hero ic ” o n a c erta in l e v el, B ru ce’s e m bodie d a w are ness th at h er e sc ap e a tte m pt w ould m ost c erta in ly e nd i n m ore b ulle t s c ars a nd

bite m ark s, if n o t th e c o m ple te c essa ti o n o f h er life , s u ggests h o w

th is h ere to fo re u nto ld s to ry o f p ris o n s la v ery c an in n o w ay b e

mis ta ken fo r th e s o rt o f tr iu m phalis t, e xcep ti o nal, a nd m ora lly a d m is sib le m odel o f r e sis ta nce a nd fr e ed om a cq uis iti o n o ffe re d in

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** many n in ete enth -c entu ry s la v e n arra ti v es. In fa ct, B ru ce’s h yp erc rim in aliz a ti o n a s a n a p pare ntl y tr a nsg end er b la ck p ers o n w ho w as

sa id to h av e c o m mitte d a g ris ly a ct o f v io le nce a gain st a w hite w om an’s b ody w ould h av e p re clu d ed a tta in m ent o f “ hero ” s ta tu s

ev en w ere s /h e to h av e e lu d ed h er h um an a nd c anin e p urs u ers a lo ng th e M is sis sip pi R iv er a nd a chie v ed “ su ccessfu l” fu giti v ity

with in th e s o cia lly i n carc era ti n g l a nd sc ap e o f p ost– W orld W ar I I A meric a. N or h as a s to ry s u ch a s B ru ce’s y et b een a llo w ed e ntr y

in to th e c urre nt r e gis te r o f b la ck p ris o n n arra ti v es o r p ris o n-c ente re d “ neo -s la v e n arra ti v es” — generic s p aces th at h av e g enera lly

been r e se rv ed f o r p ub lic ly a ckno w le d ged “ ra d ic al” p oliti c al p ris o ners o f th e p ost– civ il r ig hts e ra .

I n f a ct, th e h is to ric al p re se nt o f

U.S . r a cia l g eno cid e c o nti n ues to d is a llo w a cad em ic , s o cia l, o r le gal r e co gniti o n o f n eo sla v ery a s a n a ctu al liv ed e xp erie nce, le t

alo ne a ny k in d o f c ele b ra to ry c o nsid era ti o n o f th e re sis ti v e c ap aciti e s o f a lo ng-b urie d a nd u nkno w n p ris o n “ ho use b oy” fr o m

up to w n N ew O rle ans w ho h ad b een p oly -s ti g m ati z e d a s a “ fe m in in e ty p e,” “ N egro ,” “ kille r,” “ co nv ic t.”

How ev er, i t i s th e v ery u nhero ic , “ im mora l,” a nd i n assim ila b le a sp ect o f B ru ce’s e xp erie nce o f c iv il, l iv in g, a nd p re m atu re d eath

th at d em and s th at w e fin ally b rin g o ur a tte nti v e fo cus to h er e xp erie nce o f n eo sla v ery a nd to th at o f p eo ple su ch a s M ath ew s,

McE lr o y, th e A ngo la 3 , a nd th e a no nym ous tw enty -fir s t- c entu ry b la ck “ m use um tr u sty ” w ho h and ed m e a b ox c o nta in in g a lo ng-

fo rg o tte n p ho to gra p h w hile I s a t b earin g w itn ess a t th e s ite o f n eo pla nta ti o n to uris m a nd te rro ris m . I n d eed , i t i s th e v ery f a ilu re o f th e

fr e ed om b id s o f M cE lr o y a nd B ru ce th at q ualify th eir e xp erie nces a s d ub io usly re p re se nta ti v e o f p ast o rd eals o f n eo pla nta ti o n

in carc era ti o n a nd th e u nsp eakab le p re se nt- d ay re aliti e s fa ced b y th e m ore th an 2 .3 m illio n b odie s c urre ntl y h eld c ap ti v e in th e

genera liz e d s la v ery o f U .S . d om esti c a nd g lo bal i m pris o nm ent. T he v ery f a ct th at th e l iv in g p la nta ti o n c o nti n ues to f e ed o n m illio ns

of h um an b odie s— wheth er in a b end o f L ouis ia na’s s e cti o n o f th e M is sis sip pi, th e “ hell- fa cto ry ” fie ld s o f C alifo rn ia ’s C entr a l

Valle y, o r a “S alt P it” ju st o uts id e K ab ul, A fg hanis ta n

—dem and s th at w e d o m uch m ore th an “atte nd ” to th e civ illy d ead

pre d ic am ent o f th e m illio ns a nd m ore o f to day’s p ris o n– in d ustr ia l g eno cid e. In th e s p ir it o f p ris o ner n um ber 3 7708 a nd h is m ost

ta le nte d tr o up e m em ber, w e m ust w rite , s in g, w ail, o rg aniz e ( a nd m ore ) f o r c o m ple te a b oliti o n e v en w hen u nhis to ric al f a ilu re s e em s

to b e th e o nly f o re se eab le r e w ard .

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Chap te r 4

The W arfa re o f N orth ern N eo sla very i n C heste r H im es’s

Yeste rd ay W ill M ake Y ou C ry

If y ou’re b la ck, y ou w ere b orn in ja il, in th e N orth a s w ell a s th e S outh . S to p ta lk in g a bout th e S outh ! L ong a s y ou’re s o uth o f th e C anadia n b ord er, y ou’re s o uth .

—Malc olm X , “ T he B allo t o r th e B ulle t”

When I w as 1 4 I g ot b uste d f o r “ jo y-rid in g” . . . a nd s e nte nced to a y ear a t [ a r e fo rm s c hool] . T he f ir s t d ay th ere I w as p ut in to a d orm a nd o ne o f th e d udes . . .

beat m e b adly in f ro nt o f th e o th er g uys. H e to pped h is b eatin g o ff b y r a pin g m e a nd e sta blis h ed m y id entit y a s a “ n ig ger p unk.” I s p ent th at y ear s e rv ic in g th e b oys

in th e d orm a nd a ny o f th eir f rie nds th at w ante d s e x. . . . T hat w as w hen I r e aliz e d th at m y p osit io n w asn ’t to o d if fe re nt f ro m m y a ncesto rs a nd th at f o r th e r e st o f

th e y ear I w asn ’t a ny d if fe re nt f ro m a p la nta tio n s la ve.

—Anonym ous, “ T he S to ry o f a B la ck P unk”

I N TH E

CLIM ACTIC

SC EN E

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry

(1 998), C heste r H im es o ffe rs a h o rrify in g a cco unt o f a p ris o n fir e th at

t a kes p la ce a t th e O hio S ta te P enite nti a ry in 1 930. D esc rib in g th e s c ene a s “ a p age to rn fr o m D ante ’s in fe rn o ,” th e n arra to r o ffe rs

r e m em bra nce o f th e f ir e th ro ugh th e e yes o f th e n o vel’s p ro ta go nis t, J im my M onro e, w ho r u ns i n to th e p ris o n y ard i n a s ta te o f s h o ck

a s h und re d s o f c harre d b odie s a re b ein g c arrie d o ut o f th e “ Id le H ouse ” c ell b lo ck b y h is f e llo w p ris o ners : “ A nd h e w as r u nnin g . . .

a cro ss th e y ard , w ith a h ig h-s te p pin g s e nse o f b ein g to o ta ll to s ta y o n th e g ro und . H e r a n h ard er, l ifte d h is f e et h ig her, u nti l h e w as

c hurn in g w ith m oti o n, g o in g n o w here . H e s te p ped i n to s o m eth in g a nd l o oked d ow n a t i t a nd s a w th at h e h ad s te p ped i n to a b urn t- u p

c o nv ic t’ s

sto m ach a nd h ad p ush ed o ut h uge g lo bule s o f v om it th ro ugh th e ti g ht- c le nched te eth a nd o ver th e b la ck-b urn t fa ce.”

M onro e’s tu m ult in to th e a b je ct is p unctu ate d b y th e sm ell o f b urn in g fle sh a nd th e sc re am s o f th o se w ho m h e c an h ear b ein g

i n cin era te d in th eir c ells a s h e c o nti n ues to r u n a to p th e b odie s o f th e d ead . In a m anner a kin to H enry F le m in g in S te p hen C ra ne’s

T he R ed B adge o f C oura ge

(1 895), M onro e’s ro le in th e fir e s c ene is th at o f a nti h ero ic s p ecta to r m ore th an a cti v e p arti c ip ant.

W hile h e s ta nd s w atc hin g “ liv in g c o nv ic ts l u ggin g th e d ead ” a nd “ w ork in g o verti m e a t b ein g h ero es,” h e c an o nly c hid e h im se lf f o r

b ein g u nab le to p erfo rm a cco rd in g to h is e p ic v is io n o f “ m anly ” v alo r: “ A ll h is l ife h e w ante d to b e a h ero . E ver s in ce h e h ad f ir s t

r e ad th e

Ilia d

a nd b ecam e a w ors h ip per o f A chille s. A ll h is l ife ! A nd n o w w as h is c hance. H e f e lt h is l ip s tw itc hin g a s a w av e o f

n ause a s w ep t o ver h im .”

The n arra to r’s a llu sio n to th e H om eric T ro ja n W ar le gend e nd s u p c arry in g a n e xtr a m eta p ho ric al v ale nce in th e s c ene a s th e

s u rv iv ors o f th e p ris o n f ir e a re b ra nd ed a s e nem y c o m bata nts b y th e s ta te . C onte nd in g th at th e w ard en a nd c erta in p ris o n g uard s h ad

a ctu ally a llo w ed h und re d s o f th eir fe llo w p ris o ners to “ b urn to d eath in th eir c ells lik e r a ts ,” a la rg e n um ber o f p ris o ners s ta ge a

p ro te st, d em and in g a n ew w ard en a nd to b e tr e ate d a s “ hum an b ein gs.”

L ed b y a c o re g ro up o f m en c allin g th em se lv es th e

“ C om mitte e o f T w elv e,” th e f ir e s u rv iv ors o rg aniz e a p ro gra m o f “ p assiv e r e sis ta nce” th at i n clu d es b re akin g th e l o cks o f th eir c ells

a nd re fu sin g to acced e to th e w ard en’s o rd er fo r th em to le av e th e p ris o n yard . T he w ard en re sp ond s to th e re sis ta nce b y

i m med ia te ly d ecla rin g m arti a l l a w , i s su in g a s h o ot- to -k ill o rd er, a nd c allin g i n h und re d s o f l o cal a nd s ta te p olic e, N av y r e se rv e, a nd

N ati o nal G uard tr o ops, w ho c o nstr u ct a m akesh ift p ris o n w ith in a p ris o n to h o ld th o se d eem ed to h av e p arti c ip ate d i n th e r e sis ta nce.

H av in g m is se d th e f ir s t i n sta llm ent o f th e u p ris in g b ecause o f i n ju rie s to h is e yes th at h e s u sta in ed f r o m e xcessiv e s m oke e xp osu re ,

M onro e i s a le rte d to th e m ilita ry i n curs io n b y a f r ie nd a fte r e xiti n g th e p ris o n h o sp ita l: “ B lo cker to ok h im d ow n to th e b all d ia m ond

a nd s h o w ed h im th e w ir e -e nclo se d s to ckad e w ith m achin e g uns m ounte d a t e ach c o rn er a nd a rm ed s o ld ie rs m arc hin g i n p air s u p a nd

d ow n e ach sid e.” Jim my q uic kly le arn s th at th is sp ecta cula r p erfo rm ance o f sta te d om in ati o n w ill h av e im med ia te a nd d ead ly

c o nse q uences. W hile p arta kin g i n a b it o f g allo w s h um or w ith B lo cker a nd a n u nnam ed “ co lo re d c o nv ic t,” th e l a tte r’s h ead i s b lo w n

o ff b y m achin e g un fir e : “ [T ]h e to p o f th e c o nv ic t’ s h ead fle w u p in to th e a ir. H e h ad b een m akin g h is b unk, a nd n o w , o n th e w hite

s h eet w hic h h is h and s s ti ll h eld , a g o oey m ass o f b ra in s a p peare d . [ J im my a nd B lo cker] w ere s ti ll l o okin g a t h im , a nd h is m outh w as

s ti ll g rin nin g a s i t h ad b een b efo re h e l o st th e to p h alf o f h is h ead , b ut h is e yes w ere g o ne a nd b lo od w as c o m in g o ut o f th e e d ges o f

h is s k ull.”

While J im my s p end s m uch o f th e a cti o n i n

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry

a tte m pti n g to r e p re ss h is m em ory o f th e h o lo caust a nd i ts

t e rro ris ti c a fte rm ath , h e i s b ro ught i n to to ta l “ p ost” tr a um ati c r e call m uch l a te r i n th e te xt b y a s e rie s o f p ho to gra p hs h e e nco unte rs i n

a l o cal n ew sp ap er— im ages th at a re b ase d o n a ctu al d ocum enta ry p ho to gra p hs ta ken b y L aure nce S ta llin gs a nd th at a p peare d i n h is

l a te D ep re ssio n w ork ,

Photo gra phic H is to ry o f th e F ir st W orld W ar

(1 933). In

Ye ste rd ay

, th e narra to r d esc rib es ho w th ese

“ p ic tu re s to uched J im my th at s p rin g. T here w as o ne, a c are le ss s c atte r o f c o rp se s o n a p atc h o f u tte r d eso la ti o n, c ap ti o ned , ‘N o

M ore P ara d es.’ ” Im med ia te ly u p on v ie w in g th e sc ene o f o ffic ia l w arfa re , Jim my’s re p re sse d m em ory o f th e sc ene o f d e fa cto

w arfa re th at h ad o ccurre d w ith th e p ris o n f ir e i s r e v iv ifie d i n th e f o rm o f th e c harre d b odie s o f h is f e llo w p ris o ners : “ H e c o uld s e e

t h o se b urn t- u p c o nv ic ts l y in g o n th e p ris o n y ard . . . h e c o uld s e e a ll th o se c o nv ic ts d yin g a nd d ead .

And h e c o uld s e e h im se lf d ea d

a nd r o ttin g

in th e o bliv io n o f a g ra v e, n ev er h av in g b een a nyth in g b ut a n um ber o n a b oard in a p ris o n h av in g in th e e nd liv ed a nd

d ie d fo r n o th in g a nd w as n o th in g in th e e nd b ut w orm s in th e g ro und .”

J im my’s s tr u ggle w ith p uniti v e a b je cti o n is n o t s im ply a

m atte r o f a to o-c lo se p hysic al p ro xim ity

th e d ead ; ra th er, th e o bliv io n o f p ro lo nged e ncagem ent— of b ein g tr a nsfo rm ed fr o m a

l iv in g b ein g i n to a n um ber o n a p ris o n b oard — has b ro ught h im i n to p erilo us e xp erie nti a l i d enti fic ati o n

with

th e d ead .

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** As o ne o f C heste r H im es’s le sse r-k no w n lite ra ry w ork s, a nd a s o ne o f th e fir s t n o rth ern fo cuse d b la ck (w ritte n) n arra ti v es o f

neo sla v ery ,

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry

s u p plie s a c hillin g e xam ple o f h o w th e r e ality o f l ife a nd d eath u nd er U .S . s ta te te rro ris m ,

mass e nto m bm ent, a nd n eo sla v ery is o fte n m ore h o rrific th an g o th ic fic ti o n.

T his p osth um ously p ub lis h ed w ork re p re se nts a la te

tw enti e th -c entu ry a rc hiv al r e sc ue o f th e o rig in al m anusc rip t v ers io n o f H im es’s p ost– W orld W ar I I p ris o n n arra ti v e,

Cast th e F ir st

Sto ne

( 1 952), a nd is a ctu ally a fic ti o naliz e d a uto bio gra p hy b ase d o n H im es’s o w n e xp erie nce a s p ris o ner N o. 5 9623 in th e O hio

Sta te P enite nti a ry f r o m 1 928 to 1 936. J im my’s r e m em orie s o f th e h o lo caust a re i n f a ct b ase d u p on H im es’s e xp erie nces a s a tw enty -

one-y ear-o ld s u rv iv or o f th e m ost d ead ly p ris o n fir e in U .S . h is to ry — th e “ E aste r M ond ay F ir e ” o f 1 930, w hic h k ille d 3 22 o f th e

4,9 00 h um an b ein gs w ho w ere ti g ht- p acked i n to

th eir c ages o n a s p rin g e v enin g i n C olu m bus, O hio , a t th e h eig ht o f th e D ep re ssio n.

In d eed , J im my’s tr a um ati c r e m em bra nces o f th e b la ze a nd th e s u b se q uent m ilita riz a ti o n o f th e p ris o n a re m atc hed n early ite m fo r

ite m i n l o cal a nd n ati o nal n ew sp ap er c o vera ge th at o ccurre d c o nte m pora neo usly to th e e v ent. I n o ne s u ch a rti c le , e nti tl e d “ M uti n o us

Conv ic ts i n O hio S ho t D ow n b y P ris o n G uard s,” a r e p orte r d eta ils h o w p enite nti a ry g uard s u nle ash ed “ a r a in o f b ulle ts ” o n a g ro up

of p ris o ners w ho w ere le ad ers o f th e p ostf ir e u p ris in g, se rio usly w ound in g tw o o f th e so -c alle d m uti n eers . In a p ie ce e nti tl e d

“T unnel to H om e o f W ard en F oun d b y G uard s,” a no th er r e p orte r r e la te s h o w m em bers o f th e p ris o n r e sis ta nce— whic h w as l e d b y a

gro up c alle d th e “ C om mitte e o f 4 0,” u p on w hic h H im es’s “ C om mitte e o f T w elv e” i s b ase d i n

Ye ste rd ay

—managed to c ut th ro ugh a

six -in ch c o ncre te w all i n th eir c ell a nd b egan d ig gin g to w ard W ard en P . E . T ho m as’s h o m e, w hic h w as s itu ate d a d ja cent to th eir c ell

blo ck. A no th er a rti c le , “ M achin e G un K ills T w o O hio C onv ic ts ,” d eta ils th e i n cid ent i n w hic h J im my a nd B lo cker w itn ess a b la ck

pris o ner’s h ead g etti n g b lo w n o ff. T he p ie ce d esc rib es h o w “ A lb ert F re em an, N egro , a nd F ra nk R oss [ p re su m ab ly a w hite m an] . . .

were k ille d a s th ey s le p t in th e d orm ito ry , w here th e b ette r e le m ent o f p ris o ners w ere c o nfin ed .” It c hro nic le s h o w “ th eir h ead s

[w ere ] p ie rc ed b y m achin e g un b ulle ts , a ccid enta lly d is c harg ed b y a n O hio N ati o nal G uard sm an,” b ut a ssu re s r e ad ers th at th e p ris o n

guard c ap ta in w ho le d th e in v esti g ati o n in to th e p urp orte d “ accid enta l” s h o oti n g c la im ed th at s u ch e v ents “ canno t b e h elp ed .”

to ta l, th e s ta te w ould e nd u p m ars h alin g a t le ast o ne th o usa nd s ta te tr o opers , lo cal a nd s ta te p olic e, a nd N av y re se rv e p ers o nnel

(a lo ng w ith a g ro up o f R O TC s tu d ents fr o m O hio S ta te U niv ers ity ), w ho p erio dic ally o pened fir e o n p ris o ners w ith m achin e g uns,

rifle s, a nd te ar-g as b om bs a t d iffe re nt m om ents o f th e p ris o n in su rg ency— a c am paig n o f re p re ssio n th at re p re se nte d a n o m in o us

pre sa gin g o f la te r m om ents o f s p ecta cula r s ta te te rro ris m a nd fa sc is m in U .S . p ris o ns s u ch a s A tti c a in w este rn N ew Y ork S ta te in

Sep te m ber 1 971.

While th e m ass m ed ia portr a yed th e penite nti a ry ho lo caust th ro ugh th e in d iv id ualiz in g lib era l bourg eo is fr a m ew ork of

“tr a ged y”— as a n u nfo rtu nate b ut a b erra ti o nal m om ent o f a d m in is tr a ti v e n eglig ence w ith in a n o th erw is e o rd erly a nd n ecessa ry

fo rm ati o n o f s o cia l c o ntr o l, h um an w are ho usin g, a nd in v olu nta ry s e rv itu d e— Him es’s a uto bio gra p hic al p ris o n n o vel e xp ose s th e

degre e to w hic h th e D ep re ssio n-e ra n o rth ern p ris o n, l ik e i ts m ore n o to rio us s o uth ern c o unte rp art, a m ounte d to w hat M utu lu S hakur,

Ced ric R obin so n, R uth W ils o n G ilm ore , a nd o th ers h av e d esc rib ed

as a re gim e o f

dom estic w arfa re

a gain st th o se b ra nd ed a s

co nta m in ati n g ele m ents w ith in th e U .S . nati o nal body.

W hile I hav e th us fa r fo cuse d atte nti o n prim arily on geo gra p hie s of

neo sla v ery s itu ate d i n th e s o uth ern U nite d S ta te s, s u ch a s th e c hain g ang a nd p ris o n p la nta ti o n, th e d ep ic ti o n i n

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake

Yo u C ry

o f s p ecta cula r a nd b anal f o rm s o f d om in ati v e v io le nce th at s u ffu se d th e p uta ti v ely m odern , p ro gre ssiv e, a nd “ d is c ip lin ary ”

re gim es o f n o rth ern p enal l a w u nd erlin es th e f a ct th at th e p ere nnia lly r e ere cte d b in ary o f s o uth ern w hite s u p re m acis t e xcep ti o nalis m

and n o rth ern r a cia l p ro gre ssiv is m r e p re se nts a d ead ly f a ls e d ic ho to m y— a te nacio usly p ro ducti v e i d eo lo gic al m yth o s th at h as p la yed

a fo und ati o nal r o le in th e r e p ro ducti o n a nd s o cia l a ccep ta nce o f th e m ass c hatte liz e d e nto m bm ent o f b la ck, In d ig eno us, b ro w n, a nd

poor bodie s fr o m E m ancip ati o n th ro ugh to day’s pris o n– in d ustr ia l co m ple x. In th is chap te r, I fo cus on ho w th e pra cti c es of

ra cia liz e d , c la sse d , a nd h o m o/tr a nsp ho bic s ta te v io le nce a s e xhib ite d th ro ugho ut H im es’s p ris o n a uto bio gra p hy u nd erlin e th e d egre e

to w hic h th e h o rrify in g e v ents s u rro und in g th e O hio P enite nti a ry f ir e w ere b ut s p ecta cula r a nalo gues o f a q uo ti d ia n s y ste m o f l iv in g,

civ il, a nd b io lo gic al d eath r e p ro ducti o n, w hic h, in its d ev asta ti n g a ccre ti o n in to o ur c urre nt m om ent o f p ris o n– in d ustr ia l g eno cid e,

exp lo des c ate go ric al d is ti n cti o ns b etw een n o rth ern a nd s o uth ern v io le nce, c arc era lity , a nd n eo sla v ery . U lti m ate ly I w ant to e xp lo re

th e w ays in w hic h, a s a s tr u ctu ra l m odality o f U .S . h ete ro m is o gynis t r a cia l c ap ita lis m , th e m ate ria l p ra cti c e o f w hite s u p re m acis t

id eo lo gy is p re se nte d in

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry

a s a fo und ati o nal, if u nav ow ed , a sp ect o f th e p re – W orld W ar II n o rth ern

pris o n— an in sti tu ti o n th at b y 1 930 h ad a lr e ad y b egun to b e p acked m ore a nd m ore w ith m em bers o f a b la ck so uth ern m ig ra nt

popula ti o n w ho se n o rth ern e xp osu re in augura te d th e sta te ’s in cre asin gly re p re ssiv e b earin g to w ard b odie s b ra nd ed

crim in ally

devia nt a nd o nto lo gic a lly d eg en era te

a lo ng a rti c ula ti n g v ecto rs o f r a ce, c la ss, g end er, a nd s e xuality .

To th o se fa m ilia r w ith

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry,

its d e fa cto lite ra ry p re q uel,

Cast th e F ir st S to ne,

o r th e r e la ti v ely s p ars e

am ount o f c riti c al tr e atm ents o f H im es’s a uto bio gra p hic al p ris o n w riti n gs, m y a sse rti o n o f th e p rim acy o f r a cia l d om in ati o n to th eir

co nte nts m ay c o m e a s s o m eth in g o f a s u rp ris e . In d eed , o ne o f th e m ain c o ntr ib uti n g fa cto rs to th e r e la ti v e la ck o f c riti c al a tte nti o n

giv en to b oth b ooks, a s w ell a s th e s e rie s o f s h o rt s to rie s u p on w hic h H im es’s a uto bio gra p hic al p ris o n m anusc rip ts w ere b ase d , i s

th e f a ct th at a ll o f h is f ic ti v e p ortr a yals o f h is e xp erie nce o f i m pris o nm ent a re to ld th ro ugh th e e yes o f a w hite p ro ta go nis t. T hat th ere

can b e n o

doub t th at “ Jim my,” th e w hite s o uth ern m ig ra nt fr o m M is sis sip pi fe atu re d in

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry

a nd

Cast th e

Fir st Sto ne,

is base d dir e ctl y on his ow n exp erie nce of im pris o nm ent is in d ic ate d w ith in H im es’s in te rv ie w s, pers o nal

co rre sp ond ence, a nd o ffic ia lly a uto bio gra p hic al w riti n gs. F or in sta nce, w hen a sk ed a b out h is p ris o n w riti n gs in a n in te rv ie w w ith

Mic hel F ab re in 1 983, H im es re p lie d : “ Ju st o pen

Cast th e F ir st S to ne

a nd y o u’ll re aliz e th e k in d o f m ate ria l I fo und in th e

penite nti a ry . T his i s o ne o f m y m ost a uto bio gra p hic al n o vels , a lth o ugh th e p ub lis h ers c ut a l o t o f i t [ i.e ., th e m ate ria l th at r e ap pears

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** in

Ye ste rd ay

].”

I n

The Q uality o f H urt

( 1 971), th e fir s t in sta llm ent o f h is tw o-v olu m e o ffic ia l a uto bio gra p hy, H im es a gain a sse rts

th e f a ct th at J im my i s b ase d o n h im se lf: “ I . . . m ad e th e p ro ta go nis t o f m y p ris o n s to ry a M is sis sip pi w hite b oy; th at o ught to te ll m e

so m eth in g, b ut I d on’t k no w w hat— but o bvio usly i t w as th e s to ry o f m y o w n p ris o n e xp erie nces.”

A nd , i n a l e tte r h e w ro te to h is

lo ngti m e fr ie nd and ad vis e r, C arl V an V echte n (o r “C arlo ,” as th e w rite r/p ho to gra p her is affe cti o nate ly ad dre sse d in th eir

co rre sp ond ence), H im es e v en d eta ils th e d egre e to w hic h Jim my’s fo ra ys in to w riti n g in

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Yo u C ry

(a p lo t

ele m ent th at w as c o m ple te ly e xp urg ate d f r o m

Cast t h e F ir st S to ne

b y i ts e d ito rs ) a re r e p re se nta ti v e o f th e f a ct th at H im es b egan h is

ow n c are er a s a w rite r i n sid e a p ris o n c age i n O hio :

I h av e J im my d ev elo p a n a m biti o n to w rite a nd re v eal th e g ro w th o f e m oti o nal m oti v ati o ns fo r v ario us s h o rt

sto rie s w hic h h e w rite s d urin g th at ti m e. W hic h, o f c o urs e , is m ore o r le ss a uto bio gra p hic al.

That is w hen I

beg an w ritin g

a nd d urin g th at ti m e I w ro te a g re at n um ber o f p ris o n s to rie s, tw o o f w hic h w ere p ub lis h ed i n th e

th en b ud din g

Esq uir e ,

“ C ra zy i n th e S ti r ” i n th e A ugust 1 934 i s su e, “ T o W hat R ed H ell” ( th e c hap te r o n th e f ir e )

in th e O cto ber 1 934 i s su e.

Criti c s w ho h av e d ealt w ith H im es’s a uto bio gra p hic al p ris o n w riti n gs h av e c o nse q uentl y b een la rg ely b efu d dle d b y h is c ho ic e o f

arti c ula ti n g h is s to ry o f im pris o nm ent in v ir tu al “ w hite fa ce.” In d eed , o ne c riti c w ent a s fa r a s la b elin g

Cast th e F ir st S to ne

a s

“ra cele ss,” o r “ assim ila ti o nis t,” a rg uin g th at it w as a m ong a s e rie s o f n o vels p ro duced b y b la ck a uth o rs in th e m id -1 940s to th e

1950s th at p urp ose ly e sc hew ed th e s o rt o f ra cia lly o rie nte d p ro te st fic ti o n th at w as b ein g p ro duced b y a uth o rs s u ch a s R ic hard

Wrig ht, A nn P etr y , a nd H im es h im se lf i n th e 1 940s.

How ev er, th is e xp la nati o n fo r a n o ste nsib le la ck o f b la ckness in H im es’s a uto bio gra p hic al p ris o n n o vel fa ils to a cco unt fo r th e

fa ct th at, a s p oin te d o ut i n h is l e tte r to V an V echte n, h is f ic ti o naliz e d p ortr a it o f h is e xp erie nce o f i m pris o nm ent a ctu ally b egan i n th e

1930s ( w hile H im es s a t in a p ris o n c age), n o t in th e e arly 1 950s, w hen

Cast th e F ir st S to ne

fin ally a p peare d in p rin t a fte r a lo ng

se rie s o f g allin g e nco unte rs w ith a d ecid ed ly ra cis t— and , a s w e s h all s e e, o vertl y h o m opho bic — U.S . p ub lis h in g e sta b lis h m ent.

In d eed , H im es’s s e rie s o f s h o rt s to rie s r e p re se nte d th e s c affo ld in g f o r a n um ber o f m anusc rip t v ers io ns o f w hat u lti m ate ly w ould b e

pub lis h ed a s

Cast th e F ir st S to ne

in 1 952, v ers io ns w ith ti tl e s in clu d in g

Pre se n t T en se , T he W ay It W as, B la ck S heep , D eb t o f

Tim e, S olita ry, D ay A fte r D ay,

a nd

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry

—all o f w hic h d re w , s o m eti m es w ord f o r w ord , f r o m 1 930s s h o rt

sto rie s s u ch a s “ T o W hat R ed H ell,” “ C ra zy i n th e S ti r,” a nd “ P ris o n M ass.”

Alo ng th ese l in es, o ne o f th e s im ple st a nsw ers to th e r id dle o f r a cia l c hara cte riz a ti o n i n b oth

Cast t h e F ir st S to ne

a nd

Ye ste rd ay

Will M ake Y o u C ry

c o m es a t th e o uts e t o f th e i n te rv ie w w ith M ic hel F ab re w hen H im es s p eaks d ir e ctl y to h is c ho ic e o f c lo akin g th e

sto ry o f h is i m pris o nm ent i n th e h ab its o f a “ M is sis sip pi w hite b oy” a t a ti m e w ell b efo re th e “ p ro te sti n g N egro ” w as i n v ogue f o r

U.S . p ub lis h ers :

In m y e arly p ris o n s to rie s, I w ro te a b out w hite c hara cte rs .

It m ade p ublic a tio n p ossib le ,

o r a t le ast e asie r, in

big m agazin es lik e

Esq uir e .

W hen I s ta rte d w riti n g in th e U .S . in th e e arly th ir ti e s, a b la ck w rite r h ad a h ard

ti m e g etti n g p ub lis h ed . F or a lo ng ti m e n o o ne r e aliz e d th at I w as a N egro .

I w ro te a bout w hite m en b eca use

th eir p ro ble m s w ere th e p ro ble m s o f c o nvic ts

no m atte r w hat c o lo r th ey w ere .

T hey e xp erie nced th e s a m e

em oti o ns, w heth er th ey w ere b la ck o r w hite .

One in te rp re ta ti o n o f H im es’s s ta te m ent h ere a b out fe elin g p re sse d in to p ortr a yin g h is p ris o n e xp erie nce th ro ugh a w hite fic ti v e

pers o na w ould a ctu ally g iv e c re d ence to th e v ie w th at H im es’s a uto bio gra p hic al p ris o n n o vel r e p re se nts a u niv ers a lis t d ep ic ti o n o f

th e U .S . c arc era l e xp erie nce, a “ co lo r-b lin d ” m ode o f n arra ti o n th at s ta nd s in o ppositi o n to h is m ore a p pare ntl y b la ck-c ente re d

work s s u ch a s

If H e H olle rs L et H im G o

( 1 945) a nd

Lonely C ru sa de

( 1 947). I n d eed , th e o penin g o f “ P ris o n M ass,” o ne o f th e s h o rt

sto rie s th at s e rv ed a s a b uild in g b lo ck fo r th e p ris o n n o vel,

se em s to fu rth er in d ic ate th at H im es to ok a n o nra cia l a p pro ach to th e

co nd iti o n o f p enal e nto m bm ent: “ T he c o nv ic ts s h uffle d u p th e w orn , w ooden s ta ir s . . . .

Ju st c o nvic ts

. S om e w ere w hite , s o m e r e d ,

so m e b ro w n, s o m e b la ck, s o m e y ello w . S om e w ere A meric ans, s o m e w ere E uro peans, s o m e I n d ia ns, s o m e M exic ans, s o m e M ala ys,

so m e C hin ese , s o m e m ongre ls , a l ittl e o f e ach.

Ju st c o nvic ts .

” 17

H ow ev er, w hat H im es’s r e p eti ti o n o f th e w ord “ co nv ic t” s ig nifie s

here , a nd i n th e i n te rv ie w , i s l e ss o f a te sta m ent to a l a ck o f r a cia l i d enti ty f o rm ati o n, o r “ b la ckness,” i n h is a uto bio gra p hic al p ris o n

se rie s, th an an exp erie nti a lly in fo rm ed aw are ness th at th e sta te ’s b ra nd in g o f so cia lly ta xo nim iz e d b odie s as “ju st co nv ic ts ”

perfo rm s a r e la ti v e r a cia l d eco nstr u cti o n o f th e u niv ers a l “ w hite ” c iti z e n s u b je ct— a p erilo us f a ll

to w ard

b la ckness.

Here I a m a llu d in g to th e w ay in w hic h th e sta te ’s h o m ogeniz a ti o n o f c rim in aliz e d b odie s in to a “ p ris o n m ass” th ro ugh th e

sti g m ata o f c iv il d eath i n iti a te s a p uniti v e s u sp ensio n o f a g re at p orti o n o f th e p ro perty o f w hite ness f o r th e D ep re ssio n-e ra “ nati v e”

white w ork in g-c la ss a nd /o r E uro pean i m mig ra nt p ris o ner. I n d oin g s o , i t r e nd ers th e w ould -b e-n o rm ati v e r a cia l b ody v uln era b le to

fo rm ati o ns o f v io le nce, d is p osse ssio n, n ata l a lie nati o n, a nd ( in )h um an c arg o in g th at, b y th e ti m e o f H im es’s i m pris o nm ent, h ad m ost

ofte n b een th e p eculia r p ro vin ce o f a lw ays-a lr e ad y r a cia liz e d s u b je cts s u ch a s C hin ese i m mig ra nts , “ In d ia ns,” M exic ans, a nd b la ck

peo ple . F urth erm ore , th is r e la ti v e d eco nstr u cti o n o f w hite ness is a ls o c ata ly ze d b y th e s o cia l d egra d ati o n th at w ould h av e a ccru ed

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** to c rim in aliz e d w hite b odie s b ro ught in to re p re ssiv e s o cia l (a nd s e xual) in te rc o urs e w ith c rim in aliz e d b la ck, b ro w n, In d ig eno us,

and A sia n b odie s— a f o rc ed r a cia l i n te gra ti o n th at, f o r th e w hite p ris o ner, r e p re se nts a d e f a cto e le m ent o f p unis h m ent m ark in g h im

décla ssé

r e la ti v e to n o rm ati v e w hite ness. W hen r e ad i n th is w ay, th e s ta te ’s a sc rip ti o n o f th e b ra nd “ co nv ic t” o nto a n o th erw is e

eth nic ally d iv ers e ra cia l p opula ti o n d oes in d eed p ro duce a u niv ers a liz in g e ffe ct; e xcep t, ra th er th an c o nstr u cti n g a “ no nra cia l”

sp here , ra cia l c ap ita lis t h ete ro m is o gynis t c rim in aliz a ti o n fu ncti o ns in a m anner n o t d is sim ila r to ra cia l sti g m ati z a ti o n a s w aged

again st s u b ju gate d n o nw hite p eo ple s b oth in th e p ris o n w orld a nd th e s o cia lly in carc era ti n g s tr u ctu re s o f th e w hite s u p re m acis t

“fr e e-w orld .” I n o th er w ord s, i t r e p re se nts a d ynam ic o f p uniti v e h o m ogeniz a ti o n g ro und ed i n a c o m monly e nd ure d s ta te o f c arc era l

te rro r, fa m ilia l dis lo cati o n, le galiz e d dis p osse ssio n, and co lle cti v iz e d ab je cti o n. H ere C olin D ayan’s his to ric iz in g of th e

in te rs e cti o ns o f th e so cia l d eath o f chatte l sla v ery and th e civ il d eath o f p enal neo sla v ery is in str u cti v e. S he cite s W illia m

Bla cksto ne’s

Com men ta rie s o n th e L aw s o f E ngla nd

( v ol. 4 , 1 790), in w hic h h e d efi n es th e fe lo n a s m eta p hysic ally ta in te d a t th e

le v el o f b lo od— and , a s s u ch, th e fe lo n is d efin ed a s a “ m onste r a nd a b ane to s o cie ty , [ a nd ] th e la w s e ts a n o te o f in fa m y o n h im ,

puts h im o ut o f i ts p ro te cti o n, a nd ta kes n o f u rth er c are o f h im b are ly to s e e h im e xecute d . H e i s th en c alle d a tta in t,

attin ctu s

, s ta in ed

bla ckened

. ’”

T he in d is ti n guis h ab le q uality o f th o se r o tti n g in th eir p ris o n c ells , a nd th e s c atte r o f c o rp se s ly in g in th e p ris o n

yard a fte r th e fir e , is p re d ic ate d o n th e la w ’s b ra nd in g o f th e 4 ,9 00 c rim in ally s ti g m ati z e d b odie s in sid e th e O hio P enite nti a ry a s

excep ti o ns to th e ru le of “no rm al,” la w -a b id in g, w hite -h ete ro -b ourg eo is hum anity — a tr a nsfig ura ti o n of a pre v io usly div ers e

gro up in g o f “ fr e e” c iv il s u b je cts in to c rim in ally “ b la ckened ” s la v es o f th e s ta te , w ho c o uld , in th e w ord s o f G io rg io A gam ben, b e

“kille d w ith o ut th e c o m mitta l o f h o m ic id e.”

How ev er, if th e puniti v e pra cti c es of crim in al sti g m ati z a ti o n and civ il death re p re se nt dynam ic s of quasi- ra cia liz a ti o n, a

plu m meti n g to w ard th e so cia l (n o )th in g sta tu s o f b la ckness fo r th e w hite p ris o ner, th en w hat d o th ese p ro cesse s o f sta te te rro r

re p re se nt fo r th e a lr e ad y b la ck ( b ro w n a nd /o r In d ig eno us)— fo r th o se w ho se s o cia l, c ultu ra l, p oliti c al, a nd le gal s ti g m ati z a ti o n a re

outc o m es o f

th e c rim e o f n onw hite b ir th

ra th er th an c o nse q uences o f a ny c o urt- a d ju d ic ate d “ crim in al a ct” ?

M any a nti p ris o n

auto bio gra p hie s a nd m anife sto s o f i n carc era te d b la ck r a d ic als o f th e b la ck a nd T hir d W orld m ovem ent e ra — th e 1 950s a nd 1 970s—

make re fe re nce to th e degre e to w hic h, no tw ith sta nd in g th e ho m ogeniz in g effe cts of im pris o nm ent, th e no rth ern penite nti a ry

re fa b ric ate s a nd in te nsifie s d ynam ic s o f s p ati a l a p arth eid a nd w hite s u p re m acis t v io le nce th at p erv ad e o uts id e U .S . p ris o n w alls ,

cre ati n g a ra cia liz e d p ris o n w ith in a p ris o n fo r b la ck, b ro w n, and In d ig eno us cap ti v es th ro ugh p ra cti c es su ch as ra ce-b ase d

se gre gati o n, s o lita ry c o nfin em ent, d is c ip lin ary in fr a cti o n, r itu aliz e d v erb al a nd p hysi- c al a b use , to rtu re , a nd o utr ig ht m urd er.

F or

in sta nce, in

Sole d ad B ro th er,

G eo rg e J a ckso n d esc rib es th e p ro cesse s b y w hic h C alifo rn ia p enal la w e nacts a ra d ic ally u neq ual

dis tr ib uti o n o f v io le nce w here b y th e fa ta l p uniti v e te chniq ue o f “ ju sti fia b le h o m ic id e” is m ost o fte n re se rv ed fo r b la ck c ap ti v es.

Afte r r e la ti n g h o w h is f e llo w b la ck p ris o ner, F re d B illin gsle a, w as te ar-g asse d to d eath i n sid e a p ris o n c ell i n th e “ B ” s e cti o n ( th e

se gre gate d b la ck ra nge) o f S an Q uenti n in 1 970, h e d esc rib es h o w w hite su p re m acis t ra cia l d iffe re nce w as a ls o re p re ssiv ely

re affir m ed i n i n te gra te d “ p ub lic ” z o nes o f p uniti v e s u rv eilla nce s u ch a s th e r e cre ati o n y ard , “ w here a ny ty p e o f m in o r m is ta ke c o uld

re su lt n o t in m ere ly a b ad c o nd uct re p ort a nd p la cem ent in

th e A dju stm ent C ente r [p uniti v e s e gre gati o n], b ut d eath . A fis tf ig ht, a

te m pora ry , tr iv ia l l o ss o f te m per w ill b rin g

a f u silla de o f b ulle ts d ow n o n t h e d ark er o f t h e t w o m en f ig htin g.

” 22

While H im es d esc rib es h im se lf a s h av in g to ld th e s to ry o f c ap ti v ity i n a m anner e xp re ssiv e o f th e “ p ro ble m s” a nd “ em oti o ns” th at

all p ris o ners f a ced , w heth er “ b la ck o r w hite ,” th e a cti o n o f

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry

c o nti n ually h ig hlig hts th e d egre e to w hic h

th e D ep re ssio n-e ra n o rth ern p enite nti a ry e xp ose d th e “ N egro ” p ris o ner to a b ra nd o f w hite s u p re m acis t p eno lo gy th at r e p re se nte d a

haunti n g r e em erg ence o f “ so uth ern ” m odaliti e s o f p unis h m ent, a s w ell a s a f o rw ard -h aunti n g m eth o dolo gic al p re curs o r f o r r e gim es

of r a cis t p enal la w th at J a ckso n, A ssa ta S hakur, A ngela D av is , a nd m illio ns o f a no nym ous o th ers fr o m th e m ovem ent e ra th ro ugh

to day’s p ris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x h av e e xp erie nced o n a r e gula r b asis . I n o ne p arti c ula r i n sta nce th at o ccurs w ell b efo re th e E aste r

Mond ay F ir e i n

Ye ste rd ay

, a b la ck p ris o ner, w ho l ik e m any o f th o se c urre ntl y e nto m bed i n U .S . j a ils a nd p enite nti a rie s, s u ffe rs f r o m

a f o rm o f m enta l i lln ess, i s m urd ere d a t th e h and s o f tw o w hite p ris o n g uard s.

I n e lu cid ati n g th e e v ents th at l e d to th e e xecuti o n, th e

narra to r r e calls h o w a “ cra zy ” p ris o ner n am ed P erry w as i n iti a lly p aid a n ig htti m e v is it b y o ne o f th e g uard s i n r a nge 1 -I, o th erw is e

kno w n a s th e “ B la ck B otto m ,” th e ti e r to w hic h a ll o f th e O hio P enite nti a ry ’s m ostl y s o uth ern m ig ra nt b la ck c ap ti v es (in clu d in g

Him es) w ere i m med ia te ly s e gre gate d u p on th eir a rriv al.

“W hat th e h ell’s th e m atte r w ith y o u b la ck b asta rd s? ” J im my h eard th e g uard s n arl. “ E very g o ddam n n ig ht y o u

get i n to a n a rg um ent.”

“It’ s h im ,” th e . . . v oic e a ccuse d . “ H e w alk s a nd ta lk s to h is se lf.”

“ What’s t h e m atte r w ith y o u n ig ger

?” th e g uard a sk ed .

There w as n o r e p ly .

“ Sm art n ig ger,

e h? C om e o n o ut o f th ere !” th e g uard a sk ed .

There w as n o r e p ly .

“ Sm art n ig ger,

e h? C om e o n o ut o f th ere !” J im my h eard th e c lic k o f th e lo ck, th e c ra ck o f th e d oor a s it w as

opened . T hen th e g uard ’s v oic e a gain , “ C om e o n o ut o r I ’ ll b lo w y o u o ut! ”

“A w , l e t th at p oor b asta rd a lo ne, h e’s c ra zy,” a v oic e c alle d f r o m J im my’s r a nge.

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Afte r b eati n g P erry i n f r o nt o f h is f e llo w b la ck p ris o ners , th e g uard ta kes h im o ut o f th e B la ck B otto m to o ne o f th e p ris o n’s ( o th er)

punis h m ent

units . S oon a fte r th e c ell e xtr a cti o n, p ris o ners o n m ulti p le ti e rs a re s ta rtl e d b y th e e cho in g s ta ccato o f g unfir e . J im my a nd

his fe llo w p ris o ners q uic kly le arn th ro ugh th e p enite nti a ry g ra p ev in e th at tw o w hite g uard s m urd ere d P erry in sid e th e p unis h m ent

co rrid or. In a n o rth ern v ers io n o f a lo ng-s ta nd in g sa d is ti c p enal re cre ati o n ritu al th at, a s d is c usse d in c hap te r 3 , is m ost o fte n

asso cia te d w ith s o uth ern c hain g angs, p ris o n p la nta ti o ns, a nd z o nes o f “ p riv ate ” n eo sla v ery , th e O hio p ris o n g uard s tu rn P erry in to

hunti n g g am e: th ey b eat h im r e p eate d ly w ith a l e ad p ip e i n f r o nt o f h is s o lita ry -c o nfin em ent c ell w ith th e i n te nt o f c ausin g h im to r u n

so th at th ey w ould b e j u sti fie d i n u sin g h is b ody f o r ta rg et p ra cti c e; e xcep t, r a th er th an u sin g a b lo odho und to a id i n th e c ap tu re o f a

ru naw ay “ cra zy n ig ger,” th e m odern iz e d n o rth ern v ers io n o f th e b la ck n eo sla v e h unt i n v olv es th e tw o w hite n o rth ern g uard s s im ply

“cut[ ti n g] l o ose a t h im w ith a T om my G un.”

Here I a m a s in te re ste d in th e in iti a l e xchange b etw een P erry a nd h is w hite a ssa ila nt in th e p ris o n’s B la ck B otto m a s in th e

unb eara b le f a ct o f h is k illin g i n sid e th e s o lita ry -c o nfin em ent c o rrid or. T hus I w ant to r e tu rn to th e m om ent th at P erry s its s ile ntl y i n

his c age in th e B la ck B otto m w hile b ein g re p eate d ly h aile d w ith w hat a m ounts to a tr a nsg enera ti o nal ra cis t in canta ti o n—

yo u

nig ger

. . .

sm art n ig ger

. . .

sm art n ig ger

—a ritu aliz e d re fr a in o f b la ck fu ngib ility , in hum anity , a nd d is p osa b ility th at in its

ho rrify in g r e p eti ti o n s e rv es a s d is c urs iv e d oub le f o r a nd i d eo lo gic al c ata ly st o f th e s e rie s o f b ulle ts th at a re u lti m ate ly e m pti e d i n to

his to rtu re d b ody. T o re in v oke S ylv ia W ynte r, th e “fig ure o f th e nig ger” has fu ncti o ned w ith in E uro -A meric an lib era l w hite

su p re m acis t h um anis t th o ught a s th e “ negati v e s ig nifie r o f th e m ode o f b ein g e m bodie d in th e b ourg eo is ‘ fig ure o f m an,’ ” a nd h as

th ere b y b een c ra fte d to s ig nify a “ p rim al h um an n atu re w ho se d iffe re nti a ti o n f r o m

a l u rk in g b estia lity

[ is ] s o d angero usly i m pre cis e

and u ncerta in . . . a s to c all f o r a q uesti o n m ark to b e p la ced w ith r e sp ect to th e h um anity o f th is z e ro d egre e c ate go ry .”

I n th e c ase

of th e l e galiz e d to rtu re a nd m urd er s c ene a t h and , a ny q uesti o ns a s to th e h um anity o f th e m enta lly i ll b la ck p ris o ner w ere s e ttl e d b y

way o f th e g uard ’s th ric e-u tte re d e xcla m ato ry d ecla ra ti o n o f re ifie d b la ck s u b hum anity . T he s ig n o f th e p ris o ner’s h um an b ein g,

“P erry ,” w as a uto m ati c ally n ullifie d b y th e sig n o f c o lle cti v iz e d b la ck o bje ct b ein g, “ nig ger” — an o verd ete rm in ed n o m in ati v e

era su re th at s e rv ed a s a uth enti c ati n g p re lu d e to ju sti fia b le m urd er.

N otw ith sta nd in g H im es’s e arlie r a llu sio n to th e e xp erie nti a l

le v elin g e ffe ct p ro duced b y th e s ta te ’s b ra nd in g o f a ll p ris o ners a s

co nvic t,

th e r a cis t a nd s a d is ti c th eatr ic s o f P erry ’s m urd er a re

illu str a ti v e o f th e d iffe re nti a l

quality o f c iv il d eath a s e xecute d in th e m odern p enite nti a ry in r e fe re nce to th e

nig ger c o nvic t

—ho w

no rth ern n eo sla v ery , l ik e i ts m ore v ilifie d s o uth ern c o unte rp art, w as e nd ure d a t i ts z e ro d egre e b y th o se w ho se h um anho od h ad b een

a m atte r u p f o r p hilo so phic al c o nje ctu re a nd c hatte liz e d v io le nt s u sp ensio n f o r c entu rie s l e ad in g u p to P erry ’s a rre st, i m pris o nm ent,

and l e gal l y nchin g.

Wynte r’s re fe re nce to h o w b la ckness c am e to b e c ulti v ate d w ith in th e lib era l b ourg eo is im agin ary a s a n o nto lo gic al th re at—

lu rk in g b estia lity

—re so nate s d ir e ctl y w ith th e his to ric al p erio d in w hic h H im es and th o usa nd s o f o th er b la ck b odie s w ere

dis a p peare d in to O hio ’s p enite nti a ry , ja ils , a nd r e fo rm ato rie s. T he n o rth ern e nto m bm ent ( a nd e xecuti o n) o f b la ck b odie s in s p aces

su ch a s th e s ta te p ris o n i n th e 1 920s a nd e arly 1 930s o ccurre d i n th e c o nte xt o f a n u np re ced ente d m ass m ovem ent o f b la ck s o uth ern

mig ra nts i n to n o rth ern c iti e s p opula rly k no w n a s th e G re at M ig ra ti o n— an e xo dus th at s a w m ore th an a m illio n b la ck p eo ple l e av in g

th e S outh b etw een 1 910 a nd 1 93 0.

A s i n th e c ase o f o th er n o rth ern u rb an l o caliti e s, th o se b la ck m ig ra nts w ho s e ttl e d i n c iti e s s u ch

as C le v ela nd , C in cin nati , a nd C olu m bus w ere im med ia te ly p erc eiv ed a s a c o lle cti v e m enace b y a w hite p opula ti o n th at im agin ed

th at A meric a’s o w n lu rk in g b east o f a p eo ple h ad a rriv ed in th e fle sh . T he d is c o urs e s o f b la ck m ig ra nt “ sh iftl e ssn ess,” “ id le ness,”

im mora lity , a nd c rim in ality r e p re se nte d a p ub lic a nd in te lle ctu al c o nse nsu s r e fle cte d in b oth th e w hite a nd b la ck p re ss, a nd w ith in

dom in ant U .S . so cio lo gy a nd c rim in o lo gy— a c o nse nsu s th at a m ounte d to n o th in g if n o t a se lf- fu lfillin g p ro phecy o f th e w hite

su p re m acis t s ta te w here b y b la ck m ig ra nt s u b je cts w ere b la m ed fo r liv in g th e p re d ic ta b le o utc o m es o f U .S . s o cia l a p arth eid .

T he

perilo us p re d ic am ent o f n ew b la ck u rb anity u nd er n o rth ern J im C ro w i n clu d ed s tr u ctu ra l p overty , w hite s u p re m acis t l e gal v io le nce,

geo gra p hic al h yp eris o la ti o n in to c ra m ped a nd o verp ric ed h o usin g, a nd a n o rth ern se gre gati o nis t la b or (a nd u nio n) sy ste m th at

re str ic te d a m ajo rity o f b la ck m ig ra nt m en a nd w om en to u nsk ille d fa cto ry w ork a nd d om esti c se rv ic e, a nd th at le d to re gula r

unem plo ym ent f o r m any m ig ra nt s u b je cts .

By c re ati n g w hat a m ounts to a n arra ti v e a p ertu re fo r th e s u b m erg ed s p ectr a l v oic es o f b la ck m ig ra nts w ho e xp erie nced n o rth ern

neo sla v ery , H im es tr e ad ed o n f a m ilia r p ers o nal te rrito ry . A lth o ugh h e w as b orn i n th e s e cti o nally l im in al “ b ord er s ta te ” l o cati o n o f

Je ffe rs o n C ity , M is so uri, i n 1 909, H im es s p ent th e g re ate r p art o f h is c hild ho od i n s o uth ern s ta te s s u ch a s A rk ansa s, S outh C aro lin a,

and M is sis sip pi ( th e h o m e o f h is w hite f ic ti v e

pers o na i n

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry

) a s h is f a th er a tte m pte d to f o rg e a c are er a s

a p ro fe sso r a t a n um ber o f b la ck l a nd -g ra nt a nd A & M ( A gric ultu ra l a nd M echanic al) c o lle ges. I n 1 925, th e H im es f a m ily m oved to

Cle v ela nd . B ut u nlik e th e m ajo rity o f o th er b la ck s o uth ern m ig ra nts to C le v ela nd w ho w ere s e gre gate d in to th e S co vill/C entr a l

dis tr ic t, th e g hetto in w hic h 9 0 p erc ent o f th e c ity ’s b la ck p opula ti o n liv ed in o verp ric ed te nem ents , c ra m med b oard in g h o use s,

ab and oned b uild in gs, a nd te nt e ncam pm ents ,

th e H im es’s w ere a b le to p urc hase a h o use in C le v ela nd ’s G le nv ille se cti o n, a

mid dle -c la ss J e w is h n eig hb orh o od th at w as a ls o h o m e to a s m all n um ber o f b la ck f a m ilie s.

Much to th e chagrin o f H im es’s m oth er, w ho m th e w rite r o fte n d esc rib ed as m ain ta in in g o vertl y eliti s t and “co lo r-s tr u ck”

perc ep ti o ns b ase d in p art o n w hat s h e c la im ed a s a n o ble , w hite , p ate rn al a ncestr y , H im es fr e q uentl y tr e sp asse d th e in te rn al c la ss

div id e w ith in C le v ela nd ’s b la ck c o m munity , s p end in g a g re at d eal o f ti m e i n th e S co vill/C entr a l d is tr ic t p rio r to h is a rre st f o r a rm ed

ro bbery i n 1 928. I t w as i n th is “ v ic e d is tr ic t” th at a te enage H im es w ould f r e q uent p ro hib iti o n-e ra b la ck g am blin g a nd m usic c lu b s,

su ch a s B unch B oy’s a nd E lk s’ C ab are t, th e l a tte r i n th e b ase m ent o f a h o use o w ned b y th e C le v ela nd c hap te r o f b la ck E lk s, a nd i n

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** whic h H im es re m em bere d h earin g b and s s u ch a s B ud J e nkin s’s C otto n P ic kers p la y to a m ostl y s o uth ern m ig ra nt c ro w d. W hile

Him es w ould fr a m e h is ti m e in th e S co vill/C entr a l d is tr ic t a s a k in d o f c o m in g o f a ge in te rm s o f h is se xuality a nd h is se lf-

pro cla im ed s tr e et h ustl e r’s m enta lity — te llin g o f h o w S co vill w as th e s ite o f h is f ir s t s e xual e xp erie nce w ith a b la ck p ro sti tu te a t th e

age o f six te en and his fir s t in v olv em ent w ith gam blin g, d rin kin g, and acts o f p etty crim e— his d esc rip ti o n o f th e p eo ple o f

Cle v ela nd ’s g hetto u nd erlin es h o w H im es a b so rb ed a g re at d eal o f th e b la ck m id dle -c la ss a v ers io n to w ork in g-c la ss a nd jo ble ss

bla ck m ig ra nts . T his c la ss-b ase d i n tr a ra cia l a nti p ath y e xp re sse s i ts e lf i n H im es’s r e co lle cti o ns o f S co vill b y w ay o f a n i n te rn aliz e d

ra cis m a nd a b old fa ce m is o gynis t d ep ic ti o n o f th e d is tr ic t’ s b la ck w om en:

Sco vil

[s ic ]

A venue r a n fr o m F ifty -fifth s tr e et to F ourte enth S tr e et o n th e e d ge o f th e b la ck g hetto a nd w as th e

most d egra d ed s lu m s tr e et I h ad e v er s e en. T he p olic e o nce e sti m ate d th at th ere w ere fifte en h und re d b la ck

pro sti tu te s c ru is in g th e f o rty b lo cks o f S co vil A venue a t o ne ti m e. T he b la ck w ho re s o n S co vil f o r th e m ost p art

were p ast th eir th ir ti e s, v ulg ar, sc arre d , d im w itte d , in m any in sta nces w ith o ut te eth , d is e ase d , a nd p overty -

str ic ken.

This b ru ta l chara cte riz a ti o n o f b la ck w om en o n S co vill is m atc hed b y an eq ually m orti fy in g in te rn aliz e d w hite su p re m acis t

desc rip ti o n o f th e b la ck s o uth ern m ig ra nt m en H im es e nco unte re d i n p ris o n: “ T he a d vanta ge th at I h ad o ver th e o th er b la ck c o nv ic ts

was th at I k new m y o w n m in d . I c o uld in flu ence th em to d o th in gs th e r e aso n fo r w hic h th ey d id n’t u nd ers ta nd . M ost o f th e b la ck

co nv ic ts i n th e O hio S ta te P enite nti a ry w ere d ull- w itte d , s tu p id , u ned ucate d , p ra cti c ally i llite ra te ,

slig htly a bove a nim als .

” 31

Such g allin g m om ents w ith in H im es’s o ffic ia l a uto bio gra p hy s ig nal th e h egem onic n atu re o f a nti - b la ck s o uth ern m ig ra nt w hite

su p re m acis t a nd m is o gynis t id eo lo gy in th e D ep re ssio n e ra , a nd h o w , n o tw ith sta nd in g h is s ta tu s a s a fe llo w s o uth ern m ig ra nt, th e

write r s a w h im se lf a s b ein g

am ong b ut n ot o f

th e b la ck m ig ra nt p opula ti o n o f S co vill a nd th e p enite nti a ry — a f a ct th at a d ds a no th er

le v el o f c o m ple xity to h is d ecis io n to p ortr a y h im se lf a s a “ w hite b oy” in h is p ris o n a uto bio gra p hy. T his e liti s t s e lf- p erc ep ti o n is

re p re se nte d c le arly in

Ye ste rd ay

b y th e fa ct th at m ost o f th e n o vel’s b la ck m ig ra nt c hara cte rs a m ount to a k in d o f s o nic b ackgro und

ta p estr y , o r a p pariti o nal c ho ru s, ra th er th an fu lly re nd ere d s u b je cts w ith a ny s o rt o f a n in d iv id ualiz e d o r c o m plic ate d in te rio rity .

How ev er, it is th e v ery g ho stl in ess o f th e b la ck s o uth ern m ig ra nt v oic e in

Ye ste rd ay

th at is th e n o vel’s m ost p ow erfu l s ig nal o f th e

haunti n g s y m metr ie s o f n o rth ern a nd s o uth ern n eo sla v ery . T his is re p re se nte d m ost c le arly in a m om ent w ell in to th e te xt w hen

Jim my e nte rs th e B la ck B otto m a nd is c o nfr o nte d w ith a g ho stl y b la ck s o und : “ A w ail r o se , p oig nant, s ti r rin g— ‘A llll n ig ht lo -o -

ooo-O OONG A h s e t ‘ n m ah c ell a n’ m o— o-a aaO AAAAAAAAAnnn!’ ” I n d eed , th is b la ck a p pariti o nal s o und b eco m es s o i n te nse a t

one p oin t i n th e n o vel th at a n e xasp era te d g uard y ells i n to th e B la ck B otto m : “ P ip e d ow n! P ip e d ow n! W hat th e h ell d o y o u th in k th is

is , a le v ee c am p?” W hen c o nsid ere d in th e c o nte xt o f H im es’s d ehum aniz in g p ortr a it o f b la ck s o uth ern m ig ra nt w om en a nd m en in

his o ffic ia l a uto bio gra p hy, th is m oanin g p re se nce fr o m s o uth ern le v ee c am ps, c hain -g ang c am ps, a nd n eo sla v e p la nta ti o ns in h is

pris o n a uto bio gra p hy su ggests h o w

Ye ste rd ay

re p re se nts le ss o f a n id eo lo gic ally c le an re nd erin g o f th e b la ck so uth ern m ig ra nt

exp erie nce th an a k in d o f u nco nsc io us n arra ti v e p orta l fo r th e g ho stl y e m erg ence o f a s u b m erg ed in carc era te d b la ck s o und — an

unhis to ric al access and excess p oin t— th at o ffe rs a w ailin g, m oanin g, and m ela ncho lic re v erb o f th e d is a v ow ed filia ti o ns o f

“no rth ern ” a nd “ so uth ern ” w hite s u p re m acis t i d eo lo gy, r a cia l s ta te te rro r, a nd l e gally r e m anufa ctu re d b la ck u nfr e ed om .

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Fig ure 1 2.

J o e S w eet, C ertif ic ate o f D eath , F ra nklin C ounty P ublic H ealt h D epartm ent, C olu m bus, O hio .

While th e b la ck so uth ern m ig ra nts w ho w ere ro und ed u p in “ v ic e d is tr ic ts ” su ch a s S co vill a nd e nto m bed w ith in th e O hio

pris o n’s B la ck B otto m d o n o t s u p ply m uch i n th e w ay o f s p oken l in es i n

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry

( w ith th e e xcep ti o n o f a r a th er

butc here d v ers io n o f b la ck v ern acula r s p eech), th eir v oic es c o nti n ue to c all o ut to u s b oth fr o m w ith in th e n o vel its e lf a nd fr o m its

pre v io usly u ncla im ed

exte rio r i n te rio rity .

I n r e d ep lo yin g F re d M ote n’s p ro vocati v e te rm f o r th e s p ectr a l m oan th at s ti ll e m its f r o m

Em mett T ill’s l y nchin g p ho to gra p h, I a m g estu rin g to w ard a n u nhis to ric al f ig ure th at h as r e em erg ed d urin g th e c o urs e o f th is b ook’s

re se arc h f r o m b eneath th e o ffic ia l a cco unts o f th e O hio P enite nti a ry h o lo caust. W hile c o m ple te ly u nkno w n to h is to ry , H im es w ould

most c erta in ly h av e c o m e to k no w a m an n am ed J o e S w eet w hile h e w as a p ris o ner. H ailin g f r o m th e r u ra l to w n o f M any, i n w este rn

Louis ia na, c lo se to th e b ord er w ith T exas, S w eet c am e n o rth a t th e h eig ht o f th e G re at M ig ra ti o n o nly to la nd in p ris o n o n a

bootl e ggin g c harg e. T he o nly w ay th at I h av e b een a b le to r e sc ue J o e S w eet’ s n am e a nd th e o th er s c ra p s o f h is p ers o nal b io gra p hy

th at I h av e j u st r e la te d i s th at h e a ls o h ap pened to b e o ne o f th e s e v era l b la ck m en w ho w ere k ille d i n th e E aste r M ond ay p ris o n f ir e .

Tru e to B enja m in ’s c hara cte riz a ti o n o f th e w ed ded r e la ti o nsh ip o f c iv iliz a ti o nal d ocum enta ti o n a nd c iv iliz a ti o nal b arb aris m , to m y

kno w le d ge a ll th at i s l e ft i n th e p ub lic r e co rd o f th is b la ck s o uth ern m ig ra nt’ s

life

i s th e s ta te ’s a cco unti n g o f h is u nti m ely d eath — his

death c erti fic ate ( F ig ure 1 2).

T he s p ectr a l r e em erg ence o f th is d ocum ent- im age o f U .S . n eo sla v ery , s ta te te rro r, a nd l e gal l y nchin g

dem and s th at w e a p pro ach its c o nte nts in th e s a m e m anner th at M ote n in str u cts u s to b ear w itn ess to th e c o nti n ued r e su rfa cin g o f

Em mett T ill b y w ay o f M am ie T ill M oble y’s b la ck r a d ic al b ra nd is h m ent o f h er s o n’s e xtr a le gally ly nched b ody. T hat is , a s in th e

case o f th e im age o f E m mett T ill’s ly nchin g, th e b ure aucra ti c tr a ce-im age o f J o e S w eet’ s d e fa cto le gal ly nchin g h ails u s w ith a

wailin g, m oanin g e ntr e aty , f r o m o ne w ho w as d is a p peare d i n to th e O hio P enite nti a ry a nd l e ft to b urn a liv e i n h is c ell, th at w e “ lis te n

to (a nd to uch, ta ste , a nd s m ell) a p ho to gra p h . . . to a ttu ne [o urs e lv es] to a m oan o r s h o ut th at a nim ate s th e p ho to gra p h w ith a n

in te nti o nality o f th e o uts id e . . . th at s tr u ctu re s a nd r u p tu re s th e p ho to gra p h . . . w ith a p ie rc in g h is to ric ality .”

A m ain e le m ent o f th e p ie rc in g h is to ric ity , o r g ho stl y u nhis to ric ity , s u p plie d b y S w eet’ s d eath c erti fic ate h as to d o w ith w hat it

om its a s m uch a s w hat it in clu d es. U nlik e m any o f h is w hite c o unte rp arts w ho w ere m urd ere d

in th e fir e , th e lin es n ext to th e

“m oth er” a nd “ fa th er” s e cti o n o f S w eet’ s d eath c erti fic ate a re m et o nly w ith th e w ord “ unkno w n.” A lo ng w ith s ig nalin g S w eet’ s

nata lly a lie nate d u nso cia l p ositi o n, th e d ocum ent a ls o d ra w s a tte nti o n to th e c ir c um sc rib ed p ositi o nality o f th e b la ck m ig ra nt v is -à -

vis th e r a cia liz e d c ate go ry o f p ro le ta ria n “ w ork er.” T his is e xp re sse d in s ta rk te rm s in th e s e cti o n o f th e fo rm ( n um bers 8 a nd 9 )

no ti n g S w eet’ s o ccup ati o n. N ext to th e s e cti o n in d ic ati n g th e d ead p ers o n’s “ tr a d e, p ro fe ssio n, o r p arti c ula r k in d o f w ork d one, a s

sp in ner, s a w yer, b ookkeep er, e tc .,” th e o nly w ord th at a p pears i s “ la b ore r” — while th e s e cti o n p erta in in g to h is p arti c ula r “ in d ustr y

or b usin ess in w hic h w ork w as d one” is a gain fo llo w ed b y th e s c rib ble d n o ta ti o n o f “ unkno w n.” S w eet’ s a no m alo us s ta tu s a s

ju st

la bore r

s ta nd s

in s ta rk c o ntr a st to th e o ccup ati o nal p ositi o ns o f th e w hite v ic ti m s o f th e fir e w ho se d eath c erti fic ate s I h av e b een

ab le to r e co ver— vic ti m s w ith D ep re ssio n-e ra o ccup ati o ns in d ic ati v e o f th eir s ta tu s a s m em bers o f th e in d ustr ia l w hite p ro le ta ria t

su ch a s “ m echanic ” a nd “ tr u ck d riv er.” S w eet’ s s o cia l, e co no m ic , a nd i n d ustr ia l ( n o n)s ta tu s u nd erlin es th e i n fa m ous “ la st h ir e d f ir s t

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** fir e d ” m odality o f ra cia l cap ita lis m — ho w th e b la ck m ig ra nt la b orin g b ody w as b ra nd ed as th e v ery anti th esis to in d ustr ia l

pro ducti v ity e v en a fte r a rriv in g in th e in d ustr ia liz e d N orth — and h o w , a s in th e w hite su p re m acis t S outh , th e ra cis t id eo lo gic al

fr a m ew ork o f th e w hite s u p re m acis t N orth a rg ued th at th e m ig ra nt N egro c o uld o nly b e “ p ro ducti v e” w ith th e s p ur o f r e p re ssio n.

The b anality o f sta te te rro r in d ic ate d w ith th is d ocum ent c ulm in ate s in th e se cti o n th at a ttr ib ute s th e c ause o f S w eet’ s d eath to

“co nfla gra ti o n: O hio P enite nti a ry .” W hat is o bsc ure d in th is a tte m pte d s e iz u re o f th e s e m anti c s o f m ass c iv il a nd u nti m ely d eath a t

th e O hio P enite nti a ry i s th e f a ct th at c ulp ab ility i n th e c ase o f J o e S w eet a nd th e o th er 3 21 d eath s th at o ccurre d i n th e f ir e b egin s a nd

end s w ith th e r a cia l c ap ita lis t c arc era l s ta te . I n o th er w ord s, a nd a t th e r is k o f s ta ti n g th e o bvio us: i f S w eet a nd th e o th er v ic ti m s o f

th e f ir e w ere n ev er e nto m bed w ith in th eir p ris o n c ells i n th e f ir s t p la ce, th en th ey w ould n ev er h av e b urn ed a liv e i n th em . M ore o ver,

as I s ta te th ro ugho ut th e b ook, a n u nhis to ric al a cco unti n g o f s ta te te rro r w ith in n ecro politi c al s ite s s u ch a s th e O hio P enite nti a ry

canno t b e r e d uced to b io lo gic al d eath c o unts a lo ne— th at i s , th e te rro r o f “ life ” th at H im es a nd a lm ost f iv e th o usa nd o th er p ris o ners

end ure d a fte r th e fir e r e p re se nte d a n in hum anly b anal d oub le fo r th e s p ecta cula r h o rro r o f th e p ris o n h o lo caust. H im es s u m med u p

th e u nsp eakab le d eath -in -life p re d ic am ent o f th e fir e “ su rv iv or” s h o rtl y a fte r h is r e le ase : “ T he o nly d iffe re nce b etw een a c o nv ic t

and a d ead m an i s th at th e d ead m an d on’t h av e to g et u p .”

Jo e S w eet’ s m oanin g r e su rfa cin g f r o m w ith in th e b ure aucra ti c r e m ain s o f th e O hio P enite nti a ry f ir e c harg es u s w ith h earin g h o w

th e b la ck la b orin g b ody c o nti n ued to b e b ra nd ed a s fu ngib le , e nsla v ab le , a nd d is p osa b le a fte r d rifti n g n o rth w ard d urin g th e G re at

Mig ra ti o n i n s e arc h o f s u b sta nti v e f r e ed om . H is d e f a cto m urd er a t th e h and s o f th e s ta te r e p re se nts n o th in g i f n o t a m orb id i n d ic ato r

or a s y ste m ati c s tr u ctu re o f v io le nce, d is p osse ssio n, a nd c rim in aliz a ti o n th at d ecim ate d a l a rg e n um ber o f th o se b la ck m ig ra nts w ho

cam e to n o rth ern c iti e s f r o m 1 910 to 1 930. I t i s i m porta nt to n o te , h o w ev er, th at th e w hite p anic th at a tte nd ed th e m ass m ovem ent o f

so uth ern b la ck p eo ple a cro ss th e O hio R iv er w as fa r fr o m u np re ced ente d b y th e e v e o f W orld W ar I. A s d is c usse d in c hap te r 2 ,

Ohio w as a m ong th e

no rth ern J im C ro w a p arth eid s ta te s th at in co rp ora te d r a cia lly r e str ic ti o nis t la w s a im ed a t c urta ilin g e sc ap ed

sla v es a nd “ fr e e” b la ck m ig ra nts f r o m c ro ssin g th eir b ord ers .

The w hite su p re m acis t anti p ath y th at in fo rm ed O hio ’s “B la ck L aw s” (1 807–49), and th at genera te d th e fo rm s o f sta te and

vig ila nte te rro ris m a gain st th o se b la ck p eo ple w ho d id fin d th em se lv es in th e s ta te in s p ite o f th eir le gally b arre d e xis te nce, is

exp re sse d in sta rk est te rm s b y th e w ord s o f a m em ber o f th e O hio le gis la tu re a nd c hair p ers o n o f th e “ S pecia l C om mitte e to

In v esti g ate th e N egro P ro ble m ” in 1 827, a ti m e w hen th e s ta te b egan to s e e its fir s t s ig nific ant ris e in a m ig ra nt, fu giti v e b la ck

popula ti o n:

The n egro es

[s ic ]

a re i n m any p arts o f th e s ta te a s e rio us p oliti c al a nd m ora l e v il. A lth o ugh th ey a re n o m in ally

fr e e, th at

fr e ed om c o nfe rs o nly th e p riv ile g e o f b ein g m ore id le a nd v ic io us th an s la ves.

T his is o bvio us to

ev ery m an w ho w itn esse s th e e ffe ct i n o ur to w ns a nd v illa ges a nd tu rn s h is a tte nti o n to th e r e la ti v e p ro porti o n o f

crim e b etw een th e c o lo re d a nd w hite p opula ti o n o f th e S ta te .

The c o nvic ts in o ur p en ite n tia ry w ith r e fe re n ce

to t h e w hole c o lo re d a nd w hite p opula tio n o f t h e S ta te a re a s e ig ht o f t h e f o rm er t o o ne o f t h e l a tte r.

Besid es, th e c o lo re d p opula ti o n h as a te nd ency to d ep re ss a nd d is c o ura ge th e w hite la b orin g c la sse s o f th e

Sta te , w ho are her so urc e o f w ealth and p eace. D esti tu te o f th e b le ssin gs o f ed ucati o n and o f m ora l and

re lig io us in str u cti o n, w ith n o in centi v e to in d ustr y o r th e a cq uis iti o n o f a n h o no ra b le r e p uta ti o n, a nd d ev oid o f

th e i n te llig ence a nd m ora l r e str a in t n ecessa ry to q ualify th em f o r th e p riv ile ges a nd i m muniti e s o f c iti z e ns,

th ey

fo rm a n e xcre sc en ce o n t h e b ody p olitic ,

w hic h, i f i t c anno t b e r e m oved , s h o uld n o t b e p erm itte d to i n cre ase b y

em ig ra ti o n.

In 1 832, a m em ber o f a no th er “ N egro P ro ble m ” c o m mitte e in th e le gis la tu re fo cuse d m ore s p ecific ally o n th e d egenera ti n g e ffe ct

th at a n i n cre ase o f b la ck m ig ra nts w ould h av e o n th e s ta te ’s w hite c iti z e nry : “ W hite m en w ill n o t d egra d e th em se lv es i n s o cie ty b y

ad opti n g th e e m plo ym ent o f, a nd c o m in g in to c o m peti ti o n w ith th e b la cks, a p eo ple o f a d egra d ed a nd d ep end ent c o nd iti o n a nd o f

dis so lu te c o nd uct, a p eo ple u p on w ho m so cie ty h as a ffix ed th e b ra nd o f in fa m y fr o m th eir b ir th ; w ith w ho m it is c o nsid ere d

dis g ra cefu l f o r th e m eanest w hite m an to a sso cia te .”

Such te sti m ony sig nifie s h o w Jo e S w eet a nd o th er b la ck m ig ra nts w ho e nte re d th e sta te o f O hio in th e c o nte xt o f H im es’s

im pris o nm ent e nco unte re d a n a lr e ad y w ell- e m bed ded w hite s u p re m acis t i d eo lo gic al te rra in th at h ad l o ng a p pro ached “ fr e e” m ig ra nt

bla ckness a s a c o nta m in ati n g th re at. I n th e r e m ark ab le w ord s o f th e l e gis la to r, th e n o m in ally e m ancip ate d b la ck b ody w as c ast a s a

bio m eta p hysic al

excre sc en ce

o n th e ( w hite ) s o cia l b ody— or w hat th e

Oxfo rd E nglis h D ic tio nary

d efin es a s a n

abnorm al, m orb id ,

or d is fig urin g g ro w th .

N otw ith sta nd in g th e im pra cti c ality o f c o lle cti v ely r e m ovin g o r b arrin g th is d angero us a b no rm ality th ro ugh

dep orta ti o n o r c o lo niz a ti o n, th e n in ete enth -c entu ry B la ck L aw s w ork ed in a m anner a kin to th e m ore o fte n d is c usse d s ta te -le v el

white s u p re m acis t la w s o f s o uth ern s ta te s k no w n a s th e B la ck C odes, w hic h s ig nifie d th e s ta te ’s r e p re ssiv e b earin g to w ard th o se

mig ra nts w ho d id se ttl e in O hio . A s L eo n L itw ack o bse rv es, th ey “ re m in d ed N egro es o f th eir in fe rio r p ositi o n in so cie ty a nd

pro vid ed w hite s w ith a c o nv enie nt e xcuse fo r m ob v io le nce a nd fr e q uent h ara ssm ent o f th e N egro p opula ti o n.”

E arly b la ck

mig ra nts to O hio and oth er no rth ern sta te s co nse q uentl y dealt w ith fo rm ati o ns of sta te and vig ila nte te rro r and str u ctu ra l

dis p osse ssio n th at c o nti n ued rig ht u p to th e e v e o f th e G re at M ig ra ti o n, su ch a s ly nchin gs a nd o rg aniz e d w hite m ob v io le nce;

se gre gate d pub lic acco m modati o ns, ed ucati o n, and em plo ym ent; and polic e bru ta lity , ra cia l pro filin g, and dis p ro porti o nate

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** im pris o nm ent— co nd iti o ns o f n o rth ern ra cia l a p arth eid a nd d om esti c w arfa re th at le d to th e m ass e xo dus o f o ver h alf th e b la ck

popula ti o n o f C in cin nati to C anad a in 1 829.

H ere , b y je tti s o nin g th e fic ti v e b ord er th at lib era l b ourg eo is h is to rio gra p hy h as

su ccessfu lly e re cte d b etw een p re - a nd p ost- 1 865 s o cia l re la ti o ns— and b etw een n o rth ern a nd s o uth ern ra cia l re la ti o ns— we c an

begin to u nd ers ta nd h o w th e p re d ic am ent o f e arly “ fr e e” a nd f u giti v e b la ck p eo ple r e p re se nte d a h aunti n g p ro lo gue o f th e m enaced

so cia l e xp erie nce o f b la ck p eo ple a fte r th e a rriv al o f c o lle cti v e d e ju re fr e ed om . In s o d oin g, w e c o m e to r e aliz e th at th e d ub io us

exp erie nti a l s y nchro nic ity o f s la v ery a nd f r e ed om i s g ro und ed n o t o nly i n th e te rro riz e d e xp erie nce o f a nte b ellu m s la v es b ut a ls o i n

th e s y ste m ati c ta rg eti n g o f e arly “ fr e e” a nd f u giti v e n o rth ern b la ck b odie s w ith p olic e b ru ta lity , a rre st, a nd c hatte liz e d i n carc era ti o n.

In d eed , th e le gis la to r’s r e fe re nce to a n im pris o nm ent r a te o f e ig ht b la ck p eo ple to o ne w hite p ers o n in 1 827 s ig nals th e d egre e to

whic h, in lie u of actu al la rg e-s c ale banis h m ent, th e no rth ern w hite su p re m acis t sta te had alr e ad y se iz e d up on ra cia liz e d

im pris o nm ent a s o ne o f i ts m ost a cti o nab le m eans o f

fr e e N eg ro r e m ova l.

In so fa r a s th e m id -n in ete enth -c entu ry b la ck m ig ra nt p opula ti o n w as v ie w ed a s a d egra d in g e xcre sc ence o n th e s o cia l b ody— a

co nta m in ati n g e le m ent i n n eed o f s o cia l a nd l e gal e xcis io n— its h ig hly d is p ro porti o nate i m pris o nm ent r e p re se nte d a d re ss r e hears a l

fo r th e s ta te ’s h and lin g o f th e p uta ti v ely “ im mora l,” “ id le ,” a nd “ d ep end ent” i n d iv id uals w ho w ould s tr e am a cro ss O hio ’s b ord ers i n

la rg e n um bers d urin g th e G re at M ig ra ti o n. O n a re gio nal s c ale , th e in te re ste d w hite s u p re m acis t c ultu ra l fa b le o f b la ck m ig ra nt

crim in ality a nd s o cia l d egenera cy w ould p ro duce d ev asta ti n g c o nse q uences fo r th o se s e ekin g to rid th em se lv es o f th e v io le nce,

dis p osse ssio n, a nd te rro r o f s o uth ern J im C ro w a p arth eid . T hat i s , u p on th e n o rth w ard m ovem ent o f b la ck s o uth ern m ig ra nts i n l a rg e

num bers in th e e arly to m id -tw enti e th c entu ry , th e m yth o s o f a ta v is m , u np ro ducti v ity , a nd m eta p hysic al in co rrig ib ility th at h ad

atta ched to th eir b odie s w ith th e a d vent o f d e j u re e m ancip ati o n i n th e S outh tr a nsla te d i n to g hetto iz a ti o n, s tr u ctu ra l p overty , p olic e

and v ig ila nte b ru ta lity , a nd g ro ssly d is p ro porti o nate im pris o nm ent in th e w hite s u p re m acis t N orth . In d eed , a s S co tt C hris ti a nso n

no te s, b y 1 926 “ a D etr o it s tu d y r e p orte d th at tw ic e a s m any b la cks a s w hite s w ere b ein g s e nte nced to p ris o n f o r r o ughly c o m para b le

offe nse s. A bout th e s a m e ti m e a s u rv ey o f P ennsy lv ania ’s W este rn P enite nti a ry fo und th at b la cks w ere b ein g h eld a t a r a te n early

fo urte en ti m es g re ate r th an w hite s.”

W hen l o okin g a t O hio s p ecific ally , w e f in d th at th e s o cia lly i n str u m enta lis t w hite r a cia l p anic

th at s u rro und ed th e a rriv al o f th e s o -c alle d s h iftl e ss, lo afin g, a nd c rim in al s o uth ern m ig ra nt fig ure le d to a b la ck in carc era ti o n r a te

th at f a r s u rp asse d th e n ati o nal a v era ge. S pecific ally , i n 1 923, th e s ta te h ad a to ta l o f 4 ,0 21 p ris o ners , w ith b la ck c ap ti v es m akin g u p

1,0 30 o f th e to ta l, o r 2 5 p erc ent. I n th e s a m e p erio d, h o w ev er, b la ck p eo ple c o nsti tu te d o nly 3 p erc ent o f th e to ta l p opula ti o n o f O hio

(a p pro xim ate ly 2 20,0 00), e q uati n g to a n im pris o nm ent ra te o f 4 70 p er 1 00,0 00, o r a lm ost d oub le th e ra te a t w hic h b la ck p eo ple

were b ein g im pris o ned a t th at ti m e in A la b am a.

M ore o ver, ju st a s in th e c ase o f th e te rro ris ti c re gim es o f ra cia l c ap ita lis t

mis o gynis t im pris o nm ent th at b efe ll b la ck p eo ple in th e S outh a fte r 1 865, th e n eo -e nsla v em ent o f s o uth ern m ig ra nts s u ch a s J o e

Sw eet, a nd o th er im poveris h ed b la ck p eo ple w ith in “ m odern ” n o rth ern p ris o n c arc era l sp aces su ch a s S in g S in g (N ew Y ork ),

Ja ckso n ( M ic hig an), a nd th e O hio P enite nti a ry , w as c o nju re d in to s o cio lo gic al p ro of th at th e “ N egro P ro ble m ” w as th e in ev ita b le

re su lt of in nate bla ck so cia l path o lo gy, unp ro ducti v ity , and crim in ality ra th er th an a fa ta lly banal outc o m e of A meric a’s

tr a nsg eo gra p hic al, tr a nsn ati o nal, a nd tr a nse p ochal

pro ble m o f s tr u ctu ra l w hite s u pre m acy.

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Yeste rd ay

R esu rre cte d : A B la ck “ Q ueer, G hostly V oic e”

Notw ith sta nd in g w hat b ecam e a n ati o nal o bse ssiv e fo cus o n a nd ra cis t id eo lo gic al c o nstr u cti o n o f th e “ crim in al” b la ck m ig ra nt

fig ure in U .S . m ass m ed ia a nd s o cio lo gic al d is c o urs e in th e e arly to m id -tw enti e th c entu ry , th e v oic es o f th o se w ho e xp erie nced

no rth ern p enal n eo sla v ery a fte r th eir a rriv al to p olic e-o ccup ie d b la ck u rb an n eig hb orh o ods s u ch a s H arle m , C hic ago ’s S outh S id e,

th e H ill D is tr ic t in P itts b urg h, D etr o it’ s “ B la ck B otto m ,” a nd th e S co vill/C entr a l D is tr ic t in C le v ela nd r e m ain v ir tu ally in aud ib le

with in U .S . c ultu ra l h is to ry a nd p enal h is to rio gra p hy. O ne e xp la nati o n fo r th is a b se nt- p re se nce is th at, u nlik e th o se b la ck s u b je cts

who f a ced p enal n eo sla v ery o n th e c hain g ang a nd p ris o n p la nta ti o n, th e te ns o f th o usa nd s o f b la ck s o uth ern m ig ra nts w ho e nd ed u p

bein g d eta in ed in n o rth ern ja ils , p enite nti a rie s, a nd re fo rm ato rie s n ev er b ecam e o bje cts o f th e s o rt o f p rim iti v is t w hite fo lk lo ric

desir e th at b ro ught th e re co rd ed v oic es o f L ead B elly , R obert P ete W illia m s, S on H ouse , B ukka W hite , a nd o th er in carc era te d

so uth ern b lu es a nd fo lk v ir tu o so s in to p ub lic n o ti c e b egin nin g in th e e arly 1 930s. In fa ct, fr o m th e r o m anti c ally r a cis t s ta nd poin t o f

white f o lk lo ris ts s u ch a s J o hn a nd A la n L om ax, D oro th y S carb oro ugh, a nd H arry O dum , th e o nly p la ce to f in d a n “ auth enti c ” b la ck

fo lk /b lu es so und w as a p ro perly “p re m odern ,” th at is , so uth ern ru ra l, “N egro ” sp ace— no ne o f w hic h w as co nsid ere d m ore

auth en tic a lly N eg ro

th an c hain g angs, p ris o n p la nta ti o ns, a nd c ane f ie ld s.

The v ir tu al a b se nce o f th e n o rth ern b la ck n eo sla v e v oic e in w hite fo lk lo ric sc ho la rs h ip — and

re co rd ed

b lu es/fo lk m usic — is

matc hed i n th e a re a o f U .S . p enal h is to rio gra p hy. A s th e c riti c ally i m porta nt w ork o f K halil G ib ra n M uham mad i n d ic ate s, h is to rie s

of b la ck c rim in aliz a ti o n a nd im pris o nm ent b efo re th e c iv il rig hts m ovem ent fo cus n early e xclu siv ely o n so uth ern lo caliti e s o f

neo sla v ery , w hile

th e p re v ailin g h is to ry o f th e n o rth ern c rim in al ju sti c e s y ste m , s ta rti n g w ith th e n in ete enth -c entu ry , h as b een a

modern iz in g n arra ti v e, o ne in w hic h th e d ev elo pm ent o f e v ery th in g fr o m p ris o ns to p olic in g to ju v enile ju sti c e

to p ro bati o n a nd p aro le h as tu rn ed a lm ost e xclu siv ely o n th e e xp erie nces o f n ati v e-b orn w hite s a nd E uro pean

im mig ra nts . . . g iv in g th e i m pre ssio n th at th e h is to ry o f r a cia l c rim in aliz a ti o n b egan a nd e nd ed i n th e J im C ro w

South .

If, a s I h av e s tr e sse d th ro ugho ut th is b ook, th e h is to ric ally s u b m erg ed v oic es o f b la ck s o uth ern n eo sla v es s u ch a s O dea M ath ew s,

Jo hn M cE lr o y, a nd J a m es B ru ce r e p re se nt s p ectr a l s o und in gs o f n eo sla v ery th at s ti ll e cho fr o m th e s o uth ern z o nes o f s ta te te rro r

su ch a s A ngo la p ris o n p la nta ti o n, th en

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry

p ro vid es u s w ith a v ita l, i f i d eo lo gic ally p ro ble m ati c , p oin t o f

entr y in to h o w th e g ho stl y s o und s a nd u nend ura b le e xp erie nces o f s o uth ern n eo sla v ery r e v erb era te d in to s p aces o f n o rth ern p enal

modern ity r ig ht a lo ng w ith th e h is to ric ally a no nym ous b la ck s o uth ern m ig ra nts w ho b ecam e e nto m bed w ith in th em . M y m enti o nin g o f

th e h is to ric ally s u b m erg ed n am e o f J a m es B ru ce— th e b la ck d ra g a rti s t w ho se p erfo rm ati v e e nsla v em ent, m ilita nt p ris o n e sc ap e, a nd

le gally ju sti fie d m urd er w ere th e s u b je ct o f th e la st s e cti o n o f c hap te r 3 — bears p arti c ula r s ig nific ance h ere in th at o ne o f th e m ain

so urc es o f b la ck n eo sla v e s o und i n H im es’s p ris o n a uto bio gra p hy i s s u p plie d b y a n i m pris o ned b la ck q ueer m usic ia n b y th e n am e o f

Aub ert L aC arlto n C ollin s, o r “ P rin ce R ic o .” A rriv in g la te in to th e a cti o n o f

Ye ste rd ay,

R ic o is a s e lf- d esc rib ed “ ho bo,” c arn iv al

perfo rm er, a nd c ab are t d ra g q ueen, w ho g ets a rre ste d in O hio a fte r s u rv iv in g a y ear-lo ng s e nte nce o n a F lo rid a c hain g ang.

A s a

fo rm er so uth ern p ris o n sla v e w ho co m es no rth o nly to b e re ensla v ed , R ic o no t o nly end s up su p ply in g a haunti n g no rth ern

re v ers io nin g o f so uth ern c hain -g ang so ngs w ith th e p ris o n’s B la ck B otto m , b ut h e a ls o re p re se nts th e th ir d a nd m ost in te nse o f

Jim my’s in ti m ate lia is o ns in th e n o vel. In fa ct, J im my’s lo ve a ffa ir w ith R ic o — an a ffa ir w ho se e ro ti c is m is p ro duced a s m uch

th ro ugh a rti s ti c a nd i n te lle ctu al c o m munio n a s th ro ugh s e xual u nio n

— i s th e p rim ary c ata ly st f o r J im my’s f ir s t s u ccessfu l a tte m pts

at r e d re ssin g h is e xp erie nce o f s u rv iv in g th e p ris o n f ir e th ro ugh w riti n g.

How ev er, a s H im es d is c usse s in h is c o rre sp ond ence w ith C arl V an V echte n, it w as J im my’s o penly a v ow ed lo ve fo r R ic o th at

was th e m ain ta rg et o f th e w ho le sa le e d ito ria l e xp urg ati o n o f

Cast th e F ir st S to ne

b efo re its p ub lic ati o n in 1 952. In a le tte r d ate d

Marc h 11 , 1953, H im es atte m pts to exp la in w hat V an V echte n im med ia te ly re co gniz e d as a se v ere excis io n in th e orig in al

manusc rip t: “ A bout

CA ST

TH E

FIR ST

ST O NE

. . . . In m y c o ntr a ct I h ad to g iv e C ecil G old beck a t C ow ard -M cC ann th e c o m ple te r ig ht

to c ut i t a s h e s a w f it. H e c ut 2 50 p ages f r o m th e o rig in al s c rip t o f 6 50 p ages, a nd th e p art h e c ut w as m ostl y th e h eart, th e p uls e b eat

and e m oti o n o f th e s to ry .”

T his e d ito ria l c lo se ti n g o f th e “ p uls e b eat a nd e m oti o n” o f

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake Y o u C ry

d id n o t h av e to

do w ith i ts p ortr a yal o f p ris o n “ ho m ose xuality ” p er s e , b ut w ith th e f a ct th at th e l o ve a ffa ir b etw een

Jim my a nd R ic o ( o r D id o, a s h e

is n am ed i n

Cast t h e F ir st S to ne

) m anages to e xceed th e b ound s o f w hat h as b een d esc rib ed a s th e “ situ ati o nal” s e xual c ultu re o f th e

penite nti a ry . T hat is , th eir b ond is n o t re d ucib le to th e h o m o/tr a nsp ho bic fr a m ew ork th at d efin es se x in p ris o ns a s a m atte r o f

env ir o nm enta lly d ete rm in ed m ora l

deg en era cy

g ro und ed in th e s e xually “ no rm al” p ris o ner’s fo rc ed r e m oval fr o m h ete ro no rm ati v e

se xual r e la ti o ns.

T hat H im es’s p ris o n a uto bio gra p hy s itu ate s its p ro ta go nis t in a ro m anti c lo ve a ffa ir w ith a no th er p ris o ner m ay

co m e a s s o m ew hat o f a s u rp ris e g iv en h is w ell- k no w n p enchant f o r p ro ducin g h ard -b oile d , h yp erm asc ulin is t, a nd o penly m is o gynis t

sto rie s. In d eed in h is in tr o ducti o n to

Bla ck o n B la ck

( 1 973), a c o lle cti o n o f h is fic ti o nal w ork s, h e in fo rm s th e r e ad er th at “ th ese

writi n gs a re a d m itte d ly c hauv in is ti c . Y ou w ill c o nclu d e if y o u r e ad th em th at b la ck p ro te st a nd b la ck h ete ro se xuality a re m y tw o

chie f o bse ssio ns.”

H ow ev er, i n a no th er s e cti o n o f th e l e tte r to V an V echte n, H im es u nv eils th at h e w as n o t a lw ays s o c ate go ric al i n

his s e xual o bse ssio ns w ith in h is f ic ti o n o r w ith in h is o w n l ife : “ A bout R ic o : h e w as th e b oy i n th e s to ry , e nti r e a nd a b so lu te , a nd

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** was in lo ve w ith h im m ore , p erh aps, th an I h ave e ver b een in lo ve w ith a nyo ne b efo re o r s in ce.

W e h ad a fu ll a nd c o m ple te a nd

very to uchin g l o ve a ffa ir, a nd f u lfille d e ach o th er e m oti o nally , s p ir itu ally a nd p hysic ally ; a nd th en i t w as o ver. W hen I l e ft th e p ris o n

and w ent to th e [ p enal] f a rm i t w asn ’t o ver; I d on’t k no w w hen i t g o t o ver, b ut w hen i t g o t o ver, i t w as c o m ple te ly o ver.”

Him es’s in cre d ib ly c and id r e v ela ti o n o f h is r o m anti c a tta chm ent w ith R ic o a s h av in g b een p ossib ly th e g re ate st lo ve o f h is life ,

“b efo re o r sin ce” his im pris o nm ent, sh o rt- c ir c uits any cla im th at th eir re la ti o nsh ip w as m ere ly an exp re ssio n o f a necessa ry

ad ap ta ti o n o n H im es’s p art to th e c ir c um sta nce o f in carc era ti o n. M ore o ver, H im es’s p ortr a it o f th e m enta l, s p ir itu al, a nd p hysic al

fu lfillm ent h e fo und w ith R ic o e xp re sse s th e d egre e to w hic h th e re la ti o nsh ip p la yed a n in te gra l ro le in a llo w in g th e w rite r to

su rv iv e th e l a st th re e y ears o f c o nfin em ent i n th e O hio P enite nti a ry . I n d eed , b y th e ti m e R ic o e nte rs th e a cti o n o f

Ye ste rd ay

“ w earin g

a b anjo u kule le s tr u ng f r o m h is n eck b y a w oven c hain o f s h o e s tr in gs,” th e d eath s im ula ti n g r o uti n e o f i m pris o nm ent, a lo ng w ith th e

ev er-re currin g r e m em ory o f th e p ris o n h o lo caust, h as d riv en H im es’s fic ti v e p ers o na p erilo usly c lo se to in sa nity .

P rio r to R ic o ’s

arriv al, J im my h ad a tte m pte d to s ta v e o ff th e p ris o n’s “ ev er-la sti n g p atte rn ” o f liv in g d eath b y s h utti n g d ow n h is e m oti v e s e lf a nd

re p re ssin g h is m em orie s o f th e “ fr e e-w orld ”— a n um bed “ sta ge o f s e nse le ssn ess” th at r e calls w hat M orris o n d esc rib es a s th e “ ti n -

can” th at

Paul D e re cte d a ro und h is h eart i n o rd er to p ro te ct h im se lf f r o m th e r e m em ory o f th e c hain g ang i n

Belo ved .

H ow ev er, s o on

afte r m eeti n g R ic o , J im my a llo w s h im se lf to o pen u p a gain , e m oti o nally , a rti s ti c ally , a nd s e xually : “ E very th in g to uched J im my th at

sp rin g. H e w as to o e m oti o nal; h e h ad n ev er b een s o e m oti o nal. E very th in g w as s o ft in sid e o f h im a nd a t th e s lig hte st to uch h e’d

bub ble o ver, lik e fo am . A s in gle n o te fr o m R ic o ’s u kule le to uched h im . A b ar o f m elo dy. A v is it fr o m h is m oth er.” N ot o nly d oes

Ric o ’s e ntr a nce le ad to J im my’s c o nsu m mati n g a r e la ti o nsh ip s e xually fo r th e fir s t ti m e in fo ur y ears o f im pris o nm ent, b ut it a ls o

enab le s h im to o verc o m e w hat h ad b een a s e rie s o f u nsu ccessfu l a tte m pts a t w riti n g h is fir s t s h o rt s to ry . A s J im my e xp la in s to h is

moth er d urin g a v is it: “ H e’s th e m ost in te llig ent c o nv ic t I’ v e m et s in ce I’ v e b een in p ris o n. . . . H e w rite s a littl e to o. A nd h e’s

help in g m e to n o e nd w ith m y o w n w riti n g. I th in k I ’ m g o in g to g et s o m ew here n o w .”

How ev er, a s m uch a s R ic o fu ncti o ns a s b oth s e xual a nd a rti s ti c p artn er— as lo ver a nd m use — he a ls o re p re se nts a s o urc e o f

ab je cti o n and re p uls io n. In d eed it is R ic o ’s w illin g and se em in gly all- to o-n atu ra l ad opti o n o f th e ro le o f “w om an” in th eir

re la ti o nsh ip th at q uic kly id enti fie s h im to H im es, th e e nti r e p ris o n p opula ti o n, a nd a d m in is tr a ti o n a s “ gir l- b oy”— one w ho m in

pris o n se x c ultu re is in te rp ella te d a s a p ath o lo gic ally fe m in in e (a nd a nato m ic ally m ale ) q ueer b ody.

W hile H im es d esc rib es

him se lf a s h av in g b een im med ia te ly c ap ti v ate d b y R ic o , w ho fo r h im h ad a “ p ic tu re sq ueness [ th at] im med ia te ly s e t h im a p art fr o m

oth er c o nv ic ts ,” h e i s a ls o r e p elle d b y w hat h e c o nsid ers to b e a “ d is tu rb in g g ir lis h ness to h is f a ce” a nd th e u nm anly c hara cte r o f h is

“sw ir lin g” g ait: “ W atc hin g h im w alk o ff, J im my w as r e p uls e d b y th e g ro te sq ueness o f h is c arria ge. H e’d lo ok s o m uch b ette r if h e

carrie d h is s h o uld ers e re ct.” B ut it is n o t u nti l J im my/H im es h ears R ic o ’s s to rie s o f h is s e xual life a s a c arn iv al p erfo rm er, d ra g

queen, a nd “ ro usta b out” th at J im my’s f e elin gs o f a nti p ath y r e ach th eir p eak. “ H earin g R ic o ta lk th us, h e f ille d w ith a s q uash y m ix tu re

of j e alo usy a nd c hagrin a nd a s o rt o f i m pote nt f u ry . H ow c o uld [ R ic o ] h av e e v er b een a nyth in g e ls e ? h e a sk ed h im se lf, l o okin g a t h is

wet r e d lip s a nd s m oky s m old erin g e yes. H ow c o uld I h av e p ossib ly b een th e fir s t? B ut h e p ra yed th at h e w as; h e fo ught to m ake

him se lf b elie v e i t i n th e f a ce o f a ll c o ntr a d ic to ry e v id ence.”

H ere H im es i n ti m ate s th at h e w as d esp era te ly i n v este d i n R ic o b ein g a

“v ir g in w om an”; th at i s , h e w as n o t s o m uch r e p uls e d b y R ic o ’s f e m in in ity a s b y th e u nb eara b le p ro sp ect th at h e m ay h av e a llo w ed

ano th er m an to p erfo rm th e p enetr a ti v e ro le in se x b efo re a rriv in g a t th e p ris o n. W here as b efo re

hearin g th e sto rie s o f R ic o ’s

exp lo its th e n arra to r e xp re sse s th e r o m an-ti c h o m opho bic i d ea th at “ th ere w as s o m eth in g a b out th eir r e la ti o nsh ip w hic h tr a nsc end ed

th e s o rd id a sp ects o f h o m ose xuality a nd e v en a tta in ed a to uch o f s a cre d ness,” th ese s to rie s u lti m ate ly le ad to H im es’s e m oti o nal

re je cti o n o f R ic o . T his r e je cti o n is c le arly e xp re sse d n ear th e e nd o f th e n arra ti v e, w hen J im my p hysic ally s tr ik es h is “ w om an” in

th e fa ce— a m om ent o f m is o gynis t h o m o/tr a nsp ho bic v io le nce th at w e le arn is a d ir e ct r e fle cti o n o f H im es’s d eep -s e ate d a nxie ti e s

vis -à -v is h is o w n p re -im pris o nm ent m asc ulin ity a nd s e xuality .

As p oin te d o ut a b ove in th e b rillia nt e ssa y b y M arlo n R oss, c riti c s w ho a ctu ally d id a d dre ss th e q ueer p lo t in H im es’s p ris o n

auto bio gra p hy a fte r i ts f ir s t r e le ase a s

Cast th e F ir st S to ne

r e ad it in a s im ila r v ein a s th ey r e ad h is c ho ic e o f a w hite p ro ta go nis t.

They s a w it a s a d etr a cti o n a nd d is tr a cti o n fr o m th e “ re al” w ork o f ra cia l p ro te st w ith w hic h a b la ck m an w as s u p pose d to b e

co nsu m ed afte r th e w hite p ub lis h in g in d ustr y ’s cro w nin g o f R ic hard W rig ht as th e q uin te sse nti a l m odel o f auth enti c “N egro ”

writi n g.

I n d eed , th e e d ito r’s c ho ic e o f e xp urg ati n g th e e sse nce o f J im my’s l o ve a ffa ir w ith R ic o /D id o i s s u ggesti v e o f th e d egre e to

whic h th e w hite p ub lis h in g in d ustr y a tte m pte d to c o nfo rm th is c o m plic ate d a nd la rg ely u np re ced ente d n arra ti v e to its o w n g ro ssly

sim plis ti c , h ete ro no rm ati v e, a nd re d ucti v e w hite lib era l s o cio lo gic al n o ti o n o f w hat c o unte d a s b ona fid e “ b la ck” lite ra tu re . B ut

here I a m l e ss i n te re ste d i n th e tr o ub lin g h is to ry o f w hat l e d to th e s u b m erg ence o f th e n o vel’s ( b la ck) q ueer p lo t b y i ts e d ito rs th an

in w hat c riti c al, e p is te m ic , a nd n eo -a b oliti o nis t p ossib iliti e s a re g enera te d b y R ic o ’s s p ectr a l r e su rfa cin g in

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake

Yo u C ry

a nd in o ur c urre nt m om ent o f p ris o n– in d ustr ia l g eno cid e.

In o th er w ord s, I a m c o ncern ed w ith h o w , fa r fr o m d etr a cti n g

fr o m

Ye ste rd ay

’s e xp ositi o n o f p enal l a w ’s f a ta l r e ap plic ati o n o f p uniti v e d iffe re nce to r a cia liz e d s u b je cts , th e r e em erg ence o f R ic o

and o th er s o cia lly a nd c rim in ally “ b la ckened ” q ueer b odie s in th e te xt r e p re se nts a n e p is te m ic ally g enera ti v e r e p re se nta ti o n o f th e

in te rs e cti o nal and in te rd ep end ent v ecto rs o f ra cia liz e d , cla sse d , and se xualiz e d alte rity in zo nes o f chatte liz e d carc era lity — a

dia le cti c o f p uniti v e d iffe re nce th at is s h o w n to b e e sp ecia lly d ehum aniz in g w hen, a s in R ic o ’s c ase , it is fo caliz e d o nto a s in gle

in carc era te d b ody.

Sim ila r to th e c ase o f J a m es B ru ce, w e h av e n o w ay o f a sc erta in in g e xactl y h o w A ub ert L aC arlto n C ollin s id enti fie d h im se lf in

te rm s o f g end er o r s e xuality u p on h is i m pris o nm ent o r a ny o th er ti m e o f h is l ife . H ow ev er, w hat I a m i n te re ste d i n h ere i s th e d egre e

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** to w hic h th e r e co very o f th e

sto ry o f a no th er b la ck p ris o ner w ho w as b ra nd ed a s “ gir l- b oy”— or

nig ger p unk

, a s o th er b la ck q ueer

bodie s a re b ra nd ed in

Cast th e F ir st S to ne

—und erlin es th e s e xualiz e d a nd g end ere d a sp ects o f w hat I re fe rre d to a b ove a s th e

pris o n’s te nd ency to r e asc rib e d ead ly p uniti v e d iffe re nce o nto b odie s b ra nd ed a s o nto lo gic ally in assim ila b le , a nd m eta p hysic ally

in co rrig ib le , in th e “ fr e e-w orld .” In th is w ay, th e h aunti n g p re se nce o f R ic o a nd o th er q ueer b la ck b odie s in

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake

Yo u C ry

r e gis te rs th e e p is te m ic ally p ro ducti v e a nd p oliti c ally n ecessa ry n atu re o f i n co rp ora ti n g th e c riti c al i n te rv enti o ns o f q ueer o f

co lo r c riti q ue, b la ck fe m in is t th eo ry , a nd r a d ic al q ueer/tr a nsg end er s tu d ie s in to th e s tu d y o f w hite s u p re m acis t c rim in aliz a ti o n a nd

neo sla v ery — meth o dolo gie s th at ta ke f o r g ra nte d th e d egre e to w hic h r a cia liz e d , c la sse d , g end ere d , a nd s e xualiz e d v io le nce f u ncti o n

in d ynam ic a rti c ula ti o n w ith o ne a no th er u nd er ra cia l c ap ita lis t h ete ro patr ia rc hy.

In d eed , w hat R ic o ’s a rre st, im pris o nm ent, a nd

se xualiz e d /g end ere d p unis h m ent in th e O hio P enite nti a ry re p re se nts is th e fa ct th at m any o f th e b la ck m ig ra nt m en, w om en, a nd

gend er-n o nco nfo rm in g p eo ple w ho w ere r o und ed u p i n s o -c alle d v ic e d is tr ic ts i n n o rth ern c iti e s s u ch a s th e S co vill/C entr a l a re a i n

Cle v ela nd w ere i n f a ct

queer

b la ck m ig ra nt b odie s— pers o ns w ho se p ro filin g a s b oth r a cia lly a nd s e xually “ d egenera te ” a nalo giz e s

th e w ays in w hic h th e n o rth ern w hite s u p re m acis t im age o f m ig ra nt s u b je cti v ity b ein g a n “ excre sc ence” o n th e n ati o nal b ody w as

ofte n p re d ic ate d o n th e a tta chm ent o f se xual a nd /o r g end er d iffe re nce o nto th e d is c urs iv e g rid o f b la ck a b no rm ality a nd so cia l

enm ity .

As Roderic k Ferg uso n asse rts , th e white su p re m acis t ap arth eid sta te ’s geo gra p hic al co rd onin g of pub lic

no nhete ro no rm ati v e b ein g to p oor b la ck n eig hb orh o ods in th e a ge o f th e G re at M ig ra ti o n e xp re sse d th e s tr u ctu ra l e nta ngle m ents o f

ra cia l a nd s e xual/g end er a lte rity : “ A fr ic an A meric an n eig hb orh o ods, p opula riz e d a s th e te rra in o f p ro sti tu te s, h o m ose xuals , re nt

parti e s, b la ck a nd ta ns, in te rra cia l lia is o ns, s p eakeasie s, a nd ju v enile d elin q uency, e p ito m iz e d m ora l d egenera cy a nd th e p erv ers e

re su lts o f in d ustr ia liz a ti o n. . . . V ic e w ork ed in ta nd em w ith r e sid enti a l s e gre gati o n a nd th ere b y e sta b lis h ed a fo rm al r e la ti o nsh ip

betw een r a cia l e xclu sio n a nd s e xual r e gula ti o n.”

If th e te rro riz in g str u ctu re o f U .S . p enal la w re sts o n a d ynam ic in te rc hange b etw een p uniti v e ho m ogeniz a ti o n (a re la ti v e

su sp ensio n o f s o cia lly c o nstr u cte d d iffe re nce u nd er th e c o lle cti v ely s ti g m ati z in g s ig n o f “ co nv ic t” ) a nd p uniti v e re d iffe re nti a ti o n

(th e c arc era l s ta te ’s r e esta b lis h m ent o f r e p re ssiv ely p ro ducti v e s o cia l ta xo no m ie s i n r e sp ect to b odie s m ark ed a s c rim in ally d ev ia nt

and m eta p hysic ally in co rrig ib le ), th en th e p ra cti c e o f

ra cia liz e d se xual su rv eilla nce in

Ye ste rd ay

sig nifie s h o w w hat F erg uso n

desc rib es a s a fo rm al r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een r a cia l a nd s e xual e xclu sio n in z o nes o f s o cia l in carc era ti o n is ta ken to its d om in ati v e

extr e m e u nd er r e gim es o f o ffic ia l i n carc era ti o n.

I n d eed , a s i n th e c ase o f th o se p ris o ners w ho m p enal l a w h ails a s “ nig ger,” b odie s

in H im es’s te xt th at e nd u p b ein g b ra nd ed a s “ gir l- b oy,” “ w ho re ,” a nd “ nig ger p unk” a ls o e xp erie nce th e p ris o n’s s p ati a l s o lu ti o n to

th e m anageria l p ro ble m o f d angero us h ete ro geneity b ehin d th e w alls .

T hat is , lik e th o se b la ck p ris o ners w ho a re r e le gate d to th e

de fa cto p unis h m ent u nit o f 1 -I, th e “ B la ck B otto m ,” th o se b odie s id enti fie d a s se xually d egenera te a re se gre gate d to th e O hio

Penite nti a ry ’s o th er o nto lo gic ally d ete rm in ed p ris o n-w ith in -a -p ris o n, k no w n a s “ 5 -D ”— th e “ co m pany o f d egenera te s.”

While H im es’s m is o gynis t a nd h o m o/tr a nsp ho bic c o ncep ti o n o f R ic o ’s p ers o nho od i s w hat u lti m ate ly d ete rm in es h is e str a ngem ent

fr o m h is g re ate st l ife l o ve a fte r h is r e le ase f r o m th e p enite nti a ry , th e m ost p ow erfu l i m ped im ent to th e c o up le ’s a tte m pts a t r e sc uin g

so m eth in g o f a s e xual, a rti s ti c , a nd r o m anti c l ife o ut o f c o nd iti o ns o f l iv in g d eath a t th e p eak o f th eir b ond i s th e p ris o n’s o rg aniz e d

sy ste m s o f s e xual p ano pti c is m a nd s e xual c aste , f o rm ati o ns o f te rro ris ti c s u rv eilla nce th at i n th eir p ro sc rip ti o n o f a uth enti c i n ti m acy

atte st to th e re ality o f A ssa ta S hakur’s ra d ic al p oeti c c o nte nti o n: “ L ove is c o ntr a b and in H ell.”

O nce R ic o a nd H im es’s p ub lic

dis p la ys o f n o nre p re ssiv e e ro ti c a tta chm ent s ig nal to th eir fe llo w p ris o ners a nd a d m in is tr a to rs th at th eir s is a re la ti o nsh ip b ase d

up on in ti m acy a nd lo ve r a th er th an in sti tu ti o nally s a ncti o ned r a p e a nd d om in ati o n, th e p ris o n a d m in is tr a to rs im med ia te ly s e p ara te

Jim my and R ic o and tr a nsfe r th em b oth to th e “d egenera te co m pany”— a se nte nce o f p uniti v e se gre gati o n b y w hic h th ey are

su b je cte d to a s o lita ry c o nfin em ent a nd a llo w ed o ut o f th eir c ells o nly th re e ti m es a d ay fo r m eals .

T hat th e s ta te ’s a sc rip ti o n o f

se xual a b no rm ality o nto th e p ris o ner o pera te s in d ia le cti c al, m utu ally c o nsti tu ti v e, a nd c ro ss-fe rti liz in g r e la ti o n w ith th e b ra nd o f

ra cia l a lte rity i s e xp re sse d i n s ta rk te rm s i n th e th o ughts o f J im my/H im es a fte r b ein g tr a nsfe rre d i n to s o lita ry : “ A nd n o w th ey h ad th e

nam e, J im my th o ught. H e w as g o in g o ut, s o oner o r la te r. . . . B ut R ic o h ad to s ta y th ere fo r y ears to c o m e. A nd w hen th ey p ut th e

nam e o n y o u, i t s tu ck. Y ou w ere a ‘ lo usy w ho re ’ f o re v erm ore . N o m atte r h o w y o u p la yed i t.”

W here as th e b ra nd o f “ lo usy w ho re ”

meant p uniti v e i s o la ti o n f o r H im es a nd R ic o , i t l e ad s to a d diti o nal f o rm ati o ns o f te rro r f o r o th er q ueer a nd “ tu rn -o ut” b odie s i n th e

te xt, r a ngin g f r o m s e ria liz e d r a p e to p uniti v ely m oti v ate d s u ic id e.

As D . M org an B assic his , D ean S pad e, a nd o th ers h av e p oin te d o ut, th e re p re ssiv e is o la ti o n o f a nd d e fa cto s o cia l a nd p enal

warfa re again st se xualiz e d and gend ere d diffe re nce co nti n ues to le av e in carc era te d queer and tr a ns w om en, m en, gend er-

no nco nfo rm in g, a nd in te rs e x p eo ple ( m ost o f w ho m a re b la ck a nd b ro w n) v uln era b le to p arti c ula rly b ru ta l r e gim es o f c iv il d eath

und er to day’s p ris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x.

T hese g end ere d a nd s e xualiz e d fo rm ati o ns o f te rro r a nd n eo -e nsla v em ent ra nge fr o m

physic al b ru ta lity , to s e ria liz e d r a p e b y fe llo w p ris o ners a nd p ris o n s ta ff, to b ein g tu rn ed in to a fu ngib le o bje ct o f s e xual e xchange

th ro ugh se x tr a ffic kin g— de fa cto ele m ents o f chatte liz e d carc era lity th at re sp ect no b ound arie s as to ra ce, gend er, o r se xual

id enti fic ati o n ev en as w om en and q ueer b odie s are th eir m ost co m mon ta rg ets .

In d eed , w hile q ueer-id enti fie d and w om en

pris o ners in to day’s p ris o n– in d ustr ia l c o m ple x a re o fte n th e m ost v uln era b le to g end ere d a nd s e xualiz e d a b use , th e in d is c rim in ate

natu re o f r a p e a nd s e xual v io le nce a s a w eap on o f p ris o n w arfa re is a ls o e xp re sse d in th e a b je ct p ositi o nality o f th e “ tu rn -o ut” o r

“p unk”— a h ete ro /m ale -id enti fie d b ody w ho , in th e h ete ro no rm ati v e d is c o urs e o f m ale p ris o n s e x c ultu re , h as h ad h is “ m anho od”

fo rc ib ly d eco nstr u cte d th ro ugh s e ria liz e d r a p e a nd s e xual s la v ery .

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** One u nsp eakab le m odern e xam ple o f th is s itu ati o n is o ffe re d in th e s e co nd e p ig ra p h to th is c hap te r b y a n a no nym ous, h ete ro -

id enti fie d b la ck m ale w ho f a ced r itu aliz e d i m pris o nm ent a t a m om ent, i n th e e arly 1 980s, w hen th e R eagan a d m in is tr a ti o n’s v ers io n

of th e to ugh-o n-c rim e dom es-ti c w arfa re m odality of th e N ix o n/G old w ate r era in augura te d th e la rg est in cre ase in offic ia lly

in carc era te d p eo ple in p ost- 1 865 U .S . h is to ry .

T he u nid enti fie d s u b je ct d esc rib es h im se lf a s a “ 3 5 y ear-o ld B la ck m an, m arrie d ,

and a n e x-o ffe nd er— and a n e x-p unk,” w ho w as fir s t im pris o ned a s a y o ung te enager. H e re calls h o w ritu aliz e d se xual ru p tu re

gre ete d h im i m med ia te ly u p on h is f ir s t e xp erie nce o f i m pris o nm ent i n a b oy’s r e fo rm ato ry — a f o rm o f s u b je cti o n th at h e w ould f a ce

in e ach o f th e s e v ente en y ears o f h is c o nfin em ent i n y o uth a nd a d ult f a ciliti e s:

When I w as 1 4 I g o t b uste d f o r “ jo y-rid in g” . . . a nd s e nte nced to a y ear a t [ a r e fo rm s c ho ol] . T he f ir s t d ay th ere

I w as p ut i n to a d orm a nd o ne o f th e d ud es . . . b eat m e b ad ly i n f r o nt o f th e o th er g uys. H e to pped h is b eati n g o ff

by r a p in g m e a nd e sta b lis h ed

my id en tity a s a

“

nig ger p unk.

” I s p ent th at y ear s e rv ic in g th e b oys in th e d orm

and a ny o f th eir f r ie nd s th at w ante d s e x. . . . T hat w as

when I r e aliz e d th at m y p ositi o n w asn ’t to o d iffe re nt f r o m

my a ncesto rs a nd th at f o r th e r e st o f th e y ear

I w asn ’t a ny d iffe re n t f r o m a p la nta tio n s la ve.

Him es re p eate d ly , and uncriti c ally , allu d es to th e re p re ssiv ely co nstr u cte d ra cia l/s e xual p ositi o nality ela b ora te d here — th at o f

nig ger p unk

—in th e 1 952 v ers io n o f h is p ris o n a uto bio gra p hy. A nd , w hile p ris o n r a p e m oves a t th e m arg in s o f a s to ry b ase d o n th e

re d re ssiv e c ap aciti e s o f h is lo ve a ffa ir w ith R ic o , th e u nsp eakab ly b anal p ra cti c e o f se xualiz e d a nd g end ere d c arc era l te rro r

co m ple te ly e ncir c le s th e r o m ance p lo t in

Ye ste rd ay

, a fa ct r e v eale d b oth in th e p uniti v e a nnulm ent o f H im es a nd R ic o ’s r e la ti v ely

no nco erc iv e r e la ti o nsh ip , a nd i n m om ents s u ch a s th e f ir e s c ene, w hen th e n arra to r d esc rib es s e ein g a n a rra y o f “ w olv es” tu rn in g th e

co nfu sio n o f th e h o lo caust in to a n o pportu nity to ra p e “ th at p unk th ey’d a lw ays w ante d to h av e.” E ven a s th e lo vin g s e xual a nd

arti s ti c r e la ti o nsh ip b etw een H im es a nd R ic o e xp re sse s th e p ro ble m ati c a sp ects o f th e a sc rip ti o n o f “ situ ati o nal h o m ose xuality ,” o r

co erc ed s a m e-s e x r e la ti o ns, o nto

all

s e xual e nco unte rs i n p ris o n, th e p erv asiv eness o f s e xual v io le nce i n th e n o vel— and th at w hic h

is e xp re sse d in th e te sti m ony o ffe re d b y a “ nig ger p unk” s o m e fiv e d ecad es a fte r H im es’s im pris o nm ent— su ggests th e d egre e to

whic h th e th o ught c ate go rie s w e b rin g to b ear o nto s e xual r e la ti o ns i n th e “ fr e e-w orld ” c anno t b e g ra fte d u np ro ble m ati c ally o nto th e

death -s im ula ti n g pre d ic am ents of th e pris o n w orld .

A gain , as in th e case of chatte l sla v ery , criti c al cate go rie s su ch as

se xual/g end er “ se lf- id enti fic ati o n,” “ se xual o bje ct c ho ic e,” a nd h o m o/h ete ro -e ro ti c “ d esir e ” a re r e nd ere d v exin g, i f n o t c o m ple te ly

in ap plic ab le , in r e sp ect to u nso cia l s p aces w here in h um an b ein gs a re tr a nsm ute d in to o bje cts o f n ata l a lie nati o n, s e xual e xchange,

se xual d ep riv ati o n, le galiz e d te rro r, a nd so cia lly a ccep ta b le /p le asu ra b le e nto m bm ent. F urth erm ore , th e a no nym ous b la ck m an’s

asse rti o n o f th e ti m e-b end in g cap aciti e s o f his in carc era ti o n in a p uta ti v ely “m odern ” no rth ern carc era l sy ste m in th e 1 980s

re so nate s d ir e ctl y w ith th e o th er b la ck neo sla v es’ v oic es w ho hav e guid ed th is b ook in so fa r as it fu ncti o ns at th e le v el o f

unhis to ric al c o unte r-k no w le d ge p ro ducti o n. T hat i s , h is p ain ed e la b ora ti o n o f h o w th e d e f a cto s ta te p unis h m ent r e gim e o f s e ria liz e d

ra p e s h uttl e d h is b ody i n to a c hatte liz e d p re d ic am ent d ub io usly a kin to w hat h is a ncesto rs e nd ure d o n th e p re -1 865 s la v e p la nta ti o n

am ounts to a la te tw enti e th -c entu ry r e -s o und in g o f th e ti m ele ssn ess o f c hatte liz e d im pris o nm ent. A nd , a s s u ch, it a ls o r e p re se nts a

gho stl y re m in d er o f ho w th e M id dle P assa ge carc era l

model co nti n ues to re acti v ate fr o m th e v ery fo und ati o ns o f U .S . p enal

modern ity , w heth er p ra cti c ed o n a m odern s la v e p la nta ti o n s u ch a s A ngo la o r a l a nd -b ase d s la v e s h ip s u ch a s th e O hio P enite nti a ry .

In a m om ent ju st b efo re J im my/H im es w alk s o ut o f th e O hio P enite nti a ry o n h is w ay to a p ris o n fa rm th at w ill ta ke h im a s te p

aw ay fr o m fr e ed om a nd a s te p c lo se r to lite ra ry s ta rd om , th e n arra to r o f

Ye ste rd ay

d esc rib es h o w R ic o o ffe rs o ne fin al e xp re ssio n

of h is lo ve fo r J im my in “ a q ueer, a nd g ho stl y v oic e.”

T he m om ent u nco nsc io usly c ap tu re s th e fa ct th at, lik e th e o th er n eo sla v e

voic es I h av e i n tr o duced i n th is b ook, th e h aunti n g r e fr a in s o f A ub ert L aC arlto n C ollin s c o nti n ue to r e so nate i n th e p ages o f H im es’s

burie d p ris o n a uto bio gra p hy, n o tw ith sta nd in g th e a p pare nt c lo su re th at o ccurs a t th e e nd o f th e n arra ti v e a nno uncin g th at b oth

Him es’s i m pris o nm ent a nd th e s to ry o f h is l o ve a ffa ir w ith R ic o a re “ co m ple te ly o ver.” L ik e R obert P ete W illia m s, O dea M ath ew s,

Jo hn M cE lr o y, J a ckso n a nd M enth a M orris o n, a nd J a m es B ru ce, P rin ce R ic o p re se nts u s w ith a h is to ric ally m ute d b ut i r re p re ssib ly

und ead so und in g o f th e d egre e to w hic h th e fo rm ati o ns o f c hatte liz e d c arc era lity th at w ere e nd ure d b y A fr ic an su b je cts in th e

barra co ons, s la v e h o ld s, s la v e p ens, a nd p la nta ti o ns o f th e M id dle P assa ge a nd p la nta ti o n s la v ery h av e n ev er c o m e a nyw here c lo se

to b ein g o ver. A nd j u st a s i m porta nt, R ic o , th e s u rv iv or o f a s o uth ern c hain g ang w ho se n o rth ern m ig ra ti o n l a nd ed h im i n a z o ne o f

pro gre ssiv e c arc era l d ehum aniz a ti o n, c o nti n ues to b ecko n to u s f r o m th e s e p ulc her-lik e e nclo su re s o f o ffic ia l h is to ry , d em and in g th at

we r e co gniz e th e d egre e to w hic h p ris o n s la v ery h as a lw ays b een ( a nd r e m ain s) a n ati o nal r a th er th an s e cti o nal m odality o f U .S .

em pir e .

In d eed , lik e o th er b la ck n eo sla v es w ho h av e g uid ed th e p ro ducti o n o f th is b ook, P rin ce R ic o , th e s u rv iv or o f n eo sla v ery o n a

so uth ern c hain g ang a nd a n o rth ern p enite nti a ry , c o nti n ues to h aun t th e c urre nt m om ent o f p ris o n– in d ustr ia l g eno cid e f r o m o uts id e th e

marg in s o f U .S . d om in ant h is to rio gra p hy, u kule le b anjo in h and , o ffe rin g a s o nic re m in d er o f th e u nhis to ric al tr u th c o nta in ed in

Malc o lm X ’s “ B allo t o r th e B ulle t” ( 1 964) s p eech: “ If y o u’re b la ck, y o u w ere b orn in ja il, in th e N orth a s w ell a s th e S outh . S to p

ta lk in g a b out th e S outh ! L ong a s y o u’re s o uth o f th e C anad ia n b ord er, y o u’re s o uth .” R ic o ’s s u b m erg ed b la ck q ueer g ho stl y v oic e

als o b ecko ns u s fr o m a no th er o f A meric a’s m any b urie d te m pora l b oxes— a n ew s ite m fr o m 1 935 th at w as in te nd ed a s a b it o f

co m ic al a nd p asto ra l r e lie f i n r e sp ect to a n O hio P enite nti a ry s y ste m s ti ll r e elin g f r o m th e p ub lic

re la ti o ns d is a ste r o f th e p ris o n f i r e .

The a rti c le b egin s w ith a n i n tr o d ucti o n o f i ts p ic tu re sq ue s u b je ct: “ P rin ce R ic o , a G eo rg ia N egro d oin g a r o bbery ‘ s tr e tc h’ a t O hio

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Penite nti a ry , w ould l ik e to w eav e i n to a n o pera th e th re ad s o f N egro w ork in g c hante ys h e h as c o lle cte d [ in ] 2 3 y ears o f c usto dy i n

th e n o rth a nd s o uth .” T he f ir s t s o ng th at R ic o s in gs f o r th e r e p orte r i s tr a nsc rib ed i n th e p ie ce a s s u ch:

Every m ail d ay,

Mail d ay I g et a le tte r;

Cry in ’ s o n c om e h om e,

Lord , L ord , m y s o n c om e h om e.

I n ever h ad n o—

Never h ad n o r e ady m oney;

I c ould n’t g et h om e,

Lord , L ord , I c ould n’t g o h om e.

I’m g onna r o ll h ere ,

Roll h ere a f e w d ays lo nger;

And th en g o h om e,

Lord , L ord , a nd th en g o h om e.

If I c an m ake it ,

Ju ne, J u ly a nd A ugust;

I’ll b e a m an,

Lord , L ord , I ’ll b e a m an.

But lo ok u p y onder,

Hot b oilin ’ s u n is tu rn in ’ o ver;

It w on’t g o d ow n,

Lord , L ord , it w on’t g o d ow n.

Where as th e re p orte r re ceiv es th is so ng a s a q uain t, p re m odern , a nachro nis ti c e xp re ssio n o f a p eculia rly so uth ern e xp erie nce,

Ric o ’s p erfo rm ati v e i m porta ti o n o f th e c hain -g ang d ir g e o f l iv in g d eath , ( u n)p ro ducti v e n eo sla v e l a b or, a nd n ata l a lie nati o n i n to th e

sp ace o f m odern n o rth ern c arc era lity s u ggests th e d egre e to w hic h s o ngs o f s o uth ern n eo sla v ery c o nti n ued

to h o ld u nsp eakab le

pre sc ie nce fo r th o se w ho m ig ra te d a cro ss th e M aso n-D ix o n lin e in s e arc h o f a s u b sta nti v e re p rie v e fr o m s o cia l a p arth eid , p enal

re ensla v em ent, a nd d om esti c w arfa re o nly to fin d “ m odern iz e d ” v ers io ns o f th ese fo rm ati o ns o f u nfr e ed om a w aiti n g th em in th e

myth ic N orth . A gain , th e “ p oig nant a nd sti r rin g” w ails th at H im es’s fic ti v e p ers o na h ears e cho in g n ig htl y th ro ugho ut th e O hio

Penite nti a ry ’s B la ck B otto m a m ount to a c o lle cti v ely a uth o re d b la ck c ho ru s th at w as a s in str u m enta l in th e o utp ourin g o f H im es’s

write rly voic e as his arti s ti c ally and physic ally in ti m ate exchanges w ith R ic o . A s I hav e sta te d earlie r in re fe re nce to th e

in carc era te d w ailin gs o f o th er b la ck n eo sla v es s u ch a s O dea M ath ew s, J o hn M cE lr o y, R obert P ete W illia m s, a nd J a m es B ru ce, th e

no rth ern r e v ers io nin g o f th e c hain -g ang s o ng b y P rin ce R ic o a nd o th er a no nym ous b la ck m ig ra nt n eo sla v es in

Ye ste rd ay W ill M ake

Yo u C ry

, r e p re se nt a c o lle cti v ely a uth o re d s p ectr a l d em and o n th e p erilo us n o w a s m uch a s th ey s e rv e a s r e v ela ti o ns o f A meric a’s

neo sla v ery p ast— a l iv in g, o pen w ound , h is to ry th at f in d s o ne o ut o f e v ery n in e b la ck m en b etw een th e a ges o f tw enty a nd th ir ty -fo ur

curre ntl y e nto m bed w ith in to day’s c arc era l B la ck B otto m s, w hile b la ck, b ro w n, a nd p oor w om en p ris o ners e nd ure m odern v ers io ns

of th e M id dle P assa ge c arc era l m odel a nd c o lo nia l g eno cid e r a ngin g f r o m r itu aliz e d r a p e a nd s e xual a ssa ult, to s h ackle d c hild bir th s,

to m ass f o rc ed s te riliz a ti o n.

When re ceiv ed in th is lig ht, th e g ho stl y n eo -a b oliti o nis t v oic es th at h av e c o auth o re d th is w ork d em and th at w e re ad to day’s

le gally p erp etr a te d a nd s o cia lly a ccep te d te rro r s y ste m o f p enal n eo sla v ery a s a c o nti n uance ra th er th an a b re ak fr o m A meric a’s

centu rie s-lo ng his to ry of chatte liz e d im pris o nm ent and w hite su p re m acis t geno cid e— th at w e ackno w le d ge th at sla v ery ’s

unsp eakab le yeste rd ay is in d eed

alw ays now

, ev en as lib era l bourg eo is his to ry and w hite su p re m acis t “p ostr a cia l” cultu ra l

myth o lo gy co nti n ue to pro no unce its pre his to ric al death . A s su ch, th e so ngs of neo sla v ery th at w ere perfo rm ed th ro ugh th e

his to ric ally ano nym ous and oste nsib ly no np oliti c al gho stl y voic es of bla ck neo sla v es fr o m th e so uth ern chain gang to th e

Dep re ssio n-e ra penite nti a ry can sti ll be heard em anati n g fr o m to day’s te m pora l boxes of U .S . neo sla v ery su ch as A ngo la ,

Cho w chilla , A tti c a, G uantá nam o B ay, a nd th e S H U b oxes o f P elic an B ay a nd C orc o ra n— th e la st th re e o f w hic h h av e re centl y

witn esse d h unger s tr ik es b y th o usa nd s o f b la ck, L ati n o , A sia n, In d ig eno us, p oor w hite , a nd M uslim p ris o ners , w ho se s o und in gs

again st in d efin ite so lita ry co nfin em ent, sta te -o f- th e-a rt (in )h um an ento m bm ent, and U .S . sta te te rro ris m m ake a re new ed neo -

ab oliti o nis t d em and o n e v ery o ne w ith in s tr ik in g d is ta nce o f th ese w ord s:

If y o u a re r e a din g t h ese w ord s, y o u c a n n o l o nger c la im

ig nora nce; t o s ta nd i d ly b y n ow w ould b e c o m plic ity . A w is e m an o nce s a id , “ All t h at i s n ecessa ry f o r e vil m en t o p re va il i s f o r

good m en to d o n oth in g.” W e a re u nder n o illu sio ns. T he u ltim ate a rb ite r o f o ur fa te — and th is s o cie ty ’s fa te — is th e p eo ple .

YO U. Y O U m ust r is e u p a gain st t h is i n ju stic e a nd i n hum anity . Y O U m ust l e t t h e s ta te k n ow t h at s u bsta ntiv e c h ange a t e very l e vel

of s o cie ty i s s o m eth in g t h e p eo ple d em and.

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Ack n ow le d gm en ts

W HEN

SIT TIN G

DOW N

WRIT E

TH ESE

WORD S

a fte r s o m any y ears o f w ork in g o n th is p ro je ct, th e fir s t th in g th at c am e to m in d w as

s o m eth in g m y g ra nd fa th er o nce s a id to m e, w hen I w as tw elv e y ears o ld , a s w e s a t n ear a p ool ta b le th at s ti ll o ccup ie s th e b ase m ent

o f h is h o m e in D env er, C olo ra d o. H e s a id : “ G ra nd so n, y o u g o tta k no w h o w to d ig a d itc h.” F or y ears th ese w ord s re p re se nte d

s o m eth in g o f a b la ck v ern acula r r id dle f o r m e. A s ti m e p asse d , h o w ev er, I b egan to u nd ers ta nd s o m eth in g o f th e m ulti le v el m eanin g

o f th is s a yin g th at m y g ra nd fa th er p ic ked u p a s h e w ork ed , f r o m th e a ge o f n in e, i n th e c o tto n f ie ld s th at s u rro und ed th e b la ck s e cti o n

o f D eW itt, A rk ansa s— an a re a th at m any o f th e to w n’s w hite r e sid ents r e fe rre d to a s “ N ig ger H ill.” T he f ir s t l e v el o f m eanin g th at I

p ic ked u p f r o m th at p hra se h ad to d o w ith th e f a ct th at n o a m ount o f b ook l e arn in g c o uld e v er ta ke th e p la ce o f th e s o rt o f c o m mon

s u rv iv al s e nse th at w as r e q uir e d f o r h im a nd h is c o m munity o f h ard -la b orin g a gric ultu ra l a nd d om esti c w ork ers to l ite ra lly “ m ake a

d ay” i n p la ces l ik e D eW itt.

Thro ugh f a cin g w hat a t ti m es s e e m ed a n i m possib le ta sk o f c o m ple ti n g a n a cad em ic b ook, h o w ev er, I b ecam e a w are o f a s e co nd

l e v el o f m eanin g w ith in m y g ra nd fa th er’s p hra se . T hat i s , I c am e to r e aliz e th at n o m atte r w hat k in d o f “ w ork ” o ne f a ces, th e p ain o f

t h e ta sk a t h and c an i n d eed b e o uts tr ip ped b y th e r e w ard o f n ev er g iv in g u p th e s tr u ggle , n o m atte r w hat f o rm th e s tr u ggle ta kes. A nd

w hile th e p ro cess o f w riti n g a b ook, o r s lo ggin g th ro ugh a cad em ia a s a b la ck m ale , c an in n o w ay b e m is ta ken fo r th e in fin ite

h ard sh ip s th at m y g ra nd fa th er a nd o th er b la ck m en, w om en, a nd c hild re n in so uth ern p la nta ti o n fie ld s e nd ure d , th e str u ggle o f

s u rv iv in g a cad em ia a s a p ers o n o f c o lo r is , in a v ery re al se nse , a kin to d ig gin g a v ery lo ng d itc h. S o, a s I lo ok b ack o n th e

p ro ducti o n o f th is b ook, a nd th e m any s to rie s o f n eo sla v ery th at I h av e u nb urie d i n th e c o urs e o f “ d ig gin ’ i n th e c ra te s” o f U .S . w hite

s u p re m acis t h is to ry , I w ant to d is p atc h a n o rm ati v e fo rm al e le m ent o f th e a ckno w le d gm ents g enre b y fir s t th ankin g m y g ra nd fa th er,

R . E . “ T unie ” C hild s, f o r b ein g th e o nly f a th er I e v er h ad , a nd f o r th e

many l ife l e sso ns h e i m parte d to m e— wheth er w e w ere s itti n g

a ro und h is p ool ta b le l is te nin g to A l G re en, r e la xin g o n a f is h in g b oat, o r c le anin g a n o ffic e b uild in g a s I w ork ed m y f ir s t “ re al j o b”

a s a ja nito r in his and m y gra nd m oth er’s cle anin g se rv ic e. H ere I als o w is h to exp re ss m y d eep gra ti tu d e to m y b eauti fu l

g ra nd m oth er, S onja C hild s, w ho a ls o a d ded a h efty s h are o f l e sso ns a nd l o ve i n th ese s a m e r itu aliz e d s p aces o f m y e arly l ife .

As to th e a cad em ic c o m munity th at I h av e b een p riv ile ged e no ugh to b e a p art o f o ver th e y ears , I m ust b egin b y r e co gniz in g th e

m ento rs h ip o f S aid iy a H artm an, m y d is se rta ti o n d ir e cto r a t U C B erk ele y. A nyo ne w ho ta kes th e ti m e to r e ad w hat i s c o nta in ed i n th e

p ages o f th is b ook w ill re co gniz e th e p ro fo und in flu ence th at h er g ro und bre akin g s c ho la rs h ip h as h ad o n m y in te lle ctu al p ath . I

w ould a ls o l ik e to th ank R uth W ils o n G ilm ore , M arc ia l G onza le z, a nd H erth a D . S w eet W ong, w ho o ffe re d g enero us s u p port d urin g

m y ti m e a t B erk ele y. I w ould n ev er h av e m ad e i t i n to a P hD p ro gra m i n th e f ir s t p la ce w ere i t n o t f o r th e m ento rs I h ad w hile i n th e

M aste r’s P ro gra m i n A fr o -A meric an S tu d ie s a t U CLA . I n p arti c ula r, th e i n te lle ctu al a nd p ed ago gic al g uid ance o f V ale rie S m ith a nd

R ic hard Y arb oro ugh h av e s ta yed w ith m e u nti l th is d ay. I w ill n ev er f o rg et e v ery th in g th ey h av e d one f o r m e ( a nd c o nti n ue to d o).

Sin ce m y a rriv al a t U CSD , I h av e h ad th e p riv ile ge o f w ork in g w ith a n i n cre d ib le g ro up o f f r ie nd s a nd c o lle agues w ho s u p plie d

t h e s o rt o f v ib ra nt in te lle ctu al c o m munity th at I n eed ed in o rd er to b rin g th is p ro je ct to fr u iti o n. L is a L ow e o ffe re d a tr e m end ous

e xam ple o f h o w to b e a p oliti c ally e ngaged s c ho la r, te acher, a nd m ento r. I h av e a ls o r e ceiv ed i n v alu ab le i n sp ir a ti o n, f e ed back, a nd

s u p port fr o m P age d uB ois , Ja im e C oncha, Y en L e E sp ir itu , R oss F ra nk, D anie l W id ener, C urti s M are z, N ata lia M olin a, D av id

P ello w , a nd S helle y S tr e eb y.

Very s p ecia l th anks g o to J o hn B la nco , F ati m a E l- T ayeb , S ara J o hnso n, a nd L uis M artí n -C ab re ra f o r th eir f r ie nd sh ip , i n te lle ctu al

p ow er, p oliti c al c o m mitm ent, a nd u nw av erin g d ed ic ati o n to o ur s tu d ents .

I a ls o w ant to e xp re ss m y s in cere a p pre cia ti o n to c o lle agues a t o th er u niv ers iti e s th ro ugho ut th e U nite d S ta te s. D yla n R odríg uez

a nd R and all W illia m s o ffe re d g enero us a nd in sig htf u l c o m ments , m any o f w hic h a re re fle cte d d ir e ctl y in th e fin al v ers io n o f th e

b ook. M y d eep est gra ti tu d e exte nd s to S arik a C hand ra , Je nnife r S cap petto ne, L is a Z e W in te rs , and C arte r M ath es— de fa cto

r e la ti v es w ho a ls o h ap pen to b e in cre d ib le s c ho la rs . In d eed I m ust th ank th e e nti r e M ath es fa m ily fo r p ro vid in g m e w ith a

ra d ia nt

( Ita l) e xam ple o f w hat a tr u ly l o vin g h o m e c an b e f r o m O akla nd to E ast O ra nge.

I w ould als o lik e to exp re ss m y ap pre cia ti o n to th e in cre d ib le stu d ents I hav e w ork ed w ith over th e years at both th e

u nd erg ra d uate a nd g ra d uate le v el. Y our in te lle ctu al im agin ati o n a nd p oliti c al fe rv or h av e in sp ir e d th e w riti n g o f th is b ook a nd m y

c o ncep ti o n o f w hat it m eans to b e a sc ho la r-a cti v is t. G re at th anks als o go to a num ber o f p ris o n ab oliti o nis t and gra ssro ots

c o m munity o rg aniz a ti o ns th at h av e h elp ed to s h ap e m y v is io n o f r a d ic al s o cia l a naly sis a nd a cti o n o ver th e y ears . In th is r e gard , I

w ould lik e to m enti o n th e M alc o lm X G ra ssro ots M ovem ent, A ll o f U s o r N one, C riti c al R esis ta nce, C URB, a nd th e C hic ano -

M exic ano P ris o n P ro je ct. I a ls o w ant to o ffe r m y th anks a nd d eep est r e sp ect to R obert H illa ry K in g ( a ka R obert K in g W ilk ers o n) o f

t h e A ngo la 3 fo r h is w is d om , c o ura ge, a nd b la ck r a d ic al le ad ers h ip — and fo r h o no rin g m e w ith m any lo ng c o nv ers a ti o ns a b out th e

i n te rn ati o nal neo pla nta ti o n th at is th e pris o n– in d ustr ia l co m ple x. T he w ord “in sp ir a ti o n” does no t cap tu re w hat yo u, A lb ert

W oodfo x, a nd th e la te H erm an W alla ce h av e m eant to m e s in ce I fir s t h eard o f y o ur liv in g b uria l a t A ngo la p ris o n p la nta ti o n. I

w ould a ls o lik e to e xp re ss c o m ra d ely g ra ti tu d e to H enry “ H ank” J o nes a nd R ay B oud re aux o f th e S an F ra ncis c o 8 fo r y o ur ti m e,

g uid ance, a nd i n te rm in ab le a nti p ris o n w ork .

As a nyo ne w ho c o nd ucts a rc hiv e-b ase d s c ho la rs h ip k no w s, s u ch p ro je cts w ould b e i m possib le w ith o ut th e te chnic al a cum en a nd

g enero sity o f a n um ber o f lib ra ria ns a nd a rc hiv is ts . In th is r e gard , I w ould lik e to th ank J e nnife r H afn er a nd O w en L ourie fr o m th e

M ary la nd S ta te A rc hiv es a nd V in cent G old en fr o m th e A meric an A nti q uaria n S ocie ty . S pecia l a p pre cia ti o n g o es to M arc W ellm an

f r o m th e S ta te L ib ra ry o f L ouis ia na, w ho o ffe re d m e e xp ert a rc hiv al a ssis ta nce f o r m y r e se arc h o n A ngo la .

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Esse nti a l fin ancia l s u p port fo r th is p ro je ct w as p ro vid ed b y th e S cho la rs -in -R esid ence P ro gra m a t th e S cho m burg C ente r fo r

Rese arc h in B la ck C ultu re in H arle m . M y r e sid ency a t th e S cho m burg w as a ls o m ad e p ossib le th ro ugh a g ra nt fr o m th e N ati o nal

End ow ment fo r th e H um aniti e s. W hile a t th e S cho m burg , I h ad th e d is ti n ct p le asu re o f w ork in g w ith a n a m azin g g ro up o f s c ho la rs ,

arc hiv is ts , a nd m ento rs : I e sp ecia lly w ant to th ank C olin P alm er a nd D ia na L achata nere . M y re se arc h w as a ls o s u p porte d b y a

postd octo ra l f e llo w sh ip i n A fr ic an A meric an L ite ra tu re a t R utg ers U niv ers ity . I t w as d urin g m y ti m e a t R utg ers th at I c am e to r e aliz e

th at C hery l W all’s i n cre d ib le s c ho la rs h ip i s m atc hed b y a tr e m end ous c o m mitm ent to th e

mento rs h ip o f j u nio r b la ck s c ho la rs . I a ls o

re ceiv ed in te gra l su p port th ro ugh th e U C P re sid ent’ s P ostd octo ra l P ro gra m , d urin g w hic h ti m e I had th e d is ti n ct p riv ile ge o f

work in g w ith C hery l H arris a t th e U CLA S cho ol o f L aw . M y r e se arc h w as a ls o s u p porte d b y th e H ellm an F und .

Much a p pre cia ti o n g o es to m y e d ito r, R ic hard M orris o n, a t th e U niv ers ity o f M in neso ta P re ss fo r b elie v in g in th is p ro je ct fr o m

th e o uts e t.

Tra cy C urry , S te v ie H arris , B ry an M asse ngale , J a so n P ip es, a nd I s a d ora R om ero h av e b een s is te rs a nd b ro th ers to m e f o r m ost o f

my l ife . T hanks f o r e v ery th in g y o u h av e d one to h elp g uid e m e o n th is j o urn ey.

As to m y i m med ia te f a m ily , I l o ve y o u a ll b eyo nd m easu re . T o m y b ro th er, D eric k L ond on: w e a re l iv in g o ur f a th er’s r e d em pti o n.

For m y y o unger b ro th er a nd s is te r, S ean a nd R achelle : y o u a re m ore i m porta nt to m e th an I h av e th e p ow er to d esc rib e. I a m s o v ery

pro ud o f y o u b oth . T o m y m oth er, J o A nna: w e h av e c o m e s o fa r s in ce th at s u nris e rid e o ut o f T uls a . N o o ne w ould e v er h av e

belie v ed th at w e w ould h av e m ad e i t th is f a r. T hank y o u s o m uch f o r y o ur s a crific e a nd s tr e ngth . F or S ara nella , m y p artn er a nd l o ve:

yo u h av e a nguis h ed w ith m e o ver e v ery w ord ( a nd th o usa nd s o f m ile s o f m oves). I c an n ev er te ll y o u e no ugh o f m y d eep g ra ti tu d e,

lo ve, a nd r e sp ect f o r w ho y o u a re , a nd h o w h ap py I a m w ith th e h o m e w e h av e m ad e to geth er w ith o ur s o n. K ahlil P atr ic e, m y j o y,

my h eart, I h o pe to b e a b le to s a y o ne d ay th at I h av e o ffe re d y o u s o m eth in g a p pro achin g w hat y o u h av e a lr e ad y g iv en to m y l ife .

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** Note s

In tr o d uctio n

A ngela Y . D avis , “ R acia liz e d P unis h m ent a nd P ris o n A bolit io n,” in

The A ngela D avis R ea der,

e d. J o y J a m es ( M ald en, M ass.: B la ckw ell, 1 998), 9 9. A s D avis p oin ts o ut,

how ever, F oucault b ecam e p ers o nally a w are th at th e “ d is c ip lin ary ” r u bric w it h w hic h h e a ppro ached th e b ir th o f th e m odern p ris o n w as in applic able to w hit e s u pre m acis t

carc era lit y u pon h is v is it to A ttic a ( N ew Y ork ) in 1 972 ( a y ear a fte r th e p ris o ner u pris in g a nd m assa cre th at le d to th e d eath s o f th ir ty -n in e p ris o ners a nd g uard h osta ges):

“A t th e tim e o f th e c re atio n o f A uburn a nd th e P hila delp hia p ris o n [ in th e n in ete enth c entu ry ], w hic h s e rv ed a s m odels ( w it h v ery lit tle c hange u ntil n ow ) f o r th e g re at

machin es o f in carc era tio n, it w as b elie ved th at s o m eth in g in deed w as p ro duced: ‘ v ir tu ous m en.’ N ow w e k now . . . th at n oth in g a t a ll is p ro duced. T hat it is a q uestio n

sim ply o f a g re at s le ig ht o f h and, a c urio us m echanis m o f c ir c ula r e lim in atio n: s o cie ty e lim in ate s b y s e ndin g to p ris o n p eople w hom p ris o n b re aks u p, c ru sh es, p hysic ally

elim in ate s; th e p ris o n e lim in ate s th em b y ‘ fre ein g’ th em a nd s e ndin g th em b ack to s o cie ty ; . . . th e s ta te in w hic h th ey c om e o ut in su re s th at s o cie ty w ill e lim in ate th em o nce

again , s e ndin g th em to p ris o n. . . . A ttic a is a m achin e f o r e lim in atio n, a f o rm o f p ro dig io us s to m ach, a k id ney th at c onsu m es, d estr o ys, b re aks u p a nd th e r e je cts , a nd th at

consu m es in o rd er to e lim in ate w hat is h as a lr e ady e lim in ate d” ( ib id ., 9 8). N ote h ow F oucault ’s n ew fo und r e cognit io n o f th e p ro pensit y o f th e “ m odern ,” “ d is c ip lin ary ,”

pris o n to p ro duce a nd c onsu m e d ead a nd liv in g d ead b odie s th ro ugh s tr u ctu ra lly r e cid iv is t in gestio n, e je ctio n, a nd e lim in atio n b ears s ta rk r e se m bla nce to d esc rip tio ns b y

sla ves o f th eir f e ar th at th ey w ould b e e ate n b y w hit e m en in th e e arly m odern c hatte liz e d c arc era l f o rm atio ns o f th e c offle , s la ve d ungeon, a nd s la ve s h ip . S ee O tto bah

Cugoano,

Narra tiv e o f th e E nsla vem en t o f O tto bah C ugoano, a N ativ e o f A fr ic a , P ublis h ed b y H im se lf in th e Y e a r 1 787,

The N eg ro ’s M em oria l 1 825, o r,

Abolitio nis t’s C ate ch is m b y a n A bolitio nis t

( L ondon: H atc hard a nd C o., 1 825), 1 23; a nd O la udah E quia no,

The I n te re stin g N arra tiv e o f th e L if e o f O la udah E quia no,

or G usta vu s V a ssa , th e A fr ic a n. W ritte n b y H im se lf

( L ondon: O . E quia no, 1 789), 9 7. F or a b rillia nt th eore tic al r e adin g o f c hatte l s la very a s a p ro cess o f

cannib alis tic /c apit a lis tic in gestio n, s e e S aid iy a H artm an,

Lose Y o ur M oth er: A J o urn ey A lo ng th e A tla ntic S la ve R oute

( N ew Y ork : F arra r, S tr a us a nd G ir o ux, 2 007),

11 0– 21.

My u se o f th e te rm “ n eo-a bolit io nis t” in r e fe re nce to th e a ntip ris o n s c hola rs h ip a nd a ctiv is m o f A ngela Y . D avis d eriv es f ro m th e p ath bre akin g c rit ic al p ris o n

stu die s a nd

neo-a bolit io nis t w ork o f J o y J a m es. S ee, f o r e xam ple , J o y J a m es, I n tr o ductio n to

The N ew A bolitio nis ts : ( N eo )S la ve N arra tiv es a nd C onte m pora ry P ris o n W ritin gs,

e d.

Jo y J a m es ( N ew Y ork : S ta te U niv ers it y o f N ew Y ork P re ss, 2 005).

T he te rm “ ra cia l c apit a lis m ” d eriv es f ro m C edric R obin so n’s s e m in al w ork o n th e r e la tio nsh ip b etw een th e p an-A fric an b la ck r a dic al tr a dit io n a nd E uro pean M arx is t th eory ,

Bla ck M arx is m : T he M akin g o f th e B la ck R adic a l T ra ditio n

( C hapel H ill: U niv ers it y o f N orth C aro lin a P re ss, 2 000). T he te rm h ig hlig hts th e m ate ria lit y o f w hit e

su pre m acy w it h in o ccid enta l m odern it y — a s tr u ctu ra l f o rm atio n th at f o r R obin so n is u nth eoriz e d w it h in th e E uro pean M arx is t tr a dit io n, a m ode o f th ought th at, in it s

re ductiv e e conom is tic f o rm , d efin es r a cis m a s m ere ly a s u pers tr u ctu ra l m ode o f id ealis t s o cia lit y , o r a m achin atio n o f “ fa ls e c onsc io usn ess,” r a th er th an a s a m ate ria l ( a nd

fa ta lly c orp ore aliz e d) m odalit y o f E uro -A meric an im peria l h is to ry . T hro ughout th is w ork , I r e phra se R obin so n’s o rig in al te rm , u sin g “ ra cia l c apit a lis t m is o gyny,” in o rd er to

hig hlig ht th e d egre e to w hic h g ender d om in atio n a ls o f u nctio ns a s a m ate ria l id eolo gic al f o rm atio n o f g lo bal c apit a lis m . T his s h ould in n o w ay b e r e ad a s a n a rg um ent f o r a

sh uttlin g o f a ll M arx is m s in r e sp ect to th e in te rlo ckin g r e pre ssiv e s y ste m s o f c la ss, r a ce, a nd g ender r e pre ssio n, h ow ever, s in ce m any M arx is t th eoris ts h ave in deed tr e ate d

so cia l s tr u ctu re s in a tr u ly d ia le ctic al f a sh io n, ta kin g f o r g ra nte d th e p oly -d ete rm in ant n atu re o f s o cia l r e la tio ns. S ee, f o r e xam ple , S tu art H all, “ A rtic ula tio n a nd S ocie tie s

Str u ctu re d in D om in ance,” in

Socio lo gic a l T heo rie s: R ace a nd C olo nia lis m

( P aris : U NESC O , 1 980); a nd R uth W ils o n G ilm ore ,

Gold en G ula g: P ris o ns, S urp lu s,

Cris is , a nd O ppositio n in G lo baliz in g C alif o rn ia

( B erk ele y: U niv ers it y o f C alif o rn ia P re ss, 2 007).

O rla ndo P atte rs o n d efin es s o cia l d eath a s th e d eath -in -lif e s it u atio n o f th e s la ve w here by b io lo gic al d eath is a t o nce th re ate ned v ia p hysic al te rro r a nd s im ula te d th ro ugh h er

fo rc ed r e m oval f ro m lin es o f k in sh ip a nd c om munal/ c ult u ra l s o cia lit y — what h e d esc rib es a s “ n ata l a lie natio n.” P atte rs o n,

Sla very a nd S ocia l D ea th

( C am brid ge: H arv ard

Univ ers it y P re ss, 1 982). S ee a ls o C la ude M eilla sso ux,

The A nth ro polo gy o f S la very

( C hic ago: U niv ers it y o f C hic ago P re ss, 1 991). F or a n illu m in atin g tr e atm ent o f th e

le gal c oncept o f “ c iv il d eath ”— a te rm d eriv ed f ro m e arly m odern E nglis h c om mon la w s ig nalin g th e f e lo n’s f o rfe it u re o f a ll r ig hts , p ro pertie s, e tc ., r e la tiv e to th e s ta tu s o f

liv in g

“ c it iz e n,” s e e C olin D ayan, “ L egal S la ves a nd C iv il B odie s,” in

Mate ria liz in g D em ocra cy,

e d. R uss C astr o novo a nd D ana N els o n ( D urh am : D uke U niv ers it y P re ss,

2002).

Thro ughout th is b ook I u se th e te rm s “ ra cia l g enocid e” a nd “ p ris o n– in dustr ia l g enocid e” in k eepin g w it h W illia m P atte rs o n’s th eoriz a tio n o f r a cia l g enocid e in h is h is to ric

petit io n to th e U nit e d N atio ns in 1 951, c harg in g th e U .S . g overn m ent w it h g enocid e a gain st b la ck p eople w it h in it s b ord ers . C it in g th e U N G enocid e C onventio n o f 1 948, th e

bla ck C om munis t a nd h is f e llo w p etit io ners a rg ued th at th e s it u atio n o f b la ck p eople in th e U nit e d S ta te s u ndoubte dly r a is e d to th e le vel o f a s y ste m atic “ k illin g m em bers o f

[a ] g ro up” w it h th e in te nt to d estr o y it

in w hole

or in p art.

S ig nif ic antly it w as P atte rs o n’s w ork o n b ehalf o f b la ck p eople w ho h ad b een v ic tim iz e d b y s ta te v io le nce in th e

fo rm o f m ass im pris o nm ent a nd le gal ly nchin g (b oth b y p olic e a nd in p ris o ns v ia th e e le ctr ic c hair ) th at in fo rm ed h is th eoriz a tio n o f ra cia l g enocid e in th e U nit e d S ta te s.

While fo cusin g o n e xtr a le gal fo rm atio ns s u ch a s th e K KK, th e p etit io n a ls o c it e s th e s tr u ctu ra l p atte rn o f p olic e a nd c arc era l te rro r v ers u s b la ck p eople : “ O ur e vid ence

concern s th e th ousa nds o f N egro es w ho o ver th e y ears h ave b een b eate n to d eath o n c hain g angs a nd in th e b ack r o om s o f s h erif f ’s o ffic es, in th e c ells o f c ounty ja ils , in

pre cin ct p olic e s ta tio ns a nd o n c it y s tr e ets .” W illia m P atte rs o n,

We C harg e G en ocid e: T he C rim e o f G overn m en t A gain st th e N eg ro P eo ple

(N ew Y ork : In te rn atio nal

Publis h ers , 1 970), x iv , 4 . O f c ours e , th is e le m ent o f th e g enocid e c harg e r in gs a ll- to o-re le vant in o ur c urre nt c onte xt o f le gal a nd e xtr a le gal te rro r a gain st b la ck a nd L atin a/o

people s u ch a s T ra yvon M artin , R am arle y G ra ham , a nd V ale ria A lv ara do. I n deed, a s o f th e m onth o f J u ly in 2 012, th e U nit e d S ta te s ( o ver)s a w th e k illin g o f 1 20 b la ck m en,

wom en, a nd m in ors b y p olic e, s e curit y g uard s, a nd v ig ila nte s— th at is , o ne b la ck p ers o n m urd ere d e very th ir ty -s ix h ours . M alc olm X G ra ssro ots M ovem ent, “ R eport o n th e

Extr a ju dic ia l K illin g o f 1 20 B la ck P eople b y P olic e, S ecurit y G uard s, o r S elf -A ppoin te d L aw E nfo rc ers ” (u pdate d e dit io n, J u ly 1 6, 2 012),

http :/ /m xgm .o rg /r e port- o n-th e-

extr a ju dic ia l- k illin gs-o f-1 1 0-b la ck-p eople /

. A lt h ough w e a re rig ht to fo cus o n th e s p ecta cula r m urd er o f b la ck p eople , L atin a/o s, a nd o th er s o cia lly s tig m atiz e d b odie s in

zo nes o f s o cia l in carc era tio n, th e g re ate st e m ble m o f U .S . r a cia l c apit a lis t g enocid e c om es in th e m ore ( a ppare ntly ) b anal f o rm o f m ass im pris o nm ent, in w hic h o ne o ut o f

nin e b la ck m en b etw een th e a ges o f tw enty a nd th ir ty -fo ur a re e nto m bed in th e U nit e d S ta te s. F or a n im porta nt s tu dy o f m ass im pris o nm ent a s a g enocid al f o rm atio n, s e e

Dyla n R odríg uez,

Forc ed P assa ges: Im pris o ned R adic a l In te lle ctu als a nd th e U .S . P ris o n R eg im e

(M in neapolis : U niv ers it y o f M in neso ta P re ss, 2 006). S ee a ls o

Mic helle A le xander,

The N ew J im C ro w : M ass I n ca rc era tio n in th e A ge o f C olo rb lin dness

( N ew Y ork : T he N ew P re ss, 2 010). A nd f o r a n e qually im porta nt s tu dy o f

U.S . g enocid al p ra ctic e v ers u s th e I n dig enous p eople s o f th e A meric as, s e e W ard C hurc hill,

A L ittle M atte r o f G en ocid e: H olo ca ust D en ia l in th e A m eric a s, 1 492 to

th e P re se n t

( S an F ra ncis c o: C it y L ig hts , 2 001).

Ruffin v . C om monw ea lth ,

6 2 V A 7 90 ( 1 871): 7 95– 96. I s h ould p oin t o ut h ere th at P aul W rig ht, a n im pris o ned w rit e r a nd c oedit o r o f

Pris o n L eg al N ew s,

a ls o u se s

Ruffin

’s la nguage a s a tit le f o r h is im porta nt a rtic le o n th e p ra ctic e o f n eosla ve la bor in U .S . p ris o ns. W rig ht, “ S la ves o f th e S ta te : P ris o n L abore rs D o T im e in F acto rie s

wit h F ences,”

Wash in gto n F re e P re ss,

S eattle , W FP C olle ctiv e, O cto ber– N ovem ber 1 995.

I n d is c ussin g th e c rim in aliz a tio n o f b la ck lif e in p artic ula r, A ngela Y . D avis c it e s h ow th e r e m ark ably h ig h n um ber o f b la ck p eople , a nd b la ck m en in p artic ula r, in U .S .

pris o ns, ja ils , a nd u nder s o m e f o rm o f “ c orre ctio nal” s u perv is io n u nderlin es th e f a ct th at b la ckness is th e m ost p enaliz e d c rim e u nder U .S . r a cia l c apit a lis t

mis o gynis t la w :

“O ne h as a g re ate r c hance o f g oin g to ja il o r p ris o n if o ne is a b la ck m an th an if o ne is a ctu ally a la w -b re aker. W hile m ost im pris o ned y oung b la ck m en m ay h ave b ro ken a

la w , it is th e f a ct th at th ey a re y oung b la ck m en r a th er th an th e f a ct th at th ey a re la w -b re akers w hic h b rin gs th em in to c onta ct w it h th e c rim in al ju stic e s y ste m .” D avis ,

“R acia liz e d P unis h m ent a nd P ris o n A bolit io n,” 1 04. W hat th e w ork o f D avis a nd o th er p ris o n a bolit io nis ts h as s h ow n u s, h ow ever, is th at th e r e ta il “ c rim es” o f in div id ual

bla ck, b ro w n, I n dig enous, a nd p oor p eople a re d ir e ct r e su lt s o f th e w hole sa le c rim es o f s tr u ctu ra l p overty , jo ble ssn ess, a nd r a cis t le galit y a s p ra ctic ed b y th e r a cia l c apit a lis t

hete ro patr ia rc hal c olo nia l s ta te . M y d esc rip tio n o f th e r e la tio nsh ip b etw een th e “ re ta il,” o r in div id ual c rim in alit y , a nd “ w hole sa le ” c rim in alit y , o r s tr u ctu ra l te rro r p erfo rm ed

by th e U .S . im peria l s ta te , d eriv es f ro m N oam C hom sk y a nd E dw ard H erm an,

The W ash in gto n C onnectio n a nd T hir d W orld F asc is m , V o lu m e 1

( B osto n: S outh E nd

Pre ss, 1 979), 8 5– 94. S ee a ls o G re gg B ara k,

Crim es b y th e C apita lis t S ta te : A n I n tr o ductio n to S ta te C rim in ality

( N ew Y ork : S ta te U niv ers it y o f N ew Y ork P re ss,

1991).

For a b rillia nt a naly sis o f th e d egre e to w hic h th e h yperis o la tin g s tr u ctu re o f re sid entia l s e gre gatio n in th e U nit e d S ta te s h as a m ounte d to a lo ng-s ta ndin g n atio nal (a s

oppose d to s e ctio nal/ s o uth ern ) s y ste m o f s o cia l a parth eid , s e e D ougla s M asse y a nd N ancy D ento n,

Am eric a n A parth eid

( C am brid ge: H arv ard U niv ers it y P re ss, 1 993). I

have p la ced th e te rm “ A meric a” in q uota tio n m ark s h ere to d em onstr a te th at th e c om mon a ttr ib utio n o f th is te rm to th e e m pir e o f

th e A m eric a s

is a g allin g in dic ato r o f

* *****eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** U.S . h em is p heric al c hauvin is m a nd r a cis m . I a m in debte d to th e S outh A fric an p oet a nd lib era tio n a ctiv is t K eora pets e “ W illie ” K gosit s ile f o r f ir s t d ra w in g m y a tte ntio n to

th is e xam ple o f U .S . c ult u ra l im peria lis m . F or th e r e m ain der o f th e b ook, f o r th e s a ke o f r e adabilit y , I w ill n ot e m plo y q uota tio n m ark s w hen u sin g th is te rm ; h ow ever, I w ill

use “ U .S .” w hen s y nta ctic ally p ossib le .

S aid iy a H artm an,

Scen es o f S ubje ctio n: T e rro r, S la very, a nd S elf -M akin g in N in ete en th -C en tu ry A m eric a

( O xfo rd : O xfo rd U niv ers it y P re ss, 1 997), 1 4.

A very G ord on,

Ghostly M atte rs: H auntin g a nd th e S ocio lo gic a l I m agin atio n

( M in neapolis : U niv ers it y o f M in neso ta P re ss, 1 996), 6 4. O n th e im pera tiv e p olit ic al

pra ctic e o f s p ectr a l lis te nin g, G ord on s ta te s th at “ w e w ill h ave to le arn to lis -te n to g hosts , r a th er th an b anis h th em , a s th e p re condit io n f o r e sta blis h in g o ur . . . k now le dge”

(ib id ., 2 3). I w ould lik e to th ank R yan H ery fo rd f o r b rin gin g m y a tte ntio n to th is p artic ula r a sp ect o f G ord on’s w ork in h is r iv etin g d is c ussio n o f n eosla ve s o ng, u npublis h ed

manusc rip t. M y

hea rin g

o f th e s p ectr a lly p ro duced te stim onie s, s o undin gs, a nd s u bte rra nean h is to rie s o f b la ck n eosla ves is g re atly in debte d to G ord on’s in te lle ctu ally

stim ula tin g a nd p olit ic ally c oura geous tr e atm ent o f h auntin g a s a m ate ria l a nd s o cia l p ra ctic e. I s h ould a dd h ere th at m y a tte ntio n to th e c ountle ss u nquie t r e venants o f U .S .

genocid al h is to ry h as a ls o d ra w n h eavily f ro m T oni M orris o n a nd h er n arra tiv e-e pis te m ic c hartin g o f th e w ays in w hic h

sla very h aunts U .S . p ostb ellu m lif e — a p oin t th at is

artic ula te d m ost c le arly in th e m aste rp ie ce th at is

Belo ved ,

a w ork th at I d is c uss a t le ngth in c hapte r 1 .

M y u se o f th e te rm “ u nhis to ry ” d eriv es f ro m B ob K aufm an’s p oem “ U nhis to ric al E vents ,” in w hic h th e s u rre alis t p oet a ddre sse s G uilla um e A pollin air e , th e F re nch p oet a nd

pla yw rig ht w ho is c re dit e d w it h c oin in g th e te rm “ su rre alis m ,” a nd w it h w rit in g o ne o f th e f ir s t w ork s to b e d esc rib ed u nder th at a esth etic h eadin g, a p la y e ntit le d

The

Bre a sts o f T ir e sia s

( 1 917). K aufm an’s p oem is su es a r e fra in , “ A pollin air e n ever . . . ,” f o llo w ed b y a s e rie s o f p eople a nd e vents th at e ven th e o ste nsib le f a th er o f

su rre alis m “ n ever” w ould h ave k now n o r e xperie nced— a m an n am ed “ R ock G ut C harlie / w ho g ave f if ty c ents to a p olic em an / d riv in g a ro und in a 1 927 N ash ,” a nd a

wom an n am ed “ L ady C hoppy W in e / p eerle ss f e m ale d ru nk, w ho ta lk ed to s h ru bs / a nd m ade c hild re n s in g in th e s tr e ets .” “ U nhis to ric al E vents ,”

Cra nia l G uita r:

Sele cte d P oem s b y B ob K aufm an

, in tr o . G era ld N ic osia , e d. D avid H enders o n ( M in neapolis : C offe e H ouse P re ss, 1 996), 5 3. T he p oem ( lik e th e in vis ib iliz e d lif e a nd w ork

of B ob K aufm an h im se lf ) h ig hlig hts th e d egre e to w hic h r a cia liz e d a nd c rim in aliz e d s u bje cts a re h is to ric ally d is a ppeare d e ven w it h in W este rn a esth etic a nd s o cia l a re nas,

su ch a s s u rre alis m , th at a tte m pt to c ut a gain st th e g ra in o f n orm ativ e h is to ric al, c ult u ra l, a nd e xperie ntia l p erc eptio n. K aufm an d efin it e ly k new o f w hat h e s p oke in te rm s o f

th e u nhis to ric al e xperie nces o f o ne s u ch a s R ock G ut C harlie , w ho w as f o rc ed to b e o n a ll- to o-in tim ate te rm s w it h p olic e. T he p oet a nd a ctiv is t w as a rre ste d th ir ty -s ix

tim es in o ne c ale ndar y ear ( c . 1 959) f o r h is o penly in te rra cia l r o m antic lia is o ns a nd h is p olit ic iz e d p oetic p erfo rm ances. H e w as in carc era te d in a n um ber o f lo cal a nd s ta te

ja ils , p ris o ns, a nd m enta l in stit u tio ns o n b oth c oasts , in clu din g S an F ra ncis c o C it y P ris o n, T he T om bs, R ik ers I s la nd, a nd B elle vue H osp it a l, in w hic h h e w as k now n to h ave

re ceiv ed in volu nta ry s h ock “ th era py.” D avid H enders o n, I n tr o ductio n to

Cra nia l G uita r,

1 3, 1 6.

M um ia A bu-J a m al,

Liv e f ro m D ea th R ow

( N ew Y ork : H arp er P ere nnia l, 1 996), 4 6, 1 0. U nle ss o th erw is e in dic ate d, it a lic iz e d p ortio ns h ere afte r w ill r e pre se nt th e a uth or’s

em phasis .

10.

A bu-J a m al is jo in ed b y a la rg e n um ber o f o th er im pris o ned b la ck r a dic al th eoris ts in a rtic ula tin g th e tim e-b endin g e xperie nce o f n eosla very . S ee, f o r e xam ple , A ngelo

Hern don,

Let M e L iv e

( A nn A rb or: U niv ers it y o f M ic hig an P re ss, 2 007), 2 79; A ssa ta S hakur,

Assa ta

( N ew Y ork : L aw re nce H ill B ooks, 1 987), 6 4; a nd G eorg e J a ckso n,

Sole d ad B ro th er: T he P ris o n L ette rs o f G eo rg e J a ck so n

( C hic ago: L aw re nce H ill B ooks, 1 994), 2 34. T his a sse rtio n o f th e tim e-b endin g c apacit y o f im pris o nm ent is n ot

lim it e d to p ublic ally r e cogniz e d p olit ic al p ris o ners , h ow ever. F or s im ila r a rtic ula tio ns a lo ng th ese lin es b y b la ck s o cia l p ris o ners — i. e ., th ose w ho h ave b een in carc era te d f o r

th e

politic a lly m otiv a te d c rim e

o f b ein g b orn b la ck in th e U nit e d S ta te s— se e G lo ria H ouse ,

To w er a nd D ungeo n: A S tu dy o f P la ce a nd P ow er in A m eric a n C ultu re

(D etr o it : C asa d e U nid ad P re ss, 1 991), 7 1. F or

my c onceptio n o f th e n onlin ear te m pora lit y o f b la ck c hatte liz e d im pris o nm ent, I a m a ls o in debte d to H orte nse S pille rs ,

nam ely , a s r e fle cte d in h er e xposit io n o f th e c yclic al n atu re o f w hit e s u pre m acis t m is o gynis t d is c ours e u nder U .S . e m pir e : “ E ven th ough th e c aptiv e f le sh /b ody h as b een

‘lib era te d’ . . . th e r u lin g e pis te m e th at r e le ase s th e d ynam ic s o f n am in g a nd v alu atio n, r e m ain s g ro unded in th e o rig in atin g m eta phors o f c aptiv it y a nd m utila tio n s o th at it is

as if n eit h er tim e n or h is to ry , n or h is to rio gra phy a nd it s to pic s, s h ow s m ovem ent, a s th e h um an s u bje ct is ‘ m urd ere d’ o ver a nd o ver a gain . “ M am a’s B aby, P apa’s M aybe:

An A meric an G ra m mar B ook,”

Dia critic s

1 7, n o. 2 ( 1 987): 6 8. A s w e s h all s e e, h ow ever, w hat S pille rs d esc rib es a s a n u ndyin g p atte rn o f w hit e s u pre m acis t

epis te m olo gic al/ r h eto ric al r a cia l m urd er o f th e p uta tiv ely “ lib era te d” b la ck s u bje ct h as a ls o b een a ctu ate d a t th e le vel o f a ctu al b la ck f le sh /c orp ore alit y th ro ugh u nceasin g

fo rm atio ns o f lib era l w hit e s u pre m acis t le gal a nd e xtr a le gal te rro r.

11 .

J a m es, “ A meric an ‘ P ris o n N ote books,’ ”

Race & C la ss

4 5, n o. 3 ( J a nuary 2 004): 3 7. S ee a ls o R odríg uez,

Forc ed P assa ges.

12.

I n s p eakin g o f th e p re cario us s o cia l p osit io n o f th e d ead v is -à -v is th e r a cia l c apit a lis t m is o gynis t s ta te ’s c ontin ued m anufa ctu re o f c iv illy a nd b io lo gic ally d ead b odie s, I a m

gestu rin g to w ard W alt e r B enja m in ’s h auntin gly p re sc ie nt p hra se f ro m h is “ T hese s o n th e P hilo so phy o f H is to ry ”: “ O nly th at h is to ria n w ill h ave th e g if t o f f a nnin g th e s p ark

of h ope in th e p ast w ho is f ir m ly c onvin ced th at

even th e d ea d

w ill n ot b e s a fe f ro m th e e nem y if h e w in s. A nd th is e nem y h as n ot c ease d to b e v ic to rio us.” B enja m in ,

Illu m in atio ns

( N ew Y ork : S chocken B ooks, 1 969), 2 55.

13.

M enth a M orris o n to T heodore R oose velt ,

The P eo nage F ile s o f th e U .S . D ep artm en t o f J u stic e, 1 901–1945

( m ic ro fo rm ), e d. P ete D anie l, D OJ C ase N o. 3 098-1 902.

One o f th e m ain r e aso ns f o r th e J u stic e D epartm ent’s in abilit y to a chie ve c onvic tio ns in th e m ajo rit y o f p eonage c ase s s u ch a s th e M orris o ns w as b ecause it r e lie d o n

gain in g te stim ony f ro m te rro riz e d p eons a gain st th eir m aste rs a t th e v ery s it e s in w hic h n eosla very o ccurre d, a p ro cess th at r a re ly o ffe re d n eosla ves a n o pportu nit y to f re ely

expre ss th eir g rie vances d ue to th e im manent th re at o f to rtu re a nd d eath b y th e p eon m aste r. I n th e c ase o f J a ckso n M orris o n, h e d enie d e ver h avin g b een to rtu re d o n

Sm it h ’s p la nta tio n, n otw it h sta ndin g h is w if e ’s e ntr e aty to P re sid ent R oose velt . T he f e dera l in vestig ato r f o r th e M orris o ns’ c ase n ote d d is c re pancie s in S m it h ’s te stim ony a nd

th ose o f o th er p eon s la ves, a nd a ls o r e cogniz e d v is ib le s ig ns o f f e ar w hen in te rv ie w in g b la ck p eons, a f a ct th at m ade h im b elie ve th at th ey h ad b een te rro riz e d in to d enyin g

th eir o w n e nsla vem ent. J o hn D it tm er,

Bla ck G eo rg ia in th e P ro gre ssiv e E ra , 1 900–1920

( C ham paig n: U niv ers it y o f I llin ois P re ss, 1 980), 7 8– 79. F or th e m ost

th oro ughgoin g a naly sis o f p eonage a s p ra ctic ed w ell in to th e tw entie th c entu ry v ers u s b la ck p eople in th e S outh a nd L atin a/o s in th e S outh w est, s e e P ete D anie l,

The

Shadow o f S la very : P eo nage in th e S outh , 1 901–1969

( L ondon: O xfo rd U niv ers it y P re ss, 1 972).

14.

O n th e c onju rin g/o ccult v ecto rs o f U .S . le gal p ra ctic e, p artic ula rly in r e sp ect to r a cia liz e d im pris o nm ent, s o lit a ry c onfin em ent, a nd c iv il d eath , s e e C olin D ayan, “ L egal

Sla ves a nd C iv il B odie s,” a nd

The L aw I s a W hite D og: H ow L eg al R itu als M ake a nd U nm ake P erso ns

( P rin ceto n: P rin ceto n U niv ers it y P re ss, 2 011 ).

15.

T he te rm “ re m em ory ” is b orro w ed f ro m T oni M orris o n’s n ovel

Belo ved

( N ew Y ork : P lu m e, 1 987). I t s u ggests th e u ndead n atu re o f c hatte l s la very f o r A fric ans in th e

Unit e d S ta te s a fte r th e a rriv al o f d e ju re f re edom . S ee c hapte r 1 f o r m y r e adin g o f B elo ved’s c hain -g ang s c ene in r e la tio n to to day’s P IC .

16.

S ee, f o r e xam ple , E dw ard A yers ,

Ven gea nce a nd J u stic e

( N ew Y ork : O xfo rd U niv ers it y P re ss, 1 984), a nd M atth ew J . M ancin i,

One D ie s, G et A noth er: C onvic t

Lea sin g in th e A m eric a n S outh , 1 866–1928

( C olu m bia : U niv ers it y o f S outh C aro lin a P re ss, 1 996). F or a n e xam ple o f a w ork th at d oes ta ke s e rio usly th e c entr a l r o le o f

ra cia l id eolo gy in th e s y ste m o f s o uth ern p ostb ellu m im pris o nm ent, b ut th at u nfo rtu nate ly e nds u p a bje ctin g n eosla very a s a d is tin ctly s o uth ern a nd p ast p henom enon, s e e

Dougla s B la ckm on,

Sla very b y A noth er N am e: T he R e-e n sla vem en t o f B la ck A m eric a ns f ro m th e C iv il W ar to W orld W ar I I

( N ew Y ork : D ouble day, 2 008). W hile

th ese w ork s d o d is c uss r a cis t id eolo gy in th e S outh , th ey d o s o in k eepin g w it h th e id ea th at r a cia liz e d n eosla very w as a p eculia rly “ so uth ern ” o r “ p ast” p ro ble m . T hey a ls o

te nd to d is e ngage “ c onvic t la bor” f ro m c hatte l s la very b y e it h er n ot d is c ussin g th e r e la tio n b etw een th e tw o s y ste m s a t a ll, o r b y c la im in g th at p ost- 1 865 b la ck im pris o nm ent

was s o m ehow “ w ors e ” th an it s a nte bellu m c ounte rp art b ecause o f th e r e la tiv ely h ig h d eath c ounts th at o ccurre d w it h th e a dvent o f c onvic t le asin g in th e la te n in ete enth

centu ry , a c la im th at u nconsc io usly u phold s th e n otio n th at th e s o uth ern a nte bellu m s la ve p la nta tio n a m ounte d to a p ate rn alis tic /d is c ip lin ary r a th er th an g enocid al/ d om in ativ e

sy ste m o f r a cia l c ontr o l. A s I w ill d is c uss b elo w , c hatte liz e d in carc era tio n r e pre se nts a n ecro polit ic al s y ste m in w hic h “ lif e ” it s e lf is tr a nsm ute d in to a n a ppro xim atio n o f

death , a nd in w hic h b io lo gic al d eath is o fte n d esc rib ed b y th e ( n eo)s la ve a s p re fe ra ble to a “ lif e ” o f le gal to rtu re , n ata l a lie natio n, a nd c hatte liz e d in te rn m ent. O n

“n ecro polit ic s” a nd th e lif e -in -d eath p ra ctic e o f c olo nia l- s la ve-s ta te s o vere ig nty , s e e A chille M bem be, tr a ns. L ib by M ein tje s,

Public C ultu re

1 5, n o. 1 ( 2 003): 1 1 – 40.

17.

S ylv ia W ynte r, k eynote a ddre ss a t “ T he S ta te a nd S oul o f J a m aic a” c onfe re nce, U niv ers it y o f C alif o rn ia , B erk ele y, M arc h 3 1, 1 993.

18.

S ylv ia W ynte r, “ O n D is e nchantin g D is c ours e : ‘ M in orit y ’ L it e ra ry C rit ic is m a nd B eyond,” in

The N atu re a nd C onte xt o f M in ority D is c o urse ,

e d. A bdul J a nM oham ed

and D avid L lo yd ( O xfo rd : O xfo rd U niv ers it y P re ss, 1 990), 4 39– 48. O n th e f a bula tio n o f th e A fric an s u bje ct in to th e f u ngib le “ N egro ,” s e e a ls o C edric R obin so n,

Bla ck

Marx is m : T he M akin g o f th e B la ck R adic a l T ra ditio n.

“ T he ‘ N egro ,’ th at is th e c olo r b la ck, w as b oth a n egatio n o f A fric an a nd a u nit y o f o pposit io n to w hit e . T he

constr u ct o f N egro , u nlik e th e te rm s ‘ A fric an,’ ‘ M oor,’ o r ‘ E th io pe,’ s u ggeste d n o s it u ate dness in tim e, th at is h is to ry , o r s p ace, th at is e th no- o r p olit ic o-

geogra phy. T he

Negro h ad n o c iv iliz a tio n, n o c ult u re s, n o r e lig io ns, n o h is to ry , n o p la ce, a nd f in ally n o h um anit y th at m ig ht c om mand c onsid era tio n” ( 8 1). H ere th e r a cis t c onju ra tio ns o f n o

le ss lo fty a f ig ure th an H egel o n th e s u bje ct o f “ th e N egro ” s u ffic e a s a n e xam ple o f th is b ra nch o f w hit e s u pre m acis t c ult u ra l v io le nce: “ T he p eculia rly A fric an c hara cte r

is d if fic ult to c om pre hend, f o r th e v ery r e aso n th at in r e fe re nce to it , w e m ust q uit e g iv e u p th e p rin cip le w hic h n atu ra lly a ccom panie s a ll

our

id eas— as f o r e xam ple , G od,

or la w — in w hic h th e in te re st o f m an’s v olit io n is in volv ed a nd in w hic h h e r e aliz e s h is o w n b ein g.” H e c ontin ues: “ T he N egro , a s a lr e ady o bse rv ed, e xhib it s th e n atu ra l m an

in h is c om ple te ly w ild a nd u nta m ed s ta te . W e m ust la y a sid e a ll th ought o f r e vere nce a nd m ora lit y — all th at w e c all f e elin g— if w e w ould r ig ht c om pre hend h im ; th ere is

noth in g h arm onio us w it h h um anit y to b e f o und in th is ty pe o f c hara cte r.” T he “ p eculia rly ” a ta vis tic , im mora l, a nd n ot q uit e h um an, o nto lo gic al c hara cte r o f th e A fric an is

******eb ook c o nv erte r D EM O W ate rm ark s* ****** th en d eplo yed a s a r a tio nale f o r h er c ontin ued e nsla vem ent ( o r w hat H egel e uphem is tic ally d esc rib es a s a n ecessa rily “ g ra dual” e m ancip atio n), a nd f o r a c onceptu aliz a tio n

of th e h is to ry -le ss q ualit y o f a n e ntir e c ontin ent: “ S la very is in a nd f o r it s e lf in ju stic e, f o r th e e sse nce o f h um anit y is F re edom ; b ut f o r th is m an m ust b e m atu re d. A t th is

poin t w e le ave A fric a, n ot to m entio n it a gain . F or it is n o h is to ric al p art o f th e W orld ; it h as n o m ovem ent o r d evelo pm ent to e xhib it . H is to ric al m ovem ents in it — th at is in

it s n orth ern p art— belo ng to th e A sia tic o r E uro pean w orld . . . . W hat w e p ro perly u nders ta nd b y A fric a, is th e U nhis to ric al, U ndevelo ped S pir it , s till in volv ed in th e

condit io ns o f m ere n atu re , a nd w hic h h ad to b e p re se nte d h ere o nly a s o n th e th re sh old o f th e W orld ’s H is to ry .” G eorg W ilh elm F rie dric h H egel,

Lectu re s o n th e

Philo so phy o f H is to ry

( L ondon: B ell, 1 914), 9 7, 1 03. A gain , o ur s tu dy, in k eepin g w it h B ob K aufm an’s p oetic d eplo ym ent o f th e te rm “ u nhis to ry ” ( a nd in s tr id ent

opposit io n to H egel’ s r a cis t f ic tio nal e pis te m e), s it e s a n in fin it e s e m antic o pacit y , c ounte r-h is to ric al u rg ency, a nd e pis te m ic c om ple xit y w it h in th e te stim onie s, s o undin gs,

writ in gs, a nd p olit ic al p ra ctic es o f “ U nhis to ric al” s la ves a nd n eosla ves.

19.

F or th e in carc era tio n r a te o f y oung b la ck m ale s, s e e “ O ne in 1 00: B ehin d B ars in A meric a 2 008,” T he P ew C ente r o n th e S ta te s, 6 . A s o f th is w rit in g, o ne o ut o f e very

th re e b la ck m en b orn in th e U nit e d S ta te s c an e xpect to b e in carc era te d a t s o m e p oin t in th eir liv es. “ R eport to th e U nit e d N atio nal H um an R ig hts C om mit te e R egard in g

Racia l D is p arit ie s in th e U nit e d S ta te s C rim in al J u stic e S yste m ,” T he S ente ncin g P ro je ct, A ugust 2 013, 1 . T his s ta rtlin g s it u atio n r e gis te rs th e d egre e to w hic h th e P IC

opera te s a s a r e gim e o f g enocid al g enderin g f o r b la ck m en in th e U nit e d S ta te s.

20.

T he te rm “ c hatte l p rin cip le ” d eriv es f ro m W alt e r J o hnso n, e d.,

The C hatte l P rin cip le : I n te rn al S la ves T ra des in th e A m eric a s

( N ew H aven: Y ale U niv ers it y P re ss,

2004).

21.

H artm an,

Scen es o f S ubje ctio n.

F or m y r e adin g o f th e e pis te m ic a sp ects o f b la ck n eosla ve s o und, te stim ony, a nd p olit ic al p ra ctic e, I a m in debte d to C ly de

Woods a nd h is

hugely im porta nt r e adin g o f th e e pis te m olo gic al a nd p olit ic al c urre nts o f b la ck s o uth ern v ern acula r c ult u ra l p ra xis , o r w hat h e d esc rib es a s a n u naccounte d-fo r “ b lu es

epis te m olo gy.” C ly de W oods,

Develo pm en t A rre ste d : T he B lu es a nd P la nta tio n P ow er in th e M is sis sip pi D elta

( L ondon: V ers o , 2 006).

22.

R obert P ete W illia m s, “ P ris o ner’s T alk in g B lu es,” A rh oolie C D 4 19 ( a rh oolie .c om ), T ra dit io n M usic C o. ( B M I), a dm in is te re d b y B ug M usic c /o B M G R ig hts

Managem ent.

23.

A s th e g re ate st m odern in te rp re te r o f b la ck p ris o ner f o lk /b lu es s o ngs, O detta H olm es o nce a tte m pte d to e xpla in th is o fte n-ig nore d s e m antic c om ple xit y o f n eosla ve s o und

afte r o ffe rin g a v ers io n o f “ P re ttie st T ra in ,” a s la ve w ork s o ng th at a ppears to b e s im ply a bout a tr a in g oin g f ro m J a ckso n, M is sis sip pi, to N ew O rle ans. W it h h er e yes

clo se d to th e c am era a nd s h akin g h er h ead, th e b l