For the past ten weeks, you have actively planned the construction of a survey tool which could be piloted in the real world. Subsequently, you conducted an item analysis to identify the best-fit item

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Women

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Women

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, also known as (PTSD), is a mental illness that affects people who have experienced a form of trauma because of a scary or dangerous event. For months or years after the occurrence of the event, people with PTSD experience triggers that bring back the knowledge of the trauma along with some physical and emotional reactions. PTSD is common among women because they tend to experience a lot of traumatic events. Although anyone can experience PTSD, women tend to be at a higher risk because of the higher exposure to potentially traumatic experiences. Many researchers have attempted to examine various aspects of PTSD, particularly among women. This review analyses the measuring tools used by multiple researchers to study issues of PTSD in women. The psychometric characteristics of these tools, and the procedures used to collect the data to develop the concepts, constructs, and attitudes under investigation in the respective studies.

Critical Analyses of the Measuring Tools used to tap the Essence of the Construct, Concept, or Attitude under Investigation and their Psychometric Characteristics

Association between Social Support and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms among Chinese Patients with Ovarian Cancer

Liu et al. (2017) investigated the impact of social support on the symptoms of PTSD among Chinese ovarian cancer patients. The researchers used various research tools to determine that social comfort, hope, and resilience are essential tools in preventing, relieving, and treating PTSD among ovarian cancer patients. The researchers evaluated various variables to come up with this conclusion. One of the data types collected was the demographic and clinical characteristics of the patients, and data obtained from the medical records of the two hospitals of China Medical University between 2015 and 2016. The demographic data used included the age, marital status, and education of the participants. On the other hand, the clinical data used included the patients’ cancer stage, the treatment type they were undergoing, and the metastasis. Another data type that was used to prove the study’s hypothesis was the participants’ PTSD symptoms. The researchers used the PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PLC-C), a 17-item questionnaire that helps to determine the degree of the PTSD symptoms experienced by a patient. This questionnaire rates the PTSD symptoms on a five-point Likert scale, which helps the researchers to determine the degree of the patients’ symptoms, with scores ranging from 17 to 85. The study also analyzed the social support the patients have during their cancer treatment. The social support was measured using the Duke-UNC Functional Social Support Questionnaire. This questionnaire includes eight items with a five-point Likert Scale measuring the patients’ satisfaction with the social support they had at the time of the study. To analyze the hope the patients had concerning their condition, the researchers used the Herth Hope Index (HHI), a 12-item questionnaire that is used to evaluate the hope of patients. Lastly, the researchers used the Resilience Scale-14. This scale is a 14-item questionnaire with a 4-point Likert scale that evaluates patients’ resilience.

Psychometric Characteristics

PLC-C, Duke-UNC, and HHI, the measuring tools used in this study are each Likert scale-type questionnaires with five, five, and four points respectively. Leung (2011) analyses psychometric properties of Likert scales with various positions. The study showed that having fewer points on a data scale increases the chances of having skewness in the findings. The predictive validity of studies that have been done using the Likert scale is inconclusive. However, the reliability of such studies is guaranteed if the right statistical techniques were used to analyze the data.

Sexual Assault and Identity Disruption: A Sociological Approach to Posttraumatic Stress

Boyle (2017) conducted a study integrating trauma perspectives and a symbolic interactionist approach to show that the violation of cultural meanings for identities and identity disruption can lead to post-traumatic stress disorder. The study’s primary aim is to shed light on the relationship between sexual assault, stigmatized identities, and post-traumatic stress. The study aimed to prove six different hypotheses, which were evaluated using the following measuring tools. The dependent variable in the study was post-traumatic stress. The study utilized the Impact of Events Scale to test the post-traumatic stress among the participants. This scale is designed in a Likert model aiming to determine how distressed the participants were by some traumatic occurrences that could have happened in their past. According to Boyle (2017), this scale has been evaluated in various meta-analyses and proven to be effective. The independent variables in the study included identity deflection and the victim and survivor re-identification. The researchers used multiple steps to calculate the participants’ identity deflection. After indicating that they had been sexually assaulted at least once since age 14, various follow-up questions were used to identify the participants about their identity before and after the assault. The researcher used EPA dimensions collected from the follow-up questions to identify the identity deflection from the EPA scale created. The participants were required to determine their level of agreement with the statements “I am a victim” and “I am a survivor” in a 7-scale Liker chart ranging from 1(strongly disagree) to 7(strongly agree) to evaluate the victim and survivor re-identification. The order of these statements was later analyzed using the Qualtrics randomization software.

Psychometric Characteristics

The Impacts of Events Scale used in this study has its validity proven through various meta-analyses. This measure is also used in some contexts to determine the availability and impact of post-traumatic stress symptoms (Boyle, 2016). On the other hand, the EPA Dimensions validity and reliability proved using the ACT equation that is fundamentally used to determine the deflection. Therefore, the measures in this study can classify as valid and reliable.

Group-Delivered Cognitive/Exposure Therapy for PTSD in Women Veterans: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Castillo et al. (2016) aimed at investigating the methods of improving the efficacy of group delivered 3-module (exposure, cognitive, skills) PTSD treatment. The study developed after identifying that group treatments for PTSD in women veterans are not as effective as the individual treatment programs. The study concluded that improved methodology for the 3-module group-delivered PTSD treatment could be useful in improving group treatment. Various measures were used to collect the data used to make the above conclusion. The demographic data of the participants were obtained using a 22-item self-report. The researchers used a clinically administered PTSD scale (CAPS) to measure the post-traumatic stress among the participants as a way of determining the inclusion eligibility and later as a method of examining the level of PTSD the included participants had. Both current and lifetime PTSD symptoms were monitored using Structured Clinical Interview for DSM–IV-I (SCID-I) and Structured Clinical Interview for DSM–IV-II-Personality Questionnaire (SCID-II-PQ). Both two measures are structured interviews with a high level of reliability and have been proven to have superior validity over a review of medical records, diagnostic interviews, and information from the families of the victims. The research also assessed the traumatic events that the veterans had experiences using the Life Events Checklist (LEC) and Military Stress Exposure Scale (MSEQ). The LEC is a 17-item self-reports that developed from CAPS, and its validity and reliability have been proven, making it better than other available measuring tools. On the other hand, the MSEQ is a 14-item questionnaire that captures military trauma events and sexual assault trauma events that active veteran women may have experienced while in their line of duty. Lastly, the researchers used three measures to determine the secondary outcomes of the study. These measures include SF-36, QOLI, and PCL. The SF-36 was used to determine the social functioning and life quality. QOLI was used to measure the importance and satisfaction with 16 life domains. Lastly, PLC was a 17-item questionnaire used to determine the participants’ sensitivity to psychiatric change.

Psychometric Characteristics

The measures used for this study developed from CAPS, which has been tested and measured for validity and credibility and applied in various clinical and research contexts to determine PTSD symptoms. Each of the tests used, which includes DSM–IV-I (SCID-I), SCID-II-PQ, LEC, QOLI, and PCL can be both valid and reliable because they have developed with the properties of CAPS, which has proven validity and reliability.

A Simple Model for Predicting Post-Partum PTSD in High-Risk Pregnancies

Polacheck et al. (2016) aimed to investigate the possible antepartum risk factors and prevalence of partial or complete PTSD in women with complicated pregnancies. The study identified anxiety and sadness, painful delivery process, emotional crises, depression during pregnancy, and painful birth experiences as some of the factors that create a risk of PTSD among women. The study concluded that PTSD is highly prevalent in complicated pregnancies and created a simple model to identify and treat PTSD among postpartum women. To develop this conclusion, the researchers used various measuring tools. This study had two phases. In the first phase, the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was used to identify the demographic data, history of trauma, and information on the participants’ pregnancy experiences. This scale was administered with the help of clinical nurses to enhance its effectiveness. In the second phase, the participants were required to complete a Post-Traumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale (PDS), which helps to indicate whether the DSM-IV criteria for PTSD has met in the original screening.

Psychometric Characteristics

This study used two measures including the EPDS and PDS. Both the EPDS and PDS have been proven to be clinically meaningful and are widely used in the diagnosis of PTSD symptoms (Polacheck et al., 2016). Therefore, there are relatively high chances that these two measuring tools helped to collect accurate and reliable data. The study classifies the EPDS scale as clinically meaningful because it has been tested and widely used in clinical settings to measure the occurrence of PTSD symptoms in patients. On the other hand, the PDS scale was considered to the valid and credible because it follows the DSM-IV criteria for PTSD diagnosis; hence, helps in the identification of accurate data.

The Procedures used by the Researchers to Collect Data

Liu et al. (2017) conducted their study at China Medical University, which is known to be one of the critical gynecologic surgery providers in the northeastern region of China. The research process identified patients who were eligible for the research. Four factors were used to determine the eligibility, including patients who were at least 18 years when diagnosed with ovarian cancer. Additional factors used to determine eligibility were those who showed histological evidence of this type of cancer, could read and comprehend the Chinses language making it possible for them to fill the questionnaires, and they must have had clear and conscious cognition. After obtaining the patients’ written consent, the researchers collected their medical data from the two China Medical University hospitals, in which various questionnaires administered to the patients. By the end of the process, the researchers had collected the required data from 201 participants with a valid response rate of 93.5%.

Boyle (2017) conducted their study at a large university college in the southeastern United States after getting the consent of the approval of the Institution Review Board (IRB). The participants recruited via email through a “College Identity Study” which helped to identify the students who met the study’s inclusion criteria. Women and nonces-gender participants were included in the study because they have a higher risk of victimization. The participants entered a draw for $50 visa check cards where the students were required to enter the lottery provided they participate in the email study. They presented with a survey alongside a consent form that hosted on Qualtrics. There were 569 and 29 transgender or gender people who completed the study; hence, they included in the primary data collection process. They screened for victimization using sexual experiences survey which was used to identify the possibility of past traumatic sexual experiences. The eligible participants later participated in a study that was used to collect data for the primary research. The answered a post-traumatic stress survey, identity deflection survey, and a victim and survivor re-identification survey.

Castillo et al. (2016) conducted their study between 2008 and 2013. The data collection process began with the screening of the participants for eligibility. The researchers ensured that the participants consented to the research after the procedure described to them and that they answered various assessment tests that would be used to determine their eligibility. The eligible participants randomly placed in either the 16-week TX or a 16-week minimal attention WL arm. The WL grouped subjects received 60-minute unstructured interviews with a psychologist, administered bi-monthly. These interviews used face-to-face alternated with telephone contact. The TX group went through a 3 and 6-month program. Each of the groups’ applications conducted by masters and bachelor level assessment technicians. The participants went through various tests where data was collected using the measuring tools mentioned in the previous section.

Polacheck et al. (2016) collected their data in a two-phase process. The data collection process started by identifying the right participants for the study. Al pregnant women with a high-risk pregnancy at the Sheba Medical Center were eligible for the study. All consenting women with the ability to understand the questionnaires and have access to their phone a month after delivery included after the approval of Helsinki Committee Ethical Review Board of Sheba Medical Center. In the first phase of the research, the participants answered the EPDS questionnaire with the assistance of clinical nurses. This questionnaire was used to collect the demographic and information on the pregnancies of the participants before and after delivery. In the second phase of the process, the participants were required to answer the PDS questionnaire diagnostic tool that was used to identify the aspects of post-traumatic stress that the participants may have been experiencing. The combination of this data was used to determine the connection between problematic pregnancies and post-traumatic stress in women.

Conclusion

The analysis of the measuring tools and data collection procedures used by the four researchers in this study demonstrate the importance of research tools in determining the aspects of PTSD in women. This analysis has shown that each of the researchers were able to identify reliable, and credible techniques for measuring the respective variables of their research leading to the development of information that can be used to improve the prevention and treatment of PTSD in women.References

Boyle, K. M. (2017). Sexual Assault and Identity Disruption: A Sociological Approach to Posttraumatic Stress. Society and Mental Health, 7(2), 69-84.

Castillo, D. T., Chee, C. L., Nason, E., Keller, J., C'de Baca, J., Qualls, C., ... & Keane, T. M. (2016). Group-delivered cognitive/exposure therapy for PTSD in women veterans: A randomized controlled trial. Psychological trauma: theory, research, practice, and policy, 8(3), 404.

Leung, S. O. (2011). A comparison of psychometric properties and normality in 4-, 5-, 6-, and 11-point Likert scales. Journal of Social Service Research, 37(4), 412-421.

Liu, C., Zhang, Y., Jiang, H., & Wu, H. (2017). Association between social support and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms among Chinese patients with ovarian cancer: A multiple mediation model. PloS one, 12(5), 1-15

Polachek, I. S., Dulitzky, M., Margolis-Dorfman, L., & Simchen, M. J. (2016). A simple model for prediction postpartum PTSD in high-risk pregnancies. Archives of women's mental health, 19(3), 483-490.