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EB SC O P ublis h in g C it a tio n F orm at: A PA ( A m eric an P sych olo gic al A sso c.) :

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Refe re n ces

Jo hnsto n, W . J ., K halil, S ., L e, A . H ., & M in g-S ung C heng, J . (2 018). B ehavio ra l Im plic a tio ns o f In te rn atio nal

S ocia l M ed ia A dve rtis in g: A n In ve stig atio n of In te rv e n in g and C ontin gency Facto rs . J o urn al O f

In te rn atio nal M ark e tin g , 2 6 (2 ), 4 3-6 1. d oi: 1 0.1 509/jim .1 6.0 125

< !- -A ddit io nal In fo rm atio n:

P ers is te nt lin k to th is re co rd (P erm alin k): h ttp s://lib ra ry re so urc e s.c o lu m bia so uth ern .e du/lo gin ?

url= http ://s e arc h .e bsco host.c o m /lo gin .a sp x? d ir e ct= tr u e& db= bth & AN =129780073& sit e = ehost- liv e & sco pe= sit e

E nd o f c it a tio n-->

B eh avio ra l Im plic a tio ns of In te rn atio nal Socia l Med ia Advertis in g: An In vestig atio n of

In te rv en in g a n d C ontin gen cy F acto rs

D esp it e th e ra pid g ro w th o f s o cia l m edia a nd th e e nth usia sm s u rro undin g s o cia l m edia a dve rtis in g

(S M A), s ca nt th eore tic a l a nd e m pir ic a l k n o w le dge e xis ts o n th e c ro ss-b ord er e ff e ctiv e ness o f S M A a nd

it s in flu en ce o n c o nsu m er b ehavio r in th e s o cia l m edia e n vir o nm en t. T his re se arc h d eve lo ps a fo ur-

s ta ge b elie f- v a lu e-a ttit u de-b ehavio r fr a m ew ork to u nders ta nd th e in te rv e n in g ro le o f S M A v a lu e a nd

attit u de a n d re fle ct h ow c o nsu m ers re a ct to S M A a cro ss c u lt u re s a nd g lo bal s o cia l m edia ty p es. T he

re su lt s c o nfir m th e m edia tin g e ff e cts o f v a lu e a nd a ttit u de a nd re ve a l th at p osit iv e a ttit u de to w ard S M A

in cre ase s so cia l m edia -s p ecif ic behavio rs (i. e ., m essa ge and so cia l in te ra ctio n behavio rs ). The

m odera tin g e ff e ct re su lt s o f cu lt u re re ve a l a g re ate r im pa ct o f in fo ta in m en t o n S M A va lu e a nd o f

cre dib ilit y o n S M A v a lu e a nd a ttit u de in th e h ig her-u nce rta in ty -a vo id ance c u lt u re . In fo ta in m ent h as a

la rg er eff e ct on S M A va lu e and attit u de in glo bal co nte nt co m munit y sit e s th an in glo bal so cia l

netw ork in g s it e s, b ut th ere is a re ve rs e m od era tin g e ff e ct o n th e im pa ct o f c re dib ilit y . T he re se arc h

p ro vid es a b ette r th eore tic a l u nders ta nd in g o f c o n su m ers ' b ehavio ra l r e sp o nse s to S M A in in te rn atio nal

m ark e tp la ce s.

O nlin e S upple m ent: h ttp ://d x.d oi. o rg .lib ra ry re so urc e s.c o lu m bia so u th ern .e du/1 0.1 509/jim .1 6.0 125

T he g ro w th o f W eb 2 .0 –base d so cia l m ed ia h as le d to a m ajo r p ara dig m sh if t in h ow m ark e te rs

c o m munic a te w it h c o nsu m ers a ro und th e w orld . T he in here nt in te ra ctiv e a nd im media te n atu re o f g lo bal

so cia l m edia a llo w s fo r a n e nvir o nm ent in w hic h clo se a nd m utu al re la tio nsh ip s ca n b e b uilt w it h

c o nsu m ers acro ss natio nal bord ers (O ka za ki and Ta ylo r 2013). It als o pro vid es m ark e te rs w it h a

pla tfo rm fo r in sta nt a nd in te ra ctiv e a dve rtis in g o n a g lo bal s ca le (H udso n e t a l. 2 016). A cco rd in g to

O ka za ki a nd T a ylo r ( 2 013), g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia e m plo ye d fo r in te rn atio nal a dve rtis in g c a n b rin g to geth er

th e tw o m ost d om in ant b ut o pposit e tr a it s : g lo bal re ach a nd p ers o n aliz a tio n. A h ost o f g lo bal fir m s a re

th us u sin g s o cia l m edia in cre asin gly a s a n a dve rtis in g p la tfo rm ( H atz it h om as, F otia dis , a nd C oudounaris 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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2016). U nders ta ndin g h ow g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia c o u ld b e e m plo ye d fo r in te rn atio nal a dve rtis in g a nd

asse ssin g it s im pact o n c o nsu m ers is th ere fo re o f p rim e im po rta nce .

D esp it e th e e nth usia sm o f m ark e te rs a n d th e in cre asin g s ch ola rly a tte ntio n (e .g ., B erth on e t a l. 2 012;

O ka za ki a n d T a ylo r 2 013), th e b ehavio ra l im plic a tio ns o f in te rn atio nal s o cia l m edia a dve rtis in g (S M A)

are re la tiv e ly le ss u nders to od. (H udso n e t a l. 2 016). A p ertin ent is su e in s o cia l m edia re se arc h , in

g enera l, is a p re dis p osit io n to w ard th e s tu dy o f b e havio ra l re sp o nse s, s u ch a s c lic k-th ro ugh ra te s a nd

purc h ase in te ntio n ( e .g ., A guir re e t a l. 2 01 5; D ao e t a l. 2 014), r o ote d in e it h er th e tr a dit io nal o r th e W eb

1.0 adve rtis in g m edia . T he so cia l m ed ia en vir o nm en t fu ndam en ta lly dif f e rs fr o m th ese adve rtis in g

envir o nm ents in te rm s o f a cce ssib ilit y , in te ra ctiv it y , a nd p ow er (s h if t fr o m fir m s to c o nsu m ers ) (B erth on

et a l. 2 012). T he in sta nt- in te ra ctiv e n atu re o f s o cia l m ed ia , p erh aps it s m ost c o nse quentia l fe atu re ,

pro vid es c o nsu m ers w it h g re ate r a bilit y to p ro ce ss a d ve rtis in g s tim uli th an w it h tr a dit io nal m edia (K o,

C ho, a nd R oberts 2 005). T his re su lt s in m ore c o m ple x a n d in te ra ctiv e b ehavio rs , s u ch a s c o nsu m ers '

in te ra ctio n w it h th eir s o cia l n etw ork o r w it h th e a d ve rtis e d m essa ges. T here fo re , a pply in g th e e xis tin g

w is d om o n c o nsu m er b ehavio r fr o m tr a dit io nal o r W eb 1 .0 m edia to s o cia l m edia w ould p ro vid e lim it e d

in sig hts ( a t b est) in to in te rn atio nal S M A e ff e ctiv e n ess.

A t th e s a m e tim e, in te rn atio nal S M A r e se arc h is in a n a sce nt s ta ge. O ka za ki a n d T a ylo r ( 2 013), in th eir

r e vie w of in te rn atio nal SM A lit e ra tu re , in dic a te th e dearth of th eore tic a l pers p ectiv e s on w hic h

h yp oth ese s c o uld b e fo rm ula te d a nd e m pir ic a lly te ste d. T his p a ucit y is re so n ate d in a nd c o m pounded

by th e s ca nt lit e ra tu re o n th e e ff e ct o f in te rn atio nal S M A o n c o n su m er b ehavio r a nd th e u nderly in g

psych olo gic a l p ro ce sse s (H udso n e t a l. 2 016). T his is su rp ris in g g iv e n th e im porta nce a tta ch ed to

u nders ta ndin g th e d yn am ic s o f in te rn atio nal S M A a nd it s im pa ct o n c o n su m ers (M oro , R it a , a nd V ala

2 016; O ka za ki and Ta ylo r 2013). A rg uably , th e th eore tic a l fo undatio ns of W eb 1.0 in te rn atio nal

adve rtis in g c o uld b e tr a nsfe rre d to s o cia l m ed ia . K noll (2 016), h ow eve r, c a u tio ns a gain st u sin g th is

a ppro ach w it h out e m pir ic a l e vid ence , p ro m ptin g th e te stin g o f th eore tic a l fr a m ew ork s o n th e in te ra ctiv e

b ehavio ra l im plic a tio ns o f in te rn atio nal S M A.

B erth on e t a l. (2 012) s u ggest th at th e d o w nstr e am c o nse q uence s o f s o cia l m edia a re d ependent o n

natio nal c u lt u re . T he a uth ors a rg ue th a t m ark e te rs n e ed to ta ke c u lt u ra l d if f e re nce s in to a cco unt w hen

desig nin g th eir glo bal so cia l media str a te gie s. Barrin g a fe w stu die s th at dis cu ss th e

sta ndard iz a tio n/a dapta tio n of so cia l m edia co m munic a tio n an d th e ro le of natio nal cu lt u re (e .g .,

H atz it h om as, F otia d is , a nd C oudounaris 2 016; H udso n e t a l. 2 016), th e e xta nt lit e ra tu re p ro vid es lim it e d

guid ance o n h ow S M A is p erc e iv e d a n d c o u ld b e im ple m en te d e ff e ctiv e ly a cro ss c u lt u re s. S uch a n

in sig ht is p artic u la rly im porta nt b eca use b ehavio ra l m od els d o n ot n ece ssa rily h old a cro ss c u lt u re s

(A sh ra f, T hongpapanl, a nd A uh 2 014).

In vie w o f th ese lim it a tio ns in th e e xta nt lit e ra tu re , o ur a im is to d eve lo p a th eore tic a lly g ro unded

fr a m ew ork o f in te rn atio nal S M A e ff e ctiv e n ess in a c ro ss-c u lt u ra l s e ttin g. U sin g th e h ie ra rc h y o f e ff e cts

t h eory (L avid ge and S te in er 1961) and th e exp e cta ncy va lu e th eory of gra tif ic a tio ns so ught and

obta in ed ( R ayb urn a nd P alm gre en 1 984) a s th eore tic a l fo undatio ns, w e d e ve lo p a fr a m ew ork o f fa cto rs

th at c o uld in te rv e ne w it h a nd c o ntin gently a ff e ct c o nsu m ers ' in te ra ctiv e b e havio ra l re sp onse s to S M A

acro ss b ord ers . S pecif ic a lly , w e fo cu s o n th e in te rv e n in g r o le s o f v a lu e a n d a ttit u de a nd th e m odera tin g

ro le s of unce rta in ty avo id ance and glo bal so cia l m ed ia ty p e s in th e re la tio nsh ip betw een S M A

in fo ta in m ent (a te rm fo r m ate ria l th at in fo rm s an d en te rta in s)/c re dib ilit y and m essa ge and so cia l

in te ra ctio n b ehavio rs . 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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Our re se arc h m ake s se ve ra l co ntr ib utio ns to th e lit e ra tu re . Fir s t, w e ad va nce th e re se arc h on

in te rn atio nal S M A e ff e ctiv e ness b y p ro p osin g a n a lt e rn ativ e m od el o f c o n su m er b ehavio r ro ote d in th e

in te ra ctiv e W eb 2 .0 e nvir o nm ent. O ur re se a rc h is a m on g th e fir s t to in ve stig ate a nd a dva nce th e

kn ow le dge o f th e e ff e ct o f in te ra ctiv e S M A o n th e in te ra ctiv e b ehavio ra l re sp onse s o f m essa ge a nd

so cia l in te ra ctio n in th e in te rn atio nal c o nte xt. In th e p ro ce ss, w e d e part fr o m m ost p rio r lit e ra tu re , w hic h

h as fo cu se d o n m ark e tin g o utc o m es s u ch a s p u rc h a se in te ntio n a nd e le ctr o nic w ord o f m outh (D ao e t

al. 2014; H su et al. 2015), beca use th ese m ea su re s m ay be unsu it a ble to asse ss adve rtis in g

eff e ctiv e ness in th e s o cia l m edia e nvir o nm en t.

S eco nd, w e c o ntr ib ute to th e in te rn atio na l a d ve rtis in g lit e ra tu re b y d eve lo pin g a th eory -d riv e n fr a m ew ork

o f in te rn atio nal S M A e ff e ctiv e ness. D ra w in g o n th e h ie ra rc h y o f e ff e cts th eory a nd th e e xp ecta ncy v a lu e

th eory , w e a ddre ss th e ca ll to a dva nce th eore tic a l p e rs p e ctiv e s o n in te rn atio nal S M A (K noll 2 016;

O ka za ki a n d T a ylo r 2 013). O ur fr a m ew ork d eepens th e th eore tic a l u n ders ta ndin g o f h ow c o nsu m ers

e va lu ate S M A in in te rn atio nal m ark e tp la ce s by exa m in in g va lu e and attit u de as th e underly in g

pro ce sse s g uid in g b ehavio r a nd in ve stig a tin g th e b o undary c o n dit io ns th at a lt e r th e e ff ic a cy o f S M A. O n

a bro ader le ve l, we add to th e deve lo pm en t of th e tw o th eorie s in th e re alm of S M A and th eir

a pplic a bilit y a cro ss b ord ers .

T hir d , w e e xte nd th e r e se arc h o n u nce rta in ty a vo id ance ( A sh ra f e t a l. 2 017; K ra utz a nd H off m ann 2 017)

and c o ntr ib ute to th e s ca nt lit e ra tu re o n th e r o le o f n atio nal c u lt u re in in te rn atio nal S M A. T his g ap in th e

S M A r e se arc h is p artic u la rly w orris o m e b e ca u se lim it e d k n ow le dge e xis ts o n th e fe asib ilit y a nd e ff ic a cy

o f s a m e S M A s tr a te gie s a cro ss c u lt u re s (H udso n e t a l. 2 016). W e e xp a nd th e s tr e am o f re se arc h o n

S M A b y o ff e rin g b oth th eore tic a l in sig hts a nd m anageria l g u id ance o n th e e xe cu tio n o f S M A in d if f e re nt

cu lt u re s. In th e p ro ce ss, w e a ls o a dd to th e S M A lit e ra tu re o n sta ndard iz a tio n ve rs u s a dapta tio n

(H atz it h om as, F otia d is , a nd C oudouna ris 2 016) a n d to th e la rg er a n d th e o ngoin g d ebate o n th e

adve rtis in g s ta ndard iz a tio n— adapta tio n s tr a te gy. W e a ls o ta ke in to a cco unt h ow c o nsu m er a sse ssm ent

of S M A c o uld v a ry a cro ss d if f e re nt g lo b al s o cia l m edia ty p e s, th ere by a ddin g to a nd e xte ndin g th e

lim it e d lit e ra tu re o n th e c o m para tiv e e ff ic a cy o f S M A s tr a te gie s o n d if f e re nt ty p e s o f g lo bal s o cia l m edia .

C O NCEPTU AL F R AM EW ORK

Socia l M ed ia A dvertis in g

D ra w in g o n th e s yn th esis o f th e S M A lit e ra tu re ( e .g ., K noll 2 016; K um ar e t a l. 2 016), in th is r e se arc h w e

opera tio naliz e S M A a s fir m -g enera te d a dve rtis in g p oste d b y fir m s o n s o cia l m edia w it h in sta nt a nd

in te ra ctiv e fe atu re s th at a llo w c o nsu m ers to ta ke in te ra ctiv e a ctio ns. B y n atu re , S M A is in sta nt a nd

in te ra ctiv e , b ut c e rta in fo rm ats o f S M A a re m ore in te ra ctiv e , s u ch a s th ose w it h b uilt - in q uiz ze s, g am es,

a nd p olls a nd/o r th ose th at a llo w c o nsu m ers to e xp lo re , lik e , c o m ment o n, fo llo w , a nd s h are th e a ds

in sta ntly . S ocia l m edia a dve rtis in g p ro vid es b oth c o nsu m ers a nd m anagers w it h a u niq ue m etr ic o f a n

ad's p opula rit y th ro ugh th e n um ber o f lik e s, c o m ments , a nd s h a re s it r e ce iv e s in a tim ely fa sh io n. S ocia l

m edia a dve rtis in g is u niq ue b eca use , u nlik e a d s o n tr a dit io nal o r W eb 1 .0 m edia , it a ppears a s th e p art

o f th e m ain v ie w in g c o nte nt o f a g iv e n s o cia l m edia . S ocia l m edia it s e lf h a s s h if te d th e p ow er fr o m fir m s

to c o nsu m ers , c h angin g th em fr o m p assiv e to a ctiv e e le m en ts in th e a dve rtis in g p ro ce ss ( B erth on e t a l.

2 012). T hus, S M A fu ndam enta lly d if f e rs fr o m a d ve rtis in g o n tr a dit io nal o r W eb 1 .0 m edia , a nd it m ig ht

be in appro pria te to a sse ss th e im pact o f S M A o n b e havio r w it h th e e xis tin g k n ow le dge fr o m o th er

m edia . 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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Adve rtis in g o n s o cia l m edia is a ch ie ve d in s e ve ra l w ays a n d th ro ugh d if f e re nt ty p es o f s o cia l m edia ,

su ch a s in th e fo rm o f lo ng ( e .g ., o n F ace b ook) o r s h o rt ( e .g ., o n T w it te r) te xt m essa ges, p ic tu re s, v id eos

(e .g ., o n Y ouT ube), a nd s o o n. F ir m s c a n c re ate th eir o w n Y ouT ube c h a nnels a nd F ace -b ook p ages o r

use th e v a rio us in te ra ctiv e a dve rtis in g to ols o n Y ouT ube a n d F ace b ook. D if f e re nt ty p es o f s o cia l m edia

h ave th eir o w n u niq ue fo rm ats a nd a ttr ib ute s th at o ff e r s p ecif ic a pplic a tio ns fo r S M A. F or e xa m ple , S M A

on Y ouT ube p rim arily a ppears in th e fo rm o f in -s tr e am v id eos a ds (s kip pable a ds b efo re th e s ta rt o f o r

durin g a v id eo), a nd in -s e arc h a ds (d is p la ye d in s e arc h re su lt s ). W he re as in -s tr e am v id eo a ds a ppear

in cid enta lly w hen c o nsu m ers w atc h a v id eo, in -s e a rc h a ds a p pear w hen th ey d e lib era te ly s e arc h fo r a ds

or re la te d c o nte nt o n Y ouT ube. C onsu m ers a re a ls o e xp o se d to a ds w hen th ey s u bscrib e to a b ra nd's

Y ouT ube c h annel. Ir re sp ectiv e o f th e d if f e re nce s in th e s o u rc e o f e xp o su re , a ds o n Y ouT ube p ro vid e

sim ila r e xp e rie nce a nd a ctio ns/c o nte nt to c o nsu m ers . In c o ntr a st, a d s o n F ace b ook m ain ly ta ke th e fo rm

o f p osts a nd d yn am ic p ro duct a ds. C on su m ers a re e xp o se d to a ds o n th eir n ew sfe ed w hen th ey lik e

b ra nds' p ages; w hen a ds a re s h are d, lik e d , o r c o m mente d o n b y c o n su m ers ' s o cia l n etw ork ; o r w hen

fir m s d ir e ctly ta rg et c o nsu m ers o n th e b asis o f th eir b ro w sin g h is to ry a n d h abit s . A lt h ough a ds o n

F ace book d if f e r fr o m th ose o n Y ouT ube in te rm s o f h ow c o n su m ers a re e xp o se d to th em , th ey a ppear

on th e n ew sfe ed e sse ntia lly in th e s a m e m an ner, w it h id entic a l a ctio ns a nd c o n te nt.

T he H ie ra rc h y o f E ffe cts a n d t h e E xp ec ta n cy V alu e T heo rie s

T he h ie ra rc h y o f e ff e cts th eory is a s ys te m atic re sp o nse p ro ce ss d iv id ed in to th e s e quentia l s ta ges

(S m it h , C hen, a nd Y ang 2 008) o f c o gnit io n, a ff e ct, a nd c o n atio n. C ognit io n c a n ta ke th e fo rm o f b elie f,

a ff e ct ta ke s th e fo rm o f a ttit u de, a nd c o natio n ta ke s th e fo rm o f b ehavio r. T he th eory o f th e c o gnit io n—

aff e ct— co natio n p ro ce ss is p ro pose d to b e th e m ost p ra ctic a l m od el o f c o n nectin g v a rio us le ve ls o f

co nsu m er re sp onse s a nd is c o nsid ere d b oth th e b asis a n d a n a dequate a ppro ach to m easu re th e

eff e ctiv e ness o f a dve rtis in g (S an Jo s´e -C abezu d o, G utié rre z-C illá n, a nd G utié rre zA rra nz 2 008). W e

em plo y th e th eory p artic u la rly b eca use it a llo w s fo r a h o lis tic a sse ssm en t o f b oth d ir e ct a nd in dir e ct

e ff e cts o f p osit iv e d is p osit io ns o n b ehavio ra l re sp o nse s (B arts ch , R ie fle r, a nd D ia m anto poulo s 2 016).

F urth erm ore , it is p osit e d th at th ese th eore tic a l m od els d o n ot g enera liz e b ut a re c o ntin gent ( E is e nd a nd

Ta rra hi 2016). This not only re nders th e pro je ctio n of th e exta nt hie ra rc h y of eff e cts dom estic

f r a m ew ork s to in te rn atio nal c o nte xt d if f ic u lt b u t a ls o s tr e ngth ens th e g ro und fo r e m plo yin g th e th eory in

t h e c o ntin gent s e ttin gs o f v a rie d c u lt u re s a nd g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia ty p e s.

T he exp e cta ncy va lu e th eory , in co ntr a st, elu cid ate s ho w a pers o n 's be lie fs co ntr ib ute to th e

asse ssm ent o f v a lu e th ro ugh g ra tif ic a tio n s s o u ght a n d o b ta in ed, le adin g to th e d eve lo pm ent o f a n a ff e ct

s ta te (R ayb urn a nd P alm gre en 1 984). T he th eory is ro bust a n d fle xib le in u n ders ta ndin g a nd lin kin g

dif f e re nt s ta ges o f c o nsu m er e va lu atio n a nd is fr e quently e m plo ye d a s a th eore tic a l p ara dig m in a

v a rie ty o f fie ld s (S hoham , R ose , a nd K ahle 1 9 98). T he th eory , th ro ugh th e m ech anis m o f g ra tif ic a tio ns

so ught and obta in ed, delin eate s th e m otiv a tio n behin d th e belie f— va lu e— attit u de se quence of

co nsu m er re sp onse s. F urth erm ore , th e c e n tr a l te net o f th e th eory (i. e ., th e b elie f— va lu e— attit u de lin k)

co uld b e s a id to b e c o m ple m enta ry to th e b e lie f— attit u de— behavio r m odel o f th e h ie ra rc h y o f e ff e cts

t h eory . B uild in g o n th is a nd th e fle xib ili t y o f th e h ie ra rc h y o f e ff e cts th eory in te rm s o f th e n um ber o f

sta ges (s e e S m it h , C hen, a nd Y ang 2 0 08), w e d e ve lo p a fo ur-s ta ge fr a m ew ork o f b elie f— va lu e—

attit u de— behavio r and stu dy th e m edia tin g and m od era tin g m ech a nis m s to unders ta nd co nsu m er

re actio n to S M A in in te rn atio nal m ark e tp la ce s.

C oncep tu al F ra m ew ork D evelo pm en t 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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We deve lo p a th eory -b ase d belie f— va lu e— attit u de— behavio r fr a m ew ork to unders ta nd co nsu m er

re sp onse s to S M A a cro ss in te rn atio nal m ark e ts (F ig ure 1 ). W e b ase o ur c h o ic e o f fa cto rs o n b oth th e

tr a dit io nal a dve rtis in g lit e ra tu re a nd th e u n iq ue in te ra ctiv e fa cto rs c ru cia l to S M A. T o r e pre se nt th e b elie f

or c o g nit io n (fir s t) s ta ge o f th e fo ur-s ta ge fr a m ew ork , w e e m plo y S M A in fo ta in m ent a nd c re dib ilit y . T he

tw o, a part fr o m b ein g r e gard ed a s b elie f fa cto rs in th e tr a dit io nal a dve rtis in g lit e ra tu re ( e .g ., C .- L . L iu e t

al. 2 01 2; P olla y a nd M it ta l 1 993; W ang a n d S un 2 0 10), a re im po rta nt c h ara cte ris tic s a nd th e d efin in g

fe atu re s o f S M A (D ao e t a l. 2 014). T he s e co n d s ta ge is re pre se n te d b y v a lu e o f S M A. V alu e, b esid es

bein g c o nsid ere d a p art o f c o gnit io n in a dve rtis in g (F . L iu e t a l. 2 0 12; O ka za ki 2 004), is a ls o tr e ate d a s

an outc o m e of belie f fa cto rs . A t th e sa m e, va lu e is an ante ce d ent of attit u de acco rd in g to th e

exp ecta ncy v a lu e th eory (R ayb urn a nd P alm gre en 1 9 84). T here fo re , w e m odel v a lu e a s a m edia to r in

t h e b e lie fs fa cto rs — attit u de r e la tio nsh ip . A dve rtis in g a ttit u de, a p ers o n al u tilit y fa cto r th at o rig in ate s fr o m

adve rtis in g b elie fs (P olla y a nd M it ta l 1 993), fo rm s th e a ff e ct fa cto r (th ir d s ta ge). A ttit u de, a part fr o m

bein g a c o nse quence o f b elie fs /v a lu e, is a ls o p o sit e d to le ad to b e havio ra l re sp onse s, a cco rd in g to th e

hie ra rc h y o f e ff e cts th eory , a nd th us a cts a s a m edia to r in th e b e lie fs / v a lu e— behavio r re la tio nsh ip .

B ehavio ra l re sp onse s (th e c o natio n fa cto rs in th e h ie ra rc h y o f e ff e cts th eory ) a re re pre se nte d b y s o cia l

m edia — sp ecif ic b ehavio rs o f m essa ge a n d s o cia l in te ra ctio ns.

W e s tu dy m essa ge a nd s o cia l in te ra ctio ns a s c o n su m ers ' b ehavio ra l re sp o nse s to in te rn atio nal S M A

beca use o f th eir re le va nce in th e so cia l m ed ia e nvir o nm en t. M essa ge a nd so cia l in te ra ctio ns a re

c o nsid ere d fu ndam enta l b ehavio rs in r e sp o nse to in te ra ctiv e In te rn et a d ve rtis in g ( H uang e t a l. 2 007; K o,

C ho, a nd R oberts 2 005; Z eng, H uang, a nd D ou 2 009). T hey c a n p ro vid e m ark e te rs w it h m eanin gfu l

in sig hts in to c o nsu m er o pin io n (s e e N guye n e t a l. 2 0 14) a n d c o uld b e co m e a p ow erfu l d ete rm in ant o f

su bse quent, m ore d ir e ct co nsu m er re sp onse s. A lt h ough th ese tw o b ehavio rs a re th e fu ndam enta l

behavio ra l r e sp onse s to in te ra ctiv e m ark e tin g s tim uli a nd a re e xp e cte d to p la y im porta nt r o le s in ju dgin g

th e e ff e ctiv e ness o f S M A, s tu die s o n th eir d riv in g fo rc e s (in b o th d o m estic a nd c ro ss-b ord er s e ttin gs)

a re s ca rc e .

A lt h ough w e d eve lo p a b ro ad fo ur-s ta ge fr a m ew ork o f c o n su m er r e sp o nse s to S M A, o ur p rim ary a im is

t o in ve stig ate how co nsu m ers deve lo p S M A-s p e cif ic behavio r an d to id entif y th e m edia tin g and

m odera tin g e ff e cts . T here fo re , w hile w e te st th e e n tir e p ro pose d fr a m ew ork , w e h yp oth esiz e o nly th e

dir e ct e ff e cts o f a ttit u de o n m essa ge a nd s o cia l in te ra ctio n b e havio rs (th e S M A-s p ecif ic o utc o m es), th e

m edia tin g e ff e cts o f v a lu e a nd a ttit u de, a n d th e m od era tin g e ff e cts o f u nce rta in ty a vo id ance a nd g lo bal

so cia l m edia ty p es (d is cu sse d next) . W e co nte nd th at alt h ough th e dir e ct eff e cts of ( 1) SM A

in fo ta in m ent a nd c re dib ilit y o n v a lu e a nd a ttit u de a nd ( 2) v a lu e o n a ttit u de m ust b e te ste d w it h in th e

pro pose d fr a m ew ork , th ese re la tio nsh ip s m ay p ro vid e o nly in cre m en ta l c o n tr ib utio ns to th e a rg um ents

d elin eatin g th em in th e e xis tin g a dve rtis in g lit e ra tu re . T hus, w e fo cu s o n th e re la tiv e ly ric h er d ir e ct,

m edia tin g, a nd m odera tin g e ff e cts a nd c o nfir m th e a p plic a b ilit y o f a h o lis tic h ie ra rc h y o f e ff e cts th eory —

a nd e xp ecta ncy v a lu e th eory — base d fr a m ew ork o f S M A e ff e ctiv e n ess a cro ss in te rn atio nal m ark e ts .

U nce rta in ty A vo id an ce . In te rn atio nal S M A e ff o rts a re s u bje ct to c u lt u ra l d if f e re nce s. C ult u re is e xp ecte d

to in flu ence co nsu m ers ' m otiv a tio n to cre ate , e xch ange, a n d e n th usia stic a lly e ngage in th eir so cia l

m edia n ew sfe ed (B erth on e t a l. 2 012). A m on g th e s ix d im en sio ns o f H ofs te de, H ofs te de, a nd M in ko v's

( 2 010) c u lt u ra l ty p olo gy, w e fo cu s o n th e m odera tin g e ff e ct o f u n ce rta in ty a vo id ance , w hic h e xp la in s

w heth er a c u lt u re a cce pts u nce rta in ty a s a s o u rc e o f o pportu nit y o r fin ds w ays to r e duce it b eca use it is

p erc e iv e d a s a th re at. C om pare d w it h o th er c u lt u ra l d im en sio ns, u nce rta in ty a vo id ance h as a u niq ue

re le va nce in th e so cia l m edia e nvir o nm en t. In a d dit io n to it s im po rta nce in a ff e ctin g so cia l m edia

b ehavio r a nd u sa ge (s e e H udso n e t a l. 2 016), u nce rta in ty a vo id ance h as a b earin g o n ris k ta kin g, 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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where as c o nsu m ers ' p erc e iv e d ris k h as b een fo und to a ff e ct th eir b ehavio r o n s o cia l m edia (H ajli a nd

Lin 20 16). F urth erm ore , unce rta in ty avo id ance ha s been sh ow n to aff e ct in te rn atio nal adve rtis in g

outc o m es ( M ölle r a nd E is e nd 2 010) a nd s o cia l m ed ia in te ra ctio ns ( H udso n e t a l. 2 016) a cro ss c u lt u re s.

G lo bal S ocia l M edia T yp es. S ocia l m edia c o u ld b e c la ssif ie d a s g lo bal, r e gio nal, a nd lo ca l d ependin g o n

it s re ach a nd c o ve ra ge. In c o ntr a st to re gio nal/ lo ca l s o cia l m ed ia s it e s (e .g ., V Konta kte in R ussia a nd

E ura sia n c o untr ie s; R enre n, Y ouku , o r S in a W eib o in C hin a) th at a re c h ara cte riz e d b y lo ca l u se rs a nd

th e u se o f lo ca l la n guages, g lo bal s o cia l m edia h a s g lo bal re ach a n d re le va nce . A lt h ough u se rs o f

glo bal s o cia l m edia c o m e fr o m d iv e rs e c u lt u ra l b ackg ro unds, th ey a re u nte th ere d to tim e a nd g eogra phy

and fo rm a g lo bal n etw ork — base d s o cie ty (H am pto n, L ee, a nd H er 2 011 ). O ka za ki a nd T a ylo r (2 013)

poin t to a lik e ly e m erg ence o f g lo bal c o nsu m er c u lt u re a ro und g lo bal s o cia l n etw ork s d ue to s h are d

m eanin gs a nd s ym bols . T his p ro vid es th e g ro und to p osit th at c o n su m ers o n a g lo bal s o cia l m edia s it e

m ig ht e xh ib it s im ila r a ttit u des a nd b ehavio rs e ve n in th e p re se n ce o f c u lt u ra l d if f e re nce s.

A ll g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia , h ow eve r, is n ot th e s a m e. O ne o f th e d e fin in g fe atu re s o f g lo bal s o cia l m edia is

i t s d if f e re nt fo rm ats o r ty p es th at p osse ss th eir o w n im ag e, p ers o n alit y , a nd c h a ra cte ris tic s ( K apla n a nd

H aenle in 2 010). D if f e re nt ty p es o f g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia m ay in flu ence th e n atu re o f in te ra ctio ns a nd a ff e ct

co nsu m er p erc e ptio n a nd b elie f in a dve rtis e m en ts (P re nderg ast, L iu , a nd P oon 2 009). T here fo re , w e

exp ect th at c o nsu m ers fr o m d if f e re nt c u lt u re s w ill e xh ib it s im ila r a ttit u de a nd b ehavio r o n a g lo bal s o cia l

m edia s it e , b ut th eir a ttit u des a nd b ehavio rs w ill v a ry a cro ss d if f e re nt ty p e s o f g lo bal s o cia l m edia

b eca use o f d if f e re nce s in th e n atu re o f g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia a nd th e n etw ork s o cie ty it g enera te s. T his

m ake s g lo b al s o cia l m edia ty p es a n im po rta nt y e t re la tiv e ly ig nore d c o n tin gent fa cto r in th e s tu dy o f

behavio ra l r e sp onse s to in te rn atio nal S M A ( W ang, M in , a nd H an 2 016).

A cco rd in g to B erg h e t a l. ( 2 011 ), s o cia l m ed ia c a n b e d iv id ed in to th re e ty p e s: c o nte nt c o m munit y s it e s

(C CSs), so cia l netw ork in g sit e s (S N Ss), and so cia l m ed ia pla tfo rm s. W e fo cu s on glo bal C CSs

(Y ouT ube) a nd g lo bal S N Ss (F ace boo k) b e ca u se th ese a re th e tw o m ost w id ely u se d g lo bal s o cia l

m edia ty p e s (D ao e t a l. 2 014). W e d o n o t e xp lic it ly s tu dy th e e ff e ct o f s o cia l m edia p la tfo rm s b eca use

th is ty p e o f s o cia l m edia is r e la tiv e ly le ss p re va le nt ( D ao e t a l. 2 0 14) a n d F ace b ook is b oth a n S N S a nd

a p la tfo rm ( B erg h e t a l. 2 011 ), th ere by m akin g th e m od elin g o f s o cia l m ed ia p la tfo rm s le ss in sig htfu l.

H yp oth esis D evelo pm en t

The E ff e ct of A ff e ct/A ttit u de To w ard S M A on C onatio n. C onsu m er co n atio n, in our re se arc h , is

r e pre se nte d by m essa ge in te ra ctio n an d so cia l in te ra ctio n behavio rs on so cia l m edia . M essa ge

in te ra ctio n re fe rs to th e d egre e to w hic h c o n su m ers e n gage in p ro ce ssin g a ds b y a ctiv e ly in te ra ctin g

w it h adve rtis in g m essa ges, w here as so cia l in te ra ctio n enta ils co nsu m ers ' engagem ent w it h th e

adve rtis e r a nd o th er u se rs . M essa ge a nd s o cia l in te ra ctio n b ehavio rs a re u niq ue to th e s o cia l m edia

e nvir o nm ent, as th ey ca ptu re co nsu m ers ' va rie d in te ra ctiv it y w it h th e adve rtis in g co nte nt, oth er

co nsu m ers , a nd a dve rtis e rs . T hus, th ese b ehavio rs a re q uit e d if f e re nt fr o m th e g enera l re sp onse s to

a ny In te rn et a dve rtis in g, s u ch a s g iv in g, o bta in in g, a nd p assin g in fo rm atio n. In th e c o nte xt o f S M A,

m essa ge in te ra ctio n c a n b e s e t in m otio n th ro ugh a ctio ns w it h in th e a dve rtis in g m essa ge, s u ch a s

dow nlo adin g co nte n t, clic kin g hyp erlin ks, utiliz in g se arc h fu nctio ns, or co nsu m in g th e m ult im edia

f e atu re s o f th e a dve rtis e m ent ( K o, C ho, a nd R oberts 2 005).

A p ro m in ent a sp ect o f a ttit u de to w ard d ig it a l a dve rtis in g is it s c a p abilit y to a ff e ct c o nsu m ers ' e xp osu re ,

atte ntio n, and w illin gness to clic k, ass e ss, an d re act to th e ad ve rtis e d m essa ge (O ka za ki 2004).

C onsu m ers w it h a p osit iv e a ttit u de to w ard S M A a re m ore re ce p tiv e to it (H su e t a l. 2 015) a nd th us w ill 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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be m ore w illin g to e xp ose th em se lv e s to , w atc h , a nd p ay a tte ntio n to /fo llo w th e a d a nd th e a dve rtis e d

m essa ge (s e e M ehta 2 000) o n s o cia l m ed ia . T he re su lt a nt h ig h in vo lv e m en t w it h th e a d (J a m es a nd

K ove r 1 992 ) w ould m ake c o nsu m ers a ct fu rth er in r e sp o nse to th e a dve rtis e d m essa ges ( M ehta 2 000),

s u ch a s s p endin g m ore tim e to e la bora te o n th e a dve rtis e d m essa ge (J a m es a nd K ove r 1 992) a nd

perfo rm in g m ore c o nte nt- g ath erin gorie nte d b e havio r (Z eng, H ua ng, a n d D ou 2 009). In th e c o nte xt o f

S M A, th ese b ehavio rs s p an a w id e r a nge o f a ctio ns, fr o m th e tr a dit io nal W eb 1 .0 –base d fu nctio ns s u ch

a s c lic kin g a h yp erli n k fo r m ore in fo rm atio n o r u tiliz in g s e a rc h fu nctio n, to th e W eb 2 .0 –base d fu nctio ns

su ch a s c o nsu m in g S M A m ult im edia fe a tu re s in a n in sta nta neous a n d in te ra ctiv e fa sh io n ( K o, C ho, a nd

R oberts 2 005; Z eng, H uang, a nd D ou 2 0 09). D ra w in g fr o m th is n otio n, w e c o nte nd th at a p osit iv e

a ttit u de to w ard S M A w ill le ad to a n in te ra ctio n w it h th e a d ve rtis in g m essa ge (i. e ., m essa ge in te ra ctio n

behavio r o n s o cia l m edia ). T he h ie ra rc h y o f e ff e cts th eory a ls o le nds s u p port to th e c o nte ntio n th at

fa vo ra ble a ttit u de to w ard S M A w ill g enera te ( s o cia l m ed ia — sp e cif ic ) b ehavio r to w ard a dve rtis in g. T hus,

w e h yp oth esiz e ,

H 1: A ttit u de to w ard S M A h as a p osit iv e e ff e ct o n m essa ge in te ra ctio n b ehavio r.

I n th e c o nte xt o f S M A, s o cia l in te ra ctio n b e havio r is c o n ce p tu aliz e d a s c o n su m ers ' c o ntr ib utio n to s o cia l

m edia by m eans of so cia l in te ra ctio n w it h adve rtis e rs an d oth er co n su m ers about th e adve rtis e d

pro duct/b ra nd (K o, C ho, and R oberts 2005; M un tin ga, M oo rm an , and S m it 2011 ). For exa m ple ,

co nsu m ers m ay p ro vid e fe edback to th e a d ve rtis e r, p a rtic ip ate in o n lin e d is cu ssio ns a nd fo ru m s, p ass

o n th e a dve rtis e d m essa ge to th eir s o cia l c o n nectio ns, r e quest p ro duct p ro ble m d ia gnostic s o nlin e fr o m

adve rtis e rs a nd th eir s o cia l n etw ork , a nd s o o n.

A s w e h ave n ote d, co nsu m ers w it h a p osit iv e a ttit u de to w ard a dve rtis in g te nd to in te ra ct w it h th e

adve rtis e d m essa ge fo r in fo rm atio n a nd/o r p urc h a se d ecis io n. H ow eve r, a dve rtis in g o n s o cia l m edia is

n ot ju st a bout th e m essa ge it s e lf b ut r a th e r p re se n ts a p ers o n al c h a nnel a nd c u rre ncy fo r u se r-c e nte re d

netw ork in g a nd s o cia l in te ra ctio n (C hi 2 011 ), w hic h th e tr a dit io nal o r W eb 1 .0 m edia e nvir o nm ents d o

not a llo w fo r. C onsu m ers c a n n ot o nly c o m ment o n th e a ds a n d e xp lic it ly c o nnect to th e a dve rtis e rs b ut

als o s h are th e a dve rtis e d c o nte nt w it h th eir s o cia l c o n nectio ns. T hese a ctio ns e nable c o nsu m ers to g et

m ore co m m ents , o pin io ns, a dvic e , o r in fo rm atio n re gard in g th e a dve rtis e d p ro duct/b ra nd fr o m th eir

s o cia l n etw ork ( C hu 2 011 ). T hus, m ore b en efit s , s u ch a s m ore tr u stw orth y in fo rm atio n a nd o pin io ns, c a n

be a cc e sse d (C hu a nd K im 2 011 ), m ore o p portu nit ie s c a n b e id entif ie d, a n d b e tte r p urc h ase d ecis io ns

ca n b e m ade ( C hu 2 011 ). D ue to th ese p e rc e p tio ns, c o n su m ers w it h a p osit iv e a ttit u de to w ard S M A a re

m ore lik e ly to r e sp ond a nd r e act fa vo ra bly to S M A. T his im plie s a h ig h p ro pensit y fo r e ngagem ent ( H su

e t a l. 2 015) th at fin a lly d riv e s c o nsu m ers to h abit u ally in te ra ct s o cia lly (C hu 2 011 )— th at is , d eve lo p

so cia l in te ra ctio n b ehavio r. T his a sse rtio n is s u pporte d b y th e h ie ra rc h y o f e ff e cts th eory , w hic h d enote s

a p osit iv e r e la tio nsh ip b etw een a ttit u de a nd b ehavio r. A cco rd in gly , w e p ro pose th e fo llo w in g:

A ttit u de to w ard S M A h as a p osit iv e e ff e ct o n s o cia l in te ra ctio n b ehavio r.

M edia tin g E ff e ct o f A ttit u de T o w ard S M A. T he h ie ra rc h y o f e ff e cts th eory c o nte nds th at a ff e ct is th e

in te rm edia te s te p b etw een c o gnit io n a n d c o n atio n ( L avid ge a nd S te in er 1 961). T his p ro vid es a b asis to

h yp oth esiz e th at a ttit u de to w ard S M A, th e a ff e ct v a ria ble in o u r re se a rc h , m edia te s th e e ff e ct o f th e

th re e b elie f fa cto rs o n th e tw o b ehavio ra l o u tc o m es. T his ra tio nale fin ds s u p port in S m it h , C hen, a nd

Y ang ( 2 00 8), in w hic h th e a uth ors a rg ue th at a ttit u de is fo rm ed o n th e b asis o f c o nsu m ers ' b elie fs a nd is

a n e ce ssa ry p re cu rs o r o f b ehavio r. In a d dit io n, th e lit e ra tu re o n a d ve rtis in g in g enera l a nd S M A in

p artic u la r co nfir m s th e im porta nt ro le o f a dve rtis in g a ttit u de a s a cru cia l co n str u ct th at g uid es a nd 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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in flu ence s co nsu m er behavio ra l re sp on se s to adve rtis in g (s e e , e.g ., C hu 2011 ). M ore sp ecif ic a lly ,

a dve rtis in g a ttit u de is a p ath w ay b etw een a d ve rtis in g b e lie f a n d b e havio r (W ang a nd S un 2 010). It is

t h ere fo re p la usib le th at a ttit u de to w ard S M A w ould m ed ia te th e re la tio nsh ip b etw een th e th re e S M A

belie fs ( i. e ., in fo ta in m ent, c re dib ilit y , a nd v a lu e) a n d th e tw o r e se a rc h b e havio r o utc o m es ( i. e ., m essa ge

and s o cia l in te ra ctio n b ehavio rs ). D ra w in g fr o m th is a rg um en t a nd th e r e la te d e vid ence , w e h yp oth esiz e

th at

A ttit u de to w ard S M A m edia te s th e r e la tio nsh ip s b e tw een th e th re e b elie f fa cto rs ( i. e ., S M A in fo ta in m ent,

S M A c re dib ilit y , a nd S M A v a lu e) a nd th e tw o b e havio ra l o u tc o m es (i. e ., m essa ge in te ra ctio n b ehavio r

and s o cia l in te ra ctio n b ehavio r).

M edia tin g E ff e ct o f S M A V alu e. A s w e h a ve a rg ued p re vio usly , o n th e b a sis o f th e h ie ra rc h y o f e ff e cts

t h eory , v a lu e a nd th e tw o b elie f fa cto rs (i. e ., in fo ta in m en t a n d c re dib ilit y ) a re p osit e d to d ir e ctly a ff e ct

a ttit u de to w ard S M A. A t th e s a m e tim e, th e e xp e cta ncy v a lu e th eory p ro pose s v a lu e a s a c o nse quence

o f b e lie f fa cto rs a s w ell a s a p re cu rs o r to a ttit u de, a nd w e m od el it lik e w is e in o ur re se arc h . W e p osit

t h at, in a ddit io n to th e d ir e ct e ff e ct o f in fo ta in m en t a n d c re dib ilit y o n S M A a ttit u de, th e tw o b elie f fa cto rs

a ls o in dir e ctly a ff e ct a ttit u de to w ard S M A th ro ugh th e v a lu e o f S M A. T hus, v a lu e m ay a ls o a ct a s a

m edia to r in th e re la tio nsh ip b etw een th e tw o b e lie f fa cto rs (S M A in fo ta in m en t a nd c re dib ilit y ) a nd th e

attit u de to w ard S M A. W e b ase o ur a sse rtio n o n th e a rg um en t th at c o n su m ers fir s t d eriv e a v a lu e fr o m

th eir b elie fs , a nd th e c a lc u la tio n o f th is v a lu e re su lt s in e va lu atio ns, re fe rre d to a s a ttit u de (T e hone, Z o,

and C ig ane k 2 015). T hat is , v a lu e is a n in te rm ed ia te s te p a nd p ro vid es a n a lt e rn ativ e p ath w ay fr o m

co nsu m er S M A b elie fs to s u bse quent a tt it u de. F ro m th ese a rg um en ts , w e p osit ,

S M A va lu e acts as a m edia to r in th e re la tio nsh ip s be tw een th e belie f ante ce dents (i. e ., S M A

in fo ta in m ent a nd S M A c re dib ilit y ) a nd a ttit u de to w ard S M A.

M odera tin g E ff e ct o f U nce rta in ty A vo id a nce . A cco rd in g to H ofs te de, H ofs te de, a nd M in ko v (2 010, p .

191), u nce rta in ty a vo id ance re fle cts th e id ea th at p e ople fe el th re ate ned b y u nkn ow n o r a m big uous

sit u atio ns a nd th us fo rm b elie fs a nd d eve lo p s tr a te gie s to a vo id th ese th re ats . A s p er th eir c u lt u ra l

ty p olo gy, c o nsu m ers fr o m h ig hunce rta in ty -a vo id ance c u lt u re s d if f e r fr o m th ose fr o m lo w -u nce rta in ty -

a vo id ance c u lt u re s in th eir b elie fs a nd a ttit u des. In te rn atio nal m ark e tin g lit e ra tu re h as s u ggeste d th at

co nsu m ers fr o m c u lt u re s w it h h ig h u nce rta in ty a vo id ance a re m ore a ve rs e to r is k th an th eir c o unte rp arts

in lo w -u nce rta in ty -a vo id ance c u lt u re s (A sh ra f e t a l. 2 017; K ra utz a nd H off m an n 2 017). C onse quently ,

th ey h ave a m uch lo w er to le ra nce fo r a m big uit y a nd u n cle ar sit u atio ns, a m uch str o nger n eed fo r

co nse nsu s, c la rit y , a nd s tr u ctu re , a nd a m uch lo w er le ve l o f a cce pta nce fo r d iv e rs it y . B eca use o f th ese

c h ara cte ris tic s, p eople fr o m h ig hunce rta in ty -a vo id ance c u lt u re s s h o w a s tr o ng n eed fo r r u le s, s tr u ctu re ,

and fo rm alit y (M ölle r a nd E is e nd 2 010). T hey a tte m pt to in cre ase s ta bilit y a nd p re dic ta bilit y (A kd eniz

a nd T a la y 2 013), a nd th us th ey p re fe r a n d s e e k c re dib le s ig nals ( M aza h eri, R ic h a rd , a nd L aro ch e 2 011 ).

C onse quently , th ey g ath er a nd p ro ce ss m ore in fo rm atio n (A kd e niz a n d T a la y 2 013) a nd re ly m ore o n

exp erts ( M ölle r a nd E is e nd 2 010), e ve n if th ese a ctio ns in cu r g re ate r c o sts . A ll th ese a ctio ns h elp th em

m it ig ate a m big uit y , u nce rta in fe elin gs, a n d p ote ntia l r is ks.

A dve rtis in g p la ys th e r o le o f p ro vid in g c o nsu m ers w it h r u le s a nd s tr u ctu re fo r fu tu re c o nsu m ptio n b y w ay

of use fu l in fo rm atio n (W ang and S un 2010). C om pa re d w it h oth er sp o nso re d so urc e s, S M A is

c o nsid ere d a use fu l and in fo rm ativ e m ediu m th at pro vid es help fu l, re lia ble , and hig h-q ualit y

p ro duct- /b ra nd-re la te d in fo rm atio n b eca u se o f th e c o m ments a n d/o r e ndors e m ent b y c o nsu m ers ' s o cia l

netw ork (s e e C hu a nd K im 2 011 ). H ig h-q ualit y in fo rm atio n is p a rtic u la rly v a lu ed in h ig h-u nce rta in ty - 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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avo id ance c u lt u re s ( E ngele n, L ackh off , a n d S ch m id t 2 0 13). T o r e duce p e rc e iv e d a m big uit y , u nce rta in ty ,

a nd p ossib le r is ks, c o nsu m ers in a h ig h -u nce rta in ty -a vo id ance c u lt u re w ill b e e a ger to s e arc h fo r q ualit y

in fo rm atio n a nd b e m ore in clin ed to lo ok fo r p ro duct a dvic e e ndors e d b y o th ers th ro ugh S M A ( s e e S in gh

2006). T his w ill e nable th em to p re cis e ly c o m pre hend p ro duct/b ra nd b e nefit s a nd h elp th em m ake b ette r

decis io ns. T his su ggests th at in a hig h -u nce rta in ty a vo id ance cu lt u re , w here co nsu m ers are m ore

s e nsit iv e to a m big uit y , u nce rta in ty , a nd ris k, th e p erc e p tio n o f S M A a s a u se fu l a nd re lia ble in fo rm atio n

so urc e is e xp ecte d to b e h ig her. In a ddit io n, c o n su m ers w ill s e n se a g re ate r n eed to b e in vo lv e d in S M A

and h ave m ore p osit iv e fe elin gs to w ard it . T he m ore th e c o n su m ers in te ra ct w it h S M A, th e g re ate r th eir

p erc e iv e d S M A b enefit s w ill b e in te rm s o f th e S M A's u se fu ln ess a nd r e lia bilit y . T hus, th e e ff e ct o f b elie f

on p osit iv e a ttit u des a nd v a lu e w ill b e g re ate r. In lin e w it h th ese a sse rtio ns, w e p ro pose th e fo llo w in g

m odera tin g e ff e ct o f u nce rta in ty a vo id ance :

H 5: In th e p ro pose d fr a m ew ork , u nce rta in ty a vo id ance m od era te s th e e ff e ct o f b elie f o n a ttit u de a nd

va lu e. S pecif ic a lly , th e e ff e ct o f in fo ta in m en t o n (a ) S M A a ttit u de a nd (b ) S M A v a lu e, a nd th e e ff e ct o f

cre dib ilit y o n (c ) S M A a ttit u de a nd (d ) S M A v a lu e is g re ate r in a h ig h-u nce rta in ty a vo id ance (v s. lo w -

unce rta in ty -a vo id ance ) c u lt u re .

M odera tin g E ff e ct o f G lo bal S ocia l M edia T yp e s. B etw een th e tw o m ost p o pula r g lo bal s o cia l m edia

t y p es (i. e ., C CSs a nd S N Ss), C CSs, w it h th eir lo w re quir e m en ts o f s e lf - p re se nta tio n a nd d is clo su re

(K apla n a nd H aenle in 2 010), fo cu s o n s p e cif ic c o nte nt ra th er th an u se rs a n d p erm it th eir u se rs to

o rg aniz e , s h are , o r s e arc h fo r s p ecif ic m edia c o n te nt (B erg h e t a l. 2 011 ). T he s h are d c o nte nt c o uld b e

te xts (e .g ., BookC ro ssin g), photo s (e .g ., Flic kr), vid eos (e .g ., You-T ube), and/o r Pow erP oin t

pre se nta tio ns (e .g ., S lid esh are ). G iv e n th e c h ara cte ris tic s o f th ese s it e s, a d ve rtis in g o n g lo bal C CSs

sh ould b e re la te d to u se rs ' in div id ual n ee ds a n d in te re sts . F or in sta nce , a dve rtis in g o n Y ouT ube in th e

fo rm o f in -s e arc h a ds c lo se ly fo llo w s c o nsu m ers ' s e a rc h w ord s, a nd th us th e d is p la ye d a ds a re re la te d

to th e c o nte nt th e c o nsu m er o rig in ally s e arc h e d fo r. T he a bilit y to s kip Y ouT ube's in -s tr e am a ds a ls o

e nhance s co nsu m ers ' co ntr o l ove r ad s and in cre ase s th eir engagem en t w it h ads (K noll 2016).

F urth erm ore , c o nsu m ers c a n s e arc h fo r s p ecif ic p ro duct/ b ra nd in fo rm atio n o n g lo bal C CSs. In c o ntr a st,

a s e arc h o n g lo bal S N Ss fo r p ro duct/b ra nd in fo rm atio n re su lt s in h ig hly v a rie d in fo rm atio n, m ost o f

w hic h is u nsp ecif ic a nd u nre la te d. A ds o n C CSs a re th us v ie w ed a s m ore r e le va n t a nd u se fu l in m eetin g

co nsu m ers ' n eeds (K noll 2 016). T here fo re , C CSs a ds w ill b e n o tic e d a n d v ie w ed m ore th an a ds o n

oth er s o cia l m edia ( C hu a nd K im 2 011 ) a nd r e gard ed a s m ore a dva n ta geous in c a rry in g o ut u se rs ' ta sks

a nd s a tis fy in g th eir e nte rta in m ent n eeds. U lt im ate ly , th e in fo ta in m en t o f a ds o n g lo bal C CSs w ill fo ste r

bette r a ttit u de a nd h ig her v a lu e th an th ose o n o th er g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia , s u ch a s S N Ss.

U nlik e C CSs, g lo bal S N Ss a re m ore u se r-c e n tr ic , w it h h ig h s e lf - p re se n ta tio n a n d d is clo su re , a nd o ff e r

onlin e v e nues to u se rs to s h are a ll ty p es o f c o n te nt w it h o th ers fo r n etw ork in g a s w ell a s fo r b uild in g a nd

m ain ta in in g re la tio n sh ip s (B erg h e t a l. 2 011 ). U se rs p o st p ers o n al c o n te nt a nd in fo rm atio n o n th eir

p ro file s w it h th e p urp ose o f s h arin g w it h o th er u se rs ( e .g ., a ddin g p hoto s, u plo adin g m usic , w rit in g n ote s

and m essa ges, p la cin g w eb lin ks) o r c o nsu m e th e c o n te nt s h a re d b y o th ers (K apla n a nd H aenle in

2 010). F ace book is a re now ned g lo bal S N S w he re p e rs o n al in fo rm atio n s u ch a s p hoto s a nd s ta tu se s

are s h are d a nd m essa ges a re e xch ange d w it h o ne's s o cia l n etw ork (C hu 2 011 ; L i, L iu , a nd L i 2 014).

L in ke dIn is a noth er w ell- k n ow n g lo bal S N S o rie nte d to w ard b usin ess n etw ork in g. T hro ugh in te ra ctio ns,

u se rs b eco m e a cq uain te d a nd b uild tr u st w it h o ne a noth er (L i, L iu , a nd L i 2 014). T his s tr u ctu re s a nd

m ain ta in s th eir so cia l co nnectiv it y an d gra tif ie s th eir so cia liz a tio n ne eds (C hu and K im 2011 ). In

c o ntr a st, s o cia liz a tio n o n g lo bal C CSs, s u ch a s Y ouT ube, is m ostly lim it e d b eca use o f lo w p ers o nal

netw ork in g a nd w eak tie s b etw een c o nsu m ers . In a d dit io n, s o cia l s u pport fr o m e xis tin g s o cia l c o nta cts 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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help s u se rs g ain s e lf - s ta tu s (T a ylo r, L ew in , a nd S tr u tto n 2 011 ). T hus, a ds o n S N Ss, w hic h a llo w fo r

co m ments o n a dve rtis e d p ro ducts fr o m u se rs ' s o cia l c o nta cts a nd c o nnectio ns, a re p erc e iv e d a s m ore

tr u stw orth y a nd b elie va ble (C hu a nd K im 2 011 ). A s a re su lt , n o t o n ly is th e in fo rm atio n fr o m S M A o n

glo bal S N Ss co nsid ere d m ore re lia ble , but le ss tim e and eff o rt is sp ent on ve rif y in g th e S M A's

t r u stw orth in ess. E ve ntu ally , a m ore fa vo ra ble a ttit u de to w ard S M A a nd th e v a lu e o f th is a dve rtis in g

fo rm at is fa cilit a te d o n g lo bal S N Ss th an o n o th er g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia s u ch a s C CSs. D ra w in g o n th ese

a sse rtio ns, w e p ro pose th e m odera tin g r o le o f g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia ty p e s:

H 6: In th e p ro pose d fr a m ew ork , g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia ty p e s m od era te th e e ff e ct o f b elie f o n a ttit u de a nd

va lu e. M ore s p ecif ic a lly , th e e ff e ct o f in fo ta in m en t o n ( a ) S M A a ttit u de a n d ( b ) S M A v a lu e is s tr o nger o n

glo bal C CSs th an o n g lo bal S N Ss, w hile th e e ff e ct o f c re dib ilit y o n ( c ) S M A a ttit u de a nd ( d ) S M A v a lu e

is s tr o nger o n g lo bal S N Ss th an o n g lo ba l C CSs.

R ESEA RCH M ETH O DO LO GY

Envir o nm en ta l S ettin g a n d S am plin g

W e c h ose T a iw an a nd V ie tn am to re p re se n t h ig hand lo w unce rta in ty -a vo id ance c u lt u re s, re sp ectiv e ly .

T a iw an h as a re la tiv e ly h ig h-u nce rta in ty -a vo id ance s co re o f 6 9, w hile V ie tn am h as a lo w er s co re o f 3 0

(H ofs te de, H ofs te de, a nd M in ko v 2 010, p p. 1 93–94). W e s e le cte d Y ouT ube a nd F ace book to r e pre se nt

glo bal C CSs a nd S N Ss, re sp ectiv e ly , b eca u se th e tw o a re n ot o nly re pre se n ta tiv e o f th eir re sp ectiv e

c a te gorie s in te rm s o f u se rs b ut a ls o s yn onym ous w it h g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia (K noll 2 016). G iv e n th eir

r e ach a nd r e le va nce , w e e xp ect C CSs ( Y ouT ube) a n d S N Ss ( F ace b ook) to p ro vid e r ic h in sig hts in to th e

m odera tin g e ff e ct o f g lo bal s o cia l m edia ty p e s. In T a iw an, Y ouT ube is th e le adin g C CS, w hile F ace book

is th e m ost popula r S N S (S im ila rW eb 2017). S ocia l m ed ia adve rtis in g has beco m e a gro w in g

m ain str e am a dve rtis in g fo rm at in T a iw an (T e le co m pa per 2 016). Y ouT ube a nd F ace book a re a ls o th e

m ost popula r C CS and S N S, re sp ectiv e ly , in V ie tn am (S im ila rW eb 2017). In V ie tn am , S M A has

su rp asse d o th er o nlin e v e nues o f a dve rtis in g, w it h 3 4 % lo ca l b u sin esse s u sin g S M A (V ie tn am N ew s

2017).

U niv e rs it y s tu dents in T a iw an a nd V ie tn a m fo rm ed th e r e se a rc h s a m plin g fr a m e. W e c h ose th is s e gm ent

fo r s e ve ra l r e aso ns. C om pare d w it h th ose in h ig her a g e b ra cke ts , u n iv e rs it y s tu dents b orn in th e 1 990s

are m ore fa m ilia r w it h in fo rm atio n te ch nolo gy (A sh ra f, T hongpapanl, a n d A uh 2 014) a nd a re a ls o m ore

o pen to a nd m ore lik e ly to a dopt in nova tiv e te ch n olo gie s ( Y im , C hu, a nd S auer 2 017). T hey p osse ss th e

re quis it e kn ow le dge, a re fa m ilia r w it h , a n d a re m ost p ro activ e in u sin g su ch te ch nolo gie s (A sh ra f,

T hongpapanl, a nd A uh 2 014). T hese y o ung a dult s fo rm th e la rg est p ro portio n o f In te rn et u se rs , a nd

univ e rs it y s tu dents c o nstit u te th e m ajo rit y o f th is a ge s e g m en t (P an e t a l. 2 017). S ocia l m edia h as a

g ro w in g in flu ence on th eir purc h ase be havio r, an d th ey ofte n pre fe r to in te ra ct w it h fir m s onlin e

(H am ilt o n, K alt c h eva , and R ohm 201 6). T he stu dent se g m en t is co nse q uently ofte n vie w ed as a

re aso nable s a m ple in In te rn et re se arc h (S m it h e t a l. 2 013). U niv e rs it y s tu dents a re a ls o o ne o f th e

la rg est o nlin e s e gm ents in T a iw an a nd V ie tn am ( K em p 2 011 , 2 012).

M ore im porta ntly , B ello e t a l. (2 009) s ta te th at a u niv e rs it y s tu dent s a m ple is a p pro pria te fo r a ca dem ic

s tu die s to c o ncu rre ntly e va lu ate d if f e re nce s in v ie w s a n d v a lu es b e tw een c o u ntr ie s o r c u lt u re s, a nd th e

re su lt s a re p ossib ly g enera liz a ble to o th er p opula tio ns if th e re se a rc h u nderta ke s th eory a pplic a tio ns

w it h h yp oth etic a l p re dic tio ns (w hic h th e c u rre nt re se a rc h d oes). In a ddit io n, fo r c ro ss-c u lt u ra l s tu die s,

s a m ple s d ra w n fr o m u niv e rs it y s tu dents , r a th er th an th e g enera l p opula tio n, c a n e nsu re r e la tiv e s a m ple

c o nsis te ncy a nd s u bje ct p ool e quiv a le nce , w hic h fa cilit a te s c o m pa ra bilit y a cro ss c o untr ie s b eca use it 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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m in im iz e s th e e ff e ct o f p ote ntia lly in flu en tia l e xtr a neous v a ria ble s ( e .g ., d em og ra phic , s o cia l) ( s e e F . L iu

e t a l. 2 012). S uch a s e gm ent a llo w s fo r is o la tin g a n d e xclu din g a lt e rn ativ e e xp la natio ns c a use d b y th e

hete ro geneit y o f s a m ple s b etw een c u lt u re s, m akin g w ay fo r p re dic tio ns th at a re m ore p re cis e a s w ell a s

a s tr o nger te st o f th eory .

In co nclu sio n, a su bsta ntiv e a nd n onid io syn cra tic re su lt ca n b e o bta in ed fr o m th e u se o f stu dent

sa m ple s, m akin g g enera liz a bilit y a nd e xte rn al va lid it y le ss o f a co n ce rn . T here fo re , th e p ro xim ate

p ro ce sse s a nd o utc o m es s p ecif ie d b y B ello e t a l. (2 009) a re s a tis fie d. In a ddit io n, u niv e rs it y s tu dents

a re d e em ed a n a cce pta ble s a m ple ( Z ellm er-B ru hn, C alig iu ri, a nd T hom as 2 0 16) a nd a re o fte n r e cru it e d

in c ro ss-c u lt u ra l m ark e tin g r e se arc h ( A sh ra f, T hongpapanl, a nd A uh 2 014).

M easu re m en ts , Q uestio nnair e D esig n, a n d P re te stin g

W e m easu re d all co nstr u cts usin g prio r m ult i- it e m sca le s m odif ie d slig htly to fit th e re se arc h

e nvir o nm ent (W eb A ppendix A ). W e m ea su re d S M A in fo ta in m en t a n d c re dib ilit y u sin g C .- L . L iu e t a l. 's

( 2 012) fiv e -it e m s ca le a nd M acK enzie a n d L u tz 's (1 989) th re e-it e m s ca le , re sp ectiv e ly . W e a sse sse d

S M A v a lu e w it h a th re e-it e m s ca le b y D uco ff e ( 1 995). A ttit u de to w ard S M A w as m easu re d w it h a th re e-

it e m sca le adapte d fr o m P olla y and M it ta l (1 993). W e m easu re d m essa ge and so cia l in te ra ctio n

behavio rs u sin g th e th re e-it e m s ca le s d ra w n fr o m Z eng, H uang, a nd D ou (2 009) a nd H uang e t a l.

( 2 007), re sp ectiv e ly . W it h th e a im o f m in im iz in g p o ssib le s yste m atic e rro rs , w e in tr o duce d g ender, u se r

exp erie nce , a nd s o cia l m edia u sa ge a s c o ntr o l v a ria ble s. U se r e xp e rie nce is c o m munic a te d a s th e

ye ars o f e xp erie nce u se rs h ave w it h a s p ecif ic s o cia l m ed ia w ebsit e , a nd s o cia l m edia u sa ge re fe rs to

t h e a ve ra g e n um ber o f h ours u se rs s p e nd o n a s p ecif ic s o cia l m edia w eb sit e p e r d ay. W e a sse sse d a ll

c o ntr o l v a ria ble s u sin g s in gle -it e m s ca le s.

A ll th e m easu re m ent it e m s orig in ate d fr o m Englis h -la nguage w ork s, bu t th e fie ld stu die s w ere

c o nducte d in T a iw an a nd V ie tn am , w here th e o ff ic ia l la nguages a re M an darin C hin ese a nd V ie tn am ese ,

re sp ectiv e ly . T he s ca le it e m s w ere tr a nsla te d u sin g a b ack-tr a nsla tio n te ch n iq ue to e nsu re e quiv a le nce .

W e c o nstr u cte d tw o v e rs io ns o f th e q uestio nnair e fo r u se in th e s u rv e y o f th e C CS (Y ouT ube) a nd th e

S N S (F ace book) sa m ple s. T he m ajo r dif f e re nce betw een th ese tw o ve rs io ns w as th e sca le it e m

sta te m ents c o rre sp on din g to Y ouT ube a n d F ace b ook. W e th en p re te ste d th e q uestio nnair e s a m ong 9 0

underg ra duate stu d ents in each co u ntr y who ha d at le ast six m on th s of exp erie nce usin g

Y ouT ube/F ace book. T he fin al q uestio nna ir e d esig n in te gra te d th eir re m ark s a nd s u ggestio ns to e nsu re

it s r e adabilit y a nd lo gic a l flo w .

D ata C olle ctio n

Ta iw an a nd V ie tn am b oth h ave tw o p ara lle l u niv e rs it y s yste m s ( i. e ., p ublic a n d p riv a te ). T o r e pre se nt th e

tw o u niv e rs it y s yste m s, d ata c o lle ctio n to ok p la ce a t o ne u niv e rs it y o f e ach ty p e in T a oyu an, T a iw an, a nd

in H anoi, V ie tn am . T he tw o v e rs io ns o f th e q uestio nnair e (e it h er Y ouT ube o r F ace book v e rs io ns) w ere

d is tr ib ute d a t th e m ain e ntr a nce o f e ach u niv e rs it y . T he fo ur u niv e rs it ie s h a d a p opula tio n o f ro ughly

1 0,0 00 ( 8,0 00— 12,0 00) stu den ts , a nd th e d aily m ain e n tr a nce p a sse rb y co u nt fo r e a ch u niv e rs it y

a ve ra ged to a ppro xim ate ly 2 ,5 00 s tu dents , o ut o f w hic h a m in im um o f 5 0% o f s tu dents w ere e xp ecte d

to b e q ualif ie d a nd w illin g to p artic ip ate (b ase d o n th e re sp o nse ra te o f th e p re te st) . O ne o ut o f e ve ry

fiv e s tu den ts p assin g th ro ugh th e m ain e n tr a nce w as r e queste d to p artic ip ate to a ch ie ve a s a m ple s iz e

o f a ppro xim ate ly 2 50 fr o m e ach u niv e rs it y . In it ia l ve rb al filt e rin g q u estio ns h elp ed id entif y q ualif ie d

underg ra duate s tu dents w it h k n ow le dge o f S M A a n d e xp e rie nce in u sin g Y ouT ube/F ace book in th e la st

six m onth s a nd e nsu re d n o d uplic a tio n o f r e sp o nse s in b oth th e s u rv e ys. W e in str u cte d th e r e sp ondents 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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to p ro vid e th eir re sp onse s fo cu sin g o n th e fir m -s p o nso re d a d ve rtis in g th ey e nco unte r o n Y ouT ube (o r

F ace book).

In T a iw an, 1 ,0 80 p eople w ere a ppro ach e d ( 5 10 fo r Y ou-T ube, 5 70 fo r F ace b ook), o ut o f w hic h 5 65 m et

th e c rit e ria a nd a gre ed to p artic ip ate (2 7 8 fo r Y ouT ube, 2 8 4 fo r F ace b ook). T he re sp onse ra te s w ere

5 4.5 % a nd 4 9.8 % , re sp ectiv e ly . D ata s c re enin g fin ally le d to 2 58 u sa b le s u rv e ys fo r Y ouT ube a nd 2 18

fo r F ace bo ok. In V ie tn am , 9 55 p eople w ere a ppro ach e d (4 55 fo r Y ouT ube, 5 00 fo r F ace book), o ut o f

w hic h 6 09 m et th e re quir e m ent a nd a gre ed to p a rtic ip ate (3 09 fo r Y ouT ube, 3 00 fo r F ace book). T he

re sp onse ra te s w ere 6 7.9 % a nd 6 0.0 % , re sp e ctiv e ly . U sa b le s u rv e ys to ta le d 2 99 fo r Y ouT ube a nd 2 97

fo r F ace book. A p ost h oc a naly sis r e ve a le d th at a ll fo ur s a m ple s iz e s w ere a cce pta ble fo r th e r e se arc h ,

as th e a lp ha le ve l, s ta tis tic a l p ow er le ve l, a nd a ntic ip ate d r w ere a bove th e m in im um v a lu es o f .0 5, .8 ,

and .5 , r e sp ectiv e ly .

D ATA A NALY SIS A ND R ESU LT S

W e u se d p a rtia l le ast s q uare s ( P LS ), in p artic u la r, S m artP LS 3 .0 ( R in gle , W ende, a nd B ecke r 2 015), to

e xa m in e s ca le a ccu ra cy, th e re se arc h fr a m ew ork , a nd th e h yp o th ese s. W e e la bora te o n th ese in th e

fo llo w in g s u bse ctio ns.

S am ple C hara cte ris tic s

T he T a iw an s a m ple c o nsis te d o f a c o m pa ra ble n um be r o f m en a nd w om en ( 4 7% v s. 5 3% , r e sp ectiv e ly )

w hile th e V ie tn am s a m ple c o nsis te d o f a ppro xim ate ly tw o-th ir d s (6 4% ) w om en , w it h s im ila r d is tr ib utio n

acro ss th e F ace -b ook a nd Y ouT ube s a m ple s. T he a ge g ro up o f 1 8to 2 2 y e a r-o ld s d om in ate d th e s a m ple

i n b oth T a iw an (8 5.5 % ) a nd V ie tn am (9 1 .9 % ). In T a iw an, th e h ig hest n um be r o f re sp ondents b ro w se d

Y ouT ube fo r 1 1 –30 m in ute s (3 3.7 % ) a n d F ace b ook fo r m ore th an 1 80 m in ute s (2 7.1 % ) p er d ay. In th e

V ie tn am s a m ple , a ppro xim ate ly 2 5% re sp o ndents (th e h ig hest) b ro w se d b oth Y ouT ube a nd F ace book

fo r a s im ila r tim e d ura tio n (1 1 –30 m in ute s) p er d ay. A ro und tw o-th ir d s o f re sp ondents in T a iw an h ad

use d Y ouT ube a nd a ppro xim ate ly h alf o f th e r e sp o ndents h a d u se d F ace b ook fo r m ore th an tw o y e ars .

In th e V ie tn am s a m ple , th e la rg est g ro u p (a ppro xim ate ly 4 0 % ) h ad a n e xp e rie nce o f le ss th an s ix

m onth s in u sin g b oth Y ouT ube a nd F ace -b ook. T he fu ll s a m ple c h a ra cte ris tic s o f th e in div id ual a nd

in te gra te d d ata s e ts a ppear in W eb A ppen dix B .

S cale A ccu ra cy A naly sis

W e a sse sse d s ca le re lia bilit y u sin g C ro nb ach 's a lp ha, c o m po sit e re lia bilit y (C R), a nd a ve ra ge v a ria nce

e xtr a cte d ( A V E). A ll s ca le s e xh ib it e d a cce p ta ble s ca le r e lia bilit y , a s th e C ro nbach 's a lp ha a nd C R v a lu es

w ere a bove th e c o m mon c u to ff v a lu e o f .7 0 a nd th e A V E e xce eded th e re quir e d th re sh old o f .5 0 in a ll

c a se s. T he s ca le s d em onstr a te d c o nve rg ent v a lid it y , a s th e fa cto r lo adin gs o f a ll s ca le it e m s o n th eir

c o rre sp ondin g c o nstr u cts w ere s ta tis tic a lly s ig nif ic a n t a t th e .0 1 le ve l a n d e xce eded th e th re sh old v a lu e

of .5 0. W e fo und s tr o ng e vid ence fo r d is crim in ant v a lid it y b eca u se th e h ig hest it e m c ro ss-lo adin gs w ere

le ss th an th e it e m s' lo adin gs o n th eir co rre sp o ndin g co nstr u cts , th e sq uare ro ots o f A V Es fo r a ll

c o nstr u cts w ere h ig her th an th eir c o rre la tio ns w it h a ll o th er c o n str u cts , a nd th e h ete ro tr a it — monotr a it

( H TM T) ra tio fo r a ll th e c o nstr u cts w as le ss th an th e th re sh o ld v a lu e o f .8 5 (H ense le r, R in gle , a nd

S ars te dt 2015). The re su lt s of th e in te gra te d sa m ple ap pear in Ta ble 1 w hile th e re su lt s of

Ta iw an/V ie tn am a nd S N S/ C CS s u bsa m ple s a ppear in W eb A ppendic e s C a nd D , r e sp ectiv e ly .

T A BLE 1 . S C ALE A CCURACY A NALY SIS ( IN TE G RATE D D ATA S ET) 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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Rese arc h

C onstr u cts

M a SD C ro nbach 's

A lp ha

C R AV E AV E½

(H ig hest

C orr.)

F acto r

Loadin g

H ig hest

C ro ss-

L oadin g

H ig hest

V IF

H ig hest

H TM T

Ratio

S M A

In fo ta in m ent

IS M AI- 1 4 .4 5 1.5 0 .7 9 .8 6 .5 5 .7 4 ( .2 6) .7 3 .3 1 1.6 73 .6 3

IS M AI- 2 .7 6 .3 5

IS M AI- 3 .7 9 .4 0

IS M AI- 4 .7 0 .4 4

IS M AI- 5 .7 3 .4 2

S M A C re dib ilit y

IS M AC -1 3 .7 5 1.3 4 .8 4 .9 0 .7 6 .8 7 ( .2 1) .8 6 .4 1 1.3 80 .5 5

IS M AC -2 .8 9 .3 6

IS M AC -3 .8 6 .4 1

V alu e o f S M A

IV SM A-1 4 .5 0 1.3 6 .7 9 .8 8 .7 0 .8 4 ( .2 6) .8 3 .4 2 1.6 61 .6 3

IV SM A-2 .8 6 .4 5

IV SM A-3 .8 2 .4 8

A ttit u de T o w ard

S M A

IA SM A-1 4 .4 1 1.2 2 .8 0 .8 8 .7 2 .8 5 ( .2 3) .7 5 .3 0 1.4 89 .5 8

IA SM A-2 .9 0 .4 8

IA SM A-3 .8 8 .4 2

M essa ge

In te ra ctio n

B ehavio r

IM EI- 1 4 .4 5 1.6 4 .8 3 .9 0 .7 4 .8 6 ( .3 3) .8 6 .4 7 1.8 27 .7 2

IM EI- 2 .8 5 .4 8

IM EI- 3 .8 7 .5 4

S ocia l

In te ra ctio n

B ehavio r

IS O I- 1 4 .0 3 1.6 4 .7 5 .8 6 .6 7 .8 2 ( .3 3) .8 0 .4 5 1.5 44 .7 2

IS O I- 2 .8 3 .4 1

IS O I- 3 .8 2 .5 4

a B ase d o n a s e ve n-p oin t L ik e rt s ca le (1 = " s tr o ngly d is a g re e," 4 = " n e utr a l, " a nd 7 = " s tr o ngly a gre e").

N ote s: V IF = v a ria nce in fla tio n fa cto r.

C om mon M eth od B ia s

W e e m plo ye d p ro ce dura l r e m edie s p rio r to d a ta c o lle ctio n to m in im iz e c o m mon m eth od b ia s ( C M B) a nd

perfo rm ed s ta tis tic a l a naly se s to a sse ss th e s e rio usn e ss o f C M B. W e d e sig ned th e q uestio nnair e w it h

c a utio n. F or e xa m ple , th e m easu re s o f th e d e pendent c o nstr u cts fo llo w ed, ra th er th an p re ce ded, th ose

o f th e in dependent c o nstr u cts . W e a ls o u se d r e m ed ie s s u ch a s p a rtic ip ant a nonym it y , n o d escrip tio n o f 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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th e re se arc h p urp ose , a lle via tio n o f e va lu atio n a p pre hensio n, u se o f v e rb al m id poin ts fo r m easu re s,

p re va lid ate d s ca le s, a nd re ve rs e -c o ded it e m s. In th e p o st d a ta c o lle ctio n s ta ge, w e e m plo ye d th e p ost

h oc m ark e r v a ria ble te st ( L in dell a nd W hit n ey 2 0 01). F ollo w in g H ult m an , R obso n , a nd K ats ik e as ( 2 009),

w e is o la te d th e s e co nd-s m alle st p osit iv e c o rre la tio n a m on g th e o bse rv e d v a ria ble s, w hic h w as .0 07. W e

th en c o m pute d th e CM B-a dju ste d c o rre la tio ns b etw een a ll p a ir s o f c o nstr u cts in o ur r e se arc h . W e fo und

ve ry s m all d if f e re nce s b etw een th e o rig in al a n d th e C M B-a dju ste d c o rre la tio ns (Δ r £ .0 07), a nd th e

sig nif ic a nce o f a ll th e c o rre la tio ns re m ain ed u nch a nged. F urth erm ore , th e c h i- s q uare d if f e re nce te st

re ve ale d in sig nif ic a nt d ete rio ra tio n in fit (Δ c2 £ 1 2). T here fo re , C M B w as u nlik e ly to b e a se rio us

co nce rn in o ur r e se arc h .

Te stin g M ult is am ple M easu re m en t In varia n ce

T he e xa m in atio n o f th e m odera tin g e ff e cts o f u n ce rta in ty a vo id ance a n d g lo bal so cia l m edia ty p es

re quir e d d ata s e ts fr o m fo ur g ro ups ( T a iw an, V ie tn am , C CS, a nd S N S). T hus, it w as c ru cia l to e sta blis h

m easu re m ent in va ria nce a m ong th e fo u r d a ta s e ts p rio r to fu rth er a n aly sis . A cco rd in gly , w e a sse sse d

th e c o nfig ura l, m etr ic , a nd s ca la r in va ria n ce a m on g th e fo ur d a ta s e ts . W e e m plo ye d S te enka m p a nd

B aum gartn er's (1 998 ) p ro ce ss to te st th e in va ria nce . S pecif ic a lly , w e a sse sse d th e in va ria nce b etw een

any s a m ple p air o f T a iw an C CS a nd S N S a nd V ie tn am C CS a nd S N S. A s W eb A ppendix E s h ow s, a nd

co uple d w it h th e fa ct th at a ll h yp oth esiz e d fa cto r lo adin gs w ere h ig hly s ig nif ic a n t in a ll th e fo ur s a m ple s,

a dequate c o nfig ura l in va ria nce a cro ss a ll fo ur d ata s e ts w as im plie d. F or m etr ic in va ria nce a sse ssm ent,

t h e c o m paris o ns b etw een T a iw an C CS a n d S N S a n d b e tw een V ie tn am C CS a nd S N S a ch ie ve d fu ll

m etr ic in va ria nce ,w hile oth ers re ach edpartia lm etr ic in va ria nce . A s fo r s ca la r in va ria nce , a lt h ough fu ll s ca la r

in va ria nce w as n ot a ch ie ve d, p artia l s ca la r in va ria nce w as re ach e d in a ll fo ur c o m paris o ns. In g enera l,

t h e a naly sis r e su lt s p ro vid ed e vid ence th a t th ere w as m ea su re m en t in va ria nce in th e fo ur s a m ple s.

H yp oth esis T e stin g: P ro posed S tr u ctu ra l F ra m ew ork a n d D ir e ct E ffe cts

W e p o ole d th e fo ur d ata s e ts to geth er to te st th e h yp o th esiz e d d ir e ct e ff e ct r e la tio nsh ip s o f H 1 a nd H 2.

W e use d th e sq uare d m ult ip le co rre la tio ns (R 2) to eva lu ate th e exp la nato ry pow er of th e fo ur

endogenous va ria ble s, and a boots tr a ppin g re sa m plin g pro ce d ure (5 00 sa m ple s) asse sse d th e

hyp oth esiz e d e ff e cts u sin g t- te sts . T he r e su lt s a re d epic te d in F ig ure . 1 . A s c a n b e o bse rv e d, th e R 2 fo r

th e fo ur e ndogenous v a ria ble s r a nged fr o m .1 77 to .2 96, in dic a tin g 1 7.7 % –29.6 % o f v a ria nce in th e fo ur

endogenous va ria ble s, w hic h is hig her th an th e m in im um va lu e of 10 % (F alk and M ille r 1992),

s u ggestin g a s a tis fa cto ry a nd s u bsta ntia l m od el. T he h yp o th esis te st re ve a le d th at th e tw o h yp oth ese s

w ere s ta tis tic a lly s ig nif ic a nt a nd in th e p ro pose d d ir e ctio n, th us s u p portin g H 1 a nd H 2. T he r e su lt s o f th e

nonhyp oth esiz e d e ff e cts (F ig ure 1 ) in dic a te d th at S M A in fo ta in m en t a nd cre dib ilit y sig nif ic a ntly a nd

posit iv e ly a ff e cte d th e v a lu e o f S M A a nd a ttit u de to w ard S M A, a nd v a lu e h ad a s ig nif ic a nt p osit iv e e ff e ct

o n a ttit u de . In a ddit io n, th e a naly sis o f th e co n tr o l va ria ble s re ve a le d th at g ender h ad a n egativ e

sig nif ic a nt e ff e ct o n m essa ge in te ra ctio n b ehavio r a nd a n onsig nif ic a n t e ff e ct o n so cia l in te ra ctio n

behavio r. M ore ove r, u se r e xp erie nce h ad a n e gativ e s ig nif ic a n t e ff e ct, w he re as s o cia l m edia u sa ge h ad

a p osit iv e s ig nif ic a nt e ff e ct, o n th e tw o o utc o m e v a ria ble s.

H yp oth esis T e stin g: M ed ia tin g E ffe cts o f A ttit u de T o w ard S M A a n d V alu e o f S M A

W e a dopte d th e b oo ts tr a ppin g p ro ce dure ( 5,0 00 s a m ple s) to fo rm ally te st m edia tio n (P re ach e r a n d

H aye s 2 004). F ir s t, w e e xa m in ed th e m ed ia tin g ro le o f S M A a ttit u de o n th e re la tio nsh ip s b etw een th e

th re e c o gnit io n a nte ce dents a nd th e tw o c o natio n o u tc o m es. T he re su lt s o f th e b ia s-c o rre cte d 9 5%

co nfid ence in te rv a l in dic a te d th at th e s ix in dir e ct e ff e cts w ere s ig nif ic a n t, e sta blis h in g th e m edia tin g 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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eff e cts (H 3a— H3f in F ig ure 1). W e th en co n ducte d tw o addit io nal m ed ia tio n te sts to co nfir m th e

sig nif ic a nce o f a nd p ro vid e b ette r in sig ht in to th ese in div id ual m edia tin g e ff e cts ( W eb A ppendix F ). F ir s t,

w e c o m pute d a z -s ta tis tic s co re ( V in zi e t a l. 2 010, p . 5 26). S ix z -s ta tis tic s co re s w ere o bta in ed, r a ngin g

fr o m 3 .6 7 to 5 .3 9 (i. e ., h ig her th an th e th re sh o ld o f 1 .9 6), in dic a tin g th at th e th re e a nte ce dents h ad a

d ir e ct and in dir e ct eff e ct th ro ugh S M A attit u de on th e tw o ou tc o m es. S eco nd, w e ca lc u la te d th e

va ria nce -a cco unte d-fo r (V A F) v a lu e, w hic h re pre se n ts th e ra tio o f th e in dir e ct e ff e ct to th e to ta l e ff e ct

(V in zi e t a l. 2 010, p . 5 28), to m easu re th e s iz e o f th e in div id ual in dir e ct e ff e cts . T he V A F v a lu es (in

p erc e nta ges) in dic a te d th e a m ount o f to ta l e ff e ct o f th e a nte ce d ent o n th e o utc o m e v a ria ble th at w as

exp la in ed b y th e in d ir e ct e ff e ct. T he re su lt s re ve a le d th e s m alle st V A F v a lu es fo r th e v a lu e— messa ge

in te ra ctio n behavio r re la tio nsh ip (1 3.5 % ) an d th e gre ate st fo r th e cre dib ilit y — messa ge in te ra ctio n

behavio r r e la tio nsh ip ( 2 7.4 % ). In s u m mary , a ttit u de to w ard S M A m ed ia te d th e s ix in div id ual a nte ce dent

— outc o m e r e la tio nsh ip s, th ere by le ndin g s u p port to H 3.

W e co nducte d sim ila r a naly se s to e xa m in e th e m ed ia tin g e ff e ct o f S M A va lu e in th e re la tio nsh ip

b etw een th e tw o a nte ce dents (i. e ., in fo ta in m en t a n d c re dib ilit y ) a n d th e o u tc o m e (i. e ., a ttit u de to w ard

S M A). T he b ia s-c o rre cte d 9 5% co nfid e nce in te rv a l re su lt s o f th e b oots tr a ppin g p ro ce dure ( 5,0 00

sa m ple s) re ve ale d th at th e tw o in dir e ct e ff e cts th ro ugh th e m ed ia to r, v a lu e o f S M A, w ere s ig nif ic a nt

(H 4a— H4b in F ig ure 1 ). T he z -s ta tis tic s co re s o f 3 .7 9 a nd 5 .9 9 in dic a te d th at th e tw o a nte ce dents h ad

both d ir e ct a nd in dir e ct e ff e cts th ro ugh v a lu e o f S M A o n th e o u tc o m e. F urth erm ore , th e V A F v a lu es

su ggeste d th at th e in dir e ct e ff e ct o f v a lu e o f S M A w as w ea ke r o n th e c re dib ilit y — attit u de re la tio nsh ip

( 1 9.8 % ) th an th at o n th e in fo ta in m ent— attit u de re la tio nsh ip (2 6.3 % ) (W eb A ppendix F ). In s u m mary ,

S M A v a lu e m edia te d th e tw o a nte ce den t— outc o m e r e la tio nsh ip s, th us o ff e rin g s u pport to H 4.

H yp oth esis T e stin g: M odera tin g E ffe cts o f U ncerta in ty A vo id an ce a n d G lo bal S ocia l M ed ia T y p es

To exa m in e th e m odera tin g eff e ct of un ce rta in ty avo id ance , w e co m pu te d th e dif f e re nce s of th e

co rre sp ondin g c o eff ic ie nts b etw een th e in te gra te d d a ta s e ts o f T a iw an a n d V ie tn am . T he in te gra te d

Ta iw an d a ta s e t in clu ded T a iw an C CS a n d S N S s a m ple s, a nd th e in te gra te d V ie tn am d ata s e t in clu ded

sim ila r s a m ple s fr o m V ie tn am . W e e m plo ye d th e m ult ig ro up a n aly sis a ppro ach p ro pose d b y K eil e t a l.

( 2 000) to te st th e p ro pose d m odera tin g e ff e cts . A s F ig ure 1 s h o w s ( s e e H 5a— H5d), w it h th e e xce ptio n

of o ne p ath , th e e ff e cts in th e in te gra te d T a iw an d a ta s e t w ere s ig nif ic a n tly s tr o nger th an th ose in th e

in te gra te d V ie tn am d ata s e t. T he e xce ptio n w as a sso cia te d w it h H 5a th at s h ow ed n o d if f e re nce in

c o eff ic ie nts b etw een th e tw o d ata s e ts . T here fo re , th e r e su lt s s u pporte d H 5b— H5d, b ut n ot H 5a. T o te st

th e m odera tin g e ff e ct o f g lo bal s o cia l m edia ty p e s, w e m erg ed th e T a iw an a n d V ie tn am C CS (S N S)

sa m ple s in to a n in te gra te d C CS (S N S) d ata s e t. A s F ig ure 1 illu str a te s, a ll p ath c o eff ic ie nts s h ow ed

sig nif ic a nt d if f e re nce s b etw een th e tw o d ata se ts a n d w ere in th e a ntic ip ate d d ir e ctio n. T hus, th e

fin din gs s u pporte d H 6a— H6d.

P ost H oc T hre e-W ay In te ra ctio n T e st

A lt h ough, a s o ur re se arc h s h ow s, g lo bal s o cia l m edia ty p e s c u t a cro ss c u lt u ra l b oundarie s to e xh ib it

u niq ue c o ntin gent e ff e cts o n S M A, a c a se c o u ld b e m ad e o th erw is e . F or in sta nce , B erth on e t a l. ( 2 012)

su ggest th at h ow a s o cia l m edia is u se d is c o n tin gent o n th e c u lt u re o f th e c o untr y , a nd O ka za ki a nd

Ta ylo r ( 2 0 13) c a ll to te st th is a sse rtio n e m pir ic a lly . T a kin g a c u e fr o m th e a sse rtio ns in B erth on e t a l. a nd

O ka za ki a nd T a ylo r, a nd to p ro vid e a m ore in -d epth in sig ht, w e in ve stig ate d th e c o ntin gent e ff e cts o f

cu lt u re — in p artic u la r, u nce rta in ty a vo id an ce — on th e p ro pose d m od era tin g e ff e ct o f g lo bal s o cia l m edia

( H 6). W e p rim arily te ste d th e th re e-w ay in te ra ctio n b etw een u nce rta in ty a vo id ance , g lo bal s o cia l m edia , 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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and th e tw o b elie f fa cto rs u sin g th e P LS m ult ig ro up a naly sis te ch n iq ue. A cco rd in g to th e re su lt s ,

u nce rta in ty a vo id ance , in g enera l, d id n ot m od era te th e m od era tin g e ff e ct o f g lo bal s o cia l m edia ty p es

on d ir e ct re la tio nsh ip s in th e c a se o f th e C CS (Y ouT ube), w he re as w e w it n esse d a m ix e d th re e-w ay

in te ra ctio n in th e S N S ( F ace book) c o ndit io n. T he fu ll r e su lt s o f th e a naly sis a ppear in W eb A ppendix G .

DIS C USSIO N A ND IM PLIC ATIO NS

Socia l m edia is tr a nsfo rm in g th e s ca le a n d s co pe o f in te rn atio nal a dve rtis in g. D esp it e th is , th e r e se arc h

o n S M A is r e la tiv e ly r a re ( K noll 2 016), a n d r e se a rc h o n th e b ehavio ra l im plic a tio ns o f in te rn atio nal S M A

is e ve n m ore s o ( O ka za ki a nd T a ylo r 2 0 13). W e d e ve lo p a fr a m ew ork o f c o nsu m er r e sp onse s to S M A in

i n te rn atio nal m ark e tp la ce s a nd id entif y th e in te rv e n in g p ro ce sse s a n d th e b oundary co ndit io ns th at

guid e S M A's e ff e ct o n in te ra ctiv e b ehavio rs o f m essa ge a nd s o cia l in te ra ctio n. T he fin din gs c o nfir m th e

in te rv e nin g r o le o f v a lu e a nd a ttit u de in o ur h ie ra rc h y o f e ff e cts th eory — and e xp ecta ncy v a lu e th eory —

b ase d fr a m ew ork o f S M A b elie f— va lu e— attit u de— behavio r. W e fin d s u p port fo r o ur a rg um ent th at S M A

eff e ctiv e ness a cro ss c u lt u re s is c o ntin gen t o n u n ce rta in ty a vo id ance . W e fin d a s tr o nger e ff e ct o f S M A

in fo ta in m ent o n va lu e a nd o f S M A cre dib ilit y o n va lu e a n d a ttit u de in a h ig h-u nce rta in ty a vo id ance

c u lt u re (T a iw an) th an in a lo w -u nce rta in ty a vo id ance c u lt u re (V ie tn am ). C on tr a ry to o ur e xp ecta tio n, th e

eff e ct o f in fo ta in m ent o n a ttit u de s h ow s n o d if f e re nce b etw een T a iw an a nd V ie tn am . It is lik e ly th at th e

hig h-in fo ta in m ent c o n te nt o f S M A re duce s c o nsu m ers ' n eed fo r c o g nit iv e c lo su re in lo w -u nce rta in ty -

a vo id ance c u lt u re s, m akin g th em m ore c u rio us a nd o p en-m in ded (s e e S m it h , C hen, a nd Y ang 2 008),

th us ra is in g th eir p osit iv e a ttit u de to w ard S M A to e qual th at h eld b y c o n su m ers in h ig hunce rta in ty -

a vo id ance c u lt u re s. W e a ls o fin d s u ppo rt fo r o ur c o n te ntio n th at c o n su m ers ' re sp onse s to S M A a re

c o ntin gent o n g lo bal s o cia l m edia ty p es. In fo ta in m en t is fo und to h ave a s tr o nger e ff e ct o n S M A v a lu e

and a ttit u de o n C CSs th an o n S N Ss, w he re as c re dib ilit y is m ore p ow erfu l in in flu encin g v a lu e a nd

attit u de o n S N Ss th an o n C CSs.

T heo re tic al Im plic atio ns

O ur re se arc h o ff e rs s e ve ra l th eore tic a l im plic a tio ns. F ir s t, w e a dd to th e lit e ra tu re o n th e b ehavio ra l

im plic a tio ns o f in te rn atio nal S M A a nd to th e lim it e d lit e ra tu re o n th e e ff e ct o f S M A a ttit u de o n b ehavio r

(K noll 2 016). O ur e xa m in atio n o f m essa ge a nd s o cia l in te ra ctio n b ehavio rs a d va nce s th e re se arc h o n

in te rn atio nal a dve rtis in g o n s o cia l m edia , th e m ajo rit y o f w hic h e it h er is d e scrip tiv e in n atu re (e .g .,

B erth on e t a l. 2 012; O ka za ki a nd T a ylo r 2 013) o r o fte n a sse sse s c o nsu m er a ttit u de o r p erc e ptio ns

(H atz it h om as, F otia dis , a nd C oudounaris 2 0 16; H udso n e t a l. 2 016) ra th er th an b ehavio r. O ur fin din gs

als o c o ntr ib ute to th e s tr e am o f re se arc h o n c ro ss-c u lt u ra l in te ra ctiv e b ehavio r (L in a nd K alw ani 2 018;

Ta ng 2 017). W hile p rio r s o cia l m edia re se a rc h h as in ve stig ate d lim it e d a sp e cts o f in te ra ctiv e b ehavio r

su ch a s s e ekin g a nd p assin g in fo rm atio n (C hu 2 0 11 ; H su e t a l. 2 0 15) a n d c o nsu m ptio n, c re atio n, a nd

co ntr ib utio n (M untin ga, M oorm an, and S m it 2011 ), it has not prin cip ally fo cu se d on S M A or it s

in te rn atio nal a pplic a tio n. In lig ht o f th is g ap, w e a d va n ce th e th eory o n in te ra ctiv e b ehavio rs in r e sp onse

to in te rn atio nal S M A b y s p ecif ic a lly fo cu sin g o n m essa ge a nd s o cia l in te ra ctio n, w hic h r e pre se nt th e tw o

fo rm s o f in te ra ctiv e b ehavio r.

S eco nd, our re se arc h addre sse s th e ca ll to deve lo p and te st th eory -b ase d fr a m ew ork s on th e

im plic a tio ns o f S M A in in te rn atio nal m ark e tp la ce s. M ore th an h alf o f th e p rio r re se arc h o n S M A la cks

th eory (K noll 2016), and th e sca rc it y of stu die s on in te rn atio nal S M A is attr ib ute d to th e lim it e d

th eore tic a l p ers p ectiv e s in th e fie ld ( O ka za ki a nd T a ylo r 2 013). In lig ht o f th is , th e p ro pose d h ie ra rc h y o f

eff e cts th eory — and e xp ecta ncy va lu e th eory — base d fr a m ew ork a d ds to th e th eore tic a l b ase s th at 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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pre dic t c o nsu m er b ehavio r in re sp onse to S M A a cro ss c u lt u re s a n d g lo bal s o cia l m edia ty p es. T he

m odelin g o f th e m edia tin g e ff e ct o f S M A v a lu e a nd a ttit u de w it h in th e b elie f— va lu e— attit u de— behavio r

fr a m ew ork co ntr ib u te s to th e sca rc e lit e ra tu re on th e un derly in g pro ce sse s th at guid e co nsu m er

behavio r in re sp onse to S M A in in te rn atio nal m ark e tp la ce s (H udso n e t a l. 2 016). T he fin din gs e xte nd

th e re se arc h o n th e d eve lo pm ent a nd e xte nsio n o f th e tw o e m plo ye d th eorie s in th e so cia l m edia

d om ain (e .g ., D ao e t a l. 2 014) a nd c o ntr ib ute to th e k n o w le dge o n th eir a pplic a tio n a nd c o nsis te ncy in

d elin eatin g d if f e re nt sta ges o f co nsu m er e va lu atio n a cro ss d is sim ila r cu lt u re s (B arts ch , R ie fle r, a nd

D ia m anto poulo s 2 016; D ura nd, T urk in a , a n d R ob so n 2 0 16). T his is n ote w orth y b eca use b ehavio ra l

m odels a re n ot n ece ssa rily e ff e ctiv e a cro ss c u lt u re s ( A sh ra f, T hongpapanl, a nd A uh 2 014).

T hir d , w e c o rro bora te th e im porta nce o f u nce rta in ty a vo id ance a s a b oundary c o ndit io n in c ro ss-c u lt u ra l

co nsu m er b ehavio r m odels (A sh ra f, T ho ngpapanl, a n d A uh 2 0 14; A sh ra f e t a l. 2 017; K ra utz a nd

H off m ann 2 017; L in a nd K alw ani 2 018; M ölle r a nd E is e n d 2 010). M ore s p e cif ic a lly , w e e xte nd th e s ca nt

lit e ra tu re o n th e ro le o f n atio nal c u lt u re in th e a p plic a tio n o f S M A a cro ss b o rd ers . T he m ajo rit y o f p rio r

in te rn atio nal s o cia l m edia lit e ra tu re , w it h th e e xce ptio n o f a fe w s tu die s ( e .g ., H atz it h om as, F otia dis , a nd

C oudounaris 2 016; H udso n e t a l. 2 016 ), w as n o t c o n ce rn ed w it h S M A b ut w it h h ow b ehavio r a nd

attit u de o n s o cia l m edia v a ry a cro ss c u lt u re s in g enera l. In lig ht o f th is , o ur re se arc h e sta blis h es th e

uniq ue r e le va nce o f u nce rta in ty a vo id ance in in te rn atio nal S M A r e se a rc h b y v a lid atin g it s c o ntin gent r o le

i n th e s o cia l m edia c o m munic a tio n a nd c o n su m er b ehavio r r e la tio nsh ip . T his is s ig nif ic a nt b eca use lit tle

u nders ta ndin g e xis ts a bout th e v ia bilit y a nd e ff ic a cy o f th e u se o f th e s a m e o nlin e o r S M A s tr a te gie s

acro ss c u lt u re s ( H udso n e t a l. 2 016; T a ng 2 0 17). T he fin din gs a re in lin e w it h th e v ie w s h eld b y B erth on

et a l. (2 012) a nd H atz it h om as, F otia dis , a n d C ou dounaris (2 016) th at s a m e S M A s tr a te gie s m ay n ot

w ork a cro ss cu lt u re s. T hus, o n a b ro a der le ve l, o u r stu dy a dds to th e str e am o f re se arc h o n th e

sta ndard iz a tio n v e rs u s a dapta tio n o f o nlin e s tr a te gie s (A sh ra f e t a l. 2 0 17; T a ng 2 017) a nd in te rn atio nal

S M A (H atz it h om as, F otia dis , a nd C oud ounaris 2 016). G iv e n th at h ig hand lo w -u nce rta in ty -a vo id ance

c u lt u re s d if f e r in h ow th ey e va lu ate S M A, th e s ta ndard iz a tio n o f S M A a cro ss c u lt u re s m ay n ot y ie ld

c o nsis te nt re su lt s . T he fin din gs, h ow eve r, d iv e rg e fr o m th e v ie w th at c o nsu m ers fr o m h ig h-u nce rta in ty -

a vo id ance c u lt u re s a re le ss lik e ly to a do pt In te rn et m ark e tin g p ro gra m s ( e .g ., P ark a nd J u n 2 003). T his

s u pports o ur a rg um ent th at th eore tic a l u n ders ta ndin g e sta blis h e d in th e tr a dit io nal o r W eb 1 .0 m edia

c o nte xt m ay n ot b e tr a nsfe rra ble to th e s o cia l m ed ia e nvir o nm en t.

F ourth , o ur fin din gs p ro vid e in sig ht in to th e m od era tin g ro le o f g lo bal s o cia l m edia ty p es. D esp it e th eir

p urp orte d c o ntin gent r o le , g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia ty p e s h ave b e en la rg ely ig nore d in th e in te rn atio nal S M A

lit e ra tu re (W ang, M in , a nd H an 2 016). T he e xta nt lit e ra tu re , ir re sp e ctiv e o f d o m estic o r in te rn atio nal

fo cu s, o fte n s tu die s o nly o ne s o cia l m edia ty p e ( e .g ., B erg h e t a l. 2 0 11 ; H ud so n e t a l. 2 016) o r d oes n ot

dis tin guis h b etw een g lo bal s o cia l m edia ty p e s ( e .g ., C hu 2 0 11 ; Z eng, H ua ng, a n d D ou 2 009). A lt h ough

D ao e t a l. (2 014) d o p ro vid e a n in sig ht in to th e m odera tin g ro le o f s o cia l m edia ty p es, th eir s tu dy is

c o nfin ed to a s in gle c o untr y . In c o ntr a st, o ur r e se a rc h n ot o nly c o rro bora te s th e c o ntin gent r o le o f g lo bal

so cia l m edia ty p es b ut a ls o e xte nds it s a p plic a b ilit y a n d im po rta nce in S M A a cro ss c u lt u re s. T his is

e vid ent in th e re su lt s of th e post hoc th re e-w ay in te ra ctio n betw een glo bal so cia l m edia ty p es,

u nce rta in ty a vo id an ce , a nd th e tw o b elie f fa cto rs (W eb A ppendix G ). T he fin din gs la rg ely in dic a te th at

cu lt u re (u nce rta in ty a vo id ance ) d oes n ot in flu ence th e m odera tin g e ff e ct o f g lo bal s o cia l m edia , w hic h

le nds a ddit io nal s u pport to o ur a sse rtio n th at d if f e re nt g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia ty p e s h ave u niq ue c o ntin gent

eff e cts o n S M A e ff e ctiv e ness a cro ss c u lt u re s. T his a ls o p ro vid es s u pport to th e e xis te nce o f c ro ss-

c o untr y c o n su m er s e gm ents , a s re fle cte d in th e u nif o rm it y in c o n su m er b ehavio r a lo ng g lo bal s o cia l

m edia ty p es ( K ra utz a nd H off m ann 2 017). 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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Fif th , th e fin din gs o n th e e ff e ct o f S M A in fo ta in m en t a nd c re dib ilit y o n b ehavio r r e in fo rc e th e n otio n th at

S M A c o nte nt is im porta nt in u nders ta nd in g b ehavio r o n s o cia l m ed ia (D ao e t a l. 2 014; K um ar e t a l.

2 016). In d oin g s o , th e re se arc h a ls o a dd s to a n d e xte nds th e lit e ra tu re o n th e e ff e ct o f fir m -g enera te d

S M A c o nte nt o n c o nsu m er b ehavio r o n s o cia l m ed ia ( K um ar e t a l. 2 016; T a ng 2 017).

M an ag eria l Im plic atio ns

O ur fin din g s p ro vid e im porta nt in sig hts a nd a ctio nable s tr a te gie s to in te rn atio nal m anagers w ho a im to

e m plo y S M A acro ss cu lt u re s and glo ba l so cia l m edia ty p e s. A cco rd in g to th e re su lt s , co nsu m er

engagem ent in in te ra ctiv e b ehavio rs o f m essa ge a nd s o cia l in te ra ctio n d epends o n th e p erc e iv e d v a lu e

of a nd th eir fa vo ra ble a ttit u de to w ard S M A. T o in cre ase th e p erc e iv e d v a lu e o f S M A c a m paig ns a nd

deve lo p a fa vo ra ble a ttit u de, in te rn atio n al m ark e te rs m ust fo cu s o n th e in fo ta in m ent a nd cre dib ilit y

a sp ect o f th eir S M A. C om pare d w it h S M A c re dib ilit y , S M A in fo ta in m en t h a s a s tr o nger in flu ence o n

m essa ge a nd s o cia l in te ra ctio n b ehavio rs . T his im plie s th at m ark e te rs s h ould d eve lo p S M A th at is

i n fo rm ativ e a nd e nte rta in in g. T hus, m anagers c h arg ed w it h th e d esig n a nd c o nte nt o f S M A s h ould

p rio rit iz e c re atin g S M A c o nte nt th at is ric h in u p -to -d ate in fo rm atio n a n d th at s im ult a neously e ngages,

a m use s, a nd e nte rta in s c o nsu m ers . M an ageria l e ff o rts s h o uld a ls o b e d ir e cte d to w ard c re atin g S M A

ca m paig ns th at a re c re dib le . In cre asin g th e c re dib ilit y q u otie nt o f S M A c o u ld b e a ch ie ve d b y c re atin g

adve rtis in g c o nte nt a nd d is se m in atin g it in a w ay th at c o nsu m ers e ndors e th e c a m paig n. T his w ould a dd

to it s p opula rit y a nd p ro vid e c re dib ilit y c u es to o th er c o n su m ers .

S eco nd, m anagers s h ould p ay a tte ntio n to th e c u lt u ra l d if f e re nce s a cro ss ta rg et m ark e ts b eca use S M A

ca m paig ns n eed to b e a dju ste d a cro ss cu lt u re s to b e e ff e ctiv e in a ch ie vin g in te ra ctiv e b ehavio ra l

re sp onse s. W e fin d th at c o nsu m ers in lo w -u nce rta in ty -a vo id ance m ark e ts a re le ss s e nsit iv e to b oth

in fo ta in m ent a nd cre dib ilit y th an th ose in h ig h-u nce rta in ty -a vo id ance cu lt u re s. T here fo re , m anagers

s h ould p la ce m ore e m phasis o n d eliv e rin g a d ve rtis in g c o nte nt h ig h in in fo ta in m ent a nd c re dib ilit y in

s u ch c u lt u re s th an in th ose w here c o nsu m ers a re h ig hly ris k a ve rs e . A n a ppro ach c o uld b e to d eliv e r

S M A h ig h in in fo ta in m ent to lo w -u nce rta in ty -a vo id ance c o n su m ers u sin g th e lo ca tio n-ta rg etin g to ol o f

glo bal s o cia l m edia . C oncu rre ntly , e ff o rts to in cre ase S M A c re dib ilit y b eyo n d w ha t m ay b e a cce pta ble in

h ig h-u nce rta in ty -a vo id ance cu lt u re s sh o uld als o utiliz e d to su cce ed in lo w -u nce rta in ty -a vo id ance

c u lt u re s.

T hir d , th e fin din gs o f th e e ff e ct o f g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia ty p e s in dic a te th at c o n su m ers d o n ot p erc e iv e

s im ila r le ve ls o f S M A in fo ta in m ent a nd c re dib ilit y o n d if f e re nt g lo bal s o cia l m edia ty p es. C onsu m ers

h ave h ig her v a lu e fo r a nd m ore fa vo ra ble a ttit u de to w ard S M A in fo ta in m en t o n C CSs th an o n S N Ss. In

c o ntr a st, c o nsu m ers v a lu e S M A c re dib il it y m ore a n d e va lu ate it m ore fa vo ra bly o n S N Ss th an o n C CSs.

T here fo re , it is im porta nt to c o nsid er th e a dva n ta ges a nd lim it a tio ns o f o ne g lo bal s o cia l m edia ty p e o ve r

anoth er to b e m ore e ff e ctiv e in a ch ie vin g d esir e d o utc o m es. T he fin din gs s u ggest th at s e para te a nd

dis tin ct a dve rtis in g a ppro ach es o n v a rio u s ty p e s o f g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia s h o uld b e u se d. S pecif ic a lly , to

t r ig ger in te ra ctiv e b e havio ra l re sp onse s e ff e ctiv e ly , S M A o n C CSs s h ould fo cu s m ore o n in fo ta in m ent,

w here as S M A o n S N Ss s h ould b e h ig h in c re dib ilit y .

F ourth , w e fin d th at c o m pare d w it h m en, w om en e xh ib it a h ig her te ndency to w ard m essa ge in te ra ctio n

behavio r. A lt h ough m ark e te rs s h ould u se th is to th eir a dva n ta ge th ro ugh th e ta rg etin g to ols o f g lo bal

so cia l m edia , a sce rta in in g g ender d if f e re nce s in m otiv a tio n a n d s o ught b e nefit s c o uld h elp in id entif y in g

w ays in w hic h m essa ge in te ra ctio n co u ld be in cre ase d in m en. M anagers sh ould als o fo cu s on

in cre asin g th e tim e c o nsu m ers s p end o n g lo bal s o cia l m edia b e ca u se o f it s p osit iv e e ff e ct o n m essa ge 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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and s o cia l in te ra ctio n b ehavio r. O ne p ossib le m eth od o f d o in g s o c o uld b e to o ff e r fr e e c o nte nt o r c re ate

g am in g a p plic a tio ns o n g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia th at m ake c o nsu m ers s p e nd m ore tim e o n b ra nd/fa n p ages.

H ow eve r, u se r e xp erie nce n egativ e ly a ff e cts m essa ge a nd s o cia l in te ra ctio n b ehavio rs . T his s u ggests

t h at m ana gers c o uld b e m ore s u cce ssfu l in th eir g lo bal S M A c a m pa ig n w it h le ss e xp erie nce d u se rs

w hile th ey w ould n ee d to id entif y w ays to m otiv a te m ore e xp e rie nce d u se rs fo r m ore m essa ge a nd

so cia l in te ra ctio n b ehavio rs .

L IM IT A TIO NS A ND F U TU RE R ESEA RCH D IR EC TIO NS

O ur re se arc h is not w it h out lim it a tio n s. In te rm s of m eth odolo gic a l desig n, w e re ly on H ofs te de,

H ofs te de, a nd M in ko v's (2 010) s co re s ra th er th an m easu rin g u n ce rta in ty a vo id ance le ve ls in th e tw o

sa m ple s. A lt h ough th ese sco re s a re fr e quently e m plo ye d in stu die s, a n d o u r p ost h oc a naly sis o f

unce rta in ty a vo id ance le ve ls in th e tw o s a m ple s (W eb A ppendix H ) s u p ports o u r d esig n, fu tu re s tu die s

co uld m easu re u nce rta in ty a vo id ance to r u le o u t a lt e rn ativ e e xp la natio ns. A noth er lim it a tio n s te m s fr o m

th e d ouble -b arre l n atu re o f th e it e m IM EI- 1 ( W eb A ppendix A ) o f th e m essa ge in te ra ctio n s ca le . F utu re

s tu die s c o uld e m plo y b ette r m easu re m ent to a m ply c a p tu re th e c o nstr u ct. W it h r e sp ect to th e r e se arc h

sa m ple , a lt h ough th e u se o f s tu dent s a m ple in o ur re se a rc h is ju stif ie d, s tu die s u sin g s a m ple s th at a re

m ore h ete ro geneous w ould b e h elp fu l in g enera liz in g o ur fin din gs.

F urth erm ore , it is lik e ly th at fo r r e sp onde nts w it h a h ig h n um be r o f fa n p age lik e s, a c e rta in p ro portio n o f

S M A a ppearin g o n th eir n ew sfe ed/u pdate s w ould b e fr o m th ese fa n p ages, w hic h m ay le ad to a m ore

p osit iv e a ttit u de to w ard S M A. F utu re S M A s tu die s c o u ld c o n tr o l fo r th ese fa n p age lik e s to a cce ss m ore

n eutr a l re su lt s . In a ddit io n, d ue to o ur s u rv e y d esig n, w e c a nnot d is tin guis h b etw een th e e ff e cts o f

dif f e re nt fo rm ats of YouT ube/F ace book S M A on co n su m er eva lu atio n acro ss cu lt u re s. G iv e n th at

dif f e re nt fo rm ats o f S M A o n a p artic u la r s o cia l m ed ia ty p e m ay b e p erc e iv e d d if f e re ntly a cro ss c u lt u re s,

fu tu re r e se a rc h c o uld e m plo y e xp erim enta l d esig n m eth ods to g ain in sig hts in to c o nsu m er r e sp onse s to

d if f e re nt S M A fo rm ats a cro ss c u lt u re s.

B eca use o f th e lim it e d s co pe o f o ur re se arc h , th ere a re s e ve ra l im po rta nt a ve n ues fo r fu tu re re se arc h

th at w e c o uld n ot a ddre ss. F or in sta nce , w e a cco unt fo r o nly o n e c u lt u ra l fa cto r, u nce rta in ty a vo id ance .

F utu re s tu d ie s c o uld in ve stig ate th e m odera tin g e ff e ct o f H ofs te de, H ofs te de, a nd M in ko v's ( 2 010) o th er

cu lt u ra l fa cto rs a nd tim e o rie nta tio n, a s th ey h ave a b e arin g o n c ro ss-c u lt u ra l In te rn et a dve rtis in g (s e e

M ¨o lle r and Eis e nd 2010). Furth erm ore , it is pro bable th at co nsu m ers fr o m hig h-/lo w -

unce rta in ty a vo id ance c u lt u re s m ay s p e nd m ore /le ss tim e p ro ce ssin g S M A. T here fo re , re se arc h o n th e

in te ra ctio n b etw een u nce rta in ty a vo id a nce a nd th e p ro ce ssin g tim e is e nco u ra ged to g ain d eeper

in sig hts in to c ro ss-c u lt u ra l d if f e re nce s in c o nsu m ers ' S M A e va lu atio n. A noth er in te re stin g a ve nue o f

re se arc h r e la te s to th e fin din gs o f th e p o st h oc th re e-w ay in te ra ctio n b etw een g lo bal s o cia l m edia ty p es,

u nce rta in ty a vo id ance , a nd th e tw o b elie f fa cto rs ( W eb A ppendix G ). W hile w e la rg ely fo und n o e ff e ct o f

unce rta in ty a vo id ance o n th e m odera tin g e ff e ct o f g lo bal s o cia l m ed ia ty p e s, tw o o ut o f e ig ht th re e-w ay

in te ra ctio ns w ere s ig nif ic a nt. T he fin din gs p o in t to th e n eed fo r m ore in ve stig atio n in to h ow g lo bal s o cia l

m edia ty p es in te ra ct w it h c u lt u ra l v a ria ble s.

F utu re r e se arc h s tr e am s c o uld a ls o fo cu s o n in te rn atio nal S M A d e sig n a n d o u tc o m es. T he id entif ic a tio n

and m odelin g o f o th er p ossib le c o nte nt- re la te d d riv e rs o f S M A e ff e ctiv e n ess (K um ar e t a l. 2 016) c o uld

b enefit th e c u rre nt b o dy o f r e se arc h o n S M A d esig n a nd c o n te nt. F urth erm ore , g iv e n th at in te ra ctiv it y is

t h e fu ndam enta l a ttr ib ute o f S M A d esig n , fu tu re r e se a rc h c o u ld e xp lo re th e o utc o m es o f d if f e re nt le ve ls

o f S M A in te ra ctiv it y and th eir cro ss-c u lt u ra l im plic a tio ns. C orre sp o ndin gly , m ark e tin g outc o m es of 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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messa ge a nd s o cia l in te ra ctio ns ( e .g ., b ra nd e quit y , p urc h a se in te ntio n), w hic h fo rm th e m ain m otiv a tio n

fo r a dve rtis e rs (K o, C ho, a nd R oberts 2 005), sh o uld b e e xp lo re d to va lid ate S M A e xp endit u re . To

a ddre ss th e la rg er is su e of in te rn atio nal SM A str a te gy desig n, stu die s on how fir m s co uld

s ta ndard iz e /a dapt S M A in co nju nctio n w it h oth er m ark e tin g to ols to id entif y /w ork on cro ss-m ark e t

se gm ents c o uld a dva nce th e th eore tic a l k n o w le dge o n a nd th e a ctio nable s tr a te gie s fo r S M A in th e

glo bal m ark e t ( s e e a ls o H atz it h om as, F otia dis , a nd C oudounaris 2 016).

T he a uth ors w ould lik e to th ank th e JIM re vie w te am fo r th eir co nstr u ctiv e co m ments th at h elp ed

im pro ve th e p aper s ig nif ic a ntly . T he fin a ncia l s u pport o f th e U niv e rs it y o f E co n om ic s, H o-C hi- M in h C it y ,

is a ckn ow le dged. T he fu ndin g b ody d id n ot h ave a ny in vo lv e m en t in s tu dy d esig n; in c o lle ctio n, a naly sis ,

a nd in te rp re ta tio n o f d ata ; in th e w rit in g o f th e re se a rc h ; o r in th e d ecis io n to s u bm it th e a rtic le fo r

public a tio n. B ule nt M enguc s e rv e d a s a sso cia te e dit o r fo r th is a rtic le .

F ig ure 1 . T he R ese arc h F ra m ew ork a nd D ir e ct, M ed ia tin g, a nd M od era tin g E ff e ct R esu lt s

a p < .0 5.

by < .0 1.

cp < .0 01.

N ote s: D otte d a rro w s re fe r to n onhyp oth esiz e d e ff e cts ; b o ld b o xe s a re m odera to rs ; b old lin es re fe r to

m odera tin g e ff e ct re la tio nsh ip s; d otte d b oxe s s ym bo liz e m edia tio n e ff e cts ; th e b old d otte d ir re gula rly

s h aped b ox re pre se nts th e c o ntr o l v a ria ble e ff e ct re la tio nsh ip . N um be rs o uts id e o f p are nth ese s a re

p oin ts o f e stim ate ; n um bers in sid e o f p are nth ese s a re c o n fid ence in te rv a ls . S M AI = S M A in fo ta in m ent;

S M AC = S M A cre dib ilit y ; V SM A = va lu e o f S M A; A SM A = a ttit u de to w ard S M A; M IB = m essa ge

in te ra ctio n b ehavio r; S IB = s o cia l in te ra ctio n b ehavio r.

D IA G RAM : F ig ure 1 . T he R ese arc h F ra m ew ork a nd D ir e ct, M ed ia tin g, a nd M od era tin g E ff e ct R esu lt s

R EFE R EN CES

1 Aguir re , Eliz a beth , D om in ik M ahr, D hru v G re w al, Ko de R uyte r, an d M artin W etz e ls (2 015),

" U nra ve lin g th e P ers o naliz a tio n P ara d ox: The E ffe ct of In fo rm atio n C olle ctio n and Tru st- B uild in g

S tr a te gie s o n O nlin e A dve rtis e m ent E ffe ctiv e n ess," J o u rn al o f R eta ilin g, 9 1 ( 1 ), 3 4–49.

2 A kd eniz , M . B illu r, a nd M . B erk T a la y (2 0 13), "C ult u ra l V aria tio ns in th e U se o f M ark e tin g S ig nals : A

M ult ile ve l A naly sis o f th e M otio n P ic tu re In dustr y ," J o urn al o f th e A ca d em y o f M ark e tin g S cie nce , 4 1 ( 5 ),

6 01–24.

3 A sh ra f, A bdul R ., N aro ngsa k T hongpa panl, a nd S eig yo u ng A uh (2 014), "T he A pplic a tio n o f th e

Te ch nolo gy A cce pta nce M odel under D if fe re nt C ult u ra l C on te xts : The C ase of O nlin e S hoppin g

A doptio n," J o urn al o f In te rn atio nal M ark e tin g, 2 2 ( 3 ), 6 8–93.

4 A sh ra f, A bdul R ., Na ro ngsa k T hongpapa nl, B ule nt M en guc, a nd G avin N orth ey (2 017), "T he R ole o f

m -C om merc e R eadin ess in E m erg in g a n d D eve lo ped M ark e ts ," J o urn al o f In te rn atio nal M ark e tin g, 2 5

(2 ), 2 5–51.

5 B arts ch , F abia n, P etr a R ie fle r, a nd A da m an tio s D ia m an to poulo s (2 016), " A T a xo nom y a nd R evie w o f

P osit iv e C onsu m er D is p osit io ns to w ard F ore ig n C ou ntr ie s a nd G lo baliz a tio n," J o urn al o f In te rn atio nal 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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Mark e tin g, 2 4 ( 1 ), 8 2–11 0.

6 B ello , D anie l, K w ok L eung, L ee R adebau gh, R osa lie L . T u ng, a nd A rje n V an W it te lo ostu ijn (2 009),

" F ro m th e E dit o rs : S tu dent S am ple in In te rn atio nal B usin ess R ese a rc h ," Jo urn al of In te rn atio nal

B usin ess S tu die s, 4 0 ( 3 ), 3 61–64.

7 B erg h, B ru ce V ande n, M ir a L ee, E liz a be th Q uillia m , a nd T hom as H ove ( 2 011 ), " T he M ult id im ensio nal

N atu re a nd B ra nd Im pact o f U se r- G ene ra te d A d P aro die s in S ocia l M edia ," In te rn atio nal J o urn al o f

A dve rtis in g R ese arc h , 3 0 ( 1 ), 1 03–31.

8 B erth on, P ie rre R ., L eyla nd F . P it t, K ir k P la ngger, a n d D an ie l S hapir o (2 012), " M ark e tin g M eets W eb

2.0 , S ocia l M edia , a n d C re ativ e C onsu m ers : Im plic a tio ns fo r In te rn atio nal M ark e tin g S tr a te gy," B usin ess

H oriz o ns, 5 5 ( 3 ), 2 61–71.

9 C hi, H su -H sie n ( 2 011 ), " In te ra ctiv e D ig it a l A dve rtis in g v s. V ir tu al B ra nd C om munit y : E xp lo ra to ry S tu dy

of Use r M otiv a tio n and Socia l M ed ia M ark e tin g Resp o nse s in Ta iw an," Jo urn al of In te ra ctiv e

A dve rtis in g, 1 2 ( 1 ), 4 4–61.

C hu, S hu-C huan (2 011 ), "V ir a l A dve rtis in g in S ocia l M ed ia : P artic ip atio n in F ace book G ro ups a nd

R esp onse s A m ong C olle ge-A ged U se rs ," J o u rn al o f In te ra ctiv e A dve rtis in g, 1 2 ( 1 ), 3 0–43.

C hu, S hu-C huan, a nd Y ooju ng K im (2 0 11 ), "D ete rm in ants o f C on su m er E ngagem ent in E le ctr o nic

W ord -o f- M outh in S ocia l N etw ork in g S it e s," In te rn atio nal J o u rn al o f A dve rtis in g, 3 0 ( 1 ), 4 7–75.

D ao, W illi a m V .T ., N hat H anh L e A ng elin a, Ju lia n M in g-S ung C he ng, a n d D er C hao C hen (2 014),

" S ocia l M ed ia A dve rtis in g V alu e: T he C ase o f T ra nsit io nal E co n om ie s in S outh east A sia ," In te rn atio nal

Jo urn al o f A dve rtis in g, 3 3 ( 2 ), 2 71–94.

D uco ffe , R obert H . (1 995), "H ow C on su m ers A sse ss th e V alu e o f A dve rtis in g," Jo urn al o f C urre nt

Is su es a nd R ese arc h in A dve rtis in g, 1 7 ( 1 ), 1 –18.

D ura nd, A uré lia , E ka te rin a T u rk in a, a nd M atth ew R obso n ( 2 016), " P sych ic D is ta nce a nd C ountr y Im age

in E xp orte r— Im porte r R ela tio nsh ip s," J o u rn al o f In te rn atio nal M ark e tin g, 2 4 ( 3 ), 3 1–57.

E is e nd, M artin , a nd F arid T a rra hi (2 016), "T he E ffe ctiv e n ess o f A dve rtis in g: A M eta -M eta -A naly sis o f

A dve rtis in g In puts a nd O utc o m es," J o urn al o f A dve rtis in g, 4 5 ( 4 ), 1 –13.

E ngele n, A ndre as, F rit z L ackh off, a nd S usa n ne S ch m id t (2 013), "H ow C an C hie f M ark e tin g O ffic e rs

S tr e ngth en T heir In flu ence ? A S ocia l C apit a l P ers p e ctiv e A cro ss S ix C ountr y G ro ups," Jo urn al o f

M ark e tin g R ese arc h , 2 1 ( 4 ), 8 8–109.

F alk , R . F ra nk, a nd N ancy B . M ille r (1 992 ), A P rim er fo r S oft M od elin g. A kro n, O H: U niv e rs it y o f A kro n

P re ss.

H ajli, N ic k, a nd X ia olin L in (2 016), " E xp lo rin g th e S ecu rit y o f In fo rm atio n S harin g o n S ocia l N etw ork in g

S it e s: T he R ole o f P erc e iv e d C ontr o l o f In fo rm atio n," J o u rn al o f B usin ess E th ic s, 1 33 ( 1 ), 1 11 –23.

H am ilt o n, M it c h ell, V elit c h ka D . K alt c h eva , a n d A ndre w J. R oh m (2 016), "S ocia l M edia a nd V alu e

C re atio n: The R ole of In te ra ctio n S atis fa ctio n and In te ra ctio n Im mers io n," Jo urn al of In te ra ctiv e

M ark e tin g, 3 6, 1 21–33. 6/28/2018 EBSCOhost

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Ham pto n, K eit h N ., C hul- J o o L ee, a nd E un J a H er ( 2 011 ), " H ow N ew M edia A ffo rd s N etw ork D iv e rs it y :

D ir e ct a nd M edia te d A cce ss to S ocia l C apit a l T hro ugh P artic ip atio n in L oca l S ocia l S ettin gs," N ew

M edia & S ocie ty , 1 3 ( 7 ), 1 031–49.

H atz it h om as, Leonid as, T hom as A . F otia dis , and D afn is N . C oudounaris (2 016), "S ta ndard iz a tio n,

A dapta tio n, a nd P ers o naliz a tio n o f In te rn atio nal C orp ora te S ocia l M ed ia C om munic a tio ns," P sych olo gy

and M ark e tin g, 3 3 ( 1 2), 1 098–105.

H ense le r, J¨o rg , C hris tia n M . R in gle , and M ark o S ars te dt (2 015), "A N ew C rit e rio n fo r A sse ssin g

D is crim in ant V alid it y in V aria nce -B ase d S tr u ctu ra l E quatio n M odelin g," Jo u rn al of th e A ca dem y of

M ark e tin g S cie nce , 4 3 ( 1 ), 1 1 5–35.

H ofs te de, G eert, G ert J a n H ofs te de, a n d M ic h a el M in ko v ( 2 010), C ult u re s a nd O rg aniz a tio ns: S oftw are

o f th e M in d, 3 rd e d. N ew Y ork : M cG ra w -H ill.

H su , L i- C hun, K ai- Y u W ang, W en-H ai C hih , a n d K uan-Y u L in ( 2 015), " In ve stig atin g th e R ip ple E ffe ct in

V ir tu al C om munit ie s: A n E xa m ple o f F ace book F an P ages," C om pu te rs in H um an B ehavio r, 5 1, 4 83–

94.

H uang, C hun-Y ao, Yong-Z heng Shen, H ong-X ia ng Lin , and Shin -S hin C han (2 007), "B lo ggers '

M otiv a tio ns a nd B ehavio rs : A M odel, " J o urn al o f A dve rtis in g R ese a rc h , 4 7 ( 4 ), 4 72–84.

H udso n, S im on, Li H uang, M artin R oth , and T. M ad den (2 016), "T he In flu ence of S ocia l M edia

I n te ra ctio ns on C onsu m er- B ra nd R ela tio nsh ip s: A T hre e-C ountr y S tu dy of B ra nd P erc e ptio ns and

M ark e tin g B ehavio rs ," In te rn atio nal J o urn al o f R ese a rc h in M ark e tin g, 3 3 ( 1 ), 2 7–41.

H ult m an, M agnus, M atth ew J . R obso n, a nd C onsta ntin e S . K ats ik e a s (2 009), " E xp ort P ro duct S tr a te gy

F it a nd P erfo rm ance : A n E m pir ic a l In ve stig atio n," J o u rn al o f In te rn atio nal M ark e tin g, 1 7 ( 4 ), 1 –23.

Ja m es, W illia m L ., a nd A rth ur J . K ove r (1 992), " O bse rv a tio ns: D o O ve ra ll A ttit u des T o w ard A dve rtis in g

A ffe ct In vo lv e m ent w it h S pecif ic A dve rtis e m en ts ? " J o u rn al o f A dve rtis in g R ese a rc h , 3 2 ( 5 ), 7 8–83.

K apla n, A ndre as M ., a nd M ic h ael H aen le in (2 010), "U se rs o f th e W orld , U nit e ! T he C halle nges a nd

O pportu nit ie s o f S ocia l M edia ," B usin ess H oriz o n s, 5 3 ( 1 ), 5 9–68.

K eil, M ark , B ern ard C .Y . T a n, K w ok-K ee W ei, T im o S aarin en, V ir p i T u unain en, a nd A rje n W asse naar

(2 000), "A C ro ss-C ult u ra l Stu dy on Esca la tio n of C om mit m en t Behavio r in Softw are Pro je cts ,"

M anagem ent In fo rm atio n S yste m s Q uarte rly , 2 4 ( 2 ), 2 99–325.

K em p, Sim on (2 011 ), "S ocia l, Dig it a l and M ob ile in Ta iw an," W e Are Socia l (D ece m ber 20),

h ttp s://w eare so cia l. c o m /u k/ b lo g/2 011 /1 2/s o cia l- d ig it a l- m ob ile -ta iw an.

K em p, Sim on (2 01 2), "S ocia l, Dig it a l and M ob ile in Vie tn am ," W e Are Socia l (O cto ber 30),

h ttp s://w eare so cia l. c o m /u k/b lo g/ 2 012/1 0 /s o cia l- d ig it a l- m ob ile -v ie tn am .

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W esle y J . J o hnsto n is P ro fe sso r o f M ark e tin g, D epartm en t o f M ark e tin g, G eorg ia S ta te U niv e rs it y

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Univ e rs it y

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C entr a l U niv e rs it y , a nd A dju nct P ro fe sso r, U niv e rs it y o f E co n om ic s

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hold er's e xp re ss w rit te n p erm is sio n. H ow eve r, u se rs m ay p rin t, d ow nlo ad, o r e m ail a rtic le s fo r in div id ual

use .