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WHEN AND WHY FOLLOWER–LEADER SECURE ATTACHMENT FOSTERS EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY QIN YANG Huazhong University of Science and Technology and China University of GeosciencesL IRONG LONG Huazhong University of Science and Technology Z HIJUN H OU China University of Geosciences We investigated the influence of follower–leader secure attachment (F\ LSA) on employee creativity from an attachment theory perspective. Data were collected fr\ om 263 employees of industries in China and their direct leaders, and analyzed using hier\ archical regression analysis. Results revealed that follower–leader secure attachment (F\ LSA) had a significant positive effect on followers’ creativity. Additionally, the effect of FLSA on followers’ creativity was mediated by their harmonious passion. Finally, environmental uncertainty moderated the relationship between FLSA and harmonious passion; specifically, FLSA had a stronger impact on followers’ harmonious passion when environmental uncertainty was high.

We have contributed to greater understanding of employee creativity and a\ ttachment in the workplace. Implications for future directions are discussed.

Keywords: follower–leader secure attachment, creativity, harmonious passion, environmental uncertainty, attachment style.

In today’s competitive world, creativity is a key resource for individuals, in organizations, and in societies. It enables employees to derive increased \ SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND PERSONALITY, 2018, 46(2), 177–188 © 2018 Scientific Journal Publishers Limited. All Rights Reserved.

https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.6578 177 Qin Yang, School of Management, Huazhong University of Science and Techn\ ology, and Institute of Applied Psychology, China University of Geosciences; Lirong Long, Sch\ ool of Management, Huazhong University of Science and Technology; Zhijun Hou, Institute of \ Applied Psychology, China University of Geosciences.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lirong Lon\ g, School of Management, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Luoyu Road 1037, Wuhan 43\ 0074, People’s Republic of China. Email: [email protected] SECURE ATTACHMENT AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY 178 benefit from opportunities and cope effectively with challenges. It has also been considered a critical element for organizations to survive and develop high-quality products or services in the global market with its unpredic\ table changes (Anderson, Potočnik, & Zhou, 2014). In most companies, an increasing emphasis is placed on motivating employees to work creatively (Liu, Gon\ g, Zhou, & Huang, 2017).According to Amabile (1988) creativity refers to the generation of ideas that are novel and useful for accomplishing desired goals. A number of researchers have investigated the effect of leader–follower relationships on creativity (Parke, Seo, & Sherf, 2015; Zhao, Kessel, & Kratzer, 2014; Zhou & Hoever, 2014). However, it is still not clear what precise aspect of the leader–follower rela\ tionship has an impact on creativity. Therefore, taking a path that has rarely been explored, we adopted an attachment perspective to understand how follower–leader s\ ecure attachment (FLSA) relationships might influence followers’ creativity. Using attachment theory, researchers have suggested that followers may develop a specific attachment relationship with their direct leaders, wh\ ich will influence their performance, especially in an uncertain environment (Ma\ yseless & Popper, 2007; Wu & Parker, 2017). According to evidence in previous research, when an individual has formed a secure attachment relationship\ , this will provide him or her with psychological security and will facilitate \ explorative behavior (Feeney & Thrush, 2010). Nonetheless, it is still not clear whether or not FLSA would foster followers’ creativity in the workplace. In order to clarify this, our first objective in the current study was to explore the influe\ nce of FLSA on followers’ creativity. Additionally, we examined the underlying motivational mechanism that links FLSA to followers’ creativity. Finally, we investigated the situational factor as a boundary condition that influences the effectiveness of FLSA in its influence on creativity. We expected that the empirical results would contribute to greater understanding of the theories of attachment and cr\ eativity.

Literature Review and Hypothesis Development Attachment Theory and Follower–Leader Attachment Attachment theory was originally developed from Bowlby’s (1982) early work on relationships in childhood. He found that children’s attachment to their caregivers would influence how they interact with others and explo\ re the environment. This early experience in childhood develops into an internal working model, which subsequently impacts individuals’ interpersonal relationships, emotional strategies, and work behavior. Recently, management scholars (e.g., Game, 2011; Harms, Bai, & Han, 2016) have extended this theory to understand leadership and leader–follower relationships. Many scholars have sugg\ ested that followers may develop a specific attachment relationship with their\ direct SECURE ATTACHMENT AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY 179 leaders, as has been proven in the case of student–teacher and client\ –therapist relationships (Davidovitz, Mikulincer, Shaver, Izsak, & Popper, 2007; Game, West, & Thomas, 2016). Because power and resources are distributed unequally between leaders and their followers in organizations, leaders, as the people with more power and resources, may serve as an attachment figure. When a follower encounters risk, complexity, and uncertainty, a sensitive and responsive leader could provide the functions of a safe haven and secure base that enable \ the follower to explore options for coping with the challenges in the workpl\ ace, and to have the confidence to overcome potential obstacles. Such positive in\ teraction will lead to a broaden-and-build cycle, which results in the formation o\ f a secure attachment relationship between follower and leader (Mikulincer & Shave\ r, 2007). In contrast, when the leader is neglectful of or unavailable to \ followers, he or she may generate an anxious or avoidant (insecure) attachment re\ lationship. Follower–Leader Secure Attachment and Creativity A central theme of attachment theory is the function of a secure attachme\ nt in promoting the attached individual’s exploration of novel and challenging environments. Feeney and Thrush (2010) identified three important charac- teristics of secure attachment that promote exploration among those who \ feel that attachment: availability, encouragement of growth, and noninterference.

Availability refers to the presence of the attachment figure when an individual needs help. Encouragement of growth refers to the encouragement from the attachment figure to support the individual’s development. Noninterference means providing space for individuals’ options and actions so that they can approach their objectives according to their own interests. Each of thes\ e functions that are served by the secure base will strengthen intrinsic m\ otivation and self-efficacy among the individuals who feel this security and, in turn, will promote their exploration. As exploration arises from one’s intrinsic motivation to master the novel and complex environment (Elliot & Reis, 2003), this u\ nderlying motivation is in line with creativity (Amabile, 1988). In addition, ex\ ploration corresponds to the divergent creativity concept in Audia and Goncalo’s (2011) theory relating to individual creativity (Hahn, Choi, & Lee, 2013). Therefore, we speculated that when followers feel secure in their attachment to a lead\ er who provides the functions of a secure base, this will promote followers’\ creativity.

Although there has been very little research conducted in which the rela\ tionship between attachment and creativity in the workplace has been explored, Wu and Parker (2017) have provided empirical evidence that leaders’ support as a secure base will significantly promote followers’ proactive behavior. Proactive behavior leads to creativity in the workplace (Parker, Williams, & Turner, 2006).

Additionally, in a study conducted by Oldham and Cummings (1996) it was found that noncontrolling supervision was positively and significantly r\ elated to SECURE ATTACHMENT AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY 180 followers’ creativity, and in that study, the measure of noncontrolling supervision was similar to our measure of leaders’ secure-base function (including leaders’ noninterference). Thus, we proposed the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1: Follower–leader secure attachment will be positively related to followers’ creativity.

Mediation Mechanism of Harmonious Passion Harmonious passion refers to an autonomous internalization that motivates the individual to engage in an activity that he or she likes (Vallerand et al., 2003).

According to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), people devote themselves to various activities to satisfy their different psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. On the basis of attachment theory and self-determination theory, we proposed that FLSA would facilitate followers’ harmonious passion. As already described, the leader who has securely attached followers will provide them with the secure-base characteristics of avai\ lability, encouragement, and noninterference. Together, these function to facilitate a supportive work environment that will boost an internalization of follow\ ers’ autonomous motivation. That is to say, the followers in this supportive work environment are more likely than others are to have a high level of harm\ onious passion. Previous researchers have demonstrated that working in a highly\ autonomous environment will enhance employees’ creativity via harmonious passion (Liu, Chen, & Yao, 2011). In such circumstances, employees can devote themselves entirely to their own job, can adopt new and effective ways to solve problems, and can generate increased creativity. Thus, we proposed our second hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2: Follower–leader secure attachment will promote followers’ harmonious passion, which will, in turn, foster their creativity in the \ workplace.

Moderating Effect of Environmental Uncertainty Next, we proposed that the influence of FLSA would be especially powerful when the followers’ work environment is highly uncertain. Followers may feel increased anxiety and pressure when working in conditions of uncert\ ainty (Colquitt, Lepine, Piccolo, Zapata, & Rich, 2012). In terms of attachm\ ent theory, individuals’ attachment mechanisms will be triggered at times of risk and in unpredictable situations, which means that they will be more eager to ac\ cess their leader. In such circumstances, FLSA may provide followers with a secure base, which will protect their harmonious passion and ensure their engag\ ement in creative work (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). According to uncertainty identity theory (Hogg, Adelman, & Blagg, 2009), in an environment of high uncertainty, followers may respond more positively to the leader’s support and communication, which increases their attachment to the leader. In contrast, SECURE ATTACHMENT AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY 181 when environmental uncertainty is low, followers can complete their work independently, and the importance of FLSA may not be salient. Drawing together the above reasoning, we proposed the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 3: High environmental uncertainty will strengthen the positive effect of follower–leader secure attachment on employee harmonious passion.

Hypothesis 4: Follower–leader secure attachment will be associated with creativity via the mediating role of harmonious passion, and this mediat\ ing effect will be stronger when environmental uncertainty is higher rather than lo\ wer.

Method Participants and Procedure Prior to undertaking the study, all authors obtained ethical approval from their affiliated institutions. Respondents voluntarily answered the survey onlin\ e.

Participants were recruited through the Alumni Associations of two Chinese universities. We sent 1,284 invitations via email to take part in an online survey, and 483 people completed and submitted the employee survey. We then sent a leader survey to their respective leaders via the email addresses provid\ ed by these employees and received complete data for 263 matched dyads. The participants were working in various industries, including information technology, electronics, and financial services. Of all the participants in the employee group, 5\ 5.5% were men and 44.5% women, their mean age was 28.9 years, average tenure was 6\ .48 years, 64.25% had a bachelor’s degree, and the remainder had a master’s degree or postgraduate academic qualification. The leaders were 71.5% men, mean age was 37.53 years, average tenure was 11.15 years, and 69.62% had a bachelor’s degree or higher level of education. The average length of time that the leader had been the supervisor of these employees was 4.74 years.

Measures All variables in this study, except for demographic variables (e.g., age and sex), were measured using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). All the scales were confirmed through a translation and back- translation process performed by two experienced bilingual researchers w\ ho both had a background of education in countries outside China (Brislin, 1980\ ).

Follower–leader secure attachment. To measure FLSA we adapted the six items on secure attachment in the 18-item Workplace Attachment Scale (Scrima, 2015). Items were reworded to refer to direct leaders. An example of an item we had adapted is “I feel comfortable to depend on my leader at work.”\ Harmonious passion. Harmonious passion was measured using a seven-item scale developed by Vallerand et al. (2003). A sample item is “This work allows me to live a variety of experiences.” SECURE ATTACHMENT AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY 182 Environmental uncertainty. Environmental uncertainty was measured using a four-item scale developed by Colquitt et al. (2012). A sample item is “There is a lot of uncertainty at work right now.” Creativity. Direct leaders completed the employee creativity measure developed by Farmer, Tierney, and Kung-Mcintyre (2003), which consists of four items. A sample item is “This employee tries new ideas or methods first.” Control variables. Five typical demographic variables were collected and controlled, including employee sex (male = 1, female = 2), age (years\ ), education level (1 = bachelor’s degree, 2 = masters, 3 = doctorate), company tenure (years), and length of time leader had been direct supervisor of the followers (\ years).

Results Descriptive Statistics, Correlations, and Reliabilities Descriptive statistics for each construct measured, including means, sta\ ndard deviations, scale reliabilities, and correlations among study variables,\ are shown in Table 1. Results show that all measures had acceptable internal consisten\ cy.

The intercorrelations show that FLSA and harmonious passion were positively and significantly related to employees’ creativity. These results provided initial support for our hypotheses.

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of the Study Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 1. FLSA 5.39 0.90 (.89) 2. Harmonious passion 5.40 0.68 .51 *** (.92) 3. Environmental uncertainty 4.81 0.92 -.11 .04 (.90) 4. Creativity 5.33 0.60 .30 ** .44 *** -.10 (.86) Note. N = 263. The alpha coefficients for the variables are given in parentheses on the diagonal. FLS\ A = follower–leader secure attachment. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001. Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Study Variables To check the discriminant validity of all variables, we conducted confirm\ atory factor analysis using Amos 20.0. Results show that fit indices for comparative fit (CFI), goodness of fit (GFI), standardized root mean square residual\ (SRMR), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) for the four-factor model all fell within an acceptable range ( 2 = 351.62, df = 183, p < .01, CFI = 0.91, GFI = .90, SRMR =.04, RMSEA = .07), and this four-factor model was a better fit than the alternative models. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis To further test the hypotheses we used hierarchical regression analysis (\ Aiken & West, 1991). First, we examined the moderating effect of environmental SECURE ATTACHMENT AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY 183 uncertainty on the link between FLSA and harmonious passion. We mean centered all the variables in the analysis and then entered all the cont\ rol variables (sex, age, education, company tenure, and supervision length) at Step \ 1 in the regression, FLSA and environmental uncertainty at Step 2, and the interaction term of FLSA and environmental uncertainty at Step 3, with harmonious passion as a dependent variable. Results are summarized in Table 2. Environmental uncertainty had a significant positive interaction with FLSA in predicting harmonious passion. To illustrate the interaction effect, we followed the recommendation of Aiken and West (1991) to conduct simple slope analyses. As shown in Figure 1, the relationship between FLSA and harmonious passion was positive and stronger when environmental uncertainty was high (simple s\ lope = 0.60, p < .01) rather than low (simple slope = 0.27, p < .01). Thus, Hypothesis 3 was supported.

Table 2. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Hypothesized Relationships Dependent variable = HP Dependent variable = Creativity M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 Sex -.02 .03 .02 .02 .05 .05 .04 Age .03 .12 .11 -.06 .03 .01 -.03 Education level -.04 -.04 -.04 -.11 -.10 -.01 .01 Tenure .09 .00 -.02 .06 .01 .00 .01 Supervision length .05 .00 .00 .09 -.07 -.01 -.01 FLSA .42 *** .45 *** .32 *** .23 *** .08 EU .08 .04 -.07 -.07* -.09 * FLSA × U .15 ** .09 * .04 HP .34 *** R2 .06 .33 .37 .02 .11 .13 .20 ΔR2 .06 .27 .04 .02 .09 .02 .07 F 3.02 ** 17.39 *** 17.71 *** 1.00 4.59 *** 7.99 *** 6.94 *** Note. Standardized regression coefficient betas are presented. FLSA = follower–leader secure attachment, HP = harmonious passion, EU = environmental uncertainty. * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001 (two-tailed test).

Next, we examined the mediating effect of harmonious passion between FLSA and creativity. As shown in Model 5, the main effect of FLSA on creativity was significant. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 was supported. Then when we added harmonious passion as a predictor (Model 6), we found it related posit\ ively to creativity and that the prediction effect of FLSA was now nonsignificant. Thus, Hypothesis 2 was supported. Furthermore, we adopted a bootstrapping appr\ oach to estimate the conditional mediation effect using the PROCESS procedure developed by Hayes (2013). Results for the conditional mediation effect and 95% confidence interval (CI) show that harmonious passion had a stronger m\ ediating SECURE ATTACHMENT AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY 184 effect when environmental uncertainty was high (conditional mediation effect = 0.21, 95% CI [0.11, 0.33]) than when it was low (conditional mediation effect = 0.09, 95% CI [0.05, 0.15]). Thus, Hypothesis 4 was supported. 7 6 5 4 3 2 Harmonious passion Low FLSA High FLSA Low EU High EU Figure 1. Moderating effect of environmental uncertainty on the relationship between follower–leader secure attachment and harmonious passion. EU = environmental uncertainty, FLSA = follower–leader secure attachment. Discussion Building on attachment theory, we found that FLSA positively affected employee creativity via the motivational mechanism of harmonious passion\ .

Furthermore, environmental uncertainty moderated the mediation effect. FLSA had a stronger effect on harmonious passion in a high environmental-uncertainty situation. Our findings contribute to attachment theory and creativity r\ esearch in several important ways. First, we have contributed to attachment theory by further expanding the\ scope of its application to the organizational context. Our findings substantiate the idea that followers and leaders may develop a specific attachment relati\ onship, which would impact employee outcomes in the workplace. As an attachment figure, leaders can provide secure-base functions in order to cultivate \ their followers’ autonomous motivation for creativity, especially in an environment of high uncertainty. Although researchers have examined the influence of adult attachment on exploration (Feeney & Thrush, 2010), we focused on the specific attachment between follower and leader, and we found that FLSA will foster employees’ creativity. Second, we have contributed to creativity theory by advancing understand\ ing of how the follower–leader relationship can promote employees’ creativity.

Through the lens of secure attachment, our findings help to clarify the \ content, mechanisms, and boundary conditions by which the follower–le\ ader relationship has an impact on follower creativity. Our findings show that when SECURE ATTACHMENT AND EMPLOYEE CREATIVITY 185 followers had developed a secure attachment with leaders, this enhanced \ their harmonious passion, which, in turn, facilitated their creativity. Also, we found that environmental uncertainty was an important situational factor. According to our results, when environmental uncertainty is high, the role of secure \ attachment looms large. Practically, on the basis of our findings, we suggest that leaders pay attention to followers’ attachment needs. We would encourage leaders to pay particular attention to the value of the secure-base functions exercised by the att\ achment figure, that is, availability, encouragement, and noninterference. Performing such behaviors may not be easy for many leaders, especially in high-pres\ sure work contexts. However, followers will benefit from secure attachment being provided by their leader and will be motivated to engage in challenging \ work. It would also be valuable to coach or train leaders in how to behave sensit\ ively and responsively toward their followers so as to increase leaders’ understanding of the role of the secure attachment figure. Our study has limitations. First, according to attachment theory, there are three different attachment styles that employees may develop in relation to their\ direct manager (secure, anxious, and avoidant; Game, 2011). We considered only one of these styles in the current study. Future researchers could explore the influence of other attachment styles. Second, our data are cross-sectional, which pre\ vented us from making the causal inferences that longitudinal studies would allow. Future researchers should use longitudinal designs to examine more carefully th\ e issues of causality. Use of such designs may allow researchers to further explain how environmental uncertainty influences the effectiveness of FLSA in the process of performing creative tasks. Third, we did not consider cultural differences.

It has been suggested that in collectivist cultures, where, in general, \ leaders are paternalistic, followers may be more likely than are those in indivi\ dualistic cultures to form attachment relationships with their leaders (Mayseless\ & Popper, 2007). Therefore, it is important to explore the factor of cultural values in t\ he context of FLSA and employee creativity.

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