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CH APTER 7

The S pir it o f 1 676: T he I d en tity P olitic s o f “ W hite n ess” a nd

Pre lu d e t o C olo nia l S ecessio n

T he fa tu o us id ea th at th e r o uti n g o f th e P eq uo ts in th e 1 630s in d ic ate d s m ooth s a ilin g fo r th e

s e ttl e rs in w hat th ey c alle d N ew E ngla nd b ecam e e v en m ore fo olis h w hen w ar e ru p te d o nce

m ore in th e m id -1 670s.

A s e v er, s e ttl e rs w ere u p se t w hen e v id ence e m erg ed th at th e F re nch

a nd th e D utc h w ere s e llin g “ guns, p ow der, s h o t,” a nd tr a d in g a nd th e l ik e “ w ith I n d ia ns to o ur

g re at pre ju d ic e and str e ngth enin g and anim ati n g th e In d ia ns again st us.” T he auth o riti e s

d em and ed th at n o b oats b e s o ld to i n d ig enes, p erh ap s h am perin g th eir e sc ap e f r o m e nsla v em ent

a nd r o uti n g. T ho ugh th e s e ttl e rs h ad a rriv ed in N orth A meric a p urp orte d ly to e njo y r e lig io us

l ib erty , in d ig eno us r e lig io us lib erty w as c urta ile d , th at is , “ w ors h ip to th eir fa ls e G ods o r to

t h e D ev il” w as fo rb id den. Cath o lic s to o w ere re str a in ed : “no Je su it or sp ir itu al or

e ccle sia sti c al p ers o n” w as a llo w ed to a lig ht o r a ny “ o rd ain ed b y th e a uth o rity o f th e P ope”

w ere a llo w ed to “ co m e w ith in th is ju ris d ic ti o n.” T hey w ere to b e b arre d in iti a lly , a nd if th ey

c am e a “ se co nd ti m e” th ey “ sh all b e p ut to D eath .” T he d eath p enalty f o r p ois o nin g p ro vid ed a

f o re ta ste o f th eir r e al f e ars , w hile “ fir in g a nd b urn in g” w as i llu m in ati n gly r e p ro ved .

New s th en re ached L ond on o f th e “b lo ody In d ia n w ar fr o m M arc h ti ll A ugust 1 676.”

H ig hlig hte d w as th e a lle gati o n th at if v ic ti m s w ere “ w om en, th ey fir s t fo rc ed th em to s a ti s fie

t h eir filth y lu sts and th en m urth ere d th em .”

L ond oners fo cuse d no t o n th e fa ct th at th eir

c o m patr io ts h ad in v ad ed a fo re ig n la nd a nd b egan to o ust a nd e nsla v e, g iv in g r is e to a fie rc e

r e acti o n b ut in ste ad s tr e sse d “ N ew E ngla nd ’s p re se nt s u ffe rin gs u nd er th eir c ru el n eig hb orin g

I n d ia ns.”

The pro m in ent Bosto nia n In cre ase M ath er la id dow n a ste ad y dru m fir e of

p ro pagand a a gain st th e in d ig eno us, tr a cin g th eir p urp orte d p erfid y fr o m “ th e y ear 1 614 to th e

y ear 1 675.”

Afte r E uro pean ru le h ad b een fa ste ned fir m ly u p on N ew E ngla nd , it w as c o nced ed th at

i n d ig eno us “ cap ti v e w om en a nd c hild re n w ere so ld in to sla v ery ,” th at is , “ m ore th an fiv e

h und re d ” w ere “ so ld in to s la v ery fr o m P ly m outh a lo ne” in w hat w as te rm ed “ K in g P hilip ’s

w ar.”

R ati o naliz in g th is c rim e a gain st h um anity , th e P ly m outh e lite , i t w as a rg ued , a v erre d th at

“ th e S achem of P asc anacutt” w as w ork in g w ith th e “F re nch again st th e E nglis h in N ew

E ngla nd .”

S ti ll, e v en a fte r it a p peare d th at a n in d ig eno us r e v olt h ad b een q uelle d , o ne s e ttl e r

w as sti ll sw eati n g a b out w hat a re sid ent te rm ed “ m any se cre t a tte m pts … b y e v il m in d ed

p ers o ns to fir e th e to w n o f B osto n, te nd in g to th e d estr u cti o n” o f th at ra p id ly g ro w in g u rb an

c ente r.

It tu rn s o ut th at th is d ep orta ti o n p olic y m ay h av e e xp orte d r e v olt. T he “ heath en p rin ce” w ho

p erp etr a te d th ese “no to rio us and execra b le m urd ers and outr a ges” and so ught to “to ta lly

d estr o y, e xti r p ate & e xp el s e ttl e rs ” w as to s e e h is c o m ra d es s o ld in to s la v ery , s e em in gly in

Ja m aic a, w hic h w as a kin to p ourin g b oilin g o il o n a r a gin g f ir e .

T hus th e “ heath en m ale fa cto r,

men, w om en a nd c hild re n” w ere “ se nte nced & c o nd em ned fo r p erp etu al s e rv itu d e,”

w here

th ey c o uld th en p lo t a lo ngsid e u ngo vern ab le A fr ic ans. J a m aic a a ls o s e em ed to in v ite d is a ste r

when i t a ccep te d e nsla v ed i n d ig enes f r o m F lo rid a.

Tho ugh n o w ad ays th ere is a k in d o f s ilo a nd s to vep ip e a p pro ach, s e p ara ti n g s c ru ti n y o f

New E ngla nd fr o m e xam in ati o n o f th e C arib bean, th is w as n o t th e c ase in 1 676 in L ond on. A

pam phle te er s a w p ara lle ls a b out w hat w as u nfo ld in g i n B arb ad os a t th e ti m e o f th e

in d ig eno us

re b ellio n d ue n o rth . “ O ur f e llo w s u b je cts ,” i t w as c o nclu d ed , b e i t n o rth o r s o uth , “ ta ste d o f th e

sa m e c up .”

Both o f th ese se ttl e m ents had a p ro ble m , th o ugh in th e lo nger ru n th e m ore cap acio us

main la nd h ad m ore p ote nti a l to p urc hase th e a lle gia nce o f p oor E uro peans b y fig hti n g m ore

in d ig enes— sw ep t a sid e fo r th e m ost p art e arlie r in th e C arib bean— ta kin g th eir la nd , th en

re d is tr ib uti n g i t.

As m atte rs e v olv ed , th at a p pro ach w as ta ken w ith th e th ir d r e v olt fa ced b y L ond on, w hat

has b een c alle d “ B aco n’s R eb ellio n,” a n a ssa ult o n th e c o lo nia l r e gim e i ts e lf. ( T his r e v olt a ls o

und ers c o re s th e asin in ity o f assu m in g th at und er se ttl e r co lo nia lis m , a re v olt fr o m b elo w

ta rg eti n g an elite is ip so fa cto rig hte o us: as in th is ep is o de, w hat m ay b e at is su e is th e

su b alte rn ra gin g a gain st th e p re su m ed e lite ’s la ssitu d e in d is p osse ssin g th e d esig nate d ra cia l

“o th er.” )

In A ugust 1 676 th e d ecla ra ti o n b y N ath anie l B aco n a nd h is c o -c o nsp ir a to rs a ssa ile d th e

go vern o r “ fo r h av in g p ro te cte d , fa v ore d a nd e m bold ened th e In d ia ns a gain st H is [M aje sty ’s ]

most l o yal s u b je cts .”

B aco n’s b and h ad b een i n a s ta nd off w ith i n d ig enes o ver th e s te alin g o f

th eir la nd ; th ere had b een b lo odsh ed and th e th ie v es, unhap py w ith th e p erc eiv ed la ck o f

su p port pro vid ed by th e re gim e, re b elle d .

B aco n, th e rig ht- w in g populis t dem ago gue,

esta b lis h ed a te m pla te th at s ti ll r e so nate s i n th e s u ccesso r r e gim e, th e U nite d S ta te s. O f c o urs e ,

he i s su ed a “ D ecla ra ti o n i n th e N am e o f th e P eo ple ” c harg in g th at th e g o vern o r h ad “ p ro te cte d ,

fa v oure d a nd [e m ]b old ened th e In d ia ns a gain st H is M aje sti e s lo yall su b je cts ,” w hile th o se

who o ppose d h im w ere th e a ctu al “ tr a yte rs .”

I n ev ita b ly , h e w as a b le to m obiliz e h und re d s f o r

his i ll- fa te d v entu re .

In c o ntr a st, th e r e gim e c harg ed B aco n a nd th e “ fiv e h und re d p ers o ns” w ho j o in ed h im w ith

bein g “ w arlik e” a nd i m mers e d i n “ tr e aso n a nd r e b ellio n”— make th at “ hig h tr e aso n.” A “ th re e

hund re d pound s ste rlin g” re w ard w as offe re d fo r in fo rm ati o n le ad in g to his cap tu re and

co nv ic ti o n.

Govern o r W illia m B erk ele y fle d Ja m esto w n fo r A cco m ac, w here , sa id a su b se q uent

analy st, h e fo und th e “ la st re fu ge o f th e lo yal c ause

of V ir g in ia ,” w hic h in clu d ed “ th e b est,

wealth ie st a nd m ost in flu enti a l in th e C olo ny.” Ir o nic ally , o ne o f h is s u p porte rs th ere in clu d ed

Danie l J e nife r, a C ath o lic , w ed to A nnie T oft, th e “ w ealth ie st a nd p re tti e st w om an th en liv in g

in th e e aste rn s h o re o f V ir g in ia .”

Baco n, it w as sa id afte r th e d ust had cle are d in 1 677, “d esc end ed o f an A ncie nt and

Hono ura b le f a m ily ,” th o ugh a s s o o fte n h as b een th e c ase o n th is c o nti n ent, h e w as a b le to r a lly

num ero us p oore r E uro peans acro ss cla ss lin es. H e w as w ell tr a v ele d , hav in g arriv ed in

Vir g in ia th re e y ears e arlie r a nd b eco m in g p art o f th e p ote nt P riv y C ouncil. B ut w hen i n d ig enes

atta cked his la nd ho ld in g, he w as o utr a ged , no t o nly at th em b ut w hat he th o ught w as th e

pusilla nim ous r e sp onse o f th e g o vern o r. S o h e c ho se to l a unch h is o w n w ar. O ne c riti c c harg ed

th at th is “ v ery h ard d rin ker … d ie d b y i m bib in g o r ta kin g i n to o m uch b ra nd y,” b ut i t w as m ore

lik ely th at h e w as a ctu ally d ru nk w ith d re am s o f p ow er.

T he w ell- b orn y o ung p la nte r w as,

acco rd in g to a tw enti e th -c entu ry co m menta to r, “m ore in te re ste d in fig hti n g In d ia ns th an

re fo rm .” T his w as a c lo se c all, in th at h alf o f h is b and fo ught in d ig enes a nd th e o th er h alf

fo ught th e r e gim e, to rc hin g J a m esto w n: th e c o lo ny’s c ap ita l w as to rc hed .

It w as r e p orte d a s

“str a nge n ew s f r o m V ir g in ia ,” b ut a s th e c o nti n ent e v olv ed , i t w as n o t s o s tr a nge a t a ll.

Baco n m ay h av e b een d efe ate d m ilita rily , b ut h e w on p oliti c ally , n o t u nlik e h is s u ccesso rs :

th e s o -c alle d C onfe d era te S ta te s o f A meric a in 1 865. T ho usa nd s o f in d ig enes fle d , o penin g

more la nd ; h und re d s w ere se nt in to se rv itu d e in B erm ud a.

T his o ccurre d d esp ite a tr e aty

betw een “ V ir g in ia & th e P am unkey I n d ia ns,” i n v olv in g “ arti c le s o f p eace” d ir e cti n g th at th ese

in d ig enes “ sh all n o t b e s o ld a s s la v es.”

T his w as o ne o f m any p acts b etw een s e ttl e rs a nd

in d ig enes th at w ould b e i g no re d a nd v io la te d .

The re b els w ante d m ore la nd o f th e in d ig eno us a nd d em and ed th at L ond on sh ed m ore

blo od a nd tr e asu re to a tta in th is g o al. In re sp onse , L ond on in ched to w ard sa ti s fy in g re b el

dem and s, b ut th at w as i n su ffic ie nt to s a te v ora cio us a p peti te s, w hic h l e d d ir e ctl y to 1 776. S ti ll,

afte r th is u p ris in g m ore a nd m ore p la nte rs b egan to se e in d entu re d se rv ants , th e p re su m ed

benefic ia ry o f th e re v olt, w ith th eir fix ed te rm s

and a sse rte d rig hts , a s a lia b ility a nd to s e e

ensla v ed A fr ic ans a s th e fu tu re . In s o m e w ays, w hat tr a nsp ir e d w as th at V ir g in ia w as fu rth er

ra cia liz e d , w ith A fr ic ans a nd i n d ig enes b ein g th e p rim e v ic ti m s, w hile p oore r E uro peans w ere

sa ti s fie d a t th e l a tte r’s e xp ense ,

n o t l e ast th ro ugh th e o ngo in g i d enti ty p oliti c s o f c o nstr u cti n g

“w hite ness.” Ir o nic ally , and as so ofte n hap pened in centu rie s to co m e, so m e te rrib ly

mis g uid ed A fr ic ans a lig ned w ith th e s e ttl e rs le d b y B aco n a gain st th e in d ig enes, w hen h is to ry

su ggests th eir in te re sts w ould h av e b een b ette r s e rv ed b y e xecu ti n g a d ia m etr ic ally o pposite

str a te gy o f a lig nm ent w ith N ati v e A meric ans.

The s e ttl e r e lite s w ere in a b in d . In d ig enes w ere r e b ellin g to th e n o rth a nd A fr ic ans to th e

so uth . C oncessio ns to th e la tte r, p arti c ula rly in V ir g in ia , s e em ed to b e b eyo nd c o nsid era ti o n,

th o ugh se iz in g th e la nd o f th e in d ig enes m ay h av e b een th e h ig hest p rio rity . In th at c o nte xt,

win nin g o ver o th er E uro peans w as, m in im ally , th e “ le ast b ad ” o pti o n a nd p ro vid ed th e f e w est

co m plic ati o ns. S ix y ears a fte r B aco n r e v olte d , th e a uth o riti e s in B aco n’s s e ttl e m ent w ere in a

fa m ilia r positi o n: “I hav e bad new s,” it w as re p orte d . “T he peace of th e C olo ny” w as

“end angere d b y u nru ly a nd tu m ultu o us p ers o ns” a nd “ le st th e in fe cti o n s h o uld s p re ad fu rth er,

ord ers h av e b een is su ed to th e c o m mand ers o f th e m iliti a in e ach c o unty to … b e in c o nti n ual

moti o n, by w hic h vig ila nce w e hav e so m e ho pe th at th e gro w th of in su rre cti o n m ay be

pre v ente d .”

It w as a ls o in 1 682 th at p olic ym akers in J a m esto w n r e co gniz e d th at a s ta tu te p asse d m ere

month s earlie r had no t “had its in te nd ed effe ct” ; th us “th e bette r pre v enti n g” of “su ch

in su rre cti o ns by N egro es or sla v es” w as fo rm ula te d . H ow ev er, to atta in th is desp era te ly

desir e d g o al, th ere w ould h av e to b e m ore c o ncessio ns to E uro peans o f v ario us c la sse s.

A s

th is tr e nd b ecam e m anife st, th ere w as b oth a huge le ap in th e num ber o f ensla v ed and a

co nco m ita nt in cre ase in sta tu te s se ekin g to sh ap e and re gula te th eir b ehav io r.

T his w as

acco m panie d b y a g ro w th in w ealth , w hic h th en p av ed th e w ay fo r a u nila te ra l d ecla ra ti o n o f

in d ep end ence i n 1 776.

In th e l a te s e v ente enth c entu ry th e g ra nd ee o f V ir g in ia , W illia m B yrd , a m asse d a lm ost th ir ty

th o usa nd acre s— at th e exp ense o f

in d ig enes. H e sw itc hed enti r e ly to d ep lo yin g ensla v ed

Afr ic an la b or in th e 1680s in th e afte rm ath of B aco n’s re v olt. Sla p pin g ta xes on th is

tr o ub le so m e p ro perty n o t o nly r a is e d r e v enue f o r i n te rn al i m pro vem ents b ut a ls o w as d esig ned

to re str a in th e p ossib ility o f a s la v e re b ellio n. A s th e n um ber o f e nsla v ed A fr ic ans ro se , th e

num ber of E uro pean se rv ants declin ed . F ro m 1680 to 1720, th e sla v e popula ti o n of th e

Chesa p eake i n cre ase d a t a r a te tw ic e th at o f th e E uro pean p opula ti o n, te nd in g to j e o pard iz e th e

life exp ecta ncy o f th e la tte r. It w as in th e 1 690s th at th e te rm “w hite ” b egan to re p la ce

“C hris ti a n” a nd fr e e,” w ith th is tr e nd c o nti n uin g th ro ugh th e tw enty -fir s t c entu ry . A s s h all b e

se en, th e “ G lo rio us R ev olu ti o n” o f 1 688 a ls o m eant th e i m min ent d eclin e o f th e R oyal A fr ic an

Com pany u nd er th e th um b o f th e m onarc h, th e c o nti n uin g r is e o f m erc hants , a nd a s p ecta cula r

in cre ase in th e n um ber o f e nsla v ed A fr ic ans, a lo ng w ith th e r e su lta nt w ealth a nd s e cessio nis t

urg es.

Byrd e nco unte re d d iffic ulti e s w ith e nsla v ed A fr ic ans a nd h e w as n o t s in gula r. I n th e f a ll o f

1687 th ere w as th e “ d is c o very o f a N egro P lo t” in th e “ N orth ern N eck” o f th e c o lo ny th at

in clu d ed th e “ d [e ] s tr o yin g a nd k illin g” o f s e ttl e rs , w ith th e “ d esig n” o f “ carry in g it th ro ugh

[to ] th e w ho le C olo ny.” In ju jits u -lik e fa sh io n, A fr ic ans had begun plo tti n g as fu nera ls

unw ound : th en th ey m et i n “ gre at n um bers ” to p lo t “ th eir E vil … [ a nd ] w ic ked p urp ose s.”

There w as an im plic it— if no t exp lic it— ra cia l bia s in th e co lo nia l pro je ct fr o m its

in cep ti o n, th e o ppre ssio n o f p oore r E uro peans n o tw ith sta nd in g. W hen A fr ic ans, i n d ig enes, a nd

poore r E uro peans b egan to r e b el s im ulta neo usly , s im ple s u rv iv al m eant c o ncessio ns to o ne o f

th ese gro up s. In th is co nte xt, sc uttl in g th e asp ir a ti o ns of A fr ic ans and in d ig enes vers u s

assu agin g p oore r E uro peans se em ed to b e th e o nly v ia b le o pti o ns g iv en th e m om entu m o f

se ttl e r c o lo nia lis m , w hic h i n a ny c ase m eant m ore s e ttl e rs , p re su m ab ly E uro pean.

For as th o se at th e su m mit of V ir g in ia so cie ty w ere w orry in g ab out th e “gro w th of

in su rre cti o n,” i n n eig hb orin g C aro lin a s e ttl e rs w ere w arn ed to b e o n g uard a gain st “ th e N egro

Sla v es,” w ho se “ la b our” w as o f “ p le nty ” b enefit b ut “ w ho se s e rv ic e d oub le s … [ in ]s e curity ,”

meanin g s e ttl e rs ’ s e curity , p arti c ula rly i f a “ fo re ig ner s h o uld

atte m pt to i n v ad e th em ,” w hic h i n

th e s e v ente enth c entu ry w as a c o nsta nt th re at. T his o bse rv er h ad n o ti c ed th at “ se v era l f a m ilie s

hav e tr a nsp orte d th em se lv es fr o m th e p orts o f B arb ad os” n o rth w ard , b ut it w as u ncle ar if th is

gre at tr e k w ould s a v e th em .

Y et, d esp ite th e c le ar a nd p re se nt d anger p re se nte d b y b ein g in

clo se p ro xim ity to a d is p ro porti o nate n um ber o f a ngry A fr ic ans, th e c hie f e xecuti v e i n J a m aic a

co nti n ued to c all fo r “ o rd erin g u s s u p plie s o f N egro es a t re aso nab le ra te s.”

A t le ast fo r a

while th e auth o riti e s co nti n ued to sh ip dis g ru ntl e d E uro peans to th e C arib bean, w ho se

pre se nce c o uld p ro ve to b e u nse ttl in g. Ju st b efo re “ o rd erin g” m ore “ su p plie s o f N egro es,”

co m pla in ts e m erg ed a b out “ gre at a b use s i n th e s p ir iti n g a w ay o f c hild re n” to th e C arib bean to

to il and b e exp lo ite d . T his w as a “v ery sa d sto ry ,” it w as sa id , th o ugh— te llin gly — th o se

vic ti m iz e d w ere d eno te d a s “ w hite s,” su p pla nti n g th e id enti ty o f “ C hris ti a n.”

C om pla in ts

co nti n ued to ro ll in to W hite hall a b out th e “ fr e q uent a b use s” o f in v olv in g a “ so rt o f p eo ple

calle d s p ir its , in s e d ucin g m any o f H is M aje sti e s S ub je cts to g o o n S hip board [w here ] th ey

hav e b een s e iz e d a nd c arrie d b y fo rc e to H is M aje sti e s P la nta ti o ns in A meric a.” T his ro ugh

hand lin g o f p oore r E uro peans i n c ro ssin g th e A tl a nti c c o uld s o ur th em tr e m end ously . B ut u p on

arriv in g a nd f a cin g th e d is ti n ct p ossib ility o f u p ris in gs s p earh ead ed b y A fr ic ans a nd i n d ig enes

th at d id n o t m ake c are fu l d is ti n cti o ns b etw een a nd a m ong E uro peans, a r a cia l s o lid arity c o uld

be fo rg ed : th e e lite h ad d ev is e d a r a ce-b ase d d esp oti s m d riv in g th ese r e cent a rriv als in to th e

arm s of th ese sa m e elite s, parti c ula rly afte r th e poore r se ttl e rs w ere gra nte d certa in

co ncessio ns.

The unsu ita b ility of re lig io n as th e prim ary politi c s of id enti ty w as exp ose d w hen

ad vocate s fo r A fr ic ans a nd in d ig enes in th e C arib bean b egan “ su in g fo r th eir a d m is sio n in to

th e C hurc h” a nd c la m orin g i n w hat w as c o nsid ere d a “ p ers u asiv e” m anner f o r “ th e i n str u cti n g

and b ap ti z in g o f th e N egro es and In d ia ns fo r o ur p la nta ti o ns.”

It w as easie r to co nv ert

Afr ic ans i n to C hris ti a ns th an to s o m eho w m ake th em “ w hite .”

But th is pro cess w as no t unco m plic ate d . Sub se q uentl y , Lond on so ught to fo rm an

exclu siv ely “ w hite ” se ttl e m ent— th at is ,

Geo rg ia — whic h w ould ev ad e th e is su e o f fu rio us

Afr ic ans, b ut th is d id n o t w ork v ery w ell, n o t o nly b ecause o f s m ugglin g o f s la v es b ut a ls o

because it o nly re in tr o duced th e n ettl e so m e m atte r o f c la ss c o ntr a d ic ti o ns a m ong p oore r a nd

wealth ie r E uro peans. N oneth ele ss, th is p ro je ct p ush ed o ut in d ig enes o ver ti m e w hic h w as a

go al o f s e ttl e rs , i r re sp ecti v e o f th e s o urc e o f l a b or.

It is im porta nt to re co gniz e th at th e a fte rm ath o f B aco n’s R eb ellio n, w hic h b ro ught le ss

re lia nce o n i n d entu re d l a b or, m ore ta kin g o f i n d ig eno us l a nd , a nd m ore e nsla v ed A fr ic an l a b or,

was n o t a r a d ic al d ep artu re fr o m p ast p ra xis — it r e p re se nte d a d eep enin g o f p ast p ra xis . W ith

th e ta kin g o f J a m aic a in 1 655 a nd th e c o m in g o f th e s u gar b oom , th ere h ad b een a c o ncerte d

effo rt to d ra go on m ore A fr ic ans and re lie v e th e b urd en o n sm all B arb ad os b y attr a cti n g

Euro peans fr o m th ere to th is b ig ger is la nd . T he e sta b lis h m ent o f S outh C aro lin a in 1 670 a ls o

deep ened th is p atte rn , p arti c ula rly i n th e o uste r a nd e nsla v em ent o f i n d ig enes, w hic h h ad b een

a ty p ic al p ra cti c e b y s e ttl e rs fo r s o m e d ecad es. A nd y es, s o on a fte r a rriv in g in C aro lin a th ese

ers tw hile B arb ad ia ns w ere b usily r a ti fy in g “ an a ct to p re v ent r u naw ays.”

Such p ra cti c es e sta b lis h ed a c ro ss-c la ss a llia nce b etw een a nd a m ong E uro pean s e ttl e rs ,

who bond ed on th e basis of “ra cia l id enti ty politi c s” — th at is , “w hite ness” and “w hite

su p re m acy”— and th e l o oti n g o f a ll th o se n o t s o e nd ow ed . T his p ra cti c e e xte nd ed to 1 776 a nd

its a fte rm ath , a nd a rg uab ly h ad i ts l a te st e xp re ssio n, a t l e ast i n te rm s o f u nd erly in g p re m is e a nd

in te nt, in th e U nite d S ta te s in N ovem ber 2 016. P ost- 1 676, it w as e v id ent th at s e ttl e m ents , a nd

th e new nati o n th at su cceed ed th em , w ere b ein g co nstr u cte d as a “w hite m an’s co untr y ,”

effe cti v ely th e f ir s t a p arth eid s ta te , a f o rm id ab le h urd le th at e v en p ro gre ssiv e E uro -A meric ans

hav e f o und d iffic ult to o verc o m e.

OTH ER T R EN DS W ER E U N W IN DIN G sim ulta neo usly th at w ere fa v ora b le to co lo nia l

se ttl e m ent. W ith th e h alti n g o f th e O tto m an T urk s a t th e g ate s o f V ie nna,

W este rn E uro peans

co uld w orry le ss ab out bein g overru n and th us co uld dir e ct m ore re so urc es to se ttl e r

co lo nia lis m . M ore o ver, w ith th e p re cip ito us d eclin e o f th eir M uslim

fo e, th ey c o uld w orry l e ss

ab out th eir n ati o nals b ein g s e iz e d a nd s o ld in to s la v ery a nd , c o nse q uentl y , c o uld e xp end m ore

ti m e a nd e ffo rt i n s e iz in g a nd e nsla v in g A fr ic ans i n th e A meric as. W ith th e e ro sio n o f O tto m an

in flu ence, th e im porta nce o f m ain ta in in g a sa lie nt re lig io us id enti ty d eclin ed in im porta nce,

fa cilita ti n g th e c o m panio n r is e o f “ ra ce”— or “ w hite ness” — as a n id enti ty , w hic h u nd erg ir d ed

se ttl e r c o lo nia lis m b ase d o n d is p osse ssio n o f i n d ig enes a nd e nsla v em ent o f A fr ic ans.

This e p ochal s e tb ack f o r th e O tto m ans o ccurre d i n 1 683 b ut w as s ti ll b ein g c ele b ra te d w ell

afte r th e f a ct, i n d ic ati v e o f i ts i m porta nce. A L ond oner, i n d ic ati n g th e P an-C hris ti a n i m porta nce

of th is d efe at, h aile d th e “ p re v ale nce o f th e C hris ti a n a rm s a gain st th e i n fid els ” w ho “ fo r m any

years h av e d elu ged th e o nce flo uris h in g p art o f E uro pe w ith b lo od,” a s if th e v ic to ry w as n o t

th e H ab sb urg s’ a lo ne.

Even b efo re 1 683 th ere w ere s ig nals th at th e O tto m ans w ere in d eclin e. F ro m a c erta in

pers p ecti v e, w hen th e su lta n cre ate d th e offic e of th e “C hie f B la ck E unuch” durin g th is

tu m ultu o us e ra , th is e le v ati o n o f a n A fr ic an w as a n ir o nic s ig n o f w eakness a nd im pote nce. In

th e la te s ix te enth c entu ry , th ey h ad c halle nged P ortu gal in M oza m biq ue— and flo pped . P ers ia

had ti e d d ow n th e O tto m ans fo r th e fir s t fe w d ecad es o f th e s e v ente enth c entu ry , m eanin g th at

well b efo re 1 683 th e W este rn E uro peans had b een fr e ed up to d ev asta te A fr ic a and th e

Americ as w ith l ittl e w orry a b out b ein g a tta cked f r o m th e r e ar. E ven b efo re 1 683, th e O tto m ans

had b een d iv erte d b y a T ata r-C ossa ck a llia nce, w hic h w eakened th is s p ra w lin g e m pir e f u rth er

and , o bje cti v ely , s tr e ngth ened th o se to th eir w est. T heir y o uth le v y, th e r e cru iti n g o f C hris ti a n

men to b e J a nis sa rie s, h ad a ll b ut c ease d b y th e m id dle o f th e s e v ente enth c entu ry , f r e ein g m ore

of th is f a ith to j o in th e f r e e-fo r-a ll i n A fr ic a a nd th e A meric as. I n th e tw o d ecad es b efo re 1 683,

th e O tto m an-H ab sb urg f r o nti e r w as q uie t, r e assu rin g th o se to th e w est.

The 1 683 s e tb ack w as th us a c ulm in ati o n o f o ngo in g tr e nd s, m ad e a ll th e m ore p ow erfu l b y

th e e xcla m ati o n p oin t fo rm ed in V ie nna. T his ig no m in io us d efe at w as o f g re at p sy cho lo gic al

im porta nce fo r th e H ab sb urg s a nd th e w ho le o f E uro pe. T he ti d e o f O tto m an

co nq uest s e em ed

to b e r e ced in g, a nd i t w as n o t u nti l 1 917 w ith th e B ols h ev ik R ev olu ti o n th at s u ch a n e xis te nti a l

th re at m anife ste d , a lb eit th is ti m e o n m ore s y ste m ic a nd id eo lo gic al— as o ppose d to r e lig io us

—gro und s. B y 1 686 th e O tto m ans’ g rip o n B ud a w as lo ose ned . T hen in 1 688, a s L ond on w as

und erg o in g th e tr a nsfo rm ati v e “G lo rio us R ev olu ti o n,” th e O tto m ans w ere lo sin g B elg ra d e,

sig nalin g a n e ra o f d ecle nsio n th at e xte nd ed a t le ast u nti l th e e arly e ig hte enth c entu ry . A s th is

em pir e d eclin ed a nd a c o m peti to r in L ond on ro se , F ra nce b egan to re p la ce E ngla nd a s th e

Otto m ans’ d om in ant tr a d in g p artn er. E gyp t w as th e la rg est p ro vin ce o f th e O tto m an E m pir e

and , fr o m its str a te gic lo cati o n o n th e m ain tr a d e ro ute s, th e ric hest. B ut b y th e e nd o f th e

eig hte enth c entu ry , th is r u le w as i n d ir e j e o pard y a nd b y th en th e o nce p ro ud O tto m ans w ere e n

ro ute to b eco m in g a v ir tu al p ro te cto ra te o f L ond on. T he T re aty o f K arlo w itz in 1 699 m ark ed

th e b egin nin g o f th e e nd f o r th e O tto m an E m pir e , th o ugh i t w as a b le to h ang o n to a s e m bla nce

of p ow er u nti l th e e nd o f th e F ir s t W orld W ar. B ut fo r o ur p urp ose s h ere , th e le sse nin g o f

pre ssu re o n W este rn E uro pe— Lond on p arti c ula rly — meant th at 1 699 w as a ls o a d efe at fo r

Afr ic a a nd th e A meric as.

Als o a d efe at fo r A fr ic a a nd th e A meric as w as th e n ego ti a ti o n o f a 1 675 p act b etw een

Lond on a nd th e O tto m ans, w hic h w as re affir m ed in 1 809 a nd n o t te rm in ate d u nti l 1 924, a n

in d ic ato r o f its p ote ncy. T here w ere s p ecia l p ro vis io ns o n w hat w as to o ccur if “ C ors a ir s o f

Tunis ia and B arb ary … plu nd ere d and pilla ged ” tr a v elin g E nglis h su b je cts and , in d eed ,

“m ole st” th em . P ro vis io ns i n clu d ed w hat to d o “ if a ny E nglis h m an s h o uld tu rn T urk ”; th e b ro ad

exp anse o f th is a cco rd in clu d ed A le xand ria . S tr ik in gly , th e e xceed in gly im porta nt p act w as

ti tl e d th e “ F in al T re aty o f C ap itu la ti o ns.”

T he L ord P ro te cto r h ad se nt h is fo rc es in to th e

Med ite rra nean d ecad es earlie r to chasti s e co rs a ir s , b ut ev en w ith th is “cap itu la ti o n,” th e

em erg ent m ain la nd re p ub lic w ould sti ll b e d ogged b y th ese m ara ud ers in to th e nin ete enth

centu ry .

Ju st a s in th e tw enti e th c entu ry c erta in E nglis h m en c ho se to a lly w ith M osc o w , L ond oners

“tu rn in g T urk ” had been a pers is te nt pro ble m in th e se v ente enth centu ry . E xp ed iti n g th e

re d em pti o n o f E nglis h

sla v es h eld b y th e A lg eria ns a nd T unis ia ns, a n e m oti o nally w ra ckin g

matte r, d ro ve L ond on’s n ego ti a to rs .

It w as N ew E ngla nd ’s C otto n M ath er w ho m oaned th at

th is f o rm o f c ap ti v ity p erp etr a te d b y th e “ hellis h M oors ” — pre su m ab ly s e tti n g to th e s id e w hat

was b efa llin g in d ig enes and A fr ic ans in his b ackyard — was “th e m ost ho rrib le … in th e

world .”

W ith p re ssu re e ase d o n L ond on fr o m d ue s o uth a nd th e e ast, th e C ro w n c o uld m ore

easily p lu nd er a nd p illa ge A fr ic a a nd th e A meric as.

In a ny c ase , r e d em pti o n o f th e e nsla v ed E nglis h w as b ig b usin ess. A gain , th e e nsla v em ent

of th e E nglis h d id n o t te nd to le ad to a b oliti o nis m , a t le ast in th e sh o rt te rm . In te re sti n gly ,

Lond on’s m an in C onsta nti n o ple , P aul R ycaut, w ho w as in v olv ed in s e ekin g to re sc ue th ese

bond ed c o m patr io ts , w as a ls o a n i n v esto r i n th e A fr ic an S la v e T ra d e.

TH E E N SLAV IN G O F L O NDO NER S in th e M ed ite rra nean, w hic h w as o ngo in g in th e la te

se v ente enth c entu ry , g av e E ngla nd m ore d ir e ct e xp erie nce i n b oth th e b ru ta lity a nd p ro fita b ility

of b ond age, w ith th e la tte r fa cto r m ate ria liz in g a s d om in ant in s h ap in g th e o ngo in g a ssa ult o n

Afr ic a.

By 1 666 E m manuel D ’A ra nd a w as te llin g L ond oners a b out th e d asta rd ly “ T urk s” a nd “ ho w

th e C hris ti a n s la v es a re b eate n a t A lg ie rs .” H e s p oke e lo quentl y o f r u naw ays, r e sis ta nce, a nd

cru elty in a w ay th at m ir ro re d w hat E nglis h m en w ere th en in flic ti n g o n th e e nsla v ed A fr ic ans

in th e s e ttl e m ents .

By 1 677, a s s la v e s h ip s b egan h ead in g to w ard W est A fr ic a m ore s y ste m ati c ally , L ond on

so ught a cco rd w ith th e “ D uan o f th e N oble C ity o f T unis .” T here w as m utu al a gre em ent th at

th ere w ould b e “ no s e iz u re o f a ny s h ip s o f e ith er p arty a t s e a o r in p ort” ; o rd in ary s e am en

ta ken b y T unis w ere “ to b e m ad e sla v es” b ut n o t “ m erc hants o r p asse ngers ” — a ra w c la ss

dis ti n cti o n. S la v es e sc ap in g T unis b y ju m pin g a b oard d ep arti n g s h ip s w ere to b e tr e ate d a s

in d iffe re ntl y a s s e am en.

T hat a s im ila r tr e aty w ith T unis w as n ego ti a te d a f e w y ears e arlie r

su ggeste d th at m em orie s w ere s h o rt, filin g s y ste m s in ad eq uate , o r w ord s w ere in su ffic ie nt to

und erm in e a d eep -s e ate d p ra cti c e.

In 1 675 L ond on o nce m ore w as a ccusin g T unis a nd A lg ie rs o f c o nsp ir in g to “ ro b” h er

su b je cts , a nd it w as d em and ed th at “ all s u ch E nglis h a s h av e b een ta ken a nd m ad e s la v es …

sh all b e i m med ia te ly s e t f r e e.”

I n 1 676, a s s e ttl e m ents w ere o n f ir e i n N ew E ngla nd , V ir g in ia ,

and B arb ad os a lik e, it w as T rip oli’s tu rn to a gre e th at L ond on’s s h ip w re cks w ere n o t to b e

mad e a N orth A fr ic an p riz e , “ no r th e m en m ad e s la v es.” T here w as a c o ncessio n, h o w ev er:

“all s la v es to b e s e cure d ” w hen L ond on’s v esse ls a rriv ed , b ut “ if th ey e sc ap e[d ],” th ey w ere

no t to b e re tu rn ed , re d ucin g th e v ia b ility o f tr a d e re la ti o ns b etw een th e tw o, in so fa r a s it

enco ura ged a b ond ed la b or fo rc e to e ngin eer c ap ita l flig ht.

B y 1 682 it w as A lg ie rs ’ tu rn to

agre e to a n ew w rin kle in s u ch b ila te ra l p acts , th at is , L ond on w as “ no t o blig ed to r e d eem …

su b je cts n o w i n s la v ery ,” w ith n o d is ti n cti o n d ra w n b etw een m erc hants a nd o rd in ary s e am en.

Alg ie rs , m ore th an o th er N orth A fr ic an s ite s, s e em ed to b e a p re o ccup ati o n o f L ond oners ,

in clu d in g th e d ia ris t S am uel P ep ys. J u st a s th e A fr ic an S la v e T ra d e re ceiv ed a n ew b ir th o f

fr e ed om w ith th e ro yal re sto ra ti o n, h e h ad g o ne to a lo cal ta v ern “ to d rin k” a nd th ere h e

bum ped in to “ m any s e a c o m mand ers ” in w ho se c o m pany “ w e s p ent ti ll fo ur o ’c lo ck te llin g

sto rie s o f A lg ie rs a nd th e m anner o f th e life o f th e s la v es th ere .”

C ontr a ry to in ked p acts , a

cro ss-c la ss c o aliti o n h ad e m erg ed le d b y T ho m as B etto n, w ho h ad a c o ntr o llin g in te re st in a n

“ir o nm ongers c o m pany” a nd w ho le ft “ in tr u st a n e no rm ous su m … fo r th e re d em pti o n o f

Chris ti a n s la v es i n B arb ary .”

But a gain , m ere w ord s w ere n o t s u ffic ie nt to e ro de l u cra ti v e p ra cti c e. N ew E ngla nd ers to o

fe ll vic ti m to A fr ic an ensla v em ent,

w hic h co uld bond th em clo se r to Lond on. O r,

alte rn ati v ely , it c o uld g iv e ris e to s e cessio n o n th e p re m is e th a t L ond on w as n o t c ap ab le o f

pro te cti n g th em , g iv en th is b urg eo nin g e m pir e ’s n ecessity to c o m pro m is e w ith th e O tto m ans i n

ord er to o utf la nk E uro pean r iv als .

But it w as n o t ju st N ew E ngla nd ers w ho w ere v ic ti m iz e d . L ond on-b ase d T ho m as P help s

was a ls o c ap tu re d , th en m anaged to e sc ap e “ afte r a m ost m is e ra b le s la v ery .” P ro perly a b ase d ,

he c o nced ed th at a fte r e xp erie ncin g a “ m ost m is e ra b le s la v ery … n o w I k no w w hat l ib erty i s ,”

an a d m is sio n th at d id n o t se em to im pre ss h is fe llo w L ond oners ,

who c o nti n ued e nsla v in g

Afr ic ans. I t w as a n “ A lg erin e” s h ip w ith “ T urk is h c o lo urs … . A board h er w as a n a ncie nt M oor

who h ad b een a s la v e i n E ngla nd a nd s p oke g o od E nglis h .” H is “ N egro ta sk m aste rs … g av e u s

se v ere c hasti s e m ent fo r o ur m is ta kes a nd la p se s,” h e a d m itte d w ound in gly . T his d id n o t p ush

him to w ard a b oliti o n, th o ugh h e c o nfe sse d , “ I h av e b een s e v era l ti m es in th e W est In d ie s a nd

hav e s e en a nd h eard o f d iv ers i n hum aniti e s a nd c ru elti e s p ra cti c ed th ere ” c o m para b le to w hat

he e nd ure d a nd s a w i n N orth A fr ic a. T here w ere “ eig ht h und re d C hris ti a ns o f a ll n ati o ns, tw o

hund re d a nd s ix ty w here o f a re E nglis h ,” l a nguis h in g o n th e B arb ary C oast.

Sim ila rly , N ew E ngla nd ers b ein g e nsla v ed b y A fr ic ans s e em ed to d o littl e to s o ur th ese

se ttl e rs on ensla v em ent; to th e co ntr a ry , it se em ed to ig nite an opposin g re acti o n. T his

hyp ocris y c aught th e a tte nti o n o f U .S . S enato r C harle s S um ner m any y ears l a te r, w hen h e r a ile d

again st th is “in co nsis te ncy” am ong E uro -A meric ans: “usin g th eir best end eav ors fo r th e

fr e ed om o f th eir w hite p eo ple ” b ut b usily e nsla v in g o th ers . H e d ecla im ed , “ E very w ord o f

re p ro bati o n w hic h th ey fa ste ned up on th e pir a ti c al sla v eho ld in g A lg eria ns” so m eho w

“re tu rn [e d ] i n e te rn al j u d gm ent a gain st th em se lv es.”

Tunis h aunte d th e d re am s o f m any a n E nglis h s u b je ct. J o hn O gilb y n o ti c ed “ b la ck a nd w hite

sla v es o f b oth s e xes” th ere in 1 670. “ T he p eo ple o f T unis ,” h e to ld L ond oners , a re “ M oors ,

Je w s a nd s la v es o f s e v era l n ati o ns, ta ken b y th eir p yra te s i n th e M ed ite rra nean.”

Tem pora rily , L ond on w as a b le to g ain a fo oth o ld in T angie r in th e 1 660s a nd fr o m th ere

pre ss b oth S pain and th e O tto m ans. T his le d to a 1 666 acco rd w ith th e “P rin ce o f W est

Barb ary .”

H ow ev er, w hen L ond on’s b asti o n i n N orth A fr ic a c ru m ble d , th e C ro w n’s e sse nti a l

weakness w as r e v eale d .

Once a gain , L ond on s o ught to d is a rm M ad rid d ip lo m ati c ally b y s ig nin g a “ tr e aty fo r th e

co m posin g of diffe re nces” and “re str a in in g of dep re d ati o ns and esta b lis h in g of peace in

Americ a.” B ut o ne d id n o t h av e to b e a c ynic to b e u tte rly d is m is siv e o f th ese n o ble w ord s.

Com plic ati n g s u ch a s tr a te gy w as th e b ehav io r o f N orth A fr ic ans i n flu enced b y T urk ey. F or

in sa ilin g so uth w ard to A fr ic a, E uro peans ra n th e ris k o f b eco m in g w hat th ey in te nd ed fo r

oth ers : sla v es.

T his

is w hat b efe ll th e E nglis h m erc hant id enti fie d sim ply a s “ M r. T . S .,”

ta ken p ris o ner in A lg ie rs a nd th en c arte d in la nd . T here h e e nco unte re d a “ tr a d er in s la v es”

who d ecla im ed , “ W ho w ill b uy a C hris ti a n?” T he h um ble d m erc hant c o rre ctl y f o und th is to b e

a “ grie v ous c hange o f fo rtu ne, in s o s h o rt a ti m e a s a y ear to b e r e d uced fr o m th at h o no ura b le

Esta te , i n w hic h m y F ath er l e ft m e, to th e l o w est M is e ry , to a s la v e, to b e s o ld a s a b east, i n a

str a nge c o untr y , w here I h ad n o fr ie nd s.” T hat is , h e e nd ure d th e fa te s u ffe re d b y to o m any

Afr ic ans, th o ugh th is c o m monality d id n o t se em to re d uce th e sc ep te re d is le s’ fo nd ness fo r

ensla v in g o th ers . “ T . S .” w as b ought b y a S panis h w om an. B ut h e th o ught h e h ad a tr u m p c ard :

“T he M oors … a nd th e A ra b s d o h ate th e T urk s,” h e r e p orte d .

When E uro peans h ad to w orry le ss a b out b eco m in g s la v es w hen s a ilin g to A fr ic a, th ey

were fr e ed to sa il so uth w ard and ensla v e ev en m ore A fr ic ans. T he C hris ti a n dis u nity —

Pro te sta nt v ers u s C hris ti a n— was n o t h elp fu l in b arrin g A fr ic ans’ e nsla v em ent o f E uro peans

and , in ste ad , a llo w ed th em to m anip ula te th e tw o se cts to th eir d etr im ent, n o t le ast in th e

1670s.

T he elo ngate d era o f d is c o very

and exp lo ra ti o n p ro vid ed ric h o pportu niti e s to

sn atc h a nd e nsla v e E uro peans i n a ny c ase . O n th e o th er h and , i t a llo w ed E uro pean tr a v ele rs to

exacerb ate te nsio ns b etw een a nd a m ong M osle m s— Turk s a nd P ers ia ns, S unnis a nd S hia s—

th at k ep t th em d ecid ed ly o ff b ala nce.

In th e 1 670s, a s L ond on w as b attl in g in d ig enes in N ew E ngla nd , s e ttl e rs in V ir g in ia , a nd

ensla v ed A fr ic ans in B arb ad os, th ey w ere als o fig hti n g in N orth A fr ic a. T he K in g’s m en

“utte rly d estr o yed th em a ll,” it w as re p orte d b oastf u lly : “ T urk s a nd M oors sla in ” w as th e

re su lt, “ to th e g re at a sto nis h m ent o f th e T urk s.” S ir J o hn N arb ro ugh, A dm ir a l o f th e F le et i n th e

Med ite rra nean, a sse rte d , “ I f ir e d a b out o ne h und re d s h o t i n to th e c ity o f T rip oli.”

Lond on w as als o enco unte rin g fr ie nd ly M osle m s in S outh A sia , and w hen se ekin g to

co m pete w ith th e D utc h in w hat w as calle d th e “E ast In d ie s” — or to day’s In d onesia —

so m eth in g s im ila r o ccurre d . C om plic ati n g th is e xp ansio n w as w hat h ad b een ir k so m e a t th e

sa m e ti m e in W est A fr ic a; th at is , th e id ea th at m erc hants w ere to o fix ate d o n th eir o w n

busin ess to s e e th e b ig p ic tu re , w hic h re q uir e d a

str o ng h and o f th e s ta te — in th is c ase , th e

Cro w n. “ E ngla nd m ay b e s a id to b e r ic h o r s tr o ng, a s o ur s tr e ngth o r r ic hes b ears a p ro porti o n

with our neig hb ors ,” parti c ula rly th e “F re nch, D utc h,” S panis h et al. “A nd co nse q uentl y

whate v er w eakens o r d ep opula te s th em , e nric hes a nd s tr e ngth ens E ngla nd ,”

a lo desta r th at

arg ued f o r a b ols te rin g o f L ond on’s l o ng-te rm p olic y, s tr e tc hin g b ack to th e s ix te enth c entu ry , o f

an e nte nte w ith th e O tto m ans, w hic h w as d esig ned to w eaken M ad rid . B ut h o w c o uld th is

occur i f s o m any L ond oners w ere d ete rm in ed to f ig ht th e O tto m ans? A n e xecuti v e c o m mitte e o f

th e r u lin g c la ss w as r e q uir e d — th at i s , th e f ir m h and o f th e s ta te — to a d m in is te r i n th e l o ng-te rm

in te re sts o f th at r u lin g c la ss. W eakenin g a n a b so lu ti s t m onarc h a nd s e ttl in g i n tr a -c la ss d is p ute s

via th e m echanis m o f re p ub lic anis m w as th e re m ed y p urs u ed in 1 688— and th en w ith m ore

dete rm in ati o n i n N orth A meric a i n 1 776.

That w as n o t a ll. W hile g ra p plin g w ith fe llo w “ C hris ti a ns” o n th e o ne h and , L ond on a ls o

fo und i t n ecessa ry to a lly w ith th em o n th e o th er h and , a n a llia nce th at c o uld a nd p ro bab ly d id

fa cilita te th e e m erg ence o f a s y nth eti c “ w hite ness.” D urin g th is e ra a n a gre em ent w as m ad e

dir e cti n g th at “ no su b je cts ” o f L ond on “ sh all b e b ought o r so ld o r m ad e sla v es” w ith th e

pro vis o th at if a ny o f th e K in g’s v esse ls a rriv ed in A lg ie rs , “ p ub lic p ro cla m ati o n sh all b e

im med ia te ly m ad e to s e cure th e C hris ti a n C ap ti v es, a nd i f a fte r th at a ny C hris ti a ns w hats o ev er

make th eir e sc ap e o n B oard a ny o f th e sa id sh ip s o f w ar, th ey sh all n o t b e re q uir e d b ack

again .”

T ho ugh re tu rn in g o f fu giti v e e nsla v ed A fr ic ans w as to b e a n a nim ati n g is su e p ost-

1776, n o s u ch r e q uir e m ent w as d em and ed f o r E uro pean C hris ti a ns p ost- 1 676.

But w eakenin g th e D utc h m ost n o ta b ly w as n o t e asy b ecause o f th e p erc ep ti o n th at th is

pow er w as m ore fo rth co m in g to th e in cre asin gly im porta nt Ib eria n J e w is h c o m munity , w hic h

had f o und r e fu ge i n R otte rd am a nd A mste rd am . A fte r a rriv in g i n L ond on’s v ario us s e ttl e m ents ,

th ere w as a n u p gra d e f o r th ese m ig ra nts o ver I n q uis ito ria l S pain — an a nti - S em iti c s o cie ty — but

Barb ad os a nd J a m aic a p arti c ula rly w ere s o cie ti e s th at h arb ore d a nti - S em iti s m , w hic h w as n o t

help fu l eith er in co nstr u cti n g “w hite ness,” fo re sta llin g sla v e re v olts , or barrin g fo re ig n

in v asio n. T here w as a ls o a p erc ep ti o n in L ond on

th at th e O tto m ans h ad e m bra ced th is o ft-

pers e cute d Je w is h co m munity to E ngla nd ’s detr im ent. A t is su e w as th e ensla v em ent of

Lond on’s s u b je cts i n A lg ie rs , “ up w ard s o f 1 500” w as th e c la im i n 1 680. T here th ey e nd ure d a

“p oor s u p ply o f b re ad a nd w ate r fo r th eir fo od” a lo ng w ith “ hund re d s o f b lo w s o n th eir b are

fe et.” T hen th ere w as th e “ fr e q uent fo rc in g o f M en a nd B oys b y th eir e xecra b le S odom y, a ls o

th eir i n hum ane a b use s” th en “ fo rc ed [ o n] th e b odie s o f w om en a nd g ir ls , f r e q uentl y a tte m pti n g

so dom y o n th em a ls o .”

But m ore s h o ckin g i n th ese a lle gati o ns w as th e p urp orte d r e sp onsib le p arty i n A lg ie rs . T he

“p ro m ote rs of all th e in hum ane usa ge of C hris ti a ns are prin cip ally th e Je w s” w as th e

in fla m mato ry c harg e. “ T he o w ners th ere o f a re fo r a g re at p art J e w s,” w ho w ere “ th e c o nsta nt

buyers o f … th e E nglis h c ap ti v es” a nd th e “ chie f in sti g ato rs o f th e T urk s a nd M oors .” It w as

th e “ Je w s w ho [ e ]n hance th e p ric e o f C hris ti a n s o uls b y b uyin g th em ” a nd “ th en e xacti n g s u m s

fo r th eir re d em pti o n.” T hey w ere th e o nes w ho “ sti r u p th e T urk s a nd M oors s o to b eat a nd

ab use p oor c ap ti v es.” W ors e , i t w as s a id , “ th e J e w s i n A lg ie rs h av e to o g re at c o rre sp ond ency

with a nd c o unte nance fr o m th e J e w s h ere in E ngla nd a nd th at b y th eir m eans it is th at th ey in

Alg ie rs h av e a lw ays lis ts o f a ll o ur E nglis h s h ip s, e sp ecia lly o f th e fle ets c o m in g fr o m a ny o f

His M aje sti e s P la nta ti o ns a b ro ad .”

Wheth er th is b e d eem ed ju st a no th er b ig o te d s c re ed in a L ond on th at c o unte nanced a nti -

Sem iti s m o r a sy m pto m o f a la rg er p ro ble m , th e u lti m ate d ir e cti o n w as c le ar. F acin g re al

anta go nis ts in N ew E ngla nd , V ir g in ia , a nd B arb ad os, L ond on c o uld h ard ly c o nfr o nt a no th er in

North A fr ic a a nd , a ssu re d ly , if a nti - S em iti s m w ere d ecre ase d b y d in t o f fo rg in g a s y nth eti c

“w hite ness,” c o lo nia lis m i ts e lf w ould b e s tr e ngth ened s o th at r e al a nta go nis ts — parti c ula rly i n

New E ngla nd a nd B arb ad os— co uld b e b ette r f o ught. T here w as a n i m plic it a d m is sio n th at th e

Otto m ans w ere d oin g a b ette r jo b o f a p pealin g to th e J e w is h c o m munity , a s h ad b een th e c ase

fo r th e D utc h f o r s o m e ti m e. I n a ny e v ent, th is c o nd em nati o n o f th e J e w is h c o m munity f o r th eir

alle ged r o le i n N orth A fr ic a w as n o t s o lita ry .

This c o nd em nati o n w as a r e fle cti o n o f a w id er b ig o tr y th at m ad e th e o ft- s ta te d d is ti n cti o n

betw een an anti - S em iti c so cie ty and a

so cie ty w ith anti - S em iti s m no t as m eanin gfu l as it

ap peare d a t fir s t g la nce. T hus, lik e th e m ain la nd , B arb ad os w as n o t o ppose d to s e ttl in g th o se

fr o m th e J e w is h c o m munity , n o t le ast b ecause o f a c o ncern a b out “ w hite ness” a nd o vera w in g

an A fr ic an m ajo rity . Y et f r o m 1 680 to 1 780 a b la ta ntl y u nfa ir ta xati o n w as l e v ie d o n th e J e w is h

co m munity , d ra in in g th eir w ealth a nd p erh ap s m akin g s o m e n o t a s g ra te fu l to E ngla nd a s m ig ht

hav e b een im agin ed .

It w as h ard ly c o nso la ti o n a nd lik ely h elp ed to g alv aniz e a nti - S em iti s m

th at a s o f 1 678 p olic ym akers in B arb ad os w ere m ullin g o ver “ an a ct fo r p re v enti n g d angers

whic h m ay h ap pen f r o m ‘ P opis h R ecusa nts .’ ”

Acro ss th e C arib bean S ea i n P ort R oyal, J a m aic a, a h av en f o r p ir a te s, th ere w as a g ro w in g

Je w is h p opula ti o n, a n o utg ro w th o f th e o uste r o f I b eria ns f r o m R ecife i n 1 654. E ven b efo re th e

Cro m w ell ta keo ver o f th e i s la nd i n 1 655, th o se f le ein g th e I n q uis iti o n h ad f lo cked to J a m aic a,

with a J e w is h c o m munity 1 ,5 00 s tr o ng a s e arly a s 1 611 . B y 1 680, B osto n h ad a p opula ti o n o f

ab out 6 ,0 00, w hile th at o f P ort R oyal w as 7 ,5 00 a nd th at in clu d ed a b out a h und re d J e w is h

fa m ilie s.

In r e tr o sp ect, to th e e xte nt th at th e Ib eria n J e w is h c o m munity w ound u p in N orth A fr ic a—

ta le s o f cap ti v ity asid e— th is w as a w is e m aneuv er, in th at it gav e th em a w in d ow in to

neig hb orin g S pain , w hic h, as th e cita d el of anti - S em iti s m , had to be w atc hed care fu lly .

Besid es, th e O tto m ans, u nd ete rre d b y th eir se tb ack in V ie nna, h ad m ad e o vertu re s to w hat

becam e G erm any, w hic h a ls o h ad j u ris d ic ti o n o ver a s iz a b le J e w is h c o m munity .

DURIN G T H IS E N TIR E E R A , L ond on w as s q uab blin g w ith th e u su al c o m peti to rs , e sp ecia lly

th e D utc h, a b out w ho w ould b eco m e th e le ad er in e nsla v in g A fr ic ans. A s e arly a s 1 672, m ost

of th e e nsla v ed in V ir g in ia h ad a rriv ed d ir e ctl y fr o m A fr ic a a nd w ere n ev er s e aso ned in th e

Carib bean.

T his c o in cid ed w ith th e o rg aniz in g o f th e R oyal A fr ic an C om pany, w hic h m ark ed

a h eig hte ned a ggre ssiv eness b y th o se in L iv erp ool a nd B ris to l w ho se life w ork w as e nsla v in g

Afr ic ans. B ut s u ggesti v e o f h o w th e m erc hants w ere a sc end in g e v en a s th e C ro w n-d om in ate d

RA C w as o rg aniz e d , a s e arly a s 1 679 p riv ate ly

ow ned v esse ls a lr e ad y w ere b eco m in g m ore

pro m in ent i n th e o dio us c o m merc e.

Thus by 1670 D utc h tr a d ers in W est A fr ic a w ere carp in g per usu al: “B la cks ofte n

quarre le d w ith u s,” th ey g ru m ble d , “ T hey a re c o nsta ntl y tr o ub le so m e.” S ti ll, it w as c o nced ed ,

“ev ery y ear w e b uy th ere 2 ,5 00 to 3 ,0 00 so m eti m es m ore sla v es… . T he N egro es w ho a re

bought i n th at a re a a re b ad a nd s tu b born a nd o fte n k ill th em se lv es.”

A fe w y ears a fte r B aco n’s r e v olt, K in g P hilip ’s W ar a nd B arb ad ia n u nre st h ad s h aken th e

enti r e c o lo nia l p ro je ct, a D utc hm an, H eerm an A bra m sz, w as a t S eko nd i a lo ng th e G old C oast,

gru m blin g th at th e “ E nglis h h av e c re p t i n ” a nd “ in s p ite o f p ro m is e s to th e c o ntr a ry , th e n ati v es

hav e a llo w ed th is ,” w hic h w as “ q uite c o ntr a ry to th eir e arlie r p ro m is e s” ; in fa ct, “ th ey tr a d e

ev ery d ay w ith E nglis h , P ortu guese a nd o th er s h ip s a nd s o w e d ecid ed to a b and on th is lo dge.

The E nglis h h ad a lr e ad y a b and oned th eir s in 1 650.” H is c o untr y m en h ad p re ced ed h is fe llo w

Weste rn E uro peans: “ W e e v en s a w o urs e lv es c o m pelle d , b ecause o f th e b ad b ehav io r o f th e

Bla cks, to a b and on th e p la ce in 1 648.” T he “ ro w din ess” o f A fr ic ans, h e g ro use d , in d eed , th e

“natu re o f a ll th e B la cks” m eant th ey te nd ed to “ o nly s ti c k to th eir p ro m is e s a s l o ng a s th ey s e e

ad vanta ge in th em ; a nd s o w elc o m ed in 1 648 th e E nglis h .” T he “ w ars w hic h th e B la cks s o

ofte n s ta rt f o r tr iflin g r e aso ns” m eant th at “ tr a d e i s s to pped ” a nd “ esp ecia lly s in ce m usk et a nd

gunp ow der h av e b een in tr o duced , th in gs h av e b eco m e m uch w ors e ”; th at is , “ th e n ati v es h av e

beco m e m ore w ar-lik e.” A s a c o nse q uence, “ th e w ho le C oast h as c o m e in to a k in d o f s ta te o f

wars . T his s ta rte d i n th e y ear 1 658”; th us “ sla v es w ere v ery e asy to g et b y o n th e G old C oast,

because o f th e w ars . I n A rd er, o n th e c o ntr a ry , th e s la v e tr a d e w as e nti r e ly s to pped b ecause o f

war.” T his w as tr a gic , A bra m sz th o ught, g iv en th e “ gre at i m porta nce o f th e s la v e tr a d e.”

By 1 684, th e c o nse nsu s w as th at “ m ost o f th ese N egro es r e m ain in g w ere b ro ught h ere o n

th e G old C oast and are co nse q uentl y in clin ed to w ard s ru nnin g aw ay and se ekin g th eir

fr e ed om .”

By 1 686 th ere w as c av ilin g a b out h o w “ hig h-h and ed ” A fr ic ans h ad b eco m e.

T he n ext

year th ere w ere p ro te sts i n d ic ati n g th at th e i n te nd ed e nsla v ed h ad b eco m e “ no t a ll th at p olite ”

and d estr o yed

th e D utc h f la g. T his w as a “ se rio us m atte r a nd th e E nglis h a nd th e F re nch” w ere

“q uite h ap py a b out i t.” T he D utc hm an c o nclu d ed th at “ o ur p re se nce i n th is c o untr y i s n o l o nger

bro oked .”

By 1 688 th e n o ti o n w as a flo at th at “ N egro es a re s o b old a s to c o m pete i n th eir tr a d e e v en

with th e C om pany, tr a d in g o n b oard o f th o se i n te rlo per s h ip s e v en w hen th ey a re g uard ed .” B y

1688, n o t l e ast b ecause o f th e m anip ula ti o n a nd a rb itr a ge o f A fr ic ans, th ere w as a c o m merc ia l

co m peti ti o n, in p arti c ula r w ith th e E nglis h , w hic h le d to “ in num era b le sq uab ble s.” T o th at

poin t, s a id o ne D utc hm an w ith i r rita ti o n, “ th e s la v e tr a d e h as w ell p ro gre sse d b ut th ese d ays i t

se em s to s lo w o ff a littl e a s a r e su lt o f th e la ck o f w ars in th e in te rio r.”

A nd y es, fo m enti n g

wars w ould d efin ite ly r e so lv e th is n ettl e so m e p ro ble m .

Ju st as co lo nia lis m , co lo nia l m erc hants , and th e w ealth th ey genera te d — base d on

dis p osse ssio n and ensla v em ent— help ed to pro pel th e behead in g of a kin g, th e ris e of

Cro m w ell a nd th e u lti m ate w eakenin g o f th e C ro w n a ls o c ata p ulte d th e “ G lo rio us R ev olu ti o n”

of 1 688. A t is su e here , in te r alia , w as th e d em and o f m erc hants th at th e C ro w n unfa ir ly

dom in ate d th e A fr ic an S la v e T ra d e n o t o nly to th eir d etr im ent b ut to th e d etr im ent o f th e n ati o n

and o f r ig hts g enera lly , in clu d in g th e r ig hts o f th e d em os. T heir c ause w as to p re v ail a nd le ad

fu tu re g enera ti o ns o f “ M arx is ts ” a nd “ ra d ic als ” to h ail th e r e su lta nt g ro w th o f th e p ro ducti v e

fo rc es. H ow ev er, th is “ v ic to ry ” w as a s ta ggerin g b lo w to A fr ic ans a nd N ati v e A meric ans: it

was th e d aw nin g o f th e a p ocaly p se .