Conduct research using at least two of the articles on handling project conflict management. 3 articles attached to select from.In your paper, identify the different styles you found in your research,

Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 41 F acilitating Project Success by Eliminating Interpersonal C onflicts Autumn Miller , Mansi Balapuria, Monica Minniti Mohamed Sesay Project Management Program Drexel University , Philadelphia, USA [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Abstract Interpersonal conflict on project teams is a challenging problem for project managers.

Interpersonal conflicts may derail project success by jeopardizing team collaboration, cohesion, and can threaten s the existence of the project. On the contrary, it has been argued that interpersonal conflict on project teams is a necessary evil. Whetten and Cameron (2010), observe that interpersonal conflict is an essential and ubiquitous aspect of life on project teams. I t is noted that too much agreement among top management teams undermines project success because people wh o think in similar ways and agree on issues most of the time, are more likely to become complacent (Whetten & Cameron, 2010, p.376). The issue of conflict therefore presents both threats and opportunities to project teams. The focus of this paper is successful project leadership through effective interpersonal conflict management. Concepts such as establishing effective project teams, personal leadership attributes, team communication , motivation; the use of power and influence; stress management; em powerment; and proactive interpersonal conflict management have been discussed.

Introduction The complexities that characterize modern projects makes it imperative for project managers to develop effective leadership styles that takes into considerat ion, the holistic approach to project success. All too often, project managers are focused on the specific goals and objectives of the project but several important issues have to be addressed in order to achieve project success.

Managing interpersonal conflict on project teams is one of the challenging issues that may undermine project success. Personality and interpersonal issues may draw conflict, particularly in complex project environments, where cross -functional, self -directed teams with technical backgrounds must rely on the work of others to get their own work done. Whetten & Cameron Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 42 (2010) identify several skills that enable effective managers to succeed on project teams. Among others, verbal communication; stress management, decision management, motivation, empowerment and delegation, self -awareness, team building and effective conflict management are vital to project success . Developing a leadership model that encompasses these skills while effectively managing interpersonal conflicts may facilitate project success. Literature Review This paper synthesizes information primarily from two sources: Whetten and Cameron’s Developing Management Skills (8 th Edition) and Rahim’s Managing Conflicts in organization. In the book Developing Management Skills , the authors Whetten and Cameron suggest a variety of leadership skills which can be helpful to a project manager and increase the chances of project success. The literature is extensive and contains self -assessment tests that can help an individual to quantify his or her leadership skills and help them improve.

In the book Managing Conflicts in organization, the author Rahim focuses on different types of conflicts at individual, group, interpersonal and intergroup levels. Rahim also provides tools to mea sure the amount of conflict within organization. There are valuable suggestions and lessons summarized which can help a project manager to build effective conflict management strategies. Methodology The method used to compile our information was literature review research on standards and practices. No formal experiment al design was created or implemented for the purposes of this research paper. Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 43 Summary Leadership Model based on clear vision, skills and courage Leaders are responsible to execute corporate vision. The key to implementing a business’ vision is to ensure that the vision is upheld on every level of the team. A clear vision is an attribute that allows the team to facilitate a leader’s goal. Clear visions help to empower teams. “We all desire to know what the purpose of the activities in which we engage, what the ultimate objective is, and how we fit into that objective” ( Whetten &Cameron, p.452). Implementing a clear vision helps to achieve corporate goals as well as everyday tasks. On e way leaders can implement their vision, is through the use of SMART goals. SMART is an acronym for goals that are “specific, measurable, aligned, realistic, and time -bound” (Whetton &Cameron, p.453). Through the utilization of this goal- making model, team member’s behaviors can be guided. One part of creating a clear vision and developing SMART goals for your team is using creative problem solving. Utilizing creative problem solving is a unique trait that leaders need to have. Whette n & Cameron indicate t hat using imagination “refers to the creation of new ideas, breakthroughs, and radical approaches to problem solving” (Whetton &Cameron, p.179). This helps to promote team harmony and project success. Leadership self -awareness One contributing factor to leadership success is the possession a high sense of self - awareness. A leadership model based on s elf-awareness is a tactics that leaders use to establish an effective team. “There is considerable evidence that an individual’s ef fectiveness as a manager is closely related to his or her ability to recognize, appreciate, and ultimately utilize key, fundamental differences among others” (Whetten &Cameron ,p.60). Embracing diversity and various opinions, techniques, reduces the change for interpersonal conflicts and enhances success in teams. Strong Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 44 teams can only be built if a leader and the team members know their personal values. Knowing what is important to both you and your team, contribute to ultimate leadership. Ethical decision making contributes to a successful leadership model. “By and large, the American public rates honesty, integrity, and concern for moral values of American busines s executives as abysmal” (Whette n &Cameron, p.72). Creating a business environment that fosters ethical decision making is an essential ingredient of a sound leadership model.

Leadership courage & p ower Courage, power and influence are essential qualities leaders need to facilitate the building of teams. These qualities are characteristics of personal power that are facilitated by sub -categories.

“Four personal characteristics are important sources of power…these are expertise, personal attraction, effort, and legitimacy” ( Whetten &Cameron p. 288). Expertise helps to lead a team in the fact t hat a leader possesses knowledge that is essential to completing the tasks at hand.

“Expertise, or work -related knowledge, is the great organizational equalizer because it can come from formal education, self -directed learning, or on- the job experience” (Whetten &Cameron p. 288). Personal attraction can be a leader’s charm, enthusiasm, or friendliness. Effort “is one of the most highly prized characteristics of employees because it means they are dependable, r eliable human resources” (Whetten &Cameron p. 290). Preventing interpersonal conflicts by utilizing the stages of team formation Team formation cannot truly begin, unless team members have been lead through the typical formation patterns. In order for a team to be successfully established, they must undergo four stages. Whette n and Cameron indicate the four stages of team establishment include; the Forming stage, the Norming stage, the Storming stage and the Performing stage. Abudi ( 2010) Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 45 adds that adjourning is the fifth stage of team formation that enables team success and harmony at the conclusion of the project (See appendix for stages of team formation). These clear stages cause the dynamics of a group to shift from being a gr oup of individuals, to building relationships as a team. Leaders are res ponsible to further develop their team, to facilitate performance after the Forming, Norming, Storming, Performing stages are complete and adjourned. Proper team development can lead to efficacy, “team morale”, and “performance improvements”. According to Mathis (2012) , team development “can be achieved in a variety of different ways”. These ways include; “team building activities, general management skills, reward and recognition systems, collocation or frequent face -to -face meetings, and training”. On a p ersonal note, one of the authors of this paper was selected to lead a project of cross functional team members, to implement Kazien activities in the facility. The current state of the project was that none of the team members knew what Kazien or process improvements were. The author wanted to create a team where inputs were respected and new ideas could be generated. The forming stage was brought into fruition when engineers, production control, IT and materials support members met in their first meeting, which was set to last all day. The author led the team through introductions. Each team member came with listed ideas of company improvements, but looked uneasy. The author informed the team that the first task the team would face would be agr eeing on lunch, creating a norming stage. The author helped them to brainstorm lunch ideas grouping them into similar buckets (she did this activity to demonstrate how the team’s brainstorming sessions would go, when the Kaizen project was introduced and used lunch as an example). Despite having great lunch ideas, the team broke out into various disagreements. Some individuals wanted sandwiches because they ate them every day, others wanted pizza because they Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 46 liked hot lunches, and others wanted salad beca use they were vegetarians. This is an example of the team facing the storming phase. At this point, the author challenged the team to create a set of “commandments” for working within their group, asking them to give laws that shouldn’t be broken within their team. Ideas like one person talks at a time, majority votes win, considerations/compromises will be taken for those who disagree, nobody is wrong, and all ideas are valid were thrown onto their brainstorming wall. The author was pleased at the team’s ethics, and asked her team to use the set of commandment values to make their lunch time decision.

Finally, the team began discussing, laughing, and compromising with their lunch time selections.

Pizzas would be served with just cheese, salads on Tuesdays, and sandwiches with vegetarian options were to be served on Thursdays. This began the team’s performing stage. If they could come to terms with lunch, they could certainly implement Kazien s and process improvement plans.

A leadership model based e ffective team Communication Project communications management is necessary to avoid interpersonal conflict. Effective use of project communication processes is required to ensure timely and appropriate planning, collection, creation, distribution, storage, retrieval, management, control and monitori ng of all project information. Interpersonal c ommunication consumes a large amount time for project managers and th e team (PMI, 2013) The parts of the basic communication model shown below are the sender, receiver, the medium (which is the technology used to send the information), which can be impeded by noise (interference). The sequence of which communication is use d for projects or for any other messages is in 5 steps: (1) The encoding of the message by the sender, (2) Transmission of the message from the sender through the communication medium or channel, (3) The decoding of the Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 47 message by the receiver, (4) acknowl edgement of receipt of the message, (5) Feedback/response from receiver to original sender (PMI, 2013). FIG 1: Basic Communication model ( PMI, 2013) E ffective interpersonal communication in project management teams is important to the overall success of the project. In virtua l team environments most interpersonal communication is completed using technologies like emails, video conferences, teleconferencing, instant messaging , blogs and other social media . Supportive communication is when you communicate a person’s shortcomings in a way that still seeks to enhance and/or build the relationship between one person and the other while still addressing the issue. Providing negative feedback but in a positive way (Whetten, 2011) .

Attributes of supportive communication. • Supportive listening not one -way listening this attribute focuses on a variety of appropriate responses with a bias toward reflective responses. • Owned, not disowned— this attribute focuses on taking responsibility for your own statements by using personal “ I” words. Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 48 • Conjunctive, Not disjunctive —this attribute focuses on statements that flow from what has been said previously then facilitate interaction .

• Specific, not global — a focus on specific events or behaviors and avoid general, extreme or either statements .

• Validating, no Invalidating — a focus on statements that communicate respect, flexibility collaboration and areas of agreement .

• Problem Oriented, not person oriented—this attribute focuses on problems and is sues that can be changes rather than people and their characteristics. • Descriptive, not evaluative —this attribute focuses on describing an objective occurrence describing your reaction to it and offering suggested alternative .

• Congruent, not incongruent —this attribute has a focus on honest messages where verbal statements match thoughts and feelings Coaching and counseling by managers is a good way to illustrate some of the principles of supportive communication since coaching focuses on abilities and couns eling focuses on attitudes.

Focusing on these areas supportive positive relationship building ( Whetten, 2011). When project managers take the time to focus on listening and communicating effectively with their teams it can help to limit interpersonal conflict throughout the project (Whetten, 2011).. Effective motiv ation for team building A successful project management model must take into consideration employee motivation.

The rationale for motivation is to promote project goals while preventing discontent within the team. Whitt (2012) notes that employees who lack motivation are likely t o spend little or no effort in their jobs, they avoid the workplace as much as possible, leave the job if given the opportunity and produce low quality work. On the other hand, employees who feel motivated to work, are Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 49 likely to be persistent, creative and productive, turning out high quality work that they willingly undertake. Whetten & Cameron (2010) sums up the relevance of motivation to performance in the following equation: “Performance=ability X motivation where ability=Aptitude x Training x Resources and motivation= the desire and commitment from the employee” (p.327). Power and influence Turner and Muller (2005) suggest that a manager’s leadership style and competency is key to successful performance in business. Other studies have confirmed a correlation between effective leadership and the performance of project teams. Motivation does not arise by accident, but it is calculated means of influencing change through a balanced use of power, influence and other management concepts to move the team to success. Whetten & Cameron (2010), contend that power is a necessary precondition for influence because power alone cannot motivate if there is no influence. To motivate employees, the leader must be able to transform power into influence by winning th e consent of the employees (Whetten &Cameron 2010, p.298). Successful motivation on a project team depends on strong leadership, vision, power and the will to influence others to cooperate in the interest of project success. Setting clear goals and perform ance expectations Whetten & Cameron (2010), observe that setting clear performance expectations helps to promote employee motivation. This is true where employees do not have to waste their time decoding ambiguous instructions, or not knowing what the goals are. Goal setting is associated with enhanced team performance increased focus on the objectives, better flow of information and reduction in interpersonal conflicts that may arise from the lack of clear goals and performance expectations. Employee s are motivated to perform in their assigned roles when the lines of Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 50 communication are clear, when the goals are well defined and employees are aware of the expectations of the leadership (Whetten, & Cameron, 2010).

Stress management Haughey (2014) observes that one of the problems that has the potential to undermine team work, jeopardize performance and cultivate interpersonal conflicsis is stress. Whetten &Cameron (2010) identifies four key sources of stress on the job that could undermine employee motivation.

These are: Time stress which includes work overload and the lack of control. Encounter stress; which comprises role conflicts, action conflict and issue conflicts. Situational stress; which comprises issues like rapid and unplanned cha nge and unfavorable working conditions on the job.

The fourth type of stress identified is anticipatory stress. This relates to issues relating to fear and anticipatory expectations (Whetten & Cameron, 2010, p.117). A leader that has an effective stress ma nagement mechanism in place helps to promote motivation on the team by making sure that the identified stressors are addressed controlled or eliminated. Empowerment One of the best methods to motivate the project team while managing and preventing int erpersonal conflict is through personal empowerment and delegation. Empowerment is a process by which the employer provides an enabling environment that fosters creativity and innovation on the part of the employee that is unrestricted by employer controls . Whetten and Cameron (2010), characterize empowerment as a concept that allows employees to accomplish tasks to which they have an intrinsic attraction rather than an extrinsic influence or push. Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 51 Establishing a climate of positivity On projects, it is necessary to establish an atmosphere of a positive climate that is characterized by compassion, forgiveness and gratitude. According to Whetten & Cameron (2010), one of the major means by which a leader could influence motivation on the team is to recog nize goal accomplishment by linking performance to outcomes (p.337). Examples of such performance enhancing behaviors are the use of rewards and reinforcements to positively recognize good effort.

Effective Conflict Management Rahim (2001) suggests that c onflict needs to be managed in order to enhance organizational learning and effectiveness. He indicates that there are two types of conflicts, affective (these have negative impact on the participants) and substantive (these have positive impact on t he individuals or group performance). Rahim (2001) also indicates that conflicts management studies have taken two approaches. The first approach focuses the measurement of conflict using ROCI -I and ROCI - II (APPENDIX B ). This approach indicates that affect ive conflict needs to be minimized and moderate amount of substantive conflict may have to be attained for better performance level of the group. The other approach has looked at the various styles of handling conflict of the organization and the members, such as integrating, obliging, dominating, avoiding, and compromising. For conflicts to be managed functionally, one style may be more appropriate than another depending on the situation. Process of Managing Organization al conflict Rahim (2001) suggests a step -wise process for conflict resolution (see figure below). The first step is identifying or diagnosing the problem and then measuring it and analyzing it.

Measuring the amount of conflict at intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup level is needed. Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 52 Analysis should be carried out on the styles of handling conflict and relationship of amount and style with the source. The second step is intervention which is needed if there is too much affective and substantive conflict for routine tasks. It is also ne eded if there is far too little or too much substantive conflict for non- routine tasks. There are two approaches: Process and Structural.

Process based approach is used to "manage conflict by enabling organizational participants to learn the various styles of handling conflict and their appropriate uses ”. (Rahim 2001) The process approach requires transformational leadership. The structural approach is used to manage conflict by changing the organization’s structural design characteristics. Intervention and Conflict assessment impacts the learning and effectiveness of the organization which results into feedback which can be then used in the diagnosis step for the next iteration.

Fig 2: Process of Managing conflict (Rahim, 1983) Styles of handling Interpersonal conflict There are different styles of handling interpersonal conflict like Integrating, Obliging, Dominating, Avoiding and Compromising . Integrating is a style used to solve complex problems (Rahim, 2001). It is a style where all t he available resources come together to solve a problem by redefining it and finding alternate solutions. Rahim (2001) indicates that obliging style is used Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 53 “ when a party is not familiar with the issues involved in a conflict, or the other party is right, and the issue is much more important to the other party. This style may be used as a strategy when a party is willing to give up something with the hope of getting some benefit from the other party when needed ” (Rahim, 2001). Dominating style is used when there is a chance that the other party may come up with an unfavorable decision. Avoiding is a style where a less powerful party accepts the decision given by a more powerful party. Rahim (2001) indicates t his can be used to solve trivial or minor issues o r when a cooling-off period is needed before a complex problem can be effectively dealt with. Com promising style is appropriate “ when the goals of the conflicting parties are mutually exclusive or when both parties (e.g., labor and management) are equally powerful and have reached an impasse in their negotiation process" (Rahim, 2001). It can be used when a resolution cannot be agreed upon and the parties need a temporary solution to a complex problem. A PPENDIX C summarizes the different styles of handling interpersonal conflict and situations where they are appropriate or inappropriate. Lessons Learned The PM should lead the team formation and follow all the steps of forming, norming, storming and performing in order to develop a high- performing team. Communication channels should be open and the importance should be given to supportive communication. Motivation plays an important role in keeping the interpersonal conflicts minimal and this needs a motivated leader who can in turn motivate subordinates and peers. A number of studies have shown that cooperative styles of conflict management , such as integrating, obliging, and compromising, are correlated with positive outcomes, and non- cooperative styles, such as dominating and avoiding, are correlated wi th negative outcomes ( Rahim, 2001). Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 54 Analysis and Conclusion It is not possible and realistic to completely eliminate interpersonal conflict in order to facilitate project success. The project manager should identify the appropriate styles of handling con flict and the situations where they can be applied. Substantive conflict has positive impact on the team members and improves performance. Rahim (2001) indicates that moderate amount of substantive conflict should be attained and maintained for better perf ormance. This in turn increases the chances of a project being successful. In the final analysis, it should be noted that conflict is multi- dimensional, and exists in both constructive and destructive forms. The ability of the project manager to utilize the necessary leadership skills to manage interpersonal conflict, may help to facilitate project success. Acknowledgement We are grateful for the encouragement and mentorship of Dr. Victor Sohmen, Project Management Program, Drexel University, and for hi s useful comments and editorial guidance in this paper. References Abudi, G (2010). The Five Stages of Team Development: A Case Study. Retrieved from http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/the -five -stages -of -team -development -a -case -study.php. Brown, M., & Huettne r, B. (2007). Managing virtual teams: Getting the most from wikis, blogs, and other collaborative tools . Plano,, TX: Wordware Pub. Haughey, D. (2014). Time Management: More Time less Stress. Retrieved from http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/docs/time -management -more -time -less -stress.pdf Muller, R., Turner R.J., (2005).the project manager’s leadership style as a success factor on projects: Project management journal June 2005, pages 49- 61. Retrieved from http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijbm/article/viewFile/65/53 http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/choosing- the-best -team -for -your -project.html Rahim, M. A. (2001). “Managing conflict in organizations” (3rd). Westport, Conn: Quorum Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 55 Books. Retrieved from : http://www.untag - smd.ac.id/files/Perpustakaan_Digital_1/CONFLICT%20MANAGEMENT%20Managing %20conflict%20in%20organizations.pdf Rahim, M. A. (1983). Rahim organizational conflict inventories: Professional manual . Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Spaho, K. (2013). Organizational communication and conflict management. Management, Vol. 18, 1, pp. 103- 118.

Whetten, D.A. & Cameron, K.S. (2010). Developing management skills (8the d.). New York: Prentice-Hall Whitt, J. (2012 March 7). 4 ways to motivate your project team . Retrieved from http://www.projectsmart.com/articles/4 -ways -to -motivate -your -project -team.php Appendix A Stages of team formation, critical to interpersonal conflict management -(Adapted from google images) Stage of Group Development (Retrieved from http://pornpankajornkliforbsc304.blogspot.com/2014_06_01_archive.html ) Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 56 Appendix B Measurement of co nflict using ROCI-I and ROCI -II (Rahim 2001) Rahim (2001) designed two survey instruments – ROCI I and ROCI II, for measuring organizational conflict. ROCI stands for Rahim Organizational Conflict Inventory. ROCI I is a 21- item instrument to measure the amount of intrapersonal, intragroup and intergroup conflicts in an organization. ROCI I helps in assessing conflicts which can be functional (substantive) or dysfunctional (affecting, transforming, masquerading and process). It indicates that a moderate amount of substantive conflict should be attained and maintained for enhan cing performance (Rahim 2001). ROCI II is a 28- item instrument and was designed to measure the five styles of handling interpersonal conflict: integrating, obliging, dominating, avoiding and compromising with superiors, subordinates and peers (Rahim 2001).

Journal of IT and Economic Development 6(1), 41-57, April 2015 57 Appendix C Styles of handling interpersonal conflict and situations where they are appropriate or inappropriate (Rahim, 1983) Copyright ofJournal ofInformation Technology&Economic Development isthe property of Global Strategic Management, Inc.anditscontent maynotbecopied oremailed tomultiple sites orposted toalistserv without thecopyright holder'sexpresswrittenpermission.

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