Need this essay to be done on Friday 10am  Pacific Time Zone . Use the MLA-formatted Essay Template uploaded here as guidance. Open the template and click “Save As” to rename and save the essay o

Essay about - Racism - Instructions

Essay –> Argumentative Essay –

Imagine you are a new attorney with a prestigious law firm working in Washington, D.C., and you must write a three-page essay on the topic of race in America that will be submitted to the Supreme Court. You will argue whether racism is or is no longer a significant issue for most Americans. After all, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed over 50 years ago and Barack Obama was elected president in 2008 and re-elected in 2012. Because you have been hired to do this work, you personally may or may not agree with the perspective you will argue. In fact, you have no choice which side to argue because this will be randomly assigned to you.

Essay requirements:

The length of the essay should be approximately three pages, double-spaced, approximately 750 - 880 words.  Please limit the essay to no more than four and one-half pages, or 1,250 words maximum.

Your essay should include an introduction, at least three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Your body paragraphs should follow the enhanced PIE structure we are learning in this class. (See Lab 2 for the 7-step process to building a perfect body paragraph below.)

Use at least three trustworthy sources to support your thesis / claim. You may use the sources posted in the Essay 1 – Racism folder in Canvas.  (The term source means an article, a study, a book, a video, an essay, or other similar writings that offer ideas and research related to a topic.) Feel free to conduct additional research as well.

Avoid the first person use of “I” or “me” in the essay. This keeps the focus on the issue and not on you. Avoid “I believe” and “I think” and other similar terms since your claim should be based on facts and evidence rather than your opinion. (See Lab 3 below for more on this.)

Avoid writing “you” when speaking to the reader. It’s best to speak collectively, such as “We can all learn from this example” or “We as a nation must take steps….” 

Use formal style, tone, and diction. Avoid slang, casual language, broad generalizations, and contractions in most cases. (See Lab 3 below for an overview of academic language.)

Include at least three direct quotations from the sources and paraphrase other statements. (Direct quotations are when you place quotation marks around sentences that are word-for-word by a source. Paraphrasing means writing a source’s ideas in your own words.) Be careful not to quote a source for too long in the essay. Intersperse quotations with paraphrases of what the source has to say. (See Lab 4 below for a lesson in how to integrate quotations into your essay.)

Please include a Works Cited to list all sources cited in the essay. List the sources in Works Cited in alphabetical order. If you have an author name, list it at the start of the entry by last name, followed by first name. (See Lab 1 below for details about Works Cited.)

Be sure when citing a source in the body of the essay that whatever you place in parenthesis matches the first word of the entry in Works Cited. Most often this will be an author’s last name. (See Lab 1 below for details on in-text citations.)

Take some time to review the sample essay attached in this question to understand what is expected for this essay. 

Post-essay reflection

Before you finish the essay, add a final page after Works Cited by pasting and answering the following questions.

1. Which aspect of your essay did you do the best on (for example, the introduction, the conclusion, a section of your essay)? What made this element successful?

2. Which aspect of your essay could use improvement?  How might you improve it if you had a chance to revise this essay?

3. Which class assignments or activities helped you the most in preparing for this essay?

4. What challenges did you encounter writing this essay? Did you agree with the perspective you were given to argue?

5. Did you learn about racism in America? Did you change your opinion about racism?

Use the link sources below for this essay:

1. Racist Behavior Is Declining in America - The Economist

The article available in the link below is from The Economist and contains data to argue that racism is declining.  Note: Since the author is only listed as "C.K." cite the source as if there were no author by using the article title. 

https://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2017/09/bending-toward-justice (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

1. What Science Says about America's Race Problem

“Why are People Still Racist? What science Says about America’s Race Problem”

By William Wan and Sarah Kaplan

The Washington Post

August 14, 2017

Torch-bearing white supremacists shouting racist and anti-Semitic slogans. Protesters and counter protesters colliding with violence and chaos. A car driven by a known Nazi sympathizer mowing down a crowd of activists.

Many Americans responded to this weekend's violence in Charlottesville with disbelieving horror. How could this happen in America, in 2017? “This is not who we are,” said Virginia Senator Tim Kaine (D).

And yet, this is who we are.

Amid our modern clashes, researchers in psychology, sociology and neurology have been studying the roots of racism. We draw on that research and asked two scientists to explain why people feel and act this way toward each other.

Continue reading this article in the following URL:  https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/08/14/why-are-people-still-racist-what-science-says-about-americas-race-problem/?utm_term=.4fc89f17cbdc (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.

1. 5 Key Takeaways about Views of Race and Inequality in America

Published in June 2016, this article summarizes a Pew Research Center study of Americans' views of racism.

“5 Key Takeaways about Views of Race and Inequality in America”

By Renee Stepler

Pew Research Center

June 2016

A new Pew Research Center survey finds profound differences between black and white Americans in how they view the current state of race relations and racial equality and in the ways they experience day-to-day life.

 Continue reading this article in the following URL:  http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/27/key-takeaways-race-and-inequality/

1. Supreme Court ruling in 2014

In April 2014, in a court case titled Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action, the Supreme Court voted 6-2 to limit affirmative action. Affirmative action often gives students of color an advantage over white students to make up for socioeconomic challenges when entering college, so this court decision limited this opportunity. The following is a link to an article on this topic: 

http://colorlines.com/archives/2014/04/supremes_schuette_ruling_is_another_nail_in_the_affirmative_action_coffin.html (Links to an external site.)

1. Supreme Court ruling in 2006

In 2006, by a 5-4 vote, the Supreme Court ruled against tiebreakers based on race, which often gave students of color an advantage over whites in getting into certain schools.  Chief Justice John Roberts wrote in the plurality opinion that "The way to stop discrimination on the basis of race is to stop discriminating on the basis of race." Here's a link to this source:

http://www.oyez.org/cases/2000-2009/2006/2006_05_908 (Links to an external site.)

1. Pros and Cons of Brown v. Board of Education

This Washington Post article (see link below) examines both the advances and deficiencies in equality since the Supreme Court's 1954 ruling in Brown vs. Board of Education. This article offers students information that can be used regardless of which thesis you have been assigned to write. If you use this source, cite it like this in Works Cited:

Strauss, Valerie. "How, After 60 Years, Brown v. Board of Education Succeeded - and Didn't." Washington Post. N.p., 24 Apr. 2014. Web. 2 Feb. 2015.

Here's the link:

http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2014/04/24/how-after-60-years-brown-v-board-of-education-succeeded-and-didnt/ (Links to an external site.)

1. Here are two more articles available for use in Essay 1. Click on the bold titles to link to the article. 

What Population Data Say About Race and Ethnicity in America (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. – July 2018

https://datacenter.kidscount.org/updates/show/208-what-population-data-say-about-race-and-ethnicity-in-america

Cite this source in Works Cited like this, but double-space and indent second, third, etc. lines:

“What Population Data Says About Race and Ethnicity in America.” ​KIDS COUNT Data Center: A Project of the Annie E. Casey Foundation​,<datacenter.kidscount.org/updates/show/208-what-population-data-say-about-race-and-ethnicity-in-america?gclid=Cj0KCQjw5s3cBRCAARIsAB8ZjU1ZfOffanYTKygOIES9r-T8O0pUguz2ZQ49uIPTTfYyZR9iZqKNmvoaAotyEALw_wcB.>.

The Data Are in: Young People Are Increasingly Less Racist than Old People (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. – May 2017

https://qz.com/983016/the-data-are-in-young-people-are-definitely-less-racist-than-old-people/

Cite this source in Works Cited like this, but double-space and indent second, third, etc. lines:

Kenney, Charles. “The Data Are in: Young People Are Increasingly Less Racist than Old People.” Quartz, Quartz, 24 May 2017, qz.com/983016/the-data-are-in-young-people-are-definitely-less-racist-than-old-people/.

Helpful Resources below:

College students are required to write academic essays. These essays are referred to as academic because they take place in an academy – in this case a college.

We format our essays following guidelines that align with our area of study. Students taking English and other liberal arts classes follow Modern Language Association, or MLA.

Following MLA ensures that our essays are presented properly and in a uniform manner.

An essential skill in writing academic essays is the ability to properly introduce an author’s ideas or words to support points we want to make in our essays.

In this unit, we will see how MLA helps us refer to these works and authors using a technique known as an “in-text citation.” 

We use in-text citations to refer to the work of an author and to inform our readers about the author’s name and where we found the information we are citing.

Let’s look at an example:

If we were assigned an essay about key themes in J.D. Vance’s book titled Hillbilly Elegy, how would we first cite the author and title in our essay?

We would introduce the author by first and last name, a brief description of who the author is, and the book title.

Here’s how your sentence might look when you first refer to Hillbilly Elegy:

In his memoir titled Hillbilly Elegy, best-selling author J. D. Vance offers a thought-provoking look at both his own life and the problems faced by many working class white Americans.  

Notice when we first introduce an author, we state his or her full name and mention something about the author’s qualifications. Here are three examples: 

Best-selling author J. D. Vance offers . . .  

Latina poet Judith Ortiz Cofer writes . . .

Adventure journalist Jon Krakauer recounts . . .

Once we state the author’s full name, we then refer to him or her only by the last name throughout the rest of the essay:

Vance illustrates how . . . 

Cofer expresses why . . . 

Krakauer’s words create images that will stay with us . . .

Notice also that we use the present tense when writing about an author’s work. Even if an author is dead, we state that the author “writes” or “portrays” or “creates” his or her work:  

Mark Twain writes about a boy named Huck Finn . . . 

Ernest Hemingway expresses how . . .

Don’t confuse this with writing about the author’s life. For example, we would write in the past tense when observing that “During his life, Mark Twain wrote several famous novels and was a humorist.” 

Now let’s look at a specific passage from Hillbilly Elegy and how we indicate to readers on what page they can find the information in the book:

Vance states that during his years growing up in Ohio, he became “skillful at navigating various father figures” (13). 

This sentence is a good example of an in-text citation.  

It states only the author’s LAST name because we already introduced the author’s full name earlier in the essay:  Vance states that during his years growing up in Ohio, he became “skillful at navigating various father figures” (13). 

It uses present tense when referring to what the author is writing about: Vance states that during his years growing up in Ohio, he became “skillful at navigating various father figures” (13). 

Next, the sentence includes a quotation from the memoir, even though there is no mention of the book’s title: Vance states that during his years growing up in Ohio, he became “skillful at navigating various father figures” (13). 

We don’t need to mention the book’s title here because we did so earlier in the essay.

The sentence also includes the page number in parentheses from Hillbilly Elegy where the quotation comes from. Notice the page number is NOT stated as (p. 13) or (page 13) or (pg. 13), but simply as (13): Vance states that during his years growing up in Ohio, he became “skillful at navigating various father figures” (13). 

Finally, notice that the period goes at the very end of the sentence, after the page citation.

Now, let’s make a few more observations:

The sentence contains a signal phrase: Vance states.    

A signal phrase signals your readers that you are about to include a direct quotation, a paraphrase, or a summary of another writer or source, and that your reader can find this source listed in the last page of the essay, Works Cited.

We’ll look at Works Cited in a moment. First, let’s make some more observations about signal phrases.     

In MLA, signal phrases use present tense action verbs associated with the author’s writing: Vance states . . .

This verb is states, but other common signal phrase verbs are argues, describes, asserts, posits, claims, notes, acknowledges, adds, comments. AVOID “talks,” “shares,” and “says.” These are too informal.   

When paraphrasing, the signal phrase can appear at the end of a sentence by citing the author’s name and page number. Here’s an example: 

As he grew up in Ohio, he had to manage relationships with several men who played the role of father in his life (Vance 13). 

This example does not include a direct quotation, but summarizes or paraphrases Vance’s statement.  Notice we use the last name Vance and not the name of the book in parenthesis.

Citing sources from the internet with no author or page number.

Example: For several years, Environmental Defense Fund has been spearheading efforts to ensure that legislation addresses issues about climate change (“Blueprint”).   

The word “Blueprint” is used to cite the source. It’s the first word and a shortened version of the internet article titled “Blueprint For Climate Stability.”

Readers will expect Works Cited to include an alphabetical entry for the full title that begins “Blueprint.”       

Now, let’s look at using author names in signal phrases.

Example: In her memoir, Michelle Gonzales describes how she and the band members worked collaboratively (Gonzales 13).

Because we just mentioned Gonzales in the sentence, we do not need to cite her name again in parenthesis. This is the correct version:  In her memoir, Michelle Gonzales describes how she and the band members worked collaboratively (13).

However, we would cite Gonzales’s name in parenthesis if the source we are citing is not clear:  Members of the band Spitboy worked collaboratively together (Gonzales 13).

Note: It’s often acceptable to cite an author name in parenthesis like this in each new paragraph of your essay. Once cited, you can then simply cite the page number if you are referring to the same source within a paragraph: 

Members of the band Spitboy worked collaboratively together (Gonzales 13). An example of this occurred when the band selected the artwork of its first record. Each member had an opportunity to share her own perspective (13).

Now let’s examine Works Cited

The last page of our essay is titled Works Cited. It stands alone as a last page (unless you are writing a post-essay reflection, then the reflection comes after Works Cited).   

Works Cited lists all the sources (books, articles, essays, journals, etc.) that you referred to—or cited—in your essay.

Works Cited is arranged alphabetically by the authors’ last names.

If a source has no stated author (as occurs occasionally on internet sites), list the title of the article alphabetically.

Let’s look at a Works Cited page:

Works Cited

"Blueprint For Climate Stability." Environmental Defense Fund, vol. 46, no. 1, Winter 2015. https://prezi.com/gu_euna5cc9v/blueprint-lays-out-clear-path-for-climate-action- (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.environm/.

Gonzales, Michelle. The Spitboy Rule: Tales of a Xicana in a Female Punk Band. PM Press.      2016.

Milken, Michael, et al. "On Global Warming and Financial Imbalances." New Perspectives    Quarterly, vol. 23, no. 4, 2006, p. 63.

Revkin, Andrew C. “Clinton on Climate Change.” The New York Times, 17 May 2007,          www.nytimes.com/video/world/americas/1194817109438/clinton-on-climate- (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.                change.html.

Vance, J. D. Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis. Harper Collins                Publisher, 2016. 

Note: The formatting above is not 100% accurate. Canvas does not allow for double-spacing or indenting the second and third lines of each entry. In an actual Works Cited, be sure to double-space and indent all lines after the first line. Go online to see samples of Works Cited. 

One of the most common errors students make when citing a source and listing it in Works Cited is that the in-text citation does not match the first words of the entry in Works Cited.

It is essential that your sources are easily found in Works Cited by matching the citation words in the body of the essay to the first words that appear in the source in Works Cited.

To illustrate this, let’s use the example of the article titled "Blueprint For Climate Stability."

The Works Cited entry looks like this:

"Blueprint For Climate Stability." Environmental Defense Fund, vol. 46, no. 1, Winter 2015. https://prezi.com/gu_euna5cc9v/blueprint-lays-out-clear-path-for-climate-action-environm/.

Since the source has no author, we use a shortened version of the title when citing the source in parenthesis: 

For several years, Environmental Defense Fund has been spearheading efforts to ensure that legislation addresses issues about climate change (“Blueprint”).  

It would be an egregious error to cite the source like this: 

For several years, Environmental Defense Fund has been spearheading efforts to ensure that legislation addresses issues about climate change (Environmental Defense Fund). Notice that Environmental Defense Fund does NOT match Blueprint, which is the first word of the entry in Works Cited. 

Matching the first words of the in-text citation (whether an author’s last name or the title of an article) to the Works Cited entry is an essential skill.

It may seem overwhelming that you have to list all your sources in a specific order in Works Cited, but NoodleTools offers a web-based tool called Noodlebib to easily format Works Cited. For a free account through LPC, see the NoodleTools instructions posted in Canvas under the Essay Template and Tips module.

Reminders and additional information:

A signal phrase typically includes an author’s name and action verb to indicate you are about to cite the ideas or words of another writer, and that this author’s work is listed in Works Cited.

You must use an in-text citation even if you paraphrase or summarize a source instead of quoting the source directly. Anytime you refer to data from a source in your essay, you must cite the source using an in-text citation.

It is not necessary to cite commonly known information, such as the fact the Lincoln was our 16th president. Commonly known information does not need to be cited. 

Only list in Works Cited sources that you cite in your essay.  Sources you read while writing your essay, but did not cite in your essay, should NOT be included in Works Cited. 

Remember that it is essential that your sources are easily found in Works Cited by matching the citation words in the body of the essay to the first words that appear in the source in Works Cited.

Who is the Modern Language Association? MLA is the principal professional association in the United States for scholars of language and literature. The MLA aims to "strengthen the study and teaching of language and literature.” The organization includes 30,000 members in 100 countries, primarily academic scholars, professors, and graduate students who study or teach language and literature, including English, other modern languages, and comparative literature.

7-Steps to an Academic Body Paragraph   

One of the learning outcomes for English focuses on your ability to integrate researched material into your writing with appropriate context, explanation, punctuation and citation, as well as to document sources in an academically responsible way. 

For many papers in college classes, you will need to offer quotations from reputable sources to support the claims you make in your essays. Because you should never allow a quote to speak for itself, you must clearly make a point about each quote you use. Paragraphs that discuss quotations need to offer a worthwhile explanation of the quotation and why you are using it.

Enhancing the P.I.E. paragraph structure we have learned, the following is a basic formula for a paragraph that analyzes and presents a quotation in a more robust and academic manner. While you may vary the formula, try to include the following elements in your paragraph:

1. A topic sentence that tells the main point you'll make in the paragraph

2. Some background about the author’s credentials as well as an overview of the source to illustrate the reliability of the author and the source

3. An explanation of the author’s specific argument that relates to the quotation you’ll be citing

4. The quotation itself, preceded by a signal phrase, with quotation marks and a parenthetical page citation.  You should provide enough of the quote that it makes sense, but don't put in more than you can discuss.  One or two sentences is generally a good quote length

5. A restatement of the quote in your own words (paraphrase) right after you present it to make sure readers understand the quotation in the same way you understand it

6. The final few sentences of your paragraph should explain your point about the quotation in more detail, and why you draw that conclusion about the quotation.

7. Your final sentence should remind readers of your paragraph's main point. 

First, let’s review a simple P.I.E. paragraph from a research paper on Satanism so we can compare the differences between P.I.E. and the 7-step paragraph. Here is the P.I.E. version:

           POINT: Satanism often provides an outlet for the negative emotions experienced by abused or neglected young people. INFORMATION:Psychologist Timothy Zeddies argues in "Adolescent Satanism" that abused teens are particularly prone to adopting Satanic philosophies. He writes, "Satanism is both liberating and familiar. It allows them to express and receive validation for their rage and hatred toward authority figures who have abused, neglected, betrayed, or abandoned them" (24). EXPLANATION: This illustrates that rather than viewing Satan-worshippers as dangerous, we could sympathize with the pain that led them to Satanism. 

Now we will view the same paragraph using the 7-step model.  Although the main point is repeated, the paragraph does not sound repetitive. This repetition ensures that the reader understands the quotation and your point about it. 

1. Satanism often provides an outlet for the negative emotions experienced by abused or neglected young people. 2. Dr. Timothy Zeddies, a psychologist specializing in mood and anxiety disorders in both adolescents and adults, argues in "Adolescent Satanism" that abused teens are particularly prone to adopting Satanic philosophies. In his article, Zeddies discusses several examples of teenage psychiatric patients who choose Satanism as a means to express their negative feelings.  3. He argues that Satanism celebrates the angry emotions experienced by these teenagers. 4. Zeddies writes, "Satanism is both liberating and familiar. It allows them to express and receive validation for their rage and hatred toward authority figures who have abused, neglected, betrayed, or abandoned them" (24).  5. Zeddies claims that angry teenagers feel comforted by the angry and dark spirit of Satanic cults.  6. This argument contradicts common stereotypes of Satanic teenagers as evil or malicious people.  While we often think of Satanism as a conscious choice of evil over good, Zeddies' argument demonstrates that this practice reflects deep feelings of powerlessness and betrayal experienced after years of abuse.  His analysis could give us a more sympathetic view of this unusual and maligned religion. 7.  Rather than viewing Satan-worshippers as dangerous others, we could sympathize with the pain that led them to Satanism.

Students in college—in an academy—are expected to use academic language when writing essays.

Academic language differs from day-to-day language because it is more formal and follows certain standards.

In this presentation, we will examine guidelines and examples to help develop your academic writing.

If we were asked to write an academic essay about racism, for example, we would seek to ensure that the tone of our essay is formal and scholarly.

Tone is the way we express attitude in writing.

Here are two sentences with widely differing tone largely because of diction—the choice of words. It’s easy to see which is too informal and which is academically acceptable:

The topic of racism is a super big issue in this day in age and a lot of people think it’s no big deal, but it is.

The topic of racism is a significant issue in the United States, despite the assertion of some citizens that racism is no longer prevalent in our society. 

Words such as big and huge should be written as significant, important, essential or critical.

Other examples:

The author talks about vs.The author writes / discusses / notes

This study proves  vs. This study illustrates/strongly suggests

I think racism is  vs.   Racism appears to be

Nowadays vs. Currently / in contemporary society / today   

Back in the day vs. In previous years / in prior years / some years ago

It’s ok to feel concerned vs. It is acceptable to feel concerned

Academic writing avoids slang, text-message spellings, clichés, and contractions. 

Contractions such as it’s should be spelled out: it is

Capitalize countries such as the United States

Avoid broad generalizations such as really, always, very

Avoid inflammatory language such as sickening, sad, stupid

While research studies can help us better understand human behavior, no study can prove something to be true.

So avoid proves and proof when writing.

Error:  This study proves that children can learn quickly.  

Better: This study suggests that children can learn quickly.

Error: These studies are proof that lack of exercise causes obesity.

Better: These studies indicate that lack of exercise may cause obesity.

Academic writing discusses issues in a reasonable, thoughtful, and scholarly tone.   

Sentences should show respect for all points of view, even though your paper will argue a particular viewpoint. 

Here is an example:

People who think racism is over are just stupid. Turn on the tv and you’ll see acts of racism every day.

The tone is disrespectful.

Compare the tone to the following academic sentence:

While a segment of society believes racism is no longer prevalent in the United States, television and other media coverage clearly illustrate that racist activities still exist.

This tone is respectful and scholarly.

Here are more examples of sentences that show respect for all points of view: 

While many Americans will disagree, the evidence suggests that the socioeconomic and living conditions for African Americans have  . . .   

Our country is widely divided on this issue, and everyone’s perspective must be respected. However, after careful review of the facts, racism in this country . . .

Let’s look more closely now at why we usually avoid referring to ourselves in an academic essay.

Writing “I believe” or “I think” or “I feel” or “in my opinion” can weaken an argument because readers really don’t care about our opinions.

Readers want to know what research shows, what the facts tell us, what is true.

Even though your essay might express your opinion, notice that instead of writing “I believe that racism is still prevalent…” you can more powerfully argue “the evidence and facts illustrate that racism is still prevalent.”

Think of it this way: If you were being tried for murder and were innocent, you would freak out if your lawyer said, “Ladies and Gentlemen of the jury, in my opinion, my client is innocent.”  

“No!” you’d scream. “It’s not an opinion! I am actually innocent!” 

Now let’s examine a few actual student sentences that can be improved: 

It’s hard to really pick a side when it comes to this topic.

Here’s a better option: Determining the most appropriate perspective relative to this topic is difficult.

Sure, racism can still pop up every now and then, but racism isn’t that big anymore.

Here’s a better option: While it is true acts of racism occur on occasion, as a whole this issue has improved in most people’s daily lives. 

Look at all the famous non-white people! They get more attention and money than most people.

Here’s a better option: We have seen an increase in the income levels of many non-white individuals, many of whom are successful and well-known.

In addition to illustrating proper tone, academic essays should never exaggerate to make a point, such as in this poorly written sentence:

In 1964, the segregation laws kicked in and made minorities just as free as white people.

The student probably means “anti-segregation laws” and the Civil Rights Act. Did this act in actuality make minorities “as free as white people”?   

Here’s a better option: In 1964, segregation became illegal with the passage of the Civil Rights Act which outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

When Trump got into office, people created the Black Lives Matter movement. This movement is not helping anyone but instead destroying our towns and homes.

Is the movement truly destroying our towns and homes? Don’t exaggerate.   

In review, our choice of words—what is known as diction—is often a key factor in setting the proper tone of our essays.

Avoid words such as big and huge when significant, important, critical, essential, and other options are more academic in tone.

Be sure your essay respects all perspectives. Don’t belittle the view of others. 

Avoid emotionally charged words such as stupid and idiotic when describing opposing views. Also, avoid using exclamation marks, which are the sign of amateur writing.

Don’t make exaggerated claims that are false just to make a point.

The best argument is made when facts are presented. Readers will not trust your writing when you exaggerate or make claims that cannot be supported. 

Lab 4 – Introducing Quotations

In Lab 2 we learned how to write an effective academic essay using seven steps. The fourth step of the 7-Step paragraph typically includes a quotation (or a paraphrase), introduced by a signal phrase.

In this lesson we will examine four options to fulfill the fourth step in an academic essay.

But first, let’s begin with how to avoid an error known as a dropped quotation.

Avoiding Dropped Quotations:

Properly introducing a quotation avoids an error called a “dropped quotation,” which creates confusion because our readers may wonder about the source of the quotation they are suddenly reading. 

Here’s an example of a dropped quotation:

Effective business leaders should always be exploring how best to bring about change in their companies. As a result, they need to keep in mind the problem of being too ambiguous when setting goals: “Ambiguity is exhausting to the Rider, because the Rider is tugging on the reins of the Elephant, trying to direct the Elephant down a new path.” This quotation from a recently published book compares one’s reasoning to a “rider” and one’s emotions to an “elephant.” The book, titled Switch, is by brothers Chip and Dan Heath.

Notice in the passage above how the quotation just suddenly appears before we know who is speaking or writing. It’s “dropped” into the passage. While it relates to the topic of the sentence, as readers we don’t know who is saying these words. Were they spoken words? Written words? Are they from a book, a study, an article? While this information does finally come after the quotation, it’s too late in the paragraph because the reader has already wondered who is speaking or writing while reading the quotation. As good writers, we don’t want our readers to be confused as they read our work.

Here’s a better version without the dropped quotation (along with numbers indicating the seven steps to an effective academic essay).

1) Effective business leaders should always be exploring how best to bring about change in their companies. As a result, they need to keep in mind the problem of being ambiguous or unclear when setting goals. 2) Two brothers who are business writers—Chip and Dan heath—discuss the essential components of change in their book titled Switch: How to Make Change Happen When Change is Hard. 3) The authors use the metaphor of a Rider on top of an Elephant when seeking to create change. The Rider is our rational mind and the Elephant represents our emotions. The two must work together and move in the same direction for effective change to take place. In addition, ambiguity or unclear communication from a business leader can derail change. Employees need to have a clear vision of steps to take toward change if change will occur. 4) The Heath brothers write, “Ambiguity is exhausting to the Rider, because the Rider is tugging on the reins of the Elephant, trying to direct the Elephant down a new path” (53). 5) The authors suggest that being clear when communicating a vision helps a business leader eliminate uncertainly and ambiguity by offering concrete steps for employees to take toward change. 6) Aligning clear and rational thinking with the power of emotion is what is needed to create change. 7) Strong business leaders, as well as civic and community leaders, should be attentive to effective methods of leadership as they seek to create change.

Notice how the quotation in the revised passage is no longer “dropped.” The signal phrase and an introduction of the source allow the reader to picture who is speaking or writing by the time the quotation appears.  

Let’s now look closely at signal phrases.

Signal Phrase:

A signal phrase typically appears in Step 2 of the 7-Step paragraph. It has several components: the author or source name; information about the author or source qualifications; an action verb such as writes, observes, notes, states; the title of the source / book / study / article; and the page citation (which usually appears after a quotation or paraphrase).

We refer to this method of introduction as a “signal” phrase because it is a signal to the reader that we are about to introduce the words and ideas of someone other than ourselves. In the same way you introduce one of your friends to another friend at a social gathering before a conversation begins, we introduce our sources to our reader before they begin to be quoted.

In the passage above, this is the signal phrase:

Two brothers who are business writers—Chip and Dan heath—discuss the essential components of change in their book titled Switch: How to Make Change Happen When Change is Hard.

Most of the time our source will have just one author. Let’s use Henry David Thoreau as an example:

In his essay written in 1854 titled "Where I Lived, and What I Lived For," American essayist, philosopher, and naturalist Henry David Thoreau writes about his experience living two years by Walden Pond in Concord, Massachusetts. In his essay he states directly his purpose for going into the woods.

Notice that each of the components are included in this signal phrase. (Once we quote Thoreau, we will include the page citation in parenthesis.)

Note: In MLA, the first time we introduce an author, we include the first and last name. Afterward, we only use the last name (and never the first name alone). For example:

Thoreau continues his essay by reflecting on . . .

Now we are ready to examine the four options to properly introduce a quotation using signal phrases. Remember that these techniques are typically associated with step four in the 7-Step paragraph:

• Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase in a complete sentence and use a colon. Here’s an example:

In his essay written in 1854 titled "Where I Lived, and What I Lived For," American essayist, philosopher, and naturalist Henry David Thoreau writes about his experience living two years by Walden Pond in Concord, Massachusetts. In his essay he states directly his purpose for going into the woods: "I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived."

The highlighted sentence is a complete sentence with a subject and a verb. Since it is a complete sentence, we use a colon to introduce the quotation. Never confuse a colon with a semi-colon. A colon looks like this : and a semi-colon looks like this ; Using a semi-colon would be incorrect.

• Use a signal phrase with a verb such as states or writes, and introduce the quotation with a comma. Here’s an example: 

Henry David Thoreau suggests the consequences of making ourselves slaves to progress when he states, "We do not ride on the railroad; it rides upon us."

Here’s another example:

According to Thoreau, "We do not ride on the railroad; it rides upon us."

• Use a signal phrase with that and NO comma or colon. Here’s an example:

In his essay titled “Self Reliance,” American essayist, lecturer, philosopher, and transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson states that “A man should learn to detect and watch that gleam of light which flashes across his mind from within, more than the luster of the firmament of bards and sages.”

Using “that” replaces the comma, which would otherwise be needed in the sentence. We usually have a choice when we begin a sentence with a phrase such as “Emerson states." We can either add a comma after "states" (Emerson states, "quotation") or we can add the word "that" with no comma (Emerson states that "quotation.")

• Insert the quotation with NO initial punctuation if the quoted words naturally flow into your sentence as if you had written the words.Here’s a few examples:

In his novel Call of the Wild, American novelist Jack London describes “the stirring of old instincts” that drive men “out from the sounding cities to the forest.”

Thoreau argues that people blindly accept "shams and delusions" as the "soundest truths," while regarding reality as "fabulous."

American essayist and philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson expresses the importance of always learning when he encourages us to “Explore, and explore, and explore.” He encourages us to stay true to our “position of perpetual inquiry.” 

Notice that the words we choose to quote are unique, special, and powerful. By quoting them in this manner, we draw attention to them.

In these examples, the quoted words flow into the sentence, essentially blending a paraphrase and quotation.

This is a nice technique and offers an alternative to the first three options of introducing quotations.