The critical review assignment entails that students read a short article on ancient Roman sport and spectacle and provide a critical overview of the chapter/article, including its argumentation, use

The e v id ence fo r sp ecta cula r e xecuti o ns in R om e is a b und ant. R om an h is to ria ns, su ch a s L iv y, p erio dic ally re co rd s u ch e v ents , b ut p erh ap s th e m ost v alu ab le lite ra ry s o urc es a re th e w ork s o f M arti a l a nd S ueto niu s. T hese a uth o rs w ere a cti v e i n th e f ir s t a nd s e co nd c entu rie s CE a nd pre se rv e m uch in fo rm ati o n ab out ev ents in th eir life ti m es, w hen R om an sp ecta cula r e xecuti o ns w ere a t th eir m ost e xtr a v agant. M arti a l’s s h o rt b ook o f p oem s e nti tl e d Specta cle s ( L ib er S pecta cu lo ru m ) d eta ils th e e la b ora te sp ecta cle s, in clu d in g e xecuti o ns, sta ged in th e C olo sse um und er th e em pero rs T itu s (ru le d 79–81 CE ) and D om iti a n (ru le d 81–96 CE ).

S ueto niu s, in h is im peria l b io gra p hie s, d esc rib es s e v era l e la b ora te g am es p ut o n b y e m pero rs – g am es th at o fte n in clu d ed p ub lic e xecuti o ns. In a d diti o n, e arly C hris ti a n w rite rs , in clu d in g E use b iu s, bis h o p of C aesa re a, re co rd , ofte n in gru eso m e deta il, th e vario us to rtu re s and e xecuti o ns th at C hris ti a n m arty rs u nd erw ent in R om an a re nas. O ne d iffic ulty in u sin g su ch m arty ro lo gie s lie s in s e p ara ti n g a uth enti c m arty rd om a cco unts fr o m th o se e v id entl y c o nco cte d b y o verz e alo us C hris ti a n w rite rs .

Oth er ty p es o f e v id ence a ls o a tte st to th e p opula rity o f s p ecta cula r e xecuti o ns. N um ero us s u rv iv in g in sc rip ti o ns c o m mem ora te sp ecta cle s, in clu d in g sp ecta cula r e xecuti o ns, sta ged b y m unera rii or ed ito re s (in d iv id uals w ho org aniz e d gam es) in co m muniti e s th ro ugho ut th e Christesen, P., & Kyle, D. G. (2013). A companion to sport and spectacle in greek and roman antiquity. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from uwinnipeg on 2019-11-16 20:41:10.

Copyright © 2013. Wiley. All rights reserved.

Rom an E m pir e . T he e p ig ra p hic e v id ence c o lle cte d b y L ouis R obert c le arly in d ic ate s th at it was n o t j u st th e L ati n -s p eakin g w este rn h alf o f th e E m pir e th at h ad a f o nd ness f o r s u ch e v ents .

Pub lic e xecuti o ns a s p art o f a re na s p ecta cle s w ere c le arly p opula r in th e G re ek E ast a s w ell (R obert 1971: 320–1). Som e ed ito re s co m mis sio ned arti s ts to m em oria liz e gam es th ey org aniz e d , and se v era l d ep ic ti o ns o f th e fin al ago niz in g m om ents o f th e co nd em ned hav e su rv iv ed to th e p re se nt, p arti c ula rly i n m osa ic s.

2 O rig in s Pub lic e xecuti o ns w ere a n e sta b lis h ed f e atu re o f th e R om an j u d ic ia l s y ste m a s e arly a s th e f ifth centu ry BCE , w hen R om e’s fir s t w ritte n la w c o de, th e T w elv e T ab le s, w as p ut in to e ffe ct.

Und er th e T w elv e T ab le s, c rim es su ch a s a rs o n, p arric id e, a nd b earin g fa ls e w itn ess w ere punis h ab le b y e xecuti o n. T yp es o f p ub lic e xecuti o n a t th is ti m e in clu d ed b ein g b urn t a t th e sta ke ( cre m atio ), bein g flo gged to death , and bein g hurle d off th e T arp eia n R ock.

1 O ne im porta nt le gal p rin cip le w as th at th e s e v erity o f a g iv en s e nte nce s h o uld c o rre sp ond to th e se v erity o f th e o ffe nse c o m mitte d (W ie d em ann 1 992: 7 0). A s a p arti c ula rly lite ra l e xam ple , th o se w ho c o m mitte d a rs o n c o uld e xp ect to b e b urn t a t th e s ta ke ( T ab le 8 , L aw 6 ). I n a d diti o n, th e d egra d ati o n o f c rim in als su b je ct to p ub lic e xecuti o n w as a c o m mon fe atu re o f R om an ju sti c e w ell i n to th e R om an E m pir e . T he h um ilia ti o n o f th e c o nd em ned , m ore o ver, d id n o t e nd with th eir d eath s; R om an a uth o riti e s r o uti n ely m uti la te d th eir c o rp se s a nd d enie d th em p ro per buria l ( K yle 1 998: 1 31–3).

Apart fr o m e nfo rc in g o bed ie nce to th e la w s o f th e sta te , su ch p unis h m ents – p ub lic a nd vio le nt to th e p oin t o f b ein g o vertl y c ru el – w ere b elie v ed to se rv e a n um ber o f d iffe re nt fu ncti o ns. T he h um ilia ti o n o f th e c o nd em ned c o nfir m ed a nd h ig hlig hte d th e a uth o rity o f th o se passin g se nte nce and w as und ers to od as re esta b lis h in g “so cia l ord er by cancelin g th e crim in al’s e xerc is e o f r ig hts w hic h h e d id n o t h av e” ( W ie d em ann 1 992: 7 1). T here w as a ls o a str o ng r e lig io us d im ensio n; th o se w ho h ad c o m mitte d s e rio us c rim es w ere c o nsid ere d to h av e pollu te d s o cie ty w ith th eir w ro ngd oin g, a nd th eir e xecuti o n s e rv ed to p urify th e c o m munity .

Fin ally , e xecuti n g c o nd em ned c rim in als in p ub lic e nsu re d th at a s m any c iti z e ns a s p ossib le co uld w itn ess p unis h m ents a nd th ere b y b e r e assu re d o f th e e ffe cti v eness o f R om an j u sti c e a nd th e re sto ra ti o n o f s o cia l o rd er in th e a fte rm ath o f its in te rru p ti o n b y c rim in al a cts (C ole m an 1990: 4 4–9; K yle 1 998: 4 0–1, 1 33–40; P otte r 1 993: 5 3–4, 6 5; W ie d em ann 1 992: 6 8–97).

In th e M id dle R ep ub lic (th ir d to s e co nd c entu ry BCE ), s o m e o f th e m ost e xtr e m e fo rm s o f pub lic executi o n w ere re se rv ed fo r dese rte rs fr o m th e R om an arm y and th o se w ho had oth erw is e fa ile d in th eir m ilita ry d uty to th e s ta te , s u ch a s a llie d tr o ops w ho r e v olte d a gain st Rom an a uth o rity . T he R om an m ilita ry a chie v ed m ore a nd m ore im porta nce d urin g th is p erio d, as R om e e xp and ed h er te rrito ry a cro ss th e M ed ite rra nean b asin , s o i t i s n o t s u rp ris in g th at a ny fa ilu re to p erfo rm o ne’s m ilita ry d uty w as p unis h ed w ith th e utm ost se v erity . T he R om an pra cti c e o f d ecim ati o n a ro se fr o m th is s a m e g enera l c o ncern to e nfo rc e m ilita ry d is c ip lin e b y any m eans necessa ry and to p ro vid e a cle ar o bje ct le sso n o f th e d ir e fa te aw aiti n g th o se Christesen, P., & Kyle, D. G. (2013). A companion to sport and spectacle in greek and roman antiquity. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from uwinnipeg on 2019-11-16 20:41:10.

Copyright © 2013. Wiley. All rights reserved.

co nv ic te d o f d ere lic ti o n o f d uty ( H opkin s 1 983: 1 –2).

2 One o f th e m ost str ik in g e xam ple s o f sp ecta cula r e xecuti o n im pose d in a m ilita ry se tti n g occurre d in 1 67 BCE , w hen th e g enera l A em iliu s P aullu s u se d e le p hants to tr a m ple to d eath no nciti z e n tr o ops w ho had d ese rte d fr o m his arm y (V ale riu s M axim us 2 .7 .1 4). It is no t a co in cid ence th at th e m eth o d o f e xecuti o n c ho se n b y P aullu s is q uite r e m in is c ent o f th e p enalty of dam natio a d b estia s l a te r c arrie d o ut i n R om an a re nas.

Not s u rp ris in gly , g iv en R om e’s “ w arrio r m enta lity ,” p unis h m ents o rig in ally c arrie d o ut in a milita ry c o nte xt e v entu ally s p re ad to th e p ub lic s p here . I n th e s p ecific i n sta nce o f dam natio a d bestia s , a s R om e p ro cure d a n a m ple s u p ply o f w ild a nim als f r o m h er c o nq uests i n r e gio ns s u ch as N orth A fr ic a, anim als w ere in cre asin gly use d fo r pub lic ente rta in m ents , in clu d in g executi o ns in th e a re na (s e e C ha p te r 3 4 in th is v olu m e). O nly 2 1 y ears a fte r P aullu s’s m ass executi o n o f d ese rte rs , h is s o n S cip io A em ilia nus, in c ele b ra ti n g th e c o nq uest o f C arth age in North A fr ic a, s ta ged s p ecta cle s i n R om e th at i n clu d ed th ro w in g d ese rte rs a nd f u giti v e s la v es to wild b easts ( V ale riu s M axim us 2 .7 .1 3; L iv y Perio ch ae B ook 5 1; K yle 1 998: 4 8–9).

In th e L ate R ep ub lic a nd E arly E m pir e , h o rrific p ub lic e xecuti o ns a t R om e a nd th ro ugho ut th e Em pir e w ere g enera lly r e se rv ed f o r th o se o f l o w s o cia l s ta nd in g s u ch a s s la v es a nd p ris o ners of w ar. R om an c iti z e ns c o nv ic te d o f c ap ita l o ffe nse s c o uld e xp ect a m ore “ d ig nifie d ” m eth o d of punis h m ent (G arn se y 1970: 221–76; M acM ulle n 1990: 204; Fagan 2011 : 174–5; Wie d em ann 1 992: 6 8–9). M any o f th e s p ecific m eth o ds o f e xecuti o n f o r n o nciti z e ns r e m ain ed , in g enera l te rm s, th e s a m e a s th ey h ad b een u nd er th e E arly R ep ub lic , i n clu d in g c ru cifix io n a nd cre m atio . B y th e b egin nin g o f th e E m pir e , th e R om an p ub lic h ad d ev elo ped a k een a p peti te f o r vio le nt sp ecta to r e v ents su ch a s g la d ia to ria l c o m bats a nd th e b east h unts ( ven atio nes ), so , unsu rp ris in gly , e xecuti o n a s a f o rm o f p ub lic e nte rta in m ent b ecam e a c o m mon f e atu re o f R om an sp ecta cle s.

Pub lic e xecuti o ns u nd er th e L ate R ep ub lic a nd E m pir e to ok a v arie ty o f fo rm s, n o d oub t enhancin g th eir e nte rta in m ent v alu e f o r s p ecta to rs , w ho w ould n o t a p pre cia te v ie w in g th e s a m e ty p e o f p unis h m ent o ver and o ver again . S om e crim in als , ra th er th an b ein g co nd em ned to pro m pt e xecuti o n, w ould in ste ad b e s e nte nced to fig ht a s e ith er g la d ia to rs o r b east fig hte rs in th e a re na.

3 A lth o ugh th ere w as a s lig ht c hance th at th ey m ig ht u lti m ate ly e arn th eir fr e ed om if th ey f o ught w ell e no ugh, th e e xp ecta ti o n o n th e p art o f R om an a uth o riti e s w as p re su m ab ly th at th o se c o nd em ned in th is fa sh io n w ould p ro vid e s o m e e nte rta in m ent b efo re s u ffe rin g a v io le nt death i n th e a re na. S uch a s e nte nce w as a ls o a u se fu l w ay f o r th e R om an g o vern m ent to e nsu re an i n exp ensiv e a nd r e new ab le s u p ply o f c o m bata nts f o r th e a re na ( H opkin s 1 983: 1 0–24).

A p arti c ula rly ela b ora te fo rm o f sp ecta cula r executi o n, o ne id eally su ite d to killin g o ff hund re d s o r e v en th o usa nd s o f p ris o ners o f w ar i n a s in gle e v ent, i n v olv ed th e s ta gin g o f m ock nav al o r l a nd b attl e s i n R om e. A lth o ugh th ese c o nte sts w ere p re se nte d , i n a s e nse , a s h is to ric al re enactm ents o f fa m ous b attl e s fr o m th e p ast, th e p arti c ip ants w ere e xp ecte d to fig ht to th e death (W ie d em ann 1 992: 8 9–90). M ock n av al b attl e s, naum ach ia e , w ere fir s t sta ged u nd er Ju liu s C aesa r a nd c o nti n ued to b e s ta ged p erio dic ally b y s u b se q uent R om an le ad ers u nti l th e re ig n o f D om iti a n. T he l a rg est naum ach ia , s a id to h av e in v olv ed n in ete en th o usa nd p ris o ners , was a rra nged b y C la ud iu s in 5 2 CE . T he s a m e e m pero r a ls o o rg aniz e d a m ock la nd b attl e a t Christesen, P., & Kyle, D. G. (2013). A companion to sport and spectacle in greek and roman antiquity. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from uwinnipeg on 2019-11-16 20:41:10.

Copyright © 2013. Wiley. All rights reserved.

Rom e th at s im ula te d r e cent v ic to rie s i n B rita in a nd th at f e atu re d p ris o ners c ap tu re d d urin g th e cam paig n (D io C assiu s 6 1.3 3.3 –4; S ueto niu s Cla udiu s 2 1.6 ; T acitu s Annals 1 2.5 6; C ole m an 1990: 7 0–3; C ole m an 1 993: 4 9, 5 6, 6 7).

Such e v ents , l ik e th e m ilita ry e xecuti o ns m enti o ned e arlie r, c le arly s y m boliz e d th e p ow er o f th e R om an s ta te a nd o f th e r u le r s ta gin g th em . A rg uab ly th ey s e rv ed a s a r e m in d er o f R om e’s ti m e-h o no re d m arti a l v alu es fo r a p opula ce th at, u nd er th e E m pir e a t le ast, n o lo nger h ad a s much dir e ct exp erie nce of w ar (H opkin s 1983: 1–2). T he ente rta in m ent valu e of th ese sp ecta cle s, i n c erta in i n sta nces, w as e nhanced b ecause th e o utc o m e d id n o t a lw ays c o nfo rm to th at o f th e b attl e s th ey o ste nsib ly s im ula te d ; s u ch u np re d ic ta b le o utc o m es c o uld o nly h eig hte n sp ecta to r i n te re st.

These vio le nt m ilita ry re enactm ents , no doub t because of th e ela b ora te pre p ara ti o ns necessa ry , w ere n o t p ro duced o n a re gula r b asis . A fa r m ore c o m mon o ccurre nce u nd er th e Em pir e w as th e e xecuti o n o f i n d iv id uals o r s m all g ro up s o f th e c o nd em ned o n th e a re na f lo or.

4 Und er th e sta nd ard daily sc hed ule of are na ev ents , w hic h em erg ed durin g th e re ig n of Augustu s, e xecuti o ns w ere s ta ged d urin g th e m id day p ause , b etw een b east h unts i n th e m orn in g and g la d ia to ria l c o m bats i n th e a fte rn o on ( D unkle 2 008: 9 0).

In sc rip ti o ns ad verti s in g or co m mem ora ti n g vario us sp ecta cle s sp ecific ally m enti o n th e executi o n o f noxii (c rim in als c o nd em ned to d eath ) a s o ne o f th e a ttr a cti o ns o f ŧh e m id day pause . A n in sc rip ti o n fr o m P ute o li, fo r e xam ple , r e co rd s th at a lo cal m agis tr a te s ta ged a fo ur- day s p ecta cle fe atu rin g fo ur u nnam ed b easts , 1 6 b ears , a n u nsp ecifie d n um ber o f h erb iv oro us anim als , a nd fo ur noxii ( IL S 5 063a). T he te xt d oes n o t s p ecify e xactl y h o w th e c o nd em ned were e xecute d , b ut i t i s l ik ely th at s o m e o f th e a nim als m enti o ned i n th e i n sc rip ti o n w ere u se d to k ill th e noxii . A no th er in sc rip ti o n fr o m Ita ly a tte sts e v en m ore c le arly to th e p opula rity o f are na e xecuti o ns i n th e E arly E m pir e ( CIL 9 .3 437 = IL S 5 063). T he te xt r e co rd s a no th er f o ur- day sp ecta cle sta ged by a lo cal m agis tr a te , th is ti m e fe atu rin g th re e days of gla d ia to ria l co m bat, a nd a f o urth d ev ote d to th e e xecuti o n o f c o nd em ned c rim in als . I t i s s ig nific ant h ere th at th e ed ito r d ev ote d a n e nti r e d ay to th e noxii r a th er th an s im ply in te rs p ers in g th eir e xecuti o ns betw een g la d ia to ria l b outs i n th e a re na.

Conte m pora ry a rtw ork in v ario us m ed ia s u ch a s s c ulp tu re s a nd m osa ic s, c o m mis sio ned to co m mem ora te th e g enero sity o f a g iv en ed ito r , f r e q uentl y d ep ic ts s u ch a re na e xecuti o ns a s p art of a la rg er sp ecta cle , once again te sti fy in g to th eir popula rity as sp ecta to r ev ents . (O n sp ecta cle i n R om an a rt, s e e C hap te r 2 8.) O ne g o od e xam ple i s a l a te s e co nd -c entu ry CE m osa ic fr o m E l- D je m i n T unis ia th at s h o w s l e o pard s a tta ckin g tw o noxii . I n o ne c o rn er o f th e m osa ic a le o pard is s h o w n m id -le ap w hile h is te rrifie d ta rg et lo oks o n. In a no th er c o rn er (s e e Fig ure 35.1 ), th e le o pard h as a lr e ad y la tc hed o n to th e fa ce a nd c hest o f h is v ic ti m . In b oth c ase s, are na a tte nd ants a tte m pt to h o ld th e v ic ti m i n p la ce to m ake th e a nim als ’ ta sk e asie r ( B en A bed 2006 ( 2 002): 7 1–7; B la nchard -L em ée, E nnaïfe r, S lim , et a l . 1 996 ( 1 995): 2 15–17; D unb ab in 1978: 6 6, 2 59).

5 Specta cula r executi o ns w ere , o f co urs e , su b je ct to m any o f th e sa m e co ncern s as o th er Rom an s p ecta to r e v ents u nd er th e E m pir e , in p arti c ula r g la d ia to ria l c o m bats a nd b east h unts .

If, fo r e xam ple , a ny o f th ese p erfo rm ances b ecam e to o re p eti ti v e o r p re d ic ta b le , sp ecta to rs Christesen, P., & Kyle, D. G. (2013). A companion to sport and spectacle in greek and roman antiquity. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from uwinnipeg on 2019-11-16 20:41:10.

Copyright © 2013. Wiley. All rights reserved.

mig ht beco m e dis sa ti s fie d (W ie d em ann 1992: 85–6). T his w as a parti c ula rly im porta nt co nsid era ti o n f o r th e e m pero rs i n R om e s in ce th e g am es th ey o rg aniz e d i n th e c ap ita l w ere o ne of th e fe w o ccasio ns d urin g w hic h th ey c o uld m eanin gfu lly in te ra ct w ith th eir s u b je cts (s e e Chap te r 3 0). D is sa ti s fa cti o n w ith th e g am es g iv en b y a p arti c ula r r u le r m ig ht, i n th eo ry a t l e ast, co ntr ib ute to a m ore d angero us d is c o nte nt w ith h is r u le i n g enera l.

Fig ure 3 5.1 P art o f a m osa ic f r o m E l- D je m , T unis ia s h o w in g dam natio a d b estia s , c .1 80 CE .

Sourc e:

P ho to gra p h b y E rro n S ilv ers te in . U se d w ith p erm is sio n.

Not s u rp ris in gly , th en, s p ecta cle o rg aniz e rs , e sp ecia lly e m pero rs in R om e, o fte n s o ught n ew ways to m ake p ub lic e xecuti o ns n o vel a nd e xciti n g. O ne m eth o d w as b y e xte nd in g th e s u ffe rin g of th e c o nd em ned a s lo ng a s p ossib le ra th er th an e xecuti n g th em q uic kly , so m eth in g w hic h sp ecta to rs p re su m ab ly d id n o t fin d a s e nte rta in in g. T w o o f th e C hris ti a ns e xecute d in L yo ns durin g th e r e ig n o f M arc us A ure liu s, fo r e xam ple , w ere e xp ose d to th e b easts in th e a re na o n tw o se p ara te d ays a nd th en su b se q uentl y to rtu re d b y a v arie ty o f im ple m ents b efo re fin ally bein g b urn t to d eath i n f r o nt o f th e a sse m ble d s p ecta to rs ( M usu rillo 2 000: 7 7–81).

3 “ F ata l C hara d es” An e sp ecia lly e la b ora te ty p e o f s p ecta cula r e xecuti o n to ok th e f o rm o f th eatr ic al v ig nette s th at dre w i n sp ir a ti o n f r o m p opula r G re ek a nd R om an m yth s ( C ole m an 1 990; W ie d em ann 1 992: 8 3– 9). T he e arlie st o f s u ch e xecuti o ns re co rd ed , w hat K ath le en C ole m an c alls “ fa ta l c hara d es,” Christesen, P., & Kyle, D. G. (2013). A companion to sport and spectacle in greek and roman antiquity. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from uwinnipeg on 2019-11-16 20:41:10.

Copyright © 2013. Wiley. All rights reserved.

occurre d i n th e l a te 3 0s BCE , w hen a b and it l e ad er b y th e n am e o f S elu ru s w as e xecute d i n th e Foru m R om anum a t th e b ehest o f A ugustu s ( a t th is p oin t s ti ll k no w n a s O cta v ia n). S elu ru s a nd his m en h ad te rro riz e d th e r e gio n s u rro und in g M t E tn a in S ic ily fo r y ears p rio r to h is c ap tu re , whic h p erh ap s e xp la in s th e p arti c ula rly e la b ora te n atu re o f h is e xecuti o n. S uch a th re at to l a w and o rd er h ad to b e p unis h ed in a m anner b efitti n g h is m any o ffe nse s a gain st th e s ta te . R ath er th an s im ply b ein g c ru cifie d o r th ro w n to th e b easts in th e n o rm al m anner, S elu ru s w as p la ced ato p a w ooden f r a m ew ork m eant to r e p re se nt M t E tn a; a t a c erta in p oin t th e s tr u ctu re c o lla p se d causin g th e c o nd em ned m an to fa ll in to th e w ild a nim al c ages p ositi o ned b elo w a nd th ere b y meet h is d oom (S tr a b o 6 .2 73; C ole m an 1 990: 5 3–4). T his e xam ple c le arly d em onstr a te s th e ju xta p ositi o n b etw een R om an j u sti c e a nd th eate r; th e s a m e ty p e o f p ro ps u se d i n c o nte m pora ry sta ge s e ts c o uld a ls o b e e m plo yed to a d d e nte rta in m ent a nd d ra m a to e xecuti o ns i n a re nas.

Alth o ugh S elu ru s’s e xecuti o n d id n o t ta ke a ny m yth ic al s to ry a s i ts i n sp ir a ti o n, i t n o neth ele ss sh are d a c erta in d ra m ati c f la ir w ith l a te r s p ecta cula r e xecuti o ns th at w ere , i n p art, i n sp ir e d b y myth a nd l e gend . T he r e ig n o f N ero ( ru le d 5 4–68 CE ) s e em s to h av e m ark ed a s ig nific ant s h ift in th is r e gard . T he e arlie st k no w n e xecuti o n s ta ged in d ir e ct im ita ti o n o f a m yth , a r e la ti v ely modest exam ple co m pare d to w hat w as to fo llo w , o ccurre d und er N ero , w hen a certa in Menis c us w as d re sse d u p a s H erc ule s p rio r to b ein g b urn t a liv e i n p ub lic ( Pala tin e A nth olo gy 11 .1 84; C ole m an 1 990: 6 0–1). N ero in fa m ously s h o w ed a s im ila r c ru el in v enti v eness in th e executi o n o f C hris ti a ns a fte r th e g re at fir e a t R om e in 6 4 CE . S om e w ere d is p ose d o f in a manner c o m bin in g tw o ty p ic al R om an m eth o ds o f e xecuti o n: th e C hris ti a ns in q uesti o n, a fte r hav in g b een a ffix ed to c ro sse s d urin g th e d ay, w ere s e t o n fir e a s n ig ht fe ll, o ste nsib ly a s a so urc e o f illu m in ati o n. O th er co nd em ned C hris ti a ns w ere d re sse d up in anim al sk in s and maule d to d eath b y w ild d ogs ( T acitu s Annals 1 5.4 4). T he la tte r ty p e o f e xecuti o n a p pears to hav e b een i n sp ir e d b y c o nte m pora ry b east h unts , i llu str a ti n g a gain th e i n flu ence th at o th er a re na ev ents c o uld h av e u p on c o nte m pora ry p ub lic p unis h m ents .

Nero p ro bab ly w is h ed to m ake th e e xecuti o ns h e o rd ere d a s d ra m ati c a nd s p ecta cula r a s possib le . A s o ne m odern s c ho la r p ut it, “ he e xp lo ite d to th e fu ll th e p rin cip le o f e xcess a nd ano m aly o n w hic h p ub lic s h o w s a s a n i n sti tu ti o n i n f a ct d ep end ed ” ( P la ss: 1 995: 7 4–5). M ore im porta ntl y , N ero m ay h av e s o ught to c o unte r g ro w in g p ub lic d is sa ti s fa cti o n w ith h is r u le b y sta gin g s p ecta cle s, in clu d in g p ub lic e xecuti o ns, d esig ned to im pre ss th e a sse m ble d a ud ie nce (C ole m an 1 990: 7 2–3).

Nero ’s e xecuti o ns p ale b esid e th o se s ta ged u nd er th e e m pero rs T itu s a nd D om iti a n. T hese executi o ns a re r e co rd ed b y M arti a l in h is Lib er S pecta cu lo ru m , b ut it is im possib le to a ssig n with c erta in ty a ll o f th e s p ecta cle s r e co rd ed i n th is w ork to a p arti c ula r e m pero r, n am ely T itu s or D om iti a n. It is p re fe ra b le , ra th er, to s e e M arti a l’s p oem s a s c o m mem ora ti n g a v arie ty o f diffe re nt e v ents s ta ged b y th e tw o b ro th ers i n th e C olo sse um o ver a n um ber o f y ears ( C ole m an 2006: x lv –lx iv ). T he e la b ora te n atu re o f th e e xecuti o ns a nd o th er e v ents r e co rd ed b y M arti a l can n o d oub t b e e xp la in ed , a t le ast in p art, b y th e d esir e o f th ese e m pero rs to su rp ass th e sp ecta cle s o f th eir p re d ecesso rs ( in p arti c ula r th e h ate d N ero ) a nd to ta ke f u ll a d vanta ge o f th e possib iliti e s a ffo rd ed b y th e m agnific ent n ew a m phith eate r c o m mis sio ned b y th eir fa th er, th e em pero r V esp asia n, i n th e h eart o f R om e. ( O n th e C olo sse um , s e e C hap te r 3 7.) Christesen, P., & Kyle, D. G. (2013). A companion to sport and spectacle in greek and roman antiquity. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from uwinnipeg on 2019-11-16 20:41:10.

Copyright © 2013. Wiley. All rights reserved.

One of th e sp ecta cula r executi o ns re co rd ed by M arti a l in v olv ed a crim in al, m eant to re p re se nt a c erta in L aure o lu s, w ho w as fir s t s u sp end ed fr o m a c ro ss o n th e a re na flo or a nd th en m aule d to d eath b y a b ear ( M arti a l Lib er S pecta cu lo ru m 9 ). T he L aure o lu s p ortr a yed b y th e noxiu s 6 w as th e s u b je ct o f a p opula r m im e 7 i n R om e i n w hic h th e ti tu la r c hara cte r, a b and it, was ulti m ate ly cap tu re d and cru cifie d fo r his crim es. H is executi o n in th e C olo sse um su rp asse d th e m im e b y n o t o nly f e atu rin g a r e al, a s o ppose d to a s ta ged c ru cifix io n, b ut a ls o b y ad din g a sa v age bear to th e m ix , illu str a ti n g th e em pero r’s pow er to im pro ve up on co nte m pora ry th eate r (C ole m an 2006: 82–96; W ie d em ann 1992: 84). A no th er in te re sti n g asp ect o f th is e xecuti o n is th at th e s p ecta to rs e v id entl y d id n o t k no w th e s p ecific o ffe nse fo r whic h th e noxiu s w ho p la yed th e p art o f L aure o lu s w as b ein g e xecute d . P erh ap s th e o rg aniz e rs did n o t a lw ays c o nsid er i t n ecessa ry to a d verti s e th e s p ecific c rim e o f th e c o nd em ned , o nly to assu re th e p ub lic th at h e o r s h e h ad in d eed c o ntr a v ened th e la w s o f R om e ( F agan 2 011 : 1 80– 1). A ls o , a s th e e nte rta in m ent a sp ect o f s u ch e xecuti o ns b ecam e a s – o r e v en m ore – i m porta nt th an th eir j u d ic ia l f u ncti o n, p erh ap s s u ch l e gal n ic eti e s w ere c o nsid ere d to b e s u p erflu o us.

The majo rity of sp ecta cula r executi o ns co m mem ora te d by M arti a l in th e Lib er Specta cu lo ru m in v olv ed fo rc in g th e c o nd em ned to p la y th e ro le s o f w ell- k no w n c hara cte rs fr o m G re ek a nd R om an m yth a s p art o f th eir p unis h m ents , s u ch a s th e u nfo rtu nate “ D aed alu s” who w as m aule d to d eath b y a b ear ( Lib er S pecta cu lo ru m 1 0; C ole m an 2 006: 9 7–100). T w o oth er p oem s in M arti a l’s co lle cti o n ( Lib er S pecta cu lo ru m 2 4–5; C ole m an 2 006: 1 74–85) ev id entl y r e co rd th e e xecuti o n o f a no th er noxiu s , th is ti m e in th e g uis e o f O rp heus, th ro ugh a sim ila r m aulin g: “ E very k in d o f w ild b east w as p re se nt, m in glin g w ith th e ta m e, a nd m any a bir d h o vere d a b ove th e b ard [i.e ., th e noxiu s p ortr a yin g O rp heus]. B ut O rp heus h im se lf la y to rn by an ungra te fu l bear. This th in g alo ne w as done co ntr a ry to le gend ” ( Lib er Specta cu lo ru m 24, ll. 5–8, tr a ns. D . Shackle to n B aile y). A s th is passa ge su ggests , th e sy m bolic i m porta nce o f s u ch s p ecta cle s l a y n o t m ere ly i n th e e m pero r’s a b ility to r e cre ate th e world o f m yth fo r h is s u b je cts b ut in h is a b ility to s u b vert it fo r h is p urp ose s a s w ell. In th is parti c ula r in sta nce, “ O rp heus” w as n o t s la in b y w om en, a s in th e m yth , b ut in ste ad w as k ille d by o ne o f th e a nim als b ro ught to th e C olo sse um th ro ugh th e m unific ence o f th e e m pero r.

The e m pero r’s a b ility to re cre ate th e w orld o f m yth to h is lik in g a s a n e xp re ssio n o f h is pow er i s a ls o c le arly e xp re sse d i n a no th er p oem b y M arti a l, o ne th at r e co unts w hat m ay b e th e most d is tu rb in g o f th e “ fa ta l c hara d es” s ta ged in th e C olo sse um : “ B elie v e th at P asip hae w as mate d to th e D ic ta ean b ull; w e h av e s e en it, th e o ld le gend h as w on c re d ence. A nd le t n o t ho ary a nti q uity p lu m e its e lf, C aesa r: w hate v er F am e s in gs o f, th e a re na a ffo rd s y o u” ( Lib er Specta cu lo ru m 6 ; C ole m an 2 006: 6 2–8). In th is in sta nce, a b ull w as e v id entl y c o m pelle d in so m e fa sh io n to m ount a n u nfo rtu nate fe m ale p ris o ner, r e callin g th e m yth o f P asip hae a nd th e bull o f M in o s, w hic h o f c o urs e w ould p ro ve f a ta l to th e w om an i n q uesti o n.

Typ es o f e xecuti o n s im ila r to th e o ne re co unte d b y M arti a l a re s u ggeste d in o th er s o urc es.

The fir s t- c entu ry CE C hris ti a n w rite r C le m ent o f R om e re co rd s w om en b ein g e xecute d in th e guis e o f th e m yth ic al f ig ure s D ir c e o r th e d aughte rs o f D anao s ( Lette r t o t h e C orin th ia ns 1 .5 – 6). If w e assu m e a co rre la ti o n b etw een th e executi o n and th e w ay in w hic h th e m yth ic al chara cte r d ie d , th e w om en e xecute d a s D ir c e w ere k ille d b y b ulls , b ut th e e xact m anner o f th eir Christesen, P., & Kyle, D. G. (2013). A companion to sport and spectacle in greek and roman antiquity. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from uwinnipeg on 2019-11-16 20:41:10.

Copyright © 2013. Wiley. All rights reserved.

executi o n is u ncle ar (P otte r 1 993: 6 7). In th e la te r se co nd c entu ry CE , th e C hris ti a n m arty r Bla nd in a w as als o execute d in so m e m anner in v olv in g a bull, w hile her su b se q uent co unte rp arts , P erp etu a a nd F elic ita s, a s a m ockery o f th eir g end er, w ere m aule d b y a w ild c o w in th e a re na a s p art o f th eir p unis h m ent ( M usu rillo 2 000: 7 9–81; S haw 1 993: 7 –8).

Apart fr o m b ulls and co w s, asse s w ere als o ev id entl y use d in a sim ila r w ay to p unis h wom en. In th e Meta m orp hose s (1 0.2 9.3 4), A pule iu s d esc rib es a w om an in C orin th b ein g co nd em ned to p ub lic i n te rc o urs e w ith a n a ss f o r th e c rim e o f p ois o nin g. T he Meta m orp hose s , of c o urs e , is a w ork o f fic ti o n. N oneth ele ss, it is u nlik ely th at A pule iu s’s a cco unt o f fa m ilia r ev ents , s u ch a s c o nte m pora ry a re na s p ecta cle s, w ould h av e s im ply b een i n v ente d b y th e a uth o r with n o c o rre sp ond ence to r e ality ( C ole m an 1 990: 6 4). T his v ie w a p pears to b e c o rro bora te d by a s e rie s o f c la y l a m ps d is c o vere d i n A th ens, w hic h d ep ic t a n aked w om an b ein g m ounte d o r maule d b y a n a ss. T he m ost c o m mon e xp la nati o n fo r th ese la m ps a nd th eir u nusu al su b je ct matte r is th at th ey p ro vid e v is u al e v id ence o f th e ty p e o f e xecuti o ns re co unte d b y A pule iu s (W ie d em ann 1 992: 8 8–9; H önle a nd H enze 1 981: 5 8).

As w e h av e s e en, a uth o riti e s p unis h ed a ny p erc eiv ed th re ats to s o cia l o rd er in a v ery h ars h manner, o ne c o nsid ere d c o m mensu ra te w ith th e c rim e in q uesti o n, b ut th e a cco unts o f su ch executi o ns i n d ic ate th at th e R om an a uth o riti e s to ok s p ecia l p ain s to p unis h f e m ale w ro ngd oers guilty of cap ita l offe nse s in a parti c ula rly cru el and degra d in g m anner. A ppare ntl y su ch offe nd ers w ere c o nsid ere d to b e d oub ly d angero us; n o t o nly d id th eir c rim es i n g enera l p ose a th re at to la w and ord er but th e fa ct th at w om en, tr a d iti o nally su b se rv ie nt to th eir m ale co unte rp arts , w ould d are to c o m mit s u ch o ffe nse s p re se nte d in a nd o f its e lf a no th er c halle nge to so cia l o rd er. H ence, esp ecia lly hum ilia ti n g p unis h m ents , su ch as fo rc in g w om en to b e mounte d a nd k ille d b y b ulls , a p ow erfu l s y m bol o f m ale v ir ility , w ere d esig ned to re assu re sp ecta to rs th at n o t o nly la w a nd o rd er b ut a ls o tr a d iti o nal g end er ro le s w ith in p atr ia rc hal Rom an s o cie ty h ad b een r e esta b lis h ed ( S haw 1 993: 8 –9, 1 6–19).

4 P op ula rit y The e xta nt lite ra ry s o urc es c o nta in littl e in th e w ay o f c riti c is m s o f s p ecta cula r e xecuti o ns.

Tacitu s, fo r e xam ple , in r e co unti n g N ero ’s e xecuti o n o f C hris ti a ns fo llo w in g th e g re at fir e in Rom e, h as n o a p pare nt p ro ble m , in g enera l, w ith th e p ub lic e xecuti o n o f c rim in als . R ath er, h e ta kes i s su e w ith N ero ’s o rd erin g o f s u ch e xcessiv ely c ru el e xecuti o ns to d is tr a ct a tte nti o n f r o m his o w n p ossib le g uilt, n o t i n o rd er to u p ho ld l a w a nd o rd er ( P la ss 1 995: 5 4; K yle 1 998: 2 44– 5; F agan 2 011 : 1 79–80). ( F or f u rth er d is c ussio n o f c riti q ues o f s p ecta cle , s e e C hap te r 4 1.) Part o f th e p opula rity o f p ub lic e xecuti o ns la y in th eir p sy cho lo gic al e ffe ct u p on R om an sp ecta to rs . S uch p unis h m ents h av e b een d esc rib ed , fo r e xam ple , a s a lim in o id r itu al in w hic h th e e xtr e m e le v el o f v io le nce u se d to e xecute th e noxii , u naccep ta b le in e v ery d ay so cie ty , allo w ed th e a sse m ble d s p ecta to rs to re le ase th eir o w n p ent- u p te nsio ns (P la ss 1 995: 3 2). In ad diti o n, a s v ario us a cco unts m ake a b und antl y c le ar, s p ecta to rs a t p ub lic tr ia ls a nd e xecuti o ns were o fte n a b le to p la y a n a cti v e r o le i n th e p ro ceed in gs th ro ugh th eir e xp re ssio ns o f a p pro val Christesen, P., & Kyle, D. G. (2013). A companion to sport and spectacle in greek and roman antiquity. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from uwinnipeg on 2019-11-16 20:41:10.

Copyright © 2013. Wiley. All rights reserved.

or d is a p pro val d ir e cte d a t th e p re sid in g m agis tr a te , a f a ct w hic h n o d oub t e nhanced th e a p peal of th ese o ccasio ns fo r p eo ple w ho d id no t ho ld su ch p ow er o ver life and d eath in th eir ev ery d ay l iv es ( F agan 2 011 : 1 33–7; c f. P otte r 1 996: 1 49–51, 1 55–9).

On a m ore b asic le v el, th e v io le nce o f s u ch e xecuti o ns e xerc is e d a n u nd enia b le ​ f a sc in ati o n up on R om an s p ecta to rs , th e s a m e fa sc in ati o n e v id ent a m ong s p ecta to rs a t p ub lic h angin gs a nd th e l ik e i n m ore r e cent ti m es ( T ho m pso n 2 002: 3 0–1). S ig nific antl y , th o se R om an w rite rs w ho criti c iz e d a re na e xecuti o ns d id n o t g enera lly d o s o o n th e g ro und s o f th eir u nsu ita b ility a s a ju d ic ia l punis h m ent but ra th er because of w hat th ey sa w as th e dangero us passio ns and blo odlu st th ey u nle ash ed in sp ecta to rs . A s S eneca sta te s: “ G ra nte d th at, a s a m urd ere r, h e dese rv ed th is p unis h m ent [e xecuti o n in th e are na], w hat crim e hav e yo u co m mitte d , p oor fe llo w , th at y o u s h o uld d ese rv e to s it a nd s e e th is s h o w ?” ( Lette rs fr o m a S to ic 7 .5 , tr a ns. R .

Gum mere ; c f. T ho m pso n 2 002: 3 1–4).

5 S pecta cu la r E xecu tio n s i n t h e L ate r Em pir e “F ata l c hara d es” o f th e ty p e d esc rib ed b y M arti a l a p pear to h av e c o nti n ued s p ora d ic ally i n th e Em pir e unti l at le ast th e la te se co nd centu ry CE . T ertu llia n, w riti n g at th at date , re co rd s crim in als in th e g uis e o f H erc ule s b ein g b urn t a liv e in th e a re na a s w ell a s o th ers , d re sse d u p as th e g o d A tti s , e v id entl y f o rc ed to c astr a te th em se lv es ( Apolo gy 1 5.4 –5; C ole m an 1 990: 6 0– 1). S uch v io le nt c hara d es a re a b se nt fr o m th e s u b se q uent lite ra ry r e co rd , b ut th is m ay s im ply be b ecause o f th e r e la ti v ely l im ite d n um ber o f s o urc es a v aila b le f o r th e p erio d. W hat i s c erta in is th at a re na e xecuti o ns in g enera l a chie v ed a n e v en g re ate r le v el o f p opula rity in th e la te r Rom an E m pir e .

By th e s e co nd c entu ry CE a t th e l a te st, noxii h ad b eco m e a r e la ti v ely i n exp ensiv e c o m modity who c o uld b e s o ld b y th e im peria l g o vern m ent a s a s u b sti tu te fo r m ore e xp ensiv e g la d ia to rs .

An im peria l e d ic t o f 1 77 CE , fo r exam ple , sti p ula te d th at th e sta te w ould se ll co nd em ned crim in als a t th e m axim um s u m o f s ix aure i e ach f o r th e s a crific es f e atu re d i n th e f e sti v al o f th e Thre e G auls , a n e v ent w hic h h ad p re v io usly fe atu re d m uch m ore e xp ensiv e g la d ia to rs . A s a poin t o f co m paris o n, and to illu str a te ho w m uch o f a sa v in g th is re p re se nte d to fe sti v al org aniz e rs , th e d iffe re nt c ate go rie s o f g la d ia to rs m enti o ned in th e s a m e te xt ra nged in p ric e fr o m 3 0 to 1 50 aure i e ach ( C arte r 2 003: 8 6–8; O liv er a nd P alm er 1 955: 3 24–6, 3 40–3). A s gla d ia to ria l g am es b ecam e e v en m ore e xp ensiv e to p ro duce a nd b egan to d is a p pear in th e su cceed in g c entu ry , th e p ub lic e xecuti o n o f noxii , c o nv ers e ly , b ecam e e v en m ore p opula r a s a su b sti tu te v io le nt e nte rta in m ent fo r th e a sse m ble d s p ecta to rs . T hir d -c entu ry CE le gis la ti o n, in fa ct, s p ecific ally in str u cte d p ro vin cia l g o vern o rs , in e ffe ct, to r e se rv e a ny o f th eir c o nd em ned crim in als w ith an unusu ally keen fig hti n g sp ir it fo r th e em pero r’s sp ecta cle s in R om e (M acM ulle n 1 990: 2 06–7; H opkin s 1 983: 1 0).

The p ro life ra ti o n o f c ap ita l p unis h m ents u nd er th e R om an l e gal s y ste m , p arti c ula rly f r o m th e Christesen, P., & Kyle, D. G. (2013). A companion to sport and spectacle in greek and roman antiquity. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from uwinnipeg on 2019-11-16 20:41:10.

Copyright © 2013. Wiley. All rights reserved.

th ir d c entu ry o nw ard s, e nsu re d th at th ere w as n o s h o rta ge o f “ re cru its ” fo r s u ch e v ents . T he num ber o f c rim es p unis h ab le b y e xecuti o n s te ad ily r o se a fte r th e la te s e co nd c entu ry u nti l, b y th e re ig n o f C onsta nti n e, s o m e 6 0 o ffe nse s w ere le gally p unis h ab le b y d eath (a s o ppose d to so m e 1 7 d urin g th e E arly E m pir e ). In a d diti o n, th e se v erity o f p unis h m ent fo r su ch c rim es in cre ase d ; so m e o ffe nse s, fo r e xam ple , w hic h h ad p re v io usly m erite d a re la ti v ely “ b anal” meth o d of executi o n lik e sim ple decap ita ti o n w ere no w su b je ct to fa r m ore sp ecta cula r punis h m ents , l ik e cre m atio o r dam natio a d b estia s ( M acM ulle n 1 990: 2 07–11 ).

Sev era l re aso ns h av e b een s u ggeste d fo r th is in cre ase in ju d ic ia l s e v erity , m any o f w hic h in v olv e th e c hangin g s ta tu s a nd ro le o f th e e m pero r in th e L ate E m pir e . O ne p ossib le fa cto r may h av e b een th e g ro w in g n um ber o f r u le rs w ho e m erg ed fr o m m ilita ry b ackgro und s to ta ke th e th ro ne. A s no te d , hars h dis c ip lin ary m easu re s w ere an esta b lis h ed asp ect of R om an milita ry ju sti c e, s o it s e em s c re d ib le th at e m pero rs w ith e xte nsiv e m ilita ry b ackgro und s m ig ht im ple m ent s u ch a s ta nd ard o f p unis h m ent fo r c iv ilia n o ffe nd ers a s w ell. A ls o , a s th e E m pir e moved to w ard a m ore a uto cra ti c s y ste m o f g o vern m ent, a nd th e e m pero r b ecam e a m uch m ore exalte d f ig ure i n c o m paris o n to h is s u b je cts , d ir e p unis h m ents p re v io usly c o nfin ed to th e l o w er cla sse s ( hum ilio re s ) w ere n o w e m plo yed r o uti n ely a gain st th eir s o cia l b ette rs ( honestio re s ) a s well. T he w id enin g gulf betw een th e em pero r and his su b je cts m ad e pre exis ti n g cla ss dis ti n cti o ns w ith in th e l a tte r g ro up l e ss i m porta nt a t l e ast a s f a r a s th e R om an l e gal s y ste m w as co ncern ed ( M acM ulle n 1 990: 2 12–17).

8 Ano th er im porta nt change in le gal pro ced ure , w hic h m ay als o hav e co ntr ib ute d to th e in cre ase d se v erity of co nte m pora ry punis h m ents , w as th e gro w in g use of co gnitio nes (e xtr a o rd in ary in q uir ie s) fr o m th e la te se co nd c entu ry CE o nw ard s. U nd er th is fo rm o f tr ia l pro ced ure , a s in gle m agis tr a te h eard th e f a cts o f a g iv en c ase a nd p asse d s e nte nce, w hic h w as no t s u b je ct to a p peal ( G arn se y 1 968: 1 57). A cco rd in gly , a g iv en o ffic ia l e ntr u ste d w ith s u ch wid e-ra ngin g ju d ic ia l a uth o rity m ig ht b e te m pte d to p ro no unce a p arti c ula rly s e v ere s e nte nce as a n illu str a ti o n o f h is p ow er, e sp ecia lly if h e v ie w ed th e a ccuse d a s a le giti m ate th re at to su ch o r w hen th e p ub lic w as c la m orin g fo r a s h ars h a p unis h m ent a s p ossib le (T ho m pso n 2002: 3 6–7).

Viv id d ep ic ti o ns o f th ese co gnitio nes in acti o n are to b e fo und in C hris ti a n m arty rd om acco unts d ati n g fr o m th e la te s e co nd to th e e arly th ir d c entu ry CE , w hic h c o nfir m th e a rb itr a ry natu re o f su ch p ro ceed in gs. In m any su ch a cco unts , th e sp ecific c harg e b ro ught a gain st th e accuse d i s n o t a t a ll c le ar. T he C hris ti a n r e fu sa l to p erfo rm s u ch a cti v iti e s a s o ffe rin g s a crific e on b ehalf o f th e e m pero rs c o uld c erta in ly b e v ie w ed a s tr e aso no us o bsti n acy in s o m e c ir c le s, and th eir co ntu m acia (o bsti n acy) alo ne, th en, m ig ht p ro vid e ad eq uate gro und s fo r cap ita l charg es to b e le v ie d a gain st th em , p arti c ula rly in th e h ars h er le gal c lim ate o f th e la te r E m pir e (M usu rillo 2 000: l v ii– lx ii; B arn es 1 968: 4 4–50).

The m agis tr a te s p re sid in g o ver s u ch co gnitio nes h ad c o nsid era b le d is c re ti o nary p ow er o ver th e m eth o d o f e xecuti o n i n flic te d u p on th e c o nd em ned , i n p art b ecause th ey w ere n o t l im ite d b y a s p ecific p unis h m ent a tta ched to a s p ecific c harg e. T he g o vern o r w ho tr ie d a nd c o nd em ned Poly carp a nd o th er C hris ti a ns i n th e l a te s e co nd c entu ry CE , f o r e xam ple , th re ate ned th em w ith both cre m atio a nd dam natio a d b estia s b efo re b ein g in fo rm ed th at th e a nim als n ecessa ry fo rChristesen, P., & Kyle, D. G. (2013). A companion to sport and spectacle in greek and roman antiquity. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from uwinnipeg on 2019-11-16 20:41:10.

Copyright © 2013. Wiley. All rights reserved.

th e la tte r punis h m ent w ere no lo nger av aila b le (M usu rillo 2000: 11 –13). Even m ore sig nific antl y , a p re sid in g m agis tr a te co uld b e sw ayed b y p ub lic o pin io n to b re ak th e la w him se lf i n c o nd em nin g th e a ccuse d ; o ne o f th e C hris ti a ns e xecute d i n th e a re na o f L yo ns, a m an who a s a R om an c iti z e n s h o uld h av e o nly b een b ehead ed , w as i n ste ad c o nd em ned to th e b easts alo ng w ith h is n o nciti z e n c o m patr io ts ( M acM ulle n 1 990: 2 05–6; M usu rillo 2 000: 7 5–9).

Such p ub lic e xecuti o ns d id n o t d is a p pear w ith th e s u b se q uent e m erg ence o f C hris ti a nity a s th e s ta te r e lig io n o f th e R om an E m pir e . E ven p enalti e s s u ch a s dam natio a d b estia s , c o m monly em plo yed a gain st C hris ti a ns in th e p ast, c o nti n ued to b e p ra cti c ed e v en a fte r th e fa ll o f th e Weste rn E m pir e . T he e aste rn e m pero r A nasta siu s ( ru le d 4 91–518 CE ) i s c re d ite d w ith b annin g beast hunts , a ban w hic h ap pare ntl y in clu d ed co nd em nati o n to th e beasts . T his m easu re , ho w ev er, a p pears to h av e b een m oti v ate d a s m uch b y c o ncern o ver th e u nru ly b ehav io r o f sp ecta to rs a t s u ch e v ents a s b y th e e m pero r’s c o ncern o ver th e s u ffe rin g o f th e c o nd em ned .

Dam natio a d b estia s r e ap pears a s a ju d ic ia l p unis h m ent in th e le gis la ti o n o f J u sti n ia n ( ru le d 527–65 CE ) b ut s e em s la rg ely to h av e fa ll e n o ut o f u se u nti l b rie fly re v iv ed b y th e e m pero r Pho cas (6 02–10 CE ). A mong th e crim es attr ib ute d to th is desp oti c em pero r w as th e co nd em nati o n o f m alc o nte nts to th e b easts ( E pple tt 2 004).

In g enera l, h o w ev er, m ora l o utr a ge d oes n o t a p pear to h av e b een th e p rim ary fa cto r in th e gra d ual d is a p peara nce o f sp ecta cula r executi o ns fr o m th e fo rm er te rrito rie s o f th e R om an Em pir e . A s g la d ia to ria l e v ents a nd b east h unts d is a p peare d in th e fifth a nd s ix th c entu rie s, in la rg e part because th e sta te no lo nger posse sse d th e fu nd s to sta ge th em , th e asso cia te d sp ecta cle s o f th e a re na a ls o fe ll b y th e w aysid e. P erh ap s p art o f th e r e aso n w hy dam natio a d bestia s w as c o nsid ere d a n u naccep ta b le f o rm o f p unis h m ent b y th e e arly s e v enth c entu ry i s th at th e la st re co rd ed b east h unts in th e E aste rn E m pir e h ad b een sta ged d ecad es e arlie r u nd er Ju sti n ia n and th e fo rm er ru le r’s su b je cts w ere no lo nger acclim ati z e d to su ch a fo rm o f executi o n. N ev erth ele ss, g ris ly p ub lic e xecuti o ns o uts id e o f a n a re na s e tti n g c o nti n ued to b e a sta p le o f j u sti c e s y ste m s i n th e f o rm er te rrito rie s o f th e R om an E m pir e f o r c entu rie s th ere afte r.

ABBR EV IA TIO NS CIL = C orp us I n sc rip tio num L atin aru m IL S = I n sc rip tio nes L atin ae S ele cta e NO TE S 1 O n th e T w elv e T ab le s, s e e C ra w fo rd 1 996: n o . 4 0.

2 D ecim ati o n w as a p unis h m ent i n flic te d o n m ilita ry u nits th at h ad d is p la yed c o w ard ic e o r had r e fu se d o rd ers . I t i n v olv ed th e e xecuti o n o f o ne-te nth o f th e m em bers o f a u nit, w ith th e ​ - vic ti m s c ho se n b y l o t a nd e xecute d b y th e o th er m em bers o f th eir u nit. S ee P ic kfo rd 2 005 a nd Sage 2 008: 2 25–9. O n th e g enera l s u b je ct o f d is c ip lin e i n th e R om an a rm y, s e e P hang 2 008 and S outh ern 2 006: 1 45–9.

3 O n th e o rig in s a nd s ta tu s o f th e v ario us k in d s o f p erfo rm ers th at a p peare d i n R om an a re nas, se e E dw ard s 1 997 a nd P otte r 2 010.Christesen, P., & Kyle, D. G. (2013). A companion to sport and spectacle in greek and roman antiquity. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from uwinnipeg on 2019-11-16 20:41:10.

Copyright © 2013. Wiley. All rights reserved.

4 H orn um 1 993 tr a ces s tr o ng c o nnecti o ns b etw een th e c ult o f N em esis , j u d ic ia l p unis h m ents in th e a re na, a nd th e d em onstr a ti o n o f i m peria l p ow er.

5 S om eti m es th e c o nd em ned w ere ti e d to c arts a nd w heele d o ut o nto th e a re na f lo or, pre su m ab ly to m ake th e a re na a tte nd ants ’ ta sk s o m ew hat s a fe r. S ee th e l a te f ir s t- c entu ry CE gla d ia to r m osa ic f r o m Z lite n i n L ib ya ( A urig em ma 1 926: 1 31–201, f ig . 7 7, p l. D ; D unb ab in 1978: 6 6, 2 78, f ig s. 4 6–9).

6 A noxiu s i n th e c o nte xt o f s p ecta cle s i s a h ate d , c o nd em ned , a nd d oom ed p ers o n, s u ch a s a crim in al, c ap ti v e, o r r e b ellio us s la v e.

7 O n m im es, s e e C hap te r 2 5 i n th is v olu m e.

8 D is c ussin g C hris ti a n m arty rd om s, P otte r ( 1 993: 6 9–71) n o te s th e p ub lic u nre st th at c o uld so m eti m es b e p ro voked b y th e c o nd em nati o n o f h ig h-s ta tu s d efe nd ants to p unis h m ents s u ch a s dam natio a d b estia s th at tr a d iti o nally w ere r e se rv ed f o r th e l o w er c la sse s.

REFE R EN CES Aurig em ma, S . 1 926. I m osa ic i d i Z lite n , A fr ic a i ta lia na I I, C olle zio ne d e m onogra fie a c u ra del m in is te r d elle c o lo nie . R om e.

Barn es, T . D . 1 968. “ L egis la ti o n a gain st th e C hris ti a ns.” Jo urn al o f R om an S tu die s 5 8: 3 2–50.

Ben A bed , A . 2 006 ( 2 002). Tunis ia n M osa ic s: T re a su re s fr o m R om an A fr ic a . T ra nsla te d b y S. G re v et. L os A ngele s.

Bla nchard -L em ée, M ., M . E nnaïfe r, H . S lim , et a l . 1 996 (1 995). Mosa ic s o f R om an A fr ic a .

Tra nsla te d b y K . W hite head . N ew Y ork .

Carte r, M . 2 003. “ G la d ia to ria l R ankin g a nd th e SC d e P re tiis G la dia to ru m M in uen dis ( CIL II 6278= IL S 5 163).” Phoen ix 5 7: 8 3–11 4.

Cole m an, K . 1 990. “ F ata l C hara d es: R om an E xecuti o ns S ta ged a s M yth o lo gic al E nactm ents .” Jo urn al o f R om an S tu die s 8 0: 4 4–73.

Cole m an, K . 1 993. “ L aunchin g in to H is to ry : A quati c D is p la ys in th e E arly E m pir e .” Jo urn al of R om an S tu die s 8 3: 4 8–74.

Cole m an, K ., e d . 2 006. M. V ale rii M artia lis L ib er S pecta cu lo ru m . O xfo rd .

Cra w fo rd , M ., e d . 1 996. Rom an S ta tu te s . 2 v ols . L ond on.

Dunb ab in , K . 1978. The M osa ic s of R om an N orth A fr ic a : Stu die s in Ic o nogra phy and Patr o nage . O xfo rd .

Dunkle , R . 2 008. Gla dia to rs: V io le n ce a nd S pecta cle i n A ncie n t R om e . H arlo w , U K .

Edw ard s, C . 1 997. “ U nsp eakab le P ro fe ssio ns: P ub lic P erfo rm ance a nd P ro sti tu ti o n i n A ncie nt Rom e.” I n J . H alle tt a nd M . S kin ner, e d s., 6 6–95.

Epple tt, C . 2 004. “ A nasta siu s a nd th e Ven atio nes .” Nik ep horo s 1 7: 2 21–30.

Fagan, G . 2 011 . The L ure o f th e A re n a: S ocia l P sy ch olo gy a nd th e C ro w d a t th e R om an Gam es . C am brid ge.

Garn se y, P . 1 968. “ W hy P enalti e s B ecam e H ars h er: T he R om an C ase , L ate R ep ub lic to F ourth - Christesen, P., & Kyle, D. G. (2013). A companion to sport and spectacle in greek and roman antiquity. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from uwinnipeg on 2019-11-16 20:41:10.

Copyright © 2013. Wiley. All rights reserved.

Centu ry E m pir e .” Natu ra l L aw F oru m 1 3: 1 41–62.

Garn se y, P . 1 970. Socia l S ta tu s a nd L eg al P riv ile g e i n t h e R om an E m pir e . O xfo rd .

Halle tt, J . a nd M . S kin ner, e d s. 1 997. Rom an S exu alitie s . P rin ceto n.

Hönle , A . a nd A . H enze . 1 981. Röm is c h e A m phith ea te r u nd S ta die n . B ase l.

Hopkin s, K . 1 983. Dea th a nd R en ew al . C am brid ge.

Horn um , P . 1 993. Nem esis , t h e R om an S ta te , a nd t h e G am es . L eid en.

Kyle , D . 1 998. Specta cle s o f D ea th i n A ncie n t R om e . L ond on.

MacM ulle n, R . 1 990. Changes i n t h e R om an E m pir e : E ssa ys i n t h e O rd in ary . P rin ceto n.

Musu rillo , H . 2 000. The A cts o f t h e C hris tia n M arty rs . R ep rin t o f 1 972 e d iti o n. O xfo rd .

Oliv er, J . a nd R . P alm er. 1 955. “ M in ute s o f a n A ct o f th e R om an S enate .” Hesp eria 2 4: 3 20– 49.

Phang, S . 2 008. Rom an M ilita ry S erv ic e: I d eo lo gie s o f D is c ip lin e in th e L ate R ep ublic a nd Early P rin cip ate . C am brid ge.

Pic kfo rd , K . 2 005. “ T he C ru elty o f R om an M ilita ry P unis h m ents .” Ancie n t H is to ry : R eso urc es fo r T ea ch ers 3 5: 1 22–36.

Pla ss, P . 1 995. The G am e o f D ea th in A ncie n t R om e: A re n a S port a nd P olitic a l S uic id e .

Mad is o n.

Potte r, D . 1 993. “ M arty rd om a s S pecta cle .” I n R . S co del, e d ., 5 3–88.

Potte r, D . 1 996. “ P erfo rm ance, P ow er, a nd J u sti c e i n th e H ig h E m pir e .” I n W . S la te r, e d ., 1 29– 60.

Potte r, D . 2 010. “ E nte rta in ers i n th e R om an E m pir e .” I n D . P otte r a nd D . M atti n gly , e d s., 2 80– 349.

Potte r, D . a nd D . M atti n gly , e d s. 2 010. Life , D ea th , a nd E nte rta in m en t i n t h e R om an E m pir e .

2nd e d . A nn A rb or.

Robert, L . 1 971. Les g la dia te u rs d ans l ’ O rie n t g re c . R ep rin t o f 1 940 e d iti o n. A mste rd am .

Sage, M . 2 008. The R ep ublic a n R om an A rm y: A S ourc eb ook . N ew Y ork .

Sco del, R ., e d . 1 993. Thea te r a nd S ocie ty i n t h e C la ssic a l W orld . A nn A rb or.

Shaw , B . 1 993. “ T he P assio n o f P erp etu a.” Past a nd P re se n t 1 39: 3 –45.

Sla te r, W ., e d . 1 996. Rom an T hea te r a nd S ocie ty . A nn A rb or.

South ern , P . 2 006. The R om an A rm y: A S ocia l a nd I n stitu tio nal H is to ry . S anta B arb ara , C A .

Tho m pso n, L . 2 002. “ T he M arty rd om o f P oly carp : D eath in th e R om an G am es.” Jo urn al o f Relig io n 8 2: 2 7–52.

Wie d em ann, T . 1 992. Em pero rs a nd G la dia to rs . L ond on.

GUID E T O F U RTH ER R EA DIN G Marti a l’s Lib er S pecta cu lo ru m p ro vid es s o m e o f o ur m ost i m porta nt e v id ence f o r s p ecta cula r Christesen, P., & Kyle, D. G. (2013). A companion to sport and spectacle in greek and roman antiquity. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from uwinnipeg on 2019-11-16 20:41:10.

Copyright © 2013. Wiley. All rights reserved.

executi o ns i n R om e. A n i n d is p ensa b le c o m menta ry to th is w ork c an b e f o und i n C ole m an 2 006.

Chris ti a n m arty rd om a cco unts fr o m th e la te r E m pir e a ls o p ro vid e im porta nt e v id ence fo r s u ch ev ents , a lth o ugh th eir te sti m ony c anno t a lw ays b e ta ken a t f a ce v alu e. M usu rillo 2 000 i s s ti ll ​ - perh ap s th e m ost u se fu l tr a nsla ti o n o f a nd c o m menta ry u p on th e m ost im porta nt m arty rd om acco unts . M ore r e cent tr e atm ents o f C hris ti a n m arty rd om i n th e R om an E m pir e c an b e f o und i n Shaw 1 993; P otte r 1 993; a nd T ho m pso n 2 002. N um ero us in sc rip ti o ns r e co rd in g th e e xecuti o n of noxii are to be fo und in su ch ep ig ra p hic co lle cti o ns as CIL and IL S . M ore sp ecific dis c ussio n o f s u ch i n sc rip ti o ns i n th e W este rn E m pir e c an b e f o und i n th e v olu m es o f Epig ra fia anfite a tr a le dell’ o ccid en te R om an (1 988–96), w hile R obert 1971 is sti ll an im porta nt re fe re nce f o r i n sc rip ti o ns p erta in in g to a re na s p ecta cle s i n th e G re ek E ast.

Bro ad er s u rv eys o f g la d ia to ria l e v ents i n th e E m pir e , s u ch a s th o se o f W ie d em ann 1 992: 6 8– 97 a nd H opkin s 1 983: 2 –3, 1 0–24, o fte n c o nta in u se fu l d is c ussio n o f s p ecta cula r e xecuti o ns a s well. M ore s p ecific w ork s o n th e to pic in clu d e K yle 1 998, w ho se w ork n o t o nly d eals w ith pub lic e xecuti o n in R om e b ut a ls o w ith th e is su e o f h o w R om e d is p ose d o f th e c o rp se s o f th e co nd em ned . O n “ fa ta l c hara d es” in th e a re na, C ole m an 1 990 re m ain s th e s e m in al w ork (c f.

Cole m an 1 993). H orn um 1 993 a sso cia te s th e c ult o f N em esis w ith p unis h m ent in th e a re na.

Read ers in te re ste d in th e le gal b ackgro und to s p ecta cula r e xecuti o ns c an c o nsu lt M acM ulle n 1990. F in ally , P otte r 1 996 p ro vid es a u se fu l d is c ussio n o f R om an ju d ic ia l m eth o ds a nd th e ro le o f p opula r s e nti m ent i n tr ia l p ro ceed in gs u nd er th e E m pir e . Christesen, P., & Kyle, D. G. (2013). A companion to sport and spectacle in greek and roman antiquity. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com Created from uwinnipeg on 2019-11-16 20:41:10.

Copyright © 2013. Wiley. All rights reserved.