500 words essay about Europe medieval history

Thom as A quin as:

On T he E te rn it y o f th e W orld (D E A ETE R NIT A T E M UNDI) DE A ETE R NIT A T E M UNDI [[1 ]] Tra nsla tio n © 1 991, 1 997 b y R obert T. M ille r [[2 ]] Let u s a ssu m e, in a cco rd ance w it h th e C ath olic fa it h , th at th e world h ad a b egin nin g in tim e. T he q uestio n s till aris e s w heth er th e w orld c o uld h ave a lw ays e xis te d, a nd to e xp la in th e tr u th of th is m atte r, w e s h ould fir s t dis tin guis h w here w e a gre e w it h our o pponents fr o m w here w e d is a gre e w it h th em . If s o m eone h old s th at so m eth in g b esid es G od c o uld h ave a lw ays e xis te d, in th e s e nse th at th ere c o uld b e s o m eth in g a lw ays exis tin g a nd y e t n ot m ade by G od, th en w e d if fe r w it h h im : s u ch a n a bom in able e rro r is c o ntr a ry not o nly to th e fa it h b ut a ls o to th e te ach in gs o f th e p hilo so phers , who c o nfe ss a nd p ro ve th at e ve ry th in g th at in a ny w ay exis ts c a nnot exis t u nle ss it b e c a use d b y h im w ho s u pre m ely a nd m ost tr u ly has e xis te nce . H ow eve r, so m eone m ay h old th at th ere h as a lw ays exis te d s o m eth in g th at, n eve rth ele ss, h ad b een w holly c a use d b y God, a nd th us w e o ught to d ete rm in e w heth er th is p osit io n is te nable .

If it b e im possib le th at s o m eth in g c a use d b y G od h as a lw ays e xis te d, it w ill b e s o e it h er b eca use G od c o uld not m ake s o m eth in g th at has a lw ays e xis te d o r b eca use s u ch a th in g c o uld n ot b e m ade, re gard le ss o f G od's abilit y to m ake it .

[[3 ]] A s to th e fir s t, a ll p artie s a gre e th at, in v ie w o f h is in fin it e p ow er, G od c o uld h ave m ade so m eth in g th at h as a lw ays exis te d.

[[4 ]] It re m ain s to b e s e en, th ere fo re , w heth er s o m eth in g th at h as a lw ays exis te d c a n b e m ade.

If s u ch a th in g c a nnot b e m ade, th e im possib ilit y w ill a ris e fo r one o f tw o r e aso ns: e it h er b eca use o f a n abse nce o f a p assiv e pote ntia lit y o r b eca use o f s o m e c o ntr a dic tio n b etw een th e id eas in vo lv e d.

[[5 ]] In re gard to th e fir s t, n otic e th at b efo re a n a ngel is m ade, w e m ay sa y, in a c e rta in m anner o f s p eakin g, th at th e a ngel ca nnot b e made, [[6 ]] s in ce no p assiv e p ote ntia lit y p re ce des it s b ein g, fo r a n a ngel is n ot made fr o m p re - exis tin g m atte r. N eve rth ele ss, G od w as a ble to m ake th e a ngel, a nd h e w as a ble to c a use th e a ngel to b e made, fo r God m ade it , a nd it w as m ade. T here fo re , if w e u nders ta nd " b ein g made" o r " b ein g c a use d" a s im ply in g th e p re -e xis te nce of a p assiv e p ote ntia lit y , th en it s h ould to b e c o nce ded, a cco rd in g to fa it h , th at so m eth in g c a use d c a nnot a lw ays e xis t, fo r it w ould th en fo llo w th at a p assiv e p ote ntia lit y h as a lw ays e xis te d, and th is is h ere tic a l. B ut s in ce a p assiv e p ote ntia lit y n eed n ot p re ce de in tim e w hate ve r G od m ay m ake , it does n ot fo llo w th at G od c o uld not h ave m ade s o m eth in g th at h as a lw ays e xis te d.

In r e gard to th e s e co nd, s o m eone m ay h old th at s o m eth in g th at has a lw ays e xis te d c a nnot b e m ade b eca use su ch a th in g is s e lf - c o ntr a dic to ry , ju st a s a n a ffir m atio n a nd a d enia l c a nnot b e m ade s im ult a neously tr u e.

Still, s o m e p eople s a y th at G od c a n e ve n m ake s e lf - c o ntr a dic to rie s th in gs, w hile o th ers s a y G od c a nnot make s u ch th in gs, fo r s u ch th in gs a re a ctu ally n oth in g. C le arly , G od c a nnot m ake s u ch th in gs co m e to b e, fo r th e a ssu m ptio n th at s u ch a th in g e xis ts im media te ly re fu te s it s e lf . N eve rth ele ss, if w e a llo w th at G od c a n make s u ch th in gs c o m e to b e, th e p osit io n is n ot h ere tic a l, th ough I b elie ve it is fa ls e , ju st a s th e p ro posit io n th at th e p ast d id n ot o ccu r is fa ls e , a bout w hic h A ugustin e s a ys ( X XVI Contr a F austu m c a p. 5 ), " A nyo ne w ho sa ys, 'I f G od is o m nip ote nt, le t h im make w hat h as h appened n ot to h ave h appened,' d oes n ot r e aliz e th at h e is s a yin g, 'I f G od is o m nip ote nt, le t h im m ake tr u e th in gs fa ls e in so fa r a s th ey a re tr u e.'" [P L 4 2, 4 81.] Neve rth ele ss, ce rta in g re at m en h ave p io usly m ain ta in ed th at G od c a n m ake p ast eve nts n ot to h ave happened, a nd th is w as n ot r e pute d to b e h ere tic a l.

We th us o ught to d ete rm in e w heth er th ere is a ny c o ntr a dic tio n betw een th ese tw o id eas, n am ely , to b e m ade by G od a nd to h ave alw ays e xis te d. A nd, w hate ve r m ay b e th e tr u th o f th is m atte r, it w ill n ot b e h ere tic a l to sa y th at G od c a n m ake s o m eth in g c re ate d by h im to h ave a lw ays e xis te d, th ough I b elie ve th at if th ere were a c o ntr a dic tio n in vo lv e d in a sse rtin g th is , th e a sse rtio n would b e fa ls e . H ow eve r, if th ere is n o c o ntr a dic tio n 1/5 in vo lv e d, th en it is n eit h er fa ls e n or im possib le th at G od c o uld h ave m ade so m eth in g th at h as a lw ays e xis te d, and it w ill b e a n e rro r to sa y o th erw is e . F or, if th ere is n o c o ntr a dic tio n, w e o ught to adm it th at G od c o uld h ave made s o m eth in g th at h as a lw ays e xis te d, fo r it w ould b e c le arly d ero gato ry to th e d iv in e o m nip ote nce , whic h exce eds e ve ry th ought a nd p ow er, to s a y th at w e c re atu re s ca n c o nce iv e o f s o m eth in g th at G od is u nable to make . ( N or a re sin s a n in sta nce to th e c o ntr a ry , fo r, c o nsid ere d in th em se lv e s, th ey a re n oth in g.) In th is , th ere fo re , th e e ntir e q uestio n c o nsis ts :

wheth er to b e w holly c re ate d b y G od a nd n ot to h ave a b egin nin g in tim e a re c o ntr a dic to ry te rm s.

That th ey a re n ot c o ntr a dic to ry c a n b e s h ow n a s fo llo w s. If th ey are c o ntr a dic to ry , th is is fo r o ne o r b oth o f th ese tw o r e aso ns:

eit h er b eca use th e a gent c a use m ust p re ce de th e e ffe ct in tim e, or b eca use n on-b ein g must p re ce de th e e ffe ct in tim e, fo r w e s a y th at w hat G od c re ate s c o m es to b e o ut o f n oth in g.

Fir s t, w e s h ould s h ow th at it is n ot n ece ssa ry th at a n a gent c a use , in th is c a se G od, p re ce de in tim e th at whic h h e c a use s, if h e sh ould s o w ill. T his c a n b e s h ow n in s e ve ra l w ays. F ir s t, n o c a use in sta nta neously pro ducin g it s e ffe ct n ece ssa rily p re ce des th e effe ct in tim e. G od, h ow eve r, is a c a use th at p ro duce s e ffe cts not th ro ugh m otio n b ut in sta nta neously . T here fo re , it is n ot n ece ssa ry th at h e p re ce de h is e ffe cts in tim e. T he fir s t p re m is e is p ro ve d in ductiv e ly fr o m a ll in sta nta neous c h anges, a s, fo r e xa m ple , w it h illu m in atio n a nd oth er s u ch th in gs. B ut th e p re m is e m ay b e p ro ve d by r e aso n a s w ell.

For, a t w hate ve r in sta nt a th in g e xis ts , a t th at in sta nt it c a n begin to a ct, a s is c le ar in th e c a se o f a ll th in gs th at c o m e to b e b y g enera tio n: in th e v e ry in sta nt a t w hic h th ere is fir e , th e fir e h eats . B ut in a n in sta nta neous actio n, th e b egin nin g and th e e nd o f th e a ctio n a re s im ult a neous, in deed id entic a l, as is c le ar in th e c a se o f a ll in div is ib le th in gs. H ence , a t w hate ve r mom ent a n a gent in sta nta neously p ro ducin g a n e ffe ct e xis ts , th e end o f it s a ctio n c a n e xis t a s w ell. T he e nd o f th e a ctio n, h ow eve r, is s im ult a neous w it h th e th in g m ade. T here fo re , th ere is n o c o ntr a dic tio n if w e s u ppose th at a c a use in sta nta neously p ro ducin g a n e ffe ct does n ot p re ce de it s effe ct in tim e. A c o ntr a dic tio n d oes o bta in if th e c a use in vo lv e d is o ne th at p ro duce s it s e ffe cts th ro ugh motio n, fo r th e b egin nin g o f th e m otio n p re ce des in tim e th e e nd of th e m otio n. S in ce p eople a re a ccu sto m ed to c o nsid erin g th e ty p e o f c a use th at p ro duce s e ffe cts th ro ugh m otio n, th ey d o n ot easily g ra sp th at a n a gent ca use m ay fa il to p re ce de it s e ffe ct in tim e, a nd s o , h avin g lim it e d e xp erie nce , th ey e asily m ake a fa ls e genera liz a tio n.

Nor c a n th e c o nclu sio n b e a vo id ed b y s a yin g th at G od is a n a gent ca use th at a cts v o lu nta rily , fo r n eit h er th e will n or th e v o lu nta ry agent n eed p re ce de it s e ffe ct in tim e, u nle ss th e a gent c a use acts fr o m d elib era tio n, whic h w e ta ke to b e a bse nt in G od.

Furth er, a c a use th at p ro duce s th e w hole s u bsta nce o f a th in g does n ot, in p ro ducin g a w hole s u bsta nce , a ct in a le ss p erfe ct way th an d oes a c a use th at p ro duce s ju st a fo rm in p ro ducin g th e fo rm . O n th e c o ntr a ry , it acts in a m uch m ore p erfe ct w ay, s in ce it d oes n ot a ct b y e ducin g fr o m th e p ote ntia lit y o f m atte r, a s do ca use s th at m ere ly p ro duce fo rm s. H ow eve r, s o m e c a use s th at pro duce ju st fo rm s a re s u ch th at, w heneve r th e c a use e xis ts , th e fo rm p ro duce d b y it e xis ts a s w ell, a s is c le ar in th e c a se o f illu m in atio n b y th e s u n.

There fo re , m uch m ore c a n G od, w ho p ro duce s th e w hole s u bsta nce o f th in gs, m ake s o m eth in g c a use d b y him e xis t wheneve r h e h im se lf e xis ts .

Furth er, if , g ra nte d a c a use , it s e ffe ct d oes n ot im media te ly exis t a s w ell, th is c a n o nly b e b eca use s o m eth in g co m ple m enta ry to th at c a use is la ckin g: th e c o m ple te c a use a nd th e th in g c a use d are s im ult a neous. G od, how eve r, n eve r la cks a ny k in d o f c o m ple m enta ry ca use in o rd er to p ro duce a n e ffe ct. T here fo re , a t a ny in sta nt at w hic h G od e xis ts , s o to o c a n h is e ffe cts , a nd th us G od n eed not p re ce de h is e ffe cts in tim e.

Furth er, th e w ill o f th e v o lu nta ry a gent in n o w ay d im in is h es his p ow er, a nd th is is e sp ecia lly tr u e w it h G od.

But a ll th ose who tr y to a nsw er th e a rg um ents o f A ris to tle ( w ho h eld th at s o m eth in g ca use d b y G od h ad alw ays e xis te d, s in ce lik e a lw ays m ake s lik e ) [[7 ]] s a y th at th e c o nclu sio n would fo llo w if G od w ere n ot a vo lu nta ry a gent. T here fo re , a llo w in g th at G od is a v o lu nta ry a gent, it s till fo llo w s th at h e c a n m ake so m eth in g th at h e h as m ade n eve r fa il to e xis t. T hus, a lt h ough God c a nnot m ake c o ntr a dic to rie s tr u e, w e h ave s h ow n th at th ere is n o c o ntr a dic tio n in s a yin g th at a n a gent c a use d oes n ot p re ce de it s e ffe ct in tim e.

It r e m ain s to b e s e en, th en, w heth er th ere is a c o ntr a dic tio n in s a yin g th at s o m eth in g m ade h as a lw ays exis te d, o n th e g ro unds th at it m ay b e n ece ssa ry th at it s n on-b ein g p re ce de it in tim e, fo r w e s a y th at it is made o ut o f n oth in g. B ut th at th ere is n o co ntr a dic tio n h ere is s h ow n b y A nse lm in h is e xp la natio n o f w hat it means to s a y th at a c re atu re is m ade o ut o f n oth in g. H e s a ys ( Monolo gio n c a p. 8 ), " T he th ir d s e nse in w hic h we ca n s a y th at s o m eth in g is m ade o ut o f n oth in g is th is : w e u nders ta nd th at s o m eth in g is m ade, b ut th at 2/5 th ere is n ot s o m eth in g fr o m w hic h it is m ade. In a s im ila r w ay, w e s a y th at s o m eone w ho is s a d w it h out re aso n is s a d a bout n oth in g. W e c a n th us s a y th at a ll th in gs, exce pt th e S upre m e B ein g, a re m ade b y h im out o f n oth in g in th e se nse th at th ey a re n ot m ade o ut o f a nyth in g, a nd n o a bsu rd it y re su lt s ." O n th is unders ta ndin g o f th e p hra se " o ut o f noth in g," th ere fo re , n o te m pora l p rio rit y o f n on-b ein g to bein g is p osit e d, as th ere w ould b e if th ere w ere fir s t n oth in g and th en la te r s o m eth in g.

Furth er, le t u s e ve n s u ppose th at th e p re posit io n " o ut o f" im ports s o m e a ffir m ativ e o rd er o f n on-b ein g to bein g, a s if th e pro posit io n th at th e c re atu re is m ade o ut o f n oth in g m eant th at th e c re atu re is m ade a fte r noth in g. T hen th is e xp re ssio n " a fte r" ce rta in ly im plie s o rd er, b ut o rd er is o f tw o k in ds: o rd er o f tim e and o rd er of n atu re . If, th ere fo re , th e p ro per a nd th e p artic u la r does n ot fo llo w fr o m th e c o m mon a nd th e u niv e rs a l, it w ill not nece ssa rily fo llo w th at, b eca use th e c re atu re is m ade a fte r n oth in g, non-b ein g is te m pora lly p rio r to th e bein g o f th e c re atu re . R ath er, it s u ffic e s th at n on-b ein g b e p rio r to b ein g b y n atu re . N ow , w hate ve r natu ra lly perta in s to s o m eth in g in it s e lf is p rio r to w hat th at th in g o nly r e ce iv e s fr o m a noth er. A c re atu re d oes n ot h ave bein g, how eve r, e xce pt fr o m a noth er, fo r, c o nsid ere d in it s e lf , e ve ry cre atu re is n oth in g, a nd th us, w it h re sp ect to th e c re atu re , n on-b ein g is p rio r to b ein g b y n atu re . N or d oes it fo llo w fr o m th e c re atu re 's alw ays havin g e xis te d th at it s b ein g a nd n on-b ein g a re e ve r s im ult a neous, as if th e c re atu re a lw ays e xis te d b ut a t so m e tim e n oth in g e xis te d, fo r th e p rio rit y is n ot o ne o f tim e. R ath er, th e a rg um ent m ere ly re quir e s th at th e natu re o f th e c re atu re is s u ch th at, if th e cre atu re w ere le ft to it s e lf , it w ould b e n oth in g. F or e xa m ple , if w e sh ould s a y th at th e a ir h as a lw ays b een illu m in ate d b y th e su n, it w ould b e r ig ht to s a y th at th e a ir h as a lw ays been m ade lu cid b y th e s u n. T hus, s in ce a nyth in g th at c o m es to b e s u ch -a nd-s u ch co m es to b e s u ch -a nd- su ch fr o m b ein g n ot s u ch -a nd-s u ch , w e s a y th at th e a ir is m ade lu cid fr o m b ein g n on-lu cid , o r o paque, n ot beca use th e a ir w as o nce n on-lu cid o r o paque, b ut b eca use th e air w ould b e o paque if th e s u n d id n ot illu m in ate it . T his is cle arly th e c a se w it h th e s ta rs a nd th ose c e le stia l b odie s th at are a lw ays illu m in ate d b y th e s u n.

Thus it is c le ar th at th ere is n o c o ntr a dic tio n in s a yin g th at so m eth in g m ade b y G od h as a lw ays e xis te d.

In deed, if th ere w ere so m e c o ntr a dic tio n, it w ould b e a m azin g th at A ugustin e fa ile d to s e e it , fo r e xp osin g su ch a c o ntr a dic tio n w ould b e a m ost e ffe ctiv e way o f p ro vin g th at th e w orld is n ot e te rn al, a nd a lt h ough Augustin e offe rs m any a rg um ents a gain st th e e te rn it y o f th e w orld in X I and X II De C iv it a te D ei , h e n eve r arg ues th at h is o pponents ' vie w is c o ntr a dic to ry . O n th e c o ntr a ry , A ugustin e s e em s to h in t th at th ere is n o co ntr a dic tio n in vo lv e d. T hus, s p eakin g o f th e Pla to nis ts , h e s a ys ( X De C iv it a te D ei c a p. 3 1), " T hey so m ehow co nte m pla te a b egin nin g in c a usa tio n r a th er th an a b egin nin g in tim e. Im agin e, th ey s a y, a fo ot th at h as b een in d ust s in ce ete rn it y : a fo otp rin t h as a lw ays b een b eneath it , a nd n obody w ould doubt th at th e fo otp rin t w as made b y th e p re ssu re o f th e fo ot.

Though n eit h er is p rio r in tim e to th e o th er, y e t o ne is m ade by th e o th er.

Lik e w is e , th ey s a y, th e w orld a nd th e g ods in it have a lw ays e xis te d, ju st a s h e w ho m ade th em a lw ays exis te d; ye t n eve rth ele ss, th ey w ere m ade." [P L 4 1, 3 11 ] N or d oes Augustin e e ve r s a y th at th is c a nnot b e unders to od; r a th er, h e pro ce eds a gain st th e P la to nis ts in a to ta lly d if fe re nt w ay. H e sa ys ( X I De C iv it a te D ei ca p. 4 ), " T hose , h ow eve r, who a dm it th at th e w orld w as m ade b y G od b ut n eve rth ele ss w ant to h old th at th e world h as a b egin nin g in c re atio n b ut n ot in tim e, s o th at, in s o m e s ca rc e ly in te llig ib le w ay, it h as a lw ays been made b y G od, th in k th at th ey a re d efe ndin g G od a gain st a ch arg e o f c a su al r a sh ness." [P L 4 1, 3 19] [[8 ]] T heir posit io n is d if fic u lt to u nders ta nd, h ow eve r, o nly fo r th e re aso n g iv e n a bove in th e fir s t a rg um ent.

How r e m ark a ble it w ould b e th at e ve n th e m ost n oble o f p hilo so phers fa ile d to s e e a c o ntr a dic tio n in th e id ea th at s o m eth in g m ade by G od h as a lw ays e xis te d. S peakin g a gain st th e P la to nis ts , A ugustin e sa ys ( X I De Civ it a te D ei c a p. 5 ), " H ere w e a re c o nte ndin g wit h th ose w ho a gre e w it h u s th at G od is th e C re ato r o f a ll bodie s and a ll n atu re s e xce pt h im se lf ," [P L 4 1, 3 20] a nd th en, a gain about th e P la to nis ts , h e a dds ( X I De Civ it a te D ei c a p.

5), " T hese p hilo so phers s u rp asse d th e r e st in n obilit y a nd auth orit y ." [P L 4 1, 3 21] A ugustin e sa id th is e ve n a fte r d ilig ently co nsid erin g th eir p osit io n th at th e w orld h as a lw ays e xis te d, fo r th ey neve rth ele ss th ought th at it w as m ade b y G od, a nd th ey sa w n o c o ntr a dic tio n b etw een th ese tw o id eas.

There fo re , th ose who s o s u btly p erc e iv e th e c o ntr a dic tio n a re s o lit a ry m en, a nd wit h th ese d oes w is d om aris e .

[[9 ]] Still, s in ce c e rta in a uth orit ie s s e em to a rg ue o n th e s id e o f su ch m en, w e o ught to s h ow th at th ey b ase th em se lv e s o n a w eak fo undatio n. D am asce ne s a ys ( I De F id e O rth odoxa c a p. 8 ), "W hat is m ade o ut o f noth in g is b y n atu re n ot s u ch th at it is c o ete rn al to w hat h as n o c a usa l p rin cip le a nd a lw ays e xis ts ." [P G 9 4, 814B ] L ik e w is e , H ugh o f S t. V ic to r s a ys ( De S acra m entis I- 1 c a p. 1 ), " T he in effa ble o m nip ote nt p ow er c o uld not h ave anyth in g c o ete rn al b eyo nd it s e lf th at w ould h elp it in m akin g." [P L 1 76, 1 87B ] But th e p osit io n o f th ese a nd s im ila r a uth orit ie s is m ade c le ar by B oeth iu s, w ho s a ys ( V De C onso la tio ne pro sa 6 ), " W hen so m e p eople h ear th at P la to th ought th is w orld n eit h er h ad a b egin nin g in tim e n or w ill e ve r 3/5 have a n e nd, th ey m is ta ke nly c o nclu de th at th e c re ate d w orld is c o ete rn al w it h th e C re ato r. H ow eve r, to b e le d th ro ugh th e e ndle ss lif e P la to a ttr ib ute s to th e w orld is one th in g; to e m bra ce s im ult a neously th e w hole pre se nce o f e ndle ss lif e is q uit e a noth er, a nd it is th is la tte r th at is p ro per to th e d iv in e m in d." [P L 6 3, 8 59B ] Thus it d oes n ot fo llo w , as s o m e p eople o bje ct, th at a c re atu re , e ve n if it h ad a lw ays exis te d, w ould b e e qual to G od in d ura tio n. F or, if " e te rn al" be u nders to od in th is s e nse , n oth in g c a n in a ny w ay b e c o ete rn al wit h God, fo r n oth in g b ut G od is im muta ble . A s A ugustin e s a ys (X II De C iv it a te D ei c a p. 1 5), [[1 0]] " T im e, s in ce it passe s a w ay b y it s m uta bilit y , c a nnot b e co ete rn al w it h im muta ble e te rn it y . T hus, e ve n if th e im morta lit y of th e angels d oes n ot p ass a w ay in tim e ( it is n eit h er p ast, as if it d id n ot e xis t n ow ; n or is it fu tu re , a s if it d id n ot ye t exis t) , n eve rth ele ss, th e a ngels ' m otio ns, b y w hic h m om ents of tim e a re c a rrie d a lo ng fr o m th e fu tu re in to th e past, p ass aw ay. T here fo re , a ngels c a nnot b e c o ete rn al w it h th e C re ato r, in w hose m otio n th ere is n oth in g whic h h as b een th at is n ot n ow , nor a nyth in g w hic h w ill la te r b e th at is n ot a lr e ady." [P L 41, 3 64-3 65] L ik e w is e , Augustin e s a ys ( V III Super G enesis a d Lit te ra m c a p. 2 3), " S in ce th e n atu re o f th e T rin it y is wholly unch angeable , it is e te rn al in s u ch a w ay th at n oth in g ca n b e c o ete rn al w it h it ," [P L 3 4, 3 89] a nd h e u se s word s to th e s a m e e ffe ct in X I Confe ssio num a s w ell. [[1 1 ]] Those w ho tr y to p ro ve th at th e w orld c o uld n ot h ave a lw ays e xis te d eve n a dduce a rg um ents th at th e philo so phers h ave c o nsid ere d a nd so lv e d. C hie f a m ong th ese is th e a rg um ent fr o m th e in fin it y o f so uls : if th e world h ad a lw ays e xis te d, th ese p eople a rg ue, th ere would n ece ssa rily b e a n in fin it e n um ber o f s o uls . B ut th is arg um ent is n ot to th e p oin t, fo r G od c o uld h ave m ade th e w orld w it h out makin g m en o r c re atu re s w it h s o uls , or h e c o uld h ave m ade m en when in fa ct h e d id m ake th em , e ve n if h e h ad m ade th e r e st o f th e w orld fr o m ete rn it y . In e it h er c a se , a n in fin it e n um ber o f so uls w ould n ot r e m ain a fte r th e b odie s h ad p asse d a w ay.

Furth erm ore , it h as n ot y e t b een d em onstr a te d th at G od c a nnot c a use a n in fin it e num ber o f th in gs to e xis t sim ult a neously .

There a re o th er a rg um ents a dduce d a s w ell, b ut I r e fr a in fr o m answ erin g th em a t p re se nt, e it h er b eca use th ey h ave b een s u it a bly answ ere d e ls e w here , o r b eca use th ey a re s o w eak th at th eir v e ry weakn ess le nds pro babilit y to th e o pposin g v ie w .

NO TE S:

[1 ] T his tr a nsla tio n fo llo w s th e L eonin e E dit io n o f A quin as's w ork s, v o l. 4 3 Sancti Thom ae D e A quin o O pera Om nia 8 5-8 9 ( R om e 1 976).

[2 ] A ll p ers o ns are lic e nse d to r e pro duce th is tr a nsla tio n a nd th e fo otn ote s h ere to fo r p ers o nal o r e duca tio nal purp ose s, p ro vid ed th at th e n otic e of c o pyrig ht a bove a nd th is n otic e a re in clu ded in th eir r e sp ectiv e entir e tie s in a ll c o pie s. T his lic e nse in clu des r e pro ductio n b y a c o m merc ia l e ntit y e ngaged in th e b usin ess o f pro vid in g c o pyin g se rv ic e s if s u ch r e pro ductio n is m ade a t th e b ehest o f a p ers o n who w ould o th erw is e b e lic e nse d u nder th e p re ce din g s e nte nce to re pro duce th is tr a nsla tio n fo r p ers o nal o r e duca tio nal p urp ose s.

[3 ] A quin as m eans th at th e im possib ilit y m ay b e th ought to a ris e e it h er o n th e p art of G od, a s if h e w ere unable to m ake s u ch a th in g fo r la ck o f pow er, o r o n th e p art o f th e th in g, a s if s u ch a th in g c o uld n ot be m ade beca use it la cks a p re -e xis tin g p assiv e p ote ntia lit y o r beca use it is s e lf - c o ntr a dic to ry .

[4 ] T hat is , o n th e c o ndit io n th at s u ch a th in g c a n b e m ade. In o th er w ord s, a ll sid es a gre e th at th e im possib ilit y o f s o m eth in g h avin g a lw ays exis te d, if s u ch th ere b e, d oes n ot a ris e fr o m s o m e la ck o f p ow er in God.

[5 ] T hat is , b etw een "a lw ays h avin g e xis te d" a nd " h avin g b een m ade." [6 ] In th e s e nse th at th ere w as n oth in g e xis tin g b efo re th e a ngel th at w ould b eco m e th e a ngel, a s th e b ra ss to be m ade in to a s ta tu e e xis ts b efo re th e s ta tu e a nd b eco m es th e s ta tu e.

[7 ] S ee II De Genera tio ne e t C orru ptio ne c a p. 1 0, 3 36a 2 7-2 8.

[8 ] P L 4 1, 3 19.

In th e L eonin e E dit io n, A quin as d oes n ot q uote th e p re dic a te o f th e in dependent c la use ; it does a ppear in th e P arm a E dit io n, a nd I h ave c h ose n to s u pply it .

[9 ] S aid ir o nic a lly , th e s e nte nce is q uit e o ut o f c h ara cte r fo r A quin as, w ho c o urte ously co nducte d th e b it te re st dis p uta tio ns. H ere h e is p ro bably a llu din g to th e V ulg ate te xt o f J o b 1 2:2 , in w hic h J o b s a ys, " Y ou are s o lit a ry men, a nd w it h y o u w is d om s h all d ie ." T he d if fe re nce betw een " a ris e s" ( orit u r ) a nd " s h all d ie " ( morie tu r ) is 4/5 sm all.

[1 0] S o in A quin as.

The c h apte r d iv is io ns in De C iv it a te D ei a re , a t th is p oin t, so m ew hat u ncle ar, a nd, a s th e edit o rs o f th e L eonin e E dit io n s u ggest, th e q uote d te xt is p ro bably fr o m c a p. 1 6. In a ny e ve nt, th e q uote d mate ria l a ppears a t P L 4 1, 3 64-3 65.

[1 1 ] S ee X I Confe ssio num c a p. 3 0. P L 3 2, 8 26.

This te xt is p art o f th e In te rn et M edie va l S ourc e B ook .

The S ourc e book is a c o lle ctio n o f p ublic d om ain a nd co py-p erm it te d te xts r e la te d to m edie va l a nd B yza ntin e h is to ry .

Unle ss o th erw is e in dic a te d th e s p ecif ic e le ctr o nic fo rm o f th e docu m ent is c o pyrig ht. P erm is sio n is g ra nte d fo r ele ctr o nic c o pyin g, dis tr ib utio n in p rin t fo rm fo r e duca tio nal p urp ose s a nd p ers o nal use . If y o u d o r e duplic a te th e d ocu m ent, in dic a te th e s o urc e .

No p erm is sio n is g ra nte d fo r c o m merc ia l u se .

Paul H als a ll M ay 1 997 hals a ll@ murra y.fo rd ham .e du 5/5