Using Author DiAngelo essentials questions, write a 3-4 page essay answering the following questions; "If we accept that racism is always operating, the question becomes not “Is racism taking place

5. T he G ood/B ad B in ary 6. A nti- B la ck ness 7. R acia l T rig gers f o r W hite P eo ple 8. T he R esu lt: W hite F ra g ility 9. W hite F ra g ility i n A ctio n 10. W hite F ra g ility a n d t h e R ule s o f E ngag em en t 11. W hite W om en ’s T ears 12. W here D o W e G o f ro m H ere ?

Reso urc es f o r C ontin uin g E ducatio n Ack now le d gm en ts Note s Copyrig ht P ageb rea k s o f t h e p rin t v ersio n iii iv v vi vii viii ix x xi xii xiii xiv xv xvi xvii xviii xix xx 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 Guid e Cover Copyrig ht Conte n ts 1 T he C halle n ges o f T alk in g t o W hite P eo ple A bout R acis m PR AIS E F O R WHIT E F RAG IL IT Y “ W hite F ra gility is a ra re a n d in cis iv e e x am in atio n o f th e s y ste m o f w hite - b ody su pre m acy , w hic h bin ds us all as A m eric an s. Robin D iA ngelo e x plic ate s th e u nderly in g W este rn id eo lo gie s o f in div id ualis m a n d p re su m ed o bje ctiv ity th at tig hte n th ose b onds. B ut s h e d oesn ’t ju st a n aly ze th is s y ste m .

W ith a u th en tic ity a n d c la rity , s h e p ro vid es th e a n tid ote to w hite f ra g ility a n d a r o ad m ap f o r d ev elo pin g w hite r a cia l s ta m in a a n d h um ility .

White F ra gility l o ose n s th e b onds o f w hite s u pre m acy a n d b in ds u s b ack to geth er a s h um an b ein gs.” — RESM AA M EN AKEM , au th or o f My G ra ndm oth er’s H ands a n d Rock t h e B oat “ W hat an am azin gly pow erfu l book R obin D iA ngelo has w ritte n ! T his r e m ark ab le book en co ura g es fo lk s to em bra ce a m ore deep ly nuan ced e x plo ra tio n o f w hite cu ltu re an d d om in an ce an d, as su ch , w ill b e a g re at c o ntr ib utio n in p ro m otin g th e n ecessa ry p olic y c h an ge a n d h ealin g th at th is c o untr y re q uir e s. D r. D iA ngelo ’s w ork in d eco nstr u ctin g w hite n ess is n ot o nly b rillia n t, i t i s w ritte n i n a w ay th at i s c ry sta l c le ar a n d a ccessib le t o e ach a n d ev ery re ad er. W hile th is is a pow erfu l sc h ola rly an aly sis of w hite f ra g ility , it is als o an in vita tio n to en gag e in deep pers o nal in quir y an d c o lle ctiv e c h an ge. A s a w om an o f c o lo r, I f in d h ope in th is b ook b ecau se o f i ts p ote n tia l t o d is ru pt t h e p atte rn s a n d r e la tio nsh ip s t h at h av e e m erg ed o ut o f l o ng-s ta n din g c o lo nia l p rin cip le s a n d b elie fs .

White F ra gility is a n e sse n tia l t o ol t o w ard a u th en tic d ia lo gue a n d a ctio n. M ay i t b e s o !” — SH AKTI B U TLER , pre sid en t o f W orld T ru st a n d d ir e cto r o f Mir ro rs o f P riv ile g e: M akin g White n ess V is ib le “ A s p ow erfu l fo rc es o f w hite ra cis m ag ain sw ell, D iA ngelo in vite s w hite p ro gre ssiv es to hav e a co ura g eo us co nvers a tio n ab out th eir cu ltu re of c o m plic ity . T o e ra d ic ate ra cis m , sh e e n co ura g es w hite p eo ple to re lin quis h i n gra in ed hyper-a tta ch m en t to in div id ualis m an d em bra ce pre d ic ta b le p atte rn s of th eir ow n ra cia l gro up.

White F ra gility pro vid es im porta n t a n tir a cis t u nders ta n din g an d esse n tia l str a te g ie s fo r w ell- in te n tio ned w hite peo ple w ho t r u ly e n deav or t o b e a p art o f t h e s o lu tio n.” — GLEN N E . S IN GLETO N , au th or o f Coura geo us C onversa tio ns A bout R ace “W hite fra g ility is th e se cre t in gre d ie n t th at m ak es ra cia l c o nvers a tio ns so dif fic u lt an d ach ie v in g ra cia l eq uity ev en h ard er. B ut b y ex posin g it an d sh ow in g u s a ll— in clu din g w hite f o lk s— how it o pera te s a n d h ow it h urts u s, in div id ually a n d c o lle ctiv ely , R obin D iA ngelo h as p erfo rm ed a n in valu ab le se rv ic e. A n in dis p en sa b le volu m e fo r unders ta n din g one of th e m ost im porta n t ( a n d y et r a re ly a p pre cia te d ) b arrie rs t o a ch ie v in g r a cia l j u stic e.” — TIM W IS E , au th or o f White L ik e M e: R efle ctio ns o n R ace f r o m a P riv ile g ed S on “In White F ra gility , R obin D iA ngelo d em onstr a te s a n a ll- to o-ra re a b ility to en te r th e r a cia l c o nvers a tio n w ith c o m ple x ity , n uan ce, a n d d eep r e sp ect. H er writin g e sta b lis h es h er m aste ry in a ccessin g th e im ag in al, m eta p horic m in d, where th e possib ility fo r tr a n sfo rm atio n re sid es. W ith an unw av erin g co nvic tio n th at c h an ge is p ossib le , h er m essa g e is c le ar: th e in cen tiv e fo r white e n gag em en t i n r a cia l j u stic e w ork i s u ltim ate ly s e lf -lib era tio n.” — LETIC IA N IE TO , co au th or o f Beyo nd I n clu sio n, B eyo nd E m pow erm en t: A D evelo pm en ta l Str a te g y t o L ib era te E very o ne These c ere m onia ls i n h onor o f w hite s u pre m acy, perfo rm ed f r o m b abyh ood, s lip f r o m t h e co nsc io us m in d d ow n d eep i n to m usc le s . . .

and b eco m e d iffic u lt t o t e a r o ut.

— LIL LIA N S M IT H , Kille rs o f t h e D re a m ( 1 949) CO NTEN TS Fore w ord b y M ic h ael E ric D yso n Auth or’s N ote In tr o ductio n: W e C an ’t G et T here f ro m H ere 1 T he C halle n ges o f T alk in g t o W hite P eo ple A bout R acis m 2 R acis m a n d W hite S upre m acy 3 R acis m A fte r t h e C iv il R ig hts M ovem en t 4 H ow D oes R ace S hap e t h e L iv es o f W hite P eo ple ?

5 T he G ood/B ad B in ary 6 A nti- B la ck ness 7 R acia l T rig gers f o r W hite P eo ple 8 T he R esu lt: W hite F ra g ility 9 W hite F ra g ility i n A ctio n 1 0 W hite F ra g ility a n d t h e R ule s o f E ngag em en t 1 1 W hite W om en ’s T ears 1 2 W here D o W e G o f ro m H ere ?

Reso urc es f o r C ontin uin g E ducatio n Ack now le d gm en ts Note s FO REW ORD Keyse r S öze , B eyo ncé, and t h e W itn ess P ro te ctio n P ro gra m MIC H AEL E R IC D YSO N O ne m eta p hor f o r r a ce, a n d r a cis m , w on’t d o. T hey a re , a fte r a ll, e x ceed in gly c o m plic ate d f o rc es. N o, w e n eed m an y m eta p hors , w ork in g in c o ncert, e v en i f i n d if fe re n t a re as o f t h e c u ltu re t h ro ugh a c le v er d iv is io n o f l in guis tic l a b or.

R ace is a c o nditio n. A d is e ase . A c ard . A p la g ue. O rig in al s in . F or m uch o f A m eric an his to ry , ra ce has been bla ck cu ltu re ’s is su e; ra cis m , a bla ck p ers o n’s b urd en . O r s u bstitu te a n y p ers o n o f c o lo r fo r b la ck a n d y ou’v e g ot t h e sa m e pro ble m . W hite n ess, how ev er, has re m ain ed co nsta n t. In th e e q uatio n of ra ce, an oth er m eta p hor fo r ra ce beck ons; w hite n ess is th e u nch an gin g v aria b le . O r, to sh if t m eta p hors , w hite n ess h as b een , to p in ch A m ir i B ara k a’s r e so nan t p hra se , t h e “ ch an gin g s a m e,” a h ig hly a d ap ta b le a n d f lu id f o rc e th at s ta y s o n to p n o m atte r w here it la n ds. I n a s e n se , w hite n ess is a t o nce th e m ean s o f d om in an ce, th e e n d to w hic h d om in an ce p oin ts , a n d th e p oin t o f d om in an ce, to o, w hic h , in its p ure st fo rm , in its g re ate st fa n ta sy , n ev er e n ds.

To b e s u re , l ik e t h e r e st o f r a ce, w hite n ess i s a f ic tio n, w hat i n t h e j a rg on o f t h e acad em y is te rm ed a so cia l co nstr u ct, an ag re ed -o n m yth th at has e m pir ic al g rit b ecau se o f its e ffe ct, n ot its e sse n ce. B ut w hite n ess g oes e v en o ne b ette r: it is a cate g ory o f id en tity th at is m ost u se fu l w hen its v ery e x is te n ce is d en ie d . T hat’ s its tw is te d g en iu s. W hite n ess e m bodie s C harle s B au dela ir e ’s a d m onitio n th at “ th e lo velie st tr ic k o f th e D ev il is to p ers u ad e y ou th at h e d oes n ot e x is t.” O r, a s a n a lte r e g o o f th e c h ara cte r K ey se r S öze s a y s i n t h e f ilm The U su al S usp ects , “ T he g re ate st tr ic k th e d ev il e v er p la y ed w as to c o nvin ce th e w orld th at h e d id n’t e x is t.” T he D ev il. R acis m . A noth er m eta p hor. S am e d if fe re n ce.

Robin D iA ngelo is h ere to a n nounce, in th e w ord s o f e v an gelic als — an d r a p pers R ic k R oss a n d Ja y -Z — “T he D ev il Is a L ie .” W hite n ess, lik e ra ce, may n ot b e tr u e —it’ s n ot a b io lo gic ally h erita b le c h ara cte ris tic th at h as r o ots in p hysio lo gic al s tr u ctu re s o r in g en es o r c h ro m oso m es. B ut it is re a l , in th e se n se th at s o cie tie s a n d rig hts a n d g oods a n d re so urc es a n d p riv ile g es h av e been b uilt o n its fo undatio n. D iA ngelo b rillia n tly n am es a w hite n ess th at doesn ’t w an t t o b e n am ed , d is ro bes a w hite n ess t h at d re sse s i n c am oufla g e a s hum an ity , u nm ask s a w hite n ess c o stu m ed a s A m eric an , a n d f e tc h es to c en te r sta g e a w hite n ess t h at w ould r a th er h id e i n v is ib le i n vis ib ility .

It is n ot e n ough to b e a rh eto ric ia n a n d a s e m io tic ia n to d eco nstr u ct a n d dem yth olo giz e w hite n ess. O ne m ust b e a m ag ic ia n o f th e p olitic al a n d th e so cia l, a n a lc h em is t o f t h e s p ir itu al a n d p sy ch olo gic al t o o. O ne m ust w av e o ff ra cis t s te re o ty pes a n d c o nju re a ric h h is to ry o f c o m battin g w hite s u pre m acy an d w hite p riv ile g e a n d w hite lie s— a h is to ry th at h as o fte n b een b urie d d eep in th e d ark , ric h , b la ck A m eric an so il. D iA ngelo k now s th at w hat sh e is sa y in g to w hite fo lk in th is b ook is w hat s o m an y b la ck fo lk s h av e th ought an d b elie v ed a n d s a id o ver t h e y ears b ut c o uld n’t b e h eard b ecau se w hite e ars were t o o s e n sitiv e, w hite s o uls t o o f ra g ile .

DiA ngelo jo in s th e fro nt ra n ks o f w hite a n tir a cis t th in kers w ith a s tir rin g call to c o nsc ie n ce a n d, m ost im porta n t, c o nsc io usn ess in h er w hite b ro th ers an d s is te rs . W hite fra g ility is a tr u ly g en era tiv e id ea; it is a c ru cia l c o ncep t th at in sp ir e s u s to th in k m ore d eep ly a b out h ow w hite fo lk u nders ta n d th eir white n ess an d re act defe n siv ely to bein g calle d to acco unt fo r how th at white n ess h as g one u nder th e r a d ar o f r a ce f o r f a r to o lo ng. D iA ngelo is w is e an d w ith erin g in h er r e le n tle ss a ssa u lt o n w hat L an gsto n H ughes te rm ed “ th e way s o f w hite f o lk s.” B ut s h e is c le ar-e y ed a n d u nse n tim en ta l in u nta n glin g th e in te rtw in ed th re ad s of s o cia l d estin y a n d p olitic al p re sc rip tio n th at b in d white i d en tity t o m ora l n eu tr a lity a n d c u ltu ra l u niv ers a lity .

DiA ngelo bra v ely ch alle n ges th e co lla p se of w hite n ess in to natio nal id en tity . N o le ss a n a u th ority th an B ey oncé K now le s r e cen tly r e m ark ed , “ It’ s been sa id th at ra cis m is so A m eric an th at w hen w e p ro te st ra cis m , so m e assu m e w e’re p ro te stin g A m eric a.” D iA ngelo p ro ves th at B ey oncé is rig ht, th at th e flo w o f w hite id en tity in to A m eric an id en tity — of ra cis t b elie fs in to natio nal b elie fs — must b e m et h ead -o n w ith a fu ll- th ro ate d in sis te n ce th at what it m ean s to b e A m eric an is n ot w hat it m ean s to b e w hite , a t le ast n ot ex clu siv ely , o r ev en p rim arily . T his n atio n is fa r m ore co m plic ate d in its co lle ctiv e se lf -u nders ta n din g. D iA ngelo , in a m aste rly w ay , ta k es a p art th e notio n th at id en tity p olitic s is a s c o urg e, a t le ast w hen it in volv es p eo ple o f co lo r o r w om en . S he b lo w s d ow n th e h ouse o f w hite r a cia l c ard s b uilt o n th e pre m is e t h at i t c an , o r s h ould , r e st o n s o m eth in g b ey ond i d en tity p olitic s.

DiA ngelo f o rc es u s t o s e e t h at a ll p olitic s h av e r e ste d o n i d en titie s, a n d t h at th ose id en titie s are critic al fe atu re s o f w re stlin g w ith h ow w e h av e g one wro ng i n t h e e ffo rt t o s e t t h in gs r ig ht— whic h t o o o fte n h as m ean t m ak e t h em white . W e c an not p ossib ly n am e t h e n em ese s o f d em ocra cy o r t r u th o r j u stic e or e q uality i f w e c an not n am e t h e i d en titie s t o w hic h t h ey h av e b een a tta ch ed .

For m ost o f o ur h is to ry , s tr a ig ht w hite m en h av e b een in volv ed in a w itn ess pro te ctio n p ro gra m th at g uard s th eir id en titie s an d ab so lv es th em o f th eir crim es w hile o ffe rin g t h em a f u tu re f re e o f p ast e n cu m bra n ces a n d s in s.

Robin D iA ngelo is th e new ra cia l sh erif f in to w n. S he is brin gin g a dif fe re n t la w an d ord er to bear upon th e ra cia l pro ceed in gs. In ste ad of co verin g up fo r a w hite n ess th at re fu se d to fa ce up to its ben efits an d ad van ta g es, i ts e rro rs a n d f a u lts , s h e h as s o ught t o u phold t h e h um an ity o f t h e unju stly malig ned while ex posin g th e offe n se s of th e undese rv ed ly cele b ra te d .

White f ra g ility is a n id ea w hose tim e h as c o m e. I t is a n id ea th at r e g is te rs th e h urt fe elin gs, sh atte re d eg os, fra u ght sp ir its , v ex ed b odie s, an d ta x ed em otio ns o f w hite f o lk . I n tr u th , th eir s u ffe rin g c o m es f ro m re co gniz in g th at th ey a re w hite — th at th eir w hite n ess h as g iv en th em a b ig le g u p in lif e w hile cru sh in g o th ers ’ d re am s, th at th eir w hite n ess is th e c le are st e x am ple o f th e id en tity p olitic s th ey c la im is h arm fu l to th e n atio n, a n d th at th eir w hite n ess has s h ie ld ed th em f ro m g ro w in g u p a s q uic k ly a s th ey m ig ht h av e d one h ad th ey n ot s o h eav ily le an ed o n it to m ak e it th ro ugh lif e .

White F ra gility is a vita l, n ecessa ry , a n d b eau tif u l b ook, a b ra cin g c all to w hite f o lk e v ery w here to se e th eir w hite n ess fo r w hat it is a n d to se iz e th e o pportu nity to m ak e th in gs b ette r n ow . R obin D iA ngelo k ic k s all th e cru tc h es to th e sid e an d dem an ds th at w hite fo lk fin ally m atu re an d fa ce th e w orld th ey ’v e m ad e while s e ek in g t o h elp r e m ak e i t f o r t h ose w ho h av e n eith er t h eir p riv ile g e n or th eir p ro te ctio n. AUTH OR’S N O TE ID EN TIT Y P O LIT IC S T he U nite d S ta te s w as fo unded o n th e p rin cip le th at a ll p eo ple a re c re ate d e q ual. Y et th e natio n beg an w ith th e atte m pte d gen ocid e of In dig en ous p eo ple a n d th e th eft o f th eir la n d. A m eric an w ealth w as b uilt o n th e la b or o f k id nap ped a n d e n sla v ed A fric an s a n d th eir d esc en dan ts . W om en w ere d en ie d t h e r ig ht t o v ote u ntil 1 920, a n d b la ck w om en w ere d en ie d a ccess t o t h at r ig ht u ntil 1964. T he te rm id en tity politic s re fe rs to th e fo cu s on th e barrie rs s p ecif ic g ro ups f a ce i n t h eir s tr u ggle f o r e q uality . W e h av e y et t o a ch ie v e o ur f o undin g p rin cip le , b ut a n y g ain s w e h av e m ad e th us f a r h av e c o m e th ro ugh i d en tity p olitic s.

The id en titie s o f th ose s ittin g a t th e ta b le s o f p ow er in th is c o untr y h av e r e m ain ed re m ark ab ly sim ila r: w hite , m ale , m id dle - an d u pper-c la ss, ab le - b odie d . A ck now le d gin g th is fa ct m ay b e d is m is se d a s p olitic al c o rre ctn ess, b ut i t i s s till a f a ct. T he d ecis io ns m ad e a t t h ose t a b le s a ffe ct t h e l iv es o f t h ose n ot a t th e ta b le s. E xclu sio n b y th ose a t th e ta b le d oesn ’t d ep en d o n w illf u l i n te n t; w e d on’t h av e to in te n d to e x clu de f o r th e r e su lts o f o ur a ctio ns to b e e x clu sio n. W hile i m plic it b ia s i s a lw ay s a t p la y b ecau se a ll h um an s h av e b ia s, i n eq uity c an o ccu r sim ply th ro ugh h om ogen eity ; if I a m n ot a w are o f th e b arrie rs y ou fa ce, th en I w on’t s e e th em , m uch le ss b e m otiv ate d to re m ove t h em . N or w ill I b e m otiv ate d to re m ove th e b arrie rs if th ey p ro vid e an a d van ta g e t o w hic h I f e el e n title d .

All pro gre ss w e hav e m ad e in th e re alm of civ il rig hts has been a cco m plis h ed t h ro ugh i d en tity p olitic s: w om en ’s s u ffra g e, t h e A m eric an w ith D is a b ilitie s A ct, T itle 9 , fe d era l re co gnitio n o f sa m e-s e x m arria g e. A k ey i s su e i n t h e 2 016 p re sid en tia l e le ctio n w as t h e w hite w ork in g c la ss. T hese a re a ll m an if e sta tio ns o f i d en tity p olitic s.

Tak e w om en ’s s u ffra g e. I f b ein g a w om an d en ie s y ou t h e r ig ht t o v ote , y ou i p so f a cto c an not g ra n t it to y ours e lf . A nd y ou c erta in ly c an not v ote f o r y our r ig ht to v ote . If m en c o ntr o l a ll th e m ech an is m s th at e x clu de w om en fro m v otin g a s w ell a s th e m ech an is m s th at c an re v ers e th at e x clu sio n, w om en must c all o n m en fo r ju stic e. Y ou c o uld n ot h av e h ad a c o nvers a tio n a b out wom en ’s r ig ht t o v ote a n d m en ’s n eed t o g ra n t i t w ith out n am in g w om en a n d men . N ot n am in g th e g ro ups th at f a ce b arrie rs o nly s e rv es th ose w ho a lr e ad y hav e access; th e assu m ptio n is th at th e access en jo yed b y th e co ntr o llin g gro up is u niv ers a l. F or e x am ple , a lth ough w e a re ta u ght th at w om en w ere gra n te d s u ffra g e in 1 920, w e ig nore th e fa ct th at it w as w hite w om en w ho re ceiv ed fu ll a ccess o r th at it w as w hite m en w ho g ra n te d it. N ot u ntil th e 1960s, t h ro ugh t h e V otin g R ig hts A ct, w ere a ll w om en — re g ard le ss o f r a ce— gra n te d fu ll access to su ffra g e. N am in g w ho h as access an d w ho d oesn ’t guid es o ur e ffo rts i n c h alle n gin g i n ju stic e.

This b ook is u nap olo getic ally ro ote d in id en tity p olitic s. I a m w hite a n d a m ad dre ssin g a co m mon w hite dynam ic . I am m ain ly w ritin g to a w hite au die n ce; w hen I use th e te rm s us an d we, I am re fe rrin g to th e w hite co lle ctiv e. T his u sa g e m ay b e ja rrin g to w hite re ad ers b ecau se w e are so ra re ly a sk ed to th in k a b out o urs e lv es o r fe llo w w hite s in ra cia l te rm s. B ut ra th er t h an r e tr e at in t h e f a ce o f th at d is c o m fo rt, w e c an p ra ctic e b uild in g o ur sta m in a f o r t h e c ritic al e x am in atio n o f w hite i d en tity — a n ecessa ry a n tid ote t o white fra g ility . T his ra is e s an oth er is su e ro ote d in id en tity politic s: in sp eak in g a s a w hite p ers o n to a p rim arily w hite a u die n ce, I a m y et a g ain cen te rin g w hite p eo ple a n d th e w hite v oic e. I h av e n ot fo und a w ay a ro und th is d ile m ma, fo r a s a n in sid er I can s p eak to th e w hite e x perie n ce in w ay s th at m ay b e h ard er to d en y. S o, th ough I a m c en te rin g th e w hite v oic e, I a m als o u sin g m y in sid er s ta tu s to c h alle n ge r a cis m . T o n ot u se m y p ositio n th is way is to u phold ra cis m , a n d th at is u naccep ta b le ; it is a “ b oth /a n d” th at I must liv e w ith . I w ould n ev er s u ggest th at m in e is th e o nly v oic e th at s h ould be h eard , o nly th at it is o ne o f th e m an y p ie ces n eed ed to s o lv e th e o vera ll puzzle .

Peo ple w ho d o n ot id en tif y a s w hite m ay a ls o fin d th is b ook h elp fu l fo r unders ta n din g w hy i t i s s o o fte n d if fic u lt t o t a lk t o w hite p eo ple a b out r a cis m .

Peo ple o f co lo r can not av oid u nders ta n din g w hite co nsc io usn ess to so m e deg re e if th ey a re to b e s u ccessfu l in th is s o cie ty , y et n oth in g in d om in an t cu ltu re a ffir m s th eir u nders ta n din g o r v alid ate s th eir fru str a tio ns w hen th ey in te ra ct w ith w hite p eo ple . I h ope t h at t h is e x plo ra tio n a ffir m s t h e c ro ss-ra cia l ex perie n ces o f p eo ple o f c o lo r a n d p ro vid es s o m e u se fu l i n sig ht.

This b ook lo oks a t th e U nite d S ta te s a n d th e g en era l c o nte x t o f th e W est (U nite d Sta te s, C an ad a, an d E uro pe). It does not ad dre ss nuan ces an d varia tio ns w ith in o th er s o cio politic al s e ttin gs. H ow ev er, th ese p atte rn s h av e als o b een o bse rv ed in w hite p eo ple in o th er w hite se ttle r so cie tie s su ch a s Austr a lia , N ew Z eala n d, a n d S outh A fric a.

WHAT A BO UT M ULTIR ACIA L P E O PL E?

Thro ughout th is b ook, I a rg ue th at ra cis m is d eep ly c o m ple x a n d n uan ced , an d g iv en t h is , w e c an n ev er c o nsid er o ur l e arn in g t o b e c o m ple te o r f in is h ed .

One e x am ple o f th is c o m ple x ity is in th e v ery u se o f th e ra cia l c ate g orie s “w hite ” a n d “ p eo ple o f c o lo r.” I u se th e te rm s white a n d peo ple o f c o lo r to in dic ate th e tw o m acro -le v el, so cia lly re co gniz ed div is io ns of th e ra cia l hie ra rc h y. Y et in u sin g th ese te rm s, I a m c o lla p sin g a g re at d eal o f v aria tio n.

And th ough I b elie v e (fo r re aso ns e x pla in ed in ch ap te r 1 ) th at te m pora rily su sp en din g in div id uality to fo cu s on gro up id en tity is health y fo r w hite peo ple , doin g so has very dif fe re n t im pacts on peo ple of co lo r. For multir a cia l peo ple in partic u la r, th ese bin ary cate g orie s le av e th em in a fru str a tin g “ m id dle .” Multir a cia l peo ple , becau se th ey ch alle n ge ra cia l co nstr u cts an d boundarie s, fa ce u niq ue c h alle n ges in a so cie ty in w hic h ra cia l c ate g orie s hav e p ro fo und m ean in g. T he d om in an t so cie ty w ill a ssig n th em th e ra cia l id en tity th ey m ost p hysic ally re se m ble , b ut th eir o w n in te rn al ra cia l id en tity may n ot a lig n w ith th e a ssig ned id en tity . F or e x am ple , th ough th e m usic ia n Bob M arle y w as m ultir a cia l, so cie ty perc eiv ed him as bla ck an d th us re sp onded to him as if he w ere bla ck . W hen m ultir a cia l peo ple ’s ra cia l id en tity is a m big uous, th ey w ill f a ce c o nsta n t p re ssu re to e x pla in th em se lv es an d “ch oose a sid e.” R acia l id en tity fo r m ultir a cia l peo ple is fu rth er co m plic ate d b y t h e r a cia l i d en tity o f t h eir p are n ts a n d t h e r a cia l d em ogra p hic s of th e c o m munity in w hic h th ey a re r a is e d . F or e x am ple , th ough a c h ild m ay lo ok b la ck a n d b e tr e ate d a s b la ck , s h e m ay b e ra is e d p rim arily b y a w hite pare n t a n d t h us i d en tif y m ore s tr o ngly a s w hite .

The d ynam ic s o f w hat is te rm ed “ p assin g”— bein g p erc eiv ed a s w hite — will a ls o s h ap e a m ultir a cia l p ers o n’s id en tity , a s p assin g w ill g ra n t h im o r her s o cie ty ’s r e w ard s o f w hite n ess. H ow ev er, p eo ple o f m ix ed r a cia l h erita g e who p ass a s w hite m ay a ls o e x perie n ce r e se n tm en t a n d is o la tio n f ro m p eo ple of co lo r w ho can not p ass. M ultir a cia l p eo ple m ay n ot b e se en as “re al” peo ple o f c o lo r o r “ re al” w hite s. (It is w orth n otin g th at th ough th e te rm “p assin g” re fe rs to th e ab ility to b le n d in as a w hite p ers o n, th ere is n o co rre sp ondin g t e rm f o r t h e a b ility t o p ass a s a p ers o n o f c o lo r. T his h ig hlig hts th e fa ct th at, in a ra cis t so cie ty , th e desir e d dir e ctio n is alw ay s to w ard white n ess a n d a w ay f ro m b ein g p erc eiv ed a s a p ers o n o f c o lo r.) I w ill n ot b e a b le t o d o j u stic e t o t h e c o m ple x ity o f m ultir a cia l i d en tity . B ut fo r th e p urp ose s o f g ra p plin g w ith w hite fra g ility , I o ffe r m ultir a cia l p eo ple th e co ncep t of sa lie n cy.

W e all occu py m ultip le an d in te rs e ctin g so cia l positio nalitie s. I a m w hite , b ut I a m a ls o a c is g en der w om an , a b le -b odie d , an d m id dle -a g ed . T hese id en titie s d on’t c an cel o ut o ne a n oth er; e ach is m ore or l e ss s a lie n t i n d if fe re n t c o nte x ts . F or e x am ple , i n a g ro up i n w hic h I a m t h e only w om an , g en der w ill lik ely b e v ery s a lie n t f o r m e. W hen I a m in a g ro up th at is a ll w hite e x cep t fo r o ne pers o n o f c o lo r, ra ce w ill lik ely b e m y m ost sa lie n t id en tity . A s y ou r e ad , it w ill b e f o r y ou to d ecid e w hat s p eak s to y our ex perie n ce a n d w hat d oesn ’t, a n d in w hat c o nte x ts . M y h ope is th at y ou m ay gain in sig ht in to w hy peo ple w ho id en tif y as w hite are so dif fic u lt in co nvers a tio ns re g ard in g ra ce an d/o r gain in sig ht in to your ow n ra cia l re sp onse s a s y ou n av ig ate t h e r o ilin g r a cia l w ate rs o f d aily l if e . IN TR O DUCTIO N WE C AN’T G ET TH ER E F R O M H ER E I a m a w hite w om an. I a m s ta ndin g b esid e a b la ck w om an. W e a re fa cin g a g ro up o f w hite p eo ple s e a te d in fr o nt o f u s. W e a re in th eir w ork p la ce a nd h ave b een h ir e d b y t h eir e m plo yer t o l e a d t h em i n a d ia lo gue a bout r a ce. T he r o om is fille d w ith te n sio n a nd c h arg ed w ith h ostility . I h ave ju st p re se n te d a d efin itio n o f r a cis m t h at i n clu des t h e a ckn ow le d gm en t t h at w hite s h old s o cia l a nd i n stitu tio nal p ow er o ver p eo ple o f c o lo r. A w hite m an i s p oundin g h is f is t o n th e ta ble . A s he pounds, he yells , “ A w hite perso n ca n’t get a jo b a nym ore !” I lo ok a ro und th e r o om a nd s e e fo rty e m plo yees, th ir ty -e ig ht o f w hom a re w hite . W hy i s t h is w hite m an s o a ngry ? W hy i s h e b ein g s o c a re le ss a bout th e im pact o f h is a nger? W hy d oesn ’t h e n otic e th e e ffe ct th is o utb urst i s h avin g o n t h e f e w p eo ple o f c o lo r i n t h e r o om ? W hy a re a ll t h e o th er w hite p eo ple e ith er s ittin g in s ile n t a gre em en t w ith h im o r tu nin g o ut? I h ave, a fte r a ll, o nly a rtic u la te d a d efin itio n o f r a cis m .

W hite p eo ple in N orth A m eric a liv e in a s o cie ty th at is d eep ly s e p ara te a n d u neq ual b y r a ce, a n d w hite p eo ple a re th e b en efic ia rie s o f th at s e p ara tio n a n d i n eq uality . A s a re su lt, w e a re in su la te d fro m ra cia l s tr e ss, a t th e s a m e tim e t h at w e c o m e to fe el e n title d to a n d d ese rv in g o f o ur a d van ta g e. G iv en h ow s e ld om w e e x perie n ce r a cia l d is c o m fo rt i n a s o cie ty we d om in ate , w e h av en ’t h ad to b uild o ur r a cia l s ta m in a. S ocia liz ed in to a d eep ly in te rn aliz ed s e n se o f s u perio rity th at w e e ith er a re u naw are o f o r c an n ev er a d m it to o urs e lv es, w e b eco m e h ig hly fra g ile in c o nvers a tio ns a b out ra ce. W e c o nsid er a c h alle n ge t o o ur r a cia l w orld vie w s a s a c h alle n ge to o ur v ery id en titie s a s g ood, m ora l p eo ple . T hus, w e p erc eiv e a n y a tte m pt to c o nnect u s to th e s y ste m o f r a cis m a s a n u nse ttlin g a n d u nfa ir m ora l o ffe n se . T he s m alle st a m ount o f r a cia l s tr e ss i s in to le ra b le — th e m ere su ggestio n th at bein g w hite has m ean in g ofte n tr ig gers a ra n ge of defe n siv e re sp onse s. T hese in clu de em otio ns su ch as an ger, fe ar, an d guilt an d beh av io rs su ch as arg um en ta tio n, sile n ce, an d with dra w al fro m th e str e ss-in ducin g situ atio n. T hese re sp onse s w ork to re in sta te w hite eq uilib riu m as th ey re p el th e ch alle n ge, re tu rn our ra cia l co m fo rt, an d m ain ta in our dom in an ce with in th e ra cia l hie ra rc h y. I co ncep tu aliz e th is pro cess as white fr a gility .

Though w hite fra g ility is tr ig gere d b y d is c o m fo rt a n d a n xie ty , it is b orn o f s u perio rity a n d e n title m en t.

White f ra g ility i s n ot w eak ness p er s e . I n f a ct, i t i s a p ow erfu l m ean s o f w hite ra cia l c o ntr o l a n d t h e p ro te ctio n o f w hite a d van ta g e.

Sum mariz in g th e fa m ilia r p atte rn s o f w hite p eo ple ’s re sp onse s to ra cia l dis c o m fo rt a s w hite f ra g ility h as r e so nate d f o r m an y p eo ple . T he s e n sib ility i s so fa m ilia r becau se w here as our pers o nal narra tiv es vary , w e are all sw im min g in th e sa m e ra cia l w ate r. F or m e, th e re co gnitio n has co m e th ro ugh m y w ork . I h av e a ra re jo b; o n a d aily b asis I le ad p rim arily w hite au die n ces i n d is c u ssio ns o f r a ce, s o m eth in g m an y o f u s a v oid a t a ll c o sts .

In t h e e arly d ay s o f m y w ork a s w hat w as t h en t e rm ed a d iv ers ity t r a in er, I was ta k en a b ack b y h ow a n gry a n d d efe n siv e s o m an y w hite p eo ple b ecam e at th e s u ggestio n th at th ey w ere c o nnecte d to ra cis m in a n y w ay . T he v ery id ea th at th ey w ould b e re q uir e d to a tte n d a w ork sh op o n ra cis m o utr a g ed th em . T hey en te re d th e ro om an gry an d m ad e th at fe elin g cle ar to us th ro ughout th e d ay as th ey sla m med th eir n ote b ooks d ow n o n th e ta b le , re fu se d t o p artic ip ate i n e x erc is e s, a n d a rg ued a g ain st a n y a n d a ll p oin ts .

I c o uld n’t u nders ta n d t h eir r e se n tm en t o r d is in te re st i n l e arn in g m ore a b out su ch a c o m ple x so cia l d ynam ic a s ra cis m . T hese re actio ns were e sp ecia lly perp le x in g w hen t h ere w ere f e w o r n o p eo ple o f c o lo r i n t h eir w ork pla ce, a n d th ey h ad th e o pportu nity to le arn fro m m y c o fa cilita to rs o f c o lo r. I a ssu m ed th at in th ese c ir c u m sta n ces, a n e d ucatio nal w ork sh op o n ra cis m w ould b e ap pre cia te d . A fte r a ll, d id n’t th e la ck o f d iv ers ity in dic ate a p ro ble m o r a t le ast s u ggest th at s o m e p ers p ectiv es w ere m is sin g? O r th at th e p artic ip an ts mig ht b e u ndere d ucate d a b out r a ce b ecau se o f s c an t c ro ss-ra cia l i n te ra ctio ns?

It to ok m e se v era l y ears to se e b en eath th ese re actio ns. A t fir s t I w as in tim id ate d b y th em , a n d th ey h eld m e b ack a n d k ep t m e c are fu l a n d q uie t.

But o ver tim e, I b eg an to s e e w hat la y b en eath th is a n ger a n d re sis ta n ce to dis c u ss r a ce o r l is te n t o p eo ple o f c o lo r. I o bse rv ed c o nsis te n t r e sp onse s f ro m a v arie ty o f p artic ip an ts . F or e x am ple , m an y w hite p artic ip an ts w ho liv ed in white su burb an neig hborh oods an d had no su sta in ed re la tio nsh ip s w ith peo ple o f c o lo r w ere a b so lu te ly c erta in th at th ey h eld n o ra cia l p re ju dic e o r an im osity . O th er p artic ip an ts s im plis tic ally r e d uced r a cis m t o a m atte r o f n ic e peo ple v ers u s m ean p eo ple . M ost a p peare d to b elie v e th at ra cis m e n ded in 1865 w ith th e e n d o f s la v ery . T here w as b oth k nee-je rk d efe n siv en ess a b out an y s u ggestio n th at b ein g w hite h ad m ean in g a n d a re fu sa l to a ck now le d ge an y a d van ta g e to b ein g w hite . M an y p artic ip an ts c la im ed w hite p eo ple w ere now th e o ppre sse d g ro up, a n d th ey d eep ly r e se n te d a n yth in g p erc eiv ed to b e a fo rm of affir m ativ e actio n. T hese re sp onse s w ere so pre d ic ta b le — so co nsis te n t a n d re lia b le — I w as a b le to s to p ta k in g th e re sis ta n ce p ers o nally , get p ast m y o w n c o nflic t a v oid an ce, a n d r e fle ct o n w hat w as b eh in d t h em .

I b eg an to s e e w hat I th in k o f a s th e p illa rs o f w hite n ess— th e u nex am in ed belie fs th at p ro p u p o ur r a cia l r e sp onse s. I c o uld s e e th e p ow er o f th e b elie f th at o nly b ad p eo ple w ere r a cis t, a s w ell a s h ow in div id ualis m a llo w ed w hite peo ple t o e x em pt t h em se lv es f ro m t h e f o rc es o f s o cia liz atio n. I c o uld s e e h ow we are ta u ght to th in k ab out ra cis m only as dis c re te acts co m mitte d by in div id ual p eo ple , ra th er th an a s a c o m ple x , in te rc o nnecte d s y ste m . A nd in lig ht o f s o m an y w hite e x pre ssio ns o f re se n tm en t to w ard p eo ple o f c o lo r, I re aliz ed th at w e se e o urs e lv es a s e n title d to , a n d d ese rv in g o f, m ore th an peo ple o f c o lo r d ese rv e; I sa w o ur in vestm en t in a s y ste m th at s e rv es u s. I als o s a w h ow h ard w e w ork ed to d en y a ll th is a n d h ow d efe n siv e w e b ecam e when th ese d ynam ic s w ere n am ed . In tu rn , I sa w h ow o ur d efe n siv en ess main ta in ed t h e r a cia l s ta tu s q uo.

Pers o nal r e fle ctio ns o n m y o w n r a cis m , a m ore c ritic al v ie w o f m ed ia a n d oth er a sp ects o f c u ltu re , a n d e x posu re to th e p ers p ectiv es o f m an y b rillia n t an d p atie n t m en to rs o f c o lo r a ll h elp ed m e to s e e h ow th ese p illa rs o f r a cis m work ed . I t b ecam e c le ar th at if I b elie v ed th at o nly b ad p eo ple w ho in te n ded to h urt o th ers b ecau se o f r a ce c o uld e v er d o s o , I w ould r e sp ond w ith o utr a g e to a n y s u ggestio n th at I w as in volv ed in r a cis m . O f c o urs e th at b elie f w ould mak e m e fe el fa ls e ly a ccu se d o f s o m eth in g te rrib le , a n d o f c o urs e I w ould wan t to d efe n d m y ch ara cte r (a n d I h ad certa in ly h ad m an y o f m y o w n mom en ts o f re sp ondin g in ju st th ose w ay s to re fle ct o n). I c am e to s e e th at th e w ay w e a re t a u ght t o d efin e r a cis m m ak es i t v ir tu ally i m possib le f o r w hite peo ple to unders ta n d it. Giv en our ra cia l in su la tio n, co uple d with mis in fo rm atio n, a n y s u ggestio n th at w e a re c o m plic it in ra cis m is a k in d o f unw elc o m e a n d i n su ltin g s h ock t o t h e s y ste m .

If, h ow ev er, I u nders ta n d r a cis m a s a s y ste m in to w hic h I w as s o cia liz ed , I can re ceiv e fe ed back o n m y p ro ble m atic ra cia l p atte rn s a s a h elp fu l w ay to su pport m y le arn in g a n d g ro w th . O ne o f th e g re ate st s o cia l f e ars f o r a w hite pers o n is b ein g to ld th at so m eth in g th at w e h av e sa id o r d one is ra cia lly pro ble m atic . Y et w hen s o m eo ne le ts u s k now th at w e h av e ju st d one s u ch a th in g, r a th er th an r e sp ond w ith g ra titu de a n d r e lie f ( a fte r a ll, n ow th at w e a re in fo rm ed , w e w on’t d o it a g ain ), w e o fte n re sp ond w ith a n ger a n d d en ia l.

Such m om en ts c an b e e x perie n ced a s s o m eth in g v alu ab le , e v en i f t e m pora rily pain fu l, only afte r w e accep t th at ra cis m is unav oid ab le an d th at it is im possib le to co m ple te ly esc ap e hav in g dev elo ped pro ble m atic ra cia l assu m ptio ns a n d b eh av io rs .

None o f th e w hite p eo ple w hose a ctio ns I d esc rib e in th is b ook w ould id en tif y as ra cis t. In fa ct, th ey w ould m ost lik ely id en tif y as ra cia lly pro gre ssiv e a n d v eh em en tly d en y a n y c o m plic ity w ith ra cis m . Y et a ll th eir re sp onse s illu str a te w hite fra g ility a n d h ow it h old s ra cis m in p la ce. T hese re sp onse s s p ur th e d aily fru str a tio ns a n d in dig nitie s p eo ple of c o lo r e n dure fro m w hite p eo ple w ho s e e th em se lv es a s o pen -m in ded a n d th us n ot ra cis t.

This b ook is in te n ded fo r u s, fo r w hite p ro gre ssiv es w ho s o o fte n — desp ite our c o nsc io us in te n tio ns— mak e lif e s o d if fic u lt f o r p eo ple o f c o lo r. I b elie v e th at white p ro gre ssiv es c a use th e m ost d aily d am age to p eo ple o f c o lo r.

I defin e a w hite p ro gre ssiv e a s a n y w hite p ers o n w ho th in ks h e o r s h e is n ot ra cis t, or is le ss ra cis t, or in th e “ch oir ,” or alr e ad y “g ets it.” W hite pro gre ssiv es can b e th e m ost d if fic u lt fo r p eo ple o f co lo r b ecau se , to th e deg re e th at w e th in k w e h av e a rriv ed , w e w ill p ut o ur e n erg y in to m ak in g su re th at o th ers se e u s a s h av in g a rriv ed . N one o f o ur e n erg y w ill g o in to what w e n eed to b e d oin g f o r th e r e st o f o ur liv es: e n gag in g in o ngoin g s e lf - aw are n ess, c o ntin uin g e d ucatio n, re la tio nsh ip b uild in g, a n d a ctu al a n tir a cis t pra ctic e. W hite p ro gre ssiv es d o in deed u phold a n d p erp etr a te r a cis m , b ut o ur defe n siv en ess a n d c ertitu de m ak e it v ir tu ally im possib le to e x pla in to u s h ow we d o s o .

Racis m has been am ong th e m ost co m ple x so cia l dile m mas sin ce th e fo undin g o f t h is c o untr y . W hile t h ere i s n o b io lo gic al r a ce a s w e u nders ta n d i t (s e e ch ap te r 2 ), ra ce as a so cia l co nstr u ct h as p ro fo und sig nif ic an ce an d sh ap es ev ery asp ect of our liv es.

1 R ace w ill in flu en ce w heth er w e w ill su rv iv e o ur b ir th , w here w e a re m ost lik ely to liv e, w hic h s c h ools w e w ill atte n d, w ho o ur f rie n ds a n d p artn ers w ill b e, w hat c are ers w e w ill h av e, h ow much m oney w e w ill e arn , h ow h ealth y w e w ill b e, a n d e v en h ow lo ng w e can e x pect to liv e.

2 T his b ook d oes n ot a tte m pt to p ro vid e th e so lu tio n to ra cis m . N or d oes it atte m pt to p ro ve th at ra cis m ex is ts ; I sta rt fro m th at pre m is e . M y g oal is to m ak e v is ib le h ow o ne asp ect o f w hite se n sib ility co ntin ues t o h old r a cis m i n p la ce: w hite f ra g ility .

I w ill e x pla in t h e p hen om en on o f w hite f ra g ility , h ow w e d ev elo p i t, h ow i t pro te cts r a cia l i n eq uality , a n d w hat w e m ig ht d o a b out i t. CH APT ER 1 T H E C H ALLEN G ES O F T A LK IN G T O W HIT E PE O PL E A BO UT R ACIS M WE D O N’T S E E O URSE LV ES I N R ACIA L T ER M S I a m a w hite A m eric an ra is e d in th e U nite d S ta te s. I h av e a w hite fra m e o f r e fe re n ce a n d a w hite w orld vie w , a n d I m ove th ro ugh th e w orld w ith a w hite e x perie n ce. M y ex perie n ce is not a univ ers a l hum an ex perie n ce. It is a p artic u la rly w hite e x perie n ce i n a s o cie ty i n w hic h r a ce m atte rs p ro fo undly ; a s o cie ty t h at i s d eep ly s e p ara te a n d u neq ual b y r a ce. H ow ev er, l ik e m ost w hite p eo ple ra is e d in th e U S, I w as n ot ta u ght to s e e m yse lf in ra cia l te rm s a n d c erta in ly n ot t o d ra w a tte n tio n t o m y r a ce o r t o b eh av e a s i f i t m atte re d i n a n y w ay . O f c o urs e , I w as m ad e a w are t h at so m eb ody’s r a ce m atte re d , a n d i f r a ce w as d is c u sse d , it w ould b e th eir s , n ot m in e. Y et a critic al co m ponen t o f c ro ss-ra cia l sk ill b uild in g is th e a b ility to sit w ith th e d is c o m fo rt o f b ein g s e en ra cia lly , o f h av in g to p ro ceed a s if o ur ra ce m atte rs (w hic h it d oes).

B ein g s e en r a cia lly is a c o m mon tr ig ger o f w hite f ra g ility , a n d th us, to b uild o ur s ta m in a, w hite p eo ple m ust f a ce t h e f ir s t c h alle n ge: n am in g o ur r a ce.

OUR O PIN IO NS A RE U NIN FO RM ED I h av e n ev er m et a w hite p ers o n w ith out a n o pin io n o n r a cis m . I t’ s n ot r e ally p ossib le to g ro w u p in th e U nite d S ta te s o r s p en d a n y s ig nif ic an t tim e h ere — o r an y oth er cu ltu re w ith a his to ry of W este rn co lo niz atio n— with out d ev elo pin g o pin io ns o n r a cis m . A nd w hite p eo ple ’s o pin io ns o n r a cis m te n d t o b e s tr o ng. Y et r a ce r e la tio ns a re p ro fo undly c o m ple x . W e m ust b e w illin g t o c o nsid er th at u nle ss w e h av e d ev ote d in te n tio nal a n d o ngoin g s tu dy, o ur o pin io ns a re n ecessa rily u nin fo rm ed , e v en i g nora n t. H ow c an I s a y t h at i f y ou a re w hite , y our o pin io ns o n ra cis m a re m ost lik ely ig nora n t, w hen I d on’t e v en k now y ou? I c an s a y s o b ecau se n oth in g i n m ain str e am U S c u ltu re g iv es us th e in fo rm atio n w e n eed to h av e th e n uan ced u nders ta n din g o f a rg uab ly th e m ost c o m ple x a n d e n durin g s o cia l d ynam ic o f th e la st s e v era l h undre d years .

For ex am ple , I can be se en as qualif ie d to le ad a m ajo r or m in or org an iz atio n in th is co untr y w ith no unders ta n din g w hats o ev er of th e pers p ectiv es o r e x perie n ces o f p eo ple o f c o lo r, f e w if a n y r e la tio nsh ip s w ith peo ple o f c o lo r, a n d v ir tu ally n o a b ility to e n gag e c ritic ally w ith th e to pic o f ra ce. I c an g et th ro ugh g ra d uate s c h ool w ith out e v er d is c u ssin g r a cis m . I c an gra d uate f ro m la w s c h ool w ith out e v er d is c u ssin g r a cis m . I c an g et th ro ugh a te ach er-e d ucatio n pro gra m w ith out ev er dis c u ssin g ra cis m . If I am in a pro gra m c o nsid ere d p ro gre ssiv e, I m ig ht h av e a sin gle re q uir e d “ d iv ers ity ” co urs e . A h an dfu l o f f a cu lty w ill h av e f o ught f o r y ears to g et m e th is c o urs e , lik ely h av in g h ad to o verc o m e re sis ta n ce fro m th e m ajo rity o f th eir w hite co lle ag ues, an d w ill still b e fig htin g to k eep th e co urs e . In th is d iv ers ity co urs e , w e m ig ht re ad “ eth nic ” a u th ors a n d le arn a b out h ero es a n d h ero in es fro m v ario us g ro ups o f c o lo r, b ut t h ere ’s n o g uara n te e w e’ll d is c u ss r a cis m .

In f a ct, w hen w e tr y to ta lk o pen ly a n d h onestly a b out r a ce, w hite f ra g ility quic k ly em erg es as w e are so ofte n m et w ith sile n ce, defe n siv en ess, arg um en ta tio n, c ertitu de, a n d o th er f o rm s o f p ush back . T hese a re n ot n atu ra l re sp onse s; th ey are so cia l fo rc es th at p re v en t u s fro m atta in in g th e ra cia l know le d ge w e need to en gag e m ore pro ductiv ely , an d th ey fu nctio n pow erfu lly to h old th e ra cia l h ie ra rc h y in p la ce. T hese fo rc es in clu de th e id eo lo gie s o f in div id ualis m an d m erito cra cy , n arro w an d re p etitiv e m ed ia re p re se n ta tio ns o f p eo ple o f c o lo r, s e g re g atio n i n s c h ools a n d n eig hborh oods, dep ic tio ns of w hite n ess as th e hum an id eal, tr u ncate d his to ry , jo kes an d warn in gs, t a b oos o n o pen ly t a lk in g a b out r a ce, a n d w hite s o lid arity .

In te rru ptin g th e fo rc es o f ra cis m is o ngoin g, lif e lo ng w ork b ecau se th e fo rc es c o nditio nin g u s i n to r a cis t f ra m ew ork s a re a lw ay s a t p la y ; o ur l e arn in g will n ev er b e f in is h ed . Y et o ur s im plis tic d efin itio n o f r a cis m — as in te n tio nal acts o f r a cia l d is c rim in atio n c o m mitte d b y i m mora l i n div id uals — en gen ders a co nfid en ce th at w e a re n ot p art o f th e p ro ble m a n d th at o ur le arn in g is th us co m ple te . T he c la im s w e o ffe r u p a s e v id en ce a re im pla u sib le . F or e x am ple , perh ap s y ou’v e h eard s o m eo ne s a y “ I w as ta u ght to tr e at e v ery one th e s a m e” or “ P eo ple j u st n eed t o b e t a u ght t o r e sp ect o ne a n oth er, a n d t h at b eg in s i n t h e hom e.” T hese sta te m en ts te n d to en d th e d is c u ssio n an d th e le arn in g th at co uld c o m e fro m su sta in ed e n gag em en t. F urth er, th ey a re u nco nvin cin g to most peo ple of co lo r an d only in valid ate th eir ex perie n ces. M an y w hite peo ple s im ply d o n ot u nders ta n d th e p ro cess o f s o cia liz atio n, a n d th is is o ur nex t c h alle n ge.

WE D O N’T U NDER ST A ND S O CIA LIZ A TIO N When I t a lk t o w hite p eo ple a b out r a cis m , t h eir r e sp onse s a re s o p re d ic ta b le I so m etim es f e el a s th ough w e a re a ll r e citin g lin es f ro m a s h are d s c rip t. A nd on s o m e l e v el, w e a re , b ecau se w e a re a cto rs i n a s h are d c u ltu re . A s ig nif ic an t asp ect o f th e w hite s c rip t d eriv es f ro m o ur s e ein g o urs e lv es a s b oth o bje ctiv e an d u niq ue. T o u nders ta n d w hite fra g ility , w e h av e to b eg in to u nders ta n d why we can not fu lly be eith er; we m ust unders ta n d th e fo rc es of so cia liz atio n.

We m ak e se n se of perc ep tio ns an d ex perie n ces th ro ugh our partic u la r cu ltu ra l le n s. T his le n s is n eith er u niv ers a l n or o bje ctiv e, a n d w ith out it, a pers o n c o uld n ot f u nctio n in a n y h um an s o cie ty . B ut e x plo rin g th ese c u ltu ra l fra m ew ork s can be partic u la rly ch alle n gin g in W este rn cu ltu re pre cis e ly becau se of tw o key W este rn id eo lo gie s: in div id ualis m an d obje ctiv ity .

Brie fly , in div id ualis m h old s th at w e a re e ach u niq ue a n d sta n d a p art fro m oth ers , ev en th ose w ith in o ur so cia l g ro ups. O bje ctiv ity te lls u s th at it is possib le to b e fre e o f a ll b ia s. T hese id eo lo gie s m ak e it v ery d if fic u lt fo r white p eo ple t o e x plo re t h e c o lle ctiv e a sp ects o f t h e w hite e x perie n ce.

In div id ualis m is a s to ry lin e th at c re ate s, c o m munic ate s, re p ro duces, a n d re in fo rc es th e c o ncep t th at e ach o f u s is a u niq ue in div id ual a n d th at o ur gro up m em bers h ip s, su ch as ra ce, cla ss, or gen der, are ir re le v an t to our opportu nitie s. In div id ualis m cla im s th at th ere are no in tr in sic barrie rs to in div id ual s u ccess a n d th at fa ilu re is n ot a c o nse q uen ce o f s o cia l s tr u ctu re s but co m es fro m in div id ual ch ara cte r. Acco rd in g to th e id eo lo gy of in div id ualis m , ra ce is ir re le v an t. O f co urs e , w e do occu py dis tin ct ra ce, gen der, c la ss, a n d o th er p ositio ns th at p ro fo undly s h ap e o ur lif e c h an ces in way s th at a re n ot n atu ra l, v olu nta ry , o r ra n dom ; o pportu nity is n ot e q ually dis tr ib ute d a cro ss r a ce, c la ss, a n d g en der. O n s o m e le v el, w e k now th at B ill Gate s’s so n w as born in to a se t of opportu nitie s th at w ill ben efit him th ro ughout h is lif e , w heth er h e is m ed io cre o r e x cep tio nal. Y et e v en th ough Gate s’s s o n h as c le arly b een h an ded u nearn ed a d van ta g e, w e c lin g tig htly to th e id eo lo gy o f in div id ualis m w hen ask ed to co nsid er o ur o w n u nearn ed ad van ta g es.

Reg ard le ss o f o ur p ro te sta tio ns th at s o cia l g ro ups d on’t m atte r a n d th at w e se e e v ery one a s e q ual, w e k now th at to b e a m an a s d efin ed b y th e d om in an t cu ltu re is a d if fe re n t e x perie n ce fro m b ein g a w om an . W e k now th at to b e vie w ed a s o ld is d if fe re n t f ro m b ein g v ie w ed a s y oung, r ic h is d if fe re n t f ro m poor, ab le -b odie d dif fe re n t fro m hav in g a dis a b ility , gay dif fe re n t fro m hete ro se x ual, a n d s o o n. T hese g ro ups m atte r, b ut t h ey d on’t m atte r n atu ra lly , as w e a re o fte n ta u ght to b elie v e. R ath er, w e a re ta u ght th at th ey m atte r, a n d th e so cia l m ean in g asc rib ed to th ese g ro ups cre ate s a d if fe re n ce in liv ed ex perie n ce. W e a re ta u ght th ese s o cia l m ean in gs in m yria d w ay s, b y a r a n ge of p eo ple , a n d th ro ugh a v arie ty o f m ed iu m s. T his tr a in in g c o ntin ues a fte r ch ild hood a n d th ro ughout o ur liv es. M uch o f it is n onverb al a n d is a ch ie v ed th ro ugh w atc h in g a n d c o m parin g o urs e lv es t o o th ers .

We a re s o cia liz ed i n to t h ese g ro ups c o lle ctiv ely . I n m ain str e am c u ltu re , w e all re ceiv e th e s a m e m essa g es a b out w hat th ese g ro ups m ean , w hy b ein g in one g ro up i s a d if fe re n t e x perie n ce f ro m b ein g i n a n oth er. A nd w e a ls o k now th at it is “ b ette r” to b e in o ne o f th ese g ro ups th an to b e in its o pposite — fo r ex am ple , to be young ra th er th an old , ab le -b odie d ra th er th an hav e a dis a b ility , r ic h r a th er t h an p oor. W e g ain our u nders ta n din g o f g ro up m ean in g co lle ctiv ely th ro ugh asp ects o f th e so cie ty aro und u s th at are sh are d an d unav oid ab le : te le v is io n, movie s, new s ite m s, so ng ly ric s, mag azin es, te x tb ooks, s c h ools , r e lig io n, lite ra tu re , s to rie s, jo kes, tr a d itio ns a n d p ra ctic es, his to ry , an d so on. These dim en sio ns of our cu ltu re sh ap e our gro up id en titie s.

Our u nders ta n din g o f o urs e lv es is n ecessa rily b ase d o n o ur c o m paris o ns with o th ers . T he c o ncep t o f p re tty h as n o m ean in g w ith out th e c o ncep t o f ugly , sm art m ean s little w ith out th e id ea of not- s m art or “stu pid ,” an d dese rv in g h as n o m ean in g w ith out th e c o ncep t o f u ndese rv in g. W e c o m e to unders ta n d w ho w e a re b y u nders ta n din g w ho w e a re n ot. B ut b ecau se o f o ur so cie ty ’s e m phasis o n in div id uality , m an y o f u s a re u nsk ille d a t r e fle ctin g o n our g ro up m em bers h ip s. T o u nders ta n d ra ce re la tio ns to day , w e m ust p ush ag ain st our co nditio nin g an d gra p ple w ith how an d w hy ra cia l gro up mem bers h ip s m atte r.

In a d ditio n to c h alle n gin g o ur s e n se o f o urs e lv es a s in div id uals , ta ck lin g gro up id en tity a ls o c h alle n ges o ur b elie f in o bje ctiv ity . I f g ro up m em bers h ip is r e le v an t, t h en w e d on’t s e e t h e w orld f ro m t h e u niv ers a l h um an p ers p ectiv e but fro m th e p ers p ectiv e o f a p artic u la r k in d o f h um an . In th is w ay , b oth id eo lo gie s a re d is ru pte d . T hus, r e fle ctin g o n o ur r a cia l f ra m es is p artic u la rly ch alle n gin g fo r m an y w hite p eo ple , b ecau se w e are ta u ght th at to h av e a ra cia l v ie w poin t i s t o b e b ia se d . U nfo rtu nate ly , t h is b elie f p ro te cts o ur b ia se s, becau se d en yin g t h at w e h av e t h em e n su re s t h at w e w on’t e x am in e o r c h an ge th em . T his w ill be im porta n t to re m em ber w hen w e co nsid er our ra cia l so cia liz atio n, b ecau se t h ere i s a v ast d if fe re n ce b etw een w hat w e v erb ally t e ll our c h ild re n a n d a ll t h e o th er w ay s w e tr a in t h em i n to t h e r a cia l n orm s o f o ur cu ltu re .

For m an y w hite p eo ple , th e m ere title o f th is b ook w ill c au se re sis ta n ce becau se I a m b re ak in g a c ard in al r u le o f in div id ualis m —I a m g en era liz in g.

I am p ro ceed in g a s if I c o uld k now a n yth in g a b out s o m eo ne ju st b ecau se th e pers o n is w hite . R ig ht n ow y ou m ay b e th in kin g o f a ll th e w ay s th at y ou a re dif fe re n t f ro m o th er w hite p eo ple a n d t h at i f I j u st k new h ow y ou h ad c o m e t o th is c o untr y , o r w ere c lo se to th ese p eo ple , g re w u p in th is n eig hborh ood, en dure d th is str u ggle , o r h ad th is e x perie n ce, th en I w ould k now th at y ou were d if fe re n t— th at y ou w ere n ot ra cis t. I’v e w itn esse d th is c o m mon re fle x co untle ss t im es i n m y w ork .

For ex am ple , I re cen tly g av e a ta lk to a g ro up o f ab out tw o h undre d em plo yees. There w ere no m ore th an fiv e peo ple of co lo r in th eir org an iz atio n, a n d o f th ese fiv e, o nly tw o w ere A fric an A m eric an . O ver a n d over, I e m phasiz ed t h e i m porta n ce o f w hite p eo ple h av in g r a cia l h um ility a n d of n ot e x em ptin g o urs e lv es fro m th e u nav oid ab le d ynam ic s o f ra cis m . A s so on a s I w as d one s p eak in g, a lin e o f w hite p eo ple fo rm ed — oste n sib ly to ask m e q uestio ns— but m ore ty pic ally to r e ite ra te th e s a m e o pin io ns o n r a ce th ey h eld w hen th ey h ad e n te re d th e r o om . T he f ir s t in lin e w as a w hite m an who ex pla in ed th at h e w as Ita lia n A m eric an an d th at Ita lia n s w ere o nce co nsid ere d bla ck an d dis c rim in ate d ag ain st, so did n’t I th in k th at w hite peo ple e x perie n ce r a cis m t o o? T hat h e c o uld b e i n t h at o verw helm in gly w hite ro om o f c o w ork ers a n d e x em pt h im se lf f ro m a n e x am in atio n o f h is w hite n ess becau se Ita lia n s w ere once dis c rim in ate d ag ain st is an all- to o-c o m mon ex am ple o f in div id ualis m . A m ore fru itf u l fo rm o f e n gag em en t (b ecau se it ex pan ds ra th er th an pro te cts his cu rre n t w orld vie w ) w ould hav e been to co nsid er h ow Ita lia n A m eric an s w ere a b le to b eco m e w hite a n d h ow th at assim ila tio n h as s h ap ed h is e x perie n ces in th e p re se n t as a w hite m an.

H is cla im s d id n ot i llu str a te t h at h e w as d if fe re n t f ro m o th er w hite p eo ple w hen i t co m es to ra ce. I c an p re d ic t th at m an y re ad ers w ill m ak e s im ila r c la im s o f ex cep tio n p re cis e ly b ecau se w e a re p ro ducts o f o ur c u ltu re , n ot s e p ara te f ro m it.

As a so cio lo gis t, I am quite co m fo rta b le gen era liz in g; so cia l lif e is patte rn ed an d pre d ic ta b le in m easu ra b le w ay s. B ut I unders ta n d th at m y gen era liz atio ns m ay cau se so m e d efe n siv en ess fo r th e w hite p eo ple ab out whom I a m g en era liz in g, g iv en h ow c h eris h ed th e id eo lo gy o f in div id ualis m is i n o ur c u ltu re . T here a re , o f c o urs e , e x cep tio ns, b ut p atte rn s a re r e co gniz ed as su ch p re cis e ly b ecau se th ey are re cu rrin g an d p re d ic ta b le . W e can not unders ta n d m odern f o rm s o f r a cis m if w e c an not o r w ill n ot e x plo re p atte rn s of g ro up b eh av io r a n d th eir e ffe cts o n in div id uals . I a sk r e ad ers to m ak e th e sp ecif ic a d ju stm en ts th ey th in k are n ecessa ry to th eir situ atio n, ra th er th an re je ct th e e v id en ce e n tir e ly . F or e x am ple , p erh ap s y ou g re w u p in p overty , o r are an A sh ken azi Je w o f E uro pean h erita g e, o r w ere ra is e d in a m ilita ry fa m ily . P erh ap s y ou g re w u p in C an ad a, H aw aii, o r G erm an y, o r h ad p eo ple of c o lo r i n y our f a m ily . N one o f t h ese s itu atio ns e x em pts y ou f ro m t h e f o rc es of r a cis m , b ecau se n o a sp ect o f s o cie ty i s o uts id e o f t h ese f o rc es.

Rath er th an u se w hat y ou se e a s u niq ue a b out y ours e lf a s a n e x em ptio n fro m f u rth er e x am in atio n, a m ore f ru itf u l a p pro ach w ould b e to a sk y ours e lf , “I a m w hite a n d I h av e h ad X e x perie n ce. H ow d id X s h ap e m e a s a r e su lt o f als o b ein g w hite ?” S ettin g a sid e y our s e n se o f u niq uen ess is a c ritic al s k ill th at w ill a llo w y ou to se e th e b ig p ic tu re o f th e so cie ty in w hic h w e liv e; in div id ualis m w ill n ot. F or n ow , tr y to le t g o o f y our in div id ual n arra tiv e a n d gra p ple w ith th e c o lle ctiv e m essa g es w e a ll re ceiv e a s m em bers o f a la rg er sh are d c u ltu re . W ork t o s e e h ow t h ese m essa g es h av e s h ap ed y our l if e , r a th er th an u se s o m e a sp ect o f y our s to ry t o e x cu se y ours e lf f ro m t h eir i m pact.

WE H AVE A S IM PL IS T IC U NDER ST A NDIN G O F R ACIS M The fin al c h alle n ge w e n eed to a d dre ss is o ur d efin itio n o f “ ra cis t.” In th e post– civ il rig hts e ra , w e h av e b een ta u ght th at ra cis ts a re m ean p eo ple w ho in te n tio nally dis lik e oth ers becau se of th eir ra ce; ra cis ts are im mora l.

There fo re , if I a m s a y in g th at m y re ad ers a re ra cis t o r, e v en w ors e , th at a ll white peo ple are ra cis t, I am sa y in g so m eth in g deep ly offe n siv e; I am questio nin g m y re ad ers ’ v ery m ora l c h ara cte r. H ow c an I m ak e th is c la im when I d on’t e v en k now m y re ad ers ? M an y o f y ou h av e frie n ds a n d lo ved ones o f c o lo r, s o h ow c an y ou b e r a cis t? I n f a ct, s in ce it’ s r a cis t to g en era liz e ab out p eo ple a cco rd in g to r a ce, I a m th e o ne b ein g r a cis t! S o le t m e b e c le ar:

If y our d efin itio n o f a ra cis t is so m eo ne w ho h old s co nsc io us d is lik e o f peo ple b ecau se o f r a ce, th en I a g re e th at it is o ffe n siv e f o r m e to s u ggest th at you are ra cis t w hen I don’t know you. I als o ag re e th at if th is is your defin itio n o f r a cis m , a n d y ou a re a g ain st r a cis m , t h en y ou a re n ot r a cis t. N ow bre ath e. I a m n ot u sin g t h is d efin itio n o f r a cis m , a n d I a m n ot s a y in g t h at y ou are i m mora l. I f you c an r e m ain o pen a s I l a y o ut m y a rg um en t, i t s h ould s o on beg in t o m ak e s e n se .

In lig ht o f th e c h alle n ges r a is e d h ere , I e x pect th at w hite r e ad ers w ill h av e mom en ts o f d is c o m fo rt re ad in g th is b ook. T his fe elin g m ay b e a sig n th at I’v e m an ag ed to u nse ttle th e ra cia l s ta tu s q uo, w hic h is m y g oal. T he ra cia l sta tu s q uo is c o m fo rta b le f o r w hite p eo ple , a n d w e w ill n ot m ove f o rw ard in ra ce r e la tio ns if w e r e m ain c o m fo rta b le . T he k ey to m ovin g f o rw ard is w hat we do w ith our dis c o m fo rt. W e can use it as a door out— bla m e th e messe n ger an d d is re g ard th e m essa g e. O r w e can u se it as a d oor in b y ask in g, W hy d oes th is u nse ttle m e? W hat w ould it m ean f o r m e if th is w ere tr u e? H ow d oes th is le n s c h an ge m y u nders ta n din g o f r a cia l d ynam ic s? H ow can m y u nease h elp r e v eal th e u nex am in ed a ssu m ptio ns I h av e b een m ak in g?

Is it p ossib le th at b ecau se I a m w hite , th ere a re s o m e ra cia l d ynam ic s th at I can ’t s e e? A m I w illin g to c o nsid er th at p ossib ility ? I f I a m n ot w illin g to d o so , t h en w hy n ot?

If y ou a re re ad in g th is a n d a re still m ak in g y our c ase fo r w hy y ou a re dif fe re n t fro m o th er w hite p eo ple a n d w hy n one o f th is a p plie s to y ou, s to p an d ta k e a b re ath . N ow re tu rn to th e q uestio ns ab ove, an d k eep w ork in g th ro ugh th em . T o in te rru pt w hite fra g ility , w e n eed to b uild o ur c ap acity to su sta in th e dis c o m fo rt of not know in g, th e dis c o m fo rt of bein g ra cia lly unm oore d , th e d is c o m fo rt o f ra cia l h um ility . O ur n ex t ta sk is to u nders ta n d how th e fo rc es o f ra cia l s o cia liz atio n a re c o nsta n tly a t p la y . T he in ab ility to ack now le d ge t h ese f o rc es i n ev ita b ly l e ad s t o t h e r e sis ta n ce a n d d efe n siv en ess of w hite f ra g ility . T o in cre ase th e r a cia l s ta m in a th at c o unte rs w hite f ra g ility , we m ust r e fle ct o n th e w hole o f o ur id en titie s— an d o ur r a cia l g ro up id en tity in p artic u la r. F or w hite p eo ple , t h is m ean s f ir s t s tr u gglin g w ith w hat i t m ean s to b e w hite . CH APT ER 2 RACIS M A ND W HIT E S U PR EM ACY M an y o f u s h av e b een ta u ght to b elie v e th at th ere a re d is tin ct b io lo gic al a n d g en etic dif fe re n ces betw een ra ces. This bio lo gy acco unts fo r vis u al d if fe re n ces s u ch a s s k in c o lo r, h air te x tu re , a n d e y e s h ap e, a n d tr a its th at w e b elie v e w e se e su ch a s se x uali ty , a th le tic is m , o r m ath em atic al a b ility . T he i d ea o f r a ce a s a b io lo gic al c o nstr u ct m ak es i t e asy t o b elie v e t h at m an y o f t h e d iv is io ns w e se e in so cie ty are n atu ra l. B ut ra ce, lik e g en der, is so cia lly c o nstr u cte d . T he d if fe re n ces w e s e e w ith o ur e y es— dif fe re n ces s u ch a s h air t e x tu re an d ey e co lo r— are su perfic ia l an d em erg ed as ad ap ta tio ns to g eo gra p hy.

1 U nder th e sk in , th ere is n o tr u e b io lo gic al ra ce. T he e x te rn al c h ara cte ris tic s th at w e u se to d efin e r a ce a re u nre lia b le in dic ato rs o f g en etic v aria tio n b etw een a n y t w o p eo ple .

2 How ev er, th e b elie f th at ra ce a n d th e d if fe re n ces a sso cia te d w ith it a re b io lo gic al is d eep -s e ate d . T o c h alle n ge th e b elie f in r a ce a s b io lo gy, w e n eed t o u nders ta n d th e so cia l an d eco nom ic in vestm en ts th at d ro ve sc ie n ce to o rg an iz e s o cie ty a n d i ts r e so urc es a lo ng r a cia l l in es a n d w hy t h is o rg an iz atio n i s s o e n durin g.

SO CIA L C O NST R UCTIO N O F R ACE I N T H E U NIT ED S T A TES F re ed om a n d e q uality — re g ard le ss o f re lig io n o r c la ss sta tu s— were ra d ic al n ew id eas w hen th e U nite d S ta te s w as fo rm ed . A t th e sa m e tim e, th e U S e co nom y w as b ase d o n t h e a b ductio n a n d e n sla v em en t o f A fric an peo ple , th e d is p la cem en t an d gen ocid e of In dig en ous peo ple , an d th e an nex atio n of M ex ic an la n ds. F urth er, th e c o lo niz ers w ho c am e w ere n ot f re e o f th eir o w n c u ltu ra l c o nditio nin g; th ey b ro ught w ith th em d eep ly in te rn aliz ed p atte rn s o f d om in atio n a n d s u bm is sio n.

3 The te n sio n b etw een th e n oble id eo lo gy o f e q uality a n d th e c ru el r e ality o f g en ocid e, en sla v em en t, an d co lo niz atio n had to be re co ncile d . Thom as Je ffe rs o n (w ho him se lf ow ned hundre d s of en sla v ed peo ple ) an d oth ers tu rn ed to sc ie n ce. Je ffe rs o n su ggeste d th at th ere w ere n atu ra l d if fe re n ces betw een th e ra ces a n d a sk ed s c ie n tis ts to fin d th em .

4 If s c ie n ce c o uld p ro ve th at b la ck p eo ple w ere n atu ra lly a n d in here n tly in fe rio r (h e s a w In dig en ous peo ple a s c u ltu ra lly d efic ie n t— a s h ortc o m in g th at c o uld b e r e m ed ie d ), th ere would be no co ntr a d ic tio n betw een our pro fe sse d id eals an d our actu al pra ctic es. T here w ere , o f c o urs e , e n orm ous e co nom ic in te re sts in ju stif y in g en sla v em en t a n d c o lo niz atio n. R ace s c ie n ce w as d riv en b y th ese s o cia l a n d eco nom ic in te re sts , w hic h c am e to e sta b lis h c u ltu ra l n orm s a n d le g al r u lin gs th at l e g itim iz ed r a cis m a n d t h e p riv ile g ed s ta tu s o f t h ose d efin ed a s w hite .

Dra w in g o n t h e w ork o f E uro pean s b efo re t h em , A m eric an s c ie n tis ts b eg an se arc h in g fo r th e a n sw er to th e p erc eiv ed in fe rio rity o f n on-A nglo g ro ups.

Illu str a tin g th e p ow er o f o ur q uestio ns to s h ap e th e k now le d ge w e v alid ate , th ese sc ie n tis ts d id n’t a sk , “ A re b la ck s (a n d o th ers ) in fe rio r? ” T hey a sk ed , “W hy a re b la ck s (a n d o th ers ) in fe rio r? ” In le ss th an a c en tu ry , Je ffe rs o n’s su ggestio n o f r a cia l d if fe re n ce b ecam e c o m monly a ccep te d s c ie n tif ic “ fa ct.” 5 The id ea o f ra cia l in fe rio rity w as cre ate d to ju stif y u neq ual tr e atm en t; belie f in ra cia l in fe rio rity is n ot w hat tr ig gere d u neq ual tr e atm en t. N or w as fe ar o f d if fe re n ce. A s T a-N eh is i C oate s sta te s, “B ut ra ce is th e ch ild o f ra cis m , n ot th e fa th er.” 6 H e m ean s th at fir s t w e e x plo ite d p eo ple fo r th eir re so urc es, n ot a cco rd in g to h ow th ey lo oked . E xplo ita tio n c am e fir s t, a n d th en th e id eo lo gy of uneq ual ra ces to ju stif y th is ex plo ita tio n fo llo w ed .

Sim ila rly , h is to ria n I b ra m K en di, in h is N atio nal B ook A ward –w in nin g w ork Sta m ped fr o m th e Beg in nin g, ex pla in s: “T he ben efic ia rie s of sla v ery , se g re g atio n, an d m ass in carc era tio n hav e pro duced ra cis t id eas of B la ck peo ple bein g best su ite d fo r or dese rv in g of th e co nfin es of sla v ery , se g re g atio n, o r th e ja il c ell. C onsu m ers o f th ese r a cis t id eas h av e b een le d to belie v e th ere is s o m eth in g w ro ng w ith B la ck p eo ple , a n d n ot th e p olic ie s th at hav e e n sla v ed , o ppre sse d , a n d c o nfin ed s o m an y B la ck p eo ple .” 7 K en di g oes on t o a rg ue t h at i f w e t r u ly b elie v e t h at a ll h um an s a re e q ual, t h en d is p arity i n co nditio n c an o nly b e t h e r e su lt o f s y ste m ic d is c rim in atio n.

TH E P E R CEPT IO N O F R ACE Race i s a n e v olv in g s o cia l i d ea t h at w as c re ate d t o l e g itim iz e r a cia l i n eq uality an d p ro te ct w hite a d van ta g e. T he te rm “ w hite ” f ir s t a p peare d in c o lo nia l la w in th e la te 1 600s. B y 1 790, p eo ple w ere a sk ed to c la im th eir ra ce o n th e cen su s, a n d b y 1 825, th e p erc eiv ed d eg re es o f b lo od d ete rm in ed w ho w ould be cla ssif ie d as In dia n . F ro m th e la te 1800s th ro ugh th e early tw en tie th cen tu ry , a s w av es o f im mig ra n ts e n te re d th e U nite d S ta te s, th e c o ncep t o f a white r a ce w as s o lid if ie d .

8 When sla v ery in th e U nite d S ta te s w as ab olis h ed in 1865, w hite n ess re m ain ed p ro fo undly im porta n t as le g aliz ed ra cis t ex clu sio n an d v io le n ce ag ain st A fric an A m eric an s c o ntin ued in n ew fo rm s. T o h av e c itiz en sh ip — an d th e r ig hts c itiz en sh ip im bued — you h ad to b e le g ally c la ssif ie d a s w hite .

Peo ple w ith n onw hite r a cia l c la ssif ic atio ns b eg an to p etitio n th e c o urts to b e re cla ssif ie d . N ow t h e c o urts w ere i n t h e p ositio n t o d ecid e w ho w as w hite a n d who w as n ot. F or e x am ple , A rm en ia n s w on th eir c ase to b e re cla ssif ie d a s white w ith th e help of a sc ie n tif ic w itn ess w ho cla im ed th ey w ere sc ie n tif ic ally “C au casia n .” In 1922, th e Supre m e C ourt ru le d th at th e Ja p an ese co uld not be le g ally w hite , becau se th ey w ere sc ie n tif ic ally cla ssif ie d a s “ M ongolo id .” A y ear la te r, th e c o urt s ta te d th at A sia n In dia n s were n ot le g ally w hite , e v en th ough th ey w ere a ls o s c ie n tif ic ally c la ssif ie d a s “C au casia n .” T o j u stif y t h ese c o ntr a d ic to ry r u lin gs, t h e c o urt s ta te d t h at b ein g white w as b ase d o n th e c o m mon u nders ta n din g o f th e w hite m an . In o th er word s, p eo ple a lr e ad y s e en a s w hite g ot t o d ecid e w ho w as w hite .

9 The m eta p hor o f th e U nite d S ta te s as th e g re at m eltin g p ot, in w hic h im mig ra n ts fro m a ro und th e w orld c o m e to geth er a n d m elt in to o ne unif ie d so cie ty th ro ugh th e p ro cess o f a ssim ila tio n, is a c h eris h ed id ea. O nce n ew im mig ra n ts le arn E nglis h a n d a d ap t to A m eric an c u ltu re a n d c u sto m s, th ey beco m e A m eric an s. In re ality , o nly E uro pean im mig ra n ts w ere a llo w ed to melt, o r assim ila te , in to d om in an t cu ltu re in th e n in ete en th an d tw en tie th cen tu rie s, b ecau se , r e g ard le ss o f t h eir e th nic i d en titie s, t h ese i m mig ra n ts w ere perc eiv ed t o b e w hite a n d t h us c o uld b elo ng.

Race is a s o cia l c o nstr u ctio n, a n d th us w ho is in clu ded in th e c ate g ory o f white c h an ges o ver tim e. A s th e Ita lia n A m eric an m an fro m m y w ork sh op note d , E uro pean eth nic g ro ups su ch as th e Iris h , Ita lia n , an d P olis h w ere ex clu ded in th e p ast. B ut w here th ey m ay h av e b een o rig in ally d iv id ed in te rm s of orig in , Euro pean im mig ra n ts becam e ra cia lly unite d th ro ugh assim ila tio n.

10 This pro cess of assim ila tio n— sp eak in g Englis h , eatin g “A m eric an ” fo ods, dis c ard in g cu sto m s th at se t th em ap art— re if ie d th e perc ep tio n o f A m eric an a s w hite . R acia l id en tif ic atio n in th e la rg er s o cie ty pla y s a f u ndam en ta l r o le i n i d en tity d ev elo pm en t, i n h ow w e s e e o urs e lv es.

If w e “lo ok w hite ,” w e are tr e ate d as w hite in so cie ty at la rg e. F or ex am ple , peo ple of so uth ern Euro pean herita g e, su ch as Span is h or Portu guese , o r fro m th e fo rm er S ovie t U nio n, esp ecia lly if th ey are n ew im mig ra n ts o r w ere r a is e d b y im mig ra n ts , a re lik ely to h av e a s tr o nger s e n se of e th nic id en tity th an w ill s o m eo ne o f th e s a m e e th nic ity w hose a n cesto rs hav e b een h ere fo r g en era tio ns. Y et a lth ough th eir in te rn al id en tity m ay b e dif fe re n t, if th ey “p ass” as w hite , th ey w ill still h av e a w hite ex perie n ce ex te rn ally . If th ey lo ok w hite , th e d efa u lt a ssu m ptio n w ill b e th at th ey a re white a n d th us th ey w ill b e r e sp onded to a s w hite . T he in co ngru ity b etw een th eir in te rn al e th nic id en tity (e .g ., P ortu guese , S pan is h ) a n d e x te rn al ra cia l ex perie n ce (w hite ) w ould pro vid e a m ore co m ple x or nuan ced se n se of id en tity th an th at o f so m eo ne w ho d oesn ’t h av e a str o ng eth nic id en tity .

How ev er, th ey a re still g ra n te d w hite sta tu s a n d th e a d van ta g es th at c o m e with th at s ta tu s. T oday , th ese a d van ta g es a re d e f a cto r a th er th an d e ju re , b ut are n oneth ele ss p ow erfu l in s h ap in g o ur d aily liv es. It is o n e ach o f u s w ho pass a s w hite to id en tif y h ow th ese a d van ta g es s h ap e u s, n ot to d en y th em whole sc ale .

Becau se ra ce is a p ro duct o f so cia l fo rc es, it h as a ls o m an if e ste d its e lf alo ng c la ss lin es; p oor a n d w ork in g-c la ss p eo ple w ere n ot a lw ay s p erc eiv ed as f u lly w hite .

11 I n a s o cie ty th at g ra n ts f e w er o pportu nitie s to th ose n ot s e en as w hite , eco nom ic an d ra cia l fo rc es are in se p ara b le . H ow ev er, p oor an d work in g-c la ss w hite s w ere e v en tu ally g ra n te d fu ll e n tr y in to w hite n ess a s a way t o e x plo it l a b or. I f p oor w hite s w ere f o cu se d o n f e elin g s u perio r t o t h ose belo w th em in s ta tu s, th ey w ere le ss fo cu se d o n th ose a b ove. T he p oor a n d work in g c la sse s, if u nite d a cro ss ra ce, c o uld b e a p ow erfu l fo rc e. B ut ra cia l div is io ns h av e s e rv ed to k eep th em f ro m o rg an iz in g a g ain st th e o w nin g c la ss who pro fits fro m th eir la b or.

12 Still, alth ough work in g-c la ss white s ex perie n ce cla ssis m , th ey are n ’t als o ex perie n cin g ra cis m . I gre w up in poverty a n d fe lt a d eep s e n se o f s h am e a b out b ein g p oor. B ut I a ls o a lw ay s knew t h at I w as w hite , a n d t h at i t w as b ette r t o b e w hite .

RACIS M To u nders ta n d r a cis m , w e n eed t o f ir s t d is tin guis h i t f ro m m ere p re ju dic e a n d dis c rim in atio n. P re ju dic e is p re -ju dgm en t a b out a n oth er p ers o n b ase d o n th e so cia l g ro ups to w hic h th at p ers o n b elo ngs. P re ju dic e c o nsis ts o f th oughts an d fe elin gs, in clu din g ste re o ty pes, attitu des, an d g en era liz atio ns th at are base d o n little o r n o e x perie n ce a n d th en a re p ro je cte d o nto e v ery one fro m th at g ro up. O ur p re ju dic es te n d to b e s h are d b ecau se w e s w im in th e s a m e cu ltu ra l w ate r a n d a b so rb t h e s a m e m essa g es.

All h um an s h av e p re ju dic e; w e c an not a v oid it. I f I a m a w are th at a s o cia l gro up e x is ts , I w ill h av e g ain ed i n fo rm atio n a b out t h at g ro up f ro m t h e s o cie ty aro und m e. T his in fo rm atio n h elp s m e m ak e se n se o f th e g ro up fro m m y cu ltu ra l f ra m ew ork . P eo ple w ho c la im n ot t o b e p re ju dic ed a re d em onstr a tin g a p ro fo und la ck o f s e lf -a w are n ess. I ro nic ally , th ey a re a ls o d em onstr a tin g th e pow er o f s o cia liz atio n— we h av e a ll b een ta u ght in s c h ools , th ro ugh m ovie s, an d f ro m f a m ily m em bers , te ach ers , a n d c le rg y th at it is im porta n t n ot to b e pre ju dic ed . U nfo rtu nate ly , t h e p re v ailin g b elie f t h at p re ju dic e i s b ad c au se s u s to d en y i ts u nav oid ab le r e ality .

Pre ju dic e is fo undatio nal to unders ta n din g white fra g ility becau se su ggestin g th at w hite p eo ple h av e r a cia l p re ju dic e is p erc eiv ed a s s a y in g th at we a re b ad a n d sh ould b e a sh am ed . W e th en fe el th e n eed to d efe n d o ur ch ara cte r ra th er th an ex plo re th e in ev ita b le ra cia l pre ju dic es w e hav e ab so rb ed s o th at w e m ig ht c h an ge th em . In th is w ay , o ur m is u nders ta n din g ab out w hat p re ju dic e i s p ro te cts i t.

Dis c rim in atio n is actio n base d on pre ju dic e. These actio ns in clu de ig norin g, e x clu sio n, th re ats , rid ic u le , s la n der, a n d v io le n ce. F or e x am ple , if hatr e d is th e em otio n w e fe el b ecau se o f o ur p re ju dic e, ex tr e m e acts o f dis c rim in atio n, s u ch a s v io le n ce, m ay f o llo w . T hese f o rm s o f d is c rim in atio n are g en era lly c le ar a n d r e co gniz ab le . B ut if w hat w e f e el is m ore s u btle , s u ch as m ild d is c o m fo rt, th e d is c rim in atio n is l ik ely to a ls o b e s u btle , e v en h ard t o dete ct. M ost o f u s can ack now le d ge th at w e d o fe el so m e u nease aro und certa in g ro ups o f p eo ple , if o n ly a h eig hte n ed se n se o f se lf -c o nsc io usn ess.

But th is fe elin g doesn ’t co m e natu ra lly . O ur unease co m es fro m liv in g se p ara te fro m a g ro up o f p eo ple w hile s im ulta n eo usly a b so rb in g in co m ple te or e rro neo us in fo rm atio n a b out th em . W hen th e p re ju dic e c au se s m e to a ct dif fe re n tly — I a m le ss r e la x ed a ro und y ou o r I a v oid in te ra ctin g w ith y ou— I am n ow d is c rim in atin g. P re ju dic e a lw ay s m an if e sts its e lf in a ctio n b ecau se th e w ay I se e th e w orld driv es m y actio ns in th e w orld . E very one has pre ju dic e, an d ev ery one dis c rim in ate s. G iv en th is re ality , in se rtin g th e qualif ie r “ re v ers e ” i s n onse n sic al.

When a r a cia l g ro up’s c o lle ctiv e p re ju dic e is b ack ed b y th e p ow er o f le g al au th ority an d in stitu tio nal co ntr o l, it is tr a n sfo rm ed in to ra cis m , a fa r- re ach in g sy ste m th at fu nctio ns in dep en den tly fro m th e in te n tio ns o r se lf - im ag es o f in div id ual a cto rs . J. K ēh au la n i K au an ui, p ro fe sso r o f A m eric an stu die s an d an th ro polo gy at W esle y an U niv ers ity , ex pla in s, “R acis m is a str u ctu re , n ot a n e v en t.” 13 A m eric an w om en ’s s tr u ggle f o r s u ffra g e i llu str a te s how in stitu tio nal pow er tr a n sfo rm s pre ju dic e an d dis c rim in atio n in to str u ctu re s of oppre ssio n. E very one has pre ju dic e an d dis c rim in ate s, but str u ctu re s o f o ppre ssio n g o w ell b ey ond in div id uals . W hile w om en c o uld b e pre ju dic ed a n d d is c rim in ate a g ain st m en in in div id ual in te ra ctio ns, w om en a s a g ro up c o uld n ot d en y m en th eir c iv il rig hts . B ut m en a s a g ro up c o uld a n d did d en y w om en th eir c iv il rig hts . M en c o uld d o s o b ecau se th ey c o ntr o lle d all th e in stitu tio ns. T here fo re , th e o nly w ay w om en c o uld g ain s u ffra g e w as fo r m en t o g ra n t i t t o t h em ; w om en c o uld n ot g ra n t s u ffra g e t o t h em se lv es.

Sim ila rly , ra cis m — lik e se x is m an d oth er fo rm s of oppre ssio n— occu rs when a r a cia l g ro up’s p re ju dic e is b ack ed b y le g al a u th ority a n d in stitu tio nal co ntr o l. T his a u th ority a n d c o ntr o l t r a n sfo rm s i n div id ual p re ju dic es i n to a f a r- re ach in g s y ste m th at n o lo nger d ep en ds o n th e g ood in te n tio ns o f in div id ual acto rs ; it b eco m es th e d efa u lt o f th e s o cie ty a n d is r e p ro duced a u to m atic ally .

Racis m is a sy ste m . A nd I w ould b e re m is s if I d id n ot a ck now le d ge th e in te rs e ctio n o f r a ce a n d g en der i n t h e e x am ple o f s u ffra g e; white m en g ra n te d su ffra g e to w om en , b ut o nly g ra n te d f u ll a ccess to w hite w om en . W om en o f co lo r w ere d en ie d f u ll a ccess u ntil t h e V otin g R ig hts A ct o f 1 964.

The s y ste m o f ra cis m b eg in s w ith id eo lo gy, w hic h re fe rs to th e b ig id eas th at a re re in fo rc ed th ro ughout so cie ty . F ro m b ir th , w e a re c o nditio ned in to accep tin g an d not questio nin g th ese id eas. Id eo lo gy is re in fo rc ed acro ss so cie ty , fo r e x am ple , in sc h ools a n d te x tb ooks, p olitic al sp eech es, m ovie s, ad vertis in g, h olid ay c ele b ra tio ns, a n d w ord s a n d p hra se s. T hese i d eas a re a ls o re in fo rc ed th ro ugh s o cia l p en altie s w hen s o m eo ne q uestio ns a n id eo lo gy a n d th ro ugh th e lim ite d av aila b ility of alte rn ativ e id eas. Id eo lo gie s are th e fra m ew ork s th ro ugh w hic h w e a re ta u ght to re p re se n t, in te rp re t, u nders ta n d, an d m ak e se n se o f so cia l ex is te n ce.

14 B ecau se th ese id eas are co nsta n tly re in fo rc ed , th ey a re v ery h ard to a v oid b elie v in g a n d in te rn aliz in g. E xam ple s of id eo lo gy in th e U nite d S ta te s in clu de in div id ualis m , th e su perio rity o f cap ita lis m as an eco nom ic sy ste m an d dem ocra cy as a politic al sy ste m , co nsu m eris m a s a d esir a b le lif e sty le , a n d m erito cra cy ( a n yone c an s u cceed if he o r s h e w ork s h ard ).

The ra cia l id eo lo gy th at c ir c u la te s in th e U nite d S ta te s ra tio naliz es ra cia l hie ra rc h ie s a s t h e o utc o m e o f a n atu ra l o rd er r e su ltin g f ro m e ith er g en etic s o r in div id ual e ffo rt o r ta le n t. T hose w ho d on’t s u cceed a re ju st n ot a s n atu ra lly cap ab le , dese rv in g, or hard w ork in g. Id eo lo gie s th at obsc u re ra cis m as a sy ste m o f i n eq uality a re p erh ap s t h e m ost p ow erfu l ra cia l f o rc es b ecau se o nce we a ccep t o ur p ositio ns w ith in r a cia l h ie ra rc h ie s, t h ese p ositio ns s e em n atu ra l an d d if fic u lt to q uestio n, e v en w hen w e a re d is a d van ta g ed b y th em . In th is way , v ery little e x te rn al p re ssu re n eed s to b e a p plie d to k eep p eo ple in th eir pla ces; o nce th e ra tio naliz atio ns fo r in eq uality are in te rn aliz ed , b oth sid es will u phold t h e r e la tio nsh ip .

Racis m is d eep ly e m bed ded in th e f a b ric o f o ur s o cie ty . I t is n ot lim ite d to a s in gle a ct o r p ers o n. N or d oes it m ove b ack a n d fo rth , o ne d ay b en efitin g white s a n d a n oth er d ay ( o r e v en e ra ) b en efitin g p eo ple o f c o lo r. T he d ir e ctio n of p ow er b etw een w hite p eo ple a n d p eo ple o f c o lo r is h is to ric , tr a d itio nal, an d n orm aliz ed in id eo lo gy. R acis m d if fe rs fro m in div id ual ra cia l p re ju dic e an d ra cia l d is c rim in atio n in th e h is to ric al a ccu m ula tio n a n d o ngoin g u se o f in stitu tio nal pow er an d au th ority to su pport th e pre ju dic e an d to sy ste m atic ally e n fo rc e d is c rim in ato ry b eh av io rs w ith f a r-re ach in g e ffe cts .

Peo ple o f c o lo r m ay a ls o h old p re ju dic es a n d d is c rim in ate a g ain st w hite peo ple , b ut th ey la ck th e s o cia l a n d in stitu tio nal p ow er th at tr a n sfo rm s th eir pre ju dic e a n d d is c rim in atio n in to ra cis m ; th e im pact o f th eir p re ju dic e o n white s is te m pora ry a n d c o nte x tu al. W hite s h old th e s o cia l a n d in stitu tio nal positio ns in so cie ty to in fu se th eir ra cia l p re ju dic e in to th e la w s, p olic ie s, pra ctic es, a n d n orm s o f s o cie ty i n a w ay t h at p eo ple o f c o lo r d o n ot. A p ers o n of c o lo r m ay r e fu se t o w ait o n m e i f I e n te r a s h op, b ut p eo ple o f c o lo r c an not pass le g is la tio n th at p ro hib its m e a n d e v ery one lik e m e f ro m b uyin g a h om e in a c erta in n eig hborh ood.

Peo ple o f c o lo r m ay a ls o h old p re ju dic es a n d d is c rim in ate a g ain st th eir ow n a n d o th er g ro ups o f c o lo r, b ut th is b ia s u ltim ate ly h old s th em d ow n a n d, in th is w ay , r e in fo rc es th e s y ste m o f r a cis m th at s till b en efits w hite s. R acis m is a s o cie ty -w id e d ynam ic t h at o ccu rs a t t h e g ro up l e v el. W hen I s a y t h at o nly white s c an b e ra cis t, I m ean th at in th e U nite d S ta te s, o nly w hite s h av e th e co lle ctiv e s o cia l a n d in stitu tio nal p ow er a n d p riv ile g e o ver p eo ple o f c o lo r.

Peo ple o f c o lo r d o n ot h av e t h is p ow er a n d p riv ile g e o ver w hite p eo ple .

Man y w hite s s e e r a cis m a s a th in g o f th e p ast, a n d o f c o urs e , w e a re w ell se rv ed n ot to ack now le d ge it in th e p re se n t. Y et ra cia l d is p arity betw een white s an d peo ple of co lo r co ntin ues to ex is t in ev ery in stitu tio n acro ss so cie ty , a n d in m an y c ase s is in cre asin g ra th er th an d ecre asin g. A lth ough se g re g atio n m ay m ak e th ese d is p aritie s d if fic u lt f o r w hite s to s e e a n d e asy to den y, ra cia l d is p aritie s a n d th eir e ffe cts o n o vera ll q uality o f lif e h av e b een ex te n siv ely docu m en te d by a wid e ra n ge of ag en cie s. Am ong th ose docu m en tin g t h ese c h alle n ges a re t h e U S C en su s B ure au , t h e U nite d N atio ns, acad em ic g ro ups s u ch a s th e U CLA C iv il R ig hts P ro je ct a n d th e M etr o polis Pro je ct, an d nonpro fits su ch as th e N AACP an d th e A nti- D efa m atio n Leag ue.

15 Sch ola r M arily n F ry e u se s th e m eta p hor o f a b ir d cag e to d esc rib e th e in te rlo ck in g f o rc es o f o ppre ssio n.

16 I f y ou s ta n d c lo se t o a b ir d cag e a n d p re ss your fa ce a g ain st th e w ir e s, y our p erc ep tio n o f th e b ars w ill d is a p pear a n d you w ill h av e a n a lm ost u nobstr u cte d v ie w o f th e b ir d . I f y ou tu rn y our h ead to e x am in e o ne w ir e o f th e c ag e c lo se ly , y ou w ill n ot b e a b le to s e e th e o th er wir e s. If y our u nders ta n din g o f th e c ag e is b ase d o n th is m yopic v ie w , y ou may n ot u nders ta n d w hy th e b ir d d oesn ’t ju st g o a ro und th e s in gle w ir e a n d fly a w ay . Y ou m ig ht e v en a ssu m e th at th e b ir d lik ed o r c h ose its p la ce in th e cag e.

But i f y ou s te p ped b ack a n d t o ok a w id er v ie w , y ou w ould b eg in t o s e e t h at th e w ir e s c o m e to geth er in a n in te rlo ck in g p atte rn — a p atte rn th at w ork s to hold th e bir d fir m ly in pla ce. It now beco m es cle ar th at a netw ork of sy ste m atic ally r e la te d b arrie rs s u rro unds t h e b ir d . T ak en i n div id ually , n one o f th ese b arrie rs w ould b e th at d if fic u lt fo r th e b ir d to g et a ro und, b ut b ecau se th ey in te rlo ck w ith e ach o th er, th ey th oro ughly r e str ic t th e b ir d . W hile s o m e bir d s m ay e sc ap e fro m th e c ag e, m ost w ill n ot. A nd c erta in ly th ose th at d o esc ap e w ill h av e t o n av ig ate m an y b arrie rs t h at b ir d s o uts id e t h e c ag e d o n ot.

The b ir d cag e m eta p hor h elp s u s u nders ta n d w hy r a cis m c an b e s o h ard to se e a n d re co gniz e: w e h av e a lim ite d v ie w . W ith out re co gniz in g h ow o ur positio n in r e la tio n to th e b ir d d efin es h ow m uch o f th e c ag e w e c an s e e, w e re ly on sin gle situ atio ns, ex cep tio ns, an d an ecd ota l ev id en ce fo r our unders ta n din g, ra th er th an o n b ro ad er, in te rlo ck in g p atte rn s. A lth ough th ere are alw ay s ex cep tio ns, th e patte rn s are co nsis te n t an d w ell docu m en te d :

Peo ple o f c o lo r a re c o nfin ed a n d s h ap ed b y fo rc es an d b arrie rs th at a re n ot accid en ta l, o ccasio nal, o r a v oid ab le . T hese fo rc es a re s y ste m atic ally re la te d to e ach o th er i n w ay s t h at r e str ic t t h eir m ovem en t.

In div id ual w hite s m ay b e “ ag ain st” ra cis m , b ut th ey still b en efit fro m a sy ste m th at priv ile g es w hite s as a gro up. D av id W ellm an su ccin ctly su m mariz es ra cis m as “a sy ste m of ad van ta g e base d on ra ce.” 17 T hese ad van ta g es a re r e fe rre d to a s white p riv ile g e, a s o cio lo gic al c o ncep t r e fe rrin g to ad van ta g es th at are ta k en fo r gra n te d by w hite s an d th at can not be sim ila rly en jo yed by peo ple of co lo r in th e sa m e co nte x t (g overn m en t, co m munity , w ork pla ce, sc h ools , etc .) .

18 B ut le t m e be cle ar: sta tin g th at ra cis m p riv ile g es w hite s d oes n ot m ean th at in div id ual w hite p eo ple d o n ot str u ggle o r fa ce b arrie rs . It d oes m ean th at w e d o n ot fa ce th e p artic u la r barrie rs o f r a cis m .

As w ith p re ju dic e a n d d is c rim in atio n, w e c an r e m ove th e q ualif ie r re verse fro m a n y d is c u ssio n o f ra cis m . B y d efin itio n, ra cis m is a d eep ly e m bed ded his to ric al s y ste m o f in stitu tio nal p ow er. It is n ot flu id a n d d oes n ot c h an ge dir e ctio n s im ply b ecau se a f e w i n div id uals o f c o lo r m an ag e t o e x cel.

WHIT EN ESS A S A P O SIT IO N O F S T A TU S Bein g p erc eiv ed a s w hite c arrie s m ore t h an a m ere r a cia l c la ssif ic atio n; i t i s a so cia l an d in stitu tio nal sta tu s an d id en tity im bued w ith le g al, politic al, eco nom ic , an d so cia l rig hts an d priv ile g es th at are den ie d to oth ers .

Refle ctin g on th e so cia l an d eco nom ic ad van ta g es of bein g cla ssif ie d as white , critic al ra ce sc h ola r C hery l H arris co in ed th e p hra se “w hite n ess as pro perty .” T ra cin g t h e e v olv in g c o ncep t o f w hite n ess a cro ss l e g al h is to ry , s h e ex pla in s:

By acco rd in g w hite n ess an actu al le g al sta tu s, an asp ect o f id en tity w as co nverte d in to an ex te rn al obje ct of pro perty , m ovin g w hite n ess fro m priv ile g ed id en tity to a v este d in te re st. T he la w ’s c o nstr u ctio n o f w hite n ess defin ed a n d a ffir m ed c ritic al a sp ects o f id en tity (w ho is w hite ); o f priv ile g e (w hat b en efits a ccru e t o t h at s ta tu s); a n d, o f p ro perty ( w hat l e g al e n title m en ts aris e f ro m t h at s ta tu s). W hite n ess a t v ario us t im es s ig nif ie s a n d i s d ep lo yed a s id en tity , s ta tu s, a n d p ro perty , s o m etim es s in gula rly , s o m etim es i n t a n dem .

19 Harris ’s a n aly sis i s u se fu l b ecau se i t s h ow s h ow i d en tity a n d p erc ep tio ns o f id en tity can g ra n t o r d en y re so urc es. T hese re so urc es in clu de se lf -w orth , vis ib ility , p ositiv e ex pecta tio ns, p sy ch olo gic al fre ed om fro m th e te th er o f ra ce, fre ed om of m ovem en t, th e se n se of belo ngin g, an d a se n se of en title m en t t o a ll t h e a b ove.

We m ig ht t h in k o f w hite n ess a s a ll t h e a sp ects o f b ein g w hite — asp ects t h at go b ey ond m ere p hysic al d if fe re n ces an d are re la te d to th e m ean in g an d re su lta n t m ate ria l a d van ta g e o f b ein g d efin ed a s w hite in so cie ty : w hat is gra n te d a n d h ow it is g ra n te d b ase d o n th at m ean in g. In ste ad o f th e ty pic al fo cu s o n h ow r a cis m h urts p eo ple o f c o lo r, to e x am in e w hite n ess is to f o cu s on h ow r a cis m e le v ate s w hite p eo ple .

White n ess re sts u pon a fo undatio nal p re m is e : th e d efin itio n o f w hite s a s th e n orm o r s ta n dard f o r h um an , a n d p eo ple o f c o lo r a s a d ev ia tio n f ro m th at norm . W hite n ess is not ack now le d ged by w hite peo ple , an d th e w hite re fe re n ce p oin t i s a ssu m ed t o b e u niv ers a l a n d i s i m pose d o n e v ery one. W hite peo ple fin d it v ery d if fic u lt to th in k a b out w hite n ess a s a sp ecif ic sta te o f bein g t h at c o uld h av e a n i m pact o n o ne’s l if e a n d p erc ep tio ns.

Peo ple o f c o lo r, in clu din g W . E . B . D u B ois a n d Ja m es B ald w in , h av e been w ritin g ab out w hite n ess fo r d ecad es, if n ot cen tu rie s. T hese w rite rs urg ed w hite p eo ple to tu rn th eir a tte n tio n o nto th em se lv es to e x plo re w hat it mean s to b e w hite in a so cie ty th at is so d iv id ed b y ra ce. F or e x am ple , in 1946, a F re n ch re p orte r a sk ed e x patr ia te w rite r R ic h ard W rig ht h is th oughts on t h e “ N eg ro p ro ble m ” i n t h e U nite d S ta te s. W rig ht r e p lie d , “ T here i s n ’t a n y Neg ro p ro ble m ; t h ere i s o nly a w hite p ro ble m .” 20 As W rig ht p oin te d o ut, ra cis m a g ain st p eo ple o f c o lo r d oesn ’t o ccu r in a vacu um . Y et th e id ea th at ra cis m in th e U nite d S ta te s c an o pera te outs id e white p eo ple i s r e in fo rc ed t h ro ugh c ele b ra tio ns s u ch a s B la ck H is to ry M onth , in w hic h w e stu dy th e C iv il W ar a n d c iv il rig hts e ra s a s if th ey o ccu rre d se p ara te ly fro m a ll U S h is to ry . In a d ditio n to th e g en era l w ay th ese c o lo r- base d c ele b ra tio ns ta k e w hite s o ut o f th e e q uatio n, th ere a re sp ecif ic w ay s th at th e a ch ie v em en ts o f p eo ple o f c o lo r a re s e p ara te d f ro m th e o vera ll s o cia l co nte x t a n d d ep olitic iz ed , f o r in sta n ce, in s to rie s w e te ll a b out b la ck c u ltu ra l hero es.

The sto ry of Ja ck ie R obin so n is a cla ssic ex am ple of how w hite n ess obsc u re s ra cis m b y re n derin g w hite s, w hite p riv ile g e, a n d ra cis t in stitu tio ns in vis ib le . R obin so n is o fte n c ele b ra te d a s th e f ir s t A fric an A m eric an to b re ak th e co lo r lin e an d pla y in m ajo r-le ag ue base b all. W hile R obin so n w as certa in ly a n a m azin g b ase b all p la y er, th is s to ry lin e d ep ic ts h im a s ra cia lly sp ecia l, a b la ck m an w ho b ro ke th e c o lo r lin e h im se lf . T he su bte x t is th at Robin so n f in ally h ad w hat it to ok to p la y w ith w hite s, a s if n o b la ck a th le te befo re h im w as s tr o ng e n ough t o c o m pete a t t h at l e v el. I m ag in e i f i n ste ad , t h e sto ry w en t s o m eth in g lik e th is : “ Ja ck ie R obin so n, th e f ir s t b la ck m an w hite s allo w ed to pla y m ajo r-le ag ue base b all.” This vers io n m ak es a critic al dis tin ctio n b ecau se n o m atte r h ow f a n ta stic a p la y er R obin so n w as, h e s im ply co uld n ot p la y in th e m ajo r le ag ues if w hite s— who c o ntr o lle d th e in stitu tio n —did n ot allo w it. W ere h e to w alk o nto th e fie ld b efo re b ein g g ra n te d perm is sio n by w hite ow ners an d polic y m ak ers , th e polic e w ould hav e re m oved h im .

Narra tiv es of ra cia l ex cep tio nality obsc u re th e re ality of ongoin g in stitu tio nal w hite c o ntr o l w hile re in fo rc in g th e id eo lo gie s o f in div id ualis m an d m erito cra cy . T hey a ls o d o w hite s a d is se rv ic e b y o bsc u rin g th e w hite allie s w ho, b eh in d th e sc en es, w ork ed h ard a n d lo ng to o pen th e fie ld to Afric an A m eric an p la y ers . T hese allie s co uld se rv e as m uch -n eed ed ro le models fo r o th er w hite s (a lth ough w e a ls o n eed to a ck now le d ge th at in th e case o f th e d ese g re g atio n o f b ase b all, th ere w as a n e co nom ic in cen tiv e fo r th ese a llie s).

I a m n ot a g ain st B la ck H is to ry M onth . B ut i t s h ould b e c ele b ra te d i n a w ay th at d oesn ’t re in fo rc e w hite n ess. F or th ose w ho a sk w hy th ere is no W hite His to ry M onth , th e a n sw er illu str a te s h ow w hite n ess w ork s. W hite h is to ry is im plie d in th e a b se n ce o f its a ck now le d gm en t; w hite h is to ry is th e n orm f o r his to ry . T hus, o ur n eed to q ualif y th at w e a re s p eak in g a b out b la ck h is to ry o r wom en ’s h is to ry s u ggests t h at t h ese c o ntr ib utio ns l ie o uts id e t h e n orm .

Ruth Fra n ken berg , a pre m ie r w hite sc h ola r in th e fie ld of w hite n ess stu die s, d esc rib es w hite n ess a s m ultid im en sio nal. T hese d im en sio ns i n clu de a lo catio n o f s tr u ctu ra l a d van ta g e, a s ta n dpoin t fro m w hic h w hite p eo ple lo ok at o urs e lv es, a t o th ers , a n d a t s o cie ty , a n d a s e t o f c u ltu ra l p ra ctic es th at a re not nam ed or ack now le d ged .

21 T o sa y th at w hite n ess is a lo catio n of str u ctu ra l a d van ta g e is to re co gniz e th at to b e w hite is to b e in a p riv ile g ed positio n w ith in s o cie ty a n d i ts in stitu tio ns— to b e s e en a s a n i n sid er a n d t o b e gra n te d th e ben efits of belo ngin g. This positio n au to m atic ally besto w s unearn ed a d van ta g es. W hite s c o ntr o l a ll m ajo r in stitu tio ns o f s o cie ty a n d s e t th e p olic ie s a n d p ra ctic es th at o th ers m ust liv e b y. A lth ough ra re in div id ual peo ple o f c o lo r m ay b e in sid e th e c ir c le s o f p ow er— Colin P ow ell, C la re n ce Thom as, M arc o R ubio , B ara ck O bam a— th ey s u pport th e s ta tu s q uo a n d d o not c h alle n ge ra cis m in a n y w ay s ig nif ic an t e n ough to b e th re ate n in g. T heir positio ns o f p ow er d o n ot m ean th ese p ublic f ig ure s d on’t e x perie n ce r a cis m (O bam a e n dure d in su lts a n d r e sis ta n ce p re v io usly u nheard -o f), b ut th e s ta tu s quo r e m ain s i n ta ct.

To s a y th at w hite n ess is a s ta n dpoin t is to s a y th at a s ig nif ic an t a sp ect o f white id en tity is to s e e o nese lf a s a n in div id ual, o uts id e o r in nocen t o f ra ce —“ju st h um an .” T his sta n dpoin t v ie w s w hite p eo ple a n d th eir in te re sts a s cen tr a l t o , a n d r e p re se n ta tiv e o f, h um an ity . W hite s a ls o p ro duce a n d r e in fo rc e th e d om in an t n arra tiv es o f s o cie ty — su ch a s i n div id ualis m a n d m erito cra cy — an d u se th ese n arra tiv es to e x pla in th e p ositio ns o f o th er r a cia l g ro ups. T hese narra tiv es allo w us to co ngra tu la te ours e lv es on our su ccess w ith in th e in stitu tio ns o f s o cie ty a n d b la m e o th ers f o r t h eir l a ck o f s u ccess.

To s a y th at th at w hite n ess in clu des a s e t o f c u ltu ra l p ra ctic es th at a re n ot re co gniz ed b y w hite p eo ple is to u nders ta n d ra cis m a s a n etw ork of n orm s an d a ctio ns t h at c o nsis te n tly c re ate a d van ta g e f o r w hite s a n d d is a d van ta g e f o r peo ple o f c o lo r. T hese n orm s a n d a ctio ns in clu de b asic r ig hts a n d b en efits o f th e d oubt, p urp orte d ly g ra n te d to a ll b ut w hic h a re a ctu ally o nly c o nsis te n tly affo rd ed to w hite p eo ple . T he d im en sio ns o f ra cis m b en efitin g w hite p eo ple are u su ally in vis ib le to w hite s. W e a re u naw are o f, o r d o n ot a ck now le d ge, th e m ean in g of ra ce an d its im pact on our ow n liv es. T hus w e do not re co gniz e or ad m it to w hite priv ile g e an d th e norm s th at pro duce an d main ta in it. It fo llo w s th at to n am e w hite n ess, m uch le ss s u ggest th at it h as mean in g a n d g ra n ts u nearn ed a d van ta g e, w ill b e d eep ly d is c o ncertin g a n d desta b iliz in g, t h us t r ig gerin g t h e p ro te ctiv e r e sp onse s o f w hite f ra g ility .

WHIT E S U PR EM ACY When w e lo ok b ack to th e c iv il r ig hts m ovem en t o f th e 1 950s a n d 1 960s, w e mig ht th in k o f w hite su pre m acis ts a s th e p eo ple w e sa w in p hoto s a n d o n te le v is io n, b eatin g b la ck s at lu nch co unte rs , b om bin g b la ck ch urc h es, an d sc re am in g a t l ittle R uby B rid ges, t h e f ir s t A fric an A m eric an c h ild t o i n te g ra te an a ll- w hite e le m en ta ry s c h ool in L ouis ia n a in 1 960. T oday w e m ig ht th in k of th e s e lf -d esc rib ed “ alt- rig ht” w hite n atio nalis ts m arc h in g w ith to rc h es in Vir g in ia an d sh outin g “b lo od an d so il” as th ey pro te st th e re m oval of Confe d era te w ar m em oria ls . M ost w hite p eo ple d o n ot id en tif y w ith th ese im ag es o f w hite s u pre m acis ts a n d s o ta k e g re at u m bra g e to th e te rm b ein g use d m ore bro ad ly . F or so cio lo gis ts an d th ose in volv ed in cu rre n t ra cia l ju stic e m ovem en ts , h ow ev er, w hite su pre m acy is a d esc rip tiv e an d u se fu l te rm to c ap tu re th e a ll- e n co m passin g c en tr a lity a n d a ssu m ed su perio rity o f peo ple defin ed an d perc eiv ed as w hite an d th e pra ctic es base d on th is assu m ptio n. W hite su pre m acy in th is co nte x t d oes n ot re fe r to in div id ual white p eo ple a n d th eir in div id ual in te n tio ns o r a ctio ns b ut to a n o vera rc h in g politic al, eco nom ic , an d so cia l sy ste m o f d om in atio n. A gain , ra cis m is a str u ctu re , not an ev en t. W hile hate gro ups th at open ly pro cla im w hite su perio rity do ex is t an d th is te rm re fe rs to th em als o , th e popula r co nsc io usn ess s o le ly a sso cia te s white s u pre m acy w ith th ese ra d ic al g ro ups.

This r e d uctiv e d efin itio n o bsc u re s th e r e ality o f t h e l a rg er s y ste m a t w ork a n d pre v en ts u s f ro m a d dre ssin g t h is s y ste m .

While ra cis m in o th er c u ltu re s e x is ts b ase d o n d if fe re n t id eas o f w hic h ra cia l g ro up is s u perio r to a n oth er, th e U nite d S ta te s is a g lo bal p ow er, a n d th ro ugh m ovie s a n d m ass m ed ia , c o rp ora te c u ltu re , a d vertis in g, U S-o w ned man ufa ctu rin g, m ilita ry pre se n ce, his to ric al co lo nia l re la tio ns, m is sio nary work , a n d o th er m ean s, w hite s u pre m acy i s c ir c u la te d g lo bally . T his p ow erfu l id eo lo gy pro m ote s th e id ea of w hite n ess as th e id eal fo r hum an ity w ell bey ond th e W est. W hite su pre m acy is e sp ecia lly re le v an t in c o untr ie s th at hav e a h is to ry o f c o lo nia lis m b y W este rn n atio ns.

In h is b ook The R acia l C ontr a ct, C harle s W . M ills a rg ues th at th e ra cia l co ntr a ct is a ta cit a n d s o m etim es e x plic it a g re em en t a m ong m em bers o f th e peo ple s of E uro pe to asse rt, pro m ote , an d m ain ta in th e id eal of w hite su pre m acy in re la tio n to a ll o th er p eo ple o f th e w orld . T his a g re em en t is a n in te n tio nal a n d in te g ra l c h ara cte ris tic o f th e s o cia l c o ntr a ct, u nderw ritin g a ll oth er so cia l co ntr a cts . W hite su pre m acy has sh ap ed a sy ste m of glo bal Euro pean d om in atio n: it b rin gs in to ex is te n ce w hite s an d n onw hite s, fu ll pers o ns an d su bpers o ns. It in flu en ces w hite m ora l th eo ry an d m ora l psy ch olo gy a n d is im pose d o n n onw hite s th ro ugh id eo lo gic al c o nditio nin g an d v io le n ce. M ills s a y s th at “ w hat h as u su ally b een ta k en . . . a s th e ra cis t ‘e x cep tio n’ h as re ally b een th e ru le ; w hat h as b een ta k en a s th e ‘ru le ’ . . .

[ra cia l e q uality ] . . . h as r e ally b een t h e e x cep tio n.” 22 Mills d esc rib es w hite s u pre m acy a s “ th e u nnam ed p olitic al s y ste m t h at h as mad e th e m odern w orld w hat it is to day .” 23 H e n ote s th at a lth ough w hite su pre m acy h as s h ap ed W este rn p olitic al th ought fo r h undre d s o f y ears , it is nev er n am ed . I n th is w ay , w hite s u pre m acy is r e n dere d in vis ib le w hile o th er politic al s y ste m s— so cia lis m , c ap ita lis m , f a sc is m — are i d en tif ie d a n d s tu die d .

In f a ct, m uch o f w hite s u pre m acy ’s p ow er is d ra w n f ro m its in vis ib ility , th e ta k en -fo r-g ra n te d asp ects th at underw rite all oth er politic al an d so cia l co ntr a cts .

Mills m ak es tw o p oin ts th at are critic al to o ur u nders ta n din g o f w hite fra g ility . F ir s t, w hite s u pre m acy is n ev er a ck now le d ged . S eco nd, w e c an not stu dy an y so cio politic al sy ste m w ith out ad dre ssin g how th at sy ste m is med ia te d b y ra ce. T he fa ilu re to a ck now le d ge w hite su pre m acy p ro te cts it fro m e x am in atio n a n d h old s i t i n p la ce.

In T a-N eh is i C oate s’s essa y “T he C ase fo r R ep ara tio ns,” he m ak es a sim ila r p oin t: To i g nore t h e f a ct t h at o ne o f t h e o ld est r e p ublic s i n t h e w orld w as e re cte d o n a fo undatio n o f w hite su pre m acy , to p re te n d th at th e p ro ble m s o f a d ual so cie ty a re t h e s a m e a s t h e p ro ble m s o f u nre g ula te d c ap ita lis m , i s t o c o ver t h e sin o f n atio nal p lu nder w ith th e s in o f n atio nal ly in g. T he lie ig nore s th e f a ct th at re d ucin g A m eric an p overty an d en din g w hite su pre m acy are n ot th e sa m e. . . . [W ]h ite su pre m acy is not m ere ly th e w ork of hoth ead ed dem ag ogues, o r a m atte r o f f a ls e c o nsc io usn ess, b ut a f o rc e s o f u ndam en ta l t o Am eric a t h at i t i s d if fic u lt t o i m ag in e t h e c o untr y w ith out i t.

24 In lig ht o f th e re ality o f h is to ric al a n d c o ntin ual w hite s u pre m acy , w hite co m pla in ts a b out “ re v ers e ” ra cis m b y p ro gra m s in te n ded to a m elio ra te th e most b asic le v els o f d is c rim in atio n a re p ro fo undly p etty a n d d elu sio nal. A s Mills s u m mariz es:

Both glo bally an d w ith in partic u la r natio n sta te s, th en , w hite peo ple , Euro pean s an d th eir desc en dan ts , co ntin ue to ben efit fro m th e R acia l Contr a ct, w hic h cre ate s a w orld in th eir cu ltu ra l im ag e, politic al sta te s dif fe re n tia lly f a v orin g t h eir i n te re sts , a n e co nom y s tr u ctu re d a ro und t h e r a cia l ex plo ita tio n o f o th ers , a n d a m ora l p sy ch olo gy . . . sk ew ed c o nsc io usly o r unco nsc io usly to w ard p riv ile g in g th em , ta k in g th e sta tu s q uo o f d if fe rin g ra cia l en title m en t as norm ativ ely le g itim ate , an d not to be in vestig ate d fu rth er.

25 Race sc h ola rs u se th e te rm white su pre m acy to d esc rib e a so cio politic al eco nom ic s y ste m o f d om in atio n b ase d o n r a cia l c ate g orie s th at b en efits th ose defin ed a n d p erc eiv ed a s w hite . T his s y ste m o f s tr u ctu ra l p ow er p riv ile g es, cen tr a liz es, a n d e le v ate s w hite p eo ple a s a g ro up. I f, fo r e x am ple , w e lo ok a t th e r a cia l b re ak dow n o f t h e p eo ple w ho c o ntr o l o ur i n stitu tio ns, w e s e e t e llin g num bers i n 2 016–2017:

• T en r ic h est A m eric an s: 1 00 p erc en t w hite ( s e v en o f w hom a re a m ong t h e te n r ic h est i n t h e w orld ) • U S C ongre ss: 9 0 p erc en t w hite • U S g overn ors : 9 6 p erc en t w hite • T op m ilita ry a d vis e rs : 1 00 p erc en t w hite • P re sid en t a n d v ic e p re sid en t: 1 00 p erc en t w hite • U S H ouse F re ed om C au cu s: 9 9 p erc en t w hite • C urre n t U S p re sid en tia l c ab in et: 9 1 p erc en t w hite • P eo ple w ho d ecid e w hic h T V s h ow s w e s e e: 9 3 p erc en t w hite • P eo ple w ho d ecid e w hic h b ooks w e r e ad : 9 0 p erc en t w hite • P eo ple w ho d ecid e w hic h n ew s i s c o vere d : 8 5 p erc en t w hite • P eo ple w ho d ecid e w hic h m usic i s p ro duced : 9 5 p erc en t w hite • P eo ple w ho d ir e cte d t h e o ne h undre d t o p-g ro ssin g f ilm s o f a ll t im e, world w id e: 9 5 p erc en t w hite • T each ers : 8 2 p erc en t w hite • F ull- tim e c o lle g e p ro fe sso rs : 8 4 p erc en t w hite • O wners o f m en ’s p ro fe ssio nal f o otb all t e am s: 9 7 p erc en t w hite 26 These num bers are not desc rib in g m in or org an iz atio ns. N or are th ese in stitu tio ns sp ecia l- in te re st gro ups. T he gro ups lis te d ab ove are th e m ost pow erfu l in th e c o untr y . T hese n um bers a re n ot a m atte r o f “ g ood p eo ple ” vers u s “ b ad p eo ple .” T hey r e p re se n t p ow er a n d c o ntr o l b y a r a cia l g ro up th at is in th e p ositio n to d is se m in ate a n d p ro te ct its o w n s e lf -im ag e, w orld vie w , an d i n te re sts a cro ss t h e e n tir e s o cie ty .

One o f th e m ost p ote n t w ay s w hite s u pre m acy is d is se m in ate d is th ro ugh med ia re p re se n ta tio ns, w hic h h av e a p ro fo und im pact o n h ow w e se e th e world . T hose w ho w rite a n d d ir e ct f ilm s a re o ur c u ltu ra l n arra to rs ; th e s to rie s th ey te ll s h ap e o ur w orld vie w s. G iv en th at th e m ajo rity o f w hite p eo ple liv e in ra cia l is o la tio n fro m p eo ple o f c o lo r (a n d b la ck p eo ple in p artic u la r) a n d hav e v ery fe w a u th en tic c ro ss-ra cia l re la tio nsh ip s, w hite p eo ple a re d eep ly in flu en ced b y th e ra cia l m essa g es in film s. C onsid er o ne sta tis tic fro m th e pre ced in g lis t: o f th e h undre d to p-g ro ssin g f ilm s w orld w id e in 2 016, n in ety - fiv e w ere d ir e cte d b y w hite A m eric an s ( n in ety -n in e o f th em b y m en ). T hat is an in cre d ib ly h om ogen ous g ro up o f d ir e cto rs . B ecau se th ese m en a re m ost lik ely a t th e to p o f th e s o cia l h ie ra rc h y in te rm s o f ra ce, c la ss, a n d g en der, th ey a re th e le ast lik ely to h av e a w id e v arie ty o f a u th en tic e g alita ria n c ro ss- ra cia l re la tio nsh ip s. Y et th ey are in th e positio n to re p re se n t th e ra cia l “o th er.” T heir re p re se n ta tio ns o f th e “ o th er” a re th ere b y e x tr e m ely n arro w an d p ro ble m atic , a n d y et th ey a re re in fo rc ed o ver a n d o ver. F urth er, th ese bia se d re p re se n ta tio ns hav e been dis se m in ate d w orld w id e; w hile w hite su pre m acy o rig in ate d i n t h e W est, i t c ir c u la te s g lo bally .

White r e sis ta n ce to th e te rm white s u pre m acy p re v en ts u s f ro m e x am in in g how th ese m essa g es sh ap e u s. E xplic it w hite su pre m acis ts u nders ta n d th is . Chris tia n Pic cio lin i, a fo rm er white natio nalis t, ex pla in s th at white natio nalis ts re co gniz ed th at th ey h ad to d is ta n ce th em se lv es fro m th e te rm s ra cis t a n d white su pre m acy to g ain b ro ad er a p peal. H e d esc rib es th e “ alt- rig ht” a n d w hite n atio nalis t m ovem en ts a s th e c u lm in atio n o f a th ir ty -y ear effo rt to m assa g e th e w hite s u pre m acis t m essa g e: “ W e r e co gniz ed b ack th en th at w e w ere tu rn in g a w ay th e a v era g e A m eric an w hite ra cis ts a n d th at w e need ed to lo ok a n d s p eak m ore lik e o ur n eig hbors . T he id ea w e h ad w as to ble n d in , norm aliz e, m ak e th e m essa g e m ore pala ta b le .” 27 D ere k B la ck , godso n o f D av id D uke a n d fo rm er k ey y outh le ad er in th e w hite n atio nalis t movem en t, ex pla in s: “M y w hole ta lk w as th e fa ct th at y ou co uld ru n as Rep ublic an s, a n d s a y t h in gs l ik e w e n eed t o s h ut d ow n i m mig ra tio n, w e n eed to fig ht a ffir m ativ e a ctio n, w e n eed to e n d g lo balis m , a n d y ou c o uld w in th ese p ositio ns, m ay be a s lo ng a s y ou d id n’t g et o ute d a s a w hite n atio nalis t an d g et a ll t h e c o ntr o vers y t h at c o m es a lo ng w ith i t.” 28 Today ’s w hite n atio nalis ts a re n ot th e f ir s t to r e co gniz e th e im porta n ce o f dis ta n cin g o nese lf fro m m ore -e x plic it e x pre ssio ns o f w hite s u pre m acy . In a 1981 in te rv ie w , L ee A tw ate r, R ep ublic an p olitic al str a te g is t a n d a d vis e r to pre sid en ts R onald R eag an a n d G eo rg e H . W . B ush , e x pla in ed w hat c am e to be k now n a s “ th e S outh ern s tr a te g y”— how to a p peal to th e ra cis m o f w hite South ern v ote rs w ith out p ro nouncin g i t o pen ly :

You s ta rt o ut in 1 954 b y s a y in g, “ N ig ger, n ig ger, n ig ger.” B y 1 968 y ou c an ’t sa y “ n ig ger” — th at h urts y ou. B ack fir e s. S o y ou s a y s tu ff lik e f o rc ed b usin g, sta te s’ rig hts a n d a ll th at s tu ff. Y ou’re g ettin g s o a b str a ct n ow [th at] y ou’re ta lk in g ab out cu ttin g ta x es, an d all th ese th in gs y ou’re ta lk in g ab out are to ta lly e co nom ic th in gs a n d a b ypro duct o f th em is [th at] b la ck s g et h urt wors e th an w hite s. A nd s u bco nsc io usly m ay be th at is p art o f it. . . . B ut I ’m sa y in g t h at i f i t i s g ettin g t h at a b str a ct, a n d t h at c o ded , t h at w e a re d oin g a w ay with th e ra cia l p ro ble m o ne w ay o r th e o th er. Y ou fo llo w m e— becau se obvio usly s ittin g a ro und s a y in g, “ W e w an t t o c u t t h is ,” i s m uch m ore a b str a ct th an e v en th e b usin g th in g, a n d a h ell o f a lo t m ore a b str a ct th an “ N ig ger, nig ger.” 29 Our um bra g e at th e te rm white su pre m acy only se rv es to pro te ct th e pro cesse s i t d esc rib es a n d o bsc u re t h e m ech an is m s o f r a cia l i n eq uality . S till, I unders ta n d th at th e te rm is v ery c h arg ed fo r m an y w hite p eo ple , e sp ecia lly old er w hite peo ple w ho asso cia te th e te rm w ith ex tr e m e hate gro ups.

How ev er, I h ope t o h av e m ad e c le ar t h at w hite s u pre m acy i s s o m eth in g m uch more p erv asiv e an d su btle th an th e actio ns o f ex plic it w hite n atio nalis ts .

White su pre m acy d esc rib es th e c u ltu re w e liv e in , a c u ltu re th at p ositio ns white p eo ple a n d a ll th at is a sso cia te d w ith th em ( w hite n ess) a s id eal. W hite su pre m acy i s m ore t h an t h e i d ea t h at w hite s a re s u perio r t o p eo ple o f c o lo r; i t is th e d eep er p re m is e th at s u pports th is id ea— th e d efin itio n o f w hite s a s th e norm o r sta n dard fo r h um an , a n d p eo ple o f c o lo r a s a d ev ia tio n fro m th at norm .

Nam in g w hite su pre m acy c h an ges th e c o nvers a tio n in tw o k ey w ay s: It mak es th e s y ste m v is ib le a n d s h if ts th e lo cu s o f c h an ge o nto w hite p eo ple , where it b elo ngs. I t a ls o p oin ts u s in th e d ir e ctio n o f th e lif e lo ng w ork th at is uniq uely o urs , ch alle n gin g o ur co m plic ity w ith an d in vestm en t in ra cis m .

This d oes n ot m ean th at p eo ple o f c o lo r d o n ot p la y a p art b ut th at th e fu ll weig ht o f r e sp onsib ility r e sts w ith t h ose w ho c o ntr o l t h e i n stitu tio ns.

TH E W HIT E R ACIA L F R AM E Socio lo gis t J o e F eag in c o in ed th e te rm “ w hite r a cia l f ra m e” to d esc rib e h ow white s cir c u la te an d re in fo rc e ra cia l m essa g es th at positio n w hite s as su perio r.

30 In th is w ay , th e w hite ra cia l fra m e re sts on, an d is a key mech an is m of, w hite su pre m acy . T he fra m e is deep an d ex te n siv e, w ith th ousa n ds o f sto re d “ b its .” T hese b its a re p ie ces o f c u ltu ra l in fo rm atio n— im ag es, sto rie s, in te rp re ta tio ns, o m is sio ns, sile n ces— th at are p asse d alo ng fro m o ne p ers o n a n d g ro up to th e n ex t, a n d f ro m o ne g en era tio n to th e n ex t.

The b its c ir c u la te b oth e x plic itly a n d i m plic itly , f o r e x am ple , t h ro ugh m ovie s, te le v is io n, n ew s, a n d o th er m ed ia a n d s to rie s t o ld t o u s b y f a m ily a n d f rie n ds.

By c o nsta n tly u sin g th e w hite ra cia l fra m e to in te rp re t so cia l re la tio ns a n d in te g ra tin g n ew b its , w hite s r e in sc rib e t h e f ra m e e v er d eep er.

At th e m ost g en era l le v el, th e ra cia l fra m e v ie w s w hite s a s su perio r in cu ltu re a n d a ch ie v em en t a n d v ie w s p eo ple o f c o lo r a s g en era lly o f l e ss s o cia l, eco nom ic , a n d p olitic al c o nse q uen ce; p eo ple o f c o lo r a re s e en a s in fe rio r to white s in th e m ak in g a n d k eep in g o f th e n atio n. A t th e n ex t le v el o f f ra m in g, becau se so cia l in stitu tio ns (e d ucatio n, m ed ic in e, la w , g overn m en t, fin an ce, an d th e m ilita ry ) a re c o ntr o lle d b y w hite s, w hite d om in an ce is u nre m ark ab le an d ta k en fo r gra n te d . T hat w hite s are dis p ro portio nate ly en ric h ed an d priv ile g ed v ia th ese in stitu tio ns is a ls o ta k en fo r g ra n te d ; w e a re e n title d to more p riv ile g es a n d r e so urc es b ecau se w e a re “ b ette r” p eo ple . A t th e d eep est le v el o f th e w hite f ra m e, n eg ativ e s te re o ty pes a n d im ag es o f r a cia l o th ers a s in fe rio r a re re in fo rc ed a n d a ccep te d . A t th is le v el, c o rre sp ondin g e m otio ns su ch a s f e ar, c o nte m pt, a n d r e se n tm en t a re a ls o s to re d .

The fra m e in clu des b oth n eg ativ e u nders ta n din gs o f p eo ple o f c o lo r a n d positiv e u nders ta n din gs o f w hite s a n d w hite in stitu tio ns. I t is s o in te rn aliz ed , so s u bm erg ed , th at it is n ev er c o nsc io usly c o nsid ere d o r c h alle n ged b y m ost white s. T o g et a s e n se o f th e w hite ra cia l fra m e b elo w th e s u rfa ce o f y our co nsc io us a w are n ess, th in k b ack to th e e arlie st tim e th at y ou w ere a w are th at peo ple f ro m r a cia l g ro ups o th er th an y our o w n e x is te d . P eo ple o f c o lo r r e call a s e n se o f a lw ay s h av in g b een a w are , w hile m ost w hite p eo ple re call b ein g aw are b y a t le ast ag e f iv e. I f y ou liv ed in a p rim arily w hite e n vir o nm en t a n d are h av in g tr o uble re m em berin g, th in k a b out D is n ey m ovie s, m usic v id eo s, sp orts h ero es, C hin ese f o od, A unt J e m im a s y ru p, U ncle B en ’s r ic e, th e T aco Bell C hih uah ua, C olu m bus D ay , A pu fro m The S im pso ns, a n d th e d onkey fro m Shre k.

Refle ct o n t h ese r e p re se n ta tio ns a n d a sk y ours e lf , D id y our p are n ts t e ll y ou th at ra ce d id n’t m atte r a n d th at e v ery one w as e q ual? D id th ey h av e m an y frie n ds o f c o lo r? If p eo ple o f c o lo r d id n ot liv e in y our n eig hborh ood, w hy did n’t th ey ? W here d id th ey liv e? W hat im ag es, s o unds, a n d s m ells d id y ou asso cia te w ith th ese o th er n eig hborh oods? W hat k in d o f a ctiv itie s d id y ou th in k w en t o n th ere ? W ere y ou e n co ura g ed to v is it th ese n eig hborh oods, o r were y ou d is c o ura g ed f ro m v is itin g t h ese n eig hborh oods?

What ab out sc h ools ? W hat m ad e a sc h ool good? W ho w en t to good sc h ools ? W ho w en t to b ad s c h ools ? I f th e s c h ools in y our a re a w ere r a cia lly se g re g ate d ( a s m ost s c h ools in th e U nite d S ta te s a re ), w hy d id n’t y ou a tte n d sc h ool to geth er? I f th is is b ecau se y ou liv ed in d if fe re n t n eig hborh oods, w hy did y ou liv e in d if fe re n t n eig hborh oods? W ere “th eir ” sc h ools co nsid ere d eq ual to , b ette r th an , o r w ors e th an , y ours ? I f th ere w as b usin g in y our to w n, in w hic h d ir e ctio n d id i t g o; w ho w as b use d i n to w hose s c h ools ? W hy d id t h e busin g g o i n o ne d ir e ctio n a n d n ot t h e o th er?

If y ou w en t to s c h ool to geth er, d id y ou a ll s it to geth er in th e c afe te ria ? I f not, w hy n ot? W ere th e h onors o r a d van ced p la cem en t c la sse s a n d th e lo w er- tr a ck c la sse s e q ually r a cia lly i n te g ra te d ? I f n ot, w hy n ot?

Now th in k a b out y our te ach ers . W hen w as th e f ir s t tim e y ou h ad a te ach er of th e s a m e ra ce a s y ours ? D id y ou o fte n h av e te ach ers o f th e s a m e ra ce a s your o w n? Most w hite p eo ple , i n r e fle ctin g o n t h ese q uestio ns, r e aliz e t h at t h ey a lm ost alw ay s h ad w hite t e ach ers ; m an y d id n ot h av e a t e ach er o f c o lo r u ntil c o lle g e.

Convers e ly , m ost p eo ple o f co lo r h av e ra re ly if ev er h ad a te ach er w ho re fle cte d th eir o w n ra ce(s ). W hy is it im porta n t to re fle ct o n o ur te ach ers in our e ffo rt to u nco ver o ur ra cia l so cia liz atio n a n d th e m essa g es w e re ceiv e fro m s c h ools ?

As you an sw er th ese questio ns, als o co nsid er whic h ra ces were geo gra p hic ally c lo se r to y ou th an o th ers . If y our sc h ool w as p erc eiv ed a s ra cia lly d iv ers e , w hic h ra ces w ere m ore re p re se n te d , a n d h ow d id th e ra cia l dis tr ib utio n affe ct th e se n se of valu e asso cia te d w ith th e sc h ool? For ex am ple , if w hite a n d A sia n -h erita g e s tu den ts w ere th e p rim ary r a cia l g ro ups in y our s c h ool, y our s c h ool w as lik ely to b e s e en a s b ette r th an a s c h ool w ith more r e p re se n ta tio n f ro m b la ck a n d L atin x s tu den ts . W hat w ere y ou le arn in g ab out t h e r a cia l h ie ra rc h y a n d y our p la ce i n i t f ro m g eo gra p hy?

If y ou liv ed a n d w en t to s c h ool in r a cia l s e g re g atio n a s m ost p eo ple in th e Unite d S ta te s d o, y ou h ad t o m ak e s e n se o f t h e i n co ngru ity b etw een t h e c la im th at e v ery one w as e q ual a n d t h e l iv ed r e ality o f s e g re g atio n. I f y ou l iv ed i n a n in te g ra te d n eig hborh ood an d/o r atte n ded an in te g ra te d sc h ool, y ou h ad to mak e se n se of th e se g re g atio n in m ost of so cie ty outs id e th e sc h ool, esp ecia lly in s e g m en ts c o nsid ere d o f h ig her v alu e o r q uality . I t is a ls o h ig hly lik ely t h at t h ere w as s till r a cia l s e p ara tio n w ith in t h e s c h ool. A nd f o r t h ose o f us w ho m ay h av e g ro w n u p in m ore in te g ra te d e n vir o nm en ts d ue to s o cia l cla ss o r c h an gin g n eig hborh ood d em ogra p hic s, it is u nlik ely th at in te g ra tio n has been su sta in ed in our cu rre n t liv es. R efle ctio n on th ese questio ns pro vid es a n e n tr y p oin t in to th e d eep er m essa g es th at w e a ll a b so rb a n d th at sh ap e o ur b eh av io r a n d r e sp onse s b elo w t h e c o nsc io us l e v el.

In t h e U S, r a ce i s e n co ded i n g eo gra p hy. I c an n am e e v ery n eig hborh ood i n my c ity a n d i ts r a cia l m ak eu p. I c an a ls o t e ll y ou i f a n eig hborh ood i s c o m in g up o r d ow n in te rm s o f h om e e q uity , a n d th is w ill b e b ase d p rim arily o n h ow its ra cia l d em ogra p hic s a re c h an gin g. G oin g u p? It w ill b e g ettin g w hite r.

Goin g d ow n? I t w ill b e g ettin g l e ss w hite . W hen I w as a c h ild , p oste rs o n m y sc h ool w alls a n d te le v is io n s h ow s lik e Sesa m e S tr e et to ld m e e x plic itly th at all p eo ple w ere e q ual, b ut w e s im ply d o n ot l iv e t o geth er a cro ss r a ce. I h ad t o mak e s e n se o f th is s e p ara tio n. I f w e w ere e q ual, w hy d id w e liv e s e p ara te ly ?

It m ust b e n orm al a n d n atu ra l to liv e a p art ( c erta in ly n o a d ult in m y lif e w as co m pla in in g a b out t h e s e p ara tio n). A nd a t a d eep er l e v el, i t m ust b e r ig hte o us th at w e liv e a p art, s in ce w e a re b ette r p eo ple . H ow d id I g et th e m essa g e th at we w ere b ette r p eo ple ? C onsid er h ow w e ta lk a b out w hite n eig hborh oods:

good, s a fe , s h elte re d , c le an , d esir a b le . B y d efin itio n, o th er s p aces ( n ot w hite ) are b ad , d an gero us, c rim e-rid den a n d to b e a v oid ed ; th ese n eig hborh oods a re not p ositio ned as sh elte re d an d in nocen t. In th ese w ay s, th e w hite ra cia l fra m e i s u nder c o nstr u ctio n.

Pre d om in ate ly w hite neig hborh oods are not outs id e of ra ce— th ey are te em in g w ith r a ce. E very m om en t w e s p en d in th ose e n vir o nm en ts r e in fo rc es pow erfu l a sp ects o f th e w hite r a cia l f ra m e, in clu din g a lim ite d w orld vie w , a re lia n ce o n d eep ly p ro ble m atic d ep ic tio ns o f p eo ple o f co lo r, co m fo rt in se g re g atio n w ith n o se n se th at th ere m ig ht b e v alu e in k now in g p eo ple o f co lo r, an d in te rn aliz ed su perio rity . In tu rn , our cap acity to en gag e co nstr u ctiv ely a cro ss r a cia l l in es b eco m es p ro fo undly l im ite d .

To illu str a te a n e arly le sso n in w hite ra cia l fra m in g, im ag in e th at a w hite moth er a n d h er w hite c h ild a re in th e g ro cery s to re . T he c h ild s e es a b la ck man a n d sh outs o ut, “ M om my, th at m an ’s sk in is b la ck !” S ev era l p eo ple , in clu din g t h e b la ck m an , t u rn t o l o ok. H ow d o y ou i m ag in e t h e m oth er w ould re sp ond? M ost p eo ple w ould im med ia te ly p ut th eir f in ger to th eir m outh a n d sa y , “S hush !” W hen w hite peo ple are ask ed w hat th e m oth er m ig ht be fe elin g, m ost ag re e th at sh e is lik ely to fe el an xie ty , te n sio n, an d em barra ssm en t. I n deed , m an y o f u s h av e h ad s im ila r e x perie n ces w here in t h e messa g e w as c le ar: w e s h ould n ot t a lk o pen ly a b out r a ce.

When I u se th is e x am ple w ith m y s tu den ts , s o m etim es a s tu den t w ill s a y th at th e m oth er is ju st te ach in g h er c h ild to b e p olite . I n o th er w ord s, n am in g th is m an ’s ra ce w ould b e im polite . B ut w hy? W hat is s h am efu l a b out b ein g bla ck — so sh am efu l th at w e sh ould pre te n d th at w e don’t notic e?

31 T he moth er’s re actio n w ould pro bab ly be th e sa m e if th e m an had a vis ib le dis a b ility o f s o m e k in d o r w as o bese . B ut i f t h e c h ild h ad s e en a w hite p ers o n an d s h oute d o ut, “ M om my, th at m an ’s s k in is w hite !” it is u nlik ely th at th e moth er w ould f e el th e s a m e a n xie ty , te n sio n, a n d e m barra ssm en t th at w ould hav e a cco m pan ie d t h e f ir s t s ta te m en t.

Now im ag in e th at th e c h ild h ad s h oute d o ut h ow h an dso m e th e m an w as, or h ow s tr o ng. T hese s ta te m en ts w ould p ro bab ly b e m et w ith ch uck le s a n d sm ile s. T he c h ild w ould n ot lik ely b e sh ush ed , b ecau se w e c o nsid er th ese sta te m en ts c o m plim en ts .

The ex am ple of a ch ild public ly callin g out a bla ck m an ’s ra ce an d em barra ssin g th e m oth er illu str a te s s e v era l a sp ects o f w hite c h ild re n ’s r a cia l so cia liz atio n. F ir s t, c h ild re n le arn th at it is ta b oo to o pen ly ta lk a b out ra ce. Seco nd, th ey le arn th at peo ple sh ould pre te n d not to notic e undesir a b le asp ects th at defin e so m e peo ple as le ss valu ab le th an oth ers (a la rg e bir th m ark o n so m eo ne’s fa ce, a p ers o n u sin g a w heelc h air ). T hese le sso ns man if e st th em se lv es la te r in lif e , w hen w hite a d ults d ro p th eir v oic es b efo re nam in g th e ra ce o f s o m eo ne w ho is n ’t w hite (a n d e sp ecia lly s o if th e ra ce bein g n am ed is bla ck ), a s if b la ck ness w ere s h am efu l o r th e w ord its e lf w ere im polite . If w e ad d all th e co m men ts w e m ak e ab out peo ple of co lo r priv ate ly , w hen w e a re le ss c are fu l, w e m ay b eg in to re co gniz e h ow w hite ch ild re n a re t a u ght t o n av ig ate r a ce. CH APT ER 3 RACIS M A FT ER T H E C IV IL R IG HTS MOVEM EN T “ C hild re n to day a re s o o pen . W hen th e o ld fo lk s d ie o ff, w e w ill fin ally b e f r e e o f r a cis m .” “ I g re w u p i n a s m all r u ra l c o m munity , s o I w as v ery s h elte re d . I d id n’t l e a rn a nyth in g a bout r a cis m .” “ I j u dge p eo ple b y w hat t h ey d o, n ot w ho t h ey a re .” “ I d on’t s e e c o lo r; I s e e p eo ple .” “ W e a re a ll r e d u nder t h e s k in .” “ I m arc h ed i n t h e s ix tie s.” N ew r a cis m is a te rm c o in ed b y film p ro fe sso r M artin B ark er to c ap tu re th e w ay s in w hic h r a cis m h as a d ap te d o ver tim e s o th at m odern n orm s, p olic ie s, a n d p ra ctic es r e su lt in s im ila r r a cia l o utc o m es a s th ose in th e p ast, w hile n ot a p pearin g to b e e x plic itly r a cis t.

1 S ocio lo gis t E duard o B onilla -S ilv a c ap tu re s t h is d ynam ic in th e title o f h is b ook Racis m W ith out R acis ts : C olo r-B lin d R acis m a nd th e P ersis te n ce o f R acia l In eq uality in A m eric a .

2 H e sa y s th at t h ough v ir tu ally n o o ne c la im s to b e r a cis t an ym ore , r a cis m s till e x is ts . H ow i s th at p ossib le ? R acis m c an s till e x is t b ecau se it is h ig hly a d ap tiv e. B ecau se o f t h is a d ap ta b ility , w e m ust b e a b le t o i d en tif y h ow i t c h an ges o ver t im e. F or e x am ple , afte r a w hite natio nalis t m arc h an d th e m urd er of a co unte r- p ro te ste r, th e p re sid en t o f th e U nite d S ta te s sa id th at th ere a re “ v ery fin e p eo ple o n b oth s id es.” T his c o m men t w ould h av e b een u nth in kab le fro m a h ig h-ra n kin g public offic ia l ju st a fe w years ag o. Y et if w e ask ed th e pre sid en t if he w as a ra cis t, I am co nfid en t th at he w ould re p ly w ith a re so undin g n o ( in f a ct, h e r e cen tly s ta te d th at h e w as “ th e le ast r a cis t” p ers o n one c o uld e v er m eet) . I n th is c h ap te r, I r e v ie w v ario us w ay s th at r a cis m h as ad ap te d o ver tim e to c o ntin ue to p ro duce ra cia l d is p arity w hile it e x em pts vir tu ally a ll w hite p eo ple f ro m a n y i n volv em en t i n , o r b en efit f ro m , r a cis m .

All s y ste m s o f o ppre ssio n a re a d ap tiv e; th ey c an w ith sta n d a n d a d ju st to ch alle n ges an d still m ain ta in in eq uality . T ak e, fo r in sta n ce, th e fe d era l re co gnitio n of sa m e-s e x m arria g e an d acco m modatio ns fo r peo ple w ith dis a b ilitie s. W hile th e o vera ll s y ste m s o f h ete ro se x is m a n d a b le is m a re s till with u s, th ey h av e a d ap te d in lim ite d w ay s. T hese a d ap ta tio ns a re h eld u p a s re assu ra n ce to th ose w ho fo ught lo ng a n d h ard fo r a p artic u la r c h an ge th at eq uality h as n ow b een a ch ie v ed . T hese m ile sto nes— su ch a s th e re co gnitio n of sa m e-s e x m arria g e, th e p assa g e o f th e A m eric an s w ith D is a b ilitie s A ct, Title 9 , t h e e le ctio n o f B ara ck O bam a— are , o f c o urs e , s ig nif ic an t a n d w orth y of c ele b ra tio n. B ut s y ste m s o f o ppre ssio n a re d eep ly r o ote d a n d n ot o verc o m e with th e s im ple p assa g e o f le g is la tio n. A dvan ces a re a ls o te n uous, a s w e c an se e in re cen t ch alle n ges to th e rig hts o f L G BTQ I (le sb ia n , g ay , b is e x ual, tr a n sg en der, queer or questio nin g, an d in te rs e x ) peo ple . Syste m s of oppre ssio n a re n ot c o m ple te ly in fle x ib le . B ut th ey a re fa r le ss fle x ib le th an popula r id eo lo gy w ould ack now le d ge, an d th e co lle ctiv e im pact of th e in eq uita b le d is tr ib utio n o f r e so urc es c o ntin ues a cro ss h is to ry .

CO LO R-B LIN D R ACIS M What is te rm ed c o lo r-b lin d r a cis m is a n e x am ple o f r a cis m ’s a b ility to a d ap t to c u ltu ra l c h an ges.

3 A cco rd in g to th is id eo lo gy, if w e p re te n d n ot to n otic e ra ce, t h en t h ere c an b e n o r a cis m . T he i d ea i s b ase d o n a l in e f ro m t h e f a m ous “I H av e a D re am ” s p eech g iv en b y D r. M artin L uth er K in g in 1 963 d urin g th e M arc h o n W ash in gto n f o r J o bs a n d F re ed om .

At th e tim e o f K in g’s sp eech , it w as m uch m ore so cia lly a ccep ta b le fo r white p eo ple to ad m it to th eir ra cia l p re ju dic es an d b elie f in w hite ra cia l su perio rity . B ut m an y w hite p eo ple h ad n ev er w itn esse d th e k in d o f v io le n ce to w hic h b la ck s w ere su bje cte d . B ecau se th e str u ggle fo r civ il rig hts w as te le v is e d , w hite s a cro ss th e n atio n w atc h ed in h orro r a s b la ck m en , w om en , an d c h ild re n w ere a tta ck ed b y p olic e d ogs a n d fir e h ose s d urin g p eacefu l pro te sts a n d b eate n a n d d ra g ged a w ay fro m lu nch c o unte rs . O nce th e C iv il Rig hts A ct o f 1 964 w as p asse d ( a l a n dm ark c iv il r ig hts a n d U S l a b or l a w t h at outla w s d is c rim in atio n b ase d o n r a ce, c o lo r, r e lig io n, s e x , o r n atio nal o rig in ), it w as le ss a ccep ta b le f o r w hite p eo ple to a d m it to r a cia l p re ju dic e; th ey d id not w an t t o b e a sso cia te d w ith t h e r a cis t a cts t h ey h ad w itn esse d o n t e le v is io n (in ad ditio n to th e fa ct th at d is c rim in atio n w as n ow ille g al) . O ne lin e o f Kin g’s s p eech in p artic u la r— th at o ne d ay h e m ig ht b e ju dged b y th e c o nte n t of h is c h ara cte r a n d n ot th e c o lo r o f h is s k in — was s e iz ed u pon b y th e w hite public becau se th e w ord s w ere se en to pro vid e a sim ple an d im med ia te so lu tio n to ra cia l te n sio ns: p re te n d th at w e d on’t se e ra ce, a n d ra cis m w ill en d. C olo r b lin dness w as n ow p ro m ote d a s t h e r e m ed y f o r r a cis m , w ith w hite peo ple in sis tin g th at th ey did n’t se e ra ce or, if th ey did , th at it had no mean in g t o t h em .

Cle arly , th e c iv il rig hts m ovem en t d id n’t e n d ra cis m ; n or h av e c la im s o f co lo r b lin dness. B ut re d ucin g K in g’s w ork to th is s im plis tic id ea illu str a te s how m ovem en ts fo r so cia l ch an ge are co -o pte d , str ip ped of th eir in itia l ch alle n ge, a n d u se d a g ain st th e v ery c au se fro m w hic h th ey o rig in ate d . F or ex am ple , a c o m mon r e sp onse i n t h e n am e o f c o lo r b lin dness i s t o d ecla re t h at an in div id ual w ho sa y s th at ra ce m atte rs is th e o ne w ho is ra cis t. In o th er word s, i t i s r a cis t t o a ck now le d ge r a ce.

Consid er c o lo r-b lin d id eo lo gy fro m th e p ers p ectiv e o f a p ers o n o f c o lo r.

An e x am ple I o fte n s h are o ccu rre d w hen I w as c o -le ad in g a w ork sh op w ith an A fric an A m eric an m an . A w hite p artic ip an t s a id to h im , “ I d on’t s e e r a ce; I d on’t s e e y ou a s b la ck .” M y c o -tr a in er’s re sp onse w as, “ T hen h ow w ill y ou se e ra cis m ?” H e th en e x pla in ed to h er th at h e w as b la ck , h e w as c o nfid en t th at s h e c o uld s e e th is , a n d th at h is ra ce m ean t th at h e h ad a v ery d if fe re n t ex perie n ce in lif e th an sh e d id . If sh e w ere ev er g oin g to u nders ta n d o r ch alle n ge r a cis m , s h e w ould n eed to a ck now le d ge th is d if fe re n ce. P re te n din g th at s h e d id n ot n otic e th at h e w as b la ck w as n ot h elp fu l to h im in a n y w ay , as it d en ie d h is re ality — in deed , it re fu se d h is re ality — an d k ep t h ers in su la r an d u nch alle n ged . T his p re te n se th at s h e d id n ot n otic e h is r a ce a ssu m ed th at he w as “ ju st l ik e h er,” a n d i n s o d oin g, s h e p ro je cte d h er r e ality o nto h im . F or ex am ple , I f e el w elc o m e a t w ork s o y ou m ust to o; I h av e n ev er f e lt th at m y ra ce m atte re d , s o y ou m ust fe el th at y ours d oesn ’t e ith er. B ut o f c o urs e , w e do s e e t h e r a ce o f o th er p eo ple , a n d r a ce h old s d eep s o cia l m ean in g f o r u s.

We m ig ht th in k o f c o nsc io us r a cia l a w are n ess a s th e tip o f a n ic eb erg , th e su perfic ia l a sp ects o f o ur ra cia l s o cia liz atio n: o ur in te n tio ns (a lw ay s g ood!) an d w hat w e are su ppose d to ack now le d ge se ein g (n oth in g!). M ean w hile , under th e su rfa ce is th e m ass iv e dep th of ra cis t so cia liz atio n: m essa g es, belie fs , im ag es, asso cia tio ns, in te rn aliz ed su perio rity an d en title m en t, perc ep tio ns, a n d e m otio ns. C olo r-b lin d id eo lo gy m ak es it d if fic u lt fo r u s to ad dre ss th ese u nco nsc io us b elie fs . W hile th e id ea o f co lo r b lin dness m ay hav e sta rte d o ut as a w ell- in te n tio ned str a te g y fo r in te rru ptin g ra cis m , in pra ctic e i t h as s e rv ed t o d en y t h e r e ality o f r a cis m a n d t h us h old i t i n p la ce.

Racia l b ia s is la rg ely u nco nsc io us, a n d h ere in lie s th e d eep est c h alle n ge— th e defe n siv en ess th at en su es upon an y su ggestio n of ra cia l bia s.

4 T his defe n siv en ess is cla ssic w hite fra g ility b ecau se it p ro te cts o ur ra cia l b ia s while sim ulta n eo usly affir m in g our id en titie s as open -m in ded . Y es, it’ s unco m fo rta b le to b e c o nfro nte d w ith a n a sp ect o f o urs e lv es th at w e d on’t lik e, b ut w e c an ’t c h an ge w hat w e r e fu se t o s e e.

Countle ss s tu die s s h ow e m pir ic ally th at p eo ple o f c o lo r a re d is c rim in ate d ag ain st in th e w ork pla ce.

5 Im ag in e y ou h ad em pir ic al ev id en ce th at y our co w ork er w as u nin te n tio nally d is c rim in atin g a g ain st p eo ple o f c o lo r d urin g th e h ir in g p ro cess. G iv en y our b elie f in e q uality , y ou would p ro bab ly th in k th at it w as im pera tiv e to in fo rm th e p ers o n s o th at h e o r s h e c o uld s to p. Y ou poin te d th is d is c rim in atio n o ut in th e m ost d ip lo m atic w ay p ossib le . S till, what d o y ou th in k y our co lle ag ue’s re sp onse w ould b e? W ould y ou h ear gra titu de th at y ou h ad b ro ught th at fa ct to th e p ers o n’s a tte n tio n? P ro bab ly not. M ore lik ely , your co w ork er w ould re sp ond w ith hurt, an ger, an d defe n siv en ess, in sis tin g th at h e o r s h e h ad n ot r a cia lly d is c rim in ate d b ut h ad ch ose n th e m ost q ualif ie d can did ate s. A nd th e in div id ual w ould sin cere ly belie v e t h at t h is w as t r u e, e v en t h ough y ou h ad e m pir ic al e v id en ce t h at i t w as not. T his d efe n siv en ess is r o ote d in th e f a ls e b ut w id esp re ad b elie f th at r a cia l dis c rim in atio n can only be in te n tio nal. O ur la ck of unders ta n din g ab out im plic it b ia s l e ad s t o a v ers iv e r a cis m .

AVER SIV E R ACIS M Avers iv e ra cis m is a m an if e sta tio n o f ra cis m th at w ell- in te n tio ned p eo ple who s e e th em se lv es a s e d ucate d a n d p ro gre ssiv e a re m ore lik ely to e x hib it.

6 It ex is ts under th e su rfa ce of co nsc io usn ess becau se it co nflic ts w ith co nsc io usly h eld b elie fs o f ra cia l e q uality a n d ju stic e. A vers iv e ra cis m is a su btle b ut in sid io us f o rm , a s a v ers iv e r a cis ts e n act r a cis m in w ay s th at a llo w th em to m ain ta in a p ositiv e s e lf -im ag e ( e .g ., “ I h av e lo ts o f f rie n ds o f c o lo r” ; “I j u dge p eo ple b y t h e c o nte n t o f t h eir c h ara cte r, n ot t h e c o lo r o f t h eir s k in ”).

White s en act ra cis m w hile m ain ta in in g a positiv e se lf -im ag e in m an y way s:

• R atio naliz in g r a cia l s e g re g atio n a s u nfo rtu nate b ut n ecessa ry t o a ccess “g ood s c h ools ” • R atio naliz in g t h at o ur w ork pla ces a re v ir tu ally a ll w hite b ecau se p eo ple o f co lo r j u st d on’t a p ply • A void in g d ir e ct r a cia l l a n guag e a n d u sin g r a cia lly c o ded t e rm s s u ch a s urb an, u nderp riv ile g ed , d iv erse , s k etc h y, a n d good n eig hborh oods • D en yin g t h at w e h av e f e w c ro ss-ra cia l r e la tio nsh ip s b y p ro cla im in g h ow div ers e o ur c o m munity o r w ork pla ce i s • A ttr ib utin g i n eq uality b etw een w hite s a n d p eo ple o f c o lo r t o c au se s o th er th an r a cis m Consid er a co nvers a tio n I h ad w ith a w hite frie n d. S he w as te llin g m e ab out a (w hite ) c o uple s h e k new w ho h ad ju st m oved to N ew O rle an s a n d bought a h ouse fo r a m ere tw en ty -fiv e th ousa n d d olla rs . “ O f c o urs e ,” sh e im med ia te ly a d ded , “ th ey a ls o h ad to b uy a g un, a n d J o an is a fra id to le av e th e house .” I im med ia te ly knew th ey had bought a hom e in a bla ck neig hborh ood. T his w as a m om en t of w hite ra cia l bondin g betw een th is co uple w ho s h are d t h e s to ry o f r a cia l d an ger a n d m y f rie n d, a n d t h en b etw een my f rie n d a n d m e, a s s h e r e p eate d th e s to ry . T hro ugh th is ta le , th e f o ur o f u s fo rtif ie d fa m ilia r im ag es o f th e h orro r o f b la ck sp ace a n d d re w b oundarie s betw een “ u s” a n d “ th em ” w ith out e v er h av in g t o d ir e ctly n am e r a ce o r o pen ly ex pre ss o ur d is d ain f o r b la ck s p ace.

Notic e t h at t h e n eed f o r a g un i s a k ey p art o f t h is s to ry — it w ould n ot h av e th e d eg re e o f s o cia l c ap ita l it h old s if th e e m phasis w ere o n th e p ric e o f th e house a lo ne. R ath er, t h e s to ry ’s e m otio nal p ow er r e sts o n w hy a h ouse w ould be th at c h eap — becau se it is in a b la ck n eig hborh ood w here w hite p eo ple lite ra lly m ig ht n ot g et o ut a liv e. Y et w hile v ery n eg ativ e a n d ste re o ty pic al re p re se n ta tio ns o f b la ck s w ere re in fo rc ed in th at e x ch an ge, n ot n am in g ra ce pro vid ed p la u sib le d en ia b ility . In fa ct, in p re p arin g to s h are th is in cid en t, I te x te d m y f rie n d a n d a sk ed h er t h e n am e o f t h e c ity h er f rie n ds h ad m oved t o .

I a ls o w an te d to c o nfir m m y a ssu m ptio n th at s h e w as ta lk in g a b out a b la ck neig hborh ood. I s h are t h e t e x t e x ch an ge h ere :

“H ey , w hat c ity d id y ou s a y y our f rie n ds h ad b ought a h ouse i n f o r $ 25,0 00?” “N ew O rle an s. T hey s a id t h ey l iv e i n a v ery b ad n eig hborh ood a n d t h ey e ach hav e t o h av e a g un t o p ro te ct t h em se lv es. I w ould n’t p ay 5 c en ts f o r t h at neig hborh ood.” “I a ssu m e i t’ s a b la ck n eig hborh ood?” “Y es. Y ou g et w hat y ou p ay f o r. I ’d r a th er p ay $ 500,0 00 a n d l iv e s o m ew here where I w asn ’t a fra id .” “I w asn ’t a sk in g b ecau se I w an t t o l iv e t h ere . I ’m w ritin g a b out t h is i n m y book, t h e w ay t h at w hite p eo ple t a lk a b out r a ce w ith out e v er c o m in g o ut an d t a lk in g a b out r a ce.” “I w ould n’t w an t y ou t o l iv e t h ere i t’ s t o o f a r a w ay f ro m m e!” Notic e th at w hen I s im ply a sk w hat c ity th e h ouse is in , s h e re p eats th e sto ry a b out t h e n eig hborh ood b ein g s o b ad t h at h er f rie n ds n eed g uns. W hen I ask if th e n eig hborh ood is b la ck , s h e is c o m fo rta b le c o nfir m in g th at it is . B ut when I te ll h er th at I a m in te re ste d in h ow w hite s ta lk a b out ra ce w ith out ta lk in g a b out r a ce, s h e s w itc h es th e n arra tiv e. N ow h er c o ncern is a b out n ot wan tin g m e to liv e s o f a r a w ay . T his is a c la ssic e x am ple o f a v ers iv e r a cis m :

hold in g d eep r a cia l d is d ain th at s u rfa ces in d aily d is c o urs e b ut n ot b ein g a b le to a d m it it b ecau se th e d is d ain c o nflic ts w ith o ur s e lf -im ag e a n d p ro fe sse d belie fs .

Read ers m ay b e ask in g th em se lv es, “B ut if th e n eig hborh ood is re ally dan gero us, w hy is a ck now le d gin g th is d an ger a s ig n o f r a cis m ?” R ese arc h in im plic it b ia s h as s h ow n t h at p erc ep tio ns o f c rim in al a ctiv ity a re i n flu en ced b y ra ce. W hite p eo ple w ill p erc eiv e d an ger sim ply b y th e p re se n ce o f b la ck peo ple ; w e c an not tr u st o ur p erc ep tio ns w hen it c o m es to ra ce a n d c rim e.

7 But re g ard le ss of w heth er th e neig hborh ood is actu ally m ore or le ss dan gero us th an o th er n eig hborh oods, w hat is s a lie n t a b out th is e x ch an ge is how i t f u nctio ns r a cia lly a n d w hat t h at m ean s f o r t h e w hite p eo ple e n gag ed i n it. F or m y f rie n d a n d m e, th is c o nvers a tio n d id n ot in cre ase o ur a w are n ess o f th e d an ger o f s o m e s p ecif ic n eig hborh ood. R ath er, th e e x ch an ge re in fo rc ed our fu ndam en ta l b elie fs ab out b la ck p eo ple . T oni M orris o n u se s th e te rm ra ce ta lk to c ap tu re “ th e e x plic it in se rtio n in to e v ery day lif e o f ra cia l s ig ns an d s y m bols th at h av e n o m ean in g o th er th an p ositio nin g A fric an A m eric an s in to th e lo w est le v el o f th e ra cia l h ie ra rc h y.” 8 C asu al ra ce ta lk is a k ey co m ponen t of white ra cia l fra m in g becau se it acco m plis h es th e in te rc o nnecte d g oals o f e le v atin g w hite s w hile d em ean in g p eo ple o f c o lo r; ra ce t a lk a lw ay s i m plie s a r a cia l “ u s” a n d “ th em .” Consid er an ex perie n ce I h ad w ith av ers iv e ra cis m . M y la st acad em ic positio n w as in a s ta te I h ad n ev er b een to b efo re m y in te rv ie w . T hro ughout th e th re e d ay s o f in te rv ie w in g, o th er w hite p eo ple w arn ed m e n ot to b uy a hom e in S prin gfie ld o r H oly oke if I to ok th e p ositio n, e sp ecia lly if I h ad ch ild re n . W hile n o o ne o pen ly n am ed r a ce, th e r a cia l c o din g w as n ot lo st o n me. I n ow k new w here th e p eo ple o f c o lo r w ere c o ncen tr a te d in th e a re a. A t th e s a m e t im e, b ecau se n o o ne d ir e ctly m en tio ned r a ce, w e c o uld a ll d en y t h at th is w as w hat w e w ere a ctu ally t a lk in g a b out. R etu rn in g t o m y h ote l r o om t h e fir s t nig ht, I lo oked up th e dem ogra p hic s. S ure en ough, S prin gfie ld an d Holy oke h ad s ig nif ic an tly h ig h p opula tio ns, c lo se to 5 0 p erc en t, o f b la ck a n d bro w n peo ple . Sta rtin g on day one of m y vis it, m y fe llo w w hite s had co m munic ate d t h e r a cia l b oundarie s t o m e.

9 My te ach er-e d ucatio n s tu den ts a ls o e n gag ed in ra ce ta lk — re in fo rc in g th e boundarie s b etw een “ u s” a n d “ th em ” w hile p ositio nin g u s a s s u perio r. T hey en gag ed in ra ce ta lk w hen th ey ex pre sse d fe ar ab out bein g pla ced in “d an gero us” n eig hborh oods w hile d esc rib in g t h eir h om eto w ns a s “ sh elte re d .” These d ep ic tio ns a re re le n tle ssly s tr e n gth en ed b y n ew s s to rie s th at p ositio n vio le n t crim e co m mitte d in prim arily w hite su burb an co m munitie s as sh ock in g, y et cla im in g th at o ne h as g ro w n u p in a sh elte re d en vir o nm en t ra is e s a q uestio n th at b eg s to b e an sw ere d : “S helte re d fro m w hat an d in co ntr a st to w hom ?” I f w e g ro w u p in e n vir o nm en ts w ith f e w if a n y p eo ple o f co lo r, a re w e n ot in fa ct le ss s h elte re d fro m ra cis t c o nditio nin g b ecau se w e hav e t o r e ly o n n arro w a n d r e p etitiv e m ed ia r e p re se n ta tio ns, j o kes, o m is sio ns, an d w arn in gs f o r o ur u nders ta n din g o f p eo ple o f c o lo r?

Convers e ly , p ositio nin g w hite s p aces a s s h elte re d a n d t h ose w ho a re r a is e d in th em a s r a cia lly in nocen t ta p s in to c la ssic n arra tiv es o f p eo ple o f c o lo r a s not in nocen t. R acis t im ag es an d re su lta n t w hite fe ars can b e fo und at all le v els o f so cie ty , an d m yria d stu die s d em onstr a te th at w hite s b elie v e th at peo ple o f c o lo r ( a n d b la ck s i n p artic u la r) a re d an gero us.

10 White s ra re ly c o nsid er h ow s h elte re d a n d s a fe th eir s p aces m ay b e fro m th e p ers p ectiv e o f p eo ple o f c o lo r (e .g ., T ra y von M artin ’s e x perie n ce in a gate d w hite c o m munity ). B ecau se it re v ers e s th e a ctu al d ir e ctio n o f ra cia l dan ger, t h is n arra tiv e m ay b e o ne o f t h e m ost p ern ic io us.

When y ou c o nsid er t h e m ora l j u dgm en t w e m ak e a b out p eo ple w e d eem a s ra cis t in o ur s o cie ty , th e n eed to d en y o ur o w n r a cis m — ev en to o urs e lv es— mak es s e n se . W e b elie v e w e a re s u perio r a t a d eep ly in te rn aliz ed le v el a n d act o n th is b elie f in th e p ra ctic e o f o ur liv es, b ut w e m ust d en y th is b elie f to fit in to so cie ty an d m ain ta in our se lf -id en tity as good, m ora l peo ple .

Unfo rtu nate ly , av ers iv e ra cis m only pro te cts ra cis m , becau se w e can ’t ch alle n ge o ur ra cia l filte rs if w e c an ’t c o nsid er th e p ossib ility th at w e h av e th em . O f c o urs e , so m e w hite s e x plic itly a v ow ra cis m . W e m ig ht c o nsid er th ese w hite s a ctu ally m ore a w are o f, a n d h onest a b out, t h eir b ia se s t h an t h ose of us w ho co nsid er ours e lv es open -m in ded yet w ho hav e ra re ly th ought critic ally a b out th e b ia se s w e in ev ita b ly h old o r h ow w e m ay b e e x pre ssin g th em .

CULTU RAL R ACIS M The body of re se arc h ab out ch ild re n an d ra ce dem onstr a te s th at w hite ch ild re n d ev elo p a se n se o f w hite su perio rity a s e arly a s p re sc h ool.

11 T his early s ta rt s h ould n’t b e s u rp ris in g, a s s o cie ty s e n ds c o nsta n t m essa g es th at to be w hite i s b ette r t h an t o b e a p ers o n o f c o lo r.

Desp ite th e c la im s o f m an y w hite y oung a d ults th at ra cis m is in th e p ast an d t h at t h ey w ere t a u ght t o s e e e v ery one a s e q ual, r e se arc h s h ow s o th erw is e .

For e x am ple , p olls s p onso re d b y M TV in 2 014 s h ow th at m ille n nia ls p ro fe ss more to le ra n ce an d a deep er co m mitm en t to eq uality an d fa ir n ess th an pre v io us g en era tio ns d id .

12 A t t h e s a m e t im e, m ille n nia ls a re c o m mitte d t o a n id eal o f c o lo r b lin dness th at le av es th em u nco m fo rta b le w ith , a n d c o nfu se d ab out, r a ce a n d o ppose d t o m easu re s t o r e d uce r a cia l i n eq uality . P erh ap s m ost sig nif ic an tly , 4 1 p erc en t o f w hite m ille n nia ls b elie v e th at g overn m en t p ay s to o m uch a tte n tio n to m in oritie s, a n d 4 8 p erc en t b elie v e th at d is c rim in atio n ag ain st w hite s is a s b ig a p ro ble m a s d is c rim in atio n a g ain st p eo ple o f c o lo r.

Man y i n t h is g en era tio n c la im t h at t h e e le ctio n o f B ara ck O bam a a s p re sid en t sh ow s th at w e are postr a cia l. These polls w ere co nducte d befo re th e pre sid en cy o f D onald T ru m p, b ut a s h is e le ctio n h as m ad e c le ar, w e a re fa r fro m b ein g p ostr a cia l.

Anoth er sig nif ic an t stu dy th at w as b ase d o n th e p ra ctic es o f m ille n nia ls ra th er th an th eir c la im s w as c o nducte d b y s o cio lo gis ts L eslie P ic ca a n d J o e Feag in .

13 T hey ask ed 6 26 w hite co lle g e stu den ts at tw en ty -e ig ht co lle g es acro ss th e U nite d S ta te s to k eep jo urn als a n d r e co rd e v ery in sta n ce o f r a cia l is su es, r a cia l i m ag es, a n d r a cia l u nders ta n din g t h at t h ey o bse rv ed o r w ere p art of fo r six to eig ht w eek s. T he stu den ts re co rd ed m ore th an se v en ty -fiv e hundre d acco unts of bla ta n tly ra cis t co m men ts an d actio ns by th e w hite peo ple in th eir liv es (frie n ds, fa m ilie s, acq uain ta n ces, str a n gers ). T hese acco unts c o m e f ro m th e g en era tio n m ost lik ely to c la im th ey w ere ta u ght to se e e v ery one a s e q ual— th ose w ho g re w u p i n t h e a g e o f c o lo r-b lin d i d eo lo gy afte r th e c iv il r ig hts m ovem en t. P ic ca a n d F eag in ’s s tu dy p ro vid es e m pir ic al ev id en ce th at ra cis m co ntin ues to b e ex plic itly ex pre sse d b y w hite s, ev en th ose w ho a re y oung a n d p ro fe ss to b e p ro gre ssiv e. C onsid er th ese e x am ple s fro m t h eir s tu dy:

“A s I s it in a r o om w ith a b unch o f f ra t g uys, P hil w alk s in c h an tin g ‘ ro tc h ie , ro tc h ie , r o tc h ie !!’ I a sk . . . w hat th at te rm m ean s a n d I a m a n sw ere d w ith a gig gle a n d a q uic k ‘ it’ s s la n g f o r n ig ger, l ik e n ig gero tc h ie .’ . . . ” [ E ile en ] “R obby w as t h ere t e llin g a j o ke. . . . H e g la n ced t o s e e i f a n yone w as a ro und.

He s ta rts , ‘ A b la ck m an , a L atin m an , a n d a w hite g uy f in d a m ag ic al l a m p o n th e b each [ ra cis t jo ke e n su es].’ I th ought it w as p re tty f u nny a n d I w asn ’t th e only o ne. B ut, I’m g la d h e w aite d till n o o ne w as a ro und to te ll it. If y ou did n’t k now R obby y ou m ig ht m is u nders ta n d.” [ A sh le y ] 14 Sev era l co m mon d ynam ic s are illu str a te d in th e th ousa n ds o f ex am ple s Pic ca an d F eag in co lle cte d . T he fir s t is h ow m uch ex plic it ra cis m y oung peo ple are ex pose d to an d partic ip ate in . T he se co nd is th e id ea th at if so m eo ne is a g ood p ers o n, h e o r s h e c an not b e r a cis t, a s dem onstr a te d in th e stu den t’ s n ote th at if s o m eo ne o verh eard , th e p ers o n m ig ht “ m is u nders ta n d” Robby. T his s o rt o f ra cis m m ak es fo r a v ery c h alle n gin g d ynam ic in w hic h white s a re o pera tin g u nder th e f a ls e a ssu m ptio n th at w e c an ’t s im ulta n eo usly be good peo ple an d partic ip ate in ra cis m , at th e sa m e tim e th at w e are dis h onest a b out w hat w e r e ally t h in k a n d d o r e g ard in g p eo ple o f c o lo r.

The stu dy a ls o re v eals a c o nsis te n t p atte rn in h ow th ese c o m men ts a n d actio ns w ere ex pre sse d . T he m ajo rity of in cid en ts occu rre d in w hat th e re se arc h ers d esc rib e a s th e backsta ge —in a ll- w hite c o m pan y. F urth er, th ey fo und th at w hite s in volv ed in th ese in cid en ts m ost o fte n p la y ed p re d ic ta b le ro le s. T ypic ally , th ere w as a pro ta g onis t w ho in itia te d th e ra cis t act, a ch eerle ad er w ho e n co ura g ed it th ro ugh la u ghte r o r a g re em en t, th e s p ecta to rs who s to od i n s ile n ce, a n d ( v ery r a re ly ) a d is se n te r w ho o bje cte d . V ir tu ally a ll dis se n te rs w ere s u bje cte d to a f o rm o f p eer p re ssu re in w hic h th ey w ere to ld th at i t w as o nly a j o ke a n d t h at t h ey s h ould l ig hte n u p.

The re se arc h ers docu m en t th at in fro nt- s ta g e se ttin gs (th ose in w hic h peo ple o f c o lo r w ere p re se n t) , t h e w hite s tu den ts d is p la y ed a r a n ge o f r a cia lly co nsc io us b eh av io rs , i n clu din g t h e f o llo w in g:

• A ctin g o verly n ic e • A void in g c o nta ct ( e .g ., c ro ssin g a s tr e et o r n ot g oin g t o a p artic u la r b ar o r clu b) • M im ic k in g “ b la ck m an neris m s a n d s p eech ” • B ein g c are fu l n ot t o u se r a cia l t e rm s o r l a b els • U sin g c o de w ord s t o t a lk n eg ativ ely a b out p eo ple o f c o lo r • O ccasio nal v io le n ce d ir e cte d a t p eo ple o f c o lo r In back sta g e se ttin gs, w here peo ple of co lo r w ere not pre se n t, w hite stu den ts o fte n u se d h um or to re in fo rc e ra cia l ste re o ty pes ab out p eo ple o f co lo r, p artic u la rly b la ck s. P ic ca a n d F eag in a rg ue th at th e p urp ose o f th ese back sta g e p erfo rm an ces is to cre ate w hite so lid arity an d to re in fo rc e th e id eo lo gy of w hite an d m ale su pre m acy . This beh av io r keep s ra cis m cir c u la tin g, a lb eit in le ss f o rm al b ut p erh ap s m ore p ow erfu l way s th an in th e past. T oday w e h av e a c u ltu ra l n orm th at in sis ts w e h id e o ur ra cis m fro m peo ple of co lo r an d den y it am ong ours e lv es, but not th at w e actu ally ch alle n ge i t. I n f a ct, w e a re s o cia lly p en aliz ed f o r c h alle n gin g r a cis m .

I a m o fte n a sk ed i f I t h in k t h e y ounger g en era tio n i s l e ss r a cis t. N o, I d on’t.

In s o m e w ay s, r a cis m ’s a d ap ta tio ns o ver tim e a re m ore s in is te r th an c o ncre te ru le s s u ch a s J im C ro w . T he a d ap ta tio ns p ro duce th e s a m e o utc o m e ( p eo ple of c o lo r a re b lo ck ed fro m m ovin g fo rw ard ) b ut h av e b een p ut in p la ce b y a dom in an t w hite so cie ty th at w on’t or can ’t ad m it to its belie fs . This in tr a n sig en ce r e su lts i n a n oth er p illa r o f w hite f ra g ility : t h e r e fu sa l t o k now . CH APT ER 4 HOW D O ES R ACE S H APE T H E L IV ES O F WHIT E P E O PL E?

White P eo ple : I d on’t w ant y o u t o u ndersta nd m e bette r; I w ant y o u t o u ndersta nd y o urse lv es. Y our su rv iv a l h as n ever d ep en ded o n y o ur k n ow le d ge o f white c u ltu re . I n f a ct, i t’ s r e q uir e d y o ur i g nora nce.

—Ije o m a O lu o T o u nders ta n d h ow w hite p eo ple b eco m e s o d if fic u lt in c o nvers a tio ns a b out r a ce, w e n eed t o u nders ta n d t h e u nderly in g f o undatio n o f w hite f ra g ility : h ow b ein g w hite sh ap es our pers p ectiv es, ex perie n ces, an d re sp onse s. E very a sp ect o f b ein g w hite d is c u sse d i n t h is c h ap te r i s s h are d b y v ir tu ally a ll w hite p eo ple in th e W este rn c o nte x t g en era lly a n d th e U S c o nte x t s p ecif ic ally . A t t h e s a m e t im e, n o p ers o n o f c o lo r i n t h is c o nte x t c an m ak e t h ese s a m e c la im s.

BELO NG IN G I w as b orn in to a c u ltu re in w hic h I b elo nged , r a cia lly . I n deed , th e f o rc es o f r a cis m w ere s h ap in g m e e v en b efo re I t o ok m y f ir s t b re ath . I f I w ere b orn i n a h osp ita l, r e g ard le ss o f th e d ecad e in w hic h I w as b orn , a n y h osp ita l w ould b e o pen to m e becau se m y pare n ts w ere w hite . If m y pare n ts atte n ded a c h ild bir th p re p ara tio n c la ss, th e in str u cto r w as m ost lik ely w hite , th e v id eo s t h ey w atc h ed in c la ss m ost lik ely d ep ic te d w hite peo ple , an d th eir fe llo w c la ssm ate s w ith w hom th ey b uilt c o nnectio ns a n d c o m munity w ere a ls o m ost l ik ely w hite . W hen m y p are n ts r e ad th eir b ir th in g m an uals a n d o th er w ritte n m ate ria ls , th e pic tu re s m ost lik ely dep ic te d prim arily w hite m oth ers an d f a th ers , d octo rs a n d n urs e s. If th ey to ok a p are n tin g c la ss, th e th eo rie s a n d m odels o f c h ild d ev elo pm en t w ere b ase d o n w hite r a cia l i d en tity . T he d octo rs an d n urs e s atte n din g m y b ir th w ere in all lik elih ood w hite . A lth ough m y pare n ts m ay h av e b een a n xio us a b out th e b ir th p ro cess, th ey d id n ot h av e to worry a b out h ow th ey w ould b e tr e ate d b y th e h osp ita l s ta ff b ecau se o f th eir ra ce. T he y ears o f r e se arc h d em onstr a tin g r a cia l d is c rim in atio n in h ealth c are assu re m e th at m y p are n ts w ere m ore lik ely to h av e b een tr e ate d w ell b y hosp ita l p ers o nnel a n d to r e ceiv e a h ig her c alib er o f c are th an w ould p eo ple of c o lo r.

1 Convers e ly , th e p eo ple w ho c le an ed m y m oth er’s h osp ita l ro om , d id th e la u ndry , c o oked a n d c le an ed in th e c afe te ria , a n d m ain ta in ed th e fa cilitie s were m ost lik ely p eo ple o f c o lo r. T he v ery c o nte x t in w hic h I e n te re d th e world w as o rg an iz ed h ie ra rc h ic ally b y ra ce. B ase d o n th is h ie ra rc h y, w e co uld p re d ic t w heth er I w ould s u rv iv e m y b ir th b ase d o n m y r a ce.

As I m ove t h ro ugh m y d aily l if e , m y r a ce i s u nre m ark ab le . I b elo ng w hen I tu rn o n th e T V , re ad b est- s e llin g n ovels , a n d w atc h b lo ck buste r m ovie s. I belo ng w hen I w alk p ast t h e m ag azin e r a ck s a t t h e g ro cery s to re o r d riv e p ast billb oard s. I b elo ng w hen I s e e th e o verw helm in g n um ber o f w hite p eo ple o n lis ts o f th e “ M ost B eau tif u l.” I m ay fe el in ad eq uate in lig ht o f m y a g e o r weig ht, b ut I w ill b elo ng ra cia lly . F or ex am ple , in 2 017, sin ger R hia n na in tr o duced a m ak eu p lin e fo r w om en of all sk in co lo rs . G ra titu de fro m wom en o f c o lo r p oure d in . M an y o f th eir tw eets in clu ded th e e x cla m atio n “F in ally !” 2 T hese a re t w eets I h av e n ev er n eed ed t o s e n d.

I b elo ng w hen I lo ok a t m y te ach ers , c o unse lo rs , a n d c la ssm ate s. I b elo ng when I le arn a b out th e h is to ry o f m y c o untr y th ro ughout th e y ear a n d w hen I am s h ow n its h ero es a n d h ero in es— Geo rg e W ash in gto n, T hom as J e ffe rs o n, Abra h am L in co ln , R obert E . L ee, A m elia E arh art, S usa n B . A nth ony, J o hn Gle n n, S ally R id e, a n d L ouis a M ay Alc o tt.

3 I b elo ng w hen I l o ok t h ro ugh m y te x tb ooks a n d a t th e p ic tu re s o n m y c la ssro om w alls . I b elo ng w hen I s p eak to m y ch ild re n ’s te ach ers , w hen I ta lk to th eir cam p co unse lo rs , w hen I co nsu lt w ith th eir d octo rs a n d d en tis ts . N o m atte r h ow I m ig ht e x pla in w hy all th ese re p re se n ta tio ns are overw helm in gly w hite , th ey still sh ap e m y id en tity a n d w orld vie w .

In vir tu ally ev ery situ atio n or co nte x t deem ed norm al, neu tr a l or pre stig io us in s o cie ty , I b elo ng ra cia lly . T his b elo ngin g is a d eep a n d e v er- pre se n t f e elin g t h at h as a lw ay s b een w ith m e. B elo ngin g h as s e ttle d d eep i n to my c o nsc io usn ess; i t s h ap es m y d aily t h oughts a n d c o ncern s, w hat I r e ach f o r in lif e , a n d w hat I e x pect to fin d. T he e x perie n ce o f b elo ngin g is s o n atu ra l th at I d o n ot h av e t o t h in k a b out i t. T he r a re m om en ts i n w hic h I d on’t b elo ng ra cia lly c o m e a s a s u rp ris e — a s u rp ris e th at I c an e ith er e n jo y f o r its n ovelty or e asily a v oid i f I f in d i t u nse ttlin g.

For e x am ple , I w as in vite d to th e re tir e m en t p arty o f a w hite frie n d. T he party w as a p ot- lu ck p ic n ic h eld i n a p ublic p ark . A s I w alk ed d ow n t h e s lo pe to w ard th e p ic n ic s h elte rs , I n otic ed tw o p artie s g oin g o n s id e b y s id e. O ne gath erin g w as p rim arily c o m pose d o f w hite p eo ple , a n d t h e o th er a p peare d t o be a ll b la ck p eo ple . I e x perie n ced a s e n se o f d is e q uilib riu m a s I a p pro ach ed an d h ad t o c h oose w hic h p arty w as m y f rie n d’s . I f e lt a m ild s e n se o f a n xie ty as I c o nsid ere d th at I m ig ht h av e to e n te r th e a ll- b la ck g ro up, th en m ild r e lie f as I r e aliz ed th at m y f rie n d w as in th e o th er g ro up. T his r e lie f w as a m plif ie d as I th ought th at I m ig ht h av e m is ta k en ly w alk ed o ver to th e b la ck p arty ! A ll th ese th oughts a n d f e elin gs h ap pen ed in ju st a f e w s e co nds, b ut th ey w ere a ra re m om en t o f r a cia l s e lf -a w are n ess. T he m ere p ossib ility th at I m ig ht h av e to e x perie n ce n ot b elo ngin g r a cia lly w as e n ough t o r a is e r a cia l d is c o m fo rt.

It is r a re f o r m e to e x perie n ce a s e n se o f n ot b elo ngin g r a cia lly , a n d th ese are u su ally v ery te m pora ry , e asily a v oid ab le situ atio ns. In deed , th ro ughout my l if e , I h av e b een w arn ed t h at I s h ould a v oid s itu atio ns i n w hic h I m ig ht b e a r a cia l m in ority . T hese s itu atio ns a re o fte n p re se n te d a s s c ary , d an gero us, o r “sk etc h y.” Y et if th e e n vir o nm en t o r situ atio n is v ie w ed a s g ood, n ic e, o r valu ab le , I c an b e c o nfid en t th at a s a w hite p ers o n, I w ill b e s e en a s r a cia lly belo ngin g t h ere .

FR EED O M F R O M T H E B U RDEN O F R ACE Becau se I h av en ’t b een s o cia liz ed t o s e e m yse lf o r t o b e s e en b y o th er w hite s in r a cia l t e rm s, I d on’t c arry t h e p sy ch ic w eig ht o f r a ce; I d on’t h av e t o w orry ab out h ow o th ers fe el a b out m y ra ce. N or d o I w orry th at m y ra ce w ill b e held a g ain st m e. W hile I m ay fe el u nease in a n u pper-c la ss e n vir o nm en t, I will ta k e fo r g ra n te d th at I b elo ng ra cia lly in th ese s e ttin gs. I c erta in ly w ill not b e th e o nly w hite p ers o n th ere , u nle ss th e e v en t is s p ecif ic ally o rg an iz ed by, or cele b ra tin g, peo ple of co lo r. G eo rg e Z im merm an w ould not hav e sto pped m e a s I w alk ed t h ro ugh a g ate d s u burb an n eig hborh ood.

Patr ic k R osa l w rite s p oig nan tly a b out th e p ain o f b ein g m is ta k en fo r th e help a t a b la ck -tie e v en t c ele b ra tin g N atio nal B ook A ward w in ners .

4 I h av e witn esse d th is a ssu m ptio n o f s e rv itu de m an y tim es a s I c h eck ed in to h ote ls with c o lle ag ues o f c o lo r. I h av e m ad e th is a ssu m ptio n m yse lf w hen I h av e been u nab le to h id e m y s u rp ris e th at th e b la ck m an is th e s c h ool p rin cip al o r when I a sk a L atin x w om an k neelin g i n h er g ard en i f t h is i s h er h om e.

As I c o nsid er c are er c h oic es I w ill h av e c o untle ss r o le m odels a cro ss a v ast arra y o f f ie ld s. W hen I a p ply f o r a jo b, v ir tu ally a n yone in a p ositio n to h ir e me w ill s h are m y r a ce. A nd a lth ough I m ay e n co unte r a t o ken p ers o n o f c o lo r durin g th e h ir in g p ro cess, if I a m n ot s p ecif ic ally a p ply in g to a n o rg an iz atio n fo unded b y p eo ple o f c o lo r, t h e m ajo rity o f t h ose I i n te ra ct w ith w ill s h are m y ra ce. O nce h ir e d , I w on’t h av e to d eal w ith m y c o w ork ers ’ r e se n tm en t th at I only g ot th e jo b b ecau se I a m w hite ; I a m a ssu m ed to b e th e m ost q ualif ie d .

5 If th ere a re p eo ple o f c o lo r in th e o rg an iz atio n w ho re se n t m y h ir e , I c an easily d is m is s th em a n d re st a ssu re d th at th eir fe elin gs w on’t c arry m uch weig ht. If re se n tm en t fro m e m plo yees o f c o lo r d oes m an ag e to c o m e to m y atte n tio n, I can fin d co pio us v alid atio n an d o th er su pport fro m m y w hite co w ork ers , w ho w ill re assu re m e th at o ur c o lle ag ues o f c o lo r a re th e o nes who are bia se d . W ith ra ce as a nonis su e, I can fo cu s on m y w ork an d pro ductiv ity a n d b e s e en a s a te am p la y er. T his is y et a n oth er e x am ple o f th e co ncep t of white n ess as pro perty dis c u sse d earlie r: white n ess has psy ch olo gic al a d van ta g es t h at t r a n sla te i n to m ate ria l r e tu rn s.

As I m ove th ro ugh m y d ay , ra cis m ju st is n ’t m y p ro ble m . W hile I a m aw are t h at r a ce h as b een u se d u nfa ir ly a g ain st p eo ple o f c o lo r, I h av en ’t b een ta u ght to se e th is pro ble m as an y re sp onsib ility of m in e; as lo ng as I pers o nally h av en ’t d one a n yth in g I a m a w are o f, ra cis m is a n onis su e. T his fre ed om fro m re sp onsib ility giv es m e a le v el of ra cia l re la x atio n an d em otio nal a n d in te lle ctu al s p ace th at p eo ple o f c o lo r a re n ot a ffo rd ed a s th ey move th ro ugh th eir d ay . T hey d on’t la ck th ese b en efits ju st b ecau se th ey a re mem bers o f a n um eric al m in ority a n d I a m n ot (w hite m en a re a n um eric al min ority ). P eo ple o f co lo r la ck th ese b en efits b ecau se th ey are ra cia liz ed with in a c u ltu re o f w hite su pre m acy — a c u ltu re in w hic h th ey a re se en a s in fe rio r, i f t h ey a re s e en a t a ll.

Rais e d in a cu ltu re o f w hite su pre m acy , I ex ude a d eep ly in te rn aliz ed assu m ptio n of ra cia l su perio rity . Hav in g to nav ig ate white peo ple ’s in te rn aliz ed assu m ptio n of ra cia l su perio rity is a gre at psy ch ic dra in fo r peo ple o f c o lo r, b ut I h av e n o n eed t o c o ncern m yse lf w ith t h at.

FR EED O M O F M OVEM EN T I a m f re e to m ove in v ir tu ally a n y s p ace s e en a s n orm al, n eu tr a l, o r v alu ab le .

While I m ig ht w orry a b out m y c la ss sta tu s in so m e se ttin gs, fo r e x am ple , when a tte n din g a “ h ig h-s o cie ty ” e v en t s u ch a s a m use u m o pen in g o r a n a rt au ctio n, I w ill n ot h av e to w orry a b out m y r a ce. I n f a ct, m y r a ce w ill w ork in my f a v or in th ese s e ttin gs, g ra n tin g m e th e in itia l b en efit o f th e d oubt th at I belo ng th ere .

6 I a ls o w ill c erta in ly n ot b e th e o nly w hite p ers o n th ere , u nle ss th e e v en t i s s p ecif ic ally o rg an iz ed b y, o r c ele b ra tin g, p eo ple o f c o lo r.

In t h e e arly y ears o f m y c are er a s a w ork pla ce d iv ers ity t r a in er, I c o -le d t h e work sh ops w ith D eb ora h , a n A fric an A m eric an w om an . A fte r a p artic u la rly gru elin g tr a v el s c h ed ule , I p ro pose d th at w e g et a w ay f o r a r e la x in g w eek en d an d su ggeste d Lak e C oeu r d’A le n e in Id ah o. D eb ora h la u ghed at th e su ggestio n a n d le t m e k now th at v is itin g n orth ern I d ah o d id n ot s o und lik e a re la x in g w eek en d fo r h er. B esid es b ein g a v ery sm all to w n, L ak e C oeu r d’A le n e is near H ay den L ak e, w here th e A ry an N atio n w as build in g a co m pound.

7 A lth ough n ot a ll p eo ple who liv e in th e a re a a re a v ow ed w hite natio nalis ts , th e k now le d ge th at so m e p eo ple m ig ht b e p art o f th is o pen ly ra cis t g ro up w as te rrif y in g fo r D eb ora h . E ven if th ere w ere n o o rg an iz ed white natio nalis t en cam pm en ts in th e are a, D eb ora h did not w an t to be is o la te d in a v ir tu ally a ll- w hite e n vir o nm en t a n d h av e to in te ra ct w ith w hite peo ple w ho m ay h av e n ev er m et a b la ck p ers o n b efo re . Y et a s a w hite p ers o n, I d id n ot h av e to c o nsid er a n y o f th is ; a ll p la ces I p erc eiv e a s b eau tif u l a re open to m e ra cia lly , a n d m y e x pecta tio n is th at I w ill h av e a p le asa n t a n d re la x in g e x perie n ce t h ere .

JU ST P E O PL E Anoth er w ay th at m y lif e h as b een s h ap ed b y b ein g w hite is th at m y r a ce is held u p as th e n orm fo r h um an ity . W hite s are “ju st p eo ple ”— our ra ce is ra re ly i f e v er n am ed . T hin k a b out h ow o fte n w hite p eo ple m en tio n t h e r a ce o f a p ers o n if th ey a re n ot w hite : m y b la ck frie n d, th e A sia n w om an . I e n jo y young a d ult lite ra tu re b ut a m ta k en a b ack b y h ow c o nsis te n tly th e ra ce o f ch ara cte rs o f c o lo r i s n am ed a n d h ow o nly t h ose c h ara cte rs ’ r a ces a re n am ed .

To u se a n e x am ple f ro m s c h ool, c o nsid er t h e w rite rs w e a re a ll e x pecte d t o re ad ; th e lis t u su ally in clu des E rn est H em in gw ay , Jo hn S te in beck , C harle s Dic k en s, Fyodor D osto ev sk y, M ark Tw ain , Ja n e A uste n , an d W illia m Shak esp eare . T hese w rite rs are se en as re p re se n tin g th e u niv ers a l h um an ex perie n ce, a n d w e r e ad t h em p re cis e ly b ecau se t h ey a re p re su m ed t o b e a b le to sp eak to us all. N ow co nsid er th e w rite rs w e tu rn to durin g ev en ts pro m otin g d iv ers ity — ev en ts s u ch a s M ultic u ltu ra l A uth ors W eek a n d B la ck His to ry M onth . T hese w rite rs u su ally i n clu de M ay a A ngelo u, T oni M orris o n, Ja m es B ald w in , A m y T an , a n d S an dra C is n ero s. W e g o to th ese w rite rs fo r th e b la ck o r A sia n p ers p ectiv e; T oni M orris o n is alw ay s se en as a b la ck write r, n ot ju st a w rite r. B ut w hen w e a re n ot lo okin g f o r th e b la ck o r A sia n pers p ectiv e, w e r e tu rn to w hite w rite rs , r e in fo rc in g th e id ea o f w hite s a s ju st hum an , a n d p eo ple o f c o lo r a s p artic u la r k in ds (ra cia liz ed ) o f h um an s. T his als o a llo w s w hite (m ale ) w rite rs to b e s e en a s n ot h av in g a n a g en da o r a n y partic u la r p ers p ectiv e, w hile r a cia liz ed ( a n d g en dere d ) w rite rs d o.

Vir tu ally a n y re p re se n ta tio n o f hum an is b ase d o n w hite p eo ple ’s n orm s an d im ag es— “fle sh -c o lo re d ” m ak eu p, sta n dard e m oji, d ep ic tio ns o f A dam an d E ve, J e su s a n d M ary , e d ucatio nal m odels o f th e h um an b ody w ith w hite sk in a n d b lu e e y es.

8 T ak e, fo r ex am ple , a p hoto gra p h th at w as cir c u la te d wid ely a n d f e atu re d i n t h e Daily M ail.

T he p hoto o f a b lo nd, b lu e-e y ed w hite wom an is c ap tio ned “ W hat W ould a S cie n tif ic ally P erfe ct F ace L ook L ik e?” Belo w t h e i m ag e i s t h e q uestio n “ Is t h is t h e p erfe ct f a ce?” 9 T his o ne e x am ple illu str a te s se v era l co ncep ts dis c u sse d th us fa r: th e w hite ra cia l fra m e, white n ess a s th e h um an n orm , w hite n ess a s id eal b eau ty , a n d w hite n ess a s natu ra lly s u perio r. N ot o nly is th e id ea b eh in d th e c la im r a cia lly p ro ble m atic in i ts o w n r ig ht, b ut i t r e sts o n a n d r e in fo rc es t h e b ack dro p o f a n e arlie r e ra o f sc ie n tif ic r a cis m .

Consid er m odels f o r c h ild d ev elo pm en t a n d i ts s ta g es, a n d h ow o ur c u ltu re ta lk s ab out ch ild re n as a co lle ctiv e gro up. Theo ris ts pre se n t hum an dev elo pm en t as if it w ere univ ers a l. O ccasio nally , w e m ay dis tin guis h betw een b oys a n d g ir ls , b ut e v en t h en , t h e c ate g orie s a re p re su m ed t o i n clu de all b oys o r a ll g ir ls . N ow c o nsid er a ll th e d ynam ic s I h av e d is c u sse d th us f a r.

Is a n A sia n o r a n I n dig en ous c h ild ’s d ev elo pm en t t h e s a m e a s a w hite c h ild ’s with in t h e c o nte x t o f w hite s u pre m acy ?

WHIT E S O LID ARIT Y White so lid arity is th e u nsp oken a g re em en t a m ong w hite s to p ro te ct w hite ad van ta g e a n d n ot c au se a n oth er w hite p ers o n to fe el ra cia l d is c o m fo rt b y co nfro ntin g th em w hen th ey sa y or do so m eth in g ra cia lly pro ble m atic .

Educatio nal re se arc h er C hris tin e S le ete r d esc rib es th is so lid arity as w hite “ra cia l b ondin g.” S he o bse rv es th at w hen w hite s in te ra ct, th ey affir m “a co m mon s ta n ce o n ra ce-re la te d is su es, le g itim atin g p artic u la r in te rp re ta tio ns of g ro ups o f c o lo r, a n d d ra w in g c o nsp ir a to ria l w e-th ey b oundarie s.” 10 W hite so lid arity r e q uir e s b oth s ile n ce a b out an yth in g th at e x pose s th e a d van ta g es o f th e w hite positio n an d ta cit ag re em en t to re m ain ra cia lly unite d in th e pro te ctio n o f w hite s u pre m acy . T o b re ak w hite s o lid arity i s t o b re ak r a n k.

We s e e w hite s o lid arity a t th e d in ner ta b le , a t p artie s, a n d in w ork s e ttin gs.

Man y o f u s c an re la te to th e b ig fa m ily d in ner a t w hic h U ncle B ob sa y s so m eth in g ra cia lly o ffe n siv e. E very one c rin ges b ut n o o ne c h alle n ges h im becau se n obody w an ts to r u in th e d in ner. O r th e p arty w here s o m eo ne te lls a ra cis t jo ke b ut w e k eep s ile n t b ecau se w e d on’t w an t to b e a ccu se d o f b ein g to o p olitic ally c o rre ct a n d b e to ld to lig hte n u p. In th e w ork pla ce, w e a v oid nam in g ra cis m fo r th e s a m e re aso ns, in a d ditio n to w an tin g to b e s e en a s a te am pla y er an d to av oid an yth in g th at m ay je o pard iz e our care er ad van cem en t. A ll th ese fa m ilia r s c en ario s a re e x am ple s o f w hite s o lid arity .

(W hy sp eak in g u p ab out ra cis m w ould ru in th e am bia n ce o r th re ate n o ur care er a d van cem en t i s s o m eth in g w e m ig ht w an t t o t a lk a b out.) The very re al co nse q uen ces of bre ak in g white so lid arity pla y a fu ndam en ta l r o le i n m ain ta in in g w hite s u pre m acy . W e d o i n deed r is k c en su re an d o th er p en altie s fro m o ur fe llo w w hite s. W e m ig ht b e a ccu se d o f b ein g politic ally c o rre ct o r m ig ht b e p erc eiv ed a s a n gry , h um orle ss, c o m bativ e, a n d not s u ite d to g o fa r in a n o rg an iz atio n. In m y o w n lif e , th ese p en altie s h av e work ed a s a f o rm o f s o cia l c o erc io n. S eek in g t o a v oid c o nflic t a n d w an tin g t o be l ik ed , I h av e c h ose n s ile n ce a ll t o o o fte n .

Convers e ly , w hen I k ep t q uie t a b out ra cis m , I w as re w ard ed w ith so cia l cap ita l s u ch a s b ein g s e en a s f u n, c o opera tiv e, a n d a te am p la y er. N otic e th at with in a w hite s u pre m acis t s o cie ty , I a m r e w ard ed f o r n ot i n te rru ptin g r a cis m an d p unis h ed i n a r a n ge o f w ay s— big a n d s m all— when I d o. I c an j u stif y m y sile n ce b y t e llin g m yse lf t h at a t l e ast I a m n ot t h e o ne w ho m ad e t h e j o ke a n d th at th ere fo re I am n ot at fa u lt. B ut m y sile n ce is n ot b en ig n b ecau se it pro te cts an d m ain ta in s th e ra cia l h ie ra rc h y an d m y p la ce w ith in it. E ach unin te rru pte d jo ke f u rth ers th e c ir c u la tio n o f r a cis m th ro ugh th e c u ltu re , a n d th e a b ility f o r t h e j o ke t o c ir c u la te d ep en ds o n m y c o m plic ity .

Peo ple o f c o lo r c erta in ly e x perie n ce w hite s o lid arity a s a fo rm o f ra cis m , where in w e f a il to h old e ach o th er a cco unta b le , to c h alle n ge ra cis m w hen w e se e i t, o r t o s u pport p eo ple o f c o lo r i n t h e s tr u ggle f o r r a cia l j u stic e.

TH E G OOD O LD D AYS As a w hite p ers o n, I c an o pen ly a n d u nab ash ed ly r e m in is c e a b out “ th e g ood old d ay s.” R om an tic iz ed re co ll e ctio ns o f th e p ast a n d c alls fo r a re tu rn to fo rm er w ay s a re a fu nctio n o f w hite p riv ile g e, w hic h m an if e sts its e lf in th e ab ility to re m ain o bliv io us to o ur ra cia l h is to ry . C la im in g th at th e p ast w as so cia lly bette r th an th e pre se n t is als o a hallm ark of w hite su pre m acy .

Consid er a n y p erio d in th e p ast f ro m th e p ers p ectiv e o f p eo ple o f c o lo r: 2 46 years o f b ru ta l e n sla v em en t; th e ra p e o f b la ck w om en fo r th e p le asu re o f white m en a n d to p ro duce m ore e n sla v ed w ork ers ; th e se llin g o ff o f b la ck ch ild re n ; th e a tte m pte d g en ocid e o f In dig en ous p eo ple , In dia n re m oval a cts , an d re se rv atio ns; in den tu re d se rv itu de, ly nch in g, an d mob vio le n ce; sh are cro ppin g; C hin ese e x clu sio n la w s; J a p an ese A m eric an in te rn m en t; J im Cro w la w s of m an dato ry se g re g atio n; bla ck co des; ban s on bla ck ju ry se rv ic e; ban s on votin g; im pris o nin g peo ple fo r unpaid w ork ; m ed ic al ste riliz atio n an d ex perim en ta tio n; em plo ym en t dis c rim in atio n; ed ucatio nal dis c rim in atio n; in fe rio r s c h ools ; b ia se d la w s a n d p olic in g p ra ctic es; r e d lin in g an d su bprim e m ortg ag es; m ass in carc era tio n; ra cis t m ed ia re p re se n ta tio ns; cu ltu ra l e ra su re s, a tta ck s, a n d m ock ery ; a n d u nto ld a n d p erv erte d h is to ric al acco unts , an d you can se e how a ro m an tic iz ed past is str ic tly a w hite co nstr u ct. B ut it is a p ow erfu l co nstr u ct b ecau se it calls o ut to a d eep ly in te rn aliz ed se n se of su perio rity an d en title m en t an d th e se n se th at an y ad van cem en t f o r p eo ple o f c o lo r i s a n e n cro ach m en t o n t h is e n title m en t.

The p ast w as g re at f o r w hite p eo ple ( a n d w hite m en in p artic u la r) b ecau se th eir p ositio ns w en t la rg ely u nch alle n ged . In u nders ta n din g th e p ow er o f white f ra g ility , w e h av e t o n otic e t h at t h e m ere q uestio nin g o f t h ose p ositio ns tr ig gere d th e w hite fra g ility th at T ru m p c ap ita liz ed o n. T here h as b een n o actu al lo ss o f p ow er fo r th e w hite elite , w ho h av e alw ay s co ntr o lle d o ur in stitu tio ns a n d c o ntin ue to d o s o b y a v ery w id e m arg in . O f th e f if ty r ic h est peo ple o n earth , tw en ty -n in e are A m eric an .

Of th ese tw en ty -n in e, all are white , a n d a ll b ut tw o a re m en ( L au re n J o bs in herite d h er h usb an d’s w ealth , an d A lic e W alto n h er f a th er’s ).

Sim ila rly , t h e w hite w ork in g c la ss h as a lw ay s h eld t h e t o p p ositio ns w ith in blu e-c o lla r fie ld s (th e o vers e ers , la b or le ad ers , a n d fir e a n d p olic e c h ie fs ).

And alth ough g lo baliz atio n an d th e ero sio n o f w ork ers ’ rig hts h as h ad a pro fo und i m pact o n t h e w hite w ork in g c la ss, w hite f ra g ility e n ab le d t h e w hite elite to d ir e ct th e w hite w ork in g c la ss’s re se n tm en t to w ard p eo ple o f c o lo r.

The r e se n tm en t is c le arly m is d ir e cte d , g iv en th at th e p eo ple w ho c o ntr o l th e eco nom y an d w ho h av e m an ag ed to co ncen tr a te m ore w ealth in to fe w er (w hite ) h an ds t h an e v er b efo re i n h um an h is to ry a re t h e w hite e lite . Consid er t h is d ata o n t h e d is tr ib utio n o f w ealth :

• S in ce 2 015, t h e r ic h est 1 p erc en t h as o w ned m ore w ealth t h an t h e r e st o f t h e pla n et o w ns.

11 • E ig ht m en o w n t h e s a m e a m ount o f w ealth a s d o t h e p oore st h alf o f t h e world .

• T he i n co m es o f t h e p oore st 1 0 p erc en t o f p eo ple i n cre ase d b y l e ss t h an th re e d olla rs a y ear b etw een 1 988 a n d 2 011, w hile t h e i n co m es o f t h e ric h est 1 p erc en t i n cre ase d 1 82 t im es a s m uch .

• I n B lo om berg ’s d aily r a n kin g o f t h e w orld ’s f iv e h undre d r ic h est p eo ple , th e w orld ’s w ealth ie st t h re e ( B ill G ate s, W arre n B uffe t, a n d J e ff B ezo s), a ll white A m eric an m en , h av e t o ta l n et w orth s o f $ 85 b illio n, $ 79 b illio n, a n d $73 b illio n, r e sp ectiv ely .

12 B y c o m paris o n, t h e 2 015 g ro ss d om estic pro duct o f S ri L an ka w as $ 82 b illio n; L uxem bourg $ 58 b illio n; a n d Ic ela n d, $ 16 b illio n.

13 • O f t h e w orld ’s t e n r ic h est p eo ple , n in e a re w hite m en .

14 • I n 2 015–2016, t h e w orld ’s t e n b ig gest c o rp ora tio ns t o geth er h ad r e v en ue gre ate r t h an t h at o f t h e g overn m en t r e v en ues o f 1 80 c o untr ie s c o m bin ed .

• I n t h e U S, o ver t h e l a st t h ir ty y ears , t h e g ro w th i n t h e i n co m es o f t h e botto m 5 0 p erc en t h as b een z ero , w here as i n co m es o f t h e t o p 1 p erc en t hav e g ro w n b y 3 00 p erc en t.

The c all t o M ak e A m eric a G re at A gain w ork ed p ow erfu lly i n s e rv ic e o f t h e ra cia l m an ip ula tio n o f w hite p eo ple , d iv ertin g b la m e a w ay fro m th e w hite elite an d to w ard vario us peo ple s of co lo r— fo r ex am ple , undocu m en te d work ers , im mig ra n ts , an d th e C hin ese — fo r th e cu rre n t co nditio ns of th e white w ork in g c la ss.

The ro m an tic iz ed “ tr a d itio nal” fa m ily v alu es o f th e p ast a re a ls o ra cia lly pro ble m atic . W hite fa m ilie s fle d fro m citie s to th e su burb s to esc ap e th e in flu x o f p eo ple o f c o lo r, a p ro cess s o cia lo gis ts te rm white f lig ht.

T hey w ro te co ven an ts to k eep s c h ools a n d n eig hborh oods s e g re g ate d a n d f o rb ad e c ro ss- ra cia l d atin g.

Consid er th e ex tr e m e re sis ta n ce to busin g an d oth er fo rm s of sc h ool in te g ra tio n fro m w hite pare n ts . In th e la n dm ark S upre m e C ourt decis io n Bro w n v . B oard o f E duca tio n, th e c o urt ru le d th at se p ara te w as in here n tly uneq ual a n d th at s c h ools n eed ed to d ese g re g ate “ w ith a ll d elib era te s p eed .” Busin g c h ild re n fro m o ne n eig hborh ood in to a s c h ool in a n oth er to a cco unt fo r r e sid en tia l s e g re g atio n b ecam e a m ajo r s tr a te g y o f d ese g re g atio n ( n ota b ly , white c h ild re n w ere g en era lly n ot b use d in to p re d om in ate ly b la ck sc h ools ; in ste ad , b la ck c h ild re n e n dure d lo ng b us r id es to a tte n d p re d om in ate ly w hite sc h ools ). R eg in a W illia m s, a b la ck stu den t fro m R oxbury , M assa ch use tts , was b use d in to a sc h ool in S outh B osto n. S he d esc rib ed h er fir s t d ay in a fo rm erly a ll- w hite s c h ool a s “ lik e a w ar z o ne.” S ch ool o ffic ia ls , p olitic ia n s, th e c o urts , a n d t h e m ed ia g av e p re ced en ce t o t h e d esir e s o f w hite p are n ts w ho overw helm in gly an d v eh em en tly o ppose d sc h ool d ese g re g atio n. It h as n ot been A fric an A m eric an s w ho re sis t in te g ra tio n e ffo rts ; it h as a lw ay s b een white s.

15 T he p ra ctic e o f o ur liv es a s a w hite c o lle ctiv e h as ra re ly b een in alig nm en t w ith t h e v alu es w e p ro fe ss.

At th e m in im um , th is id ealiz atio n o f th e p ast is a n oth er e x am ple o f w hite ex perie n ces an d perc ep tio ns positio ned as univ ers a l. H ow m ig ht th is nosta lg ia s o und t o a n y p ers o n o f c o lo r w ho i s a w are o f t h is c o untr y ’s h is to ry ?

The a b ility to e ra se th is ra cia l h is to ry a n d a ctu ally b elie v e th at th e p ast w as bette r th an th e p re se n t “ fo r e v ery body” h as in cu lc ate d a fa ls e c o nsc io usn ess fo r m e p ers o nally a n d a s a n atio nal c itiz en .

WHIT E R ACIA L I N NO CEN CE Becau se w e a re n ot ra is e d to se e o urs e lv es in ra cia l te rm s o r to se e w hite sp ace as ra cia liz ed sp ace, w e p ositio n o urs e lv es as in nocen t o f ra ce. O n co untle ss o ccasio ns, I h av e h eard w hite p eo ple c la im th at b ecau se th ey g re w up i n s e g re g atio n, t h ey w ere s h elte re d f ro m r a ce. A t t h e s a m e t im e, w e t u rn t o peo ple o f c o lo r, w ho m ay a ls o h av e g ro w n u p in ra cia lly s e g re g ate d s p aces (b ecau se o f d ecad es o f d e ju re a n d d e f a cto p olic ie s th at b lo ck ed th em f ro m movin g in to w hite n eig hborh oods) to le arn ab out ra cis m . B ut w hy are n ’t peo ple o f c o lo r w ho g re w u p in s e g re g atio n a ls o in nocen t o f r a ce? I a sk m y re ad ers to re fle ct deep ly on th e id ea th at w hite se g re g atio n is ra cia lly in nocen t.

Becau se p eo ple o f c o lo r a re n ot s e en a s r a cia lly i n nocen t, t h ey a re e x pecte d to s p eak to is su es o f ra ce (b ut m ust d o s o o n w hite te rm s). T his id ea— th at ra cis m is n ot a w hite p ro ble m — en ab le s u s to s it b ack a n d le t p eo ple o f c o lo r ta k e very re al ris k s of in valid atio n an d re ta lia tio n as th ey sh are th eir ex perie n ces. B ut w e a re n ot r e q uir e d t o t a k e s im ila r c ro ss-ra cia l r is k s. T hey — not w e— hav e r a ce, a n d th us th ey a re th e h old ers o f r a cia l k now le d ge. I n th is way , w e p ositio n o urs e lv es a s s ta n din g o uts id e h ie ra rc h ic al s o cia l r e la tio ns.

White f lig ht m ay b e s e en a s a n oth er a sp ect o f w hite r a cia l in nocen ce, a s it is ofte n ju stif ie d by belie fs th at peo ple of co lo r (a g ain , esp ecia lly bla ck peo ple ) a re m ore p ro ne to c rim e a n d th at if “ to o m an y” b la ck p eo ple m ove in to a n eig hborh ood, c rim e w ill in cre ase , h om e v alu es w ill g o d ow n, a n d th e neig hborh ood w ill dete rio ra te . For ex am ple , in a stu dy of ra ce an d perc ep tio ns o f c rim e c o nducte d b y s o cio lo gis ts H eath er J o hnso n a n d T hom as Shap ir o , w hite fa m ilie s c o nsis te n tly d is c u sse d fe ar o f c rim e a n d a sso cia te d crim e w ith p eo ple o f c o lo r. I n t h eir m in ds, t h e m ore p eo ple o f c o lo r i n a n a re a (s p ecif ic ally , b la ck s a n d L atin os), t h e m ore d an gero us t h e a re a w as p erc eiv ed to b e. R ese arc h m atc h in g c en su s d ata a n d p olic e d ep artm en t c rim e s ta tis tic s sh ow t h at t h is a sso cia tio n d oes n ot h old , b ut t h ese s ta tis tic s d o n ot q uell w hite fe ars . For m ost w hite s, th e perc en ta g e of young m en of co lo r in a neig hborh ood is d ir e ctly co rre la te d w ith p erc ep tio ns o f th e n eig hborh ood crim e l e v el.

16 Deep ly h eld w hite a sso cia tio ns o f b la ck p eo ple w ith c rim e d is to rt re ality an d t h e a ctu al d ir e ctio n o f d an ger t h at h as h is to ric ally e x is te d b etw een w hite s an d bla ck s. The vast his to ry of ex te n siv e an d bru ta l ex plic it vio le n ce perp etr a te d b y w hite s a n d th eir id eo lo gic al r a tio naliz atio ns a re a ll tr iv ia liz ed th ro ugh w hite c la im s o f r a cia l in nocen ce. T he p ow er w e n ow w ie ld a n d h av e wie ld ed f o r c en tu rie s i s t h us o bsc u re d .

It h as b een w ell d ocu m en te d th at b la ck s a n d L atin os a re s to pped b y p olic e more o fte n th an w hite s are fo r th e sa m e activ itie s an d th at th ey re ceiv e hars h er se n te n ces th an w hite s d o fo r th e sa m e crim es. R ese arc h h as als o sh ow n th at a m ajo r re aso n fo r th is ra cia l d is p arity c an b e a ttr ib ute d to th e belie fs h eld b y ju dges a n d o th ers a b out th e c au se o f th e c rim in al b eh av io r.

17 For e x am ple , th e c rim in al b eh av io r o f w hite ju ven ile s is o fte n s e en a s c au se d by e x te rn al f a cto rs — th e y outh c o m es f ro m a s in gle -p are n t h om e, is h av in g a hard tim e rig ht n ow , ju st h ap pen ed to b e a t th e w ro ng p la ce a t th e w ro ng tim e, o r w as b ullie d a t s c h ool. A ttr ib utin g th e c au se o f th e a ctio n to e x te rn al fa cto rs l e sse n s t h e p ers o n’s r e sp onsib ility a n d c la ssif ie s t h e p ers o n a s a v ic tim him or hers e lf . B ut bla ck an d L atin x youth are not affo rd ed th is sa m e co m passio n.

When b la ck a n d L atin x y outh g o b efo re a ju dge, th e c au se o f th e c rim e is more ofte n attr ib ute d to so m eth in g in te rn al to th e pers o n— th e youth is natu ra lly m ore p ro ne to c rim e, is m ore a n im alis tic , a n d h as le ss c ap acity f o r re m ors e (s im ila rly , a 2 016 stu dy fo und th at h alf o f a sa m ple o f m ed ic al stu den ts a n d r e sid en ts b elie v e t h at b la ck s f e el l e ss p ain 18 ). W hite s c o ntin ually re ceiv e th e b en efit o f th e d oubt n ot g ra n te d to p eo ple o f co lo r— our ra ce alo ne h elp s e sta b lis h o ur i n nocen ce.

For th ose o f u s w ho w ork to ra is e th e ra cia l co nsc io usn ess o f w hite s, sim ply g ettin g w hite s to a ck now le d ge th at o ur r a ce g iv es u s a d van ta g es is a majo r effo rt. The defe n siv en ess, den ia l, an d re sis ta n ce are deep . But ack now le d gin g a d van ta g e is o nly a fir s t s te p , a n d th is a ck now le d gm en t c an be u se d in a w ay th at re n ders it m ean in gle ss a n d a llo w s u s w hite p eo ple to ex em pt o urs e lv es f ro m f u rth er r e sp onsib ility . F or e x am ple , I h av e o fte n h eard white s dis m is siv ely sa y , “Ju st becau se of th e co lo r of m y sk in , I hav e priv ile g e.” Sta te m en ts lik e th is desc rib e priv ile g e as if it’ s a flu ke— so m eth in g th at ju st hap pen s to us as w e m ove th ro ugh lif e , w ith no in volv em en t o r c o m plic ity o n o ur p art.

Critic al r a ce s c h ola r Z eu s L eo nard o c ritiq ues t h e c o ncep t o f w hite p riv ile g e as s o m eth in g w hite p eo ple re ceiv e u nw ittin gly . H e s a y s th at th is c o ncep t is an alo gous to su ggestin g th at a p ers o n co uld w alk th ro ugh lif e w ith o th er peo ple stu ffin g m oney in to h is o r h er p ock ets w ith out an y aw are n ess o r co nse n t o n th e w alk er’s p art. L eo nard o ch alle n ges th is co ncep tu aliz atio n, whic h p ositio ns w hite p riv ile g e as in nocen ce, b y arg uin g th at “fo r w hite ra cia l h eg em ony t o s a tu ra te e v ery day l if e , i t h as t o b e s e cu re d b y a p ro cess o f dom in atio n, or th ose acts , decis io ns, an d polic ie s th at w hite su bje cts perp etr a te o n p eo ple o f c o lo r.” 19 V ie w in g p riv ile g e a s s o m eth in g th at w hite peo ple are ju st h an ded o bsc u re s th e sy ste m atic d im en sio ns o f ra cis m th at must b e a ctiv ely a n d p assiv ely , c o nsc io usly a n d u nco nsc io usly , m ain ta in ed .

The ex pecta tio n th at peo ple of co lo r sh ould te ach w hite peo ple ab out ra cis m is an oth er asp ect o f w hite ra cia l in nocen ce th at re in fo rc es se v era l pro ble m atic r a cia l a ssu m ptio ns. F ir s t, it im plie s th at r a cis m is s o m eth in g th at hap pen s to peo ple of co lo r an d has noth in g to do w ith us an d th at w e co nse q uen tly can not be ex pecte d to hav e an y know le d ge of it. This fra m ew ork d en ie s th at ra cis m is a re la tio nsh ip in w hic h b oth g ro ups are in volv ed . B y le av in g it to p eo ple o f c o lo r to ta ck le ra cia l is su es, w e o fflo ad th e te n sio ns a n d s o cia l d an gers o f s p eak in g o pen ly o nto th em . W e c an ig nore th e r is k s o urs e lv es a n d r e m ain s ile n t o n q uestio ns o f o ur o w n c u lp ab ility .

Seco nd, th is re q uest re q uir e s n oth in g o f u s a n d re in fo rc es u neq ual p ow er re la tio ns by ask in g peo ple of co lo r to do our w ork . T here are co pio us re so urc es av aila b le o n th e su bje ct g en era te d b y p eo ple o f co lo r w ho are willin g to sh are th e in fo rm atio n; w hy h av en ’t w e so ught it o ut b efo re th is co nvers a tio n?

Thir d , th e re q uest ig nore s th e h is to ric al d im en sio ns o f ra ce re la tio ns. It dis re g ard s h ow o fte n p eo ple o f c o lo r h av e in deed tr ie d to te ll u s w hat r a cis m is lik e fo r th em a n d h ow o fte n th ey h av e b een d is m is se d . T o a sk p eo ple o f co lo r to te ll u s h ow th ey e x perie n ce ra cis m w ith out fir s t b uild in g a tr u stin g re la tio nsh ip a n d b ein g w illin g t o m eet t h em half w ay b y a ls o b ein g v uln era b le sh ow s th at w e a re n ot r a cia lly a w are a n d th at th is e x ch an ge w ill p ro bab ly b e in valid atin g f o r t h em .

SE G REG ATED L IV ES On a te le v is io n ta lk s h ow in 1 965, J a m es B ald w in r e sp onded p assio nate ly to a Y ale p ro fe sso r’s a rg um en t t h at B ald w in a lw ay s c o ncen tr a te d o n c o lo r:

I d on’t k now if w hite C hris tia n s h ate N eg ro s o r n ot, b ut I k now th at w e h av e a C hris tia n c h urc h t h at i s w hite a n d a C hris tia n c h urc h w hic h i s b la ck . I k now th at th e m ost s e g re g ate d h our in A m eric an lif e is h ig h n oon o n S unday . . . . I don’t k now w heth er t h e l a b or u nio ns a n d t h eir b osse s r e ally h ate m e . . . b ut I know I a m n ot in th eir u nio ns. I d on’t k now if th e r e al e sta te lo bby is a g ain st bla ck p eo ple b ut I k now th at th e r e al e sta te lo bbyis ts k eep m e in th e g hetto . I don’t k now if th e B oard o f E ducatio n h ate s B la ck p eo ple , b ut I k now th e te x tb ooks t h ey g iv e m y c h ild re n t o r e ad a n d t h e s c h ools t h at w e h av e t o g o t o .

Now t h is i s t h e e v id en ce. Y ou w an t m e t o m ak e a n a ct o f f a ith r is k in g . . . m y lif e . . . o n s o m e id ealis m w hic h y ou a ssu re m e e x is ts in A m eric a w hic h I hav e n ev er s e en .

20 Lif e in th e U nite d S ta te s is d eep ly sh ap ed b y ra cia l se g re g atio n. O f a ll ra cia l g ro ups, w hite s a re th e m ost lik ely to c h oose s e g re g atio n a n d a re th e gro up m ost lik ely to b e in th e so cia l an d eco nom ic p ositio n to d o so .

21 Gro w in g up in se g re g atio n (o ur sc h ools , work pla ces, neig hborh oods, sh oppin g d is tr ic ts , p la ces o f w ors h ip , e n te rta in m en t, so cia l g ath erin gs, a n d els e w here ) re in fo rc es th e m essa g e th at o ur e x perie n ces a n d p ers p ectiv es a re th e o nly o nes th at m atte r. W e d on’t s e e p eo ple o f c o lo r a ro und u s, a n d f e w if an y a d ults a ck now le d ge a la ck o f ra cia l d iv ers ity a s a p ro ble m . In fa ct, th e cla ssif ic atio n o f w hic h n eig hborh oods a re g ood a n d w hic h a re b ad is a lw ay s base d o n ra ce. T hese a sse ssm en ts m ay a ls o b e b ase d o n e co nom ic d iv is io ns am ong w hite s, b ut if b la ck a n d L atin x s tu den ts a tte n d a s c h ool in s ig nif ic an t num bers (s ig nif ic an t in th e w hite m in d), w hite s w ill p erc eiv e th e s c h ool a s bad . If th ere are p eo ple o f c o lo r a ro und u s, w e a re se ld om e n co ura g ed to build c ro ss-ra cia l f rie n dsh ip s.

Seg re g atio n is o fte n le sse n ed so m ew hat fo r p oor u rb an w hite s w ho m ay liv e n ear a n d h av e f rie n dsh ip s w ith p eo ple o f c o lo r o n t h e lo cal l e v el b ecau se white p overty b rin gs w hite p eo ple in to p ro xim ity w ith p eo ple o f c o lo r in a way th at su burb an an d mid dle -c la ss lif e does not (e x cep t durin g gen tr if ic atio n, w hen th e m ix in g is te m pora ry ). U rb an w hite s fro m th e lo w er cla sse s m ay h av e m ore i n te g ra te d l iv es o n t h e m ic ro l e v el, b ut w e s till r e ceiv e th e m essa g e th at a ch ie v em en t m ean s m ovin g a w ay fro m th e n eig hborh oods an d s c h ools th at illu m in ate o ur p overty . U pw ard m obility is th e g re at c la ss goal in th e U nite d S ta te s, a n d th e s o cia l e n vir o nm en t g ets ta n gib ly w hite r th e hig her u p y ou clim b. W hite r en vir o nm en ts , in tu rn , are se en as th e m ost desir a b le .

For u pw ard ly m obile w hite s fro m th e lo w er c la sse s, re ach in g to w ard th e most v alu ab le p la ces in s o cie ty u su ally m ean s le av in g f rie n ds a n d n eig hbors of co lo r beh in d. F or ex am ple , I gre w up urb an an d poor an d liv ed in ap artm en t build in gs in cro w ded re n ta l- b ase d neig hborh oods. In my ch ild hood, th ere w ere m an y p eo ple o f c o lo r a ro und m e. B ut I k new th at if I was to im pro ve m y lif e , I w ould n ot sta y in th ese n eig hborh oods; u pw ard mobility w ould ta k e m e to w hite r s p aces, a n d it h as. I d id n ot m ain ta in th ose early re la tio nsh ip s w ith peo ple of co lo r, an d no one w ho guid ed m e en co ura g ed m e to d o so . S eg re g atio n w as still o pera tin g in m y lif e a t th e wid er s o cie ta l le v el: it d ic ta te d w hat I le arn ed in s c h ool, re ad in b ooks, s a w on T V , a n d l e arn ed t o v alu e i f I w an te d t o i m pro ve m y l if e .

Merito cra cy i s a p re cio us i d eo lo gy i n t h e U nite d S ta te s, b ut n eig hborh oods an d s c h ools a re d em onstr a b ly n ot e q ual; th ey a re s e p ara te a n d u neq ual. T ax base s, s c h ool r e so urc es, c u rric u la , t e x tb ooks, o pportu nitie s f o r e x tr a cu rric u la r activ itie s, a n d th e q uality o f th e te ach in g s ta ff d if fe r w id ely b etw een s c h ool dis tr ic ts . W ho is not aw are th at sc h ools in th e U nite d S ta te s are vastly uneq ual? W ith out w hite p eo ple ’s in te re st o r effo rt in veste d in ch an gin g a sy ste m th at s e rv es th em a t th e e x pen se o f o th ers , a d van ta g e is p asse d d ow n fro m g en era tio n to g en era tio n. R ath er th an c h an ge th ese c o nditio ns so th at public e d ucatio n is e q ual f o r a ll, w e a llo w o th er p eo ple ’s c h ild re n to e n dure co nditio ns t h at w ould b e u naccep ta b le f o r o ur o w n.

A 2 009 s tu dy p u blis h ed in th e Am eric a n J o urn al o f E duca tio n fo und th at while s u burb an p are n ts , w ho a re m ostly w hite , s a y th ey a re s e le ctin g s c h ools on th e b asis o f te st sc o re s, th e ra cia l m ak eu p o f a sc h ool a ctu ally p la y s a la rg er ro le in th eir sc h ool decis io ns. A m y Stu art W ells , a pro fe sso r of so cio lo gy a n d e d ucatio n a t C olu m bia U niv ers ity ’s T each ers C olle g e, fo und th e s a m e c o ded l a n guag e w hen s h e s tu die d h ow w hite p are n ts c h oose s c h ools in N ew Y ork C ity . S he w rite s, “ In a p ostr a cia l e ra , w e d on’t h av e to s a y it’ s ab out ra ce o r th e c o lo r o f th e k id s in th e b uild in g. . . . W e c an c o ncen tr a te poverty a n d k id s o f c o lo r a n d t h en f a il t o p ro vid e t h e r e so urc es t o s u pport a n d su sta in t h ose s c h ools , a n d t h en w e c an s e e a s c h ool f u ll o f b la ck k id s a n d s a y , ‘O h, lo ok a t th eir te st s c o re s.’ It’ s a ll v ery tid y n ow , th is w hole s y ste m .” 22 Read ers h av e n o d oubt h eard s c h ools a n d n eig hborh oods d is c u sse d in th ese te rm s a n d k now th at th is ta lk is r a cia lly c o ded ; “ u rb an ” a n d “ lo w te st s c o re s” are c o de f o r “ n ot w hite ” a n d t h ere fo re l e ss d esir a b le .

While m an y w hite s se e sp aces in hab ite d b y m ore th an a fe w p eo ple o f co lo r a s u ndesir a b le a n d e v en d an gero us, c o nsid er a n oth er p ers p ectiv e. I h av e heard c o untle ss p eo ple o f c o lo r d esc rib e h ow p ain fu l a n e x perie n ce it w as to be o ne o f o nly a fe w p eo ple o f c o lo r in th eir sc h ools a n d n eig hborh oods.

Alth ough m an y p are n ts o f c o lo r w an t th e a d van ta g es g ra n te d b y a tte n din g pre d om in an tly w hite s c h ools , th ey a ls o w orry a b out th e s tr e ss a n d e v en th e dan ger th ey a re p uttin g th eir c h ild re n in . T hese p are n ts u nders ta n d th at th e pre d om in an tly w hite te ach in g fo rc e h as little if an y au th en tic k now le d ge ab out c h ild re n o f c o lo r a n d h as b een s o cia liz ed ( o fte n u nco nsc io usly ) to s e e ch ild re n o f c o lo r a s i n fe rio r a n d e v en t o f e ar t h em . I m ag in e h ow u nsa fe w hite sc h ools , w hic h a re s o p re cio us to w hite p are n ts , m ig ht a p pear to p are n ts o f co lo r.

The m ost p ro fo und m essa g e o f r a cia l s e g re g atio n m ay b e th at th e a b se n ce of p eo ple o f c o lo r fro m o ur liv es is n o re al lo ss. N ot o ne p ers o n w ho lo ved me, g uid ed m e, o r ta u ght m e e v er c o nvey ed th at s e g re g atio n d ep riv ed m e o f an yth in g o f v alu e. I c o uld liv e m y e n tir e lif e w ith out a frie n d o r lo ved o ne o f co lo r a n d n ot s e e t h at a s a d im in is h m en t o f m y l if e . I n f a ct, m y l if e tr a je cto ry would a lm ost c erta in ly e n su re th at I h ad fe w , if a n y, p eo ple o f c o lo r in m y lif e . I m ig ht m eet a f e w p eo ple o f c o lo r i f I p la y ed c erta in s p orts i n s c h ool, o r if th ere h ap pen ed to b e o ne o r tw o p ers o ns o f c o lo r in m y c la ss, b ut w hen I was o uts id e o f th at c o nte x t, I h ad n o p ro xim ity to p eo ple o f c o lo r, m uch le ss an y a u th en tic r e la tio nsh ip s. M ost w hite s w ho r e call h av in g a f rie n d o f c o lo r in c h ild hood r a re ly k eep th ese f rie n dsh ip s in to a d ulth ood. Y et if m y p are n ts had th ought it w as v alu ab le to h av e c ro ss-ra cia l re la tio nsh ip s, th ey w ould hav e e n su re d th at I h ad th em , e v en if it to ok e ffo rt— th e s a m e e ffo rt s o m an y white p are n ts e x pen d to s e n d th eir c h ild re n a cro ss to w n s o th ey c an a tte n d a bette r ( w hite r) s c h ool.

Pau se fo r a m om en t a n d c o nsid er th e p ro fu ndity o f th is m essa g e: w e a re ta u ght th at w e lo se n oth in g o f v alu e th ro ugh r a cia l s e g re g atio n. C onsid er th e messa g e w e s e n d to o ur c h ild re n — as w ell a s to c h ild re n o f c o lo r— when w e desc rib e w hite s e g re g atio n a s g ood.

In s u m mary , o ur s o cia liz atio n e n gen ders a c o m mon s e t o f ra cia l p atte rn s.

These p atte rn s a re t h e f o undatio n o f w hite f ra g ility :

• P re fe re n ce f o r r a cia l s e g re g atio n, a n d a l a ck o f a s e n se o f l o ss a b out se g re g atio n • L ack o f u nders ta n din g a b out w hat r a cis m i s • S eein g o urs e lv es a s i n div id uals , e x em pt f ro m t h e f o rc es o f r a cia l so cia liz atio n • F ailu re t o u nders ta n d t h at w e b rin g o ur g ro up’s h is to ry w ith u s, t h at h is to ry matte rs • A ssu m in g e v ery one i s h av in g o r c an h av e o ur e x perie n ce • L ack o f r a cia l h um ility , a n d u nw illin gness t o l is te n • D is m is sin g w hat w e d on’t u nders ta n d • L ack o f a u th en tic i n te re st i n t h e p ers p ectiv es o f p eo ple o f c o lo r • W an tin g t o j u m p o ver t h e h ard , p ers o nal w ork a n d g et t o “ so lu tio ns” • C onfu sin g d is a g re em en t w ith n ot u nders ta n din g • N eed t o m ain ta in w hite s o lid arity , t o s a v e f a ce, t o l o ok g ood • G uilt t h at p ara ly zes o r a llo w s i n actio n • D efe n siv en ess a b out a n y s u ggestio n t h at w e a re c o nnecte d t o r a cis m • A f o cu s o n i n te n tio ns o ver i m pact My psy ch oso cia l dev elo pm en t w as in cu lc ate d in a w hite su pre m acis t cu ltu re in w hic h I a m in th e s u perio r g ro up. T ellin g m e to tr e at e v ery one th e sa m e i s n ot e n ough t o o verrid e t h is s o cia liz atio n; n or i s i t h um an ly p ossib le . I was r a is e d i n a s o cie ty t h at t a u ght m e t h at t h ere w as n o l o ss i n t h e a b se n ce o f peo ple o f c o lo r— th at th eir a b se n ce w as a g ood a n d d esir a b le th in g to b e so ught a n d m ain ta in ed — while s im uta n eo usly d en yin g th at f a ct. T his a ttitu de has sh ap ed e v ery a sp ect o f m y se lf -id en tity : m y in te re sts a n d in vestm en ts , what I c are a b out o r d on’t c are a b out, w hat I se e o r d on’t se e, w hat I a m dra w n to a n d w hat I a m r e p elle d b y, w hat I c an ta k e f o r g ra n te d , w here I c an go, h ow o th ers r e sp ond to m e, a n d w hat I c an ig nore . M ost o f u s w ould n ot ch oose to b e s o cia liz ed in to r a cis m a n d w hite s u pre m acy . U nfo rtu nate ly , w e did n’t h av e th at c h oic e. W hile th ere is v aria tio n in h ow th ese m essa g es a re co nvey ed a n d h ow m uch w e in te rn aliz e th em , n oth in g c o uld h av e e x em pte d us fro m th ese m essa g es c o m ple te ly . N ow it is o ur re sp onsib ility to g ra p ple with h ow th is so cia liz atio n m an if e sts its e lf in o ur d aily liv es an d h ow it sh ap es o ur r e sp onse s w hen i t i s c h alle n ged . CH APT ER 5 TH E G OOD/B A D B IN ARY He’s n ot a r a cis t. H e i s a r e a lly n ic e g uy.

T his c h ap te r e x plo re s w hat is p erh ap s th e m ost e ffe ctiv e a d ap ta tio n o f r a cis m i n r e cen t h is to ry : th e g ood/b ad b in ary .

1 P rio r to th e c iv il r ig hts m ovem en t, it w as so cia lly a ccep ta b le fo r w hite p eo ple to o pen ly p ro cla im th eir b elie f in t h eir ra cia l s u perio rity . B ut w hen w hite N orth ern ers s a w th e v io le n ce b la ck p eo ple — in clu din g w om en an d ch ild re n — en dure d durin g th e civ il rig hts p ro te sts , th ey w ere a p palle d . T hese im ag es b ecam e th e a rc h ety pes o f r a cis ts .

A fte r th e civ il rig hts m ovem en t, to be a good, m ora l pers o n an d to be c o m plic it w ith ra cis m b ecam e m utu ally e x clu siv e. Y ou c o uld n ot b e a g ood p ers o n a n d p artic ip ate in r a cis m ; o nly b ad p eo ple w ere r a cis t. ( T hese im ag es o f b la ck p ers e cu tio n in th e S outh d urin g th e c iv il rig hts m ovem en t o f th e 1 960s a ls o a llo w ed N orth ern w hite s t o p ositio n r a cis ts a s a lw ay s S outh ern .) To a cco m plis h t h is a d ap ta tio n, r a cis m f ir s t n eed ed t o b e r e d uced t o s im ple , i s o la te d , an d ex tr e m e acts of pre ju dic e. T hese acts m ust be in te n tio nal, m alic io us, an d base d on co nsc io us dis lik e of so m eo ne becau se of ra ce.

R acis ts w ere th ose w hite p eo ple in th e S outh , s m ilin g a n d p ic n ic k in g a t th e b ase o f ly nch in g tr e es; s to re o w ners p ostin g W hite s O nly s ig ns o ver d rin kin g f o unta in s; a n d g ood o l’ b oys b eatin g i n nocen t c h ild re n s u ch a s E m mett T ill t o d eath . I n o th er w ord s, r a cis ts w ere m ean , i g nora n t, o ld , u ned ucate d , S outh ern w hite s. N ic e p eo ple , well- in te n ded p eo ple , o pen -m in ded m id dle -c la ss p eo ple , p eo ple r a is e d i n t h e “ en lig hte n ed N orth ,” c o uld n ot b e r a cis t.

RACIS T = B A D NO T R ACIS T = G OOD Ig nora n t Pro gre ssiv e Big ote d Educate d Pre ju dic ed open -m in ded Mean -s p ir ite d Well- in te n tio ned Old Young South ern North ern While m ak in g r a cis m b ad s e em s lik e a p ositiv e c h an ge, w e h av e to lo ok a t how th is fu nctio ns in p ra ctic e. W ith in th is p ara d ig m , to su gg est th at I a m ra cis t is to d eliv er a d eep m ora l b lo w — a k in d o f ch ara cte r assa ssin atio n.

Hav in g r e ceiv ed th is b lo w , I m ust d efe n d m y c h ara cte r, a n d th at is w here a ll my e n erg y w ill g o— to d efle ctin g th e c h arg e, ra th er th an re fle ctin g o n m y beh av io r. I n th is w ay , th e g ood/b ad b in ary m ak es it n early im possib le to ta lk to w hite p eo ple a b out ra cis m , w hat it is , h ow it sh ap es a ll o f u s, a n d th e in ev ita b le w ay s th at w e are co nditio ned to p artic ip ate in it. If w e can not dis c u ss th ese dynam ic s or se e ours e lv es w ith in th em , w e can not sto p partic ip atin g in ra cis m . T he g ood/b ad b in ary m ad e it e ffe ctiv ely im possib le fo r t h e a v era g e w hite p ers o n t o u nders ta n d— much l e ss i n te rru pt— ra cis m .

As A fric an A m eric an sc h ola r a n d film mak er O m ow ale A kin tu nde sa y s:

“R acis m is a sy ste m ic , so cie ta l, in stitu tio nal, om nip re se n t, an d ep is te m olo gic ally e m bed ded p hen om en on th at p erv ad es e v ery v estig e o f o ur re ality . F or m ost w hite s, h ow ev er, r a cis m is lik e m urd er: th e c o ncep t e x is ts , but s o m eo ne h as to c o m mit it in o rd er f o r it to h ap pen . T his lim ite d v ie w o f su ch a m ultila y ere d s y ndro m e c u ltiv ate s th e s in is te r n atu re o f r a cis m a n d, in fa ct, p erp etu ate s r a cis t p hen om en a r a th er t h an e ra d ic ate s t h em .” 2 The g ood/b ad fra m e is a fa ls e d ic h oto m y. A ll p eo ple h old p re ju dic es, esp ecia lly a cro ss r a cia l l in es i n a s o cie ty d eep ly d iv id ed b y r a ce. I c an b e t o ld th at e v ery one is e q ual b y m y p are n ts , I c an h av e f rie n ds o f co lo r, a n d I m ay not te ll ra cis t jo kes. Y et I am still affe cte d b y th e fo rc es o f ra cis m as a mem ber o f a s o cie ty in w hic h ra cis m is th e b ed ro ck . I w ill s till b e s e en a s white , tr e ate d a s w hite , a n d e x perie n ce lif e a s a w hite p ers o n. M y id en tity , pers o nality , in te re sts , a n d in vestm en ts w ill d ev elo p f ro m a w hite p ers p ectiv e.

I w ill h av e a w hite w orld vie w a n d a w hite f ra m e o f r e fe re n ce. I n a s o cie ty in whic h ra ce cle arly m atte rs , o ur ra ce p ro fo undly sh ap es u s. If w e w an t to ch alle n ge th is c o nstr u ct, w e m ust m ak e a n h onest a cco untin g o f h ow it is man if e st i n o ur o w n l iv es a n d i n t h e s o cie ty a ro und u s.

Alth ough in div id ual ra cis t a cts d o o ccu r, th ese a cts a re p art o f a la rg er sy ste m o f in te rlo ck in g d ynam ic s. T he fo cu s o n in div id ual in cid en ces m ask s th e p ers o nal, in te rp ers o nal, c u ltu ra l, h is to ric al, a n d s tr u ctu ra l a n aly sis th at is necessa ry to c h alle n ge th is la rg er s y ste m . T he s im plis tic id ea th at ra cis m is lim ite d to in div id ual in te n tio nal a cts c o m mitte d b y u nkin d p eo ple is a t th e ro ot of vir tu ally all w hite defe n siv en ess on th is to pic . T o m ove bey ond defe n siv en ess, w e h av e t o l e t g o o f t h is c o m mon b elie f.

The g ood/b ad b in ary c erta in ly o bsc u re s th e s tr u ctu ra l n atu re o f r a cis m a n d mak es it d if fic u lt fo r u s to se e o r u nders ta n d. E qually p ro ble m atic is th e im pact of su ch a w orld vie w on our actio ns. If, as a w hite pers o n, I co ncep tu aliz e r a cis m a s a b in ary a n d I p la ce m yse lf o n th e “ n ot r a cis t” s id e, what f u rth er a ctio n i s r e q uir e d o f m e? N o a ctio n i s r e q uir e d , b ecau se I a m n ot a r a cis t. T here fo re , r a cis m i s n ot m y p ro ble m ; i t d oesn ’t c o ncern m e a n d t h ere is n oth in g fu rth er I n eed to d o. T his w orld vie w g uara n te es th at I w ill n ot build m y sk ills in th in kin g critic ally ab out ra cis m o r u se m y p ositio n to ch alle n ge r a cia l i n eq uality .

The good/b ad bin ary is at pla y vir tu ally ev ery day in m y w ork as a co nsu lta n t on is su es of ra cia l ju stic e. M y jo b is to help in div id uals an d org an iz atio ns se e how ra cis m is m an if e stin g its e lf in th eir pra ctic es an d outc o m es. I a m ty pic ally r e ceiv ed w ell w hen s p eak in g in g en era l te rm s— fo r ex am ple , “ Y our re q uir e m en t th at a p plic an ts h av e a n a d van ced d eg re e ra th er th an eq uiv ale n t ex perie n ce is au to m atic ally dis q ualif y in g so m e of th e ap plic an ts th at c o uld b rin g th e p ers p ectiv es a n d e x perie n ces y ou s a y y ou a re lo okin g f o r.” Y et w hen I p oin t o ut a co ncre te m om en t in th e r o om in w hic h so m eo ne’s r a cis m i s m an if e stin g i ts e lf , w hite f ra g ility e ru pts .

For ex am ple , I w as w ork in g w ith a g ro up o f ed ucato rs w ho h ad b een meetin g r e g ula rly f o r a t le ast e ig ht s e ssio ns. T he g ro up w as c o m pose d o f th e eq uity te am s f o r a p ublic s c h ool s y ste m , s e lf -s e le cte d b y p eo ple w ho w an te d to su pport e q uity e ffo rts in th eir sc h ools . I h ad ju st fin is h ed a n h our-lo ng pre se n ta tio n title d “S eein g th e W ate r: W hite n ess in D aily Lif e .” This pre se n ta tio n is d esig ned to m ak e v is ib le th e re le n tle ss m essa g es o f w hite su perio rity a n d th e r e su ltin g a n d in ev ita b le in te rn aliz atio n o f th ese m essa g es fo r w hite p eo ple . T he ro om a p peare d to b e w ith m e— open a n d re cep tiv e, with m an y n oddin g a lo ng i n a g re em en t. T hen a w hite t e ach er r a is e d h er h an d an d to ld a s to ry a b out a n in te ra ctio n s h e h ad a s s h e d ro ve a lo ngsid e a g ro up of p are n ts p ro te stin g th e a ch ie v em en t g ap in h er s c h ool. S he th en p ro ceed ed to im ita te o ne m oth er in p artic u la r w ho o ffe n ded h er. “ Y ou d on’t u nders ta n d our ch ild re n !” th is m oth er h ad calle d o ut to h er as sh e d ro ve b y. B y th e ste re o ty pic al w ay t h at t h e w hite t e ach er i m ita te d t h e m oth er, w e a ll k new t h at th e m oth er w as b la ck . T he r o om s e em ed to c o lle ctiv ely h old its b re ath a t h er im ita tio n, w hic h w as bord erin g on ra cia l m ock ery . W hile th e te ach er’s co nclu din g p oin t w as th at, o n r e fle ctio n, s h e c am e to r e aliz e th at th e m oth er was rig ht an d th at sh e re ally did n’t unders ta n d ch ild re n of co lo r, th e em otio nal th ru st o f th e s to ry w as h er u m bra g e a t th e m oth er f o r m ak in g th is assu m ptio n. F or th e ro om , th e em otio nal im pact w as o n h er ste re o ty pic al im ita tio n o f a n a n gry b la ck w om an .

As th is s to ry c am e to a c lo se , I h ad a d ecis io n to m ak e. S hould I a ct w ith in te g rity a n d p oin t o ut w hat w as ra cia lly p ro ble m atic a b out th e s to ry ? A fte r all, m ak in g r a cis m v is ib le w as lite ra lly w hat I h ad b een h ir e d to d o. F urth er, se v era l A fric an A m eric an te ach ers in th e ro om h ad certa in ly n otic ed th e re in fo rc em en t o f a ra cis t ste re o ty pe. T o n ot in te rv en e w ould b e, y et a g ain , an oth er w hite p ers o n c h oosin g to p ro te ct w hite f e elin gs r a th er th an in te rru pt ra cis m — a w hite p ers o n w ho b ille d h ers e lf a s a ra cia l ju stic e c o nsu lta n t, n o le ss! Y et I w ould b e ta k in g th e r is k o f lo sin g th e g ro up, g iv en th e lik elih ood th at th e w om an w ould beco m e d efe n siv e a n d s h ut d ow n a n d th e r o om w ould sp lit in to th ose w ho th ought I h ad m is tr e ate d h er a n d th ose w ho d id n’t. I decid ed to d o w hat w ould re ta in m y m ora l a n d p ro fe ssio nal in te g rity a n d se rv e a s a m odel f o r o th er w hite p eo ple .

As dip lo m atic ally as possib le , I sa id , “I unders ta n d th at you gain ed valu ab le in sig ht f ro m th at in te ra ctio n a n d I th an k y ou f o r s h arin g th at in sig ht with u s. A nd I a m g oin g to a sk y ou to c o nsid er n ot te llin g th at s to ry in th at way a g ain .” When s h e im med ia te ly b eg an to p ro te st, I in te rru pte d h er to c o ntin ue. “ I am o ffe rin g y ou a te ach ab le m om en t,” I s a id , “ an d I a m o nly a sk in g th at y ou to tr y to lis te n w ith o pen ness.” I th en la id o ut w hat w as r a cia lly p ro ble m atic ab out h ow sh e to ld th e sto ry a n d o ffe re d h er a w ay to sh are h er le arn in g with out r e in fo rc in g r a cis t s te re o ty pes, f o r th e s a m e s to ry c o uld e asily b e to ld an d th e s a m e c o nclu sio ns d ra w n w ith out th e r a cia lly c h arg ed im ita tio n o f th e moth er.

She d efe n siv ely i n te rru pte d m e s e v era l t im es b ut e v en tu ally a p peare d t o b e lis te n in g. S hortly a fte r th is in te rv en tio n, w e to ok a b re ak . S ev era l A fric an Am eric an te ach ers c am e u p to th an k m e, a s d id o ne w hite te ach er w ho f o und my i n te rv en tio n a r e fre sh in g a n d m uch -n eed ed e x am ple o f h ow to b re ak w ith white s o lid arity . S ev era l w hite p eo ple a ls o a p pro ach ed to le t m e k now h ow upse t t h e t e ach er w as a n d t h at s h e w as q uittin g t h e g ro up.

Thus is th e po w er of th e good/b ad bin ary an d how it in fo rm s w hite fra g ility . E ven a w hite p ers o n o n a n e q uity t e am p artic ip atin g i n a c la ss b ase d on th e pre m is e th at ra cis m is str u ctu re d in to our so cie ty an d th at w hite co m plic ity is an in ev ita b le re su lt co uld n ot h an dle fe ed back o n h ow h er ra cis m w as u nin te n tio nally m an if e stin g i ts e lf .

If y ou a re w hite a n d h av e e v er b een c h alle n ged t o l o ok a t y our o w n r a cis m —perh ap s y ou to ld a p ro ble m atic jo ke o r m ad e a p re ju dic ed a ssu m ptio n a n d so m eo ne b ro ught it to y our a tte n tio n— it is c o m mon to f e el d efe n siv e. I f y ou belie v e th at y ou a re b ein g to ld y ou a re a b ad p ers o n, a ll y our e n erg y is lik ely to g o to w ard d en yin g th is p ossib ility a n d in valid atin g th e m esse n ger ra th er th an tr y in g to u nders ta n d w hy w hat you’v e s a id o r d one is h urtf u l. Y ou w ill pro bab ly re sp ond w ith w hite fra g ility . B ut u nfo rtu nate ly , w hite fra g ility c an only p ro te ct t h e p ro ble m atic b eh av io r y ou f e el s o d efe n siv e a b o ut; i t d oes n ot dem onstr a te th at y ou are an o pen p ers o n w ho h as n o p ro ble m atic ra cia l beh av io r.

The d om in an t p ara d ig m o f ra cis m a s d is c re te , in div id ual, in te n tio nal, a n d malic io us a cts m ak es it u nlik ely th at w hite s w ill a ck now le d ge a n y o f o ur actio ns a s ra cis m . F or e x am ple , I o fte n re ad a b out a g overn m en t o ffic ia l, a te ach er, o r a n oth er p ublic s e rv an t e x pre ssin g s h ock in gly r a cis t s ta te m en ts a n d still in sis tin g th at h e o r s h e is n ot r a cis t. R ead ers m ay r e call a W est V ir g in ia co unty e m plo yee— Pam ela R am se y T ay lo r— who h eld a h ig h-le v el p ositio n as d ir e cto r o f c o unty d ev elo pm en t a n d w as su sp en ded a fte r p ostin g ra cis t re m ark s ab out F ir s t L ad y M ic h elle O bam a on F aceb ook (“ It w ill be so re fre sh in g to h av e a c la ssy , b eau tif u l, d ig nif ie d F ir s t L ad y b ack in th e W hite House . I’m tir e d o f se ein g a [ sic ] A pe in h eels ” ). T he m ay or o f th e city re sp onded , “ Ju st m ad e m y d ay P am .” T ay lo r’s r e sp onse t o t h e e n su in g u pro ar was, “ M y c o m men t w as n ot in te n ded to b e r a cis t a t a ll. I w as r e fe rrin g to m y day b ein g m ad e f o r c h an ge i n t h e W hite H ouse ! I a m t r u ly s o rry f o r a n y h ard fe elin g th is m ay h av e c au se d ! T hose w ho k now m e k now th at I ’m n ot in a n y way ra cis t! ” A lth ough T ay lo r w as su sp en ded (b ut ev en tu ally g ot h er jo b back ), I a m le ft w onderin g w hat a ctu ally q ualif ie s a s ra cis m in th e w hite min d.

When I ta lk to w hite p eo ple a b out r a cis m , I h ear th e s a m e c la im s— ro ote d in th e g ood/b ad b in ary — mad e a g ain a n d a g ain . I o rg an iz e th ese c la im s in to tw o o vera ll c ate g orie s, b oth o f w hic h la b el th e p ers o n a s g ood a n d th ere fo re not r a cis t. T he f ir s t s e t c la im s c o lo r b lin dness: “ I d on’t s e e c o lo r [ and/o r r a ce has n o m ean in g t o m e]; t h ere fo re , I a m f re e o f r a cis m .” T he s e co nd s e t c la im s to v alu e d iv ers ity : “ I k now p eo ple o f c o lo r [ and/o r h av e b een n ear p eo ple o f co lo r, and/o r h av e g en era l fo nd re g ard fo r p eo ple o f c o lo r]; th ere fo re , I a m fre e o f ra cis m .” B oth c ate g orie s fu ndam en ta lly re st o n th e g ood/b ad b in ary .

Alth ough I o rg an iz e th ese n arra tiv es in to tw o o vera ll c ate g orie s, th ey c an b e an d o fte n a re u se d in te rc h an geab ly . T hey d on’t n eed to m ak e s e n se ; th ey ju st need to p ositio n th e s p eak er a s a g ood p ers o n— fre e o f r a cis m — an d e n d th e dis c u ssio n.

Colo r-b lin d s ta te m en ts i n sis t t h at p eo ple d o n ot s e e r a ce, o r i f t h ey s e e i t, i t has n o m ean in g t o t h em . C olo r-b lin d c la im s i n clu de t h e f o llo w in g:

• I w as t a u ght t o t r e at e v ery one t h e s a m e.

• I d on’t s e e c o lo r.

• I d on’t c are i f y ou a re p in k, p urp le , o r p olk a-d otte d .

• R ace d oesn ’t h av e a n y m ean in g t o m e.

• M y p are n ts w ere /w ere n ’t r a cis t, s o t h at i s w hy I a m n ot r a cis t.

• E very one s tr u ggle s, b ut i f y ou w ork h ard . . .

• S o-a n d-s o j u st h ap pen s t o b e b la ck , b ut t h at h as n oth in g t o d o w ith w hat I am a b out t o t e ll y ou.

• F ocu sin g o n r a ce i s w hat d iv id es u s.

• I f p eo ple a re r e sp ectf u l t o m e, I a m r e sp ectf u l t o t h em , r e g ard le ss o f r a ce.

• C hild re n t o day a re s o m uch m ore o pen .

• I ’m n ot r a cis t; I ’m f ro m C an ad a.

• I w as p ic k ed o n b ecau se I w as w hite /I g re w u p p oor ( s o I d on’t h av e r a ce priv ile g e).

The s e co nd s e t I te rm co lo r-c ele b ra te .

T his s e t c la im s th at th e p ers o n s e es an d em bra ces ra cia l d if fe re n ce. C olo r-c ele b ra te cla im s in clu de sta te m en ts su ch a s t h ese :

• I w ork i n a v ery d iv ers e e n vir o nm en t.

• I h av e p eo ple o f c o lo r i n m y f a m ily /m arrie d a p ers o n o f c o lo r/h av e c h ild re n of c o lo r.

• I w as i n t h e m ilita ry .

• I u se d t o l iv e i n N ew Y ork /H aw aii.

• W e d on’t l ik e h ow w hite o ur n eig hborh ood i s , b ut w e h ad t o m ove h ere f o r th e s c h ools .

• I w as i n t h e P eace C orp s.

• I m arc h ed i n t h e s ix tie s.

• W e a d opte d a c h ild f ro m C hin a.

• O ur g ra n dch ild re n a re m ultir a cia l. • I w as o n a m is sio n i n A fric a.

• I w en t t o a v ery d iv ers e s c h ool/liv ed i n a v ery d iv ers e n eig hborh ood.

• I l iv ed i n J a p an a n d w as a m in ority , s o I k now w hat i t i s l ik e t o b e a min ority .

• I l iv ed a m ong t h e [ fill- in -th e-b la nk ] p eo ple , s o I a m a ctu ally a p ers o n o f co lo r.

• M y g re at- g ra n dm oth er w as a N ativ e A m eric an p rin cess.

In m y w ork t o u nra v el t h e d ynam ic s o f r a cis m , I h av e f o und a q uestio n t h at nev er f a ils m e. T his q uestio n i s not “ Is t h is c la im t r u e, o r i s i t f a ls e ?”; w e w ill nev er c o m e t o a n a g re em en t o n a q uestio n t h at s e ts u p a n e ith er/o r d ic h oto m y on so m eth in g a s se n sitiv e a s ra cis m . In ste ad I a sk , “ H ow d oes th is c la im fu nctio n in th e c o nvers a tio n?” I f w e a p ply th is q uestio n to th ese tw o s e ts o f narra tiv es, o ne c o lo r-b lin d a n d th e o th er c o lo r-c ele b ra te , w e se e th at a ll o f th ese c la im s u ltim ate ly f u nctio n in a s im ila r w ay ; th ey a ll e x em pt th e p ers o n fro m a n y r e sp onsib ility f o r o r p artic ip atio n i n t h e p ro ble m . T hey t a k e r a ce o ff th e ta b le , a n d th ey c lo se (ra th er th an o pen ) a n y fu rth er e x plo ra tio n. In so doin g, t h ey p ro te ct t h e r a cia l s ta tu s q uo.

These ty pic al w hite ra cia l c la im s d ep en d o n a n u nderly in g fra m ew ork o f mean in g. I d en tif y in g th is f ra m ew ork c an h elp u s u nders ta n d h ow w e m an ag e to m ak e s u ch c la im s i n t h e c o nte x t o f e x tr e m e s e g re g atio n a n d r a cia l i n eq uity .

Im ag in e a p ie r s tr e tc h in g o ut o ver th e w ate r. V ie w ed f ro m a b ove, th e p ie r ap pears to s im ply f lo at th ere . T he to p o f th e p ie r— th e p art th at w e c an s e e— sig nif ie s th e s u rfa ce a sp ect o f th ese c la im s. Y et w hile th e p ie r s e em s to f lo at effo rtle ssly , it is , o f c o urs e , n ot f lo atin g a t a ll; it is p ro pped u p b y a s tr u ctu re su bm erg ed u nder th e w ate r. T he p ie r r e sts o n pilla rs e m bed ded in th e o cean flo or. In th e sa m e w ay th at a p ie r sits o n su bm erg ed p illa rs th at are n ot im med ia te ly v is ib le , th e b elie fs s u pportin g o ur r a cia l c la im s a re h id den f ro m our v ie w . T o t o pple t h e p ie r, w e n eed t o a ccess a n d u pro ot t h e p illa rs .

The a b ove c la im s a re a ll m ean t t o p ro vid e e v id en ce o f t h e s p eak er’s l a ck o f ra cis m . F or e x am ple , in a c o nvers a tio n a b out r a cis m , w hen w hite p eo ple s a y th at th ey w ork in a d iv ers e e n vir o nm en t o r th at th ey h av e p eo ple o f c o lo r in th eir f a m ily , th ey a re g iv in g m e th eir e v id en ce th at th ey a re n ot r a cis t. I f th is is th eir ev id en ce, how are th ey defin in g ra cis m ? In oth er w ord s, w hat underly in g sy ste m o f m ean in g le ad s th em to m ak e th at c la im ? If w ork in g near p eo ple o f c o lo r is th e e v id en ce th at d is tin guis h es th em fro m a ra cis t, th en e v id en tly a r a cis t c an not w ork n ear p eo ple o f c o lo r. T his c la im r e sts o n a defin itio n of ra cis m as co nsc io us in to le ra nce ; a ra cis t is so m eo ne w ho pre su m ab ly c an not to le ra te e v en th e s ig ht o f a p ers o n o f c o lo r. A cco rd in g to th is lo gic , b ecau se th ey k now o r w ork w ith p eo ple o f c o lo r, o r liv ed in N ew York , w here th ey s a w p eo ple o f c o lo r a ll a ro und th em , a n d h av e s p oken w ith an d s m ile d a t p eo ple o f c o lo r, th ey c an not p artic ip ate in r a cis m . W hen w e g o ben eath th e s u rfa ce o f th ese c la im s, w e c an s e e th eir s u perfic ia lity , fo r e v en an a v ow ed w hite n atio nalis t w ho w ould m arc h o pen ly in th e s tr e ets c h an tin g “b lo od a n d s o il! ” c an i n te ra ct w ith p eo ple o f c o lo r, a n d v ery l ik ely d oes s o . I n fa ct, I hav e se en bla ck re p orte rs in te rv ie w in g open an d av ow ed w hite su pre m acis ts on te le v is io n, with both partie s pro ceed in g calm ly an d re sp ectf u lly .

Som eo ne w ho c la im s to h av e b een ta u ght to tr e at e v ery one th e sa m e is sim ply te llin g m e th at h e o r sh e d oesn ’t u nders ta n d so cia liz atio n. It is n ot possib le to te ach s o m eo ne to tr e at e v ery one th e s a m e. W e c an b e to ld , a n d ofte n are to ld , to tr e at ev ery one th e sa m e, b ut w e can not su ccessfu lly b e ta u ght t o d o s o b ecau se h um an b ein gs a re n ot o bje ctiv e. F urth er, w e w ould n’t want to tr e at e v ery one th e sa m e b ecau se p eo ple h av e d if fe re n t n eed s a n d dif fe re n t re la tio nsh ip s w ith us. D if fe re n tia l tr e atm en t in its e lf is not th e pro ble m . F or e x am ple , I w ould n’t g iv e a d ocu m en t w ith a tw elv e-p oin t f o nt to a p ers o n w ith lo w v is io n, e v en th ough s o m eo ne e ls e w ould n’t h av e a n y tr o uble re ad in g it. T he p ro ble m is th e m is in fo rm atio n th at c ir c u la te s a ro und us a n d c au se s o ur d if fe re n tia l t r e atm en t t o b e i n eq uita b le .

The fe ed back I h av e h eard re p eate d ly fro m p eo ple o f c o lo r is th at w hen th ey h ear a w hite p ers o n c la im to h av e b een ta u ght to tr e at e v ery one th e sa m e, th ey a re n ot th in kin g, “ A ll rig ht! I a m n ow ta lk in g to a w oke w hite pers o n!” Q uite th e o pposite ; s o m e v ers io n o f e y e-ro llin g is ta k in g p la ce a s th ey sig n th e w hite p ers o n o ff as u naw are an d b ra ce th em se lv es fo r y et an oth er e x ch an ge b ase d i n w hite d en ia l a n d i n valid atio n.

As a c u ltu re , w e d on’t c la im th at g en der ro le s a n d g en der c o nditio nin g dis a p pear th e m om en t w e lo ve s o m eo ne o f th e “ o pposite ” g en der. I id en tif y as a w om an a n d a m m arrie d t o s o m eo ne w ho i d en tif ie s a s a m an , y et I w ould nev er s a y , “ B ecau se I a m m arrie d to a m an , I h av e a g en der-fre e lif e .” W e unders ta n d th at g en der is a v ery d eep s o cia l c o nstr u ct, th at w e h av e d if fe re n t ex perie n ces d ep en din g o n o ur g en der ro le s, assig nm en ts , an d ex pre ssio ns, an d th at w e w ill w re stle w ith th ese d if fe re n ces th ro ughout th e lif e o f o ur re la tio nsh ip . Y et w hen th e to pic is ra ce, w e cla im th at it is co m ple te ly in opera tiv e if th ere is a n y le v el o f fo nd re g ard . In a n e v en m ore lu dic ro us fo rm of re ality , w e ev en go as fa r as to cla im th at ra cia l co nditio nin g dis a p pears if w e c an c alm ly w alk b y p eo ple o f c o lo r o n th e s tr e ets o f la rg e citie s.

While th e im plic atio n th at a ra cis t c o uld n ot to le ra te k now in g, w ork in g nex t to , o r w alk in g a m ong p eo ple o f c o lo r is r a th er r id ic u lo us, th e s a d f a ct is man y w hite s h av e n o c ro ss-ra cia l frie n dsh ip s a t a ll. P erh ap s th is is w hy w e re ly o n su ch flim sy e v id en ce to c ertif y o urs e lv es a s ra cis m -fre e. B ut e v en th ose t h at h av e c ro ss-ra cia l f rie n dsh ip s a n d u se t h ese a s e v id en ce o f t h eir l a ck of ra cis m s till in voke th e b in ary o f ra cis t = b ad / n ot ra cis t = g ood b in ary .

They s e e th eir frie n dsh ip a s p ro of th at th ey a re o n th e n ot- ra cis t s id e o f th e bin ary . Y et c ro ss-ra cia l f rie n dsh ip s d o n ot b lo ck o ut th e d ynam ic s o f r a cis m in th e so cie ty at la rg e, an d th ese d ynam ic s co ntin ue u nab ate d . T he w hite pers o n w ill s till re ceiv e w hite p riv ile g e th at a frie n d o f c o lo r d oes n ot, e v en when th e tw o p eo ple e n gag e in a ctiv itie s to geth er. N or d o th ese frie n dsh ip s blo ck o ut a ll t h e m essa g es t h at w e h av e i n te rn aliz ed a n d t h at a re r e in fo rc ed i n th is so cie ty . In fa ct, ra cis m in varia b ly m an if e sts its e lf w ith in cro ss-ra cia l frie n dsh ip s a s w ell. R acis m c an not b e a b se n t f ro m y our f rie n dsh ip . N o p ers o n of co lo r w hom I’v e m et h as sa id th at ra cis m is n ’t at p la y in h is o r h er frie n dsh ip s w ith w hite p eo ple . S om e w hite s a re m ore th oughtf u l, a w are , a n d re cep tiv e t o f e ed back t h an o th ers , b ut n o c ro ss-ra cia l r e la tio nsh ip i s f re e f ro m th e d ynam ic s o f r a cis m i n t h is s o cie ty .

Man y w hite s b elie v e th at if th ey a re n ot ta lk in g a b out ra cis m w ith th eir frie n ds o f c o lo r o r if th eir f rie n ds a re n ot g iv in g th em f e ed back a b out r a cis m , th en ra cis m is a n on-is su e. B ut ju st b ecau se y ou a n d y our frie n d d on’t ta lk ab out r a cis m d oes n ot m ean it is n ’t a t p la y . I n deed , th is s ile n ce is o ne o f th e way s th at ra cis m is m an if e st, fo r it is a n im pose d s ile n ce. M an y p eo ple o f co lo r h av e to ld m e th at th ey in itia lly tr ie d to ta lk a b out ra cis m w ith th eir white f rie n ds, b ut th eir f rie n ds g ot d efe n siv e o r in valid ate d th eir e x perie n ces, so th ey sto pped sh arin g th eir ex perie n ces. If ra cis m is no t a to pic of dis c u ssio n b etw een a w hite p ers o n a n d a p ers o n o f c o lo r w ho a re f rie n ds, t h is ab se n ce o f c o nvers a tio n m ay i n dic ate a l a ck o f c ro ss-ra cia l t r u st.

The g ood/b ad b in ary is p ow erfu l a n d e n durin g. In w hat fo llo w s, I o ffe r co unte rn arra tiv es to a fe w o f its m ost p opula r c la im s. N otic e h ow e ach o f th ese c la im s la b els th e p ers o n m ak in g th em a s n ot r a cis t, th ere b y e x em ptin g th em f ro m f u rth er i n volv em en t o r r e sp onsib ility .

“I w as t a u gh t t o t r ea t e v ery on e t h e s a m e.” As e x pla in ed a b ove, n o o ne c an b e ta u ght to tr e at p eo ple e q uita b ly , b ecau se hum an s c an not b e 1 00 p erc en t o bje ctiv e. F or e x am ple , I c o uld l e ctu re y ou f o r hours th at it is n ot n ic e to ju dge, th at n o o ne lik es to b e ju dged — “Y ou would n’t w an t to b e ju dged , w ould y ou?”— an d so o n. A t th e e n d o f th at le ctu re , y ou w ould s till c o ntin ue to j u dge, b ecau se i t is i m possib le n ot t o . W e can t r y t o e x am in e o ur j u dgm en ts , h old t h em m ore l ig htly , a n d s o f o rth , b ut t o be fre e o f ju dgm en t? N ot p ossib le . N or can w e tr e at ev ery one th e sa m e.

In deed , th e p ers o n p ro fe ssin g to tr e at e v ery one th e sa m e is sta tin g a v alu e th at h e o r s h e h old s, b ut th e c la im c lo se s o ff a n y f u rth er r e fle ctio n. O nce w e unders ta n d th e p ow er o f im plic it b ia s, fo r e x am ple , w e k now th at w e m ust deep en ra th er th an clo se off fu rth er re fle ctio n. A lth ough deep r re fle ctio n won’t fre e u s o f u nco nsc io us in eq uita b le tr e atm en t o f o th ers , it w ill g et u s clo se r t h an w ill o utr ig ht d en ia l.

“I m arch ed i n t h e s ix tie s.” Som eo ne w ho te lls m e th at th ey m arc h ed in th e 1 960s— lik e th e p ers o n w ho te lls m e th ey k now p eo ple o f c o lo r— is te llin g m e th at th ey s e e ra cis m a s a sim ple m atte r o f ra cia l in to le ra n ce (w hic h c le arly th ey d on’t h av e o r th ey co uld n ot h av e to le ra te d m arc h in g a lo ngsid e b la ck p eo ple d urin g th e c iv il rig hts m ovem en t) . T hey a re a ls o te llin g m e th at th ey b elie v e th at ra cis m is unco m plic ate d an d unch an gin g. Y et in th e 1960s, w e th ought ra ce w as bio lo gic al. W e u se d te rm s lik e Orie n ta l an d co lo re d .

N ev erth ele ss, in th e lig ht o f a n a ctio n th ey to ok m ore th an fif ty y ears a g o, th ey s e e th eir ra cia l le arn in g a s f in is h ed f o r lif e . T heir a ctio n c ertif ie s th em a s f re e o f r a cis m , a n d th ere is no m ore dis c u ssio n or re fle ctio n re q uir e d . It als o assu m es th at ab so lu te ly n o ra cis m — ev en u nco nsc io usly — was p erp etr a te d to w ard b la ck s by w ell- m ean in g w hite s d urin g th e c iv il r ig hts m ovem en t. Y et th e te stim ony of b la ck c iv il r ig hts a ctiv is ts te lls u s o th erw is e . H ow m an y w hite p eo ple w ho marc h ed in th e 1 960s h ad a u th en tic c ro ss-ra cia l re la tio nsh ip s w ith A fric an Am eric an s?

Certa in ly th ere w as (a n d s till is ) ra cia l s e g re g atio n th ro ughout th e N orth , to o, perh ap s not as ex plic itly en fo rc ed but su re ly en fo rc ed im plic itly in co untle ss w ay s. P erh ap s m an y o f th ose w hite N orth ern ers w ho c am e d ow n South t o s a v e b la ck p eo ple h ad s o m e p atr o niz in g o r c o ndesc en din g a ttitu des?

Mig ht m an y h av e d om in ate d d is c u ssio ns, n ot lis te n ed to o th ers , a n d a ssu m ed to k now w hat w as b est? D id th ey s a y m an y ra cia lly p ro ble m atic th in gs th at South ern b la ck s w ere fo rc ed to e n dure ? H ad I b een o ld e n ough, I p ro bab ly would h av e m arc h ed in th e 1 960s, a n d y et a s fa r a s in to th e 1 990s, I w as sa y in g a n d d oin g ra cia lly p ro ble m atic th in gs. A lth ough I d o th em le ss o fte n an d le ss b la ta n tly to day , I s till d o th em . A gain , th e c la im th at s o m eo ne is n ot ra cis t becau se th e pers o n m arc h ed in th e 1960s re sts on th e sim plis tic defin itio n o f r a cis m a s a c o nsc io us i n to le ra n ce o f b la ck p eo ple .

“I w as t h e m in orit y a t m y s c h ool, s o I w as t h e o n e w ho e x p erie n ced ra cis m .” While e v ery one o f e v ery ra ce h old s p re ju dic e a n d c an d is c rim in ate a g ain st so m eo ne o f a n oth er r a ce, i n t h e U S a n d o th er w hite /s e ttle r n atio ns, o nly w hite peo ple are in th e positio n to oppre ss peo ple of co lo r co lle ctiv ely an d th ro ughout t h e w hole o f s o cie ty . T his c la im d efin es r a cis m a s a f lu id d ynam ic th at c h an ges d ir e ctio n a cco rd in g t o e ach g ro up’s r a tio i n a g iv en s p ace. W hile a w hite p ers o n m ay h av e b een p ic k ed o n— ev en m erc ile ssly — by b ein g in th e num eric al m in ority i n a s p ecif ic c o nte x t, t h e i n div id ual w as e x perie n cin g r a ce pre ju dic e an d d is c rim in atio n, not ra cis m .

T his d is tin ctio n is n ot m ean t to min im iz e th e w hite p ers o n’s e x perie n ce, b ut a im s to c la rif y a n d to p re v en t re n derin g t h e t e rm s i n te rc h an geab le a n d t h us m ean in gle ss.

More o ver, th e so cie ty a t la rg e is still re in fo rc in g w hite su pre m acy , a n d ev ery one in th e s c h ool w as a ffe cte d b y it. It is lik ely th at w hite s tu den ts a t su ch a sc h ool w ere tr e ate d b ette r b y te ach ers a n d th at h ig her e x pecta tio ns were h eld fo r th em . T heir te x tb ooks, th e c u rric u lu m , a n d th e a d m in is tr a tio n still re in fo rc ed a p re fe re n ce fo r w hite n ess. O uts id e th e s c h ool (a n d in m an y asp ects w ith in it) , th ese stu den ts w ere still g ra n te d w hite p riv ile g e a s th ey moved t h ro ugh s o cie ty .

For m ost w hite s, b ein g th e m in ority in th eir sc h ool o r n eig hborh ood is usu ally te m pora ry . They are pro bab ly no lo nger th e m in ority in th eir en vir o nm en t as upw ard m obility gen era lly en ta ils m ovin g aw ay fro m in te g ra te d s p aces o r t h ose i n w hic h p eo ple o f c o lo r a re t h e m ajo rity .

“M y p aren ts w ere n ot r a cis t, a n d t h ey t a u gh t m e n ot t o b e r a cis t.” Wheth er y ou d efin e ra cis m a s ra cia l p re ju dic es a n d in div id ual a cts o r a s a sy ste m o f ra cia l in eq uality th at b en efits w hite s a t th e e x pen se o f p eo ple o f co lo r (a s a n tir a cis ts d o), y our p are n ts c o uld n ot h av e ta u ght y ou n ot to b e ra cis t, a n d y our p are n ts c o uld n ot h av e b een fre e o f ra cis m th em se lv es. A ra cis m -fre e u pbrin gin g is n ot p ossib le , b ecau se ra cis m is a so cia l sy ste m em bed ded i n t h e c u ltu re a n d i ts i n stitu tio ns. W e a re b orn i n to t h is s y ste m a n d hav e n o sa y in w heth er w e w ill b e a ffe cte d b y it. I u nders ta n d th at m an y pare n ts t e ll t h eir c h ild re n t o n ot b e r a cis t, b ut t h e pra ctic e o f o ur l iv es i s m ore pow erfu l th an th e w ord s w e s a y , a n d liv in g a s e g re g ate d lif e is a p ow erfu l messa g e o f p ra ctic e. O f c o urs e , th ere a re d eg re es, a n d it is c erta in ly m ore co nstr u ctiv e to b e to ld th at r a cis m is w ro ng r a th er th an r ig ht, b ut th at is s till not e n ough t o c o m ple te ly i n ocu la te u s f ro m t h e c u ltu re a t l a rg e.

Let’ s im ag in e th at w hat th e p ers o n re ally m ean t w as th is : “ M y p are n ts were not ra cia lly pre ju dic ed , an d th ey ta u ght m e not to be ra cia lly pre ju dic ed .” T his sta te m en t w ould still b e fa ls e b ecau se it is n ot h um an ly possib le to b e fre e o f p re ju dic e. T his sta te m en t sim ply in dic ate s th at th e pers o n is u ned ucate d ab out th e so cia liz atio n p ro cess an d th e in esc ap ab le dynam ic s o f h um an c u ltu re . A p ers o n’s p are n ts m ig ht h av e sa id th at th ey were n ot p re ju dic ed a n d t h us d en ie d t h eir p re ju dic e. T hey m ay h av e t o ld t h eir ch ild re n th at th ey s h ould n ot b e p re ju dic ed , th e re su lt b ein g th at, lik e th eir pare n ts , th e c h ild re n d en y th eir p re ju dic e. T he p are n ts m ay h av e sin cere ly hoped a n d b elie v ed th at th ey w ere r a is in g th eir c h ild re n to n ot b e p re ju dic ed .

But w e c an ’t te ach h um an s to h av e n o p re ju dic e a t a ll. T he h um an b ra in ju st does n ot w ork th at w ay a s w e p ro cess in fo rm atio n a b out o th ers . M ost o f u s only t e ach o ur c h ild re n n ot t o a d m it t o p re ju dic e. A p are n t t r a in in g a c h ild n ot to sa y certa in th in gs th at are overtly ra cis t is te ach in g th e ch ild se lf - cen so rs h ip r a th er th an h ow to e x am in e th e d eep ly e m bed ded r a cia l m essa g es we a ll a b so rb . Id eally , w e w ould te ach o ur c h ild re n h ow to re co gniz e a n d ch alle n ge p re ju dic e, r a th er t h an d en y i t.

“C hild ren t o d ay a re s o m uch m ore o p en .” As f o r th e c la im th at c h ild re n a re s o m uch m ore o pen , r e se arc h o ver th e p ast tw o d ecad es in dic ate s th at ch ild re n are v astly m ore so phis tic ate d in th eir aw are n ess o f r a cia l h ie ra rc h ie s th an m ost p eo ple b elie v e.

3 E ven w hen r a ce is not ex plic itly dis c u sse d , ch ild re n in te rn aliz e both im plic it an d ex plic it messa g es a b out i t f ro m t h eir e n vir o nm en t.

For e x am ple , p sy ch olo gy re se arc h ers M aria M onte ir o , D alila d e F ra n ça, an d R ic ard o R odrig ues te ste d 2 83 w hite c h ild re n a g ed s ix to s e v en , a n d n in e to te n y ears o ld . T he c h ild re n w ere a sk ed to a llo cate m oney to w hite a n d bla ck c h ild re n , s o m etim es w ith a w hite a d ult i n th e r o om a n d s o m etim es w ith no ad ult in th e ro om , to se e if hav in g an ad ult pre se n t in flu en ced th eir beh av io r. T he r e se arc h ers f o und t h at t h e y ounger g ro up d is c rim in ate d a g ain st bla ck c h ild re n i n b oth c o nditio ns, w hile t h e o ld er g ro up d is c rim in ate d a g ain st th e b la ck c h ild re n o nly w hen n o a d ult w as p re se n t. T his f in din g is s ig nif ic an t becau se i t s h ow s t h at t h e o ld er c h ild re n c le arly h ad r a cia l p re ju dic e a n d a cte d on it, b ut h id it w hen a w hite a d ult w as p re se n t. T hus, th e c h ild re n s h ow ed th at th ey d id n ot b eco m e le ss ra cia lly b ia se d w ith ag e, b ut th at th ey h ad le arn ed to h id e th eir r a cis m in f ro nt o f a d ults .

4 M onte ir o a n d h er c o lle ag ues fo und r a cia l h ostility in w hite c h ild re n a s y oung a s th re e y ears o ld . H ow ev er, most w hite p are n ts a n d te ach ers b elie v e th at c h ild re n a re c o lo r-b lin d.

5 T his fa ls e belie f keep s us fro m ho nestly ad dre ssin g ra cis m w ith ch ild re n an d ex plo rin g w ith th em h ow ra cis m h as s h ap ed th e in eq uitie s th at th ey a lr e ad y obse rv e.

“R ace h as n oth in g t o d o w it h i t .” How ofte n hav e w e heard so m eo ne pre fa ce a sto ry ab out ra ce w ith th e sta te m en t, “ R ace h ad n oth in g t o d o w ith t h is , b ut . . . ” o r “ S he j u st h ap pen ed to b e b la ck , a n d . . . ” ? L et’ s lo ok c lo se r a t w hy th e p ers o n fe els th at it is necessa ry to m ak e th is open in g poin t, as it usu ally illu str a te s ju st th e opposite . T he ra cis t = b ad / n ot ra cis t = g ood b in ary is re fle cte d in th ese sta te m en ts b ecau se a cco rd in g t o t h e b in ary , i f r a ce h ad a n yth in g t o d o w ith i t, th en th e p ers o n te llin g th e sto ry w ould b e ra cia lly im plic ate d a n d th us n o lo nger p ositio ned a s c o lo r-b lin d o r o uts id e r a ce. F urth er, if th e s to ry is a b out a c o nflic t b etw een th e s to ry te lle r a n d a p ers o n o f c o lo r, th en th e s to ry te lle r mig ht s o und r a cis t, a n d th at w ould m ean th at th e s p eak er is a b ad p ers o n. I f, how ev er, th e sp eak er unders ta n ds ra cis m as an in stitu tio nal sy ste m in to whic h w e a re a ll so cia liz ed , th en h e o r sh e w ould n’t m ak e th is d is c la im er becau se th e p ers o n u nders ta n ds th at th e co nflic t can not b e fre e o f ra cia l dim en sio ns.

We b rin g o ur ra cia l h is to rie s w ith u s, an d co ntr a ry to th e id eo lo gy o f in div id ualis m , w e r e p re se n t o ur g ro ups a n d th ose w ho h av e c o m e b efo re u s.

Our id en titie s a re n ot u niq ue o r in here n t b ut c o nstr u cte d o r p ro duced th ro ugh so cia l p ro cesse s. W hat’ s m ore , w e d on’t s e e th ro ugh cle ar o r o bje ctiv e e y es —we s e e t h ro ugh r a cia l l e n se s. O n s o m e l e v el, r a ce i s a lw ay s a t p la y , e v en i n its s u ppose d a b se n ce.

“F ocu sin g o n r a ce i s w hat d iv id es u s.” The i d ea t h at t a lk in g a b out r a cis m i s i ts e lf r a cis t h as a lw ay s s tr u ck m e a s o dd. It is r o ote d in th e c o ncep t th at r a ce d oesn ’t m atte r; th us, to ta lk a b out it g iv es it u ndese rv ed w eig ht. M an y th in gs th at w e ta lk a b out e v ery d ay d on’t r e ally matte r. P re cis e ly b ecau se th ese to pic s o f c o nvers a tio n d on’t m atte r, th ey a re easy to ta lk a b out. W e k now ra ce m atte rs a g re at d eal, b ut fo r m an y o f th e re aso ns a lr e ad y d is c u sse d , w e f e el t h e n eed t o d en y i ts i m porta n ce. I ro nic ally , th is d en ia l is a fu ndam en ta l w ay in w hic h w hite p eo ple m ain ta in u neq ual ra cia l p ow er.

I hav e heard th is re sp onse m an y tim es in th e co nte x t of cro ss-ra cia l dis c u ssio ns, m ost o fte n a t th e p oin t in w hic h w hite ra cia l p ow er is n am ed .

Man y w hite s s e e th e n am in g o f w hite r a cia l p ow er a s d iv is iv e. F or th em , th e pro ble m is n ot th e p ow er in eq uity its e lf ; th e p ro ble m is nam in g th e p ow er in eq uity . T his n am in g b re ak s th e p re te n se o f u nity a n d e x pose s th e r e ality o f ra cia l d iv is io n.

Even th ough p artic ip an ts o f c o lo r re p eate d ly s ta te th at w hite s’ re fu sa l to ack now le d ge r a cia l d if fe re n ce a n d p ow er d ynam ic s a ctu ally m ain ta in s r a cia l in eq uity , w hite p artic ip an ts c o ntin ue t o i n sis t t h at n ot t a lk in g a b out d if fe re n ce is n ecessa ry fo r u nity . A lth ough th e p artic ip an ts a re p urp orte d ly e n gag ed in th ese dis c u ssio ns to ex plo re dif fe re n ces in ra cia l pers p ectiv es an d ex perie n ces, a s s o on a s t h ese d if fe re n ces a p pear, m an y w hite s r e act a s i f t h ere has b een a v io la tio n. O f c o urs e , w hite n orm s are v io la te d b y n am in g w hite pow er. B ut u neq ual p ow er re la tio ns can not b e ch alle n ged if th ey are n ot ack now le d ged .

Refu sin g to e n gag e in a n a u th en tic e x plo ra tio n o f ra cia l re alitie s e ra se s (a n d d en ie s) a lte rn ate r a cia l e x perie n ces. I f w e b lo ck o ut o th er r e alitie s b y n ot dis c u ssin g th em , w e c an p re te n d th at th ey d on’t e x is t, th ere b y a ssu m in g a sh are d ra cia l e x perie n ce. N ot ta lk in g a b out ra ce a llo w s u s to m ain ta in o ur se n se o f o urs e lv es a s u niq ue in div id uals , o uts id e c o lle ctiv e s o cia liz atio n a n d gro up e x perie n ce. W hile it is n ’t c o m fo rta b le fo r m ost w hite s to ta lk a b out ra cis m , w e m ust d o s o if w e w an t to ch alle n ge— ra th er th an p ro te ct— ra cis m .

To a v oid ta lk in g a b out r a cis m c an o nly h old o ur m is in fo rm atio n in p la ce a n d pre v en t u s f ro m d ev elo pin g t h e n ecessa ry s k ills a n d p ers p ectiv es t o c h alle n ge th e s ta tu s q uo.

IN C O NCLU SIO N Most o f u s a liv e b efo re a n d d urin g th e 1 960s h av e h ad im ag es f ro m th e c iv il rig hts c o nflic ts o f th at tim e h eld u p a s th e e p ito m e o f r a cis m . T oday w e h av e im ag es o f w hite n atio nalis ts m arc h in g i n C harlo tte sv ille , V ir g in ia , t o h old u p.

And w hile s p eak in g u p a g ain st th ese e x plic itly ra cis t a ctio ns is c ritic al, w e must a ls o b e c are fu l n ot t o u se t h em t o k eep o urs e lv es o n t h e “ g ood” s id e o f a fa ls e b in ary . I h av e fo und it m uch m ore u se fu l to th in k o f m yse lf a s o n a co ntin uum . R acis m i s s o d eep ly w oven i n to t h e f a b ric o f o ur s o cie ty t h at I d o not se e m yse lf esc ap in g fro m th at co ntin uum in m y lif e tim e. B ut I can co ntin ually s e ek to m ove f u rth er a lo ng it. I a m n ot in a f ix ed p ositio n o n th e co ntin uum ; m y p ositio n is d ic ta te d b y w hat I a m a ctu ally d oin g a t a g iv en tim e. C oncep tu aliz in g m yse lf o n a n a ctiv e c o ntin uum c h an ges th e q uestio n fro m w heth er I a m o r a m n ot ra cis t to a m uch m ore c o nstr u ctiv e q uestio n:

Am I a ctiv ely s e ek in g to in te rru pt r a cis m in th is c o nte x t? A nd p erh ap s e v en more i m porta n tly , h ow d o I k now ? CH APT ER 6 ANTI-B LA CK NESS But a ll o ur p hra sin g— ra ce r e la tio ns, r a cia l c h asm , r a cia l j u stic e, r a cia l pro filin g, w hite p riv ile g e, e ven w hite s u pre m acy— se rv es t o o bsc u re t h at r a cis m i s a v is c era l e xp erie n ce, t h at i t d is lo dges b ra in s, b lo cks a ir w ays, r ip s musc le , e xtr a cts o rg ans, c ra cks b ones, b re a ks t e eth . . . . Y ou m ust a lw ays re m em ber t h at t h e s o cio lo gy, t h e h is to ry , t h e e co nom ic s, t h e g ra phs, t h e ch arts , t h e r e g re ssio ns a ll l a nd, w ith g re a t v io le n ce, u pon t h e b ody.

—Ta-N eh is i C oate s, Betw een t h e W orld a nd M e R acis m is c o m ple x a n d n uan ced , a n d its m an if e sta tio ns a re n ot th e s a m e f o r e v ery gro up of co lo r. To ch alle n ge th e id eo lo gie s of ra cis m su ch as i n div id ualis m an d co lo r b lin dness, w e as w hite p eo ple m ust su sp en d o ur p erc ep tio n of ours e lv es as uniq ue an d/o r outs id e ra ce. Explo rin g our c o lle ctiv e r a cia l id en tity in te rru pts a k ey p riv ile g e o f d om in an ce— th e a b ility t o s e e o nese lf o nly a s a n in div id ual. W e n eed to d is c u ss w hite p eo ple a s a g ro up— ev en if doin g so ja rs us— in ord er to dis ru pt our unra cia liz ed i d en titie s.

For p eo ple o f c o lo r, th e p riv ile g e o f b ein g s e en ( a n d s e ein g th em se lv es) a s u niq ue in div id uals o uts id e th e c o nte x t o f ra ce c an not b e ta k en fo r g ra n te d .

T alk in g ab out ra ce an d ra cis m in g en era l te rm s su ch as white peo ple is c o nstr u ctiv e fo r w hite s becau se it in te rru pts in div id ualis m . But ra cia l g en era liz atio n a ls o r e in fo rc es s o m eth in g p ro ble m atic f o r p eo ple o f c o lo r— th e c o ntin ual f o cu s o n th eir g ro up id en tity . F urth erm ore , it c o lla p se s m an y r a cia l g ro ups in to o ne g en eric cate g ory , th ere b y d en yin g th e sp ecif ic w ay s th at d if fe re n t gro ups ex perie n ce ra cis m . W hile peo ple of co lo r sh are so m e e x perie n ces o f ra cis m o vera ll, th ere a re a ls o v aria tio ns b ase d o n a sp ecif ic g ro up’s h is to ry . T hese v aria tio ns in clu de h ow g ro up m em bers h av e a d ap te d t o t h e d om in an t c u ltu re , h ow t h ey h av e b een r e p re se n te d , h ow t h ey h av e b een positio ned in re la tio n to o th er g ro ups o f c o lo r, a n d th e “ ro le ” th e g ro up h as been a ssig ned b y d om in an t s o cie ty . T he m essa g es I h av e in te rn aliz ed a b out peo ple o f A sia n h erita g e, fo r ex am ple , are n ot th e sa m e as th ose I h av e in te rn aliz ed fo r In dig en ous p eo ple , an d a k ey asp ect o f ch alle n gin g th ese messa g es is to id en tif y th eir d if fe re n ces a n d h ow th ey sh ap e m y a ttitu des to w ard v ario us g ro ups o f c o lo r. F urth er, th ere a re m yria d g ro ups w ith in th ese cate g orie s, an d I hav e dif fe re n t attitu des here to o. For ex am ple , m y ste re o ty pes a b out J a p an ese p eo ple a re n ot th e s a m e a s m y s te re o ty pes a b out Chin ese p eo ple , a n d t h ese s te re o ty pes i n fo rm d if fe re n t r e sp onse s.

In th is c h ap te r, I w ill a d dre ss th e u niq uely a n ti- b la ck s e n tim en t in te g ra l to white id en tity . In d oin g s o , I d o n ot w is h to m in im iz e th e ra cis m th at o th er gro ups o f c o lo r e x perie n ce. H ow ev er, I b elie v e th at in th e w hite m in d, b la ck peo ple are th e ultim ate ra cia l “o th er,” an d w e m ust gra p ple w ith th is re la tio nsh ip , fo r it is a fo undatio nal asp ect of th e ra cia l so cia liz atio n underly in g w hite f ra g ility .

I r e m in d m y r e ad ers t h at I a m a d dre ssin g w hite p eo ple a t t h e s o cie ta l l e v el.

I h av e frie n ds w ho are b la ck an d w hom I lo ve d eep ly . I d o n ot h av e to su ppre ss fe elin gs o f h atr e d an d co nte m pt as I sit w ith th em ; I se e th eir hum an ity . B ut on th e m acro le v el, I als o re co gniz e th e deep an ti- b la ck fe elin gs th at h av e b een in cu lc ate d in m e sin ce ch ild hood. T hese fe elin gs su rfa ce im med ia te ly — in f a ct, b efo re I c an e v en th in k— when I c o ncep tu aliz e bla ck p eo ple in g en era l. T he s e n tim en ts a ris e w hen I p ass b la ck s tr a n gers o n th e s tr e et, s e e s te re o ty pic al d ep ic tio ns o f b la ck p eo ple in th e m ed ia , a n d h ear th e th in ly v eile d w arn in gs a n d jo kes p asse d b etw een w hite p eo ple . T hese a re th e d eep er f e elin gs t h at I n eed t o b e w illin g t o e x am in e, f o r t h ese f e elin gs c an an d d o s e ep o ut w ith out m y a w are n ess a n d h urt t h ose w hom I l o ve.

As d is c u sse d in p re v io us ch ap te rs , w e liv e in a cu ltu re th at cir c u la te s re le n tle ss messa g es of white su perio rity . These messa g es ex is t sim ulta n eo usly w ith re le n tle ss m essa g es of bla ck in fe rio rity . B ut an ti- bla ck ness g oes d eep er th an th e n eg ativ e s te re o ty pes a ll o f u s h av e a b so rb ed ; an ti- b la ck ness is fo undatio nal to our very id en titie s as w hite peo ple .

White n ess h as a lw ay s b een p re d ic ate d o n b la ck ness. A s d is c u sse d in ch ap te r 2 , th ere w as n o c o ncep t o f r a ce o r a w hite r a ce b efo re th e n eed to ju stif y th e en sla v em en t of A fric an s. Cre atin g a se p ara te an d in fe rio r bla ck ra ce sim ulta n eo usly c re ate d t h e “ su perio r” w hite r a ce: o ne c o ncep t c o uld n ot e x is t with out th e oth er. In th is se n se , w hite s need bla ck peo ple ; bla ck ness is esse n tia l t o t h e c re atio n o f w hite i d en tity . Sch ola rs h av e a rg ued t h at w hite s s p lit o ff f ro m t h em se lv es a n d p ro je ct o nto bla ck peo ple th e asp ects th at w e don’t w an t to ow n in ours e lv es.

1 F or ex am ple , th e w hite m aste rs o f e n sla v ed A fric an s c o nsis te n tly d ep ic te d th e Afric an s a s l a zy a n d c h ild lik e, e v en a s t h ey t o ile d a t b ack bre ak in g w ork f ro m su nup to su ndow n. T oday , w e d ep ic t b la ck s a s d an gero us, a p ortr a y al th at perv erts th e tr u e d ir e ctio n o f v io le n ce b etw een w hite s a n d b la ck s s in ce th e fo undin g o f th is c o untr y . T his c h ara cte riz atio n c au se s a v ers io n a n d h ostility to w ard b la ck p eo ple an d fe elin gs o f su perio rity to w ard o urs e lv es, b ut w e can not m ora lly ack now le d ge an y of th ese fe elin gs. To re ite ra te , I am sp eak in g h ere o f th e co lle ctiv e w hite co nsc io usn ess. A n in div id ual w hite pers o n m ay n ot b e e x plic itly a w are o f th ese f e elin gs, b ut I a m o fte n a m azed at h ow q uic k ly t h ey s u rfa ce w ith e v en t h e s lig hte st c h alle n ge.

Consid er th e e n durin g w hite re se n tm en t a b out th e p erc eiv ed in ju stic es o f affir m ativ e a ctio n p ro gra m s. T here is e m pir ic al e v id en ce th at p eo ple o f c o lo r (e sp ecia lly b la ck p eo ple ) h av e b een d is c rim in ate d a g ain st in h ir in g s in ce th e en din g o f e n sla v em en t a n d i n to t h e p re se n t.

2 I n t h e l a te 1 960s, a p ro gra m w as in stitu te d t o h elp a m elio ra te t h is d is c rim in atio n: a ffir m ativ e a ctio n.

There is a g re at am ount o f m is in fo rm atio n ab out affir m ativ e actio n, as ev id en ced in th e id ea of sp ec ia l rig hts . F or ex am ple , peo ple co m monly belie v e t h at i f a p ers o n o f c o lo r a p plie s f o r a p ositio n, h e o r s h e m ust b e h ir e d over a w hite p ers o n; th at b la ck p eo ple a re g iv en p re fe re n tia l tr e atm en t in hir in g; a n d th at a s p ecif ic n um ber o f p eo ple o f c o lo r m ust b e h ir e d to fill a quota .

All th ese b elie fs a re p ate n tly u ntr u e. A ffir m ativ e a ctio n is a to ol to e n su re th at qualifie d min ority ap plic an ts are giv en th e sa m e em plo ym en t opportu nitie s a s w hite p eo ple . I t i s a f le x ib le p ro gra m — th ere a re n o q uota s o r re q uir e m en ts a s c o m monly u nders to od. M ore o ver, white w om en h av e b een th e g re ate st b en efic ia rie s o f a ffir m ativ e a ctio n, a lth ough th e p ro gra m d id n ot in itia lly in clu de th em . C orp ora tio ns a re m ore lik ely to fa v or w hite w om en an d im mig ra n ts o f c o lo r o f e lite b ack gro unds f ro m o uts id e th e U nite d S ta te s when ch oosin g th eir ex ecu tiv es.

3 N o em plo yer is re q uir e d to hir e an unqualif ie d pers o n of co lo r, but co m pan ie s are re q uir e d to be ab le to artic u la te w hy th ey did n’t hir e a qualif ie d pers o n of co lo r (a n d th is re q uir e m en t is ra re ly en fo rc ed ). A dditio nally , affir m ativ e actio n nev er ap plie d t o p riv ate c o m pan ie s— only t o s ta te a n d g overn m en ta l a g en cie s.

Still, th is p ro gra m h as b een sy ste m atic ally c h ip ped a w ay a t, a n d se v era l sta te s hav e elim in ate d affir m ativ e actio n pro gra m s alto geth er. In tu rn , Afric an A m eric an s c o ntin ue to b e th e m ost u nderre p re se n te d g ro up a t th e org an iz atio nal le ad ers h ip le v el. In 2 018, a ffir m ativ e a ctio n h as a ll b ut b een dis m an tle d . Y et in varia b ly , I w ill en co unte r a w hite m ale — bris tlin g w ith um bra g e— who r a is e s th e is su e o f a ffir m ativ e a ctio n. I t s e em s th at w e w hite peo ple j u st c an not l e t g o o f o ur o utr a g e o ver h ow u nfa ir t h is t o oth le ss a tte m pt to r e ctif y c en tu rie s o f in ju stic e h as b een to us.

A nd th is u m bra g e c o nsis te n tly su rfa ces in o verw helm in gly w hite le ad ers h ip g ro ups th at h av e a sk ed m e to co m e i n a n d h elp t h em r e cru it a n d r e ta in m ore p eo ple o f c o lo r.

Copio us re se arc h a tte sts to th e d is d ain o f w hite s fo r A fric an A m eric an s, fro m t h e s c h ool- to -p ris o n p ip elin e, t o m ass i n carc era tio n, t o w hite f lig ht.

4 F or ex am ple , on attitu de su rv ey s, most white s sa y th ey would pre fe r neig hborh oods th at a re n o m ore th an 3 0 p erc en t b la ck , a n d m ore th an h alf o f white s s a y th ey w ould n ot m ove in to a n eig hborh ood th at is 3 0 p erc en t b la ck or m ore . Stu die s of actu al m obility patte rn s not only co nfir m th ese pre fe re n ces, b ut a ls o s h ow th at w hite s d ow npla y th em . W hite f lig ht h as b een tr ig gere d w hen a fo rm erly w hite n eig hborh ood re ach es 7 p erc en t b la ck , a n d in n eig hborh oods w ith m ore t h an a f e w bla ck f a m ilie s, w hite h ousin g d em an d te n ds t o d is a p pear.

5 ( T hat i s , t h e d em an d d is a p pears u nle ss w hite p eo ple n eed th at h ousin g b ecau se o f u naffo rd ab le h om e p ric es in o th er n eig hborh oods. I n th at c ase , b la ck p eo ple a re p ush ed o ut a s g en tr if ic atio n in cre ase s. B ro okly n, Harle m , O ak la n d, a n d S eattle a re p rim e e x am ple s.) A 2 015 stu dy b y th e A m eric an S ocio lo gic al F oundatio n fo und th at th e hig hest le v el of se g re g atio n is betw een bla ck s an d w hite s, th e lo w est is betw een A sia n s an d w hite s, an d th e le v el betw een Latin x an d w hite s occu pie s an in te rm ed ia te positio n. A m ajo rity of w hite s, in both th e ex pre ssio n o f th eir b elie fs an d th e p ra ctic e o f th eir liv es, d o n ot w an t to in te g ra te w ith b la ck s.

We se e a n ti- b la ck se n tim en t in h ow q uic k ly im ag es o f b ru ta lity to w ard bla ck c h ild re n (le t a lo ne b la ck a d ults ) a re ju stif ie d b y th e w hite a ssu m ptio n th at it m ust h av e b een d ese rv ed . S uch b elie fs w ould b e u nim ag in ab le if w e had b een s h ow n im ag es o f w hite te en s b ein g th ro w n a cro ss s c h oolr o om s, o f white k in derg arte n ers h an dcu ffe d , o f a w hite c h ild s h ot w hile p la y in g w ith a to y g un i n t h e p ark . W e s e e a n ti- b la ck s e n tim en t i n t h e i m med ia te r e jo in der t o Bla ck L iv es M atte r th at all liv es m atte r, th at blu e liv es m atte r. A nd in th e ab su rd ly fa ls e co m paris o n betw een th e w hite natio nalis t an d “alt- rig ht” movem en t (n ow dir e ctly co nnecte d to th e W hite H ouse ) w ith th e B la ck Pan th er P arty o f t h e 1 960s. W e s e e a n ti- b la ck ness i n h ow m uch m ore h ars h ly we c ritic iz e b la ck s, b y e v ery m easu re . W e s e e i t i n t h e p re sid en t o f t h e U nite d Sta te s p ositio nin g th e a v ow ed w hite s u pre m acis t n eo -N azis m arc h in g o pen ly in th e s tr e ets — in clu din g o ne m an w ho d ro ve a c ar in to a c ro w d o f p ro te ste rs —as e q ual in c h ara cte r to th e p eo ple p ro te stin g th em . A s C oate s n ote s in “T he C ase f o r R ep ara tio ns” :

The e arly A m eric an e co nom y w as b uilt o n s la v e la b or. T he C ap ito l a n d th e White H ouse w ere b uilt b y sla v es. P re sid en t Ja m es K . P olk tr a d ed sla v es fro m th e O val O ffic e. T he la m en ts a b out “ b la ck p ath olo gy,” th e c ritic is m o f bla ck f a m ily s tr u ctu re s b y p undits a n d in te lle ctu als , r in g h ollo w in a c o untr y whose e x is te n ce w as p re d ic ate d o n t h e t o rtu re o f bla ck f a th ers , o n t h e r a p e o f bla ck m oth ers , on th e sa le of bla ck ch ild re n . A n honest asse ssm en t of Am eric a’s re la tio nsh ip to th e b la ck fa m ily re v eals th e c o untr y to b e n ot its nurtu re r b ut i ts d estr o yer. A nd t h is d estr u ctio n d id n ot e n d w ith s la v ery .

6 Anti- b la ck ness is ro ote d in mis in fo rm atio n, fa b le s, perv ers io ns, pro je ctio ns, a n d l ie s. I t i s a ls o r o ote d i n a l a ck o f h is to ric al k now le d ge a n d a n in ab ility o r u nw illin gness to tr a ce th e e ffe cts o f h is to ry in to th e p re se n t. B ut perh ap s m ost fu ndam en ta lly , an ti- b la ck ness co m es fro m d eep g uilt ab out what w e h av e d one a n d c o ntin ue to d o; th e u nbeara b le k now le d ge o f o ur co m plic ity w ith th e p ro fo und to rtu re o f b la ck p eo ple fro m p ast to p re se n t.

While t h e f u ll t r a u m a o f t h is t o rtu re i n i ts v ario us f o rm s— both p hysic ally a n d psy ch olo gic ally — is o nly b orn e b y A fric an A m eric an s, th ere is a k in d o f mora l tr a u m a in it fo r th e w hite c o lle ctiv e. In h is re v olu tio nary b ook, My Gra ndm oth er’s H ands, s o cia l w ork er a n d th era p is t R esm aa M en ak em re fe rs to w hite s u pre m acy a s white b ody s u pre m acy to a rg ue th at w hite s u pre m acy is a fo rm o f tr a u m a th at is sto re d in o ur c o lle ctiv e b odie s: “ M an y A fric an Am eric an s k now tr a u m a in tim ate ly — fro m th eir o w n n erv ous s y ste m s, fro m th e e x perie n ces o f p eo ple th ey lo ve, a n d, m ost o fte n , f ro m b oth . B ut A fric an Am eric an s are not alo ne in th is . A dif fe re n t but eq ually re al fo rm of ra cia liz ed tr a u m a liv es in th e bodie s of m ost w hite A m eric an s.” 7 O ur pro je ctio ns a llo w u s to b ury th is tr a u m a b y d eh um an iz in g a n d th en b la m in g th e v ic tim . I f b la ck s a re n ot h um an i n t h e s a m e w ay s t h at w e w hite p eo ple a re hum an , o ur m is tr e atm en t o f th em d oesn ’t c o unt. W e a re n ot g uilty ; th ey a re .

If t h ey a re b ad , i t i s n ’t u nfa ir . I n f a ct, i t i s rig hte o us.

There is a cu rio us sa tis fa ctio n in th e p unis h m en t o f b la ck p eo ple : th e sm ilin g f a ces o f th e w hite c ro w d p ic n ic k in g a t ly nch in gs in th e p ast, a n d th e sa tis fie d ap pro val of white peo ple obse rv in g m ass in carc era tio n an d ex ecu tio n in th e pre se n t. W hite rig hte o usn ess, w hen in flic tin g pain on Afric an A m eric an s, is e v id en t in th e g le e th e w hite c o lle ctiv e d eriv es fro m bla ck fa ce an d d ep ic tio ns o f b la ck s as ap es an d g orilla s. W e se e it in th e co m passio n to w ard w hite p eo ple w ho a re a d dic te d to o pia te s a n d th e c all to pro vid e th em w ith se rv ic es vers u s th e m an dato ry se n te n cin g perp etr a te d ag ain st t h ose a d dic te d t o c ra ck . W e s e e i t i n t h e c o ncern a b out t h e “ fo rg otte n ” white w ork in g c la ss s o c ritic al t o t h e o utc o m e o f t h e l a st p re sid en tia l e le ctio n, with n o c o ncern fo r b la ck s, w ho re m ain o n th e b otto m o f v ir tu ally e v ery so cia l a n d e co nom ic m easu re . A s C oate s p oin ts o ut, “ to ilin g b la ck s a re in th eir p ro per s ta te ; t o ilin g w hite s r a is e t h e s p ecte r o f w hite s la v ery .” 8 Coate s re fe rs to w hite peo ple as “D re am ers ” in “th e D re am ,” fa ls e ly belie v in g t h at t h ey a re a ctu ally w hite . I t a k e t h is t o m ean t h at w hite s c an o nly be w hite i f s o m eo ne i s n ot w hite — if s o m eo ne i s t h e o pposite o f w hite . W hite is a fa ls e id en tity , a n id en tity o f fa ls e su perio rity . In th at se n se , w hite n ess is n ’t re al. T he d re am is th e “ p erfe ct w orld ,” u npollu te d b y b la ck s. If w hite s are to c o nstr u ct th is w orld , b la ck s m ust b e s e p ara te d th ro ugh s ta te v io le n ce.

Yet t h ey s till m ust e x is t, f o r t h e e x is te n ce o f b la ck s p ro vid es t h e n eed ed o th er ag ain st w hic h w hite s m ay r is e . T hus, w hite id en tity d ep en ds in p artic u la r o n th e p ro je ctio n o f i n fe rio rity o nto b la ck s a n d t h e o ppre ssio n t h is i n fe rio r s ta tu s ju stif ie s f o r t h e w hite c o lle ctiv e.

To p ut it b lu ntly , I b elie v e th at th e w hite c o lle ctiv e fu ndam en ta lly h ate s bla ck ness fo r w hat it re m in ds us of: th at w e are cap ab le an d guilty of perp etr a tin g im measu ra b le harm an d th at our gain s co m e th ro ugh th e su bju gatio n o f o th ers . W e h av e a p artic u la r h atr e d f o r “ u ppity ” b la ck s, th ose who d are to ste p o ut o f th eir p la ce a n d lo ok u s in th e e y e a s e q uals .

9 T he messa g es th at c ir c u la te r e le n tle ssly a cro ss th e g en era tio ns r e in fo rc e th e w hite belie f th at b la ck s are in here n tly u ndese rv in g (a fra n kly o utr a g eo us b elie f, giv en th e s ta te -s a n ctio ned r o bbery o f th eir la b or). W e h eard th is m essa g e in th e n arra tiv e o f “ w elf a re c h eats ” a n d “ w elf a re q ueen s” i n t h e R eag an e ra . W e se e it to day w hen co m men ta to rs sla m N atio nal Footb all L eag ue (N FL ) pla y ers w ho k neel d urin g th e n atio nal an th em an d ex erc is e th eir rig ht to pro te st p olic e b ru ta lity a s “ u ngra te fu l” a n d w hen fo rm er c o ngre ssm an Jo e Wals h decla re s th at Ste v ie Wonder is “an oth er ungra te fu l bla ck multim illio nair e .” W e s e e it w hen R obert J e ffre ss, D alla s e v an gelic al p asto r an d a d vis e r to th e p re sid en t o f th e U nite d S ta te s, c la im s th at N FL p la y ers who p ro te st p olic e b ru ta lity ag ain st A fric an A m eric an s sh ould th an k G od th ey d on’t h av e to w orry a b out b ein g s h ot in th e h ead “ lik e th ey w ould b e in North Kore a.” W e s e e it in th e o utr a g e o f th e c ro w d o f w hite p ro gre ssiv es who s h ow ed u p to h ear B ern ie S an ders s p eak in S eattle a n d w ere a sk ed b y bla ck a ctiv is ts to g ra n t fo ur a n d a h alf m in ute s o f s ile n ce to h onor M ic h ael Bro w n, a n u narm ed b la ck m an s h ot b y p olic e in F erg uso n, M is so uri: “ H ow dare y ou!” t h e c ro w d c rie d .

Caro l A nders o n, i n h er b ook White R age, a rg ues th at “ th e tr ig ger f o r w hite ra g e, in ev ita b ly , is b la ck a d van cem en t. It is n ot th e m ere p re se n ce o f b la ck peo ple th at is th e p ro ble m ; ra th er, it is b la ck ness w ith a m bitio n, w ith d riv e, with purp ose , w ith asp ir a tio ns, an d w ith dem an ds fo r fu ll an d eq ual citiz en sh ip . I t i s b la ck ness t h at r e fu se s t o a ccep t s u bju gatio n, t o g iv e u p.” S he co ntin ues: “T he tr u th is th at, desp ite all th is , a bla ck m an w as ele cte d pre sid en t of th e U nite d Sta te s: th e ultim ate ad van cem en t, an d th us th e ultim ate affro nt. Perh ap s not su rp ris in gly , votin g rig hts w ere se v ere ly cu rta ile d , th e fe d era l g overn m en t w as sh ut d ow n, a n d m ore th an o nce th e Offic e o f th e P re sid en t w as s h ock in gly , o pen ly , a n d p ublic ly d is re sp ecte d b y oth er e le cte d o ffic ia ls .” 10 Anti- b la ck ness is a co m ple x an d co nfu sin g ste w of re se n tm en t an d ben ev ole n ce, fo r w e a ls o u se b la ck s to fe el w arm hearte d a n d n oble . W e a re dra w n to th ose w ho c ast th eir e y es d ow nw ard in o ur p re se n ce, th e o nes w e can “sa v e” fro m th e h orro rs o f th eir b la ck liv es w ith o ur ab undan ce an d kin dness. C onsid er a n e x am ple I o fte n u se in m y p re se n ta tio ns:

The B lin d Sid e, a h ugely p opula r m ovie f o r w hic h S an dra B ullo ck r e ceiv ed a n A cad em y Award . T his film is a c o gen t e x am ple o f w hite s a s th e ra cia lly b en ev ole n t sid e o f th e co in . T he film is b ase d o n th e “tr u e” sto ry o f a fa m ily — th e Tuohys— who re sc u ed M ic h ael Oher, a bla ck m an who cam e fro m im poveris h ed fa m ily cir c u m sta n ces an d w ho w en t o n to b eco m e an N FL pla y er. A lth ough th e m ovie w as popula r w ith w hite au die n ces, m an y pro ble m atic r a cia l n arra tiv es a re r e in sc rib ed in th e f ilm . I n f a ct, th ere a re n o bla ck ch ara cte rs w ho do not re in fo rc e neg ativ e ra cia l ste re o ty pes. O her him se lf is p ortr a y ed a s a c h ild lik e g en tle g ia n t w ho liv es in a b je ct p overty .

Sprin kle d in a re h is d ru g-a d dic te d s in gle m oth er w ith m ultip le c h ild re n f ro m unknow n f a th ers , th e in co m pete n t w elf a re w ork er, th e u ppity la w yer, a n d th e men acin g g an g m em bers i n h is d ru g-in fe ste d a n d c rim e-rid den n eig hborh ood.

In o ne p iv ota l s c en e, O her r e tu rn s t o h is f o rm er n eig hborh ood. A s h e w alk s dow n t h e s tr e et, h e i s s u rro unded b y a g an g t h at t r ie s t o i n tim id ate h im . W hile he c o nsid ers h is lim ite d o ptio ns, M rs . T uohy a rriv es a n d c o nfro nts th e g an g mem bers , w ho q uic k ly b ack d ow n a n d r e tr e at. R esc u ed b y M rs . T uohy, O her is re tu rn ed b ack to s a fe w hite s u burb ia . T he s c en e m ak es it c le ar: th e o nly way O her c o uld b e sa v ed fro m th e te rro rs o f h is o w n b la ck c o m munity is th ro ugh t h e b en ev ole n ce a n d b ra v ery o f a w hite f a m ily .

In t h e f ilm , w hite p ro fe ssio nals d is c u ss O her a s i f h e w ere d ev elo pm en ta lly dis a b le d (h e certa in ly co m es off as su ch — he is passiv e an d in artic u la te th ro ughout th e m ovie ). H is te ach ers n ote th at o n h is I Q te st, h e s c o re d in th e botto m p erc en tile in “ ab ility to le arn ” b ut in th e to p p erc en tile in “ p ro te ctiv e in stin ct” ! A s a pro fe sso r of ed ucatio n w ho has nev er hea rd of a te st measu rin g “ p ro te ctiv e in stin ct,” I h av e b een u nab le to fin d e v id en ce o f th is biz arre m easu re m en t. It is h ig hly p ro ble m atic th at O her, a s a b la ck m ale , is portr a y ed as se v ere ly la ck in g in in te lle ctu al ab ilitie s but ex cep tio nal in so m eth in g in stin ctu al. His lim ite d in te lle ctu al cap acity is re in fo rc ed th ro ughout th e film , fo r ex am ple , w hen th e y oungest ch ild o f th e T uohy house h old h as t o t e ach O her h ow t o p la y f o otb all.

Acco rd in g to th e film , O her is n ev er a b le to u nders ta n d th e ru le s o f th e gam e, so M rs . T uohy a p peals to h is “ p ro te ctiv e in stin ct” b y te llin g h im to pre te n d o ne o f h is n ew w hite fa m ily m em bers is g oin g to b e h urt. O nce h is in stin cts a re e n gag ed ( ra th er t h an h is i n te lle ct) , h e i s u nsto ppab le o n t h e f ie ld .

In a p artic u la rly in su ltin g s c en e, th e w hite c h ild w ho tr ie d u nsu ccessfu lly to te ach O her h ow to p la y f o otb all s its a t a ta b le n eg otia tin g a c o ntr a ct f o r h im with p ow erfu l a d ult m en w hile O her s its i n t h e b ack gro und, m ute .

This f ilm , to ld f ro m th e w hite p ers p ectiv e a n d e n th usia stic ally r e ceiv ed b y au die n ces, r e in fo rc es s o m e v ery i m porta n t d om in an t i d eo lo gie s:

• W hite p eo ple a re t h e s a v io rs o f b la ck p eo ple .

• S om e b la ck c h ild re n m ay b e i n nocen t, b ut b la ck a d ults a re m ora lly a n d crim in ally c o rru pt.

• W hite s w ho a re w illin g t o s a v e o r o th erw is e h elp b la ck p eo ple , a t se em in gly g re at p ers o nal c o st, a re n oble , c o ura g eo us, a n d m ora lly s u perio r to o th er w hite s.

• I n div id ual b la ck p eo ple c an o verc o m e t h eir c ir c u m sta n ces, b ut u su ally o nly with t h e h elp o f w hite p eo ple .

• B la ck n eig hborh oods a re i n here n tly d an gero us a n d c rim in al.

• V ir tu ally a ll b la ck s a re p oor, i n co m pete n t, a n d u nqualif ie d f o r t h eir j o bs; th ey b elo ng t o g an gs, a re a d dic te d t o d ru gs, a n d a re b ad p are n ts . • T he m ost d ep en dab le r o ute f o r b la ck m ale s t o e sc ap e t h e “ in ner c ity ” i s th ro ugh s p orts .

• W hite p eo ple a re w illin g t o d eal w ith i n div id ual “ d ese rv in g” b la ck p eo ple , but w hite s d o n ot b eco m e a p art o f t h e b la ck c o m munity i n a n y m ean in gfu l way ( b ey ond c h arity w ork ).

11 Of c o urs e , O her a ls o b rin gs re d em ptio n to th e w hite s w ho s a v e h im . T he film e n ds w ith a v oic e-o ver fro m M rs . T uohy, a C hris tia n , c la im in g it w as God’s w ill th at th is b oy b e s a v ed ( p re su m ab ly b ecau se h is ta le n t o n th e f ie ld mad e h im m ore p ro fita b le a n d t h us v alu ab le t o w hite p eo ple ). T he T uohys, o f co urs e , are th e g ood w hite s, w ho h av e to d eal w ith th e p re ju dic e o f th e in div id ual b ad w hite s th ey e n co unte r a t th e c o untr y c lu b a n d o th er p la ces. I n th is w ay , th e ra cis t = b ad / n ot ra cis t = g ood b in ary is a ls o re in fo rc ed . T he film i s f u ndam en ta lly a n d i n sid io usly a n ti- b la ck .

White ra cia l so cia liz atio n en gen ders m an y co nflic tin g fe elin gs to w ard Afric an A m eric an s: b en ev ole n ce, re se n tm en t, su perio rity , h atr e d , a n d g uilt ro il b are ly b elo w th e s u rfa ce a n d e ru pt a t th e s lig hte st b re ach , y et c an n ev er be e x plic itly a ck now le d ged . O ur n eed t o d en y t h e b ew ild erin g m an if e sta tio ns of a n ti- b la ck ness th at re sid e s o c lo se to th e s u rfa ce m ak es u s ir ra tio nal, a n d th at i r ra tio nality i s a t t h e h eart o f w hite f ra g ility a n d t h e p ain i t c au se s p eo ple of c o lo r. CH APT ER 7 RACIA L T R IG GER S F O R W HIT E P E O PL E I n a c ro ss-r a cia l d ia lo gue a t a n o rg aniz a tio n th at is tr y in g to in cre a se its s ta ff’ s ra cia l u ndersta ndin g, th e p artic ip ants o f c o lo r re p ea te d ly c h alle n ge t h e p ro ble m atic a ssu m ptio ns in a w hite w om an’s sta te m en ts . “ I fe el lik e e very th in g I sa y is th ro w n b ack a t m e!” sh e e xcla im s. “ W hite p eo ple a re b ein g a tta cked a nd b la m ed , a nd w e h ave to d efe n d o urse lv es o r ju st b e u se d a s p unch in g b ags. I g iv e u p! I a m n ot s a yin g a nyth in g e ls e .” T he o nly b la ck w om an o n a w ork p la ce p la nnin g te a m lis te n s a tte n tiv ely to h er w hite c o lle a gues fo r th e fir st h our o f a m eetin g a nd th en a sk s a q uestio n a bout th eir p ro posa l. A fte r th e m eetin g, h er su perv is o r ca lls h er in to h er o ffic e a nd i n fo rm s h er t h at t h e o th er w om en f e lt a tta cked b y h er.

T he fa cto rs d is c u sse d in th e p re v io us c h ap te rs in su la te w hite p eo ple fro m r a ce-b ase d s tr e ss. A lth ough w hite r a cia l in su la tio n is s o m ew hat m ed ia te d b y s o cia l c la ss (w ith p oor a n d w ork in g-c la ss u rb an w hite s b ein g g en era lly le ss r a cia lly in su la te d th an su burb an or ru ra l white s), th e la rg er so cia l e n vir o nm en t pro te cts white s as a gro up th ro ugh in stitu tio ns, cu ltu ra l r e p re se n ta tio ns, m ed ia , sc h ool te x tb ooks, m ovie s, ad vertis in g, dom in an t d is c o urs e s, a n d th e lik e. W hite n ess s tu die s s c h ola r M ic h elle F in e d esc rib es t h is i n su la tio n: “ W hite n ess a ccru es p riv ile g e a n d s ta tu s; g ets i ts e lf s u rro unded b y pro te ctiv e pillo w s of re so urc es an d/o r ben efits of th e doubt; how W hite n ess r e p els g ossip a n d v oyeu ris m a n d i n ste ad d em an ds d ig nity .” 1 W hite p eo ple se ld om fin d th em se lv es w ith out th is p ro te ctio n. O r if th ey d o, it is b ecau se th ey h av e c h ose n to te m pora rily s te p o uts id e th is a re a o f s a fe ty . B ut w ith in th eir in su la te d en vir o nm en t o f ra cia l p riv ile g e, w hite s b oth ex pect r a cia l c o m fo rt a n d b eco m e l e ss t o le ra n t o f r a cia l s tr e ss.

When id eo lo gie s s u ch a s c o lo r b lin dness, m erito cra cy , a n d in div id ualis m are c h alle n ged , in te n se e m otio nal re actio ns a re c o m mon. I h av e d is c u sse d se v era l re aso ns w hy w hite s a re so d efe n siv e a b out th e su ggestio n th at w e ben efit f ro m , a n d a re c o m plic it i n , a r a cis t s y ste m :

• S ocia l t a b oos a g ain st t a lk in g o pen ly a b out r a ce • T he r a cis t = b ad / n ot r a cis t = g ood b in ary • F ear a n d r e se n tm en t t o w ard p eo ple o f c o lo r • O ur d elu sio n t h at w e a re o bje ctiv e i n div id uals • O ur g uilty k now le d ge t h at t h ere i s m ore g oin g o n t h an w e c an o r w ill a d m it to • D eep i n vestm en t i n a s y ste m t h at b en efits u s a n d t h at w e h av e b een co nditio ned t o s e e a s f a ir • I n te rn aliz ed s u perio rity a n d s e n se o f a r ig ht t o r u le • A d eep c u ltu ra l l e g acy o f a n ti- b la ck s e n tim en t Most w hite p eo ple h av e lim ite d in fo rm atio n a b out w hat r a cis m is a n d h ow it w ork s. F or m an y w hite p eo ple , an is o la te d co urs e ta k en in co lle g e o r re q uir e d “ cu ltu ra l c o m pete n cy tr a in in g” in th eir w ork pla ce is th e o nly tim e th ey m ay e n co unte r a d ir e ct a n d s u sta in ed c h alle n ge t o t h eir r a cia l r e ality . B ut ev en in th is are n a, n ot all m ultic u ltu ra l co urs e s o r tr a in in g p ro gra m s ta lk dir e ctly a b out ra cis m , m uch le ss a d dre ss w hite p riv ile g e. It is fa r m ore th e norm f o r th ese c o urs e s a n d p ro gra m s to u se r a cia lly c o ded la n guag e s u ch a s “u rb an ,” “ in ner c ity ,” a n d “ d is a d van ta g ed ,” b ut ra re ly u se “ w hite ” o r “ o ver- ad van ta g ed ” o r “ p riv ile g ed .” This ra cia lly co ded la n guag e re p ro duces ra cis t im ag es an d p ers p ectiv es while s im ulta n eo usly re p ro ducin g th e c o m fo rta b le illu sio n th at ra ce a n d its pro ble m s a re w hat “ th ey ” h av e, n ot u s. R easo ns th at th e f a cilita to rs o f th ese co urs e s a n d tr a in in gs m ay n ot d ir e ctly n am e th e d ynam ic s a n d b en efic ia rie s of ra cis m ra n ge fro m th e la ck of a valid an aly sis of ra cis m by w hite fa cilita to rs , p ers o nal a n d e co nom ic s u rv iv al s tr a te g ie s f o r f a cilita to rs o f c o lo r, an d p re ssu re f ro m m an ag em en t t o k eep t h e c o nte n t c o m fo rta b le a n d p ala ta b le fo r w hite s.

How ev er, i f a n d w hen a n e d ucatio nal p ro gra m d oes d ir e ctly a d dre ss r a cis m an d th e priv ile g in g of w hite s, co m mon w hite re sp onse s in clu de an ger, with dra w al, em otio nal in cap acita tio n, guilt, arg um en ta tio n, an d co gnitiv e dis so nan ce (a ll of w hic h re in fo rc e th e pre ssu re on fa cilita to rs to av oid dir e ctly a d dre ssin g ra cis m ). S o-c alle d p ro gre ssiv e w hite s m ay n ot re sp ond with a n ger b ut s till in su la te th em se lv es v ia c la im s th at th ey a re b ey ond th e need f o r e n gag in g w ith t h e c o nte n t b ecau se t h ey “ alr e ad y h ad a c la ss o n t h is ” or “ alr e ad y k now th is .” A ll th ese re sp onse s c o nstitu te w hite fra g ility — th e re su lt o f t h e r e d uced p sy ch oso cia l s ta m in a t h at r a cia l i n su la tio n i n cu lc ate s.

I w as a fu ll ad ult, a pare n t, an d a co lle g e gra d uate befo re I ev er ex perie n ced a c h alle n ge to m y r a cia l id en tity o r p ositio n, a n d th at e x perie n ce was o nly b ecau se I h ad ta k en a p ositio n a s a d iv ers ity tr a in er. W hen y ou co m bin e th is ra rity w ith m y lif e tim e of ra cia l cen tr a lity , in te rn aliz ed su perio rity , s e n se o f m yse lf a s a u niq ue in div id ual, a n d e x pecta tio n f o r r a cia l co m fo rt th at o ur c u ltu re e n gen ders , I s im ply n ev er h ad b een c alle d u pon to build m y c ap acity t o e n dure r a cia l s tr e ss.

Anth ro polo gis t P ie rre B ourd ie u ’s co ncep t o f habitu s is v ery u se fu l fo r unders ta n din g w hite fra g ility — th e p re d ic ta b ility o f th e w hite re sp onse to hav in g o ur r a cia l p ositio ns c h alle n ged .

2 A cco rd in g t o B ourd ie u , h ab itu s i s t h e re su lt o f s o cia liz atio n, th e r e p etitiv e p ra ctic es o f a cto rs a n d th eir in te ra ctio ns with e ach o th er a n d w ith th e re st o f th eir s o cia l e n vir o nm en t. B ecau se it is re p etitiv e, o ur so cia liz atio n p ro duces a n d re p ro duces th oughts , p erc ep tio ns, ex pre ssio ns, an d actio ns. T hus, hab itu s can be th ought of as a pers o n’s fa m ilia r w ay s o f p erc eiv in g, in te rp re tin g, a n d re sp ondin g to th e s o cia l c u es aro und h im o r h er.

There a re th re e k ey a sp ects o f B ourd ie u ’s th eo ry th at a re r e le v an t to w hite fra g ility : fie ld , h ab itu s, a n d c ap ita l.

Fie ld is th e sp ecif ic so cia l c o nte x t th e pers o n is in — a p arty , th e w ork pla ce, o r a s c h ool. If w e ta k e a s c h ool a s a n ex am ple , th ere is th e m acro f ie ld o f s c h ool a s a w hole , a n d w ith in th e s c h ool are m ic ro fie ld s— th e te ach er’s lo unge, th e sta ff ro om , th e cla ssro om , th e pla y gro und, th e p rin cip al’ s o ffic e, th e n urs e s’ o ffic e, th e ja n ito r’s su pply ro om , a n d s o o n.

Capita l is th e so cia l v alu e p eo ple h old in a p artic u la r fie ld ; h ow th ey perc eiv e th em se lv es a n d a re p erc eiv ed b y o th ers in te rm s o f th eir p ow er o r sta tu s. F or e x am ple , c o m pare th e c ap ita l o f a te ach er a n d a s tu den t, a te ach er an d a p rin cip al, a m id dle -c la ss s tu den t a n d a s tu den t o n f re e o r r e d uced l u nch , an E nglis h la n guag e le arn er a n d a n ativ e E nglis h s p eak er, a p opula r g ir l a n d an u npopula r o ne, a c u sto dia n a n d a r e cep tio nis t, a k in derg arte n t e ach er a n d a six th -g ra d e t e ach er, a n d s o o n.

Cap ita l c an sh if t w ith th e fie ld , fo r e x am ple , w hen th e c u sto dia n c o m es “u psta ir s ” to s p eak to th e r e cep tio nis t— th e c u sto dia n in w ork c lo th es a n d th e re cep tio nis t in b usin ess a ttir e — th e o ffic e w ork er h as m ore c ap ita l th an d oes th e m ain te n an ce p ers o n. B ut w hen t h e r e cep tio nis t g oes “ d ow n” t o t h e s u pply ro om , w hic h th e cu sto dia n co ntr o ls , to re q uest m ore w hite b oard m ark ers , th ose p ow er l in es s h if t; t h is i s t h e d om ain o f t h e c u sto dia n , w ho c an f u lf ill t h e re q uest q uic k ly o r c an m ak e th e tr a n sa ctio n d if fic u lt. N otic e h ow r a ce, c la ss, an d g en der w ill a ls o b e a t p la y in n eg otia tio ns o f p ow er. T he c u sto dia n is most lik ely to b e m ale , a n d th e r e cep tio nis t f e m ale ; th e c u sto dia n m ore lik ely a p ers o n o f c o lo r a n d th e r e cep tio nis t m ore lik ely w hite . T hese c o m ple x a n d in te rs e ctin g l a y ers o f c ap ita l a re b ein g n eg otia te d a u to m atic ally .

Hab itu s in clu des a p ers o n’s in te rn aliz ed a w are n ess o f h is o r h er s ta tu s, a s well a s re sp onse s to th e sta tu s o f o th ers . In e v ery fie ld , p eo ple a re (o fte n unco nsc io usly ) v yin g f o r p ow er, a n d e ach f ie ld w ill h av e r u le s o f th e g am e.

3 Hab itu s w ill d ep en d o n th e p ow er p ositio n th e p ers o n o ccu pie s in th e s o cia l str u ctu re . R etu rn in g to th e sc h ool e x am ple , th ere w ill b e d if fe re n t ru le s to gain p ow er a t th e re cep tio n d esk v ers u s th e c u sto dia n ’s s u pply ro om . T hese ru le s d o n ot h av e to b e th ought a b out co nsc io usly — I a u to m atic ally s h if t in to th em a s I e n te r e ach f ie ld . I f I d on’t f o llo w t h ese r u le s, I w ill b e p ush ed o ut o f th at f ie ld th ro ugh v ario us m ean s. S om e o f th ese r u le s a re e x plic itly ta u ght to us, w hile o th ers a re u nw ritte n a n d le arn ed b y p ic k in g u p c o nsis te n t so cia l patte rn s. F or e x am ple , th e r u le s s p ell o ut w hat w e d o o r d on’t ta lk a b out in a giv en fie ld an d how to re sp ond w hen so m eo ne ta lk s ab out so m eth in g co nsid ere d t a b oo i n t h at f ie ld .

When th ere is dis e q uilib riu m in th e hab itu s— when so cia l cu es are unfa m ilia r an d/o r w hen th ey ch alle n ge our cap ita l— we use str a te g ie s to re g ain o ur b ala n ce. H ab itu s m ain ta in s o ur s o cia l c o m fo rt a n d h elp s u s r e g ain it w hen t h ose a ro und u s d o n ot a ct i n f a m ilia r a n d a ccep ta b le w ay s. W e d on’t re sp ond co nsc io usly to dis e q uilib riu m in th e hab itu s; we re sp ond unco nsc io usly . B ourd ie u e x pla in s th at “ h ab itu s is n eith er a r e su lt o f f re e w ill, nor d ete rm in ed b y s tr u ctu re s, b ut c re ate d b y a k in d o f in te rp la y b etw een th e tw o o ver t im e: d is p ositio ns t h at a re b oth s h ap ed b y p ast e v en ts a n d s tr u ctu re s, an d th at sh ap e cu rre n t p ra ctic es an d str u ctu re s an d als o , im porta n tly , th at co nditio n o ur v ery p erc ep tio ns o f t h ese .” 4 I n t h is s e n se , h ab itu s i s c re ate d a n d re p ro duced “w ith out an y d elib era te p urs u it o f co here n ce . . . w ith out an y co nsc io us c o ncen tr a tio n.” 5 I n th e r a re s itu atio n in w hic h th e w hite p ositio n is ch alle n ged , d is e q uilib riu m r e su lts .

Thus, w hite f ra g ility is a s ta te in w hic h e v en a m in im um a m ount o f r a cia l str e ss in th e h ab itu s b eco m es in to le ra b le , tr ig gerin g a ra n ge o f d efe n siv e moves. T hese m oves in clu de th e o utw ard d is p la y o f e m otio ns s u ch a s a n ger, fe ar, a n d g uilt a n d b eh av io rs s u ch a s a rg um en ta tio n, s ile n ce, a n d le av in g th e str e ss-in ducin g situ atio n. T hese beh av io rs , in tu rn , re in sta te w hite ra cia l eq uilib riu m . R acia l s tr e ss r e su lts f ro m a n in te rru ptio n to th e r a cia lly f a m ilia r.

These in te rru ptio ns c an ta k e a v arie ty o f fo rm s a n d c o m e fro m a ra n ge o f so urc es, i n clu din g • S uggestin g t h at a w hite p ers o n’s v ie w poin t c o m es f ro m a r a cia liz ed f ra m e of r e fe re n ce ( c h alle n ge t o o bje ctiv ity ) • P eo ple o f c o lo r t a lk in g d ir e ctly a b out t h eir o w n r a cia l p ers p ectiv es (c h alle n ge t o w hite t a b oos o n t a lk in g o pen ly a b out r a ce) • P eo ple o f c o lo r c h oosin g n ot t o p ro te ct w hite p eo ple ’s f e elin gs a b out r a ce (c h alle n ge t o w hite r a cia l e x pecta tio ns a n d t h e n eed f o r, o r e n title m en t t o , ra cia l c o m fo rt) • P eo ple o f c o lo r b ein g u nw illin g t o t e ll t h eir s to rie s o r a n sw er q uestio ns ab out t h eir r a cia l e x perie n ces ( c h alle n ge t o t h e e x pecta tio n t h at p eo ple o f co lo r w ill s e rv e u s) • A f e llo w w hite d is a g re ein g w ith o ur r a cia l b elie fs ( c h alle n ge t o w hite so lid arity ) • R eceiv in g f e ed back t h at o ur b eh av io r h ad a r a cis t i m pact ( c h alle n ge t o white r a cia l i n nocen ce) • S uggestin g t h at g ro up m em bers h ip i s s ig nif ic an t ( c h alle n ge t o in div id ualis m ) • A n a ck now le d gm en t t h at a ccess i s u neq ual b etw een r a cia l g ro ups (c h alle n ge t o m erito cra cy ) • B ein g p re se n te d w ith a p ers o n o f c o lo r i n a p ositio n o f l e ad ers h ip (c h alle n ge t o w hite a u th ority ) • B ein g p re se n te d w ith i n fo rm atio n a b out o th er r a cia l g ro ups t h ro ugh, f o r ex am ple , m ovie s i n w hic h p eo ple o f c o lo r d riv e t h e a ctio n b ut a re n ot i n ste re o ty pic al r o le s, o r m ultic u ltu ra l e d ucatio n ( c h alle n ge t o w hite cen tr a lity ) • S uggestin g t h at w hite p eo ple d o n ot r e p re se n t o r s p eak f o r a ll o f h um an ity (c h alle n ge t o u niv ers a lis m ) In a so cie ty in w hic h w hite s are dom in an t, each of th ese ch alle n ges beco m es ex cep tio nal. In tu rn , w e are o fte n at a lo ss fo r h ow to re sp ond co nstr u ctiv ely . For ex am ple , I w as once ask ed to pro vid e one-o n-o ne men to rin g fo r a w hite m ale te ach er w ho had m ad e in ap pro pria te ra cia l co m men ts to a b la ck f e m ale s tu den t. W hen th e g ir l’ s m oth er c o m pla in ed , th e te ach er b ecam e d efe n siv e a n d t h e c o nflic t e sc ala te d . T he i n cid en t e n ded u p i n th e new sp ap er, an d pote n tia l le g al actio n w as dis c u sse d . I w ill call th is te ach er M r. R oberts . D urin g o ne o f o ur s e ssio ns, M r. R oberts to ld m e a b out his c o lle ag ue, a w hite f e m ale te ach er, w ho r e cen tly h ad tw o b la ck s tu den ts a t her d esk . S he p re fa ced s o m eth in g s h e s a id to o ne o f th em w ith “ G ir l.” T he stu den t w as c le arly ta k en a b ack an d a sk ed , “ D id y ou ju st c all m e g ir l? ” T he oth er s tu den t s a id i t w as O K; t h e t e ach er c alle d a ll h er s tu den ts g ir l.

In r e la y in g th is s to ry to m e, M r. R oberts e x pre sse d h is a n d h is c o lle ag ue’s an ger a b out h av in g to b e “ so c are fu l” a n d n ot b ein g a b le to “ sa y a n yth in g an ym ore .” T hey p erc eiv ed m y in te rv en tio n as a fo rm o f p unis h m en t an d belie v ed th at b ecau se o f th e in cid en t w ith h im , s tu den ts o f c o lo r w ere n ow “o vers e n sitiv e” an d co m pla in in g ab out ra cis m w here it d id n ot ex is t. F or th ese te ach ers , th e s tu den t’ s re actio n to b ein g c alle d “ G ir l” w as a n e x am ple of th is o vers e n sitiv ity . T his a ccu sa tio n is a fa m ilia r w hite n arra tiv e, a n d in th is in sta n ce, it w as ra tio naliz ed fo r tw o re aso ns: F ir s t, b ecau se th e te ach er calle d a ll h er fe m ale stu den ts “ G ir l,” th e c o m men t h ad n oth in g to d o w ith ra ce. S eco nd, o ne o f th e s tu den ts d id n’t h av e a n is su e w ith th e c o m men t, s o th e s tu den t w ho d id w as s e en a s o verre actin g.

These w hite te ach ers ’ re sp onse s illu str a te se v era l dynam ic s of w hite fra g ility . F ir s t, th e te ach ers n ev er c o nsid ere d th at in n ot u nders ta n din g th e stu den t’ s re actio n, th ey m ig ht b e la ck in g s o m e k now le d ge o r c o nte x t. T hey dem onstr a te d n o c u rio sity a b out th e s tu den t’ s p ers p ectiv e o r w hy s h e m ig ht hav e ta k en o ffe n se . N or d id th ey s h ow c o ncern a b out th e s tu den t’ s f e elin gs.

They w ere u nab le to s e p ara te in te n tio ns f ro m im pact. D esp ite M r. R oberts ’s la ck of cro ss-ra cia l sk ills an d unders ta n din g— a la ck th at le d to a ra cia l vio la tio n with pote n tia l le g al re p erc u ssio ns— he arro gan tly re m ain ed co nfid en t th at h e w as rig ht a n d th at th e s tu den t w as w ro ng. H is c o lle ag ue, aw are th at M r. R oberts w as in s e rio us tr o uble a b out a c ro ss-ra cia l in cid en t, still m ain ta in ed w hite so lid arity w ith him by valid atin g th eir sh are d pers p ectiv e a n d in valid atin g th at o f th e s tu den t o f c o lo r. T he te ach ers u se d th e s tu den t w itn ess w ho e x cu se d th e c o m men t a s p ro of th at th e o th er s tu den t was w ro ng. A cco rd in g to th em , th e w itn ess w as th e c o rre ct s tu den t b ecau se sh e d en ie d a n y r a cia l im plic atio ns. F in ally , th e te ach ers u se d th is in te ra ctio n as a n o pportu nity to in cre ase ra cia l d iv id es ra th er th an b rid ge th em a n d to pro te ct t h eir w orld vie w s a n d p ositio ns.

White fra g ility m ay be co ncep tu aliz ed as a re sp onse or “co nditio n” pro duced a n d r e p ro duced b y th e c o ntin ual s o cia l a n d m ate ria l a d van ta g es of white n ess. W hen d is e q uilib riu m o ccu rs — when t h ere i s a n i n te rru ptio n t o t h at whic h is f a m ilia r a n d ta k en f o r g ra n te d — white f ra g ility r e sto re s e q uilib riu m an d re tu rn s th e c ap ita l “ lo st” v ia th e c h alle n ge. T his c ap ita l in clu des se lf - im ag e, c o ntr o l, a n d w hite s o lid arity . A nger to w ard th e tr ig ger, s h uttin g d ow n an d/o r tu nin g o ut, in dulg en ce in em otio nal in cap acita tio n su ch as g uilt o r “h urt fe elin gs,” e x itin g, o r a c o m bin atio n o f th ese re sp onse s re su lts . A gain , th ese s tr a te g ie s a re re fle x iv e a n d s e ld om c o nsc io us, b ut th at d oes n ot m ak e th em b en ig n. CH APT ER 8 TH E R ESU LT: W HIT E F R AG IL IT Y I a m c o ach in g a s m all g ro up o f w hite e m plo yees o n h ow r a cis m m anife sts in t h eir w ork p la ce. O ne m em ber o f th e g ro up, K are n , is u pse t a bout a r e q uest f r o m Jo an, h er o nly co lle a gue o f co lo r, to sto p ta lk in g o ver h er. K are n d oesn ’t u ndersta nd w hat ta lk in g o ver J o an h as to d o w ith ra ce; sh e is a n e xtr o vert a nd te n ds to ta lk s o ver e very o ne. I tr y to e xp la in h ow th e im pact is d iffe re n t w hen w e in te rru pt a cro ss r a ce b eca use w e b rin g o ur h is to rie s w ith u s. W hile K are n s e es h erse lf a s a u niq ue in div id ual, J o an s e es K are n a s a w hite in div id ual. B ein g in te rru p te d a nd ta lk ed o ver b y w hite p eo ple is n ot a u niq ue exp erie n ce fo r Jo an; nor is it se p ara te fr o m th e la rg er cu ltu ra l c o nte xt. K are n e xcla im s, “ F org et i t! I c a n’t s a y a nyth in g r ig ht, s o I a m g oin g t o s to p t a lk in g!” T he p re ced in g e p is o de h ig hlig hts K are n ’s w hite f ra g ility . S he i s u nab le t o s e e h ers e lf in ra cia l te rm s. W hen s h e is p re sse d to d o s o , s h e re fu se s to e n gag e f u rth er, p ositio nin g h ers e lf a s th e o ne b ein g tr e ate d u nfa ir ly . A s N PR ’s D on G onyea p oin ts o ut, a re m ark ab le p re p ondera n ce o f w hite A m eric an s b elie v e t h at t h ey a ls o e x perie n ce r a cia l p re ju dic e:

A m ajo rity of w hite s sa y dis c rim in atio n ag ain st th em ex is ts in A m eric a t o day , a cco rd in g to a p oll re le ase d T uesd ay fro m N PR , th e R obert W ood J o hnso n F oundatio n a n d t h e H arv ard T . H . C han S ch ool o f P ublic H ealth .

“If y ou a p ply f o r a jo b, th ey s e em to g iv e th e b la ck s th e f ir s t c ra ck a t it,” s a id 6 8-y ear-o ld T im H ers h m an o f A kro n, O hio , “ an d, b asic ally , y ou k now , i f y ou w an t a n y h elp f ro m t h e g overn m en t, i f y ou’re w hite , y ou d on’t g et i t. I f y ou’re b la ck , y ou g et i t.” More th an half of w hite s— 55 perc en t— su rv ey ed sa y th at, gen era lly s p eak in g, th ey belie v e th ere is dis c rim in atio n ag ain st w hite peo ple in A m eric a t o day . . . .

Nota b le , h ow ev er, is th at th ough a m ajo rity o f w hite s in th e p oll sa y d is c rim in atio n a g ain st th em e x is ts , a m uch s m alle r p erc en ta g e s a y th ey h av e actu ally e x perie n ced i t.

1 The l a rg e b ody o f r e se arc h a b out c h ild re n a n d r a ce d em onstr a te s t h at c h ild re n sta rt to c o nstr u ct th eir id eas a b out ra ce v ery e arly . R em ark ab ly , a s e n se o f white s u perio rity a n d k now le d ge o f r a cia l p ow er c o des a p pear to d ev elo p a s early as p re sc h ool.

2 P ro fe sso r o f co m munic atio ns Ju dith M artin d esc rib es white c h ild re n ’s u pbrin gin g:

As in o th er W este rn n atio ns, w hite c h ild re n b orn in th e U nite d S ta te s in herit th e m ora l p re d ic am en t o f liv in g in a w hite su pre m acis t so cie ty . R ais e d to ex perie n ce th eir r a cia lly b ase d a d van ta g es a s f a ir a n d n orm al, w hite c h ild re n re ceiv e little if a n y in str u ctio n r e g ard in g th e p re d ic am en t th ey f a ce, le t a lo ne an y g uid an ce in h ow to r e so lv e it. T here fo re , th ey e x perie n ce o r le arn a b out ra cia l te n sio n with out unders ta n din g Euro -A m eric an s’ his to ric al re sp onsib ility fo r it a n d k now in g v ir tu ally n oth in g a b out th eir c o nte m pora ry ro le s i n p erp etu atin g i t.

3 Desp ite i ts u biq uity , w hite s u perio rity is a ls o u nnam ed a n d d en ie d b y m ost white s. If w e b eco m e a d ults w ho e x plic itly o ppose ra cis m , a s d o m an y, w e ofte n o rg an iz e o ur id en tity a ro und a d en ia l o f o ur ra cia lly b ase d p riv ile g es th at r e in fo rc e r a cis t d is a d van ta g e f o r o th ers . W hat is p artic u la rly p ro ble m atic ab out th is co ntr a d ic tio n is th at w hite p eo ple ’s m ora l o bje ctio n to ra cis m in cre ase s th eir re sis ta n ce to ack now le d gin g th eir co m plic ity w ith it. In a white su pre m acis t co nte x t, w hite id en tity la rg ely re sts o n a fo undatio n o f (s u perfic ia l) ra cia l to le ra n ce an d accep ta n ce. W e w hite s w ho positio n ours e lv es as lib era l ofte n opt to pro te ct w hat w e perc eiv e as our m ora l re p uta tio ns, ra th er th an re co gniz e o r c h an ge o ur p artic ip atio n in s y ste m s o f in eq uity a n d d om in atio n.

For ex am ple , in 2016, th e O sc ars w ere ch alle n ged fo r th eir la ck of div ers ity . W hen ask ed if sh e fe lt th e O sc ars w ere “b eh in d th e tim es” fo r fa ilin g to n om in ate a s in gle b la ck a cto r fo r th e s e co nd y ear in a ro w , a cto r Hele n M ir re n d efa u lte d to w hite ra cia l in nocen ce in h er re p ly : “ It ju st so hap pen ed it w en t th at w ay .” S he als o cla im ed , “It’ s u nfa ir to atta ck th e acad em y.” A cto r C harlo tte R am plin g c alle d th e id ea o f a b oyco tt a g ain st th e Osc ars to d ra w a tte n tio n to th e la ck o f d iv ers ity “ ra cis t a g ain st w hite s.” I n s o re sp ondin g, w hite s in voke th e p ow er to ch oose w hen , h ow , an d to w hat ex te n t r a cis m is a d dre sse d o r c h alle n ged . T hus, p oin tin g o ut w hite a d van ta g e will ofte n tr ig ger patte rn s of co nfu sio n, defe n siv en ess, an d rig hte o us in dig natio n. T hese r e sp onse s e n ab le d efe n ders t o p ro te ct t h eir m ora l c h ara cte r ag ain st a perc eiv ed atta ck w hile re je ctin g an y cu lp ab ility . Focu sin g on re sto rin g th eir m ora l s ta n din g th ro ugh th ese ta ctic s, w hite s a re a b le to a v oid th e c h alle n ge.

4 One w ay th at w hite s p ro te ct th eir p ositio ns w hen c h alle n ged o n r a ce is to in voke th e dis c o urs e of se lf -d efe n se . Thro ugh th is dis c o urs e , white s ch ara cte riz e th em se lv es as vic tim iz ed , sla m med , bla m ed , an d atta ck ed .

5 White s w ho desc rib e th e in te ra ctio ns in th is w ay are re sp ondin g to th e artic u la tio n of co unte rn arra tiv es alo ne; no physic al vio le n ce has ev er occu rre d in a n y in te rra cia l d is c u ssio n o r tr a in in g th at I a m a w are o f. T hese se lf -d efe n se c la im s w ork o n m ultip le le v els . T hey id en tif y th e sp eak ers a s mora lly s u perio r w hile o bsc u rin g t h e t r u e p ow er o f t h eir s o cia l p ositio ns. T he cla im s b la m e o th ers w ith le ss s o cia l p ow er fo r th eir d is c o m fo rt a n d fa ls e ly desc rib e th at dis c o m fo rt as dan gero us. The se lf -d efe n se ap pro ach als o re in sc rib es ra cis t im ag ery . B y positio nin g th em se lv es as th e vic tim of an tir a cis t e ffo rts , t h ey c an not b e t h e b en efic ia rie s o f w hite n ess. C la im in g t h at it is th ey w ho hav e been unfa ir ly tr e ate d — th ro ugh a ch alle n ge to th eir positio n o r a n e x pecta tio n th at th ey lis te n to th e p ers p ectiv es a n d e x perie n ces of p eo ple o f c o lo r— th ey c an d em an d t h at m ore s o cia l r e so urc es ( s u ch a s t im e an d a tte n tio n) b e c h an nele d in th eir d ir e ctio n to h elp th em c o pe w ith th is mis tr e atm en t.

When I c o nsu lt w ith o rg an iz atio ns th at w an t m e to h elp th em re cru it a n d re ta in a m ore d iv ers e w ork fo rc e, I a m c o nsis te n tly w arn ed th at p ast e ffo rts to ad dre ss th e la ck o f d iv ers ity h av e re su lte d in tr a u m a fo r w hite e m plo yees.

This is lite ra lly th e te rm u se d to d esc rib e th e im pact o f a b rie f a n d is o la te d work sh op:

tr a um a.

T his tr a u m a has re q uir e d years of av oid in g th e to pic alto geth er, an d alth ough th e b usin ess le ad ers fe el th ey are re ad y to b eg in ag ain , I a m c au tio ned to p ro ceed s lo w ly a n d b e c are fu l. O f c o urs e , th is w hite ra cia l tr a u m a in re sp onse to eq uity effo rts has als o en su re d th at th e org an iz atio n h as r e m ain ed o verw helm in gly w hite .

The la n guag e of vio le n ce th at m an y w hite s use to desc rib e an tir a cis t en deav ors is n ot w ith out s ig nif ic an ce, a s it is a n oth er e x am ple o f h ow w hite fra g ility d is to rts re ality . B y em plo yin g te rm s th at co nnote p hysic al ab use , white s ta p in to th e c la ssic sto ry th at p eo ple o f c o lo r (p artic u la rly A fric an Am eric an s) a re d an gero us a n d v io le n t. In so d oin g, w hite s d is to rt th e re al dir e ctio n of dan ger betw een w hite s an d oth ers . This his to ry beco m es pro fo undly m in im iz ed w hen w hite s c la im th ey d on’t fe el s a fe o r a re u nder atta ck w hen t h ey f in d t h em se lv es i n t h e r a re s itu atio n o f m ere ly t a lk in g a b out ra ce w ith p eo ple o f c o lo r. T he u se o f t h is l a n guag e o f v io le n ce i llu str a te s h ow fra g ile a n d i ll- e q uip ped m ost w hite p eo ple a re t o c o nfro nt r a cia l t e n sio ns, a n d th eir s u bse q uen t p ro je ctio n o f t h is t e n sio n o nto p eo ple o f c o lo r.

6 Socio lo gis t E duard o B onilla -S ilv a, in his stu dy of co lo r-b lin d ra cis m , desc rib es a n a sp ect o f w hite fra g ility : “ B ecau se th e n ew ra cia l c lim ate in Am eric a fo rb id s th e o pen e x pre ssio n o f ra cia lly b ase d fe elin gs, v ie w s, a n d positio ns, w hen w hite s d is c u ss is su es th at m ak e th em u nco m fo rta b le , th ey beco m e a lm ost i n co m pre h en sib le .” 7 P ro bin g f o rb id den r a cia l i s su es r e su lts i n verb al in co here n ce— dig re ssio ns, lo ng pau se s, re p etitio n, an d se lf - co rre ctio ns. B onilla -S ilv a s u ggests th at th is in co here n t ta lk is a fu nctio n o f ta lk in g ab out ra ce in a w orld th at in sis ts th at ra ce d oes n ot m atte r. T his in co here n ce s u ggests t h at m an y w hite p eo ple a re u npre p are d t o e x plo re , e v en on a p re lim in ary le v el, th eir ra cia l p ers p ectiv es a n d to w ork to sh if t th eir unders ta n din g o f r a cis m . T his r e lu cta n ce m ain ta in s w hite p ow er b ecau se th e ab ility t o d ete rm in e w hic h n arra tiv es are a u th oriz ed a n d w hic h a re s u p pre sse d is th e fo undatio n of cu ltu ra l dom in atio n. This re lu cta n ce has fu rth er im plic atio ns, fo r if w hite s c an not e x plo re a lte rn ate ra cia l p ers p ectiv es, th ey can o nly r e in sc rib e w hite p ers p ectiv es a s u niv ers a l.

How ev er, w hite s d o e n gag e i n r a cia l d is c o urs e u nder c o ntr o lle d c o nditio ns.

We n otic e th e r a cia l p ositio ns o f r a cia l o th ers a n d d is c u ss th is f re ely a m ong ours e lv es, a lb eit o fte n in c o ded w ay s. T he re fu sa l to d ir e ctly a ck now le d ge th is r a ce ta lk r e su lts in a k in d o f s p lit c o nsc io usn ess th at le ad s to ir ra tio nality an d in co here n ce. T his d en ia l a ls o g uara n te es th at th e ra cia l m is in fo rm atio n th at cir c u la te s in th e cu ltu re an d fra m es our pers p ectiv es w ill be le ft unex am in ed . T he co ntin ual re tr e at fro m th e d is c o m fo rt o f au th en tic ra cia l en gag em en t in a cu ltu re in w hic h ra cia l d is p arity is in fu se d lim its w hite peo ple ’s ab ility to fo rm au th en tic co nnectio ns acro ss ra cia l lin es an d perp etu ate s a c y cle t h at k eep s r a cis m i n p la ce.

A co gen t ex am ple o f w hite fra g ility o ccu rre d d urin g a w ork pla ce an ti- ra cis m tr a in in g I c o -fa cilita te d w ith a n in te r-ra cia l te am . O ne o f th e w hite partic ip an ts le ft th e se ssio n a n d w en t b ack to h er d esk , u pse t a t re ceiv in g (w hat a p peare d to th e tr a in in g te am a s) s e n sitiv e a n d d ip lo m atic f e ed back o n how s o m e o f h er s ta te m en ts h ad im pacte d s e v era l o f th e p eo ple o f c o lo r in th e ro om . A t b re ak , s e v era l o th er w hite p artic ip an ts a p pro ach ed m e a n d m y fe llo w tr a in ers a n d re p orte d th at th ey h ad ta lk ed to th e w om an a t h er d esk , an d th at sh e w as v ery u pse t th at h er sta te m en ts h ad b een c h alle n ged . (O f co urs e , “ ch alle n ged ” w as n ot h ow s h e p hra se d h er c o ncern . I t w as f ra m ed a s her b ein g “ fa ls e ly a ccu se d ” o f h av in g a r a cis t im pact.) H er f rie n ds w an te d to ale rt u s to th e f a ct th at s h e w as in p oor h ealth a n d “ m ig ht b e h av in g a h eart- atta ck .” U pon questio nin g fro m us, th ey cla rif ie d th at th ey m ean t th is lite ra lly . T hese c o w ork ers w ere s in cere in th eir fe ar th at th e y oung w om an mig ht a ctu ally d ie a s a re su lt o f th e fe ed back . O f c o urs e w hen n ew s o f th e wom en ’s p ote n tia lly f a ta l c o nditio n r e ach ed th e r e st o f th e p artic ip an t g ro up, all atte n tio n w as im med ia te ly fo cu se d back onto her an d aw ay fro m en gag em en t w ith t h e i m pact s h e h ad h ad o n t h e p eo ple o f c o lo r. A s p ro fe sso r of s o cia l w ork R ic h V odde s ta te s, “ If p riv ile g e is d efin ed a s a le g itim iz atio n of o ne’s en title m en t to re so urc es, it can als o b e d efin ed as p erm is sio n to esc ap e o r a v oid a n y c h alle n ges t o t h is e n title m en t.” 8 White eq uilib riu m is a co co on o f ra cia l co m fo rt, cen tr a lity , su perio rity , en title m en t, r a cia l a p ath y, a n d o bliv io usn ess, a ll r o ote d i n a n i d en tity o f b ein g good p eo ple fre e o f ra cis m . C halle n gin g th is c o co on th ro w s o ff o ur ra cia l bala n ce. B ecau se b ein g ra cia lly o ff b ala n ce is so ra re , w e h av e n ot h ad to build th e cap acity to su sta in th e dis c o m fo rt. Thus, w hite s fin d th ese ch alle n ges u nbeara b le a n d w an t t h em t o s to p.

WHIT E F R AG IL IT Y A S A F O RM O F B U LLY IN G Let m e b e c le ar: w hile th e c ap acity f o r w hite p eo ple to s u sta in c h alle n ges to our ra cia l p ositio ns is lim ite d — an d, in th is w ay , fra g ile — th e e ffe cts o f o ur re sp onse s a re n ot fra g ile a t a ll; th ey a re q uite p ow erfu l b ecau se th ey ta k e ad van ta g e o f h is to ric al a n d in stitu tio nal p ow er a n d c o ntr o l. W e w ie ld th is pow er a n d c o ntr o l in w hate v er w ay is m ost u se fu l in th e m om en t to p ro te ct our p ositio ns. I f w e n eed to c ry s o th at a ll th e r e so urc es r u sh b ack to u s a n d atte n tio n i s d iv erte d a w ay f ro m a d is c u ssio n o f o ur r a cis m , t h en w e w ill c ry ( a str a te g y m ost co m monly em plo yed b y w hite m id dle -c la ss w om en ). If w e need to ta k e u m bra g e a n d r e sp ond w ith r ig hte o us o utr a g e, th en w e w ill ta k e um bra g e. I f w e n eed t o a rg ue, m in im iz e, e x pla in , p la y d ev il’ s a d vocate , p out, tu ne o ut, o r w ith dra w t o s to p t h e c h alle n ge, t h en w e w ill.

White fra g ility fu nctio ns a s a fo rm o f b ully in g; I a m g oin g to m ak e it s o mis e ra b le fo r y ou to c o nfro nt m e— no m atte r h ow d ip lo m atic ally y ou tr y to do s o — th at y ou w ill s im ply b ack o ff, g iv e u p, a n d n ev er r a is e t h e i s su e a g ain . White f ra g ility k eep s p eo ple o f c o lo r in lin e a n d “ in th eir p la ce.” I n th is w ay , it is a p ow erfu l fo rm o f w hite ra cia l c o ntr o l. S ocia l p ow er is n ot fix ed ; it is co nsta n tly c h alle n ged a n d n eed s to b e m ain ta in ed . W e m ig ht th in k o f th e tr ig gers o f w hite f ra g ility d is c u sse d i n ch ap te r 7 a s c h alle n ges to w hite p ow er an d c o ntr o l, a n d o f w hite fra g ility a s th e m ean s to e n d th e c h alle n ge a n d main ta in t h at p ow er a n d c o ntr o l.

Let m e a ls o b e c le ar t h at t h e t e rm “ w hite f ra g ility ” i s i n te n ded t o d esc rib e a very sp ecif ic w hite p hen om en on. W hite fra g ility is m uch m ore th an m ere defe n siv en ess or w hin in g. It m ay be co ncep tu aliz ed as th e so cio lo gy of dom in ance:

a n o utc o m e o f w hite p eo ple ’s s o cia liz atio n i n to w hite s u pre m acy an d a m ean s to p ro te ct, m ain ta in , a n d r e p ro duce w hite s u pre m acy . T he te rm is not a pplic a ble to o th er g ro ups w ho m ay re g is te r c o m pla in ts o r o th erw is e be d eem ed d if fic u lt ( e .g ., “ stu den t f ra g ility ”).

In m y w ork sh ops, I o fte n a sk p eo ple o f c o lo r, “ H ow o fte n h av e y ou g iv en white p eo ple f e ed back o n o ur u naw are y et in ev ita b le r a cis m ? H ow o fte n h as th at g one w ell fo r y ou?” E ye-ro llin g, h ead -s h ak in g, an d o utr ig ht la u ghte r fo llo w , a lo ng w ith t h e c o nse n su s o f ra re ly , i f e ver.

I t h en a sk , “ W hat w ould i t be lik e if y ou c o uld s im ply g iv e u s fe ed back , h av e u s g ra cio usly re ceiv e it, re fle ct, a n d w ork to c h an ge th e b eh av io r? ” R ecen tly a m an o f c o lo r s ig hed an d s a id , “ It w ould b e r e v olu tio nary .” I a sk m y f e llo w w hite s to c o nsid er th e pro fu ndity o f th at re sp onse . It w ould b e re vo lu tio nary if w e c o uld re ceiv e, re fle ct, an d w ork to ch an ge th e beh av io r. O n th e one han d, th e m an ’s re sp onse p oin ts to h ow d if fic u lt a n d f ra g ile w e a re . B ut o n th e o th er h an d, it in dic ate s h ow s im ple i t c an b e t o t a k e r e sp onsib ility f o r o ur r a cis m . H ow ev er, we a re n ’t l ik ely t o g et t h ere i f w e a re o pera tin g f ro m t h e d om in an t w orld vie w th at o nly i n te n tio nally m ean p eo ple c an p artic ip ate i n r a cis m . CH APT ER 9 WHIT E F R AG IL IT Y I N A CTIO N A b oard p re sid en t h as fin ally o bta in ed a gre em en t fr o m th e s c h ool to s p onso r r a cia l e q uity t r a in in g f o r h is p re d om in ate ly w hite t e a ch in g s ta ff. B ut w hen h e h ea rs th e w ork sh op’s title , h e b acks a w ay, n ot lik in g th at th e te rm w hite is u se d .

W hen I w as a p ro fe sso r o f e d uca tio n, m y u niv ersity w as s itu ate d te n m ile s f r o m a city th at is ro ughly 56 perc en t bla ck and Latin x. O ur stu den t p opula tio n w as 9 7 p erc en t w hite , a nd m any o f th em d id th eir in te rn sh ip s in t h e p ublic s c h ools in th is c ity . M y d ep artm en t h adn’t h ir e d a fa cu lty m em ber o f c o lo r in se ven te en y ea rs. I re p ea te d ly b ro ught th is u p a s a n is su e, b ut s ile n ce r e p ea te d ly fo llo w ed . E ven tu ally , a w hite c o lle a gue c a m e to m y o ffic e a nd a ngrily to ld m e, “ E very tim e y o u b rin g th is u p, y o u a re s a yin g th at w e s h ould n’t h ave o ur j o bs.” A w hite m an w ork s f o r a n I n dia n tr ib e. H e c o nsis te n tly l e ts th e N ativ e p eo ple h e w ork s w ith kn ow h ow “ exh auste d ” h e is fr o m “ se ein g in ju stic e.” H e d oesn ’t k n ow h ow m uch lo nger h e c a n e n dure th e jo b. H is N ativ e c o w ork ers f e el p re ssu re d t o r e p ea te d ly c o nso le h im a nd e n co ura ge h im t o s ta y.

I r e ceiv e a c a ll fr o m a v ir tu ally a ll- w hite o rg aniz a tio n th at is in te re ste d in r a cia l eq uity tr a in in g. They w ant to kn ow how I w ill en su re th at th e p artic ip ants w ill f e el c o m fo rta ble .

I h ave ju st g iv en a k eyn ote ta lk o n w hat it m ea ns to b e w hite in a s o cie ty th at p ro cla im s th at b ein g w hite m ea ns n oth in g, w hile r e m ain in g d eep ly s e p ara te d a nd u neq ual b y ra ce. T he fo cu s o f m y ta lk is o n h ow ra ce sh apes w hite i d en tity a nd th e in evita ble p atte rn s th at re su lt. A w hite w om an w ho w ork s w ith N ativ e A m eric a ns a ppro ach es th e e ven t o rg aniz e r, w ho is a w om an o f co lo r. T he w hite w om an is fu rio us. “ W hat a bout N ativ e A m eric a ns? Y ou le ft out N ativ e A m eric a ns!” S he b era te s th e o rg aniz e r fo r s e vera l m in ute s a t a vo lu m e t h at I c a n h ea r f r o m a cro ss t h e s ta ge. W hen I i n te rv en e, s h e i s c a lm er but s till c h astis e s m e fo r le a vin g o ut N ativ e A m eric a ns— who a re “ th e m ost oppre sse d o f a ll.” A t n o p oin t d oes s h e a ckn ow le d ge a ny a sp ect o f th e ta lk th at r e la te s to h er a s a w hite p erso n, s h are a ny in sig ht s h e m ay h ave g ain ed in to h er o w n w hite n ess, o r c o nsid er th e im pact o f b era tin g a w om an o f c o lo r who d id n’t a ctu ally g iv e t h e t a lk .

As a fo rm er pro fe sso r an d cu rre n t fa cilita to r an d co nsu lta n t, I am in a positio n to g iv e w hite p eo ple fe ed back o n h ow th eir u nin te n tio nal ra cis m is man if e stin g its e lf . In th is p ositio n, I h av e o bse rv ed c o untle ss e n actm en ts o f white f ra g ility . O ne o f th e m ost c o m mon is o utr a g e: “ H ow d are y ou s u ggest th at I co uld hav e sa id or done so m eth in g ra cis t! ” A lth ough th ese are unple asa n t m om en ts fo r m e, th ey a re a ls o ra th er a m usin g. T he re aso n I a m th ere i n t h e f ir s t p la ce i s b ecau se I h av e b een h ir e d s p ecif ic ally t o d o j u st t h at; I h av e b een a sk ed to h elp th e m em bers o f th e o rg an iz atio n u nders ta n d w hy th eir w ork pla ce c o ntin ues to re m ain w hite , w hy th ey a re h av in g so m uch tr o uble re cru itin g p eo ple o f c o lo r, a n d/o r w hy th e p eo ple o f c o lo r th ey h ir e don’t s ta y .

At t h is p oin t i n m y c are er, I r a re ly e n co unte r t h e k in d o f o pen h ostility t h at I w as m et w ith in m y e arly d ay s a s a f a cilita to r. I a ttr ib ute th is c h an ge to th e years o f e x perie n ce b eh in d m y p ed ag ogy. O f c o urs e , I a m a ls o w hite , w hic h mak es o th er w hite p eo ple m uch m ore re cep tiv e to th e m essa g e. I a m o fte n am azed a t w hat I c an s a y to g ro ups o f p rim arily w hite p eo ple . I c an d esc rib e our c u ltu re a s w hite su pre m acis t a n d sa y th in gs lik e “ A ll w hite p eo ple a re in veste d i n a n d c o llu de w ith r a cis m ” w ith out m y f e llo w w hite p eo ple r u nnin g fro m th e ro om o r re elin g fro m tr a u m a. N atu ra lly , I d on’t w alk in a n d le ad with th ose s ta te m en ts ; I s tr a te g ic ally g uid e p eo ple to a s h are d u nders ta n din g of w hat I m ean b y th ose c la im s. M y o w n w hite n ess c o uple d w ith e x perie n ce an d s tr a te g y p uts w hite p eo ple ’s o vera ll re cep tio n o f m e lig ht- y ears b ey ond how I w as r e ceiv ed i n t h e e arly d ay s.

White peo ple are re cep tiv e to m y pre se n ta tio n as lo ng as it re m ain s ab str a ct. T he m om en t I n am e so m e ra cia lly p ro ble m atic d ynam ic o r a ctio n hap pen in g i n t h e r o om in t h e m om en t —fo r e x am ple , “ S haro n, m ay I g iv e y ou so m e fe ed back ? W hile I u nders ta n d it w asn ’t in te n tio nal, y our re sp onse to Ja so n’s sto ry in valid ate s h is ex perie n ce as a b la ck m an ”— white fra g ility eru pts . S haro n d efe n siv ely ex pla in s th at sh e w as m is u nders to od an d th en an grily w ith dra w s, w hile o th ers r u n in to d efe n d h er b y r e -e x pla in in g “ w hat sh e r e ally m ean t.” T he p oin t o f th e f e ed back is n ow lo st, a n d h ours m ust b e sp en t re p air in g th is perc eiv ed bre ach . A nd, of co urs e , no one ap pears co ncern ed a b out J a so n. S hak in g m y h ead , I th in k to m yse lf , “ Y ou a sk ed m e here to h elp y ou s e e y our r a cis m , b ut b y g od, I ’d b ette r n ot a ctu ally h elp y ou se e y our r a cis m .” Thro ughout th is b ook, I h av e atte m pte d to m ak e v is ib le th e in ev ita b le ra cis t a ssu m ptio ns h eld a n d p atte rn s d is p la y ed b y w hite p eo ple c o nditio ned by liv in g in a w hite s u pre m acis t c u ltu re . W hen th ese p atte rn s a re n am ed o r questio ned , w e h av e p re d ic ta b le r e sp onse s. T he r e sp onse s b eg in w ith a s e t o f unex am in ed a ssu m ptio ns, w hic h , w hen q uestio ned , tr ig ger v ario us e m otio ns, whic h a ctiv ate s o m e e x pecte d b eh av io rs . T hese b eh av io rs a re th en ju stif ie d by n um ero us c la im s. T hese re sp onse s, e m otio ns, b eh av io rs , a n d c la im s a re illu str a te d i n t h e f o llo w in g e x am ple o f a r e cen t e ru ptio n o f w hite f ra g ility .

I w as c o -le ad in g a c o m munity w ork sh op. B ecau se a n e m plo yer h ad n ot sp onso re d it, th e p artic ip an ts h ad a ll v olu nta rily s ig ned u p a n d p aid a fe e to atte n d. F or t h is r e aso n, w e c o uld a ssu m e t h at t h ey w ere o pen a n d i n te re ste d i n th e c o nte n t. I w as w ork in g w ith a s m all g ro up o f w hite p artic ip an ts w hen a wom an I w ill re fe r to a s E va s ta te d th at b ecau se s h e g re w u p in G erm an y, where sh e sa id th ere w ere n o b la ck p eo ple , sh e h ad le arn ed n oth in g a b out ra ce a n d h eld n o r a cis m . I p ush ed b ack o n th is c la im b y a sk in g h er to r e fle ct on t h e m essa g es s h e h ad r e ceiv ed f ro m h er c h ild hood a b out p eo ple w ho l iv ed in A fric a. S ure ly s h e w as a w are o f A fric a a n d h ad s o m e im pre ssio ns o f th e peo ple th ere ? H ad s h e e v er w atc h ed A m eric an f ilm s? I f s o , w hat im pre ssio n did s h e g et a b out A fric an A m eric an s? I a ls o a sk ed h er to r e fle ct o n w hat s h e had a b so rb ed fro m liv in g in th e U S fo r th e la st tw en ty -th re e y ears , w heth er sh e h ad a n y r e la tio nsh ip s w ith A fric an A m eric an s h ere , a n d if n ot, th en w hy not.

We m oved o n a n d I fo rg ot a b out th e in te ra ctio n u ntil s h e a p pro ach ed m e afte r th e w ork sh op e n ded . S he w as f u rio us a n d s a id th at s h e h ad b een d eep ly offe n ded b y o ur e x ch an ge a n d d id n ot “ fe el s e en .” “ Y ou m ad e a ssu m ptio ns ab out m e!” s h e s a id . I a p olo giz ed a n d to ld h er th at I w ould n ev er w an t h er to fe el u nse en o r i n valid ate d . H ow ev er, I a ls o h eld t o m y c h alle n ge t h at g ro w in g up in G erm an y w ould n ot p re clu de h er fro m a b so rb in g p ro ble m atic ra cia l messa g es a b out b la ck p eo ple . S he c o unte re d b y te llin g m e th at s h e h ad n ev er ev en se en a b la ck p ers o n “ b efo re th e A m eric an so ld ie rs c am e.” A nd w hen th ey d id c o m e, “ all th e G erm an w om en th ought th em s o b eau tif u l th at th ey wan te d t o c o nnect w ith t h em .” T his w as h er e v id en ce t h at s h e h eld n o r a cis m .

With an in te rn al sig h o f d efe at, I g av e u p at th at p oin t an d re p eate d m y ap olo gy. W e p arte d w ay s, b ut h er a n ger w as u nab ate d .

A f e w m onth s l a te r, o ne o f m y c o fa cilita to rs c o nta cte d E va t o t e ll h er a b out an u pco m in g w ork sh op. E va w as a p pare n tly s till a n gry . S he r e p lie d th at s h e would n ev er a g ain a tte n d a w ork sh op l e d b y m e. N otic e t h at I d id n ot t e ll E va th at sh e w as ra cis t or th at her sto ry w as ra cis t. B ut w hat I did do w as ch alle n ge h er se lf -im ag e as so m eo ne ex em pt fro m ra cis m . P ara d oxic ally , Eva’s a n ger th at I d id n ot ta k e h er c la im s a t fa ce v alu e s u rfa ced w ith in th e co nte x t o f a v olu nte er w ork sh op o n r a cis m , w hic h s h e o ste n sib ly a tte n ded to deep en h er u nders ta n din g o f r a cis m .

Let’ s sta rt w ith th e c o m mon e m otio nal re actio ns th at w hite p eo ple h av e (a n d th at Eva dem onstr a te d ) w hen our assu m ptio ns an d beh av io rs are ch alle n ged .

FE ELIN G S • S in gle d o ut • I n su lte d • A tta ck ed • J u dged • S ile n ced • A ngry • S ham ed • S care d • G uilty • o utr a g ed • A ccu se d When w e h av e th ese fe elin gs, it is c o m mon to b eh av e in th e fo llo w in g way s, a s E va d id :

BEH AVIO RS • C ry in g • D en yin g • P hysic ally l e av in g • F ocu sin g o n in te n tio ns • E m otio nally with dra w in g • S eek in g a b so lu tio n • A rg uin g • A void in g Giv en th at th ese are str o ng em otio ns an d re actio ns, th ey need to be ju stif ie d . W hat c la im s d o w e m ak e to ju stif y th ese fe elin gs a n d b eh av io rs ?

Som e o f th e fo llo w in g cla im s su ggest th at th e cla im an t h as b een fa ls e ly accu se d . O th ers s u ggest t h at t h e c la im an t i s b ey ond t h e d is c u ssio n ( “ I a lr e ad y know a ll th is ” ). B ut a ll o f th em e x em pt th e p ers o n f ro m f u rth er e n gag em en t or a cco unta b ility , a s E va’s c la im s e x em pte d h er.

CLA IM S • I k now p eo ple o f c o lo r.

• T he r e al o ppre ssio n i s cla ss • I m arc h ed i n t h e s ix tie s.

[ o r g en der, o r a n yth in g oth er • I a lr e ad y k now a ll t h is .

t h an r a ce].

• Y ou a re j u dgin g m e.

• Y ou a re e litis t.

• Y ou d on’t k now m e.

• I j u st s a id o ne l ittle in nocen t • Y ou a re g en era liz in g.

t h in g.

• T hat i s j u st y our o pin io n.

• S om e p eo ple f in d • I d is a g re e.

o ffe n se w here t h ere i s none.

• Y ou d on’t d o t h is t h e r ig ht way .

• Y ou m is u nders to od m e.

• Y ou’re p la y in g t h e r a ce card .

• I d on’t f e el s a fe .

• T his i s n ot w elc o m in g t o me.

• T he p ro ble m i s y our to ne.

• Y ou’re b ein g r a cis t ag ain st m e.

• I c an ’t s a y a n yth in g rig ht.

• Y ou a re m ak in g m e f e el guilty .

• T hat w as n ot m y in te n tio n.

• Y ou h urt m y f e elin gs.

• I h av e s u ffe re d t o o.

Sev era l o f th ese c la im s a re a ls o m ad e in a n e m ail I re ceiv ed th ro ugh m y public w eb site ; t h e f o llo w in g c o m men ts a re p artly e x cerp te d a n d s u m mariz ed (c ap s in o rig in al e m ail) . T he w rite r o pen s b y sa y in g th at a cco rd in g to h er asse ssm en t o f m y a g e, I d id n ot l iv e t h ro ugh t h e t h in gs t h at s h e l iv ed t h ro ugh, an d th ere fo re , “ I s e rio usly d oubt th at th ere is o ne s in gle th in g y ou c o uld te ll me a b out r a ce.” S he g oes o n to s ta te h er c re d en tia ls — how s h e liv ed th ro ugh th e m om en to us e v en ts o f th e c iv il r ig hts m ovem en t, s tu die d r a ce a n d g en der in c o lle g e, is fa m ilia r w ith m an y fa m ous b la ck fe m in is t w rite rs a n d b la ck politic ia n s, a n d h as k now n m an y b la ck p eo ple t h ro ughout h er l if e : n eig hbors , cla ssm ate s, a n d c o lle ag ues. F urth er, th e a u th or s u ffe rs f ro m th e s a m e illn ess th at a b la ck frie n d’s sis te r d ie d fro m d ecad es earlie r. T his sh are d illn ess ap pears to b e f u rth er p ro of o f h er a llia n ce w ith b la ck p eo ple . S he u se s th ese ex perie n ces a n d r e la tio nsh ip s a s e v id en ce th at s h e h as b een a b le to s h ed a n y ra cis m s h e m ay h av e h ad : “ A ll t h e t h in gs y ou s a y w hite s ‘ a b so rb ’? I g ot t h em wru ng o ut o f m e th ro ugh m y lif e a n d m y e d ucatio n.” H er n ex t m ove ta k es ra ce o ff th e ta b le a n d r e p la ces it w ith a n o ppre ssio n s h e e x perie n ces, s e x is m :

“N o, I don’t w an t to ta lk ab out ra ce an y m ore . I w an t to ta lk ab out GEN DER .” S he e n ds b y c lo sin g d ow n a n y fu rth er e n gag em en t, s a y in g th at sh e l ik ely w ould n’t r e ad a n y e m ail I w ould s e n d h er.

I a m c o nfid en t th at s o m e o f th e f e elin gs, b eh av io rs , a n d c la im s illu str a te d in th is e m ail m essa g e w ill b e f a m ilia r to w hite r e ad ers ; w e h av e e ith er m ad e so m e v ers io n o f th em o urs e lv es o r h av e h eard o th ers m ak e th em . Y et a s w ith so m an y a sp ects o f r a cis m , w e r a re ly e x am in e o r c o nsid er th em p ro ble m atic .

So le t’ s g o u nder th e su rfa ce a n d e x am in e th e fra m ew ork o f a ssu m ptio ns man y o f t h ese c la im s r e st o n.

ASSU M PT IO NS • R acis m i s s im ply p ers o nal p re ju dic e.

• I a m f re e o f r a cis m .

• I w ill b e t h e j u dge o f w heth er r a cis m h as o ccu rre d .

• M y l e arn in g i s f in is h ed ; I k now a ll I n eed t o k now .

• R acis m c an o nly b e i n te n tio nal; m y n ot h av in g i n te n ded r a cis m c an cels o ut th e i m pact o f m y b eh av io r.

• M y s u ffe rin g r e lie v es m e o f r a cis m o r r a cia l p riv ile g e.

• W hite p eo ple w ho e x perie n ce a n oth er f o rm o f o ppre ssio n c an not ex perie n ce r a cia l p riv ile g e.

• I f I a m a g ood p ers o n, I c an ’t b e r a cis t.

• I a m e n title d t o r e m ain c o m fo rta b le /h av e t h is c o nvers a tio n t h e w ay I w an t to .

• H ow I a m p erc eiv ed b y o th ers i s t h e m ost i m porta n t i s su e.

• A s a w hite p ers o n, I k now t h e b est w ay t o c h alle n ge r a cis m .

• I f I a m f e elin g c h alle n ged , y ou a re d oin g t h is w ro ng.

• I t’ s u nkin d t o p oin t o ut r a cis m .

• R acis m i s c o nsc io us b ia s. I h av e n one, s o I a m n ot r a cis t. • R acis ts a re b ad i n div id uals , s o y ou a re s a y in g t h at I a m a b ad p ers o n.

• I f y ou k new m e o r u nders to od m e, y ou w ould k now I c an ’t b e r a cis t.

• I h av e f rie n ds o f c o lo r, s o I c an ’t b e r a cis t.

• T here i s n o p ro ble m ; s o cie ty i s f in e t h e w ay i t i s .

• R acis m i s a s im ple p ro ble m . P eo ple j u st n eed t o . . .

• M y w orld vie w i s o bje ctiv e a n d t h e o nly o ne o pera tin g.

• I f I c an ’t s e e i t, i t i s n ’t l e g itim ate .

• I f y ou h av e m ore k now le d ge o n t h e s u bje ct t h an I d o, y ou t h in k y ou’re bette r t h an m e.

Now th at w e h av e id en tif ie d th e u nderly in g assu m ptio ns th at en gen der th ese f e elin gs, b eh av io rs , a n d c la im s, l e t’ s c o nsid er h ow t h ey f u nctio n.

FU NCTIO NS O F W HIT E F R AG IL IT Y • M ain ta in w hite s o lid arity • C lo se o ff s e lf -re fle ctio n • T riv ia liz e t h e r e ality o f r a cis m • S ile n ce t h e d is c u ssio n • M ak e w hite p eo ple t h e v ic tim s • H ija ck t h e c o nvers a tio n • P ro te ct a l im ite d w orld vie w • T ak e r a ce o ff t h e t a b le • P ro te ct w hite p riv ile g e • F ocu s o n t h e m esse n ger, n ot t h e m essa g e • R ally m ore r e so urc es t o w hite p eo ple These b eh av io rs an d th e assu m ptio ns u nderg ir d in g th em d o n ot in fa ct pre se n t th e cla im an t as ra cia lly o pen ; q uite th e o pposite . T hey b lo ck an y en tr y p oin t fo r re fle ctio n a n d e n gag em en t. F urth er, th ey b lo ck th e a b ility to re p air a ra cia l b re ach . T hey fa n ra cia l d iv is io ns a s th ey s e eth e w ith h ostility an d r e se n tm en t. I n s u m mary , th e p re v ailin g w hite r a cia l a ssu m ptio ns a n d th e beh av io rs t h ey e n gen der p ro te ct r a cis m . CH APT ER 1 0 WHIT E F R AG IL IT Y A ND T H E R ULES O F EN G AG EM EN T G iv en th e d om in an t c o ncep tu aliz atio n o f r a cis m a s in div id ual a cts o f c ru elty , i t f o llo w s t h at o nly t e rrib le p eo ple w ho c o nsc io usly d on’t l ik e p eo ple o f c o lo r c an en act ra cis m . T hough th is co ncep tu aliz atio n is m is in fo rm ed , it is n ot b en ig n. I n f a ct, i t f u nctio ns b eau tif u lly t o m ak e i t n early i m possib le t o e n gag e i n th e n ecessa ry d ia lo gue a n d s e lf -re fle ctio n th at c an le ad to c h an ge. O utr a g e a t th e s u ggestio n o f ra cis m is o fte n fo llo w ed b y rig hte o us in dig natio n a b out t h e m an ner i n w hic h t h e f e ed back w as g iv en . A fte r y ears o f w ork in g w ith m y f e llo w w hite s, I h av e d is c o vere d (a s, I a m su re , h av e c o untle ss p eo ple o f c o lo r) a s e t o f u nsp oken r u le s f o r h ow to g iv e w hite p eo ple f e ed back o n o ur i n ev ita b le an d ofte n unco nsc io us ra cis t assu m ptio ns an d patte rn s. I hav e f o und th at th e o nly w ay to g iv e f e ed back w ith out tr ig gerin g w hite f ra g ility is n ot t o g iv e i t a t a ll. T hus, t h e f ir s t r u le i s c ard in al:

1 . D o n ot g iv e m e f e ed back o n m y r a cis m u nder a n y c ir c u m sta n ces.

If y ou in sis t o n b re ak in g th e c ard in al ru le , th en y ou m ust fo llo w th ese o th er r u le s:

2 . P ro per t o ne i s c ru cia l— fe ed back m ust b e g iv en c alm ly . I f a n y e m otio n i s dis p la y ed , t h e f e ed back i s i n valid a n d c an b e d is m is se d .

3. T here m ust b e t r u st b etw een u s. Y ou m ust t r u st t h at I a m i n n o w ay r a cis t befo re y ou c an g iv e m e f e ed back o n m y r a cis m .

4 . O ur r e la tio nsh ip m ust b e i s su e-fre e— if t h ere a re i s su es b etw een u s, y ou can not g iv e m e f e ed back o n r a cis m u ntil t h ese u nre la te d i s su es a re re so lv ed .

5 . F eed back m ust b e g iv en i m med ia te ly . I f y ou w ait t o o l o ng, t h e f e ed back will b e d is c o unte d b ecau se i t w as n ot g iv en s o oner.

6 . Y ou m ust g iv e f e ed back p riv ate ly , r e g ard le ss o f w heth er t h e i n cid en t occu rre d i n f ro nt o f o th er p eo ple . T o g iv e f e ed back i n f ro nt o f a n y o th ers who w ere i n volv ed i n t h e s itu atio n i s t o c o m mit a s e rio us s o cia l tr a n sg re ssio n. I f y ou c an not p ro te ct m e f ro m e m barra ssm en t, t h e f e ed back is i n valid , a n d y ou a re t h e t r a n sg re sso r.

7 . Y ou m ust b e a s i n dir e ct a s p ossib le . D ir e ctn ess i s i n se n sitiv e a n d w ill in valid ate t h e f e ed back a n d r e q uir e r e p air .

8 . A s a w hite p ers o n, I m ust f e el c o m ple te ly s a fe d urin g a n y d is c u ssio n o f ra ce. S uggestin g t h at I h av e r a cis t a ssu m ptio ns o r p atte rn s w ill c au se m e to f e el u nsa fe , s o y ou w ill n eed t o r e b uild m y t r u st b y n ev er g iv in g m e fe ed back a g ain . P oin t o f c la rif ic atio n: w hen I s a y “ sa fe ,” w hat I r e ally mean i s “ co m fo rta b le .” 9 . H ig hlig htin g m y r a cia l p riv ile g e i n valid ate s t h e f o rm o f o ppre ssio n t h at I ex perie n ce ( e .g ., c la ssis m , s e x is m , h ete ro se x is m , a g eis m , a b le is m , tr a n sp hobia ). W e w ill t h en n eed t o t u rn o ur a tte n tio n t o h ow yo u oppre sse d me.

10. Y ou m ust a ck now le d ge m y i n te n tio ns ( a lw ay s g ood) a n d a g re e t h at m y good i n te n tio ns c an cel o ut t h e i m pact o f m y b eh av io r.

11. T o s u ggest m y b eh av io r h ad a r a cis t i m pact i s t o h av e m is u nders to od m e.

You w ill n eed t o a llo w m e t o e x pla in m yse lf u ntil y ou c an a ck now le d ge th at i t w as yo ur m is u nders ta n din g.

The c o ntr a d ic tio ns in th ese r u le s a re ir re le v an t; th eir f u nctio n is to o bsc u re ra cis m , p ro te ct w hite d om in an ce, a n d r e g ain w hite e q uilib riu m . A nd th ey d o so v ery effe ctiv ely . Y et fro m an u nders ta n din g o f ra cis m as a sy ste m o f uneq ual i n stitu tio nal p ow er, w e n eed t o a sk o urs e lv es w here t h ese r u le s c o m e fro m a n d w hom t h ey s e rv e.

Man y of us activ ely work in g to in te rru pt ra cis m co ntin ually hear co m pla in ts a b out t h e “ g otc h a” c u ltu re o f w hite a n tir a cis m . W e a re s o m etim es dep ic te d a s l o okin g f o r e v ery i n cid en t w e c an f in d s o w e c an s p rin g o ut, p oin t our f in gers , a n d s h out, “ Y ou’re a r a cis t! ” W hile c erta in ly s o m e w hite p eo ple arro gan tly s e t t h em se lv es a p art f ro m o th er w hite s b y a ctin g i n t h is w ay , i n m y ex perie n ce, th is is n ot th e n orm . It is fa r m ore c o m mon fo r sin cere w hite peo ple to a g oniz e o ver w hen a n d h ow to g iv e fe ed back to a fe llo w w hite pers o n, g iv en th e u biq uity o f w hite fra g ility . W hite fra g ility p unis h es th e pers o n g iv in g f e ed back a n d p re sse s th em b ack in to s ile n ce. I t a ls o m ain ta in s white s o lid arity — th e ta cit a g re em en t th at w e w ill p ro te ct w hite p riv ile g e a n d not h old e ach o th er a cco unta b le fo r o ur ra cis m . W hen th e in div id ual g iv in g th e fe ed back is a p ers o n o f c o lo r, th e c h arg e is “ p la y in g th e ra ce c ard ,” a n d th e c o nse q uen ces o f w hite f ra g ility a re m uch m ore p en aliz in g.

Racis m i s t h e n orm r a th er t h an a n a b erra tio n. F eed back i s k ey t o o ur a b ility to re co gniz e an d re p air our in ev ita b le an d ofte n unaw are co llu sio n. In re co gnitio n o f t h is , I t r y t o f o llo w t h ese g uid elin es:

1. H ow , w here , a n d w hen y ou g iv e m e f e ed back i s i r re le v an t— it i s t h e fe ed back I w an t a n d n eed . U nders ta n din g t h at i t i s h ard t o g iv e, I w ill t a k e it a n y w ay I c an g et i t. F ro m m y p ositio n o f s o cia l, c u ltu ra l, a n d in stitu tio nal w hite p ow er a n d p riv ile g e, I a m p erfe ctly s a fe a n d I c an han dle i t. I f I c an not h an dle i t, it’ s o n m e t o b uild m y r a cia l s ta m in a.

2. T han k y ou.

The a b ove g uid elin es r e st o n t h e u nders ta n din g t h at t h ere i s n o f a ce t o s a v e an d th e gam e is up; I know th at I hav e blin d sp ots an d unco nsc io us in vestm en ts in ra cis m . M y in vestm en ts are re in fo rc ed ev ery day in main str e am s o cie ty . I d id n ot s e t th is s y ste m u p, b ut it d oes u nfa ir ly b en efit me, I d o u se it to m y a d van ta g e, a n d I a m re sp onsib le fo r in te rru ptin g it. I need to w ork h ard to c h an ge m y ro le in th is s y ste m , b ut I c an ’t d o it a lo ne.

This u nders ta n din g l e ad s m e t o g ra titu de w hen o th ers h elp m e.

White fra g ility is als o ev id en ced in th e need fo r so m an y w hite pro gre ssiv es to “ b uild tr u st” b efo re th ey c an e x plo re ra cis m in w ork sh ops, su pport g ro ups, an d o th er ed ucatio nal fo ru m s. M an y w ho are in volv ed in ra cia l ju stic e e d ucatio n w ill re co gniz e th is w hite c all fo r ra cia l tr u st, w hic h su rfa ces in a v arie ty o f w ay s: f a cilita to rs d ev otin g tim e to e x erc is e s in te n ded to b uild tr u st, c re atin g g ro und ru le s a n d g uid elin es to e n gen der tr u st, a n d partic ip an t ju stif ic atio ns f o r n on-e n gag em en t ( e .g ., “ I a m n ot g oin g to s h are , becau se I d on’t fe el tr u st h ere .” ). I h av e a sk ed m an y c o lle ag ues ju st e x actly what m y fe llo w w hite p eo ple m ean b y th e c all fo r tr u st. I a m c o nfid en t th e need f o r tr u st d oes n ot r e la te to h av in g y our w alle t s to le n o r b ein g p hysic ally assa u lte d , a lth ough a t a s u bco nsc io us le v el, th at v ery w ell m ay b e w hat is a t pla y w hen th e g ro up is ra cia lly m ix ed , g iv en th e p ow er o f im plic it b ia s a n d th e re le n tle ss ra cis t c o nditio nin g w hite s re ceiv e. S till, I b elie v e th at w hat it co m es d ow n t o i s t h is : I n eed t o t r u st t h at y ou w on’t t h in k I a m r a cis t b efo re I can w ork o n m y r a cis m .

Consid er th e fo llo w in g c o m mon g uid elin es th at h av e “ b uild in g tr u st” a t th eir b ase :

• Don’t j u dge:

R efra in in g f ro m j u dgm en t i s n ot h um an ly p ossib le , s o t h is guid elin e c an not b e a ch ie v ed o r e n fo rc ed a n d i s f u nctio nally m ean in gle ss.

• Don’t m ake a ssu m ptio ns:

T he n atu re o f a n a ssu m ptio n i s t h at y ou d on’t know y ou a re m ak in g i t, s o t h is g uid elin e c an not b e a ch ie v ed o r e n fo rc ed an d i s f u nctio nally m ean in gle ss.

• Assu m e g ood i n te n tio ns:

B y e m phasiz in g i n te n tio ns o ver i m pact, t h is guid elin e p riv ile g es t h e i n te n tio ns o f t h e a g gre sso r o ver t h e i m pact o f t h eir beh av io r o n t h e t a rg et. I n s o d oin g, t h e a g gre sso r’s i n te n tio ns b eco m e t h e most i m porta n t i s su e. I n e sse n ce, t h is g uid elin e t e lls v ic tim s t h at a s l o ng a s th ere w as n o i n te n tio n t o c au se h arm , t h ey n eed t o l e t g o o f t h e h urt a n d move o n. I n s o doin g, t h is g uid elin e u phold s w hite r a cia l i n nocen ce w hile min im iz in g t h e i m pact o f r a cis m o n p eo ple o f c o lo r.

• Spea k y o ur t r u th : T he a d m onitio n t o s p eak t h e t r u th s e em s t o b e a n unnecessa ry g uid elin e. I h av e n ot s e en a p atte rn o f l y in g i n t h ese g ro ups.

Hav e I s e en d efe n siv en ess, d is ta n cin g b eh av io r, s ile n ce, a v oid an ce o f ta k in g r is k s? Y es. B ut h av e I o bse rv ed p eo ple n ot s p eak in g t h eir t r u th ? N o.

More i m porta n tly , w hat i f y our t r u th i s t h at y ou a re c o lo r b lin d? B ecau se n o one c an a ctu ally b e c o lo r b lin d i n a r a cis t s o cie ty , t h e c la im t h at y ou a re co lo r b lin d i s n ot a t r u th ; i t i s a f a ls e b elie f. Y et t h is g uid elin e c an p ositio n all b elie fs a s t r u th s a n d, a s s u ch , e q ually v alid . G iv en t h at t h e g oal o f an tir a cis t w ork i s t o i d en tif y a n d c h alle n ge r a cis m a n d th e m is in fo rm atio n th at s u pports i t, a ll p ers p ectiv es a re not e q ually v alid ; s o m e a re r o ote d i n ra cis t i d eo lo gy a n d n eed t o b e u nco vere d a n d c h alle n ged . W e m ust dis tin guis h b etw een s h arin g y our b elie fs s o t h at w e c an i d en tif y h ow t h ey may b e u phold in g r a cis m a n d s ta tin g y our b elie fs a s “ tr u th s” t h at c an not b e ch alle n ged .

• Resp ect:

T he p ro ble m w ith t h is g uid elin e i s t h at r e sp ect i s r a re ly d efin ed , an d w hat f e els r e sp ectf u l t o w hite p eo ple c an b e e x actly w hat d oes n ot cre ate a r e sp ectf u l e n vir o nm en t f o r p eo ple o f c o lo r. F or e x am ple , w hite peo ple o fte n d efin e a s r e sp ectf u l a n e n vir o nm en t w ith n o c o nflic t, n o ex pre ssio n o f s tr o ng e m otio n, n o c h alle n gin g o f r a cis t p atte rn s, a n d a f o cu s on i n te n tio ns o ver i m pact. B ut s u ch a n a tm osp here i s e x actly w hat c re ate s an i n au th en tic , w hite -n orm -c en te re d , a n d t h us h ostile e n vir o nm en t f o r peo ple o f c o lo r.

The u nex am in ed a ssu m ptio n u nderly in g th ese g uid elin es is th at th ey c an be u niv ers a lly a p plie d . B ut b ecau se th ey d o n ot a cco unt fo r u neq ual p ow er re la tio ns, t h ey d o n ot f u nctio n t h e s a m e w ay a cro ss r a ce. T hese g uid elin es a re prim arily d riv en b y w hite fra g ility , a n d th ey a re a cco m modatio ns m ad e to co ddle w hite f ra g ility . T he v ery c o nditio ns t h at m ost w hite p eo p le i n sis t o n t o re m ain co m fo rta b le are th ose th at su pport th e ra cia l sta tu s quo (w hite cen tr a lity , d om in an ce, an d p ro fe sse d in nocen ce). F or p eo ple o f co lo r, th e ra cia l s ta tu s q uo is h ostile a n d n eed s to b e in te rru pte d , n ot re in fo rc ed . T he esse n tia l m essa g e o f t r u st i s be n ic e.

A nd a cco rd in g t o d om in an t w hite n orm s, th e s u ggestio n t h at s o m eo ne i s r a cis t i s n ot “ n ic e.” Guid elin es s u ch a s th ose a b ove c an a ls o b e tu rn ed a g ain st p eo ple o f c o lo r.

“If y ou c h alle n ge m y ra cia l p atte rn s, th en y ou a re a ssu m in g th at w hat I d id was ro ote d in ra cis m , a n d y ou s h ould n’t m ak e a ssu m ptio ns.” O r, “ Y ou a re den yin g m y tr u th th at r a ce h as n oth in g to d o w ith m y a ctio ns.” N ow yo u a re th e t r a n sg re sso r. T hese c o nditio ns r e p ro duce t h e w eig ht o f r a cis m t h at p eo ple of c o lo r m ust c o nsta n tly c arry : p uttin g a sid e th eir o w n n eed s to fo cu s o n white n eed s. A n a n tid ote to w hite f ra g ility is to b uild u p o ur s ta m in a to b ear witn ess to th e p ain o f ra cis m th at w e c au se , n ot to im pose c o nditio ns th at re q uir e p eo ple o f c o lo r t o c o ntin ually v alid ate o ur d en ia l.

Of co urs e , w e w ould id eally guid e each oth er in th is w ork w ith co m passio n; i t i s m uch e asie r t o l o ok a t s o m eth in g u nw an te d w ith in o urs e lv es if w e d on’t f e el ju dged o r c ritic iz ed . B ut w hat if s o m eo ne d oes lite ra lly p oin t a f in ger a n d b old ly s a y , “ Y ou a re r a cis t! ” ? ( T his a ccu sa tio n is a d eep f e ar o f pro gre ssiv e w hite s.) I t i s s till o n m e t o i d en tif y m y r a cis t p atte rn s a n d w ork t o ch an ge t h em . I f t h e p oin t b ein g m ad e i s a im ed a t t h at g oal, t h en r e g ard le ss o f how c are fu lly o r in dir e ctly it is b ein g m ad e, I n eed to fo cu s o n th e o vera ll poin t. T he m eth od o f d eliv ery c an not b e u se d to d ele g itim iz e w hat is b ein g illu m in ate d o r a s a n e x cu se f o r d is e n gag em en t.

To le t g o o f th e m esse n ger a n d f o cu s o n th e m essa g e is a n a d van ced s k ill an d is e sp ecia lly d if fic u lt to p ra ctic e if so m eo ne c o m es a t u s w ith a se lf - rig hte o us to ne. If k in dness g ets u s th ere fa ste r, I a m a ll fo r it. B ut I d o n ot re q uir e a n yth in g f ro m s o m eo ne g iv in g m e f e ed back b efo re I c an e n gag e w ith th at fe ed back . P art o f m y p ro cessin g o f th at fe ed back w ill b e to s e p ara te it fro m its d eliv ery a n d a sc erta in th e c en tr a l p oin t a n d its c o ntr ib utio n to m y gro w th . M an y o f u s are n ot th ere y et, b ut th is is w hat w e n eed to w ork to w ard . I hav e been in m an y w hite ra cia l ju stic e gro ups w here in th e partic ip an ts ex pen ded m uch en erg y m ak in g su re peo ple w ere kin d an d co m passio nate to e ach o th er a n d d id n’t “ b re ak tr u st.” S o m uch e n erg y, in fa ct, th at w e c o uld n o lo nger h elp e ach o th er se e o ur p ro ble m atic p atte rn s with out b re ak in g t h e n orm s o f t h e g ro up. S o u nle ss t h at k in dness i s c o m bin ed with c la rity a n d th e c o ura g e to n am e a n d c h alle n ge ra cis m , th is a p pro ach pro te cts w hite f ra g ility a n d n eed s t o b e c h alle n ged .

As I hav e tr ie d to sh ow th ro ughout th is book, w hite peo ple ra is e d in Weste rn s o cie ty a re c o nditio ned in to a w hite s u pre m acis t w orld vie w b ecau se it is th e b ed ro ck o f o ur s o cie ty a n d its in stitu tio ns. R eg ard le ss o f w heth er a pare n t to ld y ou th at e v ery one w as e q ual, o r th e p oste r in th e h all o f y our white s u burb an s c h ool p ro cla im ed t h e v alu e o f d iv ers ity , o r y ou h av e t r a v ele d ab ro ad , or you hav e peo ple of co lo r in your w ork pla ce or fa m ily , th e ubiq uito us so cia liz in g p ow er o f w hite su pre m acy can not b e av oid ed . T he messa g es cir c u la te 2 4-7 an d h av e little o r n oth in g to d o w ith in te n tio ns, aw are n ess, o r a g re em en t. E nte rin g t h e c o nvers a tio n w ith t h is u nders ta n din g i s fre ein g b ecau se it a llo w s u s to fo cu s o n how —ra th er th an if —our ra cis m is man if e st. W hen w e m ove b ey ond th e g ood/b ad b in ary , w e c an b eco m e e ag er to id en tif y o ur ra cis t p atte rn s b ecau se in te rru ptin g th ose p atte rn s b eco m es more i m porta n t t h an m an ag in g h ow w e t h in k w e l o ok t o o th ers .

I r e p eat: s to ppin g o ur r a cis t p atte rn s m ust b e m ore im porta n t th an w ork in g to c o nvin ce o th ers th at w e d on’t h av e th em . W e d o h av e th em , a n d p eo ple o f co lo r a lr e ad y k now w e h av e th em ; o ur e ffo rts to p ro ve o th erw is e a re n ot co nvin cin g. A n h onest a cco untin g o f th ese p atte rn s is n o s m all ta sk g iv en th e pow er o f w hite f ra g ility a n d w hite s o lid arity , b ut i t i s n ecessa ry . CH APT ER 1 1 WHIT E W OM EN ’S T EA RS But y o u a re m y s is te r, a nd I s h are y o ur p ain !

T he t e rm white t e a rs r e fe rs to a ll th e w ay s, b oth lite ra lly a n d m eta p horic ally , t h at w hite f ra g ility m an if e sts its e lf th ro ugh w hite p eo ple ’s la m en ts o ver h ow h ard r a cis m i s o n us.

I n m y w ork , I c o nsis te n tly e n co unte r th ese te ars in th eir v ario us fo rm s, a n d m an y w rite rs h av e a lr e ad y p ro vid ed e x celle n t c ritiq ues.

1 H ere , I w an t to a d dre ss o ne m an if e sta tio n o f w hite te ars : th ose s h ed b y w hite w om en in c ro ss-ra cia l se ttin gs. T he fo llo w in g e x am ple illu str a te s b oth th e f ru str a tio n t h at p eo ple o f c o lo r f e el w ith t h ose t e ars a n d w hite w om en ’s s e n se o f e n title m en t t o f re ely s h ed t h em .

When an oth er p olic e sh ootin g o f an u narm ed b la ck m an o ccu rre d , m y w ork pla ce c alle d fo r a n in fo rm al lu nch g ath erin g o f p eo ple w ho w an te d to c o nnect a n d f in d s u pport. J u st b efo re th e g ath erin g, a w om an o f c o lo r p ulle d m e a sid e a n d to ld m e th at s h e w an te d to a tte n d b ut s h e w as “ in n o m ood f o r w hite w om en ’s te ars to day .” I a ssu re d h er th at I w ould h an dle it. A s th e m eetin g s ta rte d , I to ld m y f e llo w w hite p artic ip an ts th at if th ey f e lt m oved to t e ars , th ey s h ould p le ase le av e th e ro om . I w ould g o w ith th em fo r s u pport, b ut I a sk ed th at th ey n ot c ry in th e m ix ed g ro up. A fte r th e d is c u ssio n, I s p en t t h e n ex t h our e x pla in in g to a v ery o utr a g ed w hite w om an w hy s h e w as a sk ed n ot t o c ry i n t h e p re se n ce o f t h e p eo ple o f c o lo r.

I u nders ta n d th at ex pre ssin g o ur h eartf e lt em otio ns— esp ecia lly as th ey r e la te to ra cia l in ju stic es— is a n im porta n t p ro gre ssiv e v alu e. T o re p re ss o ur f e elin gs se em s co unte rin tu itiv e to bein g pre se n t, co m passio nate , an d s u pportiv e. S o w hy w ould m y c o lle ag ue o f c o lo r m ak e su ch a re q uest? In s h ort, w hite w om en ’s te ars h av e a p ow erfu l im pact in th is s e ttin g, e ffe ctiv ely re in sc rib in g r a th er t h an a m elio ra tin g r a cis m .

Man y o f u s s e e e m otio ns a s n atu ra lly o ccu rrin g. B ut e m otio ns a re p olitic al in t w o k ey w ay s. F ir s t, o ur e m otio ns a re s h ap ed b y o ur b ia se s a n d b elie fs , o ur cu ltu ra l fra m ew ork s. For ex am ple , if I belie v e— co nsc io usly or unco nsc io usly — th at i t i s n orm al a n d a p pro pria te f o r m en t o e x pre ss a n ger b ut not w om en , I w ill h av e v ery d if fe re n t em otio nal re sp onse s to m en ’s an d wom en ’s e x pre ssio ns o f a n ger. I m ig ht se e a m an w ho e x pre sse s a n ger a s co m pete n t a n d in c h arg e a n d m ay f e el r e sp ect f o r h im , w hile I s e e a w om an who e x pre sse s a n ger a s c h ild is h a n d o ut o f c o ntr o l a n d m ay f e el c o nte m pt f o r her. I f I b elie v e th at o nly b ad p eo ple a re r a cis t, I w ill f e el h urt, o ffe n ded , a n d sh am ed w hen an u naw are ra cis t assu m ptio n o f m in e is p oin te d o ut. If I in ste ad b elie v e th at h av in g ra cis t a ssu m ptio ns is in ev ita b le (b ut p ossib le to ch an ge), I w ill fe el g ra titu de w hen a n u naw are ra cis t a ssu m ptio n is p oin te d out; now I am aw are of an d can ch an ge th at assu m ptio n. In th is w ay , em otio ns a re n ot n atu ra l; th ey a re th e r e su lt o f th e f ra m ew ork s w e a re u sin g to m ak e s e n se o f s o cia l r e la tio ns. A nd o f c o urs e , s o cia l r e la tio ns a re p olitic al.

Our em otio ns are als o politic al becau se th ey are ofte n ex te rn aliz ed ; our em otio ns d riv e b eh av io rs t h at i m pact o th er p eo ple .

White w om en ’s te ars in cro ss-ra cia l in te ra ctio ns are pro ble m atic fo r se v era l r e aso ns c o nnecte d to h ow th ey im pact o th ers . F or e x am ple , th ere is a lo ng h is to ric al b ack dro p o f b la ck m en b ein g to rtu re d a n d m urd ere d b ecau se of a w hite w om an ’s d is tr e ss, a n d w e w hite w om en b rin g th ese h is to rie s w ith us. O ur te ars tr ig ger th e te rro ris m o f th is h is to ry , p artic u la rly fo r A fric an Am eric an s. A c o gen t a n d d ev asta tin g e x am ple is E m mett T ill, a fo urte en - year-o ld b oy w ho r e p orte d ly f lir te d w ith a w hite w om an — Caro ly n B ry an t— in a g ro cery s to re in M is sis sip pi in 1 955. S he r e p orte d th is a lle g ed f lir ta tio n to h er h usb an d, R oy B ry an t, a n d a f e w d ay s l a te r, R oy a n d h is h alf -b ro th er, J .

W. M ila m , ly nch ed T ill, a b ductin g h im fro m h is g re at- u ncle ’s h om e. T hey beat h im t o d eath , m utila te d h is b ody, a n d s a n k h im i n t h e T alla h atc h ie R iv er.

An a ll- w hite j u ry a cq uitte d t h e m en , w ho l a te r a d m itte d t o t h e m urd er. O n h er death bed , in 2 017, C aro ly n B ry an t re can te d th is s to ry a n d a d m itte d th at s h e had lie d . T he m urd er o f E m mett T ill is ju st o ne e x am ple o f th e h is to ry th at in fo rm s an oft- re p eate d w arn in g fro m m y A fric an A m eric an co lle ag ues:

“W hen a w hite w om an c rie s, a b la ck m an g ets h urt.” N ot k now in g o r b ein g se n sitiv e to th is h is to ry is a n oth er e x am ple o f w hite c en tr a lity , in div id ualis m , an d l a ck o f r a cia l h um ility .

Becau se o f its s e em in g in nocen ce, w ell- m ean in g w hite w om en c ry in g in cro ss-ra cia l in te ra ctio ns is o ne o f th e m ore p ern ic io us e n actm en ts o f w hite fra g ility . T he re aso ns w e cry in th ese in te ra ctio ns v ary . P erh ap s w e w ere giv en f e ed back o n o ur r a cis m . N ot u nders ta n din g th at u naw are w hite r a cis m is in ev ita b le , w e h ear th e f e ed back a s a m ora l ju dgm en t, a n d o ur f e elin gs a re hurt. A c la ssic e x am ple o ccu rre d in a w ork sh op I w as c o -le ad in g. A b la ck man w ho w as s tr u gglin g to e x pre ss a p oin t r e fe rre d to h im se lf a s s tu pid . M y co -fa cilita to r, a b la ck w om an , g en tly c o unte re d t h at h e w as n ot s tu pid b ut t h at so cie ty w ould h av e h im b elie v e t h at h e w as. A s s h e w as e x pla in in g t h e p ow er of in te rn aliz ed r a cis m , a w hite w om an in te rru pte d w ith , “ W hat h e w as tr y in g to s a y w as . . . ” W hen m y c o -fa cilita to r p oin te d o ut th at th e w hite w om an had r e in fo rc ed th e r a cis t id ea th at s h e c o uld b est s p eak f o r a b la ck m an , th e wom an e ru pte d in te ars . T he tr a in in g c am e to a c o m ple te h alt a s m ost o f th e ro om ru sh ed to co m fo rt her an d an grily accu se th e bla ck fa cilita to r of unfa ir n ess. (E ven th ough th e p artic ip an ts w ere th ere to le arn h ow ra cis m work s, h ow d are th e f a cilita to r p oin t o ut a n e x am ple o f h ow r a cis m w ork s!) Mean w hile , th e b la ck m an s h e h ad s p oken fo r w as le ft a lo ne to w atc h h er re ceiv e c o m fo rt.

A c o lle ag ue o f c o lo r s h are d a n e x am ple in w hic h a w hite w om an — new to a ra cia l ju stic e org an iz atio n— was offe re d a fu ll- tim e positio n as th e su perv is o r o f th e w om en o f c o lo r w ho h ad w ork ed th ere fo r y ears a n d h ad tr a in ed h er. W hen th e p ro m otio n w as a n nounced , th e w hite w om an te arfu lly re q ueste d su pport fro m th e w om en o f c o lo r a s sh e e m bark ed o n h er n ew le arn in g c u rv e. T he n ew s u perv is o r p ro bab ly sa w h er te ars a s a n e x pre ssio n of h um ility a b out th e lim its o f h er r a cia l k now le d ge a n d e x pecte d s u pport to fo llo w . T he w om en o f c o lo r h ad to d eal w ith th e in ju stic e o f th e p ro m otio n, th e i n valid atio n o f t h eir a b ilitie s, a n d t h e l a ck o f r a cia l a w are n ess o f t h e w hite pers o n n ow in c h arg e o f th eir liv elih oods. W hile tr y in g to m an ag e th eir o w n em otio nal re actio ns, th ey w ere p ut o n th e s p ot; if th ey d id n ot m ak e s o m e co m fo rtin g g estu re , t h ey r is k ed b ein g v ie w ed a s a n gry a n d i n se n sitiv e.

Wheth er in te n ded o r n ot, w hen a w hite w om an c rie s o ver s o m e a sp ect o f ra cis m , a ll th e a tte n tio n im med ia te ly g oes to h er, d em an din g tim e, e n erg y, an d a tte n tio n fro m e v ery one in th e ro om w hen th ey sh ould b e fo cu se d o n am elio ra tin g r a cis m . W hile s h e is g iv en a tte n tio n, th e p eo ple o f c o lo r a re y et ag ain a b an doned a n d/o r b la m ed . A s S ta cey P atto n, a n a ssis ta n t p ro fe sso r o f multim ed ia jo urn alis m at M org an Sta te U niv ers ity ’s Sch ool of G lo bal Jo urn alis m an d C om munic atio n, sta te s in her critiq ue of w hite w om en ’s te ars , “th en co m es th e w aitin g fo r u s to co m fo rt an d re assu re th em th at th ey ’re n ot b ad p eo ple .” 2 A ntir a cis m s tr a te g is t a n d fa cilita to r R eag en P ric e para p hra se s a n a n alo gy b ase d o n th e w ork o f c ritic al ra ce s c h ola r K im berlé Cre n sh aw . P ric e s a y s, “ Im ag in e fir s t re sp onders a t th e s c en e o f a n a ccid en t ru sh in g to co m fo rt th e pers o n w hose car str u ck a ped estr ia n , w hile th e ped estr ia n lie s ble ed in g on th e str e et.” In a co m mon but partic u la rly su bvers iv e m ove, ra cis m b eco m es a b out w hite d is tr e ss, w hite s u ffe rin g, a n d white v ic tim iz atio n.

White m en , o f c o urs e , a re a ls o ra cia lly fra g ile , b ut I h av e n ot s e en th eir fra g ility m an if e st its e lf in cro ss-ra cia l d is c u ssio ns as actu al cry in g. T heir fra g ility m ost co m monly sh ow s up as vary in g fo rm s of dom in an ce an d in tim id atio n, i n clu din g t h ese :

• C ontr o l o f t h e c o nvers a tio n b y s p eak in g f ir s t, l a st, a n d m ost o fte n • A rro gan t a n d d is in gen uous i n valid atio n o f r a cia l i n eq uality v ia “ ju st pla y in g t h e d ev il’ s a d vocate ” • S im plis tic a n d p re su m ptu ous p ro cla m atio ns o f “ th e a n sw er” t o r a cis m (“ P eo ple j u st n eed t o . . . ” ) • P la y in g t h e o utr a g ed v ic tim o f “ re v ers e r a cis m ” • A ccu sa tio ns t h at t h e l e g en dary “ ra ce c ard ” i s b ein g p la y ed • S ile n ce a n d w ith dra w al • H ostile b ody l a n guag e • C han nel- s w itc h in g ( “ T he t r u e o ppre ssio n i s c la ss!” ) • I n te lle ctu aliz in g a n d d is ta n cin g ( “ I r e co m men d t h is b ook . . . ” ) • “ C orre ctin g” t h e r a cia l a n aly sis o f p eo ple o f c o lo r a n d w hite w om en • P om pously e x pla in in g a w ay r a cis m a n d t h e e x perie n ces o f p eo ple o f c o lo r All th ese m oves p ush ra ce o ff th e ta b le , h elp w hite m en re ta in c o ntr o l o f th e dis c u ssio n, en d th e ch alle n ge to th eir positio ns, an d re asse rt th eir dom in an ce.

Becau se r a cis m d oes n ot r e ly s o le ly o n in div id ual a cto rs , th e r a cis t s y ste m is re p ro duced au to m atic ally . T o in te rru pt it, w e need to re co gniz e an d ch alle n ge th e n orm s, str u ctu re s, a n d in stitu tio ns th at k eep it in p la ce. B ut becau se th ey b en efit u s, ra cia lly in eq uita b le re la tio ns are co m fo rta b le fo r most w hite p eo ple . C onse q uen tly , if w e w hite s w an t to in te rru pt th is s y ste m , we h av e to g et r a cia lly unco m fo rta ble a n d b e w illin g to e x am in e th e e ffe cts of o ur ra cia l e n gag em en t. T his in clu des n ot in dulg in g in w hate v er re actio ns we h av e— an ger, d efe n siv en ess, se lf -p ity , an d so fo rth — in a g iv en cro ss- ra cia l e n co unte r w ith out f ir s t r e fle ctin g o n w hat is d riv in g o ur r e actio ns a n d how t h ey w ill a ffe ct o th er p eo ple .

Tears th at a re d riv en b y w hite g uilt a re s e lf -in dulg en t. W hen w e a re m ir e d in g uilt, w e a re n arc is sis tic a n d in effe ctiv e; g uilt fu nctio ns a s a n e x cu se fo r in actio n. F urth er, b ecau se w e s o s e ld om h av e a u th en tic a n d s u sta in ed c ro ss- ra cia l r e la tio nsh ip s, o ur te ars d o n ot f e el lik e s o lid arity to p eo ple o f c o lo r w e hav e not pre v io usly su pporte d . In ste ad , our te ars fu nctio n as im pote n t re fle x es t h at d on’t l e ad t o c o nstr u ctiv e a ctio n. W e n eed t o r e fle ct o n w hen w e cry a n d w hen w e d on’t, a n d w hy. I n o th er w ord s, w hat d oes it ta k e to m ove us? S in ce m an y o f u s h av e n ot le arn ed h ow r a cis m w ork s a n d o ur r o le in it, our te ars m ay c o m e fro m s h ock an d d is tr e ss a b out w hat w e d id n’t k now o r re co gniz e. F or p eo ple o f c o lo r, o ur t e ars d em onstr a te o ur r a cia l i n su la tio n a n d priv ile g e.

I a sk ed t h e w om an o f c o lo r I r e fe r t o i n t h e o pen in g o f t h is c h ap te r i f I w as mis sin g a n yth in g i n t h is l is t. T his i s h er r e sp onse :

It’ s in fu ria tin g b ecau se o f its a u dacity o f d is re sp ect to o ur e x perie n ce. Y ou are c ry in g b ecau se y ou a re u nco m fo rta b le w ith y our fe elin gs w hen w e a re bare ly a llo w ed t o h av e a n y. Y ou a re a sh am ed o r s o m e s u ch t h in g a n d c ry , b ut we a re n ot a llo w ed to h av e a n y f e elin gs b ecau se th en w e a re b ein g d if fic u lt.

We a re s u ppose d to re m ain s to ic a n d s tr o ng b ecau se o th erw is e w e b eco m e th e a n gry a n d s c ary p eo ple o f c o lo r. W e a re o nly a llo w ed t o h av e f e elin gs f o r th e sa k e o f y our e n te rta in m en t, a s in th e p re se n ta tio n o f o ur fu nera ls . A nd ev en t h en , t h ere a re e x pecta tio ns o f w hat i s a llo w ed f o r u s t o e x pre ss. W e a re ab use d d aily , b eate n , ra p ed , a n d k ille d b ut y ou a re sa d a n d th at’ s w hat is im porta n t. T hat’ s w hy i t i s s o oooo h ard t o t a k e.

I h av e c erta in ly b een m oved to te ars b y so m eo ne’s sto ry in c ro ss-ra cia l dis c u ssio ns. A nd I im ag in e th at s o m etim es te ars a re a p pre cia te d , a s th ey c an valid ate a n d b ear w itn ess t o t h e p ain o f r a cis m f o r p eo ple o f c o lo r. B ut I t r y t o be v ery th oughtf u l a b out h ow a n d w hen I c ry . I tr y to c ry q uie tly s o th at I don’t ta k e u p m ore s p ace, a n d if p eo ple r u sh to c o m fo rt m e, I d o n ot a ccep t th e c o m fo rt; I l e t t h em k now t h at I a m f in e s o w e c an m ove o n.

TH E M EN W HO L O VE U S In a d ditio n to th e g en era l d ynam ic s d is c u sse d th us f a r, w hite w om en ’s te ars in c ro ss-ra cia l d is c u ssio ns h av e a v ery s p ecif ic e ffe ct o n m en . I h av e s e en o ur te ars m an ip ula te m en o f a ll r a ces, b ut th e c o nse q uen ces o f th is m an ip ula tio n are n ot th e sa m e. W hite m en o ccu py th e h ig hest p ositio ns in th e ra ce a n d gen der h ie ra rc h y. T hus, th ey h av e th e p ow er to d efin e th eir o w n re ality a n d th at o f o th ers . T his r e ality in clu des n ot o nly w hose e x perie n ces a re v alid , b ut who is fu ndam en ta lly v alid . In th e white ra cia l fra m e, n ot a ll w om en a re deem ed w orth y of re co gnitio n. For ex am ple , co ntr a ry to popula r w hite myth olo gy, w hite w om en — not peo ple of co lo r— hav e been th e prim ary ben efic ia rie s o f a ffir m ativ e a ctio n. W hen fo rc ed to d o s o , w hite m en c o uld ack now le d ge w hite w om en ’s hum an ity ; w hite w om en w ere th eir sis te rs , wiv es, an d dau ghte rs . A nd of co urs e , th ro ugh th ese re la tio nsh ip s, w hite wom en ’s in cre ase d a ccess to re so urc es b en efite d w hite m en . T his h um an ity has y et t o b e g ra n te d t o w om en o f c o lo r.

White m en a ls o g et to a u th oriz e w hat c o nstitu te s p ain a n d w hose p ain is le g itim ate . W hen w hite m en c o m e to th e re sc u e o f w hite w om en in c ro ss- ra cia l s e ttin gs, p atr ia rc h y is re in fo rc ed a s th ey p la y s a v io r to o ur d am se l in dis tr e ss. B y l e g itim atin g w hite w om en a s t h e t a rg ets o f h arm , b oth w hite m en an d w om en a ccru e s o cia l c ap ita l. P eo ple o f c o lo r a re a b an doned a n d le ft to bear w itn ess a s th e re so urc es m ete d o ut to w hite p eo ple a ctu ally in cre ase — yet a g ain — on t h eir b ack s.

Men o f c o lo r m ay a ls o c o m e t o t h e a id o f w hite w om en i n t h ese e x ch an ges an d m ay a ls o b e d riv en b y th eir c o nditio nin g u nder s e x is m a n d p atr ia rc h y.

But m en o f co lo r h av e th e ad ditio nal w eig ht o f ra cis m to n av ig ate . T his weig ht h as h is to ric ally b een d ead ly . F or b la ck m en in p artic u la r, th e s p ecte r of T ill a n d c o untle ss o th ers w ho h av e b een b eate n a n d k ille d o ver a w hite wom an ’s c la im s o f c ro ss-ra cia l d is tr e ss is e v er p re se n t. A m elio ra tin g a w hite wom an ’s d is tr e ss a s q uic k ly a s p ossib le m ay b e fe lt a s a lite ra l m atte r o f su rv iv al. Y et c o m in g to th e re sc u e o f a w hite w om an a ls o d riv es a w ed ge betw een m en a n d w om en o f c o lo r. R ath er th an re ceiv e so cia l c ap ita l th at re in fo rc es h is s ta tu s, a m an o f c o lo r p ut in th is p ositio n m ust n ow liv e w ith th e a g ony o f h av in g t o s u pport a w hite w om an o ver a p ers o n o f c o lo r i n o rd er to s u rv iv e.

White p eo ple d o n eed to f e el g rie f a b out th e b ru ta lity o f w hite s u pre m acy an d o ur ro le in it. In fa ct, o ur n um bness to th e ra cia l in ju stic e th at o ccu rs daily is k ey to h old in g it in p la ce. B ut o ur g rie f m ust le ad to s u sta in ed a n d tr a n sfo rm ativ e a ctio n. B ecau se o ur e m otio ns a re in dic ato rs o f o ur in te rn al fra m ew ork s, t h ey c an s e rv e a s e n tr y p oin ts i n to t h e d eep er s e lf -a w are n ess t h at le ad s t o t h is a ctio n. E xam in in g w hat i s a t t h e r o ot o f o ur e m otio ns ( s h am e f o r not k now in g, g uilt fo r h urtin g so m eo ne, h urt fe elin gs b ecau se w e th in k w e must h av e b een m is u nders to od) w ill e n ab le u s to a d dre ss th ese fra m ew ork s.

We a ls o n eed to e x am in e o ur r e sp onse s to w ard o th er p eo ple ’s e m otio ns a n d how th ey m ay r e in sc rib e r a ce a n d g en der h ie ra rc h ie s. O ur r a cia l s o cia liz atio n se ts u s u p t o r e p eat r a cis t b eh av io r, r e g ard le ss o f o ur i n te n tio ns o r s e lf -im ag e.

We m ust c o ntin ue t o a sk how o ur r a cis m m an if e sts , n ot if. CH APT ER 1 2 WHER E D O W E G O F R O M H ER E?

T he e q uity te a m h as b een in vite d to a m eetin g w ith th e c o m pany’s n ew w eb d evelo per. T he t e a m c o nsis ts o f t w o w om en , b oth o f w hom a re b la ck, a nd m e.

T he n ew w eb d evelo per, w ho is a ls o b la ck, w ants to in te rv ie w u s s o th at s h e c a n b uild o ur p age. S he s ta rts th e m eetin g b y g iv in g u s a s u rv ey to fill o ut.

M any q uestio ns o n th e s u rv ey in quir e a bout o ur in te n ded a udie n ce, m eth ods, g oals , a nd o bje ctiv es. I fin d th e q uestio ns te d io us a nd fe el ir rita te d b y th em .

P ush in g th e s u rv ey a sid e, I tr y to e xp la in v erb ally . I te ll th e w eb d evelo per t h at w e g o o ut in to th e s a te llite o ffic es to fa cilita te a ntir a cis m tr a in in g. I a dd t h at t h e t r a in in g i s n ot a lw ays w ell r e ceiv ed ; i n f a ct, o ne m em ber o f o ur t e a m w as to ld n ot to c o m e b ack. I m ake a jo ke: “ The w hite p eo ple w ere s c a re d b y D eb ora h’s h air ” ( D eb ora h i s b la ck a nd h as l o ng l o cked b ra id s). T he m eetin g e n ds a nd w e m ove o n.

A fe w d ays la te r, o ne o f m y te a m m em bers le ts m e k n ow th at th e w eb d evelo per— who I w ill c a ll A ngela — was o ffe n ded b y m y h air c o m men t. W hile I w asn ’t p ayin g a tte n tio n a t th e tim e, o nce I a m in fo rm ed , I q uic kly r e a liz e w hy th at c o m men t w as o ff. I s e ek o ut a fr ie n d w ho is w hite a nd h as a s o lid u ndersta ndin g of cro ss-r a cia l dyn am ic s. We dis c u ss my fe elin gs ( e m barra ssm en t, sh am e, g uilt) a nd th en sh e h elp s m e id en tify th e v a rio us w ays m y r a cis m w as r e vea le d in th at in te ra ctio n. A fte r th is p ro cessin g, I fe el r e a dy to re p air th e re la tio nsh ip . I a sk A ngela to m eet w ith m e, a nd sh e a ccep ts .

I open by ask in g Angela , “W ould yo u be w illin g to gra nt m e th e o pportu nity to r e p air th e r a cis m I p erp etr a te d to w ard y o u in th at m eetin g?” W hen s h e a gre es, I c o ntin ue. “ I r e a liz e th at m y c o m men t a bout D eb ora h’s h air w as i n appro pria te .” Angela n ods a nd e xp la in s th at s h e d id n ot k n ow m e a nd d id n ot w ant to b e j o kin g a bout b la ck w om en ’s h air (a s e n sitiv e is su e fo r m any b la ck w om en ) w ith a w hite w om an w hom sh e d id n ot h ave a tr u stin g re la tio nsh ip w ith , much l e ss i n a p ro fe ssio nal w ork m eetin g.

I a polo giz e a nd a sk h er if I h ave m is se d a nyth in g e ls e p ro ble m atic in th e meetin g.

“Yes,” s h e r e p lie s. “ That s u rv ey? I w ro te t h at s u rv ey. A nd I h ave s p en t m y life j u stify in g m y i n te llig en ce t o w hite p eo ple .” My ch est co nstr ic ts as I im med ia te ly re a liz e th e im pact of m y glib dis m is sa l o f t h e s u rv ey. I a ckn ow le d ge t h is i m pact a nd a polo giz e .

She a ccep ts m y a polo gy. I a sk A ngela i f t h ere i s a nyth in g e ls e t h at n eed s t o be s a id o r h ea rd s o t h at w e m ay m ove f o rw ard .

She r e p lie s th at y es, th ere is . “ The n ext tim e y o u d o s o m eth in g lik e th is , would y o u l ik e f e ed back p ublic ly o r p riv a te ly ? ” s h e a sk s.

I a nsw er th at g iv en m y r o le a s a n e d uca to r, I w ould a ppre cia te r e ceiv in g th e fe ed back p ublic ly a s it is im porta nt fo r w hite p eo ple to s e e th at I a m a ls o en gaged in a life lo ng p ro cess o f le a rn in g a nd g ro w th . A nd I c o uld m odel fo r oth er w hite p eo ple h ow t o r e ceiv e f e ed back o pen ly a nd w ith out d efe n siv en ess.

She te lls m e th at alth ough th ese dyn am ic s occu r daily betw een w hite peo ple a nd p eo ple o f c o lo r, m y w illin gness to re p air d oesn ’t, a nd th at sh e appre cia te s t h is . W e m ove o n.

In ch ap te r 9 , I id en tif ie d th e co m mon em otio ns, beh av io rs , cla im s, an d underly in g a ssu m ptio ns o f w hite f ra g ility . I n t h is c h ap te r, w e’ll s e e h ow t h ose ele m en ts w ould c h an ge i f w e t r a n sfo rm ed o ur r a cia l p ara d ig m .

It is d if fic u lt fo r m e to im ag in e th at m y a fo re m en tio ned in te ra ctio n w ith Angela w ould h av e b een a s c o nstr u ctiv e i f i t h ad o ccu rre d b efo re I b eg an t h is work . I s im ply c o uld n ot a n d w ould n ot h av e re sp onded w ell if I h ad b een opera tin g f ro m th e d om in an t p ara d ig m . W hen m y c o w ork er le t m e k now th at Angela w as o ffe n ded , I w ould h av e b een f ille d w ith a n xie ty a n d i m med ia te ly ex pla in ed m y in te n tio ns to m y co w ork er, se ek in g her unders ta n din g an d ab so lu tio n. I w ould h av e f e lt u nfa ir ly a ccu se d a n d s e en m yse lf a s th e v ic tim of A ngela ’s unfa ir n ess. In re sp ondin g th is w ay , I w ould hav e lo st an y pote n tia l r e la tio nsh ip w ith h er, p ro te cte d m y lim ite d w orld vie w , a n d s tu nte d my e m otio nal a n d in te lle ctu al g ro w th . Y et d ay in a n d d ay o ut, th is d efe n siv e re actio n is w hat p eo ple o f c o lo r g et fro m w hite p eo ple , a n d it e x pla in s w hy th ey m ore o fte n t h an n ot d on’t e v en t r y t a lk in g t o u s.

How ev er, fro m a tr a n sfo rm ed p ara d ig m , w hen w e a re g iv en fe ed back o n our in ev ita b le but unaw are ra cis t patte rn s, w e m ig ht hav e very dif fe re n t fe elin gs: • G ra titu de • M otiv atio n • E xcite m en t • H um ility • D is c o m fo rt • C om passio n • G uilt • I n te re st When w e h av e t h ese f e elin gs, w e m ig ht e n gag e i n t h e f o llo w in g b eh av io rs :

• R efle ctio n • S eek in g m ore u nders ta n din g • A polo gy • G ra p plin g • L is te n in g • E ngag in g • P ro cessin g • B elie v in g What c la im s m ig ht w e m ak e w hen w e h av e th ese fe elin gs a n d e n gag e in th ese b eh av io rs ? N otic e th at n one o f th e f o llo w in g c la im s ch ara cte riz e u s a s fa ls e ly a ccu se d o r a s b ey ond th e d is c u ssio n; th ese c la im s s u ggest o pen ness an d h um ility .

• I a p pre cia te t h is f e ed back .

• T his i s v ery h elp fu l.

• I t’ s m y r e sp onsib ility t o r e sis t d efe n siv en ess a n d c o m pla cen cy .

• T his i s h ard , b ut a ls o s tim ula tin g a n d i m porta n t.

• O ops!

• I t i s i n ev ita b le t h at I h av e t h is p atte rn . I w an t t o c h an ge i t.

• I t’ s p ers o nal b ut n ot s tr ic tly p ers o nal.

• I w ill f o cu s o n t h e m essa g e a n d n ot t h e m esse n ger.

• I n eed t o b uild m y c ap acity t o e n dure d is c o m fo rt a n d b ear w itn ess t o t h e pain o f r a cis m .

• I h av e s o m e w ork t o d o.

These fe elin gs, b eh av io rs , an d cla im s w ill p ro bab ly b e le ss fa m ilia r to re ad ers , a s th ey a re a ll to o r a re . B ut w hen o ur f u ndam en ta l u nders ta n din g o f ra cis m is tr a n sfo rm ed , so are our assu m ptio ns an d re su lta n t beh av io rs .

Im ag in e th e d if fe re n ce in o ur e n vir o nm en t, in te ra ctio ns, n orm s, a n d p olic ie s if t h e f o llo w in g l is t d esc rib ed o ur a ssu m ptio ns:

• B ein g g ood o r b ad i s n ot r e le v an t. • R acis m i s a m ultila y ere d s y ste m e m bed ded i n o ur c u ltu re .

• A ll o f u s a re s o cia liz ed i n to t h e s y ste m o f r a cis m .

• R acis m c an not b e a v oid ed .

• W hite s h av e b lin d s p ots o n r a cis m , a n d I h av e b lin d s p ots o n r a cis m .

• R acis m i s c o m ple x , a n d I d on’t h av e t o u nders ta n d e v ery n uan ce o f t h e fe ed back t o v alid ate t h at f e ed back .

• W hite s a re / I a m u nco nsc io usly i n veste d i n r a cis m .

• B ia s i s i m plic it a n d u nco nsc io us; I d on’t e x pect t o b e a w are o f m in e with out a l o t o f o ngoin g e ffo rt.

• G iv in g u s w hite p eo ple f e ed back o n o ur r a cis m i s r is k y f o r p eo ple o f c o lo r, so w e c an c o nsid er t h e f e ed back a s ig n o f t r u st.

• F eed back o n w hite r a cis m i s d if fic u lt t o g iv e; h ow I a m g iv en t h e f e ed back is n ot a s r e le v an t a s t h e f e ed back i ts e lf .

• A uth en tic a n tir a cis m i s r a re ly c o m fo rta b le . D is c o m fo rt i s k ey t o m y g ro w th an d t h us d esir a b le .

• W hite c o m fo rt m ain ta in s t h e r a cia l s ta tu s q uo, s o d is c o m fo rt i s n ecessa ry an d i m porta n t.

• I m ust n ot c o nfu se c o m fo rt w ith s a fe ty ; a s a w hite p ers o n, I a m s a fe i n dis c u ssio ns o f r a cis m .

• T he a n tid ote t o g uilt i s a ctio n.

• I t t a k es c o ura g e t o b re ak w ith w hite s o lid arity ; h ow c an I s u pport t h ose w ho do?

• I b rin g m y g ro up’s h is to ry w ith m e; h is to ry m atte rs .

• G iv en m y s o cia liz atio n, i t i s m uch m ore l ik ely t h at I a m t h e o ne w ho doesn ’t u nders ta n d t h e i s su e.

• N oth in g e x em pts m e f ro m t h e f o rc es o f r a cis m .

• M y a n aly sis m ust b e i n te rs e ctio nal ( a r e co gnitio n t h at m y o th er s o cia l id en titie s— cla ss, g en der, a b ility — in fo rm h ow I w as s o cia liz ed i n to t h e ra cia l s y ste m ).

• R acis m h urts ( e v en k ills ) p eo ple o f c o lo r 2 4-7 . I n te rru ptin g i t i s m ore im porta n t t h an m y f e elin gs, e g o, o r s e lf -im ag e.

These assu m ptio ns m ig ht in te rru pt ra cis m in v ario us w ay s, su ch as th e fo llo w in g:

• M in im iz e o ur d efe n siv en ess. • D em onstr a te o ur v uln era b ility .

• D em onstr a te o ur c u rio sity a n d h um ility .

• A llo w f o r g ro w th .

• S tr e tc h o ur w orld vie w .

• E nsu re a ctio n.

• D em onstr a te t h at w e p ra ctic e w hat w e p ro fe ss t o v alu e.

• B uild a u th en tic r e la tio nsh ip s a n d t r u st.

• I n te rru pt p riv ile g e-p ro te ctin g c o m fo rt.

• I n te rru pt i n te rn aliz ed s u perio rity .

When w hite p eo ple a sk m e w hat t o d o a b out r a cis m a n d w hite f ra g ility , t h e fir s t th in g I a sk is , “ W hat h as e n ab le d y ou to b e a f u ll, e d ucate d , p ro fe ssio nal ad ult a n d n ot k now w hat to d o a b out r a cis m ?” I t is a s in cere q uestio n. H ow hav e w e m an ag ed n ot to k now , w hen th e in fo rm atio n is a ll a ro und u s? W hen peo ple o f co lo r h av e b een te llin g u s fo r y ears ? If w e ta k e th at q uestio n se rio usly a n d m ap o ut a ll t h e w ay s w e h av e c o m e t o n ot k now w hat t o d o, w e will h av e o ur g uid e b efo re u s. F or e x am ple , if m y a n sw er is th at I w as n ot ed ucate d a b out r a cis m , I k now th at I w ill h av e to g et e d ucate d . I f m y a n sw er is th at I d on’t k now p eo ple o f c o lo r, I w ill n eed to b uild r e la tio nsh ip s. I f it is becau se t h ere a re n o p eo ple o f c o lo r i n m y e n vir o nm en t, I w ill n eed t o g et o ut of m y c o m fo rt z o ne a n d c h an ge m y e n vir o nm en t; a d dre ssin g ra cis m is n ot with out e ffo rt.

Nex t, I sa y , “D o w hate v er it ta k es fo r you to in te rn aliz e th e ab ove assu m ptio ns.” I b elie v e th at if w e w hite p eo ple w ere tr u ly c o m in g f ro m th ese assu m ptio ns, n ot o nly w ould o ur in te rp ers o nal re la tio nsh ip s c h an ge, b ut s o would o ur in stitu tio ns. O ur in stitu tio ns w ould c h an ge b ecau se w e w ould s e e to it th at th ey did . B ut w e sim ply can not en d ra cis m fro m th e cu rre n t para d ig m .

The fin al a d vic e I o ffe r is th is : “ T ak e th e in itia tiv e a n d fin d o ut o n y our ow n.” T o b re ak w ith th e c o nditio nin g o f w hite n ess— th e c o nditio nin g th at mak es u s a p ath etic a b out ra cis m a n d p re v en ts u s fro m d ev elo pin g th e s k ills we n eed to in te rru pt it— white p eo ple n eed to fin d o ut fo r th em se lv es w hat th ey c an d o. T here is s o m uch e x celle n t a d vic e o ut th ere to day — writte n b y both p eo ple o f c o lo r a n d w hite p eo ple . S earc h i t o ut. B re ak w ith t h e a p ath y o f white n ess, a n d d em onstr a te t h at y ou c are e n ough t o p ut i n t h e e ffo rt.

As a n a n alo gy, im ag in e y ou g o to th e d octo r, w ho te lls y ou th at y ou h av e an a co ustic n eu ro m a. J u st a s s h e is a b out to e x pla in w hat th at is a n d w hat your o ptio ns are , sh e g ets an em erg en cy call an d m ust ru sh o ff, ab ru ptly en din g y our v is it. W hat w ould y ou d o? Y ou w ould v ery lik ely g o h om e, g et on t h e i n te rn et, a n d r e ad e v ery th in g y ou c o uld f in d o n t h e s u bje ct. Y ou m ig ht jo in a d is c u ssio n g ro up w ith p eo ple w ho h ad e x perie n ce w ith th e c o nditio n.

Even if th e d octo r w asn ’t c alle d aw ay a n d s h e e x pla in ed th e c o nditio n a n d gav e y ou s o m e a d vic e, y ou w ould p ro bab ly s till g o h om e a n d d o t h e r e se arc h so th at y ou w ould h av e m ore th an o ne o pin io n o n su ch an im porta n t— perh ap s ev en a lif e -a n d-d eath — co nditio n. B otto m lin e: you w ould care en ough t o g et i n fo rm ed . S o c o nsid er r a cis m a m atte r o f l if e a n d d eath ( a s i t i s fo r p eo ple o f c o lo r), a n d d o y our h om ew ork .

TH E R EPA IR Retu rn in g t o t h e e x am ple o f t h e r a cis m I p erp etr a te d t o w ard m y c o w ork er, w e can se e th at I fo llo w ed a se rie s of ste p s. T hese ste p s are base d on th e pre ced in g lis t of assu m ptio ns an d beh av io rs (re fle ctio n, ap olo gy, etc .) pre se n te d a b ove. F ir s t, o nce I w as a w are t h at I h ad b eh av ed p ro ble m atic ally , I to ok th e tim e to p ro cess m y re actio n w ith a n oth er w hite p ers o n. It w as n ot Angela ’s d uty to ta k e c are o f m y fe elin gs o r fe el p re ssu re to re assu re m e. I was a ls o c are fu l to c h oose s o m eo ne w ho I k new w ould h old m e a cco unta b le , not s o m eo ne w ho w ould in sis t th at A ngela w as to o s e n sitiv e. A fte r I v en te d my fe elin gs (e m barra ssm en t, g uilt, sh am e, a n d re g re t) , w e d id o ur b est to id en tif y h ow I h ad r e in fo rc ed r a cis m . I w as th en r e ad y to r e tu rn to A ngela . I was c le ar a n d o pen a b out w hy I w an te d t o m eet w ith h er, a n d a sk ed h er i f s h e would b e w illin g to m eet. I w as p re p are d fo r h er to sa y n o; if I c o uld n ot accep t n o fo r an an sw er, th en I w ould n ot h av e b een re ad y to m ak e an au th en tic a p olo gy.

When A ngela an d I m et, I o w ned m y ra cis m . I d id n ot fo cu s o n m y in te n tio ns b ut f o cu se d o n th e im pact o f m y b eh av io r a n d a p olo giz ed f o r th at im pact. N or did I use passiv e fra m in g su ch as “ If you w ere offe n ded .” (A polo gie s th at sta rt th is w ay are su btle effo rts to put th e onus on th e re cip ie n ts o f o ur ra cis m . In dir e ctly , w e a re sa y in g th at th e b re ach w as n ot in here n tly o ffe n siv e— man y w ould n ot fin d it o ffe n siv e a t a ll— but if y ou were o ffe n ded b ecau se o f y our ex tr e m e se n sitiv ity , th en w e are so rry .) I sim ply a d m itte d th at m y b eh av io r w as o ffe n siv e. R eco gniz in g th at I, a s a white p ers o n, a s w ell a s m y w hite frie n d w ho h ad h elp ed m e p ro cess m y fe elin gs, w ould m ost lik ely n ot u nders ta n d a ll th e d ynam ic s, I a sk ed A ngela what I h ad m is se d . S he w as w illin g to en lig hte n m e fu rth er, a n d I a cc ep te d th is a d ditio nal fe ed back a n d a p olo giz ed . I m ad e a c o m mitm en t to d o b ette r, an d I c lo se d b y a sk in g h er i f t h ere w as a n yth in g e ls e t h at n eed ed t o b e s a id o r heard s o t h at w e m ig ht m ove f o rw ard .

We th en d id m ove f o rw ard . T oday , w e h av e m ore tr u st— not le ss— in o ur re la tio nsh ip th an w e d id b efo re th is in cid en t. W hile I r e g re t th at it c am e a t a co st to A ngela , it w asn ’t th e e n d o f th e w orld . M an y p eo ple o f c o lo r h av e assu re d m e th at th ey w ill n ot g iv e u p o n m e d esp ite m y r a cis t p atte rn s; th ey ex pect th at I w ill h av e ra cis t b eh av io r g iv en th e s o cie ty th at s o cia liz ed m e.

What th ey a re lo okin g f o r is n ot p erfe ctio n b ut th e a b ility to ta lk a b out w hat hap pen ed , th e a b ility to re p air . U nfo rtu nate ly , it is ra re fo r w hite p eo ple to ow n a n d re p air o ur in ev ita b le p atte rn s o f ra cis m . T hus, re la tio nsh ip s w ith white p eo ple t e n d t o b e l e ss a u th en tic f o r p eo ple o f c o lo r.

GOIN G F O RW ARD In ch ap te r 4 , I w arn ed r e ad ers n ot to d ep en d o n p eo ple o f c o lo r f o r o ur r a cia l ed ucatio n a n d e x pla in ed w hy th is d ep en den cy is p ro ble m atic . R ead ers m ay hav e b een le ft w onderin g h ow w e w ould g et th is in fo rm atio n if w e d on’t a sk peo ple o f c o lo r to g iv e it to u s. W e c an g et it in s e v era l in te rc o nnecte d w ay s.

We can se ek o ut th e in fo rm atio n fro m b ooks, w eb site s, film s, an d o th er av aila b le so urc es. M an y p eo ple o f c o lo r are c o m mitte d to te ach in g w hite s ab out r a cis m ( o n th eir o w n te rm s) a n d h av e b een o ffe rin g th is in fo rm atio n to us fo r d ecad es, if n ot c en tu rie s. It is o ur o w n la ck o f in te re st o r m otiv atio n th at h as p re v en te d u s f ro m r e ceiv in g i t.

We can als o d em an d th at w e b e g iv en th is in fo rm atio n in sc h ools an d univ ers itie s a n d t h at w e n ot b e r e q uir e d to t a k e s p ecia l, e le ctiv e c o urs e s t o b e ex pose d to it. W e c an g et in volv ed w ith m ultir a cia l o rg an iz atio ns a n d w hite org an iz atio ns w ork in g fo r ra cia l ju stic e. A nd w e c an b uild a u th en tic c ro ss- ra cia l re la tio nsh ip s a n d b e w illin g to w atc h , lis te n , a n d le arn . S om etim es, with in th e c o nte x t o f th ese r e la tio nsh ip s, w e c an a sk d ir e ct q uestio ns a n d a sk fo r e x plic it in fo rm atio n, b ut th is is not a lw ay s n ecessa ry . S im ply b y v ir tu e o f liv in g a n in te g ra te d lif e a n d p ay in g a tte n tio n, w e w ill le arn w hat w e n eed to know .

Still, w hite p eo ple d o h av e k now le d ge o f a sp ects o f ra ce a n d ra cis m , a n d we can easily u nearth th is k now le d ge w ith so m e m in im al re fle ctio n. F or ex am ple , w e c an r e fle ct o n m essa g es w e h av e r e ceiv ed , p riv ile g es w e e n jo y, how w e c am e t o b e s o cia liz ed t o f e el s u perio r ( w hile d en yin g t h at w e f e el t h is way ), a n d h ow a ll o f t h is m ay b e m an if e stin g i n o ur l iv es.

When I b eg an th is w ork , I d re a d ed g ettin g f e ed back f ro m p eo ple o f c o lo r on m y ra cis t patte rn s an d assu m ptio ns. N ow I w elc o m e th is fe ed back .

Perh ap s th e m ost p ow erfu l le sso n I h av e le arn ed in te rm s o f in te rru ptin g m y ow n w hite f ra g ility is th at th is f e ed back is a p ositiv e s ig n in th e r e la tio nsh ip .

Of c o urs e , th e f e ed back s e ld om f e els g ood— I o ccasio nally f e el e m barra sse d or d efe n siv e. B ut I als o u nders ta n d th at th ere is n o w ay fo r m e to av oid en actin g p ro ble m atic p atte rn s, s o i f a p ers o n o f c o lo r t r u sts m e e n ough t o t a k e th e r is k a n d t e ll m e, t h en I a m d oin g w ell.

Man y p eo ple o f c o lo r h av e s h are d w ith m e th at th ey d on’t b oth er g iv in g fe ed back to a w hite p ers o n if th ey th in k th e in div id ual is u nw illin g to a ccep t it; th ey eith er en dure th e m ic ro ag gre ssio ns or drif t aw ay fro m th e re la tio nsh ip . T hey d o n ot f e el c lo se t o w hite p eo ple t o w hom t h ey c an ’t s p eak honestly ab out ra cis m , an d th ese re la tio nsh ip s alw ay s hav e a deg re e of dis ta n ce a n d in au th en tic ity . W hile w e w orry th at if w e h av e re v eale d o ur ra cis m in a n y w ay , th e p eo ple o f c o lo r in o ur liv es w ill g iv e u p o n u s, I h av e fo und t h e o pposite t o b e t r u e. W hen w e e n gag e w ith t h e f e ed back a n d s e ek t o re p air t h e b re ach , t h e r e la tio nsh ip d eep en s. T ry in g t o e x pla in a w ay o ur r a cis m does n ot f o ol p eo ple o f c o lo r o r b rin g t h em c lo se r.

Becau se I w ill n ev er b e c o m ple te ly fre e o f ra cis m o r fin is h ed w ith m y le arn in g, w hat a re s o m e t h in gs I c an d o o r r e m em ber w hen m y w hite f ra g ility su rfa ces? T here are se v era l co nstr u ctiv e re sp onse s w e can hav e in th e mom en t:

• B re ath e.

• L is te n .

• R efle ct.

• R etu rn t o t h e l is t o f u nderly in g a ssu m ptio ns i n t h is c h ap te r.

• S eek o ut s o m eo ne w ith a s tr o nger a n aly sis i f y ou f e el c o nfu se d .

• T ak e t h e t im e y ou n eed t o p ro cess y our f e elin gs, b ut d o r e tu rn t o t h e situ atio n a n d t h e p ers o ns i n volv ed .

We c an i n te rru pt o ur w hite f ra g ility a n d b uild o ur c ap acity t o s u sta in c ro ss- ra cia l h onesty b y b ein g w illin g to to le ra te th e d is c o m fo rt a sso cia te d w ith a n honest ap pra is a l an d d is c u ssio n o f o ur in te rn aliz ed su perio rity an d ra cia l priv ile g e. W e can ch alle n ge our ow n ra cia l re ality by ack now le d gin g ours e lv es a s ra cia l b ein gs w ith a p artic u la r a n d lim ite d p ers p ectiv e o n ra ce.

We c an a tte m pt to u nders ta n d th e ra cia l re alitie s o f p eo ple o f c o lo r th ro ugh au th en tic in te ra ctio n ra th er th an th ro ugh th e m ed ia or th ro ugh uneq ual re la tio nsh ip s. W e c an ta k e a ctio n to a d dre ss o ur o w n ra cis m , th e ra cis m o f oth er w hite s, a n d th e ra cis m e m bed ded in o ur in stitu tio ns. A ll th ese e ffo rts will re q uir e th at w e co ntin ually ch alle n ge our ow n so cia liz atio n an d in vestm en ts in r a cis m a n d th e m is in fo rm atio n w e h av e le arn ed a b out p eo ple of c o lo r. W e c an e d ucate o urs e lv es a b out th e h is to ry o f r a ce r e la tio ns in o ur co untr y . W e c an f o llo w t h e l e ad ers h ip o n a n tir a cis m f ro m p eo ple o f c o lo r a n d work to b uild a u th en tic c ro ss-ra cia l re la tio nsh ip s. W e c an g et in volv ed in org an iz atio ns w ork in g f o r r a cia l ju stic e. A nd m ost im porta n t, w e m ust b re ak th e s ile n ce a b out r a ce a n d r a cis m w ith o th er w hite p eo ple .

TH E Q UEST IO N O F G UIL T Audre L ord e e lo quen tly a d dre sse d h er t h oughts o n w hite g uilt a t t h e N atio nal Wom en ’s S tu die s A sso cia tio n C onfe re n ce i n 1 981:

I c an not h id e m y a n ger to s p are y ou g uilt, n or h urt fe elin gs, n or a n sw erin g an ger; fo r to do so in su lts an d tr iv ia liz es all our effo rts . G uilt is not a re sp onse to a n ger; it is a r e sp onse to o ne’s o w n a ctio ns o r la ck o f a ctio n. I f it le ad s to c h an ge th en it c an b e u se fu l, s in ce it is th en n o lo nger g uilt b ut th e beg in nin g o f k now le d ge. Y et all to o o fte n , g uilt is ju st an oth er n am e fo r im pote n ce, fo r d efe n siv en ess d estr u ctiv e o f co m munic atio n; it b eco m es a dev ic e to p ro te ct ig nora n ce a n d th e c o ntin uatio n o f th in gs th e w ay th ey a re , th e u ltim ate p ro te ctio n f o r c h an gele ssn ess.

1 I a m s o m etim es a sk ed w heth er m y w ork r e in fo rc es a n d ta k es a d van ta g e o f white g uilt. B ut I d on’t s e e m y e ffo rts to u nco ver h ow r a ce s h ap es m y lif e a s a m atte r o f g uilt. I k now th at b ecau se I w as s o cia liz ed a s w hite in a r a cis m - base d s o cie ty , I h av e a r a cis t w orld vie w , d eep r a cia l b ia s, r a cis t p atte rn s, a n d in vestm en ts in th e r a cis t s y ste m th at h as e le v ate d m e. S till, I d on’t f e el g uilty ab out ra cis m . I d id n’t c h ose th is s o cia liz atio n, a n d it c o uld n ot b e a v oid ed .

But I a m r e sp onsib le f o r m y r o le i n i t. T o t h e d eg re e t h at I h av e d one m y b est in each m om en t to in te rru pt m y partic ip atio n, I can re st w ith a cle are r co nsc ie n ce. B ut th at c le ar c o nsc ie n ce is n ot a ch ie v ed b y c o m pla cen cy o r a se n se t h at I h av e a rriv ed .

Unlik e h eav y f e elin gs s u ch a s g uilt, t h e c o ntin uous w ork o f i d en tif y in g m y in te rn aliz ed su perio rity a n d h ow it m ay b e m an if e stin g its e lf is in cre d ib ly lib era tin g. W hen I sta rt fro m th e pre m is e th at of co urse I hav e been th oro ughly s o cia liz ed in to th e r a cis t c u ltu re in w hic h I w as b orn , I n o lo nger need to ex pen d en erg y den yin g th at fa ct. I am eag er— ev en ex cite d — to id en tif y m y in ev ita b le co llu sio n so th at I can fig ure out how to sto p co llu din g! D en ia l an d th e defe n siv en ess th at is need ed to m ain ta in it is ex hau stin g.

A P O SIT IV E W HIT E I D EN TIT Y ?

There are m an y ap pro ach es to an tir a cis t w ork ; one of th em is to tr y to dev elo p a p ositiv e w hite id en tity . T hose w ho p ro m ote th is a p pro ach o fte n su ggest w e d ev elo p th is p ositiv e id en tity b y re cla im in g th e c u ltu ra l h erita g e th at w as lo st durin g assim ila tio n in to w hite n ess fo r Euro pean eth nic s.

How ev er, a p ositiv e w hite id en tity is a n im possib le g oal. W hite id en tity is in here n tly ra cis t; w hite peo ple do not ex is t outs id e th e sy ste m of w hite su pre m acy . T his d oes n ot m ean th at w e s h ould s to p id en tif y in g a s w hite a n d sta rt c la im in g o nly to b e Ita lia n o r Iris h . T o d o s o is to d en y th e re ality o f ra cis m in th e h ere an d n ow , an d th is d en ia l w ould sim ply b e co lo r-b lin d ra cis m . R ath er, I str iv e to b e “ le ss w hite .” T o b e le ss w hite is to b e le ss ra cia lly o ppre ssiv e. T his re q uir e s m e to b e m ore ra cia lly a w are , to b e b ette r ed ucate d ab out ra cis m , an d to co ntin ually ch alle n ge ra cia l certitu de an d arro gan ce. T o b e le ss w hite is t o b e o pen to , i n te re ste d in , a n d c o m passio nate to w ard th e ra cia l re alitie s o f p eo ple o f c o lo r. I c an b uild a w id e ra n ge o f au th en tic a n d s u sta in ed r e la tio nsh ip s a cro ss r a ce a n d a ccep t th at I h av e r a cis t patte rn s. A nd ra th er th an be defe n siv e ab out th ose patte rn s, I can be in te re ste d i n s e ein g th em m ore c le arly s o th at I m ig ht a m elio ra te th em . T o b e le ss w hite is to bre ak w ith w hite sile n ce an d w hite so lid arity , to sto p priv ile g in g th e c o m fo rt o f w hite p eo ple o ver th e p ain o f r a cis m f o r p eo ple o f co lo r, to m ove p ast g uilt a n d in to a ctio n. T hese le ss o ppre ssiv e p atte rn s a re activ e, n ot p assiv e. U ltim ate ly , I s tr iv e fo r a le ss w hite id en tity fo r m y o w n lib era tio n a n d s e n se o f j u stic e, n ot t o s a v e p eo ple o f c o lo r. IN C O NCLU SIO N When I g iv e a ta lk o r w ork sh op, th e n um ber o ne q uestio n I g et fro m w hite partic ip an ts i s , “ H ow d o I t e ll s o -a n d-s o a b out t h eir r a cis m w ith out t r ig gerin g white f ra g ility ?” M y f ir s t r e sp onse to th is q uestio n is , “ H ow w ould I te ll y ou ab out yo ur ra cis m w ith out tr ig gerin g yo ur w hite fra g ility ?” W ith th is re sp onse , I a m tr y in g to p oin t o ut th e u nsp oken a ssu m ptio n th at th e p ers o n ask in g th e q uestio n is n ot p art o f th e p ro ble m . In o th er w ord s, th e q uestio n dis ta n ces th e p artic ip an t fro m ra cis m ; it a ssu m es th at th e q uestio ner d oesn ’t need fe ed back o r d oesn ’t s tr u ggle w ith h is o r h er o w n w hite fra g ility . T he pers o n’s q uestio n i s n ot o ne o f h um ility o r s e lf -re fle ctio n.

Hav in g s a id th at, I c an o ffe r a fe w s tr a te g ie s fo r tr y in g to w ork w ith o ne an oth er o n o ur w hite fra g ility . F ir s t, I tr y to a ffir m a p ers o n’s p ers p ectiv e befo re I sh are m in e, an d w hen I d o sh are m in e, I tr y to p oin t th e fin ger in w ard , n ot o utw ard . F or e x am ple , I m ig ht s a y , “ I c an u nders ta n d w hy y ou fe el th at w ay . I hav e fe lt th at w ay m yse lf . H ow ev er, becau se of m y opportu nity to w ork w ith p eo ple o f c o lo r a n d h ear th eir p ers p ectiv es, I h av e co m e to u nders ta n d . . . ” I th en s h are w hat I h av e co m e to u nders ta n d w ith th e e m phasis o n h ow th is u nders ta n din g r e la te s to m e. W hile th is s tr a te g y is not g uara n te ed to lo w er d efe n siv en ess, it’ s d if fic u lt to a rg ue w ith s o m eo ne who h as f ra m ed a r e sp onse a s h er o r h is o w n p ers o nal i n sig ht.

I a ls o g iv e m yse lf s o m e tim e if I f e el a t a lo ss to r e sp ond in th e m om en t.

When w e h av e a n o ngoin g r e la tio nsh ip w ith s o m eo ne, it’ s f in e to ta k e s o m e tim e a n d re tu rn to th e is su e la te r. W ith th is s tr a te g y, w e c an th en c h oose a tim e w hen w e f e el m ore p re p are d a n d s e n se th at th e o th er p ers o n is o pen . I n th is case , I m ig ht sa y , “C an I ta lk to y ou ab out so m eth in g? I h av e b een fe elin g u nco m fo rta b le a b out o ur in te ra ctio n th e o th er d ay b ut it h as ta k en m e a w hile t o g et c la rity o n w hy. I h av e a b ette r s e n se n ow . C an w e r e tu rn t o o ur co nvers a tio n?” I t h en d o m y b est t o s h are m y t h oughts a n d f e elin gs a s c alm ly an d c o ncis e ly a s p ossib le . U ltim ate ly , I l e t g o o f c h an gin g t h e o th er p ers o n. I f so m eo ne g ain s in sig ht f ro m w hat I s h are , th at is w onderfu l. B ut th e o bje ctiv e th at g uid es m e is m y o w n n eed to b re ak w ith w hite s o lid arity , e v en w hen it’ s unco m fo rta b le , w hic h it a lm ost a lw ay s is . In th e e n d, m y a ctio ns a re d riv en by m y o w n n eed f o r i n te g rity , n ot a n eed t o c o rre ct o r c h an ge s o m eo ne e ls e .

PE O PL E O F C O LO R N AVIG ATIN G W HIT E F R AG IL IT Y Peo ple o f c o lo r h av e o ccasio nally a sk ed m e h ow t o n av ig ate w hite f ra g ility . I so w is h I h ad a s im ple f o rm ula to o ffe r th em ! I w an t u s to s to p m an if e stin g white fra g ility s o th at p eo ple o f c o lo r d on’t h av e to a sk th is q uestio n. S till, besid es t h e s tr a te g ie s d is c u sse d t h us f a r, t h ere i s a n oth er a p pro ach t h at p eo ple of c o lo r m ay f in d u se fu l. W hen ev er y ou— as a p ers o n o f c o lo r— do n ot w an t to b ear th e b urd en o f p oin tin g o ut a w hite p ers o n’s r a cis m b ut d o n ot w an t to le t it g o, y ou m ig ht a sk a w hite p ers o n w hom y ou tr u st to d eal w ith it. W hile ad dre ssin g w hite ra cis m is ra re ly e asy , w hite p eo ple c an c erta in ly b ear th e bru nt o f a h ostile r e sp onse l e ss p ain fu lly t h an p eo ple o f c o lo r c an . T here m ay ev en b e a little le ss f ra g ility b ecau se th e in te rv en tio n is c o m in g f ro m a n oth er white p ers o n. T his s tr a te g y a ls o h elp s a s u pportiv e w hite p ers o n d em onstr a te su pport a n d p ra ctic e b re ak in g w ith w hite s o lid arity .

Som e p eo ple o f c o lo r h av e to ld m e th at it is u se fu l to k now h ow th ey h av e co llu ded w ith m y w hite fra g ility . In a n sw erin g th is q uestio n, I m ust fir s t b e cle ar th at n av ig atin g w hite f ra g ility is f u ndam en ta lly a m atte r o f s u rv iv al f o r peo ple of co lo r. T he co nse q uen ces of w hite fra g ility in clu de hours of ag oniz in g a s w ell a s f a r m ore e x tr e m e c o nse q uen ces s u ch a s b ein g s e en a s a th re at a n d a tr o uble m ak er. T hese b ia se d a sse ssm en ts o fte n le ad to jo b lo ss, str e ss-re la te d illn ess, c rim in al c h arg es, a n d in stitu tio naliz atio n. T o c h oose to su rv iv e in a n y w ay d eem ed n ecessa ry is th us a n e m pow ere d c h oic e. It is white p eo ple ’s r e sp onsib ility to b e le ss f ra g ile ; p eo ple o f c o lo r d on’t n eed to tw is t th em se lv es in to k nots tr y in g to n av ig ate u s a s p ain le ssly a s p ossib le .

Still, in h elp in g p eo ple o f c o lo r d ecid e w heth er o r h ow to in te rru pt w hite fra g ility , I c an s h are s o m e w ay s th at I h av e n otic ed p eo ple o f c o lo r e n ab lin g min e.

Becau se I a m se en a s so m ew hat m ore ra cia lly a w are th an o th er w hite s, peo ple of co lo r w ill ofte n giv e m e a pass. W hile th is is certa in ly m ore co m fo rta b le fo r m e, it d oesn ’t h old m e acco unta b le o r su pport m y ra cia l gro w th . I a sk m y f rie n ds o f c o lo r t o t r u st t h at I c an h an dle t h eir f e ed back , a n d th en it’ s o n m e to d em onstr a te m yse lf a s w orth y o f th at tr u st. A lth ough I re co gniz e th e r is k it ta k es, I w ould n ot h av e m y c u rre n t a w are n ess if p eo ple of c o lo r h ad c h ose n to p ro te ct m y fe elin gs. S in ce m y le arn in g w ill n ev er b e fin is h ed , n eith er w ill t h e n eed t o h old m e a cco unta b le .

When a p ers o n o f c o lo r g iv es m e fe ed back th at I c o nsid er u nfa ir , I a m te m pte d to g o to a n oth er p ers o n o f c o lo r fo r re assu ra n ce th at I a m a g ood pers o n. T his s e arc h f o r r e assu ra n ce p re ssu re s p eo ple o f c o lo r t o a lig n w ith m e over o ne a n oth er b y a g re ein g th at I h av e b een u nfa ir ly a tta ck ed . E m path y with p eo ple in d is tr e ss cre ate s a str o ng u rg e to co m fo rt th em , an d in m y se arc h fo r th is c o m fo rt, I a m , c o nsc io usly o r n ot, ta k in g a d van ta g e o f th is urg e. B ut th e se arc h fo r re assu ra n ce fro m p eo ple o f c o lo r is in ap pro pria te .

My n eed f u nctio ns a s a k in d o f d iv id e-a n d-c o nquer w ed ge. F urth er, m y q uest fo r r e assu ra n ce u phold s r a cis m b y r e in fo rc in g th e v ery id ea th at th e f e ed back was a n u nfa ir a tta ck a n d/o r th at th ere w as a c o rre ct w ay to g iv e it a n d th e pers o n o f c o lo r in q uestio n h as b ro ken th e ru le s o f e n gag em en t. In e sse n ce, by co m pla in in g to o ne p ers o n o f c o lo r a b out th e u nfa ir n ess o f f e ed back f ro m an oth er p ers o n o f c o lo r (n o m atte r h ow d ip lo m atic ally o r in dir e ctly I tr y to mask m y c o m pla in t) , I a m p re ssu rin g a p ers o n o f c o lo r to c o llu de w ith m y ra cis m .

Equity c o nsu lta n t D ev on A le x an der sh are d w ith m e w hat is p erh ap s th e most p ern ic io us f o rm o f p re ssu re o n p eo ple o f c o lo r: th e p re ssu re to c o llu de with w hite fra g ility b y m in im iz in g th eir ra cia l e x perie n ces to a cco m modate white d en ia l a n d d efe n siv en ess. In o th er w ord s, th ey d on’t s h are th eir p ain with us becau se w e can ’t han dle it. This acco m modatio n re q uir e s a pro fo undly u nfa ir d eg re e o f in au th en tic ity a n d s ile n t e n dura n ce. I n a v ic io us ra cia l cy cle , w hite fra g ility h as fu nctio ned to k eep p eo ple o f co lo r fro m ch alle n gin g ra cis m in o rd er to a v oid w hite w ra th . In tu rn , n ot c h alle n gin g white p eo ple o n ra cis m u phold s th e ra cia l o rd er a n d w hite s’ p ositio n w ith in th at o rd er.

IN C O NCLU SIO N The d efa u lt o f th e c u rre n t s y ste m is th e r e p ro ductio n o f r a cia l in eq uality ; o ur in stitu tio ns w ere d esig ned to r e p ro duce r a cia l in eq uality a n d th ey d o s o w ith effic ie n cy . O ur sc h ools are p artic u la rly effe ctiv e at th is ta sk . T o co ntin ue re p ro ducin g r a cia l i n eq uality , t h e s y ste m o nly n eed s w hite p eo ple t o b e r e ally nic e a n d c arry o n, s m ile a t p eo ple o f c o lo r, b e f rie n dly a cro ss r a ce, a n d g o to lu nch to geth er o n o ccasio n. I a m n ot sa y in g th at y ou sh ould n’t b e n ic e. I su ppose i t’ s b ette r t h an b ein g m ean . B ut n ic en ess i s n ot c o ura g eo us. N ic en ess will n ot g et ra c is m o n th e ta b le an d w ill n ot k eep it o n th e ta b le w hen ev ery one w an ts it o ff. In fa ct, b rin gin g ra cis m to w hite p eo ple ’s a tte n tio n is ofte n s e en a s not n ic e, a n d b ein g p erc eiv ed a s n ot n ic e t r ig gers w hite f ra g ility .

In te rru ptin g r a cis m ta k es c o ura g e a n d in te n tio nality ; th e in te rru ptio n is b y defin itio n n ot p assiv e o r c o m pla cen t. S o i n a n sw er t o t h e q uestio n “ W here d o we g o fro m h ere ?,” I o ffe r th at w e m ust n ev er c o nsid er o urs e lv es fin is h ed with o ur le arn in g. E ven if c h alle n gin g a ll th e r a cis m a n d s u perio rity w e h av e in te rn aliz ed w as q uic k a n d e asy to d o, o ur ra cis m w ould b e re in fo rc ed a ll over a g ain ju st b y v ir tu e o f liv in g in th e cu ltu re . I h av e b een e n gag ed in th is work in a r a n ge o f f o rm s f o r m an y y ears , a n d I c o ntin ue to r e ceiv e f e ed back on m y s tu bborn p atte rn s a n d u nex am in ed a ssu m ptio ns. I t is a m essy , lif e lo ng pro cess, b ut o ne th at is n ecessa ry to a lig n m y p ro fe sse d v alu es w ith m y r e al actio ns. I t i s a ls o d eep ly c o m pellin g a n d t r a n sfo rm ativ e. RESO URCES F O R C O NTIN UIN G E D UCATIO N T his b rie f lis t c an not d o ju stic e to th e s c o re s o f e x celle n t r e so urc es a v aila b le t o a n yone w illin g to ta k e th e in itia tiv e to s e ek th em o ut; it is in te n ded a s a n e n tr y p oin t.

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Ram se y , a n d J u lie O ls e n E dw ard s, What I f A ll t h e K id s A re W hite ? A nti- Bia s M ultic u ltu ra l E duca tio n w ith Y oung C hild re n a nd F am ilie s ( N ew York : T each ers C olle g e P re ss, 2 006).

12.

J a m elle B ouie , “ W hy D o M ille n nia ls N ot U nders ta n d R acis m ?,” S la te , May 1 6, 2 014, http ://w ww.s la te .c o m /a rtic le s/n ew s_ an d_politic s/p olitic s/2 014/0 5/m ille n nia ls _ ra cis m _an d_m tv _poll_ young_peo ple _ are _ co nfu se d _ab out_ bia s_ pre ju dic e.h tm l 13.

L eslie H . P ic ca a n d J o e R . F eag in , Tw o-F aced R acis m : W hite s i n t h e Backsta ge a nd F ro nts ta ge ( N ew Y ork : T ay lo r a n d F ra n cis , 2 007).

14.

I b id .

CH APT ER 4 : H OW D O ES R ACE S H APE T H E L IV ES O F W HIT E P E O PL E?

1.

C aro le S ch ro ed er a n d R obin D iA ngelo , “ A ddre ssin g W hite n ess i n Nurs in g E ducatio n: T he S ocio politic al C lim ate P ro je ct a t t h e U niv ers ity of W ash in gto n S ch ool o f N urs in g,” Adva nces i n N ursin g S cie n ce 3 3, n o.

3 ( 2 010): 2 44–55.

2.

M elis sa h Y an g, “ K in ds o f S had e,” CN N.c o m , S ep te m ber 1 3, 2 017, http ://w ww.c n n.c o m /2 017/0 9/1 3/e n te rta in m en t/r ih an na-fe n ty -b eau ty - fo undatio n/in dex .h tm l .

3.

M cIn to sh , “ W hite P riv ile g e a n d M ale P riv ile g e.” 4.

P atr ic k R osa l, “ T o t h e L ad y W ho M is to ok M e f o r t h e H elp a t t h e Natio nal B ook A ward s,” Lite ra ry H ub, N ovem ber 1 , 2 017, http ://lith ub.c o m /to -th e-la d y-w ho-m is to ok-m e-fo r-th e-h elp -a t- th e- natio nal- b ook-a w ard s . 5.

M cIn to sh , “ W hite P riv ile g e a n d M ale P riv ile g e.” 6.

I b id .

7.

T he c o m pound c lo se d i n 2 001 a fte r h av in g b een b an kru pte d b y l itig atio n fro m t h e S outh ern P overty L aw C en te r.

8.

M cIn to sh , “ W hite P riv ile g e a n d M ale P riv ile g e.” 9.

S heila M . E ld re d , “ Is T his t h e P erfe ct F ace?,” Dis c o very N ew s, A pril 2 6, 2012.

10.

C hris tin e E . S le ete r, Multic u ltu ra l E duca tio n a s S ocia l A ctiv is m (A lb an y, N Y: S U NY P re ss, 1 996), 1 49.

11.

U nle ss o th erw is e n ote d , t h e i n fo rm atio n i n t h is l is t c o m es f ro m OXFA M , “ A n E co nom y f o r t h e 9 9% ,” b rie fin g p ap er, J a n uary 2 017, http s://w ww.o xfa m .o rg /e n /r e se arc h /e co nom y-9 9 .

12.

B lo om berg B illio nair e ’s I n dex , 2 017, http s://w ww.b lo om berg .c o m /b illio nair e s .

13.

W orld B an k, Annual G DP R ankin gs, r e p ort, 2 017, http ://d ata .w orld ban k.o rg /d ata -c ata lo g/G DP-ra n kin g-ta b le .

14.

B lo om berg B illio nair e ’s I n dex .

15.

M atth ew F . D elm ont, Why B usin g F aile d : R ace, M ed ia , a nd t h e Natio nal R esis ta nce t o S ch ool D ese g re g atio n ( O ak la n d: U niv ers ity o f Calif o rn ia P re ss, 2 016).

16.

J o hnso n a n d S hap ir o , “ G ood N eig hborh oods, G ood S ch ools .” 17.

G eo rg e S . B rid ges a n d S ara S te en , “ R acia l D is p aritie s i n O ffic ia l Asse ssm en ts o f J u ven ile O ffe n ders : A ttr ib utio nal S te re o ty pes a s Med ia tin g M ech an is m s,” Am eric a n S ocio lo gic a l R evie w 6 3, n o. 4 (1 998): 5 54–70.

18.

K elly M . H offm an , “ R acia l B ia s i n P ain A sse ssm en t a n d T re atm en t Reco m men datio ns, a n d F als e B elie fs A bout B io lo gic al D if fe re n ces Betw een B la ck s a n d W hite s,” Pro ceed in gs o f t h e N atio nal A ca dem y o f Scie n ce 1 13, n o. 1 6 ( 2 016): 4 296–4301.

19.

Z eu s L eo nard o, “ T he C olo r o f S upre m acy : B ey ond t h e D is c o urs e o f ‘W hite P riv ile g e,’ ” Educa tio nal P hilo so phy a nd T heo ry 3 6, n o. 2 (2 004): 1 37–52, p ublis h ed o nlin e J a n uary 9 , 2 013.

20.

J a m es B ald w in , r e sp onse t o P au l W eis s, Dic k C avett S how , 1 965, v id eo av aila b le a t http s://w ww.y outu be.c o m /w atc h ?v = _fZ Q Q7o16yQ .

21.

C ase y J . D aw kin s, “ R ecen t E vid en ce o n t h e C ontin uin g C au se s o f Bla ck -W hite R esid en tia l S eg re g atio n,” Jo urn al o f U rb an A ffa ir s 2 6, n o.

3 ( 2 004): 3 79–400; J o hnso n a n d S hap ir o , “ G ood N eig hborh oods, G ood Sch ools .” 22.

A m y S tu art W ells , q uote d i n N ik ole H an nah -J o nes, “ C hoosin g a S ch ool fo r M y D au ghte r i n a S eg re g ate d C ity ,” New Y ork T im es M agazin e , J u ne 9, 2 016, http s://w ww.n ytim es.c o m /2 016/0 6/1 2/m ag azin e/c h oosin g-a - sc h ool- fo r-m y-d au ghte r-in -a -s e g re g ate d -c ity .h tm l .

CH APT ER 5 : T H E G OOD/B A D B IN ARY 1.

B arb ara T re p ag nie r, Sile n t R acis m : H ow W ell- M ea nin g W hite P eo ple Perp etu ate t h e R acia l D iv id e, e x p. e d . ( o rig . 2 006; N ew Y ork :

Para d ig m , 2 010).

2.

O m ow ale A kin tu nde, “ W hite R acis m , W hite S upre m acy , W hite Priv ile g e, a n d t h e S ocia l C onstr u ctio n o f R ace: M ovin g f ro m M odern is t to P ostm odern is t M ultic u ltu ra lis m ,” Multic u ltu ra l E duca tio n 7 , n o. 2 (1 999): 1 .

3.

D erm an -S park s, R am se y , a n d E dw ard s, What I f A ll t h e K id s A re White ? ; D eb ra V an A usd ale a n d J o e R . F eag in , The F ir st R : H ow Child re n L ea rn R ace a nd R acis m ( L an ham , M D: R ow m an & L ittle fie ld , 2001).

4.

M aria B en ed ic ta M onte ir o , D alila X av ie r d e F ra n ça, a n d R ic ard o Rodrig ues, “ T he D ev elo pm en t o f I n te rg ro up B ia s i n C hild hood: H ow Socia l N orm s C an S hap e C hild re n ’s R acia l B eh av io rs ,” In te rn atio nal Jo urn al o f P sy ch olo gy 4 4, n o. 1 ( 2 009): 2 9–39.

5.

V an A usd ale a n d F eag in , The F ir st R .

CH APT ER 6 : A NTI-B LA CK NESS 1.

F ra n tz F an on, Bla ck S kin , W hite M ask s ( N ew Y ork : G ro ve P re ss, 1 952); Toni M orris o n, Pla yin g i n t h e D ark : W hite n ess a nd t h e L ite ra ry Im agin atio n ( N ew Y ork : R an dom H ouse , 1 992).

2.

M ic h elle A le x an der, The N ew J im C ro w : M ass I n ca rc era tio n i n t h e A ge of C olo rb lin dness ( N ew Y ork : N ew P re ss, 2 010); B ertr a n d a n d Mulla in ath an , “ A re E m ily a n d G re g M ore E m plo yab le t h an L ak is h a a n d Ja m al? ”; P hilip O re o poulo s a n d D ia n e D ech ie f, “ W hy D o S om e Em plo yers P re fe r t o I n te rv ie w M atth ew , b ut N ot S am ir ? N ew E vid en ce fro m T oro nto , M ontr e al, a n d V an co uver,” w ork in g p ap er n o. 9 5, Can ad ia n L ab our M ark et a n d S kills R ese arc h er N etw ork , F eb ru ary 2012, http s://p ap ers .s srn .c o m /s o l3 /p ap ers .c fm ?ab str a ct_ id = 2018047 .

3.

S usa n E . R eed , The D iv ersity I n dex: T he A la rm in g T ru th A bout Div ersity i n C orp ora te A m eric a . . . a nd W hat C an B e D one A bout I t (N ew Y ork : A M ACO M , 2 011).

4.

A le x an der, New J im C ro w ; C hau ncee D . S m ith , “ D eco nstr u ctin g t h e Pip elin e: E valu atin g S ch ool- to -P ris o n P ip elin e E qual P ro te ctio n C ase s Thro ugh a S tr u ctu ra l R acis m F ra m ew ork ,” Ford ham U rb an L aw Jo urn al 3 6 ( 2 009): 1 009; P am ela F en nin g a n d J e n nif e r R ose , “O verre p re se n ta tio n o f A fric an A m eric an S tu den ts i n E xclu sio nary Dis c ip lin e: T he R ole o f S ch ool P olic y ,” Urb an E duca tio n 4 2, n o. 6 (2 007): 5 36–59; S ean N ic h ols o n C ro tty , Z ach ary B ir c h m eie r, a n d D av id Vale n tin e, “ E xplo rin g t h e I m pact o f S ch ool D is c ip lin e o n R acia l Dis p ro portio n i n t h e J u ven ile J u stic e S yste m ,” Socia l S cie n ce Q uarte rly 90, n o. 4 ( 2 009): 1 003–18; R . P atr ic k S olo m on a n d H ow ard P alm er, “B la ck B oys T hro ugh t h e S ch ool- P ris o n P ip elin e: W hen R acia l Pro filin g a n d Z ero T ole ra n ce C ollid e,” i n In clu sio n i n U rb an Educa tio nal E nvir o nm en ts : A ddre ssin g I s su es o f D iv ersity , E quity , a nd Socia l J u stic e, e d . D en is e E . A rm str o ng a n d B re n da J . M cM ah on (C harlo tte , N C: I n fo rm atio n A ge P ublis h in g, 2 006), 1 91–212.

5.

F or t h e 7 p erc en t c u to ff a n d w hite f lig ht, s e e B onilla -S ilv a, Racis m With out R acis ts .

F or d eclin in g h ousin g d em an d, s e e L in co ln Q uillia n , “W hy I s B la ck -W hite R esid en tia l S eg re g atio n S o P ers is te n t? E vid en ce on T hre e T heo rie s f ro m M ig ra tio n D ata ,” Socia l S cie n ce R ese a rc h 3 1, no. 2 ( 2 002): 1 97–229.

6.

C oate s, “ T he C ase f o r R ep ara tio ns.” 7.

M en ak em , My G ra ndm oth er’s H ands, 7 .

8.

T a-N eh is i C oate s, “ T he F ir s t W hite P re sid en t: T he F oundatio n o f Donald T ru m p’s P re sid en cy I s t h e N eg atio n o f B ara ck O bam a’s Leg acy ,” Atla ntic , O cto ber 2 017, http s://w ww.t h eatla n tic .c o m /m ag azin e/a rc h iv e/2 017/1 0/th e-fir s t- w hite - pre sid en t- ta -n eh is i- c o ate s/5 37909 .

9.

S here n e R azack , Lookin g W hite P eo ple i n t h e E ye: G en der, R ace, a nd Cultu re i n C ourtr o om s a nd C la ssro om s ( T oro nto : U niv ers ity o f T oro nto Pre ss, 1 998).

10.

C aro l A nders o n, White R age: T he U nsp oken T ru th o f O ur R acia l D iv id e (N ew Y ork : B lo om sb ury , 2 016).

11.

T he i d eo lo gie s i n t h is l is t a re m odif ie d f ro m a l is t i n Ö zle m S en so y a n d Robin D iA ngelo , Is E very o ne R ea lly E qual? A n I n tr o ductio n t o K ey Concep ts i n C ritic a l S ocia l J u stic e E duca tio n, 2 nd e d . ( N ew Y ork :

Teach ers C olle g e P re ss, 2 017), 2 09. CH APT ER 7 : R ACIA L T R IG GER S F O R W HIT E P E O PL E 1.

M ic h elle F in e, “ W itn essin g W hite n ess,” i n Off W hite : R ea din gs o n Race, P ow er, a nd S ocie ty , e d . M ic h elle F in e, L ois W eis , L in da P ow ell Pru itt, a n d A pril B urn s ( N ew Y ork : R outle d ge, 1 997), 5 7.

2.

P ie rre B ourd ie u , The F ie ld o f C ultu ra l P ro ductio n: E ssa ys o n A rt a nd Lite ra tu re , e d . R an dal J o hnso n ( N ew Y ork : C olu m bia U niv ers ity P re ss, 1993).

3.

B ourd ie u t e rm ed t h ese r u le s o f e ach f ie ld ’s g am e “ d oxa.” 4.

P ie rre B ourd ie u , Dis tin ctio n: A S ocia l C ritiq ue o f t h e J u dgem en t o f Taste ( C am brid ge, M A: H arv ard U niv ers ity P re ss, 1 984), 1 70.

5.

I b id .

CH APT ER 8 : T H E R ESU LT: W HIT E F R AG IL IT Y 1.

D on G onyea, “ M ajo rity o f W hite A m eric an s S ay T hey B elie v e W hite s Face D is c rim in atio n,” N PR , O cto ber 2 4, 2 017, http s://w ww.n pr.o rg /2 017/1 0/2 4/5 59604836/m ajo rity -o f-w hite - am eric an s-th in k-th ey re -d is c rim in ate d -a g ain st .

2.

K en neth B . C la rk , Pre ju dic e a nd Y our C hild ( B osto n: B eaco n P re ss, 1963); D erm an -S park s, R am se y , a n d E dw ard s, What I f A ll t h e K id s A re White ?

3.

D eb ia n M arty , “ W hite A ntir a cis t R heto ric a s A polo gia : W en dell B erry ’s The H id den W ound ,” i n White n ess: T he C om munic a tio n o f S ocia l Id en tity , e d . T hom as N ak ay am a a n d J u dith M artin ( T housa n d O ak s, C A :

Sag e, 1 999), 5 1.

4.

I b id .; T . A . V an D ijk , “ D is c o urs e a n d t h e D en ia l o f R acis m ,” Dis c o urse and S ocie ty 3 , n o. 1 ( 1 992): 8 7–118.

5.

D iA ngelo a n d S en so y, “ G ettin g S la m med .” 6.

M orris o n, Pla yin g i n t h e D ark .

7.

B onilla -S ilv a, Racis m W ith out R acis ts , 6 8.

8.

R ic h V odde, “ D e-C en te rin g P riv ile g e i n S ocia l W ork E ducatio n: W hose Jo b I s I t A nyw ay ?,” Jo urn al o f R ace, G en der a nd C la ss 7 , n o. 4 ( 2 001):

139–60.

CH APT ER 1 1: W HIT E W OM EN ’S T EA RS 1.

S ee, f o r e x am ple , S ta cey P atto n, “ W hite W om en , P le ase D on’t E xpect Me t o W ip e A way Y our T ears ,” Dam e, D ecem ber 1 5, 2 014, http ://w ww.d am em ag azin e.c o m /2 014/1 2/1 5/w hite -w om en -p le ase -d ont- ex pect- m e-w ip e-a w ay -y our-te ars . 2.

I b id .

CH APT ER 1 2: W HER E D O W E G O F R O M H ER E?

1.

L ord e, “ T he U se s o f A nger.” ABO UT T H E A UTH OR R O BIN D IA NGELO is a n a cad em ic , e d ucato r, a n d a u th or w ork in g in th e f ie ld s o f c ritic al d is c o urs e a n aly sis a n d w hite n ess stu die s. S he fo rm erly se rv ed a s a t e n ure d p ro fe sso r o f m ultic u ltu ra l e d ucatio n a t W estf ie ld S ta te U niv ers ity a n d a le ctu re r at th e U niv ers ity o f W ash in gto n, w here sh e tw ic e re ceiv ed th e S tu den t’ s C hoic e A ward f o r E ducato r o f th e Y ear f ro m th e S ch ool o f S ocia l W ork . D iA ngelo h as b een a c o nsu lta n t a n d t r a in er f o r m ore t h an t w en ty y ears o n is su es o f ra cia l an d so cia l ju stic e. S he h as n um ero us p ublic atio ns an d b ooks, in clu din g What D oes I t M ea n to B e W hite ? D evelo pin g W hite R acia l L ite ra cy.

H er o rig in al a rtic le , “ W hite F ra g ility ,” w hic h is th e b asis fo r th is b ook, h as in flu en ced th e n atio nal d ia lo gue o n r a ce a n d b een c ite d in th e New Y ork T im es , Colo rlin es , Salo n, t h e Atla ntic , a n d o n N PR .

B EA CO N P R ESS B osto n, M assa ch use tts w ww.b eaco n.o rg B eaco n P re ss b ooks a re p ublis h ed u nder t h e a u sp ic es o f t h e U nita ria n U niv ers a lis t A sso cia tio n o f C ongre g atio ns.

T ex t d esig n a n d c o m positio n b y K im A rn ey P arts o f t h is b ook h av e b een a d ap te d f ro m R obin D iA ngelo i n The G ood M en P ro je ct ( h ttp s://g oodm en pro je ct.c o m ): “ W hite F ra g ility a n d t h e Q uestio n o f T ru st,” O cto ber 3 , 2 016; “ W hite W om en ’s T ears a n d t h e M en W ho L ove T hem ,” S ep te m ber 1 9, 2 015; a n d “ W hite F ra g ility a n d t h e R ule s o f E ngag em en t,” J u ne 1 3, 2 015; f ro m R obin D iA ngelo , What D oes I t M ea n t o B e W hite ?

D evelo pin g W hite R acia l L ite ra cy ( N ew Y ork : P ete r L an g, 2 016); a n d f ro m R obin D iA ngelo , “ W hite F ra g ility ,” In te rn atio nal J o urn al o f C ritic a l P ed agogy 3 , n o. 2 ( 2 011): 5 4–70.

L ib ra ry o f C ongre ss C ata lo gin g-in -P ublic a tio n D ata N am es: D iA ngelo , R obin J ., a u th or.

T itle : W hite f ra g ility : w hy i t’ s s o h ard t o t a lk t o w hite p eo ple a b out r a cis m / R obin D iA ngelo .

D esc rip tio n: B osto n : B eaco n P re ss, [ 2 018] | I n clu des b ib lio gra p hic al r e fe re n ces.

I d en tif ie rs : L C CN 2 018003562 ( p rin t) | L C CN 2 018005578 ( e b ook) | I S B N 9 780807047422 ( e b ook) | IS B N 9 780807047415 ( p bk. : a lk . p ap er) S ubje cts : L C SH : R acis m . | W hite s. | R ace r e la tio ns.

C la ssif ic atio n: L C C H T1521 ( e b ook) | L C C H T1521 .D 486 2 018 ( p rin t) | D DC 3 05.8 — dc2 3 L C r e co rd a v aila b le a t http s://lc cn .l o c.g ov/2 018003562