Your final assessment invites you to explore a theme/topic from the second half of the quarter through the analysis of a peer-reviewed journal article. You will begin by identifying a broad theme/topi
Chapter Five Lecture: Media Organizations & Professionals
Note: Please click on all supplemental links as part of this lecture; the videos and articles provided will assist with your understanding of this chapter.
Key Questions:
1. How do the organizational constraints of media firms influence media professionals and production?
2. What are "conventions" and how do they help us understand the work of media professionals?
3. What is the relationship between news routines and the organizationof news gathering? Why do reporters and news organizations develop such news routines?
Themes:
5.1 Political Constraints & Response
5.2 Economic Constraints & Strategies
5.3 Organization of News Media
5.4 Coronavirus Beat & Jesse Paul Guest Lecture
5.5 Objectivity, Fake News & Deep Fakes
5.1 Political Constraints & Response
Now that you are familiar with the economic (for-profit structure) and political (government regulations) forces that constrain the media industry, it is important to think about how media professionals operatewithin those structural constraints. Remember, there is a tensionbetween structure (economic and political constraints) and agency(choices made by media professionals) in the media industry rather than a dictatorship. The authors of your offer an adapted quote from philosopher Karl Marx at the beginning of the chapter, and it's worth revisiting that statement: " ... media professionals make their own products, but they do not make them just as they please; they do not make them under circumstances chosen by themselves but under circumstances directly found, given, and transmitted from the past" (p. 152).
So how do media professionals respond to this structure-agency dynamic? Take a moment to think about the choices you'd make as a journalist, for example, at a newspaper that has just been purchased by a large conglomerate. You want to keep your job and don't want to "rock the boat" by publishing a story about a labor scandal occurring at another holding (subsidiary) within the conglomerate. What do you do? Here, the economic constraints of the media industry have limited your choices; the obvious choice seems that you do not run the story, keep your job, and find another interesting story to report. But you could also talk to a journalist from alternative news media company (outside of the conglomerate) and ask that they run it. Or you could speak with your editor and make the case that this story is, indeed, important to run, although it may be a conflict of interest. In the end, you have choices (agency) within constraints; the main point here is that your agency has become somewhat limited (this is called "circumscribed agency") when you work within a structure.
In response to political constraints (i.e., regulation), media professionals typically adopt the following five strategies:
1. Compliance (easiest strategy) - Avoids conflict with regulators;
2. Preemption (public form of self-regulation) - Used by film, television, music and video gaming industries;
3. Interpretation (inventive ways to "skirt" rules) - Reading regulations in ways that match personal/ideological and business-related agendas;
4. Ignore (take advantage of bureaucracy of the Federal Communications Commission) - Not adhering to the regulation and hope;
5. Challenge (Lobby for political change) - Media companies can engage in legal strategies (challenging constitutionality) or political strategies (lobbying).
Example: Compliance & Embedded Journalism
Because of the substantial amount of sensitive information that occurs during wartime - including classified information related to defense strategy as well as information about policy negotiations - journalistsfind themselves regulated by the government when reporting about military interventions. During the Persian Gulf war in 1991, the government mandated that reporters receive information through a press pool system (each news media outlet designated one journalist to attend press conferences and travel to war zones) and military censors had to ultimately approve of stories before they ran in newspapers or were broadcast. Not surprisingly, the news media industry were disappointed by this and felt this was overly protective despite the public's need and right to information about the country's military actions.
In response to this, the government shifted their regulation for the Iraq war in 2003 and began the embedded journalist program. Here, chosen reporters had to sign contracts with the military promising not to compromise confidential military operations, locations, etc. and were then invited to base camps, envoys and other operations to cover the story. Although this seems/seemed to be an improvement, criticism about "propaganda" emerged: If journalists had to stay with US military, what about the other side of the story? What about civilian accounts? If a journalist criticized the strategy, would they be granted access again; therefore, do they have to stay supportive in fear of losing their status as an embedded journalist?
Chelsea Manning, a US army solider (who was sentenced to 35 years in prison for leaking classified documents to WikiLeaks, but was commuted by President Obama and only served 7 years), felt that the embedded journalism program was, indeed, propaganda. Her decision to leak documents in 2010 was found in violation of the Espionage Act, yet she felt that she was acting on behalf of media freedom. She explains her decision, as well as the embedded journalism program in an Opinion piece for The New York Times. Here is the link to that compelling argument:
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/15/opinion/sunday/chelsea-manning-the-us-militarys-campaign-against-media-freedom.html (Links to an external site.).
Take a moment to think about this tension between structure and agency? Do you think the embedded journalism program needs to be revised? How?
On the one hand, we have Manning, who was interested in getting out the truth, while famed NBC Nightly News news anchor Brian Williamsused his embedded journalist status to circulate an embellished storyand boost his credibility as someone that "experienced war." Many of you might be familiar with this story, but as a recap, Williams claimed (on many occasions, including on The Late Show with David Letterman) that he was embedded with SEAL Team 6 in 2003 and experienced an attack while he was on a helicopter with them. Since 2003, his story has changed and facts have been confused; ultimately, NBC decided to suspend him due to issues related to objectivity and credibility. As you read in this chapter, objectivity is extremely important in the news industry. Here is a video that includes his apology and evolving story:
Brian Williams' evolving story on Iraq 2003 | Mashable (Links to an external site.)
Here is a story from The New York Times that covered his apology and its implications:
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/06/business/brian-williamss-apology-over-iraq-account-is-challenged.html (Links to an external site.)
The following is a link to an episode of All Things Considered on NPR; this is a discussion about this scandal and the fundamental role that news anchors play. Please either listen or read the transcript:
http://www.npr.org/2015/02/12/385793965/brian-williams-case-raises-fundamental-questions-about-an-anchors-role (Links to an external site.)
5.2 Economic Constraints & Strategies
So how do media producers make independent decisions (agency) while also making sure to generate profit? There are two fundamental points of tension that they must confront: (1) the high cost of producing media; (2) the unpredictability of audience taste. Therefore, producers rely on strategies that involve structured decision-making, which allows them to use their expertise while also conforming to the needs of the media industry. There are five common strategies:
1. Imitation (this is directly related to the "logic of safety," which we discussed earlier this quarter)
2. Stars/Celebrities as "Hit System"
3. Creation of "Hit" programming
4. Using stars to combat uncertainty
5. "Convergence culture"
The most common strategy is imitation. According to Croteau & Hoynes (2019), "Perhaps the most common strategy mainstream commercial media companies use to increase the odds of success is to imitate products that have already been successful. Variations on this strategy including copying the sound of current hit bands, remaking hit movies, making sequels to previous film hits, and signing producers of recent hits. The underlying assumption in these cases is that hits and their makers beget more hits" (p. 156).
Back in 2009, Vh1, a Viacom-owned network made famous for its music video and news-heavy content, branched out and created "Celebreality"programming, which focused on the intersection of celebrity, competition, and day-to-day living: Rock of Love and Flavor of Love were the first shows within this strategy. (Click here (Links to an external site.) for an article related to this strategy). Can you think of other programming, between 2009 and 2020 that has "imitated" this strategy? In our current reality programming menu, many of the programs that are the most successful center on the lives of celebrities, in a "competitive" format or not: Keeping Up with the Kardashians, The Real Housewives franchise, and many other shows on networks such as MTV, E!, Vh1, and Bravo are examples of this trend. "Celebreality" has become a successful format that draws on the public's interest in celebrity culture, upward mobility, and reality programming.
Another established trend in filmmaking that has been largely credited to Judd Apatow was the "bromance" film; examples include, 40-Year-Old Virgin (2005), Superbad (2007), I Love You, Man (2009), and even The Wolf of Wall Street (2013). How might we tie the increase in this type of narrative to cultural experience? Are more males experiencing friendship, or, is society becoming more comfortable in their acceptance and discussion of male bonding? Remember, questions about media production and cultural context are extremely important.
Now think about the choices that media professionals have when it comes to casting. Remember, producers need to make money and producing media is expensive, so one choice that they can make is to seek out a successful actor ("Hit System") in order to combat the uncertainty of success. We can use Viola Davis as an example, who won an Oscar in 2017 for her performance in Fences:
How to Get away with Murder (ABC: 2014-8)
Top-rated, prime-time television series from producer Shonda Rhimes
Fences (2016)
Worldwide Gross: $64,098,857
Academy Awards/Oscars acceptance speech:
Viola Davis Oscars Acceptance Speech for 'Fences' | Oscars 2017 (Links to an external site.) The Help (2011)
Opening Weekend: $26,044,590; Worldwide Gross: $216,639,112
(Source: IMDB (Links to an external site.))
If you were making a movie, would you hire Academy Award-winning Viola Davis? While yes, there are many decisions regarding the role, etc., many film producers would consider an actor with money-making power like her over an up-and-coming actor with less of a profit-making resume/name recognition. However, Davis and others have pointed out that many actresses of color have experienced fewer opportunities in Hollywood, and even Davis herself - despite being part of the "hit system" because of her success - is not included on the Forbes list of the 10 "highest-paid" actresses of 2019:
https://www.forbes.com/sites/maddieberg/2019/08/27/top-earning-actresses/#66b148d35b79 (链接到外部网站。)
5.3 Organization of News Media
There are interesting dynamics within any media industry, and the production of news is no exception. Not only do these media professionals have to contend with economic and political constraints, they must also must determine what news is and information is relevant when producing a story about that news event.
At first, answering the question "what is news," might seem relatively simple, but think about what stories make it to a newspaper, a podcast, a website, or broadcast, Twitter, and what don't. The question of "newsworthiness" is connected to ownership of the news media company, the demographics of its consumers, the proximity of the possible "newsworthy" item to the consumer - but is now also complicated by the issue of consumer trust and "fake news." Think about which stories make it to the front page. Think about which stories get a full or half page and which stories get one or two paragraphs. All of these considerations are part of gatekeeping, the practice of considering what is newsworthy. These economic and political decisions are part of the production of news, therefore, the news industry have created strategies, or conventions, in response to the complicated task of organizing and navigating this professional field.
Conventions: "Practice or technique that is widely used in a field ... They are the result of the routinization of work by media professionals and partially a consequence of professional education and job training (p. 162)."
Bureaus: "News organizations will have staff in places they define as important; for example, Washington, DC and London, England, but not Houston , Texas or Nairobi, Kenya. As a result, happenings in and around those predefined important places are more likely to become news, whereas happenings outside of these areas are more likely to be ignored (p. 164)."
Beats: "News organizations establish 'beats' at prominent organizations where news can be expected to occur ... Beats are central to how reporters 'detect' events, but each beat covers so much potential territory that reporters have to develop strategies for detecting the newsworthy events" (p. 165).
Rounds: "The process by which beat reporters develop schedules for visiting locations and talking to sources that are likely to produce news" (p. 165). Note: This is the strategy that helps reporters detect newsworthy events.
Beats and rounds are examples of journalistic conventions. However, some criticize this practice because anytime you enter a routine and rely on "official" sources, you may miss stories off the beaten path or sources that many not be "official" (government workers, lawyers, academics, etc.), yet have interesting and important stories. This is one reason why user-generated media, social media accounts and citizen journalismhave become increasingly popular and essential to democracy.
Sometimes beats emerge due to emerging cultural trends in a specific area; for example, a beat on Hollywood is more popular for the LA Times than in the Chicago Tribune. It is no surprise that in Denverpublications, there is now, typically, a journalist that covers the cannabis beat; for example, Ricardo Baca was the founding Marijuana Editor of The Denver Post and created the section "The Cannabist", but due to cuts and layoffs at the paper, the section (beat) was shut down in 2018 and is no longer affiliated with (or staffed by) The Denver Post.
5.4 Coronavirus Beat & Jesse Paul Guest Lecture
Another example of a beat emerging due to cultural and historical trends is coverage of the novel coronavirus and COVID-19. This is a local, national, and global issue, and reporters are faced with tracking a public health emergency (pandemic) as it unfolds, and many of these journalists are not experts in this area. They are faced with many challenges, including the need to develop familiarity with science jargon, including the interpretation of models and forecasting, as well as the inability to witness events or interview people face-to-face (due to contact/infection issues).
For several years, I've invited Colorado Sun politics reporter Jesse Paul(who used to report for The Denver Post) to this course to discuss his experiences as a journalist, and for this quarter, I've asked him to record a lecture where he explores how he's navigated reporting on the coronavirus. Please screen the following video:
https://youtu.be/7wgzQsIovnk (链接到外部网站。)
Paul mentions that the shift from politics to covering the coronavirus has been challenging, but he's dedicated to "getting it right" despite issues of safety and access. This dedication to "getting it right" is directly connected to the convention of objectivity.
Note: Here is the link to "Write On, Colorado" that he mentions in the video; I encourage you all to submit, whether you're a journalism student or not: https://coloradosun.com/writeon/ (链接到外部网站。)
5.5 Objectivity, Fake News & Deep Fakes
Another convention that is essential to the production of news is objectivity, which began as a scientific-based strategy after journalists realized how effective propaganda was during WWI and the rise of public relations (the "spin doctor" version). In other words, journalists believed they had to be extremely fact-based and provide information that was verifiable and based on a scientific method versus opinion and value-laden reporting. Since that time, objectivity has been intensely debated in the news media community for the simple reason that journalists make decisions throughout their reporting, so can it truly be value-free? In other words, decisions are subjective, so the photos, sources, writing, and placement of a story are all become value-laden as well.
As Croteau & Hoynes (2019) point out, "News, therefore, is the product of a social process through which media personnel make decisions about what is newsworthy and what is not, about who is important and who is not, and about what views are to be included and what views can be dismissed" (p. 173).
Journalists, then, have concluded that objectivity, as a convention, is more of a method, or strategy, when producing the news. But there is also the issue of promoting the idea of those in power, which Croteau & Hoynes (2019) point out: "Thus, 'objective' journalism, by highlighting the views and activities of officials, can be seen on balance to favor those in power" (p. 173). The Society for Professional Journalists link objectivity to "ethical journalism" and have created a Code of Ethicsthat is widely used in American newsrooms. Please visit their website and familiarize yourself with the Code: (Links to an external site.)
http://www.spj.org/ethicscode.asp (Links to an external site.)
So what about facts? Since journalists make decisions and the "truth" is always debatable, how do we know that journalists are working toward objectivity? Remember, facts are obtained through a process called verification:
1. Never add anything that was not there;
2. Never deceive the audience;
3. Be as transparent as possible about your methods/motivation;
4. Rely on your own original reporting
Source: American Press Institute (Links to an external site.)
Alternative Journalism, on the other hand, is the practice of playing an active role in advancing causes - including social justice issues - rather than trying to separate "fact" from ethical and political standpoints. Here are some examples of this type of journalism, which is often compared to the progressive muckraking tradition. They often cover topics and incorporate sources from groups that are excluded from the mainstream corporate media. As you can see, some of these forms can be very partisan, and some argue that they don't represent "true" journalism. Check out the links and decide for yourself:
https://www.motherjones.com/ (Links to an external site.)
https://www.democracynow.org/ (Links to an external site.)
https://www.breitbart.com/ (Links to an external site.) (Note: Many argue that Brietbart is not considered "journalism," but this is up to you to decide)
Trained journalists at major national, regional, and local publications typically go through a series of steps before they land a job at a news organization: undergraduate degree, internship, development of a portfolio/clips, sometimes graduate school, entry-level position to gain experience, etc. Most journalists enter the profession with their own point of view, but are also trained to support the gathering of facts and information in order to inform the public. Now yes, journalists will often make value judgements (after all, they decide who to interview, what questions to ask them, what information is most important), but if they present information in a one-sided way, this is problematic. These experience contribute to the socialization process (learning the "ground rules") for a of role, " ... the bundles of expectations that are associated with different social positions" (p. 175). Some consumers like this (think Mother Jones or Brietbart), but often, the public is interested in balanced information. This also depends on whether or not a journalist is employed by an organization that is owned by a conglomerate.Remember Jemele Hill? As an ESPN sports reporter, she posted tweets that were critical of the Trump administration, and because ESPN is owned by The Walt Disney Company, they had an obligation to make sure that the company remained on-brand (welcoming versus critical) and she was reprimanded:
https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2018/01/04/564405968/ask-code-switch-food-culture (Links to an external site.)
Now, back to fake news, which was discussed at length earlier this quarter. This term has evolved over the last couple years; at one point "fake news" was a term used to describe news that was absolutely false and unsubstantiated (see Pizzagate) and now it is used as a term to describe points of view that do not line up with your own. Overall, "fake news" has been weaponized in our political sphere, and its important to not assume that all journalists produce "fake news"; rather, we can think about the contemporary news landscape as political motivated, complicated by ownership, and it is our democratic duty to read a variety of sources, locate the ownership of the news organizations we trust, and support local journalism.
As a reaction to the proliferation of fake news, several media organizations have adopted ways for users to "flag" fake news; for example, Facebook has an option for users to indicate that a story is "fake news":
There is also the issue of "deep fakes," which are typically videos that have been doctored to look authentic, but may be pushing a particular political, policy or even entertainment-based agenda. Here is an example of a deep fake from WYYC's Radiolab:
Future of Fake News (hi-res) (Links to an external site.)
So in an effort to maintain objectivity in the production of news, there have been different ways that users and policymakers have responded to the issue of "fake news" - but one of the concerns is censorship. What if someone on FB deems a story to be "fake" because they similarly just don't agree? As the world continues to grapple with the spread of information that has resulted from digital communication and social media, as well as the increasing politicization of news organizations, the reality of how to confront "fake news" is ongoing. Take a moment to think about whether you've recently deemed a story to be "fake news" - why was it fake? How did you determine that it was fake? What sources helped you recognize that it was fake? Who owned that source? Again, questioning and critical thinking are key here - especially in a democracy. Objectivity is a goal - journalists aren't perfect - so my recommendation is always to learn more about the organizations you support (whether it be CNN, the Chicago Tribune, or Fox News) and how ownership, profit and politics may play into newsworthiness and objectivity.
Check this out: https://www.thefakenewsgenerator.com/ (Links to an external site.)
Note: If you are interested in learning more about operations within journalism and the state of the journalism industry (and if you were a fan of David Carr), I recommend that you screen Page One: Inside the New York Times. It is not a requirement that you watch it, but it provides important insight to the experience of print journalism. Here is a link to the film's website and you can view the trailer there as well: http://www.magpictures.com/pageone/ (Links to an external site.)
Chapter Six & Seven Lecture: Ideology, Social Inequality & Media Representations
Note: Please click on all supplemental links as part of this lecture; the videos and articles provided will assist with your understanding of Chapters Six & Seven.
Key Questions:
1. Why are those who examine the "ideology" of mass media generally wary of inquiry about the "reality" of media images?
2. What are the dominant ideologies behind media content?
3. How do social inequalities translate to media images?
4. What are the common stereotypes of race, gender and class in media? Where to these stereotypes come from?
Themes:
6.1 Defining Ideology & Hegemony
6.2 Ideology & media representations of women in sport
6.3 Ideological Analysis
7.1 Understanding Representation
7.2 Researching Content and Critical Cultural Studies
7.3 Application: Race, Media & Current Events
This module relates to two chapters in Croteau & Hoynes (2019) ,so please read the following selections from Chap. 6 & 7:
Read: Chap. 6 (pp. 190-202; 208-213; p. 224); Chap 7 (pp. 225-228; p. 231; 233--251; pp. 262-266)
6.1 Defining ideology & hegemony
The sixth chapter of your textbook begins by asking you to reflect on media messages and the ways they articulate and symbolize what is "appropriate" and how issues are defined, including success and criminal activity. The authors then make an association with such messages and the notion of ideology, which Croteau & Hoynes (2019) define as:
" ... basically a system of meaning that helps define and explain the world and that makes value judgments about that world. Ideology is related to concepts such as worldview, belief system, and values, but it is broader than those terms. It refers not only to the beliefs held about the world but also to the basic ways in which the world is defined. Ideology, then, is not just about politics; it has a broader and more fundamental connotation" (p. 191).
The key to understanding ideology is this: Ideologies are often distortions of "reality" that have been constructed by those in power,or the dominant class in any given culture/historical period. Many critical theorists contend that ideologies are belief systems that help justify the actions of those in power. In this view, the dominant class (those with power, including elected officials, CEOs, wealthy elite, etc.) creates and supports definitions, rules, policies, behaviors and ways of life that, in time, become "normal" or "deviant" to the rest of society and become unquestioned.
The authors (2019) pose this essential question: "Which aspects of whose 'reality' do we define as the most real?" (p. 191). If there is a constructed "story" of what life should be, and we have consistent access to it via mass, mainstream media, does this "story" then become normal, and aspirational?
This process by which ideologies (systems of meaning) become "normalized" is hegemony (see page 197-200 of your textbook for a discussion of this concept). Think about it this way: We typically do not know that we are socialized to consent to ideologies (hegemony), and typically think of our beliefs as "just the way it is." Do you have any strong beliefs that you've never questioned? Have you ever questioned why you think you should wear a white wedding dress? Have you ever questioned why it's abnormal for men to wear dresses? If you have not questioned these issues (and it's completely fine if you haven't), then you have experienced the process of hegemony; you have consented to dominant ideologies and have supported them over your lifetime. Remember, Gramsci argues that hegemony describes a form of power - cultural leadership - that is won by consent; " ... ruling groups in a society actively seek to have their worldview accepted by all members of society as the university way of thinking. Institutions such as schools, religion, and media help the powerful exercise this cultural leadership because they are the sites where we produce and reproduce ways of thinking about society" (p. 197).
Remember, media is a "contested" site of meaning-making, where different ideological perspectives engage in struggle. So, for example, some television programming may reinforce dominant beliefs about race and criminality, there will also be programs that disrupt these meanings.
The following applies the above terminology to a dominant, persuasive, and powerful industry:
Example: The Beauty Industry
Ideology: Women are the more "beautiful" sex and should maintain their appearance at all times.
Hegemony: Advertisers offer messages about products, procedures, and standards of beauty that change over time and meet the innovations (i.e., new technology, new color palates, trends) of the historical period.
Norms: Wearing make-up is common; plastic surgery is not harmful; you will receive more attention if you adhere to beauty standards set by the beauty industry.
Below, you'll find two advertisements, side-by-side, that illustrate this point; the ad on the left is from the 1980s and the one on on the right from 2000s; while they both draw from different aesthetic palettes and language (this is the historical change bit), they both include the underlying, hegemonic message that women should make sure their lashes are attended to, have volume, etc.
Continuing with the topic of gender ideology, think about which feminine and masculine characteristics have been deemed inappropriate, appropriate, good, bad, etc. Through the socialization of gender ideology (hegemony), we have all come to understand particular "feminine" characteristics (remember, the designation that a characteristic is feminine is a construction itself) as "good" (delicate, beautiful, caring, loving, etc.) while some are "bad" (too emotional, irrational, jealous, etc.). Now think about masculine characteristics and which are culturally "good" or "bad" - how has this shifted over time? Scholars and activists focus on "toxic masculinity," or socially constructed norms that the masculine gender is naturally more aggressive (including sexually) and violent, unemotional and ultimately more dominant, which may be harmful to men themselves as well as women and society.
This article goes into greater detail about toxic masculinity: https://www.verveup.com/shesaid/toxic-masculinity-a-feminist-issue (链接到外部网站。).
We can also think about this in terms of what is "normal"; in other words, what is "normal femininity" and what is "normal masculinity" and how does that relate to how LGBTQ identities and presentations have been questioned? Increasingly, the boundaries of normalcy (created by gender ideology) have been confronted and disrupted, but the dominant idea of "femininity" is often policed in mainstream media culture. Think about the ways that women are often policed.
6.2 Ideology & media representations of women in sport
The boundaries of normalcy created and reinforced by dominant ideologies of gender in relation to sport are discussed in this video lecture:
6.2 Ideological Analysis
Media analysts are particularly interested in how ideology works in the media industry because media have become so ubiquitous and pervasive in our everyday lives. For example: What messages have become normalized? Which networks support dominant ideologies? Because ideologies are typically taken for granted, media analysts work hard to "demystify" ideological messages; they identify them, explain them, and hope that the public will start to recognize them. This demystification process is directly tied to the Marxist project, which works against "false consciousness" - the result of individuals being unaware that their consciousness has been constructed by those in power, and that their ideas did not match their own (economic) interests. Contemporary analyses of ideology to not necessarily believe that we are all living under "false consciousness" because this theory fails to account for agency at any level; rather, analysis now focus on struggle, negotiation, and a more dynamic conceptualization of the role dominant beliefs in our lives.
When examining media products for ideology (ideological analysis),analysts work to uncover underlying images/stories of society that have been normalized within reoccurring patterns (rather than one example). According to Croteau & Hoynes (2019), "For ideological analysis, the key is the fit between the images and words in a specific media text and broader ways of thinking about, or even defining, social and cultural issues" (p. 192).
Take a moment to think about dominant beliefs regarding the (extremely diverse) Latino/x community (also referred to as "Hispanic" in the United States; this term was created by the US Census). Where do you receive your information about Latino/x experiences? About Latino/x cultures? Do you receive most of your information from media and is it centered on issues related to immigration? Do you find that the terms "Latino/x" and "undocumented immigrant" are often conflated in mainstream media? Which media companies work hard to humanize this diverse racial group? How has the recent coverage of the Mexican border associate with "refugee" and "concentration" camps highlighted the ways that dominant beliefs influence policy?
Recently, the issue of immigration, particularly as it relates to Latino/x populations, has been at the forefront of the news cycle due to questions surrounding the separation of children from families, our zero-tolerance immigration policy at the border, questions surrounding seeking asylum, and the conditions of ICE detention centers.
Take a moment to watch this short op-ed video, "A Conversation with Latinos About Race" and pay attention to the diverse experiences and interpretations discussed. How do these reflections differ from dominant representations you see in mainstream media?
https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/29/opinion/a-conversation-with-latinos-on-race.html (Links to an external site.)
7.1 Understanding Representation
Critiquing media representations is very common; you've most likely, at some point, thought to yourself that the way a character or narrative was constructed was problematic. Chapter 7 describes how media representations and "the real world" and have found that there are discrepancies between the two; given our sociological interest in power, relationships, and structure, analyzing re-presentations of the social world is extremely important. Think about this question for a moment: "How do media representations of the social world compare to the external 'real' world'?" Think about representations you see of the following identities: Do any media characters/representations come to mind? What programs are they on? Are there some identities that you cannot link to a media representation?
1. Gay, working-class, male
2. Trans woman of color
3. Latina, upper-class, mother
4. White, able-bodied, teenager
Each of these identities exist in the "real world" and are layered, complex and individualistic; meaning, that not all "gay, working-class males" act the same way. Or, not all "white, able-bodied teenagers" act the same way. These identities are also examples of intersectionality, which is multilayered social identities related to race, gender and gender identity, sexuality, class, religion, dis/ability, etc., which contribute to a specific type of systemic oppression and discrimination experienced by an individual.
Yet, we often find that these identities are represented in common ways and particular aspects of their identities become amplified over others; this is how stereotypes are formed. For example, think again about the gay male identity, what are common characteristics you see in media representations? Do you think this is an accurate description of all gay males in the "real world?" Is is possible to media texts to even be accurate?
Now take a step back and think about economic and political constraints on the media industry; profit and regulation play a role in the production of representations. In the early 1990s, when the first programs that included gay males aired (Queer Eye for the Straight Guy; Will & Grace), there was an overwhelming portrayal of gay men as fashionable, fabulous, and feminine because this portrayal was "non-threatening" and therefore attractive to advertisers. There have been advances, but do we still see traces of this stereotype in contemporary television? For those you who have seen the updated, Netflix version of Queer Eye, do you feel that the "fab five" represent the dynamism of queer men in the United States? Does this show at least try to do this, given the fact that five men can't possibly represent all of the queer community?
One of big issues in the study of media representations is inequality; specifically, what is the relationship between representations and inequality? According to Croteau & Hoynes (2019):
"We argue that the creators of media content have often reproduced the inequalities that exist in society based on race, class, gender, and sexual orientation. This is not to say that the media have acted as a mirror, passively reflecting the inequalities of society. Rather, white, middle- and upper-class men have historically controlled the media industry, and media content largely reflected their perspective of the world. Therefore, the inequalities in the social world have affected the organization of the media industry that produces media products" (p. 226).
I've put in boldface text that section of this quote to highlight the profound impact that ownership, hiring and opportunity have on this issue; it cannot be stressed enough that those who have a seat at the table are able to include their perspectives on plot, characters, etc. and if that table does not include diverse perspectives, then the result can be narrow and has the potential to reinforce stereotypes (due to a lack of perspective and experience). For example, if I were hired to write for a television program that centered on the lives of Latinx teens, I (as a white, cisgender, woman) would not be able to draw on my experiences to help nuance the dialogue or narrative. I could certainly be as mindful as possible, and try to work against stereotypes, but I would lack the knowledge that could give that show more depth and authenticity.
Remember:
1. Representations are not reality; they are the result of the for-profit media production process
2. Media usually do not try and reflect "the real world"
3. The "real" is a contested term in a culture that endures ideology, hegemony and social construction
4. The implication that media should reflect society is complex
7.2 Researching Content & Critical Cultural Studies
The Media Studies discipline analyzes media content in various ways from varying perspectives; however, researchers do agree that the analysis of content helps us understanding social relations and social processes both in and outside of the media industry.
Critical Cultural Studies: One approach (or "paradigm") within communication and media studies research called Critical Cultural Studies that blends many approaches and works to provide a nuanced, complex analysis of media representations as they relate to audiences and political economy (the study of the politics of media economics). Critical Cultural Studies researchers engage in a three-prongedapproach to the study of media: (1) textual analysis; (2) political economy; (3) audience analysis. Media representations are part of the "textual analysis" division.
For the purposes of media representation and the analysis of social inequality, there are three main questions to consider that recognize the relationship between production, content and audience reception:
1. Inclusion: Do media producers include diversity?
2. Roles: How are social groups portrayed?
3. Control: Do people from marginalized/"other" social groups have control over the production process?
Example: When They See Us (Netflix, 2019)
In June, Netflix released Ava DuVernay's latest work, When They See Us, a television series based on the events surrounding the Central Park jogger case (1989) and the arrest, and later exoneration of a group of young men known as "The Central Park Five." DuVernay has recently asked to rename them as "The Exonerated Five," as the CP5 term was what the mainstream media had called them during the arrest and trial, and through renaming this group, she is asking the public to think more about their exoneration and innocence. For those of you who are unfamiliar with the case, here is the Wikipedia page (as a jump-off; not an exhaustive source on this case): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Park_jogger_case (Links to an external site.)
Here is the trailer:When They See Us | Official Trailer [HD] | Netflix (Links to an external site.)
And here is an interview with DuVernay:"When They See Us": Ava DuVernay tried to "humanize" Central Park Five (Links to an external site.)
This series is an important example of mediating/representing social inequality in a way that has positive connections to the above questions regarding inclusion, roles and control:
Inclusion: Yes, the producers of this series include diversity; in particular, race and class diversity. Because this is a true story and involves young men of color, set in New York City, racial diversity is built into the story, but it also interrogates issues of privilege and wealth and how those issues intersect with this particular case.
Roles: Social groups are portrayed based on a collection of interviews and historical evidence, but more importantly, are humanized.
Control: Absolutely! This is an important one; DuVernay is a woman of color herself and states in the above interview that she felt a connection to these boys, and the case overall. Further, she worked with the original Exonerated Five and is known to hire racial and gender-diverse production crews on her projects. Because this case is deeply connected to the inequalities that people of color faced and still face, a diverse production crew is an important step in ensuring diverse viewpoints and well as opportunity.
7.3 Application: Race, Media & Current Events
After WWII, the media industry reflected a growing sensitivity and inclusiveness toward representations of race. While representations were still problematic and included nuances of inequality, it was clear that steps were being taken to move away from offensive language and portrayals of non-White characters. In this way, there was a movement away from traditional racism which " ... involves open bigotry based on biological beliefs of inferiority ..." (Croteau & Hoynes, 2019, p. 241).
Our media industry has since moved away (but not completely) from traditional racist representations and has, arguably, entered the stage of modern racism, which compounds the hostility, rejection and denial on the part of Whites toward the activities/aspirations of other racial group and is " ... much more complex, eschewing old-fashioned racist images" (Croteau & Hoynes, 2019, p. 241). For some, the election of Pres. Barack Obama was evidence of a post-racial era. meaning racism was no longer an issue. Others disagreed, saying that racism still exists, but has become more covert. Your textbook book includes a quote from Robert Entman that is a helpful way to think about modern racism: "Stereotypes are now more subtle, and stereotyped thinking is reinforced at levels likely to remain below conscious awareness" (p. 241). So we could think about modern racism in media as related to hegemonic representations of race due to most people's inability to identify them as they've come to be common sense. So where do we see modern racism in media? News media have been cited as reproducing modern racism in various forms:
1. The framing of black activists as acting on behalf of "special interests"and wanting "special treatment."
2. Wilson (2012): Coverage of "bizarre and unusual elements" of minority communities: youth gangs, illegal immigration, interracial violence.
3. Entman (1992): Racially diverse newscasters do not indicate much progress if the content of news remains racially skewed.
During Hurricane Katrina (2005), several news media outlets reported that several members of the Black community were "looting" while members of the White community were just trying to survive in their search for resources after the storm. This is a compelling example of modern racism; covering an act as "criminal" signals "unusual elements" and reproduces fears of minorities and violence that have been socially constructed for decades.
In the past few years, we have seen the American news media stumbleduring coverage of the protests in Ferguson, Missouri and Baltimore, Maryland to name a few. In the aftermath of police brutality, many demonstrators used peaceful forms of street protest to raise awareness and let the public know that black lives matter. However, mainstream news media outlets used terms such as "riots" and "thugs" to categorize these movements and in doing so, framed these actions as violent and racially-based. This is very similar to the ways that The Exonerated Five were described in the 1980s. While it is true that violence did erupt in both cities, and property was destroyed, this was not the whole story.However, by focusing on the violence, versus the peaceful protesting, it has been argued that news media outlets reproduced the narrative of the "violent black male" in the way they reported these protests. The website mic.com offers an interesting review of media coverage in Baltimore:
http://mic.com/articles/116524/outrage-over-baltimore-riots-completely-misses-the-point (Links to an external site.)
Despite the discrepancies in mainstream news media over representations of race in the United States, there have been some examples of contemporary content that work toward challenging ideologies and stereotypes. One such example is Question Bridge, a transmedia project that works toward redefining Black male identity in the United States. Click on the link and listen to the opening conversation on the front page. Then, click on "explore" and navigate to different questions and listen to responses. Sometimes it loads slowly:
http://questionbridge.com/ (Links to an external site.)
Here is an NPR piece on Question Bridge:
http://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2015/04/25/401269136/questioning-the-black-male-experience-in-america (Links to an external site.)
Question Bridge is an illustration of how digital media can be used in contemporary culture to bridge communities and challenge assumptions made about identities. In this way, media can be used to combat social inequality and the reproduction of modern racism,sexism or classism (among other assaults on identity). Remember, media content produces images that give meaning to identities, behaviors, etc. and representations have power in our culture.
Also, Question Bridge is an example of a media producer developing alternative media versus working within mainstream media culture. As Croteau & Hoynes (2019) point out: "People of color, as well as women and people promoting the interests of the working class and poor, have had to confront a basic dilemma: They have to choose between developing alternative media and struggling to change mainstream media from within" (p. 245). As you read in the textbook, although underrepresented groups have seen increased visibility and participation in mainstream media, is is still largely dominated by white, middle-class, male, heterosexual interests. It is important to understand that there is nothing wrong with being white, middle-class, male and heterosexual, as some of you may be and many of my students have identified as, but as discussed earlier, when a narrow section of the population is in control of the majority of media production, many perspectives are left out.
Week Nine Lecture: Audiences, Creators & Media Influence
Note: Please click on all supplemental links as part of this lecture; the videos and articles provided will assist with your understanding of this chapter.
Please read the following sections of Chapters Eight & Nine from Croteau & Hoynes (2019):
Chapter Eight: pp. 268-281; pp. 283-290; pp. 295-6
Chapter Nine: pp. 300-320; pp. 328-331
Key Questions:
1. What does the term "active audience" mean and why does it matter?
2. How do human agency and social structure interact in an audience's reading of media texts?
3. What kind of roles do fantasy and pleasure play in media consumption?
4. How might media exposure affect individuals and societies?
5. What are the major tenets of major media effects and mediatization theories?
6. In what ways do media - and social media in particular - impact political processes?
Themes:
8.1 Defining the Active Audience
8.2 Encoding/Decoding
8.3 Fan Communities & Disrupting Bias
9.1 Theorizing Media Influence & Effects
9.2 Effects, Mediatization & Politics
9.3 Social Media Logics & Deepfakes
8.1 Defining the Active Audience
At this point, your textbook - and this course - have explored media culture from a more institutional perspective, and have foregrounded structures that create both limitations and opportunities for media producers. Now that you're familiar with those forces, it is essential that we pivot away from production and focus on consumption; and rather, how production and consumption are related processes that influence one another - from the audience perspective. This chapter positions the audience as both "active" and as "content creators"; while audiences have always been actively consuming, it is important to remember that their new role as creators, as well, is directly connected to digitizationand increased access to the tools of production (e.g., GarageBand).
Because audience members have such active roles in contemporary media culture, Croteau & Hoynes (2019) make the case that we should refer to ourselves, and audience members, as "users" and state that: "User has the advantage of being open-ended, so it can include both our roles as audience members and our various roles on the internet. 'User' also implies active roles in both interpreting existing media content and creating our own content" (p. 268). As they suggest, we both interpret and create, and both activities are influenced by various social forces.
Later in the chapter, Croteau & Hoyes (2019) identify three main motivations for audience creation online:
1. Self-expression/identity formation;
2. Interaction/community building;
3. Sharing (p. 294).
Think about yourself as a "user" on the internet. Which of these motivations do you feel summarizes your experiences? Do all three of them? Think about the last time you created something online (snap, tweet, IG story, etc.), what was your motivation?
Remember, while economic and political forces shape media culture, the "active audience" framework suggests that users/audience members have agency and have an active role in both use and interpretation. To explore the dynamic nature of audience activity, your textbook includes two main theoretical orientations to the "active audience" framework in this chapter: (1) uses and gratifications (What are people doing with media? Why are they using media?); (2) critical cultural studies (How do people interpret media?).
One of the major motivations for pursuing audience research is the observation that media are polysemic texts; in other words, multiple meanings can exist within one media text. Therefore, the way that users interpret those texts are worth exploring; social location/experiences of the audience member, editing techniques from the producers, the use of music to connect with emotions, etc. For example, if a student had lived through a school shooting, their interpretation of a violent film scene involving a similar weapon would be different than the interpretation of a student that is a gun rights advocate. And it may be more subtle; for example, humor is subjective, and something I may find funny may not be funny to the person sitting next to me - for a variety of reasons.
For example, consider Between Two Ferns on the website Funny or Die. Here's a clip that includes an interview with Barack Obama (you only have to watch a minute or two):
https://www.funnyordie.com/2014/3/11/17736628/between-two-ferns-with-zach-galifianakis-president-barack-obama (链接到外部网站。)
(Links to an external site.)
Did you think this was funny? Some of you may have, some of you may not have enjoyed the dry humor; this is how "polysemy" works. Beyond comedy, think about complex filmmaking from directors such as Lars Von Trier or Paul Thomas Anderson. Think about the film Donnie Darko (2001). The considering of our individualistic meaning-making, in a particular historical and cultural context (structure) is the basis of the active audience - we are not passive audience members that interpret and use media in the same way. Another example: Consider the film Zero Dark Thirty (2012). Was this film a depiction of the effectiveness of interrogation techniques or a portrayal of the brutality and moral complexity of torture? Despite the director's intention, it's important to remember that audiences are thinking while they view media texts and can interpret and create meaning as an individualistic exercise.
Here are the four main ways that audiences are "active":
1. Interpretation: Audiences may not construct the meaning intended by the producer; may make their own meanings.
2. Social Context of Interpretation: Media use is not just individual, but is also social.
3. Collective Action: Audiences sometimes make formal demands on media producers through protests, boycotts, or campaigns.
4. Audiences as Media Producers ("Prosumers"): Audiences create their own media outlets and products.
An important reminder, however, is that audiences are not just "free agents" with unlimited agency. There are structural and interpretive restraints on meaning-making; for example, your social position, experiences and cultural surroundings. For example, depending on your identity, you could be offended by particular portrayals of race, gender and/or sexuality. Take the program Game of Thrones, for example; some viewers may be triggered by some of the sexual violence due to previous experiences while others may interpret the sexual violence as just part of the narrative structure of the program.
8.2 Encoding/Decoding
The Encoding/Decoding model is a theory that supports the active audience framework, yet also recognizes structural influences on user/audience interpretation; it is a model that is widely used in Media Studies/Cultural Studies, and was introduced by theorist Stuart Hall in the 1970s. Although dated, it continues to offer helpful language and reminds us that there's a limit to audience agency. Here is a short lecture video that works to explain this theory:
Remember, social position - including class - plays a major role in decoding practices. In their discussion of David Morely's (1980) research on interpretations of Nationwide, Croteau & Hoynes (2019) remind us that, "Social class, Morely concludes, does not determine how people interpret media messages. Instead, social class - and we would add age, race, ethnicity, gender, and other central markers of identity - plays a key role in proving us with the cultural 'tools' for decoding. Often, these are discursive tools, giving people a language and framework for understanding the world" (p. 273). Think about the oppositional reading in the Encoding/Decoding model; what "cultural tools" may lead a person to oppose a particular text? For example, why might a group protest a particular musician or film opening? What "tools" have led them to oppose those texts? Perhaps it was an experience, their access to critical social theories, or perhaps what their grand/parents have taught them about certain issues that are brought up in the lyrics/scenes.
8.3 Creators: Fan Communities & Disrupting Bias
While some audience members participate in resistance/culture jamming (see p. 287 in your textbook; click on this link (Links to an external site.) to Adbusters as an example of this, or visit Banksy's website: http://www.banksy.co.uk/ (Links to an external site.)), others participate in fan communities/fandom (see p. 295 of your textbook), which is a large step beyond consumption. According to media scholar Henry Jenkins (1988), a person is considered a fan, " ... not by being a regular viewer of a particular program but by translating that viewing into some type of cultural activity, by sharing thoughts and feelings about the program content with friends, by joining a community of fans who share common interests" (p. 8).
Fan communities are:
1. Formed within and outside of popular culture;
2. Producers of their own media and build connection to community and promote social activity.
Examples:
Twilight Fan Fiction (Fun fact: 50 Shade of Grey was based on Twilight fan fiction!):
https://www.fanfiction.net/book/Twilight/ (Links to an external site.)
Harry Potter Alliance:
http://thehpalliance.org/ (Links to an external site.)
Comic-Con International:
http://www.comic-con.org/ (Links to an external site.)
Remember, media culture also offers opportunities for audience members/users to disrupt ideology (as discussed in Chapters Six & Seven) - also known as engaging in cultural resistance - and this chapter includes a section on Black Twitter, and argues that, "Black Twitter is often used to directly challenge perceived biases in mainstream media stories" (p. 280). Another space that offers opportunities to directly challenge bias is Tumblr, although it has recently experienced restrictions on sexual/adult content that has had an impact on sexual subcultures within the community. Can you think of other online spaces that offer opportunities for ideological disruption?
(Links to an external sitBlack Twitter brings visibility to "counter-narratives" (Croteau & Hoynes, 2019, p. 281) by allowing users to construct and distribute stories, comments and observations that are often overlooked by mainstream media. Please watch this short video and while you watch, think about the ways that concepts such as ideology, social inequality, decoding, active audience, social location, and digitization connect:
https://www.nytimes.com/video/us/100000003841604/blacktwitter-after-ferguson.html (Links to an external site.)
9.1 Theorizing Media Influence & Effects
The previous chapter explored questions of agency as it relates to the active audience, or "users," as Croteau & Hoynes (2019) have articulated, including the process of decoding, resistance, and creation. This chapter extends this discussion to the issue of "influence" at the individual and societal level, as questions about how media affects individuals has been at the center of various research studies, policy initiatives, organizational missions, political platforms, and so on. As Croteau & Hoynes (2019) state, "Welcome to the complicated, often ambiguous world of media effects where nearly everyone knows something is going on but where it is notoriously difficult to pinpointexactly why, how, to what degree, and on whom media may be having an influence" (p. 301). They go on to argue that "negative behaviors" (e.g., violence, substance abuse, hate-group radicalization and consumerism) as well as democratic influence get the most attention, and that in the end, effects research suggests "more complex and subtle influences"than direct, easy-to-identify ones (p. 301).
So why is it so complicated to determine effects? Remember what we explored in the last chapter: decoding/interpretation, social location, and cultural context are among the various variables that influence influence/effect. However, what researchers to look for are patterns, and they identify these patterns through audience research, which includes methods such as polling, interviews, focus groups, pre-test/post-test experimentation, surveys, etc.
For example, we know that cyberbullying happens, and that it can have a negative impact for some individuals, but what can we say about effects on a mass scale? Pew Research Center's work on cyberbulling (https://www.pewinternet.org/2018/09/27/a-majority-of-teens-have-experienced-some-form-of-cyberbullying/ (Links to an external site.)) has identified that 56% of US teens have been bullied or harassed online, but there is a lack of concrete data that suggests exactly how this cyberbulling effects individuals or groups. The next step in research would be to ask these same teens who have identified that they've been bullied how they feelafter the bullying takes place, and then see what patterns arise. For example, perhaps a majority of these teens then feel "self-conscious" or "depressed." What are some questions you might ask?
Additionally, we know that that seeing an increased amount of the “thin ideal” imagery (mostly on visual social media websites such as IG and TikTok) is having an impact, but it is hard to measure.
One possible answer is self-objectification; but does not impact everyone the same way (social location, socialization). Self-objectification is when an individual begins to judge themselves based on the ways that they are taught to judge others, including celebrities, friends, etc. So, if we, the public - and girls/women in particular, although this does impact boys/masculinity and queer identities, as well - are taught to judge other women based on cultural attitudes about body shape (slim thick, etc.), hair, skin, etc., this will eventually lead to an internal judgment when looking in the mirror. So if the posts and comments on Instagram promote a narrow standard of beauty, this could have an impact/effect on users.
Early theories on media influence/effect grew from a concern over media's role in democratic life; journalists and scholars - including Ferdinand Toennis, Charles Horton Colley, and even Karl Marx -questioned the ways that media may influence how the public would come to support particular candidates, vote for president, etc. They believed that, as societies continued to urbanize due to industrialization, as well as spread out due to the growth of suburbia, media were developing a growing significance in the lives of those who were increasingly reliant on newspapers, and later, radio and television, for information.
It is important to remember that many of these theories had methodological issues, meaning that the questions were too narrow, or they were conducted in too experimental of a setting (subject were removed from a more "natural" setting and were uncomfortable and/or may have told the researchers what they wanted to hear). For example, as Croteau & Hoynes (2019) point out that Herbert Blumer's social-psychological studies on influence, " ... was problematic, especially in how it asked leading questions about the influence of movies" (p. 303). This is not to say that all of the early, direct theories were problematic - indeed, they were very influential on creating a foundation for effects research - but like any research tradition, methodology and theory have improved over time.
Your book outlines a few of the more popular theories:
The Hypodermic Model: Direct and powerful influence (Orson Welles’s, WOTW, 1939): PBS War of the Worlds
Mass Society Theory: Mass media as “homogenizing” the public; less personal ties post-WWII (suburbs), but united through mass media
The Minimal Effects Model: “Two-step flow of influence”: (1) Media transmitted information to opinion leaders; (2) Leaders influence those with personal contact
Agenda Setting: Media tell us not WHAT to think, but what to think ABOUT
Priming: Mass media attention to particular issues; “prime” audiences to be more sensitive (economics, candidates)
Cultivation Theory: Continued, lengthly and ritualistic viewing that leads to homogenized public and “mainstreaming." Mean World Syndrome: Heavy television viewers internalize many of the distorted views of the social and political world presented by television (i.e., crime and violence)
Additionally, your Croteau & Hoynes (2019) outline theories of "framing" and the "spiral of silence," which are extremely relevant to contemporary coverage of politics (along with agenda-setting):
Framing: How coverage is constructed; how the media organizes and presenting information influences how people are likely to understand the story (second-level agenda setting); frames make an event “intelligible” - easy to decode in a particular way.
Spiral of Silence: Media’s role in the squeezing out of minority viewsand overstating the degree of political consensus (narrows public discussion).
Example: “Trump’s election may have animated some who had been previously silent because they had not seen their views included in the mainstream media” (p. 310).
Before you move on to the next section, I'd like you to do an activity that will help deepen your understanding of agenda-setting and framing. Select a news item/story that has been deemed extremely "newsworthy" today. For example, today (I'm writing this on May 20th), I'd be interested in the evacuation of thousands of Michigan residents due to flooding or any updated news related to COVID-19. So, choose a story that interests you and then select three newspapers (digital/online editions; visit their website); next, you will see how those newspapers are covering this story.
Agenda-setting: Where is the story located in the publication or website? Is it on the front/landing page? Do you have to click through many links to find it? How is the location of the story telling you how important it is.
Framing: What does the headline reveal about the framing of this story? Is there a photo as well, as how does that convey meaning? Are there any politically-charged terms being used? What sources are present (and absent?) and in what order?
Most importantly, how is the coverage different in each newspaper?How might this be linked to ownership, circulation, funding, and audience?
9.2 Effects, Mediatization & Politics
In a democratic nation such as the United States, we are charged with participating in our government through electing representatives. Because we have this electoral power, it is important that we maintain an awareness of candidates and issues. So where do we receive this information? Where do we learn about candidates? How do we figure out which policies a presidential candidate supports? It comes as no surprise to you, then, that media hold much political power in this way; we come to support our representatives through their mediations. In other words, the way candidates and issues are portrayed in news media become the way we understand them; we rely on political communication and thus, it becomes essential that we understand media's impact on politics. And with the Presidential election coming up this year (!!!), we're already experiencing a sharp increase in political messaging; in particular, a partisan divide in the response to COVID-19.
(Links to an external site.)
Your textbook (2019) explores political culture using/through the concept of mediatization, which is defined as " ... a social change process in which media have become increasingly influential in and deeply integrated into different spheres of society" (Strömbäck and Esser 2014, p. 244, as quoted in Croteau & Hoynes, 2019, p. 314). Mediatization, as a framework, draws on earlier media effects theories (including agenda setting, framing, medium theory), but also "transcends" them (as quoted by Schulz, 2004 in Croteau & Hoynes, 2019, p. 314) by rethinking the social world and how media have had a direct impact. Like globalization, mediatization is a process and " ... evolves over time and manifests itself differently in different social and cultural contexts" (p. 314. And while the framework/theory of mediatization is helpful for some - and for us to consider - it has also been critiqued as similar to technological determinism and its emphasis on the role of media versus its inclusion of human agency (p. 315).
Some examples of mediatization include: health care (WebMD); criminal justice system (“risk assessment” tools and algorithms); online shopping; live streaming musical events and religious ceremonies (“virtualization of social institutions”).
Scholar Winfried Schulz (2004) outlines the changes in interaction and communication brought by mediatization into four categories (p. 315):
1. Media extend the ability of humans to communicate across space and time.
2. Media replace some forms of face-to-face interaction, as with online banking.
3. Media infiltrate and coexist with everyday communication, as with checking your cell phone while talking with a friend or “talking around” a television program while watching with others.
4. “Media logic” encourages people to adjust their attitudes and behaviors; connects media production to media effects.
So how might mediatization factor into the development of our current political climate? Drawing on the notion of media logic, Croteau & Hoynes (2019) highlight that, increasingly, the ecosystem of US-based politics works to meet the needs of media consumption and the performativity of democracy. Candidates are thought of as "political actors" and debates and press conferences are thought of as "stages"; this transformation, as media scholars argue, is the result of the increased presence (mediatization) of media production/consumption in democratic life.
Now that political figures are mediated through television, social media, documentary, radio, magazines, etc., campaigns are built around media considerations. The importance of appearance, the branding and imaging of an individual candidate, and overall political messaging of a campaign becomes paramount to their success, especially as political parties have become less influential during a campaign season (see p. 320-321).
Further, the use of Twitter and Facebook have become absolutely essential in political races. How is this an example of mediatization?
Now, there are a few things to reflect on before I/we move further. First, your awareness and level of political "knowledge" is contingent on a few things: how much reporting is done on these issues, how much you read the news, the questions journalists are asking, and what is "newsworthy." Think about it this way, our access to this important information (remember, we need it in order to vote in a democratic culture) is contingent upon media coverage. This is why political media coverage is essential in an American culture where we are not in a position to meet the candidates ourselves (but sometimes you can, depending on your job, etc.).
Although politicians can utilize media to maintain a curated image, media coverage can also negatively impact one's image (warranted or not) due to constant exposure in light of a scandal. Some examples include: The Bill Clinton/Monica Lewinsky sex scandal (1998), the Anthony Weiner sexting scandal (2011), also known as "Weinergate," and the Chris Christie Fort Lee lane closure scandal (2013), also known as "Bridgegate," and more recently, the release of Hillary Clinton's emails before the 2016 election. In all of these cases - and there are many more - news media presented audiences with immediate coverage, including press conferences, interviews, panel interviews, videos, etc., that worked to shift their political image. In this way, politicians both use media to connect with their constituents, but can also be brought down by media coverage, often (but not always) resulting in resignation (as in the case with Weiner).
9.3. Social Media Logics & Deepfakes
As social media platforms continue to extend their reach as sites ofinteractive communication, community-building, and knowledge-sharing, concerns over influence (effect) are questioned various social stakeholders, including politicians, students, parents, etc. Croteau & Hoynes use the work of Van Dijk and Peoll (2013) to explore "social media logic," or, " ... the strategies, mechanisms, and economies that are the foundation for social media platforms: programmability, popularity, connectivity, and datafication" and argue that the issue of influence can be traced back to one (or more) of these features (p. 328).
Programmability: Codes and algorithms that can steers users in a particular direction;
Popularity: Likes, followers and retweets a technological elements that will steer users in a particular direction;
Connectivity: Linking and connecting people and advertisers to each other in order to steer users in a particular direction.
Based on these "logics," Croteau & Hoynes (2019) point out that social media platforms are not "neutral," and they (the authors) highlight resulting issues related to surveillance, advertising, algorithms, and racist content (see p. 330).
Another concerning issue, especially during an election season, is the "deepfake," which is the use of AI (artificial intelligence), algorithms,and video/audio footage to paste a person's face onto another video. To date, this practice is often predatory/problematic and has been used a variety of practices including revenge porn and political coverage. Check out this recent deepfake that altered a video of House Speaker Nancy Pelosi to make it seem that she was drunk (the link has a short video and text):
https://www.cnn.com/2019/05/23/politics/doctored-video-pelosi/index.html (Links to an external site.)
Please read the following piece on deepfakes from The Guardian, and as you're reading consider how issues of mediatization, social media logic, media effects, and socialization contribute to this issue:
https://www.theguardian.com/technology/ng-interactive/2019/jun/22/the-rise-of-the-deepfake-and-the-threat-to-democracy (Links to an external site.)
Week Ten Lecture: Media, Culture & GlobalizationNote: Please click on all supplemental links as part of this lecture; the videos and articles provided will assist with your understanding of this chapter.
Key Questions:
1. What is globalization and how do media relate to it?
2. Who are the global media companies and how do they deal with globalization?
3. What are the areas of concern - related to media and globalization - and how do they related to McLuhan's "global village" proposition?
Themes:
10.1 Dimensions of Media Globalization
10.2 Four Areas of Concern: Ownership, Content, Regulation & User Access
10.3 Global Flows & Nollywood
10.1 Dimensions of Media Globalization
When reflecting on the "global" nature of media culture, what comes to mind? Is it the latest global box office statistic that you read in a recent article in The Wall Street Journal? Is it a song that includes dynamic (hybrid) components from different genres? Is it your love of BBC programming (that has been licensed to US-based platforms and even adopted by US-based networks)? Or do you think about the ways that the logics of Twitter have allowed you to engage in conversations about global events with international users? Although Croteau & Hoynes (2019) outline the complexities of media globalization, they open this chapter with the optimism of scholar Marshall McLuhan, and his notion of the global village: that electronic media will bring the people of the world closer and their voices will be heard (p. 342). As you've probably noticed through your consumption of global media, unfortunately not all voices are head in the same way, and, "In fact, ambiguity and contradiction mark the trends in media globalization. Some developments produce positive changes of the sort McLuhan envisioned; others seem cause for alarm" (p. 343).
Many of you have already studied "globalization" in various courses here at University of Denver, so your definitions may differ slightly based on the discipline/major that guided your understanding. Generally speaking, globalization is the process by which regional economies, societies, and cultures have become integrated through a global network of ideas through communication, transportation, and trade. In relation to the media industry, globalization has enhanced communication networks and has made culture and media products more accessible to a global audience. According to Croteau & Hoynes (2019), there are two components to globalization in relation to mass media:
1. Changing role of geography and physical distance; growing interconnectedness and intensification of connections.
2. Content: Electronic media offers the ideas, images and sounds of different cultures available to vast networks of people outside of their immediate culture (p. 343-4).
Globalization crosses limits of space and time and allows for the exchange and intermingling of cultures from different parts of the world. Think about the music industry, for example: (1) Increased global access to music genres; (2) Exchange of musical elements, sharing and collaboration; (3) The creation of hybrid genres and "world music."
Watch MIA's "Bad Girls" video and think about how this song and video represent "hybridity":
http://www.vevo.com/watch/mia/Bad-Girls/USUMV1200025 (Links to an external site.)
Also, check out this short video on the making of Zedd's song "The Middle" and how various individuals from various parts of the world contributed to production:
'The Middle': Watch How a Pop Hit Is Made | Diary of a Song (Links to an external site.)
So as the two video illustrate, media globalization has created space for collaboration and hybridity, but that doesn't necessarily fulfill McLuhan's "global village" for a variety of reasons. Think about political economy for a moment; is the global media industry organized in conglomerates or are there thousands of diverse companies that reflect regional differences? But what about the internet? That space is more democratizing and horizontal in terms of power, right? Unfortunately, there are constraints embedded in global internet culture that do not fulfill the optimism of the global village:
1. The world is unequal;
2. Language divides the world;
3. Language is a medium of power (51.8% of online content is written in English);
4. People have differing degrees of cultural capital;
5. Conflicting values, beliefs, and interests divide the world;
6. Nationalist cultures limit internationalism on the internet;
7. Authoritarian governments can manage the internet (see p. 346-7).
As Croteau & Hoynes (2019) argue, "Although media globalization continues to offer some promise, we must also be aware of the social impact of these enticing developments" (p. 347).
Many of these issues are explored in this weeks video lecture: "Film, popular culture & globalization:"
10.2 Four Areas of Concern: Ownership, Content, Regulation & User Access
When evaluating issues of "concern," this is not necessarily equated with pessimism; rather, this is an essential aspect of developing media literacy and a more critical understanding of media culture that includes power dynamics as well as a more sociological view (which is supported in this textbook). Croteau & Hoynes (2019) narrow the concerns of media globalization into four areas: ownership, content, regulation and user access. And if you think back to the "model of media and the social world" (p. 16) from Chapter One, you'll remember that all of these elements have relationships to one another; that they impact each other in the global media ecosystem.
Ownership: "The significance of centralized ownership and control is that decision making related to the purpose and content of the media, as well as the benefits that accrue from owning what are often highly profitable ventures, remains firmly in the hands of a few major corporations based on the wealthiest nations" (Croteau & Hoynes, 2019, p. 351). How does this reality disrupt the McLuhan's optimism? Check out the chart on pages 350-1 to review The Walt Disney Company's international holdings as an example of how US-based conglomerates have a disproportionate share of global media ownership and distribution channels. So what might this mean for content? Much like the concerns over US-based conglomeration and its impact on diverse representations, there are concerns about the impact of Western values and representations and how those meanings and ideological values may impact other nations and cultures. "Music, movies and reality television illustrate that although the distribution of media products has spread out across the globe, the ownership and control of media production are largely centralized in a few large conglomerates usually composed of dozens, if not hundreds, of different companies" (Croteau & Hoynes, 2019, p. 349).
Content: One of the seminal (but contested - as I'll discuss below) theories that developed as a reaction to the growth of Western media texts and their global distribution is the cultural imperialism thesis,which is a theory that argues that Western - and mostly US-based - media texts and companies will exert influence over the rest of the world:
1. Media products have have the ability to shape the cultures of other nations; this is a cultural form of domination.
2. Norms of individualism and consumerism will invade collectivist cultures.
3. Concern with the homogenization of cultures and the erosion of local culture
Despite the popularity of the cultural imperialism thesis in the 1970-90s, there has been criticism of this approach due to the following reasons:
1. The theory does not distinguish between different types of media (i.e., film is more influential internationally than print).
2. The theory assumes a passive audience and fails to account for multiple interpretive strategies in different cultural contexts.
3. The theory undermines the role played by local media.
4. There are limits to the appeal of Western culture in other nations!
A more helpful framework - hybridity - has emerged as a way to honor the resilience of local cultures and an acknowledgment of contemporary reality. However, as Croteau & Hoynes (2019) point out, it focused on the product, not necessarily the power dynamics of ownership, promotion, distribution, etc. They argue that, "If we are to understand global media better, considerations of power, production, and control - the issues that the cultural imperialism thesis focused on - need to be part of the equation" (p. 360). So how might scholars and students of media culture think about global media and its relationship to content, ideology, meaning and power? The next section in this lecture will explore a theory of "flows" as a way to think about both agency and structure.
Regulation: In an effort to regulate the impact of global media conglomerates, countries have adopted policies to regulate the flow of international influence while simultaneously supporting local production. Croteau & Hoynes (2019) discuss the United Nations and UNESCO's 2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions(https://en.unesco.org/creativity/convention (Links to an external site.)), but then also note that preserving cultural diversity by local governments can be difficult due to: (1) a lack of infrastructure to support/produce local media; (2) the cheaper prices and availability of imported texts as an alternative to expensive media production. However, the development of "quotas" has become more effective, as outlined in the policies adopted by the EU and various countries, from Argentina to Malaysia (for an overview of these policies, see p. 365).
User Access: A major concern, related to media globalization and users, is the digital divide between those who have access to the internet, for example, and those that do not. On page 367 of your textbook, there is a map that identifies internet users in identified regions, and you can see that 88% of users have access to the internet in Northern America while 12% of users have access in Middle Africa. What might this gap in information and communication technologies mean for that population? It's important to remember that due to various variables, including infrastructure, wealth, government, conflict, etc., not everyone around world has access to digital communication.
10.3 Global Flows & Nollywood
One way to think about globalization and media that still takes into account structure and power dynamics while still taking agency and local media seriously is the idea of "flows." In this theory, originated by Arjun Appadurai (https://steinhardt.nyu.edu/faculty/Arjun_Appadurai (Links to an external site.)), there are dominant, transnational, and geo-cultural flows (I've attached a reading on this to the "optional" section of this module if you'd like to read further):
Dominant/Global: Dominates global market share (e.g., Hollywood).
Transnational: Dominates among several countries (e.g., Bollywood).
Geo-Cultural: Has an influence in a specific region (e.g., Nollywood).
When we begin to think about media globalization in terms of "flows" rather than cultural imperialism, we begin to understand the complex dynamics and cultural influences that exist, rather than assume that agency no longer takes place in the global media environment; in other words, the theory of "flows" supports a sociological relationshipbetween structure and agency versus the structure-dominant approach of cultural imperialism.
Here is an interesting essay from The New York Times, written by Kwame Appiah, on "cultural contamination" and how developing countries don't necessarily need "protection" from dominant media flows. Here, he discusses agency and homogeneity: http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/01/magazine/01cosmopolitan.html?pagewanted=all (Links to an external site.)
The documentary, This is Nollywood (2006), offers an excellent portrayal of a Geo-Cultural flow and emerging film industry. As a way to tie in the themes from this chapter, and to expose you to this successful, Nigerian industry, I'd like you to watch this film.
In order to screen the film, please go to the DU Libraries home page and enter "Kanopy" into the database search. Once you've entered that database, search for "This is Nollywood" and you should be all set!
