A 2000-word (excluding bibliography) discussion paper based on the material used in your annotated bibliography will be due on June 12th by 5:00 pm. Your paper needs to use a standard 12-point font an
Running Head: BUDDHISM IN EAST ASIA 0
Integration of Buddhism and Politics in East Asia
Lam Ho Yung
Oregon State University
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
In this book, Acri (2017) shows the connection between trade maritime routes and the spread of Buddhism in East Asia and other parts of the entire region of Asia. According to Acri (2017), the profound expansion of Maritime routes for commercial purposes that connected South and East Asia contributed significantly to the spread of Buddhism in East Asia. Scholars have recently unveiled the multi-directional connections that exist between centers of Buddhism tied to each other by overlapping networking relationships that were economic, religious, political, and diplomatic. Therefore, for one to understand the establishment of complex networks in East Asia, they need to take an eclectic approach. The multifaceted trans-regional phenomenon patterns of Buddhism transmission across Maritime Asia were shaped by socio-political, economic, and environment.
Acri (2017) observes that networks of Buddhist clerics of different ethnicities began to appear in the 7th century in disparate locales moving along the maritime routes that connect south, East, and Southeast Asia. Those sea routes that developed with time through the steady flow of seafarers and traders, were also plied by other pilgrims and religious specialists who crossed oceans and lands searching for knowledge and rare Buddhist scriptures. The esoteric Buddhism in particular, picked up momentum in the 11th century and remained vital across much of Maritime Asia throughout the 12th and 13th centuries. And so the sea routes contributed to the spread of Buddhism in East Asia and most parts of Asia.
Acri, A. (2016). ESOTERIC BUDDHISM IN MEDIAEVAL MARITIME ASIA: Networks of Masters, Texts, Icons.
In this book, Er & Wei (2017) argue that the culture of Korea is significantly influenced by the rich cultural traditions of Russia, Japan, and China. They continue to argue that the influence of Buddhism combined with local native factors has created a new local culture in Korea. Buddhism has also greatly contributed to the social, cultural, and economic ties between the countries in East Asia. The religion that started as a simple religion turned out to be the force behind the vigorous and positive economic ties between Korea and other countries in East Asia and the whole of Asia as we see today. For example, in 2015, over 60% of Korea’s exports were exported to the Asian markets including China and Japan. Today, China, Japan, and other countries in East Asia consume products from Korea including Korean dishes because Korea operates many restaurants in these countries. Over time, many people in East Asia have come to love Korean food and culture.
Unfortunately, there have been security and political issues in East Asia recently that had dominated the international media. The maritime dispute in the South China Sea, the responsibility of South Korea to deploy the terminal high Altitude area system of defense with the US, and the negative historical memories of World War II have all led to the love-hate relationship in the region. Er and Wei (2017) argue that the cultural roots of East Asia and the intertwining cultural relations between South Korea and its neighboring countries have tremendously contributed to the buoyant investment, trade, and socio-cultural exchanges between the East Asian countries. They further observe that this noteworthy success in the social and cultural aspects could, therefore, be a thoughtful move to ease the tense relationships in East Asia, promote greater understanding, and forge deeper and stronger partnerships.
Er, L. P., & Wei, L. T. (Eds.). (2017). Politics, Culture and Identities in East Asia: Integration and Division. World Scientific.
In this article, Hammond (2018) shows how Buddhism cannot be separated from politics because of its close link to cultural worldviews and norms, whether look at historically or in terms of current events. Hammond (2018) observes that Buddhism is a living entity that feeds the political circumstances of a certain culture, place, or time. The history of Buddhism shows that religion has strained to maturity and has transformed in different occasions to accommodate the changes in its environment. He argues that for Buddhism to adapt to changing circumstances throughout history, it seeks to develop and protect its place in the world in which it ministers and that includes the frequent spiteful and polarizing realm of politics.
The purpose of Buddhism is to help human beings find the meaning of life. Although the primary concern of Buddhism is not social reform or the political systems, history has shown that Buddhism has nevertheless been used for the furtherance of political or sectarian goals, and in some cases, it has been used by some politicians as a vehicle of promoting exclusive nationalism based on ethnicity. Politics in East Asia range from the relative expression of freedom in countries like Japan to the suppressions forced on the People's Republic of China. Hammond (2018) argues that the seeds of a political worldview that exist in the Pali Canon, which is acknowledged by all Buddhists as a primary source have a political significance in East Asia.
Hammond, C. D. (2018). Dynamics of East Asia: Cultural Connections, Contested History, and the Rise of China. The journal of Rikkyo University Language Center, 40, 13-29.
This book focuses more on the love-hate relationship between China, Japan, and Korea and how these three countries of East Asia have made the region of East Asia the second most powerful region in the world in terms of politics, military, and economy. Hanson (2016) argues that these three countries of East Asia have shown little trust for each other and this has resulted in high militarization in the whole region. But despite this traditional aversion between the Japanese and the Koreans and the unique relationship filled with tension between the Chinese and the Japanese, the historical and cultural connections remain between these three countries. East Asia, unlike the West, has experienced united political-religious justice of the region thanks to Buddhism and other religions like Confucianism and Maoist.
Hanson (2016) describes the political and economic relationship between China and Japan as cold politics but hot economics because though there have been disputes between these two countries, their economic and business connections have continued to blossom thanks to the proximity between the two countries and also the religious ties traced back to the Buddhism religion. Today, China is Japan’s biggest trading partner. In the last 45 years, trade in Japan has increased from $1 billion to $317 billion. Japan and South Korea have also become world leaders in the use of a different form of communication channels for its citizens like text messaging in China and the high speed of internet in South Korea (Hanson, 2016).
Hanson, E. O. (2016). Religion and politics in the international system today. Cambridge University Press
This article describes the journey of Buddhism in East Asia that contained numerous reinventions. Heirman et al., (2018) when Buddhism came to Japan, the religion went through several evolutions and had disintegrated into various distinct schools. Just like the other countries in East Asia, the inculcation and adoption of Buddhism in Japan played a dramatic role in the country’s history. In the few centuries, Buddhism was just like any other religion in Japan but during the great political turmoil, Buddhism established itself as a political entity and grew to an influential opponent that influenced the performance of government affairs. To defend its assets and assets on the battlefield, Buddhism was transformed from a political entity to a military force.
Right from the inception, the founding of Buddhism in Japan relied on the support and protection of Japanese rulers. In the early seventh century, Prince Shotoku greatly contributed to the initial expansion and growth of Buddhism in Japan. According to (Heirman et al, 2018), Prince Shotoku wrote the first Japanese constitution that endorsed social and moral principles taught in Buddhism. His royal patronage and devotion of Buddhism made the religion to be broadly known. Several Buddhist temples were constructed and works of art created. Monks also went to China to learn. Alongside inspiring monks from Japan to study the scriptures, Prince Shotoku taught and later on wrote commentaries about those scriptures. These commentaries were the first to be written in Japanese and are archived as state treasures. In the 19th century, the new Japanese government did away with Buddhism but even up to date Buddhism still exists in Japan.
Heirman, A., Meinert, C., & Anderl, C. (Eds.). (2018). Buddhist Encounters and Identities Across East Asia. Brill.
In this article, Holcombe (2107) gives a brief history of the rise of Buddhism in East Asia, a religion that faced many challenges in its establishment but later grew to become a force to reckon with. The people of China learned about Buddhism around the first century after the Chinese Han dynasty expanded its influence to Central Asia for trade purposes a move that saw increased cultural ties between Central Asia and China. Interest in Buddhism continued to grow and there was a great demand for t6ranslation of Buddhist text into the Chinese language. Translators arrived from India and Central Asia and this caused Buddhism to be widely known. The dynasty of Han fell in the early third century and while China experienced a time of political disunity characterized by war and unrest, the translation of Buddhist materials continued. In the fifth century, Northern and Southern China were ruled by different leaders. The South continued to translate texts in Buddhism and constructed numerous temples while in the North Buddhism continued to thrive in the extravagant royal patronage of leaders who favored the religion. By the 6th century, Monks started to get employment posts in the government. By the seventh century, Buddhism had reached very many people and schools for teaching Buddhism were established.
In Korea, Buddhism was introduced by a Chinese Monk in the 4th century. Buddhism was not received well in Korea because a monk that was spreading the religion was killed but by the 6th century, people started accepting the religion. During this period, many monks from Korea went to China and studied the religion and from that point, Buddhism thrived under the noble patronage. Buddhism greatly influenced the lives of the people of Korea and in the 10th century, Buddhism was significantly important. In the 14th century, Confucianism became the sole religion, and Buddhism lost its support. However when the Japanese took over the control of Korea, Buddhism was revived and from that time onwards, many Buddhists in Korea have established schools and universities where they teach Buddhism. Even up to today, Buddhism still plays a crucial role in the lives of East Asian people ((Holcombe, 2017).
Holcombe, C. (2017). A history of East Asia. Cambridge University Press.
This article describes how Buddhism significantly continued to spread from East Asia to other parts of the world especially through Chines diaspora populations. Madsen (2018) observes that in the modern era, China has the largest population of Buddhists compared to any Asian country. Substantial Chinese diaspora populations in Asia, Europe, and the Americas have spread Chinese Buddhism outside of China. Following initial repression under Communist rule, Buddhism began to be revived and developed in the 1970s under government control as a means of developing connections and influence outside China, though conflicts with unauthorized religious movements like the Falun Gong and ethnic minority identities like the Tibetans persist.
The same way Buddhism slowly entered East Asia through Maritime sea routes for traders, it is gradually spreading from East Asia, especially China to other parts of the world where China has economic ties and maybe Buddhism will become the religion of the world especially because the world has become a global village. Madsen (2018) also looks at how Buddhism has persevered through tough times over the years and every time it has emerged victorious. It has also played a major role in shaping the politics of East Asia throughout history. Buddhism was also shaped by the practices and principles of East Asia because East Asia Buddhism adapted the practices and principles of east Asia that were not practiced in India the official home of Buddhism.
Madsen, R. (2018). East Asian Buddhist Ethics. In The Oxford Handbook of Buddhist Ethics.
In this article, Michael (2019) describes how Buddhism rose to Prominence East Asia and even assumed the role of the military despite the fact it is said to be the most peaceful religion in the world. Michael (2019), observes that Buddhism assumed the role of the military with the expansion of Buddhist influence, wealth and complex temples most of them created special guards that included laity and clergy for protecting the temple grounds and holy artifacts. This expansion to military forces led to bitter conflicts over the control of senior posts in the government which resulted in a major violent incident between monks in the 10th century. There were many disputes about temple lands throughout the 10th that led to the death of many monks from different schools of Buddhism. Because of increased military capacity and political connections, the monk warriors soon became involved in the war that left many Buddhist artifacts destroyed.
The history of Buddhism in East Asia is an Integration of a variety of events and factors. The development of Buddhism resulted in numerous Buddhist sects that held great influence on the aristocratic powerbase. Under the rule of warriors, the Buddhist powers focused on maintaining economic growth, political influence, and also develop a strong military capacity. This involvement of violence rose from the need to solve internal conflicts, protect themselves, and engage in operations at the request of the court. The transformation from a political entity to military force was directly linked to the unfolding history throughout the land. In every era and generation, monks did not stop.
Michael, F. (2019). Rule by incarnation: Tibetan Buddhism and its role in society and state. Routledge.
This article describes how Buddhism has been part of politics right from the beginning. Park (2017) describes how the early texts of Buddhism have referred to and discuss policies, wars, princes, and kings. He also observes the later texts, up to date, provides advice to rulers about good governance, admonitions concerning the dreadful penalties of the poor ruling, and gives caution to rulers not to avoid or disregarding the essentials of the ordinary people. In terms of political practice, governments have been influenced by Buddhism and the religion has also been established by governments in East Asia as a basis of their legitimacy and authority. Buddhist monarchs have ruled most of the realms of Buddhism in East Asia at different periods over the last two centuries, and even in present times, several countries in East Asia appreciate that their governments are responsible for governing them in a manner that is consistent with the ideals of Buddhism. In the East Asian countries, Buddhism is a significant religious and ethical tradition, even though it is not officially integrated into the political system.
Regardless of the long history of a close link between politics and Buddhism, during the 20th century, Western scholarships underwent two stages. The early-stage saw Buddhism as either anti-political or apolitical and focused primarily to release practitioners from the samsara cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. The later stage, in which Western scholars started to study the history of Buddhism and political writings more keenly, that revealed both the multifaceted practice of politics by Buddhists and the normative political ideas in the tradition of Buddhism (Park, 2017).
Park, J. Y. (2017). Philosophizing and Power: East–West Encounter in the Formation of Modern East Asian Buddhist Philosophy. Philosophy East and West, 67(3), 801-824.
Zhang & Ji (2018) show how Buddhism eventually became a popular force not only in the lives the ordinary Chinese people but also in the life of the emperor. By the 6th century, Buddhism had equaled Daoism in political influence and popularity. It was during this period and over the subsequent three centuries that major schools of Chinese Buddhism were established. The two schools that still maintain their influence today are Chan (Zen) Buddhism and Pure Land Buddhism. Even in mainland China, where the government often suppresses religion, there are experts in these two schools. Buddhism in China, just like Confucianism and religious Daoism, also went through several changes throughout the history of the country and was varied in its religious and social philosophical beliefs and manifestations.
In the quest of understanding Buddhism, many scholars view Buddhism as many Buddhisms because, in the traditional era of Buddhism in China in the 10th century, there were several schools of Buddhism that promoting and teaching their meditation and philosophical practices. For example, The Tiantai and Huayen schools differed in political influence, location, and philosophy. The teachings of different schools influenced and were adapted by Japan and Korea (Zhang &Ji, 2018).
In Japan, the migration and establishment of Buddhism from Asia started at the level of politics. From the onset, the early seeds of Buddhism sown in Japan developed a political movement instead of a system of religious beliefs. When the Soga family took control over the court, they adopted Buddhism as the formal religion but this concept of a formal religion led to a political conspiracy and power tussles for many centuries that followed. As many people continued to be exposed to Buddhism, its place as a political entity gained great influence on the government and court.
Zhang, J., & Ji, Z. (2018). Lay Buddhism in Contemporary China: Social Engagements and Political Regulations. China Review, 18(4), 11-40.
