Discussion: Psychodynamic TheoriesPsychodynamic theories of psychology emphasize the role of the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences in personality development. Despite the far-reaching i

Theoretical approaches have generally focused on explaining why collaborating groups might outperform individuals. Other approaches to cre­ ative problem solving have explored contexts that cause fixation or conformity, factors that allow individuals to overcome impasses imposed by mis­ leading problem representations or solutions, and how solvers may achieve insights or highly creative solutions during problem solving. There has been much debate about whether qualitative differences exist between solution processes for analytic and creative problem solving. Ill-Structured Problem Solving and Problem Finding Problems can be classified along a continuum from well defined to ill defined, depending on whether they have clear goals, solution paths, or predictable solutions. Although most research has focused on well-defined problems, in addition to work on creative problem solving, there has been some headway into less structured domains, such as international relations, art, and writing. Research using computerized microworlds has explored complex problem solving that incorporates diffi­ culties, such as a lack of clarity in starting states or operators, multiple or competing goals, large num­ bers of interconnected variables, and several kinds of uncertainty or unpredictability. Finally, although most research on problem solving starts by providing the solver with a state­ ment of the problem to be faced, to fully explain successful problem solving in real-world contexts, one needs to examine the problem-finding stage.

The ability to recognize or formulate when there is a problem to be solved may be critical for achiev­ ing the moments of greatness that problem-solving theories ultimately seek to explain.

Jennifer Wiley See also Creativity; Exceptional Memory and Expertise; Human Information Processing; Intelligence Testing; Reasoning and Decision Making Further Readings Chi, M. T. H., Glaser, R., & Farr, M.]. (1988). The nature of expertise. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Mayer, R. E. (1992). Thinking, problem solving, cognition (2nd ed.). New York, NY: W. H. Freeman.

Rittle-Johnson, B., & Schneider, M. (2015). Developing conceptual and procedural knowledge of mathematics.

In R. Kadosh & A. Dowker (Eds.), Oxford handbook of numerical cognition (pp. 1118-1134). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

Sternberg, R.]., & Davidson,]. E. (Eds.). ( 1996). The nature of insight. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Wiley,]., & Jarosz, A. F. (2012). How working memory capacity affects problem solving. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 56, 185-227. PSYCHOANALYTIC AND PsvcHODYNAMIC THEORIES OF PERSONALITY Who is Sigmund Freud, and who does he think humans are? His introductory lectures suggest that the two basic tenets of psychoanalysis­ ( a) mental processes are essentially unconscious and (b) impulses, especially sexual, play a pecu­ liarly large part in the causation of nervous and mental disorders-met with intellectual and moral prejudice when he first proposed them in the late 1800s. Further, he suggested that psychoanalysis is learned first of all on oneself-a method he applied to himself. Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic Theories of Personality 743 Thus, Professor Freud's writings focused atten­ tion forever after on "the self," a novel concept at the time but so ordinary now as a cultural meme as to be dismissed as obvious. Human beings house unconscious, often uncontrollable impulses or instincts, which if given full expression, threaten continued existence on planet earth. What follows in this entry are the foundations of psychoanalysis (and psychodynamics-a modified version of psy­ choanalysis) by considering five famous cases, four famous ideas, three sections of the mind, two fail­ ings, and one man considered by many to be a genius who started the field of psychotherapy. The History and Tenets of Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamics Freud was born in Freiberg, Moravia, in 1856 and trained as a neurologist. He has his share of admir­ ers and detractors and remains an influential figure in the modern world, having been cited more than all sources of history except Lenin, Shakespeare, the Bible, and Plato.

He has been heralded as a great intellectual pio­ neer regarding the role of the unconscious in behavior by the eminent scientist Gerald Edelman, considered the founder of all modern psychother­ apy and self-understanding by psychoanalyst Stephen Mitchell, and maligned as one of the three great destroyers by the philosopher Paul Ricoeur (the other two were Marx and Nietzsche). He has been chastised by the psychologist and theologian Margaret Alter for his silver-tongued attack of reli­ gious faith, which she believes has never recovered, and touted by the French psychologist Didier Anzieu as the only thinker who understood the crisis in European culture at the end of the 19th century, further suggesting that a review of Freud could cast light on the current cultural distresses worldwide. The history of psychoanalysis and psychody­ namics is as interesting as the tenets of psycho­ analysis. As Freud drew acolytes to him over the years from mainly America and Europe, legendary if apocryphal stories of intrigue, drug use, dual relationships, and one notable falling-out took place as psychoanalytic training centers were being established. Freud initially developed the ideas of the power of the unconscious and sexual impulses while working with patients who came to his consulting office for physical ailments that turned out to have psychological origins; this led him to formulate a depth theory of the mind, a theory based on conflicting impulses of the mind that require resolution. The topographical theory is a theory of place; three places in the mind govern levels of conscious­ ness-those available to everyday alert awareness called the conscious mind; those less available, more shadowy images called the preconscious; and those quite unavailable called the unconscious mind. He proposed that access to unconscious thoughts could be gained through dreams, the famous royal road, as well as through slips of the tongue. Later, he formulated his economic theory based on the structural model of the mind when he real­ ized that the topographical model had less rele­ vance for his work with certain patients, in which he proposed that the id, ego, and superego (the "it," the "I," and the "over-I," according to the Latin terms he used), were separate agents in a closed system that determined behavior. As much as Freud had hoped they would, these two theories never mapped onto each other in a cohesive way, one of his greatest regrets according to his daugh­ ter Anna.

Freud's model for mental order and disorder followed from this premise of the conflicts engen­ dered from the id, with the ego and superego; that is, when the ego failed in its coordinating and integrating function, it used defense mechanisms.

The patients he worked with demonstrated a vari­ ety of ways of denying the conflicts they had and having less than vitalized lives because of it. They found themselves unable to take on life's chal­ lenges such as work, marriage, the raising of chil­ dren. Freud's case histories represented patients who were unable to acknowledge their id impulses and manage them in a more useful rerouting of the energy via sublimation (a term he borrowed from chemistry).

Freud believed that the technique of free asso­ ciation, which he eventually labeled the fundamen­ tal rule, allowed the patient to wander into the conflictual material. The analyst's job was to cor­ rectly interpret these conflicts and their sources, allowing the patient to reverse the process of denial or other defense mechanisms, as expanded by Freud's daughter Anna, and return to health. 744 Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic Theories of Personality Freud believed the difference between mental health or mental disorder was a matter of degrees and that warding off self-knowledge through defense mechanisms such as rationalization or denial was merely second best.

Within psychoanalysis exists a great rift-the ego psychology school, which continues the main traditions of Freud but attempts a renewed view of the power of the ego, and the object relations school, which proposes that mental disorder is a clash between different self-self, self-other repre­ sentations, supplanting the drive model with the relational model. That is, humans are drawn tooth­ ers not for pleasure gratification but for relation­ ship, or attachment, itself an instinct as the British attachment psychologist John Bowlby suggests.

Both schools claim basis in Freud's theory, and both claim to deliver psychotherapy: psychoanaly­ sis (traditional five times a week treatment to a patient who reclines on a coach) and psychody­ namic therapy (a treatment modality that requires fewer meetings and that does not require a couch)­ although this is an oversimplified distinction.

Because space is of the essence in this brief entry, suffice it to say that psychoanalytic psychotherapy is delivered by a trained analyst where the patient works intensively on his or her inner world thus giving rise to transference and countertransference struggles, whereas the psychodynamic psychother­ apist may not be classically trained and works less intensively with the inner world of the patient.

Both can be useful, and both have their detractors. Freud in the 19th and 21st Centuries Freud's theory was embedded within a reassur­ ing scaffolding of the scientific worldview (Weltanschauung) of the late 1800s, which included the hope that humans would continue to make scientific discoveries that would end disease and premature death. Neither world war had taken place; society preferred to believe in its innocence and its omnipotence and that this omnipotence was based on the discoveries of science.

Given that Freud's theories developed within this scientific age, it is ironic that the largest and legitimate criticism of psychoanalysis is this lack of evidence-based research (notwithstanding Wilma Bucci's multiple code theory, a method that maps referential activity to uncover unconscious processes, and Lorna Smith Benjamin's structural analysis of social behavior, a method that maps love vs. hate and autonomy vs. control in relation­ ship to the self and the other). Psychoanalysis and psychodynamics interventions have fallen out of favor because of the ascendancy of cognitive behavioral therapy's (CBT) evidence-based research.

CBT, which does not rely on childhood origins, lends itself to current research methodologies given its straightforward tenets.

In contrast, psychoanalytic and psychodynamic proponents realize the embeddedness of human understanding in the very phenomenon they are attempting to understand. It is no longer the clear and objective scientist observing a particular phe­ nomenon as it was believed to be in Freud's day. It is probably because of these huge differences in con­ texts that the German researchers Helmut Thoma and Horst Kachele suggest a review of Freud would be useful rather than a return to Freud as the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan suggests.

It is also important to place Freud's supposi­ tions within the writings of the time. He was not the first to suggest an unconscious, nor was he the first to suggest ideas of infant sexuality as the Greeks beat him to the notion of Oedipus. Nor was it that the polite Viennese culture was incensed by the notion of underlying sexual tensions. Vienna was reputedly a city of some sexual license, although Freud's theory was never one of sexual license. He always believed in responsible sexual behavior. The point is that given the context of Vienna, it is somewhat surprising that so many of Freud's contemporaries were upset by his open acknowledgment of sexuality.

Also, most of his notions about religion had already been addressed by Ludwig Feuerbach in his book The True or Anthropological Essence of Religion, which predated Freud's Civilization and Its Discontents and The Future of an Illusion. He was also not quite an antireligionist, as portrayed by some. It's true, he did not himself believe in a supreme being. But he thought that man's capacity to soberly acknowledge reality was somewhat lim­ ited; thus religious consolation was necessary. Freud and Personality: A Summary Stripped down to its basic components, personal­ ity is the combination of emotional, attitudinal, and Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic Theories of Psychopathology 745 behavioral response patterns of individuals. Freud helped a number and variety of patients with their personality struggles, but wrote up only a few actual therapy cases and a consultation with a father about his son: Anna 0. (Bertha Pappenheim, analyzed with his friend and collaborator, Dr. Josef Breuer), Dora (Ida Bauer), Rat Man (Ernst Lanzer), Wolf Man (Sergei Pankeieff), and Little Hans (Herbert Graf), although later revisionist interpretations of his case histories bear reading (see Jeffrey Masson).

With these key cases in mind, Freud wrote his technique papers between 1912 and 1915 high­ lighting transference resistance and its interpreta­ tion, based on his discoveries about the usefulness of hypnosis first, later substituted with free associa­ tion and the "talking (cathartic) cure." Although tremendous controversy exists about his methods as well as the negative influences on his thinking by physicians such as William Fleiss (including the use of cocaine), he is still credited with the development of the examination of the self summarized here: Five famous cases: Anna 0, Dora, Rat Man, Wolf Man, and Little Hans Four famous ideas: (a) Not everything is conscious­ neuroscientists are inclined to agree. (b) The royal road to that unconscious is through dreams and slips of the tongue. (c) His depth theory of the mind cap­ tures a representation of inner conflicts, which must be regulated. (d) The talking cure allows patients to plumb the depths of these conflicts in order to be well. Three sections of the mind (topographical and struc­ tural): The id, ego, and superego; the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. To be responsible citizens, humans must manage their individual and collective instincts by moving material from the unconscious mind to the conscious and by managing the dangerous instincts of the id. That's essentially the depth theory of the mind. As simple as it seems, it was a new concept in 19th-century Vienna, an "unthought known"-a phrase Freud coined. Two failings: Freud applied his androcentric model to women, whom he likened to the "dark continent," thereby insulting them and Africans, and he hated to be bested. The former failing he acknowledged, but not the latter, to the dismay of Carl Jung. One man considered by many to be a genius: Freud's thinking was groundbreaking enough to get him listed alongside Einstein, whose general relativity and special relativity theories were never reconciled either, perhaps like Freud's structural and topo­ graphical theories of the mind. Both geniuses had set out at the end of the 19th century to map the inner and outer worlds. Freud intended to build a respectable theory based on a biological substrate that was to be con­ stantly renewed by clinical observation and rigor­ ously subjected to empirical analysis in an effort to contend with the reigning model of the time: the moral degeneracy theory of mental disorder. In A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, Freud insisted that "society pronounces the unacceptable to be untrue" (p. 28). Understanding personality requires that humans become aware of their own inner conflicts, which they must learn to regulate in order to live peaceably in society rather than blaming such conflicts on the devil or any other external idea, person, or object. "The fault ... is not in our stars, but in ourselves" (Julius Caesar, I.ii.140-141).

Sally H. Barlow See also Consciousness and Unconsciousness; Dreams; Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic Theories of Pathology Further Readings Dufresne, T. (2003 ). Killing Freud: Twentieth century culture and the death of psychoanalysis. London, England: Continuum Press.

Freud, S. (1924/1953). A general introduction to psycho­ analysis (]. Riviere, Trans.). New York, NY: Pocket Books.

Schwartz,]. ( 1999). A history of psychoanalysis:

Cassandra's daughter. New York, NY: Penguin Books. PSYCHOANALYTIC AND PsYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY Psychodynamic theorists, be they drive, ego, object relations, or self theorists, view humans as moti­ vated by unconscious forces that they do not