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By 2011, Starbucks operated more than 5,500 stores in over 50 countries. According to In- terbrand’s Best Global Brands 2010 report, Starbucks ranks 97th among the top 100 global brands (Interbrand 2010). Only recently has Starbucks begun to use sizable amounts of their marketing communications budget on traditional measured paid advertising (Lin and Roberts 2008).

Starbucks has outperformed its U.S. parent (Ta i p e i Ti m e s2009). From Beijing to Bangkok, Starbucks converted tea lovers into coffee fans.

In contrast to traditional Chinese tea drinking, Starbucks created a distinctive symbolic brand code for middle class and young adult consumers (Lin and Roberts 2008). Starbucks entered En-Ying Lin is Assistant Professor at China University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan.

Address correspondence to Dr. En-Ying Lin, No. 56, Sec. 3, Hsin-Long Road, Wenshan District, Taipei 116, Taiwan R.O.C. E-mail: [email protected] the Taiwan market in 1998, and there were more than 200 Starbucks in the whole island within 10 years. One block, one Starbucks has become Taipei’s main street scene. Taipei is the most condensed, highly populated city in Asia, thus making it the investigation city for this study.

The main objective of the current study is to examine the factors behind consumer culture to gain insights from how a global brand like Starbucks can be built without high levels of traditional media expenditures. More than simple taste, it is lifestyles and consumer culture permeating the conversion process that Starbucks has capitalized on. Michelli (2006) suggests that “not only does Starbucks make the products and service meaningful to new markets, but they understand what is impor- tant to individuals in these markets” (122).

Behind Starbucks’ extraordinary success, what factors constitute Starbucks’ consumer culture, attracting consumers to turn from traditional tea drinkers to coffee followers? 119 120 JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL CONSUMER MARKETING LITERATURE REVIEW There are three aspects implied in global consumer culture (Alden, Steenkamp, and Batra 1999; Arnold and Thompson 2005; Feather- stone 1990b; Holt 2002; Jensen 2000): the expe- rience of consumption—consumer culture, the space of consumption—the third place, and the ways of consumption—lifestyles. These three aspects are important and appropriate in inter- preting the global consumer culture of Starbucks in Taiwan because coffee consumption itself includes behavior (ways of consumption), ex- perience, and space (the place of consumption) (Michelli 2006). These three aspects coexist in the dynamic brand-building process (Arnold and Thompson 2005; Holt 2002). To investigate how Starbucks built its own global success in the area of Taiwan and to shed more light on how Starbucks constructed the coffee culture in a tea-drinking country, each aspect will be elaborated in the following paragraphs. Experience of Consumption—Consumer Culture Symbolic meanings and demand for con- sumer goods vary widely among cultures. West- ern products are absorbed, refashioned, and reinterpreted in local cultural systems. Appadu- rai (1986) examined how unique local cultural con gurations increase consumer spending on religion, rituals, and ceremonies and other conspicuous consumption as incomes rise in certain developing countries. “By implication, advertising is a crucial means for global brands to feature the idea that consumers all over the world consume a particular brand might invest the brand with the cultural meaning of being a conduit to feeling at one with global culture” (Alden et al. 1999, 77).

Taiwan has been a rapidly developing country in Asia. How has Starbucks developed a unique “coffee culture” through reinterpretation of its local cultural systems? It is important to focus on the growing prominence of the cultural aspect in consumption and not merely regard consump- tion as derived from needs or production. The satisfaction obtained from a product depends upon brand differentiation within conditions ofconsumer culture. The concentration is on the different ways in which people use commodities to create social identity or distinction. This has led to an increasing interest in conceptualizing issues of desire and pleasure, the emotional and aesthetic satisfactions derived from consumer experiences.

Consumer culture deeply in uences con- sumers’ lifestyles and shapes their needs through coffee consumption. In the current research, the construct of consumer culture will serve to explore “how consumers actively rework and transform symbolic meanings encoded in brands, retail settings or material goods to manifest their particular personal and social circumstances and further their identity and lifestyle goals” (Arnold and Thompson 2005, 871). Space of Consumption—“The Third Place” The concept of “the third place” is what Starbucks envisions local outlets to be. As a frequent meeting place for consumers and a place to spend time besides home and work, Starbucks offers comfortable ambience. Kotler and Keller (2006) suggest that “place” becomes a marketing mix tool for brands to make their products easily accessible and available to target customers; they even view “place” itself as part of the product.

Sociologist Ray Oldenburg coined the term “third place.” In his work,The Great Good Place: Cafes, Coffee Shops, Bookstores, Bars, Hair Salons, and Other Hangouts at the Heart of A Community(1989), he shared a vision of people intentionally seeking out informal meeting places to meet their own and society needs. He termed home and those we live with as “the rst place.” The “second place” is the workplace, where most people spend the majority of their time. But there is another place—a third place—that serves as an anchor of community life. In his more recent work, Celebrating the Third Place: Inspiring Stores About the “Great Good Places” at the Heart of Our Communities(2002), he underscored examples and cases where third places serve important functions for civil society, democracy, En-Ying Lin 121 civic engagement, and establishing a sense of place. Oldenburg described hallmarks of a genuine “third place” as being free or inex- pensive, usually having food and drink, and being highly accessible for mixing and mingling in a comfortable atmosphere. Most recently, Mikunda and Blomen (2006) further elaborated on the concept of “place” as a marketing mix tool in their bookBrand Lands, Hot Spots and Cool Spaces: Welcome to the Third Place and the Total Marketing Experience. Thus, it is important in the shift toward a consumer- centric perspective and experiential marketing to also understand the importance of “place” in the overall marketing communications mix and what place communicates about the brand.

Rosenbaum (2006) proposed a framework that supports a relational third-place theory, supporting “a positive relationship between the social supportive resources that a consumer receives from other people in a third place and his or her loyalty to the place” (62).

Starbucks’ achievement in Taipei does not come from nowhere; it clearly proves to us that the third place positioning successfully ful lls cus- tomers’ companionship and emotional support needs. Based on this review, the author would like to identify what characteristics Starbucks uses to attract its consumers.

Ways of Consumption—Lifestyles Consumption and lifestyle preferences in- volve discriminatory judgments, which at the same time identify and render classi able our own particular judgment of taste to others (Featherstone 1990b, 11). Douglas and Isher- wood (1979) suggest that consumers express their social status through personal lifestyles and the images of commodities. In 1963, Lazer gave lifestylesthe most commonly adopted de nition:

“Lifestyles refers to a distinctive mode of living in its aggregate and broadest sense; it embodies the patterns that develop and emerge from the dynamics of living in a society” (146). He asserts that consumers’ purchase decisions and market reactions are determined by lifestyle patterns.

Lifestyles potentially provide a mass-mediated environment through which people symbolically represent identity and difference. It is alsoindicated that “what people do in their spare time is often a good indicator of their lifestyle” (Hoyer and MacInnis 2007, 383).

Starbucks’ coffee culture (Lin 2002) gives lifestyles a further understanding by consumers’ attitudes and behaviors or a particular domain of their life. Coffee consumption and lifestyles are interrelated (Lin and Roberts 2008). To better understand the impact of lifetstyle on coffee con- sumption, the current study categorizes lifestyles using activity, interests, opinions (AIO) scales, operationalized as “Lifestyle is how one lives, it is the total image one has of him or her self which is a result of how one was socialized in his or her culture. It includes the products one buys, how one uses them, how one thinks about them and how one feels about them” (Kucukemiroglu, Kara, and Harcar 2005, 212).

Based on the previous literature re- view, the following research questions were generated:

1. In the aspects of experience of consump- tion and the third place, what character- istics does Starbucks possess to attract its consumers?

2. What are the lifestyles of Starbucks con- sumers? What is the relationship between lifestyles and consumption?

3. What are the factors of the three aspects in global consumer culture that may explain Starbucks’ phenomenon in a traditional tea-drinking country? METHODOLOGY Survey research would be the optimal methodological tool to examine the relationship among the third place, lifestyles, and consumer culture. The questionnaire used for this research contained the visit frequency, the space of consumption, the lifestyles, consumer culture questions, and consumer demographic data.

Respondents were asked to rate their level of agreement on a 5-point scale, where 1 equals strongly disagreeand5equalsstrongly agree.

The current study employed the convenience sampling method. Ten representative locations 122 JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL CONSUMER MARKETING of Starbucks in Taipei were selected from more than 50 locations throughout the city. Surveys were conducted with at least 40 people in each location. Intercepted convenience sampling was used to randomly select respondents lling out the questionnaire inside a Starbucks location.

The survey of 400 Starbucks consumers was conducted with the proper institutional review board approval.

The purpose of this study was to discover the global consumer culture factors in uenc- ing Starbucks coffee consumption in Taipei.

An English questionnaire and a Chinese ver- sion were used in the original cross-cultural study; only the Chinese version was used in the current research. Mueller’s “back transla- tion” method (2004, 241) was used to make sure that the two language versions were ex- actly identical in terms of the meaning and expressions. FINDINGS Respondents’ Demographic Pro le There were a roughly equal number of male and female respondents. Starbucks’ Taiwan consumers are younger: Nearly 76% of the sample were under 30 years old. The results indicated that respondents were highly edu- cated: 63% of the consumers had a bachelor’s degree and about 27% held professional de- grees. Most (80%) of the sample were single.

As for residency and work, almost all the respondents lived and worked in Taipei city.

About 30% of the sample identi ed themselves as teacher/professor/student, 15.8% worked in media/communication, and around 10% in a service industry. About half had a monthly income between US $1,000 and $2,999.

Heavy users, about half of the respondents, are those who usually drank more than one cup of coffee per day at Starbucks. Nearly 40% (38.6%) of the total respondents reported high visit frequency, which is de ned as those who come to Starbucks almost every day or two to three times per week. Space of Consumption: Starbucks as the Third Place To answer research question 1 (What char- acteristics does Starbucks possess to attract its consumers?), the mean responses of a wide (M =3.63,SD=1.02) and clean space (M=4.19, SD=.75), high coffee quality (M=3.96,SD =.85), good service (M=4.06,SD=.84), a pleasing decoration and design (M=4.06, SD=.78), enjoyable music (M=3.77,SD= .86), cozy surroundings (M=3.85,SD=.87), comfortable seating (M=3.64,SD=.95), and a prestigious reputation (M=4.26,SD=.83) comprise the attraction for Starbucks consumers.

Chi-square was run to see if Starbucks’ third- place characteristics are related to respondents’ demographics. After collecting the data, the author found most respondents selected nei- ther “agree” nor “disagree” as their answers, so “strongly disagree” was combined with “disagree” and “strongly agree” with “agree.” Therefore, these continuous variables become categorical to run chi-square. Starbucks’ good service (χ 2=14.18,df=2,p<.01) and cozy surroundings (χ 2=7.09,df=2,p< .05) are more preferred by female consumers, while more highly educated customers preferred Starbucks comfortable seating(χ 2=9. 37,df =2,p<.01). Single respondents preferred Starbucks clean space (χ 2=18.72,df=2,p< .01) and its pleasing decoration and design (χ 2= 13.36,df=2,p<.01) than married respondents did. Starbucks’ prestigious reputation was most preferred among respondents whose occupation was student/professor/teacher (χ 2=13.36,df= 2,p<.05).

As to different user levels, respondents who usually consume more than one cup of coffee a day in a week were considered heavy users. And those who usually have more than one cup of coffee a week or a month were called medium users. As for the light users in this research, they were the respondents who consume more than one cup of coffee every half year. Most heavy and medium users preferred Starbucks high coffee quality (χ 2=12.56,df=4,p <.05); light users preferred Starbucks’ cozy surroundings (χ 2=11.24,df=4,p<.05) and its prestigious reputation (χ 2=11.05,df= En-Ying Lin 123 2,p<.01). The ndings suggest that Starbucks’ high coffee quality attracts consumers so that they become medium or even heavy users, while Starbucks’ cozy surroundings and prestigious reputation persuade consumers to start trying its coffee.

Starbucks became well known in Taiwan not by paid advertising but through word of mouth.

As Starbucks converted thousands of younger adults to coffee, the uni ed decoration, stan- dardized commodity, and similar atmosphere of its stores created the coffee image with its own style: the third place. The ndings also indicate that what is consumed is not only the commodity, but also the space and atmosphere inside the place.

Ways of Consumption: Starbucks’ Taiwanese Lifestyles Consumers enjoy Starbucks as a good place to chat with their friends (M=4.12,SD=.85), simply to drink a cup of coffee (M=3.40,SD =1.22), to study (M=3.27,SD=1.26), to conduct business (M=3.10,SD=1.20), to bring a date (M=3.70,SD=.96), to stop by when thirsty (M=3.12,SD=1.16), to relax (M =3.33,SD=1.17), and to observe people (M =3.22,SD=1.29). Conducting business seems to be a unique way of consumption for Taiwan’s Starbucks consumers; respondents who prefer Starbucks as a place to conduct business are male consumers more than 31 years old (χ 2=6.89, df=2,p<.05). Chi-square again was used to test if respondents’ lifestyles were related to their demographics.

Heavy users are those who are male (χ 2 =9.95,df=2,p<.01), in a me- dia/communications business (χ 2 =59.02, df=8,p<.01), and with incomes less than US $1,999 a month (χ 2=22.31,df=4,p< .01). They most agreed that Starbucks is a good place to conduct business (χ 2=32.85,df=4, p<.01), to stop by and relax (χ 2=44.20,df =4,p<.01), or to sit and observe people(χ 2= 52.63,df=4,p<.01). Most medium users were professional/medical/lawyer, while most light users were students/professors/teachers.

Medium and light users think that Starbucks isa good place to study (χ 2=14.13,df=4,p< .01).

Married respondents had a high frequency of visiting Starbucks (χ 2=7.48,df=1,p<.01), usually stayed about 1 hour (χ 2=12.14,df=2, p<.01), and just enjoyed drinking coffee (χ 2= 27.30,df=2,p<.01) and studying at Starbucks (χ 2=11.77,df=2,p<.01). Sometimes they stopped by Starbucks when they were thirsty (χ 2 =8.17,df=2,p<.05). The nding indicates that the more income respondents have, the more they prefer to stop by Starbucks when thirsty (χ 2 =14.98,df=8,p<.01). On the other hand, those with a low frequency like to simply sit and observe people at Starbucks (χ 2=7.41,df=2, p<.05).

Consumers who stay 1 to 2 hours enjoys chatting with friends (χ 2=11.64,df=4,p <.05), while those who stay less than 1 hour simply like to drink coffee (χ 2=12.49,df =4,p<.05). Respondents who stay longer than 2 hours prefer studying at Starbucks (χ 2 =12.66,df=4,p<.05); most of them are student/professor/teacher (χ 2=18.13,df=8, p<.05). They also think Starbucks is a good place to bring a date (χ 2=16.43,df=8, p<.05). Respondents whose occupation is me- dia/communications mostly agree that Starbucks is a good place to stop by and relax (χ 2=24.76, df=8,p<.01) or to sit and observe people (χ 2=23.43,df=8,p<.01).

Coffee consumption re ects lifestyle. Actu- ally, consumption and lifestyle are two sides of societal culture, as one part of the social system.

Starbucks people consume for the recognized identity; meanwhile, the identity was obtained via the realization of their lifestyle. By means of consumption, Starbucks appeals to certain groups of people to form their self-identi cation and tastes. Relationships between the Third Place and Lifestyles In order to obtain the relationships, mul- tiple regression analysis was employed to measure the linear association among variables.

The independent variables are the third place’s nine items, and the dependent variable is the lifestyle index (constructed by adding all the nine 124 JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL CONSUMER MARKETING TABLE 1. Multiple Regression of Starbucks Lifestyles and the Third Place B Beta t-Ratio Sig. Constant 19.38 10.16 .00 Wide space.76.15 2.72 ∗ .01 Clean space−.41−.06−1.01 .31 Coffee quality−.38−.06−1.02 .31 Service.51.08 1.31 .19 D ´ ecor−.24−.04−.56 .58 Music.35.06.98 .33 Cozy surroundings.10.02.24 .81 Comfortable seating1.64.29 4.69 ∗ .00 Prestigious reputation−.10−.02−.30 .77 R=.39, R2=.15, F(9, 390)=7.57 ∗,N=399. ∗p<.01 items). Table 1 illustrates the results of multiple regression showing unstandardized coef cients, standardized coef cients,tratio,R,R 2, and other results.

According to table 1, among the nine items, comfortable seating is the most important vari- able in predicting customer satisfaction, while wide space is the second most important predic- tor variable. There is statistical signi cance in items “wide space” and “comfortable seating,” and there is moderate but statistically signif- icant correlation between the third space and lifestyles. The more respondents think Starbucks has a wide space and comfortable seating, the more they identify Starbucks as the “third place.” Therefore, from the consumer culture viewpoint, the consumption eld is actually part of the commodity, and it is also closely related to consumers’ lifestyles. In a word, the Starbucks space was created as a context for consumption. Global Consumer Culture Factors In uencing Starbucks Coffee Consumption Factor analysis was used to summarize the information contained in the large number of interrelated variables into a smaller number of factors. The variables are 24 interrelated items measuring three aspects of global consumer culture, which are the space of consumption, thelifestyles, and the consumer culture derived from the literature review. Table 2 illustrates the re- sults of principal component factor analysis with Varimax rotated methods, showing factor load- ings, communality, and eigenvalues.

The 24 variables are appropriate for factor analysis because they meet both the standard of KMO measure of sampling adequacy (> .50) and Bartlett’s test of spherecity (χ 2 = 3248.80∗,df=276,∗p=.00), which means there exists an appropriate factor relationship among 24 variables. There were six factors extracted from the 24 variables. The rst fac- tor, “hope, dream, and image,” with a rotated eigenvalue of 6.02, includes seven items, which are “trendy,” “identi cation,” “connected to the world,” “high brand quality,” “sophistication,” “prestigious,” and “distinctiveness.” The second factor, “surroundings atmosphere,” with a ro- tated eigenvalue of 2.83, includes four items, which are “wide space,” “music,” “coziness,” and “seat.” Another four items, which were “clean space,” “coffee quality,” “service,” and “decoration,” represent the third factor, “total quality” with a rotated eigenvalue of 2.00. The fourth factor, “special social function,” with a rotated eigenvalue of 1.26, and the fth factor, “normal basic function,” with a rotated eigenvalue of 1.13, are represented respectively by two sets of items: “do business,” “relax,” “observe people” as one set, and “simply drink a cup of coffee,” “study,” “stop by when thirsty” as the other. The last factor was composed of “reputation” and “chatting,” with a rotated eigenvalue of 1.06. Based on the eignevalue, we can conclude that the rst factor has more explanatory power (25.07% of the total variance is explained by the rst factor).

About 72% of “relax” variance is explained by the six factors, while 69% of “coffee quality” and “coziness” variance are explained by the six factors. Furthermore, the six factors also explained 68% of “high brand quality” and “service” variance. In global consumer culture, the meaning of Starbucks consumption can be produced, traded, and transferred by global perception in commodities (Jensen 2000). What is really consumed when consumers purchase a product is a hope, a dream, or image represented by social meanings. Actually, Starbucks is not TABLE 2. Starbucks Global Consumer Culture Factor Analysis Rotated Factors Factor 1 (F1) Factor 2 (F2) Factor 3 (F3) Factor 4 (F4) Factor 5 (F5) Factor 6 (F6) Eigen value%of VarianceEigen value%of VarianceEigen value%of VarianceEigen value%of VarianceEigen value%of VarianceEigen value%of Variance Variables 6.02 25.07 2.83 11.80 2.00 8.33 1.26 5.23 1.13 4.69 1.06 4.43 Communality Wide space−.00 .51.33 .21−.01 .12 .43 Clean space−.00 .35 .59.19−.25 .24 .63 Coffee quality .19 .12 .79−.01 .00−.00 .69 Service .13 .15 .77−.01 .17 .01 .68 Decoration .00 .45 .62.00−.00 .01 .61 Music .19 .70.19−.00 .00−.00 .57 Coziness .19 .76.12−.00 .17 .17 .69 Seat .21 .72.17 .12 .14 .14 .64 Reputation .27 .00 .26−.25 .13 .66.66 Chatting .00 .21 .00 .17−.00 .73.62 Simply drink .11−.00 .30 .34 .57−.17 .57 Study−.00 .26 .00−.00 .74.00 .62 Do business .00 .22−.13 .56.20−.13 .44 Bring a date .16 .28 .00 .32 .39 .24 .42 Stop by when thirsty .25−.00 –.11 .41 .60.01 .60 Relax .22−.00 .00 .80.16 .01 .72 Observe people .18 .00 .00 .77.00 .00 .62 Trendy .67.00 .13 .00 .01 .29 .56 Identi cation .73.00 .18 .12 .18 .00 .61 Connected to the world. 64.12 .00 .01 .16 .12 .47 High brand quality .79.00 .22 .12−.00 .00 .68 Sophistication .66.23 .00 .12 .00−.00 .51 Prestigious .77.12 .00 .00−.00 .11 .63 Distinctiveness .70.15 .00 .28−.00−.20 .64 KMO=.86, B(χ2=3248.80 ∗,df=276, ∗p=.00), cumulative 59.55%, N=400. 125 126 JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL CONSUMER MARKETING only a site where commodities were exchanged, it entailed the display of exotic and global commodities from various parts of the world (Featherstone 1990a, 15).

Therefore, Starbucks is a comprehensive sym- bol that draws consumers a vivid association with the characteristics of high quality, trendy, identi ed, connected to the world, sophisticated, prestigious, and distinctive. Starbucks customers tend to connect their social positions with the symbolic representation of commodities.

They enjoy applying the identities to their own lifestyles, and by utilizing the identities they construct their own self-identities.

CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS The purpose of the study was to explore global consumer culture factors in uencing Starbucks coffee consumption in Taipei and the relation- ship between lifestyles and the third place.

Therefore, the research integrated the literature review from English and Chinese references on consumer culture. The research questionnaire was administered in the actual realistic settings and applied theoretical perspectives to analyzing the Starbucks phenomena.

Six factors were found to constitute Star- bucks global consumer culture shaping in the tradition tea-drinking area: hope, dream, and image as the rst factor, indicating that what Starbucks gives consumers are the feelings of being trendy, identi ed, connected to the world, high brand quality, sophisticated, prestigious, and distinctive. As in Fam and Grohs (2007), the most effective selling techniques for drinks are trendy and distinctive attributes (532). The second factor attracting consumers is surround- ings and atmosphere. Starbucks stores in Taipei have the following characteristics: a wide and clean space, high coffee quality, good service, a pleasing decoration and design, enjoyable music, cozy surroundings, comfortable seating, and a prestigious reputation. These characteris- tics constitute the attraction and satisfaction for Starbucks consumers. What exists in the eld of Starbucks, besides its use value, is the image meaning inside each location.Starbucks creates a homogeneous space throughout their stores worldwide. Its uni ed decoration, standardized commodity, and similar atmosphere attach the coffee image to its own style. The symbolic value of the space lies in its atmosphere and inward meaning. In modern society, space no longer means a simple eld for consumption; what is really consumed is the imagined, exotic atmosphere. From a consumer culture viewpoint, space is actually part of the commodity. It also is closely related to the consumption process. More simply put, places are created as contexts for consumption. What is consumed is not only the commodity but also the space and atmosphere inside the place.

The concepts of total quality represent the third factor. The other three major factors loaded as a special social function, a normal basic function, and as reputation for chatting with friends. Through purchasing global commodi- ties, Starbucks consumers satisfy their needs via the process of consumption. Under global consumer culture, the commodity offered ex- ceptional global imagery in the eld. It also enhanced the role of consumer culture in so- cieties to a wider range of symbolic goods and experiences produced by the global commerce system. Nevertheless, at the same time the global consumer culture uses images, signs, and symbolic goods that summon up dreamlike global perceptions, aesthetic immersion, desires, and fantasies. They also suggest emotional ful llment in making oneself distinctive.

The coffee culture speci es Starbucks’ con- sumer identities, which were expressed through the commodities characterized by the standard package. Material possessions are particularly important in de ning the meaning of consump- tion. People in a consumer society tend to judge themselves and others in terms of their consump- tion lifestyles. It indicated that Western culture adoration was one of the key determining factors in consumers’ choice for coffee consumption (Su, Chiou, and Chang 2006, 177). Starbucks’ consumers appear convinced that global brands represent a better quality and provide them status, prestige, and distinction. This kind of distinction denotes the importance and role of coffee culture in an emerging market (i.e., Taiwan). En-Ying Lin 127 The whole Starbucks experience is consumer- centric, and it can also be considered a regio- centric marketing strategy, which is constituted by the six factors previously mentioned. As Starbucks makes the most of coffee, in the whole discourse of consumption, whether learned or lay, is articulated on the mythological sequence of the fable: a man, “endowed” with needs which “direct” him toward objects that “give” him satisfaction. This statement ignores the nature of consumer society in which “the manufacturers control behavior, as well as direct and model our needs” (Featherstone 1990b). Needs are produced as a force of consumption; needs are nothing but the most advanced form of the rational system of productive forces at the individual level. The function of coffee should only serve as biological needs to quench our thirst, but Starbucks coffee serves as a self- actualization need to distinguish from others.

The uniqueness of the current study lies in its contribution to the coffee culture factors in a traditional tea-drinking country (i.e., Taiwan).

It details how Starbucks converts tea drinkers to coffee lovers. However, without much related literature in coffee culture, the study lacks hypotheses and theory testing; thus it is ex- ploratory in nature, and the research ndings are descriptive. For consequent study, six factors of Starbucks consumer culture can be used for further testing. Comparisons of Starbucks coffee culture in different countries within the region of Greater China would be useful as well.

Moreover, future study can compare lifestyle differences and similarities in Greater China countries to provide more consumer insights.

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