Why Educators Should Conduct ResearchYour written response to this discussion prompt is your time to reflect on the action research cycle. This discussion also supports your achievement of Course Lear
Chapter 8 Organizer
Conventions of Academic Writing
Titles and Abstracts
Person and Voice
Tense
Tentative Versus Definitive Statements
Clarity
Consistency
Simplicity of Language
Conventions of Format
A Word About Ethics When Writing Research Reports
Practical Guidelines for Writing
Related Websites: Writing Action Research Reports
Still More Examples of Action Research Reports
Summary
➤ Questions and Activities
➤ Key Terms
➤ Student Study Site
At this point, after having completed an action research project or study, some of you may be saying to yourselves “Getting published is not important to me or to my career. There is no real reason for me to write about my action research.” Mills (2011) would argue—and I would most emphatically agree—that there is real value in writing an action research report. As a community of professional educators, it is critical that we move beyond the expectation that writing a research report is something that is done only by academics at colleges and universities. Mills goes on to suggest that the actual process of writing such a report requires practitioner-researchers to clarify various meanings throughout their reports. You must choose your words carefully, thoroughly describe the events that you experienced during your study, and reflect on those experiences. Through engaging in this process, you will likely continue to learn more about your topic of study, your students, their learning, your teaching, and so on—things that perhaps you had not considered or thought through. In addition, the act of formally writing an action research report forces you to be honest, accurate, and thorough, thus promoting a better final product (Mills, 2011).
In addition to the clarification of various meanings associated with your action research, Mills (2011) also lists several other reasons for formally writing an action research report. The feedback you receive from reviewers and readers of your research will provide you with validation for who you are and what you do as a professional educator. The act of continuously reflecting on your instructional practices will empower you to continue to strive for better ways to educate your students. Finally, writing a research report will quite honestly provide you with a terrific sense of accomplishment. It can be both gratifying and humbling when colleagues read your work and recognize your accomplishments (Mills, 2011).
All of this being said, academic writing is not necessarily an easy task for everyone. It represents a different type of writing—one that is more technical and “scientific.” The aim of this chapter is to help you better understand this type of writing, as a process, and to share with you some of its primary conventions.
8.1 Conventions of Academic Writing
When writing a formal report of your action research, you will need to follow a style guide. If you are submitting the report to a journal for possible publication, it is even more important that you use the style guide followed by the particular journal. A style guide is an instruction manual of sorts, providing authors with various requirements for stylistic matter, including but not limited to punctuation, grammar, abbreviations, reference styles, headings, quotations, statistical notation, and captions for figures and tables. The most commonly used style guide for academic-style writing in the United States is the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th edition), also referred to as the “APA Manual.” If you have ever had to write a paper for a graduate course, you are likely familiar with APA style. If not, you likely will want to invest in the manual as a reference, as it is not very expensive, retailing for about $30.
Most journals will specify in their guidelines for authors the style guide they follow; however, some journals, especially electronic journals, do not specify any sort of stylistic requirements. For example, the passage below appears on the website for Teaching & Learning: The Journal of Natural Inquiry & Reflective Practice, specifically on its “Guidelines for Contributors” page (http://www.und.nodak.edu/dept/ehd/journal/submissions.html):
Teaching and Learning is a refereed journal devoted to the values of thoughtful observation as an educational method, of description as a technique for understanding, and of lived experience as a source of knowledge construction. The journal is in the process of being converted to the online environment.
We encourage the submission of articles, essays, and critical commentary grounded in observed experience in natural settings; of parts of reflective journals; of situated descriptions on teaching/learning practice; of action-oriented research; of ethnographic studies; of semiotic analyses; and of evaluation studies. We will also consider creative works focused on issues related to teaching and learning.
We define teaching and learning broadly and invite contributors to stretch or dissolve traditional categories of education. We invite contributions from educators, critical theorists, researchers, social scientists, human-service professionals, historians, philosophers, administrators, students, parents, and artists.
Due to the interdisciplinary character of this journal, articles should be written in a manner that facilitates communication across domains; a style of intelligent informality is preferred. Use American Psychological Association (APA) style, double spaced, with wide margins. All manuscripts should be accompanied by a brief biography of the author or authors. Due to the online format, please submit the manuscript as an e-mail attachment, preferably in Microsoft Word (4.0 or higher), and save the manuscript as a rich text format (rtf) document.
Notice that the announcement does not specify much about writing style but does state (in the last paragraph) that potential authors should follow APA style. It is then the author’s responsibility to consult the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association for guidance and to prepare the manuscript accordingly.
Conventions of academic-style writing are simply agreed-upon procedures that help ensure the readability and credibility of research reports (Mertler & Charles, 2011). Readers of journals and other outlets for research reports have certain expectations regarding format and style. When writing a report of the results of action research, it is important for practitioner-researchers to follow these conventions. Failure to do so does not invalidate the research, but a researcher’s credibility can be damaged by using unconventional report styles and formats (Mertler & Charles, 2011). Consider how a classroom teacher’s credibility can be tarnished by handing out to students a test that is replete with spelling and grammatical errors. The failure of practitioner-researchers to follow standard conventions of writing style can result in a fate similar to that of the careless classroom teacher. The conventions of style we will examine include the following:
Titles and abstracts
Person and voice
Tense
Tentative versus definitive statements
Clarity
Consistency
Simplicity of language
We will also take a look at two essential conventions of format, namely a generic format for the major sections of a research report and guidelines regarding the length of a research report.
Titles and Abstracts
The title of any written work is, at least at the outset, one of the most important aspects of the work from the readers’ perspective. The title is the initial screening mechanism for anyone considering reading the work. Unless you are familiar with an author’s works, the title of a novel is typically the first thing that grabs your attention or that turns you off. In a manner of speaking, the title of a research report operates in a similar fashion. The title should indicate clearly what the study and the report are about. Researchers and practitioner-researchers are sometimes inclined to develop cute, clever titles that pose riddles or that are extremely vague. If my time as an educator is limited, I am less likely to pick up and read an article with such a title as this. There is nothing inherently wrong with a clever title, provided it accurately describes the topic and study at hand (Mertler & Charles, 2011).
The titles of my research papers tend to be fairly straightforward and very descriptive. For example, I recently published a journal article titled “The Role of Classroom Experience in Preservice and Inservice Teachers’ Assessment Literacy.” Notice the descriptive nature of this title. It includes the independent variable (classroom experience), the dependent variable (assessment literacy), and the populations studied (preservice and in-service teachers). According to the APA Manual (American Psychological Association [APA], 2010), a title for a research report “should be a concise statement of the main topic and should identify the variables or theoretical issues under investigation and the relationship between them” (Section 2.01, p. 23).
I tend not to get too clever in the development of my titles. However, sometimes I do try to create some that are a bit more entertaining. Consider the following two titles from recent studies that I conducted, one presented at a professional conference and the other published in a journal:
“What . . . Another Survey??? Patterns of Response and Nonresponse From Teachers to Traditional and Web Surveys”
“The Mouse or the Pencil? A Psychometric Comparison of Web-Based and Traditional Survey Methodologies”
Even though I tried to get a bit clever in the interrogative portion of these titles, the part that follows is still fairly descriptive of the topic and actual study conducted. My basic advice to you when writing your action research report is to keep the cutesy aspect out of your titles and simply create a thorough but brief descriptive title—grab your readers’ attention!
An abstract is a brief but comprehensive summary of the contents of the entire research report (American Psychological Association, 2010). It allows readers of your action research report to quickly survey the contents of the report by highlighting the most pertinent aspects. Abstracts are typically no longer than a paragraph and are usually limited to 150 to 250 words. An abstract typically comprises the following information:
A brief statement of the research problem, or problem of practice
A description of the setting and participants in the study
A summary of the procedures, including any interventions, innovations, or strategies implemented, as well as the data that were collected and how they were collected
A summary of the basic findings or results
A concise description of the conclusions and plans for future actions
Here is a sample abstract from an article I published a few years ago (Mertler, 2010):
Due to the magnitude of NCLB, the pressure on teachers has increased to perhaps immeasurable proportions. One could argue that NCLB has ramifications for nearly all aspects of the teaching–learning process, including classroom-based assessment. The purpose of this study was to describe teachers’ beliefs about NCLB and its influence on classroom practices. Differences based on several demographic variables were also examined. An original instrument was administered to teachers and 1,534 responses were received. Salient findings revealed that teachers believe NCLB is having negative impacts on instructional and curricular practices, including higher levels of stress related to improving student performance. Teachers reported several changes in how they assess students. Significant group differences were found, particularly on the resultant components of Student Test Preparation and Instructional Changes.
Image 2
Video Clip 8.1 View a clip of Dr. Mertler discussing academic writing.
As you can see, when writing an abstract, you have to provide quite a bit of information but in a very limited space. Writing an abstract is actually more difficult than you might expect, simply because you must be extremely succinct when describing the various major features of your action research study, as listed above.
Person and Voice
One of the features of academic writing—and specifically, of more traditional forms of research, such as experimental research—that distinguishes it from other forms of writing is that it is typically written as objectively as possible (Johnson, 2008). You will seldom see any use of first-person pronouns. Usually, the authors do not refer to themselves as “I,” “we,” or “me.” Authors will make reference to themselves using third-person terms, such as “the authors” or “the researchers.” Personal observations, conclusions, and recommendations are reserved for a special section, usually at the very end of the report, and even those are written in third person (Johnson, 2008). Remember that the goal of experimental research is to remove any and all bias and subjectivity from the perspective of the researcher and let only the data communicate to the reader.
Consider the following passage from a paper of mine published a few years ago in an academic journal:
An original survey instrument, the Ohio Teacher Assessment Practices Survey, was developed by the researcher for purposes of collecting the data. The literature was relied upon heavily in order to guide the development of the specific items appearing in the survey instrument. The instrument consisted of 47 items and included both scaled (forced-choice) and open-ended items. For purposes of the study at hand, teachers were asked by the researcher to respond to items concerning the validity and reliability of their classroom assessments, specifically requesting information on the steps that they follow and the extent to which they do so. (Mertler, 1999)
Notice that I have described the fact that I developed the survey instrument myself, specifically for use in this research study. However, in two places in this paragraph, I purposely refer to myself as “the researcher.”
In contrast, and similar to more qualitative forms of research, action research is written in a much more subjective style. A practitioner-researcher is a central part of the action research study; therefore, it is not possible—nor is it desirable—to remove the thoughts and perceptions of the practitioner-researcher. However, it is important to bear in mind that this is not a license to voice explicit biases or hidden agendas in your research report (Johnson, 2008). In your action research report, it is crucial that your descriptions, interpretations, and conclusions are fair, accurate, honest, and trustworthy if your research is to be considered professionally credible. Consider the following passage from the report that I wrote on the preschool study to which I have made reference on several occasions throughout this book:
One boy had been carelessly mixing his paints together and accidentally got some on his shirt. Marilyn noticed it quickly and said, “That’s okay. We’ll clean it up.” She reacted calmly and not at all in a negative manner. This type of reaction typified this activity. There were not a lot of obvious examples of positive reinforcement. However, the comments provided by Marilyn were all of a positive nature and tone. I consistently witnessed Marilyn talking with the children, instead of at them. In observing the effects that these comments had on the children, I could easily classify these interactions as forms of positive reinforcement.
Here, notice that not only did I refer to myself in the first person, but I also integrated my observations and perceptions of those observations directly into the discussion of a particular event that I observed.
As with the use of personal pronouns, there is a bit of a discrepancy between the type of voice used in traditional types of research reports and the type used in action research reports. In traditional research, the passive voice is used fairly extensively (Mertler & Charles, 2011). The passive voice is characterized by the use of phrases such as the following:
“The following conclusions were reached . . .”
“It was concluded by the researchers that . . .”
Note that in the first example, the primary noun is “conclusions,” and something is being done to them. In contrast, the active voice is more appropriate for action research reports. Here the primary noun is the person or the practitioner-researcher—it is this person who is performing the action (hence, the active voice). The active voice is characterized by sentences such as these:
“The researcher developed the following . . .”
“I discovered very quickly that . . .”
Observe how the active voice tends to be a more reader-friendly form of writing. The primary difference between the two voices can be seen in the following two versions of the same statement:
It was expected by the researcher that some positive behaviors would be heard being praised in addition to the negatives being addressed. (passive voice)
I just expected to hear some positive behaviors being praised in addition to the negatives being addressed. (active voice)
The APA Manual (2010) states that authors of research reports should use the active voice rather than the passive voice (Section 3.18, p. 77). In the case of practitioner-researchers writing action research reports, I wholeheartedly agree.
Tense
Research reports are generally written in the past tense (Mertler & Charles, 2011). The main reason for this is that the research has already been conducted and, in some cases, completed. The review of related literature is almost exclusively written in the past tense, since you are summarizing research that has already occurred and been published or otherwise disseminated. Your methodology, results, and conclusions sections as well as any reflective accounts are also written in the past tense for the same reason in that they have already occurred. However, some sections may be written in the present tense. Introductory sections of reports—where the topic is introduced and the research questions and hypotheses are stated—are typically written in the present tense. This is because the practitioner-researcher is describing a current situation, problem, or concern. Since the situation or concern is ongoing—and likely was not resolved as a result of the study—it remains a current issue and should be described in that manner. Also, any recommendations for the future, including your action plan, are probably most appropriately written in present or future tense.
The specific advice offered in the APA Manual (2010, Section 3.18, p. 78) is that the past tense should be used to express an action or condition that has already occurred and that has done so at a specific time in the past, such as when you report the results of another researcher’s work [e.g., “Jones (2006) presented similar results.”]. When presenting a past action or condition that did not occur at a specific, definite point in time, the present perfect tense should be used (e.g., “Since 2000, several researchers have arrived at similar conclusions.”).
Tentative Versus Definitive Statements
When writing a report of the results of your action research, you must be careful to avoid statements made with too much confidence or certainty. In some sections of your report, you can be definitive, while in others it is critical to remain at least somewhat tentative (Mertler & Charles, 2011). When describing your methodology (i.e., your research design, data collection), you should be quite definitive and precise. You are trying to create for your readers a very clear picture of your study. In addition, when reporting the results of descriptive statistical analyses, you can also be quite definite. If you report the number of students involved in your study, the mean and standard deviation for a set of test scores, or the percentage of students who indicated that they like the current class schedule in your building, you can report very specific numbers, even to decimal places if you desire. Since there are customary and objective methods of calculating the mean, standard deviation, and percentages, there will be no question (i.e., nothing left to individual interpretation) regarding the values you obtain and report. In other words, two individuals cannot take the same set of data, independently calculate the mean, and obtain different values. Thus it is acceptable to write such statements as the following:
“The mean was equal to 29.11 and the standard deviation equal to 2.45.”
“Sixty-eight percent of students indicated that they liked the current class schedule.”
“The coefficient of correlation was equal to +0.54.”
In contrast, when reporting your conclusions and any subsequent implications of your research, you must be more tentative. It is not ethical to present any conclusions with absolute certainty. In contrast to descriptive statistical analyses, your inferential analyses (in the case of quantitative data) or inductive analyses (in the case of qualitative data) inherently contain subjective interpretations. These results, conclusions, interpretations, or implications may, in fact, differ from individual to individual. When stating conclusions or implications, your statements might read similarly to the following:
“There seem to be different contexts or situations within the preschool setting where positive reinforcement is more appropriately utilized.”
“As these results suggest, it may be critical that instruction on this topic be presented by experts in the field who are also knowledgeable about the reality of K–12 classrooms.”
In the case of these two sample statements, notice the tentative nature of each as typified by “There seem to be . . .” and “it may be critical that. . . .” Here nothing has been presented as an absolute.
Clarity
The clarity of your written research report is also crucial to your potential readership. Your final written report should be clear enough for another person to read and duplicate the methodological steps you employed with relative ease (Johnson, 2008). One of the contributing factors to enhanced clarity is the use of as few words as possible. The simple result of doing so is that your report becomes more readable. Johnson (2008) also suggests that you can enhance the clarity of your report by “entering a teaching mode” (p. 178). Assume that your readers know nothing about your topic and your procedures and you must explain everything to them—in the simplest terms possible. Finally, organizing your report in a logical format can improve its clarity and readability (Johnson, 2008). The use of headings and subheadings allows the reader to follow the same sort of outline you used to write the report. This also creates a nice flow to your report. Additional information about formatting research reports will be presented shortly.
Consistency
Striving for consistency in your writing style will also enhance the clarity of your report. Your stylistic decisions, word usage, meanings, special symbols, abbreviations, and acronyms should remain as consistent as possible (Mertler & Charles, 2011). For example, if you symbolize the mean with an italicized uppercase M early in your report, do so throughout the remainder of your report. The same can be said for formatting, such as indentations, quotes, spacing, and headings—however you format them the first time (perhaps in APA style), do so the same way each and every time. You should also format sections, tables, charts, figures, and references in a consistent manner throughout your research report. All of these efforts enable you to create a report that is easier and less cumbersome for your readers to comprehend. The APA Manual stresses the importance of continuity in your writing (2010, Section 3.05, p. 65). It states that readers will have a better understanding of your ideas if you strive for continuity in your words, concepts, and development of themes throughout your report in its entirety.
Simplicity of Language
I always remind students in my graduate research methods courses that when writing their research reports, they are not trying to create a novel for the best-seller list! Research reports should be written in straightforward and simple (rather than fancy and flowery) language (Mertler & Charles, 2011). The APA Manual refers to this as the “economy of expression” (2010, Section 3.06, p. 67). It stresses things such as using shorter sentences, eliminating redundancy and wordiness, and avoiding the use of overly detailed descriptions.
Remember that you are trying to get straight to the point, without adopting a literary style. A key is to try to avoid the overuse of adjectives and adverbs. Excessive use of these descriptive terms simply makes reading your report more difficult. People, and in particular other teachers, choose to read your report not for entertainment (as they would a novel) but rather to become better informed about the topic you investigated. Do not try to impress your readers with your mastery of a dictionary or the thesaurus button in your word-processing program. You need to explain your research procedures, your results, and your conclusions clearly enough for readers to understand them, but you also need to do so by keeping your message short and simple. After all, their time is limited—you do not want them to give up or completely avoid reading your report simply because they find it to be a difficult read.
Conventions of Format
Research reports, regardless of the type of research they stem from, tend to follow a general structure. This structure is based on several conventions of format, which essentially provide a generic outline or at least suggested components to be included in a typical research report. Most traditional reports contain four to six sections, depending on the type of research conducted (Mertler & Charles, 2011). Standard components of reports include an introduction, a description of the methodological procedures followed, a presentation of the findings, and a summary of the conclusions. The organizational outline, as indicated by various headings and subheadings, typically used in traditional quantitative research reports follows this format (Mertler, 2016):
Abstract
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Research Questions or Hypotheses
Limitations and Delimitations
Review of Related Literature
Methodology
Participants
Data Collection Procedures
Data Analysis Procedures
Results
Conclusions and Recommendations
References
Notice that there are six main sections, which appear in bold type. (There are actually seven sections, if you include the abstract. However, an abstract is not always required, or always necessary.) These six sections are fairly standard. In fact, if you decide at some point to conduct a quantitative thesis or dissertation study, the first five sections—excluding the references—usually correspond to the five chapters that make up the final product. Subheadings can be added wherever they may be appropriate. For example, subheadings are normally added into the literature review section—which can be anywhere from 30 to 100 pages in a thesis or dissertation—in order to make it more readable. Imagine how difficult it would be to read a 100-page review of literature that does not appear to have a structural organization—each paragraph simply leads to the next.
Image 2
Video Clips 8.2 & 8.3 View clips of practitioner-researchers discussing the process of writing action research reports.
The format of action research studies is not quite as standard as the one listed above. However, the organizational format characteristically follows the main steps of the action research process, as I outlined them in Chapter 2 and specifically in Figure 2.1. Each and every action research study will be unique in terms of its format and outline; however, action research reports will generally adhere to the following format (adapted from Mills, 2011):
Abstract
Introduction
Area of Focus
Defining the Variables
Research Questions
Review of Related Literature
Description of the Intervention or Innovation Data Collection and Considerations
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Conclusions
Reflection and Action Plan
In some action research reports, all of these sections may not be labeled as such (i.e., through the use of formal headings), but the material included in them will appear somewhere in the report. It is important that all of this information appears in the report, because its inclusion is necessary in order for the reader to fully understand all aspects of the study. You do not want to force your readers to have to figure some things out for themselves—they may do so inaccurately. Provide them with all the information they will need for understanding your topic, procedures, results, conclusions, and action plan.
Numerous times in this book, I have made reference to the research study I conducted on the topic of positive reinforcement in a preschool setting. The final research report that I wrote for that study was about 30 pages in length. Below I have listed all the headings and subheadings that I used in that report:
Introduction
The Central Issue—Background Literature Description of the Study
Description of the Site
Description of the School Staff
Methodology
Discussion
Gail’s Story
What Positive Reinforcement Means to Me
What Positive Reinforcement Means to Children
Use of Positive Reinforcement
Carol’s Story
What Positive Reinforcement Means to Me
What Positive Reinforcement Means to Children
Use of Positive Reinforcement
Marilyn’s Story
What Positive Reinforcement Means to Me
What Positive Reinforcement Means to Children
Use of Positive Reinforcement
Eric’s Story
Summary and Conclusions
References
You will quickly notice that I did not follow exactly the format I listed previously. However, all important components were included: an introduction (including descriptions of the topic and the study as well as a literature review), a description of my methodological procedures (which included data collection and analysis), my discussion of results, and my summary and conclusions. If you glance at the appendix found on the student study website (edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e), you will notice that the two final research reports presented include the essential components, but the authors have customized the format to fit their needs.
A final formatting issue that needs to be addressed is the length of the final research report. This is another one of those questions I am commonly asked by my graduate students: How long does our report have to be? The easy answer to that question is: As long as it needs to be in order to thoroughly and accurately tell your story. They typically do not like that answer, but it is often the most appropriate one I can provide. There are, of course, more formal guidelines for the length of research reports that depend largely on their purpose. If you are presenting your study to fellow teachers and administrators in your district, I would suggest keeping your write-up very brief, perhaps two to three pages. You might consider simply starting with your main headings—they really provide a strong structure, in outline form, to anything you write—and then providing a brief paragraph summary for each one. An alternative would be to again start with your main headings but only list bulleted highlights for each section. Remember that in your oral presentation you will likely be filling in all the gaps in your bulleted outline.
If you are submitting your paper for presentation at a professional conference, you will need to have something that provides a much greater level of detail about all aspects of your action research study. Most papers that I present at my professional conferences range from 20 to 30 double-spaced pages, although there is typically no limit specified for this type of report. Ultimately, you are the best judge of the length of your research reports because you must decide if you have included enough context and detail so that your audience will have a clear understanding of your study (Mills, 2011). In addition, if you are submitting your paper for possible publication in an academic journal, the particular journal typically provides prospective authors with guidelines for the length of the report. Journals will vary, but if I had to guess, I would estimate that the average length of a journal article is approximately 20 to 25 double-spaced pages. In their sections for guidelines for contributors, the editors of journals typically provide the desired length of reports in terms of total words. This can seem a bit overwhelming when you see that you have to write several thousand words! In order to facilitate this process, I have a general conversion rate that I use to determine the approximate—and I emphasize approximate—number of typed pages and the corresponding number of formatted pages: Roughly two and one-half pages of double-spaced type will equal one page of final, laid-out print. Of course, electronic journals are not limited by the same space issues that paper journals are. For example, the editors of Networks state that they prefer articles that are “normally 2,000–3,500 words.” The guidelines for contributors to Reflective Practice provide only an upper limit—6,000 words.
You also need to realize that if and when your article is accepted for publication, the journal will reformat it in order to meet its publication style. At a minimum, this usually means that your double-spaced report will be reformatted in a different font style and font size and will probably be single spaced. For example, an article that I recently had published in a journal was 28 double-spaced pages when I sent the final version to the editor. When it appeared in the journal, it spanned only 16 of the journal’s pages.
8.2 A Word About Ethics When Writing Research Reports
Up to this point in this chapter, we have discussed various conventions and practices about academic writing. To be honest, there is no rightor wrong way to accomplish this, although some practices are more widely accepted than others and are somewhat prescribed by variousprofessional associations. However, certain issues related to ethical principles in the reporting of research are really nondebatable. The APAManual states that scientific writing should always strive to protect the rights and welfare of research participants (2010, p. 11).
All those who conduct research in education—as well as authors of research reports—should endeavor to ensure the accuracy of their research results and to protect the rights of research participants. This can—and should—be done in a variety of ways (APA, 2010),including but not limited to the following:
Ensuring that data and/or results are not falsified or fabricated in any way or for any reason
Protecting the confidentiality of participants by
Limiting detailed descriptions
Removing explanations of characteristics that are not essential to the nature of the research
Using pseudonyms (for both individuals and organizations)
In addition, the APA Manual provides several guidelines for reducing the bias often inherent in written language. This further extends thenotion of the ethical treatment of research participants. These guidelines include the following:
Utilize an appropriate level of specificity when describing participants (e.g., the difference between the terms gender and sex used todescribe participants).
Avoid labels as nouns (e.g., gays, elderly) to describe participants, opting rather for the adjectival forms (e.g., gay men, older adults).
Use person-first, instead of condition-first, language (e.g., students with learning differences, as opposed to learning-disabled students).
Make all efforts to reduce biases potentially inherent in references to gender, sexual orientation, race and ethnicity, disabilities, age, andhistorical and/or interpretive inaccuracies.
For more specific discussions of these and other guidelines related to protecting the rights of participants and reducing biases in writing,the reader is advised to consult the APA Manual (pp. 16–17, 70–77).
8.3 Practical Guidelines for Writing
Writing—some people love it; others detest it. Regardless of which side of that fence you fall on, it is important to recognize that writing of an academic nature is arguably the one aspect of every profession that keeps that profession changing, growing, and expanding. Communication—especially of research and research findings—among the members of any given profession allows those members to stay abreast of new ideas, innovations, and opportunities. Writing is the primary mechanism through which we can learn more about a given topic, share with others what we know about a topic, and gather ideas for new things to try in our profession. In addition, professional communication about a specific topic can provide exceptional opportunities to network. I have communicated and in some cases actually met with people from all over the country and throughout the world with whom I share common professional interests. Only through my writing and the act of reading the written works of others have I been afforded these wonderful opportunities to broaden my network of professional contacts.
If you had told me several years ago that by this time in my career I would have written numerous research articles and several textbooks, I probably would have laughed. I never thought I was capable of producing such written works related to my profession. However, now that I have been engaged in the writing process for a number of years and several projects, I can honestly say that I thoroughly enjoy it! For me, the key has always been to follow several tips that I have developed for myself. Keep in mind that when developing your “rituals for writing,” you have to find out what works best for you in order to be successful. With that in mind, I offer the following suggestions:
1. Establish a writing routine. Writing takes time; there is no sense thinking that it is something that can be done quickly. One of the best things you can do to facilitate your writing is to make it part of your professional life. Find time where it falls or make time if necessary. It is really no different than any other aspect of teaching—we all make time for lesson planning, grading, developing a unit test, and so on. Writing simply becomes another one of our important professional activities. In addition, find a comfortable place to write—perhaps at your home computer or with a legal pad and a pencil at your kitchen table. Find a place that works for you and make it part of your routine.
2. Try to write at the same time every day. Along with establishing a writing routine, try to build into your daily schedule some time for writing. Perhaps that time will consist of 30 minutes or an hour. Regardless of the amount of time, make it a regular part of your daily routine. For example, you might decide that before school for 30 minutes is the best time for you to write, or maybe a period of time after school or even after dinner will be the best time for you to write.
3. Write as if you are talking to a friend. Remember that you are trying to communicate your study and the results as clearly as possible. When you write, imagine that you are telling a friend about your study. This friend knows nothing about the topic, so you must communicate all aspects of the study in understandable, simple terms.
4. Begin with an outline and organize your thoughts accordingly. When I write, I begin by developing a thorough outline. Then all I have to do is to fill in the blanks of the outline. The outline helps keep me on track and focused; plus, it creates somewhat of a series of checkpoints for my finished product.
5. Do not worry initially about spelling, grammar, and how your report reads. When developing the first draft of your action research report, do not become too concerned about how your report reads. I believe that many people who are new to academic writing fall victim to this—they try to make their reports read “perfectly” the first time out. Do not concern yourself with finding the ideal phrase or with the correct spelling of a given word. At this point in the writing process, you should only be concerned with getting your thoughts, ideas, and information on paper. At this stage, Mills (2011) advises practitioner-researchers to “look for progress, not perfection” (p. 181). You will have ample opportunities to refine your writing at a later stage.
6. Realize that writing a first draft is only the first step in the writing process. When you begin to write, it is important to realize that you are writing a first draft. You will have opportunities to edit and revise and then edit and revise again. This part of the process enables you to further refine and clarify your thoughts and ideas; each time, they become a little more coherent, with an improved sense of flow to the report.
7. Last but in my mind most important, develop a realistic writing schedule. If you begin writing with no clear sense of schedule, you essentially lack the incentive to continue making progress on your report. Developing a realistic—and I stress the word realistic—schedule for your writing is the first thing you should do before ever putting your first word on paper.
A writing schedule, along with the detailed outline you developed in Number 4 above, really provides the skeletal framework for your finished action research report. As an example, I have provided a schedule that I used to write a research report for a recent conference presentation (see Figure 8.1). Notice that the schedule somewhat parallels a detailed outline and that I included check boxes so I could monitor my progress.
These suggestions—especially Number 7—have helped me throughout my various writing projects. The closer I can stick to my writing schedule, the more successful my writing project will be. In addition, there is something to be said for being able to check off sections of your report as you complete them—it creates a sense of accomplishment, provides you with repeated opportunities to pat yourself on the back, and provides the necessary encouragement to keep going, because there is a light at the end of the proverbial tunnel! Just remember to find what works for you and stick with it.
Writing Up Action Research: Writing Schedules
Figure 8.1 A Sample Writing Schedule for a Research Paper
Action Research Portrait 1: Improving Reading Comprehension in a Title IProgram
Writing the Action Research Report
Recall that the purpose of this action research study is to improve students’ reading comprehension skills within a Title Icontext.
Kathleen was very excited about the results from her action research study. As she was making plans to present her study toher colleagues, she engaged in a conversation with several fellow teachers, who suggested that she also consider trying topublish it. Kathleen was a little hesitant at first, but the teachers offered to support her and even help her with editing andputting the finishing touches on a draft of a research report that she had begun working on. They brainstormed ideas forpossible publications, and all agreed that a popular reading journal, The Reading Teacher—a publication of the InternationalReading Association—might be a very appropriate outlet for her study. Included in each edition of The Reading Teacher is asection where teachers and other researchers can publish the results of research studies in the form of brief articles. Theteachers went online, first to the main page for the International Reading Association (http://www.reading.org) and then to apage titled “Writing for The Reading Teacher” (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)1936-2714/homepage/ForAuthors.html) where they found information specifically directed toward individuals wishing to submitarticles for possible publication. There, they found information about the nature of articles published in The Reading Teacher,the desired length of published manuscripts, and the length of time that authors could expect the review process to take.Specifically, they found the following passage:
Authors are generally notified of a decision within three months of receipt of submission. Articles are judged primarily fortheir contribution to the field, usefulness to teachers or researchers, timeliness, freshness of approach, and clarity andcohesiveness of presentation.
Kathleen was very excited about the prospect of having her action research published, although she was aware that there was no guarantee. She would do her best to put together a sound manuscript, focusing specifically on her study and the process of reflection she used in order to make meaning of her results.
Action Research Portrait 2: Conceptual Understanding of Mitosis and Meiosis
Writing the Action Research Report
Recall that the purpose of this action research study is to improve students’ understanding of the processes of mitosis andmeiosis.
Upon completing this initial cycle of their action research study, Sarah and Tom decided to write up their results in the formof a two-page bulleted list of “highlights.” They listed Sarah’s preliminary concerns about the students and their learning, thelist that they developed of possible curricular topics to study, and then the plan to closely examine ways to improve herstudents’ understanding of mitosis and meiosis. Sarah included an overview of the resources she found, how she hadincorporated them into her instructional unit, and then how she assessed her students’ mastery of the two cellular processes.Sarah and Tom decided that they would use this as a basic outline for expanding the document into a complete researchreport.
Their next step was to make an appointment with a science educator at their local university. They wanted some advice abouta possible outlet for potentially publishing their report on the creative ways they approached trying to improve theirstudents’ conceptual understanding of mitosis and meiosis. The university professor recommended two possible journals: The Science Teacher (http://www.nsta.org/highschool/) and American Biology Teacher(http://www.nabt.org/websites/institution/index.php?p=26). They investigated both, but decided that they would develop a full manuscript for submission to The Science Teacher, because of its focus on teaching science at the high school level.
Action Research Checklist 8
Writing an Action Research Report
□ Develop a plan for writing a report of your action research study.
Identify your intended audience (e.g., other educators, administrators, school board members, etc.).
Identify a possible outlet for your report (e.g., journal, newsletter, etc.).
Develop an outline of the major headings and subheadings of your report.
□ Establish a writing routine that works for you; try to “carve out” some common time each day to write.
Once you’ve done this, develop a writing schedule or timeline in order to keep yourself focused on achieving your goal of a complete action research report.
□ Remember to write in somewhat of a conversational style, as if you are talking to a friend or colleague.
□ As you write, focus on simply filling in the sections of your original outline.
□ Find someone to serve as an “editor” or “proofreader” who can give you honest feedback on your writing.
□ Revise your report, as appropriate.
□ Submit your manuscript for possible publication!
8.4 Related Websites: Writing Action Research Reports
This annotated list of related websites provides suggestions for writing your action research reports as well as several additional examplesof reports of classroom-based teacher research.
Classroom Action Research: Ideas for Your Final Write-Up http://oldweb.madison.k12.wi.us/sod/car/carwriteupideas.html
Throughout these sections in previous chapters, I have highlighted several pages developed by the Madison (Wisconsin) Metropolitan School District on its action research website. This page provides a bulleted list of suggestions for things you may want to include in your action research report. The final two thoughts are worth noting here: “All write-ups should not/will not look alike” and “Remember you a retelling a story. You can organize this chronologically, by themes, by data source (i.e., students, parents, staff), or some other way. It’s up to you!” Both are excellent suggestions to bear in mind.
Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab (OWL) http://owl.english.purdue.edu
The Online Writing Lab (OWL) at Purdue University is a fabulous writing website, providing more than 200 free writing-related resources .Included on the site are the following:
○ OWL Exercises http://owl.english.purdue.edu/exercises—various interactive exercises providing the user with practice related to grammar, punctuation, spelling, sentence structure and style, paraphrasing, and writing numbers.
○ APA Style and Formatting Guide http://www.apastyle.org The American Psychological Association (APA) provides an online companion to its written style guide. On this site, you can find a searchable database for questions you might have regarding APA style as well as several sections for commonly asked questions pertaining to references and formatting. In addition, Purdue’s Online Writing Lab also provides an overview and fairly thorough summary of APA style (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01), including in-text citations, reference formatting, levels of report headings, and formatting tables and figures; there is even a downloadablePowerPoint presentation (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/media/ppt/20081208070939_560.ppt).
○ Avoiding Plagiarism http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/589/01 includes a section clearly describing what constitutes “plagiarism,” practices to help you avoid plagiarizing, and an interactive exercise.
Still More Examples of Action Research Reports
MMSD Classroom Action Research http://oldweb.madison.k12.wi.us/sod/car/search.cgi
This URL will lead you to a searchable database of more than 710 abstracts of teacher-led classroom action research conducted within the Madison (WI) Metropolitan School District from 1990 through the most recent academic year. Many of these abstracts also include links for you to download entire action research reports. The database is searchable by several criteria, including grade levels, data collection methods, and study descriptors or keywords.
Highland Park (IL) High School’s Action Research Laboratory http://hphs.dist113.org/Academics/Pages/ActionResearch.aspx
Similar to the site above, this page provides links to more than 25 classroom action research reports, all conducted at Highland Park High School.
Summary
Formally writing an action research report is important because it promotes further clarification of various aspects of the study, canprovide you with valuable feedback, tends to further empower teachers to improve their practice, and can provide a great sense ofaccomplishment.
Academic writing follows certain agreed-upon conventions of style, most of which are found in various style guides, such as the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.
Some of the most common conventions of academic writing include person and voice, tense, clarity, tentative and definitivestatements, consistency, and simplicity of language.
It is important to remember that the title of your report is the initial screening mechanism for potential readers—it should be briefbut also accurately describe the topic and study.
Most reports of traditional research studies tend to be written using third-person pronouns; however, it is quite appropriate to usefirst-person references when writing a report of the results of action research studies.
Use of the active voice as opposed to the passive voice is more appropriate for action research reports.
Generally speaking, the introductory section of a research report is written in present tense; the review of related literature,methodology, and results are written in past tense; and any recommendations and an action plan are typically written in futuretense.
It is always best to err on the side of caution and use tentative statements when discussing your conclusions and implications.
Any written report of research should be as clear and consistent as possible.
Do not try to impress your readers with flowery language; use simple, straightforward language in your write-up.
Although there is no universally agreed-upon organizational structure for formatting a research report, most action research reportscontain the following sections:
Abstract
Introduction
Review of Related Literature
Description of the Intervention or Innovation
Data Collection and Considerations
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Conclusions
Reflection and Action Plan
The length of a final research report often depends on the purpose the report will serve.
When reporting the results of qualitative data analysis, it is important to be as objective as possible, to include references to yourselfwhere they may be warranted, to thoroughly describe all aspects of your study, to include representative samples of your data onlywhen they will enhance your presentation of the results, and to include interesting but nonessential information in appendices at theend of your report.
When reporting the results of quantitative data analysis, it is important to follow various conventions for reporting numerical dataas either numbers or words, to report arithmetic data in descending order, to report the total number of participants involved in thestudy before reporting numbers in categories, and to use tables and figures where appropriate in order to enhance your presentation of numerical results.
When preparing to write a final research report, practitioner-researchers should establish a writing routine, try to write at the sametime each day, write as if conversing with a friend, begin with an outline and organize thoughts accordingly, not worry about spellingand grammar in an initial draft of the report, and develop a realistic writing schedule.
QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES
Select a published research article—or another research report—on a topic of interest to you. Based on the various guidelinesand suggestions presented in this chapter (i.e., conventions of style, conventions of format, and guidelines for presenting theresults of analyses), write a brief critique of the report highlighting those aspects of the written report that the author(s) didwell and those aspects that could be improved.
Locate a report of qualitative research related to an area of interest to you. What types of things do you notice about the writingstyle? Which of the suggestions presented in the chapter did the author(s) follow? Which suggestions were not followed?
Locate a report of quantitative research related to an area of interest to you. What types of things do you notice about thewriting style? Which of the suggestions presented in the chapter did the author(s) follow? Which suggestions were notfollowed?
Conduct a quick survey of at least 20 people, asking them to indicate their favorite color. Once you have collected your data,analyze them using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. First, use inductive analysis to develop groups and numbers ofpeople within each group. Report your results in narrative fashion. Second, analyze your data quantitatively by counting thenumber of responses for each color identified. Report your results three ways: narratively, using a table, and using anappropriate type of graph or figure.
KEY TERMS
abstract 236
conventions of academic-style writing 235
style guide 234
Review → Practice → Improve
Get the tools you need to sharpen your study skills. Access the videos listed in the margins of this chapter, practice quizzes, eFlashcards and more at edge.sagepub.com/mertler5e
