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H O M E ABO UT LO GIN R EG IS TE R SEAR CH CURR EN T IS SU E PR EV IO US IS SU ES AN NO UNCEM EN TS

H om e > V ol 1 0 ( 2 009) > S ch me in k

Dystopia, Alternate History and the Posthuman in Bioshock

L ars S ch m ein k

It is h ard to s a y w hat r a nks lo w er o n th e a rtis tic fo od c h ain th an v id eo g am es. C om ic b ooks? T V s it -

c o m s? X -ra te d film s? T hese r a tlik e v e rm in a t th e b otto m s cu rry to a vo id th e th undero us fo otfa lls o f th e

to w erin g b ehem oth s o f th e a rt w orld . [… ] Is th a t e ve n a rt? (R obin ett v iii)

1 . In tr o ductio n

Vid eo-g am e p io neer W arre n R obin ett’s o bvio us p o le m ic ir o nic a lly u nders co re s th e ris e o f v id eo g am e

th eory a s a n e m erg ent fie ld o f s ch ola rs h ip in v a rio us a ca dem ic fie ld s in th e r e ce nt p ast. S till, th e re s e em s

to b e c e rta in va lid it y to h is c la im th at v id eo g am e s tu die s h ave re ce iv e d a le sse r d egre e o f r e co gnit io n

fr o m th e e sta blis h ed d is cip lin es. T his m ig ht e xp la in th e a m ount o f e nerg y d evo te d to e sta blis h in g v id eo

gam e th eory a s a le git im ate fie ld o f r e se arc h , c o m ple te w it h a w ell- d eve lo ped c o n ce ptu al fr a m ew ork . A s

Je sp er Ju ul a rg ues in his paper “W hat C om pute r G am es C an an d C an’t D o,” 1 vid e o gam es are

o fte ntim es a naly ze d w it h th eory th at is “ju st in te ra ctiv e b it s a nd p ie ce s ta cke d o n to n arra to lo gy o r

dra m atu rg y.” S o fa r, th e g enre h as b een neit h er s yste m atic a lly n or c o nvin cin gly in te gra te d in to o ne o f th e

esta blis h ed th eorie s no r have th e deve lo ped th eorie s, su ch as Ju ul’s ow n ( H alf - R eal ), been fu lly

r e co gniz e d. In Ju ul’s te rm s th e re aso n fo r th is is th at th e p ote ntia l o bje cts o f s tu dy “a re se ndin g th e

w ro ng sig n als . To a n e duca te d p ers o n, lit e ra lly a lie n sig nals o f lo w cu lt u re , fu n a nd in sig nif ic a nce ”

(“C om pute r G am es”). E ve n th ough J u ul’s a rg um ent s e em s to b e a noth er p ole m ic , o ve rs ta tin g a h ig h v s.

lo w cu lt u re d iv id e th at h as b een d ebate d w it h in cu lt u ra l stu die s sin ce th e 7 0s, it is b orn o ut o f a

r e lu cta nce w it h in e sta blis h ed fie ld s to ke e p u p a d ia lo gue w it h th e fle dglin g vid eo g am e stu die s. A

d ia lo gue th at fr o m th e o th er s id e is n ot w ante d e it h er, a s lit e ra ry o r c u lt u ra l s tu die s a ppro ach es to th e

su bje ct a re c o nse quently d is m is se d a s “ c o lo nis in g a tte m pts ” ( A ars e th ).

M y a ppro ach to th is d is cu ssio n is ra th er a d ia le ctic o f th e tw o p osit io ns s in ce I b elie ve th at v id eo g am e

stu die s o ff e r u s n ew in sig hts in to d ig it a l m edia a nd th eir w ork in gs w hic h n e ed to b e analy ze d w it h n ew

to ols a nd te rm s – o r a t th e le ast w it h n ew ly a ppro pria te d te rm s. B ut o n th e o th e r h and I b elie ve th at v id eo

gam es a re n ot a m ere re pla ce m ent o f o ld er te xtu al fo rm s b ut ra th e r a n a ddit io n to th e s p ectr u m o f a ll

f o rm s. A s s u ch I b elie ve in r e adin g v id eo g a m es a s a v it a l p a rt o f o u r c u lt u ra l p ro ductio n, w hic h th en c a n

be a naly ze d w it h s im ila r a ppro ach es, a s a re all o th e r c u lt u ra l a rtif a cts . I w ould th ere fo re li k e to d is cu ss 2 k

G am es’ f ir s t- p ers o n s h oote r B io sh ock (2 007) b y r e adin g it a s a d ig it a l s im ula tio n a gain st th e b ackd ro p o f

a p osth um an dysto pia n s o cie ty . I b elie ve th at B io sh ock n egotia te s q uestio ns o f a gency c e ntr a l to th is

p osth um an d is co urs e a nd u se s th e m ediu m ’s s p ecif ic p ossib ilit ie s to c re ate th e illu sio n o f im media te

a gency a nd by th at e xce ed th e lim it s o f c o nve ntio nal n arra tiv e .

2 . C ult u ra l F ra m e

As I h ave a rg ued e ls e w here (S ch m ein k), u to pia n te xts o f th e n ew m ille n niu m re fle ct c rit ic a lly u pon a

p ara dig m sh if t in g lo bal p ow er re la tio ns th at M ic h ael H ard t a nd A nto nio N eg ri h ave d escrib ed a nd

co m mente d o n in th eir b ook E m pir e . H ard t a nd N egri s e e g lo bal p ow er re la tio ns s h if tin g to w ard s a

d ece nte re d syste m of so ve re ig nty (x ii) , w hic h th ey ca ll E m pir e , and in w hic h pow er is co nsta ntly

n egotia te d b etw een n atio n s ta te s, tr a nsn atio n al c o rp ora tio ns a nd in te rn atio nal o rg aniz a tio ns. T o m e th e ir

d escrip tio n o f th e w ay th is p ow er is e xe rte d v ia b io polit ic s is th e k e y fa cto r in a naly zin g th e his to ric

s p ecif ic it y o f d ysto pia n te xts a fte r 2 000. H ard t a nd N eg ri b elie ve th at th e e xe rtio n o f p ow er a nd c o ntr o l

ca n b e d escrib ed a s b io polit ic a l in th e F ouca uld ia n s e nse , b ut th ey tr a nsfe r it fr o m th e le ve l o f p opula tio n

to th e pers o nal. In ste ad o f s ta te -c o ntr o lle d d is co urs e s o f ra ce a nd s e xu alit y , E m pir e is in p art p riv a te ly

o w ned, p riv a te ly m otiv a te d a nd a s a re su lt E m pir e ta ke s fu ll c o ntr o l o ve r th e p riv a te w it h out a ny k in d o f

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It s e em s a c a se in p o in t w hen F ra ncis F uku ya m a a rg ues th at p ow er in th e (n ear-)fu tu re w ill b e m ain ly

e xe rte d via c h angin g th e n atu re o f h um anit y it s e lf . In O ur P osth um an F utu re , F uku ya m a c la im s th at “th e

m ost s ig nif ic a nt th re at p ose d b y c o nte m pora ry b io te ch nolo g y is th e p o ssib ilit y th a t it w ill a lt e r h um an

natu re a nd th ere by m ove u s in to a ‘p osth u m an’ s ta ge o f h is to ry ” (7 ). In th is h e p ro pagate s a v ie w o n

posth um anis m th at te rro riz e s, a s N . K ath erin e H ayle s h a s p o in te d o u t. A v ie w th at “ th e a ge o f th e h um an

is d ra w in g to a c lo se ” a nd th at th e p osth um an is n ece ssa rily a n a nti- h um an re pla ce m ent (2 8 3). B ut,

H ayle s a rg ues, “[w ]h at is le th al is n ot th e p osth um an a s s u ch b ut th e g ra ftin g o f th e p osth um an o nto a

lib era l h um anis t v ie w o f th e s e lf ” (2 86-8 7). In h er o pin io n, th e n egativ e v ie w on p osth um anis m is m ain ly

d ue to a c lin gin g to h um anis t c o nce pts in ste a d o f a cce ptin g a nd r e aliz in g th e p ote ntia l th at a c h ange fr o m

th e p re se nce /a bse nce para dig m o f h um anis m w ould o ff e r. T he a u to nom y o f th e s e lf , th e q u estio ns o f

a gency an d fr e e w ill, are tu rn in g in to th e ba ttle gro unds fo r th e hum an-p osth um an pre dic a m ent.

P osth um an re pre se nta tio ns in lit e ra tu re n e gotia te exa ctly th ese b attle gro unds a nd b y d oin g s o e xp ose

m ore th an o ne q uestio n to b e answ ere d:

W ho w ill g iv e th e a nsw ers to th ese questio ns o f th e p osth um an is a m atte r s tr o ngly c o nnecte d to th e

questio n o f w ho w ill c o n tr o l th e m eans o f b io lo gic a l p ro d uctio n a n d re pro ductio n, a n d is th us c ru cia l to

d ete rm in in g a p ossib le fu tu re w orld . T he d is co urs e o f th e m anip ula tio n o f h um an a nd o th er b io m ass

co nstit u te s a d om in ant th em e in th e dysto pia n im agin atio n s in ce 2 000. B ut n arra tiv e d evic e s s u ch a s

film s a n d b o oks h ave lim it e d s tr a te gie s to p ro vid e in te ra ctio n , g iv in g c h oic e s a nd d ecis io ns o nly to th eir

c h ara cte rs a nd d enyin g it th e re ader / v ie w er d u e to m edia l r e str ic tio ns. I a m n ot p ro posin g th at o th er

narra tiv e fo rm s d o n ot o ff e r a ny kin d o f in te ra ctio n in a re ader-re sp onse th eo ry s e nse o f th e te rm . B ut I

w ould arg ue, alo ng w it h M arie -L aure R ya n, th a t th e in te ra ctiv it y of th e se fo rm s “d escrib es th e

co lla bora tio n b etw een th e re ader a nd th e te xt in th e p ro ductio n of m eanin g [… ] [T ]h e c o nstr u ctio n o f a

te xtu al w orld o r m essa ge is a n a ctiv e pro ce ss th ro ugh w hic h th e r e ader p ro vid es a s m uch m ate ria l a s h e

deriv e s fr o m th e te xt” (1 6). R ya n ca lls th is in te ra ctiv it y in th e “fig ura l se nse ” a n d co ntr a sts it w it h

in te ra ctiv it y in th e “ lit e ra l s e nse ” w hic h r e fe rs to “ th e te xtu al m ech anis m s th at e nable th e r e ader to a ff e ct

th e ‘t e xt’ o f th e te xt a s a vis ib le d is p la y o f s ig ns, a nd to c o ntr o l th e d yn am ic s o f it s u nfo ld in g” ( 1 7). In h er

analy sis s h e d if f e re ntia te s b etw een th e w eake r fo rm o f “p re defin ed alt e rn ativ e s,” s u ch a s h yp erte xts o r

m ult ip le -c h oic e d ra m as o r in te ra ctiv e m ovie s, a nd “a s tr o nger fo rm in w hic h th e re ader – m ore a ptly

c a lle d th e in te ra cto r – p erfo rm s a r o le th ro ugh v e rb al o r p hysic a l a ctio ns, th us a ctu ally p artic ip atin g in th e

physic a l p ro ductio n o f th e te xt. (B y te xt I d o n ot n ece ssa rily m ean so m eth in g th a t is p erm anently

in scrib ed.) ” (1 7). V id eo gam es re pre se nt on e fo rm (n ext to m ayb e im pro vis a tio nal or partic ip ato ry

th eatr e ) th at a llo w s fo r s u ch in te ra ctiv it y a nd th ere by o ff e rs th e p la ye r th e u niq ue o pp ortu nit y to s h ape th e

te xt, to perfo rm a gency w it h in th e r e pre se nte d w orld . Im porta nt to n ote is th at th e pla ye r o f a v id eo g am e

is n ot c o nsid ere d b y R ya n to b e th e “o pera to r o f a te xtu al m ach in e” b ut th at h e is p ro je cte d a s “a fu lly

e m pow ere d m em ber o f th e fic tio nal w orld ” (3 08) th ere fo re a llo w in g a s y m bolic tr a nsfe r o f a gency fr o m

th e fic tio nal c h ara cte r to th e p la ye r. T hus, v id eo g a m es re pre se nt a n e w a nd s o fa r o nly m in im ally

d is cu sse d c h ance to e nvis io n a p ossib le u to p ia n m om ent fo r th e d is co urs e o f p osth um anis m . In o rd er to

u nderlin e m y a rg um ent I p re se nt a re ce nt e xa m ple fo r a v id eo g am e th at u nfo ld s th e b a ckd ro p o f a

p osth um an so cie ty , analy zin g th e w ays agency is co nstr u cte d in 2K G am es’ fir s t- p ers o n sh oote r

B io sh ock .

3 . B io sh ock

The narra tiv e u nderly in g B io sh ock is s e t in th e y e ar 1 960. A fte r a p la ne c ra sh th e p ro ta gonis t, J a ck,

d esce nds in to th e uto pia n u nderw ate r w orld o f R aptu re , w hic h w as b uilt in 1 946 b y th e r ic h busin essm an

A ndre w R ya n. R ya n’s p la n w as to r e fu te W orld W ar II id eolo gie s a n d to c o nstr u ct a u to pia in w hic h b oth

s cie nce a nd b usin ess c o uld th riv e unre str ic te d b y p olit ic s a nd s o cie ty ’s e th ic s. 2 B ut h is a narc h o-c a pit a lis t

T he ru le o f E m pir e o pera te s o n a ll re gis te rs o f th e s o cia l o rd er e xte ndin g d ow n to th e

depth s o f th e s o cia l w orld . E m pir e n ot o nly m anages a te rrit o ry a nd a p opula tio n b ut

als o c re ate s th e v e ry w orld it in habit s . It n ot o nly r e gula te s h um an in te ra ctio ns b ut a ls o

se eks d ir e ctly to ru le o ve r h um an natu re . T he o bje ct o f it s ru le is s o cia l lif e in it s

e ntir e ty , a nd th us E m pir e pre se nts th e p ara dig m atic fo rm o f b io pow er. ( x v)

[W ]h en th e h um an m eets th e p osth um an, w ill th e e n co unte r b e fo r th e bette r o f fo r th e

w ors e ? W ill th e p osth um an p re se rv e w hat w e c o ntin ue to v a lu e in th e lib era l s u bje ct,

o r w ill th e tr a nsfo rm atio n in to th e p osth um an annih ila te th e s u bje ct? W ill fr e e w ill a nd

in div id ual a gency s till b e p ossib le in a p osth u m an fu tu re ? W ill w e b e a ble to r e co gniz e

o urs e lv e s a fte r th e c h ange? W ill th ere s till b e a s e lf to re co gniz e a nd b e re co gniz e d?

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uto pia tu rn ed in to an ugly posth um an dysto pia w he n scie ntif ic pro gre ss deve lo ped a tr a nsg en ic

b acte riu m o ut o f a s e a s lu g w it h w hic h genetic e nhance m ents c o uld b e in se rte d in to h um an D NA, th e s o -

ca lle d A D AM . T he cre atio n o f A D AM e ff e ctiv e ly c re ate s a s ce n ario in th e g a m e th a t is s im ila r to th e o ne

Lee S ilv e r describ es in his book R em akin g E den . S ilv e r arg ues th at genetic enhance m ents as a

pro fit a ble c o m modit y w ill re su lt in a s o cie ty o f tw o c la sse s. O ne c la ss th at c o uld b e “c a lle d th e G ene-

enric h ed o r s im ply th e G enR ic h ” b e co m in g m ore a nd m ore posth um an, w hile th e g ap to th e o th er c la ss

“re fe rre d to a s N atu ra ls ” w id en s d ra stic a lly ( 4 , it a lic s in o rig in al) . T he s a m e h appened in th e w orld o f th e

g am e, w hen th e m ark e t fo r g enetic e nhance m ent g re w a nd scie nce n eeded to fin d a so lu tio n fo r

p ro ducin g m ore A D AM . T he g am e in tr o duce s th e ch ara cte rs o f th e “L it tle S is te rs ” th a t h a ve been

genetic a lly fu se d w it h th e s lu gs in o rd er fo r th e m to b e co m e r e pro ce ssin g fa cilit ie s o f u se d A D AM fo und

in d ead b odie s. W hen th e s o cia l in equalit ie s b etw een “ G enR ic h ” a nd “ N atu ra ls ” fin ally e ru pt in a w ar o ve r

pow er a nd c o ntr o l in R aptu re , b oth s id es u se D NA e nhance d fig h te rs , r e cru it in g am ong th e u npriv ile ged

“N atu ra ls ” a nd enhancin g th em b eyo nd th e lim it s o f s a fe ty . T he e xce ssiv e m anip ula tio n o f th e hum an

D NA h as s e ve re s id e e ff e cts th ough – it m uta te s th e b ody p erm anently , d am agin g b oth p hysio lo gy a nd

psych e. T he r e su lt in g p osth um an s p ecie s o f a ptly n am ed “ s p li c e rs ” a re o ve rly a ggre ssiv e , fa st a ctin g a n d

blo odth ir s ty . O n th e one h and th eir e nhance d p hysic a l c a pabilit ie s re nder th e m id e al fig h te rs , s o ld ie rs

w it h e xce ssiv e s tr e ngth , q uic k re fle xe s, a nd b ru ta l re silie nce . B ut o n th e o th er h and, th e m uta tio n h as

als o in ca pacit a te d th em as re gard s re aso n , e m otio n, or co m munic a tio n. T hus, th ey re pre se nt th e

p osth um an in th e s e nse o f th e a nti- h um an, h avin g lo st a ll p ro pertie s th a t a re c o m monly a scrib ed to th e

lib era l h um anis t s u bje ct. W it h th e s p lic e rs ro am in g R aptu re th e o n ce u to pia n cit y is in ru in s, a nd th e

posth um an h as lit e ra lly e ate n u p h um an s o cie ty .

T he g am e e sta blis h es a w orld w it h a horro r s ce na rio in w hic h v e ry fe w in div id uals s till c a pable o f a gency,

th e m ost p ro m in ent o f w hic h is J a ck, a re c o ntr a ste d w it h a m ass o f z o m bie -lik e cre atu re s. T hey la ck

in div id ualit y a nd a re r e duce d to in stin ctu al h um an u rg es, w hic h d efin es th em a s d evo id o f h um an n atu re

a nd fr e e w il l. T he s p lic e rs a re driv e n m ain ly b y th eir u rg e to k ill a nd th eir n e ed fo r A D AM w hile th e L it tle

S is te rs a re g enetic a ll y b ound to h arv e st a nd re pro ce ss A D AM fr o m co rp se s. T he oth er still h um an

ch ara cte rs o f th e g am e a ct a s e it h er a nta gonis ts o r h e lp ers in th e P ro p pia n s e nse a nd th ere by m ove th e

sto ry a lo ng. It s e em s fa ir ly w it h in th e g enre c o nve ntio ns o f th e fir s t- p ers o n-s h oote r th at th e o pponents

a re re pre se nte d w it h c lo ne-lik e e xch angeabilit y , m akin g e a ch s p lic e r n o m ore th a n a fa ce le ss a tta cke r in

a r o w o f h undre ds.

T his is th e in it ia l s e ttin g fo r th e actio n o f th e g am e, in w hic h th e p ro ta gonis t is p la ce d w it h in th e c it y . In

o rd er to b eat th e g am e, th e p la ye r n ow h as to fu lf ill s e ve ra l g oals o n dif f e re nt le ve ls . O n th e o ne h and h e

has to r e tr ie ve th e h is to ry o f R aptu re fr o m ta pe r e co rd in gs s tr e w n th ro ughout th e d e va sta te d c it y in o rd er

to m ake se nse o f h is b ein g in th e c it y a nd in o rd er to e sca pe it . O n th e o th er h a nd h e has to fig ht

se em in gly u nlim it e d n um bers o f m uta te d s p lic e rs , fo r w hic h h e w ill n eed to g ath er A D AM fr o m th e L it tle

S is te rs . T his s it u atio n o f r e tr ie vin g th e A D AM fr o m th e L it tle S is te rs is th en p la ye d o ut in th e g am e a s a n

in te ra ctiv e ch oic e , w hic h w ill d ete rm in e th e o utc o m e o f th e g am e.

In th is in te ra ctiv e c h o ic e , in off e rin g a g am e s tr u ctu re in w hic h th e e ndin g is d e te rm in ed s o le ly b y th e

a ctio ns o f th e p la ye r, B io sh ock d evia te s o n a te ch nic a l le ve l fr o m th e m ost o th er fir s t- p ers o n s h oote rs

w hic h pro to ty p ic a lly p urs u e a ra th er lin ear p lo t. T he m ech anic s o f th is in te ra ctiv it y w arra nt a c lo se r lo ok

th at I w ill g iv e la te r. B ut a part fr o m th e te ch nic a l le ve l, th e g am e a ls o d evia te s fr o m o th er fir s t- p ers o n

sh oote rs d ea lin g w it h questio ns o f th e p osth um an o n th e le ve l o f s e ttin g. W hile m any s h oote rs n egotia te

th e p o sth um an, th ey p ro to ty p ic a lly d o s o in s ce nario s o f fu tu re w orld s a nd s tr u ggle s w it h a lie n ra ce s.

B io sh ock th ough ch oose s to pla ce th e posth um an w it h in an alt e rn ate his to ry se ttin g. T hese tw o

devia tio ns, e sp ecia lly in c o m bin atio n, o pen u p th e g a m e fo r a v e ry d if f e re nt re adin g o f in te ra ctiv it y a nd

agency in r e gard to th e u to pia n im agin atio n th at is e m bedded in th e p osth um an d is co urs e .

4 . A lt e rn ate H is to ry

T he fir s t u nusu al a sp ect o f B io sh ock c o nce rn s it s s e ttin g w it h in a n alt e rn ate h is to ry , b y w hic h th e g am e

pla ce s th e p osth um an s o cie ty w it h in a sp ecif ic lit e ra ry g enre d is co urs e . A lt e rn ate h is to ry is g e nera lly

s e en a s a su bgenre o f s cie nce fic tio n ( S F), w hic h a llo w s a d is cu ssio n o f a d iv e rg ence fr o m o u r r e a lit y in

t e rm s o f h is to ric a l d eve lo pm ent. S in ce it is p art o f th e gre ate r S F g enre fa m ily , it fu nctio ns a s “a li t e ra ry

g enre w hose n ece ssa ry a nd su ff ic ie nt c o ndit io ns a re th e p re se nce a nd in te ra ctio n o f e str a ngem ent a nd

co gnit io n, and w hose m ain fo rm al devic e is an im agin ativ e fr a m ew ork alt e rn ativ e to th e auth or’s

e m pir ic a l envir o nm ent” (S uvin 7-8 ). The estr a ngem ent of th e alt e rn ate his to ry fr o m our em pir ic a l

envir o nm ent is s ig nif ic a nt in te rm s o f tim e r a th er th an p la ce , b ut e ve n m ore in te rm s o f c ir c u m sta nce . In

T he C am brid ge C om panio n to S cie nce F ic tio n , A ndy D unca n d efin es a n a lt e rn ate h is to ry a s “a w ork o f 5/10/2018 Dystopia, Alternate History and the Posthuman in Bioshock | Schmeink | Current Objectives of Postgraduate American Studies

https://copas.uni-regensburg.de/article/view/113/137 4/8

fic tio n in w hic h h is to ry a s w e k n ow it is c h anged fo r d ra m atic a nd o fte n ir o nic e ff e ct. O fte n, a n alt e rn ate

h is to ry d ra m atiz e s th e m om ent o f d iv e rg ence fr o m th e h is to ric a l r e co rd , a s w ell a s th e c o nse quence s o f

th at d iv e rg ence ” (2 09). W hile B io sh ock d o es n ot n ece ssa rily d eal w it h questio ns lik e “W hat w ould th e

w orld b e lik e if th e N azis w on W WII? ” a s P hilip K . D ic k’s m ost fa m ous e xa m ple o f th e g enre , T he M an in

t h e H ig h C astle , d oes, th e g am e s till fit s th e c a te gory p e rfe ctly b eca use in D unca n’s u nders ta ndin g

alt e rn ate h is to rie s n eed n ot a ddre ss o nly th e m ain e ve nts o f h is to ry b ut c a n b e “ m ore p la yfu l, fo cu sin g o n

quie te r, so m etim es p uckis h a lt e ra tio ns” (2 12). H ow eve r p la yfu l th e a lt e ra tio n, n oneth ele ss a lt e rn ate

h is to rie s p osit a n S F n ovu m , a s d escrib ed b y S uvin , th a t is “‘t o ta liz in g’ in th e s e nse th at it e nta ils a

c h ange o f th e w hole u niv e rs e o f th e ta le , o r a t le ast o f c ru cia lly im po rta nt a sp ects th ere of (a nd th a t it is

t h ere fo re a m eans b y w hic h th e w hole ta le c a n b e a naly tic a lly g ra sp ed)” ( 6 4).

T he a ssu m ptio n o f a s cie ntis t u to pia built in 1 946, u nkn ow n to th e r e st o f th e w orld , s e em s e xa ctly s u ch a

c a se o f ‘w hat- if ’ a lt e rn ate h is to ry . T he c o unte r-fa ctu al d iv e rg ence o f th e g am e, th e novu m in th e S uvin ia n

se nse , is th e c re atio n o f a u to pia n e ncla ve w it h in , b ut u nkn ow n to , th e n ew ly e sta blis h ed w orld o rd er

afte r W orld W ar II. T his u to pia n encla ve , w hic h is s e para te d in tim e a nd s p ace fr o m th e r e st o f th e w orld ,

th en deve lo ps in dependently in to a p osth um an d ysto pia . T he g am e d oes n ot r e ve al th e uto pia n m om ent

of th is a lt e rn ate h is to ry e xce pt in th e ta pe r e co rd in gs w hen it is in tr a die getic a lly in vo ke d. D is co ve rin g th e

uto pia n w it h in th e d ysto pia n th ere fo re fu nctio ns fo r th e p la ye r a s a n “o b je ct o f m edit a tio n, a n alo gous to

th e r id dle s [… ] o f th e v a rio us m ystic a l tr a dit io ns” ( J a m eso n 1 1 ). T he o bje ct o f s lo w ly g ath erin g k n ow le dge

about th e u to pia n m om ent b efo re in cre ase s th e aw are ness o f th e tr a n sit io n to w ard s th e d ysto pia n.

B eca use th e g am e’s s e ttin g fa ta lly c o lla pse s th e u to pia n im puls e in to a p o sth um an d ysto pia a n d b u rie s it

in h is to ry , th e p la ye r r e co nsid ers , r e fle cts a n d m edit a te s o n r e aso ns, p ossib ilit ie s a nd c h oic e s th at le d to

th is d ysto pia n tu rn .

A lt e rn ate h is to ry im pacts o n p re se nt o f th e re ader, a cco rd in g to P aul A lk o n w ho co nte nds th a t a n

a lt e rn ate p ast a lw ays re fle cts o n a p ro sp ectiv e fu tu re , b a se d o n th e d evia tio ns o f th at n arra te d p ast.

T hus, h e a rg ues, a lt e rn ate h is to rie s c a n “b e m ore o r le ss e xp lic it ly in te nded a s p ortr a it s o f p ossib le

f u tu re s” (1 2 9). V ie w ed in th is lig ht, K are n H elle kso n’s c la im th at a lt e rn ate h is to ry s p ecu la te s o n th e

h is to ric a l lin kin g o f p ast, p re se nt a nd fu tu re , a nd o n th e c o nstr u cte dness o f h is to ry , h as e ve n m ore w eig ht

re gard in g a p ossib le fu tu re ( 2 53). In h er a rg um ent, c o nstr u ctin g a lt e rn ate tim elin es n ot o n ly q u estio ns th e

n atu re o f w hat w e n orm ally c o nsid er u nch angeable fa cts o f h is to ry a nd c a usa lit y , b ut a ls o dis ru pts th e

lin earit y o f th ese c o nce pts a nd m ake s “re ad ers re th in k th e ir w orld and h ow it h as b eco m e w hat it is ”

(2 54). O n th e e ff e ct o f s u ch n arra tiv e s o n th e r e ader s h e c o nclu des: “ T he p sych olo gic a l e ff e cts o f r e adin g

th e a lt e rn ate his to ry a re im porta nt: it c o uld h ave h appened o th erw is e ,” a nd in e xte nsio n base d o n A lk o n’s

c o m ment, it m ig ht h appen o th erw is e , “ s a ve fo r a p ers o nal c h oic e . T he p e rs o nal c h oic e th u s b e co m es th e

u niv e rs a l, a nd in div id uals fin d th em se lv e s m akin g a d if f e re nce in th e c o nte xt o f h is to ric a l m ove m ent”

( 2 54). In c o nclu sio n o f h er e ssa y, H elle kso n e xp lic it ly c la im s th at a lt e rn ate h is to ry p sych olo gic a lly a nd

philo so phic a lly s u ggests to th e r e a der ( o r in o ur c a se th e p la ye r) th e e xis te nce o f “ a u n iv e rs e in w hic h w e

are ca pable o f a ctin g a nd in w hic h o ur a ctio ns h ave sig nif ic a nce ” (2 55). It is th e se ttin g w it h in a n

alt e rn ate h is to ry th at a llo w s th e g am e to p osit io n th e pla ye r a s (in te r-)a ctin g fig ure d ir e ctly w it h in th e

d is co urs e o f in div id ual a gency in s h apin g th e fu tu re , e ve n th ough th is a ctio n m ig ht s till b e lim it e d b y th e

ru le s th at g ove rn th e g am e. T he g am e, b y ch oosin g a n a lt e rn ate h is to ry a s s e ttin g, th us str o ngly

r e ve rb era te s w it h a c a ll fo r c h ange a nd th e p la ye d-o ut o ptio n to m ake a d if f e re nce in h is to ry .

5 . G am e M ech an ic s

It is th e o ptio n to a ctu ally p la y o ut c e rta in m ora l c h oic e s th at w ill d ete rm in e th e o u tc o m e o f th e g a m e in

t o ta l t h at c a n b e s e en a s th e o th er d evia tio n th a t B io sh ock p re se nts w it h r e gard to p ro to ty p ic a l e le m ents

o f th e fir s t- p ers o n s h oote r g enre . T here fo re , it s e e m s m ost a p pro pria te to ta ke a clo se r lo ok a t th e g am e

mech anic s a nd p ossib le w ays to d escrib e th e a sp ects o f n arra tio n in v id eo g am es, s in ce th ese a re

s o m ew hat d evia nt fr o m n arra tiv e s tr u ctu re s in lit e ra tu re . B rit ta N eit z e l h as c o m mente d o n th e is su e o f

apply in g narra to lo gic a l ca te gorie s su ch as G era rd G en ette ’s fo ca liz a tio n to vid eo gam es a nd of

appro pria tin g th e c o nce pts in m odif ie d fo rm . T o th a t e n d, s h e p ro pose s to u se th e c o nce pts o f “P oin t o f

V ie w ( P oV )” a nd “ P oin t o f A ctio n ( P oA )” ( 1 1 ) in a n aly zin g v id eo g am es. B oth c a te gorie s r e fe r to a le ve l o f

re pre se nta tio n of th e narra tio n sim ila r to re pre se nta tio n w it h in oth er narra tiv e s but w it h one ve ry

im porta nt dif f e re nce : “D as B eso ndere an der P rä se nta tio nse bene im Com pute rs p ie l is t, dass die

H andlu ngen der Spie le r re prä se ntie rt werd en un d zw ar in nerh alb ein er G esch ic h te oder ein er

sp ie le ris ch en W elt , d ie e s in d er F orm , in d er s ie w ähre n d d es S pie le ns e rs ch ein t, v o rh er n ic h t g ab” ( 1 1 ).

E ve nts w it h in th e g am e w orld ta ke s h ape o nly w hil e p la yin g, th e p la ye r’s p a rtic ip atio n is in te g ra l to th eir

r e pre se nta tio n. W it h th e c a te gorie s o f P oin t o f V ie w a n d P oin t o f A ctio n, N eit z e l r e appro pria te s G ene tte ’s

c e ntr a l q ue stio ns th at d ete rm in e n arra tio n to w ard s a re ader: “W ho s p eaks? ” (v o ic e ) a n d “W ho s e es? ” 5/10/2018 Dystopia, Alternate History and the Posthuman in Bioshock | Schmeink | Current Objectives of Postgraduate American Studies

https://copas.uni-regensburg.de/article/view/113/137 5/8

(p ers p ectiv e ) a nd w hic h d o n ot n ece ssa rily re fe r to th e s a m e a g ent b u t ra th er to n arra to r a nd fo ca liz e r.

S in ce v id eo g am es d o n ot u se th e c o nce pt o f a v o ic e th at s p eaks N eit z e l re defin es th is a sp ect a s

agency, c h a ngin g “w ho s p eaks? ” to “w ho a cts ? ” P ers p ectiv e in v id eo g am es, s h e a rg ues, is u se d to

m ean th e lit e ra l p oin t o f v ie w , le avin g o ut G enette ’s a sso cia tio n o f “w ho s e es? ” w it h th e ca te gory o f

kn ow le dge o n th e w orld ( c f. N eit z e l 1 4).

N eit z e l c la im s th at p ers p ectiv e c a n be o bje ctiv e , s e m i- s u bje ctiv e o r s u bje ctiv e . B io sh ock e m plo ys th e

la tte r, a s u bje ctiv e p oin t o f v ie w . A cco rd in gly , th e p ro ta gonis t’s a ctin g ava ta r is p la ce d o uts id e th e fr a m e

of th e p la ye r’s v is io n. T his d is p la ce m ent h as s e ve ra l c o nse quence s w it h re gard to th e c o nstr u ctio n o f

agency. T he v ie w o f th e a va ta r’s h and o n s cre en in sin uate s th at th e b ody it b elo ngs to is p la ce d in fr o nt

of th e m onit o r, s it u atin g th e P oV in fr o nt o f th e m onit o r a s w ell – w hic h is w here th e p la ye r is . A m erg in g

of th is P oV w it h th e p osit io n o f th e p hysic a l p la ye r s u ggests a c o nn ectio n o f v ir tu al a nd r e al s p ace . T he re

is n o d ie ge tic clo su re : th e g am e w orld le aks in to th e r e al w orld . T he p la ye r th at le nds h er/h is e ye s to th e

im agin ed a va ta r e xp erie nce s w hat M arie -L au re R ya n c a lls “ a t le ast a fig ura l fo rm o f im mers io n, w hile b y

exe rc is in g r e m ote c o ntr o l o n th is co unte rp art s h e p la ys a n a ctiv e r o le in th e d eve lo pm ent o f th e n arra tiv e

a ctio n” ( 3 08). T he s u bje ctiv e im pre ssio n o f a p la ye r’s im mers io n a nd em pow erm ent in th e g am e’s w orld

c a n b e a tte ste d to b y a nyo ne w ho h as p la ye d a fir s t- p ers o n s h oote r w it h a th re at s ce nario a nd b egun to

in vo lu nta rily tu rn her/h is (re al) h ead s u sp ectin g a n a tta ck fr o m b e hin d. B ob R ehak c o nte nds th a t th e

in te rc o nnectio n o f a va ta r a nd p la ye r is w hat p la ye rs a re lo okin g fo r w he n pla yin g w it h a s u bje ctiv e P oV

and th at th ey s e ek “[… ] c o ntin ual re sp onse to th eir o w n a ctio ns— a re fle ctio n o f p ers o nal a gency m ade

ava ila ble o nscre en” ( 1 11 , it a lic s in o rig in al) . T he re fle ctio n o f a p la ye r’s a ctio ns is e sp ecia lly s tr o ng w it h in

s u bje ctiv e P oV beca use it m in im iz e s th e d is ta nce b etw een p la ye r a nd g am e, c re ate s im media te agency

a nd a llo w s fo r ‘a ctu al’ p artic ip atio n in th e r e pre se nte d w orld .

W it h re gard to N eit z e l’s s e co nd ca te gory , n am ely p oin t o f a ctio n, o ne c o uld a sk: “W ie w erd en d ie se

H andlu ngen im S pie l s it u ie rt? ” ( 2 4). S he c o nstr u cts th re e b in ary o pposit io ns in o rd er to appro ach p oin t o f

actio n: G am es c a n p re se nt a n in tr a - o r e xtr a die getic P oA , d ependin g o n w heth er th ere is a p la ye r fig u re

o r a va ta r w it h in th e g am e w orld , o r a c e ntr a liz e d o r d ece ntr a liz e d P oA , m ea nin g th a t a g ency c a n b e

a pplie d o nly via th e a va ta r o r e ve ry w here w it h in th e g am e w orld , a n d la stly d ir e ct o r in dir e ct P oA ,

re fe rrin g to th e m edia tio n a p la ye r a ctio n h a s w it h in th e w orld . F or a fir s t- p ers o n-s h oote r su ch a s

B io sh ock th e P oA is in tr a die ge tic , c e ntr a liz e d a nd d ir e ct, s o th a t p la ye r a ctio ns a re re pre se nte d v ia a n

ava ta r th at is p art o f th e s to ry to ld , m anif e st th e m se lv e s o nly a ro und th at a va ta r w it h in th e g am e w orld ,

and re su lt d ir e ctly a nd unm edia te d in a n a ctio n o f th at a va ta r. A gain , th e q uestio n o f d is ta nce b etw ee n

gam e w orld a nd re al w ord is c e ntr a l to th e se c a te gorie s, re su lt in g fo r B io sh ock in e ff e ctiv e ly d is so lv in g

th e pla ye r-a va ta r b oundary , w hic h R ehak c la im s is “b oth a d enia l o f o ne’s o w n m ate ria l e xis te nce a nd a

s e ductiv e g enera to r o f n ew p ers p ectiv e s: e ff e ctiv e ly a cyb org co nscio usn ess th at id entif ie s w it h th e

co m pute r” ( 1 1 3).

T here fo re , th e g am e m ech anic s o f B io sh ock c a n b e r e ad a s fa cilit a tin g a str o ng fe elin g o f p la ye r a gency.

In c o m bin atio n w it h th e a lt e rn ate h is to ry d is co urs e a nd it s p ote n tia l in s h apin g th e fu tu re , th is a gency

u lt im ate ly in tr o duce s n ew w ays o f p la ye r-re sp onse . B ut in re gard to th e g eneric u tiliz a tio n o f g am e

mech anic s B io sh ock g o es o ne ste p fu rth er th an o th er fir s t- p e rs o n-s h oote rs . It is th e p a rt o f p la ye r

partic ip atio n in th e m ora l r e so lu tio n o f th e g a m e th at is th e k e y h ere .

T here fo re it is im porta nt to re m em ber th at v id eo g am es d o n ot n ece ssa rily fu nctio n a s lin e ar n a rra tiv e s

but n ee d to b e d escrib ed in te rm s m ore a ppro pria te to th e m ediu m . I th ere fo re p ro pose to lo ok a t v id eo

gam es w it h re gard s to G onza lo F ra sca ’s c o nce pt o f s im ula tio n. F ra sca a rg ues th at “to s im ula te is to

m odel a (s o urc e ) syste m th ro ugh a dif f e re nt syste m w hic h m ain ta in s (fo r so m ebody) so m e of th e

behavio rs o f th e orig in al s yste m ” ( 2 23) a nd h e p oin ts o ut th at n a rra tiv e is a s yste m th a t is p re -d ete rm in ed

and o ff e rs n o c h oic e b eca use it d oes n ot in co rp ora te th e behavio r o f th e r e pre se nte d s yste m . S im ula tio n

on th e o th er h and a llo w s fo r p la ye r c h oic e s b eca use it m odels a b ehavio r. In th e c a se o f th e fir s t- p ers o n

sh oote r, th e g am e (a s s yste m ) s im ula te s th e b e havio r o f th e s u rro undin gs in re actio n to th e p la ye r’s

b ehavio r. O bvio usly th e s yste m th at is b ein g s im ula te d does n ot h ave to h ave a r e fe re nt in r e alit y b ut c a n

be c u lt u ra lly im agin ed, i. e . u nre al. It c a n b e fic tio nal, b ut it is n oneth e le ss in ve ste d w it h ru le s g ove rn in g

ce rta in b ehavio rs in here nt to it s a gents . N orm ally th e s im ula tio n o f a fir s t- p ers o n s h oote r w ill a llo w fo r

decis io ns s u ch a s w hic h w ay to g o, w hom to k ill a nd h ow , a nd s o m etim es e ve n g o s o fa r a s to le ave th e

ch oic e o f p ossib le r o ute s to s o lv e a p uzzle o r e ve n th e g am e to th e p la ye r, b ut m ost o f th e tim e, th e p ath

ta ke n b y th e p la ye r w ill b e ra th er lin ear. T he p artic ip atio n and c h oic e w it h in th e g am e is s u perfic ia l, th e

sto ry o f s u ch a g am e p ro gre sse s w it h it s n arra tiv e e le m ents r a th er th an it s s im ula tio nal o nes. 5/10/2018 Dystopia, Alternate History and the Posthuman in Bioshock | Schmeink | Current Objectives of Postgraduate American Studies

https://copas.uni-regensburg.de/article/view/113/137 6/8

Bio sh ock fo llo w s a d if f e re nt a ppro ach in th at th e p la ye r is c o nfr o nte d w it h m ore th a n opera tio nal c h oic e s

(w hic h ro ute , w hic h w eapons, k illin g o r s te alt h e tc .) . A t c e rta in p oin ts w it h in th e g am e, th e p la ye r is

p re se nte d wi th m ora l c h oic e . In ord er to s u rv iv e h e n e eds to e xtr a ct A D AM fr o m th e L it tle S is te rs b u t is

g iv e n tw o o ptio ns in h ow to d o th is . T he p la ye r c o nfr o nts th e L it tle S is te rs a n d is g iv e n th e c h oic e to

e it h er d efile o r to h eal th e g ir l. If h e c h oose s to d e file th e g ir ls , h e w ill v io le n tly rip o ut th e A D AM , k illin g

th e g ir l in th e p ro ce ss, a nd w ill b e r e w ard ed a b ig a m ount o f A D AM . If h e c h oose s to h eal th e g ir ls , h e w ill

b e m uch m ore c a re fu l w it h th e e xtr a ctio n, re su lt in g in a s m alle r a m ount o f g ain ed A D AM b ut a ls o in

s m ilin g a nd th ankfu l g ir ls th us h eale d fr o m b e in g Lit tle S is te rs . If w e c o nsid er th e o ptio ns, a p la ye r h a s

se ve ra l p ossib le lin es o f a ctio n. T he p la ye r c a n s ta y o n th e m ora l h ig h g ro und b y h ealin g a ll o f th e Lit tle

S is te rs , h e ca n d efile th em a ll, o r a ny ra nge o f ch oic e s in b etw ee n so m etim es h ealin g, so m etim es

defilin g. A cco rd in g to F ra sca , th is o ff e rs a ty p ic a l s it u atio n in w hic h id eolo gy is re pre se n te d w it h in g am e

str u ctu re . T he sim ula tio n a uth or ( o r s im auth or) o f th e g am e d e te rm in es s e ve ra l s e ts o f s im ula tio nal ru le s,

a nd b y s e ttin g th ose ru le s, h e c o nscio usly d ecid es h ow m uch of th e o utc o m e is h anded o ve r to th e

pla ye r ( 2 28-2 9).

In th e c a se o f B io sh ock , th e re a re th re e d if f e re nt o utc o m es, th e k e y to w hic h a re th e p la ye r’s a ctio ns

to w ard s th e L it tle S is te rs . T he s in gle g oal o f th e g a m e is to le ave th e c it y o f R aptu re and re tu rn to th e

su rfa ce , b u t th e m ora l c h oic e th e p la ye r h as to fa ce dif f e re ntia te s th e n arra tio n o f th e s to ry e nd in g

dra m atic a lly . If h e ta ke s th e optio n to d efile th e g ir ls b ut o nce , a p essim is tic e n din g s e quence o ccu rs , in

w hic h th e p la ye r’s c h ara cte r is s h ow n to r e tu rn to th e s u rfa ce a s r u le r o f R aptu re w it h th e s p lic e rs a t h is

c o m mand, ta kin g o ve r th e w orld , e ff e ctiv e ly sp re adin g th e p osth um an d ysto pia u nder h is le a ders h ip . If

th e p la ye r h a s d efile d th e g ir ls m ost o f th e tim e, th e n arra tiv e v o ic e th a t s u m s u p th e e ve nts in th is e nd

se quence a tta cks h im fo r h is c ru elt y a nd g re edin ess fo r p o w er. If th e p la ye r h as d efile d th e g ir ls o nly a

fe w tim es, th ere is a s lig ht c h ange in th e v o ic e ’s to ne a nd le ss b la m e is b ein g p u t o n th e p la ye r’s

c h ara cte r - he is co m mente d to be m ere ly hum an, w eak an d ea sy to te m pt. The ou tc o m e of

p osth um anit y s p re adin g o ve r th e w orld , th oug h, r e m ain s th e s a m e O nly if th e pla ye r h as c h ose n to h eal

all L it tle S is te rs w ill th e e ndin g c h ange r a dic a lly in to a p osit iv e v ie w o f a p ossib le fu tu re . T he p o sth um an

so cie ty s ta ys lo cke d underw ate r, th e p la ye r r e fu se s th e p ow er, a nd h e a n d th e s a ve d g ir ls e sca pe. A fte r

liv in g a lo ng a nd fu lf ille d lif e , p ro te ctin g th e g ir ls , th e p la ye r d ie s in p ea ce , wh ile th e fo rm er “ L it tle S is te rs ”

a tte nd h is d eath bed. H um anit y is sa ve d fr o m th e p osth um an d ysto pia n th re at o f R ap tu re .

T he ru le s th at g ove rn th e sim ula tio n of th e d ysto pia n w orld o f B io sh ock ca n th us b e re ad a s th e

sim auth ors ’ m eth od o f id eolo gic a l m anip ula tio n o f th e u to pia n im puls e . T he n arra tiv e co nte nt o f th e s to ry ,

w hic h is g iv e n in fo rm o f th e ta pe re co rd in g s a n d th ro ugh scrip te d s e quence s w it h o th er c h ara cte rs ,

re ve als th e o bje ctiv is t u to pia n w orld th at is th e id eal o f R aptu re w hile o n th e o th er h and u nderm in in g th e

sa m e prin cip le s o f r e aso n a nd th e e th ic s o f r a tio na l s e lf - in te re st th a t g u id e it th ro ugh in div id ual g re ed a nd

by s tr iv in g fo r c o ntr o l o ve r o th ers . E sp ecia lly th e q ue stio n o f c o erc in g th e L it tle S is te rs to p ro duce A D AM

is th us a c e ntr a l c rit iq ue a im ed a t th e u to pia tu rn ed d ysto pia a nd th e s im auth or’s c h oic e to em plo y a n

in te ra ctiv e e le m ent o f th e g am epla y in c o nne ctio n w it h it s h ow s th e im porta nce o f p ers o nal e th ic s to th e

co nstr u ctio n of B io sh ock ’s w orld . B y m akin g it exce ssiv e ly hard to get to th e posit iv e endin g, by

im ple m entin g ru le s lik e h ow m uch A D AM is g a in ed v ia h e alin g vs. v ia d efilin g, th e s im auth ors m ake a

s ta te m ent a bout th e lik e lih ood o f m ora lly d esir a ble b ehavio r. T he o bje ctiv is t u to pia is h ard to re ach

b eca use ra tio nal s e lf - in te re st is p ro ble m atic to m ain ta in , th e d e sir e d r a tio nal m ora l c o de in r e alit y a lm ost

im possib le to a ch ie ve . It is h um an, th e g am e s e em s to su ggest, to u se a nd a buse p ow er o ff e re d to y o u;

to k e ep to a m ora l c o de is th e m ost d if f ic u lt p ath . In e ff e ct, B io sh ock d eliv e rs th e c h oic e o ve r th e fu tu re ,

uto pia n o r d ysto pia n, in to th e h ands o f th e p la ye r, a nd b y im ple m entin g ru le s o f s im ula tio n, ju dges th e

lik e lih ood o f th ose fu tu re s, b ut n eve rth ele ss re w ard s th e p la ye rs th at m ade th e h ard est o f a ll h um an

ch oic e s a gain st p ers o nal g ain a nd p ow er. V id eo g a m es o ff e r th e possib ilit y o f e xp lo rin g a ll c h oic e s b y

ju st re -ru nnin g th e s im ula tio n. T he questio n “W hat w ould h appen if … ?” c a n b e a nsw ere d b y s im ply

t a kin g th e o th er ro ute in a noth er r o und o f th e g am e. T hus, in s e ve ra l tu rn s o f th e s im ula tio n th e g am e, a s

is in he re nt to th e m ediu m , d is clo se s it s o w n g ove rn in g ru le s a nd als o th e id eolo gic a l im pera tiv e th at

cre ate d th em , m akin g th e p ote ncy o f h is a gency tr a nsp are nt to th e p la ye r.

6 . C onclu sio n

C om bin in g th e a rg um ents g iv e n a bove , B io sh ock o ff e rs th e u niq ue o pp ortu nit y to e xte nd th e lim it s th at

uto pia n lit e ra ry o r film ic re pre se nta tio ns a re b ound to . B y p la cin g th e s to ry in to a n a lt e rn ate h is to ry

s e ttin g, B io sh ock p osit io ns th e p la ye r w it h in a (re -)c o nstr u ctio n o f h is to ry a nd o pens th e p o ssib ilit y o f

sin gula r a ctio n a s a basis fo r (re -)n egotia tin g a p ossib le fu tu re . B y u sin g a s u bje ctiv e p o in t o f v ie w a nd

dir e ct p oin t o f a ctio n, th e g am e th en e m phasiz e s th e id e ntif ic a tio n o f p la ye r a nd c h ara cte r a nd th us

elim in ate s th e d is ta nce o f th e v ir tu al a nd th e exp erie ntia l w orld . A nd in a la st s te p, th e g a m e n e gotia te s 5/10/2018 Dystopia, Alternate History and the Posthuman in Bioshock | Schmeink | Current Objectives of Postgraduate American Studies

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th e c h ance s o f m ora l b ehavio r in a d ysto pia n w orld , s im ula tin g th e o u tc o m es a n d le a vin g th e c h oic e up

to th e p la ye r. T hus, th e p la ye r is c o nfr o nte d w it h a h ig hly c o m ple x s im ula tio n, in w hic h h is o w n a ctio ns

re fle ct o n th e p ossib ilit y o f a ve rtin g a posth um an d ysto pia n s o cie ty fr o m b eco m in g re alit y . B io sh ock ,

th ro ugh it s u se o f s im ula tio n, th e p la ye r’s in vo lv e m ent a nd a lt e rn ate h is to ry a s g enre , p osit io ns th e

uto pia n m om ent w it h in th e a gency o f th e p la ye r a nd th us s tr ik in gly o ff e rs m ore a ctu al u to pia n im puls e

th an a lin ear n arra tiv e e ve r c o uld . G onza lo F ra sca ’s w ord s o n s im ula tio n h old tr u e eve n m ore fo r a g am e

lik e B io sh ock : “ S im ula tio n c o nte sts [… ] th e b oundarie s th at w e a re u se d to a pply to w ork s o f a rt” ( 2 33).

1 Ju ul use s th e te rm co m pute r gam es; I pre fe r v id eo gam es but esse ntia lly both ca n be use d

syn onym ously a nd n eit h er is e xclu siv e o f th e o th er w it h in th e c o nte xt o f th is p aper.

2 T he g am e c a n b e re ad (a nd h as b een d is cu sse d in in te rn et fo ru m s) to c o m ment o n A yn R and’s

p hilo so phy o f o bje ctiv is m . T here are s e ve ra l c o nnectio ns b etw een th e g am e a nd R an d’s w rit in g, s u ch a s

nam es, a na gra m s a n d th e g enera l s tr u ctu re o f R ya n’s id e al w hic h a dhere s to o bje ctiv is t c a lls fo r n o

gove rn m ent a nd a ra tio nal s e lf is h ness. F urth er re se arc h in to th e im plic a tio ns of th is co nnectio n is

n eeded th ough a nd c a nnot b e p re se nte d a t th is p oin t.

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Refb ack s

There a re c u rre ntly n o r e fb acks. 5/10/2018 Dystopia, Alternate History and the Posthuman in Bioshock | Schmeink | Current Objectives of Postgraduate American Studies

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