Description I am required to write a research paper that examines the historical experience of Argentina as a developing country. More specifically, the paper needs to focus and examine particular iss

Surname 14

Student's Name

Professor's Name

Course

Date

Historical development of Argentina

Introduction

The numerous development problems that Argentina has faced over the years are as a result of the failed political institutions in the country. The nation that was once wealthy in the 19th century slowly began to experience issues that counterbalanced the numerous economic and social developments that the nation had experienced in past years. Failed democratic institutions, a lack of government transparency, patronage politics as well as the violations of the rule of law has allowed politicians within Argentina to implement ineffective reforms that have adversely affected the development of the nation (Gallo, Stegmann, and Steagall 193). The 2001 economic crisis that the country slid into, after a decade of booming economic growth, exposed the weaknesses of the political institutions in the nation. The implementation of economic reforms is usually met with substantial political opposition and hindrances at the expense of the development of the country. Besides, the government operates in the interest of the dominant political parties in the nation. Such political issues have resulted in the emergence and continued presence of problems such as high levels of inflation, unemployment, and poverty. The issues continue to loom in modern Argentina, and there is a possibility that they could last even longer unless the foundations of the political structures in the country are re-examined.

Historical Development of Argentina

Argentina's political development began after the nation gained independence from Spain in 1816 (Kline 19). The progress of political institutions in the country has been met with several problems that have adversely affected the development of the nation. After her independence, a number of states refused to engage in the formation of a central government or signing a common constitution. After the Battle of Pavon, that the republic of Argentina was formed and the nation under the leadership of the nation's first president, Bartolome Mitre (Sottong 1). In 1853, Argentina promulgated her first constitution that formed the basis of the political system in the country (Spruk 4). The document stated that the government would have three significant arms, i.e., the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary. The constitution was essential in transforming the governance of the nation from that of colonialism to one that promoted economic growth and development. By 1862, the nation had started to experience economic growth as a result of the immigration of individuals from regions such as Spain and Italy. Within 25 years, Argentina had grown into an economic powerhouse.

The failed political structures in the nation that followed led to the transformation of the nation from one of the wealthiest countries in the world in the 19th century to an underdeveloped nation that it is today. In the 1930s, electoral fraud was quite rampant in the nation, and political groups such as the Concordancia engaged in electoral irregularities to ensure that they retained their positions of power in the nation. Besides, the Supreme Court's recognition of military regimes and its ineffectiveness in curbing electoral fraud, as well as the enactment of the 1912 Sáenz Peña Law, allowed the development of Peronist reforms (Spruk 21). The 1912 Sáenz Peña Law allowed individuals of the middle class economy to participate in governance by through their inclusion in the National Congress. The Peronist reforms supported government favoritism of certain dominant groups, and promoted rent-seeking instead of productive economic activities (Spruk 5). Further, the military coups that unseated presidents until 1983 had negative impacts on the development of the nation. Spruk (2) identifies that "when the military formally broke the constitutional order in 1930, Argentina embarked on the path of unstable institutional development frequent back-and-forth transitions between dictatorship and democracy." As a result, the nation experienced challenges in establishing a practical political framework, which is the root of a majority of the problems that the country faces today. The military regimes and failed governance systems by presidents such as Juan Peron promoted ineffective political institutions and activities. Issues such as electoral fraud, the prosecution, murder and repression of opponents, government favoritism, a lack of judicial independence, forced resignation of justices, ban on political parties, limitations on foreign media activities, as well as political arrests without trial became rampant within the nation (Spruk 23). Despite the lessons learned from the poor governance, the political institutions that later followed even after democracy was restored in 1983 failed to rectify the issues that persisted in the authoritarian military regimes sufficiently. Individuals in power implemented ineffective economic policies that promoted the economic decline of the nation. The impact of the failed political state of the country is most evident towards the end of the 19th century, and the effects of the economic crisis have continued to affect the economic and social developments in modern-day Argentina in a great way.

The Role of Political Issues in The Development of Argentina

Political factors play an essential role in the economic and social development of a nation. Current development issues in Argentina are mostly as a result of the failed political institutions in the country. Research shows that the political landscape of Argentina is dominated by the Peronist party, which has held influenced major government activities since the election of Juan Peron in 1946 (Gallo et al., 193). Argentina has only had one non-Peronist president, Mauricio Macri, who was elected in 2015 (Freytes and Niedzwiecki 384). Macri tried to rectify the great mistakes of the presidents that came after him, from the Peronist Party with no success. Once again, in the 2019 elections, the weaknesses in the Macri government that were created by previous Peronist leaders were used by the opposition to remove Macri from power. The continued dominance of the Peronist party is also felt in other political posts and institutions such as the National Congress. The weaknesses in the Peronist leadership is a significant cause of the problems that Argentina has been facing since the political party rose in power in the past decades. Even under the leadership of a Peronist president, a lack of unity within the group ruins issues such as the development of reforms aimed at promoting the economic development of the nation.

The Argentine economic crisis that the nation slid into after 2001 provides a perfect example of the effect of a failed political structure in the country. Studies show that Argentina was enjoying a booming economy after president Carlos Menem took power in 1989. The president, together with the minister of the economy, implemented reforms that aimed at slowing down the inflation rates that had caused severe social and economic problems in the state. The Convertibility Plan was one of the strategies used to stabilize the Economy of Argentina (Gallo et al. 196). However, despite the restoration of the economy, still, several socioeconomic problems existed in the nation, such as widespread layoffs. In an effort to solve the challenges, the president rolled out a program that would ensure that he implemented any policies that he thought would provide practical solutions to the problems in the nation. The strategy included the appointment of loyal judges who ensured that economic policies were passed even without the participation of the Congress (Gallo et al. 196). The move undermined the rule of law, which is necessary for the establishment of vibrant economies. Despite the disregard for the rule of law, the president's commitment to improving the economy of the nation eventually worked in the early 1990s. Menem's second term was dominated by significant abuses to the constitution, which led to the development of the economic development crisis that the nation slid into in 2001 (Gezmiş 66). Mass violations of the law led to issues such as defaulting payments of debts, corruption, as well as the incompetency of elected leaders in transforming the social and economic conditions in the nation. The nation then succumbed into economic and social hardships such as high levels of inflation, increased unemployment rates and high poverty levels. The issues caused civil unrest as citizens complained about the failed governance system (Gezmiş 66). Research shows that after 2001, "more than half of the population and 39.4% of total households were below the poverty line" (Gallo et al. 201). Menem's failed leadership system created a favorable environment for the development of the 2001/2002 financial crisis in the nation.

Despite the lessons that the nation learned from the financial crisis, political institutions within the country are yet to rectify the mistakes of former governments to streamline the development of the state. Current regimes, exhibit certain aspects that are key to the continued development issues in the country, such as political patronage, corruption as well as vote-buying. Several programs rolled out in the nation are associated with benefits to specific groups of individuals, and especially those that support the ruling political party. The employment sector, for instance, is dominated by numerous issues of impunity and favoritism, especially in public institutions. A majority of the civil servants in the nation collect paychecks at the end of the month, and yet they cannot account for the work that they have done. Research shows that there are approximately 200,000 absentee public servants in the Argentine government (Benkendorfer, Hsu, Malthouse, and Oosthuizen 5). Such issues adversely affect the effectiveness of the public sector in Argentina. Besides, favoritism negatively affects the ability of Argentina to deal with issues of unemployment and social stratification effectively. The conversion of private businesses in the country into public firms adversely affects economic growth as it increases the chances of patronage politics, and increases public spending through salaries and grants to such firms. Research shows that the renationalization of companies scuh as the Aerolineas in 2008 promoted issues of productive inefficiency and conflicts with foreign investors (Benkendorfer et al. 6). Further, poor coordination between federal and local governments has also affected the implementation of reforms necessary to promote the development of Argentina. The conflicts between these governments have developed as a result of different political interests between ruling parties and the opposition. Political elites within the provinces, and especially those from the Peronist party, play a significant role in influencing national politics (Ardanaz, Leiras, and Tommasi 28). A majority of government policies and operations are such that they match the interests of the political elites within the country. As a result, provinces with minority political groups are left out in many development projects.

The government plays a huge role in regulating the activities of financial institutions. Political structures in Argentina have, however, influenced the financial institutions in a manner that promotes selfish interests at the expense of the citizens. Financial institutions such as the Banco Central de la República Argentina (BCRA) are controlled by the government, and the president has the constitutional mandate of appointing the board of directors of the institution (Benkendorfer et al. 2). Peronist leaders have implemented economic reforms that have failed in the management of issues such as unemployment, high levels of inflation, as well as the value of the nation's currency. Besides, other institutions at both local and national levels are subject to control by the ruling government, and the Peronist regimes have failed in enhancing their coordination. The failed political institutions negatively affect the effectiveness of the financial institutions thereby promoting economic and social hardships in the country. Further research shows that government institutions such as the legislature play an essential role in the economic development of the state. The assembly is responsible for regulating public spending, taxation, the BCRA as well as developing policies regarding the determination of the value of the country's currency (Benkendorfer et al. 2). However, with weak political structures, the nation has failed to utilize the government organs to promote development.

The role of the development of the nation hugely lies in the ruling political party. Popular parties in Argentina, such as the Peronist party, have failed in improving conditions within the country. The party has been unable to develop appropriate policies that are key to the elimination of the most basic economic and social problems in Argentina. As a result, the nation has experienced issues in economic and social development (Kline 23). The dominance of the party within a majority of the parts of the country further suppresses smaller and weaker political parties, which can turn around the development issue in Argentina. The opposition has been suppressed in an attempt to minimize competition for resources and power within the nation (Gallo et al. 196). Despite the challenges present within the Peronist administration, Argentine voters still make the same mistake of electing members from the same party in every election. Voters need to realize that promises such as positions in the government firms fail to benefit the country in general. Political institutions also play an essential role in the establishment of proper governance, democracy, and the observation of human rights by creating a perfect environment for the establishment of independent legal institutions. Failure in the justice system of Argentina has long been promoted by the failed political institutions in the nation. For instance, under the regime of president Menem, the government utilized its power in the implementation of policies that favor specific political institutions such as the piqueteros. Such groups target a majority of private firms in Argentina despite their legal rights and urge the government to renationalize public utilities (Gallo et al. 208). Such cases are still evident in Argentina in the present day as political groups such as the elite and governors have their interests put first. In contrast, other groups in the opposition are left to suffer. The lack of independence in the judiciary further leads to the development of issues such as corruption, electoral fraud, as well as leadership incompetency (Kline 21). The disregard of the law allows individuals to rise to power and use the office to promote their political interests and the goals of the individuals that support them.

Recommendations

The leading solution to the development problems present in Argentina lies in the political structure of the country. Competition among political parties needs to be encouraged since the domination of a single political party has led to the emergence of issues such as political patronage, as well as government favoritism. Individuals that promote their selfish interests should be dealt with in accordance with the law. Besides, dialogues also need to be more open for robust political participation. Such a move will enhance coordination within the government at both the national and local levels. Further, the nation needs to recognize the role of an independent judicial system in steering the development of the country. The ability of the supreme court to be easily manipulated by political leaders and elites within Argentina has had negative impacts on the confidence of local and international institutions in the government (Botero 170). An effective judiciary will facilitate democracy, the elimination of ineffective political leaders and parties, as well as the implementation of effective social and economic reforms. Besides, the strategy will be integral in eradicating issues of corruption and political patronage that have adversely affected the economic and social development of the nation.

Further, government favoritism needs to be eradicated in the country through the adoption of digital employee management systems that assess the effectiveness of public servants. The nationalization of major companies in Argentina has led to a tremendous effect in the increase in federal spending, despite the ineffectiveness of the sector. It would be wise for specific industries to be reprivatized to enhance their effectiveness in promoting economic development and minimize excessive public spending. Distributive policies should be among the major systems put in place to fight resource distribution inequality within Argentina. International bodies must also help the third world countries in avoiding entering into specific economic and social challenges through promoting democracy as well as competent leadership.

Conclusion

Argentina's political problems are the primary cause of the development challenges that the nation continues to face since the 2001 economic crisis. Failed governance, corruption, political patronage, as well as political dominance, create favorable grounds for development constraints. The nation currently faces social and economic problems and may continue to do so until appropriate measures are put in place. The failures of past governments need to be used as lessons for the betterment of the situation in the country. The nation needs to first concentrate on the foundation of its political structure to develop and implement reforms that will reinstate the position of the country in the world. Political leaders need to realize their role in the development of the nation, and work together in the restoration of the economy rather than achieving their selfish political interests.

Works Cited

Ardanaz, Martín, Marcelo Leiras, and Mariano Tommasi. "The politics of federalism in Argentina and its implications for governance and accountability." World Development 53 (2014): 26-45.

Benkendorfer, Hsu, Malthouse, and Oosthuizen. "The Macroeconomy of Argentina: Problems and Solutions." (2019).

Botero, Sandra. "Judges, litigants, and the politics of rights enforcement in Argentina." Comparative Politics 50.2 (2018): 169-187.

Freytes, Carlos, and Sara Niedzwiecki. "A turning point in Argentine politics: demands for change and territorial cleavages in the 2015 presidential election." Regional & Federal Studies 26.3 (2016): 381-394.

Gallo, Andrés, Juan Pablo Stegmann, and Jeffrey W. Steagall. "The role of political institutions in the resolution of economic crises: the case of Argentina 2001–05." Oxford Development Studies 34.2 (2006): 193-217.

Gezmiş, Hilal. "From neoliberalism to neo-developmentalism? The political Economy of post-crisis Argentina (2002–2015)." New political economy 23.1 (2018): 66-87.

Kline, Angela. "Argentina's economic pendulum." Journal of Public Administration 52.1 (2017):

18-28.

Sottong, Heather Renee. Dante and Argentine Identity. Diss. UCLA, 2016.

Spruk, Rok. The Rise and Fall of Argentina: Rok Spruk. George Mason University, Mercatus Center, 2018.

Stefanoni, Pablo. "Between Fear and Disillusion in Argentina: Ahead of October’s presidential elections, Kirchnerism pitches center, while current president Mauricio Macri embraces Peronists. The outcome—both political and economic—is impossible to predict." NACLA Report on the Americas 51.3 (2019): 223-226.