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Lifespan Psychology

Introduction to Lifespan Development

LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT is the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occurs throughout the entire lifespan. Developmental psychologists such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, and Laurence Kohlberg, describe development as a series of stages. A stage is a period in development in which people exhibit typical behavior patterns and establish particular capacities. The various stage theories share three assumptions.

1. People pass through in a specific order, with each stage building on capacities developed in the previous stage.

2. Stages are related to age.

3. Development is discontinuous, with qualitatively different capacities emerging in each stage.

They test their assumptions about the nature and course of human development by applying scientific methods. Lifespan development focuses on human development such as: universal principles of development, cultural, racial, ethnic differences, and individual traits and characteristics. Developmental psychologists view development as a lifelong, continuing process, focus on change and growth in addition to stability, consistency, and continuity in people’s lives and are interested in people’s lives from the moment of conception until death.

Areas of development are physical development which involves the body’s physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep as a cause of behavior. Cognitive development involves the way growth and change in learning, memory, problem solving, and intelligence influence a person’s behavior. Personality development involves the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another change over the life span. Social development is the way in which individual’s interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life.

The lifespan is usually divided into broad age ranges and are as follows: prenatal period (conception to birth); infancy and toddlerhood (birth to age 3); preschool period (ages 3 to 6); middle childhood (ages 6 to 12); adolescence (ages 12 to 20); young adulthood (ages 20 to 40); middle adulthood (ages 40 to 60); and late adulthood (age 60 to death). It is important to remember that people mature at different rates and reach developmental milestones at different points. These broad periods of development are social constructions. A social construction is a shared notion of reality, one that is widely accepted but is a function of society and culture at a given time.

Environmental factors, such as one’s culture, can play a significant role in determining the age at which a particular event is likely to occur. Developmentalists must take into consideration broad cultural factors and ethnic, racial, socioeconomic, and gender differences if they are to achieve an understanding of how people change and grow throughout the lifespan. Progress concerning issues of human diversity has been slow in the field of lifespan development. Members of the research community have sometimes used terms such as race and ethnic group in inappropriate ways. Race is a biological concept referring to classifications based on physical and structural characteristics. Ethnic group and ethnicity are broader terms, referring to cultural background, nationality, religion, and language. There is little agreement about which names best reflect different races and ethnic groups (e.g., African American or black; Native American or Indian; Hispanic or Latino). Race is not independent of environmental and cultural contexts.

One’s COHORT is the group of people born around the same time and same place. Cohort effects are history-graded influences, the biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment. Age-graded influences are biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group, regardless of when or where they are raised. Sociocultural-graded influences include the impact of social and cultural factors present at a particular time for a particular individual, depending on such variables as ethnicity, social class, and subcultural membership.

Determining the Nature – and Nurture – of Lifespan Development

CONTINUOUS CHANGE involves gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels. DISCONTINUOUS CHANGE is development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages.

A CRITICAL PERIOD is a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences. Because individuals are now considered more flexible than was first thought, developmentalists are more likely to speak of SENSITIVE PERIODS as a point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences. In critical periods, the absence of certain kinds of environmental influences is likely to produce permanent, irreversible consequences for the developing child. In a sensitive period, the absence of particular environmental influences might hinder development, but it is possible for later experience to overcome the earlier deficits.

Early developmentalists focused on “infancy” and “adolescence.” Today the entire lifespan is seen as important for several reasons. Growth and change continue throughout life. An important part of every person’s environment is the other people around him or her, the person’s social environment.

Nature refers to traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from one’s parents. It encompasses MATURATION, any factor that is produced by the predetermined unfolding of genetic information. Nurture refers to the environmental influences that shape behavior. Developmental psychologists reject the notion that behavior is the result solely of either nature or nurture. It is useful to think of the nature-nurture controversy as opposite ends of a continuum, with particular behaviors falling somewhere between the two ends.

Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development

THEORIES are explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest, providing a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of facts or principles.

The PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE is the approach that states behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts of which a person has little awareness or control. Freud’s PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior. According to Freud (1856 - 1939): The unconscious is a part of the personality about which a person is unaware and is responsible for much of our everyday behavior. One’s personality has three aspects: The id is the raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality present at birth that represents primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. Operates according to the pleasure principle, in which the goal is to maximize satisfaction and reduce tension. The ego is the part of personality that is rational and reasonable and acts as a buffer between the outside world and the primitive id. Also operates on the reality principle, in which instinctual energy is restrained in order to maintain the safety of the individual and help integrate the person into society. The superego is the aspect of personality that represents a person’s conscience, incorporating distinctions between right and wrong. Develops about age five or six and learned from parents, teachers, and other significant figures.

Sigmund Freud, an Austrian psychiatrist, fist described personality development or PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT is a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, is focused on a particular biological function and body part. He believed that early childhood was the most important.

If children are unable to gratify themselves sufficiently or receive too much gratification a FIXATION, behavior reflecting an earlier stage of development, may occur.

Like Freud, Erik Erikson believed in the importance of early childhood. However, Freud believed a child’s personality developed by the age of 5 where Erikson believed that personality developed over the entire course of a person’s life. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development is the approach that encompasses changes in our understanding of individuals, their interactions with others, and their standing as members of society.

Each stage emerges in a fixed pattern and is similar for all people. Each stage presents a crisis or conflict that each individual must address sufficiently at a particular age. No crisis is ever fully resolved, which makes life increasingly complicated. Unlike Freud, Erikson believed that development continued throughout the lifespan.

Assessing the Psychodynamic Perspective: Contemporary psychological research supports the idea that unconscious memories have an influence on our behavior. The notion that people pass through stages in childhood that determine their adult personalities has little research support. Because Freud based his theory on a small sample of upper-middle class Austrians living during a strict, puritanical era, it is questionable how applicable the theory is to multicultural populations. Because his theory focuses on men, it has been criticized as sexist and devaluing women. Erikson’s view that development continues throughout the lifespan is highly important and has received considerable support. Erikson also focused more on men than women. Much of Erikson’s theory is too vague to test rigorously. In sum, the psychodynamic perspective provides a good description of past behavior, but imprecise predictions of future behavior.

Lawrence Kohlberg focused on moral development (reasoning), or why people think the way they do about right and wrong. Influenced by Piaget, who believed that moral reasoning depends on the level of cognitive development, Kohlberg proposed that people pass through three levels of moral development. He divided each level into two stages as seen in the table below.

Research supports key parts of Kohlberg’s theory. People do tend to progress in order through Kohlberg’s stages, and cognitive and moral development do affect each other.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

The BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment. Behaviorists reject the notion that people universally pass through a series of stages. Development occurs as the result of continuing exposure to specific factors in the environment. Development is viewed as quantitative rather than qualitative. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING is a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response. John B. Watson (1878 - 1958) argued that by effectively controlling a person’s environment, it was possible to produce virtually any behavior. OPERANT CONDITIONING is a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its association with positive or negative consequences. B. F. Skinner (1904 - 1990) claimed that people operate on their environments to bring about a desired state of affairs. Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. Punishment, the introduction of an unpleasant or painful stimulus or the removal of a desirable stimulus; it will decrease the probability that a behavior will occur in the future. When behavior receives no reinforcement it is likely to be discontinued or extinguished. Principles of operant conditioning are used in BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION, a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.

Albert Bandura suggests that a certain amount of learning is in the form of SOCIAL-COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY, which is learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model. Observer must pay attention to model’s behavior and successfully recall the behavior. Behavior must be reproduced accurately and observer must be motivated to learn and carry out behavior.

Assessing the Behavioral Perspective: According to classical and operant conditioning, people and organisms are black boxes in which nothing that occurs inside is understood or even cared about. Social-cognitive learning theory argues that what makes people different from rats and pigeons is mental activity that must be taken into account. Social-cognitive learning theory has come to predominate over classical and operant conditioning.

The COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world. Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980) proposed that all people pass in a fixed sequence through a series of universal stages of cognitive development. In each stage, the quantity of information increases; the quality of knowledge and understanding changes as well. Piaget suggested that human thinking is arranged into schemes, organized mental patterns that represent behaviors and actions. Piaget believed children develop schema, or mental models, to represent the world. Piaget suggested that the growth of children’s understanding of the world can be explained by two principles: Assimilation is the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. Accommodation is the process that changes existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events.

Example: Suppose a young boy knows his pet parrot is a bird. When he sees a robin outside and calls it a bird too, he exhibits assimilation, since he broadened his bird schema to include characteristics of both parrots and robins. His bird schema might be “all things that fly.” Now suppose a bat flaps out at him one night and he shrieks, “Bird!” If he learns it was a bat that startled him, he’ll have to modify his bird schema to “things that fly and have feathers.” In modifying his definition, he enacts accommodation.

Piaget proposed that children go through four stages of cognitive development:

In the sensorimotor stage, children learn by using their senses and moving around. By the end of the sensorimotor period, children become capable of symbolic thought, which means they can represent objects in terms of mental symbols. More important, children achieve object permanence in this stage. Object permanence is the ability to recognize that an object can exist even when it’s no longer perceived or in one’s sight.

Example: If a three-month-old baby sees a ball, she’ll probably be fascinated by it. But if someone hides the ball, the baby won’t show any interest in looking for it. For a very young child, out of sight is literally out of mind. When the baby is older and has acquired object permanence, she will start to look for things that are hidden because she will know that things can exist even when they can’t be seen.

During the preoperational stage, children get better at symbolic thought, but they can’t yet reason. According to Piaget, children aren’t capable of conservation during this stage. Conservation is the ability to recognize that measurable physical features of objects, such as length, area, and volume, can be the same even when objects appear different.

Example: Suppose a researcher gives a three-year-old girl two full bottles of juice. The girl will agree that they both contain the same amount of juice. But if the researcher pours the contents of one bottle into a short, fat tumbler, the girl will then say that the bottle has more. She doesn’t realize that the same volume of juice is conserved in the tumbler.

The concrete operational stage, children become capable of performing mental operations or working through problems and ideas in their minds. However, they can perform operations only on tangible objects and real events. Children also achieve conservation, reversibility, and decentration during this stage:

• Reversibility is the ability to mentally reverse actions.

• Decentration is the ability to focus simultaneously on several aspects of a problem.

Furthermore, children become less egocentric during this stage as they start to consider simultaneously different ways of looking at a problem.

The formal operational stage continues through adulthood, children become capable of applying mental operations to abstract concepts. They can imagine and reason about hypothetical situations. From this point on, people start to think in abstract, systematic, and logical ways.

Thousands of investigations have shown it to be largely accurate. Some cognitive skills emerge earlier than Piaget suggested. Some cognitive skills emerge according to a different timetable in non-Western countries. In every culture, some adults never reach Piaget’s highest level of cognitive thought — formal, logical thought. Some psychologists believe cognitive thought does not develop discontinuously, but slowly, steadily, and continuously.

INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACHES seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information. The theory grew out of the computer age. They assume that even complex behaviors such as learning, remembering, categorizing, and thinking can be broken down into a series of individual steps. They assume cognitive growth is more quantitative than qualitative. They suggest that as people age, they are better able to control their mental processing and change the strategies they choose to process information. Assessing These approaches pay little attention to behavior such as creativity. These approaches do not take into account the social context in which development takes place.

COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE APPROACHES look at cognitive development through the lens of brain processes. Cognitive neuroscientists seek to identify actual locations and functions within the brain that are related to different types of cognitive activity. This approach is on the forefront of cutting edge research that has identified specific genes associated with some physical and psychological disorders.

The HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior. According to this approach, each individual has the ability and motivation to reach more advanced levels of maturity, and people naturally seek to reach their full potential. This perspective emphasizes free will, the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives. Carl Rogers suggests that all people have a need for positive regard that results from an underlying wish to be loved and respected. Abraham Maslow suggests that self-actualization, a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way, is a primary goal in life. Assessing the Humanistic Perspective: The humanistic perspective has not had a major impact on the field of lifespan development. It has not identified any sort of broad developmental change that is the result of age or experience. Some criticize the theory’s assumption that people are basically good, which is unverifiable.

The CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVE considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds. The BIOECOLOGICAL APPROACH (Bronfenbrenner) is the perspective suggesting that different levels of environment simultaneously influence individuals. There are five levels: The microsystem is the everyday, immediate environment such as homes, caregivers, friends, and teachers. The mesosystem connects various aspects of the microsystem, linking children to parents, students to teachers, employees to bosses, and friends to friends. The exosystem represents such broad influences as local government, the community, schools, places of worship, and the local media. The macrosystem represents larger cultural influences such as society in general, types of government, religious systems, and political thought. The chronosystem involves the way the passage of time, including historical events, affect children’s development. There are several advantages to taking a bioecological approach to development. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of the influences on development. It illustrates that influences are multidirectional. It stresses the importance of broad cultural factors that affect development. The dominant Western philosophy is individualism, emphasizing personal identity, uniqueness, freedom, and the worth of the individual. Collectivism is the notion that the well-being of the group is more important than that of the individual. Assessing the Bioecological Approach: The biological influences are stressed less than ecological influences. It suggests the multiple levels at which the environment affects children’s development.

Vygotsky (1896 - 1934), a Russian child developmentalist, developed the SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY, an approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture. Vygotsky argued that children’s understanding of the world is acquired through their problem-solving interactions with adults and other children. He also argued that to understand the course of development we must consider what is meaningful to members of a given culture. Sociocultural theory emphasizes that development is the result of recurring reciprocal transactions between people in the child’s environment and the child. Assessing Sociocultural Theory: Some suggest the strong emphasis on culture and social experience ignores biological factors. Vygotsky minimizes the role individuals can play in shaping their own environment.

The EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVES seek to identify behavior in today’s humans that is the result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. Evolutionary perspectives grew out of the work of Charles Darwin who argued in The Origin of Species that a process of natural selection creates traits in a species that are adaptive to their environment. The evolutionary perspectives argue that our genetic inheritance determines not only such physical traits as skin and eye color, but certain personality traits and social behaviors. The evolutionary perspective draws on the field of ethology (Konrad Lorenz 1903 - 1989), which examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior. The evolutionary perspective encompasses one of the fastest growing areas within the field of lifespan development: behavioral genetics, which studies the effects of heredity on behavior. Assessing the evolutionary perspectives: Some psychologists criticize the evolutionary perspective for paying insufficient attention to the environment and social factors. Others argue that there is no good way to support experimentally theories derived from evolution.

Each emphasizes different aspects of development. Psychodynamic approach emphasizes emotions, motivational conflicts, and unconscious determinants of behavior. Behavioral approaches emphasize overt behavior. Cognitive and humanist approaches look more at what people think than what they do. The contextual perspective examines social and cultural influences on development. The evolutionary perspective focuses on how inherited biological factors underlie development. Each perspective is based on its own premises and focuses on different aspects of development. The same developmental phenomenon can be looked at from a number of perspectives simultaneously, termed an eclectic approach.

Research Methods

The SCIENTIFIC METHOD is the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and the collection of data. It involves three major steps: 1) Identifying questions of interest; 2) Formulating an explanation; and 3) Carrying out research that either lends support to the explanation or refutes it. The scientific method involves the formulation of theories, broad explanations, and predictions about phenomena. THEORIES are used to develop HYPOTHESES, predictions stated in a way that permit testing.

CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists. The strength and direction of a relationship between two factors is represented by a mathematical score, called a correlational coefficient, which ranges from +1.0 (positive) to -1.0 (negative). A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one factor increases, it can be predicted that the value of the other will also increase. A negative correlation informs us that as the value of one factor increases, the value of the other factor declines. The stronger the association between the two factors, the closer the correlation coefficient will be to +1.00 or -1.00 Finding that two variables are correlated with one another proves nothing about causality.

Types of Correlational Studies: NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION is the observation of a naturally occurring behavior without intervention in the situation. This type of study has the advantage of seeing children in their natural habitats. However, researchers cannot control factors of interest and may be unable to see enough behavior to draw any conclusions. Children may know they are being watched and modify their behavior. Naturalistic observation employs ethnography, a method borrowed from the field of anthropology and used to investigate cultural questions. Researchers using ethnography act as participant observers, living for a period of weeks, months, or even years in another culture. Ethnographic studies are an example of a broader category of research known as qualitative research in which researchers choose particular setting of interest and seek to carefully describe what is occurring and why. Ethnography has the same drawbacks as other naturalistic observation in addition to the problems of generalizing from one culture to another or misinterpreting what is observed. CASE STUDIES involve extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or a small group of individuals. Case studies are designed to derive broader principles or draw tentative conclusions that might apply to others. SURVEY RESEARCH, where people are chosen to represent some larger population and are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic. PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS focus on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior. Three common psychophysiological measures are electroencephalograms (EEG), computerized axial tomography (CAT scan, and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan.

Experiments: Determining Cause and Effect. An EXPERIMENT is a process in which an investigator, called an experimenter, devises two different experiences for subjects or participants called treatments. Treatments are procedures applied by an investigator based on two different experiences devised for participants. The group receiving the treatment is known as the treatment or experimental group. The group not receiving treatment is called the control group. The variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment is the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE. The variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation is the DEPENDENT VARIABLE. A critical step in the design of an experiment is to assign participants to different treatment groups on the basis of chance alone, called random assignment, allowing the researcher, through laws of statistics, to draw conclusions with confidence.

First, researchers choose a SAMPLE, a group of participants chosen for the experiment. FIELD STUDY is a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting. LABORATORY STUDY is a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant.

THEORETICAL RESEARCH is research designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge. APPLIED RESEARCH is research meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems. By conducting controlled studies, developmental researches have made important contributions to education, family life, and health. Research findings can provide policymakers a means of determining what questions to ask. The findings and testimony of researchers are often part of the process by which laws are drafted. Policymakers and other professionals use research findings to determine how best to implement programs. Research techniques are used to evaluate the effectiveness of existing programs and policies.

In LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH, the behavior of one or more individuals is measured as the subject’s age. They require a tremendous investment of time. There is the possibility of participant attrition, or loss. Participants may become “test-wise.” In CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH, people of different ages are compared at the same point in time. Differences may be due to cohort effects. Selective dropout, where participants in some age groups are more likely to quit participating in the study than others. Changes in individuals or groups are unable to be explained. In SEQUENTIAL STUDIES, researchers examine a number of different age groups over several points in time. This combines longitudinal and cross-sectional research. It can tell about age changes and age differences.

Society for Research in Child Development and the American Psychological Association have developed ethical guidelines for researchers: freedom from harm, informed consent, use of deception, and maintenance of privacy. Not all advice is equally valid, even if it is in print, on television, or on the Web. These guidelines can help distinguish the reasonable ideas from the unreasonable ones. Consider the source of the advice. Evaluate the credentials of the person providing the advice. Understand the difference between anecdotal evidence and scientific evidence.

Anecdotal evidence is based on one or two instances haphazardly discovered or encountered. Scientific evidence is based on careful, systematic procedures. If advice is based on research findings, there should be a clear, transparent description of the studies. Note the cultural context of the information. Don’t assume that because many people believe something that it is necessarily true.

Conception to Birth

Prenatal Development

Humans begin life as a single cell, a ZYGOTE. Our genetic code is stored and communicated in our GENES, the basic units of genetic information. Genes are composed of sequences of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the substance that determines the nature of every cell in the body and how it will function. Humans have over 25,000 genes. Genes are arranged in specific locations and in a specific order along 46 CHROMOSOMES, rod-shaped portions of DNA that are organized in 23 pairs. One pair chromosomes (via the gametes) is provided by the mother; one by the father at fertilization.

Gametes (sperm and ova) are formed by a process called meiosis. Zygote is one cell formed by fusion of the two gametes. All other cells replicate the genetic code by a process called mitosis. There are tens of trillions of possible genetic combinations.

Less than 3% of all pregnancies produce twins; the odds are slimmer for three or more children. MONOZYGOTIC TWINS, who are genetically identical, form when a cluster of cells in the ovum splits off within the first two weeks following fertilization. DIZYGOTIC TWINS, who are produced when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm, are no more genetically similar than two siblings. Other kinds of multiple births (triplets, quadruplets, etc.) can form from either mechanism. Using fertility drugs increases the chances of having a multiple birth. 1 in 10 are dizygotic. Older women are more likely to have multiple births. Racial and ethnic differences affect the rate of multiple births. Caucasian: 1 out of 86 dizygotic. African American: 1 out of 70 dizygotic.

The 23rd chromosome determines the sex of the child. Females are XX. Males are XY. The father’s sperm determines the sex of the child. New techniques are being developed to help specify in advance the gender of the child.

An Austrian monk, Gregor Mendel (mid-1800s), working with peas, discovered that when two competing traits were present only one could be expressed. The trait that is expressed when two competing traits are present is called the DOMINANT TRAIT. The trait that is present in the organism but not expressed is called the RECESSIVE TRAIT. GENOTYPE is the underlying combination of genetic material present (but not outwardly visible) in an organism. PHENOTYPE is an observable trait, the trait that is actually seen.

Alleles are genes for traits that may take alternate forms. HOMOZYGOUS is inheriting from parents similar genes for a given trait. HETEROZYGOUS is inheriting from parents different forms of a gene for a given trait. If a child receives a recessive allele from each parent, it will display the recessive characteristic.

Most traits are the result of POLYGENIC INHERITANCE, in which a combination of multiple gene pairs is responsible for the production of a particular trait. Some genes (such as those for blood type AB) are neither dominant nor recessive but are a combination. Some recessive genes are X-LINKED GENES, meaning they are located on the X chromosome. Males have a higher risk for a variety of X-linked disorders because they lack a second X chromosome to counteract the genetic information that produces the disorder. Hemophilia is a blood disorder produced by X-linked genes. Red-green color blindness is another.

In 2001, molecular biologists succeeded in mapping the human genome – the specific sequence of genes on each chromosome. The number of human genes has been revised downward from 100,000 to 25,000. In humans 99.9 percent of the gene sequence is shared by all humans.

The most recent approach to the study of the effects of heredity on behavior and development is called BEHAVIORAL GENETICS. This field merges psychology – the study of behavior – with genetics – the study of transmission of characteristics through heredity. These are learning how behavioral difficulties (such as schizophrenia) may have a genetic basis. Researchers also seek to identify how genetic defects may be remedied.

Some disorders are inherited (e.g., PKU). Some genetic disorders are the result of genes that become physically damaged. Sometimes genes spontaneously change their form, a process called spontaneous mutation. Certain environmental factors, such as exposure to X-rays, can produce malformed genetic material. DOWN SYNDROME is a disorder produced by the presence of an extra chromosome on the 21st chromosome pair, once referred to as mongolism. FRAGILE X SYNDROME is a disorder produced by injury to a gene on the X chromosome, producing mild to moderate mental retardation. SICKLE-CELL ANEMIA is a blood disorder that gets its name from the shape of the red blood cells in those who have it. TAY-SACHS DISEASE is an untreatable disorder that produces blindness and muscle degeneration prior to death. One male out of every 400 is born with KLINEFELTER’S SYNDROME, a disorder resulting from the presence of an extra X chromosome that produces underdeveloped genitals, extreme height, and enlarged breasts.

GENETIC COUNSELING is the discipline that focuses on helping people deal with issues related to inherited disorders. Genetic counselors use a variety of data. They can take a thorough family history, seeking any familial incidence of birth defects. The age of mother and father will be taken into account. Blood, skin, and urine may be used to isolate and examine specific chromosomes. Possible genetic defects can be identified by assembling a karyotype: a chart containing enlarged photos of each of the chromosomes.

Prenatal Testing such as: ULTRASOUND SONOGRAPHY is a process in which high-frequency sound waves scan the mother’s womb to produce an image of the unborn baby whose size and shape can then be assessed. CHORIONIC VILLUS SAMPLING (CVS) is a test used to find genetic defects that involves taking samples of hair like material that surrounds the embryo. AMNIOCENTESIS is the process of identifying genetic defects by examining a small sample of fetal cells drawn by a needle inserted into the amniotic fluid surrounding the unborn fetus. The newest role of genetic counselors is to test people, rather than their children, for susceptibility to disorders due to genetic abnormalities. Huntington’s disease can be predicted based on genetic testing. More than 1,000 disorders can be predicted on the basis of genetic testing. Other advances include germ-line gene therapy, a process where genetic modifications can correct problems not only for unborn individuals but for future generations.

The Interaction of Heredity and Environment

TEMPERAMENT, patterns of arousal and emotionality that represent consistent and enduring characteristics, may represent MULTIFACTORIAL TRANSMISSION, traits that are determined by a combination of both genetic and environmental factors in which a genotype provides a range within which a phenotype may be expressed. Some genotypes are not as sensitive to the environment as others.

The question is not whether behavior is caused by nature or nurture but how much by nature and how much by nurture. Scientists put laboratory animals bred to share genetic backgrounds in different environments to explore the effects of these environments. Conversely, they use genetically different animals in similar environments to determine the role of genetics.

Scientists use human twins to study the effects of genes and the environment. Differences between monozygotic twins separated at birth are most likely but not always due to different environments. If monozygotic twins are more similar than dizygotic twins on a particular trait then we can assume that genetics plays a role. People who are unrelated but share the same environment also tell us about environmental influences. Researchers also study biological parents and their children versus adoptive parents and their children to see the effects of heredity versus environment. Bottom line: Virtually all traits, characteristics, and behaviors are the joint result of the combination and interaction of nature and nurture.

The genetically similar two people are, the more likely they are to share physical characteristics (e.g., height, weight). Genetics a significant role in intelligence; however, the environment is also a significant factor. Increasing supports the conclusion that at least some personality traits have at least some genetic components.

Neuroticism refers to the degree of moodiness, touchiness, or sensitivity an individual characteristically displays. Extroversion is the degree to which a person seeks to be with others, to behave in an outgoing manner, and generally to be sociable. Certain traits reflect the contribution of genetics more than others. Some evidence comes from direct examination of genes themselves. Other evidence comes from studies of twins. The environment also plays a role in determining personality.

Several psychological disorders have been shown to be related, at least in part, to genetic factors such as schizophrenia, major depression, alcoholism, autism, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Genetics alone does not influence the development of disorders. If genetics were the sole cause, the risk for an identical twin would be 100%. Genetics often produces a tendency toward a future course of development, but when and whether the characteristics will be displayed depends on the environment.

According developmental psychologist Sandra Scarr, the genetic endowment not only determines genetic characteristics, but also influences the environment. Children tend to focus on aspects of their environment that are most in tune with their genetic abilities. The gene-environment influence may be more passive and less direct. The genetically-driven temperament of a child may evoke certain environmental influences.

Prenatal Growth and Change

FERTILIZATION is the process by which a sperm and an ovum—the male and female gametes—join to form a single new cell.

The prenatal period consists of three phases: The GERMINAL STAGE is the first and shortest stage of prenatal development, which takes place during the first two weeks following conception. It is characterized by methodical cell division and the attachment of the organism (blastocyst) to the wall of the uterus. The baby is called a zygote at this stage about. The cells become specialized with some forming a protective layer around the zygote, while others create: The PLACENTA is the conduit between the mother and fetus, providing nourishment and oxygen via the umbilical cord. Removing waste materials from the embryo or fetus.

The EMBRYONIC STAGE is the period from two to eight weeks following fertilization during which significant growth occurs in the major organs and body systems. In this stage the child is called an embryo. The developing baby is now composed of three layers: The ectoderm is the outer layer forming the skin, hair, teeth, sense organs, brain and spinal cord. The endoderm is the inner layer producing the digestive system, liver, pancreas, and respiratory system. The mesoderm is sandwiched between the inner and outer layers and forms the muscles, bones, blood, and circulatory system.

The FETAL STAGE begins about eight weeks after conception and continues until birth. The developing child from eight weeks after conception until birth is called a FETUS. The fetus dramatically increases in size and weight. Organs become more differentiated and operational. The brain becomes increasingly sophisticated. The symmetrical left and right halves of the brain, known as hemispheres, grow rapidly, and the interconnections between neurons become more complex. The neurons become coated with an insulating material called myelin that helps speed the transmission of messages from the brain to the rest of the body. By three months the fetus swallows and urinates. By 4 months the mother will be able to feel her fetus move.

Around twenty-two to twenty-six weeks after conception, the fetus reaches the age of viability, after which it has some chance of surviving out-side the womb if it is born prematurely. The chances of a premature baby’s survival increase significantly with each additional week it remains in the mother’s uterus.

Fifteen percent of couples suffer from INFERTILITY, the inability to conceive after 12 to 18 months of trying to become pregnant. Infertility has several causes: The age of the parents; previous use of birth control pills, illicit drugs or cigarettes, STDs; men who have an abnormally low sperm count; the woman’s mother taking certain drugs during pregnancy; and the most common cause of infertility is failure to release an egg through ovulation – possibly caused by hormonal imbalance, damage to fallopian tube or uterus, or stress.

Treatments for infertility include several approaches. ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION is a process of fertilization in which a man’s sperm is placed directly into a woman’s vagina by a physician. IN VITRO FERTILIZATION (IVF) is a procedure in which a woman’s ova are removed from her ovaries, and a man’s sperm are used to fertilize the ova in a laboratory. Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT) and Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT) are procedures in which an egg and sperm or fertilized egg are implanted in a woman’s fallopian tubes. Surrogate mother is a woman who agrees to carry the child to term; may be used in cases where the mother is unable to conceive. Ethical issues include the use of surrogate mothers, in vitro fertilization, and sex selection techniques.

A miscarriage, known as spontaneous abortion, occurs when pregnancy ends before the developing child is able to survive outside the womb. Fifteen percent to 20 percent all pregnancies end in miscarriage. Many times the mother is not even aware she is pregnant. Typically, miscarriages are attributable to some sort of genetic abnormality. Abortion is the voluntary termination of a pregnancy by the mother.

Certain aspects of mothers’ and fathers’ behavior, both before and after conception, can produce lifelong consequences for the child. A TERATOGEN is an environmental agent such as a virus, chemical, or other factor that produces a birth defect. At some phases of prenatal development, a teratogen might have minimal impact; at other periods, consequences can be severe. Different organ systems are vulnerable to teratogens at different times.

A mother’s diet clearly plays an important role in bolstering the development of the fetus. A mother who eats a varied diet high in nutrients is apt to have fewer complications during pregnancy, an easier labor, and a generally healthier baby than a mother whose diet is restricted in nutrients.

Mothers over 30 and adolescent mothers are at greater risk for a variety of pregnancy and birth complications: premature birth, low birth weight, Down syndrome, and higher infant mortality rates.

Illness in a pregnant woman can have devastating consequences: Rubella (German measles) prior to the 11th week can cause blindness, deafness, heart defects, or brain damage. Chicken pox and mumps may cause birth defects and miscarriage, respectively. Syphilis and gonorrhea can be transmitted to the child. Babies born with AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) can have birth abnormalities including small, misshapen faces, protruding lips, and brain deterioration.

As many as 10 percent of pregnancies are complicated by maternal depression. The mother’s depression also affects the developing fetus. Low birthweight, premature birth, pregnancy complications, and decreased immune function. Maternal depression may have more lasting effects on the child. The best option for women who experience depression during pregnancy might be to seek non-drug-based psychotherapeutic interventions.

The use of many kinds of drugs, both legal and illegal, pose serious risks to the unborn child. Aspirin can lead to fetal bleeding. DES (diethylstilbestrol) later caused cervical and vaginal cancer in daughters. Marijuana restricts oxygen to the fetus. Cocaine restricts blood flow and oxygen. Babies are born addicted and go through withdrawal and they are shorter and weigh less. Babies have serious respiratory problems and birth defects or seizures. Babies are often impossible to soothe.

Pregnant women who take even small amounts of alcohol or nicotine can disrupt the development of the fetus. FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME (FAS) is a disorder caused by the pregnant mother consuming substantial quantities of alcohol during pregnancy, potentially resulting in mental retardation, delayed growth, and facial deformities. Even smaller amounts of alcohol can produce FETAL ALCOHOL EFFECTS (FAE), a condition in which children display some, although not all, of the problems of FAS due to their mother’s consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. Just two drinks a day has been associated with lower intelligence. Smoking reduces the oxygen content and increases carbon monoxide. Babies can miscarry or are born with abnormally low birth weight. Babies born to smokers are shorter and may be 50 % more likely to have mental retardation. Secondhand smoke can affect the mother’s health. Alcohol and illegal drugs can lead to chromosomal damage at conception. Stress may produce an unhealthy environment for the mother. Sperm damage may result from father’s exposure to environmental toxins in the workplace.

There are things that women can do—before and during pregnancy—to optimize their chances for a smooth pregnancy. The pregnancy needs to be planned. Schedule nonemergency x-rays only during the first 2 weeks after menstrual periods. Get vaccinated against rubella at least 3 months before getting pregnant. Discontinue birth control pills at least 3 months before getting pregnant. Eat well before and during pregnancy. Don’t use alcohol or other drugs. Monitor caffeine intake. Don’t smoke. Exercise regularly.

Birth

The term used for newborns is NEONATES. About 266 days after conception, a protein called corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) triggers the process of birth. The hormone oxytocin is released from mother's pituitary. Braxton-Hicks contractions have been occurring since the fourth month. Contractions force the head of the fetus against the cervix. Labor proceeds in three stages: The first stage is the longest. Uterine contractions occur every 8-10 minutes and last about 30 seconds. Contractions increase to their greatest intensity, a period known as transition. The mother’s cervix fully opens. For first babies, this stage can last 16-24 hours (this varies widely). Subsequent children involve shorter periods of labor. During the second stage of labor, the baby's head moves through the birth canal. This stage typically lasts 90 minutes. After each contraction the baby's head emerges more and increases the vaginal opening. An EPISIOTOMY is an incision sometimes made to increase the size of the opening of the vagina to allow the baby to pass. This stage ends when the baby is born. The third stage of labor occurs when the child's umbilical cord and placenta are expelled. This is the shortest stage. It lasts only minutes. Cultural perspectives color the way that people in a given society view the experience of childbirth.

Birth occurs when the fetus passes through the vagina and emerges from the mother's body. As soon as they are born, most babies cry to clear their lungs and begin breathing on their own. The APGAR SCALE is a standard measurement system that looks for a variety of indications of good health in newborns. The scale was developed by Virginia Apgar in 1953. The Apgar directs attention to five qualities: Appearance (color), Pulse (heart rate), Grimace (reflex irritability), Activity (muscle tone), and Respiration (respiratory effort). Each quality is scored 0-2, producing an overall scale score that ranges from 0 to 10. Most babies score around 7. Scores under 4 need immediate life-saving intervention. A restriction of oxygen, ANOXIA, lasting a few minutes can cause brain damage.

Babies are often coated with vernix, a thick, greasy substance which smooth’s the passage through the birth canal. Newborns are often covered with a fine, dark fuzz called lanugo. Baby’s eyelids may be swollen and puffy from an accumulation of liquids during birth. A matter of considerable controversy is the subject of BONDING, the close physical and emotional contact between parent and child during the period immediately following birth, and argued by some to affect later relationship strength.

There are a variety of choices for how to give birth and no research proves that one method is more effective than another. Lamaze birthing techniques (Dr. Fernand Lamaze). The goal is to learn how to deal positively with pain and to relax at the onset of a contraction. Women in low income groups tend to be less well prepared for labor and might suffer more pain during childbirth. Bradley Method, also known as “husband-coached childbirth.” Principle: Childbirth should be as natural as possible. Involves no medication or medical interventions. Hypnobirthing involves a self-hypnosis during delivery, which produces peace and calm, thereby reducing pain

Obstetricians, a physician who specializes in childbirth. Midwife, a nurse specializing in childbirth. Doula, an experienced person who provides emotional, psychological, and educational support but does not replace an obstetrician or midwife

The use of medication during childbirth has benefits and disadvantages. It reduces pain. One third of women who choose anesthesia choose to receive epidural anesthesia, which produces numbness from the waist down and can prevent them from helping to push the baby. A newer form is known as walking epidural or dual spinal-epidural, which use smaller needles and a system of delivering continuous doses of anesthetic, allowing women to move about more freely during labor. Anesthetics might depress the flow of oxygen to the fetus, slow labor, and it might harm the fetus. Not all studies suggest harmful effects for fetus.

The average hospital stay following normal births has decreased from an average of 3.9 days in 1970 to 2 days in the 1990s. The American Academy of Pediatrics states that women should stay in the hospital no less than 48 hours after giving birth. The U.S. Congress has passed legislation mandating a minimum insurance coverage of 48 hours for childbirth. Typically screens newborns for disorders via a small quantity of blood from infant’s heel. The number of disorders screened varies from state to state, and from a low of 3 screens to a high of over 30. Advantage of screening is early treatment of problems.

There is no right nor wrong way to deal with labor; strategies can help make the process as positive as possible. Be flexible and communicate with your healthcare providers. Remember that labor is . . . laborious. Accept your partner’s support. Be realistic and honest about your reactions to pain. Focus on the big picture.

Birth Complications

PRETERM INFANTS are born prior to 38 weeks after conception (also known as premature infants) are at high risk for illness and death. The main factor in determining the extent of danger is the child's weight at birth. The average newborn weighs 3,400 grams (7 1/2 pounds). LOW-BIRTHWEIGHT INFANTS weigh less than 2,500 grams (5 1/2 pounds). Although only 7 % of all newborns in the U.S. are low-birthweight, they account for the majority of newborn deaths. SMALL-FOR-GESTATIONAL-AGE INFANTS, because of delayed fetal growth, are infants that weigh 90 % or less than the average weight of infants of the same gestational age. Premature infants are susceptible to respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) because of poorly developed lungs. Low-birthweight infants are put in incubators, enclosures in which oxygen and temperature are controlled. They are easily chilled, susceptible to infection, and sensitive to their environment. Preterm infants develop more slowly than infants born full term. Sixty percent eventually develop normally. Thirty eight percent have mild problems (such as learning disabilities or low IQ).

VERY-LOW-BIRTHWEIGHT INFANTS weigh less than 1,250 grams (2 1/4 pounds) and, regardless of weight, have been in the womb less than 30 weeks and are in grave danger because of the immaturity of their organ systems. Medical advances have pushed the AGE OF VIABILITY, or point at which an infant can survive a premature birth, to about 22 weeks. A baby born earlier than 25 weeks has less than a 50-50 chance of survival. Costs of keeping very-low-birthweight infants alive are enormous. Research shows that children who receive more responsive, stimulating, and organized care are apt to show more positive outcomes than children whose care was not as good.

What Causes Preterm and Low-Birthweight Deliveries? Multiple births, young mothers (under age 15), too closely spaced births, general health and nutrition of mother, and African-American mothers have double the number of low-birthweight babies that Caucasian mothers do.

POSTMATURE BABIES, those still unborn two weeks after the mother's due date, face several risks. Blood supply to baby's brain may be decreased and cause brain damage. Labor and delivery become more difficult.

Over a million mothers in the U.S. today have a CESAREAN DELIVERY where the baby is surgically removed from the uterus, rather than traveling through the birth canal. Several types of difficulties can lead to Cesarean delivery. Fetal distress is most frequent. Used for breech position, where the baby is positioned feet first in the birth canal. Used for transverse position, in which the baby lies crosswise in the uterus. When the baby's head is large. Mothers over age 40 are more likely to have Cesarean deliveries than younger ones.

Routine use of FETAL MONITORS, devices that measure the baby’s heartbeat during labor, have contributed to soaring rates of Cesarean deliveries, up 500 % from 1970s. Frequency has several criticisms. There is no association between Cesarean delivery and successful birth consequences. It involves major surgery and a long recovery for the mother. There is a risk of infection to the mother. Easy birth may deter release of certain stress hormones, such as catecholamine’s, which help prepare the infant to deal with stress outside the womb. Babies born via Cesarean delivery are more prone to breathing problems at birth. Medical authorities currently recommend avoiding routine use of fetal monitors.

INFANT MORTALITY is defined as death within the first year of life. U.S. ranks 26nd with 7.3 deaths per 1,000 live births. Rate is declining since 1960s. STILLBIRTH is the delivery of a child who is not alive and occurs in less than 1 delivery in 100. Parents grieve in the same manner as if an older loved one dies. Depression is a common aftermath. African American babies are more than twice as likely to die before age one than white babies.

African American babies are twice as likely to die before the age of one as white babies. This may be the result of socioeconomic factors such as poverty which result in poor prenatal care. The overall infant mortality rate in the U.S. is higher than the rate in many countries. The U.S. has a higher rate of low-birthweight and preterm deliveries. The U.S. has more people living in poverty who are less likely to get adequate medical care. Other countries do a better job providing prenatal care at low cost and even free. The percentage of pregnant women in the U.S. who receive no prenatal care has increased since the 1990s. Free or inexpensive health care and basic education could reduce these problems.

Postpartum depression is a period of deep depression following childbirth. This depression affects about 10 % of all new mothers. Symptoms such an enduring sleep, deep feelings of sadness and unhappiness may last for months or even years. Postpartum depression may be triggered by changes in hormone production after giving birth. Maternal depression may lead to emotional detachment and lack of responsiveness to infants that may affect an infant’s social maturation and behavior.

The Competent Newborn

REFLEXES are unlearned, organized, and involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli. Sucking and swallowing reflexes permit the neonate to ingest food. The rooting reflex, which involves the turning in the direction of a source of stimulation near the mouth, guides the infant to the breast and nipple. The newborn's digestive system produces meconium, a greenish-black material that is a remnant of the neonate's days as a fetus. Because their livers do not work efficiently, almost half of all newborns develop neonatal jaundice, a yellowish tint to their bodies and eyes Jaundice is most likely to occur in preterm and low-weight babies.

Infants' visual and auditory systems are not yet fully developed. They can see levels of contrast and brightness. They can tell size consistency and distinguish colors. They react to sudden sounds and recognize familiar sounds. They are sensitive to touch. Their senses of taste and smell are well developed.

Much debated procedure that has most U.S. prestigious medical associations claiming that it is not medically necessary Emerging research, however, suggests that circumcision may provide protection against some sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV infection [studies conducted in Africa].

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING, a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response, underlies the learning of both pleasurable and undesired responses in the newborn. OPERANT CONDITIONING, a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its association with positive or negative consequences, functions from the earliest days of life. HABITUATION, the decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus, is probably the most primitive form of learning and occurs in every sensory system of the infant. Habituation produces an orienting response, in which infants become quiet and attentive to new stimuli.

Infants have the ability to imitate others. Infants can differentiate between such basic facial expressions as happiness, sadness, and surprise. Newborns cycle through various STATES OF AROUSAL, different degrees of sleep and wakefulness ranging from deep sleep to great agitation.

Infancy

Growth and Stability

Infants grow at a rapid pace for the first two years after birth. By age 5 months, the average infant's birthweight has doubled to about 15 pounds. By age 1 year, the infant’s birthweight has tripled to approximately 22 pounds. By the end of its second year, the average child weighs four times its birthweight. By age 1 year, the average baby stands 30 inches tall. By the end of the second year, the average child is 3 feet tall.

Four Principles of Growth: The CEPHALOCAUDAL PRINCIPLE states that growth follows a pattern that begins with the head and upper body parts and then proceeds to the rest of the body. The PROXIMODISTAL PRINCIPLE states that development proceeds from the center of the body outward. The PRINCIPLE OF HIERARCHICAL INTEGRATION states that simple skills typically develop separately and independently but are later integrated into more complex skills. The PRINCIPLE OF INDEPENDENCE OF SYSTEMS suggests that different body systems grow at different rates.

The nervous system comprises the brain and the nerves that extend throughout the body. Infants are born with between 100 and 200 billion NEURONS, the nerve cells of the nervous system. Neurons are the basic cells of the nervous system. Dendrites are clusters of fibers at one end of the neuron that receive messages from other cells. An axon is at the other end of the neuron and it carries the message destined for other neurons. Neurons communicate with other neurons by means of chemicals called neurotransmitters that travel across the small gaps between neurons, known as SYNAPSES.

As the infant's experience in the world increases, neurons that do not become interconnected become unnecessary and die off, a process called SYNAPTIC PRUNING. Neurons become coated with MYELIN, a fatty substance that helps insulate neurons and speeds transmission of nerve impulses. The brain triples its weight in the first 2 years of life; the infant’s brain is ¾ its adult size by age 2. As they grow, neurons become arranged by function. Some move into the CEREBRAL CORTEX, the upper layer of the brain. Others move to subcortical levels, which regulate fundamental activities such as breathing and heart rate and are below the cerebral cortex. Although the brain is protected by the skull, it is highly sensitive to some forms of injury. Shaken baby syndrome can lead the brain to rotate within the skull causing blood vessels to tear and destroying the intricate connections between neurons.

PLASTICITY is the degree to which a developing structure (i.e., the brain) or behavior is susceptible to experience and is relatively great for the brain). The brain’s plasticity is greatest during the first several years of life. Researchers discovered that SENSITIVE PERIODS, a specific but limited time span, usually early in an organism's life, during which the organism is particularly susceptible to environmental influences relating to some particular facet of development.

Behavior becomes integrated through the development of various body RHYTHMS, which are repetitive, cyclical patterns of behavior. An infant's STATE is the degree of awareness it displays to both internal and external stimulation.

The major state occupying the infant is sleep. On average, newborns sleep 16-17 hours daily, ranging from 10 to 20 hours a day. Sleep stages are fitful and "out of sync" during early infancy. By the end of the first year most infants are sleeping through the night for a total of about 15 hours. Infants have a cycle of sleep similar to but different than REM — RAPID EYE MOVEMENT, the period of sleep found in adults and children and associated with dreaming. Brain waves are different than the dreaming sleep of adults. This active REM-like sleep takes up half an infant’s sleep at first. Researchers think the function of REM sleep in infants is to provide a means for the brain to stimulate itself, a process called auto stimulation. Cultural practices affect the sleep patterns of infants.

SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS) is a disorder in which seemingly healthy infants die in their sleep. It affects 1 in 1,000 infants in the U.S. annually. No cause has been found. It is the leading cause of death in children under 1 year old. Since “back-to-sleep” was recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics, there has been a significant decrease in the number of SIDS deaths.

Motor Development

Basic REFLEXES, unlearned, organized, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli, represent behavior that has survival value for the infant. Swimming reflex and Eye blink reflex. Some reflexes stay throughout life; others disappear over time. There appears to be cultural variations in the way reflexes are displayed. Moro reflex and startle reflex

Gross Motor Skills: By 6 months infants can move by themselves. Crawling appears between 8 and 10 months. Infants can walk holding on to furniture by 9 months and most can walk alone by 1 year. Most can sit unsupported by 6 months. Fine Motor Skills: By 3 months infants can coordinate movements of limbs. Infants can grasp an object by 11 months. By age 2, infants can drink from a cup without spilling. Motor skill development follows a sequential pattern in which simple skills are combined with more sophisticated ones.

Developmental NORMS are the average performance of a large sample of individuals of a certain age and mask substantial individual differences. The BRAZELTON NEONATAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT SCALE (NBAS) is a measure used to determine infants' neurological and behavioral responses to their environment. Supplements the Apgar which includes 27 categories of responses, interactions with others, motor behavior, physiological control, and response to stress. Norms should be based on large, heterogeneous samples. The time at which specific motor skills appear is in part determined by cultural factors. There are certain genetic constraints on how early a skill can emerge.

The time at which specific motor skills appear is in part determined by cultural factors. Activities that are intrinsic to a culture are more apt to be purposely taught to infants in that culture, leading to their earlier emergence. However, there are certain genetically determined constraints on how early a skill can emerge.

Without proper nutrition, infants cannot reach their physical potential and also may suffer cognitive and social consequences. Malnutrition is the condition of having an improper amount and balance of nutrients, producing several results. Slower growth, susceptibility to disease, and lower IQ scores. Risks are greater in underdeveloped countries and in areas with high poverty rates. Malnutrition can cause marasmus, a disease characterized by the cessation of growth in infants. Older children are susceptible to kwashiorkor, a disease in which a child's stomach, limbs, and face swell with water. In some cases, NONORGANIC FAILURE TO THRIVE is a disorder in which infants stop growing due to a lack of stimulation and attention as the result of inadequate parenting.

Infant OBESITY is defined as weight greater than 20 % above the average for a given height. Research, although inconclusive, suggests an excess of fat cells (which remain in the body throughout life) early on may predispose an individual to be overweight as an adult. There appears to be no correlation between obesity, defined as weight greater than 20 % above the average for a given height, and later weight at age 16.

For the first 12 months of life there is no better food for an infant than breast milk. All essential nutrients, natural immunity to childhood diseases, more easily digested, it is sterile, warm, and convenient for mother to dispense. Some evidence it may enhance cognitive growth. Breastfeeding is not a cure-all for infant nutrition and health, however. Most babies can begin to eat solid foods at about 4 to 6 months. Foods are introduced gradually. Weaning is the cessation of breastfeeding, occurs on average in the U.S. at 3 to 4 months. Experts recommend infants be breastfed for the first 12 months of life.

Development of the Senses

The processes that underlie infants’ understanding of the world around them, are sensation and perception. SENSATION is the stimulation of the sense organs. PERCEPTION is the sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli involving the sense organs and brain.

Newborn infants cannot see beyond 20 feet. By 6 months, the average infant's vision is 20/20. Gibson and Walk’s "visual cliff" experiments showed that most infants between 6 and 14 months would not crawl over the apparent cliff. This depth perception develops by 6 months of age. Infants prefer to look at patterns and complex stimuli. Infants prefer to look at faces. The ability to hear begins prenatally. Infants are more sensitive than adults to high and low frequencies but not to the middle ranges. Sound localization permits infants to discern direction from which a sound is emanating. This skill is poorer in infants than adults because of infants' smaller heads. It reaches adult level at 1 year. Infants react to unpleasant tastes and smells from birth. Newborns can detect their mother's smell, but only when breastfed. Infants have an innate sweet tooth. Infants are born with the capacity to feel pain. There seems to be a developmental progression in reactions to pain. Research with rats suggests that exposure to pain in infancy may lead to permanent rewiring of the nervous system that results in greater sensitivity to pain during adulthood. Touch is one of the most highly developed sensory systems in a newborn. The rooting reflex is strong. Infants gain information about the world through touch.

Eventually infants use the MULTIMODAL APPROACH TO PERCEPTION in which information collected by various individual sensory systems is integrated and coordinated. Infants’ growth is aided by AFFORDANCES, the action possibilities that a given situation provides.

Parents should ensure that their infants’ receive sufficient physical and sensory stimulation. Here are ways to accomplish the goal. Carry a baby in different positions. Let infants explore their environment. Engage in “rough and tumble” play. Let babies touch their food and even play with it. Provide toys that stimulate the senses.

Piaget's Approach to Cognitive Development

Piaget suggested that knowledge is the product of direct motor behavior in infants. Key Elements of Piaget’s Theory: All children pass through a series of universal stages in a fixed order. Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations. Both content and quality of knowledge increase. Focus is on change in understanding that occurs as a child moves through stages. Movement through stages occurs with physical maturation and experience with environment.

Piaget believed that infants have mental structures called SCHEMES, organized patterns of sensorimotor functioning. Two principles underlie the growth in children's schemes: ASSIMILATION is when people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. ACCOMMODATION is change in existing ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli or events.

The SENSORIMOTOR STAGE of cognitive development (birth until age 2) is Piaget’s initial major stage of cognitive development, can be broken down into six substages. Substage 1: Simple Reflexes and first month after birth. Various reflexes determine the infant's interaction with world. Substage 2: First Habits and Primary Circular Reactions. One to 4 months of age. A circular reaction is an activity that permits the construction of cognitive schemes through repetition of a chance motor event. Coordination of actions. Primary circular reactions are the infant’s repeating of interesting or enjoyable actions on his or her own body. Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions. Four to 8 months of age and begins to act on world (e.g., rattles rattle). Secondary circular reactions are repeated actions meant to bring about a desirable consequence on the outside world. Vocalization increases and imitation begins. Substage 4: Coordination of secondary circular reactions. Eight to 12 months of age. Employ goal-directed behavior, where several schemes are combined and coordinated to generate a single act to solve a problem. Development of OBJECT PERMANENCE, the realization that people and objects exist even when they cannot be seen. Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions. Twelve to 18 months of age. Tertiary circular reactions are the deliberate variation of actions to bring desirable consequences. Substage 6: Beginning of Thought. Eighteen to 24 months of age. Capacity for mental representation, an internal image of a past event or object.

Most developmentalists agree that Piaget's descriptions of how cognitive development proceeds during infancy are accurate. Piaget was a master observer. Studies show that children do learn about the world by acting on objects in their environment. Specific aspects of Piaget's theory have been criticized. Some developmentalists question the stage concept, thinking development is more continuous. Piaget's notion that development is grounded in motor activity ignores the importance of infant's sensory and perceptual abilities. Recent work shows object permanence may occur as early as 3 1/2 months of age. Imitation may occur earlier than Piaget suggested. Some development is universal, and some appears to be subject to cultural variations.

Information Processing Approaches to Cognitive Development

INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACHES to Cognitive Development seek to identify the way that individuals take in, use, and store information. Information processing has three basic aspects. Encoding is the process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable to memory. Storage refers to the maintenance of material saved in memory. Retrieval is the process by which material in memory storage is located, brought into awareness, and used.

Automatization is the degree to which an activity requires attention. Processes that require little attention are automatic. Processes that require large amounts of attention are controlled. Automatization processes help children in their initial encounters with the world by “automatically” priming them to process information in particular ways. Children learn how different stimuli are found together simultaneously. Permits the development of concepts, categorizations of objects, events, or people that share common properties.

MEMORY is the process by which information is initially recorded, stored, and retrieved. The ability to habituate implies some memory. Infant's memories improve with age. Research supports the notion of INFANTILE AMNESIA, the lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to 3 years of age. Although memories are stored from early infancy, they cannot be easily retrieved. Early memories are susceptible to interference from later events. Memories are sensitive to environmental context. Advances in brain scan technology suggest there are two separate systems involved in long-term memory. These two systems are explicit and implicit memory. Implicit memory, not consciously aware memories such as motor skills, is the forerunner of explicit memory and explicit memory, conscious and recalled intentionally, such as recalling a name, evolves later than implicit memory.

Infant intelligence, like adult intelligence, is difficult to define. What is Infant Intelligence? Three Approaches: Developmental quotient, Bayley Scales of Infant Development, and Visual-recognition memory measurement. Arnold Gesell formulated the DEVELOPMENTAL QUOTIENT, an overall developmental score that relates to performance in four domains: motor skills, language use, adaptive behavior, and personal-social. He compared babies’ performance at different ages to learn what behaviors were most common at a particular age. The BAYLEY SCALES OF INFANT DEVELOPMENT are a measure that evaluates an infant's development from 2 to 30 months of age. Mental Scale: Senses, perception, memory, learning, problem solving, and language. Motor Scale: Gross motor skills and fine motor skills. These normative scales are useful in identifying infants who are significantly behind their peers but are not good at predicting future behavior. Contemporary approaches to infant intelligence measure how quickly infants process information. Visual-recognition memory is a measure of memory and recognition of a stimulus that has been previously seen. These measures correlate moderately well with later measures of intelligence. Rather than focusing on broad explanations of the qualitative changes that occur, as Piaget’s does, information processing looks at quantitative change. Information processing approaches see cognitive growth as more gradual, step by step. Information-processing approaches are often able to use precise measures of cognitive ability.

Kaiser Family Foundation reveals marketing of educational media for infants outpaces the research on its effectiveness. Patricia Kuhl’s research seems to indicate that overreliance on educational media may be harmful or limit an infant’s cognitive growth; for example, Kuhl found social interaction appears to be a more critical part of language acquisition than, say, language-learning tapes. Developmentalists agree that educational materials are no replacement for learning that comes from social interaction and free play.

The Roots of Language

LANGUAGE is the systematic, meaningful arrangement of symbols, and provides the basis for communication. Language has several formal characteristics that must be mastered as linguistic competence is developed. Phonology refers to the basic sounds of language, called phonemes that can be combined to produce words and sentences. Morphemes are the smallest language unit that has meaning. Semantics are the rules that govern the meaning of words and sentences. Language is closely tied to the way infants think and how they understand the world. Linguistic comprehension is the understanding of speech. Linguistic production is the use of language to communicate. Comprehension precedes production. Infants show prelinguistic communication through sounds, facial expressions, gestures, imitations, and other nonlinguistic means. BABBLING is when infants make speech like but meaningless sounds at about 2 to 3 months of age continuing to about 1 year. Babbling is a universal phenomenon. Babbling begins with easy sounds (b - p) and proceeds to more complex sounds (d - t). By the age 6 months, babbling differs according to the language to which the infant is exposed. Infants who cannot hear, and who are exposed to sign language, babble with their hands instead of their voices.

First words are generally spoken between 10 and 14 months of age. First words are typically HOLOPHRASES, one-word utterances that depend on the particular context in which they are used to determine meaning. By 15 months the average child has a vocabulary of 15 words. Between the ages of 16 and 24 months a child's vocabulary increases to 100 words. By age 18 months, infants are linking words in sentences using TELEGRAPHIC SPEECH, where words not critical to the message are left out. UNDEREXTENSION, using words too restrictively, is common. OVEREXTENSION, using words too broadly, is also common. Infants show individual differences in the style of language they use. Some infants use a REFERENTIAL STYLE of language use in which language is used primarily to label objects. Others use an EXPRESSIVE STYLE of language use in which language is used primarily to express feelings and needs about oneself and others.

LEARNING THEORY APPROACH posits that language acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement and conditioning. Through the process of shaping, language becomes more and more similar to adult speech. This theory does not explain how children learn grammar. It does not explain how children produce novel phrases, sentences, and constructions, such as nonsense words, using correct grammar.

An alternative theory is the NATIVIST APPROACH proposed by Noam Chomsky that a genetically determined, innate mechanism directs language development. All the world’s languages share a similar underlying structure called UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. The brain is wired with a LANGUAGE-ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD), a neural system of the brain hypothesized to permit the understanding of language. Critics argue that since primates can be taught to talk, the uniqueness of human linguistic capacity is called into question. Support for Chomsky’s approach comes from recent findings identifying a specific gene related to speech production. Also, recent research shows that infant and adult speech processing are similar, suggesting an evolutionary basis for language. Critics suggest that we must identify mechanisms other than the LAD or learning theory principles to fully understand language development. An alternative approach combines both schools of thought; the interactionist perspective suggests that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental events.

INFANT-DIRECTED SPEECH is a type of speech directed towards infants, characterized by short, simple sentences. This type was previously called motherese. Pitch of voice becomes higher. Intonation may be singsong. Typically only used during first year. Infants seem more receptive to this type of speech. Use of this type of speech is related to the early appearance of words.

Cross-cultural similarities in infant-directed speech are so great, in fact, that they appear in some facets of language specific to particular types of interactions, for example, a mother’s pitch rises to get an infant’s attention among various spoken languages

Even if they don’t understand the meaning of words, infants still benefit from being read to, through intimacy and tone of voice. Reading together is also associated with later reading skills and may create a lifelong reading habit.

Developing the Roots of Sociability

Across every culture, infants show similar facial expressions relating to basic emotions. Nonverbal encoding, the nonverbal expression of emotions, is consistent across the lifespan. Darwin argued that humans and primates have an inborn, universal set of emotional expressions, a view consistent with today’s evolutionary approach to development

STRANGER ANXIETY is the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person. Appears in the second half of the first year. The same cognitive advances that allow infants to respond so positively to those with whom they are familiar also mean they are able to recognize people who are unfamiliar. SEPARATION ANXIETY is the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs. Usually begins about seven or eight months and peaks at 14 months. Largely attributable to the same cognitive skills as stranger anxiety. By 6 to 9 weeks babies exhibit the social smile, smiling in reference to other individuals. Infants are able to discriminate facial and vocal expressions of emotion early in infancy via nonverbal decoding abilities.

SOCIAL REFERENCING is the intentional search for information to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events. First occurs in infants at about 8 to 9 months. Infants make particular use of facial expressions in their social referencing. The roots of SELF-AWARENESS, knowledge of self, begin to grow around 12 months. Self-awareness is assessed by the mirror-and-rouge task. Most infants touch their nose to attempt to wipe off the rouge at 17-24 months. Infants have a THEORY OF MIND, knowledge and beliefs about the mental world, at a fairly early age. Infants see others as compliant agents, beings similar to themselves who behave under their own power and respond to the infant's requests. Children's capacity to understand intentionality and causality grow during infancy. By age 2, infants demonstrate EMPATHY, an emotional response that corresponds to the feelings of another person.

Forming Relationships

The most important form of social development that occurs during infancy is ATTACHMENT, the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual. Lorenz studied imprinting in animals, the rapid, innate learning that takes place during a critical period and involves attachment to the first moving object observed. Freud suggested that attachment grew out of a mother's ability to satisfy a child's oral needs. John Bowlby suggested that attachment had a biological basis based on infant's needs for safety and security. Since the mother provides safety and security, this attachment is different from others. Having a strong, firm attachment provides a home base from which the child can gain independence.

Based on Bowlby's work, Mary Ainsworth developed the AINSWORTH STRANGE SITUATION, a sequence of eight staged episodes that illustrate the strength of attachment between a child and (typically) his or her mother. Two-thirds of 1-year-olds have the SECURE ATTACHMENT PATTERN, a style of attachment in which children use mother as a home base and are at ease as long as she is present; when she leaves, they become upset and go to her as soon as she returns. Twenty percent have the AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT PATTERN, a style of attachment in which children do not seek proximity to the mother; after the mother has left, they seem to avoid her when she returns as if they are angered by her behavior. About 10 to 15 % have the AMBIVALENT ATTACHMENT PATTERN, a style of attachment in which children display a combination of positive and negative reactions to their mothers; they show great distress when the mother leaves, but upon her return they may simultaneously seek close contact but also hit and kick her. A more recent expansion of Ainsworth’s work suggests a fourth category: DISORGANIZED-DISORIENTED ATTACHMENT PATTERN, a style of attachment in which children show inconsistent, often contradictory behavior, such as approaching the mother when she returns but not looking at her; they may be the least securely attached children of all. Infant attachment may have significant consequences for relationships at later stages in life. In cases in which the development of attachment has been severely disrupted, children may suffer from reactive attachment disorder, a psychological problem characterized by extreme problems in forming relationships to others. In young children, it results in the following problems: Feeding difficulties. Unresponsiveness to social overtures from others, and a general failure to thrive. Reactive attachment disorder is rare and typically the result of abuse of neglect.

The Harlow’s’ Baby Monkeys: Harlow raised orphaned baby rhesus monkeys and studied their behavior. In place of its real mother, each baby monkey had two substitute or surrogate mothers. One “mother’ had the same construction except that foam rubber and terry cloth covered its wire frame. Harlow found that although both mothers provided milk and warmth, the baby monkeys greatly preferred the cloth mother. They clung to the cloth mother even between feedings and went to it for comfort when they felt afraid.

Mothers and Attachment: Sensitivity to their infants’ needs and desires is the hallmark of mothers of securely attached infants. They are sensitive to their infant's needs. They are aware of the infant's moods. They provide appropriate responses. Mothers whose communication involves interactional synchrony, in which caregivers respond to infants appropriately and both caregiver and child match emotional states, are more likely to produce secure attachment.

Fathers and Attachment: Changing societal norms and current research show that some infants form strong initial attachment to their fathers. Paternal involvement may reduce certain disorders such as depression and substance abuse. Children’s emotional well-being is enhanced by fathers’ expressions of nurturance, warmth, affection, support, and concern.

Cross-cultural studies confirm that there are differences in the proportions of infants who fall into the various attachment categories. Recent approaches view attachment as not entirely biologically determined, but susceptible to cultural norms and expectations. Secure attachment may be seen earlier in cultures that promote independence, and may be delayed in societies in which independence is less important.

Infants react positively to the presence of other infants. They laugh, smile, and vocalize. They show more interest in infants than inanimate objects. By 1 year they show stronger preferences for familiar peers than for strangers. Fourteen-month-olds imitate each other. Infants can learn new behaviors, skills, and abilities from exposure to other children. Mirror neurons are neurons that fire not only when an individual enacts a particular behavior, but also when the individual simply observes another organism carrying out the same behavior. Dysfunction of mirror neurons may be related to the development of disorders such as autism.

Differences among Infants

The origins of PERSONALITY, the sum total of the enduring characteristics that differentiate one individual from another, begin in infancy. ERIKSON’STHEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT considers how individuals come to understand themselves and the meaning of others’—and their own—behavior. Infancy marks the time of the TRUST-VERSUS-MISTRUST STAGE (birth to 18 months) during which infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust, largely depending on how well their needs are met by their caretakers. From around 18 months to 3 years, infants enter the AUTONOMY-VERSUS-SHAME-AND-DOUBT STAGE during which, according to Erikson, toddlers develop either independence or autonomy if they are allowed the freedom to explore, or shame and doubt if they are restricted and overprotected. Erikson argues that personality is largely shaped by infant's experiences.

In the 1970s, Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess, two researchers who study temperament, described three basic types of temperament. TEMPERAMENT is the pattern of arousal and emotionality that are consistent and enduring characteristics of an individual. Temperament refers to how children behave. Temperamental differences among infants appear from the time of birth. Temperament shows stability from infancy through adolescence. There are several dimensions to temperament. Activity level is the degree of overall movement. Irritability reflects the fact that some infants are easygoing while others are easily disturbed. Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess carried out a large-scale study known as the New York Longitudinal Study (1984) where they describe three profiles of temperament. Forty percent of the infants were EASY BABIES and tend to be happy and adapt easily to change. They have regular sleeping and eating patterns and don’t upset easily. Ten percent of infants DIFFICULT BABIES tend to be glum and irritable, and they dislike change. Their eating and sleeping patterns are irregular. Fifteen percent of infants. SLOW-TO-WARM-UP BABIES tend to be less cheerful and less adaptable than easy children. They are cautious about new experiences. Their sleeping and eating patterns are less regular than those of easy children. Fifteen percent of infants. The remaining 35 % cannot be consistently categorized. No temperament is inherently good or bad. Long-term adjustment depends on the GOODNESS-OF-FIT, the notions that development is dependent on the degree of match between children’s temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised. A key determinant is the way parents react to the infant's behavior.

An infant's GENDER, the sense of being male or female, has effects throughout life. Fathers interact more with sons than daughters; mothers more with daughters. Infants wear different clothes and are given different toys based on gender. Infants' behavior is interpreted differently depending on gender. Male infants are more active and fussier than females. By age 1, infants are able to distinguish between males and females. Differences within gender are greater than those between genders. Gender differences become increasingly influenced by gender roles in society. In addition to societal encouragement and reinforcement, differences in behavior may also result from prenatal exposure to abnormal levels of male or female hormones.

Just under one-third of all families with children are headed by a single parent. Sixty-five percent of African American children and 33 % of Hispanic children live in single-parent homes. The average size of families is shrinking from 2.8 to 2.6 persons per household. The number of adolescents giving birth has declined over the last 5 years; there are still half a million births to teenage women, the majority of whom are unmarried. Close to 50 % of children under the age of 3 are cared for by other adults while their parents work, and more than half of mothers with infants work outside the home. One in three children live in low-income households in the United States.

More than 80% of infants are cared for by people other than their mothers at some point during their first year of life. Majority of these infants begin child care outside the home before the age of 4 months and are enrolled for almost 30 hours per week. Although research suggests some benefits to this trend, some of the findings are less positive; for example, infants may be less secure, have less effective time management skills, and have a lower ability to work independently. The newest research (Belsky et al., 2007) on preschoolers found that children who spend 10 or more hours in group child care for a year or more have an increased probability of being disruptive in class.

The benefits of child care—peer learning, greater social skills, greater independence—occur only when child care is of high quality. Consider the following questions when choosing a child care program. Are there enough providers? Are group sizes manageable? Has the center complied with all government regulation, and is it licensed? Do the people providing the care seem to like what they do? What do the caregivers do during the day? Are the children safe and clean? What training do the providers have in caring for children? Is the environment happy and cheerful?

Preschool Years

The Growing Body

Children grow steadily during the preschool period. The average 6-year-old child weighs 46 pounds and is 46 inches tall. There are significant individual differences in height and weight. Ten percent of 6-year-olds weigh 55 pounds or more, 10 % weigh 36 pounds or less. By the age of 6, boys are taller and heavier, on average, than girls. There are profound differences in height and weight between children in economically developed countries and those in developing countries. Differences in height and weight also reflect economic factors within the U.S.

The bodies of preschool children change shape during the preschool years. Boys and girls become less chubby and roundish and more slender. Arms and legs lengthen. Body proportions are more similar to those of adults. Children grow stronger as muscle size increases and bones become sturdier. The sense organs continue to develop.

Nutritional needs change during the preschool years. The growth rate slows during this age, thus preschoolers need less food to maintain their growth. Encouraging children to eat more than they want to may lead to increased food intake. This may lead to OBESITY, defined as a body weight more than 20% higher than the average weight for a person of a given age and height. Obesity among older preschoolers has increased significantly over the last 20 years. Obesity is brought about by both biological (genetics, responsiveness to sweets) and social factors (parental encouragement). Children tend to be quite adept at maintaining an appropriate intake of food. The best strategy is to ensure that a variety of foods low in fat and high in nutritional content are available. Children should be given the opportunity to develop their own natural preferences for foods.

The majority of children in the United States are reasonably healthy. For the average American child, the common cold is the most frequent and most severe illness. The danger of injuries during the preschool years is in part a result of children’s high levels of physical activity. Some children are more apt to take risks than others. Economic and ethnic differences exist in injury rates. Some 14 million children are at risk for lead poisoning. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has called lead poisoning the most hazardous health risk to children under the age of 6. Even tiny amounts of lead can permanently harm children. Lower intelligence. Problems in verbal and auditory processing. Hyperactivity and distractibility. Higher levels of antisocial behavior, including aggression and delinquency. Illness and death

The Growing Brain

The brain grows at a faster rate than any other part of the body. By age 5, children’s brains weigh 90 % of the average adult brain weight. Brain growth is so rapid because of the increase in the number of interconnections among cells, and the increase in MYELIN, the protective insulation that surrounds parts of neurons. LATERALIZATION, the process where certain functions are located more in one hemisphere of the brain than the other, becomes more pronounced in early childhood. The left hemisphere focuses on verbal competence (speaking, reading, thinking, reasoning), and processes information more sequentially. The right hemisphere concentrates on nonverbal areas (spatial relations, recognition of patterns and drawings, music, emotional expression) and processes information more globally. The two hemispheres of the brain act in tandem. Individual differences exist in lateralization – 10 percent of left-handed and ambidextrous people have language centered in the right hemisphere, with no specific language center. There are many individual differences in the nature of lateralization, and in relation to gender and culture. Males show greater lateralization of language in the left hemisphere, whereas for females, language is more evenly divided between the two hemispheres. (This may account for why females’ language development proceeds at a more rapid rate during early childhood.) The differences in lateralization between males and females may be attributed to both genetic (corpus callosum differences) and environmental factors (girls typically receive greater verbal encouragement). The corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibers that connect the two hemispheres of the brain, become considerably thicker, develops as many as 800 million individual fibers that help coordinate brain functioning between the two hemispheres. There are periods during childhood when the brain shows unusual growth spurts, and these are linked to cognitive abilities. Other research suggests that increased myelination may be related to preschoolers’ growing cognitive abilities, for example, increased attention spans and memory (hippocampus).

Motor Development

Both gross and fine motor skills become increasingly fine-tuned during this age. These skills may be related to increased myelination. Also, children spend a lot of time developing them – preschoolers’ level of activity is extraordinarily high. Girls and boys differ in certain aspects of motor development. Boys, because of increased muscle strength, tend to be somewhat stronger and have an overall greater activity level than girls. Girls tend to surpass boys in tasks of dexterity or those involving the coordination of limbs. The Potty Questions: When—and How—Should Children Be Toilet Trained? Another aspect of muscular skills is bowel and bladder control. There is disagreement among professionals as to the correct approach to take to toilet training. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends beginning when signs of readiness occur, such as staying dry for at least two hours during the day or being dry following a nap. These are indications from the child that they are aware when urination or a bowel movement is about to occur and that they have the ability to follow simple directions.

Fine motor skills (cutting with scissors, tying one’s shoes, playing the piano, and printing) are progressively developing as well. Most preschool children show a clear preference for the use of one hand over another — the development of HANDEDNESS. Ninety percent are right-handed, and more boys than girls are left-handed.

The following precautions should be taken to help prevent diseases in preschoolers: Eat a well-balanced diet, encourage exercise, get as much sleep as they wish, avoid contact with others who are ill, and follow an appropriate schedule of immunizations.

Piaget saw the preschool years as a time of both stability and great change. Preschoolers are in the PREOPERATIONAL STAGE, from age 2 to 7, characterized by symbolic thinking. a) Mental reasoning and the use of concepts increases, but children are not capable of OPERATIONS, organized, formal, logical mental processes. b) A key aspect of preoperational thought is symbolic function, the ability to use symbols, words, or an object to represent something that is not physically present. Symbolic function is directly related to language acquisition. Language allows preschoolers to represent actions symbolically. Language allows children to think beyond the present to the future. Language can be used to consider several possibilities at the same time. Addressing the question if thought determines language or if language determines thought, Piaget argued that language grows out of cognitive advances.

What You See is What You Think! CENTRATION is the process of concentrating on one limited aspect of a stimulus and ignoring other aspects. It is a major characteristic of preoperational thought, and the major limitation of this period because it leads to inaccuracy of thought. CONSERVATION is the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects. Preschool children do not yet understand this principle. They cannot focus on the relevant features of a situation or follow the sequence of transformations that accompanies the change in appearance of a situation. Children in the preoperational period are unable to understand the notion of TRANSFORMATION, the process in which one state is changed into another. EGOCENTRIC THOUGHT, thinking that does not take into account the viewpoint of others, takes two forms. Lack of awareness that others see things from different physical perspectives. Failure to realize that others may hold thoughts, feelings, and points-of-view different from one’s own. Egocentrism is at the root of many preschool behaviors, for example, talking to oneself and hiding games.

A number of advances in thought occur in the preoperational stage. INTUITIVE THOUGHT is the use of primitive reasoning and avid acquisition of knowledge about the world. Children begin to understand functionality, the concept that actions, events and outcomes are related to one another in fixed patterns. They begin to understand the concept of identity, that certain things stay the same regardless of changes in shape, size, and appearance.

Evaluating Piaget’s Approach to Cognitive Development. Critics of Piaget’s theory argue that he seriously underestimated children’s capabilities. They argue that cognition develops in a continuous manner, not in stages. They believe that training can improve performance in conservation tasks. They also argue that Piaget focused too much on the deficiencies of young children’s thought.

Information Processing and Vygotsky’s Approach to Cognitive Development

Information processing theorists focus on two domains: the understanding of numbers and memory development. The average preschooler is able not only to count, but to do so in a fairly systematic, consistent manner. By age 4, most can do simple addition and subtraction and compare quantities.

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY, memory of particular events from ones’ own life, is not very accurate until after age 3. Preschooler’s autobiographical memories fade, they may not be accurate (depending when they are assessed), and they are susceptible to suggestions. Preschooler’s memories of familiar events are often organized in terms of SCRIPTS, broad representations in memory of events and the order in which they occur. With age, scripts become more elaborate. Children’s Eyewitness Testimony: Memory on Trial. Preschoolers have difficulty describing certain information and oversimplify recollections that may have implications for eyewitness testimony. Young children are susceptible to suggestions from adults. Forensic developmental psychology focuses on the reliability of children’s autobiographical memories, whether as victims or witnesses, in context of the legal system.

Information Processing in Perspective. According to information processing approaches, cognitive development consists of gradual improvements in the ways people perceive, understand, and remember. Preschoolers begin to process information with greater sophistication. They have longer attention spans, attend to more than one dimension of an object, and can better monitor what they are attending to. Information processing provides a clear, logical, and full account of cognitive development. Reliance on well-defined processes that can be tested is one of this perspective’s most important features. Information processing theorists pay little attention to social and cultural factors. Information processing theorists pay too much attention to the detailed, individual sequence of processes that they never paint a whole, comprehensive picture of cognitive development.

Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development. Culture and societies influence cognitive development. Cognition proceeds because of social interactions where partners jointly work to solve problems. This partnership is determined by cultural and societal factors. According to Vygotsky, children’s cognitive abilities increase when information is provided within their ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD), the level at which a child can almost, but not fully, perform a task independently, but can do so with the assistance of someone more competent. The assistance provided by others is called SCAFFOLDING, the support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth. The aid that more accomplished individuals provide to learners comes in the form of cultural tools, the actual physical items such as pencils, paper, calculators, and computers. Vygotsky’s view has become increasingly influential in the last decade. It helps explain a growing body of research attesting to the importance of social interaction in promoting cognitive development. The zone of proximal development is not precise and not easily testable. His theory is silent on how basic cognitive functions such as attention and memory develop.

The Growth of Language and Learning

There are enormous leaps in the number of words children use. Between late 2s and mid-3s, sentence length increases. SYNTAX, the ways words and phrases are combined to make sentences, doubles each month. By 6, the average child has a vocabulary of 14,000 words. They manage this feat through a process known as FAST MAPPING, instances in which new words are associated with their meaning after only a brief encounter. By age 3, children use plurals and possessive forms of nouns (boys/boy’s), employ the past tense (adding -ed), use articles (the/a), and can ask and answer complex questions (“Where did you say my book is?”). Preschoolers begin to acquire the principles of GRAMMAR, the system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed. Preschoolers engage mostly in PRIVATE SPEECH, speech by children that is spoken and directed to themselves. Use of private speech allows children to practice the practical skills required in conversation, known as PRAGMATICS. Pragmatics is the aspect of language relating to communicating effectively and appropriately with others. Vygotsky argues that private speech facilitates children’s thinking, helps them control their behavior, solve problems, and reflect. Twenty to 60 percent of what children say is private speech. SOCIAL SPEECH, speech directed toward another person and meant to be understood by that person, increases.

Learning from the media such as television and the Internet. The average preschooler watches more than 21 hours of TV a week. Computers are quite influential in the lives of preschoolers. Almost 70 % of children ages 4 and 6 have used a computer. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends no television for children under the age of 2. Children exposed to advertising on television are not able to critically understand or evaluate the messages to which they are exposed. Children do not fully understand plot. Children may have difficulty separating fantasy from reality. Television may be harnessed to facilitate cognitive growth. This is what the producers of Sesame Street set out to do.

Three-quarters of children in the U.S. are enrolled in some kind of care outside the home. Major factor is working parents. Evidence suggests that children can benefit from early educational activities. Child-care centers are places that typically provide care for children all day, while their parents work. Family child care centers are in private homes. Preschools provide care for several hours a day, and are designed primarily to enrich the child’s development. They vary enormously in the activities they provide. Montessori preschools create an environment that fosters sensory, motor, and language development. The Reggio Emilia preschool approach is a “negotiated curriculum” that promotes cognitive development through the integration of the arts and participation in week long projects. School child care is a child-care facility provided by some local school systems in the United States. There are pros and cons of attending early education programs. Advantages might include increases in verbal fluency, memory and comprehension tasks, self-confidence, independence, and knowledge about the social world. Disadvantages found included children being less polite, less compliant, less respectful of adults and sometimes more competitive and aggressive. The key factor in determining the effects of early education programs is quality. Well-trained care providers, overall size of the group and the child-care provider ratio and curriculum.

Why does the United States lag behind in education? Unlike other countries such as France, Belgium, Sweden, Russia, and Finland, the U.S. has no coordinated national policy on preschool education – nor on the care of children in general. These decisions have traditionally been left to the states or local school boards. The U.S. has no tradition of teaching preschoolers. Japanese parents view preschools as a way of giving children the opportunity to become members of a group. Chinese parents see preschools primarily as a way of giving children a good start academically. U.S. parents regard preschools as making children more independent and self-reliant, although getting a good academic start and having group experiences are important too.

Forming a Sense of Self

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT encompasses changes in the understanding individuals have of themselves as members of society, and in their comprehension of the meaning of others’ behavior. Erikson proposed an eight-stage theory of psychosocial development, from infancy to old age. From age 3 to 6, children experience the INITIATIVE-VERSUS-GUILT STAGE, the period during which children experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action. Preschoolers begin to form their SELF-CONCEPT, their identity, or their set of beliefs about what one is like as an individual. Youngsters typically overestimate their skills and knowledge. They also begin to develop a view of self that reflects the way their particular culture considers the self. Asian societies tend to have a COLLECTIVISTIC ORIENTATION, promoting the notion of interdependence, blending in, and being interconnected. Western cultures tend to embrace an INDIVIDUALISTIC ORIENTATION that emphasizes personal identity, uniqueness, and competition.

Developing racial and ethnic awareness should be during the preschoolers. By the time they are 3 or 4 years of age, preschoolers distinguish between members of different races and begin to understand the significance of race in society. Some youngsters begin to show preferential feelings for members of their own race. Many minority children experience ambivalence over the meaning of their racial identity. Some may experience RACE DISSONANCE, the phenomenon in which minority youngsters indicate preference for white values or people. Ethnic identity emerges somewhat later than racial identity, because it is usually less conspicuous than race.

Gender, the sense of being male or female, is well established in young children. (Sex typically refers to sexual anatomy.) One way gender is manifested is in play. During the preschool years boys increasingly play with boys. Girls tend to play with girls. Gender outweighs ethnic variables when it comes to play. Preschoolers also begin to develop expectations about appropriate behaviors for girls and boys. Like adults, preschoolers expect males to be more independent, forceful, and competitive, and expect females to be warm, nurturing, expressive, and submissive. However, young children typically hold stronger gender-stereotypes than adults do.

The Biological perspectives argue that physical characteristics associated with the different sexes, hormone differences, and differences in the structure of female and male brains might lead to gender differences. Social-learning approaches argue that children learn gender-related behavior and expectations from direct training and from their observation of others, including the media. Cognitive approaches argue that individuals develop a GENDER IDENTITY, the perception of oneself as male or female. To do this they develop a GENDER SCHEMA or a cognitive framework that organizes information relevant to gender. Preschoolers begin developing rules about what is right and what is inappropriate for males and females. By the time they are 4 or 5 years of age, children develop an understanding of GENDER CONSTANCY, the belief that people are permanently males or females, depending on fixed, unchangeable biological factors. Sandra Bem believes that one can minimize rigid views of gender by encouraging children to be ANDROGYNOUS, a state in which gender roles encompass characteristics thought typical of both sexes.

Friends and Family: Preschoolers’ Social Lives

The preschool years are marked by increased interactions with the world at large. Around age 3, children develop real friendships. Peers come to be seen as individuals with special qualities. Relationships are based on companionship, play, and entertainment. Friendship is focused on the carrying out of shared activities. Three-year-olds typically engage in FUNCTIONAL PLAY which involves simple, repetitive activities, that is, doing something for the sake of being active. By age 4, children typically engage in CONSTRUCTIVE PLAY which involves manipulating objects to produce or build something. Constructive play allows children to test developing cognitive skills. Constructive play allows children to practice motor skills. Constructive play allows children to problem solve. Constructive play allows children to learn to cooperate.

Mildred Parten (1932) noted various types of play. PARALLEL PLAY is when children play with similar toys, in a similar manner, but do not interact with each other. ONLOOKER PLAY occurs when children simply watch others play but do not actually participate themselves. ASSOCIATIVE PLAY is where two or more children actually interact with one another by sharing or borrowing toys or materials, although they do not do the same thing. In COOPERATIVE PLAY, children genuinely play with one another, taking turns, playing games, or devising contests. Associative and cooperative play generally do not emerge until the end of the preschool years. The nature of a child’s play is influenced by their social experiences. Vygotsky argued pretend play, particularly if it involves social play, is an important means for expanding preschool-age children’s cognitive skills. Cultural background also results in different styles of play. Play leads to increases in self-control and the ability to plan ahead. Teaches the importance of controlling their impulses. By playing games that require them to plan out strategies, children learn the importance of planning ahead and regulating their emotions. Play might promote the development of the brain.

Theory of mind refers to knowledge and beliefs about the mental world. Children are able to come up with explanations for how others think and the reasons for their behaving the way they do. During preschool years, children increasingly can see the world through others’ perspectives. Preschool children can understand that people have motives and reasons for their behavior.

Many preschoolers face the realities of an increasingly complicated world. In 1960, less than 10 percent of children under 18 lived with one parent; in 2000, a single parent headed 21% of White families, 35 % of Hispanic families, and 55% of African American families. The preschool years are characterized by growing interactions with the world at large. Strong, positive relationships between parents and children encourage children’s relationships with others.

Diana Baumrind (1980) notes three types of parenting or patterns of discipline. AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS are controlling, punitive, rigid, and cold; their word is law; they value strict, unquestioning obedience from their children and do not tolerate expressions of disagreement. Children tend to be withdrawn, show little sociability, are not very friendly, and often behave uneasily around their peers. Girls are especially dependent on their parents, whereas boys are unusually hostile. PERMISSIVE PARENTS provide lax and inconsistent feedback and require little of their children. Children tend to be dependent and moody, and are low in social skills and self-control. AUTHORITATIVE PARENTS are firm, setting clear and consistent limits, but try to reason with their children, giving explanations for why they should behave in a particular way. Children of authoritative parents tend to fare best: They are independent, friendly with their peers, self-assertive, and cooperative. UNINVOLVED PARENTS show almost no interest in their children and indifferent, rejecting behavior. Children of uninvolved parents are the worst off, showing disrupted emotional development. They feel unloved and emotionally detached, and their physical and cognitive development might be impeded as well.

The findings regarding childrearing styles were based on Western societies. The style of parenting that is most successful might depend on the norms of a particular culture. No single parenting style is universally appropriate. The figures are disheartening. At least five children are killed by their caretakers every day. Approximately 140,000 others are physically injured every year. Three million children are abused or neglected annually in the U.S. Child abuse can occur in any home, though it is most frequent in families living in a stressful environment. Poverty, single-parent homes, families with high levels of marital discord and most parents don’t intend to abuse their children. Children who are fussy, resistant to control, slow to adapt to new situations, overly anxious, frequent bedwetters, and who have developmental delays are more prone to being victims of abuse. Labeling children as being at a higher risk for abuse does not make them responsible for their abuse.

There are many reasons for why child abuse occurs. There is a vague demarcation between permissible and impermissible forms of physical punishment or violence. Privacy in Western childcare households (i.e., private, isolated households) leads to high rates of abuse. In other non-Western cultures, childrearing is seen as a joint responsibility of several people or the society, and they can help out when a child may test one’s patience. There is increasing scientific evidence that spanking should be avoided and that this type of punishment may result in a number of long-term side effects. Spanking is associated with lower quality of parent-child relationships, mental health issues for parent and child, higher levels of delinquency and antisocial behavior. Spanking also teaches children that violence is an acceptable solution to problems.

The CYCLE-OF-VIOLENCE HYPOTHESIS argues that the abuse and neglect that children suffer predisposes them as adults to be abusive. Not all abuse is physical: PSYCHOLOGICAL MALTREATMENT is abuse that occurs when parents or other caregivers harm children’s behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical functioning. RESILIENCE refers to the ability to overcome circumstances that place a child at high risk for psychological or physical damage. Resilient children are affectionate, easygoing, good communicators, and intelligent. They are able to elicit positive responses from others. They tend to feel that they can shape their own fate and are not dependent on others or luck.

Answers about how to discipline children include the following from developmentalists: For most children in Western cultures, authoritative parents works best. Spanking is never an appropriate discipline technique. Use time-out for punishment. Tailor parental discipline to the characteristics of the child and the situation. Use routines (such as a bath routine or a bedtime routine) to avoid conflict.

Moral Development and Aggression

MORAL DEVELOPMENT refers to changes in people’s sense of justice, of what is right and wrong, and in their behavior related to moral issues. Piaget’s theory of moral development focuses on the moral reasoning of children. HETERONOMOUS MORALITY is the initial stage of moral development (from 4 to 7 years old) in which rules are seen as invariant and unchangeable. Youngsters in this stage do not take intention into account. The next stage is the incipient cooperation stage (from age 7 to 10). Children become more social and learn the rules. They play according to a shared conception of the rules. During the autonomous cooperation stage (beginning at age 10) children become fully aware that game rules can be modified if the people who play them agree. Critics of Piaget’s theory argue that he underestimated the age at which children’s moral skills develop.

Social-learning approaches to morality focus on how the environment influences children’s PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR, helping behavior that benefits others. In this view, moral conduct is learned through reinforcement and modeling. Preschoolers are more apt to model the behavior of warm, responsive adults and models viewed as highly competent or high in prestige. Children do more than simply mimic modeled behavior. By observing others’ behavior, they begin to learn society’s norms. This leads to ABSTRACT MODELING, the process of developing more general rules and principles that underlie behavior.

According to some developmentalists, EMPATHY, the understanding of what another individual feels, lies at the heart of some kinds of moral behavior. The roots of empathy grow early; 1-year-old infants will cry when they hear other infants crying. Positive emotions (sympathy and admiration) in addition to negative emotions (anger at an unfair situation or shame over a transgression) might promote moral behavior.

AGGRESSION is the intentional injury or harm to another person. Infants do not act aggressively; however, by the preschool years children demonstrate true aggression. Aggressive acts in young children are often related to attaining a desired goal. Throughout the preschool years, children develop EMOTIONAL SELF-REGULATION, the capability to adjust emotions to a desired state and level of intensity. Aggression is a relatively stable trait, the most aggressive preschoolers tend to be the most aggressive school-aged children. INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION is aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal. Boys typically show higher levels of physical, instrumental aggression than girls. RELATIONAL AGGRESSION is nonphysical aggression that is intended to hurt another person’s psychological well-being. Girls are more likely to practice relational aggression than boys. Freud claimed we are all motivated by sexual and aggressive instincts. Konrad Lorenz argues that humans, like all animals, share a fighting instinct. Social-learning approaches contend that aggression is based on prior learning, and how social and environmental conditions and models teach individuals to be aggressive. Albert Bandura illustrated the power of models in a classic study of preschoolers, the Bobo doll experiment. The average preschooler watches three hours of television each day and this medium can have a powerful influence on aggression. Cognitive approaches argue that aggression stems, in part, from the manner in which children interpret others’ actions and situations.

Increasing moral behavior and reducing aggression in preschool-age children. Following are practical ideas for encouraging moral behavior and reducing aggressing that are based on the approaches discussed in the textbook. Provide opportunities for preschool-age children to observe others acting in a cooperative, helpful, prosocial manner. Do not ignore aggressive behavior. Help preschoolers devise alternative explanations for others’ behavior. Monitor preschoolers’ television viewing, particularly the violence they view. Help preschoolers understanding their feelings. Explicitly teach reasoning and self-control.

Middle Childhood

The Growing Body

School-aged children grow, on average, 2 to 3 inches per year. This is the only time during the lifespan when girls are, on average, taller than boys. By age 11, the average girl is 4' 10". The average 11-year-old boy is 4' 9 1/2". During middle childhood, both boys and girls gain from 5 to 7 pounds a year. Variations of a half a foot in children the same age are not uncommon. Height and weight variations can be affected by poor nutrition and racial or ethnic background.

Proper nutrition is linked to positive personality traits and cognitive performance. A good diet is necessary to staying fit. Obesity is defined as body weight that is more than 20 % above the average for a person of a given height and weight. Fifteen percent of all children are obese. This proportion has tripled since the 1960s. The epidemic of obesity may be leading to a decline in lifespan in the United States. Obesity can be caused by a combination of genetic and social characteristics. Adopted children’s weight is more like their biological parents than their adoptive parents. Children’s poor diets can also contribute. School lunch programs have sometimes contributed to the problem by failing to provide nutritious options. Many schools have reduced the time available for recess and gym classes. School-age children tend to engage in little exercise and are not particularly fit. The correlation between TV viewing and obesity is strong.

Dissatisfaction with body image is on the rise. Dissatisfaction with body image is related to unhealthy behaviors: Eating disorders, smoking, depression, and low self-esteem. Why are children acquiring dissatisfaction with body image? Television, magazines, and other media present models of idealized beauty and fitness as if they are the norms in the real world. Children compare themselves to these idealized same-sex media images and often conclude that they just don’t measure up. Suggestions for parents and teachers are to teach children that media representations are often exaggerated and unattainable. Also children should be exposed to a healthier, broader range of body types—ones with which they can identify.

Motor Development and Safety

School-age children's gross and fine motor skills develop substantially over middle childhood. An important improvement in gross motor skills is muscle coordination. Fine motor skills advance because of increases in the amount of myelin, the protective insulation surrounding parts of nerve cells, which speeds the electrical impulses between neurons.

More than 90 % of children in middle childhood have at least one serious medical condition, although most are short-term illnesses. Increasing independence and mobility of school-age children lead to new safety issues. Children walking to school face dangers of being hit by cars and trucks due to inability to judge distances/speed. The most frequent source of injury to children is automobile accidents. Car crashes kill five out of every 100,000 children between ages 5 and 9 annually. Fires and burns, drowning, and gun-related deaths follow in frequency. The newest threat to the safety of school-age children comes from the Internet or the World Wide Web. Cyberspace makes available materials that parents may find objectionable.

Childhood depression is often overlooked by teachers and parents. It can be treated with a variety of drugs. Approximately 5% of school-age children suffer from depression. The use of antidepressant drugs has become a popular treatment for childhood psychological disorders. In 2002 more than 10 million prescriptions were written for children under the age of 18. Little is known about the long-term effectiveness of antidepressants with children or the consequences of use on the developing brains of children. There is some evidence linking the use of antidepressant medication with an increased risk of suicide. Thirteen percent of school-age children suffer from anxiety disorders.

Children with Special Needs

One student in a thousand requires special education services relating to VISUAL IMPAIRMENT, legally defined as difficulties in seeing that may include blindness (less than or 20/200 after correction) or partial sightedness (20/70 after correction). Visual impairments can also include the inability to see up close and disabilities in color, depth, and light perception. AUDITORY IMPAIRMENT, a special need that involves the loss of hearing or some aspect of hearing, which affects 1% to 2 % of school-age children and can vary across a number of dimensions. The loss may be limited to certain frequencies. Loss in infancy is more severe than after age 3. Children who have little or no exposure to the sound of language are unable to understand or produce oral language themselves. Abstract thinking may be affected. Auditory impairments are sometimes accompanied by SPEECH IMPAIRMENTS, speech that is impaired when it deviates so much from the speech of others that it calls attention to itself, interferes with communication, or produces maladjustments in the speaker. Three to 5 % of school-age children have speech impairments. STUTTERING, a substantial disruption in the rhythm and fluency of speech, is the most common speech impairment.

One in ten school-age children in the U.S. is officially labeled as having LEARNING DISABILITIES, difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. Some suffer from dyslexia, a reading disability that can result in the reversal of letters during reading and writing, confusion between left and right, and difficulties in spelling. ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD) is a learning disability marked by inattention, impulsiveness, a low tolerance for frustration, and generally a great deal of inappropriate activity. Three to 5 % of school-age children are estimated to have ADHD. Common signs of ADHD include: Persistent difficulty finishing tasks, following instructions, and organizing work, inability to watch an entire television program, frequent interruption of others, a tendency to jump into a task before hearing all the instructions, and difficulty in waiting or remaining seated. Ritalin or Dexedrine are stimulants used to reduce hyperactivity levels in children with ADHD. These drugs help in increasing attention span and compliance; however, the side effects are considerable. Some studies suggest that after a few years children treated with drugs do not perform any better academically than those untreated. Drugs are prescribed more frequently in the U.S. than in any other country, suggesting that they may be overprescribed. Besides drugs, behavior therapy is often employed primarily involving the use of rewards (verbal praise). Some research show links between ADHD and diet. Higher in fatty acids and food additives

Encourage children to become more physically fit. Make exercise fun. Be an exercise role model. Gear activities to the child’s physical level and motor skills. Encourage the child to find a partner. Start slowly. Urge participation in organized sports activities, but do not push too hard. Don’t use physical activity as a punishment. Provide a healthy diet.

Intellectual and Language Development

From Piaget’s cognitive perspective, preschoolers think preoperationally; they are largely egocentric and lack the ability to use operations—organized formal, logical mental processes. The school-age child enters the CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE, the period of cognitive development between 7 and 12 years of age, which is characterized by the active and appropriate use of logic. Concrete operational thought involves applying logical operations to concrete problems. Children at this stage can solve conservation problems. Because they are less egocentric, they can take multiple aspects of a situation into account, a process known as DECENTERING. They attain the concept of reversibility, realizing that a stimulus can be reversed, returning to its original form. They can understand such concepts as relationships between time and speed. However, they are tied to concrete, physical reality and cannot understand abstract or hypothetical reasoning. Piaget is criticized for underestimating children's abilities and for exaggerating the universality of the progression through the stages. Research suggests that Piaget was more right than wrong although children in some cultures may differ from Westerners in demonstrating certain cognitive skills.

Children become increasingly able to handle information because their memories improve. MEMORY is the process by which information is initially encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding is the process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable to memory. The information must be stored, or placed and maintained in the memory system. Information must be retrieved, or located and brought into awareness. During middle childhood, short-term memory capacity improves significantly. This may explain why children have trouble solving conservation problems during the preschool period. METAMEMORY, an understanding about the processes that underlie memory, emerges and improves during middle childhood. Children use control strategies, conscious, intentionally used tactics to improve cognitive functioning. Children can be trained to use control strategies more effectively.

Vygotsky’s approach has been particularly influential in the development of several classroom practices. Classrooms are seen as places where children should have the opportunity to try out new activities. Specifically, Vygotsky suggests that children should focus on activities that involve interaction with others. Cooperative learning incorporates several aspects of Vygotsky’s theory. Reciprocal teaching, a technique where students are taught to skim the content of a passage, raise questions about its central point, summarize the passage, and finally, predict what will happen next, helps lead students through the zone of proximal development.

Vocabulary continues to increase during the school years. School-age children's mastery of grammar improves. Children's understanding of syntax, the rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences, grows during childhood. Certain phonemes, units of sound, remain troublesome (j, v, h, zh). School-age children may have difficulty decoding sentences when the meaning depends on intonation, or tone of voice. Children become more competent in their use of pragmatics, the rules governing the use of language to communicate in a social context. One of the most significant developments in middle childhood is the increase in METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS, an understanding of one's own use of language. Language helps children control their behavior by using “self-talk” to regulate their behavior, and self-control grows as their linguistic capabilities increase.

BILINGUALISM is the use of more than one language. English is a second language for more than 1 in 5 Americans. Educators are challenged by children speaking little or no English. One approach is bilingual education, in which children are initially taught in their native language, while at the same time learning English. An alternative approach is to immerse students in English. Being bilingual may have cognitive advantages. Greater cognitive flexibility, higher self-esteem, greater metalinguistic awareness and may improve scores on IQ tests.

Schooling: The Three Rs (and More) of Middle Childhood

Who Gets Educated? In the U.S. and most developed countries, a primary school education is both a universal right and a legal requirement. Children in other parts of the world are not so fortunate. More than 160 million children do not have access to even a primary school education. In developing countries, females receive less formal education than males. Development of reading skill generally occurs in several broad, frequently overlapping stages. Stage 0, from birth to the start of first grade, where children learn the essential prerequisites for reading, including identification of the letters in the alphabet, writing their names, and reading a few words. Stage 1, first and second grades, is the first real reading, but it is largely phonological decoding skill where children can sound out words by sounding out and blending letters. Stage 2, typically around second and third grades, is when children learn to read aloud with fluency. Stage 3 extends from fourth to eighth grades and is where reading becomes a means to an end and an enjoyable way to learn. Stage 4 is where the child understands reading in terms of reflecting multiple points of view. There is an ongoing debate among educators regarding the most effective way to teach reading. Code-based approaches to reading emphasize phonics and how letters and sounds are combined to make words. Whole-language approaches to reading are based on the notion that children should learn to read as they learn to talk, by exposure to complete writing and being immersed in literature.

Schools in the U.S. are experiencing a return to educational fundamentals, the three Rs, reading, writing, and arithmetic. Elementary schools today also stress accountability. Students are likely to take tests, developed at the state or national level, to assess their competence. Many students are also being given large quantities of homework. Multicultural education is based on several models. The CULTURAL ASSIMILATION MODEL fosters the view of the American society as the proverbial melting pot. More recent trends are based on the PLURALISTIC SOCIETY MODEL, which is the concept that American society is made up of diverse, coequal cultural groups that should preserve their individual cultural features. Today, most educators recommend that children develop a BICULTURAL IDENTITY, by maintaining their original cultural identity while integrating into the dominant culture.

Culture is a set of behaviors, beliefs, values, and expectations shared by members of a particular society. Subcultural groups are particular racial, ethnic, religious, socioeconomic, or gender groups within a given culture. In recent years the goal has been to establish MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION to help minority students develop competence in the culture of the majority group while maintaining positive group identities that build on their original culture.

Intelligence: Determining Individual Strengths

INTELLIGENCE is the capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges. Alfred Binet's pioneering efforts in intelligence testing left three important legacies. He defined intelligence pragmatically as that which his test measured. Intelligence tests should be reasonable indicators of school success. He invented the concept of IQ, INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT, a measure of intelligence that takes into account a student's mental and chronological age ((MA CA X 100 = IQ). MENTAL AGE is the typical intelligence level found for people at a given chronological age. CHRONOLOGICAL (OR PHYSICAL) AGE is the actual age of the child taking the intelligence test. Scores today are deviation IQ scores, so that the degree of deviation from the average (100) permits a calculation of the proportion of people who have similar scores. Two-thirds of all people fall within 15 points of the average. As scores rise and fall beyond this range, the percentage of people falls significantly.

One of the most widely used tests today is the STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE, Fifth Edition (SB5), a test that consists of a series of items that vary according to the age of the person being tested. The WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR CHILDREN-REVISED (WISC-III) is a test for children that provides verbal and performance (or nonverbal) skills as well as a total score. The WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE-REVISED (WAIS-III) is a test for adults that provides separate measures of verbal and performance (or nonverbal) skills as well as a total score. The KAUFMAN ASSESSMENT BATTERY FOR CHILDREN 2ND EDITION (KABC-II) tests children’s ability to integrate different kinds of stimuli simultaneously and to use step-by-step thinking. Intelligence tests are based on the notion that intelligence is composed of a single, unitary mental ability.

Some developmentalists suggest there are two kinds of intelligence. FLUID INTELLIGENCE is the ability to deal with new problems and situations. CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE is the store of information, skills, and strategies that people have acquired through education and prior experiences, and through their previous use of fluid intelligence.

Howard Gardner suggests there are eight distinct intelligences and they are musical intelligence, bodily kinesthetic intelligence, logical mathematical intelligence, linguistic intelligence, spatial intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence and naturalist intelligence.

Vygotsky suggests that to assess intelligence, we should look not only at those cognitive processes that are fully developed, but at those that are currently being developed as well.

Robert Sternberg developed the triarchic theory of intelligence, which states that intelligence consists of three aspects of information processing: componential, experiential, and contextual. The componential element reflects how people process and analyze information. Infer relationships between parts, solve problems, evaluate solutions, and score highest on traditional IQ tests. The experiential element is the insightful component. Compare new information to what is already known. Can combine and relate facts in novel and creative ways. The contextual deals with practical intelligence — the demands of everyday environment.

The question of how to interpret differences between intelligence scores of different cultural groups is a major controversy. If intelligence is primarily determined by heredity and largely fixed at birth, attempts to alter intelligence will not be successful. If intelligence is largely environmentally determined, modifying social conditions is a promising strategy for increasing intelligence.

Herrnstein and Murray (1994), in the book The Bell Curve, argue that IQ is primarily inherited. Most developmentalists disagree with The Bell Curve, believing that cultural and social minority groups may score lower due to the nature of the tests themselves.

In 1975, Public Law 94-142, called the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, was enacted. It ensured that children with special needs be put in the LEAST RESTRICTIVE ENVIRONMENT, the setting that is most similar to that of children without special needs. This act came to be called MAINSTREAMING, an educational approach in which exceptional children are integrated to the extent possible in the traditional educational system and are provided with a broad range of educational alternatives. The benefits of mainstreaming have led some professionals to promote an alternative educational model know as full inclusion, the integrations of all students, even those with the most severe disabilities, into regular classrooms. MENTAL RETARDATION, defined as a significantly subaverage level of intellectual functioning that occurs with related limitations in two or more skill areas, is found in approximately 1% to 3 % of the school-age population. About 1 % to 3 % of the school-age population is mentally retarded. Most cases of mental retardation are classified as familial retardation (in which no cause is apparent, but there is a history of retardation in the family). The most common biological causes are fetal alcohol syndrome and Down syndrome. Ninety percent are classified as MILD RETARDATION, where IQ is in the range of 50 or 55 to 70. Can reach third to sixth grade level in school. Can hold jobs and function independently. Five to 10 % are classified as MODERATE RETARDATION, where IQ is from 35 or 40 to 50 or 55. Slow to develop language and motor skills. Generally cannot progress beyond second grade. Capable of training and social skills but typically need supervision. Those with SEVERE RETARDATION, IQs ranging from 20 or 25 to 35 or 40, and PROFOUND RETARDATION, where IQ is below 20 or 25 are the most limited. No speech, poor motor control and need 24-hour care.

Three to 5 % of school-age children are GIFTED AND TALENTED, who show evidence of high performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership capacity, or specific academic fields. Contrary to stereotypes, research shows that highly intelligent people also tend to be outgoing, well adjusted, and popular. Two approaches to educating the gifted and talented exist. ACCELERATION, where special programs allow gifted students to move ahead at their own pace, even if this means skipping to higher grade levels. ENRICHMENT is an approach through which students are kept at grade level but are enrolled in special programs and given individual activities to allow greater depth of study in a given topic.

ADOLESCENCE

Physical Maturation

ADOLESCENCE is the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood. Growth spurt during adolescence produces dramatic changes in height and weight. Girls’ growth spurts start and stop two years earlier than boys’.

PUBERTY is the period when sexual organs mature, beginning earlier for girls than for boys. Puberty begins when the pituitary gland in the brain signals other glands to begin producing androgens or estrogens at the adult level. Girls begin puberty about 11 or 12; boys begin at 13 or 14. There is wide variation among individuals. MENARCHE, the onset of menstruation, varies in different parts of the world and even with affluence levels. More affluent, better nourished, healthier girls start menstruation earlier. Obesity –which results in an increase in the secretion of leptin, a hormone associated with the onset of menstruation, leads to early puberty. Some studies show that the proportion of fat to muscle in the body plays a part in the timing of menarche. Environmental stress can bring about early menarche. Menarche age in the U.S. has declined since the 19th century when menarche began around age 14 or 15. The earlier start of puberty is an example of a SECULAR TREND, a statistical tendency observed over several generations. Early development has been linked to reduced disease and better nutrition.

The development of PRIMARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS involves organs and structures of the body related to reproduction. SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS involve the visible signs of sexual maturity that do not involve sex organs directly. Sperm Arche, a boy’s first ejaculation, usually occurs around the age of 13, although the body has been producing sperm for about a year. Body image involves an adolescent’s own reactions to these physical changes. Western society’s views of menarche have become more positive than they used to be so girls tend to have higher self-esteem, a rise in status, and self-awareness when they begin menstruating. Boys’ first ejaculation is roughly equivalent to girls’ menarche, but it is rarely discussed. Girls are often unhappy with their developing bodies, a result of strong societal pressures regarding the ideal female shape.

Early maturation is generally positive for boys. Early maturing boys tend to be better at athletics, be more popular, have more positive self-esteem, and grow up to be more cooperative and responsible. On the other hand, these boys also are more likely to have school difficulties and become more involved in delinquency and substance abuse with older friends. Early maturation is often difficult for girls. Early maturing girls tend to be more popular but they may not be ready to deal with dating situations. Reactions depend on cultural norms (country and community). Late maturation is difficult for boys. Smaller boys are seen as less attractive and have a disadvantage in sports. Their dating lives may suffer. These difficulties often lead to decline in self-concept, which can extend into adulthood. However, coping with these challenges may help late-maturing boys become assertive, insightful, and more creative. For late-maturing girls the picture is complicated. Late-maturing girls can be overlooked and have low social status at first. However, when they catch up their self-esteem is high with higher body esteem because they are more slender and “leggy” than early-maturing girls.

The adolescent growth spurt requires an increase in food (especially key nutrients such as calcium and iron). The average girl requires 2,200 calories and the average boy 2,800. Obesity is a common concern during adolescence. Estimates are that 1 in 5 adolescents is overweight and 1 in 20 can be formally classified as obese. The psychological consequences of adolescent obesity are severe since body image is a key focus. Potential health consequences of obesity are also of concern. Obese adolescents have an 80 % chance of becoming obese in adulthood.

ANOREXIA NERVOSA is a severe eating disorder in which individuals refuse to eat, while denying that their behavior and appearance, which may become skeletal, are out of the ordinary. This disorder primarily affects white women between the ages of 12 and 40. Fifteen to 20 % starve themselves to death. These women are often intelligent, successful, attractive, and from affluent homes. About 10 % of anorexics are male. BULIMIA is an eating disorder characterized by binges on large quantities of food, followed by purges of the food through vomiting or the use of laxatives. A chemical imbalance results from constant vomiting or diarrhea. This can have serious effects, including heart failure. Eating disorders are products of both biological and environmental causes so treatment involves multiple approaches.

The prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain that allows people to think, evaluate, and make complex judgments, undergoes considerable development throughout adolescence and is not fully developed until age 20. It underlies the increasingly complex intellectual achievements that are possible during adolescence. Because the prefrontal cortex is also involved in impulse control, the ability to inhibit impulses explains the tendency toward risky and impulsive behaviors in some adolescents. During adolescence, the prefrontal cortex becomes increasingly efficient in communicating with other parts of the brain.

Too Young for the Death Penalty? The argument that adolescents may not be as responsible for their crimes stems from research showing continued brain growth and maturation during the teenage years, and beyond. Neurons that make up unnecessary gray matter begin to disappear. The volume of white matter begins to increase. This change permits more sophisticated, thoughtful cognitive processing.

Sleep deprivation comes at a time when adolescents’ internal clocks shift and increasing academic and social demands are placed on them. Sleepy teens have lower grades, are more depressed, and are prone to mood swings.

Threats to Adolescents’ Well-Being

In 1990s drug use rose, after a decline in the 1980s. More than 20% of eighth graders and close to 50% of seniors said they had smoked marijuana at least once in the last year. Illegal drug use is on the rise. More than half of high school seniors have used an illegal drug at least once in their lives. Some theories of why adolescents try illegal drugs are: Perceived pleasurable experience, escape from daily pressures, the thrill of doing something illegal, a number of role-models use drugs, and peer pressure.

ADDICTIVE DRUGS produce a biological or psychological dependence in users, leading to increasingly powerful cravings for them. A major danger of drugs as escapism is that adolescents never learn to confront original problems and learn problem-solving skills. Casual users can escalate to more dangerous forms of substance abuse.

More than 75% of college students have consumed at least one alcoholic drink during the last 30 days. More than 40% say they’ve had five or more drinks within the past 2 weeks. Seventy-six percent of high school seniors drink alcohol. Binge drinking, drinking five or more drinks for men and four or more for women in one sitting, is a particularly troubling pattern in college students. Fifty percent of males and 39% of females report binge drinking in the past 2 weeks. Why do adolescents drink? It is an adult thing to do. Maintaining a “macho” image for male athletes. It releases inhibitions and tension. The false consensus effect is the assumption that everyone else is doing it. ALCOHOLICS are persons with alcohol problems who have learned to depend on alcohol and are unable to stop their drinking. Teens may be genetically prone to become alcoholic. Stress may trigger drinking and alcoholism for some teens.

Following are some signals that an adolescent is abusing drugs or alcohol: Identification with the drug culture, signs of physical deterioration, dramatic changes in school performance, and changes in behavior.

There are significant numbers of adolescents smoking still, although the overall proportion has decreased. Smoking is more prevalent among girls. Whites smoke more than African Americans. Why do adolescents smoke? Smoking is seen as an adolescent rite of passage, a sign of growing up. Seeing influential models, such as film stars, parents, and peers smoking increases the chances that an adolescent will take up the habit. Cigarettes are also very addictive. Nicotine, the active chemical ingredient of cigarettes, can produce biological and psychological dependency very quickly. People smoke as few as 10 cigarettes early in their lives stand an 80 percent chance of becoming habitual smokers. As smoking rates in the U.S. go down, tobacco companies are seeking new markets. African Americans in urban areas. Free samples to adolescents in other countries.

One out of four adolescents contracts a SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTION (STI), an infection that is spread through sexual contact, before graduating from high school. The most common STI is human papilloma virus (HPV). It has no symptoms and is long suspected of leading to cervical cancer. A vaccine recommended by the CDC that protects against some kinds of HPV is now available. Trichomoniasis is an infection caused by a parasite. Chlamydia is a bacterial infection that can be treated with antibiotics. Genital herpes is a common sexually transmitted disease which is a virus (not unlike cold sores that sometimes appear around the mouth). Gonorrhea and syphilis used to be deadly but can now be treated with antibiotics. Acquired immunodeficiency syndromes (AIDS) is a sexually transmitted disease produced by the HIV virus that has no cure and ultimately causes death. African Americans and Hispanics account for some 40 % of AIDS cases. Twenty-five million people have died of AIDS, and the number of people living with the disease is 33 million worldwide. Beyond abstinence, adolescents practicing safe sex (e.g., know your sexual partner, use condoms, avoid exchanging bodily fluids, stay sober, and consider monogamy) promote a healthy life.

Cognitive Development

Piaget’s FORMAL OPERATIONS PERIOD is the stage during which people develop the ability to think abstractly. Full capabilities of using principles of logic unfold gradually throughout early adolescence (approximately ages 12 to 15). Hypothetical-deductive reasoning, in which adolescents start with a general theory and deduce explanations from it, also distinguishes the formal operational period. This allows the adolescent to think abstractly. Adolescents also can employ prepositional thought, reasoning that uses abstract logic in the absence of concrete examples. Not everyone achieves formal operational skills (some studies estimate that anywhere from 25 to 60% of college students do not). Cultural values also influence the achievement of these skills. The ability to think abstractly affects everyday behavior. Adolescents become more argumentative. This makes adolescents more interesting, but challenging. Research finds individual differences in cognitive abilities not universal. Some researchers suggest that cognitive development is more continuous, less step-like than Piaget proposed. Piaget underestimated the skills of infants and young children. More sophisticated forms of thinking may follow this stage and do not develop until early adulthood.

The INFORMATION PROCESSING PERSPECTIVE sees changes in cognitive abilities as gradual transformations in the way that individuals take in, use, and store information. From this view, thinking advances during adolescence result from the ways people organize their thinking and develop new strategies. The growth of METACOGNITION, the ability to think about one’s own thinking process and the ability to monitor one’s cognition. EGOCENTRISM IN THINKING is a stage of self-absorption where the world is seen only from one’s own perspective. Thus adolescents are highly critical of authority figures, unwilling to accept criticism, and quick to find fault with others. Adolescent egocentrism leads to two distortions: IMAGINARY AUDIENCE, where adolescents think they are the focus of everyone else’s attention. PERSONAL FABLES, the belief that the adolescent is unique and exceptional and shared by no one else.

Do Adolescents Reveal too Much on Social Networking Sites? The popularity of social networking websites such as Facebook has given rise to concerns about the safe use of these resources by adolescents. Fears surround the possibility of adolescents making themselves vulnerable to exploitation, online stalkers, or cyber-bullying by revealing too much personal information. Worries adolescents’ risk exposure during social networking, while a genuine concern, may be exaggerated in the media

School Performance

Do the advances in adolescents’ metacognition, reasoning, and other cognitive abilities lead to improved school performance? High school students’ grades have risen in the last decade. At the same time, independent measures of achievement, such as SAT scores, have not risen. Explanation: grade inflations—instructors are awarding higher grades for the same performance. There is a strong relationship between educational achievement and socioeconomic status (SES) Poorer children have fewer resources, lower health, more inadequate schools, and less involved parents. There are ethnic and racial differences in school achievement but the reason for them is not clear. African American and Hispanic families are more likely to live in poverty. In general, African American and Hispanic students perform at lower levels than Caucasians and Asians who perform at higher levels. When socioeconomic levels are taken into account, achievement differences diminish. Additional success factors are the cultural value of school success, attributions of school success, and consequences for not doing well.

The No Child Left Behind Act, passed by Congress in 2002, requires that every U.S. state design and administer achievement tests that students must pass in order to graduate from high school. Schools themselves are graded so that the public is aware of which schools have the best (and worst) test results. The basic idea behind the mandatory testing programs like the No Child Left Behind Act is to ensure that students graduate with a minimum level of proficiency. Proponents suggest that students—and teachers—will be motivated by the tests and that overall educational standards will be raised. Critics argue that a number of unintended negative consequences will result from implementation of the law. Because students from lower socioeconomic and ethnic and racial minority backgrounds and those with special needs fail tests disproportionately, critics have argued that mandatory testing programs may be inherently biased.

Young people spend an average of 6.5 hours a day with media. Because around a quarter of the time they are using more than one form of medium simultaneously, they are actually being exposed to the equivalent of eight-and-a-half hours per day. To obtain the full benefits of the Web, then, students must obtain the ability to search, choose, and integrate information in order to create new knowledge. Despite the benefits, there is a downside to Web use. The Web makes material available that many parents and other adults find highly objectionable, such as Internet gambling. The growing use of the Web creates a challenge involving socioeconomic status, race, and ethnicity. Digital divide: poorer adolescents have less access to computers, creating a digital divide.

One-half million students drop out of school each year. The leading causes are pregnancy, problems with the English language, or dropout rates differ by gender and ethnicity. Hispanic and African American students are more likely to leave school. Asians, however, drop out at a lower rate than Caucasians. Students from lower-income households are three times more likely to drop out. Dropping out perpetuates the cycle of poverty

Identity: Asking “Who Am I?”

Self-concept broadens during adolescence to include both your own assessment of who you are and also includes others’ views. The view of self becomes more organized and coherent. Adolescents can look at themselves in terms of traits and can see multiple aspects of themselves (which can be confusing at first).

Girls have lower self-esteem than boys, especially in early adolescence. Higher SES leads to more self-esteem (especially in late adolescence when one can buy things of value). Race and ethnicity also influence self-esteem, but less biased treatment of minorities has eased their impact. Traditional research says that prejudice is incorporated into minority adolescents’ self-concepts. Recent research indicates that African American adolescents now have same levels of self-esteem as Caucasians (in fact, strong racial identity is related to higher self-esteem levels). Using the combination of race and gender together (ethnogender) findings indicate that: African American and Hispanic males had the highest self-esteem. Asian and Native American females had the lowest levels.

Erikson’s stage is IDENTITY-VERSUS-IDENTITY-CONFUSION STAGE, where adolescents seek to determine what is unique and distinctive about themselves. Those who do not find a suitable identity tend to follow a dysfunctional path because their sense of self is diffuse, failing to organize around a central, unified core identity. There are a lot of social pressures to achieve a secure identity (or at least have clear career or major goals). Now, adolescents rely more on friends and peers than adults. Erikson suggests that adolescents have a psychological moratorium to let go of responsibilities for a while and explore new roles and possibilities. To critics, Erikson’s view is based on male-oriented concepts of individuality and competitiveness. Alternatively, Carol Gilligan suggests that women develop identity while establishing relationships. In this view, the building of caring networks between herself and others is key to a woman’s identity.

James Marcia suggests four categories within which either crisis, a period of identity development in which an adolescent consciously chooses between various alternatives and makes decisions; or commitment, a psychological investment in a course of action or an ideology. The four statuses are: IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT; adolescents consider and explore various alternatives without commitment. IDENTITY FORECLOSURE; adolescents here did not do adequate personal exploration but made a commitment (usually following others’ directives). IDENTITY DIFFUSION; adolescents explore various options but never commit to one. MORATORIUM; adolescents explore and do not commit to an option and that creates anxiety and conflict; an identity is usually defined later, after a struggle. Although adolescents are not stuck in one category, research indicates that identity gels by the age of 18.

Adolescents ask questions about religion and spirituality. Religion important to many people because it offers a formal means of satisfying spirituality needs. Spirituality is a sense of attachment to some higher power such as God, nature, or something sacred. Because their cognitive abilities increase during adolescence, teenagers are able to think more abstractly about religious matters. As they grapple with general questions of identity, religious identity may be questioned. According to James Fowler, our understanding and practice of faith and spirituality proceeds through a series of stages that extend throughout the lifetime. During childhood, individuals hold a fairly literal view of God and Biblical figures. In adolescence, the view of spirituality becomes more abstract. As they establish their identity, adolescents typically develop a core set of beliefs and values. As they leave adolescence, people typically move into the individuative-reflective stage of faith in which they reflect on their beliefs and values. They understand that their views are one of many, and that multiple views of God are possible. The final stage of faith development is the conjunctive stage, in which individuals develop a broad, inclusive view of religion and all humanity. They value humanity as a whole, and they may work to promote a common good. They may move beyond formal religion and hold a unified view of people across the globe.

Forming an identity presents a particular challenge for members of ethnic and racial backgrounds because of several choices. Cultural assimilation model holds that individual cultural identities should be assimilated into a unified culture. The pluralistic society model suggests that the U.S. society is made up of diverse, coequal cultural groups that should preserve their individual cultural features. Racial and ethnic factors become a central part of adolescents’ identity and are not submerged in an attempt to assimilate into the majority culture. Identity development includes development of racial and ethnic identity— the sense of membership in a racial or ethnic group and the feelings that are associated with that membership. It includes a sense of commitment and ties with a particular racial or ethnic group. Bicultural identity suggests that adolescents can draw from their own culture and integrate themselves into the dominant culture.

Adolescent depression and suicide are two critical psychological difficulties for adolescents. Although many adolescents experience depressed moods, only about three percent experience a major depression, a full-blown psychological disorder in which depression is severe and lingers for long periods. Depression has several causes, including biological, environmental, and social factors. Girls have higher incidences of depression than boys, but the cause is not clear. Are there more stresses on the female gender role? Is this the result of girls’ tendencies to react to stress by turning inward, thus experiencing helplessness and hopelessness? Hormonal differences are not a factor.

Adolescent suicide rates have tripled in the last 30 years; it is the third most common cause of death for teenagers. The current rate is one teenage suicide every 90 minutes. More girls attempt suicide than boys but more boys complete it. Males tend to use more violent methods. There are estimates of as many as 200 attempts for every successful suicide. One reason for the increase is the increase in teenage stress; other factors include: Depression, family conflicts, history of abuse and/or neglect, and drug and alcohol abuse. In cluster suicide one suicide leads to attempts by others to kill themselves. There are some clear warning signs for suicide possibility.

If you suspect an adolescent, or anyone else, is contemplating suicide, act! For immediate help, contact a suicide hotline.

Relationships: Family and Friends

Family relationships change during when adolescents begin to question, and sometimes rebel, against their parents’ views. Adolescents are seeking AUTONOMY — independence and a sense of control over their lives. The increase in autonomy usually occurs gradually throughout adolescence and changes the parent-child relationship from an asymmetrical to a more balanced one (for power and influence). The degree of autonomy achieved varies with families and with cultural expectations (Western societies tend to value individualism whereas Asian cultures value collectivism). Cultural and gender differences emerge in autonomy. Culturally, Western adolescents seek autonomy at an earlier age than their Eastern counterparts, culturally valuing individualism over collectivism. Gender plays a role, with males permitted more autonomy at an earlier age than females.

The GENERATION GAP, a divide between parents, and adolescents, attitudes, values, aspirations, and world views, is mostly a myth; adolescents and their parents tend to share the same major values. In matters of personal taste, differences are often great. Adolescents’ argumentativeness and new assertiveness can initially cause conflict in the family but are usually resolved by the end of this stage. Often the disagreements involve differing definitions of, and rationales for, appropriate and inappropriate conduct. Newly sophisticated reasoning abilities may lead teens to think about parental rules in more complex ways. There is less conflict in “traditional” preindustrial cultures. In industrialized societies, with an emphasis on individualism, independence is expected of adolescents. In more traditional societies, individualism is less valued; adolescents are less inclined to seek independence resulting in less parent-child conflict.

Peer relationships are more critical to adolescents than at any other time of life. Peers provide an opportunity for social comparison. REFERENCE GROUPS are a group of people with whom one compares oneself. Reference groups present a set of norms or standards against which adolescents judge their social success. One of the consequences of the increasing cognitive sophistication of adolescents is the ability to group others in more discriminating ways. Adolescents are usually part of some identifiable group. CLIQUES are 2 to 12 people who have frequent interaction. CROWDS are larger groups where people share some characteristic but often don’t interact with each other. There are strong expectations that people in a particular crowd behave in specific ways. (Is it a self-fulfilling prophesy?) Membership in particular cliques and crowds. Determined by degree of similarity with members of group such as substance abuse. Group labels are abstractions, requiring teens to make judgments of people, with whom they may interact only rarely and of whom they have little direct knowledge.

Gender relations change during the period of adolescence. SEX CLEAVAGE is characteristic of early adolescence where girls play with girls, boys with boys. With puberty, there is hormonal and social pressure to interact and eventually most adolescents are in mixed-sex cliques. At the end of adolescence, cliques become less powerful and male-female relationships become the focus. Patterns of race segregation continue to appear in schools and colleges throughout the United States. Minority students may actively seek support from others who share their minority status to affirm their own identity, which is a crucial developmental issue in adolescents. In schools where rigid tracking systems are prevalent, minority students may find themselves in classes with proportionally more or fewer minority students. This practice may inadvertently maintain and promote racial and ethnic segregation.

Popular adolescents are those who are most liked. CONTROVERSIAL ADOLESCENTS are liked by some peers and disliked by others. REJECTED ADOLESCENTS are actively disliked, and their peers may react to them in an obviously negative manner. NEGLECTED ADOLESCENTS receive relatively little attention from their peers in the form of either positive or negative interactions.

PEER PRESSURE is the influence of one’s peers to conform to their behavior and attitudes. For other decisions, adolescents turn to those whom they consider to be experts in that field or problem area. In essence, susceptibility to peer pressure does not rise in adolescence; in fact, conformity decreases as adolescents increase their own autonomy.

UNDERSOCIALIZED DELINQUENTS are raised with little parental supervision or discipline: they have not been appropriately socialized. They tend to be relatively aggressive and violent early in life; are rejected by their peers; are likely to have ADHD; and are usually less intelligent than average. They are relatively unlikely to be rehabilitated. SOCIALIZED DELINQUENTS are adolescent delinquents who know and subscribe to the norms of society, and who are fairly normal psychologically. They are usually influenced by a group and their criminal behavior is usually committed with a group.

Dating, Sexual Behavior, and Teenage Pregnancy

Close relationships and dating in the 21st Century. By the age of 16, more than 90 % of teens have had a least one date. Dating serves the functions of learning how to establish intimacy, entertainment, and developing one’s own identity. Research indicates that most dating in early and middle adolescence is superficial so it does not help in learning to establish intimacy. True intimacy is more common in late adolescence where it can be a potential prelude to marriage. For homosexual adolescents, dating presents challenges such as homophobic prejudice and finding partners willing to openly express their sexual orientation. Cultural influences affect dating patterns for minority adolescents, especially if concept of dating is unfamiliar to parents.

Sex and sexual relationships are a major concern for adolescents. Masturbation, sexual self-gratification, is the initiation into sexuality for most adolescents. Although it is widespread it can still cause feelings of shame. Today masturbation is seen as normal, healthy, and harmless; just opposite to the historical legacy of shame, guilt, and punishment. Ages for sexual intercourse have been declining: one in five adolescents have had sex before the age of 15, over half begin having intercourse between ages 15 and 18, and 80 % have sex before age 20. The double standard, in which premarital sex was considered permissible for males but not for females, has largely been supplanted by a new norm, permissiveness with affection, where premarital intercourse is viewed as permissible for both men and women if it occurs in the context of a long-term, committed, or loving relationship.

Sexual orientation questions also occur at adolescence. It is difficult to determine exact proportions of homosexuality because sexuality is seen as a continuum. What determines Sexual Orientation? Causes for homosexuality are not understood, but biological and genetic factors seem to play an important role. Psychological family theories do not hold up because no one type of family dynamic is related to sexual orientation. Homosexual adolescents have a very difficult time and they are at greater risk for depression and suicide.

Teen pregnancies are now an epidemic: every minute of the day an adolescent in the U.S. gives birth. Teenage pregnancy can be devastating to both mother and child. Mothers often have to leave school and be tied to low-paying jobs or welfare, a cycle of poverty and pregnancy. Children usually have poor health, poor school performance, and are more likely to become teenage parents themselves. Teenage girls in the U.S. are less likely to use contraception than teenagers in other countries, and less effective means when they use them. Another factor is that the U.S. is still relatively intolerant of premarital sex so there is not enough sex education to reduce pregnancy rates. Key factors in preventing/breaking the poverty-pregnancy cycle are: Completing high school and postponing future births.

Young Adulthood

Physical Development

In most respects, physical development and maturation are complete by early adulthood. Most people are at the peak of their physical capabilities. Although SENESCENCE, the natural physical decline brought about by aging, has begun, these changes are not very obvious until later. Gray matter of brain continues to be pruned back, and myelination continues to increase. Certain parts of the body do not fully mature until early adulthood. Brain wave patterns change in early adulthood. The senses are as sharp as they will ever be. Most professional athletes are at their peak during early adulthood.

Physical fitness in young adults in the 20th Century. No more than 10 % of Americans exercise enough to keep themselves in good physical shape. Exercise is largely an upper- and middle-class phenomenon. There are many advantages to regular exercise. Increases cardiovascular fitness, lung capacity increases, muscles become stronger, body becomes more flexible and maneuverable, reduces osteoporosis, the thinning of bones, in later life, optimizes the immune response, decreases stress, anxiety, and depression, increases sense of control and feelings of accomplishment, and increases longevity.

Young adults are less susceptible to colds and illnesses. The leading causes of death among young adults are: accidents are the number one killer, then AIDS, Cancer, Heart disease, and Suicide. Lifestyle choices – use and abuse of alcohol, tobacco, and drugs or engaging in unprotected sex, can hasten secondary aging, physical declines brought about by environmental factors or individual choices. Men are more apt to die from accidents than women, and African Americans have twice the death rate of Caucasians. The murder rate in the U.S. is significantly higher than in any other developed country. Murder is the fifth most frequent cause of death for young white Americans. Murder is the most frequent cause of death for African Americans.

Cultural health beliefs, along with demographic and psychological factors, reduce people’s use of physicians and medical care. Punishment from God, lack of faith or a hex are some of the beliefs. To ensure that everyone receives adequate health care, cultural health beliefs must be taken into account.

Physical Limitations and Challenges

No Such Thing as Free Lunch? People can achieve good nutrition by eating foods that are low in fat and salt. The body is less forgiving to young adults, who must reduce their caloric intake to maintain their health. Thirty-one percent of the adult population is classified as overweight. Twelve percent of those aged 18 to 29 are obese – defined as a body weight that is 20 % or more above the average weight for a person of a given height. From 1998 to 1999, obesity increased 6%.

Over 50 million Americans are physically challenged — or disabled — a condition that substantially limits a major life activity such as walking or vision. Despite the Americans with Disabilities Act (1990), many older buildings are inaccessible to wheelchairs. Prejudice and discrimination affect the way disabled people think of themselves.

Stress and Coping: Dealing with Life’s Challenges

STRESS is the response to events that threaten or challenge an individual. Our lives are filled with events and circumstances known as stressors that cause threats to our well-being. Stressors can be both pleasant events and unpleasant events. Researchers in the new field of PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY (PNI), the study of the relationship among the brain, the immune system, and psychological factors, have found that stress produces several outcomes. Long-term, continuous exposure to stressors may result in a reduction of the body's ability to deal with stress.

Hormones from the adrenal glands cause a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and sweating. People become more susceptible to diseases as their ability to fight off germs declines. According to Lazarus and Folkman, people move through a series of stages that determine whether they will experience stress. PRIMARY APPRAISAL is the assessment of an event to determine whether its implications are positive, negative, or neutral. SECONDARY APPRAISAL is the assessment of whether one’s coping abilities and resources are adequate to overcome the harm, threat, or challenge posed by the potential stressor. Events and circumstances that produce negative emotions are more likely to produce stress. Situations that are uncontrollable or unpredictable are more likely to produce stress. Events and circumstances that are ambiguous and confusing produce more stress. People who must accomplish simultaneously many tasks are more likely to experience stress.

Stress may lead to PSYCHOSOMATIC DISORDERS, medical problems caused by the interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties. Some young adults are better than others at COPING, the effort to reduce or tolerate the threats that lead to stress. Problem-focused coping is the attempt to manage a stressful problem or situation by directly changing the situation to make it less stressful. Emotion-focused coping involves the conscious regulation of emotion. Coping is also aided by the presence of social support, assistance and comfort supplied by others. DEFENSIVE COPING involves unconscious strategies that distort or deny the true nature of the situation. Hardiness is a personality characteristic associated with a lower rate of stress-related illness. Resilient young adults tend to be easy-going, good-natured, and have good social and communication skills.

Cognitive Development

Developmentalist Giesela Labouvie-Vief suggests that the nature of thinking changes qualitatively during early adulthood. Adults exhibit POSTFORMAL THOUGHT, thinking that goes beyond Piaget's formal operations. Adult predicaments are sometimes solved by relativistic thinking rather than pure logic. Postformal thought also encompasses dialectical thinking, an interest in and appreciation for argument, counterargument, and debate. Postformal thought acknowledges that the world sometimes lacks purely right and wrong solutions and adults must draw upon prior experiences to solve problems.

William Perry examined the way students grew intellectually and morally during college. Students entering college tended to use dualistic thinking – something is right or wrong, good or bad, others are for them or against them. As they encountered new ideas and points of view, they began to hold multiple perspectives on an issue – multiple thinking. Finally, they began to show relativistic thinking, rather than believing that there are absolute standards and values, they begin to see that different cultures, societies, and individuals can have different standards and values, all of them equally valid.

K. Warner Schaie suggests that adults' thinking follows a set pattern of stages. The ACQUISITIVE STAGE encompasses all of childhood and adolescence, and the main developmental task is to acquire information. The ACHIEVING STAGE is the point reached by young adults in which intelligence is applied to specific situations involving the attainment of long-term goals regarding careers, family, and societal contributions. The RESPONSIBLE STAGE is the stage where the major concerns of middle-aged adults relate to their personal situations, including protecting and nourishing their spouses, families, and careers. The EXECUTIVE STAGE is the period in middle adulthood when people take a broader perspective than earlier, including concerns about the world. The REINTEGRATIVE STAGE is the period of late adulthood during which the focus is on tasks that have personal meaning.

Intelligence: What Matters in Early Adulthood?

Robert Sternberg in his TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE suggests that intelligence is made up of three major components. Componential intelligence relates to the mental components involved in analyzing data and solving problems, especially problems involving rational behavior. Experiential intelligence refers to the relationships among intelligence, people's prior experience, and their ability to cope with new situations. Contextual intelligence involves the degree of success people demonstrate in facing the demands of their everyday, real-world environments. Sternberg contends that success in a career necessitates this type of intelligence, also called PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE, intelligence that is learned primarily by observing others and modeling their behavior. Another type of intelligence involves EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, the set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions. Emotional intelligence allows us to get along well with others, to understand what others are feeling and experiencing, and to respond appropriately.

CREATIVITY is combining responses or ideas in creative ways and is at its peak for many individuals during early adulthood. People in early adulthood may be at the peak of their creativity because many of the problems they encounter on a professional level are novel. Creative people are willing to take risks. Creative people develop and endorse ideas that are unfashionable or regarded as “wrong.” Not all people reach their creative peak in early adulthood.

Some research suggests that major life events, such as marriage, birth of a child, starting a first job, or buying a house, may lead to cognitive growth. The ups and downs of life events may lead young adults to think about the world in novel, more complex, sophisticated, and often less rigid ways. Applying postformal thought allows them to deal more effectively with the complex social world.

College: Pursuing Higher Education

College students are primarily white and middle class. Minority students are an increasingly larger proportion of the college population. There are now more women than men enrolled in college, and by the year 2007, women’s enrollment is expected to increase 30 % from 1995 compared to an increase of only 13 % for men. A college degree is important for obtaining a job, for learning new skills, and for the joy of intellectual stimulation. Many students experience difficulties adjusting to their first year of college. FIRST-YEAR ADJUSTMENT REACTION is a cluster of psychological symptoms, including loneliness, anxiety, withdrawal, and depression. There are signals that indicate when a student needs professional counseling. A health-care provider can help

College students are getting caught up in gambling and discovering that it is as destructive as substance abuse. High-level gambling is addictive and thus dangerous to students’ well-being. Prejudice and discrimination directed at women is still a fact of college life. Classes in education and the social sciences have larger proportions of women than men. Classes in engineering, the physical sciences, and mathematics tend to have more men than women. The attrition rate for women in mathematics, engineering, and the physical sciences is two-and-a-half times greater than the rate for men.

Women expect to earn less than men and in fact earn 76 cents for every dollar that men earn. Minority women earn 64 cents for every dollar men make, and Hispanic women earn 52 cents to a male’s dollar. Men, compared to women, are more apt to view themselves as above average on several spheres relevant to academic success. Teachers call on men more often and make more eye contact with them. Males receive more extra help and more positive reinforcement for their comments than women do. Benevolent sexism, where women are placed in stereotyped and restrictive roles, is just as harmful as hostile sexism, overtly harmful behavior towards women.

Psychologist Claude Steele found that the reason both women and African Americans perform less well in college is academic disidentification, a lack of personal identification with an academic domain. Women disidentify with math and science. African Americans disidentify across academic domains. Both are called STEREOTYPE THREAT in which members of a group fear their behavior will confirm stereotypes.

Forging Relationships: Intimacy, Liking, and Loving During Early Adulthood

Erikson regards young adulthood as the time of the INTIMACY-VERSUS-ISOLATION STAGE, which is the period of post adolescence into the early 30s that focuses on developing close relationships with others. To Erikson, intimacy comprises several aspects. A degree of selflessness. Sacrificing one’s own needs to those of another. Joint pleasure from focusing not just on one’s own gratification but also on that of one’s partner Deep devotion, marked by efforts to fuse one’s identity with the identity of the partner. Erikson suggests that those who experience difficulties during this stage are often lonely and isolated, and fearful of relationships with others. Their failure may stem from an earlier failure to develop a strong identity. Erikson’s theory was limited to heterosexuals and focused more on men’s development than women’s.

Jeffrey (2010) argues that the period from the end of the teenage years through the early 20s marks a unique developmental stage known as emerging adulthood. EMERGING ADULTHOOD is characterized as a period in which people are still sorting out their options for the future. They are exploring their identities, trying to figure out what they will become in the future, and focusing less on the present. According to critics, the concept of emerging adulthood does not apply very well to people in developing societies or to those in our own culture who marry early, or have children while teenagers, or who leave high school and immediately start working. For them, the period of emerging adulthood is something of a luxury.

There is a need for belongingness that leads people in early adulthood to establish and maintain at least a minimum number of relationships with others. Most people form friendships with others who live nearby, called proximity. Similarity also plays an important role because we are attracted to people who hold attitudes and values similar to ours. The number of cross-race friendships dwindles by adolescence and continues to dwindle through adulthood. We also choose friends on the basis of their personal qualities. Keep confidences, loyal, warm, affectionate, supportive, frank, and a good sense of humor are all personal qualities.

Most relationships develop in a surprisingly regular progression. Two people interact with each other more often and for longer periods of time. Two people increasingly seek out each other's company. They open up more and more and begin to share physical intimacies. The couple is more willing to share positive and negative feelings, criticism and praise. They begin to agree on the goals they hold for the relationship. Their reactions to situations become more similar. They begin to feel their psychological well-being is tied to the success of the relationship, viewing it as unique, irreplaceable, and cherished. They begin to see themselves as a couple rather than separate individuals.

Bernard Murstein's STIMULUS-VALUE-ROLE (SVR) THEORY, is that relationships proceed in a fixed order of three stages: stimulus, value, and role. The stimulus stage is when relationships are built on surface, physical characteristics such as the way a person looks. The value stage occurs between the second and seventh encounter and is characterized by increasing similarity of values and beliefs. The role stage is built on specific roles played by the participants (i.e., boyfriend/girlfriend). A criticism of Murstein is that not all relationships follow this pattern.

Love differs qualitatively from liking. It involves intense physical arousal. It involves an all-encompassing interest in another person. It involves recurrent fantasies about the other individual. It involves rapid swings of emotion. It includes elements of closeness, passion, and exclusivity. Not all love is the same. PASSIONATE (OR ROMANTIC) LOVE is a state of powerful absorption in someone. COMPANIONATE LOVE is the strong affection we have for those with whom our lives are deeply involved.

According to Elaine Hatfield and Ellen Berscheid's LABELING THEORY OF PASSIONATE LOVE, individuals experience romantic love when two events occur together: intense physical arousal and situational cues that indicate that "love" is the appropriate label for the feelings being experienced. In many cultures, passionate, romantic love is a foreign concept.

Robert Sternberg's triangular theory of love hypothesizes that love is made up of three components. The INTIMACY COMPONENT encompasses feelings of closeness, affection, and connectedness. The PASSION COMPONENT comprises the motivational drives relating to sex, physical closeness, and romance. The DECISION/COMMITMENT COMPONENT embodies both the initial cognition that one loves another person and the longer-term determination to maintain that love. Eight unique combinations of love can be formed. Nonlove occurs in the absence of all three components. Liking develops when only intimacy is present. Infatuated love exists for those who only feel passion. Empty love is when only decision/commitment is present. Romantic love occurs when both intimacy and passion are present. Companionate love is when intimacy and decision/commitment are present. Fatuous love exists when passion and decision/commitment are present. In consummate love, all three components are present. Decision/commitment and intimacy can continue to grow over time; however, passion tends to peak early, decline, and level off.

Although love and mutual attraction are relatively highly desired characteristics across cultures, some preferred characteristics are similar across cultures when selecting a spouse. Men, more than women, prefer a marriage partner who is physically attractive. Women prefer a marriage partner who is ambitious and industrious. David Buss believes we are programmed to seek out mates who will maximize the availability of beneficial genes. Critics argue that similarities reflect gender stereotyping and have nothing to do with evolution.

People seeking mates screen potential candidates. First, we filter for broad determinants of attractiveness. The end result is a choice based on compatibility between two individuals. Assumes people filter for factors relating to broad determinants of attractiveness People often marry according to the principle of HOMOGAMY, or the tendency to marry someone who is similar in age, race, education, religion, and other basic demographic characteristics. The MARRIAGE GRADIENT is the tendency for men to marry women who are slightly younger, smaller, and lower in status, and for women to marry men who are slightly older, larger, and higher in status. Well-educated African American women find it difficult to find a spouse according to the marriage gradient. Men have a larger pool to choose from.

Do Adult Loving Styles Reflect Attachment in Infancy? According to Phillip Shaver, the influence of infants' attachment styles continues into adulthood and affects the nature of their romantic relationships. Adults with secure attachment readily enter into relationships and feel happy and confident about the future of the relationship (half of all adults). Adults who have avoidant attachment tend to be less invested in relationships, have higher break-up rates, and often feel lonely (one quarter of all adults). Adults who have anxious-avoidant attachment tend to become overly invested in relationships, have repeated break-ups with the same partner, and have relatively low self-esteem (20 % of adults). Most gays and lesbians seek loving, long-term, and meaningful relationships that differ little qualitatively from those desired by heterosexuals.

The Course of Relationships

The past three decades have seen a dramatic rise in couples living together without being married, a status known as COHABITATION. The census bureau calls them POSSLQs, persons of the opposite sex sharing living quarters, about 10 % of all couples. They tend to be young; 40 % are under age 25. African Americans are more likely to cohabitate than Whites. The chances of divorce are somewhat higher for those who have cohabited. Marriage remains the preferred alternative for most people during early adulthood. It's the “right” thing to do. A spouse provides security and financial well-being. A spouse fills a sexual role. A spouse can provide a sounding board and act as a partner for activities. Marriage offers the only totally acceptable way to have children. Marriage offers legal benefits and protections. Fewer U.S. citizens are married than at any time since the 1890s. Higher divorce rate and people are marrying later in life. The median age for first marriage in the U.S. is 27 for men and 25 for women. The delay represents economic concerns and commitment to establishing a career. Ninety percent eventually wed.

What Makes Marriage Work? Partners in successful marriages display several characteristics. They visibly show affection to one another. They communicate relatively little negativity. They see themselves as part of an interdependent couple rather than two individuals. The experience social homogamy, a similarity in leisure activity and role references. Only about half of all marriages remain intact. Most divorces occur within the first 10 years of marriage.

Nearly half of newly married couples experience a significant degree of marital conflict. Difficulty transitioning from being children to adults. Difficulty developing an identity apart from their spouse. Struggle to find time with spouse. However, for many, the newlywed period is the happiest time of their entire married life.

Parenthood: young adults typically cite psychological reasons for having children. Pleasure watching them grow, fulfillment from children's accomplishments, satisfaction from seeing them become successful, enjoyment of forging a close bond, someone to take care of them in their old age, and someone to maintain the family business. Also there is another very important reason and that is companionship. A strong societal norm — 90 % have a child. Unwanted pregnancies occur most frequently in younger, poorer, and less-educated couples.

Family Size: The use of contraceptives has dramatically decreased the number of children in the average American family. In the 1930s, families desired three or more children. Today, most families seek to have no more than two children. The fertility rate has declined from its all-time high post WWII level of 3.7 children per woman to below 2.0, which is less than the replacement level. More women are using contraceptives. More women are working. Women are delaying having children until their 30s. The cost of raising children is high.

Are dual-earner couples becoming necessary? Close to three-quarters of married women with school-aged children are employed outside the home, a significant historical shift in the 20th century. Even with husbands helping, wives spend more time with their children and housework, and feel more stress and anxiety.

Two’s a Couple, Three’s a Crowd? The arrival of a child alters virtually every aspect of family life, in positive and sometimes negative ways. The birth of a child brings about a dramatic shift in the roles spouses play. According to John Gottman and colleagues, marital satisfaction can stay steady and rise with the birth of a child. Realistic expectations are important. Nonwestern cultures see child-rearing a community task, while Western culture’s “individualism” sees child-rearing as a private enterprise. Co-parenting teams are parents who work together, adopting common child-rearing goals and strategies.

Twenty percent of gay men and lesbian women are parents. Pre-child homosexual couples tend to split housework equally. After a child, one person tends to take over the majority of the child-rearing tasks and the other the majority of the paid work outside the home. Research shows that children raised in homosexual homes show no differences in eventual adjustment than those raised in heterosexual homes.

Singlehood, living alone without an intimate partner, has increased significantly in the last several decades. Twenty percent of women, and 30 % of men live single. Several reasons for this decision: negative view of marriage and marriage is too restrictive. Do not encounter someone with whom they wish to spend their lives. They value independence, autonomy, and freedom.

Work: Choosing and Embarking on a Career

The Role of Work, according to George Vaillant, young adulthood is marked by a stage of development called CAREER CONSOLIDATION, a stage that is entered between the ages of 20 and 40 when young adults become centered on their careers. Vaillant argued that career concerns supplant the focus on intimacy. Critics argue that Vaillant's sample was limited to elite men from the 1930s, and that his results are not generalizable to today's young adults.

Choosing Life’s Work, according to Eli Ginzberg’s Career choice theory, people typically move through a series of stages in choosing a career. The first stage is the FANTASY PERIOD, which lasts until age 11 and is the period when career choices are made and discarded without regard to skills, abilities, or available job opportunities. During the TENTATIVE PERIOD, which spans adolescence, people begin to think in pragmatic terms about the requirements of various jobs and how their own abilities might fit with them. Finally, in early adulthood, people enter the REALISTIC PERIOD, during which people explore specific career options. Critics argue that Ginzberg's theory is too simplistic.

According to John Holland’s Personality type theory, certain personality types match particularly well with certain careers. Realistic. These people are down-to-earth, practical problem solvers, and physically strong, but their social skills are mediocre. They make good farmers, laborers, and truck drivers. Intellectual. Intellectual types are oriented toward the theoretical and abstract. Although not particularly good with people, they are well suited to careers in math and science. Social. The traits associated with the social personality type are related to verbal skills and interpersonal relations. Social types are good at working with people, and consequently make good salespersons, teachers, and counselors. Conventional. Conventional individuals prefer highly structured tasks. They make good clerks, secretaries, and bank tellers. Enterprising. These individuals are risk-takers and take-charge types. They are good leaders and may be particularly effective as managers or politicians. Artistic. Artistic types use art to express themselves, and they often prefer the world of art to interactions with people. They are best suited to occupations involving art. A major problem with Holland's theory is that not everyone fits neatly into a particular personality type.

Although it is now illegal to advertise a position for a man or a woman, remnants of traditional gender-role prejudice persist. Traditionally, women were considered most appropriate for COMMUNAL PROFESSIONS, occupations associated with relationships. In contrast, men were perceived as best suited for AGENTIC PROFESSIONS, occupations associated with getting things accomplished. Women today are underrepresented in male-dominated professions such as engineering and computer programming. Women in many professions earn less than men in identical jobs. Between 1950 and 2003, women in the U.S. labor force increased from 35 % to over 60 %, and women make up around 55 % of the labor force. Women and minorities in high-status, visible professional roles may hit the glass ceiling, an invisible barrier within an organization that, because of discrimination, prevents individuals from being promoted beyond a certain level.

Why Do People Work? Some people work out of EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION, motivation that drives people to obtain tangible rewards, such as money or prestige. Some people work out of INTRINSIC MOTIVATION, motivation that causes people to work for their own enjoyment, not for the rewards work may bring. In many Western societies, people tend to subscribe to the Puritan work ethic, the notion that work is important in and of itself. Work also brings a sense of personal identity. Work may also be a central element in people's social lives. The kind of work people do is a factor in determining STATUS, which is the evaluation by society of the role a person plays.

Job satisfaction depends on a number of factors: status, the nature of the job itself, job satisfaction increases when workers have input into the nature of their jobs, variety and supervisors have more influence and hence more job satisfaction.

Middle Adulthood

Physical Development

Middle adulthood is the time when most people first become aware of the gradual changes in their bodies that mark the aging process. People’s reactions to the physical changes of middle adulthood depend in part on their self-concept. Society applies a double standard to men and women in terms of appearance. Older women tend to be viewed in unflattering terms. Aging men are more frequently perceived as displaying a maturity that enhances their status.

After age 55, bones become less dense and ultimately women lose 2 inches and men lose 1 inch in height. Women are more prone to declining height due to OSTEOPOROSIS, a condition in which the bones become brittle, fragile, and thin. Osteoporosis is brought about by a lack of calcium in the body. Diet (high in calcium) and exercise can reduce the risk of osteoporosis. Both men and women continue to gain weight in middle adulthood. The amount of body fat increases. Exercise and weight control can ameliorate the weight gain. Throughout middle adulthood, strength gradually decreases. This is particularly so in the back and leg muscles. By age 60, people have lost about 10 % of their maximum strength.

Starting at age 40, visual acuity, the ability to discern fine spatial detail in both close and distant objects, begins to decline. The eye's lenses change shape and elasticity. The lenses become less transparent, which reduces the amount of light entering. A nearly universal change in eyesight during middle adulthood is the loss of near vision, called PRESBYOPIA. Declines also occur in depth perception, distance perception, the ability to view the world in three dimensions, and night vision. Sometimes changes in vision are brought on by a disease called GLAUCOMA, a condition where pressure in the fluid of the eye increases, either because the fluid cannot drain properly or because too much fluid is produced. About 1 % to 2 % of those over 40 are affected. African Americans are particularly susceptible. It can be treated if caught early enough. If left untreated it can cause blindness.

Hearing Hearing undergoes a gradual decline beginning in middle adulthood. The primary sort of loss is for sounds of high frequency, a problem called PRESBYCUSIS. About 12 % of people between 45 and 65 suffer from presbycusis. Men are more prone to hearing loss than women. Because the two ears are not always equally affected by hearing loss, sound localization, the ability to detect the origin of a sound, is diminished. Some hearing loss results from environmental factors, such as loud noises. The rest are caused by aging, which brings a loss of hair cells in the inner ear. Also, the eardrum becomes less elastic with age.

Reaction time increases slightly in middle adulthood. This is due to a gradual loss of muscle in the body and nervous system processing due to aging. People can compensate by being more careful and practicing the skill. Exercise can slow this loss.

Sexuality in Middle Adulthood

Although the frequency of sexual intercourse decreases with age, sexual activities remain a vital part of most middle-aged adults’ lives. With children grown and away from home, middle-aged adults have more freedom. With menopause, women no longer need to practice birth control. Men typically need more time to get an erection. The volume of fluid in ejaculation declines. The production of testosterone also declines. In women, the walls of the vagina become less elastic and thinner and the vagina shrinks, potentially making intercourse painful.

Women enter a period, around age 45, known as the FEMALE CLIMACTERIC that lasts about 15 to 20 years. It marks the transition that ends the childbearing years. The most notable sign is MENOPAUSE, the cessation of menstruation. The process may begin as early as age 40 or as late as age 60. The production of estrogen and progesterone drop. Symptoms such as “hot flashes,” headaches, feeling dizzy, heart palpitations, and aching joints are common during menopause. Half of women report no symptoms at all. Symptoms of menopause differ by race. Perimenopause is the period beginning around 10 years prior to menopause when hormone production begins to change. After a year goes by without a menstrual period, menopause is said to have occurred.

In hormone therapy (HT), estrogen and progesterone are administered to alleviate the worst of menopausal symptoms. HT benefits: HT may decrease coronary heart disease and osteoporosis, and reduce risk for stroke and colon cancer. Estrogen benefits: It may improve memory and cognitive performance, and sex drive. HT risks: Women’s Health Initiative study concluded that the long term risks (breast cancer, blood clots, pulmonary embolism, and heart disease) of HT outweighed the benefits.

It was thought that about 10 % of women had psychological problems associated with menopause. Some of the psychological problems are depression, anxiety, crying spells, lack of concentration and irritability. It is now believed that women's expectations about menopause relate to their experience of menopause. Indian women have few symptoms and look forward to the social advantages of being past the childbearing age. Mayan women also have few symptoms and look forward to the freedom of being past childbearing age.

Men experience some changes during middle age that are collectively referred to as the MALE CLIMACTERIC, the period of physical and psychological change relating to the male reproductive system that occurs during late middle age. The most common change is the enlargement of the prostate gland. By age 40, 10 % of men have enlarged prostates. Symptoms are problems with urination, including difficulty starting to urinate and frequent need to urinate during the night. Men still produce sperm and can father children through middle age.

Health

The vast majority of people in middle age face no chronic health difficulties and have fewer accidents and infections because they are more careful and have built up immunities over their life. Some adults, however, are particularly susceptible to chronic diseases in middle adulthood. Arthritis typically begins after age 40. Diabetes is most likely to occur in people between the ages of 50 and 60, particularly if they are overweight. Hypertension (high blood pressure) is one of the most frequent chronic disorders found in middle age. The death rate for people between 40 and 60 has declined dramatically; it is less than half of what it was in 1940. Some people are genetically susceptible to chronic diseases, such as hypertension.

African Americans in the U.S. have twice the death rate of Caucasians. It is related to SES (socioeconomic status) because when death rates are compared to whites and African Americans of the same SES, African Americans' death rate drops below whites'. Poorer people are more apt to experience a disabling illness. Poorer people tend to work in more dangerous occupations. Poorer people often have inferior healthcare coverage. During middle age, women experience more nonlife-threatening illnesses than men but men experience more serious illnesses. Women smoke less. Women drink less alcohol. Women have less dangerous jobs. Medical research has typically studied diseases of men with all male samples; the medical community is only now beginning to study women's health issues.

Stress continues to have a significant impact on health in middle age. According to psychoneuroimmunologists, who study the relationship between the brain, the immune system, and psychological factors, stress produces three main consequences. Direct physiological outcomes – e.g., increased blood pressure and hormonal activity. Leads to unhealthy behaviors such as smoking, cutting back on sleep, drinking, or taking other drugs. People under a lot of stress are less likely to seek medical care.

More men die in middle age of diseases of the heart and circulatory system than any other cause. Risk factors for heart disease are found to be both genetic and experiential characteristics are involved. Heart disease runs in families. Men are more likely to suffer than women, and risks increase with age. There are several environmental and behavioral factors such as cigarette smoking, high fat and cholesterol in diet, and lack of physical exercise. Evidence suggests that some psychological factors are also related to heart disease.

People with TYPE A BEHAVIOR PATTERN, which is characterized by competitiveness, impatience, and a tendency toward frustration and hostility, are more susceptible to heart disease. They engage in polyphasic activities, multiple activities carried out simultaneously. They are easily angered and become verbally and nonverbally hostile if prevented from reaching their goals. Heart rate and blood pressure rise, epinephrine and norepinephrine increase. Wear and tear on heart produces disease. Evidence is only correlational so we cannot say Type A behavior causes heart disease. Most experts now say it is the negative emotion and hostility that are the major links to heart disease. Most research has been done on men; we need to research women to see if Type A women are equally susceptible. The key component that links Type A behavior and heart disease is hostility. By contrast, people with TYPE B BEHAVIOR PATTERN, which is characterized by noncompetitiveness, patience, and a lack of aggression, have less than half the risk of coronary disease that Type A people have. Behavior identified as Type D, for “distressed,” is linked to coronary heart disease. Factors such as insecurity, anxiety, and having a negative outlook put people at risk

Cancer is the second leading cause of death in middle age. Many forms of cancer respond well to treatment. Forty percent are still alive five years after diagnosis. Cancer is unchecked cell growth. Cancer is associated with several risk factors. Genetics (family history of cancer) raises the risk. Poor nutrition, smoking, alcohol use, exposure to sunlight, exposure to radiation, and exposure to occupational hazards such as certain chemicals raise the risk. Treatment of cancer can take a variety of forms. Radiation therapy involves the use of radiation to destroy a tumor. Chemotherapy involves the controlled ingestion of toxic substances meant to poison the tumor. Surgery may be used to remove the tumor. Early diagnosis is crucial. Mammography, a weak X-ray, is used to detect breast cancer. Women over 40 should routinely have one.

Cognitive Development

Cross-sectional studies test people of different ages at the same point in time, and they clearly showed that older subjects scored less well than younger subjects on traditional IQ tests. Intelligence peaks at 18, stays steady until mid-20s, and declines till end of life. These studies suffer from the cohort effect, influences associated with growing up at a particular historical time that affect people of a particular age. May be less educated, less stimulation on job, or may have poorer health. Cross-sectional studies may underestimate intelligence in older subjects.

Longitudinal studies, in which the same people are studied periodically over a span of time, revealed different developmental patterns in intelligence. Adults showed stable and even increasing IQ scores until mid-30s and some to mid-50s, then declined. Because of repeated testing, some people remember some of the test items, called the practice effect. People become more comfortable and relaxed after repeated testing’s. Subjects leave or die during time span; those who remain may be healthier, more stable, and psychologically more positive than the people who dropped out. Longitudinal studies may overestimate the intelligence of older people. Results are complicated by the fact that many IQ tests include a physical performance portion. These are timed. Reaction time slows with age. Results may be due to physical changes not cognitive changes.

Many researchers believe there are two kinds of intelligence. FLUID INTELLIGENCE is the ability to deal with new problems and situations. Fluid intelligence is inductive reasoning, spatial orientation, perceptual speed, and verbal memory. Fluid intelligence does decline with age. CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE is the store of information, skills, and strategies that people have acquired through education and prior experiences, and through their previous use of fluid intelligence. Crystallized intelligence includes numerical and verbal abilities, such as solving a crossword puzzle or a mathematical problem. Crystallized intelligence holds steady or increases with age.

What Is the Source of Competence During Middle Adulthood? Even though scores on IQ tests decline with age, middle-aged people show no decline in general cognitive competence. Timothy Salthouse suggests four reasons why the discrepancy exists. Traditional tests may not tap into practical intelligence. Highly successful middle-aged people may not be representative of all middle-aged people. Professional success may not rely exclusively on cognitive ability. Older, successful people may have developed expertise in their particular occupational area or SELECTIVE OPTIMIZATION, the process by which people concentrate on particular skill areas to compensate for losses in other areas.

EXPERTISE, the acquisition of skill or knowledge in a particular area, develops as people devote attention and practice. While beginners use formal procedures and rules, experts rely on experience and intuition, and often bend the rules. Because experts have so much experience, their behavior is often automatic, performed without much thought. Experts develop better strategies than nonexperts.

Memory

According to research on memory changes in adulthood, most people show only minimal losses, and many exhibit no memory loss in middle adulthood. Memory is viewed in terms of three sequential components. Sensory memory is an initial, momentary storage of information that lasts only an instant. No decline in middle age. Short-term memory holds information for 15 to 25 seconds. No decline in middle age. Long-term memory holds information that is rehearsed for a relatively permanent time. Some decline in middle age. Storage is less efficient. A reduction in efficiency of memory retrieval

We recall information through use of SCHEMAS, organized bodies of information stored in memory. Schemas allow people to organize, categorize, and interpret new information. Schemas allow people to organize their life into coherent wholes and interpret social events. Material consistent with existing schemas is more likely to be recalled than material that is inconsistent.

MNEMONICS are formal strategies for organizing material in ways that make it easier to remember. Following are mnemonics that work: Get organized, pay attention, use the encoding specificity phenomenon, visualize, and rehearse.

Personality Development

The traditional approach to adult personality development is the NORMATIVE-CRISIS MODEL, which views personality development in terms of fairly universal stages, tied to a sequence of age-related crises. Erikson, Gould, and Levinson’s models are stage models. Critics argue that normative-crisis models are outdated. They came from a time when gender roles were more rigid.

Theorists such as Revenna Helson focus more on LIFE EVENTS MODELS, which suggest that the timing of particular events in an adult's life, rather than age per se, determine the course of personality development. According to this model, a woman having her first baby at 21 would experience the same psychological forces as a woman having her first baby at 39. Both models agree that adulthood is not a time of passivity and stagnation but of continued psychological growth.

Erikson suggests that middle adulthood encompasses the period of GENERATIVITY VERSUS STAGNATION, where people consider their contributions to family, community, work, and society. Generativity is guiding and encouraging future generations. Generativity may be leaving a lasting contribution to the world through creative or artistic output. Generativity means looking beyond oneself to the continuation of one's life through others. Stagnation means people focus on the triviality of their life and feel they have made only a limited contribution to the world; their presence has counted for little.

George Vaillant suggests that middle adulthood is keeping the meaning versus rigidity. Occurs between the ages of 45 and 55. Adults seek to extract the meaning from their lives by accepting the strengths and weaknesses of others. Those who are rigid become increasingly isolated from others.

Psychiatrist Roger Gould suggests that adults pass through a series of seven stages associated with specific age periods. People in their late 30s and early 40s begin to feel a sense of urgency in terms of attaining life’s goals; this reality propels them to maturity. Little research supports his descriptions.

According to Daniel Levinson, the early 40s are a period of transition and crisis. Studying 40 men (no women), Levinson suggests that adult men pass through a series of stages beginning with early adulthood at age 20 and continuing into middle adulthood, called the seasons of life theory. Early adulthood is leaving the family and having “the dream,” where men have goals and aspirations and make long-term decisions about career and family. In their late 30s, men settle down and establish themselves in their chosen roles moving toward “the dream.” Between 40 and 45 people move into a period Levinson calls the midlife transition, or a time of questioning. They focus on the finite nature of life. They question their assumptions. They experience their first signs of aging. They begin to doubt the value of their accomplishments. They confront the knowledge that they will be unable to accomplish all their aims before they die. This period of assessment may lead to a MIDLIFE CRISIS, a stage of uncertainty and indecision brought about by the realization that life is finite. Facing signs of physical aging, men may also discover that even the accomplishments they are proudest of brought them less satisfaction than expected. Looking toward the past, they may seek to define what went wrong and look for ways to correct their past mistakes. Levinson claims women go through similar stages but have a more difficult time with “the dream” because of inner conflicts over career versus family.

The Midlife Crisis: Reality of Myth? Despite widespread acceptance, the evidence for a midlife crisis does not exist. For the majority of people, the transition is smooth and rewarding. Many middle-aged people find their careers have blossomed. They feel younger than they actually are. We may just pay more attention to the few who exhibit a midlife crisis. The notion of a separate middle age is a cultural construction: the significance of a particular age range differs widely depending on the culture in which one lives.

Psychologists argue whether personality changes or remains stable over the course of development. Erikson and Levinson suggest that personality changes substantially over the life span. Paul Costa and Robert McCrae find remarkable stability in particular traits across the life span. Stability and Change in the “Big Five” Personality Traits. Developmentalists feel that personality is both stable (on some traits) and changeable on others. The “Big Five” personality traits: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness.

Adults’ sense of subjective well-being or general happiness remains stable over their lives. Some 30 % of people in the United States rate themselves as “very happy.” African Americans rate themselves as “very happy” at only slightly lower rates as whites.

Our change as a combination of our basic personality traits and the events that we encounter as part of everyday life. Personality development does not progress the same way for everyone. The findings suggest that personality change occurs throughout adulthood, and in ways that are consistent with Erikson’s theory. The changes progress at different rates for different people, and not necessarily in a fixed order. Important events that affect individual people’s values and relationships have an influence on their subsequent psychosocial development

Relationships: Family in Middle Age

The most frequent pattern of marital satisfaction is U-shaped. Marital satisfaction begins to decline after marriage and falls to its lowest point following the birth of children. Marital satisfaction begins to grow after the children leave adolescence and reaches its highest point when the kids have left home. Many couples state that their spouse is their “best friend.” They also view marriage as a long-term commitment. They believe their spouse has grown more interesting over the years. Most feel their sex lives (although frequency goes down) are satisfying.

Some research indicates a u-curve of marital satisfaction over time, with ups and downs and ups of satisfaction. But there is conflicting research that suggests that marital satisfaction declines in the years just after marriage, and may continue to decline over the course of a marriage. Age may play an important role in satisfaction. Parenting puts extra strain on a marriage during early years, yet it also enhances it in later years.

For some the satisfaction keeps falling and experience their marriage ending in divorce. About one woman in eight will get divorced after 40. Why do marriages unravel? People are more individual, spending less time together. Many feel concerned with their own personal happiness and leave an unhappy marriage. Divorce is more socially acceptable. Wives may feel less dependent on their husbands, both from an emotional and economic standpoint. Feelings of romantic, passionate love may subside over time. There is a lot of stress in households where both parents work. People in middle adulthood spend less time together than in earlier year. Divorce can be especially hard for traditional women over 40 who stayed home with the kids and never worked.

Seventy-five percent to 80 % of divorced people eventually remarry, usually within 2 to 5 years. It's harder for a middle-aged woman to remarry. Ninety percent of women under 25 remarry. Less than 33 % over the age of 40 remarry. The marriage gradient pushes men to marry younger women. Older women are victims of the harsh societal standards regarding physical attractiveness. A major reason many remarry is that being divorced carries a stigma. Second marriages are different than first marriages. Older couples are more mature and realistic. Roles are more flexible. The couple looks at marriage less romantically and is more cautious. The divorce rate is slightly higher for second marriages. More stress, especially with blended families. Once you have experienced divorce it is easier to walk away a second time.

For many couples, a major transition is the EMPTY NEST SYNDROME when parents experience feelings of unhappiness, worry, loneliness, and depression resulting from their children's departure from home. Although this challenge is harder for many stay-at-home moms to face than for working moms, the empty nest syndrome is more myth than reality. There are many benefits when children leave home. Parents can work harder. More time alone. House stays cleaner. Phone doesn't ring so much.

There has been a significant increase in the U.S. in the number of young adults who come back to live in the homes of their middle-aged parents, a phenomenon called BOOMERANG CHILDREN. Men are more likely to do it than women. Parents tend to give sons more freedom than daughters. Unable to find a job. Difficulty making ends meet. People are marrying at later ages. Break-up of a marriage. Parents' reactions are both positive and negative.

Another new trend is that middle-aged couples become the SANDWICH GENERATION because they must fulfill the needs of both their children and their aging parents. Several converging trends created the sandwich generation. Couples are marrying and having children later. Parents are living longer. This is difficult because of role reversal. The care of parents ranges from financial aid to having parents live in their home. Most of the burden falls on the wife. This can be a rewarding situation for both children and parents. Multigenerational families often renegotiate parental and children’s roles. Middle generation children may take over the household. Loss of independence and decision-making authority may prove quite difficult for the elderly parents.

Middle adulthood often brings one of the unmistakable symbols of aging: becoming a grandparent. Involved grandparents are actively engaged in grandparenting and have influence over their grandchildren's lives. Companionate grandparents are more relaxed, and act as supporters and buddies to their grandchildren. Remote grandparents are detached and distant, and show little interest in their grandchildren. Grandmothers tend to be more involved than grandfathers. African American grandparents are more involved with their grandchildren than white grandparents.

Domestic violence is one of the ugly truths about marriage and is occurring at epidemic levels. Some form of violence happens in one-fourth of all marriages. More than half of all women murdered are murdered by a partner. Between 21 and 34 % of women will be slapped, kicked, beaten, choked, or threatened or attacked with a weapon at least once by a partner. Close to 15 % of marriages in the U.S. are characterized by continuing, severe violence. Violence occurs across social strata, ethnic groups, and religions. Mostly it is men abusing women, but 8 % of the cases involve the wife physically abusing the husband. Certain factors increase the likelihood of abuse. Growing up in a violent home. Families with more children have more violence. Single parent families with lots of stress. Incest is more likely to occur in affluent families. One in three women throughout the globe experience some form of violent victimization during their lives

According to Lenore Walker, marital abuse by a husband occurs in three stages. The first is the tension-building stage where a batterer becomes upset and shows dissatisfaction initially through verbal abuse. The next is the acute battering incident when the physical abuse actually occurs. Finally, some, but not all, cases move into the loving contrition stage where the husband feels remorse and apologizes for his actions. The wife feels somewhat at fault. This explains why women stay in abusive relationships. Some stay out of fear. Many women have grown up in a violent home and think that violence is a way of life.

According to the CYCLE OF VIOLENCE HYPOTHESIS, abuse and neglect of children leads them to be predisposed to abusiveness as adults. However, only about one-third of people who were abused or neglected as children abuse their own children. Two-thirds of abusers were not abused as children.

Wife battering is particularly prevalent in cultures in which women are viewed as inferior to men. Original English law allowed husbands to beat their wives. This law was amended to permit beating only with a stick that was no thicker than his thumb (where the phrase "rule of thumb" comes from). Wife beating was not removed from law until the late 19th century. When women have low status they become easy targets; when they have high status they are threatening to their husbands. Following are measures to help the victims of spousal abuse by teaching both wives and husbands a basic premise: violence is never acceptable. Call the police. Understand that the remorse shown by a spouse, no matter how heartfelt, may have no bearing on possible future violence. If you are the victim of abuse, seek a safe haven. If you feel in danger from an abusive partner, seek a restraining order. Call the National Domestic Violence Hotline.

Work and Leisure

For many, middle age is the time of greatest productivity, success, and earning power. The factors that make work satisfying undergo a transformation during middle age. Middle-aged workers care more about the here-and-now qualities of work. The older workers are, the more overall job satisfaction they experience. Job satisfaction is not universal in middle adulthood. Some experience BURNOUT, which occurs when highly trained professionals experience dissatisfaction, disillusionment, frustration, and weariness from their jobs.

For many workers, unemployment is a hard reality of life and the implications are more psychological than economic. Unemployment can leave people feeling anxious, depressed, and irritable. Middle-aged adults tend to stay unemployed longer than young workers. Employers may discriminate because of age. Research shows that older workers have less absenteeism, hold their jobs longer, are more reliable, and are more willing to learn new skills.

Some people change their jobs voluntarily in middle adulthood. Their old job gave little satisfaction. They achieved mastery of the old job's challenges. They no longer enjoy what they do. Many women return to the job market after raising children. Sixty-five percent of women between ages of 50 and 60 (80 % of those who graduated from college) are now in the workforce. Three-quarters are in full-time jobs.

Critics of immigration contend that today's immigrants (10 % of our population) are different than before. Only a third are white (88 % were White before). Critics argue that immigrants lack skills; however, they are wrong in many respects. Most legal and illegal immigrants are doing well financially. Only a few are on welfare. Given time, immigrants contribute more to the economy than they take away (they eventually pay $25 to $30 billion more in taxes than they use in government services).

Most middle-aged adults have 70 hours a week for leisure time. The average middle-aged person watches 15 hours of TV per week. Adults spend about 6 hours a week socializing. Some turn to charity, or community organizations. Life is faster-paced in the U.S. than in many other countries, with the exception of Japan and Western European countries.

Later Adulthood

Introduction to Chapter

Old age used to be equated with loss of brain cells, intellectual capabilities, energy, and sex drive. GERONTOLOGISTS, specialists who study aging, now see late adulthood as a period of considerable diversity in which people change: growth in some areas, decline in others. Late adulthood begins at 65 and ends at death. We cannot define old age by chronological years alone; we must also take into account people’s physical and psychological well-being, their functional ages. Some researchers divide aging people into three groups. The young old are healthy and active. The old old have some health problems and difficulties. The oldest old are frail and need care.

Physical Development in Late Adulthood

Because people are living longer, late adulthood is increasing in length. One out of every eight people in the United States is 65 years of age or older. Projections into the year 2050 estimate that almost 25 % of the population will be over 65. The fastest growing segment of the population is what is termed the oldest old, people who are 85 or older. This group's size has nearly doubled in the last 20 years. This trend is occurring in every developed country in the world.

AGEISM, prejudice and discrimination directed at older people, is manifested in several ways. Negative attitudes about older people, especially about competence and attractiveness, also job discrimination. Asians and Native Americans revere older people. Identical behavior by an older person and a younger person is interpreted differently. People talk baby talk to persons in nursing homes. Most negative views are based on misinformation.

PRIMARY AGING, or senescence, is aging that involves universal and irreversible changes that, due to genetic programming, occur as people get older. SECONDARY AGING is changes in physical and cognitive functioning that are due to illness, health habits, and other individual differences, but which are not due to increased age itself and are not inevitable. One of the most obvious outward signs of aging is the hair. Hair becomes thin and gray or white. The face and other parts of the body become wrinkled as the skin loses elasticity and collagen, the protein that forms the basic fibers of body tissue. People may shrink as much as 4 inches. Cartilage in backbone becomes thinner

Women are most susceptible if they have OSTEOPOROSIS, a condition in which the bones become brittle, fragile, and thin, often brought about by a reduction in production of estrogen. Twenty-five percent of women over 60 have osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is the primary cause of broken bones. Osteoporosis is largely preventable with sufficient calcium and exercise.

Women, especially in Western cultures, suffer from the double standard for appearance, where women who show signs of aging are judged more harshly than men. Women are more likely to dye their hair. Women are more likely to have cosmetic surgery.

Significant changes also occur in the internal functioning of the organ systems. The brain becomes smaller and lighter with age. There is a reduction of blood flow to the brain. The space between the skull and the brain doubles from age 20 to 70. The number of neurons, or brain cells, declines in some parts of the brain, though not as much as was once thought. Because of hardening of the arteries and shrinking of blood vessels, a 75-year-old's heart pumps less than three-quarters of the blood it pumped during early adulthood. The efficiency of the respiratory system declines with age. The digestive system produces less digestive juice and is less efficient in pushing food through the system (result = more constipation). Lifestyle factors can slow the changes associated with aging. Certain types of neuronal growth may continue throughout the life span. Physical fitness is related to better performance on mental tests. May prevent loss of brain tissue. May aid in the development of new neurons.

Older adults’ reaction time slows significantly. The PERIPHERAL SLOWING HYPOTHESIS suggests that overall processing speed declines in the peripheral nervous system (spinal cord and brain). The GENERALIZED SLOWING HYPOTHESIS is the theory that processing in all parts of the nervous system, including the brain, is less efficient. Older people have more accidents. Decision process is slowed down. Perception of time seems to increase with age.

Old age brings a distinct decline in the sense organs of the body. Lens becomes less transparent and the pupils shrink. The optic nerve becomes less efficient. Distant objects become less acute. More light is needed to see and it takes longer to adjust to a change from light to darkness and vice versa. Driving at night becomes more challenging. Reading becomes more of a strain and eye strain occurs more easily. Cataracts, cloudy or opaque areas of the lens of the eye that interfere with passing light, frequently develop. Cataracts can be surgically removed. Intraocular lens implants can replace old lens. Glaucoma occurs when pressure in the fluid of the eye increases, either because the fluid cannot drain properly or because too much fluid is produced. Glaucoma can be corrected with drugs or surgery. It must be detected early enough. Macular degeneration is the most common cause of blindness in people over the age of 60 Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), affects the macula, a yellowish area of the eye located near the retina at which visual perception is most acute. Diet rich in antioxidant vitamins (C, E, and A) can reduce the risk of this disease.

Thirty percent of adults between 65 and 74 have some hearing loss. Fifty percent of adults over 75 have hearing loss. High frequencies are the hardest to hear. Hearing aids would be helpful 75 % of the time but only 20 % of people wear them. They are imperfect and amplify all sounds so it is difficult to discern conversations. There is a stigma attached to wearing a hearing aid. Because they cannot hear, some people withdraw from society because they feel left out and lonely. Hearing loss may hasten cognitive declines in the elderly, using considerable mental resources simply trying to understand what is being said.

Both the taste and smell senses become less discriminating in old age. This is due to the decline in taste buds on the tongue. Olfactory bulbs in the brain shrink and reduce the ability to smell. People eat less and get poor nutrition. Older people might add too much salt to their food and develop hypertension, or high blood pressure.

Health and Wellness in Late Adulthood

The leading causes (three-fourths of all deaths) of death in elderly people are heart disease, cancer, and stroke. Most older people have at least one chronic, long-term condition. Arthritis, an inflammation of one or more joints, is common, striking around half of older people. Approximately one-third of older people have hypertension, or high blood pressure.

Fifteen to 25 % of those over age 65 show some symptoms of psychological malady. Depression is characterized by intense sadness, pessimism, and hopelessness. May be a result of cumulative losses in life. Declining health may contribute. Some psychological problems such as anxiety may be caused by inappropriate drug doses or drug interactions. The most common mental disorder of old people is DEMENTIA, a broad category covering several diseases, each of which includes serious memory loss accompanied by declines in other mental functioning. Signs include declining memory, lessened intellectual abilities, and impaired judgment. Less than 2 % of people between the ages of 60 and 65 have it; percentages double every five years after 65. One-third of those over 85 suffer from some sort of dementia.

The most common form of dementia is ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE, which is a progressive brain disorder that produces loss of memory and confusion. Alzheimer's leads to the death of 100,000 people a year. Nineteen percent of people 75 to 84 have Alzheimer’s and almost 50 % of people over 85 are affected. If current trends continue, by the year 2050, almost 14 million Americans over 85 will be victims. The symptoms appear gradually: unusual forgetfulness, trouble recalling particular words during conversation, first recent memory goes, then older memories, eventually, total confusion, inability to speak intelligibly or to recognize family and friends, and toward the end, loss of muscle control and confinement to bed. Alzheimer’s occurs when production of the protein beta amyloid precursor protein, a protein that normally helps the production and growth of neurons, goes awry. The brain shrinks, and several areas of the hippocampus and frontal and temporal lobes deteriorate, certain neurons die, and create a lack of acetylcholine. No known triggers are understood to cause Alzheimer's; it runs in families. Diet and high blood pressure may increase susceptibility. Viruses, dysfunctions of the immune system, and hormone imbalances, as well as low cognitive ability, may also be implicated. There is no cure for Alzheimer’s. Several drug treatments appear promising: Aricept, Exelon, and Reminyl, which are forms of acetylcholine, in addition to anti-inflammatory drugs and the chemical in vitamins C and E. Only helps about 50%. No drug treatment is totally effective. Because all Alzheimer patients are eventually bedridden, many end their lives in nursing homes. Alzheimer’s disease is one of the most difficult illnesses to deal with. Step can be taken to help the patient and the caregiver deal with Alzheimer’s disease.

Genetic predisposition, lifestyle, economic well-being, and psychological factors play important roles in people’s susceptibility to illness. People can do specific things to enhance their physical and psychological well-being and their longevity – their active life spans — during old age. Eat a proper diet. Exercise. Avoid threats to health, such as smoking. Many elderly individuals face grave financial burdens in obtaining affordable health care resulting in less regular check-ups and inadequate care. Psychological factors play a role in susceptibility to illness.

Evidence suggests that people are sexually active well into their 80s and 90s. Good physical and mental healthcare are necessary. Previous sexual activity increases the desire for sex – “Use it or lose it.” Studies show that 43 % of men and 33 % of women over age 70 masturbate. Two-thirds of men and women over age 70 had sex with their spouses an average of once a week. It takes men longer to get an erection and women's vaginas become thin and inelastic, producing less lubrication. Ten percent of people diagnosed with AIDS are over the age of 50.

There are two major approaches explaining why we undergo physical deterioration and death. GENETIC PREPROGRAMMING THEORIES OF AGING suggest that our body's DNA genetic code contains a built-in time limit for the reproduction of human cells. One theory is that genetic material has a "death gene" that is programmed to direct the body to deteriorate and die. Another theory is that genetic instructions for running the body can be read only a certain number of times before they become illegible. Evidence: When human cells divide, telomeres (tiny, protective areas of DNA at the tips of the chromosomes), grow shorter. WEAR-AND-TEAR THEORIES OF AGING argue that the mechanical functions of the body simply wear out with age. Some theories say that the body's constant manufacture of energy to fuel its activities creates by-products which eventually reach such high levels that they impair the body's normal functioning. Free radicals, electrically charged atoms, are produced in the cells and may cause negative effects on other cells. This is a more optimistic theory, which suggests that longevity can be extended by eliminating the toxins produced by the body. Each of the theories is supported by some research. Each seems to explain some aspects of aging.

LIFE EXPECTANCY, the average age of death for members of a population, has been steadily increasing. In 1776, the average life expectancy was 35. In 1900, the average life expectancy was 47. For a person born in 1980 life expectancy is 74. By 2050, the average life expectancy is predicted to be 80. Health conditions are better. Many diseases are wiped out or better controlled through medicine. People's working conditions are better. Better lifestyles choices are being made. The maximum human life span is believed to hover around 120. To extend the maximum life span would probably take genetic alterations.

Can Scientists Find the Fountain of Youth? Researchers have made significant strides in identifying potential ways that aging may be held off. Telomere therapy and unlocking the longevity genes might be factors in helping with aging. Sirtuins, a promising family of genes, might regulate and promote longer life. Reducing free radicals, restricting calories and replacing worn-out organs are some ways to promote a longer life.

The average Caucasian in the U.S. is likely to live 76 years. The average African American is likely to live 71 years. The average Japanese is likely to live 79 years. The average Gambian is likely to live less than 45 years. A male born in the U.S. is most likely to live 73 years. A female born in the U.S. is most likely to live 80 years. Women's hormones (estrogen and progesterone) protect them from heart attacks. Women may eat more healthy diets than men. Men smoked more in the past. Racial disparities may reflect better eating habits (Japanese) and lower socioeconomic well-being (African Americans).

Intelligence

The notion that older people become less cognitively adept arose from misinterpretations of research evidence. Cross-sectional research does not take into account cohort effects, influences attributable to growing up in a particular era. Longitudinal studies suffer from practice effects and sample attribution.

Recent research (by K. W. Schaie) uses sequential methods, which combine cross-sectional and longitudinal methods. Research methods included 500 subjects (ages 20 to 70 in five year intervals) who were tested every seven years. More subjects added to create a total of 5,000. Generalizations supported by the research show no uniform pattern of adulthood age-related changes across all intellectual abilities. Some abilities (fluid intelligence) decline, starting at age 25. Other abilities (crystallized intelligence) stay steady or increase. For some, there were cognitive declines in all abilities by age 67. These declines were minimal until age 80. At age 81, less than half showed consistent declines. There were individual differences in the patterns of changes. For some, intellectual skills begin to decline in their 30s. Others show no decline until their 70s. One-third of those in their 70s score higher than the average young adult. Certain environmental and cultural factors are related to greater or lesser degrees of intellectual decline. Lesser declines are associated with good health, high SES, involvement in an intellectually stimulating environment, a flexible personality, being married to a bright spouse, maintenance of good perceptual processing speed, and feeling self-satisfied with one's accomplishments in middle and early old age.

Schaie and Willis taught people whose reasoning and spatial skills had declined a variety of skills. More than half showed significant improvement. Such PLASTICITY, or modifiability of behavior, suggests that there is nothing fixed about the changes that may occur in intellectual abilities during late adulthood ("Use it or lose it"). Researchers found that the brains of heavier elder adults were smaller than brains of thin elder adults.

Memory

Memory declines in older adulthood. Memory losses occur primarily to episodic memory, which relates to specific life experiences. Semantic memories (general knowledge and facts) and implicit memories (memories about which people are not consciously aware) are largely unaffected by age. Short-term memory declines gradually until age 70, when it becomes more pronounced. Information presented quickly and verbally is forgotten sooner. New information is more difficult to recall perhaps because it is not processed as efficiently.

Is recalling the days of our lives possible at this age? People's AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY, memories of information about one's own life, frequently follows the Pollyanna principle, in which pleasant memories are more likely to be recalled than unpleasant memories. People recall material that "fits" their current self-view. Particular periods of life are remembered more easily than others. 70-year-olds recall their 20s and 30s best. 50-year-olds recall their teenage years and their 20s best.

Changes in memory focus on three categories. Environmental factors: drugs, retirement, motivation lower; Information processing deficits: inability to inhibit irrelevant information and thoughts declines, speed of processing declines, difficulty paying attention and organizing information, less efficient retrieval methods; Biological factors: brain and body deterioration and especially frontal lobes.

Continuation of education in old age can improve cognitive skills. One of the biggest generational divides is in the area of technology. People 65 and older are far less likely to use technology than younger individuals. One barrier is that older adults are less interested and less motivated because they are less likely to be employed, and thus less likely to need to learn new technology. A second barrier is cognitive because fluid intelligence declines as we age.

Personality Development and Successful Aging

Whether personality changes or stays stable in late adulthood depends on which facets of personality are considered. According to Costa and McCrae, basic personality traits remain stable. Some changes in personality occur as a result of new challenges that appear in later adulthood.

Erikson labeled the last stage of personality development EGO-INTEGRITY-VERSUS-DESPAIR; it is characterized by a process of looking back over one's life, evaluating it, and coming to terms with it. Integrity comes when people feel they have realized and fulfilled the possibilities that have come their way. Despair occurs when people feel dissatisfied with their life and experience gloom, unhappiness, depression, anger, or the feeling that they have failed.

Robert Peck suggests that personality development in elderly people is occupied by three major developmental tasks or challenges. The first is REDEFINITION OF SELF VERSUS PREOCCUPATION WITH WORK-ROLE, which means that those in old age must redefine themselves in ways that do not relate to their work-roles or occupations. The second major task is BODY TRANSCENDENCE VERSUS BODY PREOCCUPATION, a period in which people must learn to cope with and move beyond changes in physical capabilities as a result of aging. The third developmental task is EGO TRANSCENDENCE VERSUS EGO PREOCCUPATION in which elderly people must come to grips with their coming death.

According to Daniel Levinson, people enter late adulthood after passing through a transition stage that typically occurs at about age 60 to 65. During this transition time people begin to view themselves as entering late adulthood. People struggle with being "old" and often must face illness and death of one’s friends and loved ones. People must struggle with the loss of power, respect, and authority. People can serve as resources for younger people and be in a position to give advice. Old age brings freedom to do things for fun and entertainment.

Bernice Neugarten studied the different ways people cope with aging. Disintegrated and disorganized personalities are unable to accept aging and experience despair as they get older, often ending up in nursing homes or hospitalized. Passive-dependent personalities lead lives filled with fear of falling ill, fear of the future, fear of their own inability to cope. Defended personalities seek to ward off aging and attempt to act young, exercising vigorously and engaging in youthful activities that could lead to unrealistic expectations and disappointment. Integrated personalities cope comfortably with aging and accept becoming older with a sense of dignity.

Erikson, Peck, Neugarten, and Levinson all suggest that a major characteristic of personality development in old age is looking backward, called a LIFE REVIEW, where people examine and evaluate their lives.

According to Robert Butler, the life review is triggered by the increasing awareness that one will die. There are benefits to a life review. A better understanding of one's life. Resolution of lingering problems. A sense of sharing and mutuality with others like them. May improve memory. A life review is not always positive. People may become obsessed with the past. This may cause psychological dysfunction.

AGE STRATIFICATION THEORIES suggest that an unequal distribution of economic resources, power, and privilege exists among people at different stages of the life course. Power and prestige for the elderly have eroded, making them seen as lacking and not productive members of society. In less industrialized countries older individuals continue to be involved in daily life.

Cultural differences in the way the elderly are treated are often exaggerated. Asian, Latin, and African societies revere old age but there is great individual variation, while Western societies seem to hold those in late adulthood in little esteem. Cultures that revere old age have several things in common. They are homogeneous in socioeconomic terms and the elderly control the finances. Older adults in these cultures continue to engage in activities that are valued by society. These cultures tend to be organized around extended families.

Does Age Bring Wisdom? WISDOM, expert knowledge in the practical aspects of life, has received little attention from gerontologists until recently. Developmentalists disagree on whether we should expect a relationship between wisdom and aging. Another challenge is to distinguish wisdom from intelligence. Knowledge derived from intelligence is the here-and-now. Wisdom is more timeless. Wisdom provides understanding of human nature while intelligence permits logical thinking. Measuring wisdom is difficult. According to studies, older adults’ abilities with respect to theory of mind are superior to those of younger adults.

Successful aging depends on personality factors and circumstances. According to DISENGAGEMENT THEORY, the period in late adulthood that marks a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels, people withdraw from the world and the world compels the elderly to withdraw (e.g., retirement). People can become more reflective about their lives. People can become less constrained by social roles. People become more discerning about relationships, which can help them adjust to increasing frequency of serious illness and death among their peers. Disengagement is not an automatic, universal process for all people in late adulthood.

According to ACTIVITY THEORY, successful aging occurs when people maintain the interests, activities, and social interactions with which they were involved during middle age. Happiness and satisfaction with life are assumed to spring from a high level of involvement with the world. When it is no longer possible to work, successful aging according to activity theory suggests that replacement activities be found. Being involved in any activity just to remain active may not always contribute to happiness and satisfaction. Some people are happier when they can slow down and only do those things that bring them the greatest satisfaction.

CONTINUITY THEORY suggests that people simply need to maintain their desired level of involvement in society to maximize their sense of well-being and self-esteem. Other factors enhance happiness during late adulthood. Good physical and mental health are important in determining an elderly person's sense of well-being. Financial security and a sense of autonomy and independence also give one's later life a significant advantage. A positive outlook on life helps people view their old age more favorably.

Baltes and Baltes suggest older people overcome changes and losses in old age according to the principle of SELECTIVE OPTIMIZATION, where people concentrate on particular skill areas to compensate for losses in other areas.

The Daily Life of Late Adulthood

Contrary to the stereotype, only 5 % of elderly people end their lives in a nursing home. Two-thirds of people over the age of 65 live with other members of the family. Most live with their spouse. The adjustment to living with children can be difficult. African Americans are more likely to live in multigenerational families than whites.

Ten percent live in a CONTINUING-CARE FACILITY, which typically offers an environment in which all the residents are of retirement age or older and need various levels of care. As their needs increase, residents move into assisted living, with support by medical providers as needed. Several types of nursing homes exist.

ADULT DAY-CARE FACILITIES are where elderly individuals receive care only during the day, but spend nights and weekends in their own homes. Some adult facilities are combined with infant and child-care programs, allowing for interaction between old and young.

SKILLED-NURSING FACILITIES provide full-time nursing care for people who have chronic illnesses or who are recovering from a temporary medical condition. Only 1 % of those aged 64 to 74 are in nursing homes. Twenty-five percent of those over 85 are in nursing homes.

Fears of nursing homes can lead to INSTITUTIONALISM, a psychological state in which people develop apathy, indifference, and a lack of caring about themselves. Often brought about by a sense of learned hopelessness, the belief that one has no control over one's environment. Langer and Janis found that when given simple choices over their lives, only 15 % of the choice groups died within 18 months, compared to 30 % of the comparison group.

People who were well off in young adulthood remain so in late adulthood; those who were poor remain poor in late adulthood. Ten percent of the elderly over age 65 live below the poverty line. Women are twice as likely to live in poverty as men. Seven percent of whites live below the poverty line. Nineteen percent of Hispanics live below the poverty line. Twenty-four percent of African Americans live below the poverty line. Divorced black women aged 65 to 74 had a poverty rate of 47 %. Elderly must often live on a fixed income that rarely keeps up with inflation. Social Security, pensions, and savings, is it enough? The elderly face rising health costs. The average older person spends 20 % of his or her income on healthcare costs. Nursing homes can cost an average of more than $75,190 a year.

When to retire is a major decision faced by the majority of people in late adulthood. The typical retirement age is moving downward to age 60. Many people continue to work full- or part-time for some part of late adulthood. Age discrimination remains a reality despite laws making it illegal. Mandatory retirement is illegal (since the 1970s) with the exception of certain public safety jobs such as police, firefighters, prison guards, and pilots.

The retirement decision is based on a number of factors. Workers may be burned out after working all their lives. Jobs can be frustrating and tension-filled. Health may decline. Incentives are offered by their company to retire early. Desire to travel and see more of family. People pass through stages in the process of retirement. At first there is a honeymoon period, in which former workers engage in a variety of activities, such as travel, that were previously hindered by full-time work. Disenchantment may occur when retirees conclude that retirement is not all they thought it would be. Reorientation is the stage where retirees reconsider their options and become engaged in new, more fulfilling activities. A retirement routine stage occurs when retirees come to grips with the realities of retirement and feel fulfilled in this new phase of life. The final stage is the process of termination where the retiree either goes back to work or health deteriorates so badly that the person can no longer function independently. Not everyone passes through each stage and the sequence is not universal.

Several factors make for a good retirement. Plan ahead financially. Consider tapering off from work gradually. Explore your interests before your retire. If you are married or in a long-term partnership, spend some time discussing your views of the ideal retirement with your partner. Consider where you want to live. Determine the advantages and disadvantages of downsizing your current home. Plan to volunteer your time.

Relationships: Old and New

The proportion of men who are married over the age of 65 is far greater than that of women. Seventy percent of women outlive their husbands. The marriage gradient makes remarriage easier for elderly men than for women. The vast majority of those still married report they are satisfied with their spouse. For some, the stress of retirement or old age changes the relationship and 2 % of divorces in the U. S. involve women over 60. Husband may be abusive or alcoholic. The husband may have found a younger woman. Psychological turmoil from retirement, especially for men. Divorce is harder on women than men. Five percent of the elderly never married and late adulthood brings fewer changes to their lives. For many couples, retirement means that relationships have to be refashioned. Couples spend more time together. Provides an opportunity for sharing household chores Men become more affiliative and less competitive and women become more assertive and autonomous.

Shifts in health mean that in late adulthood men and women may have to care for an ill spouse. May provide closeness and a sense of fulfillment. The caregiver may not be in good health either. In three-quarters of cases, the caregiver is the wife.

Few events are more painful than the death of a spouse. No longer part of a couple. Must deal with profound grief. No one to share life with. Social life often changes. Economic changes often occur. According to Gloria Heinemann and Patricia Evans, the process of adjusting to widowhood occurs in three stages. In the first stage, preparation, spouses prepare for the eventual death of the partner. The second stage, grief and mourning, is an immediate reaction to the death of a spouse. May last years or months. Length depends on the degree of support and personality factors. The last stage is adaptation, where the widowed individual starts a new life. These stages do not apply to everyone.

Friendships play an important role in the lives of those in late adulthood. Friendships are often more valued than family because of the element of control: we choose our friends. Friendships are more flexible than family. When a spouse dies, friends help fill the gap. When a friend is defined as irreplaceable, the death of that friend may be quite difficult.

Friends provide SOCIAL SUPPORT, assistance and comfort supplied by another person or a network of caring, interested people. Social support is important for successful aging. Provides an ear. Can sympathize when they have been through the same crises. Can help furnish material support such as help solving problems, giving a ride, or fixing broken things. Reciprocity is important, however with increasing age this may become more difficult.

Connections with siblings, children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren may provide an important source of comfort to adults in the last years of their lives. Siblings are important because they have shared a large portion of life with you. More important are children. Often provide support and care. Parents often have a greater developmental stake in close ties because they see their children as perpetuating their beliefs, values, and standards. Most parents and children remain close. Seventy-five percent of children live within a 30-mile drive to their parents. Daughters tend to be in more frequent contact than sons. Mothers tend to be the recipient of communication more than fathers. Children may turn to their elderly parents for advice, information, and monetary help.

Not all grandparents take great pride in their grandchildren. Grandmothers are more involved than grandfathers. Many grandchildren express a greater preference for their maternal grandmother than for their paternal grandmother. African American grandparents are more involved with their grandchildren than are whites. African American grandfathers play a larger role in their grandchildren's lives than do white grandfathers. Most grandparents do not have close relationships to their great-grandchildren although they enjoy having them. May relate to the fact that great-grandparents are very old. May have so many great-grandchildren that it is hard to keep track of them.

According to some estimates, the incidence of ELDER ABUSE, the physical or psychological mistreatment or neglect of elderly individuals, may affect as many as two million people above the age of 60 each year. Elder abuse is most frequently by a family member. People with Alzheimer's and other dementias are particularly likely to be targets. The best prevention is for family members to take breaks and ask for assistance from social support agencies. Anyone suspecting abuse should contact local authorities.

Death and Dying

Defining Death: Determining the Point at Which Life Ends

What is death? Terri Schiavo’s case pointed to difficult and complex questions regarding the matters of life and death. Death as a biological event involves psychological aspects. Defining death is a complex decision. FUNCTIONAL DEATH is the absence of a heartbeat and breathing. People can be resuscitated after they have stopped breathing. People can be kept alive by a machine. BRAIN DEATH, where brain activity is measured, has become the medical measure of death. There is still some question about using only brain waves as the death definition. It emphasizes only biology, not the qualities that make people human (thinking, feeling, etc.).

Death across the Life Span: Causes and Reactions

The U.S. has a relatively high infant mortality rate. Parents dealing with infant death have a very hard time, and depression is a common reaction. Prenatal death (miscarriage) is also difficult, especially since others do not attribute much meaning to a miscarriage so parents feel isolated. In SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS), a seemingly healthy baby stops breathing and dies. SIDS usually strikes suddenly between 2 and 4 months. There is no known cause for SIDS so parents often feel intense guilt (and acquaintances may be suspicious).

Accidents are the most frequent cause of death in childhood but there are a substantial number of homicides (fourth leading cause of death between ages 1 and 9). For parents the loss of a child is profound. Children do not have a realistic view of death. Before age 5, children see death as temporary, like sleeping. Young children may leap to the erroneous conclusion that they are responsible for a person’s death. By age 5 children have begun to accept death as universal and final.

Adolescents’ view of death is also unrealistic and often highly romantic. The most frequent cause of adolescent death is accidents. People tend to think it can’t happen to them (personal fable). Adolescents tend to feel invulnerable so confronting a terminal illness can be difficult; they often feel angry and cheated.

Death in young adulthood is particularly difficult because it is the time in life when people feel most ready to begin their own lives. Young adults facing death have several concerns. Developing intimate relationships and one’s sexuality Future planning (e.g., marry or not? Have children?) Like adolescents, young adults are outraged at impending death and may direct anger toward their care providers.

Life-threatening disease is the most common cause of death in middle-aged adults. These adults are more aware and accepting of death but also have a lot of fears (more than any other time in life span). Most frequent causes are heart attack or stroke, both of which are sudden.

The prevalence of death and losses around older adults makes them less anxious about dying than at any other time of life. The most likely causes of death are cancer, stroke, and heart disease. Impending death is sometimes accompanied by acceleration of declines in cognitive functioning, the terminal decline. Suicide rate increases with age for men. Caucasian men over age 85 have the highest rate of suicide. A major issue for seniors with a terminal disease is whether their lives still have value and how much of a burden they are. Most people know when they are dying; it is caretakers who tend to have more difficulties communicating about it.

People’s responses to death take different forms, particularly in different cultures. Some societies view death as a punishment or as a judgment. Others see it as redemption. Some see death as the start of an eternal life. In some cultures children learn about death at an early age.

Death Education: Preparing for the Inevitable

THANATOLOGISTS, people who study death, suggest that death education be part of everyone’s schooling since we are all affected. Several types of death education programs exist. Crisis intervention education. Routine death education. Death education for members of the helping professions.

The Process of Dying: Taking Steps toward Death

Elisabeth Kübler-Ross identified five stages of coping with death. Denial is resisting the whole idea of death (No I’m not or she’s not!). Denial is a form of defense mechanism to allow one to absorb difficult information at one’s own pace. Anger, “Why me/her?” “Why not you?” In this stage people may be very difficult to be around. Bargaining, at this stage individuals are trying to negotiate their way out of the death. Typically, people try to make deals with God. Sometimes the bargain creates an event or date until which the person can hold on (such as a grandchild's wedding, or a 100th birthday). Depression, the individual at this stage is overwhelmed by a deep sense of loss. Reactive depression is a type of depression based on what has already occurred, such as loss of dignity, health, etc. Preparatory depression is the anticipation of future losses, such as the loss of a relationship. Acceptance, in this stage individuals near death make peace with death and may want to be left alone. Persons in this stage are often unemotional and uncommunicative. The theory does not apply to people who are not sure they are going to die -- when the prognosis is ambiguous. The stages are not universal, nor do people go through them in progression. Anxiety, especially about pain, is omitted in her stages and this is an important concern for cancer patients. There are still a lot of differences in peoples’ reactions to death related to family, culture, finances, personality, etc. However, Elisabeth Kübler-Ross is still influential and is credited with being the first person to bring the phenomenon of death into public awareness.

Choosing the Nature of Death: Is DNR the Way to Go?

The letters “DNR” (Do Not Resuscitate) mean that medical personnel should not go to extraordinary or extreme efforts to save the terminally ill patient. The terms “extraordinary” or “extreme” are difficult to define. No one likes to make this decision. It is sometimes difficult to get medical personnel to follow these directives.

LIVING WILLS, legal documents designating what medical treatments people want or do not want if they cannot express their wishes, are a method of letting people gain control over their deaths. Often comas are not covered, since they may be considered "nonterminal." Some living wills specify a health-care proxy to act as a person's representative in making health-care decisions. Living wills are ineffective unless people take steps to make sure their health-care proxies and doctors know their wishes.

Assisted suicide is a death in which a person provides the means for a terminally ill patient to commit suicide. Dr. Jack Kevorkian is best known for this role and has been prosecuted in the U.S. Laws are more accepting in other countries (e.g., Netherlands). Assisted suicide is one form of EUTHANASIA, the practice of assisting terminally ill people to die more quickly. Passive euthanasia involves removing respirators or other medical equipment that may be sustaining life. Voluntary active euthanasia is where caregivers or medical staff act to end a person’s life before death would normally occur. No one knows how widespread euthanasia is. Euthanasia is highly controversial since it centers on decisions about who should control life. Assisted suicide is illegal in most states, except the state of Oregon.

Caring for the Terminally Ill: The Place of Death

About half the people in the United States who die, do not die in hospitals. For the terminally ill, hospitals may not be the best places to die. Hospitals are impersonal, expensive, and designed to make people better and many people die alone.

In HOME CARE, an alternative to the hospital, people stay in their homes and receive comfort and treatment from their families and visiting medical staff. Many people prefer to die in familiar surroundings with the people and things they have loved around them. Home care can be very difficult for the family.

HOSPICE CARE is care provided for the dying in institutions devoted to those who are terminally ill. The term "hospice" comes from the Middle Ages where hospices were places that provided comfort and hospitality to travelers. The focus of hospice care is not to try and cure the patient, but to make their final days pleasant, meaningful, and pain-free. Research shows that hospice patients seem to be more satisfied with their care than hospital patients.

Mourning and Funerals: Final Rites

The first step in grieving, for most survivors in Western countries, is some sort of funeral. Funerals are a big business, the average funeral and burial costs $7,000. Death represents an important passage for the individual and the society, so the associated rite is important. Funerals are also recognition of everyone’s ultimate mortality and an acceptance of the cycle of life. Western funeral rituals typically include: Preparation of the body, religious ritual, eulogy, procession, and a wake or Shiva. Military funerals include firing weapons and a flag on the coffin.

Funeral patterns are different in different cultures but all have the same function: to mark the endpoint of the life of the person who has died and the starting point for the survivors, from which they can resume their lives. Non-Western cultures include varying funeral rites. Shave head as a sign of grief. Hiring mourners to cry and wail. Emotional displays such as crying are determined culturally. Little emotion – Balinese funerals (Indonesia). Encouraged emotion -- African American funerals.

Bereavement and Grief: Adjusting to the Death of a Loved One

After the death of a loved one, a painful period of adjustment follows, involving bereavement and grief. BEREAVEMENT is the acknowledgment of the objective fact that one has experienced a death. GRIEF is the emotional response to that loss. There are some general stages people go through in adjusting to loss. Shock, denial, and numbness allow a person to function in coping with death (funeral, etc.) Without being overwhelmed. In the second stage, people begin to confront the death and fully realize the extent of their loss. They fully experience their grief and yearn for the individual. Eventually the person moves through the pain and depression to a realistic review of the relationship and starts to let go. Finally, people reach an accommodation stage where they pick up the pieces of their lives and move on.

Differentiating unhealthy grief from healthy grief is difficult and many of the common assumptions are wrong. There is no timetable; many people take longer than one year. Only 15 to 30 % show relatively deep depression. People who do not show deep, initial grief do not necessarily have problems later.

Studies show that people experiencing bereavement and grief increase their chances of death as much as seven times during the first year following the death of a spouse. At particular risk are men, but remarriage helps lower the risk. Some factors affecting survivor difficulties are: Anxious, lonely, dependent people don’t cope as well. If the relationship was ambivalent or dependent, there is poorer adjustment. If there is a lack of social support from family and friends. Sudden, unprepared-for deaths are more difficult to recover from.

The explosion of social networking on sites such as Facebook and myspace is giving rise to a new cultural phenomenon: the spontaneous conversion of profiles left behind by the deceased into a form of interactive memorial. Researchers interested in the grieving process studied the comments made by friends and relatives on the social networking profiles of twenty deceased adolescents, and identified several themes and commonalities among the nearly five thousand comments studied were noted. Comments were almost entirely directed at the deceased rather than at living friends and relatives. Nearly the comments included some indicator of emotional or cognitive coping strategies, such as expressions of anger, denial, or acceptance, showing an attempt to process, understand, and find perspective on the death. A form of continuing interaction with the deceased by reminiscing about past shared experiences or discussing current events in one’s life was another common theme. Many comments pertained to the experience of attending the deceased’s funeral service and seeing his or her body, particularly in reference to the realization prompted by that experience of the truth and the finality of the loved one’s death. Comments further referenced beliefs about the afterlife and where the deceased had gone. The researchers uncovered a theme that they weren’t expecting: messages left by people who barely knew the deceased, or who did not know him or her at all.