Please read the following guildine , you have to write 1000-1200 words This is a social psychology homework, you are required to write a reflective paper on how you can apply the psychological concept

A man armed with a knife attacked her She screamed for help: “Oh my God, he stabbed me! Please help me! Please help me!” People turned on the light/looked out to see what happened For more than half an hour , no one helped The man stabbed her repeatedly until she died 38 witnesses, no one came out nor called the police 5 6 助人意願 尋求幫助 意願 接受幫助 意願 港人助人 意願 2016 5.51 4.62 5.06 4.01 2017 5.39 4.73 5.18 4.15 *score 1 -7 ORGAN DONATION 7 2019 BLOOD DONATION H T T P S : / / W W W 5 . H A . O R G . H K / R C B T S / B LO O D -C O L L E C T -2019 8 2019 BLOOD DONATION H T T P S : / / W W W 5 . H A . O R G . H K / R C B T S / B LO O D -C O L L E C T -2019 9 2019 BLOOD DONATION H T T P S : / / W W W 5 . H A . O R G . H K / R C B T S / B LO O D -C O L L E C T -2019 10 BLOOD DONATION 11 12 WHY DO WE HELP? A Decision -Making Perspective (Latané & Darley, 1970) • People decide whether or not to offer assistance based on a variety of perceptions and evaluations • Help is offered only if a person answers “yes” at each step 13 14 A Decision - Making Perspective ( Latané & Darley, 1970) 15 A Decision - Making Perspective ( Latané & Darley, 1970) 1. Notice the event  When we are distracted or in a hurry, we don’t help 2. Correctly interpreting an event as an emergency  Clark and Word (1972)  Nonambiguous: Heard maintenance man fell off a ladder and cried out  Ambiguous: no verbal cues that the victim was injured 16 A Decision - Making Perspective ( Latané & Darley, 1970) 2. Correctly interpreting an event as an emergency  Cues that lead us to perceive an event as an emergency (Shotland & Huston, 1979):

• Event is sudden & unexpected • Clear threat of harm to a victim • Harm will increase unless someone intervenes • Victim needs outside assistance • Effective intervention is possible 17 A Decision - Making Perspective ( Latané & Darley, 1970) 3. Deciding that it is your responsibility to help  Moriarty (1975)  Radio at the beach 18 A Decision - Making Perspective ( Latané & Darley, 1970) 4. Deciding that you have the knowledge or skills to act  In emergencies, decisions are made under high stress and sometimes even with personal danger  Well -intentioned helpers may not be able to give assistance or may mistakenly do the wrong thing  Crammer et al. (1988)  When there is an accident and possible injury, a registered nurse is more likely to help than non -medical people 19 A Decision - Making Perspective ( Latané & Darley, 1970) 20 5. Weighing the Costs and Benefits  At least in some situations, people weigh the costs and benefits of helping  People sometimes consider the consequences of NOT helping  e.g. feeling guilty, others’ impression  However, in other cases, helping may be impulsive and determined by basic emotions and values rather than by expected profits 21 A Decision - Making Perspective ( Latané & Darley, 1970) WHY DO WE HELP? A Sociocultural Perspective  Human societies have gradually evolved beliefs or social norms that promote the welfare of the group  Norm of Social Responsibility ▪ Help those who depend on us o e.g. parents, teachers, doctors  Norm of Reciprocity ▪ Help those who help us ( Gouldner , 1960)  Norm of Social Justice ▪ Maintain equitable distribution of rewards 22 WHY DO WE HELP? A Learning Perspective  We learn to be helpful through reinforcement  Children help and share more when they are reinforced for their helpful behavior  Fischer (1963) ▪ 4 -year -olds more likely to share marbles with another child when they were rewarded with bubble gum for their generosity ▪ ‘You are a very nice and helpful person’ vs. ‘That was a nice and helpful thing to do’ ▪ Dispositional praise appears to be more effective than global praise 23 WHY DO WE HELP?

A Learning Perspective o We learn to be helpful through observation o Children and adults exposed to helpful models are more helpful • Bryan and Test (1967) ▪ LA drivers helped a female driver with a flat tire ▪ NJ Xmas shoppers more likely to drop money in a Salvation Army kettle if they had just seen someone else do the same  For children, helping may depend largely on reinforcement and modeling to shape behavior, but as they get older, helping may be internalized as a value , independent of external incentives 24 WHY DO WE HELP? Attribution Theory  We are more likely to be empathetic and to perceive someone as deserving help if we believe that the cause of the problem is outside the person’s control  Myer & Mulherin (1980)  College students would be more willing to lend rent money to an acquaintance if the need arose due to illness rather than laziness 25 AN ATTRIBUTIONAL EXAMPLE ( C O U R T E S Y T O D R . J I M L A R S O N ) 26 Causal Attribution for Fall: Situation:

You Also Notice: Emotion:

Behavior: A crutch lying next to him. Wine bottle in a brown paper bag. Internal / Controllable (He’s a Drunk) Disgust / Annoyed Ignore Help External / Uncontrollable (Bumped?) Sympathy An old man falls down in a crowded MTR station. WHO HELPS?

Mood and Helping  People are more willing to help when they are in a good mood  Money: found coins in a pay -phone ( Isen & Simmonds, 1978)  Gift: been given a free cookie at the college library ( Isen & Levin, 1972)  Music: have listened to soothing music (Fried & Berkowitz, 1979)  Odor: smelled cookies or coffee (Baron, 1997) 27 WHO HELPS?

 Mood -maintenance hypothesis • “Doing going” enables us to continue to feel good  Good moods increase positive thought  Limitation of effect of good mood • “Feel good” effect is short lived ▪ Only 20 minutes in one study ( Isen , Clark, & Schwartz, 1976) 28 WHO HELPS? Mood and helping  Negative moods sometimes lead to more helping  Negative -state relief model suggests that people may help as a way to make themselves feel better ( Cialdini , Darby, & Vincent, 1973)  Helping made college students feel more cheerful and feel better about themselves (Williamson & Clark, 1989)  When people feel guilty, they are more willing to help (Baumeister , Stillwell, & Heatherton, 1994) ▪ Helping others may reduce their guilty feelings 29 WHO HELPS? • More valid for adults (e.g. Aderman & Berkowitz, 1970) and less valid for children (e.g. Isen et al., 1973) • Less likely to occur if a person is focused on themselves and their own needs ▪ e.g. during profound grief (e.g. Aderman & Berkowitz, 1983) 30 WHO HELPS? •Empathy refers to the capacity to be able to experience others’ emotional states, feeling sympathetic toward them, and taking their perspective  The emotional reactions that are focused on or oriented toward other people and include feelings of compassion, sympathy and concern  Occurs when we focus on the needs and the emotions of the victim  Fosters altruistic helping 31 WHO HELPS?

Personality Characteristics  There is no single type of “helpful person”  Rather, particular traits and abilities lead people to help in different specific types of situations  e.g. people who help in potentially dangerous emergencies are taller, heavier and tend to have training in coping with emergencies, including lifesaving, medical or police (Huston et al., 1981) 32 WHOM DO WE HELP?

Gender differences  Men are more likely to provide help to women in distress (e.g. Latané & Dabbs , 1975), especially when there is an audience  Men more readily help attractive than unattractive women ( e.g Mims et al., 1975)  Men offered more help to women while women are equally helpful to both sexes ( Eagly & Crowley, 1986)  Women provide more social support to others (Shumaker & Hill, 1991)  Women are more likely to offer personal favors for friends and to provide advice on personal problems (Eagly & Crowley, 1986) 33 WHOM DO WE HELP?

Gender differences  Motivation may be romantic or sexual  Przybyla (1985)  Undergraduate men watched video ▪ Experimental: erotic ▪ Control: nonsexual  Situation: a female research assistant “accidentally” knocked over a stack of papers  Experimental group more helpful than control ▪ 6 minutes compared with control with male (30 seconds) ▪ Female participants ▪ No difference between experimental and control ▪ No difference between male or female research assistant 34 WHOM DO WE HELP?

Physically attractive  Benson, Karabenick, and Lerner (1976)  Subjects found a completed and ready -to -mail application to graduate school in a telephone booth at the airport  Sample: 442 males and 162 females  IV: photo attached belongs to an attractive or unattractive male/female  DV: will they mail it for him/her?  Results? 35 WHOM DO WE HELP?

Similarity  Emswiller, Deaux, and Willits (1971)  Confederates dressed as a ‘hippie’ or ‘conservative’  Approached both ‘hippie’ and ‘conservative’ students to borrow a dime for phone call  Results? 36 WHEN DO WE HELP?

A. Bystander effect = The presence of other people makes it less likely that anyone will help a stranger in distress  Kitty Genovese murder sparked research of Darley and Latané (1968)  Students in a study of “campus life”  In separate rooms, they talked to the other students through intercom  Emergency: one student (actually pre -recorded message) said he had seizures  “I could really -er -use some help so if somebody would -er -give me a little h -help -uh -er -er -er -er -er c -could somebody -er -er - help -er -uh -uh -uh (choking sounds)…I’m gonna die -er -er - I’m…gonna die -er -help -er -er -seizure -er - [chokes, then quiet]” 37 WHEN DO WE HELP?

 IV: number of bystanders: 1, 2, 5  The number of students as told to be in the same discussion  In fact, there was no bystander  the way to help was to leave the lab and sought for that fellow student  DV1: % of students left and sought help  DV2: time they waited before acting 38 WHEN DO WE HELP? 3920 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 One Two Five Number of Bystanders P e r c e n t H e l p i n g 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 One Two Five Number of Bystanders Seconds Until Helping WHEN DO WE HELP? WHY does the bystander effect occur? 1. Diffusion of responsibility • The presence of other people makes each individual feel less personally responsible • If only bystander, bear the guilt or blame for nonintervention • Assume the others ‘will do it’ 2. Pluralistic ignorance • Bystanders’ false assumption that nothing is wrong in an emergency because of others’ reactions • Latané and Darley (1968) pumped smoke into a research room where participants were doing questionnaire 40 WHEN DO WE HELP?  IV: alone in the room or with 2 confederates  DV: the duration of leaving the room and reporting  Results? 3. Evaluation apprehension  Concern about how others are evaluating us  We try not to appear silly/cowardly in reacting to ambiguous situation (e.g. smoke filled room) 41 WHEN DO WE HELP? B. Environmental Conditions  People are more helpful to strangers when it’s pleasantly warm and sunny (Ahmed, 1979)  People are more likely to help strangers in small towns & cities than in big cities (Levine et al., 1994)  What matters is current environmental setting, not the size of the hometown in which the person grew up 42 WHEN DO WE HELP? C. Time pressure  Darley & Batson, 1973  Participants were students studying religion and were asked to give a short talk  IV1: Some were told to hurry, others to take their time  IV2: assigned topic was either the Bible story or future job opportunities  Results? 43 TODAY’S MESSAGE… ◆ Imagine YOU are the one being stabbed like Kitty Genovese… ◆ Cost of helping VS cost of NOT helping ◆ Even if your don’t help with pure altruistic motives…self -serving helping could be better than self -serving apathy ◆ Recipients’ neediness might not change as a result of our motives or the recipients’ responses 44 REFLECTION ◆ What were your motives for helping/reasons for not helping in different situations?

◆ What were your experiences of being a “bystander”?

◆ Does learning about altruism leaves you with an increase/decrease in likelihood of helping?

◆ Would you rather “help or react wrongly” and appear silly, or leave yourself/others in danger? 45