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3 W hat I s P ubli c A dm in is tr a tio n ?
T he g o vern m en t’s r e sp on se t o t h e e n orm ou s d ev asta tio n o f S u persto rm S an dy i n
N ovem ber 2 012 w as a h uge c h an ge f r o m t h e p ro b le m s t h at s u rro u n ded H urric a n e
K atr in a’s a ssa u lt o n t h e G ulf C oast i n 2 005. A s w it h t h e c a se o f L ore tta A bru sc a to , h ere ,
a id ed b y N ew Y ork N atio n al G uard t r o op s, g o vern m en t a t a ll le v els r e sp on ded f a r m ore
e ffe c tiv ely t o c it iz e n s’ n eed s, t h an ks t o t h e c a re fu l a n aly sis t h at h ap pen ed i n r e sp on se t o t h e
f a ilu re s s e v en y ea rs e a rli e r.
J o h n M oore /G etty I m ag e
137 C hap te r O bje c tiv es
Understa n d w hat m ak es p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n “ p u bli c ”
Dis c u ss w hat p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n i s
Look a t t h e d eep h is to ric a l d eb ate s t h at h av e s h ap ed t h e s tu dy o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n
T he a g ele ss d eb ate s a b ou t
bu re a u cr a cy
h as a lw ay s f o rm ed t h e c o re o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n .
T he t e rm
bu re a u cr a cy
i t s e lf h as d eep r o ots , i n f o u rte en th -c en tu ry F ra n ce. A t t h e C ham ber
o f A cco u n ts , f ie ld a d m in is tr a to rs p la ced t h eir f in an cia l r e c o rd s o n a b ro w n w oole n c lo th ,
la
b u re
, w hic h c o vere d t h e t a b le f a cin g t h e k in g’s a u dit o rs. T he r o om c a m e t o b e c a lle d “ th e
b u re a u ,” a n d t h e w ay t h ese o ffic ia ls d id t h eir w ork b ec a m e k n ow n a s “ b u re a u cra cy .” F ro m
t h e k in g’s p oin t o f v ie w , t h e m ost i m porta n t t h in g, o f c o u rse , w as m ak in g s u re t h at t h e
f in an cia l r e c o rd s w ere c o rre c t a n d t h at n o o n e w as c h ea tin g t h e c ro w n, s o “ b u re a u cra cy ”
q u ic k ly b ec a m e c o n nec te d w it h “ acco u n ta b ili t y .” I t d id n ’t t a k e lo n g f o r t h e t e rm t o t a k e o n
t h e n eg ativ e m ea n in g w e s o m etim es a sso cia te w it h i t . I n a n 1 836 n ovel, F re n ch a u th or
H on oré d e B alz a c c h ara cte riz e d t h e b u re a u cra cy a s “ a g ig an tic p ow er m an ip u la te d b y
d w arfs ” a n d a s “ th at h ea v y c u rta in h un g b etw een t h e g o od t o b e d on e a n d h im w ho
c o m man ds i t .”
1
B ure a u cra cy i s s o m eth in g w e a ll lo ve t o h ate — an d i t ’s s o m eth in g w e c a n ’t
l i v e w it h ou t. T he t e n sio n s g o b ack m an y c en tu rie s.
T here i s a d eep c o n tr a d ic tio n b u rie d i n t h is a g ele ss d eb ate .
2
O n o n e h an d, b u re a u cra cy i s
v ie w ed a s a d ev ic e t h at c rip ple s g o vern m en t: r e d -ta p e-b ou n d c iv il s e rv an ts a re s e en a s
i n effic ie n t, u n re sp on siv e, n eg ativ e, b ore d , i m poli t e , a n d u n help fu l t o c it iz e n s s e ek in g
s e rv ic es. O n t h e o th er h an d, b u re a u cra cy i s f e a re d f o r t h e p ow er i t c o n cen tr a te s: o ffic ia ls
s o m etim es a re s e en a s a ll- to o-e ffic ie n t i n g ath erin g p ow er a n d a rb it r a rily d ec id in g m atte rs
w it h ou t p ro vid in g c it iz e n s d u e p ro cess. H ow c a n b oth b e t r u e: a b u re a u cra cy s o i n effic ie n t
i t c a n ’t a cco m pli s h m uch o f a n yth in g b u t a ls o s o p ow erfu l t h at i t t h re a te n s o u r li b erty ? T his
i s n ot o n ly t h e c en tr a l p ro b le m o f b u re a u cra cy i n m od ern li f e . I t’s t h e a g ele ss d ile m ma o f
b u re a u cra cy i t s e lf .
A t i t s c o re , t h e t e rm
bu re a u cr a cy
h as a n eu tr a l m ea n in g. I n deed , b u re a u cra cy i s n ot e v en a
p u bli c -s e c to r t e rm — it ’s a b asic d esc rip tio n f o r t h e o rg an iz a tio n a n d s tr u ctu re o f c o m ple x
o rg an iz a tio n s, a n d p riv ate c o m pan ie s h av e b u re a u cra cie s, t o o. A pple a n d M ic ro so ft , t h e
A m eric a n R ed C ro ss a n d t h e A m eric a n C an cer S ocie ty , t h e p ow er c o m pan y a n d F aceb ook
a ll a re b u re a u cra cie s. T he o ld est c o n tin uou sly f u n ctio n in g b u re a u cra cy i n t h e w orld i s t h e
R om an C ath oli c C hurc h . ( T he N ew T esta m en t r e c o rd s t h at a ft e r t h e a sc en sio n o f J e su s,
t h e n ew c h urc h i m med ia te ly c re a te d a f o rm al o rg an iz a tio n t o c a rry o n t h e w ork o f i t s
c h aris m atic f o u n der.) I n t h is b ook, w e w ill u se
bu re a u cr a cy
t o r e fe r t o c o m ple x p u bli c
o rg an iz a tio n s: t h e f o rm al, r a tio n al s y ste m o f r e la tio n s a m on g p erso n s v este d w it h
a d m in is tr a tiv e a u th orit y t o c a rry o u t p u bli c p ro gra m s. I n
Chap te r 4
w e e x am in e t h is
i n te rp re ta tio n o f b u re a u cra cy — an d s o m e o f i t s a lt e rn ativ es— more f u lly .
138 Even t h ou gh t h e t e rm
bu re a u cr a cy
i t s e lf i s n eu tr a l, t h e n eg ativ e m ea n in gs a re n ev er f a r
aw ay . T he o ft e n c o n tr a d ic to ry i m ag es o f b u re a u cra cy p oin t t o v ery r e a l p ro b le m s o f la rg e-
sc a le a d m in is tr a tio n . T hey a ls o s h ap e t h e p oli t ic s
of p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n . A s p re sid en tia l
ca n did ate s, b oth J im my C arte r a n d R on ald R ea g an c a m paig n ed o n b u re a u cra cy -b ash in g
th em es; B ill C li n to n d ea lt w it h c a lls t o s h rin k t h e b u re a u cra cy ; b oth P re sid en ts B ush
ca m paig n ed o n a c o n se rv ativ e a g en da t o r e d u ce g o vern m en t ( e v en t h ou gh t h ey b oth
actu ally i n cre a se d i t ) ; a n d J o h n M cC ain a n d B ara ck O bam a s p arre d o ver w ho c o u ld b est
pro m ote c h an ge i n t h e w ay W ash in gto n d oes b u sin ess. O bam a a n d M it t R om ney r e p la y ed
man y o f t h e s a m e t h em es i n 2 012. I n t h e 2 016 p re sid en tia l c a m paig n , a n a rm y o f
ca n did ate s c o m pete d t o c o n vey t h e s tr o n gest a n tib u re a u cra cy t h em e. A nd t h is i s n ’t j u st a
fe d era l p h en om en on , o f c o u rse . C an did ate s a t a ll le v els o f g o vern m en t o ft e n w ork h ard t o
mak e t h e c a se t h at t h ey c a n c o m e i n a n d f ix w hat a ils g o vern m en t.
The n eg ativ e i m ag e o f b u re a u cra cy i s u n iv ersa l. A f o re ig n p rim e m in is te r o n ce c o m pla in ed ,
“C re a tin g t h e a p pea ra n ce o f w ork , t a k in g c o ver b eh in d h ollo w r h eto ric , b u re a u cra cy m ay
hold b ack t h e i m pro vem en t o f t h e e c o n om ic m ec h an is m , d am pen i n dep en den ce a n d
in it ia tiv e, a n d e re c t b arrie rs t o i n novatio n .” A s e c o n d s a id , “ B ure a u cra tis m r e m ain s a
se rio u s p ro b le m i n t h e p oli t ic a l li f e o f o u r p arty a n d s ta te . T he o versta ffin g, o verla p pin g
an d u n w ie ld in ess o f G overn m en t o rg an s, c o n fu sio n o f t h eir r e sp on sib ili t ie s a n d b u ck -
passin g a re . . . m ajo r c a u se s o f b u re a u cra tis m . W e m ust t h ere fo re r e fo rm t h ese o rg an s f r o m
to p t o b otto m .” T he f ir st s p ea k er w as p rim e m in is te r o f t h e f o rm er S ovie t U nio n ; t h e
se c o n d, a n a ctin g p rim e m in is te r o f t h e P eo p le ’s R ep u bli c o f C hin a.
3
G overn m en t o ffic ia ls
aro u n d t h e w orld s h are t h e b asic i n stin ct t o r e fo rm “ b u re a u cra cy .”
4
If a lm ost e v ery o n e h ate s b u re a u cra cy a n d r e d t a p e, w hy d on ’t w e a b oli s h t h em ? T he a n sw er
is t h at g o vern m en t c a n ’t d eli v er c o m ple x g o od s a n d s e rv ic es a n y o th er w ay — an d, n o m atte r
how m uch t h ey c o m pla in , c it iz e n s e x p ec t t h at t h e w ork
will
g et d on e. C om ple x it y a n d r e d
ta p e a re p art o f a ll la rg e o rg an iz a tio n s. T hat’s e v en m ore t h e c a se f o r g o vern m en t, w here
pu bli c p oli c y e m bra ces m an y c o m ple x a n d c o m petin g g o als .
5
W e m ig h t n ot m uch li k e
pay in g t a x es o r d ea li n g w it h r u le s, b u t w e u su ally li k e m uch o f t h e g o vern m en t w e g et a n d
re sis t e ffo rts t o c u t b ack o n t h e s e rv ic es w e r e c eiv e. A m eric a n s w an t b u re a u cra cy c u t—
ex cep t f o r
th eir
b u re a u cra cy a n d t h e p ro gra m s t h at s e rv e
th em .
T he c h alle n ge o f p u bli c
ad m in is tr a tio n r e v o lv es a ro u n d t h ese d ile m mas.
139
T he M ea n in g o f P ubli c A dm in is tr a tio n
D esp it e t h e lo n g-s ta n din g i m porta n ce o f
pu bli c a d m in is tr a tio n
, a n aly sts a n d s c h ola rs h av e
n ev er a g re ed o n a c o m mon d efin it io n .
6
I n a s y ste m t h at r a n ges f r o m d eli v erin g m ail,
c o lle c tin g t r a sh , a n d li c en sin g m oto r v eh ic le s t o la u n ch in g c a m era s a n d s p acec ra ft o n M ars,
d is p atc h in g P ea ce C orp s v o lu n te ers a ll o ver t h e w orld , h elp in g c it iz e n s r e c o ver f r o m
h urric a n es, a n d t r a ck in g d an gero u s s to rm s w it h s a te lli t e s, a c o n cis e d efin it io n i s i m possib le .
O ne a p pro ach m ig h t b e b re a k in g p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n i n h alf , d efin in g
ad m in ist r a tio n
a n d
t h en
pu bli c ,
b u t t h at d oesn ’t w ork . S ch ola rs h av e s o m etim es u se d p h ra se s li k e
a d m in ist r a tio n i s e x ecu tin g
, b u t t h at p h ra se n eed s f u rth er d efin it io n . O th er w rit e rs
c h ara cte riz e a d m in is tr a tio n a s c o op era tiv e h um an a ctio n t h at h as a h ig h d eg re e o f
r a tio n ali t y , w hic h m ax im iz e s t h e r e a li z a tio n o f c erta in g o als .
7
B ut t h is f o rm ula tio n c o u ld
i n clu de p eo p le w ho u se t e x t m essa g es t o c re a te a f la sh m ob . S till o th er w rit e rs, o p era tin g a t
a le ss a b str a ct le v el, s a y t h at a d m in is tr a tio n i s c o n cern ed w it h “ h ow , n ot w hat,” w it h
“ m ea n s, n ot e n ds,” w it h “ p ro cess, n ot s u bsta n ce,” w it h “ effic ie n cy , n ot o th er v alu es.” B ut
t h is a p pro ach o n ly p ro vo kes m ore d eb ate s, r a th er t h an p ro vid in g a c le a r d efin it io n .
A b ette r s ta rtin g p oin t f o r u n dersta n din g t h e m ea n in g o f
pu bli c
a d m in is tr a tio n i s t o
d is tin gu is h i t f r o m
priv a te
a d m in is tr a tio n . W e b eg in b y e v alu atin g t h e a rg u m en t t h at
a d m in is tr a tio n i s a d m in is tr a tio n w here v er i t e x is ts , w heth er i n t h e p u bli c o r t h e p riv ate
s e c to r. N ex t w e e x am in e p oli c y e x ec u tio n v ersu s
poli c y m ak in g
( o r p oli c y f o rm ula tio n ).
T his s e p ara te s t h e a d m in is tr a tiv e p ro cesse s, i n w hic h g o vern m en t a d m in is tr a tio n s h are s
s im ila rit ie s w it h p riv ate a d m in is tr a tio n , f r o m t h e d is tin ctly p u bli c n atu re o f g o vern m en ta l
d ec is io n s. F in ally , w e e m ph asiz e t h e w ay s t h at a d m in is tr a tiv e r e sp on sib ili t y i n p u bli c
a d m in is tr a tio n d if fe rs i n b oth f o rm a n d c o n te n t f r o m i t s a n alo g i n p riv ate e n te rp ris e s. O f
c en tr a l i m porta n ce t o p u bli c b u re a u cra cie s, a d m in is tr a tiv e r e sp on sib ili t y d efin es t h e v ery
e sse n ce o f o u r p u zzle — an d o f t h is b ook.
140
P ubli c v ersu s P riv ate A dm in is tr a tio n
P ubli c a d m in is tr a tio n i s
pu bli c :
i t i s t h e a d m in is tr a tio n o f g o vern m en ta l a ffa ir s. Y et i t i s a ls o
a d m in ist r a tio n
, a n a ctiv it y e sse n tia l t o a ll la rg e o rg an iz a tio n s. F or y ea rs, e x p erts h av e
d eb ate d t h e q u estio n s: A re i t s b asic f e a tu re s t h e s a m e a s o th er t y p es o f a d m in is tr a tio n ? I s i t
s im ply a s u bse t o f m ore g en eric m an ag em en t i s su es? O r d oes i t h av e s p ec ia l, d is tin ctly
p u bli c e le m en ts t h at r e q u ir e s e p ara te a tte n tio n ? T his , a ft e r a ll, i s a c en tr a l p u zzle i n t h e
F li n t w ate r c a se , w it h w hic h w e b eg an t h is b ook. S ev era l s c h ools o f t h ou gh t s e ek t o a n sw er
t h ese q u estio n s.
A g en eric a p pro ach t o a d m in is tr a tio n b eg in s w it h s o cio lo gis ts w ho s p ec ia li z e i n
o rg an iz a tio n al t h eo ry
, a lo n g w it h m an y s c h ola rs o f m an ag em en t f r o m b u sin ess s c h ools . A t
t h e m ost f u n dam en ta l le v el, s o m e o rg an iz a tio n al t h eo ris ts c o n te n d t h at a d m in is tr a tio n i s
a d m in is tr a tio n , w hate v er i t s s e ttin g, a n d t h at t h e p ro b le m s o f o rg an iz in g p eo p le , le a d in g
t h em , a n d s u pply in g t h em w it h r e so u rc es t o d o t h eir j o b s a re a lw ay s t h e s a m e.
8
M ore
p ra ctic a lly o rie n te d t h in kers h av e a rg u ed t h at t h at “ p oli t ic a l c o n fli c t i s a t t h e c en te r o f
m an ag em en t li f e ” ; t h at m an ag em en t i s a lw ay s f u n dam en ta lly a b ou t m an ag in g t h at c o n fli c t,
r e g ard le ss o f i t s o rg an iz a tio n al s e ttin g; a n d t h at s u ch c o n fli c t m an ag em en t i s t h e c o re o f
a d m in is tr a tio n , p u bli c a n d p riv ate .
9
M ost b ro ad ly , B arry B oze m an h as a rg u ed t h at “ all
o rg an iz a tio n s a re p u bli c b ec a u se p u bli c a u th orit y a ffe c ts s o m e o f t h e b eh av io r o r p ro cesse s
o f a ll o rg an iz a tio n s.” T hus, o rg an iz a tio n s a re n eit h er p u re ly p u bli c n or p u re ly p riv ate ; b u t
a ll o rg an iz a tio n s, B oze m an c o n te n ds, s h are p u bli c a n d p riv ate f e a tu re s i n dep en den t o f t h eir
l e g al o r f o rm al s ta tu s.
10
I n f a ct, a le a d in g B rit is h p oli t ic a l s c ie n tis t, W illi a m A . R ob so n , h as
n ote d t h at “ m od ern A m eric a n t h eo ry i s h ea v ily c o m mit te d t o t h e v ie w t h at o n e c a n d is c u ss
e v ery k in d o f a d m in is tr a tio n i n a g en era li z e d m an ner,” b y s e ek in g t o u n dersta n d t h e
f u n dam en ta l f e a tu re s o f a d m in is tr a tio n .
11
O ver t im e, i n f a ct, t h e d is tin ctio n b etw een t h e p u bli c a n d p riv ate s e c to rs h as g ra d u ally
b ec o m e m ore b lu rre d . A s D wig h t W ald o p oin te d o u t i n 1 980, “ In t h e U nit e d S ta te s— an d
I b eli e v e m uch m ore w id ely — th ere i s a m ovem en t a w ay f r o m a s h arp d is tin ctio n b etw een
p u bli c
a n d
priv a te
, a n d
to w ard
a b lu rrin g a n d m in gli n g o f t h e t w o.”
12
A s g o vern m en t
b ec o m es m ore i n vo lv ed i n b u sin ess, a n d a s m ore b u sin ess o rg an iz a tio n s a re i n co rp ora te d
i n to t h e p ro vis io n o f p u bli c s e rv ic es, s u ch b lu rrin g i s i n ev it a b le . B ut t h at, o f c o u rse , o n ly
c o m pli c a te s o u r c en tr a l q u estio n : I s t h ere s o m eth in g d is tin ctly
pu bli c
a b ou t p u bli c
a d m in is tr a tio n ?
P riv ate -s e c to r m an ag ers w ho m ove i n to t o p p u bli c -s e c to r p osit io n s h av e u n iv ersa lly f o u n d
l a rg e, c ru cia l d if fe re n ces b etw een t h e t w o s e c to rs.
13
S ch ola rs h av e e m ph asiz e d t w o
i m porta n t d is tin ctio n s. F ir st, a n d m ost c ru cia lly , i s t h e
what
: p u bli c o rg an iz a tio n s d o t h e
p u bli c ’s b u sin ess— th ey a d m in is te r la w . S ec o n d, t h ere i s t h e
how
: c o m pare d w it h p riv ate
c o m pan ie s, p u bli c o rg an iz a tio n s u se f u n dam en ta lly d if fe re n t p ro cesse s a n d w ork i n v ery
141 dif fe re n t e n vir o n m en ts .
14
Div in g i n to D ata : M an ag em en t o f t h e M ed ic a re a n d M ed ic a id P ro gra m s
Cre a te d a s p art o f L yn don B . J o h n so n ’s “ G re a t S ocie ty ” p ro gra m s i n 1 965, M ed ic a re a n d M ed ic a id h av e
bec o m e t w o o f t h e m ost i m porta n t e le m en ts o f g o vern m en t. C on sid er t h ese b asic f a cts a b ou t t h e p ro gra m s.
142 143 Questio n s
1 .
Are y o u s u rp ris e d a t t h e r e la tiv ely s m all n um ber o f f e d era l g o vern m en t e m plo yees r e sp on sib le f o r
man ag in g s u ch la rg e p ro gra m s?
2 .
Who d o y o u t h in k i s r e sp on sib le f o r m an ag in g t h e p ro gra m ’s o p era tio n s, s in ce f e d era l e m plo yees a re
not ( h in t: f o r-p ro fit a n d n on pro fit h osp it a ls , c li n ic s, a n d h ea lt h c a re p ro vid ers)?
3 .
Do y o u t h in k t h at t h e i m pro p er p ay m en ts a n d e rro r r a te s r e p re se n t a s e rio u s p ro b le m ? W hat
in fo rm atio n d o y o u n eed t o a n sw er t h is q u estio n ?
4 .
What s te p s w ou ld b e r e q u ir e d t o a tta ck t h is p ro b le m ?
T he C rit ic a l R ole o f P ubli c A uth orit y .
T he m ost f u n dam en ta l d is tin ctio n b etw een p u bli c a n d p riv ate o rg an iz a tio n s i s t h e r u le o f
l a w . I n g en era l, p u bli c o ffic ia ls m ust d o w hat t h e la w r e q u ir e s, a n d t h ey c a n not d o a n yth in g
t h at t h e la w d oes n ot. P riv ate o ffic ia ls c a n c h oose t o d o w hat t h ey li k e, a s lo n g a s t h e la w
d oes n ot f o rb id i t . E very a ctio n t a k en b y a p u bli c a d m in is tr a to r u lt im ate ly “ m ust b e
t r a cea b le t o a le g al g ra n t o f a u th orit y ; t h ose o f p riv ate f ir m s n eed n ot b e,” a s H aro ld F .
G ortn er, J u li a n ne M ah le r, a n d J e a n ne B ell N ic h ols o n a rg u e.
Man ag ers o f p riv ate f ir m s c a n g en era lly t a k e a n y a ctio n , e sta b li s h a n y p oli c y , o r
use a n y m ea n s o f o p era tio n n ot s p ec if ic a lly p ro h ib it e d . P ubli c m an ag ers, i n
co n tr a st, m ay n ot d o s o i n t h e a b se n ce o f s p ec if ic g ra n ts o f a u th orit y . P riv ate
org an iz a tio n s c a n a ct u n le ss p ro sc rib ed o r f o rb id den ; p u bli c o n es m ay a ct
on ly
i f
th e a u th orit y i s g ra n te d . A s a v ete ra n p u bli c m an ag er r e m ark ed . . . “ F or t h e
priv ate o rg an iz a tio n , i t i s a m atte r o f ‘g o u n til I s a y s to p ’; b u t t o t h e p u bli c
man ag er t h e m essa g e i s ‘d on ’t g o u n le ss I t e ll y o u t o .’”
15
P ubli c a d m in ist r a tio n e x ist s t o i m ple m en t t h e la w
, a n d t h e c o n stit u tio n al s y ste m c re a te s t h e
a u th orit y f o r d oin g s o . I n t h e A m eric a n s y ste m , a u th orit y f lo w s f r o m t h e p eo p le t o t h ose
t h ey e le c t t o g o vern t h em . O f c o u rse , w hen a le g is la tu re p asse s a la w a n d a n e x ec u tiv e s ig n s
i t , t h e la w d oes n ot i m ple m en t i t s e lf . T hat i s t h e t a sk t h e le g is la tu re d ele g ate s t o a n
a d m in is tr a to r, a n d i t i s t h is c h ain o f a u th orit y , f lo w in g f r o m t h e p eo p le t h ro u gh e le c te d
i n stit u tio n s t o t h e p u bli c a d m in is tr a to r, t h at m ak es p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n d is tin ctiv ely
p u bli c . F ait h fu l e x ec u tio n o f t h ese la w s i s t h e h ig h est c a lli n g o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a to rs. I t i s
t h e c o re o f a d m in is tr a tiv e r e sp on sib ili t y .
P ubli c m an ag em en t s c h ola r S te v en K elm an p oin ts t o a f u n dam en ta l d if fe re n ce b etw een
p u bli c a n d p riv ate m an ag em en t. A ll o rg an iz a tio n s, h e s a y s, m ust b ala n ce g o als a n d
c o n str a in ts . G oals a re t h e g o od t h in gs o rg an iz a tio n s t r y t o d o— th e v alu e t h ey p ro d u ce, t h e
o b je c tiv es t h ey s e ek t o a cco m pli s h . C on str a in ts a re t h e n eg ativ e f o rc es t h ey m ust w ork
144 aro u n d a n d t h e r u le s t h ey m ust o b ey i n p u rsu in g t h eir g o als . I d ea lly , o rg an iz a tio n s w ou ld
fin d t h e r ig h t b ala n ce t h at e n su re s g o od r e su lt s a n d s tr o n g a cco u n ta b ili t y . F or p riv ate
org an iz a tio n s, t h e b ala n ce le a n s t o w ard t h e g o als a n d, w it h f e w er c o n str a in ts , f r e e-w heeli n g
ta ctic s c a n s o m etim es le a d t o f in an cia l d is a ste r, a s t h e 2 008 f in an cia l c ris is s h ow ed . W it h
ad dit io n al c o n str a in ts , g o vern m en t s o m etim es s tr u ggle s t o a cco m pli s h t h e o b je c tiv es t h at
poli c y m ak ers s e t f o r i t . T his , K elm an s a y s, i s “ th e K atr in a p ro b le m ”— re d t a p e t h at r e str a in s
th e a b ili t y o f g o vern m en t t o d o i t s j o b . P ubli c a n d p riv ate o rg an iz a tio n s b oth s h are t h e n eed
to b ala n ce g o als a n d c o n str a in ts , b u t t h e f o rc es u n derly in g t h eir o p era tio n s t e n d t o p u sh
th em i n d if fe re n t d ir e c tio n s. T hat d yn am ic , i n t u rn , f r a m es v ery d if fe re n t p ro b le m s f o r
th eir le a d ers a n d f o r t h e p eo p le t h ey s e rv e.
16
Publi c li b ra rie s a re a n i m porta n t g o vern m en t- fu n ded s e rv ic e. I n m an y c o m mun it ie s, li k e
th is o n e i n W ilm in gto n , N orth C aro li n a, p u bli c li b ra rie s a re n ot o n ly r e p osit o rie s o f b ooks
—th ey a re i n cre a sin gly g ate w ay s t o t h e i n fo rm atio n a g e.
AP P hoto /T he S ta r-N ew s, M att B orn
Pro cesse s t h at M ak e P ubli c A dm in is tr a tio n P ubli c .
Alt h ou gh t h ese d if fe re n ces a re n ot f ix ed i n la w , t h ere t y p ic a lly a re i m porta n t d is tin ctio n s
betw een p u bli c a n d p riv ate o rg an iz a tio n al p ro cesse s.
17
H ere a re t h e m ost f u n dam en ta l
dif fe re n ces:
Care er s e rv ic e .
W here a s p riv ate -s e c to r o rg an iz a tio n s t e n d t o b e le d b y i n div id u als w ho
145 dev o te t h eir c a re ers t o t h e o rg an iz a tio n , A m eric a n p u bli c b u re a u cra cie s t e n d t o b e
hea d ed b y r e la tiv e a m ate u rs w hose t e n ure i s o f s h ort d u ra tio n . A ssis ta n t s e c re ta rie s i n
fe d era l d ep artm en ts , f o r e x am ple , t y p ic a lly s e rv e o n ly e ig h te en m on th s a n d s p en d
much o f t h eir t im e i n o ffic e s im ply le a rn in g t h eir j o b s.
Perfo rm an ce m ea su re s.
T he p riv ate s e c to r h as t h e m ark et i n w hic h t o t e st i t s
perfo rm an ce. F ew p u bli c -s e c to r o rg an iz a tio n s, b y c o n tr a st, h av e a n y “ d ir e c t w ay o f
ev alu atin g t h eir o u tp u ts i n r e la tio n t o t h e c o st o f t h e i n pu ts u se d t o m ak e t h em ,” a s
Anth on y D ow ns p u ts i t .
18
F or p u bli c a d m in is tr a to rs, c o m pli a n ce w it h t h e la w i s t h e
ult im ate
perfo rm an ce m ea su re
, b u t la w s o ft e n a re v ag u e a n d g iv e li t tle g u id an ce.
Com petin g s t a n dard s.
W here a s e ffic ie n cy i s t h e u lt im ate p riv ate s ta n dard , p u bli c
ad m in is tr a to rs a re e x p ec te d t o m an ag e b oth e ffic ie n tly a n d e q u it a b ly . T hese t w o
sta n dard s o ft e n c o m pete : w hat i s f a ir o ft e n i s n ot t h e m ost e ffic ie n t, a n d v ic e v ersa . A s
ec o n om is t A rth ur O ku n n ote s, t h e b ala n ce b etw een e q u ali t y a n d e ffic ie n cy i s “ th e b ig
tr a d eo ff.”
19
Publi c s c r u tin y.
F ar m ore t h an i n t h e p riv ate s e c to r, p u bli c a d m in is tr a to rs w ork u n der
pu bli c s c ru tin y. P ubli c a d m in is tr a to rs la b or u n der la w s w hose v ery t it le s, s u ch a s
“G overn m en t i n t h e S u n sh in e,” u n derli n e t h e r o le o f p u bli c
oversig h t
, c o verin g b oth
in te rn al a n d e x te rn al o p era tio n s. T his “ g o ld fis h -b ow l e ffe c t” i s i n s ta rk c o n tr a st w it h
th e m uch m ore li m it e d p u bli c s c ru tin y t h at p riv ate o rg an iz a tio n s r e c eiv e. D ea li n g
wit h t h e m ed ia h as lo n g b een a f e a tu re o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tiv e a ctiv it y .
20
Persu asi o n .
I n t h e p riv ate s e c to r, m an ag ers t e n d t o m an ag e b y a u th orit y . T hey g iv e
ord ers a n d e x p ec t t h em t o b e o b ey ed . I n t h e p u bli c s e c to r, b y c o n tr a st,
ad m in is tr a tio n d ep en ds f a r m ore o n p ersu asio n a n d t h e b ala n cin g o f c o n fli c tin g
poli t ic a l d em an ds.
Sco p e o f a u th orit y .
G overn m en t o ffic ia ls a re le g ally r e q u ir e d t o a d m in is te r t h e la w —
an d t h e f e d era l
Antid efic ie n cy A ct
e x p li c it ly f o rb id s o ffic ia ls f r o m s p en din g m on ey
on a n y p u rp ose n ot e x p li c it ly
au th oriz ed
b y la w .
21
( T his i s w hat f o rc es t h e
go vern m en t t o s h ut d ow n i f C on gre ss f a ils t o p ass a b u dget o n t im e. G overn m en t
offic ia ls m ay n ot s p en d a n y m on ey , e v en t o t u rn o n t h e li g h ts o r u se t h eir c o m pu te rs,
if C on gre ss h as n ot a p pro ved i t .) I n t h e p riv ate s e c to r, b y c o n tr a st, o ffic ia ls a re
allo w ed t o d o a n yth in g n ot e x p li c it ly
fo rb id den
b y la w .
22
Oversi g h t.
P ubli c a d m in is tr a to rs m ust a n sw er n ot o n ly t o t h eir s u perio rs b u t a ls o t o
le g is la to rs a n d t h e c o u rts . A dm in is tr a to rs m ust a p pea r b efo re le g is la tiv e c o m mit te es
to e x p la in t h eir a ctiv it ie s a n d m ust a n sw er c o m pla in ts r a is e d i n c o u rt. I f t h e p riv ate
se c to r h as o n e b otto m li n e— th e a n nual o r q u arte rly f in an cia l s ta te m en t— th e p u bli c
se c to r h as s e v era l: a cco u n ta b ili t y t o h ig h er-le v el a d m in is tr a tiv e o ffic ia ls , t o t h e c h ie f
ex ec u tiv e, t o le g is la to rs, t o t h e c o u rts , a n d u lt im ate ly t o t h e p u bli c .
We t e n d s o m etim es t o s e p ara te p u bli c a n d p riv ate a ctiv it ie s b y t h e p ro fit m otiv e. T o b e
su re , t h is i s a n i m porta n t d if fe re n ce, b u t i t d oes n ot c le a rly d is tin gu is h t h e t w o s e c to rs.
Priv ate o rg an iz a tio n s s o m etim es p u t o th er g o als b efo re p ro fit m ak in g. S om e
non go vern m en ta l o rg an iz a tio n s a re
non pro fit
a n d e x is t t o a d van ce s o cia l a g en das. O n t h e
146 oth er h an d, s o m e p u bli c o rg an iz a tio n s, s u ch a s t h e U .S . P osta l S erv ic e, s im ula te t h e m ark et
by i m posin g f e es a n d c h arg es a n d ( tr y t o ) b re a k e v en . I n f a ct, r e fo rm ers h av e t r ie d t o m ak e
pu bli c o rg an iz a tio n s m ore e ffic ie n t b y p u sh in g m ore m ark et- b ase d s tr a te g ie s o n p u bli c
org an iz a tio n s.
Most f u n dam en ta lly , h ow ev er, p u bli c o rg an iz a tio n s a re p u bli c b ec a u se t h ey a d m in is te r t h e
la w a n d b ec a u se t h eir e x is te n ce s p rin gs f r o m t h e la w . M ore o ver, p u bli c o rg an iz a tio n s
ty p ic a lly o p era te i n a d if fe re n t e n vir o n m en t f r o m t h at o f p riv ate o rg an iz a tio n s. W alla ce
Say re o n ce w ry ly s u ggeste d t h at “ b u sin ess a n d p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n a re a li k e o n ly i n a ll
un im porta n t r e sp ec ts .”
23
P ubli c a d m in is tr a tio n i s
pu bli c
b ec a u se i t d oes t h e p u bli c ’s
bu sin ess, a s d efin ed i n la w s p asse d o n b eh alf o f t h e p eo p le .
147
P oli c y E xec u tio n v ersu s P oli c y F orm atio n
P ubli c a d m in is tr a tio n s h are s w it h p riv ate a d m in is tr a tio n m an y b asic f e a tu re s o f p oli c y
e x ec u tio n . F ro m m an ag in g c o m pu te r s y ste m s t o p ro cessin g f o rm s, t h e b asic w ork o ft e n i s
s im ila r. B ut p u bli c -s e c to r e x ec u tio n d if fe rs f u n dam en ta lly i n t h e g o als t o b e s e rv ed a n d t h e
s ta n dard s b y w hic h i t s a ch ie v em en ts a re j u dged . I n deed , p art o f w hat m ak es p u bli c
a d m in is tr a tio n p u bli c i s i t s e x ec u tio n o f t h e w ill o f t h e p eo p le a s d efin ed b y g o vern m en ta l
i n stit u tio n s. B ec a u se p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n c o n tr ib u te s t o t h e s h ap in g a n d e x ec u tio n o f
p oli c ie s, i t i s o ft e n v ery d if fe re n t i n deed f r o m p riv ate a d m in is tr a tio n . W e lo ok f ir st a t t h e
m ore f a m ili a r f u n ctio n — poli c y e x ec u tio n .
P oli c y E xec u tio n .
C on sid er w hat i t m ea n s w hen w e s a y t h at t h e g o vern m en t h as “ ad op te d ” a p oli c y . I n o u r
s y ste m , t h is n orm ally m ea n s t h at t h e e le c te d p oli c y m ak ers h av e e n acte d a la w f o rb id din g,
d ir e c tin g, o r p erm it tin g m em bers o f t h e s o cie ty t o b eh av e i n s p ec if ie d w ay s. T hen w hat
h ap pen s? T he la w i s m ere ly a t e x t p rin te d o n p ap er. T he t a sk o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n i s t o
t r a n sla te t h e p rin t f r o m s ta tu te b ooks i n to c h an ged b eh av io r b y m em bers o f s o cie ty —
i n div id u als , g ro u ps, o rg an iz a tio n s, a n d b u sin esse s— in o th er w ord s, t o c o n vert w ord s i n to
a ctio n , f o rm i n to s u bsta n ce.
E xec u tio n o f p oli c y i s a c o m ple x t a sk . I t m ea n s e x p an din g s o m e i n div id u als ’ o p portu n it ie s
b y e x te n din g g o vern m en ta l s e rv ic es a n d p ro te c tio n s t o t h em . I t m ea n s r e g u la tin g s o m e
i n div id u als ’ f r e ed om b y d ra w in g t a x es f r o m t h em , d is c o verin g a n d p ro se c u tin g t h ose w ho
e n gag e i n f o rb id den b eh av io rs, g ra n tin g o r d en yin g p erm is sio n t o e n gag e i n c erta in
a ctiv it ie s ( fo r e x am ple , li c en sin g r a d io a n d t e le v is io n s ta tio n s a n d s e lli n g p re sc rip tio n
d ru gs), a n d m an ip u la tin g t h e e n vir o n m en t o f s u bsid ie s a n d i n te re st r a te s. T he g o vern m en t
a d m in is te rs s o m e e n te rp ris e s i t s e lf , e it h er a s m on op oli e s o r a s c o m petit o rs o f p riv ate
e n te rp ris e s: lo ca l li b ra rie s a n d t h e S ocia l S ec u rit y A dm in is tr a tio n f u n ctio n la rg ely a s
m on op oli e s; t h e U .S . P osta l S erv ic e a n d t h e T en nesse e V alle y A uth orit y c o m pete w it h
p riv ate c o m pan ie s. R efo rm ers h av e i n cre a sin gly s o u gh t t o b rin g p riv ate c o m petit io n i n to
l o ca l s c h ools , a n d p u bli c s c h ools i n cre a sin gly h av e t o c o m pete w it h p riv ate s c h ools a n d
p are n ts s c h ooli n g t h eir c h ild re n a t h om e. T he g o vern m en t a ls o a d m in is te rs t h e d efe n se
e sta b li s h m en t a n d f o re ig n a ffa ir s, i n clu din g h un dre d s o f o u tp osts o ver t h e w orld . T he r a n ge
i s i m men se , a n d t h e p atte rn m ix es o ld a n d n ew c o n cern s.
A uth oriz in g t h ese g o vern m en ta l a ctiv it ie s, g iv in g p oli c y d ir e c tio n , a n d p ro vid in g t h e
n ec essa ry r e so u rc es a re a m on g t h e c en tr a l t a sk s o f t h e e le c tiv e le g is la tu re a n d c h ie f
e x ec u tiv e. B ut t h is m ere ly p erm it s s o m eth in g t o h ap pen ; i t d oes n ot
mak e
s o m eth in g
h ap pen . A dm in is tr a tio n t r a n sla te s p ap er d ec la ra tio n s o f i n te n t i n to r e a li t y . I t s h ap es t h e
b eh av io r o f c it iz e n s t o m atc h p oli c y g o als a n d d eli v ers t h e b en efit s p ro m is e d i n le g is la tio n .
148 Adm in is tr a tio n a s e x ec u tio n c a n not b e t a k en f o r g ra n te d . W ea k o r u n re sp on siv e
ad m in is tr a tio n w ill e n fe eb le t h e p oli t ic a l s y ste m . F or e x am ple , i n m an y d ev elo p in g
co u n tr ie s t h e c rit ic a l p ro b le m i s n ot s o m uch t h e g o vern m en t’s p oli t ic a l i n sta b ili t y a s i t i s
th e g o vern m en t’s i n ca p acit y t o c a rry o u t i t s d ec is io n s. P ubli c p oli c ie s, n o m atte r h ow b old
or i n novativ e, a re w orth le ss i f g o vern m en t c a n not c a rry t h em o u t. W hen H urric a n e K atr in a
su bm erg ed N ew O rle a n s i n 2 005, o ffic ia l g o vern m en ta l p oli c y w as t o p ro vid e h elp q u ic k ly ,
bu t t h e g o vern m en t f a ile d , n ot b ec a u se i t s o ffic ia ls d id n ot w an t t o h elp b u t b ec a u se
ex ec u tin g t h e p oli c y p ro ved t r e m en dou sly c o m ple x . F iv e y ea rs la te r, m uch o f t h e G ulf
Coast w as u n der a ssa u lt f r o m B P’s o il s p ill. E very o n e w an te d i t t o s to p — th at w as t h e c le a r
go vern m en ta l p oli c y — bu t i t t o ok m on th s t o f ig u re o u t h ow . T he O bam a a d m in is tr a tio n
desp era te ly w an te d i t s h ea lt h c a re r e fo rm t o w ork , b u t w hen i t s w eb sit e w en t li v e o n
Octo b er 1 , 2 013, t h e s it e w as s o f la w ed t h at a lm ost n o o n e c o u ld s ig n u p f o r i n su ra n ce.
Mak in g
p oli c y d oes n ot e n su re t h at p oli c ie s p ro d u ce r e su lt s .
Poli c y F orm atio n .
Adm in is tr a tio n ’s s e c o n d r o le i s t o h elp d ec is io n m ak ers f o rm p oli c y . I ts r o le p la y s o u t a t
tw o s ta g es: ( 1 ) b efo re t h e le g is la tu re a n d c h ie f e x ec u tiv e h av e m ad e t h e p oli c y d ec is io n s f o r
whic h t h ey ’r e r e sp on sib le a n d ( 2 ) a ft e r e le c te d o ffic ia ls h av e e n acte d s ta tu te s o r i s su ed
ex ec u tiv e o rd ers, a n d t h en d ele g ate d t o a d m in is tr a to rs t h e j o b o f i n te rp re tin g t h ese a ctio n s.
In t h e f ir st s ta g e, p ro p osa ls f o r n ew la w s f lo w f r o m m an y s o u rc es, a n d t h e s p ec ia l e x p ertis e
of a d m in is tr a tiv e a g en cie s m ak es t h em p rim e p la y ers. G overn m en t a g en cie s p osse ss m uch
fa ctu al i n fo rm atio n a b ou t t h eir s p ec if ic f ie ld , r e ta in
an e x p ert s ta ff t o a n aly ze d ata , d is c o ver
th e d efe c ts i n e x is tin g s ta tu te s a ft e r a p ply in g t h em , a n d e x h ib it d ev o tio n t o t h e p ro gra m ’s
ob je c tiv es. O ft e n , t h ou gh n ot a lw ay s, t h e a g en cy i s t r u ste d a s a le ss b ia se d s o u rc e o f
in fo rm atio n t h an o th er a v aila b le s o u rc es, s u ch a s o rg an iz e d i n te re st g ro u ps.
In r e c en t y ea rs, t w o d ev elo p m en ts h av e e n han ced a d m in is tr a to rs’ r o le i n t h is e a rly s ta g e o f
poli c y m ak in g. F ir st, a s p oli c y h as b ec o m e e v er m ore t e c h n ic a l, s o h as t h e s p ec ia li z e d
co m pete n ce o f a d m in is tr a tiv e s ta ffs . R eg u la tin g o il w ells a n d b u ild in g b rid ges, f o r e x am ple ,
must b e g u id ed b y s o p h is tic a te d i n fo rm atio n , a n aly sis , a n d a d vic e f r o m e n gin eers. E xp ert
kn ow le d ge a n d a d vic e a re e sse n tia l t o p oli c y d ev elo p m en t f o r n atio n al d efe n se w ea p on ry ,
sp ace e x p lo ra tio n , p u bli c h ea lt h , r e se a rc h a n d d ev elo p m en t, e d u ca tio n , p overty , u rb an
re n ew al, e n erg y, a ir a n d w ate r p ollu tio n , p oli c e, f ir e , s a n it a tio n , w ate r, a n d a h ost o f o th er
pro gra m a re a s. W it h in g o vern m en t, m ost e x p erts a re i n t h e a d m in is tr a tiv e a g en cie s.
Sec o n d, t h e c h ie f e x ec u tiv e’s r o le a s a n a g en da s e tte r h as g ro w n. T he c h ie f e x ec u tiv e—
pre sid en t, g o vern or, m ay o r, c o u n ty e x ec u tiv e— in it ia te s m ost o f t h e p ro p osa ls t h at
le g is la tu re s r e v ie w . T yp ic a lly t h e e x ec u tiv e s h ap es t h is p ro gra m t h ro u gh c o n su lt a tio n w it h
th e a g en cy -b ase d e x p erts o f t h e e x ec u tiv e b ra n ch . A lt h ou gh t h ey a re n ot t h e o n ly s o u rc es o f
th e e x ec u tiv e’s i d ea s, a g en cy e x p erts a re s tr a te g ic a lly s it u ate d t o i n it ia te a n d c o u n se l o n
poli c y p ro p osa ls i n t h e s e a rc h f o r t h e e x ec u tiv e’s s u pport. A nd t o c o m ple te t h e c ir c le , t h e
ex ec u tiv e’s n eed f o r e x p ert h elp h as g ro w n a s p u bli c p oli c y p ro b le m s h av e b ec o m e
149 in cre a sin gly t e c h n ic a l.
The s e c o n d s ta g e o f t h e p oli c y f o rm atio n p ro cess o ccu rs a ft e r t h e la w s a re o n t h e b ooks. I n
most c a se s, t h e s ta tu te s a re n ot c le a r e n ou gh s o t h at w hat h ap pen s a ft e rw ard c a n b e
re g ard ed a s e x ec u tio n i n t h e n arro w s e n se . L eg is la tiv e b eh av io r s o m etim es p ro d u ces h ig h ly
deta ile d s ta tu te s a n d o th er t im es r e su lt s i n o n ly a f u zzy i d en tif ic a tio n o f a p ro b le m t h at
ad m in is tr a to rs m ust w re stle w it h . I n e ffe c t, a d m in is tr a to rs m ak e p oli c y b y t r y in g t o d ec id e
what t h e le g is la to rs m ea n t a n d a ctin g o n i t .
There a re s e v era l r e a so n s f o r d ele g atin g s u ch e x te n siv e p oli c y m ak in g p ow er. I n a n ew p oli c y
fie ld i n w hic h t h ere i s li t tle e x p erie n ce t o b u ild o n , t h e le g is la tu re m ay o n ly w av e v ag u ely i n
th e d ir e c tio n t h at a ctio n s h ou ld t a k e. I n a f ie ld i n w hic h t e c h n olo gy o r o th er f e a tu re s
ch an ge r a p id ly , t h e s ta tu te m ust p erm it f le x ib le a ctio n b y t h e a g en cy , r a th er t h an r e q u ir in g
fr e q u en t r e tu rn s t o t h e le g is la tu re f o r e n actm en t o f n ew la n gu ag e. C on gre ss, f o r e x am ple ,
co u ld n ev er p ossib ly a n tic ip ate a ll t h e s te p s o f p u ttin g s a te lli t e s i n to s p ace. ( T here w as a
tim e w hen t h e c o m pu te r c o d e f o r a r o ck et la u n ch w as t h e m ost c o m pli c a te d o n E arth . T he
sm artp h on e i n y o u r p ock et i s m ore p ow erfu l t h an t h e c o m pu te r t h at p u t a m an o n t h e
moon .) S om e s u bje c ts , s u ch a s li c en sin g li q u or s to re s a n d o p era tin g t a x is , s im ply d o n ot
le n d t h em se lv es t o t h e s p ec if ic a tio n o f c rit e ria t h at w ou ld c o n fin e a d m in is tr a tiv e d is c re tio n .
Sta tu te s o ft e n d o s p ec if y s o m e c o n dit io n s ( fo r e x am ple , r e q u ir e m en ts t h at li q u or s to re
ow ners m ust n ot h av e c rim in al r e c o rd s a n d t h at li q u or s to re s n ot b e lo ca te d n ea r s c h ools ),
bu t t h ey o ffe r f e w g u id eli n es a b ou t h ow t o c h oose a m on g t h e n um ero u s a p pli c a n ts w ho
meet t h ese s im ple c rit e ria . I n a d dit io n , i n gen io u s e n tr e p re n eu rs c a n o ft e n g en era te c le v er
way s o f e v ad in g a n y h ig h ly s p ec if ic p ro h ib it io n s i n a s ta tu te . C on gre ss b ro ad ly f o rb id s
“u n fa ir m eth od s o f c o m petit io n . . . a n d u n fa ir o r d ec ep tiv e a cts i n c o m merc e,” le a v in g t h e
ad m in is tr a tiv e a g en cy a n d t h e c o u rts t o r e fin e t h ose v ag u e t e rm s “ u n fa ir ” a n d “ d ec ep tiv e.”
At t im es, t h e le g is la tiv e p ro cess i s s o s to rm y a n d f u ll o f c ro ssc u rre n ts t h at t h e r e su lt in g
sta tu te s i n co rp ora te c o n tr a d ic to ry p oli c y g u id eli n es, le a v in g a g en cy m an ag ers t o u se t h eir
ow n j u dgm en t i n r e c o n cili n g t h e c o n tr a d ic tio n s. S om etim es, t o o, a c o m pro m is e le a d s t o
le g is la tiv e la n gu ag e t h at p ap ers o ver d is a g re em en t, b u t t h at g iv es a d m in is tr a to rs a w id e
ra n ge f o r i n te rp re ta tio n . M ost a g en cie s, f u rth erm ore , a d m in is te r m an y s ta tu te s p asse d a t
dif fe re n t t im es a n d m ir ro rin g d if fe re n t le g is la tiv e p re fe re n ces, le a v in g a d m in is tr a to rs t o
re c o n cile t h e a ccu m ula te d i n str u ctio n s. F in ally , t h e le g is la tu re m ay n ot a p pro p ria te
su ffic ie n t f u n ds t o e n ab le a n a g en cy t o c a rry o u t a p ro gra m a s e n acte d . U nle ss t h e
le g is la tu re i t s e lf g iv es s p ec if ic d ir e c tio n , t h e a g en cy m ust t h en d ec id e w heth er t o s p re a d t h e
mon ey t h in ly o r c h oose w hic h o f i t s o b je c tiv es i t w ill p u rsu e w it h v ig o r a n d w hic h i t w ill
sli g h t.
Rip ped f r o m t h e H ea d li n es: T he P ris o n B ec o m es a M ariju an a F arm
Them e: A cco u n ta b ili t y
150 The c it y c o u n cil o f C oali n ga t o ok a p air o f v o te s i n J u ly 2 016 t h at p ro m is e d b ig c h an ges f o r t h e c it y — an d
big c h alle n ges f o r lo ca l p u bli c a d m in is tr a to rs. T he t o w n o f 1 6,0 00 i n C ali f o rn ia ’s S an J o aq u in V alle y v o te d
to a llo w t h e c o m merc ia l c u lt iv atio n o f m ariju an a w it h in t h e c it y li m it s — an d t o s e ll a c lo se d p ris o n t o a
priv ate c o m pan y, O cea n G ro w n E xtr a cts , t o c re a te a “ m ed ic a l c a n nab is o il e x tr a ctio n p la n t.” T he $ 4.1
milli o n s a le i m med ia te ly h elp ed t h e t o w n b ala n ce i t s b u dget.
The t o w n’s m ay o r p ro t e m , P atr ic k K eo u gh , e x p la in ed , “ It’s li k e t h e G ra te fu l D ea d s a id : ‘W hat a lo n g,
str a n ge t r ip i t ’s b een .’” I t w as d em ocra cy i n a ctio n , h e c o n te n ded . “ W e li s te n ed t o t h e c it iz e n s a n d c re a te d a
pack ag e t h at w as r e fle c tiv e o f o u r p op u la tio n .” C it y o ffic ia ls a ls o b eli e v ed t h at t h e v o te w ou ld h elp p re v en t
Coali n ga f r o m la g gin g b eh in d o th er t o w ns t r y in g t o g et i n to t h e c a n nab is c u lt iv atio n b u sin ess.
But t h e v o te d id n ’t c o m e w it h ou t s tr in gs, a n d t h e r e q u ir e m en ts p ro m is e d t o k eep lo ca l p oli c e a n d p u bli c
ad m in is tr a to rs b u sy . T he o w ner w ou ld b e r e sp on sib le f o r a n y li a b ili t y i s su es, w hic h c o u ld p ro ve a n i s su e a s
lo n g a s f e d era l la w p ro h ib it s t h e u se o f m ariju an a. A ll e m plo yees w ou ld b e s u bje c t t o a b ack gro u n d c h ec k
an d r e c eiv e a lo ca l g o vern m en t p erm it t o w ork o n t h e s it e , w hic h t h e C oali n ga P oli c e D ep artm en t w ou ld
keep o n f ile .
The f a cili t y w ou ld b e r e q u ir e d t o h av e lo ck ed g ate s a n d w ou ld n ot b e o p en t o t h e p u bli c . T he o p era to rs
wou ld n eed t o h av e v id eo s u rv eilla n ce t w en ty -fo u r h ou rs p er d ay , w it h t h e f e ed p ro vid ed t o t h e p oli c e
dep artm en t. I t c o u ld n ot h av e a n y s ig n s a n d t h e f a cili t y ’s o p era to rs w ou ld n eed t o h av e o d or c o n tr o l, s o
passe rsb y c o u ld n ’t s m ell c a n nab is . A nd e a ch o f t h e p la n ts w ou ld b e r e q u ir e d t o h av e a n e le c tr o n ic t r a ck in g
dev ic e. T he p oli c e c h ie f, f ir e c h ie f, a n d c it y p la n ner w ou ld b e r e q u ir e d , s ix ty d ay s i n a d van ce, t o c ertif y t h at
th e f a cili t y m et a ll f ir e s a fe ty a n d b u ild in g c o d es. T he p oli c y c h an ge r e q u ir e d e v en b ig ger c h an ges f o r t h e
lo ca l p u bli c a d m in is tr a to rs.
Sou rce :
R ory A pple to n , “ C oali n ga L eg ali z e s M ed ic a l M ariju an a O pera tio n ,”
Fre sn o B ee
( J u ly 7 , 2 016),
http :/ /w ww.f r e sn ob ee.c o m /n ew s/ lo ca l/ a rtic le 8 8377122.h tm l
.
In s h ort, p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n s h ap es p oli c y o n t h e w ay u p, e x ec u te s p oli c y a ft e r i t h as
been m ad e, a n d e x erc is e s d is c re tio n a b ou t p oli c y q u estio n s o n t h e w ay d ow n.
The P oli t ic s-A dm in is tr a tio n D ic h oto m y.
As s c h ola rs s tu die d p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n e a rly i n t h e t w en tie th c en tu ry , t h ey s e p ara te d
poli c y — th e p oli t ic a l w ork o f s h ap in g p u bli c d ec is io n s— fr o m a d m in is tr a tio n — th e d eta ile d
work o f c a rry in g t h em o u t. A s w e s a w i n
Chap te r 1
, t h is d ic h oto m y c a m e f r o m t h e g o al o f
defin in g a d is tin ctiv e f ie ld o f s tu dy a n d, e v en m ore s o , f r o m t h e e ffo rts t o r e fo rm c it y , s ta te ,
an d n atio n al g o vern m en ts i n t h e la te n in ete en th a n d e a rly t w en tie th c en tu rie s b y r o otin g
ou t p ern ic io u s p oli t ic a l c o rru ptio n . E sta b li s h in g a n eu tr a l r e a lm f o r a d m in is tr a tio n ,
pro te c te d b y c iv il s e rv ic e la w s a n d g o vern ed b y a d riv e f o r e ffic ie n cy , w ou ld d ry u p t h e
patr o n ag e r e so u rc es o f p oli t ic a l m ach in es a n d le a v e p oli c y m ak in g o rg an s o f g o vern m en t
more d ir e c tly a cco u n ta b le t o t h e p eo p le .
Tod ay , t h e d u al g o als o f a ssu rin g a n on partis a n b od y o f c iv il s e rv an ts r e m ain u n ch an ged :
lo yal s e rv ic e t o o ffic ia ls f r o m d if fe re n t p oli t ic a l p artie s a n d t h e a ch ie v em en t o f e ffic ie n t
ad m in is tr a tio n . T he o b vio u s f a ct t h at a d m in is tr a tiv e s ta ffs s h are i n p oli c y f o rm atio n — as
well a s t h e f u zzy li n e b etw een p oli c y a n d a d m in is tr a tio n — has le d m an y s tu den ts t o r e je c t
th e
poli c y -a d m in is tr a tio n d ic h oto m y. A naly sts h av e t r ie d t o r e esta b li s h t h e d is tin ctio n b y
fo rb id din g a d m in is tr a to rs f r o m p artic ip atin g i n p oli t ic a l a ctiv it ie s, b u t t h at li n e m ay w av er.
151 Civ il s e rv an ts n eed t o b e r e sp ec tfu l o f t h e p oli c y g o als o f e le c te d o ffic ia ls a n d s e n sit iv e t o t h e
poli t ic a l i m pli c a tio n s o f t h eir p oli c y s u ggestio n s. B ut c iv il s e rv an ts h av e o th er o b li g atio n s a s
well— to lo n g-r a n ge p oli c y g o als , c o n tin uit y a n d c o n sis te n cy , e ffe c tiv e a d m in is tr a tio n , a n d
re sis ta n ce t o c o rru ptio n . F urth erm ore , t h ey m ust b ala n ce a n a d m in is tr a tio n ’s p re fe re n ces
ag ain st le g is la tiv e a n d j u dic ia l m an date s.
Civ il s e rv an ts h av e r e sp on sib ili t ie s d if fe re n t f r o m t h ose o f p oli t ic a lly e le c te d o ffic ia ls . P oli c y
an d a d m in is tr a tio n a re c erta in ly i n te rtw in ed , b u t t h e m otiv atio n s a n d b eh av io rs o f
poli c y m ak ers a n d p u bli c a d m in is tr a to rs a re v ery d if fe re n t. S ep ara tin g t h em i s a c o re i s su e o f
pu bli c a d m in is tr a tio n .
152
A dm in is tr a tiv e R esp on sib ili t y
E very w ell- d ev elo p ed o rg an iz a tio n h as s o m e s y ste m f o r h old in g s u bord in ate s a cco u n ta b le t o
t h eir s u perio rs. N ow here i s t h e s y ste m s o c o m ple x a n d c o n fin in g a s i n g o vern m en t.
24
S ta tu te s a n d r e g u la tio n s s p ec if y e la b ora te p ro ced u re s t h at s e rio u sly li m it a d m in is tr a to rs’
d is c re tio n ary a u th orit y . L eg is la tiv e c o m mit te es c a ll a d m in is tr a to rs t o t e stif y a b ou t
c o m pla in ts t h at h av e a ris e n o n t h e p ro gra m s t h ey m an ag e. M em bers o f le g is la tiv e s ta ffs
c lo se ly m on it o r a d m in is tr a tiv e a ctio n s i n a g en cie s o f i n te re st t o t h eir s u perio rs. B udget
o ffic es t y p ic a lly r e v ie w p ro p ose d r e g u la tio n s a n d i n fo rm atio n -g ath erin g p ro p osa ls i n
a d dit io n t o r e v ie w in g f in an cia l r e q u ests a n d s e ttin g p erso n nel c eili n gs.
F ro m t h e c a re er a d m in is tr a to rs’ p ersp ec tiv e, t h is i s a f o rm id ab le c o n tr o l s y ste m . Y et a s w e
s u ggeste d e a rli e r, a d m in is tr a tiv e r e sp on sib ili t y g o es b ey o n d t h ese e x te rn al c o n tr o ls o n
b eh av io r. T here a re a ls o n orm s f o r b eh av io r t h at a re i n te rn ali z e d b y a d m in is tr a to rs
t h em se lv es. F ir st, k n ow in g t h at t h ey s e rv e i n g o vern m en t, t h ey m ust b e s e n sit iv e t o t h e
l e g it im ate r o le s o f o th er p arts o f t h e g o vern m en t, i n clu din g i n stit u tio n s c h arg ed w it h le g al
c o n tr o l o f t h eir b eh av io r. S ec o n d, t h ey h av e a lo yalt y t o t h eir a g en cie s a n d t h e p ro gra m s
e n tr u ste d t o t h em . T hir d , i n a c iv il s e rv ic e n ow p op u la te d b y p ro fe ssio n al e x p erts , t h ey h av e
a b so rb ed t h eir p ro fe ssio n al s ta n dard s a n d a re m otiv ate d t o b e r e c o gn iz e d b y t h eir f e llo w
p ro fe ssio n als o u ts id e t h e g o vern m en t. A ll t h ese c o m mit m en ts s h ap e a d m in is tr a tiv e
r e sp on sib ili t y , e v en t h ou gh a t t im es t h ey m ay n ot a ll p oin t i n t h e s a m e d ir e c tio n .
25
T hat le a d s t o a f u n dam en ta l p ro b le m o f a cco u n ta b ili t y . E xte rn al c o n tr o ls o n b u re a u cra cy
o ft e n le a d t o r e d t a p e. E xte rn al c o n tr o ls c a n r e p la ce e x te rn al o versig h t, b u t t h at r e q u ir e s
e n han ced t r u st b etw een t h e p oli t ic a l a n d t h e c iv il s e rv ic e s tr a ta o f g o vern m en t. A nd t h at, i n
t u rn , s e ts u p s o m e o f t h e m ost f u n dam en ta l d eb ate s a b ou t t h e s tu dy o f p u bli c
a d m in is tr a tio n .
N ow , t o b e s u re , t h e d eb ate a b ou t t h e d if fe re n ces b etw een p u bli c a n d p riv ate
a d m in is tr a tio n s o m etim es g et o verb lo w n. A s w e s h all s e e i n t h is b ook, p u bli c
a d m in is tr a tio n i s r e ly in g f a r m ore o n p riv ate p artn ers f o r t h e a d m in is tr a tio n o f
g o vern m en ta l p ro gra m s. I n t h e p riv ate s e c to r, p u bli c p oli c ie s c re a te li m it s o n h ir in g a n d
f ir in g, a n d c o m pan ie s s o m etim es p u sh s h ort- te rm p ro fit s t o t h e s id e i n p u rsu it o f lo n ger-
t e rm r e la tio n sh ip s w it h s u ppli e rs a n d c u sto m ers. M ore o ver, t h e d eb ate s o m etim es g ets
c a u gh t i n f ie rc e i d eo lo gic a l b attle s t h at h av e m ore t o d o w it h t r u st i n g o vern m en t t h an
f u n dam en ta l a n aly tic a l d if fe re n ces. T here i s o ft e n m ore h ea t t h an li g h t i n t h ese d eb ate s. B ut
a t t h e c o re , t h e li g h t i s u se fu l: i t h elp s i llu m in ate t h ose f e a tu re s t h at li e a t t h e c o re o f p u bli c
a d m in is tr a tio n — an d o f t h e i m porta n t i s su es w e e x am in e i n t h is b ook.
153 A c o n gre ssio n al i n vestig atio n i n to a c o n fe re n ce s p on so re d b y t h e f e d era l G en era l S erv ic es
Adm in is tr a tio n b ro u gh t t o u gh c o n gre ssio n al q u estio n s a b ou t e v en ts f e a tu rin g a p ro fe ssio n al
min d r e a d er, a c lo w n, a n d a t e a m -b u ild in g e x erc is e f o r b u ild in g b ic y cle s. I n sp ec to r G en era l
Bria n M ille r ( le ft ) p ro d u ced a r e p ort o n t h e c o n fe re n ce, w hic h le d a g en cy a d m in is tr a to r
Marth a J o h n so n ( c en te r) t o r e sig n . J e ff N eely , r e g io n al c o m mis sio n er ( r ig h t) , o rg an iz e d t h e
co n fe re n ce.
Andre w H arre r/B lo om berg v ia G etty I m ag es
154
T he S tu dy o f P ubli c A dm in is tr a tio n
H ow , t h en , s h ou ld w e t h in k a b ou t “ p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n ”?
26
D wig h t W ald o s u ggests t h at
w e f a ce a d if fic u lt t a sk . H e p oin ts o u t t h at p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n h as r o ots d eep i n h is to ric
c ro ssc u rre n ts , i n clu din g t h e p oli t ic a l i d ea s o f t h e s m all G re ek c it y -s ta te ( th e
poli s
) a n d t h e
l a rg e-s c a le a d m in is tr a tio n o f t h e R om an E m pir e , b oth o f w hic h h elp ed s h ap e t h e A m eric a n
s y ste m .
27
O ne w ay o f a d dre ssin g t h is t a sk i s c la im in g t h at a d m in is tr a tio n a n d p oli c y ( o r
p oli t ic s) a re s e p ara te s p h ere s. W ood ro w W ils o n a n d F ra n k J . G ood n ow , w rit in g i n t h e la te
n in ete en th a n d e a rly t w en tie th c en tu rie s, t o ok t h is v ie w .
28
N ic h ola s H en ry i d en tif ie s 1 900–
1 926 a s t h e p erio d w hen t h e p oli t ic s-a d m in is tr a tio n d ic h oto m y r e ig n ed . H e t h en t r a ces
l a te r p erio d s: 1 927–1937, w hen s tu den ts a ffir m ed t h e e x is te n ce o f c le a r p rin cip le s o f p u bli c
a d m in is tr a tio n ; 1 938–1950, m ark ed b y r e je c tio n o f t h e p oli t ic s-a d m in is tr a tio n d ic h oto m y
a n d lo ss o f c o n fid en ce i n p rin cip le s; t h e r e a ctio n o f 1 950–1970, y ea rs o f r e o rie n ta tio n t o
p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n a s p oli t ic a l s c ie n ce; o verla p pin g a n d c o n tr a d ic tin g t h at r e o rie n ta tio n ,
a 1 956–1970 e m ph asis o n m an ag em en t, o ft e n b orro w in g f r o m b u sin ess m an ag em en t,
t o geth er w it h t h e r is e o f p u bli c p oli c y s tu die s ( fo cu se d o n e ffe c tiv e a ch ie v em en t o f p oli c y
o b je c tiv es); a n d, f in ally , t h e p ost- 1 970 r e v ersio n t o a s p ec if ic f o cu s o n p u bli c
a d m in is tr a tio n . T hat w ork i s o ft e n lo d ged i n d is tin ct s c h ools o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n t h at
a re h osp it a b le t o m an ag em en t m eth od s b u t a re s e n sit iv e t o t h e p u bli c -in te re st c o m mit m en t
o f a d m in is tr a to rs o f g o vern m en ta l a ffa ir s.
29
I n o u r s tu dy, w e n eed t o c o n fr o n t t h re e q u estio n s i n t r y in g t o f r a m e a g en era l a p pro ach t o
t h e f ie ld . F ir st, d oes p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n h av e m ea n in g a p art f r o m i t s h is to ric a l c o n te x t?
S ec o n d, d oes i t h av e m ea n in g r e g ard le ss o f p la ce, c ir c u m sta n ce, a n d le v el o f g o vern m en t?
T hir d , i f w e m ak e e v en li m it e d g en era li z a tio n s, h ow s h all w e p ro ceed ? T o s u ch
f u n dam en ta l q u estio n s, w e m ust o ffe r p erp le x in g a n sw ers:
1 .
Publi c a d m in is tr a tio n i s t im ele ss b u t i s t im e-b ou n d.
30
2 .
Publi c a d m in is tr a tio n i s u n iv ersa l b u t i s a ls o c u lt u re -b ou n d a n d v arie s w it h
sit u atio n s.
3 .
Publi c a d m in is tr a tio n i s c o m ple x b u t i s i n te lli g ib le o n ly b y a s im pli f ie d m od el o r a
ste p -b y-s te p c o m bin atio n o f s u ch m od els .
W e c o n sid er t h e f ir st t w o p u zzle s t o geth er, b ec a u se t im e a n d s p ace a re r e la te d v aria b le s.
155
P ubli c A dm in is tr a tio n i n T im e
P ubli c a d m in is tr a tio n h as a lo n ger h is to ry a n d a w id er g eo gra p h ic r a n ge t h an a lm ost a n y
o th er a sp ec t o f g o vern m en t. I t i s f a r o ld er t h an A m eric a n g o vern m en t— it h as b een t h e
i n str u m en t o f a n cie n t e m pir e s, m on arc h ie s, d em ocra cie s, a n d d ic ta to rsh ip s, i n b oth
d ev elo p ed a n d d ev elo p in g c o u n tr ie s. C arl J . F rie d ric h h as c o gen tly a rg u ed t h at t h e
a ch ie v em en t o f r e p re se n ta tiv e g o vern m en t i n W este rn E uro p e d ep en ded o n t h e p rio r
d ev elo p m en t o f e ffe c tiv e b u re a u cra cie s b y u n dem ocra tic r e g im es.
31
I n deed , r e v o lu tio n s t h at
s e ek t o t r a n sfo rm t h e s tr u ctu re o f p oli t ic a l a u th orit y a ls o s tr u ggle t o c o n tr o l t h e
b u re a u cra cy .
I n t h e U nit e d S ta te s, p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n r e c eiv ed s c a n t d is c u ssio n f r o m t h e n atio n ’s
f o u n ders f o r d ec a d es a ft e r t h e w rit in g o f t h e C on stit u tio n . A s h e t r a v ele d t h e U nit e d S ta te s
i n 1 835, A le x is d e T ocq u ev ille w as a m aze d a t t h e n eg le c t o f t h e s u bje c t i n t h e y o u n g
n atio n , c o m pare d w it h e x p erie n ce i n h is n ativ e F ra n ce:
The p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n i s , s o t o s p ea k , o ra l a n d t r a d it io n al. B ut li t tle i s
co m mit te d t o w rit in g a n d t h at li t tle i s s o on w aft e d a w ay f o re v er, li k e t h e le a v es o f
th e S ib yl, b y t h e s m alle st b re eze . . . . T he i n sta b ili t y o f a d m in is tr a tio n h as
pen etr a te d i n to t h e h ab it s o f t h e p eo p le . . . a n d n o o n e c a re s f o r w hat o ccu rre d
befo re h is t im e: n o m eth od ic a l s y ste m i s p u rsu ed , n o a rc h iv es a re f o rm ed , a n d n o
docu m en ts a re b ro u gh t t o geth er w hen i t w ou ld b e v ery e a sy t o d o s o . . . .
Nev erth ele ss, t h e a rt o f a d m in is tr a tio n i s u n dou bte d ly a s c ie n ce, a n d n o s c ie n ce
ca n b e i m pro ved i f t h e d is c o verie s a n d o b se rv atio n s o f s u ccessiv e g en era tio n s a re
not c o n nec te d t o geth er i n t h e o rd er i n w hic h t h ey o ccu r. . . . B ut t h e p erso n s
who c o n du ct t h e a d m in is tr a tio n i n A m eric a c a n s e ld om a ffo rd a n y i n str u ctio n t o
on e a n oth er. . . . D em ocra cy , p u sh ed t o i t s f u rth est li m it s , i s t h ere fo re p re ju dic ia l
to t h e a rt o f g o vern m en t; a n d f o r t h is r e a so n i t i s b ette r a d ap te d t o a p eo p le
alr e a d y v erse d i n t h e c o n du ct o f a d m in is tr a tio n t h an t o a n atio n t h at i s
un in it ia te d i n p u bli c a ffa ir s.
32
T o d ea l w it h t h ese i s su es, W ood ro w W ils o n w ro te t h at “ th e p ois o n ou s a tm osp h ere o f c it y
g o vern m en t, t h e c ro oked s e c re ts o f s ta te a d m in is tr a tio n , t h e c o n fu sio n , s in ec u ris m , a n d
c o rru ptio n e v er a n d a g ain d is c o vere d i n t h e b u re a u a t W ash in gto n f o rb id u s t o b eli e v e t h at
a n y c le a r c o n cep tio n s o f w hat c o n stit u te s g o od a d m in is tr a tio n a re a s y et v ery w id ely c u rre n t
i n t h e U nit e d S ta te s.”
33
N otin g t h at “ th e f u n ctio n s o f g o vern m en t a re e v ery d ay b ec o m in g
m ore c o m ple x a n d d if fic u lt ” a n d “ are a ls o v astly m ult ip ly in g i n n um ber,” W ils o n p le a d ed
i n h is 1 887 e ssa y f o r “ a s c ie n ce o f a d m in is tr a tio n w hic h s h all s e ek t o s tr a ig h te n t h e p ath s o f
g o vern m en t,
to m ak e i t s b u sin ess le ss u n bu sin essli k e, t o s tr e n gth en a n d p u rif y i t s
o rg an iz a tio n , a n d t o c ro w n i t s d u tie s w it h d u tif u ln ess.” S u ch a s c ie n ce, h e n ote d , e x is te d o n
156 th e E uro p ea n c o n tin en t, e sp ec ia lly i n P ru ssia n a n d F re n ch p ra ctic e. H e a n tic ip ate d t h at
co m para tiv e s tu dy w ou ld y ie ld “ o n e r u le o f g o od a d m in is tr a tio n f o r a ll g o vern m en ts a li k e.
So f a r a s a d m in is tr a tiv e f u n ctio n s a re c o n cern ed , a ll g o vern m en ts h av e a s tr o n g s tr u ctu ra l
li k en ess; m ore t h an t h at, i f t h ey a re t o b e u n if o rm ly u se fu l a n d e ffic ie n t, t h ey m ust h av e a
str o n g s tr u ctu ra l li k en ess.”
Fro m o n e p oin t o f v ie w , t h en , p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n h as u n iv ersa l e le m en ts , i n dep en den t o f
tim e, p la ce, a n d p oli t ic a l s y ste m . T hose w ho s e rv e i n a n y p u bli c b u re a u cra cy m ust b e
se le c te d , p aid , g iv en s p ec if ic a ssig n m en ts , c o n tr o lle d , d is c ip li n ed w hen n ec essa ry , a n d s o o n .
To p ay t h em a n d t o s u pport o th er g o vern m en ta l a ctiv it ie s ( m in im ally , p ro vis io n f o r
mili t a ry f o rc es a n d c o n str u ctio n o f r o ad s), a r e v en ue s y ste m m ust b e d ev is e d , t h e r e c eip ts
allo ca te d b y s o m e k in d o f b u dgeta ry s y ste m , a n d a cco u n tin g a n d o th er r e c o rd keep in g
meth od s w ork ed o u t.
To s a y t h at t h ere a re s u ch u n iv ersa l e le m en ts i m pli e s t h at g o vern m en ts e v ery w here c a n
accu m ula te e x p erie n ce, a n d t h at t h is c o n stit u te s a r e se rv o ir o n w hic h g o vern m en ts c a n d ra w
to a v o id r e p ea tin g m is ta k es. A s W ils o n s ta te d , “ th e o b je c t o f a d m in is tr a tiv e s tu dy i s t o
re sc u e e x ec u tiv e m eth od s f r o m t h e c o n fu sio n a n d c o stli n ess o f e m pir ic a l e x p erim en t a n d s e t
th em u pon f o u n datio n s la id d eep i n s ta b le p rin cip le .” H ow ev er, d esp it e e x p ec ta tio n s t h at
more t h an 1 00 y ea rs o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n s tu dy s h ou ld b y n ow h av e y ie ld ed s ta b le
prin cip le s, t h at h as n ot y et h ap pen ed . W ils o n b ase d h is a n aly sis o n a p erc ep tio n o f
ad m in is tr a tio n a s a n eu tr a l i n str u m en t, d is tin ct f r o m p oli c y , p oli t ic s, a n d p artic u la r
re g im es. S u ch a p erc ep tio n s e em ed e sse n tia l t o d efin e a d is tin ct f ie ld o f s tu dy, s e p ara te f r o m
th e s tu dy o f p oli c y a n d p oli t ic s. I t m ay a ls o h av e s p ru n g f r o m t h e
neu tr a li t y d octr in e
o f
civ il s e rv ic e r e fo rm ers, w ho h ad s u cceed ed i n g ettin g t h e P en dle to n C iv il S erv ic e A ct p asse d
ju st f o u r y ea rs b efo re W ils o n ’s e ssa y a p pea re d i n t h e 1 887 v o lu m e o f
Poli t ic a l S cie n ce
Quarte rly .
B ut i t w as a n e sp ec ia lly c rit ic a l a ssu m ptio n f o r W ils o n ’s t h esis t h at “ n ow here e ls e
in t h e w hole f ie ld o f p oli t ic s, i t w ou ld s e em , c a n w e m ak e u se o f t h e h is to ric a l, c o m para tiv e
meth od m ore s a fe ly t h an i n t h is p ro vin ce o f a d m in is tr a tio n .” T hat i s , w e c a n le a rn
ad m in is tr a tio n f r o m t h e P ru ssia n a n d F re n ch ( N ap ole o n ic ) a u to cra cie s w it h ou t b ein g
in fe c te d b y t h eir a n tid em ocra tic p oli t ic a l p rin cip le s.
Wils o n ’s li n e o f a rg u m en t f r a m ed t w o c o n tr a d ic to ry t h em es. O ne w as t h at a d m in is tr a tio n
must b e f it te d t o t h e p artic u la r n atio n ’s p oli t ic a l i d ea s a n d c o n stit u tio n al s y ste m . T he
sc ie n ce o f a d m in is tr a tio n , W ils o n w ro te ,
is n ot o f o u r m ak in g; i t i s a f o re ig n s c ie n ce, s p ea k in g v ery li t tle o f t h e la n gu ag e o f
Engli s h o r A m eric a n p rin cip le s. . . . I t h as b een d ev elo p ed b y F re n ch a n d
Germ an p ro fe sso rs, a n d i s c o n se q u en tly i n a ll p arts a d ap te d t o t h e n eed s o f a
co m pact s ta te , a n d m ad e t o f it h ig h ly c en tr a li z e d f o rm s o f g o vern m en t. . . . I f w e
wou ld e m plo y i t , w e m ust A m eric a n iz e i t , a n d t h at n ot f o rm ally , i n la n gu ag e
mere ly , b u t r a d ic a lly , i n t h ou gh t, p rin cip le , a n d a im a s w ell. I t m ust le a rn o u r
157 co n stit u tio n s b y h ea rt; m ust g et t h e b u re a u cra tic f e v er o u t o f i t s v ein s; m ust
in hale m uch f r e e A m eric a n a ir .
Wils o n a d van ced a s e c o n d t h em e t h at b lu rs t h e d is tin ctio n h e m ad e e ls e w here b etw een
poli c y a n d a d m in is tr a tio n . H e c o n te n ded t h at t h e
li n es o f d em arc a tio n , s e ttin g a p art a d m in is tr a tiv e f r o m n on ad m in is tr a tiv e
fu n ctio n s . . . r u n u p h ill a n d d ow n d ale , o ver d iz zy h eig h ts o f d is tin ctio n a n d
th ro u gh d en se j u n gle s o f s ta tu to ry e n actm en t, h it h er a n d t h it h er a ro u n d “ if s ”
an d “ b u ts ,” “ w hen s,” a n d “ h ow ev er,” u n til t h ey b ec o m e a lt o geth er lo st t o t h e
co m mon e y e.
Wils o n s u ggeste d “ so m e r o u gh ly d efin it e c rit e ria ”: “ p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n i s d eta ile d a n d
sy ste m atic e x ec u tio n o f p u bli c la w ,” “ ev ery p artic u la r a p pli c a tio n o f g en era l la w ,” “ th e
deta ile d e x ec u tio n ” o f “ th e b ro ad p la n s o f g o vern m en ta l a ctio n ,” t h e “ sp ec ia l m ea n s” a s
dis tin gu is h ed f r o m t h e “ g en era l p la n s.” Y et h e w en t o n t o p le a d f o r t h e v estin g o f “ la rg e
pow ers a n d u n ham pere d d is c re tio n ” a s t h e i n dis p en sa b le c o n dit io n s o f a d m in is tr a tiv e
re sp on sib ili t y .
Here , t h en , a re W ils o n ’s b asic c o n tr a d ic tio n s: h e c o n te n ds t h at p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n n eed s
to b e i n te rp re te d i n t h e li g h t o f a p artic u la r c o u n tr y ’s p oli t ic a l i d ea s a n d f o rm o f
go vern m en t, b u t a t t h e s a m e t im e h e s e es i t a s a n eu tr a l i n str u m en t. H e s e ek s a g o al o f “ o n e
ru le o f g o od a d m in is tr a tio n f o r a ll g o vern m en ts a li k e,” b u t h e n ote s t h at d if fe re n t s e ttin gs
ca n p ro d u ce d if fe re n t p ro b le m s. H e e x p la in s t h at a d m in is tr a to rs h av e la rg e p ow ers a n d
gre a t d is c re tio n , b u t h e s a y s t h at t h e a d m in is tr a tiv e c a n not r e a d ily b e d is tin gu is h ed f r o m
th e n on ad m in is tr a tiv e a sp ec ts o f g o vern m en t.
Much o f t h e li t e ra tu re o n a d m in is tr a tio n s in ce W ils o n ’s t im e h as s tr u ggle d w it h t h e s a m e
co n tr a d ic tio n s w it h w hic h h e s tr u ggle d . E ach o f t h e p osit io n s h e e m bra ced h as j u st a p ie c e
of t h e w hole t r u th . A n um ber o f p ro b le m s a re c o m mon t o a ll o r m ost p u bli c b u re a u cra cie s.
Most o f t h ese i s su es f lo w f r o m a s im ple q u estio n , w hic h W ils o n la id o u t: H ow c a n
go vern m en t d o t h in gs “ w it h t h e u tm ost p ossib le e ffic ie n cy a n d a t t h e le a st p ossib le c o st
eit h er o f m on ey o r o f e n erg y”? Y et t h ere a re a ls o p ro b le m s, s o m e o f t h em a m on g t h e m ost
crit ic a l f o r a d m in is tr a tio n , t h at r e q u ir e d if fe re n t c rit e ria a n d d if fe re n t a n sw ers i n d is sim ila r
so cia l a n d p oli t ic a l s y ste m s, a t t h e s e v era l s ta g es o f n atio n al d ev elo p m en t, a n d e v en i n t h e
in div id u al a g en cie s o f a s in gle g o vern m en t.
Weste rn m od els h av e n ot p ro ved g o od m atc h es f o r u n dersta n din g b u re a u cra cy i n n on -
Weste rn p oli t ic a l s y ste m s. A nd w hen d ev elo p in g c o u n tr ie s h av e lo oked t o t h e W est f o r
mod els , t h ey h av e s tr u ggle d t o c h oose w hic h o n es t o f o llo w . A s u bsta n tia l c o m para tiv e
ad m in is tr a tio n m ovem en t a p pea re d i n t h e 1 960s, b u t t h e m ovem en t v ir tu ally e v ap ora te d
158 un til t h e g lo b al p u bli c m an ag em en t r e v o lu tio n t h at b eg an i n t h e la te 1 980s h elp ed t o
re ju ven ate i t . T im e a n d s p ace a re i n te rli n ked i n t h e r e c en t a n d g ro w in g li t e ra tu re o n t h e
his to ry o f g o vern m en ta l a d m in is tr a tio n .
34
M ore o ver, a s C hris to p h er P olli t t a rg u es, t h e d eep
tr a d it io n s o f b eh av io r a n d c u lt u re h av e a p ow erfu l i n flu en ce o ver a d m in is tr a tiv e a ctio n . T he
pace o f s o cia l c h an ge h as a ccele ra te d a ro u n d t h e w orld , a n d “ th is m ak es c o n sid era tio n s o f
tim e a n d o f t h e p ast e v en
more
i m porta n t, n ot le ss s o .”
35
W e n eed t o u n dersta n d w here
ad m in is tr a tio n c o m es f r o m t o u n dersta n d h ow t h e p ast s h ap es t h e w ay w e t h in k a b ou t t h e
pre se n t a n d f u tu re .
159
C om ple x it y a n d S im pli c it y
A ny r e a l o rg an iz a tio n al s y ste m i s e x tr e m ely c o m ple x , a n d i t i s t h ere fo re i m possib le t o
d esc rib e a n y s u ch s y ste m f u lly . I t m ig h t a p pea r t o b e a r e a so n ab le a ssu m ptio n t h at t h e m ain
f e a tu re s o f t h e s y ste m c a n b e d esc rib ed — fo r e x am ple , b y a s in gle m od el t h at s im pli f ie s
to ta l
r e a li t y i n o rd er t o c la rif y
esse n tia l
r e a li t y . E ven t h is a ssu m ptio n i s w ro n g, h ow ev er, f o r t h re e
r e a so n s.
F ir st, t h e c o m ple x it y o f a n y la rg e-s c a le o rg an iz a tio n i s n ot a p u zzle t h at a s in gle k ey w ill
u n lo ck . I n ste a d , t h ere a re s o m an y w ay s o f lo okin g a t a n o rg an iz a tio n t h at n o s in gle m od el
c a n s u ffic e a s a m od el, a s c a n b e s e en f r o m t h e f o llo w in g li s t o f c o m pli c a tin g f a cto rs
36
:
In te rco n nectio n s o f p oli c y m ak in g a n d e x ecu tio n
. A n o rg an iz a tio n ( a s w e h av e s e en ) b oth
sh ap es p oli c y a n d e x ec u te s i t , a n d t h ey i n te rtw in e i n w ay s t h at a re s o m etim es b oth
su pportiv e a n d a w kw ard .
Coord in atio n
. A n o rg an iz a tio n i s a w ay o f b oth d iv id in g u p a n d c o ord in atin g w ork .
Rela tio n sh ip s o f p ow er
. A n o rg an iz a tio n i s b oth a f o rm al, p re sc rib ed s tr u ctu re o f
re la tio n sh ip s a m on g o ffic es a n d o rg an iz a tio n u n it s a n d a n a re n a i n w hic h a m bit io u s
perso n s a n d u n it s w ork t o e x p an d o r a t le a st m ain ta in t h eir s ta tu s a n d p ow er.
Flo a tin g i n t h e s e a s o f t im e.
A n o rg an iz a tio n b oth p ersis ts o ver t im e d esp it e c h an ges i n
it s p erso n nel ( c o m ple te c h an ge i n t h e c a se o f lo n g-li v ed o rg an iz a tio n s) a n d a t a n y
sin gle p oin t i n t im e c o n ta in s a p artic u la r g ro u p o f i n div id u als , e a ch w it h a s p ec ia l s e t
of p sy ch olo gic a l n eed s a n d f r u str a tio n s.
Top -d ow n a n d b otto m -u p
. A n o rg an iz a tio n i s b oth a t o p -d ow n s y ste m o f a u th orit y ,
co n fo rm it y , a n d c o m pli a n ce a n d a b otto m -u p s y ste m f o r t h e f lo w t o t h e t o p o f
in novativ e i d ea s, p ro p ose d s o lu tio n s t o p ro b le m s, c la im s o n r e so u rc es, a n d r e p orts o f
tr o u ble s ig n s i n p ro gra m e x ec u tio n a n d c o n te n t.
In fo rm atio n .
A n o rg an iz a tio n i s a n i n fo rm atio n g en era tio n s y ste m , a s to ra g e a n d
re tr ie v al f ile , a n d a c o m mun ic a tio n n etw ork , s u bje c t t o o verlo ad s o f i n fo rm atio n ,
mis r e a d in g o f s ig n als , a n d s u pple m en ta tio n s a n d w ir e c ro ssin g b y i n fo rm al
gra p ev in es.
Hea d qu arte rs a n d f i e ld .
A n o rg an iz a tio n u su ally i n clu des b oth a h ea d qu arte rs s ta ff a n d
a f a r-flu n g f ie ld s e rv ic e, t h e f o rm er o rg an iz e d b y f u n ctio n s a n d t h e la tte r b y
geo gra p h ic a l a re a s— a f e a tu re t h at h in ders t h eir e ffe c tiv e li n kag e.
Valu es.
A n o rg an iz a tio n ’s d ec is io n -m ak in g p ro cess m ust e m bra ce t h e b ro ad c h oic es i n
whic h t h e p erso n al v alu e p re fe re n ces a n d e d u ca te d g u esse s o f o ffic ia ls p la y a la rg e
part. I t m ust p ro vid e f o r o th er m ajo r c h oic es f o r w hic h q u an tif ie d d ata a n d o th er
sc ie n tif ic e v id en ce c a n c la rif y t h e o p tio n s a n d r e d u ce t h e r o le o f m ere h un ch es, a n d i t
must p ro gra m t h e n arro w c h oic es c a p ab le o f r o u tin e h an dli n g b y c le rk s a n d
au to m atic d ata -p ro cessin g m ach in es.
In si d e a n d o u tsi d e.
A n o rg an iz a tio n lo oks b oth i n w ard a n d o u tw ard , h av in g t o
160 main ta in i n te rn al e ffe c tiv en ess a n d a d ap t t o t h e e x te rn al e n vir o n m en t i n w hic h i t
en co u n te rs t h e p re ssu re s o f o th er o rg an iz a tio n s, t e m pora ry c ris e s o f t h e s o cie ty a n d
th e e c o n om y, o cca sio n al w re n ch in g c h an ge, a n d t h e o ft e n p oorly a rtic u la te d n eed s o f
th e c u sto m ers o f i t s s e rv ic e.
Physi c a l a n d o rg a n ic m od els
. A n o rg an iz a tio n i s s o m etim es c o m pare d t o a p h ysic a l
sy ste m s u ch a s a m ach in e, a n d s o m etim es t o a n o rg an ic b io lo gic a l s y ste m s u ch a s t h at
of a n a n im al o r a li v in g p la n t.
Su cce ss.
I t c a n b e j u dged s u ccessfu l i f i t s im ply s u rv iv es, o r i t c a n b e s o j u dged o n ly i f
it a ch ie v es t h e p u rp ose t h at j u stif ie s i t s e x is te n ce.
Sec o n d, i t i s h ard t o p ro d u ce a s in gle m od el b ec a u se m ost w rit e rs o n o rg an iz a tio n s h av e
so u gh t t o d esc rib e o rg an iz a tio n i n t h e a b str a ct. R ea li t ie s a re o ft e n f a r m ore c o m ple x , a n d
th eo riz in g h as o ft e n b ec o m e d is c o n nec te d f r o m c o n cre te e x p erie n ce.
37
Thir d , o rg an iz a tio n al t h eo ris ts d o n ot a g re e o n a s in gle t h eo ry o r m od el. T heo rie s a n d
mod els o f o rg an iz a tio n a b ou n d. E ach o n e u su ally s e ek s t o d efin e, i n i t s o w n w ay , t h e
esse n ce o f o rg an iz a tio n s b u t, i n f a ct, e a ch t h eo ry t e n ds t o f o cu s o n a li m it e d n um ber o f
org an iz a tio n al c h ara cte ris tic s. T he c o m ple x it y o f a n o rg an iz a tio n c a n b e a ccu ra te ly
portr a y ed o n ly b y a c o m bin atio n o f t h e p artia l t r u th s t h at m ost m od els h av e e x p re sse d . W e
ca n i m ag in e e a ch m od el’s b it o f t r u th b ein g m ap ped o n a t r a n sp are n t s h eet o f p ap er; w hen
on e i s p la ced o n t o p o f a n oth er, t h e s e rie s o f o verla y s c o m es c lo se r t o t h e r e a l o rg an iz a tio n
th an a n y s in gle s h eet d oes.
38
In
Chap te r 4
, w e m ove f r o m t h is f o u n datio n — th e n atu re o f p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n — to
ex p lo re t h e b asic b u ild in g b lo ck s o f o rg an iz a tio n t h eo ry .
161 C ase 3 .1 : T he A dm in is tr a tiv e S ta te : E nfo rc em en t o f
Sp eed in g L aw s a n d P oli c e D is c re tio n
Atte n tio n , m oto ris ts ! D riv in g t h ro u gh t h e E ast C oast? Y ou m ig h t w an t t o c h ec k o u t a w eb sit e s p on so re d b y t h e
Natio n al M oto ris ts A sso cia tio n ( N M A), c a lle d t h e N atio n al S p eed T ra p E xch an ge, a t
www.s p eed tr a p .o rg
. H ere ’s
what i t s w rit e rs h av e t o s a y a b ou t a p artic u la rly n oto rio u s s tr e tc h o f t h e I n te rsta te 8 3 h ig h w ay n ea r Y ork ,
Pen nsy lv an ia :
The I n te rsta te g o es f r o m 6 5 t o 5 5 m ph b u t w it h a b so lu te ly n o c h an ge i n t h e h ig h w ay c o n str u ctio n ,
co n dit io n , o r p op u la tio n d en sit ie s a s i t ’s o u t i n t h e c o u n tr y . I t j u st s o h ap pen s t h at j u st o ff t h e
Logan ville e x it i s a s ta te p oli c e b arra ck s w hic h m ak es i t a w fu l c o n ven ie n t f o r t h em t o w ork t h is s tr e tc h
of r o ad .1
A r e a d er c h im es i n w it h h er t w o c en ts b elo w t h at e n tr y :
My m oth er li v es i n P A , a n d I h av e s e en t r o op ers m ea su rin g s p eed i n t h at a re a — esp ec ia lly w here t h at
li t tle c u t- o u t i s o n t h e s o u th bou n d h ill o f I -8 3. T ro op ers i n P A h av e t o u se s ta tio n ary r a d ar, s o t h ey
hav e le a rn ed t o b e q u it e c re a tiv e w it h t h eir h id in g p la ces.
Even i f w e’d li k e t o s p are t h is p erso n a t ic k et o n h er w ay t o h er m oth er’s h ou se , d oesn ’t i t s e em a li t tle , w ell,
dish on est
t o s h are t h is k in d o f i n fo rm atio n ? I sn ’t t h e s p eed li m it t h e s p eed li m it — in o th er w ord s, t h e la w — aft e r
all?
Eth ic a lly c h alle n ged ? M ay b e. B ut, i n f a ct, t h e i d ea t h at t h e s p eed li m it i s w hate v er t h e o ffic ia lly p oste d li m it s ig n
sa y s i t i s m is se s t h e p oin t. T he p oste d li m it m ay b e t h e o ffic ia l m ax im um , b u t e v ery o n e k n ow s t h at t h ese p oste d
li m it s o ft e n h av e li t tle m ea n in g i n r e a li t y , a f a ct t h at t h e N M A a p pare n tly b oth r e c o gn iz e s a n d e m bra ces.
Som etim es, t r a ffic m oves a lo n g a t b are ly a c ra w l. C on gestio n , p oor r o ad e n gin eerin g, a n d t h e u n pre d ic ta b le
beh av io r o f d riv ers c a n li m it s p eed s. O n c lo gged r o ad s, t h e p oste d li m it c a n s e em a d is ta n t d re a m i n ste a d o f a
re a li s tic li m it . O n w id e-o p en r o ad s, i n c o n tr a st, m an y d riv ers h av e d is c o vere d t h at i f t h ey d riv e a t t h e p oste d
li m it , m ost o th er t r a ffic g o es f ly in g p ast t h em .
162 ©iS to ck .c o m /c h ap in 31
So w hat i s t h e r e a l s p eed li m it ? I t’s t h e s p eed a t w hic h o n e c a n s a fe ly d riv e w it h ou t b ein g p u lle d o ver b y t h e p oli c e
or a s ta te t r o op er a n d i s su ed a c it a tio n . O n a n i n te rsta te h ig h w ay , t h e c o n ven tio n al w is d om i s t h at a d riv er c a n
driv e a t 5 , o r p erh ap s 7 , m ile s p er h ou r o ver t h e p oste d li m it w it h li t tle f e a r o f b ein g s to p ped a n d t ic k ete d .
Does t h at m ea n t h at i f t h e p oste d s p eed i s 6 5 m ph , t h e s p eed li m it i s
re a lly
a b ou t 7 2 m ph ? N ot q u it e . I f a d riv er
163 is c lo ck ed b y r a d ar a t g o in g 7 1 i n a 6 5-m ph z o n e, t h e f a ct t h at t h e d riv er’s s p eed i s u n der t h e c o n ven tio n al-
wis d om li m it w ou ld b e n o d efe n se i n t r a ffic c o u rt. P oli c e o ffic ers c a n — an d d o— is su e c it a tio n s f o r d riv in g a t t h at
sp eed . B ut i f t h e p oli c e s to p ped e v ery o n e g o in g j u st a b it o ver t h e p oste d li m it , t h ey w ou ld s p en d a ll t h eir d ay s
an d n ig h ts s to p pin g j u st a b ou t e v ery o n e. A ggre ssiv e s p eed ers m ig h t t h en g et a f r e e p ass, b ec a u se t h e p oli c e w ou ld
be s o b u sy s to p pin g p eo p le d riv in g j u st a f e w m ile s o ver t h e li m it t h at t h ey m ig h t n ot c a tc h t h e s u per-s p eed ers,
dru n k d riv ers, a n d o th ers w ho a re r e c k le ss o n t h e r o ad . A s a r e su lt , t h e h ig h w ay d ea th t o ll m ig h t s h oot u p. I n
sh ort, t h e r e a l s p eed li m it i s d ete rm in ed le ss b y w hat t h e p oste d li m it i s t h an b y h ow t h e p oli c e c h oose t o e n fo rc e
it .
It i s o n e t h in g f o r e le c te d o ffic ia ls t o p ass a la w , c re a te a p oli c y ( s u ch a s a s p eed li m it ) , a n d p ost i t f o r a ll t o s e e. I t
is q u it e a n oth er t o t r a n sla te t h at p oli c y i n to a ctio n . W hen i t c o m es t o t h e s p eed li m it , h ow t h at p ro cess w ork s
dep en ds o n t h e d is c re tio n t h at p oli c e o ffic ers a n d s ta te t r o op ers e x erc is e a s t h ey p atr o l t h e n atio n ’s h ig h w ay s. T he
poli c e i n vest a g re a t d ea l o f t im e i n d ec id in g h ow b est t o e x erc is e t h at d is c re tio n : w here m ost e ffe c tiv ely t o
co n cen tr a te t h eir e n erg y, a cco rd in g t o t h eir b est j u dgm en t a b ou t h ow t o s a v e t h e m ost li v es, i m pro ve t r a ffic f lo w ,
an d ( s o m etim es) i n cre a se t h e f lo w o f c a sh t o t h e lo ca l g o vern m en t.
Govern m en ta l p oli c y o n t h e c o n tr o l o f s p eed in g d ep en ds n ot o n ly o n h ow t h e p oli c e t r a n sla te t h e o ffic ia l li m it s
in to t h eir o p era tin g p la n s b u t a ls o o n h ow i n div id u al p oli c e o ffic ers, o ft e n o p era tin g a lo n e i n c a rs w it h n o
su perv is io n , d ec id e t o e x erc is e t h eir o w n d is c re tio n . S h ou ld a p oli c e o ffic er t ic k et a h usb an d w ho i s d riv in g f a st t o
get h is w if e t o t h e h osp it a l b ec a u se s h e i s i n la b or? S h ou ld t h e o ffic er j u st i s su e a
warn in g t o s o m eo n e w ho s a y s,
“G ee, o ffic er, t h is i s m y f ir st t ic k et” ? S h ou ld t h e o ffic er c o n cen tr a te o n e a sy p ic k in gs— driv ers w it h o u t- o f- s ta te
li c en se s w ho w ill m ost li k ely w an t t o s e ttle q u ic k ly s o t h ey c a n g et o n t h eir w ay ? A nd s h ou ld t h e o ffic ers’
co m man ders— an d t h e e le c te d o ffic ia ls w ho s e t p oli c y — worry i f d if fe re n t o ffic ers m ak e t h ese d ec is io n s i n
dif fe re n t w ay s, s o t h at t h e r e a l s p eed li m it d ep en ds u lt im ate ly o n t h e s u bje c tiv e d is c re tio n o f t h e i n div id u al o ffic er
op era tin g t h e r a d ar i n t h e p oli c e c a r?
The w ork o f g o vern m en t b u re a u cra ts ( fo r t h at i s w hat p oli c e o ffic ers a re ) e x te n ds f a r b ey o n d e n fo rc em en t,
re a ch in g i n to p oli c y p la n nin g, d ev elo p m en t, a n d r e se a rc h . S om e o f t h e w orld ’s le a d in g e x p erts o n t r a ffic s a fe ty
work f o r t h e U .S . D ep artm en t o f T ra n sp orta tio n ’s F ed era l H ig h w ay A dm in is tr a tio n ( F H W A). A f a sc in atin g
stu dy c o n du cte d b y t h e F H W A i n 1 992 f o u n d t h at c h an ges i n t h e s p eed li m it — lo w erin g i t b y a s m uch a s 2 0
mph o r r a is in g i t b y a s m uch a s 1 5 m ph — had li t tle a ctu al e ffe c t o n d riv ers’ s p eed . M ore o ver, t h e F H W A f o u n d,
most
d riv ers r e g u la rly e x ceed t h e s p eed li m it . L ow erin g t h e s p eed li m it b elo w t h e 5 0th p erc en tile ( th at i s , t o a
sp eed lo w er t h an t h at a t w hic h h alf t h e d riv ers d riv e) d id n ot r e d u ce a ccid en ts — bu t i t d id i n cre a se t h e n um ber o f
vio la tio n s.
Where s h ou ld s ta te a n d lo ca l g o vern m en ts s e t t h e s p eed li m it ? T he F H W A d ete rm in ed t h at i t s h ou ld b e s e t a t t h e
85th p erc en tile ( th e s p eed o n a n y g iv en r o ad a t w hic h 8 5 p erc en t o f t h e d riv ers d riv e s lo w er a n d 1 5 p erc en t d riv e
fa ste r). B ec a u se m ost a ccid en ts a re c a u se d b y p eo p le w ho d riv e
very
f a st, s e ttin g t h e li m it a t t h e 8 5th p erc en tile
wou ld a llo w m ost d riv ers t o d riv e a s f a st a s i s r e a so n ab le a n d s a fe , a n d i t w ou ld a llo w t h e p oli c e t o f o cu s t h eir
atte n tio n o n t h ose d riv ers w ho a re m ost li k ely t o c a u se a ccid en ts .2
Hav in g t h at F H W A d ata i n h an d i s n ’t t h e e n d o f t h e s to ry , h ow ev er. P oli c y m ak ers o ft e n r e sis t s u ch s e em in gly
so u n d a d vic e o n s e ttin g t h e s p eed li m it a s d if fe re n t c o n stit u en ts w eig h i n o n t h e r a m if ic a tio n s o f r a is in g o r
lo w erin g t h e li m it . H ig h er s p eed s b u rn m ore g aso li n e, s o e n vir o n m en ta li s ts o ft e n f a v o r lo w er li m it s . I n m an y
weste rn s ta te s, d riv ers c h afe a t e v en h ig h li m it s a n d p re ss f o r e v en h ig h er li m it s — as h ig h a s p ossib le — an d
en fo rc em en t a s lo ose a s p ossib le . A s tr in g o f a ccid en ts o n a s tr e tc h o f r o ad c a n c re a te e n orm ou s p re ssu re o n
poli c y m ak ers a n d p oli c e o ffic ers f o r a c ra ck d ow n. C it iz e n s d em an d t h at g o vern m en ts r e sp on d t o t h eir
pre fe re n ces. W hen i t c o m es t o s p eed li m it s , p oli c y m ak ers n eed — an d w an t— ad m in is tr a to rs t o b e a cco u n ta b le ,
bec a u se i f la x e n fo rc em en t o f s p eed in g la w s c a u se s a ccid en ts , t h e p oli t ic a l c o sts f o r p oli t ic ia n s c a n b e v ery h ig h .
But w hen i t c o m es t o s e ttin g a n d e n fo rc in g s p eed li m it s , t h at’s a t o u gh t r a d eo ff. I n t h e e n d, o n e t h in g i s c le a r: t h e
poste d s p eed li m it i s o n e t h in g, b u t t h e g o vern m en t’s a ctu al p oli c y a g ain st s p eed in g m ay b e q u it e a n oth er.
164 Q uestio n s t o C on sid er
1 .
The a n nou n ced p oli c y o n s p eed in g u su ally d oes n ot m atc h t h e p oli c y a s t h e p oli c e a ctu ally e n fo rc e i t .
Why? W hat f o rc es a re a t w ork ?
2 .
Sh ou ld c it iz e n s w orry t h at t h ere s e em s t o b e s u ch a g ap b etw een p oli c y a n d a d m in is tr a tio n ?
3 .
Where t h e s p eed li m it p oli c y p oste d o n t r a ffic s ig n s a n d t h e a ctu al e n fo rc em en t b eh av io r o f t h e p oli c e
dif fe r, w hat i s su es a re p ote n tia lly t h e m ost d if fic u lt t o r e so lv e?
4 .
Poli c e a re b u re a u cra ts — bu t s o a re t h e t e c h n ic a l e x p erts w ho h av e c o n du cte d p u bli s h ed s tu die s o n t h e
sp eed li m it s . W hat i m pact c a n — an d s h ou ld — go vern m en t’s b u re a u cra tic e x p erts h av e o n i t s p oli c y ?
5 .
Who i s r e sp on sib le f o r w hat i n t h is s u rp ris in gly c o m ple x s y ste m : f r a m in g p oli c y o p tio n s, s e ttin g o vera ll
poli c y , s e ttin g p atr o l s tr a te g ie s, a n d e n fo rc in g t h e p oli c y o n t h e r o ad s? W hat d oes t h is t e ll u s a b ou t t h e
poli t ic s o f t h e a d m in is tr a tiv e p ro cess?
165 N ote s
1.
S ee N atio n al S p eed T ra p E xch an ge,
http :/ /w ww.s p eed tr a p .o rg /c it y /1 0210/Y ork
.
2.
F ed era l H ig h w ay A dm in is tr a tio n , U .S . D ep artm en t o f T ra n sp orta tio n ,
Effe cts o f R aisi n g a n d L ow erin g S peed
Lim it s
, R ep ort F H W A-R D -9 2-0 84 ( O cto b er 1 992). S ee a ls o E li z a b eth A li c a n dri a n d D av ey L . W arre n ,
“M an ag in g S p eed ,”
Publi c R oa d s
( J a n uary – F eb ru ary 2 003),
http s:/ /w ww.f h w a.d ot.g o v/p u bli c a tio n s/ p u bli c ro ad s/ 0 3ja n /1 0.c fm
.
166 C ase 3 .2 : S h ou ld P riv ate C on tr a cto rs B e G uard in g
G overn m en t B uild in gs?
Vern on H un te r a n d h is w if e , V ale rie , b oth w ork ed f o r t h e I n te rn al R ev en ue S erv ic e ( I R S) i n A ustin , T ex as. T hey
both lo ved t h eir j o b s, b u t V ern on , a g e 6 7, w as t h in kin g a b ou t le a v in g t h e g o vern m en t a n d s p en din g s o m e q u ie t
yea rs i n r e tir e m en t. F or V ern on , a V ie tn am W ar v et, t h ose t h ou gh ts e n ded a b ru ptly i n F eb ru ary 2 010. J o se p h
Sta ck , a m an w it h a lo n g g ru dge a g ain st t h e I R S, p oste d a h ate -fille d d ia tr ib e o n t h e w eb , s e t f ir e t o h is o w n
hom e, d ro ve t o a n a ir p ort, a n d t o ok o ff i n h is p la n e. H e s e em ed t o h av e a im ed i t d ir e c tly a t t h e p ortio n o f t h e
bu ild in g o ccu pie d b y t h e I R S. V ale rie h ea rd t h e e x p lo sio n , a n d w hen s h e c o u ld n ’t f in d V ern on r ig h t a w ay , s h e
assu m ed h e w as h elp in g o th ers o u t o f t h e f ir e . O nly la te r d id s h e d is c o ver t h at V ern on d ie d i n t h e e x p lo sio n
ca u se d b y t h e p la n e’s f u el t a n k.
Atta ck s o n g o vern m en t b u ild in gs h av e w orrie d s e c u rit y o ffic ia ls e v en m ore s in ce t h e S ep te m ber 1 1, 2 001,
te rro ris t a tta ck s. T im oth y M cV eig h ’s 1 995 a ssa u lt o n t h e A lf r e d P . M urra h F ed era l B uild in g, a n O kla h om a C it y
fe d era l g o vern m en t b u ild in g, w it h a t r u ck b om b t h at k ille d 1 68 p eo p le s h ow ed h ow v u ln era b le g o vern m en t
fa cili t ie s c o u ld b e. O th er a tta ck s, i n clu din g R usse ll E ugen e W esto n J r.’s 1 998 a tte m pt t o s h oot h is w ay i n to t h e
U.S . C ap it o l a n d J a m es W . v o n B ru n n’s 2 009 a tta ck o n W ash in gto n , D .C .’s H olo ca u st M use u m , s h ow ed t h e
ris k . B ut j u st h ow v u ln era b le a re g o vern m en t b u ild in gs t o s u ch a tta ck s?
Govern m en t i n vestig ato rs d ec id ed t o f in d o u t. T he G overn m en t A cco u n ta b ili t y O ffic e, C on gre ss’s i n vestig ato ry
ag en cy , s e n t u n derc o ver o p era tiv es i n to f e d era l b u ild in gs w it h g u n s, k n iv es, a n d f a k e b om bs. I n e ig h te en t e sts , t h e
gu ard s d ete c te d t h e w ea p on s— bu t t h ey m is se d t h em t h ir ty -fiv e t im es, f o r a t w o-th ir d s f a ilu re r a te . A t o n e f a cili t y ,
an i n vestig ato r p u t a b ag c o n ta in in g a f a k e b om b o n to a b elt f o r a n X -r a y c h ec k . T he g u ard m is se d i t a n d t h e
in vestig ato r w as a b le t o p ic k u p t h e b ag a n d c a rry i t i n to t h e b u ild in g. I n a n oth er t e st, a n i n sp ec to r p u t a b ag
hold in g a f a k e g u n o n t h e b elt . T he g u ard c a u gh t t h is o n e a n d h eld t h e i n sp ec to r o ff i n a c o rn er— bu t w it h ou t a
fu rth er s e a rc h o r h an dcu ffs , a s t h e r u le s r e q u ir e d . A s t h e g u ard s c o n cen tr a te d o n t h e f ir st d ec o y, a s e c o n d
in sp ec to r w alk ed r ig h t t h ro u gh t h e c h ec k p oin t w it h t w o k n iv es— an d w it h ou t b ein g s to p ped . I n a b ro ad er c h ec k ,
in vestig ato rs w ere a b le t o g et i n to t e n d if fe re n t f a cili t ie s w it h t h e m ate ria ls t h ey n eed ed t o b u ild a b om b.1
Is t h is a f a ilu re o f g o vern m en t s e c u rit y ? T he a n sw er t o t h at i s c le a r. B ut i s i t a f a ilu re o f g o vern m en t s e c u rit y
gu ard s? T hat, a s i t t u rn s o u t, i s a f a r t o u gh er q u estio n . T he a g en cy r e sp on sib le f o r s e c u rit y i n f e d era l b u ild in gs,
th e F ed era l P ro te c tiv e S erv ic e ( F P S), e m plo ys 1 ,2 25 p erso n s— bu t i s r e sp on sib le f o r 2 ,3 60 f e d era l f a cili t ie s. H ow
does i t p lu g t h is g ap ? W it h 1 5,0 00 p riv ate s e c u rit y g u ard s, w ork in g u n der c o n tr a ct t o F P S. I n f a ct, t h ou gh m ost
vis it o rs n ev er n otic e i t , t h e s h ou ld er p atc h es o n t h e a rm s o f m ost g u ard s p ro te c tin g t h e m ajo rit y o f m ost f e d era l
bu ild in gs s h ow t h ey w ork f o r p riv ate c o m pan ie s. T he S ec re t S erv ic e g u ard s t h e W hit e H ou se . B ut f o r m an y y ea rs,
th e g u ard s c h arg ed w it h p re v en tin g t e rro ris ts f r o m s to rm in g t h e f a cili t ie s m an ufa ctu rin g p arts f o r n ucle a r
wea p on s— in clu din g s it e s s to ck ed w it h p lu to n iu m , p erh ap s t h e m ost d an gero u s s u bsta n ce o n t h e p la n et— were
fr o m p riv ate c o m pan ie s. O n a v is it t o o n e s u ch p la n t, I t a lk ed w it h a g u ard w ho p ro u dly t o ld m e h e w as t r a in ed
on t w en ty -o n e d if fe re n t w ea p on s. H e w ork ed f o r W ack en hut, o n e o f t h e w orld ’s la rg est p riv ate s e c u rit y
co m pan ie s.
But t h e c o m bin atio n o f r is in g t h re a ts a n d t h e g o vern m en t’s h ig h r e li a n ce o n p riv ate g u ard s h as m ad e m an y
mem bers o f C on gre ss u n ea sy . R ep . S h eila J a ck so n L ee ( D -T ex .) h as a rg u ed t h at F P S o u gh t t o b e r e q u ir e d t o s h if t
more o f i t s g u ard s f r o m p riv ate c o n tr a cto rs t o f e d era l e m plo yees. S h e p oin te d t o t h e d ec is io n t o f e d era li z e a ir p ort
in sp ec to rs a ft e r t h e S ep te m ber 1 1, 2 001, t e rro ris t a tta ck s. “ M an y o f u s b eli e v e t h at i t m ay b e t im e t o u n -p riv atiz e
th e c o n tr a cto rs o f t h e F ed era l P ro te c tiv e S erv ic e o r a t le a st p u t i n h ig h er r e q u ir e m en ts ,” s h e s a id .2
167 Q uestio n s t o C on sid er
1 .
Do y o u t h in k t h at i t m atte rs
who
p ro vid es s e c u rit y a t g o vern m en t f a cili t ie s? W hy? F an s o f c o n tr a ctin g s a y
th at w hoev er c a n d o t h e j o b f o r t h e lo w est c o st o u gh t t o g et t h e w ork . O ppon en ts c o u n te r t h at p ro te c tio n
is a n i n here n tly g o vern m en ta l a ctiv it y t h at o u gh t t o b e p erfo rm ed b y g o vern m en t e m plo yees.
2 .
Do y o u li k e t h e i d ea o f a rm in g p riv ate e m plo yees a n d a llo w in g t h em t o s h oot t o k ill, i n t h e i n te re st o f
pro te c tin g g o vern m en t b u ild in gs a n d t h eir e m plo yees? O r s h ou ld le th al f o rc e b e a p ow er g iv en o n ly t o
go vern m en t g u ard s d oin g t h e g o vern m en t’s w ork ?
3 .
More g en era lly , h ow w ou ld y o u s o rt o u t t h e w ork t h at y o u t h in k g o vern m en t o u gh t t o p erfo rm ? A nd
who o u gh t t o p erfo rm t h at w ork o n b eh alf o f g o vern m en t?
168 N ote s
1.
U .S . G overn m en t A cco u n ta b ili t y O ffic e,
Hom ela n d S ecu rit y : F ed era l P ro te ctiv e S erv ic e ’s C on tr a ct G uard
Pro gra m R eq u ir e s M ore O versi g h t a n d R ea sse ssm en t o f U se o f C on tr a ct G uard s
, G AO -1 0-3 41 ( A pril 2 010),
http :/ /w ww.g ao .g o v/n ew .i t e m s/ d 10341.p d f
.
2.
E d O ’K eefe , “ L eg is la tio n W ou ld F ed era li z e P riv ate G uard s W ho P ro te c t U .S . G overn m en t B uild in gs,”
Wash in gto n P ost
( S ep te m ber 1 4, 2 010),
http :/ /w ww.w ash in gto n post.c o m /w p-
dyn /c o n te n t/ a rtic le /2 010/0 9/1 3/A R 2010091306355.h tm l
.
169 C ase 3 .3 : C ris is o f W ate r i n M ary la n d
What c o u ld b e w orse t h an d ay s o f t e m pera tu re s i n t h e m id -9 0s w it h s te a m y h um id it y , t h ou gh t r e sid en ts o f
Prin ce G eo rg e’s C ou n ty , M ary la n d, t h an t h e a n nou n cem en t b y t h eir lo ca l w ate r d is tr ic t t h at a ll w ate r w ou ld b e
tu rn ed o ff f o r d ay s? R esid en ts s c ra m ble d t o b u y c a se s o f b ottle d w ate r i n n eig h borh ood s to re s. M an y f ille d t h eir
bath tu bs t o t h e b rim . O th ers s c ra m ble d f o r a n yth in g t h ey c o u ld f in d t h at c o u ld h old w ate r, f r o m r e c y cli n g b in s
to t r a sh c a n s. W it h o p pre ssiv e t e m pera tu re s i n t h e f o re c a st f o r d ay s, r e sid en ts f e a re d t h ey w ere i n f o r a v ery t o u gh
tim e.
The s o u rc e o f t h e p ro b le m w as a 4 8-y ea r-o ld v alv e, 4 .5 f e et i n d ia m ete r, t h at t h re a te n ed t o b u rst n ot f a r f r o m t h e
Wash in gto n B elt w ay . J u st a f e w w eek s b efo re , t h e W ash in gto n S u bu rb an S an it a ry C om mis sio n ( W SSC ), a
sp ec ia l- d is tr ic t g o vern m en t t h at s u ppli e s w ate r a n d w aste t r e a tm en t t o t h e r e g io n , h ad i n sta lle d a n ew a co u stic
ca b le t h ro u gh t h e w ate r p ip e t o d ete c t p ro b le m s b efo re t h ey e x p lo d ed s u dden ly i n a m assiv e w ate r-li n e b re a k . J u st
a f e w m on th s b efo re , a w ate r m ain b u rst o n t h e o th er s id e o f t h e c it y , c re a tin g a 2 0-fo ot d eep c ra te r a n d s e n din g a
gey se r 4 0 f e et i n to t h e a ir . P ro b le m s w it h a m ain w ate r-s u pply li n e a re n ev er g o od , b u t t h ey ’r e w orst w hen t h ey
hap pen b y s u rp ris e a n d c a u se b la st- li k e d am ag e i n t h e p ro cess.
Offic ia ls f r o m W SSC w ere p ro u d t h at t h eir n ew e q u ip m en t h ad c a u gh t t h e p ro b le m b efo re i t r u ptu re d . T heir
pla n w as t o s h ut o ff t h e w ate r, r e p air t h e v alv e b efo re i t b le w , a n d t h en g et t h e s y ste m b ack o n li n e a s s o on a s t h ey
co u ld . T he v alv e w as a t a n e sp ec ia lly h ard -to -r e a ch s p ot, a n d t h ey h ad t o b eg in b y b u ild in g a r o ad t o t h e s it e t o
brin g i n e q u ip m en t b efo re t h ey c o u ld s ta rt r e p air s, a ll t h e w hile h op in g t h at t h e p ip e w ou ld n ’t b u rst b efo re t h ey
co u ld f ix i t .
WSSC r e c o m men ded t h at r e sid en ts s to ck p ile a t le a st 2 g allo n s o f w ate r p er p erso n p er d ay , a n d t h at s e t o ff t h e
sc ra m ble . S u perm ark ets c a lle d t h eir s u ppli e rs f o r e x tr a t r u ck lo ad s o f b ottle d w ate r. R esta u ra n ts i n sid e t h e a ffe c te d
are a s h ut d ow n, s in ce t h ere w ou ld b e n o w ate r f o r c o okin g o r d is h w ash in g. A m ajo r r e so rt h ote l s e n t a ll o f i t s
gu ests h om e, s in ce t h ere w ou ld b e n o w ate r f o r la u n drie s, r e sta u ra n ts , s in ks, o r t o ile ts . F ir e fig h te rs m ad e p la n s t o
re sp on d t o a la rm s w it h b ig t a n ker t r u ck s, s in ce f ir e h yd ra n ts w ou ld n ’t w ork . S co tt P ete rso n , t h e c o u n ty
ex ec u tiv e’s s p okesm an , t o ld r e p orte rs t h at t h e “ ec o n om ic i m pact o f t h is e v en t w ill b e t h e e q u iv ale n t o f a n atu ra l
dis a ste r h it tin g t h e c o u n ty .” 1 T he s h utd ow n s to ry m ad e n ew s a ro u n d t h e c o u n tr y a n d w orrie d r e sid en ts p re p are d
fo r a lo n g s ie g e.
But h ou rs i n to t h e r e p air s, w ork ers m an ag ed a m in or m ir a cle . T wo w ork ers, e x p ose d t o m is e ra b le h ea t a n d
work in g 4 f e et b elo w g ro u n d le v el, f o u n d a w ay t o r e p air t h e v alv e w it h ou t h av in g t o s h ut d ow n t h e p ip e, a n d t h e
wate r n ev er s to p ped f lo w in g. T hey m an ag ed t o g et t h e v alv e u n stu ck a n d t o m ak e t h e 4 00 t u rn s r e q u ir e d t o p u t
it b ack i n o p era tio n . “ N o o n e t h ou gh t t h ese g u ys w ere g o in g t o p u ll t h is o ff,” t h e W SSC s p okesp erso n h ap pily
ex p la in ed .
Cou n ty E xec u tiv e R ush ern B ak er I II, h ow ev er, w as i n n o m ood t o c ele b ra te . H e w as s tu n ned t o d is c o ver t h at h is
co u n ty h ad g o n e t h ro u gh s u ch w re n ch in g p re p ara tio n s, o n ly t o h av e n o i n te rru ptio n i n s e rv ic e. “ W hen d id t h ey
fir st k n ow a b ou t t h is o th er o p tio n , a n d h ow s o on w ere t h ey a b le t o t e ll u s o th er t h an t h is m orn in g?” B ak er
won dere d . “ W e a re g o in g t o a sk s o m e v ery t o u gh q u estio n s. W e a re g o in g t o h av e a v ery lo n g a n d le n gth y
dis c u ssio n a b ou t h ow w e c a n m ak e s u re t h is d oesn ’t h ap pen a g ain .” J im N eu sta d t, s p ea k in g o n b eh alf o f W SSC ,
ex p la in ed , “ T he b otto m li n e i s o u r e x p erts m ak e t h e b est d ec is io n s t h ey c a n w it h a ll t h e i n fo rm atio n w e h av e
av aila b le . W e h av e t o p ro te c t t h e p u bli c , a n d t h at’s w hat w e f e lt w e w ere d oin g.” 2
There w asn ’t a s o u l i n t h e c o u n ty w ho w asn ’t i m men se ly r e li e v ed t h at t h eir w ate r c o n tin ued t o f lo w . B ut a ft e r t h e
ca ta str o p h ic e x p lo sio n s e v era l m on th s b efo re , f o llo w ed b y w hat lo ca l o ffic ia ls v ie w ed a s w arn in gs o f r is k w it h ou t
tr a n sp are n cy , t o u gh q u estio n s la y a h ea d f o r W SSC ’s le a d ers.
170 Q uestio n s t o C on sid er
1 .
Su ppose y o u w ere a n a d m in is tr a to r c h arg ed w it h t h e p u bli c h ea lt h a n d s a fe ty o f y o u r c o m mun it y , a n d
yo u le a rn ed t h at y o u r w ate r, w it h in h ou rs, w ou ld b e s h ut o ff f o r d ay s. W hat w ou ld y o u d o? H ow w ou ld
yo u c o m mun ic a te w it h c it iz e n s? H ow w ou ld y o u p ro te c t e sse n tia l s e rv ic es?
2 .
Con sid er t h e s it u atio n t h at W SSC f a ced . I ts t o p o ffic ia ls d id n ot b eli e v e t h at i t s t e a m w as li k ely t o b e a b le
to r e p air t h e w ate r li n e w it h ou t s h uttin g i t o ff— an d i f i t h ad t o s h ut i t o ff, s e rv ic e w ou ld b e o u t f o r d ay s.
Offic ia ls d id n ot t e ll t h e p u bli c o r P rin ce G eo rg e’s C ou n ty g o vern m en t o ffic ia ls t h at t h ere w as a c h an ce
th at i t s w ork ers c o u ld m ak e t h e r e p air s w it h ou t s h uttin g o ff t h e w ate r. D o y o u b eli e v e t h at W SSC
han dle d t h e s it u atio n p ro p erly ? I f t h ey t o ld e v ery o n e t h at t h ere w as a c h an ce t h at a s h uto ff m ig h t n ot b e
nec essa ry , t h ey r is k ed h av in g t h ou sa n ds o f c it iz e n s w ho f a ile d t o m ak e p re p ara tio n s i f t h e s h uto ff
hap pen ed , a t a t im e o f e x tr e m e h ea t. T hey d id n ot s h are t h e w ord , b u t t h en r e c eiv ed h arsh c rit ic is m f r o m
th e c o u n ty e x ec u tiv e.
3 .
Cou n ty E xec u tiv e B ak er w as i n a d if fic u lt s it u atio n . W SSC i s a s p ec ia l- d is tr ic t g o vern m en t, p ro vid in g
wate r a n d s e w ag e s e rv ic e t o h is c o u n ty a n d t o a n eig h borin g c o u n ty . I t w as n ot u n der t h e p oli t ic a l o r
op era tio n al c o n tr o l o f e it h er. W SSC w as m ak in g d ec is io n s t h at a ffe c te d h is c o n stit u en ts , b u t h e h ad n o
co n tr o l o ver W SSC ’s a ctio n s. W hat s tr a te g ie s c o u ld — an d s h ou ld — Bak er u se i n t h is c a se ?
171 N ote s
1.
K ath erin e S h av er a n d A sh le y H als e y I II, “ P rin ce G eo rg e’s R esid en ts B ra ce f o r W ate r S h ut- o ff,”
Wash in gto n
Post
( J u ly 1 6, 2 013),
http :/ /w ww.w ash in gto n post.c o m /lo ca l/ p rin ce-g eo rg es-r e sid en ts -b ra ce-fo r-w ate r-s h ut-
off/ 2 013/0 7/1 6/a b d aa7 2c-e e0 5-1 1e2 -9 008-6 1e9 4a7 ea 2 0d _sto ry .h tm l
.
2.
A sh le y H als e y I II a n d K ath erin e S h av er, “ P rin ce G eo rg e’s W ate r S h ut- o ff A verte d ,”
Wash in gto n P ost
( J u ly 1 7,
2013),
http s:/ /w ww.w ash in gto n post.c o m /lo ca l/ p rin ce-g eo rg es-c o p es-w it h -w ate r-
re str ic tio n s/ 2 013/0 7/1 7/1 2c4 4bcc-e ed 4-1 1e2 -9 008-6 1e9 4a7 ea 2 0d _sto ry .h tm l
.
172 C ase 3 .4 : H um vees i n F erg u so n
In t h e d ay s a ft e r t h e t r a g ic s h ootin g o f M ic h ael B ro w n i n F erg u so n , M is so u ri, i n A ugu st 2 014, n ew s p ro gra m s
ra n v id eo a ft e r v id eo s h ow in g lo ca l p oli c e a ro u n d t h e c o u n tr y a rm ed w it h m ach in e g u n s a n d d riv in g h ea v ily
arm ore d v eh ic le s. T he
New Y ork T im es
d esc rib ed a d ese rt- k h ak i- p ain te d M RAP— fo r m in e-r e sis ta n t a m bu sh
pro te c te d v eh ic le — sit tin g n ex t t o a s n ow plo w i n t h e m un ic ip al g ara g e o f N een ah , W is c o n sin . A nd a r e p ort f r o m
The C hro n ic le o f H ig h er E du ca tio n
r e v ea le d t h at t h e U niv ersit y o f C en tr a l F lo rid a i n O rla n do o w ns a g re n ad e
la u n ch er, r e to ole d t o f ir e t e a r-g as c a n is te rs.
Hun dre d s o f c o m mun it ie s a n d c a m pu se s a cro ss t h e c o u n tr y h av e b een t h e r e c ip ie n t o f h an d-m e-d ow n m ili t a ry
eq u ip m en t, f r o m m ach in e g u n s a n d a rm ore d v eh ic le s t o h eli c o p te rs a n d n ig h t- v is io n g o ggle s. A ll t h e e q u ip m en t
co m es f r o m t h e D ep artm en t o f D efe n se ’s 1 033 p ro gra m , w hic h g iv es p oli c e d ep artm en ts w artim e g ea r t h at t h e
mili t a ry n o lo n ger n eed s.
Bette r t h at i t ’s s h ip ped t o lo ca l c o p s, t h e r e a so n in g g o es, t h an g et t o sse d a w ay . A ft e r a ll, lo ca l p oli c e s u re ly c a n
nev er b e t o o p re p are d f o r t h e v ast a rra y o f t h re a ts t h ey f a ce.
But t h e i d ea o f a n M RAP t o oli n g a ro u n d W is c o n sin o r a H um vee m ak in g t h e r o u n ds o n a c o lle g e c a m pu s r a is e s
co n cern s a m on g c rit ic s w ho q u estio n w heth er t h e f e d s a re k in dli n g r a cia l t e n sio n s t h ro u gh a p oli c y o f s u per-
arm in g c o p s. A s E aste rn K en tu ck y U niv ersit y c rim in al j u stic e p ro fe sso r P ete r K ra sk a t o ld a r e p orte r, a “ sm all
ag en cy c a n g o r a p id ly f r o m o n e o f p ro te c tin g a n d s e rv in g t o o n e o f v ie w in g t h e c o m mun it y a s t h e e n em y a n d a
pote n tia l t h re a t.”
That w orry , i n f a ct, le d P re sid en t O bam a t o c a ll f o r a f u ll r e v ie w o f t h e p ro gra m . W it h F erg u so n ’s h ea v ily a rm ed
co p s t o ssin g t e a r g as f r o m b eh in d a rm ore d v eh ic le s, p u n dit s s u ggeste d t h at t h e f e d s a n d t h eir 1 033 p ro gra m h ad
fu ele d t h e t e n sio n s o n t h e c it y ’s s tr e ets .
They w ere w ro n g. A lm ost n on e o f F erg u so n ’s w ea p on ry , a s i t t u rn s o u t, c a m e f r o m t h e 1 033 p ro gra m . T he
to w n’s p oli c e d ep artm en t d id p ic k u p a c o u ple o f H um vees, a c a rg o t r a ile r, a n d a g en era to r t h ro u gh t h e p ro gra m ,
bu t n oth in g i n t h e c en te r o f t h e c o n tr o versy c a m e f r o m t h e P en ta g o n .
Ferg u so n a n d S t. L ou is p oli c e d ep artm en ts b ou gh t a lm ost e v ery th in g s e en o n t e le v is io n w it h t h eir o w n m on ey .
Most o f t h e e q u ip m en t i n t h e p ro gra m i s n ’t e v en w ea p on ry — Yale U niv ersit y r e c eiv ed m en ’s t r o u se rs a n d
Nash ville ’s p oli c e d ep artm en t g o t Z od ia c b oats , w hic h i t s o ffic ers u se d i n t h e 2 010 f lo od s t o r e sc u e s tr a n ded
re sid en ts . W it h c o p s s o m etim es f in din g t h em se lv es n ot o n ly i n d if fic u lt t a ctic a l s it u atio n s b u t a ls o u n der a ssa u lt ,
giv in g t h em t h e b est p ro te c tio n m ak es s e n se . T he r e a l i s su e i s n ’t s o m uch t h e f e d s f u eli n g r a cia l t e n sio n w it h t h e
eq u ip m en t, a s i t i s t h at t h e e q u ip m en t h as c o m e t o s y m boli z e o n go in g f r ic tio n s i n m an y c o m mun it ie s b etw een
lo ca l p oli c e a n d t h eir c it iz e n s.
Man y p oli c e d ep artm en ts h av e lo n g-s ta n din g r a cia l t e n sio n s w it h c it iz e n s, e sp ec ia lly i n t h ose p la ces w here t h e
co m posit io n o f t h e p oli c e f o rc e d oesn ’t m atc h t h at o f t h e lo ca li t y . I n F erg u so n , w here t w o-th ir d s o f t h e
pop u la tio n i s b la ck , f if t y o f t h e f if t y -th re e p oli c e o ffic ers a re w hit e . F erg u so n i s n ’t a lo n e. I n n ea rb y G ra n dvie w ,
th e p oli c e f o rc e i s 9 2 p erc en t w hit e w hile t h e p op u la tio n i s 5 5 p erc en t n on w hit e . K an sa s C it y , K an sa s, i s d oin g a
bit b ette r. I ts p oli c e d ep artm en t i s 7 2 p erc en t w hit e w hile i t s p op u la tio n i s 6 0 p erc en t n on w hit e .
Vir tu ally a ll o f t h ese o ffic ers, i t s h ou ld b e s a id , a re i n cre d ib ly d ed ic a te d a n d g o t o w ork e v ery d ay f a cin g a v ery
to u gh m is sio n . D iv ersit y i s m uch m ore c o m ple x t h an a n um bers g am e, a n d s o m e d iv erse d ep artm en ts h av e t h eir
ow n s tr u ggle s w it h c o m mun it y r e la tio n s. B ut w it h s o m an y c it ie s
dem on str a tin g t h e e ffe c tiv en ess o f c o m mun it y
poli c in g, a r a cia l g ap b etw een o ffic ers o n t h e f o rc e a n d c it iz e n s o n t h e s tr e ets c a n v astly c o m pli c a te t h e
173 co m mun it y c o n nec tio n . A s o n e b la ck O hio r e sid en t t o ld a r e p orte r a b ou t t h e n on bla ck c o p s h e e n co u n te re d ,
“T he p oli c e c o m e h ere , t h ey d o t h eir j o b s, t h ey d on ’t t r y t o g et t o k n ow a n yb od y.” A nd, h e c o n tin ued , “ T he
poli c e d on ’t w av e.”
Cop s w ho c o n nec t w it h t h e c o m mun it ie s t h ey s e rv e, c rim in al j u stic e e x p erts b eli e v e, p ro ve m ore e ffe c tiv e i n
bu ild in g r e la tio n sh ip s, g en era tin g t r u st, a n d d e-e sc a la tin g c o n fli c ts .
There i s n ’t g o od e v id en ce o n w heth er r a cia l d iv ersit y m ak es p oli c e f o rc es m ore e ffe c tiv e, o r w heth er p oli c e
offic ers o f d if fe re n t r a ces t r e a t t h e p eo p le t h ey e n co u n te r a n y d if fe re n tly . M ore o ver, h ir in g m ore b la ck o ffic ers
doesn ’t w ip e a w ay p oli c e-c o m mun it y t e n sio n s, a n d i n cre a sin g d iv ersit y i s a h ard r o ad , e x p erts s a y . I t s e em s t o
matte r m uch m ore w heth er t o p o ffic ia ls s u pport e ffo rts b y t h eir o ffic ers t o b u ild n eig h borh ood t ie s.
It’s e a sy t o p oin t t o v id eo o f h ea v ily a rm ed c o p s a s t h e c a u se o f t h e r a cia l p ro b le m , w it h t h e P en ta g o n d riv in g a
to p -d ow n r a cia l w ed ge i n to lo ca l c o m mun it ie s. T hat’s w ro n g.
Far m ore i m porta n t i s t h e b otto m -u p e ffo rt t o s tr e n gth en t h e r e la tio n sh ip b etw een p oli c e o ffic ers a n d t h e c it iz e n s
th ey s e rv e. T he w ay i n w hic h c o p s a n d c o m mun it ie s c o n nec t h as b ec o m e o n e o f t h e m ost i m porta n t f r o n t li n es i n
th e c o n tin uin g s tr u ggle o ver c iv il r ig h ts . F ed era lly d eli v ere d M RAPs a re n ’t s o m uch t h e c a u se o f t h e p ro b le m a s
th ey a re a p ow erfu l s y m bol t h at a g re a t d ea l o f w ork s till n eed s t o b e d on e t o m ak e t h at c o n nec tio n .
174 Q uestio n s t o C on sid er
1 .
What d o y o u t h in k o f t h e f e d era l g o vern m en t’s p ro gra m t o s u pply s ta te a n d lo ca l g o vern m en ts t o
pu rc h ase m ili t a ry e q u ip m en t f o r t h eir p oli c e f o rc es? I s i t a g o od w ay o f p ro vid in g t h em w it h a d dit io n al
re so u rc es— or d oes i t r is k w orse n in g c it iz e n s’ r e la tio n sh ip s w it h t h e p oli c e?
2 .
Con sid er t h e r a cia l m ak eu p o f t h e F erg u so n p oli c e d ep artm en t, a t t h e t im e o f M ic h ael B ro w n’s s h ootin g.
Does t h e m is m atc h b etw een t h e r a cia l c o m posit io n o f t h e p oli c e d ep artm en t a n d o f t h e c o m mun it y c a u se
yo u c o n cern ?
3 .
What s tr a te g ie s d o y o u t h in k w ou ld b e m ost e ffe c tiv e i n i m pro vin g r e la tio n sh ip s b etw een t h e c o m mun it y
an d lo ca l p oli c e?
Note :
T his c a se c o m es f r o m m y c o lu m n i n
Gov ern in g
( D ec em ber 2 014),
http :/ /w ww.g o vern in g.c o m /c o lu m ns/ p oto m ac-c h ro n ic le /g o v-p oli c e-fe rg u so n -m ili t a riz a tio n .h tm l
.
175
K ey C on cep ts
Antid efic ie n cy A ct
65
neu tr a li t y d octr in e
72
non pro fit
65
org an iz a tio n al t h eo ry
61
oversig h t
65
perfo rm an ce m ea su re s
64
poli c y m ak in g
61
pu bli c a d m in is tr a tio n
60
For F urth er R ea d in g
Fry , B ria n R .
Mast e rin g P ubli c A dm in ist r a tio n : F ro m M ax W eb er t o D wig h t W ald o
. 3 rd e d . W ash in gto n ,
D.C .: C Q P re ss, 2 013.
Good se ll, C harle s T .
The C ase f o r B ure a u cr a cy : A P ubli c A dm in ist r a tio n P ole m ic .
4 th e d . W ash in gto n , D .C .:
CQ P re ss, 2 004.
Oku n , A rth ur.
Equ ali t y a n d E ffi c ie n cy : T he B ig T ra d eo ff.
W ash in gto n , D .C .: B ro okin gs I n stit u tio n , 1 975.
Polli t t, C hris to p h er.
Tim e, P oli c y , M an agem en t: G ov ern in g w it h t h e P ast .
O xfo rd : O xfo rd U niv ersit y P re ss,
2008.
Wald o, D wig h t.
The A dm in ist r a tiv e S ta te : A S tu dy o f t h e P oli t ic a l T heo ry o f A m eric a n P ubli c A dm in ist r a tio n
.
New Y ork : R on ald P re ss, 1 948.
Wils o n , W ood ro w .
“ T he S tu dy o f A dm in is tr a tio n .”
Poli t ic a l S cie n ce Q uarte rly
2 ( J u n e 1 887). R ep rin te d i n
Poli t ic a l S cie n ce Q uarte rly
5 6 ( D ec em ber 1 941): 4 81–506.
Su ggeste d W eb sit e s
The I n te rn et c o n ta in s a v ast r e se rv o ir o f i n fo rm atio n a b ou t p u bli c a d m in is tr a tio n a n d p u bli c o rg an iz a tio n s.
A g o od p la ce t o e x p lo re t h e s u bje c t i s w it h t h e a sso cia tio n s t h at f o cu s m ost o n t h e f ie ld : t h e A m eric a n
Socie ty f o r P ubli c A dm in is tr a tio n ,
www.a sp an et.o rg
, a n d t h e N atio n al A ca d em y o f P ubli c A dm in is tr a tio n ,
www.n ap aw ash .o rg
.
More o ver, t h e f e d era l g o vern m en t h as a n e x celle n t s e a rc h e n gin e t h at p ro vid es e a sy a ccess t o t h e h uge
am ou n t o f d ata , r e p orts , a n d p ro gra m s p ro d u ced b y t h e g o vern m en t:
www.u sa .g o v
. M ost s ta te a n d lo ca l
go vern m en ts h av e t h eir o w n w eb sit e s a s w ell, a n d
www.s ta te lo ca lg o v.n et
p ro vid es a n e a sy i n dex o f t h em .
Wan t a B ette r G ra d e?
Get t h e t o ols y o u n eed t o s h arp en y o u r s tu dy s k ills . A ccess p ra ctic e q u iz ze s, e F la sh ca rd s, v id eo , a n d
mult im ed ia a t
ed ge.s a g ep u b.c o m /k ettl7 e
.
176
