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(C lick ico n fo r citatio n )T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y
O v e r v ie w
P erh ap s th e m o st im p o rtan t p art o f th in k in g lik e a h isto rian is k n o w in g h o w to th in k a b o u t h isto ry . T h at
m ean s u n d erstan d in g h o w h isto ry can affect y o u , in y o u r o w n life— an d k n o w in g h o w h isto rian s g o
ab o u t th e b u sin ess o f ex p lain in g h isto ry to o th ers.
T h e p ro cess o f research in g a h isto rical ev en t— th e
p ro cess y o u 're g o in g th ro u g h in th is co u rse— w ill
ch an g e y o u in m an y d ifferen t w ay s. O b v io u sly , it w ill
g iv e y o u n ew p ersp ectiv es an d n ew in sig h ts ab o u t th e
ev en t y o u 're research in g . B u t it w ill also g iv e y o u n ew
p ersp ectiv es an d n ew in sig h ts ab o u t h o w th e w o rld
w o rk s.
O n e o f th e in sig h ts y o u 're lik ely to g ain in v o lv es th e
id ea o f h isto rical co m p lex ity . T h at's th e id ea th at th ere
are n o easy o r sim p le ex p lan atio n s fo r h isto rical
ev en ts; th e p ro cess o f h isto rical ch an g e is th e p ro d u ct
o f a co m p licated array o f cau ses an d co n tin g en t ev en ts,
all o f w h ich n eed to b e u n d ersto o d in th e co n tex t in
w h ich th ey to o k p lace.
T h e id ea th at th ere are n o easy ex p lan atio n s ap p lies n o t
ju st to h isto ry b u t also to life. B ein g ab le to reco g n ize
th at co m p lex ity , an d to av o id sim p listic reaso n in g , is a
life sk ill th at w ill serv e y o u w ell in w h atev er field y o u
ch o o se to p u rsu e. In th is th em e, w e'll in tro d u ce y o u to
th e id ea o f h isto rical co m p lex ity an d ask y o u to th in k
ab o u t h o w d ifferen t h isto rical situ atio n s m ay b e m o re
co m p lex th an th ey first ap p ear.
T h in k in g ab o u t h isto ry also m ean s k n o w in g h o w to ap p ly h isto rical co n cep ts to y o u r o w n life. In th is
th em e, w e'll ask y o u to th in k ab o u t th e im p act th at h isto rical th in k in g m ay h av e o n th e ch o ices y o u m ak e
in y o u r acad em ic career. A n d y o u 'll see h o w th e sk ills y o u 'v e acq u ired in th is co u rse can b e ap p lied to
o th er acad em ic d iscip lin es.
A t th e en d o f T h em e: T h in k in g A b o u t H isto ry , y o u 'll h av e th e o p p o rtu n ity to ap p ly th ese co n cep ts
d irectly . T h at's w h en y o u 'll b e ask ed to su b m it th e fin al v ersio n o f th e essay co n tain in g y o u r h isto rical
ev en t an aly sis.
L e a r n in g O u tc o m e
A fter co m p letin g th is th em e, y o u sh o u ld b e ab le to :
Illu strate th e im p act o f h isto rical th in k in g o n y o u r p erso n al an d p ro fessio n al ex p erien ces
C opyright © 2017 M indE dge Inc. A ll rights reserved. D uplication prohibited. A n ex h ib it o f b u ffalo h id e artw o rk at th e N atio n al
M u seu m o f th e A m erican In d ian . (C lick ico n fo r
citatio n )
T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 7 -1 : C iv il R ig h t s a n d
E c o n o m ic L ib e r t y
R ig h t s , O p p o r t u n it y , a n d N a t iv e A m e r ic a n s
A m erican s lik e to th in k o f th e U n ited S tates as th e "L an d o f O p p o rtu n ity "— th e p lace w h ere an y o n e w h o
w o rk s h ard an d p lay s b y th e ru les can b u ild a b etter life. T h e p ro m ise o f o p p o rtu n ity h as trad itio n ally
b een a lu re to im m ig ran ts, m illio n s o f w h o m cam e to A m erica in search o f b etter co n d itio n s th an th ey
left b eh in d in th eir h o m elan d s.
B u t w h at o f all th o se p eo p le w h o se an cesto rs w ere n o t im m ig ran ts, as w e co m m o n ly u se th e term — th e
m illio n s o f A m erican s w h o se fo reb ears w ere alread y liv in g in w h at is n o w th e U n ited S tates, lo n g b efo re
th e first E u ro p ean s step p ed o ff th e b o at? T h e relatio n sh ip b etw een th e A m erican g o v ern m en t an d N ativ e
A m erican s, th e in d ig en o u s p eo p les o f th e A m ericas, h as b een a co m p lex , co n ten tio u s, an d so m etim es
trag ic o n e.
A cco rd in g to th e U .S . C en su s B u reau , th e term
N a tive A m erica n co m p rises tw o g ro u p s:
A m erican In d ian s an d A lask a N ativ es. T o g eth er,
th ese g ro u p s m ak e u p th e N ativ e A m erican
p o p u latio n ; N ativ e H aw aiian s are co u n ted
sep arately , b ecau se th eir N ativ e g ro u p s w ere n o t
in d ig en o u s to N o rth o r S o u th A m erica.
B eg in n in g in th e 1 6 th cen tu ry , A m erican In d ian s
in w h at is n o w th e U n ited S tates w ere
su b o rd in ated m ilitarily , cu ltu rally , an d
eco n o m ically b y th e d escen d an ts o f th e E u ro p ean
settlers. P rev ailin g attitu d es to w ard N ativ es
am o n g early w h ite settlers w ere a m ix tu re o f
co n tem p t an d fear; o n e o f A m erica's sem in al
d o cu m en ts, th e D eclaratio n o f In d ep en d en ce,
refers to "m erciless In d ian sav ag es" b en t o n th e
"th e u n d istin g u ish ed d estru ctio n o f all ag es, sex es, an d co n d itio n s." C o n sisten t w ith th e v iew th at N ativ es
w ere sav ag es, m an y A m erican In d ian s w ere n o t reco g n ized as U .S . citizen s u n til th e 2 0 th cen tu ry .
F ro m th e early 1 9 th cen tu ry — w h en th e U .S . m ilitary b eg an fo rcib ly relo catin g N ativ e trib es to an area
k n o w n as "In d ian T errito ry ," w est o f th e M ississip p i R iv er— th ro u g h th e In d ian W ars o f th e 1 9 th an d
early 2 0 th cen tu ries, th e fed eral g o v ern m en t ten d ed to treat N ativ es eith er as fo reig n ers w h o w ere
p o ten tially en em ies, o r as u n civ ilized d ep en d en ts in cap ab le o f m an ag in g th eir o w n affairs.
T h e g o v ern m en t's p o licy , d u rin g th at tim e, o f restrictin g N ativ e A m erican s to sp ecific p arcels o f lan d
k n o w n as reserv atio n s h ad th e effect o f sh arp ly lim itin g th e eco n o m ic o p p o rtu n ities av ailab le to N ativ es.
(W ilso n , 2 0 0 0 ) A t th e sam e tim e, m isg u id ed ed u catio n al p o licies an d th e lack o f q u ality sch o o ls led to a
d istru st o f p u b lic ed u catio n am o n g m an y N ativ es an d lo w lev els o f ed u catio n al attain m en t, w h ich in tu rn
fu rth er lim ited eco n o m ic o p p o rtu n ity . (G iag o , 2 0 0 6 )
T h e im p act o f th ese p o licies co n tin u es to b e felt. In th e 2 1 st cen tu ry , N ativ es en jo y th e sam e p an o p ly o f
leg a l rig h ts as o th er citizen s, an d fo u ro ffiv e (7 8 % ) liv e o u tsid e a reserv atio n . (O ffice o f M in o rity
H ealth , 2 0 1 6 ) B u t N ativ es still ran k sig n ifican tly b elo w th e n atio n al av erag e in m an y k ey so cio eco n o m ic
in d icato rs, in clu d in g h o u seh o ld in co m e, em p lo y m en t, ed u catio n al attain m en t, an d life ex p ectan cy . (U .S .
C en su s B u reau , 2 0 1 2 ; In d ian H ealth S erv ice, 2 0 1 6 ) T h e h isto ry o f N ativ e A m erican s an d A lask a N ativ es clearly illu strates th at secu rin g leg al rig h ts— b y
itself, a lo n g an d d ifficu lt stru g g le fo r N ativ es— is n o g u aran tee o f eco n o m ic lib erty o r su ccess. In th is
th em e, w e w ill lo o k at tw o in stan ces w h ere th e rig h ts o f N ativ es cam e in to co n flict w ith th e eco n o m ic
in terests o f n o n N ativ es, w ith d ifferin g resu lts.
In th e 1 8 3 0 s, th e d em an d s o f w h ite settlers led to th e fo rced relo catio n o f th o u san d s o f C h ero k ee fro m
th e so u th east U n ited S tates to lan d s w est o f th e M ississip p i R iv er, in a trag ic ep iso d e k n o w n as th e T rail
o f T ears. In th e 1 9 6 0 s an d 1 9 7 0 s, th e lan d claim s o f th o u san d s o f A lask a N ativ es th reaten ed to d elay o r
p rev en t co n stru ctio n o f th e T ran sA lask a O il P ip elin e; C o n g ress resp o n d ed b y p assin g leg islatio n th at
g av e th e N ativ es m o re th an 4 0 m illio n acres o f lan d to settle th eir claim s an d set u p a sy stem o f N ativ e
co rp o ratio n s th at h as h elp ed to sp u r eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t an d red u ce p o v erty in th e N ativ e co m m u n ity .
W e w ill u se th ese case stu d ies to illu strate th e co n cep t o f h isto rical co m p lex ity an d to h elp y o u
u n d erstan d th e im p act th at h isto rical th in k in g can h av e o n y o u r o w n life an d career.
L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s
In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill:
R ev iew th e h isto rical co n tex t b eh in d N ativ e A m erican s' stru g g le fo r civ il rig h ts an d eco n o m ic
o p p o rtu n ity , th e co re co n cep t o f th is th em e
A p p ly d ifferen t h isto rical len ses to d ev elo p a m o re co m p lex u n d erstan d in g o f a h isto rical ev en t
R e fe re n c e s
G iag o , T . (2 0 0 6 ). C h ild ren L eft B eh in d : D a rk L eg a cy o f In d ia n M issio n B o a rd in g S ch o o ls. S an ta F e, N M : C lear
L ig h t P u b lish ers.
In d ian H ealth S erv ice, U .S . D ep artm en t o f H ealth an d H u m an S erv ices (2 0 1 6 ). D isp arities. R etriev ed fro m
w w w .ih s.g o v /n ew sro o m /factsh eets/d isp arities/.
N atio n al C en ter fo r E d u catio n S tatistics (2 0 1 2 ). F ast F acts: D eg rees C o n ferred b y S ex an d R ace. R etriev ed fro m
h ttp s://n ces.ed .g o v /fastfacts/d isp lay .asp ?id = 7 2
O ffice o f M in o rity H ealth , U .S . D ep artm en t o f H ealth an d H u m an S erv ices (2 0 1 6 ). P ro file: A m erican In d ian /A lask a
N ativ e. R etriev ed fro m m in o rity h ealth .h h s.g o v /o m h /b ro w se.asp x ?lv l= 3 & lv lid = 6 2 .
U .S . C en su s B u reau (2 0 1 3 ). P o v erty R ates fo r S elected D etailed R ace an d H isp an ic G ro u p s b y S tate an d P lace: 2 0 0 7
2 0 1 1 . R etriev ed fro m w w w .cen su s.g o v /lib rary /p u b licatio n s/2 0 1 3 /acs/acsb r1 1 1 7 .h tm l.
W ilso n , J. (2 0 0 0 ). T h e E a rth S h a ll W eep : A H isto ry o f N a tive A m erica . N ew Y o rk : G ro v e P ress.
N a t iv e s a n d t h e L a n d
A cco rd in g to th e U .S . C en su s B u reau , ab o u t 2 .9 m illio n p eo p le id en tified th em selv es as N ativ e
A m erican s o r A lask a N ativ es in th e last fed eral cen su s. (A n o th er 1 4 0 ,0 0 0 id en tified th em selv es as
N ativ e H aw aiian s, b u t th is g ro u p is n o t co u n ted as p art o f th e n atio n 's N ativ e p o p u latio n .) C o m b in ed
w ith th e n u m b er o f p eo p le w h o claim N ativ e h eritag e in ad d itio n to so m e o th er racial o r eth n ic
b ack g ro u n d , ab o u t 5 .2 m illio n p eo p le can b e co n sid ered N ativ es. (N o rris, et a l, 2 0 1 2 ) T h ere are cu rren tly
5 6 6 N ativ e trib es th at are reco g n ized b y th e fed eral g o v ern m en t; th is fig u re in clu d es ro u g h ly 2 3 0 trib es
o f A lask a N ativ es. (N atio n al C o n g ress o f A m erican In d ian s, 2 0 1 6 )
N ativ e A m erican s an d A lask a N ativ es are b eliev ed to b e d escen d ed fro m A sian s w h o cam e to A lask a
fro m S ib eria ro u g h ly 1 2 ,0 0 0 y ears ag o , trav elin g acro ss a lan d b rid g e th at trav ersed w h at is n o w th e
B erin g S trait. (W an g , et a l, 2 0 0 7 ) T h is im ag e sh o w s th e sh rin k in g o f th e B erin g lan d b rid g e o v er th e
last 2 1 ,0 0 0 y ears. (v isit th e o n lin e learn in g reso u rce fo r an an im ated
v ersio n o f th is im ag e) (C lick ico n fo r citatio n )
B erin g S trait. (W an g , et a l, 2 0 0 7 )
E stim ates o f th e N ativ e p o p u latio n in
N o rth A m erica at th e tim e o f
C o lu m b u s's first v o y ag e ran g e fro m a
lo w o f 2 .1 m illio n to a h ig h o f 1 8
m illio n . F o llo w in g th e arriv al o f th e
E u ro p ean s, h o w ev er, N ativ e
p o p u latio n s w ere d ecim ated b y
d iseases fro m E u ro p e— in clu d in g
sm allp o x , ty p h u s, m easles, an d
in flu en za— fo r w h ich th e N ativ es h ad
n o n atu ral im m u n ity . (T h o rn to n , 1 9 9 0 )
R elatio n s b etw een N ativ es an d
E u ro p ean settlers d u rin g th e C o lo n ial
P erio d — th at is, fro m th e early 1 7 th
cen tu ry th ro u g h th e A m erican
R ev o lu tio n — w ere m ix ed . S o m e trib es
trad ed w ith th e settlers an d co ex isted p eacefu lly w ith th em ; o th ers fo rcefu lly resisted attem p ts b y th e
E u ro p ean s to en cro ach o n th eir territo ry . W h ile m an y h isto ry tex ts fo cu s o n co n flicts b etw een N ativ es
an d th e E n g lish — in clu d in g th e P o w h atan W ars in V irg in ia an d K in g P h ilip 's W ar in M assach u setts—
th ere w as also co n sid erab le co n flict in th e S p an ish h eld S o u th w est; in 1 6 8 0 , P o p é's R eb ellio n , an
u p risin g b y P u eb lo N ativ es, d ro v e th e S p an ish o u t o f N ew M ex ico fo r a d o zen y ears. (R iley , 1 9 9 5 )
S o m e o f th ese co n flicts aro se fro m attem p ts to "C h ristian ize" o r "civ ilize" th e N ativ es; o th ers, su ch as th e
F ren ch an d In d ian W ar, fo u n d so m e N ativ e trib es fo rm in g allian ces w ith o n e g ro u p o f E u ro p ean settlers
ag ain st an o th er. B u t arg u ab ly th e m o st freq u en t so u rce o f co n flict w as la n d .
T rad itio n al N ativ e attitu d es to w ard lan d w ere sig n ifican tly d ifferen t fro m th o se th at ch aracterize
A m erican so ciety to d ay . In N ativ e cu ltu re, lan d w as seen as a so u rce o f life; it w as so m eth in g to b e
sh ared co m m u n ally , n o t o w n ed b y an y in d iv id u al. W h ile w e can 't g en eralize ab o u t th e ex p ectatio n s an d
u n d erstan d in g o f a ll E u ro p ean settlers, it is clear th at m an y o f th em saw lan d as a co m m o d ity th at co u ld
b e b o u g h t an d so ld ; th ey rev ered th e id ea o f p riv ate p ro p erty , a co n cep t th at d id n o t ev en ex ist in N ativ e
cu ltu re. (C ro n o n , 2 0 0 3 )
T h is fu n d am en tal d isju n ctio n o f b eliefs p laced settlers an d N ativ es at o d d s fro m th e earliest co lo n ial
d ay s. C o n flicts g rew m o re acu te after th e A m erican R ev o lu tio n , w h en th e n ew A m erican g o v ern m en t
ad o p ted a series o f p o licies aim ed at d isp lacin g N ativ es to m ak e ro o m fo r a rap id ly ex p an d in g n atio n al
p o p u latio n . In th e late 1 8 th an d early 1 9 th cen tu ry , su d d en ly , N ativ es w ere n o t arg u in g ab o u t lan d w ith
iso lated g ro u p s o f settlers o r ex p lo rers, o r try in g to p lay o ff th e B ritish ag ain st th e F ren ch ; th ey w ere
co n fro n ted b y a u n ified n atio n al g o v ern m en t th at w as p u rsu in g a co n sisten t p o licy an d w h ich h ad th e
p o ten tial to b ack u p th at p o licy w ith m ilitary fo rce.
C o n flicts o v er lan d o ccu rred o n ev ery v irtu ally all o f th e n ew n atio n 's fro n tiers. O n e area th at attracted a
g reat d eal o f atten tio n in th e early 1 9 th cen tu ry , b o th fro m p ro sp ectiv e settlers an d fro m o fficials in
W ash in g to n , w as th e S o u th east U n ited S tates— G eo rg ia, F lo rid a, A lab am a, an d M ississip p i. T h is
in clu d ed th e trib al lan d s o f th e [?]F iv e C iv ilized T rib es[/?]— w h ich d u rin g th e co lo n ial era h ad en jo y ed
relativ ely p eacefu l relatio n s w ith E u ro p ean settlers— as w ell as sev eral o th er trib es. (W illiam s, 1 9 7 9 )
T h e S o u th east w as d esirab le to settlers b ecau se th e lan d w as fertile fo r farm in g , w ith co n d itio n s id eal fo r
th e p ro d u ctio n o f co tto n . (T h e o p en in g o f th e S o u th east to co tto n farm in g b y n o n N ativ e settlers later
p ro v ed to b e a m ajo r facto r in th e d ram atic in crease in co tto n p ro d u ctio n in th e S o u th b etw een 1 8 3 0 an d
1 8 5 0 .) T h e d isco v ery o f g o ld in G eo rg ia in 1 8 2 9 o n ly in creased th e lan d 's v alu e, in th e ey es o f
p ro sp ectiv e w h ite settlers. (G reg g , 2 0 0 9 ) A n 1 8 3 4 p o rtrait o f P eter P itch ly n n ,
later ch ief o f th e C h o ctaw N atio n .
(C lick ico n fo r citatio n )
B etsy B ro w n S tep h en s, p ictu red h ere
in 1 9 0 3 , su rv iv ed th e T rail o f T ears as
a teen ag er. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n )
P ressu re to acq u ire th ese trib al lan d s resu lted in p assag e o f th e In d ian R em o v al A ct in 1 8 3 0 , w h ich
au th o rized th e P resid en t to n eg o tiate w ith N ativ e trib es ab o u t th eir rem o v al— essen tially to o ffer th em
fed eral lan d w est o f th e M ississip p i R iv er in retu rn fo r th eir trib al h o m elan d s east o f th e M ississip p i.
P resid en t A n d rew Jack so n , a fo rcefu l p ro p o n en t o f su ch lan d trad es, sig n ed th e In d ian R em o v al A ct in to
law an d b eg an p ressu rin g th e trib es to sig n lan d sw ap treaties.
S o m e g ro u p s o f N ativ es w en t m o re w illin g ly th an o th ers.
T h e C h o c ta w
In S ep tem b er 1 8 3 0 , rep resen tativ es o f th e C h o ctaw N atio n sig n ed
th e T reaty o f D an cin g R ab b it C reek , ced in g th eir trib al lan d s in
M ississip p i in retu rn fo r a sim ilar am o u n t o f lan d in In d ian
T errito ry , in w h at is n o w eastern O k lah o m a. A b o u t 1 5 ,0 0 0
C h o ctaw m o v ed w est; an o th er 5 0 0 0 o r so rem ain ed in M ississip p i
an d b ecam e U .S . citizen s, w ith each fam ily receiv in g a relativ ely
sm all, 6 4 0 acre p arcel o f lan d . (S atz, 1 9 8 6 )
T h e C h e r o k e e
T h e C h ero k ee N atio n , lo cated p rim arily in G eo rg ia, N o rth
C aro lin a, an d T en n essee, resisted rem o v al m o re v ig o ro u sly .
C h ero k ee lead ers, facin g p ressu re n o t ju st fro m th e fed eral
g o v ern m en t b u t also th e state g o v ern m en t o f G eo rg ia, resp o n d ed
w ith law su its as w ell as p o litical lo b b y in g . B u t d iv isio n s w ith in
th e C h ero k ee lead ersh ip u n d erm in ed th eir resistan ce; o n e factio n ,
w h ich saw rem o v al as in ev itab le, n eg o tiated th e T reaty o f N ew
E ch o ta (1 8 3 5 ), w h ich w as q u ick ly ren o u n ced b y lead ers o f th e
o th er factio n . T h e fed eral g o v ern m en t reco g n ized th e treaty as
v alid , h o w ev er, an d in 1 8 3 8 sen t fed eral tro o p s to b eg in th e
fo rced relo catio n o f th e C h ero k ee to In d ian C o u n try . A n
estim ated 4 ,0 0 0 C h ero k ee d ied o n th e th o u san d m ile trek w est.
(P ru ch a, 1 9 8 4 ) M ican o p y w as th e p rin cip al ch ief o f
th e S em in o le d u rin g th e S eco n d
S em in o le W ar. (P D ) (C lick ico n fo r
citatio n )
T h e S e m in o le
In F lo rid a, th e S em in o le— w h o h ad alread y sig n ed a treaty g iv in g
u p th eir lan d in retu rn fo r a reserv atio n in th e cen tral p art o f w h at
w as th en th e F lo rid a T errito ry — fo rcefu lly resisted effo rts to
relo cate th em a seco n d tim e, to In d ian T errito ry . T h e resu ltin g
S eco n d S em in o le W ar lasted fro m 1 8 3 5 to 1 8 4 2 an d w as
arg u ab ly th e b lo o d iest o f th e 1 9 th cen tu ry "In d ian w ars."
(L an caster, 1 9 9 4 ) B u t in th e en d , th e v ast m ajo rity o f S em in o les
w ere fo rcib ly relo cated to th e w est; W ash in g to n h ad p rev ailed ,
an d th e S o u th eastern U n ited S tates w as n o lo n g er N ativ e lan d .
R e fe re n c e s
C ro n o n , W . (2 0 0 3 ). C h a n g es in th e L a n d : In d ia n s, C o lo n ists, a n d th e E co lo g y o f C o lo n ia l N ew E n g la n d rev . ed .
N ew Y o rk : H ill an d W an g .
G reg g , M . (2 0 0 9 ). "S h o rtch an g ed : U n co v erin g th e V alu e o f P reR em o v al C h ero k ee P ro p erty ." T h e C h ro n icles o f
O kla h o m a , V o l. 8 7 (F all 2 0 0 9 ), 3 2 0 3 3 5 .
L an caster, J. (1 9 9 4 ). R em o va l A ftersh o ck: T h e S em in o les' S tru g g les to S u rvive in th e W est, 1 8 3 6 1 8 6 6 . K n o x v ille,
T N : U n iv ersity o f T en n essee P ress.
N atio n al C o n g ress o f A m erican In d ian s (2 0 1 6 ). A n In tro d u ctio n to In d ian N atio n s in th e U n ited S tates. R etriev ed
fro m w w w .n cai.o rg /ab o u ttrib es/in d ian s_ 1 0 1 .p d f, Ju n e 8 , 2 0 1 6 .
N o rris, T . et a l (2 0 1 2 ). 2 0 1 0 C en su s B riefs. R etriev ed fro m w w w .cen su s.g o v /h isto ry /p d f/c2 0 1 0 b r1 0 .p d f
P ru ch a, F . (1 9 8 4 ). T h e G rea t F a th er: T h e U n ited S ta tes G o vern m en t a n d th e A m erica n In d ia n s. L in co ln , N E :
U n iv ersity o f N eb rask a P ress.
R iley , C . (1 9 9 5 ). R io d el N o rte: P eo p le o f th e U p p er R io G ra n d e fro m E a rliest T im es to th e P u eb lo R evo lt. S alt L ak e
C ity : U n iv ersity o f U tah P ress.
S atz, R . (1 9 8 6 ). "T h e M ississip p i C h o ctaw : F ro m th e R em o v al T reaty to th e F ed eral A g en cy ". In W ells an d T u b b y ,
ed . A fter R em o va l, T h e C h o cta w in M ississip p i. Jack so n , M S : U n iv ersity P ress o f M ississip p i.
T h o rn to n , R u ssell (1 9 9 0 ). A m erica n In d ia n H o lo ca u st a n d S u rviva l: A P o p u la tio n H isto ry S in ce 1 4 9 2 . N o rm an , O K :
U n iv ersity o f O k lah o m a P ress.
W an g , S . et a l (2 0 0 7 ). "G en etic V ariatio n an d P o p u latio n S tru ctu re in N ativ e A m erican s". P L o S G en etics. V o l. 3 ,
N o . 1 1 , 1 8 5 .
W illiam s, W . (1 9 7 9 ). "S o u th eastern In d ian s b efo re R em o v al, P reh isto ry , C o n tact, D eclin e" in S o u th ea stern In d ia n s:
S in ce th e R em o va l E ra . A th en s, G A : U n iv ersity o f G eo rg ia P ress. T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 7 -2 : H is t o r ic a l
C o m p le x it y
C o m p le x it y M a d e S im p le
T h e p ast w as m essy , an d th in g s w ere n ev er as sim p le as w e'd lik e to th in k . T h at's th e u n co m p licated tru th
b eh in d th e co n cep t o f h isto rical co m p lex ity .
C o m p lex ity is th e last o f th e "5 C 's o f H isto rical T h in k in g " th at w e first en co u n tered b ack in T h em e:
A p p ro ach es to H isto ry : C h an g e, C o n tex t, C au sality , C o n tin g en cy , an d C o m p lex ity .
C o m p lex ity m ean s th at h isto rical ev en ts rarely h av e sim p le ex p lan atio n s. It also m ean s th at it's to o
sim p listic to d escrib e a h isto rical ev en t in term s o f ab so lu tes— to say th at so m eth in g is a lw a ys tru e, o r
th at n o o n e ever esp o u sed a certain p o sitio n . A b so lu tes are fo r p eo p le w h o see th e w o rld in b lack an d
w h ite; h isto rian s rev el in all th e sh ad es o f g rey th at co m e w ith th e stu d y o f co m p lex ev en ts.
In th is learn in g b lo ck , w e'll lo o k at so m e o f th e facto rs th at co n trib u te to h isto rical co m p lex ity — an d
w e'll also see h o w o n e h isto rical ev en t, fam iliar to all, w as actu ally m u ch m o re co m p licated th an m an y o f
u s m ay th in k .
L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s
In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill:
A n aly ze d ifferen t facto rs th at co n trib u te to h isto rical co m p lex ity
A p p ly d ifferen t h isto rical len ses to p ro d u ce a m o re co m p lex p ictu re o f a h isto rical ev en t
F a c t o r s T h a t L e a d t o C o m p le x it y
O n e o f th e p rin cip al g o als o f teach in g h isto ry is "to p rep are stu d en ts to to lerate co m p lex ity , to ad ap t to
n ew situ atio n s, an d to resist th e first an sw er th at co m es to m in d ." (W in eb u rg , 2 0 1 0 ) O k ay , so h isto ry is
co m p lex — b u t w h y?
O n e reaso n is th at th ere are so m an y d ifferen t h isto rical len ses th at can b e ap p lied to an y g iv en h isto rical
ev en t. A h isto rian w h o 's d o in g research (as y o u are d o in g fo r th is co u rse) w ill ty p ically lo o k at a
h isto rical ev en t th ro u g h o n e len s. L et's say y o u 're research in g th e F ren ch an d In d ian W ar; y o u m ig h t u se
th e len s o f m ilitary h isto ry to lo o k at th e relativ e sig n ifican ce o f so m e k ey b attles. F air en o u g h , b u t th e
F ren ch an d In d ian W ar w as m o re th an ju st a series o f b attles.
It w as also an o u tg ro w th o f th e E u ro p ean w id e co n flict k n o w n as th e S ev en Y ears' W ar, w h ich y o u co u ld
lo o k at th ro u g h th e len s o f d ip lo m atic h isto ry . It w as sp ark ed b y co n flicts b etw een F ren ch an d B ritish
trad ers in th e O h io V alley , w h ich y o u co u ld lo o k at th ro u g h th e len s o f eco n o m ic h isto ry . T h e allian ce
b etw een th e F ren ch an d In d ian s w as an o u tg ro w th o f th e ex cep tio n ally clo se relatio n s th at th e tw o
g ro u p s h ad sh ared fro m th e earliest co lo n ial d ay s— far clo ser th an th e relatio n s b etw een N ativ es an d th e
B ritish — w h ich y o u co u ld lo o k at th ro u g h th e len s o f so cial h isto ry . F in ally , it resu lted in th e tak eo v er o f
h eav ily C ath o lic F ren ch Q u eb ec b y th e P ro testan t B ritish , w h o g u aran teed F ren ch C ath o lics in Q u eb ec
th e rig h t to p ractice th eir faith — an issu e y o u co u ld lo o k at th ro u g h th e len s o f relig io u s h isto ry .
T h e p o in t is th at to g et a co m p lete p ictu re o f an y h isto rical ev en t, y o u 'v e g o t to lo o k at it th ro u g h m u ltip le
len ses. A n d th at n ecessarily m ak es th e p ictu re m o re co m p lex an d m o re d ifficu lt to d escrib e in sim p le
term s. H isto ry can also raise q u estio n s o f m o ral co m p lex ity . T h at is to say , w h en y o u 're stu d y in g h isto ry it's n o t
alw ay s easy to tell th e "g o o d g u y s" fro m th e "b ad g u y s," b ecau se m o st p eo p le are n eith er w h o lly g o o d
n o r w h o lly ev il. A n d so m etim es, try in g to fig u re o u t w h o th e g o o d g u y s are (o r w h eth er th ere are an y
g o o d g u y s at all) can o n ly d istract y o u fro m th e task o f h isto rical an aly sis.
C o m p lex ity also arises b ecau se o f th e n atu re o f cau sality . H isto rical ev en ts alm o st alw ay s h av e m o re
th an o n ce cau se, an d th o se cau ses m ay b e eith er p ro x im ate o r u ltim ate; so m e m ay b e n ecessary w h ile
o th ers are co n trib u to ry . A scrib in g a h isto rical ev en t to ju st o n e cau se is a sim p listic ap p ro ach th at is
u su ally m istak en .
H isto rical co m p lex ity is also a fu n ctio n o f co n tin g en cy . Ju st as ev en ts alm o st alw ay s h av e m u ltip le
cau ses, th ey also h av e m u ltip le co n seq u en ces; each h isto rical ev en t sets in m o tio n m an y o th er ev en ts,
w h ich in tu rn cau se still m o re ev en ts to tak e p lace. D escrib in g a h isto rical ev en t in term s o f ju st o n e o f its
o u tco m es d o es n o t p resen t th e fu ll p ictu re o f its h isto rical sig n ifican ce.
R e fe re n c e s
W in eb u rg , S . (2 0 1 0 ). H isto rical T h in k in g : M em o rizin g F acts an d S tu ff? T P S Q u a rterly, V o l. 3 , N o . 1 (W in ter,
2 0 1 0 ). R etriev ed fro m w w w .lo c.g o v /teach ers/tp s/q u arterly /h isto rical_ th in k in g /article.h tm l.
T h e cam p aig n s o f th e F ren ch an d In d ian W ar. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) A n id ealized v iew o f th e "first T h an k sg iv in g " (C lick ico n fo r
citatio n )
T h a n k s g iv in g : A C o m p le x S t o r y
M o st A m erican s are fam iliar w ith th e sto ry o f th e first T h an k sg iv in g : h o w a frien d ly N ativ e n am ed
S q u an to b efrien d ed th e P ilg rim s at P ly m o u th C o lo n y , tau g h t th em h o w to p lan t co rn , an d in tro d u ced
th em to o th er N ativ es. A fter a d ifficu lt w in ter, th e P ilg rim s b ro u g h t in a g o o d h arv est in 1 6 2 1 an d in v ited
th e N ativ es to jo in th em in a g reat feast, to th an k G o d fo r th eir su rv iv al.
T h at's th e fam iliar sto ry , an y w ay . H isto rian s
arg u e w ith sev eral elem en ts o f th at
d escrip tio n — startin g w ith th e id ea th at th is
w as th e first T h an k sg iv in g . T h e S p an ish
ex p lo rer F ran cisco V azq u ez d e C o ro n ad o
an d h is m en h eld a th an k sg iv in g celeb ratio n
in w h at is n o w T ex as in 1 5 4 1 ; settlers in
M ain e (1 6 0 7 ) an d V irg in ia (1 6 1 0 ) also h eld
th an k sg iv in g celeb ratio n s w ell b efo re th e
1 6 2 1 feast at P ly m o u th . (L ib rary o f
C o n g ress, 2 0 1 6 )
T h ere's also th e fact th at th e P ilg rim s d id n 't call th eir celeb ratio n a "th an k sg iv in g "; it w as sim p ly a
"h arv est feast." T h e P ilg rim s w ere P u ritan s, m em b ers o f a d issen tin g sect o f E n g lish P ro testan ts w h o
so u g h t to "p u rify ," o r refo rm , th e C h u rch o f E n g lan d . T o th em , th e term "th an k sg iv in g " h ad a sp ecific
m ean in g : it w as a relig io u s h o lid ay , a d ay o f "p ray er an d p io u s h u m iliatio n ," p ro claim ed to m ark so m e
p articu larly au sp icio u s ev en t. T h e first "th an k sg iv in g " p ro claim ed b y th e P ilg rim s w as in 1 6 2 3 , to m ark
th e en d o f a sev ere d ro u g h t. (P lim o th P lan tatio n , 2 0 1 6 )
T h e h o lid ay th at w e call T h an k sg iv in g h ad its ro o ts in th e C iv il W ar. A lth o u g h th e F irst C o n tin en tal
C o n g ress d eclared a d ay o f n atio n al th an k sg iv in g d u rin g th e R ev o lu tio n ary W ar, an d P resid en t G eo rg e
W ash in g to n d id lik ew ise in 1 7 8 9 , th e h o lid ay d id n o t b eco m e a n atio n al fix tu re u n til 1 8 6 3 . In th at y ear,
P resid en t A b rah am L in co ln p ro claim ed n o t o n e b u t tw o d ay s o f T h an k sg iv in g — th e first, in A u g u st, th at
celeb rated th e U n io n v icto ry at G etty sb u rg an d th e seco n d , o n th e last T h u rsd ay in N o v em b er, th at
estab lish ed th e cu rren t n atio n al trad itio n . (P lim o th P lan tatio n , 2 0 1 6 )
B u t ev en if th e "h arv est feast" at P ly m o u th w asn 't th e first T h an k sg iv in g — o r really a T h an k sg iv in g at
all, as w e n o w k n o w th e term — th e h isto ry o f th at ev en t, its cau ses an d co n seq u en ces, p ro v id es a m o re
co m p lex p ictu re o f relatio n s b etw een N ativ es an d th e early E n g lish settlers in N ew E n g lan d .
V id e o T r a n sc r ip t: T h e F ir st T h a n k sg iv in g
T h e sto ry o f th e first T h an k sg iv in g feast in 1 6 2 1 is fam iliar to m o st o f u s. A co u p le o f E n g lish
sp eak in g n ativ es n am ed S q u an to an d S am o set b efrien d th e P ilg rim s o f P ly m o u th . S q u an to teach es
th e P ilg rim s h o w to p lan t co rn an d , after th e h arv est co m es in , th e n ativ es an d th e P ilg rim s jo in
to g eth er fo r a feast. It's a h eartw arm in g sto ry , really , b u t m o st h isto rian s w o u ld ag ree th at it n ev er
h ap p en ed th at w ay .
F o r starters, it certain ly w asn 't th e first. T h ere h ad b een T h an k sg iv in g celeb ratio n s in N o rth
A m erica w ell b efo re 1 6 2 1 am o n g S p an ish ex p lo rers an d settlers in T ex as an d F lo rid a an d am o n g
th e Jam esto w n settlers in V irg in ia. S eco n d , th e P ilg rim s w eren 't m u ch fo r feastin g an d
m erry m ak in g . T h ey w ere P u ritan s, an d to th em a T h an k sg iv in g w as p rim arily a d ay o f p ray er an d
relig io u s o b serv an ce d eclared to ex p ress th an k s to G o d fo r so m e sp ecific ev en t. W h ile th ere are
reco rd s o f m an y d ay s o f T h an k sg iv in g b ein g d eclared in P ly m o u th an d M assach u setts B ay co lo n ies
in th e 1 7 th cen tu ry , h ard ly an y o f th em in v o lv ed a feast. A n d th ere's n o clear reco rd o f o n e in 1 6 2 1 . M an y h isto rian s, in fact, b eliev e th at trad itio n al T h an k sg iv in g sto ry is a h isto rical m y th th at fo r a
v ariety o f reaso n s P resid en t A b rah am L in co ln seized o n w h en h e w as try in g to u n ify th e N o rth
d u rin g th e C iv il W ar.
B u t d o es th at m ean th at S q u an to , S am o set, an d all th e o th er n ativ es, are ju st a fig m en t o f o u r
h isto rical im ag in atio n s? H ard ly . T h ese w ere real p eo p le an d th eir sto ry is m o re co m p lex th an m o st
A m erican s realize.
F o r starters, th ere's S q u an to . H is n am e in th e W am p an o ag lan g u ag e w as T esq u an tu m , w h ich
tran slates ro u g h ly to "d iv in e rag e." H o w d id h e ju st h ap p en to sp eak E n g lish , an d w h y d id h e
ap p ro ach th e P ilg rim s so read ily ? T isq u an tu m w as b o rn in a P atu x et v illag e in w h at is n o w
so u th eastern M assach u setts. B u t as a y o u n g m an , h e w as tak en cap tiv e b y E n g lish ex p lo rers an d
b ro u g h t b ack to E n g lan d as a slav e. H e learn ed E n g lish an d ev en tu ally g ain ed h is freed o m . C lo se to
fifteen y ears later, as a m em b er o f a B ritish ex p ed itio n , h e fin ally retu rn ed to h is h o m elan d , o n ly to
d isco v er th at th e P atu x et h ad b een co m p letely w ip ed o u t y ears earlier b y an ep id em ic o f sm allp o x
o r a sim ilar d isease o f E u ro p ean o rig in .
T isq u an tu m b ecam e frien d ly w ith M assaso it, th e G ran d S ach em o f th e W am p an o ag p eo p le. T h e
W am p an o ag , lik e th e P atu x et, h ad b een d ev astated b y d isease, an d th ey w ere b ein g in creasin g ly
th reaten ed b y th e N arrag an sett p eo p le o f w h at is n o w R h o d e Islan d . A lo n g w ith an o th er E n g lish
sp eak in g n ativ e n am ed S am o set, T isq u an tu m acted as th e in term ed iary b etw een M assaso it an d th e
p ilg rim lead ers as th ey fo rg ed a p o litical allian ce.
A treaty b etw een th e P ilg rim s an d W am p an o ag , sig n ed o n M arch 2 2 , 1 6 2 1 , co m m itted b o th sid es to
a m u tu al d efen se allian ce ag ain st th eir co m m o n en em ies. T h e allian ce b en efited b o th sid es fo r a
w h ile, b u t th e lo n g term co n seq u en ces w ere n o t so felicito u s. R elatio n s b etw een th e n ativ es an d th e
settlers b eg an to fray as m o re E n g lish m en , b o th P u ritan s an d n o n relig io u s settlers, arriv ed in N ew
E n g lan d , tip p in g th e b alan ce o f p o w er in fav o r o f th e E n g lish . M assaso it k ep t th e W am p an o ag
n eu tral in th e P eq u o t W ar o f th e late 1 6 3 0 s, in w h ich h u n d red s o f n ativ es w ere k illed an d h u n d red s
m o re w ere tak en cap tiv e an d so ld in to slav ery . B u t m an y o th er W am p an o ag w ere o u trag ed b y
E n g lish atro cities.
A fter M assaso it d ied , h is so n M etaco m et, o ften k n o w n b y h is E n g lish n am e K in g P h ilip , b ecam e
lead er o f th e W am p an o ag . In 1 6 7 5 , after th e E n g lish ex ecu ted th ree W am p an o ag fo r th e m u rd er o f
an o th er n ativ e, M etaco m et stru ck b ack . In an allian ce w ith th eir fo rm er en em ies, th e N arrag an sett,
th e W am p an o ag en jo y ed so m e early b attlefield su ccesses in w h at b ecam e k n o w n as K in g P h ilip 's
W ar. B u t th e allian ce b etw een th e W am p an o ag an d N arrag an sett so o n u n rav eled , an d b y 1 6 7 6 th e
w ar, th e b lo o d iest co n fro n tatio n b etw een n ativ es an d settlers in th e h isto ry o f N ew E n g lan d , w as all
b u t o v er. M etaco m et w as k illed in Ju n e o f th at y ear. B y th e en d o f th e w ar, th e n ativ e p o p u latio n o f
so u th ern N ew E n g lan d h ad b een red u ced b y h alf, an d th e W am p an o ag an d N arrag an sett h ad
v irtu ally ceased to ex ist.
In late Ju n e o f 1 6 7 6 , after a series o f m ilitary su ccesses b y th e E n g lish , th e g o v ern in g co u n sel o f th e
P u ritan to w n o f C h arlesto w n , M assach u setts, d ecid ed to celeb rate th e co m in g en d o f "th e p resen t
w ar w ith th e h eath en n ativ es o f th is lan d ." T o m ark th e o ccasio n , o f co u rse, th ey d eclared a d ay o f
T h an k sg iv in g .
R e fe re n c e s
A P u ritan 's M in d (2 0 1 6 ). T h e F irst T h an k sg iv in g . R etriev ed fro m w w w .ap u ritan sm in d .co m /th ech ristian w alk /th e
firstth an k sg iv in g /, Ju n e 1 4 , 2 0 1 6 .
L ib rary o f C o n g ress (2 0 1 6 ). T h an k sg iv in g T im elin e. R etriev ed fro m w w w .lo c.g o v /teach ers/classro o m m aterials/
p resen tatio n san d activ ities/p resen tatio n s/th an k sg iv in g /tim elin e/1 5 4 1 .h tm l. Ju n e 1 3 , 2 0 1 6 . P lim o th P lan tatio n (2 0 1 6 ). T h an k sg iv in g H isto ry . R etriev ed fro m w w w .p lim o th .o rg /learn /m u ltim ed iareferen ce
lib rary /read articlesan d w ritin g s/th an k sg iv in g h isto ry . Ju n e 1 3 , 2 0 1 6 .
T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 7 -3 : P u t t in g It A ll
T o g e t h e r
In T h em e: A n aly zin g H isto ry , y o u learn ed ab o u t th e d ifferen t w ay s y o u can in clu d e ev id en ce in y o u r
essay to su p p o rt y o u r arg u m en t. A n h isto rical research p ap er req u ires in fo rm atio n fro m d ifferen t so u rces
to su p p o rt y o u r th esis, b u t y o u n eed to m ak e su re th at m o st o f th e p ap er is in y o u r o w n w o rd s. If y o u rely
to o h eav ily o n y o u r ev id en ce, y o u r v o ice an d y o u r arg u m en t w ill g et lo st in o th ers' w o rd s.
U n d erstan d in g h o w to u se an d in co rp o rate ev id en ce w ill b e h elp fu l in o th er h isto ry co u rses an d fu tu re
classes y o u tak e at S N H U . K n o w in g h o w to su p p o rt an arg u m en t effectiv ely is also v alu ab le in th e real
w o rld .
Y o u w ill su b m it th e first d raft o f y o u r essay at th e en d o f L earn in g B lo ck 4 . In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u
sh o u ld p lan to d ev o te at least o n e to tw o h o u rs to w o rk in g o n y o u r essay .
L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s
In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill:
In co rp o rate h isto rical ev id en ce to su p p o rt y o u r an aly sis
U se a citatio n w izard to en su re y o u h av e accu rately fo rm atted y o u r A P A citatio n s
Q u estio n th e w ay y o u r research h as g iv en y o u a m o re co m p lex v iew o f y o u r h isto rical ev en t
B e s t P r a c t ic e s
W h en w ritin g y o u r h isto rical an aly sis essay , it is n ecessary to in teg rate so u rces in a w ay th at m ak es it
clear w h ich th o u g h ts are y o u rs an d w h ich th o u g h ts co m e fro m y o u r so u rces. R em em b er to fo cu s o n y o u r
id eas an d arg u m en t an d b e su re n o t to o v eru se so u rce m aterial. E v id en ce is n ecessary to su p p o rt y o u r
th esis statem en t, b u t y o u r en tire p ap er sh o u ld n o t b e so m eo n e else's w o rd s.
W h en y o u u se o th er p eo p le's w o rd s o r id eas, it's essen tial th at y o u cite y o u r so u rces. F ailu re to d o so
co u ld leav e y o u o p en to an accu satio n o f p lag iarism , w h ich is th e u se o f so m eo n e else's w o rd s o r id eas
w ith o u t ack n o w led g in g th at p erso n 's au th o rsh ip . P lag iarism d o esn 't h av e to in v o lv e w o rd fo rw o rd
co p y in g fro m an o th er au th o r; sim p ly u sin g sim ilar id eas an d p h rases, w ith o u t attrib u tio n , is en o u g h to
lan d y o u in d eep tro u b le. T h e b est w ay to av o id th at k in d o f p ro b lem is to m ak e su re th at all o f y o u r
so u rces are p ro p erly cited .
T h ere are so m e ru les y o u can fo llo w to m ak e su re th at y o u in teg rate so u rces in to y o u r w ritin g in a w ay
th at h elp s y o u r au d ien ce u n d erstan d h o w each so u rce su p p o rts y o u r p o in t.
C ite o fte n
N o t ev ery sen ten ce in a p ap er n eed s to h av e a citatio n . It is o n ly n ecessary to cite o ften en o u g h to m ak e
clear b ey o n d d o u b t w h ere y o u r in fo rm atio n is co m in g fro m . If th e first sen ten ce o f a p arag rap h cites
G o n zalez an d D u tt, y o u w o u ld n 't n eed to cite th e v ery n ex t sen ten ce; citatio n s sh o u ld b e p laced reg u larly
th ro u g h o u t p arag rap h s, h o w ev er. In ad d itio n , y o u w o u ld n eed a citatio n n ear th e en d o f th e p arag rap h
an d at th e b eg in n in g o f th e n ex t p arag rap h . E v en if G o n zalez an d D u tt are m en tio n ed b y n am e later in th at p arag rap h , th e y ear d o es n o t n eed to b e
in clu d ed b ecau se th e so u rce is alread y clear.
If an o th er so u rce is cited b etw een tw o referen ces to G o n zalez an d D u tt, b o th G o n zalez an d D u tt
m en tio n s n eed to in clu d e th e y ear, w h eth er in p aren th etical citatio n s o r b len d ed in to th e tex t.
In th at ex am p le, th e C lark stu d y in terv en es b etw een th e tw o m en tio n s o f G o n zalez an d D u tt's w o rk , so
th e read er n eed s to b e rem in d ed w h ich G o n zalez an d D u tt stu d y is m ean t.
F o u r p a r ts
A P A fo rm at req u ires fo u r p arts to a citatio n : 1 ) an in tro d u cto ry p h rase, 2 ) th e p arap h rase o r q u o tatio n
u sed as ev id en ce, 3 ) an in tex t referen ce, an d 4 ) a referen ce p ag e citatio n .
Y o u w ill learn m o re ab o u t th e sp ecifics o f A P A sty le citatio n s at p a g e 2 o f th is learn in g b lo ck .
In th e ex am p les b elo w , th e in tro d u ctio n is y ello w , th e p arap h rase o r q u o tatio n u sed as ev id en ce is p in k ,
an d th e in tex t referen ce is b lu e. T h e referen ce citatio n fo llo w s.
G o n zalez an d D u tt's (2 0 1 0 ) research o n d ecisio n m ak in g is p art o f a
tu rn to w ard n ew m o d els. In th at research , th ey fo u n d th at o ld m o d els are
in su fficien t fo r real p ro g ress in th e field . It w as also m ad e clear th at . . .
G o n zalez an d D u tt's (2 0 1 0 ) research o n d ecisio n m ak in g is p art o f a
tu rn to w ard n ew m o d els. C lark (2 0 0 9 ), h o w ev er, tak es a d ifferen t tack .
G o n zalez an d D u tt (2 0 1 0 ) arg u e th at . . .
A cco rd in g to A llen (2 0 0 7 ), th im ero sal is a p reserv ativ e th at h elp ed
k eep v accin es asep tic an d co n tain s m ercu ry — 4 9 .5 % b y w eig h t.
R eferen ces
A llen , A . (2 0 0 7 ). V a ccin e: T h e co n tro versia l sto ry o f m ed icin e's g rea test
lifesa ver. N ew Y o rk , N Y : W . W . N o rto n & C o m p an y , In c. T h e list o f in tro d u cto ry w o rd s b elo w w ill h elp y o u in teg rate y o u r q u o tatio n s an d p arap h rases in to y o u r
sen ten ces.
P r o v id e c o n te x t
C reatin g in tex t referen ces isn 't ju st a m atter o f fo rm attin g y o u r p aren th etical referen ces co rrectly —
th o u g h th at's certain ly a co n cern . W h en in sertin g an in tex t referen ce, y o u n eed to g iv e y o u r read er
en o u g h co n tex t so th at h e o r sh e u n d erstan d s w h eth er y o u are q u o tin g o r p arap h rasin g w o rd s o r id eas.
R ead ers also n eed to u n d erstan d w h y y o u are citin g an o th er au th o r: A re y o u g iv in g v o ice to a
co u n terarg u m en t? O r are y o u p ro v id in g ev id en ce fo r a m ajo r p o in t?
S ig n al to y o u r read er w h y y o u are citin g b y u sin g in tro d u cto ry p h rases, su ch as th e o n e h ig h lig h ted in th e
ex cerp t b elo w :
G alan ti (2 0 0 4 ) asserts, "In so m e cu ltu res, p art o f th e 'jo b ' o f th e
fam ily is to m ak e su re th at th e n u rses are sp en d in g en o u g h tim e carin g fo r
th eir lo v ed o n e" (p . 8 7 ).
R eferen ces
G alan te, G . A . (2 0 0 4 ). C a rin g fo r p a tien ts fro m d ifferen t cu ltu res.
P h ilad elp h ia, P A : U n iv ersity o f P en n sy lv an ia P ress.
I n tr o d u c to r y w o r d s
ack n o w led g es co n clu d es elu cid ates o ffers
ad m its co n ten d s ex p resses p resen ts
ad v ises criticizes illu strates refu tes
ag rees d em o n strates im p lies rejects
arg u es d escrib es in sists rep lies
asserts d isag rees lists rep o rts
b eliev es d iscu sses m ain tain s resp o n d s
claim s d isp u tes n o tes su g g ests
co n ced es em p h asizes o b jects w rites T h e h ig h lig h ted sen ten ce ex p lain s w h y th e referen ce is im p o rtan t— th e w riter o f th is p ap er w an ted h is
read ers to k n o w th at su stain ab ility isn 't ju st fo r p articu lar in d u stries, an d h e h as su p p o rt fo r th is claim . H e
fo llo w s u p th at in tro d u cto ry sen ten ce w ith su p p o rtin g in fo rm atio n fro m th e so u rce. T h e p arap h rased
in fo rm atio n is in tro d u ced w ith a statem en t th at su g g ests th at an o th er au th o r w ro te th e id ea o rig in ally . H e
th en p ro v id es th e au th o rs' n am es an d th e y ear o f th e article's p u b licatio n .
A v o id in g D ro p p ed Q u o ta tio n s. T o av o id p lag iarism , y o u 'll w an t to m ak e su re th at y o u are u sin g th e
fo u r p arts o f a citatio n d escrib ed in th e "F o u r p arts" tab . B u t y o u 'll n eed a fifth p art, p laced in b o ld
b elo w , to av o id d ro p p ed q u o tatio n s an d to k eep y o u r w ritin g flu id .
W h en w riters d o n 't p ro v id e an in tro d u cto ry o r co n clu d in g statem en t to in d icate w h y a so u rce is b ro u g h t
in to th e co n v ersatio n , w e call th is a d ro p p ed q u o tatio n b ecau se th e q u o tatio n is seem in g ly d ro p p ed in to
th e p arag rap h fro m n o w h ere. W h en citin g th e w o rk o f o th ers, y o u n eed to g iv e y o u r read er en o u g h
co n tex t so th at h e o r sh e u n d erstan d s w h eth er y o u are q u o tin g o r p arap h rasin g w o rd s o r id eas. R ead ers
also n eed to u n d erstan d w h y y o u are citin g an o th er au th o r: A re y o u g iv in g v o ice to a co u n terarg u m en t?
O r are y o u p ro v id in g ev id en ce fo r a m ajo r p o in t?
B e su re th at ev ery tim e y o u in clu d e a q u o tatio n in y o u r p ap er, y o u h av e all o f th e fo llo w in g p arts:
1 . A n in tro d u cto ry p h ra se th at in clu d es an in tro d u cto ry w o rd , th e n am e o f th e au th o r, th e p u b licatio n
d ate, an d p erh ap s th e title o f th e reso u rce. O n su b seq u en t q u o tatio n s fro m th e sam e so u rce, h o w ev er,
y o u can p lace th e au th o r's n am e, th e p u b licatio n d ate, an d th e p ag e n u m b er at th e en d o f th e citatio n .
R em em b er th at y o u w ill n eed to p lace a co m m a b etw een th e in tro d u cto ry p h rase an d th e q u o tatio n .
2 . T h e q u o ta tio n , su rro u n d ed b y q u o ta tio n m a rk s. If th e q u o tatio n en d s in an ex clam atio n p o in t o r a
q u estio n m ark , p u t th at p u n ctu atio n rig h t b efo re th e clo sin g q u o tatio n m ark .
3 . A n in tex t referen ce w ith th e au th o r's n am e an d p u b licatio n d ate (if eith er o f th ese w ere n o t
in clu d ed in y o u r in tro d u cto ry p h rase) an d th e p ag e n u m b er. P lace a p erio d after th e clo sin g
p aren th esis o f th e in tex t referen ce.
4 . A t lea st o n e sen ten ce th a t su m s u p w h y th a t q u o ta tio n w a s so im p o rta n t to y o u r th esis
sta tem en t o r th e m a jo r p o in t y o u a re su p p o rtin g in th a t p la ce in th e p a p er. T h is u su ally m ean s
th at y o u sh o u ld n o t en d a p arag rap h w ith a q u o tatio n b ecau se y o u w o u ld n o t b e p ro v id in g en o u g h
co n tex t fo r w h y th e q u o tatio n is im p o rtan t.
5 . A referen ce p a g e cita tio n .
E v ery tim e y o u cite a so u rce, y o u sh o u ld in clu d e th e au th o r's n am e, th e d ate o f p u b licatio n , an d th e p ag e
n u m b er (if y o u are q u o tin g ). T h at w o n 't ch an g e.
H o w ev er, th e lo catio n in w h ich y o u p ro v id e th is in fo rm atio n w ill ch an g e d ep en d in g o n w h eth er o r n o t
y o u w rite th e au th o r's n am e as p art o f th e sen ten ce. A later p arap h rase o r q u o tatio n b y th e sam e au th o r in
th e sam e p arag rap h w o u ld n o t n ecessa rily n eed to reiterate th e au th o r's n am e to in tro d u ce th e q u o ted o r
p arap h rased co n ten t, b u t it w o u ld n eed to in clu d e th e n am e o f th e au th o r, th e p u b licatio n d ate, an d — if
y o u are q u o tin g — th e p ag e n u m b er in th e p aren th etical citatio n .
T h o u g h so m e b eliev e th at su stain ab ility is th e d o m ain o f in d u stries
su ch as farm in g , ed u catio n , o r th e au to m o tiv e in d u stry , th e au th o rs' rev iew
o f research ad d resses th e cu rren t th o u g h ts ab o u t su stain ab ility in m an y
in d u stries an d su g g ests th at in ev ery in d u stry , co m p an ies n eed to fo cu s o n
th eir im ag e in o rd er to stay co m p etitiv e (B eh eiry , C h o n g , & H ass, 2 0 0 6 ). Y o u w ill n o tice in th e ex cerp t b elo w th at th e au th o r u ses an in tro d u cto ry statem en t to ex p lain w h y th e
q u o tatio n is im p o rtan t to h is m ajo r p o in t. A fter read in g th e first sen ten ce, w e k n o w th e q u o tatio n is g o in g
to tell u s m o re ab o u t w h y th e au th o rs are in terested in research in g m u ltin atio n al co rp o ratio n s rath er th an
g o v ern m en ts o r sm aller b u sin esses.
T h e co n clu sio n sen ten ce fu rth er ex p lain s w h y th e q u o tatio n an d p arap h rased co n ten t are im p o rtan t to th e
research p ap er as a w h o le.
S e n te n c e g r a m m a r
R em em b er th at w h en y o u u se a q u o tatio n , y o u m u st still w rite co m p lete sen ten ces. E v ery sen ten ce o f
y o u r w ritin g m u st b e g ram m atically co rrect. W h en y o u u se q u o tatio n s, y o u n eed to in co rp o rate th em in to
y o u r o w n sen ten ces. E v en if y o u u se o n ly p art o f a sen ten ce fro m y o u r o rig in al so u rce, it is y o u r
resp o n sib ility to u se th e co rrect g ram m ar so th at it fits co m fo rtab ly in to y o u r o w n w ritin g . B reak
q u o tatio n s in to sm aller p ieces if y o u n eed to an d co m b in e p arap h rases w ith q u o tatio n s. B u t en su re th at
y o u d o n 't ch an g e th e m ean in g o f th e q u o tatio n b y elim in atin g im p o rtan t w o rd s w h en y o u trim q u o tatio n s
d o w n .
T h e sen ten ce b elo w co n tain s a q u o tatio n in th e m id d le o f a sen ten ce. P ay sp ecial atten tio n to th e w ay in
w h ich th is q u o tatio n is cited .
B eh eiry , C h o n g , an d H ass (2 0 0 6 ) ex p lain th eir in terest in fin d in g a
b u sin ess case fo r su stain ab ility in sp ecifically m u ltin atio n al co rp o ratio n s:
"U n lik e m an y g o v ern m en ts, m u ltin atio n als h av e in terests an d in flu en ce
th at g o b ey o n d n atio n al b o rd ers. M an y m u ltin atio n al co rp o ratio n s alread y
h av e en v iro n m en tal m an ag em en t sy stem s (E M S s), p o llu tio n red u ctio n ,
an d en erg y sav in g p ractices in p lace" (p . 3 8 5 ). T h o u g h th e au th o rs ad m it
th at co rp o ratio n s h av e n o t so lv ed su stain ab ility issu es y et, th ey su g g est
th at co rp o ratio n s w ill ev en tu ally fin d th e n eed to co m p ete o n a b alan ced
su stain ab ility m o re co m p ellin g th an th e n eed fo r th e sh o rtterm sav in g s
rep resen ted b y th e statu s q u o — w astefu l u se o f reso u rces (B eh eiry , C h o n g ,
& H ass, 2 0 0 6 ).
B eh eiry , C h o n g , an d H ass (2 0 0 6 ) ex p lain th at th eir ex p erim en t
su g g ested th at co m p an ies th at w ere m o re co m m itted to all th ree p illars o f
su stain ab le b u sin ess p ractices— so cial d ev elo p m en t, en v iro n m en tal
su stain ab ility , a n d eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t— w ere m o re lik ely to see
p ro jects co m in g in u n d er b u d g et an d o n sch ed u le. T h is is im p o rtan t, th e R em em b er th at, reg ard less o f th e p u n ctu atio n th at th e in tex t referen ce p reced es, th e clo sin g p aren th esis
o f th e citatio n falls b efo re th e clo sin g p u n ctu atio n . N ev er p la ce th e clo sin g p u n ctu a tio n o f th e sen ten ce
in sid e th e p a ren th etica l referen ce.
M a k in g ch a n g es to q u o ta tio n s. T h is m ay b e su rp risin g , b u t in o rd er to k eep y o u r w ritin g g ram m atically
co rrect an d co n cise, y o u can actu ally m ak e ch an g es to q u o ted m aterial.
F o r ex am p le, y o u can ch an g e th e first w o rd o f a q u o tatio n to an u p p ercase o r lo w ercase letter so th at th e
q u o tatio n b etter fits in to th e g ram m ar o f y o u r o w n sen ten ce. In th e ex am p le b elo w , R ey es actu ally b eg an
h er sen ten ce w ith "D ev elo p in g ," so th e first letter w as cap italized in th e o rig in al. B u t th at d id n 't fit in th e
g ram m ar o f th e n ew sen ten ce, so th e letter w as m ad e lo w ercase.
Y o u can also ch an g e th e p u n ctu a tio n m ark at th e en d o f a q u o tatio n so th at it fits th e g ram m ar o f y o u r
o w n sen ten ce: fo r ex am p le, a co m m a can b eco m e a p erio d . D o n 't ch an g e th e p u n ctu atio n m ark s,
h o w ev er, in an y w ay th at w o u ld ch an g e th e q u o tatio n 's m ean in g . Y o u w o u ld n 't w an t to in sert a q u estio n
m ark w h ere an au th o r w as m ak in g a factu al statem en t, fo r in stan ce.
If y o u rem o v e an y th in g fro m th e m id d le o f a q u o tatio n , u se th ree sp aced ellip sis p o in ts ( . . . ) to in d icate
th e o m issio n :
N ev er rem o v e a citatio n fro m th e m id d le o f a q u o tatio n . F o r ex am p le, if y o u w an t to q u o te th is sen ten ce
fro m S h u F en K ao an d B . L u sk 's article "A ttitu d es T o w ard s D eath an d D y in g ," y o u m ay n o t rem o v e th e
citatio n o f B en o liel, even if yo u a re rem o vin g m a teria l a ro u n d th e cita tio n :
au th o rs claim , b ecau se "th e h isto rical ten d en cy to fo cu s o n en v iro n m en tal
su stain ab ility o v eralig n ed S D [su stain ab le d ev elo p m en t] w ith th e g reen
m o v em en t an d alien ated th e b u sin ess ex ecu tiv es" (B eh eiry , C h o n g , &
H ass, 2 0 0 6 , p . 3 8 4 ). T h e au th o rs arg u e th at th e reaso n m an y co m p an ies
are slo w to em b race su stain ab le p ractices is th at th ere is n o relev an t
b u sin ess case to p ersu ad e th o se in ch arg e th at su stain ab ility w ill in crease
v alu e to sh areh o ld ers. T h e resu lts o f th is ex p erim en t m ay b e u sed to
su p p o rt th e id ea th at su stain ab ility can red u ce co sts, w h ich m ig h t
en co u rag e b u sin ess o w n ers to ad o p t su stain ab le m an ag em en t p ractices.
O n e stu d y fo u n d th at "d ev elo p in g so cial n etw o rk s o n cam p u s
co u n teracted iso latio n an d in v isib ility " (R ey es, 2 0 1 1 , p . 2 5 7 ).
"F o r sm all firm s . . . fix ed co sts are o f sp ecial co n cern " (G erh ard &
M ilk o v ich , 1 9 9 0 , p . 6 6 7 ). Y o u m ig h t alter th e q u o tatio n in th is w ay :
B u t y o u m ay n o t alter th e q u o tatio n b y rem o v in g th e citatio n an d an y th in g aro u n d it:
Y o u d o n o t n eed to ad d so u rces cited w ith in q u o tatio n s fro m so u rces y o u are u sin g to y o u r o w n referen ce
list.
T o q u o te o r p a r a p h r a se ?
In g en eral, p arap h rasin g so u rces w ill k eep y o u r o w n w ritin g fro m b eco m in g ch o p p y an d seem in g ly
th ro w n to g eth er. H o w ev er, y o u m ig h t q u o te co n ten t d irectly if y o u feel th at th e au th o r's o rig in al p h rasin g
o ffers a to n e o r a co n cisio n th at y o u w o u ld n o t w an t to d isru p t. T h e p arag rap h b elo w u ses a q u o tatio n
th at im p arts a to n e th at u n iq u ely an d p o w erfu lly d escrib es th e ty p e o f p ro jects th at citizen s m ay o b ject to ,
so th e w riter o f th is p ap er ch o se to k eep th e q u o tatio n in tact b ecau se it o ffers m o re co n cisio n th an h e
co u ld rep licate.
"T h is b eh av io r m ig h t b e ex p lain ed b y B en o liel (1 9 8 7 – 1 9 8 8 ), in h er
rev iew o f th e research literatu re co n cern in g h ealth care p ro v id ers an d
d y in g p atien ts, th at th ere is so m e ev id en ce th at av o id an ce o f d y in g p atien ts
is a p referred co p in g strateg y fo r n u rses."
"T h is b eh av io r m ig h t b e ex p lain ed b y B en o liel (1 9 8 7 – 1 9 8 8 ) . . . th at
th ere is so m e ev id en ce th at av o id an ce o f d y in g p atien ts is a p referred
co p in g strateg y fo r n u rses."
"T h is b eh av io r m ig h t b e ex p lain ed b y . . . so m e ev id en ce th at
av o id an ce o f d y in g p atien ts is a p referred co p in g strateg y fo r n u rses."
B eh eiry , C h o n g , an d H ass (2 0 0 6 ) su g g est th at "N ew ro ad s in a
p ictu resq u e co u n try sid e, refin eries in co astal w etlan d s, an d d am s o n scarce
riv er reso u rces are ty p ical p ro jects th at attract fierce d eb ate" (p . 3 8 5 ), b u t
th en ack n o w led g e th at m ark et fo rces g en erally are an im p o rtan t
d eterm in in g facto r fo r w h ich p ro jects are b u ilt w h ere. A p o rtrait o f th e S h aw n ee
ch ief T ecu m seh , after B en so n
L o ssin g 's en g rav in g . (C lick
ico n fo r citatio n )
P resid en t A n d rew Jack so n w as a
fo rcefu l ad v o cate o f In d ian
rem o v al. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n )
T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 7 -4 : T h e T r a il o f T e a r s
T h e T r a il o f T e a r s
A s w e saw in L earn in g B lo ck 7 1 , th e early 1 9 th cen tu ry saw w id esp read co n flict b etw een N ativ e trib es
an d w h ite settlers, an d th e S o u th eastern U n ited S tates w as o n e o f th e m ajo r aren as fo r th is co n flict. A s
th e n atio n 's p o p u latio n in creased an d settlers b eg an to p u sh w estw ard , th e h u g e stretch es o f N ativ e trib al
lan d in G eo rg ia, F lo rid a, A lab am a, an d M ississip p i seem ed a rip e targ et— esp ecially b ecau se th is lan d
w as id eal fo r cu ltiv atin g co tto n , an ex trem ely v alu ab le cash cro p .
S tartin g w ith T h o m as Jefferso n , A m erican P resid en ts h ad en v isio n ed
th at N ativ es liv in g east o f th e M ississip p i R iv er w o u ld h av e to g iv e u p
th eir lan d . A s Jefferso n saw it, th o se w h o w an ted to rem ain in th e east
co u ld b eco m e citizen s an d receiv e a 6 4 0 acre p lo t o f farm lan d , w h ile
th o se w h o w an ted to m ain tain th eir trib al so v ereig n ty co u ld trad e th eir
N ativ e lan d s fo r fed eral lan d w est o f th e M ississip p i. (Jefferso n , 1 8 0 3 ) In
eith er ev en t, th e N ativ es w o u ld n o t rem ain o n th eir o w n lan d .
T h e W ar o f 1 8 1 2 w as a m ajo r tu rn in g p o in t in relatio n s b etw een N ativ es
an d A m erican settlers. B efo re th e w ar, th e B ritish h ad u sed th eir m ilitary
p resen ce in C an ad a to h elp In d ian trib es in th eir b attles ag ain st
en cro ach in g A m erican settlers; th e B ritish h o p ed to estab lish a N ativ e
state in th e A m erican N o rth w est th at w o u ld serv e as a b u ffer b etw een
C an ad a an d th e U n ited S tates. D u rin g th e W ar o f 1 8 1 2 , th e B ritish
fo rm ed an allian ce w ith a co n fed eratio n o f N ativ e n atio n s, led b y th e
S h aw n ee ch ief, T ecu m seh ; B ritish so ld iers fo u g h t sid eb y sid e w ith
N ativ es in m an y en g ag em en ts b efo re T ecu m seh w as k illed in 1 8 1 3 .
T h e T reaty o f G h en t, w h ich en d ed th e w ar, also en d ed an y allian ces b etw een N ativ es an d th e B ritish . In
retu rn fo r th e A m erican s' p led g e to resp ect C an ad a's b o rd er th e B ritish ab an d o n ed th e id ea o f
estab lish in g a N ativ e b u ffer state, an d p ro m ised n o t to arm A m erican N ativ es. (T u rn er, 2 0 0 0 ) W ith o u t
th e B ritish as a p o ten tial ally , N ativ es h ad less lev erag e to resist th e effo rts o f w h ite settlers to claim th eir
lan d .
In 1 8 2 5 , P resid en t Jam es M o n ro e p ro p o sed th e first p lan fo r In d ian
rem o v al. U n d er th is p lan , N ativ es liv in g east o f th e M ississip p i w o u ld
v o lu n tarily trad e th eir h o m elan d s fo r sim ilarly sized stretch es o f
w estern lan d , in A rk an sas T errito ry an d In d ian T errito ry . C o n g ress
ap p ro v ed th e p lan an d M o n ro e an d h is su ccesso r, Jo h n Q u in cy A d am s,
so u g h t to co n v in ce th e N ativ es to m o v e b y p eacefu l m ean s. A t th e
sam e tim e th e state g o v ern m en t o f G eo rg ia, eag er to seize lan d fro m
th e C reek an d C h ero k ee, ex erted p o litical p ressu re o n A d am s to
n eg o tiate treaties th at w ere fav o rab le to G eo rg ia's in terests. (P ru ch a,
1 9 9 7 ).
In 1 8 2 8 , A n d rew Jack so n , w h o 'd g ain ed fam e in larg e p art fo r h is
m ilitary ex p lo its ag ain st th e C reek an d S em in o le In d ian s, w o n electio n
as th e n atio n 's sev en th P resid en t. T h e v eteran In d ian fig h ter to o k a
m u ch to u g h er lin e th an h is p red ecesso rs, callin g fo r th e rem o v al o f all
N ativ es east o f th e M ississip p i. In 1 8 3 0 , C o n g ress p assed th e In d ian
R em o v al A ct, w h ich au th o rized Jack so n to n eg o tiate treaties w ith each
o f th e In d ian n atio n s, w ith th e g o al o f relo catin g each o n e. (F o rem an , 1 9 3 2 ) A s w e saw in L earn in g B lo ck 7 1 , d ifferen t N ativ e g ro u p s resp o n d ed to th e In d ian R em o v al A ct in
d ifferen t w ay s. T h e resp o n se o f th e C h ero k ee w as o n e o f th e m o re co m p lex — an d , u ltim ately , trag ic— o f
th o se resp o n ses.
T h is learn in g b lo ck lo o k s at th e h isto ry o f th e C h ero k ee R em o v al as an ex am p le o f h isto rical co m p lex ity ,
an d u ses it to h elp y o u u se h isto rical ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t th e n atu re o f h isto rical ev en ts.
L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s
In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill:
A ssess th e co m p lex ity o f a h isto rical ev en t
U se h isto rical ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t a h isto rical ev en t
R e fe re n c e s
F o rem an , G . (1 9 3 2 ). In d ia n R em o va l: T h e E m ig ra tio n o f th e F ive C ivilized T rib es o f In d ia n s. N o rm an , O K :
U n iv ersity o f O k lah o m a P ress.
Jefferso n , T . (1 8 0 3 ). L etter to W illiam H en ry H arriso n , G o v ern o r o f th e In d ian a T errito ry . R etriev ed fro m
w w w .d ig italh isto ry .u h .ed u /activ e_ learn in g /ex p lo ratio n s/in d ian _ rem o v al/jefferso n _ to _ h arriso n .cfm
P ru ch a, F . (1 9 9 7 ). A m erica n In d ia n T rea ties: T h e H isto ry o f a P o litica l A n o m a ly. B erk eley , C A : U n iv ersity o f
C alifo rn ia P ress.
T u rn er, W . (2 0 0 0 ). T h e W a r o f 1 8 1 2 : T h e W a r T h a t B o th S id es W o n . T o ro n to : D u n d u rn P ress.
C h e r o k e e R e m o v a l
T h e an cestral lan d s o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n in clu d ed p arts o f A lab am a, G eo rg ia, N o rth C aro lin a, an d
T en n essee. B u t th e b u lk o f C h ero k ee lan d w as in G eo rg ia, an d it is th ere th at th e sto ry o f th e C h ero k ee
R em o v al is cen tered .
In 1 8 0 2 , th e fled g lin g fed eral g o v ern m en t m ad e a d eal w ith th e state o f G eo rg ia. In retu rn fo r ced in g its
w estern lan d claim s (w h ich w o u ld b eco m e th e states o f A lab am a an d M ississip p i), G eo rg ia receiv ed a
p ro m ise th at th e fed eral g o v ern m en t w o u ld n eg o tiate treaties to rem o v e all N ativ es fro m th e state.
H ere w e see a clear ex am p le o f th e h isto rical co n cep t o f ch an g e o v er tim e. In th e 2 1 st cen tu ry th e fo rced
relo catio n o f an en tire racial o r eth n ic g ro u p w o u ld b e co n sid ered eth n ic clean sin g , a term co in ed in th e
1 9 9 0 s an d leg ally v iew ed as a "crim e ag ain st h u m an ity ." (U .N . G en eral A ssem b ly , 1 9 9 2 ). B u t th is
co n cep t d id n o t ev en ex ist in th e 1 8 0 0 s, an d th e fo rced relo catio n o f A m erican N ativ e trib es o ccu rred
freq u en tly d u rin g th e 1 9 th cen tu ry .
S o m e C h ero k ee d id ag ree to relo cate v o lu n tarily to A rk an sas in th e late 1 8 th an d early 1 9 th cen tu ries;
th ese "O ld S ettlers" ev en tu ally estab lish ed th e W estern C h ero k ee N atio n , b u t th e b u lk o f th e C h ero k ee
rem ain ed in G eo rg ia.
A s p art o f th eir effo rt to rem ain o n th eir an cestral lan d s, th e C h ero k ee— w h o , alo n g w ith th e o th er
"C iv ilized T rib es," h ad ad o p ted m an y asp ects o f E u ro p ean A m erican cu ltu re— stro v e to assim ilate ev en
fu rth er. B y th e early 1 9 th cen tu ry , th e C h ero k ee h ad ad o p ted a w ritten lan g u ag e an d a co n stitu tio n
m o d eled o n th at o f th e U n ited S tates, an d th ey h ad b u ilt a cap ital city at N ew E ch o ta in G eo rg ia. M an y
C h ero k ee m arried w h ite settlers; Jo h n R o ss, th e P rin cip al C h ief o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n fro m 1 8 2 8 to
1 8 6 6 , h ad larg ely S co ttish an cestry an d w as o n ly o n eeig h th C h ero k ee. T h e C h ero k ee trad ed ex ten siv ely T h e G reat S eal o f th e C h ero k ee
N atio n . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n )
Jo h n R o ss, p rin cip al ch ief o f th e
C h ero k ee N atio n . N o te h is
E u ro p ean sty le o f d ress,
em b lem atic o f th e C h ero k ee's
assim ilatio n . (C lick ico n fo r
citatio n )
w ith w h ite settlers, an d m an y d ressed in w estern sty le clo th in g ; so m e
o f th e w ealth iest C h ero k ee o w n ed to b acco o r co tto n p lan tatio n s as w ell
as b lack slav es.
N o n eth eless, p ressu re fo r rem o v al in creased as co tto n b ecam e th e
d o m in an t cash cro p in th e state, b ecau se th e C h ero k ee's lan d w as
p articu larly w ellsu ited fo r co tto n p ro d u ctio n . (F ite, 1 9 4 9 ) T h e
d isco v ery o f g o ld in 1 8 2 9 , an d th e en su in g G eo rg ia G o ld R u sh , o n ly
in ten sified th e p ressu re. (W illiam s, 2 0 1 6 )
In 1 8 2 8 , th e state o f G eo rg ia en acted a series o f statu tes th at
effectiv ely strip p ed th e C h ero k ee o f th eir rig h ts u n d er state law . R ath er
th an reso rt to v io len ce th e C h ero k ee to o k th e state to co u rt; th e trib e
ap p eared to b e v in d icated w h en th e S u p rem e C o u rt ru led , in W o rcester
v. G eo rg ia (1 8 3 2 ), th at in d iv id u al states can n o t in terfere w ith N ativ es' trib al so v ereig n ty . B u t G eo rg ia
flatly refu sed to co m p ly w ith th e C o u rt's ru lin g an d P resid en t Jack so n , firm ly co m m itted to h is p o licy o f
In d ian rem o v al, refu sed to en fo rce th e C o u rt's d ecisio n . W h en G eo rg ia co n d o n ed arm ed raid s o n
C h ero k ee territo ry an d w en t ah ead w ith a state lo ttery to d istrib u te C h ero k ee lan d , th e fed eral
g o v ern m en t essen tially lo o k ed th e o th er w ay . (F o rem an , 1 9 3 2 )
F aced w ith Jack so n 's refu sal to en fo rce th e S u p rem e C o u rt's d ecisio n ,
th e C h ero k ee lead ersh ip sp lit. O n e factio n , led b y P rin cip al C h ief Jo h n
R o ss, co n tin u ed to resist th e fed eral g o v ern m en t's p ressu re to n eg o tiate
a treaty fo r C h ero k ee rem o v al. A n o th er factio n , led b y trib al eld er
M ajo r R id g e an d h is so n , Jo h n , cam e to b eliev e th at rem o v al w as
in ev itab le— an d th at, n o m atter h o w m u ch th ey p erso n ally o p p o sed th e
id ea, th e C h ero k ee sh o u ld n eg o tiate w ith Jack so n to g et th e b est d eal
p o ssib le.
T h e d iv isio n in th e C h ero k ee lead ersh ip led to p o litical b rin k sm an sh ip
an d , ev en tu ally , v io len ce. T h e p ro R o ss factio n o rg an ized itself in to
th e "N atio n al P arty " w h ile th e p ro R id g e factio n called itself th e
"T reaty P arty ." In 1 8 3 2 , R o ss can celed trib al electio n s an d th e
C h ero k ee N atio n al C o u n cil th reaten ed to im p each M ajo r an d Jo h n
R id g e; later, a p ro m in en t T reaty P arty m em b er w as m u rd ered . B u t
Jo h n R id g e an d o th er m em b ers o f th e T reaty P arty co n tin u ed to m eet
secretly w ith fed eral o fficials. (B erry , 2 0 1 2 )
R e fe re n c e s
B erry , C . (2 0 1 2 ) F actio n alism , F ig h tin g , an d th e T rag ed y o f th e T rail.
R etriev ed fro m w w w .allth in g sch ero k ee.co m /factio n alism fig h tin g
trag ed y trail/
F ite, G . (1 9 4 9 ). "D ev elo p m en t o f th e C o tto n In d u stry b y th e F iv e C iv ilized T rib es in In d ian T errito ry " T h e Jo u rn a l
o f S o u th ern H isto ry, V o l. 1 5 , N o . 3 . 3 4 2 3 5 3 .
F o rem an , G . (1 9 3 2 ). In d ia n R em o va l: T h e E m ig ra tio n o f th e F ive C ivilized T rib es o f In d ia n s. N o rm an , O K :
U n iv ersity o f O k lah o m a P ress.
U n ited N atio n s G en eral A ssem b ly (1 9 9 2 ) R eso lu tio n 4 7 /1 2 1 , D ecem b er 1 8 , 1 9 9 2 .
W illiam s, D . (Jan u ary 1 2 , 2 0 1 6 ) G o ld R u sh ; N ew G eo rg ia E n cy clo p ed ia. R etriev ed fro m
w w w .g eo rg iaen cy clo p ed ia.o rg /articles/h isto ry arch aeo lo g y /g o ld ru sh Jo h n R id g e, a lead er o f th e
T reaty P arty , w as assassin ated in
1 8 3 9 . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n )
T h e T r a g ic Jo u r n e y W e s t
In 1 8 3 5 , ab o u t 4 0 0 su p p o rters o f th e T reaty P arty — a sm all fractio n o f th e 1 6 ,0 0 0 C h ero k ee th en liv in g
east o f th e M ississip p i— m et w ith a fed eral n eg o tiato r in th e C h ero k ee cap ital o f N ew E ch o ta. O n
D ecem b er 2 9 , th e g ro u p 's n eg o tiatin g co m m ittee ap p ro v ed th e T reaty o f N ew E ch o ta, u n d er w h ich th e
C h ero k ee w o u ld relo cate to In d ian T errito ry in retu rn fo r $ 5 m illio n (alo n g w ith an o th er $ 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 in
ed u catio n al fu n d s), an d lan d eq u al to th e am o u n t th ey w ere g iv in g u p .
T h e o rig in al treaty also co n tain ed a clau se th at w o u ld h av e allo w ed in d iv id u al C h ero k ee to rem ain east
o f th e M ississip p i an d b eco m e A m erican citizen s if th ey g av e u p claim s to th eir lan d , b u t P resid en t
Jack so n rejected th at p ro v isio n . (P erd u e an d G reen , 2 0 0 4 )
T h e C h ero kee R em o va l w a s d ra m a tized in a 2 0 0 9 d o cu m en ta ry, "W e W ill R em a in : T h e T ra il o f T ea rs."
T o see a ll o r p a rt o f th is d o cu m en ta ry, click h ere. Y o u ca n w a tch a s m u ch o f th e d o cu m en ta ry a s yo u 'd
like, b u t th e p a rt releva n t to th e T ra il o f T ea rs co n sists o f S eg m en ts 1 8 2 8 . Y o u w ill h a ve to lo g in to
S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls to a ccess th is strea m in g vid eo .
Jo h n R o ss p ro m p tly d en o u n ced th e treaty an d th e C h ero k ee N atio n al C o u n cil d eclared it a frau d , b u t th e
U .S . S en ate ratified it in 1 8 3 6 b y a sin g le v o te. U n d er term s o f th e treaty , C h ero k ee h ad tw o y ears to
m o v e w est v o lu n tarily , b efo re th e U .S . A rm y w o u ld b eg in a "fo rced rem o v al." R elativ ely few C h ero k ee,
v irtu ally all o f th em su p p o rters o f th e T reaty P arty , relo cated w illin g ly .
In 1 8 3 8 , Jack so n 's su ccesso r, P resid en t M artin V an B u ren , o rd ered G en eral W in field S co tt to b eg in
fo rcib ly rem o v in g th e C h ero k ee. B u t th e in itial rem o v al o p eratio n , in v o lv in g ab o u t 3 ,0 0 0 N ativ es,
resu lted in h u n d red s o f d eath s an d d esertio n s; S co tt su sp en d ed th e o p eratio n an d p laced th e rem ain in g
C h ero k ee in 1 1 in tern m en t cam p s. E v en tu ally , P rin cip al C h ief Jo h n R o ss— b o w in g to th e in ev itab le, b u t
also h o p in g to safeg u ard h is p o sitio n as lead er o n ce th e C h ero k ee arriv ed in In d ian C o u n try — sig n ed a
co n tract w ith th e g o v ern m en t to o v ersee th e relo catio n p lan . (P ru ch a, 1 9 8 4 )
R o ss arran g ed fo r 1 2 w ag o n train s, each w ith ro u g h ly 1 ,0 0 0 C h ero k ee, to m ak e th e th o u san d m ile trip
w est. (R o ss an d o th er N atio n al P arty lead ers trav eled in g reater co m fo rt ab o ard th e steam b o at V icto ria .)
S tartin g o u t in O cto b er an d N o v em b er, th e w ag o n train s en d u red h arsh w in ter co n d itio n s d u rin g th e
th ree to fo u rm o n th jo u rn ey , an d h u n d red s m o re p erish ed . T h is is th e p h ase o f th e C h ero k ee R em o v al
co m m o n ly k n o w n as th e T rail o f T ears.
E stim ates fo r th e to tal n u m b er o f d eath s d u rin g th e C h ero k ee R em o v al v ary w id ely , fro m a lo w o f 2 ,0 0 0
to a h ig h o f 6 ,0 0 0 . T h e m o st co m m o n ly cited fig u re is 4 ,0 0 0 ; th is n u m b er tak es in to acco u n t th o se w h o
d ied d u rin g th e in itial A rm y rem o v al o p eratio n ; in th e in tern m en t cam p s; an d o n th e w ag o n train s.
(P ru ch a, 1 9 8 4 ; A n d erso n , 1 9 9 1 )
T h e m o v e w est d id n o th in g to h eal th e d iv isio n s w ith in th e C h ero k ee
lead ersh ip . F o llo w ers o f th e T reaty P arty , m an y o f w h o m h ad
relo cated v o lu n tarily , alig n ed th em selv es w ith th e O ld S ettlers w h o
h ad arriv ed b efo re 1 8 3 0 . R o ss an d h is N atio n al P arty fo llo w ers arriv ed
in early 1 8 3 9 , an d h e p ro m p tly asserted h is p o sitio n as P rin cip al C h ief;
th e fo llo w in g Ju n e, th ree o f th e lead ers o f th e T reaty P arty — M ajo r
R id g e, Jo h n R id g e, an d E lias B o u d in o t— w ere assassin ated b y
su p p o rters o f th e N atio n al P arty .
T h e k illin g s set o ff a w av e o f in tertrib al v io len ce th at lasted fo r a
d ecad e, an d fierce riv alries w ith in th e trib al lead ersh ip lasted
th ro u g h o u t th e A m erican C iv il W ar. (W ilk in s, 1 9 7 0 ) W h en Jo h n R o ss
d ied in 1 8 6 6 , th e C h ero k ee N atio n w as still b itterly d iv id ed . R e fe re n c e s
A n d erso n , W ., ed . (1 9 9 1 ) C h ero kee R em o va l: B efo re a n d A fter. A th en s, G A : U n iv ersity o f G eo rg ia P ress.
P erd u e, T . an d G reen , M . (2 0 0 5 ) T h e C h ero kee R em o va l: A B rief H isto ry w ith D o cu m en ts. B o sto n : S t. M artin 's
P ress.
P ru ch a, F . (1 9 8 4 ). T h e G rea t F a th er: T h e U n ited S ta tes G o vern m en t a n d th e A m erica n In d ia n s. L in co ln , N eb rask a:
U n iv ersity o f N eb rask a P ress.
W ilk in s, T . (1 9 7 0 ) C h ero kee T ra g ed y. N ew Y o rk : M acm illan C o m p an y .
E x e r c is e : F u r t h e r R e a d in g s
T h e fo llo w in g p assag e is ex cerp ted fro m "T o O v eraw e th e In d ian s an d G iv e C o n fid en ce to th e W h ites:
P rep aratio n s fo r th e R em o v al o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n fro m G eo rg ia". R ead th e p assag e an d th en an sw er
th e q u estio n fo llo w in g it, k eep in g in m in d th e co n cep t o f h isto rical co m p lex ity .
C lick o n th e title o f th e article to read , d o w n lo ad , an d p rin t a co p y o f th e tex t. T h ese read in g s are
p ro v id ed b y th e S h ap iro L ib rary . T h is rea d in g is req u ired . Y o u w ill h a ve to lo g in to S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith
yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls to a ccess th is a rticle.
" T o O v e r a w e th e In d ia n s a n d G iv e C o n fid e n c e to th e W h ite s:" P r e p a r a tio n s fo r th e
R e m o v a l o f th e C h e r o k e e N a tio n fr o m G e o r g ia "
F am iliar acco u n ts o f C h ero k ee N atio n rem o v al n arrate a sto ry o f th e sp rin g o f 1 8 3 8 w h en th e
C h ero k ees w ere su rp rised in th eir field s o r at th eir d in n er tab les, ro u n d ed u p lik e an im als, an d
fo rced in to sto ck ad es. C o n fin ed an d g u ard ed , th ey su ffered fo r m o n th s w ith o u t ad eq u ate su p p lies,
fo o d , o r san itatio n ; th ey d ied b y th e h u n d red s fro m ex p o su re o r d isease. T h ese n arrativ es, w h ich
u n d erstan d ab ly fo cu s o n th e terro r o f rem o v al, o b scu re im p o rtan t d ev elo p m en ts th at o ccu rred
b etw een treaty ratificatio n an d rem o v al en fo rcem en t. G eo rg ian s in terp reted C h ero k ee resistan ce as
th e p relu d e to a v io len t u p risin g . T h eir irratio n al fears co m b in ed w ith su sp icio n o f th e fed eral
g o v ern m en t to m ak e rem o v al p rep aratio n s in G eo rg ia a h ap h azard an d b ru tal affair....
M ilitary p rep aratio n s fo r In d ian rem o v al in G eo rg ia b eg an in th e sp rin g o f 1 8 3 6 an d en d ed in th e
sp rin g o f 1 8 3 8 . In th o se tw o y ears fed eral an d state o fficials set u p an d u n stead ily ex p an d ed
m ilitary o p eratio n s. T h ey d id so in a state d eep ly h o stile to w ard In d ian s an d resen tfu l o f fed eral
au th o rity . G eo rg ian s receiv ed little co m fo rt fro m th e C h ero k ee ex p u lsio n treaty o r fro m th e
g o v ern m en t's su b stan tial rem o v al p ro ced u res. C o n v in ced o f C h ero k ee treach ery an d th eir o w n
v u ln erab ility , citizen s p ressed th e g o v ern o r to b u ild fo rts, h an d o u t w eap o n s, activ ate tro o p s, an d
d isarm o r arrest C h ero k ees. T h ey co n sid ered an d rep eated ly d escrib ed th e C h ero k ees as h o stile,
reg ard less o f co n trary ev id en ce. C o n cern ed ab o u t th e v o latility o f G eo rg ian s an d u n ab le to fath o m
th e C h ero k ees' resp o n se to th e treaty , g o v ern m en tal au th o rities p rep ared fo r w ar in sid e th e
C h ero k ee N atio n ....
C o n d itio n s in th e state rem ain ed v o latile as fo rm er g o v ern o r G eo rg e G ilm er retu rn ed to o ffice in
1 8 3 7 . W o rried th at in tem p erate w h ites w ere m o re lik ely th an reso lu te C h ero k ees to sp ark v io len ce,
h e ap p o in ted n ew ag en ts in th e C h ero k ee co u n ties. T h eir ch arg e w as to m o n ito r C h ero k ee attitu d es
an d b eh av io r, an d , ju st as im p o rtan tly , to rep o rt an y ab u se o f C h ero k ees b y w h ite G eo rg ian s. In
early D ecem b er 1 8 3 7 G ilm er d em an d ed th at Jo sep h H en ry in W alk er C o u n ty , L acy W itch er in
P au ld in g C o u n ty , B en jam in C h astain in G ilm er C o u n ty , an d G eo rg e K ello g g in F o rsy th C o u n ty
"rep o rt im m ed iately w h eth er In d ian s in y o u r ag en cy h av e b een d istu rb ed in th eir o ccu p an cy an d T h e fo llo w in g read in g s o ffer ad d itio n al in sig h ts ab o u t th e C h ero k ee R em o v al an d th e T rail o f T ears:
T h e P rice o f C h ero k ee R em o v a l: A b rief article th at lo o k s at th e C h ero k ee R em o v al fro m an
eco n o m ic p ersp ectiv e, m easu rin g th e to tal co st o f th e rem o v al. Y o u can read it at th is lin k . T h is
rea d in g is req u ired .
" R em o v a l, R eu n io n , a n d D ia sp o ra " : A n an aly sis o f th e co m p lex p o litical d y n am ics th at
ch aracterized th e relatio n sh ip b etw een d ifferen t g ro u p s o f C h ero k ee w h o m ig rated W est b efo re
1 8 3 8 , an d th o se w h o en d u red th e T rail o f T ears. T h is essay is C h ap ter T h ree o f T h e C h ero kee
D ia sp o ra , b y G reg o ry D . S m ith ers (N ew H av en , C T : Y ale U n iv ersity P ress, 2 0 1 5 ). Y o u can read it
at th is lin k . T h is rea d in g is o p tio n a l.
w h at step s h av e b een tak en to p ro tect th em ." P eacefu l an d tim ely rem o v al, h e em p h asized ,
d ep en d ed o n th eir p ro tectio n o f In d ian rig h ts u n til M ay 2 3 , 1 8 3 8 . If G eo rg ian s failed in th eir
resp o n sib ilities, th e g o v ern o r co n sid ered a b lo o d y co n flict in ev itab le.
M ean w h ile, th e fed eral g o v ern m en t m o v ed sw iftly to im p lem en t th e term s o f th e N ew E ch o ta
treaty . W ith in d ay s o f treaty ratificatio n , th e g o v ern m en t called w ar h ero Jo h n E llis W o o l fro m
T ro y , N ew Y o rk , to tak e co m m an d o f th e n ew A rm y o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n . B y Ju n e, W o o l w as
o n h is w ay to th e C h ero k ee A g en cy in A th en s, T en n essee, to estab lish a m ilitary b ase. F o rt C ass
b ecam e h ead q u arters fo r th e rem o v al o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n .
T h e o rg an izatio n o f fed eral rem o v al p ro v ed erratic, w h ich co m p licated p ro ced u res an d p ro d u ced an
arm y o f u n certain ab ilities. G en eral W o o l w as o n e o f th ree career m ilitary o fficers w h o led th e
A rm y o f th e C h ero k ee N atio n in a tw o y ear p erio d . O n e y ear after arriv in g in T en n essee, W o o l
d ep arted fo r h is co u rt m artial o n ch arg es o f m istreatin g A lab am a citizen s an d p ro p erty .1 3 T h e arm y
th en su m m o n ed C o lo n el W illiam L in d say o f L im esto n e, A lab am a, to rep lace h im . L in d say
co m m an d ed d u rin g th e seco n d y ear, b u t o n e m o n th b efo re th e treaty d ead lin e h e ced ed co m m an d to
G en eral W in field S co tt. A ll th ree co m m an d ers faced su sp icio u s state au th o rities, an asso rtm en t o f
illp rep ared tro o p s, h o stile G eo rg ian s, an d a C h ero k ee N atio n w h o lly resistan t to d isp o ssessio n .
U n d er th e circu m stan ces, rem o v al p rep aratio n s co u ld h ard ly h av e p ro ceed ed sm o o th ly .
S in ce th ey h ad a sig n ed an d ratified treaty , au th o rities assu m ed th e C h ero k ees w o u ld em ig rate
v o lu n tarily to In d ian T errito ry . G o v ern m en t ag en ts w h o m et w ith C h ero k ees co n clu d ed th at
em ig ratio n w as em in en t an d co n v ey ed th eir assu ran ces to o th ers. W o o l w ro te th at th e d aily rep o rts
h e receiv ed in d u ced h im to b eliev e "th at a larg e p o rtio n o f th e n atio n w as p rep ared to su b m it to th e
treaty an d to rem o v e w est at th e p ro p er tim e." A s h e m et w ith th e h ead m en o f C h ero k ee to w n s,
h o w ev er, W o o l so o n learn ed th e ex ten t o f th eir o p p o sitio n to th e treaty . A fter o n ly th ree w eek s as
co m m an d er, h e b eg an w arn in g th e fed eral g o v ern m en t th at th e m ajo rity o f C h ero k ees co n sid ered
th e treaty frau d u len t.1 4 H e reco g n ized th at th eir o p p o sitio n sig n aled w id esp read rejectio n o f
v o lu n tary d ep artu re, an d th at so m e d eg ree o f m ilitary actio n w o u ld b e n ecessary . Iñ u p iat w ith a N ativ e sk in b o at, o r u m iak , 1 9 3 5 . (C lick
ico n fo r citatio n )
P ru d h o e B ay in 1 9 6 8 , th e y ear o il w as
d isco v ered th ere. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n )
T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 8 -1 : A la s k a N a t iv e
C o r p o r a t io n s
L a n d a n d O il
In M arch 1 8 6 7 , T sar A lex an d er II o f R u ssia ag reed to sell "R u ssian A m erica" (q u ick ly ren am ed th e
"D ep artm en t o f A lask a") to th e U n ited S tates. U n d er th e T reaty o f C essio n , th e U .S . g o v ern m en t p aid th e
T sar $ 7 .2 m illio n fo r a territo ry th at co m p rised 5 8 6 ,4 1 2 sq u are m iles— ro u g h ly tw o cen ts an acre.
B u t w h o rea lly o w n ed all th at lan d ? A t th e tim e
o f th e A lask a P u rch ase, S ecretary o f S tate
W illiam H . S ew ard estim ated th at th e N ativ e
p o p u latio n o f A lask a w as slig h tly less th an
6 0 ,0 0 0 . (S ew ard , 1 8 9 1 ) T h ese A lask a N ativ es—
in clu d in g th e In u it, T lin g it, Y u p ik , H aid a, A leu t,
an d Iñ u p iat, am o n g m an y o th ers— claim ed th at
th e lan d h ad alw ay s b een th eir h o m e. T h eir
ab o rig in al lan d claim s d ated b ack w ell b efo re
A m erican o r ev en R u ssian o w n ersh ip o f th e lan d .
T h o se lan d claim s w en t u n reso lv ed fo r m o re th an
a cen tu ry ; th e U n ited S tates g o v ern m en t claim ed
o w n ersh ip o f th e v ast m ajo rity o f A lask an lan d
u n til th e 1 9 6 0 s. In 1 9 7 1 , o n ly ab o u t 1 m illio n o f
th e state's 3 7 5 m illio n acres w ere in p riv ate h an d s. (T u rn er, 1 9 8 2 ). B u t, w ith A lask a so sp arsely
p o p u lated (esp ecially in th e v ast In terio r), an d w ith little ag ricu ltu re o r co m m ercial u se fo r m o st A lask an
lan d , th ere w ere few co n flicts o v er th e N ativ es' co n tin u ed u se o f it. M o st o f A lask a w as n o t su itab le fo r
settlem en t, in th e sam e w ay th at lan d in th e L o w er 4 8 w as; fo r th at reaso n , relativ ely few n o n N ativ es
w ere in terested in th e lan d . C o n g ress in 1 8 8 4 p assed th e A lask a O rg an ic A ct, w h ich p ro tected th e
N ativ es' rig h t to th e "u se an d o ccu p an cy " o f an cestral lan d , w ith o u t ad d ressin g th e q u estio n o f w h eth er
th e N ativ es actu ally o w n ed it. (Jo n es, 1 9 8 1 )
A ll th at ch an g ed in 1 9 6 8 , w h en th e A tlan ticR ich field
C o m p an y d isco v ered o il at P ru d h o e B ay o n A lask a's A rctic
C o ast. It q u ick ly b ecam e ap p aren t th at th e m o st effectiv e
w ay to g et cru d e o il fro m P ru d h o e B ay to m ark ets in th e
L o w er 4 8 w o u ld b e to b u ild a p ip elin e to carry th e o il to th e
p o rt o f V ald ez in so u th ern A lask a. (B an et 1 9 9 1 ) B u t to b u ild
th e p ip elin e, th e o il co m p an ies w o u ld n eed clear title to th e
lan d — lan d th at w as still su b ject to N ativ e lan d claim s.
It w as a scen ario th at h ad p lay ed o u t so m an y tim es b efo re
in A m erican h isto ry : lan d th at fo r cen tu ries h ad b een u sed
b y N ativ es w as, su d d en ly , ex trem ely v alu ab le to n o n
N ativ es. S o m an y tim es b efo re, th at scen ario h ad en d ed u p
w ith N ativ es b ein g fo rced o r ch eated o u t o f th eir lan d . B u t th e o u tco m e th is tim e w o u ld b e v ery d ifferen t.
T h is learn in g b lo ck u ses th e h isto ry o f th e A lask a lan d claim issu e as an o th er w ay to u se h isto rical
ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t h isto rical ev en ts— as w ell as to rein fo rce y o u r u n d erstan d in g o f
h isto rical co n tin g en cy an d co m p lex ity . F o rm er A lask a G o v ern o r
W alter H ick el. (C lick ico n
fo r citatio n )
L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s
In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill:
U se h isto rical ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t a h isto rical ev en t
A ssess th e co n tin g en cy an d co m p lex ity o f h isto rical ev en ts
R e fe re n c e s
B an et, A . (1 9 9 1 ). "O il an d G as D ev elo p m en t o n A lask a's N o rth S lo p e: P ast R esu lts an d F u tu re P ro sp ects"
A n ch o rag e, A K : B u reau o f L an d M an ag em en t A lask a S tate O ffice. R etriev ed fro m
w w w .b lm .g o v /sty le/m ed ialib /b lm /ak /ak test/o fr.P ar.4 9 9 8 7 .F ile.d at/O F R _ 3 4 .p d f.
Jo n es, R . (1 9 8 1 ). "A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct o f 1 9 7 1 (P u b lic L aw 9 2 2 0 3 ): H isto ry an d A n aly sis
T o g eth er W ith S u b seq u en t A m en d m en ts (R ep o rt N o . 8 1 1 2 7 G O V )." W ash in g to n , D C : C o n g ressio n al
R esearch S erv ice.
S ew ard , F . W . (1 8 9 1 ) S ew a rd a t W a sh in g to n a s S en a to r a n d S ecreta ry o f S ta te. N ew Y o rk : D erb y an d M iller.
T u rn er, W . (1 9 8 2 ). "A reas as V ast as W h o le S tates N o w C h an g e H an d s in A lask a." T h e N ew Y o rk T im es, O cto b er
8 , 1 9 8 2 .
A N C S A a n d N a t iv e C o r p o r a t io n s
A lask a w as ad m itted to th e U n io n as th e 4 9 th state o n Jan u ary 3 , 1 9 5 9 . U n d er th e term s o f th e A lask a
S tateh o o d A ct, th e fed eral g o v ern m en t w o u ld tran sfer o w n ersh ip o f u p to 1 0 4 .5 m illio n acres o f lan d to
th e n ew state, b u t n o n e o f th is w o u ld b e lan d th at w as su b ject to N ativ e claim s. (A lask a S tateh o o d A ct,
1 9 5 8 . )
T h e law g av e th e state 2 5 y ears to select w h ich tracts o f lan d it w an ted . In
th e 1 9 6 0 s, th e state b eg an to m ak e its selectio n s— b u t m u ch o f th e lan d it
w an ted w as su b ject to N ativ e claim s. S ev eral N ativ e g ro u p s filed law su its to
sto p th e lan d selectio n s, an d th e A lask a F ed eratio n o f N ativ es (A F N ) w as
fo u n d ed to ad v o cate fo r a fair an d co m p reh en siv e settlem en t to th e lan d
claim issu e. In resp o n se, th e fed eral g o v ern m en t sh u t d o w n th e selectio n
p ro cess an d to ld th e state to n eg o tiate an ag reem en t w ith th e N ativ es.
(Jo n es, 1 9 8 1 )
T h e d isco v ery o f o il at P ru d h o e B ay in 1 9 6 8 ad d ed u rg en cy to th o se
n eg o tiatio n s. W ith o u t a reso lu tio n o f th e N ativ e claim s, it w o u ld n o t b e
p o ssib le to b u ild th e m assiv e T ran sA lask a P ip elin e th at th e o il in d u stry said
w as n eed ed to carry A lask an o il to m ark ets in th e L o w er 4 8 . (N ask e, 1 9 9 4 )
T h e p ressu re to co m e to a q u ick settlem en t in th e in terest o f eco n o m ic
d ev elo p m en t w as in fact rem in iscen t o f th e p ressu re to seize N ativ e lan d s
fo llo w in g th e G eo rg ia G o ld R u sh in th e 1 8 3 0 s. In each case, th e o p p o rtu n ity
to ex tract a h ig h ly v alu ab le n atu ral reso u rce su d d en ly m ad e N ativ e lan d ev en m o re v alu ab le th an b efo re.
B u t sev eral facto rs h elp ed to p ro d u ce a v ery d ifferen t o u tco m e fo r th e A lask a N ativ es:
T h e N ativ es h ad effectiv e p o litical rep resen tatio n , th ro u g h th e A F N an d o th er o rg an izatio n s;
U .S . co u rts w ere m o re sy m p ath etic to th e A lask a N ativ es' claim s, ru lin g in th eir fav o r in sev eral
in stan ces;
T h e state g o v ern m en t w as w illin g to seek a n eg o tiated settlem en t w ith th e N ativ es; T h e fed eral g o v ern m en t— in clu d in g S ecretary o f th e In terio r W alter H ick el, a fo rm er g o v ern o r o f
A lask a— also fav o red a n eg o tiated settlem en t; an d
G reater p u b lic aw aren ess o f th e in ju stices d o n e to N ativ es in th e p ast in creased th e so cial an d
p o litical p ressu re to fin d an eq u itab le settlem en t. (Jo n es, 1 9 8 1 )
A fter p ro tracted n eg o tiatio n s, A lask an o fficials an d th e A F N reach ed an ag reem en t in p rin cip le: N ativ es
w o u ld receiv e lan d th at th ey h ad h isto rically u sed an d d ro p th eir claim s to an y o th er lan d in th e state in
retu rn fo r a cash settlem en t. T h e ex act term s o f th at ag reem en t w o u ld b e fo r th e fed eral g o v ern m en t to
d ecid e an d — after in itially o fferin g th e N ativ es far less th an th ey w an ted , in term s o f lan d an d cash —
C o n g ress an d P resid en t R ich ard N ix o n ev en tu ally ag reed to a h isto ric d eal.
O n D ecem b er 1 8 , 1 9 7 1 , P resid en t N ix o n sig n ed in to law th e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct
(A N C S A ), w h ich at th e tim e w as th e larg est lan d claim settlem en t in A m erican h isto ry .
In retu rn fo r lettin g th e fed eral g o v ern m en t "ex tin g u ish " th eir claim s to m o st A lask an lan d , N ativ es
receiv ed 4 4 m illio n acres an d a cash p ay m en t o f $ 9 6 2 .5 m illio n . T h e 4 4 m illio n acres w as o n en in th o f
th e to tal area o f th e state o f A lask a; th e m o n etary settlem en t rep resen ted a d irect p ay m en t o f $ 4 6 2 .5
m illio n fro m th e fed eral g o v ern m en t an d an o th er $ 5 0 0 m illio n to b e p aid o v er tim e fro m state o il
rev en u es. (A N C S A , 1 9 7 1 )
E v en m o re h isto ric th an th e size o f th e A N C S A settlem en t w as th e w ay it w as stru ctu red — a rad ical
d ep artu re fro m th e trad itio n al m o d el o f N ativ e reserv atio n s in th e L o w er 4 8 , in w h ich th e fed eral
g o v ern m en t h o ld s N ativ e lan d s in tru st. In stead o f estab lish in g reserv atio n s A N C S A set u p a sy stem o f
N ativ e co rp o ratio n s to ad m in ister th e lan d an d in v est th e m o n etary settlem en t fo r th e b en efit o f N ativ es.
(T h o m as, 1 9 8 6 )
T h e law set u p 1 2 reg io n al co rp o ratio n s, each asso ciated w ith a p articu lar p art o f th e state an d th e
N ativ es w h o trad itio n ally liv ed th ere. A ll N ativ es w h o w ere aliv e in 1 9 7 1 co u ld en ro ll in o n e o f th e
co rp o ratio n s, an d each receiv ed 1 0 0 sh ares o f sto ck in th e co rp o ratio n in w h ich th ey en ro lled . (A 1 3 th
co rp o ratio n w as estab lish ed later, fo r N ativ es w h o w ere n o t liv in g in A lask a in 1 9 7 1 ). T h e law also
A m ap o f th e o rig in al 1 2 A lask a N ativ e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s. A 1 3 th reg io n al
co rp o ratio n w as estab lish ed later. (click m ap to en larg e) (C lick ico n fo r citatio n ) A T lin g it to tem p o le in S itk a, A lask a.
(C lick ico n fo r citatio n )
estab lish ed m o re th an 2 0 0 lo cal o r "v illag e" co rp o ratio n s, in w h ich N ativ es co u ld also en ro ll an d receiv e
sh ares o f sto ck . T h e co rp o ratio n s w ere g iv en free rein to u se th e lan d an d an y m in eral o r o th er n atu ral
reso u rces it m ig h t h o ld to d ev elo p fo rp ro fit b u sin esses an d to p ay N ativ e sh areh o ld ers a y early d iv id en d
b ased o n th o se p ro fits.
T h e co rp o ratio n stru ctu re w as th e b rain ch ild o f th e A F N , w h ich saw th is p ro p o sal as an o p p o rtu n ity to
ex ten d "th e tran sfo rm atio n al p o w er o f cap italism ...to A lask a N ativ es," w h ile also p reserv in g th e lan d an d
cash settlem en t so th at it co u ld b en efit fu tu re g en eratio n s. (L in x w iler, 2 0 0 7 )
A N C S A w as g en erally w ellreceiv ed in A lask a b y b o th N ativ es
an d n o n N ativ es. A fter y ears o f leg al w ran g lin g o v er ex actly w h o
w as en titled to N ativ e co rp o ratio n sh ares, m an y o f th o se
co rp o ratio n s h av e g ro w n in to su ccessfu l b u sin esses th at g en erate
su b stan tial d iv id en d s an d p ro v id e th o u san d s o f jo b s fo r N ativ e
sh areh o ld ers. A n d , b y rem o v in g o n e critical b arrier to
co n stru ctio n o f th e T ran sA lask a P ip elin e, A N C S A p av ed th e
w ay fo r th e em erg en ce o f th e state's "o il eco n o m y ," w h ich h as
g en erated su b stan tial eco n o m ic b en efits fo r b o th N ativ es an d
n o n N ativ es. (A lask a H u m an ities F o ru m , 2 0 1 6 )
O n e u n iq u e asp ect o f A lask a's "o il eco n o m y " is th e A la sk a
P erm a n en t F u n d , a state fu n d th at co llects 2 5 p ercen t o f all o il
lan d ro y alties an d in v ests th o se fu n d s fo r th e b en efit o f all
A lask an s. T h e F u n d , w h ich in 2 0 1 5 am o u n ted to m o re th an $ 5 1
b illio n , p ay s a y early d iv id en d to ev ery q u alified A lask an ; in
2 0 1 5 , th at m ean t a d iv id en d ch eck o f $ 2 ,0 7 2 fo r v irtu ally ev ery
m an , w o m an , an d ch ild in th e state. (K lin t an d D o o g an , 2 0 1 5 ) B y
en ab lin g co n stru ctio n o f th e T ran sA lask a P ip elin e, A N C S A in a
v ery real sen se m ad e th e P erm an en t F u n d , an d its y early d iv id en d
ch eck s, p o ssib le.
S till, th e law rem ain s co n tro v ersial, esp ecially am o n g N ativ es w h o b eliev e it w eak en s ties to N ativ e
h eritag e. (T h o m as, 1 9 8 5 ) A lm o st a h alfcen tu ry after its p assag e, th e ju ry is still o u t o n w h eth er A N C S A
w as a "g o o d d eal" o r a "raw d eal" fo r N ativ es. B u t it is, in alm o st ev ery resp ect, a v ery d ifferen t so rt o f
d eal th an th at receiv ed b y an y o th er g ro u p o f N ativ es in A m erican h isto ry .
R e fe re n c e s
A lask a H u m an ities F o ru m (2 0 1 6 ). A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct. R etriev ed fro m
w w w .ak h isto ry co u rse.o rg /m o d ern alask a/alask an ativ eclaim ssettlem en tact, Ju n e 1 0 , 2 0 1 6 .
A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct (A N C S A ), (1 9 7 1 ). P u b lic L aw 9 2 2 0 3 , 4 3 U .S .C . 1 6 0 1 et seq .
A lask a S tateh o o d A ct (1 9 5 8 ). P u b lic L aw 8 5 5 0 8 , 7 2 S tat. 3 3 9 .
K lin t, C . an d D o o g an , S . (2 0 1 5 ). "$ 2 ,0 7 2 : 2 0 1 5 A lask a P erm an en t F u n d d iv id en d am o u n t an n o u n ced ." A la ska
D isp a tch N ew s, S ep tem b er 2 1 , 2 0 1 5 . R etriev ed fro m w w w .ad n .co m /eco n o m y /article/2 0 1 5 p fd
an n o u n cem en tju sth o u rsaw ay an ch o rag e/2 0 1 5 /0 9 /2 1 /
Jo n es, R . (1 9 8 1 ). "A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct o f 1 9 7 1 (P u b lic L aw 9 2 2 0 3 ): H isto ry an d A n aly sis
T o g eth er W ith S u b seq u en t A m en d m en ts (R ep o rt N o . 8 1 1 2 7 G O V )." W ash in g to n , D C : C o n g ressio n al
R esearch S erv ice.
L in x w iler, J. (2 0 0 7 ) T h e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct at 3 5 : D eliv erin g o n th e P ro m ise. R etriev ed fro m
w w w .lb b law y ers.co m /an csa/A N C S A % 2 0 at% 2 0 3 5 % 2 0 D eliv erin g % 2 0 o n % 2 0 th e% 2 0 P ro m ise% 2 0 P ro o f% 2 0 1 0
2 5 0 7 .p d f N ask e, C M . (1 9 9 4 ). A la ska : A H isto ry o f th e 4 9 th S ta te. N o rm an , O K : U n iv ersity o f O k lah o m a P ress.
T h o m as, M . (1 9 8 6 ). "T h e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct: C o n flict an d C o n tro v ersy ." P o la r R eco rd , V o l. 2 3 ,
N o . 1 4 2 , 2 7 3 6 .
N a t iv e C o r p o r a t io n s : F u r t h e r R e a d in g s
S o , w h at's th e b o tto m lin e— h as A N C S A b een a su ccess o r a failu re? H av e th e N ativ e co rp o ratio n s
b en efited th e N ativ e co m m u n ity , o r n o t?
If y o u lo o k o n ly at th e b o tto m lin e— th at is, ju st at th e eco n o m ic p erfo rm an ce o f th e N ativ e co rp o ratio n s
th em selv es— it's fair to say th at, after a ro ck y start, m an y o f th e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s h av e d o n e fairly
w ell. In 2 0 0 4 , sev en o f th e to p ten A lask ao w n ed b u sin ess w ere N ativ e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s, w h ich
d istrib u ted $ 1 1 7 .5 m illio n in sh areh o ld er d iv id en d s, em p lo y ed 3 ,1 1 6 N ativ e sh areh o ld ers, an d p aid $ 5 .4
m illio n in sch o larsh ip s fo r N ativ e stu d en ts, (L in x w iler, 2 0 0 7 )
L ik e m u ch o f th e o ild ep en d en t A lask a eco n o m y , th e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s are h ig h ly sen sitiv e to
flu ctu atio n s in th e p rice o f o il, an d th eir p erfo rm an ce in an y g iv en y ear w ill reflect w h eth er th e o il
b u sin ess is d o in g w ell o r p o o rly . N o n eth eless, m an y o f th ese co rp o ratio n s h av e m atu red as b u sin esses
an d are p ro v id in g sig n ifican t eco n o m ic b en efits fo r th eir N ativ e sh areh o ld ers.
T h e eco n o m ic p erfo rm an ce o f th e v illag e co rp o ratio n s h as b een sp o ttier. M an y o f th e v illag e
co rp o ratio n s w ere lo cated in rem o te ru ral areas w ith ex trem ely lim ited o p p o rtu n ities fo r eco n o m ic
d ev elo p m en t. W h ile so m e v illag e co rp o ratio n s— p articu larly th o se in m o re d en sely p o p u lated areas w ith
easy access to o u tsid e m ark ets— h av e fared w ell, o th ers h av e b een fo rce to m erg e o r h av e g o n e o u t o f
b u sin ess. (T h o m as, 1 9 8 5 )
B u t is eco n o m ic p erfo rm a n ce all th at really m atters? W h ile A N C S A w as d esig n ed o n ly to p ro v id e
A lask a N ativ es w ith o p p o rtu n ities fo r eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t, m an y N ativ es saw th e co rp o ratio n sy stem
as a su b stitu te fo r— o r a riv al to — th e trad itio n al stru ctu res o f trib al g o v ern m en t. A m o n g A lask a N ativ es,
trib es are g en erally asso ciated w ith in d iv id u al v illag es (A m erican In d ian R eso u rce D irecto ry , 2 0 1 6 );
m an y o f th e su ccessfu l v illag e co rp o ratio n s h av e estab lish ed n o n p ro fit ag en cies to p ro v id e h ealth care
an d o th er so cial serv ices to N ativ e sh areh o ld ers. A t th e sam e tim e, th e p ressu re to tu rn a p ro fit led m an y
co rp o ratio n s, b o th reg io n al an d v illag e, to b rin g in o u tsid e ex ecu tiv es to ru n th e b u sin esses— b y p assin g
trib al lead ers an d E ld ers, w h o h av e trad itio n ally h ad a rev ered p lace in A lask a N ativ e so ciety .
In recen t y ears, m an y N ativ es h av e q u estio n ed th e ex ten t to w h ich th e co rp o ratio n sy stem m ig h t b e
su p p lan tin g so m e trib al stru ctu res an d w eak en in g ties to N ativ e h eritag e. In so m e areas, trib al
g o v ern m en t h as seen a resu rg en ce in im p o rtan ce.
T h e read in g s in th is learn in g b lo ck lo o k at tw o sid es o f th e A N C S A q u estio n : th e eco n o m ic p erfo rm an ce
o f th e N ativ e co rp o ratio n s an d th eir relatio n sh ip to th e N ativ e h eritag e an d trib al stru ctu res. B o th articles
are tak en fro m th e sam e acad em ic jo u rn al: Jo u rn a l o f L a n d , R eso u rces, a n d E n viro n m en ta l L a w , V o l.
2 5 , N o . 2 (W in ter, 2 0 0 5 ).
A N C S A U n r e a liz e d : O u r L iv e s A r e N o t M e a su r e d in D o lla r s
T h e fo llo w in g ex cerp t is fro m an article b y Jam es A llaw ay , a p ro fesso r an d ex p ert o n su stain ab le
eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t, an d B y ro n M allett, fo rm er p resid en t o f th e A lask a F ed eratio n o f N ativ es an d
fo rm er C E O o f S ealask a, o n e o f th e larg er N ativ e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s. Y o u can read it at th is lin k ,
w h ich w ill tak e y o u to th e Jo u rn a l o f L a n d , R eso u rces, a n d E n viro n m en ta l L a w ; y o u can fin d th is
sp ecific article in th e T ab le o f C o n ten ts o n th e left sid e o f th e p ag e. C lick o n th e title o f th e article to
read , d o w n lo ad , an d p rin t a co p y o f th e tex t. T h ese read in g s are p ro v id ed b y th e S h ap iro L ib rary . T h is
rea d in g is req u ired . Y o u w ill h a ve to lo g in to S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls. O n e o f th e leg acies o f A N C S A 's sh o rt h isto ry is th e co n fu sio n it h as cau sed , in clu d in g co n fu sio n o v er
g o v ern in g stru ctu res. C ertain ly in S o u th east A lask a w e h av e k n o w n th at clan s, fam ily , an d fam ily
relatio n sh ip s w ere critical in th e co n d u ct o f o u r affairs. I th in k th is w as th e case all acro ss th e state.
E x istin g trad itio n al g o v ern in g g ro u p s, w ith th eir relatio n sh ip s an d stru ctu res, d id n o t g o aw ay w ith
A N C S A . In fact, esp ecially in th e last d ecad e, th ere h as b een a resu rg en ce o f th o se in stitu tio n s. T h e
resu rg en ce h as b een felt an d seen all acro ss th e state, p articu larly b ecau se th ere w as a u n iv ersal sen se
th at A N C S A , an d o th er effo rts th at d eal w ith o u r circu m stan ces, w ere n o t g ettin g at th e co re o f w h at w e
n eed ed .
It is cru cial th at th ere is a p lace fo r trad itio n al trib al g o v ern m en tal stru ctu res. I th in k th e em erg en ce o f
trib es in recen t y ears is n o t so m u ch ab o u t g o v ern m en tal stru ctu res, b u t is a reassertio n th at w e w ill tak e
h o ld o f o u r o w n liv es. W e w ill b e resp o n sib le fo r o u r d estin ies, w h ich is a p o w erfu l id eal. It also p laces a
p ro fo u n d o b lig atio n o n N ativ e p eo p le.
T h ere is a v ital p lace fo r E ld ers h ere. W e can n o t k n o w th e p ast an d h av e a sen se o f v alu es, w e can n o t
h av e a sen se o f p lace o r p u rp o se, w ith o u t E ld ers. E ld ers are an im p o rtan t p art o f th e sp iritu al p ath . T h ey
carry th e fire. W e d o n o t n eed to in stitu tio n alize th e ro le o f E ld ers, o th er th an to su stain th em m aterially .
If w e d o , th ey w ill su stain u s sp iritu ally .
A la sk a N a tiv e s a n d th e N e w H a r p o o n : E c o n o m ic P e r fo r m a n c e o f th e A N C S A R e g io n a l
C o r p o r a tio n s
T h e fo llo w in g ex cerp t is fro m an article b y S tep h en C o lt, an eco n o m ist at th e U n iv ersity o f A lask a
A n ch o rag e an d an ex p ert o n A lask a N ativ e co rp o ratio n s. Y o u can read it at th is lin k , w h ich w ill tak e y o u
to th e Jo u rn a l o f L a n d , R eso u rces, a n d E n viro n m en ta l L a w ; y o u can fin d th is sp ecific article in th e T ab le
o f C o n ten ts o n th e left sid e o f th e p ag e. C lick o n th e title o f th e article to read , d o w n lo ad , an d p rin t a
co p y o f th e tex t. T h ese read in g s are p ro v id ed b y th e S h ap iro L ib rary . T h is rea d in g is req u ired . Y o u w ill
h a ve to lo g in to S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls.
A n Iñ u p iat lead er, C h arlie E d w ard sen , called th e [N ativ e reg io n al] co rp o ratio n s th e "n ew h arp o o n "— a
referen ce to h is p eo p le's h isto ric relian ce o n w h alin g .
...F o r at least th e first tw en ty y ears o f o p eratio n — fro m 1 9 7 3 to 1 9 9 3 — th e eco n o m ic p erfo rm an ce o f th e
reg io n al co rp o ratio n s w as su rp risin g ly p o o r. T h ro u g h 1 9 9 3 , th ese co rp o ratio n s as a g ro u p lo st ab o u t
$ 3 8 0 m illio n , o r m o re th an eig h ty p ercen t o f th eir o rig in al cash en d o w m en t, in d irect b u sin ess
o p eratio n s. O n ly th e o n etim e sale o f o ld g ro w th tim b er an d o th er n atu ral assets an d a o n etim e tax
w in d fall allo w ed th em to rep o rt p o sitiv e acco u n tin g in co m e.
B eh in d th e p o o r av erag e p erfo rm an ce, h o w ev er, is a su rp risin g am o u n t o f v ariatio n th at in clu d es so m e
real su ccess sto ries. C u m u lativ e p er cap ita d iv id en d s fro m 1 9 7 4 th ro u g h 1 9 9 9 v aried fro m $ 5 0 to m o re
th an $ 3 4 ,0 0 0 . T h e av erag e an n u al retu rn (in clu d in g in co m e fro m reso u rce sales an d tax w in d falls) fo r th e
co rp o ratio n s w as ab o u t fiv e p ercen t o f b o o k eq u ity — b u t th is retu rn v aried am o n g co rp o ratio n s fro m
m in u s fifty p ercen t to p lu s tw en ty sev en p ercen t. A n d b ey o n d fin an cial retu rn s, sev eral co rp o ratio n s
p ro v id ed h u n d red s o f h ig h w ag e jo b s fo r th eir N ativ e sh areh o ld ers, w h ile o th ers p ro v id ed n o n e.
...T h ro u g h th eir first tw en ty y ears, A lask a N ativ e reg io n al co rp o ratio n s co u ld n o t p arlay co n tro l o f lan d ,
n atu ral reso u rces, an d cap ital in to su stain ed p ro fits— an d in fact su stain ed larg e lo sses in th e
attem p t....L im ited an aly sis o f m o re recen t d ata sh o w s th at th e co rp o ratio n s d ram atically im p ro v ed th eir
fin an cial p erfo rm an ce d u rin g th e 1 9 9 0 s. U sin g a m easu re o f ad ju sted n et in co m e th at ex clu d ed tax
w in d falls an d o n etim e sales o f n atu ral reso u rce assets, th ey lo st $ 2 5 0 m illio n b etw een 1 9 7 4 an d 1 9 9 1 .
B u t in 1 9 9 2 th is m easu re o f ad ju sted n et in co m e sw itch ed fro m b ein g g en erally n eg ativ e to g en erally
p o sitiv e an d g ro w in g . B etw een 1 9 9 2 an d 1 9 9 8 th ey earn ed $ 7 1 0 m illio n .... ...[T ]h e co rp o ratio n s h av e learn ed fro m so m e early m istak es d u rin g th ese startu p y ears....T h eir recen t
su ccess su g g ests th at th e ch allen g e o f eco n o m ic d ev elo p m en t in a rem o te reg io n can b e m et, at least in
p art, b y p articip atin g in th e larg er n atio n al an d g lo b al eco n o m y .
R e fe re n c e s
A m erican In d ian R eso u rce D irecto ry (2 0 1 6 ). A lask a N ativ e V illag es. R etriev ed fro m
w eb .arch iv e.o rg /w eb /2 0 0 5 1 1 2 5 0 0 1 1 0 7 /h ttp ://w w w .in d ian s.o rg /R eso u rce/F ed T rib es9 9 /R eg io n 1 /reg io n 1 .h tm l,
Ju n e1 0 , 2 0 1 6 .
L in x w iler, J. (2 0 0 7 ) T h e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct at 3 5 : D eliv erin g o n th e P ro m ise. R etriev ed fro m
w w w .lb b law y ers.co m /an csa/A N C S A % 2 0 at% 2 0 3 5 % 2 0 D eliv erin g % 2 0 o n % 2 0 th e% 2 0 P ro m ise% 2 0 P ro o f% 2 0 1 0
2 5 0 7 .p d f
T h o m as, M . (1 9 8 6 ). "T h e A lask a N ativ e C laim s S ettlem en t A ct: C o n flict an d C o n tro v ersy ." P o la r R eco rd , V o l. 2 3 ,
N o . 1 4 2 , 2 7 3 6 .
T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 8 -2 : W h y S t u d y
H is t o r y ?
A t th e ro o t o f th is co u rse is a fu n d am en tal q u estio n : W h y stu d y h isto ry? A s w e'v e said b efo re, th e
p u rp o se o f stu d y in g h isto ry is n o t to catalo g u e a lo n g list o f n am es an d d ates. R ath er, th e p u rp o se o f
stu d y in g h isto ry is to learn m o re ab o u t th e w o rld aro u n d u s, ab o u t h u m an so ciety an d , in th e en d , ab o u t
o u rselv es.
H isto ry is also a to o l th at can h elp u s in w h atev er acad em ic d iscip lin e o r p ro fessio n al career w e ch o o se
to p u rsu e. A s w e saw in T h em e: A p p ro ach es to H isto ry , h isto rical th in k in g is a sk ill th at can b e ap p lied
to a w id e ran g e o f p ro b lem s an d issu es, b o th in th e classro o m an d in ev ery d ay life.
T h e fo llo w in g p assag e is ex cerp ted fro m an essay b y th e p ro m in en t h isto rian P eter N . S tearn s, w h ich is
featu red o n th e w eb site o f th e A m erican H isto rical A sso ciatio n . It p ro v id es a clear su m m ary o f h o w
stu d y in g h isto ry can b en efit th o se w h o d o n 't ch o o se to m ak e h isto ry th eir life's w o rk — w h ich is to say ,
th e v ast m ajo rity o f to d ay 's h isto ry stu d en ts:
W h y S tu d y H isto r y ?
In th e first p lace, h isto ry o ffers a sto reh o u se o f in fo rm atio n ab o u t h o w p eo p le an d so cieties b eh av e.
U n d erstan d in g th e o p eratio n s o f p eo p le an d so cieties is d ifficu lt, th o u g h a n u m b er o f d iscip lin es
m ak e th e attem p t. A n ex clu siv e relian ce o n cu rren t d ata w o u ld n eed lessly h an d icap o u r effo rts.
H o w can w e ev alu ate w ar if th e n atio n is at p eace— u n less w e u se h isto rical m aterials? H o w can w e
u n d erstan d g en iu s, th e in flu en ce o f tech n o lo g ical in n o v atio n , o r th e ro le th at b eliefs p lay in sh ap in g
fam ily life, if w e d o n 't u se w h at w e k n o w ab o u t ex p erien ces in th e p ast?...
T h e arg u m en t I m ak e p iv o ts o n a ten sio n th at u n d erlies ev ery en co u n ter w ith th e p ast: th e ten sio n
b etw een th e fam iliar an d th e stran g e, b etw een feelin g s o f p ro x im ity to an d feelin g s o f d istan ce fro m
th e p eo p le w e seek to u n d erstan d . N eith er o f th ese p o les d o es fu ll ju stice to h isto ry 's co m p lex ity ,
an d v eerin g to o n e sid e o r th e o th er o n ly d u lls h isto ry 's jag g ed ed g es an d leav es u s w ith clich é an d
caricatu re. F u rth erm o re, I claim th at th e essen ce o f ach iev in g m atu re h isto rical th o u g h t rests
p recisely o n o u r ab ility to n av ig ate th e jag g ed lan d scap e o f h isto ry , to trav erse th e terrain th at lies
b etw een th e p o les o f fam iliarity w ith an d d istan ce fro m th e p ast. P ro fesso r S tearn s' fu ll essay can b e fo u n d at th is lin k . T h is rea d in g is req u ired .
A s a stu d en t o f h isto ry , y o u h av e th e o p p o rtu n ity to ap p ly h isto rical th in k in g to y o u r o w n life. In a b ro ad ,
p h ilo so p h ical sen se, stu d y in g h isto ry w ill h elp y o u to u n d erstan d h o w th e d ecisio n s y o u m ak e to d ay can
cau se d ifferen t o p tio n s to o p en u p to m o rro w ; to see th e im p o rtan ce o f ju d g in g ev en ts in co n tex t; an d to
b e ab le to d eal w ith th e co m p lex ity o f circu m stan ces th at co n fro n t y o u . A n d in a h ig h ly p ractical sen se,
th e critical th in k in g sk ills y o u d ev elo p in th is co u rse can ap p ly d irectly to y o u r o th er acad em ic w o rk at
S N H U .
T h is learn in g b lo ck lo o k s at th e p ractical ap p licatio n o f h isto rical th in k in g sk ills to o th er acad em ic
d iscip lin es.
A stu d y o f h isto ry is essen tial fo r g o o d citizen sh ip . T h is is th e m o st co m m o n ju stificatio n fo r th e
p lace o f h isto ry in sch o o l cu rricu la. S o m etim es ad v o cates o f citizen sh ip h isto ry h o p e m erely to
p ro m o te n atio n al id en tity an d lo y alty th ro u g h a h isto ry sp iced b y v iv id sto ries an d lesso n s in
in d iv id u al su ccess an d m o rality . B u t th e im p o rtan ce o f h isto ry fo r citizen sh ip g o es b ey o n d th is
n arro w g o al an d can ev en ch allen g e it at so m e p o in ts....
W h at d o es a w elltrain ed stu d en t o f h isto ry , sch o o led to w o rk o n p ast m aterials an d o n case stu d ies
in so cial ch an g e, learn h o w to d o ? T h e list is m an ag eab le, b u t it co n tain s sev eral o v erlap p in g
categ o ries.
T h e A b ility to A ssess E vid en ce. T h e stu d y o f h isto ry b u ild s ex p erien ce in d ealin g w ith an d assessin g
v ario u s k in d s o f ev id en ce— th e so rts o f ev id en ce h isto rian s u se in sh ap in g th e m o st accu rate
p ictu res o f th e p ast th at th ey can . L earn in g h o w to in terp ret th e statem en ts o f p ast p o litical lead ers
— o n e k in d o f ev id en ce— h elp s fo rm th e cap acity to d istin g u ish b etw een th e o b jectiv e an d th e self
serv in g am o n g statem en ts m ad e b y p resen td ay p o litical lead ers. L earn in g h o w to co m b in e d ifferen t
k in d s o f ev id en ce— p u b lic statem en ts, p riv ate reco rd s, n u m erical d ata, v isu al m aterials— d ev elo p s
th e ab ility to m ak e co h eren t arg u m en ts b ased o n a v ariety o f d ata. T h is sk ill can also b e ap p lied to
in fo rm atio n en co u n tered in ev ery d ay life.
T h e A b ility to A ssess C o n flictin g In terp reta tio n s. L earn in g h isto ry m ean s g ain in g so m e sk ill in
so rtin g th ro u g h d iv erse, o ften co n flictin g in terp retatio n s. U n d erstan d in g h o w so cieties w o rk — th e
cen tral g o al o f h isto rical stu d y — is in h eren tly im p recise, an d th e sam e certain ly h o ld s tru e fo r
u n d erstan d in g w h at is g o in g o n in th e p resen t d ay . L earn in g h o w to id en tify an d ev alu ate
co n flictin g in terp retatio n s is an essen tial citizen sh ip sk ill fo r w h ich h isto ry , as an o ften co n tested
lab o rato ry o f h u m an ex p erien ce, p ro v id es train in g . T h is is o n e area in w h ich th e fu ll b en efits o f
h isto rical stu d y so m etim es clash w ith th e n arro w er u ses o f th e p ast to co n stru ct id en tity . E x p erien ce
in ex am in in g p ast situ atio n s p ro v id es a co n stru ctiv ely critical sen se th at can b e ap p lied to p artisan
claim s ab o u t th e g lo ries o f n atio n al o r g ro u p id en tity . T h e stu d y o f h isto ry in n o sen se u n d erm in es
lo y alty o r co m m itm en t, b u t it d o es teach th e n eed fo r assessin g arg u m en ts, an d it p ro v id es
o p p o rtu n ities to en g ag e in d eb ate an d ach iev e p ersp ectiv e.
E xp erien ce in A ssessin g P a st E xa m p les o f C h a n g e. E x p erien ce in assessin g p ast ex am p les o f
ch an g e is v ital to u n d erstan d in g ch an g e in so ciety to d ay — it's an essen tial sk ill in w h at w e are
reg u larly to ld is o u r "ev erch an g in g w o rld ." A n aly sis o f ch an g e m ean s d ev elo p in g so m e cap acity
fo r d eterm in in g th e m ag n itu d e an d sig n ifican ce o f ch an g e, fo r so m e ch an g es are m o re fu n d am en tal
th an o th ers. C o m p arin g p articu lar ch an g es to relev an t ex am p les fro m th e p ast h elp s stu d en ts o f
h isto ry d ev elo p th is cap acity . T h e ab ility to id en tify th e co n tin u ities th at alw ay s acco m p an y ev en
th e m o st d ram atic ch an g es also co m es fro m stu d y in g h isto ry , as d o es th e sk ill to d eterm in e p ro b ab le
cau ses o f ch an g e. L earn in g h isto ry h elp s o n e fig u re o u t, fo r ex am p le, if o n e m ain facto r— su ch as a
tech n o lo g ical in n o v atio n o r so m e d elib erate n ew p o licy — acco u n ts fo r a ch an g e o r w h eth er, as is
m o re co m m o n ly th e case, a n u m b er o f facto rs co m b in e to g en erate th e actu al ch an g e th at o ccu rs. L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s
In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill:
A ssess th e u sefu ln ess o f h isto rical th in k in g in n o n h isto rical co n tex ts
A p p ly h isto rical th in k in g to sp ecific acad em ic assig n m en ts
" T h e F a m ilia r a n d t h e S t r a n g e "
S am W in eb u rg , a p ro fesso r o f ed u catio n w h o h as w ritten ex ten siv ely ab o u t h isto rical th in k in g , o ffers a
m o re ly rical— b u t n o less co m p ellin g — d escrip tio n o f th e v alu e o f h isto ry in o u r d aily liv es. H e d escrib es
h isto rical th in k in g as th e p ro cess o f n av ig atin g "th e ten sio n b etw een th e fam iliar an d th e stran g e," b o th
o f w h ich are essen tial to o u r u n d erstan d in g o f th e p ast. T h e p assag e b elo w is ex cerp ted fro m "H isto rical
T h in k in g an d O th er U n n atu ral A cts", p ag e 4 8 9 . T h ese read in g s are p ro v id ed b y th e S h ap iro L ib rary . T h is
rea d in g is req u ired . Y o u w ill h a ve to lo g in to S h a p iro L ib ra ry w ith yo u r S N H U cred en tia ls to a ccess th is
a rticle.
F r o m " H isto r ic a l T h in k in g a n d O th e r U n n a tu r a l A c ts"
W h at is h isto ry g o o d fo r? W h y ev en teach it in sch o o ls? In a n u tsh ell m y claim is th at h isto ry h o ld s
th e p o ten tial, o n ly p artially realized , o f h u m an izin g u s in w ay s o ffered b y few o th er areas in th e
sch o o l cu rricu lu m . I m ak e n o claim o f o rig in ality in arg u in g th is p o in t o f v iew . B u t each g en eratio n ,
I b eliev e, m u st an sw er fo r itself an ew w h y th e stu d y o f th e p ast is im p o rtan t...
T h e arg u m en t I m ak e p iv o ts o n a ten sio n th at u n d erlies ev ery en co u n ter w ith th e p ast: th e ten sio n
b etw een th e fam iliar an d th e stran g e, b etw een feelin g s o f p ro x im ity to an d feelin g s o f d istan ce fro m
th e p eo p le w e seek to u n d erstan d . N eith er o f th ese p o les d o es fu ll ju stice to h isto ry 's co m p lex ity ,
an d v eerin g to o n e sid e o r th e o th er o n ly d u lls h isto ry 's jag g ed ed g es an d leav es u s w ith clich é an d
caricatu re. F u rth erm o re, I claim th at th e essen ce o f ach iev in g m atu re h isto rical th o u g h t rests
p recisely o n o u r ab ility to n av ig ate th e jag g ed lan d scap e o f h isto ry , to trav erse th e terrain th at lies
b etw een th e p o les o f fam iliarity w ith an d d istan ce fro m th e p ast.
T h e p o le o f fam iliarity p u lls m o st stro n g ly . T h e fam iliar p ast en tices u s w ith th e p ro m ise th at w e
can lo cate o u r o w n p lace in th e stream o f tim e an d so lid ify o u r id en tity in th e p resen t. B y h itch in g
o u r o w n sto ries to th e sto ries o f th o se w h o w en t b efo re u s, th e p ast b eco m es a u sefu l reso u rce in o u r
ev ery d ay liv es, an en d less sto reh o u se o f raw m aterials to b e sh ap ed fo r o u r p resen t n eed s. S itu atin g
o u rselv es in tim e is a b asic h u m an n eed . In d eed , it is im p o ssib le to co n ceiv e o f life o n th e p lan et
w ith o u t d o in g so . B u t in v iew in g th e p ast as u sab le, as so m eth in g th at sp eak s to u s w ith o u t
in term ed iary o r tran slatio n , w e en d u p tu rn in g it in to y et an o th er co m m o d ity fo r o u r in stan t
co n su m p tio n . W e d iscard o r ju st ig n o re v ast reg io n s o f th e p ast th at eith er co n trad ict o u r cu rren t
n eed s o r fail to alig n easily w ith th em ....
T h e o th er p o le in th is ten sio n , th e stran g en ess o f th e p ast, o ffers th e p o ssib ility o f su rp rise an d
am azem en t, o f en co u n terin g p eo p le, p laces, an d tim es th at sp u r u s to reco n sid er h o w w e see
o u rselv es as h u m an b ein g s. A n en co u n ter w ith th is p ast can b e m in d ex p an d in g in th e b est sen se o f
th e term . Y et, tak en to ex trem es, th is ap p ro ach carries its o w n set o f p ro b lem s. R eg ard in g th e p ast
"o n its o w n term s"— d etach ed fro m th e circu m stan ces, co n cern s, an d n eed s o f th e p resen t— to o
o ften resu lts in a k in d o f eso teric ex o ticism , p recisely th e co n clu sio n o n e co m es to after a to u r
th ro u g h th e m o n o g rap h ic literatu re th at d efin es co n tem p o rary h isto rical p ractice. M o st o f th is
sp ecialized literatu re m ay en g ag e th e atten tio n o f a sm all co terie o f p ro fessio n als, b u t it fails to
en g ag e th e in terest o f an y o n e else. C o m m u n ic a tin g H isto r ic a l Id e a s
T h ere's an o th er sid e to h isto rical th in k in g as w ell: b ein g ab le to d ev elo p an d co m m u n icate y o u r id eas
ab o u t h isto ry . F ram in g th e rig h t research q u estio n , d o in g research to d ev elo p a th esis, u sin g h isto rical
ev id en ce to d ev elo p arg u m en ts th at su p p o rt y o u r th esis— th ese are all sk ills th at w ill serv e y o u w ell in
y o u r o th er acad em ic p u rsu its.
T h in k b ack ab o u t th e essay y o u 'v e b een p rep arin g fo r th is co u rse. O v er th e last sev eral w eek s y o u 'v e h ad
to research p rim ary an d seco n d ary so u rces; assess th e reliab ility o f th o se so u rces; in co rp o rate th e
ev id en ce y o u 'v e fo u n d in to th e b o d y o f y o u r essay ; an d p ro p erly cite all th e in fo rm atio n y o u 'v e g ath ered .
W h en w ill y o u ev er u se th o se sk ills ag ain ? M o st lik ely , it w ill b e in th e n ex t co u rse y o u tak e d u rin g y o u r
co lleg e career.
In C o n c lu s io n : H is t o r ic a l P e r s p e c t iv e
T h e d raft y o u 'v e alread y su b m itted to y o u r in stru cto r fo r feed b ack co n tain s alm o st all th e essen tial
elem en ts o f a th o ro u g h h isto rical an aly sis: a clear an d sp ecific th esis statem en t; b ack g ro u n d in fo rm atio n
an d co n tex t; an aly tical arg u m en ts to su p p o rt y o u r th esis; an d h isto rical ev id en ce to b u ttress y o u r
arg u m en ts.
W h at's m issin g ? Y o u r o w n h isto rica l p ersp ective.
A s w e'v e said b efo re, th in k in g ab o u t h isto ry req u ires m o re th an assem b lin g an d ev alu atin g in fo rm atio n .
It also req u ires y o u to th in k ab o u t th e im p act th at stu d y in g h isto ry can h av e o n y o u p erso n ally — b y
ch an g in g th e w ay y o u th in k ab o u t sp ecific h isto rical ev en ts, an d b ro ad en in g y o u r u n d erstan d in g o f h o w
h isto rian s p u rsu e h isto rical tru th .
T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 8 -3 : W r a p p in g It U p
E arlier in th is th em e, y o u learn ed h o w to in co rp o rate so u rces in to y o u r h isto ry p ap er. Y o u also learn ed
h o w to u se th e A P A C itatio n W izard to acco m p lish th is g o al. In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u sh o u ld ex p ect to
tak e so m e tim e to rev iew y o u r w o rk an d to m ak e su re A L L so u rces in clu d ed as p arap h rase, su m m ary , o r
q u o tatio n s fro m a so u rce are clearly an d accu rately cited .
L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s
In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill:
R ev iew y o u r ex istin g citatio n s to en su re y o u h av e p ro p erly cited h isto rical ev id en ce to su p p o rt y o u r
an aly sis
A p p ly th e p ersp ectiv es g ain ed fro m h isto rical th in k in g to th e rem ain d er o f y o u r co u rse o f stu d y at
S N H U
T h ere is n o easy w ay aro u n d th e ten sio n b etw een th e fam iliar p ast, w h ich seem s so relev an t to o u r
p resen t n eed s, an d th e p ast w h o se ap p licab ility is n o t im m ed iately m an ifest. T h e ten sio n ex ists
b ecau se b o th asp ects o f h isto ry are essen tial an d irred u cib le. D etectin g p lag iarism is n o w a scien ce— an d it's v ery h ard to g et aw ay
w ith crib b in g in to d ay 's o n lin e w o rld . (C lick ico n fo r citatio n )
A N o t e o n P la g ia r is m
In T h em e: T h in k in g A b o u t H isto ry , L earn in g B lo ck 7 3 , y o u learn ed h o w to u se an d cite o u tsid e so u rces.
T h e u se o f o u tsid e so u rces m ak es y o u r arg u m en t stro n g er b y sh o w in g th e read er th at y o u h av e d o n e
research an d h av e facts an d ev id en ce to b ack u p y o u r claim s. In ad d itio n to u sin g th is ad d itio n al
ev id en ce th ro u g h o u t th e essay , it is essen tial th at y o u u se p ro p er citatio n s to en su re th at all co n ten t is
cred ited to th e o rig in al au th o r(s). C itatio n s h elp p ro tect th e in tellectu al p ro p erty o f o th ers.
A s w e n o ted earlier, p ro p er citatio n
is th e b est w ay to av o id an y
accu satio n o f p lag iarism . Y o u
p lag iarize if y o u u se so m eo n e's ex act
w o rd s w ith o u t u sin g q u o tatio n m ark s
aro u n d th em an d citin g th em w ith an
in tex t referen ce to th e so u rce an d
fu ll d o cu m en tatio n fo r th e so u rce in
th e referen ce list. Y o u p lag iarize if
y o u u se so m eo n e else's id eas, ev en if
y o u p arap h rase, w ith o u t citin g th em
w ith an in tex t referen ce to th e
so u rce an d fu ll d o cu m en tatio n fo r th e
so u rce in th e referen ce list. Y o u
p lag iarize if y o u u se th e id eas o r stru ctu re o f id eas fro m an o th er p iece o f w ritin g w ith n o
ack n o w led g em en t o r o n ly m in im al ack n o w led g em en t o f y o u r u se.
A s a stu d en t, y o u m ay receiv e failin g g rad es o n assig n m en ts o r b e ex p elled fro m sch o o l if y o u p lag iarize.
In th e b u sin ess w o rld , co m p an ies are o ften su ed fo r in frin g em en t o n in tellectu al p ro p erty rig h ts— u sin g
m aterial th at so m eo n e else w ro te o r d esig n ed .
Y o u can av o id p lag iarism b y p racticin g g o o d research h ab its— tak in g care to u se q u o tatio n m ark s aro u n d
an y q u o tatio n o r b o rro w ed p h rase an d carefu lly d o cu m en tin g th e p ag e n u m b er an d citatio n in fo rm atio n
fo r each so u rce, ev en in y o u r n o tes. P racticin g g o o d h ab its w h ile tak in g n o tes w ill p rev en t accid en tal
slip u p s in th e w ritin g th at y o u tu rn in .
T h e m e : T h in k in g A b o u t H is t o r y | L e a r n in g B lo c k 8 -4 : R e v is io n s a n d
S u b m is s io n
T h ro u g h o u t th is co u rse, y o u h av e b een learn in g ab o u t w ritin g an d research alo n g w ith h isto rical ev en ts
an d issu es th at illu strate h o w to th in k lik e an h isto rian . A ll o f th is h as cu lm in ated in y o u r h isto rical ev en t
an aly sis essay , w h ich y o u w ill fin ish an d su b m it in th is learn in g b lo ck . T h e sk ills y o u h av e learn ed in
th is co u rse— su ch as h isto rical th in k in g , research , critical th in k in g , an d an aly tical w ritin g — w ill b e u sefu l
in y o u r stu d ies at S N H U an d y o u r p erso n al an d p ro fessio n al life. W e h o p e y o u feel p ro u d ab o u t y o u r
essay — an d w e also h o p e th e p ro cess o f research in g an d w ritin g it h as h elp ed y o u to learn m o re ab o u t
h isto ry , ab o u t th e w o rld , an d ab o u t y o u rself.
L e a r n in g O b je c tiv e s
In th is learn in g b lo ck , y o u w ill:
L earn strateg ies fo r ed itin g an d rev isin g y o u r essay
S u b m it y o u r co m p leted h isto rical an aly sis essay to y o u r in stru cto r N ew sp ap er rep o rters h av e ed ito rs to rev iew
th eir w o rk , b u t y o u 'll h av e to h an d le th e
rev isio n s y o u rself. (C lick ico n fo r citatio n )
R e v is io n S t r a t e g ie s
In ev ery fo rm , sty le, g en re, an d m ed iu m , n o m atter w h at y o u r sk ill lev el, rev isio n is essen tial to g o o d
w ritin g . It's th e d ifferen ce b etw een sh o w in g talen t an d g ettin g th e jo b d o n e. B y rev isin g y o u r w o rk , y o u
tran sfo rm it fro m a reco rd o f y o u r o w n u n d erstan d in g to w ritin g th at co n n ects w ith read ers an d is ab le to
sh ap e th eir u n d erstan d in g .
W riters o ften th in k th at if th ey d id n 't see a p ro b lem th e first
tim e, th ey w o n 't see it th e seco n d tim e eith er. B u t th is isn 't
th e case w ith m an y p ro b lem s y o u can id en tify an d fix in th e
first few stag es o f rev isio n . R ev isio n allo w s y o u to co m e
b ack to y o u r p ap er w ith fresh ey es an d read it as a read er
rath er th an as th e w riter w h o alread y k n o w s w h at h e o r sh e
is say in g . If th ere is a g ap in ev id en ce o r p arag rap h s in serted
w h ere th ey d o n 't lo g ically flo w , y o u 're m o st lik ely to n o tice
th ese p ro b lem s after y o u 'v e set y o u r p ap er asid e fo r a w h ile.
If y o u 're lack in g to p ic sen ten ces fo r y o u r p arag rap h s, y o u
are g o in g to h av e ju st as d ifficu lt a tim e fig u rin g o u t w h at
y o u w ere say in g as y o u r read er w o u ld . S o co m e b ack to
y o u r p ap er "as a read er" an d see w h at y o u can fin d d u rin g
th ese rev isio n stag es.
T h e o th er critical task in th e rev isio n p ro cess is
im p lem en tin g th e feed b ack y o u h av e alread y receiv ed fro m
y o u r in stru cto r. M ak e su re th at y o u h av e reread an y an d all
in stru cto r feed b ack y o u receiv ed d u rin g th is co u rse, an d b e
certain th at y o u h av e m ad e a ll su g g ested ch an g es.
A s y o u p rep are to su b m it y o u r h isto rical an aly sis essay , y o u 'll w an t to reread y o u r selected read in g s,
an d tak e ad d itio n al n o tes. A n d d o n 't b e sh y ab o u t em ailin g y o u r in stru cto r w ith an y rem ain in g q u estio n s.
F in ally , rem em b er th at th e W ritin g C en ter is also av ailab le if y o u n eed ad d itio n al h elp w ith y o u r
assig n m en ts in th is co u rse.
G e n e r a l T ip s fo r R e v isio n
B efo re y o u b eg in rev isin g y o u r essay , it is h elp fu l to co n sid er th e fo llo w in g g en eral tip s fo r rev isio n .
T h ese tip s can ap p ly to an y w ritin g assig n m en t.
1 . G et so m e d ista n ce fro m y o u r p a p er. S et y o u r d raft asid e fo r a w h ile, p referab ly o v ern ig h t o r
lo n g er. W h en y o u read it ag ain , try to assu m e y o u r au d ien ce's p ersp ectiv e an d read y o u r w o rk w ith
fresh ey es.
2 . G iv e y o u rself p len ty o f tim e to rev ise. D o n 't w ait u n til th e n ig h t b efo re a p ap er is d u e to attem p t
rev isio n s. In stead , try to fin ish w ritin g y o u r d raft at least a few d ay s b efo re th e d ead lin e so y o u h av e
tim e to reread an d to m ak e th e larg escale an d sm allscale ch an g es th at are n ecessary .
3 . P rin t o u t a h a rd co p y o f y o u r d ra ft. It is o ften d ifficu lt to catch g ram m ar an d sp ellin g erro rs w h en
y o u read y o u r p ap er o n a co m p u ter screen . It is also h ard to g et a g o o d sen se o f th e en tirety o f y o u r
p ap er, to see w h ere an d h o w y o u r d raft n eed s reo rg an izin g . R ev isin g a h ard co p y allo w s y o u to sp o t
th ese p ro b lem s an d to m ak e n o tatio n s d irectly o n y o u r d raft as y o u read it.
4 . R ea d y o u r p a p er o u t lo u d . It is o ften easier to h ea r th e p arts o f y o u r d raft th at n eed clarificatio n o r
co rrectio n th an it is to see th em . R ead in g y o u r p ap er alo u d w ith a p en o r p en cil in h an d w ill h elp y o u
lo cate th e sen ten celev el ch an g es th at n eed to b e m ad e an d th e p laces w h ere y o u r w ritin g is
co n fu sin g o r u n clear. L a r g e -sc a le r e v isio n s
A fter y o u 're su re th at y o u r arg u m en t is ad d ressin g th e rig h t co n ten t to m eet y o u r p u rp o se, it's tim e to
u n d ertak e larg escale rev isio n s— th o se rev isio n s th at co n cern th e o rg an izatio n o f y o u r id eas an d fillin g in
ev id en ce an d d etails to su p p o rt y o u r p o in ts.
S o m e sectio n s an d p arag rap h s m ay req u ire rew ritin g at th is stag e, b u t y o u d o n 't n eed to lo o k fo r
p ro o fread in g erro rs y et. S in ce y o u 'll b e ad d in g , rem o v in g , m o v in g , an d ch an g in g sen ten ces to b etter
em p h asize y o u r o v erall m ean in g , y o u d o n 't n eed to g et b o g g ed d o w n in to th e d etails o f sen ten ce stru ctu re
o r p u n ctu atio n ju st y et.
W h en y o u retu rn to y o u r d raft, b eg in b y assessin g th e p ap er as a w h o le.
Is y o u r th esis statem en t clearly stated ?
D o y o u r m ajo r p o in ts su p p o rt y o u r th esis statem en t?
H av e y o u su m m arized o p p o sin g v iew p o in ts w h en ap p ro p riate?
O p en u p y o u r essay d raft in a w o rd p ro cessin g p ro g ram an d h ig h lig h t th e p arts o f th e essay th at resp o n d
to th ese req u irem en ts. Y o u m ay ev en u se y o u r w o rd p ro cesso r's co m m en tin g featu re to ad d a co m m en t to
state th e ro le o f th e sectio n in y o u r essay .
If y o u can 't id en tify a sectio n th at serv es o n e o f th ese fu n ctio n s, y o u sh o u ld create o n e an d su p p o rt th at
sectio n w ith m o re d etails an d ev id en ce.
S m a ll-sc a le r e v isio n s
A fter y o u r p arag rap h s are in o rd er, it's tim e to fo cu s o n sen ten celev el ch an g es. T h is p art o f th e rev isio n
p ro cess is m ad e u p o f ed itin g — d ecid in g o n th e clearest w ay to p resen t an id ea— an d p ro o fread in g —
co rrectin g erro rs in sp ellin g , g ram m ar, w o rd u sag e, an d sen ten ce stru ctu re. G ram m atical erro rs can
d istract y o u r read er an d m ak e y o u r id eas seem h astily th ro w n to g eth er, ev en if y o u p u t sig n ifican t tim e
in to y o u r d raft so far.
U se th e q u estio n s b elo w to h elp id en tify an d co rrect co m m o n erro rs.
A re y o u r sen ten ces g ram m atically co m p lete w ith a su b ject an d a v erb ?
D o y o u v ary y o u r sen ten ces in sty le an d len g th ?
H av e y o u u sed p u n ctu atio n co rrectly ?
Is y o u r lan g u ag e sp ecific en o u g h o r to o v ag u e?
Is y o u r to n e ap p ro p riate?
D o y o u u n d erstan d th e m ean in g o f th e w o rd s y o u h av e u sed ?
A re th ere an y h o m o n y m erro rs (lik e its v ersu s it's, o r th eir v ersu s th ere)? S e lf-e v a lu a tio n
T h e ch eck list b elo w w ill h elp y o u co n sid er y o u r p ro g ress an d d eterm in e w h ere y o u m ig h t im p ro v e th e
p ap er.
H o w are y o u in d icatin g th e ch an g es y o u 'v e m ad e d u rin g th e rev isio n p ro cess? A re y o u sav in g
d ifferen t v ersio n s o f y o u r p ap er?
Is th e p ap er p ro p erly fo rm atted ?
D o y o u h av e a clear, arg u ab le, an d easily id en tifiab le th esis?
D o y o u h av e a clear fo cu s th ro u g h o u t y o u r essay th at co n n ects b ack to th e th esis?
D o y o u d ev elo p y o u r m ain p o in ts in en o u g h d etail? D o y o u in clu d e en o u g h su p p o rt?
H av e y o u ad d ed n ew d etails o r ev id en ce to stren g th en w eak er su p p o rtin g p o in ts?
H av e y o u d eleted u n n ecessary o r red u n d an t m aterial?
D o y o u p ro v id e en o u g h co n tex t in th e o p en in g p arag rap h (s) o f y o u r p ap er to o rien t th e read er? D o
y o u d efin e k ey term s?
D o es y o u r co n clu sio n restate y o u r m ain claim in fresh lan g u ag e an d rev iew th e m ajo r su p p o rtin g
p o in ts?
Is y o u r p ap er w ritten fro m an ap p ro p riate an d co n sisten t p o in t o f v iew ?
H av e y o u co n sid ered y o u r au d ien ce?
D o es y o u r p ap er flo w lo g ically fro m o n e p o in t to th e n ex t? A re th ere an y areas th at m ig h t co n fu se
y o u r read ers?
H av e y o u ed ited fo r erro rs in sp ellin g , g ram m ar, o r w o rd u sag e?
H av e y o u set y o u r p ap er asid e fo r a d ay o r tw o an d reread it to ch eck fo r clarity ?
R e fle c t io n a n d R e v is io n
T h in k b ack to th e h isto rical case stu d ies th at h av e b een co v ered in th is co u rse:
Irish im m ig ran t ex p erien ce
Q u éb éco is im m ig ran t ex p erien ce
W o m en 's su ffrag e an d th e N in eteen th A m en d m en t
E q u al R ig h ts A m en d m en t
S ch o o l d eseg reg atio n in B o sto n
V o tin g R ig h ts A ct o f 1 9 6 5
C h ero k ee "T rail o f T ears"
A lask a N ativ e C o rp o ratio n s T h e E n d
W ith th e su b m issio n o f y o u r h isto rical ev en t an aly sis essay , y o u h av e co m p leted all th e co u rsew o rk fo r
H isto ry 2 0 0 . B efo re y o u g o , th o u g h , p lease tak e ju st a co u p le o f m o m en ts to tak e sto ck o f w h at w e'v e
acco m p lish ed in th is co u rse.
W e'v e co v ered a lo t o f m aterial ab o u t a lo t o f d ifferen t g ro u p s o f p eo p le— im m ig ran ts, w o m en , A frican
A m erican s, an d N ativ e A m erican s— an d h o w each o f th o se g ro u p s h as stru g g led , w ith v ary in g d eg rees
o f su ccess, to attain th e fu ll p ro m ise o f eq u al rig h ts in A m erican so ciety . U n lik e m an y h isto ry co u rses,
th o u g h , th is co u rse h asn 't fo cu sed o n th e n am es an d d ates th at m ak e u p th e h isto rical reco rd ; rath er, it h as
tried to sh o w y o u h o w h isto ry w o rk s, an d h o w y o u can u se it in y o u r life.
W e'v e ex p lo red th e w ay th at h isto rian s ap p ro ach h isto ry , th ro u g h th e p ro cess o f h isto rical th in k in g , th e
ap p licatio n o f d ifferen t h isto rical len ses, an d th e assessm en t o f h isto rical sig n ifican ce. W e'v e lo o k ed at
th e F iv e C 's o f h isto rical th in k in g — ch an g e, co n tex t, cau sality , co n tin g en cy , an d co m p lex ity — an d seen
h o w th ey all w o rk to g eth er to create th e rich ly w o v en fab ric o f h isto rical u n d erstan d in g .
T h is co u rse h as sh o w n y o u h o w to co m m u n icate h isto rical id eas— u sin g p rim ary an d seco n d ary so u rces
to d ev elo p a th esis statem en t, an d th en tailo rin g y o u r statem en t to a sp ecific au d ien ce. It's h elp ed y o u
craft a w ritin g p lan to g u id e y o u r research an d w ritin g ab o u t a sp ecific h isto rical ev en t. A n d it's ex p o sed
y o u to th e p ro cess o f h isto rical an aly sis: th e u se o f h isto rical ev id en ce to d raw co n clu sio n s ab o u t a
h isto rical ev en t, an d th en fo rm u late arg u m en ts to su p p o rt th o se co n clu sio n s.
W ritin g y o u r h isto rical ev en t an aly sis essay req u ired y o u to u tilize h isto rical th in k in g , co m m u n icatio n s,
an d an aly tic sk ills. A n d it in tro d u ced y o u to th e sp ecialized co m p o sitio n sk ills n eed ed to p ro d u ce an
o rig in al, fu lly so u rced research p ap er.
F in ally , it's o u r h o p e th at th is co u rse h as ch an g ed th e w ay y o u th in k a b o u t h isto ry . W e h o p e it's g iv en
y o u a b etter ap p reciatio n o f h o w th e p ast in fo rm s th e p resen t, an d h o w an u n d erstan d in g o f h isto ry can
b en efit y o u th ro u g h o u t y o u r acad em ic career— an d th ro u g h o u t y o u r life.