worth 20% of your overall grade in this course. The purpose of this assignment is to have you apply your sociological imagination and to reflect on your own life history by applying concepts and theor
Introduction to Theory Auguste Comte & Positivism • Auguste Comte , French Philosopher, 1798 -1857 • Coined the term, “sociology” from Latin socius (“social, being with others”) and Greek, logos (“the study of ”) • Often called the “Founder of Sociology” • Believed that objective, bias -free knowledge was attainable only through the use of science rather than religion Comte’s “Law of Three Stages” • Theological: knowledge began in this stage, where explanations are based on religion and the supernatural. Kinship is the most prominent unit of society. • Metaphysical: explanations based on abstract philosophical speculation. Kinship replaced by the State, control from small groups to military, the State and the Law. • Scientific/positive : explanations are based on systematic observation, experimentation, comparison, and historical analysis. Industry becomes prominent social unit, scientists become the spiritual leaders replace Priests and philosophers. Positivism • Positivism: A belief that the world can best be understood through scientific inquiry (best through mathematics, statistics, etc) • Highly objective approach, seeks unbiased accounts • Traditional sociology uses positivism • “black and white” thinking • Does not account for “grey” areas, often leaves out feelings, nuances in life • Recent sociology (1960’s on) rejects positivist approaches as lacking in depth and missing vital factors in the social world Harriet Martineau (1802 – 1876) • Martineau advocated racial and gender equality. • Analyzed how large -scale social structures influenced the lives of people, particularly women, children, and those who were marginalized by virtue of being criminal, mentally ill, disabled, poor, or alcoholic. Martineau • Sociologist Martineau translated Comte’s work into English & wrote over 6,000 articles herself • One of the only early female sociologists, who gave attention to the experiences of women, children, and groups on the fringes of society who were usually outcast from academic study • Studied American and British society • Worked on race and ethnicity, immigration, politics, religion and slavery Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903, England) • Spencer constructed an evolutionary perspective on social order and social change. • Societies developed through a process of “struggle” (for existence) and “fitness” (for survival), which he referred to as the “ survival of the fittest.” Spencer • Used to justify the repression and neglect of minority groups in the late 19th century and beyond (known as scientific racism). • Social Darwinism: the belief that those species of animals (including human beings) best adapted to their environment survive and prosper, whereas those poorly adapted die out. Spencer • Spencer opposed social reform that might interfere with the natural selection process and damage society by favouring its least worthy members • This would mean no welfare, inaccessible health care, no charity, and would create an entirely self -serving society Spencer • Spencer suffered a nervous breakdown before continuing to write • A friend, Beatrice Webb (One of the founders of the London School of Economics) said of him: “poisoned by morphia and self -absorption, and contorted by that strangely crude vision of human life as a series of hard bargains….in his last years to be stumbling in total darkness, hurting himself and then crying aloud in his lonely distress, clinging to his dogmas but without confident faith — with an almost despairing and defiant pride of intellect” • Talcott Parsons pronounced that “Spencer is dead” in regards to his influence in sociology Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917, France) • Durkheim is a crucial figure in the development of sociology as an academic discipline. • Is considered the founding figure of the functionalist theoretical tradition. • First sociologist in France to hold an academic position Durkheim • Underlying ideology similar with Herbert Spencer • Focus on function and structure • Evolutionary processes in society • Modern Industrial Societies produce pathologies • Durkheim differs from Spencer in that the solution should not be in less social regulation or government intervention, but rather Durkheim believed that society itself was the key influence on individuals • “we should not, as does Spencer, present social life as the mere resultant on individual natures alone, since, on the contrary, it is rather the latter that emerges from the former.” • Promoted the scientific approach to examining social facts that lie outside individuals. • One of Durkheim’s most important contributions to sociology: the idea that societies are built on social facts. • Social facts are patterned ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside any one individual but that exert social control over each person. • Social facts allow sociologists to examine larger social forms rather than focusing on individuals Social Facts Social Facts • 3 characteristics of social facts: • 1) developed prior to and separate from any individual • 2) can be seen as a characteristic of any specific group • 3) it involves a constraining force that pushes individuals to act a certain way • Durkheim believed that social facts must be explained by other social facts — by reference to the social structure rather than to individual attributes. Durkheim • People are the product of their social environment • Human potential limited by society, not biology • Living during a time of rapid change of industrialization and urbanization, and in a post -religious France, he was concerned with social order and social stability • His main recurring question was:“How do societies manage to hold together?” Durkheim • Durkheim’s answer: • Preindustrial societies held together by strong traditions and by member’s shared moral beliefs and values (Mechanical Solidarity ) • With industrialization, diverse and specialized economic activity became the basis of the social bond because people became interdependent, and now rely on exchange ( Organic Solidarity ) • For example: we ask each other: “what do you do?” rather than, “what are you interested in?”, “what are your hobbies?”, “What kind of a person are you?” Durkheim • We define ourselves by our work, we can live in a modern world without relying on our neighbour • For example: we live apart from groups, obtain our food from anonymous sources, our access to water requires no work from us, we can be self -sufficient with money • But what have we lost in that process? Durkheim • Observed that rapid social change and more specialized division of labour produced strains on society • These strains broke down traditional organization, values, authority and dramatically increases anomie Anomie Durkheim coined the term anomie: “a condition in which social control becomes ineffective as a result of the loss of shared values and a sense of purpose in society.” • Social norms are weak or come into conflict with one another. • As traditional norms and relations break down, social control declines. • People feel less tied to each other. • Deviant behaviour increases. Durkheim and Social Facts • In his book Suicide (1897), Durkheim treated suicide as a social fact • Durkheim found that certain groups were more likely to commit suicide:
military officers, Protestants, and unmarried people • He found a correlation between suicide and the degree of connection and commitment of individuals to society • Those with strong dedication were more likely to commit suicide • Having a too weak connection to society (integration) could produce suicide as well Durkheim • Durkheim studied suicide rates between Catholics and Protestants, to classify four types of suicide that result from too high or too low levels of social integration and social regulation Durkheim Critique of Durkheim • Critics maintain that Durkheim’s focus on stability, or the “problem of order,” obscures the subjective meaning that individuals give to society. • There appears to be an overemphasis on structure and a neglect of agency in his work. Durkheim • Considered “the crucial figure in the development of sociology as an academic discipline and as one of the deepest roots of the sociological imagination” • Major contribution of viewing social facts that lie outside of the individual • Influenced structuralist and postmodern schools of thought Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) • Marx analyzed the struggle between the capitalist class and the working class.
• Was a German economist and philosopher from the city of Trier, Germany • Analyzed society with an economic lens Friedrich Engels (1820 - 1895, Germany) • A German philosopher, social scientist, journalist and businessman, whose father owned a large textile factory in Manchester, England • Friedrich Engels founded “Marxist” theory together with Karl Marx • Engels did a great deal of writing and collaborating with Marx, coauthored, “The Communist Manifesto” • He financially funded an impoverished Marx and his family for his entire life long Karl Marx • Believed that conflict, especially class conflict was necessary to produce social change • Stressed that history was a continuous clash between conflicting ideas and forces • Highly critical of capitalism , and saw it as the root cause of overwhelming poverty he witnessed in London at the beginning of the industrial revolution Marx’s Classes in Conflict • Bourgeoisie (capitalist class): The class who owns and controls the means of production. They exploit the working class for their labour and pay them a wage far below the value of their labour . • Means of production: the lands, factories, tools, and money for investment that forms the economic basis of a society. • Proletariat (working class): Must sell their labour because they have no other means to earn a livelihood. Marx • Class conflict: The struggle between the capitalist class and the working class. • Alienation: Exploited workers feel a sense of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from themselves. Marx • Believed that society should not just be studied but should also be changed because the status quo is oppressive to most members of society. • Predicted that a revolution would result from workers becoming aware of their alienation and thus overthrowing the capitalists to establish a free and classless society (the exact opposite has happened globally) • Weber held that sociology should be value -free — conducted scientifically, excluding the researcher’s personal values and economic interests. • Emphasized the necessity of understanding how others see the world • Sociologists should employ verstehen (German for “understanding”) to see the world as others do. • Important insights on the process of rationalization, bureaucracy, religion, and many other topics. • Was more aware of women’s issues than were many of the scholars of his day. (perhaps because of his brilliant scholar wife, Marianne Weber who wrote on women’s issues.) Max Weber (1864 – 1920) • Canada, 1887 -1964, the first professional, institutionalized Canadian Sociologist! • He brought the first Sociology Department to a Canadian University (McGill) in 1922 facing much opposition for sociology’s reputation for being too Left -wing politically • The next Sociology department to open at a Canadian University did not take place until 1961 Carl Addington Dawson • He focused on the Social Gospel movement: which was a movement of trained Christian ministers “applying the Christian principles of human welfare to the treatment of social, medical, and psychological ills brought on by industrialization and unregulated capitalism” Carl Addington Dawson • The Social Gospel movement resulted in the Social Service Council of Canada (1912), where our nation’s first sociological surveys were carried out • Reflects the history of modern Christians founding many of our current social institutions such as the medical field (hospitals), education (schools), and social services (charities, welfare, housing, food banks, etc. Carl Addington Dawson • To summarize, the Social Gospel aimed to bring the ideals and values of Christianity (gender and racial equality, social equality (equal wealth distribution) human rights, charity, hospitality, welcoming refugees, etc ) to the mainstream society at a time when Canada had racist and discriminatory laws such as the Head Tax as the social norm, and attempted preventing certain racial groups from entering Canada. Carl Addington Dawson • Dawson’s interest in the Social Gospel not surprisingly led him to want to bring social change through Social Work • He is also credited with writing the first Canadian sociology textbook in 1929 which was met with great success and adopted in 150 Universities across North America Carl Addington Dawson Macro & Micro • Macrosociology • Focuses on the “big picture” of society and its institutions • E.g., structural functionalism, conflict theory, feminist theory, postmodern theory • Microsociology • Focuses on the plans, motivations, and actions of individuals and small groups • E.g., symbolic interactionism Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives • Contemporary sociologists have various views on society • Sociologists endeavour to create theories to understand these views • Theories : A set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social events Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives • Perspective: an overall approach to or viewpoint on some subject • How you view and make sense of the world, it’s issues, problems, etc. Summary of Theories • Structural Functionalism: • Comte (Theological, Metaphysical, Scientific Stages) • Herbert Spencer (survival of the fittest) • Talcott Parsons (influenced by Weber and Durkheim) • Merton (introduces deviance studies) Structural Functionalism • Looks at society from a macro level • Focuses on social structures that shape society (institutions) • Concerned with social structure , and social functions • Organic analogy compares society to a body, with different parts contributing to its healthy functioning • Identifies the various structures of society (e.g., the family), and describes the functions the structure performs to maintain the entire social system and produce social cohesion • Society is seen as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability Structural Functionalism • Functionalist perspective (also called Structural -Functionalism ): is the sociological approach that views society as a stable, orderly system • Everything in society plays an important role • For example: welfare and poverty provide jobs to the government office workers • Focuses on explaining social stability over conflict and social change Functionalism • Societal consensus : a situation whereby the majority of members share a common set of values, beliefs and behavioural expectations • Society is composed of a variety of interrelated parts that keep it functioning and contribute to society’s stability • Society needs all of its majour institutions (family, education, the economy, government, religion) to function Functionalism • If society’s major institutions fail, social problems will result • When change happens too rapidly and it affects social institutions, problems arise (such as increased crime or suicide) Conflict Theories • Including Marxist theory, Feminist theories, Postmodern theory • Key classical figures: Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Georg Simmel contributed significantly to this perspective by focusing on the inevitability of clashes between social groups. • Takes a highly critical stance towards society • Concerned with power and class struggles • Takes a macro level of analysis • Society is defined by inequality that results in conflict Conflict Theories • Class divisions are a main source of conflict in all large societies and motor of major socio -historical change • Based on four C’s 1. Conflict: exists in all large societies 2. Class: has existed in every society 3. Contestation: functions can be contested by asking “Who does this function best serve?” 4. Change: society either will or should be changed Conflict Perspectives • According to conflict perspectives , groups in society are engaged in a continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources. • Today, advocates of conflict perspectives view social life as a continuous power struggle among competing social groups. • Everything is seen as a conflict, all problems based in the fundamental conflict in society Conflict Theories • Revolution or political reform is often a goal • Theory should be used to produce social change (critical of positivism) • Exploitation and oppression accompany an unequal division of labour • Human creativity suppressed in capitalism Symbolic Interactionism • George Herbert Mead (1863 – 1931) (and his students) • Examined socialization, the development of the self, and social roles in the context of human interaction • Herbert Blumer (1900 – 1987) (pupil of Mead) • Coined the term symbolic interaction • Individuals and groups create and maintain social systems through interaction • Social systems (friendship patterns, education, the economy etc ) are “simply by -products of our personal dealings with one another • Social systems are abstractions that do not exist independently of individuals relations and interactions • And later, Charles Cooley (we’ll come back to him) Symbolic Interactionism • The symbolic interaction approach looks at the meaning (the symbolic part) of the daily social interactions of individuals • Focuses on individuals and small groups and their everyday practices and interactions • How individuals interact with each other to create symbolic worlds and interact with each other (for ex. Subgroup, subcultures) • Takes a micro approach, looking at interpersonal interactions • Society is the sum of interactions between individuals and groups Symbolic Interactionism • 2 main focus points:
1) Interaction : communication between people 2) Symbols : the meaning they bring to communication and provide us with understanding • Reality is somewhat subjective, it is acquired and shared through agreed -upon symbols (especially language) • Confusion or conflict results when individuals or groups interact without having shared symbolic meanings Chapter Review • What is sociology and how can it help us understand ourselves and others? • What is the sociological imagination? • What factors contributed to the emergence of sociology as a discipline? • What are the major contributions of the early sociologists (Comte, Martineau, Durkheim, Marx)? • What are the major sociological perspectives?
