Please write a short answer response 2-3 paragraph in response to the following question I attach on files.
US Immigrants and the Dilemma ofAnglo-Conformity
US Im mig ra n ts a n d t h e D ile m m a o f A nglo -C onfo rm it y
B y S usa n J . D ic ke r
P oste d o n M arc h 7 , 2 011 ( h ttp ://s d onlin e.o rg /4 8/u s-im mig ra n ts -a n d-th e-d ile m ma-o f-
a n glo -c o nfo rm it y /) s d onlin e ( h ttp ://s d onlin e.o rg /a u th or/s d onlin e/)
S ocia l s cie ntis ts h ave d eve lo ped v a rio us p ara dig m s to e xp la in w hat h appens w hen
dif f e re nt c u lt u re s e nco unte r e ach o th er: a ssim ila tio n, a ccu lt u ra tio n, c u lt u ra l p lu ra lis m ,
th e m elt in g p ot. S om e o f th ese p ara dig m s a re th eore tic a l; s o m e p urp ort to d escrib e
exis tin g s it u atio ns; o th ers r e fle ct v is io ns o f a b ette r s o cie ty . E ach p ara dig m h as
im plic a tio ns fo r th e la nguages o f th e r e sp e ctiv e c u lt u re s. T hese p ara dig m s h ave b een
re peate dly a pplie d to th e U nit e d S ta te s, a c o u ntr y fo rm ed b y c o lo niz a tio n a nd
im mig ra tio n, r e su lt in g in s ig nif ic a nt r a cia l a nd e th nic d iv e rs it y . H ow eve r, im mig ra nts to
t h e U S h ave g enera lly fa ce d th e p re ssu re s o f a v e ry s p e cif ic p ara dig m , th at o f A nglo -
co nfo rm it y , w hic h a sks th em to d is ca rd th eir c u lt u re s a nd la nguages fo r m ain str e am
A m eric a n c u lt u re a nd E nglis h .
T he p re se nt p aper b egin s w it h a r e vie w o f th e v a rio us p ara dig m s o f im mig ra nt
adapta tio n a nd th eir a pplic a tio n to la nguage in U S h is to ry . I a rg ue th at tw o p ara dig m s
are m ost a t p la y to day, c u lt u ra l p lu ra lis m a nd A nglo -c o n fo rm it y , th e fo rm er g enera lly
t o le ra te d b ut th e la tte r e xp ecte d . T o d em on str a te th is , I o ff e r tw o e xa m ple s o f
pro m in ent p olit ic ia ns p ublic ly d is co u ra gin g th e u se o f S panis h . I c o nte nd th at A nglo -
co nfo rm it y is fo ste rin g a n a nti- d e m ocra tic a tm osp h ere a im ed a t p ro m otin g E nglis h a s
th e o ff ic ia l la nguage, e ndin g b ilin gual e duca tio n, a nd p la cin g r e str ic tio ns o n le gal
im mig ra tio n a nd c it iz e nsh ip , a nd o n v o te r r e gis tr a tio n a nd v o tin g.
A ssim ila tio n
P ark & B urg ess d efin e a ssim ila tio n a s “ a p ro ce ss o f in te rp enetr a tio n a nd fu sio n in
w hic h p ers o ns a nd g ro ups a cq uir e th e m em orie s, s e n tim en ts , a nd a ttit u des o f o th er
pers o ns o r g ro ups, a nd, b y s h a rin g th eir e xp e rie nce a nd h is to ry , a re in co rp ora te d w it h
t h em in a c o m mon c u lt u ra l lif e ” ( 1 921: 7 35). S eve ra l d eca d es la te r, W ein sto ck describ es it a s “ th e c o m ple te lo ss o f o rig in al e th nic id entit y in a n in div id ual o r g ro up o f
in div id uals le adin g to a bso rp tio n in to th e d om in ant c u lt u re ” ( 1 969: 4 ). T he a ssim ila tin g
gro up, th en, lo se s th e tr a it s th at m ake it d if f e re nt, in clu din g it s la nguage.
T his is a n e sse ntia lly h yp oth etic a l p ara dig m . T he a cce ptin g g ro up, th e “ d om in ant
cu lt u re ” o r “ c o re s o cie ty ,” is m ore p ow erfu l th an th e g ro up b ein g a cce pte d, a nd a s s u ch
p ulls th e w eake r o ne to it . H ow eve r, th e a bove d efin it io ns d o n ot e xp la in w hat w ould
h ave to h appen fo r th e m em bers o f th e n on-d om in ant g ro up to b eco m e a cce pte d b y
th e c o re s o cie ty . P hysic a l tr a it s m ay c o n tin ue to d is tin guis h th e s u bord in ate g ro up fr o m
th e d om in ant g ro up. E ve n if in te rm arria ge o ccu rre d, th ese tr a it s w ould n ot d is a ppear.
M ore c ru cia lly , th e c o re g ro up w ou ld h ave to w ant th e n on-d om in ant g ro up to jo in it ,
a nd w ould h ave to a gre e to s h a re it s r e so u rc e s a nd p riv ile ges w it h th e e nte rin g g ro up.
P orte s & R um baut ( 2 001) a ckn o w le dge a ssim ila tio n a s th e m aste r c o nce pt in s o cia l
th eory a nd p ublic d is co urs e r e ga rd in g h ow im mig ra nts a dapt to A m eric a . H ow eve r,
t h ey b elie ve th at th e e xp ecta tio n o f fo re ig ners a nd n ativ e s m erg in g o ve r tim e is
u nre alis tic . T heir r e se arc h o n s e co n d-g enera tio n im mig ra nts to day d escrib es w hat
th ey te rm s e gm enta l a ssim ila tio n, in w hic h “ o utc o m es v a ry a cro ss im mig ra nt m in orit ie s
and… r a pid in te gra tio n a nd a cce pta nce in to th e A m eric a n m ain str e am r e pre se nt ju st
o ne p ossib le a lt e rn ativ e ” ( 4 5). F acto rs a ff e ctin g a ssim ila tio n in clu de th e h is to ry o f th e
im mig ra nt fir s t g enera tio n, th e p a ce o f a ccu lt u ra tio n in fir s t a nd s e co nd g enera tio ns,
cu lt u ra l a nd e co nom ic b arrie rs f a ce d b y th e s e co n d g enera tio n, th e a va ila bilit y o f
fa m ily a nd c o m munit y r e so urc e s fo r c o n fr o ntin g th ese b arrie rs , a nd th e r e sp onse o f
th e s e co nd g enera tio n to th e lu re o f d estr u ctiv e c o u nte rc u lt u re s ( d ow nw ard
a ssim ila tio n).
A ccu lt u ra tio n
In p opula r d is co urs e , a ccu lt u ra tio n is o fte n u se d in te rc h a ngeably w it h a ssim ila tio n;
how eve r, th ey a re q uit e d if f e re nt. R edfie ld e t a l. w rit e , “ A ccu lt u ra tio n c o m pre hends
th ose p henom ena w hic h r e su lt w hen g ro ups o f in div id uals h avin g d if f e re nt c u lt u re s
co m e in to c o ntin uous fir s t- h and c o n ta ct, w it h s u b se q uent c h a nges in th e o rig in al
cu lt u re p atte rn s o f e it h er o r b oth g ro ups” ( 1 936: 1 49). H ers ko vit z w rit e s m ore
s u ccin ctly th at a ccu lt u ra tio n is “ th e s tu dy o f th e c u lt u ra l tr a nsm is sio n p ro ce ss” ( 1 949:
523). In th ese d efin it io ns, e it h er c u lt u re m ay b orro w fr o m th e o th er. L in to n, h ow eve r,
q ualif ie s th e d efin it io n: “ O th er th in gs b ein g e qual, a g ro up w hic h r e co gniz e s it s s o cia l
in fe rio rit y w ill b orro w m ore e xte n siv e ly fr o m it s s u p erio rs th an th e s u perio rs w ill b orro w fr o m it ” ( 1 940: 4 91f) . T o day, w e r e je ct s u ch te rm s a s “ in fe rio rit y ” a nd “ s u perio rit y ,” b ut
th e tr u th r e m ain s th at th e s u bord in ate c u lt u re is m uch m ore v u ln era ble to a cce ptin g
ele m ents o f th e d om in ant c u lt u re th an v ic e v e rs a . E ve n th ough th e d om in ant g ro up
m ay a dopt s u perfic ia l e le m ents o f th e s u b ord in ate g ro up’s c u lt u re , s u ch a s tr a dit io nal
fo ods a nd p opula r m usic a l fo rm s, th e s u b ord in ate g ro up is o fte n p re ssu re d to a ssu m e
more p ro fo und e le m ents o f th e c o re s o cie ty , s u ch a s w ays o f b ehavin g a nd s p eakin g.
T his p ro ce ss is n ece ssa rily le ss r a dic a l th an a ssim ila tio n; th e s u bord in ate g ro up is n ot
abso rb ed in to th e d om in ant o ne. T he s u b ord in ate g ro up is c h a nged w it h out b ein g
w ip ed o ut. Wi th r e fe re nce to la ng uage, th e n atu re o f th is c h a nge is a m big uous. T he
su bord in ate g ro up m ay g iv e u p it s la nguage fo r th e d om in ant g ro up’s la nguage. T he
su bord in ate g ro up’s la nguage m ay p ers is t w hile a doptin g e le m ents o f th e d om in ant
gro up’s la nguage. S ubord in ate g ro up m em be rs m ay a ls o b eco m e b ilin gual, u sin g th e
dom in ant g ro up’s la nguage w he n in te ra ctin g w it h m em be rs o f th at g ro up a nd
m ain ta in in g th eir o w n la nguage w hen in te ra ctin g w it h m em be rs o f th eir o w n
co m munit y .
P orte s & R um baut ( 2 001) a ls o a ckn ow le dge v a ria bilit y w it h in a ccu lt u ra tio n, in th is c a se
o ne w hic h is d ependent o n th e w ays fir s t- a nd s e co n d-g enera tio n im m ig ra nts d eal w it h
a dapta tio n to th eir n ew h om ela n d. D is so nant a ccu lt u ra tio n o ccu rs “ w hen c h ild re n’s
l e arn in g o f th e E nglis h la nguage a nd A m eric a n w ays a nd s im ult a neous lo ss o f th e
im mig ra nt c u lt u re o uts tr ip s th eir p are nts ’” ( 5 3). In c o n so n ant a ccu lt u ra tio n, “ th e
le arn in g p ro ce ss a nd g ra dual a b andonm en t o f th e h om e la nguage a nd c u lt u re o ccu r a t
ro ughly th e s a m e p ace a cro ss g e nera tio ns” ( 5 4). F in ally , in s e le ctiv e a ccu lt u ra tio n, “ th e
le arn in g p ro ce ss o f b oth g enera tio ns is e m be dded in a c o -e th nic c o m munit y o f
su ff ic ie nt s iz e a nd in stit u tio nal d iv e rs it y to s lo w d ow n th e c u lt u ra l s h if t a nd p ro m ote
p artia l r e te ntio n o f th e p are nts ’ h om e la nguage a nd n orm s” ( 5 4). A cco rd in g to th e
auth ors , s e le ctiv e a ccu lt u ra tio n h as m an y b enefit s : la ck o f in te rg enera tio nal c o nflic t, a
s o lid b asis fo r th e m ain te nance o f p are nta l a uth orit y , a nd th e a ch ie ve m ent o f
bilin gualis m , w hic h c o nse quently fo ste rs in th e s e co n d g enera tio n h ig her s e lf - e ste em ,
educa tio nal a nd o ccu patio nal e xp e cta tio ns, a nd a ca d em ic a ch ie ve m ent.
A noth er a sp ect o f a ccu lt u ra tio n is th e c re atio n o f c re ole la nguages. C re ole s d eriv e
fr o m p id gin s, c o m bin atio ns o f la n guages w hic h e m erg e w hen p eople o f s e ve ra l
unin te llig ib le la nguages c o m e in to c o n ta ct. T he m ost c o m mon s it u atio n in w hic h
p id gin s d eve lo ped w as E uro pea n c o lo nia lis m in th e 1 8th a nd 1 9th c e ntu rie s, in w hic h dom in ate d p eople s w ere tr a nsp orte d to th e n ew ly a cq u ir e d la nds a s c h eap o r fr e e
la bor. T he n eed fo r th ese p eople , a nd th e c o n quere d p eople , to c o m munic a te w it h th e
E uro pean c o lo niz e rs le d to th e c re atio n o f p id gin s. W hen s p e ake rs o f a p artic u la r
pid gin m arrie d, th eir c h ild re n le arn ed th e p id gin a s a fir s t la nguage; it is a t th is p oin t
th at a c re ole la nguage w as b orn .
V arie tie s o f c re ole s d eve lo ped, a n d e xis t to day, a lo ng a c o n tin uum . A t o ne e nd is th e
fo rm m ost u nlik e th e E uro pean la nguage, a nd a t th e o th er, th e fo rm c lo se st to th e
E uro pean la nguage. N on-E uro pe ans w ho c a n s p e ak th e la tte r v a rie ty o f c re ole h ave
b een m ost lik e ly to b enefit e co no m ic a lly a nd s o cia lly , b eco m in g p aid w ork e rs in d ir e ct
co nta ct w it h s p eake rs o f th e E uro pean la nguage. In p ost- c o lo nia l s o cie tie s, th ese
o pportu nit ie s fo r a dva nce m ent in cre ase d . H ow eve r, c o m ple te a cce pta nce in to th e
w orld o f th e E uro pean e x-c o lo n iz e rs is g enera lly im po ssib le .
T he r o le o f a E uro pean la nguage in a p ost- c o lo nia l s o cie ty is th us o ne th at c re ate s
sig nif ic a nt te nsio n. In E nglis h -s p eakin g s o cie tie s, w here n on-d om in ant g ro ups s p eak a
v a rie ty o f E nglis h o f th eir o w n, th e p riv ile gin g o f s ta ndard E nglis h d ra w s p ro te sts . F or
exa m ple , W est In dia n a uth or K am au B ra it h w ait e h as c h a m pio ned a lit e ra ry m ove m ent
in th e u se o f w hat h e c a lls “ n atio n la nguage,” a v a rie ty o f E nglis h w hic h in co rp ora te s
C arib bean d ia le cts a s w ell a s th e h ere dit a ry c u lt u re s o f A fr ic a a nd In dia to e vo ke th e
liv e s o f lo ca l p eople s ( A nnia h G ow da 1 994).
B rid gin g t h e G ap b etw een A ssim ila tio n a n d A ccu lt u ra tio n
O ve r th e y e ars , s o m e s o cia l s cie ntis ts h ave m od if ie d th e te rm a ssim ila tio n to
d esig nate a k in d o f c u lt u ra l m eetin g w hic h m ore c lo se ly r e se m ble s a ccu lt u ra tio n. P ark
m odif ie s h is d efin it io n o f a ssim ila tio n b y d efin in g s o cia l a ssim ila tio n: A n A m eric a n
im mig ra nt m ay b e s a id to h ave g o ne th ro ugh s o cia l a ssim ila tio n w hen “ h e h as
acq uir e d th e la nguage a nd s o cia l r it u al o f th e n ativ e c o m munit y a nd c a n p artic ip ate ,
w it h out e nco unte rin g p re ju dic e , in th e c o m mon lif e , e co n om ic a nd p olit ic a l… . H e h as
sh ow n h e c a n ‘g et o n in th e c o un tr y .’” P ark e xp la in s s o cia l a ssim ila tio n a s “ a fu nctio n
of v is ib ilit y . A s s o on a s a n im mig ra nt n o lo nger e xh ib it s th e m ark s w hic h id entif y h im a s
a m em ber o f a n a lie n g ro up, h e a cq u ir e s b y th at fa ct th e a ctu al if n ot th e le gal s ta tu s o f
a n ativ e ” ( in S elig m an 1 930: 2 8 1). H e a ckn ow le dges th at th is w as r e la tiv e ly e asy fo r
th e n ew E uro pean im mig ra nts o f h is tim e, w ho w it h in o ne g enera tio n c o uld n ot b e
dis tin guis h ed fr o m o ld er E uro pean A m eric a n s; A m eric a n b la cks a nd n on-E uro pean
im mig ra nts “ w ho b ear a d is tin ctiv e r a cia l m ark d o n ot e asily m ix w it h th e n ativ e popula tio ns.” T he a bilit y to ta ke o n th e o utw ard s ig ns o f th e c o re s o cie ty , th en, is n ot
“a n in dex o f fu ndam enta l n atio na l s o lid arit y ”; it is , in ste ad, “ a m ore s u perfic ia l ‘lik e -
m in dedness,’ a m ere v e neer c o ve rin g p ro fo und a nd m ore o r le ss ir re co ncila ble m ora l
and c u lt u ra l d if f e re nce s” ( 2 82).
C oin in g a noth er te rm fo r a v a ria tio n o f a ssim ila tio n, R ose v ie w s A sia n A m eric a ns a s
delib era te ly o ptin g fo r a s u perfic ia l a dapta tio n to th e c o re s o cie ty w hile r e m ain in g
apart. H e d efin es th eir c h ara cte ris tic s: “ a d eep s e n se o f e th nic id entif ic a tio n; a h ig h
le ve l o f filia l r e sp ect; a h eavy e m phasis o n p ro per d em ea nor a nd o n th e s e rio usn ess
o f lif e ; a fir m b elie f in th e im porta nce o f e duca tio n; a te ndency to w ard e xtr in sic
a ssim ila tio n ( th at is , ta kin g o n th e s u p erfic ia l tr a ppin gs o f th e d om in ant g ro up –
s p eech , d re ss, m usic a l ta ste s – w hile r e m ain in g s o cia lly s e p ara te )”
F or s o m e r e se arc h ers , th e e xte n t to w hic h im mig ra nts a nd th eir d esce ndants a dapt to
A m eric a n s o cie ty is m easu re d p u re ly in te rm s o f th eir e co n om ic c a pit a l. T hus, V ald ez
(2 006: 3 97) d efin es s o cio eco nom ic a ssim ila tio n a s “ th e g ra dual p ro ce ss o f
in co rp ora tio n, a s im mig ra nts a nd th eir d esce ndants in te gra te in to th e U nit e d S ta te s
eco nom y.” In th is v ie w , n oth in g is m en tio ned o f s o cia l a cce pta nce , w heth er o r n ot th e
new co m ers b eco m e a ctu al m em bers o f s o cie ty .
A m ore o rg anic lin k b etw een a ccu lt u ra tio n a nd a ssim ila tio n w as a rtic u la te d b y G ord on
(1 964), w ho s e es a ssim ila tio n a s a p ro ce ss, e ach s te p b rin gin g th e a ssim ila tin g g ro up
m ore p ro fo undly in to th e c o re s o cie ty . H e la bels th e fir s t s te p b ehavio ra l o r c u lt u ra l
assim ila tio n o r a ccu lt u ra tio n, d escrib ed s im ply a s c h a nge in c u lt u ra l p atte rn s. F urth er
ste ps a re th e s u bord in ate g ro up’s jo in in g th e in stit u tio ns o f th e c o re s o cie ty , la rg e-
sca le in te rm arria ge, th e a cq uis it io n b y th e s u b ord in ate g ro up o f a s e nse o f p eople hood
base d o n th e c o re s o cie ty , th e a bse n ce o f p re ju dic e a nd d is crim in atio n o n th e p art o f
th e c o re s o cie ty , a nd, fin ally , c iv ic a ssim ila tio n, in w hic h th e a ssim ila tin g g ro up is
a cce pte d to th e e xte nt th at th ere is n o e vid ence o f v a lu e o r p ow er c o nflic t. T hus,
G ord on’s w ork fills in th e g ap le ft b y d efin it io ns o f a ssim ila tio n w hic h fa il to e xp la in h ow
one g ro up b eco m es a bso rb ed in to th e o th er.
G ord on a ckn ow le dges th at in r e a lit y th e p ro ce ss is n ot a lw ays c o m ple te , b ut m ay e nd
at a ny o f th e s ta ges. H e d oes a rtic u la te tw o p ossib le ty p e s o f c iv ic a ssim ila tio n. In o ne,
th e p ro ce ss is c o m ple te ly o ne-w ay; in th e o th er, th e r e su lt is a k in d o f “ m elt in g p ot,” a
c u lt u ra l b le ndin g o f th e tw o g ro up s. H ow eve r, th e p ro ce ss h e a rtic u la te s a bove is cle arly o ne-w ay, in vo lv in g th e s te p-b y-s te p in co rp ora tio n o f th e n on-d om in ant g ro up
in to th e c o re s o cie ty .
T he M elt in g-P ot
The id ea o f a m elt in g-p ot A m eric a is e ngra in ed in th e c u lt u re o f th e n atio n. O ne o f th e
earlie st a nd m ost fa m ilia r r e fe re n ce s to s u ch a n A m eric a c a m e fr o m M ic h ael-
G uilla um e-J e an d e C re ve co eur, a n 1 8th -c e n tu ry N orm an n oble m an w ho a rriv e d w it h
t h e F re nch a rm y, to ure d th e B rit is h c o lo nie s a nd s e ttle d d ow n a s a fa rm er in u psta te
N ew Y ork . H is le tte rs h om e, g iv in g h is im pre ssio ns o f th e w orld n ew to E uro peans,
c o nta in th is p assa ge:
H e is a n A m eric a n w ho, le avin g b ehin d h im a ll h is a ncie nt p re ju dic e s a nd m anners ,
re ce iv e s n ew o nes fr o m th e n ew m od e o f lif e h e h as e m bra ce d , th e n ew g ove rn m ent
he o beys, a nd th e n ew r a nk h e h o ld s. H e b eco m es a n A m eric a n b y b ein g r e ce iv e d in
t h e b ro ad la p o f o ur A lm a M ate r. H ere in div id uals o f a ll r a ce s a re m elt e d in to a n ew
ra ce o f m en, w hose la bors a nd p oste rit y w ill o ne d ay c a u se g re at c h anges in th e
w orld . ( d e C re ve co eur 1 904: 5 4-5 5)
T he v is io n o f a m elt in g-p ot A m eric a w as p opula riz e d fu rth er in th e e arly 2 0th c e ntu ry .
Is ra el Z angw ill, a B rit is h -J e w is h p la yw rig ht, w ro te T he M elt in g-p ot: D ra m a in F our
A cts , p ro duce d o n B ro adw ay in 1 908 to h uge s u cce ss. In th e p la y, D avid Q uix a no, a
R ussia n-J e w is h im mig ra nt m usic ia n, c o m po se s a s ym ph ony m eant to e m body th e
sp ir it o f h is n ew h om ela nd. In a r o usin g s p e ech , h e p ro cla im s:
A m eric a is G od’s C ru cib le , th e g re at m elt in g-p ot w here a ll th e r a ce s o f E uro pe a re
m elt in g a nd r e fo rm in g! H ere y o u s ta nd, g ood fo lk , th in k I, w hen I s e e th em a t E llis
I s la nd, h ere y o u s ta nd in y o ur 5 0 g ro ups w it h y o u r 5 0 la nguages a nd h is to rie s, a nd
yo ur 5 0 b lo od h atr e ds a nd r iv a lr ie s, b ut y o u w on’t b e lo ng lik e th at b ro th ers , fo r th ese
a re th e fir e s o f G od y o u’v e c o m e to – th ese a re th e fir e s o f G od. A fig fo r y o ur fe uds
and v e ndetta s! G erm an a nd F re n ch m an , Ir is h m an a nd E nglis h m an, J e w s a nd
R ussia ns – in to th e C ru cib le w it h y o u a ll! G od is m akin g th e A m eric a n. ( Z angw ill 1 939:
33)
In m any r e sp ects , Q uix a no’s id ealis tic v is io n o f A m eric a is a t o dds w it h th e r e st o f th e
pla y. H is fa m ily is d is co nce rte d a t th e s a crif ic e s to th eir r e lig io us o bse rv a nce
n ece ssa ry to s u rv iv e in th eir n ew h om ela nd. M ore d is tu rb in gly , a t e ve ry e nco unte r w it h
s o cie ty , th e Q uix a nos c o nfr o nt v ir u le nt a nti- S em it is m . A s G la ze r & M oyn ih an ( 1 970) exp la in , it s e em s h ig hly u nlik e ly th at th ey, a lo ng w it h m an y o th er im m ig ra nt fa m ilie s,
w ould b e w elc o m ed in to a c ru cib le c h u rn in g o ut a n ew A m eric a n ; in th e w orld o uts id e
th e th eate r w here th e d ra m a w as b ein g e nacte d, th e h uge w ave o f m ig ra tio n fr o m
E uro pe h ad a lr e ady b egun to e lic it m ou ntin g n ativ is t s e n tim en ts .
T he s u cce ss o f th e p la y a ppeare d to b e b ase d o n th e p ublic ’s im pre ssio n th at it w as a
c a ll fo r th e d is so lu tio n o f im mig ra nt c u lt u re s a nd r e lig io ns. T his d is tu rb ed th e
pla yw rig ht, a nd in th e A fte rw ord to th e p ublis h e d e dit io n, Z angw ill d escrib es th e
m elt in g p ot h e e nvis io ns a s “ th a t w hic h ta ke s p la ce in a h um an b ro th erh ood w it h out
any s u rre nder o f o ne’s b elie fs o r id eals . In th e e ye s o f D avid Q uix a no, th e A m eric a n
co nstit u tio n a s it w as la id d ow n a nd b uilt u p b y th e P urit a n fa th ers , b y W ash in gto n o r
Lin co ln , w as a m ere m odern a tt e m pt to s e t u p th e M osa ic id eal o f a p erfe ct S ta te ”
(c it e d in L eftw ic h 1 956: 2 53). H e w ould la te r a dd, “ It w as v a in fo r P aul to d ecla re th at
th ere s h ould b e n eit h er J e w n or G re ek. N atu re w ill r e tu rn e ve n if d riv e n o ut w it h a
p it c h fo rk . S till m ore if d riv e n o ut w it h a d ogm a” ( c it e d, ib id .: 2 54).
Wh ate ve r th e d efin it io n o f th e m elt in g p ot m ay b e, it s h old o n th e A m eric a n
co nscio usn ess r e m ain s s tr o ng. T o day it is u se d e sp e cia lly to in vo ke a tim e in th e p ast
w hen A m eric a ns w ere s u ppose d ly m ore u nit e d. F or e xa m ple , th e n ote d h is to ria n
A rth ur S ch le sin ger, J r. b em oans th e r e pla ce m en t o f a g oal o f a c o hesiv e A m eric a w it h
o ne th at c e le bra te s d iv e rs it y a nd r e viv e d a nce str a l r o ots :
T he v is io n o f A m eric a a s m elt e d in to o ne p eople p re va ile d th ro ugh m ost o f th e tw o
ce ntu rie s o f th e h is to ry o f th e U nit e d S ta te s. B ut th e tw entie th c e ntu ry h as b ro ught
fo rth a n ew a nd o pposin g v is io n … . A c u lt o f e th nic it y h as a ris e n b oth a m ong n on-
A nglo w hit e s a nd a m ong n on-w hit e m in orit ie s to d enounce th e id ea o f a m elt in g-p ot, to
c h alle nge th e c o nce pt o f “ o ne p eo ple ,” a nd to p ro te ct, p ro m ote , a nd p erp etu ate
s e para te e th nic a nd r a cia l c o m munit ie s. ( 1 992: 1 4f)
S ch le sin ger’s c o nce pt o f A m eric a n h is to ry is in fa ct h ig hly d is to rte d. In c o ntr a st to th e
m elt in g-p ot n otio n o f A m eric a , n o n-d om in ant g ro ups, a s w e w ill s e e b elo w , h ave
m ostly b een p re ssu re d to c o nfo rm to th e m ore p ow erfu l, c o re s o cie ty , w hic h is
c o nvin ce d th at it a lo ne r e pre se nts th e e sse nce o f b ein g “ A m eric a n.”
M arria ge p atte rn s to day d is co ura ge th e id ea th at a b io lo gic a lly n ew “ m elt in g-p ot
A m eric a n” is in th e o ff in g. Wh ile m arria ge a cro ss r a ce a nd e th nic it y c o ntin ues, it is n ot
unif o rm a cro ss a ll g ro ups. F or in sta nce , S ung ( 1 990) e xp la in s th at w hile th e n um ber o f Chin ese m arry in g n on-C hin ese h as in cre ase d ( o w in g to in cre ase d im mig ra tio n), th e
ra te o f C hin ese in te r-e th nic m arr ia ges h as r e m ain ed c o n sta nt. S he p re dic ts th at th e
hig h r a te o f C hin ese in tr a -e th nic m arria ge w ill c o n tin ue; w it h th e s tr e ngth o f n ew
im mig ra tio n a nd th e lo w b ir th ra te o f C hin ese in th e U nit e d S ta te s, th e p opula tio n w ill
b e s ke w ed to w ard fir s t- g enera tio n im mig ra nts , w ho a re u su a lly m ore c o nse rv a tiv e in
t h eir m arria ge p atte rn s. In deed, th e c o n tin uatio n o f im mig ra tio n to th e U nit e d S ta te s in
g enera l is lik e ly to r e in fo rc e e xis tin g e th nic a nd r a cia l g ro ups, w ork in g a gain st th e g oal
of a m elt in g p ot.
T o e xte nd th e m elt in g-p ot m eta p hor lin guis tic a lly , a ll la nguages w ould ju m p in to th e p ot
alo ng w it h th eir s p eake rs . O ut o f th e s te w w ould e m erg e o ne, n ew la nguage. T his
w ould n ot b e a n E nglis h c re ole , a v a rie ty o f th e c o m mon la nguage s h aped b y
ele m ents o f o th er la nguages. In ste ad, it w ould b e a la nguage in w hic h E nglis h is
m ere ly o ne in gre die nt. J u st a s t h e c re atio n o f a n ew ty p e o f A m eric a n is u nre alis tic ,
th e p ossib ilit y o f a n ew ly c re ate d la nguage is e qually s o .
C ult u ra l P lu ra lis m
T he te rm c u lt u ra l p lu ra lis m is a ttr ib ute d to H ora ce K alle n, a n e arly 2 0th -c e ntu ry c o lle ge
pro fe sso r a nd p hilo so pher. L ik e Z angw ill, K alle n w as w re stlin g w it h a p ers o nal
dile m ma: h ow to id entif y a s b oth a J e w a nd a n A m eric a n . T his s tr u ggle in fo rm ed h is
w id er th in kin g a bout a w ay to d e fin e a n A m eric a w hic h a llo w ed th e m ain te nance o f
eth nic id entit y a nd c o nscio usn e ss w it h in th e la rg er c o n ce p t o f o ne n atio n. K alle n
desp is e d th e n otio ns o f a ssim ila tio n a nd m elt in g p ot, in ste ad p ro posin g th e m eta phor
of a n o rc h estr a , e ach g ro up p la yin g it s o w n in str u m en t, p ro ducin g h arm ony. V arie ty , h e
arg ued, w ould e nric h A m eric a , a s g ro ups b orro w ed fr o m e ach o th er a nd n ew id eas
em erg ed.
A t th e tim e K alle n w as fo rm in g th ese id eas, s tr o ng fo rc e s in A m eric a w ere w ork in g
again st th em . W orld W ar I b ro ug ht o n a w ave o f n ativ is m a nd s u sp ic io n a bout th e
lo ya lt ie s o f e th nic g ro ups; e le cte d o ff ic ia ls , in clu din g T heodore R oose ve lt , r a ile d
again st th e id ea o f “ h yp henate d A m eric a n s.” A n A m eric a n iz a tio n c a m paig n w as b egun
to e ra se th e c u lt u re s a nd la nguag es o f n ew im mig ra nts w hile e nfo rc in g u nif o rm it y o f
dre ss a nd b ehavio r, e sta blis h in g E nglis h -la nguage r e quir e m en ts in s ch ool, a nd
elic it in g lo ya lt y p le dges. K alle n c o u nte re d th at A m eric a n iz a tio n w as m uch m ore
la ye re d a nd c o m ple x; a m ore p ro ductiv e s o cie ty w ould r e su lt fr o m a llo w in g e th nic gro ups to c o ntr ib ute to A m eric a n lif e r a th er th an d em an din g A nglo -S axo n c u lt u re a s
th e n orm ( G re ene 2 006, F is h m an 2 004).
K alle n’s d efin it io n o f a n atio n b ase d o n c u lt u ra l p lu ra lis m fir s t a ppeare d in h is b ook
C ult u re a nd D em ocra cy in th e U nit e d S ta te s:
Its fo rm w ould b e th at o f a fe dera l r e public ; it s s u b sta nce a d em ocra cy o f n atio nalit ie s,
c o opera tin g v o lu nta rily a nd a uto n om ou sly th ro ugh c o m mon in stit u tio ns in th e
ente rp ris e o f s e lf - re aliz a tio n th ro ugh th e p erfe ctio n o f m en a cco rd in g to th eir k in d. T he
co m mon la nguage o f th e c o m monw ealt h , th e la nguage o f it s g re at tr a dit io n, w ould b e
E nglis h , b ut e ach n atio nalit y w ould h ave fo r it s e m otio nal a nd in vo lu nta ry lif e it s o w n
pecu lia r d ia le ct o r s p eech , it s o w n in div id ual a nd in evit a ble e sth etic a nd in te lle ctu al
fo rm s. T he p olit ic a l a nd e co nom ic lif e o f th e c o m monw ealt h is a s in gle u nit a nd s e rv e s
as th e fo undatio n a nd b ackg ro u nd fo r th e r e aliz a tio n o f th e d is tin ctiv e in div id ualit y o f
each n atio n th at c o m pose s it a nd o f th e p oolin g o f th ese in a h arm ony a bove a ll.
( 1 924: 1 24).
K alle n w as th e o ne o f th e fir s t th in ke rs to c o n ce iv e o f a m ult ic u lt u ra l, m ult ilin gual
A m eric a . H e s a w th at e th nic g ro ups c o u ld b e b ilin gual, u sin g b oth E nglis h a nd th eir
h erit a ge la nguages. H is id eas r e ce iv e d s u p port fr o m m an y in te lle ctu als , b ut th ere w ere
s tu m blin g b lo cks. K alle n n eve r e xp la in ed w hat a p osit iv e p ro gra m o f c u lt u ra l p lu ra lis m
w ould b e lik e . H e w ro te s p ecif ic a lly a bout E uro pean im mig ra nts ; w hile h e p ro m is e d to
a ddre ss n on-E uro peans, s u ch a s A m eric a n b la cks, a t a la te r tim e, h e n eve r d id . A ls o ,
th e r e le va nce o f h is c o nce rn s w axe d a nd w aned w it h c h a ngin g tim es. In th e 1 920s
im mig ra tio n la w fa vo re d W este rn E uro peans, a nd n ativ is m fa ded. It r e su rfa ce d in
W orld W ar II, w hic h b ro ught s u sp ic io n o f th e G erm an la nguage, th e in ca rc e ra tio n o f
Ja panese A m eric a ns, a nd th e a dd in g o f Ita lia n A m eric a n s to th e e nem y a lie n lis t.
R enew ed n ativ is m b ro ught w it h it d im in is h e d to le ra nce fo r e th nic d iv e rs it y .
S till, K alle n’s c o nce pt o f c u lt u ra l p lu ra lis m le ft it s m ark . In th e y e ars fo llo w in g th e
public a tio n o f h is b ook, th e m elt in g p ot w as r e defin ed to s o u nd m ore lik e c u lt u ra l
plu ra lis m . C ult u ra l p lu ra lis m b eca m e a llie d w it h th eorie s o f a ntir a cis m . It le d th e w ay
to , a nd w as e ve ntu ally r e pla ce d b y, m ult ic u lt u ra lis m , a m ore m ilit a nt a nd p olit ic a l
m ove m ent r e sp ondin g to th e n e gle ct o f b la cks, A sia ns a nd N ativ e A m eric a ns. W it h
c h anges in im mig ra tio n la w s in th e 1 960s, th e m ajo r s e n din g c o untr ie s to th e U nit e d
S ta te s b eca m e L atin A m eric a a n d A sia ; th is r e viv e d in te re st in is su es o f im mig ra nt
adapta tio n a nd la nguage d iv e rs it y a nd r e new ed n ativ is m ( M eye r c u rre nt v o lu m e; Whit fie ld 1 999). T he c u rre nt w arin ess to w ard n ew co m ers r e su lt in g fr o m 9 /1 1 a nd th e
m ountin g n um bers o f u ndocu m ente d m ig ra nts h ave a dded to n ativ is t s e ntim ents .
K alle n’s id eas, a dapte d to p re se n t- d ay r e alit y , h ave g re at r e le va nce to day.
A nglo -c o nfo rm it y
A cco rd in g to A bra m so n, th e p re va ilin g v ie w o f th e fu tu re o f th e U nit e d S ta te s d urin g
th e 1 9th c e ntu ry w as o ne o f A nglo -c o n fo rm it y , “ th e d eve lo pm en t o f th e A m eric a n
people , w it h th e in evit a ble e xclu sio n o f b la cks a nd In dia ns, a s a n a ssim ila tio n to th e
eth nic it y o f th e E nglis h , tr a nsp la nte d to A m eric a . T he p ro ce ss w ould e vo lv e o ve r tim e,
ch angin g A nglo S axo ns a nd o th er E uro peans a nd th eir d esce ndants in to … ‘n on-
E nglis h E nglis h m en’” ( in T hern str o m 1 980: 1 52). D if f e re nt e th nic g ro ups “ w ould
b eco m e p art o f th e E nglis h P ro te sta nts in c u lt u re , s tr u ctu re a nd id entit y … . T he
dom in ant g ro up, in th is c a se , w ou ld n ot c h a nge b ut w ould b e la rg e e nough to r e ce iv e
o th ers in to th e e th nic b ackg ro und ” ( 1 51). G re er ( 1 972: 8 7) d efin es th is p ara dig m , “ th e
m ost p re va le nt id eolo gy in A m eric a n h is to ry ,” a s “ th e b elie f o n th e p art o f ‘n ativ e
A m eric a ns’ th at fo re ig ners s h ould g iv e u p th eir p ast c u lt u ra l id entit y e ntir e ly a nd ta ke
o n th e s o cia l a nd c u lt u ra l h abilim en ts o f th eir n ew h om ela nd.”
M ore r e ce ntly , A nglo -c o nfo rm it y h as ta ke n o n o th er s h a des o f m eanin g. J u st a s V ald ez
(2 006: 3 97) d escrib es a ssim ila tio n a s th e s o cio eco n om ic in te gra tio n o f n ew co m ers ,
sh e d efin es A nglo -c o nfo rm it y in e co n om ic te rm s a s w ell: it is “ c la ssic a ssim ila tio n
th eory ,” p re dic tin g “ a p atte rn o f g ra dual c o n ve rg ence to th e s o cio eco nom oic o utc o m es
of m id dle -c la ss, n on-H is p anic w hit e s.” H er r e se a rc h o n d ata fr o m th e 2 000 C ensu s o n
M exic a n A m eric a ns r e ve als s e gm en te d a ssim ila tio n in e co n om ic te rm s: p oorly
e duca te d, lo w -w age M exic a ns e xp erie nce d ow nw ard a ssim ila tio n to th e p erm anent
U S u nderc la ss, w hile h ig hly e duca te d, h ig h-w age M exic a n s e xp erie nce a g ra dual
upw ard tr e nd to w ard A nglo -c o nfo rm it y , a ppro xim atin g b ut n ot a ch ie vin g p arit y w it h th e
w ages o f U S-b orn n on-H is p anic w hit e s. S he e xp la in s th at th e la tte r g ro up s till fa ce s
th e c o nse quence s o f a “ n egativ e c o n te xt o f r e ce p tio n” ( 3 99), g enera l h ostilit y to w ard
M exic a n A m eric a ns in th e m ain str e am p opula tio n.
Wh eth er A nglo -c o nfo rm it y is a n a ssim ila tio n o r a n a ccu lt u ra tio n p ro ce ss is a m big uous.
V adez ( 2 006) s u ggests th at th e la rg er s o cie ty is n ot lik e ly to a cce pt a ll im mig ra nts a nd
th eir d esce ndants in to it s fo ld . T he d om in ant c u lt u re m ay c la im th at o uts id ers w ill jo in it
m ere ly b y d is ca rd in g th eir o utw ard c h a ra cte ris tic s a nd a cq u ir in g th ose o f th e d om in ant
cu lt u re . In r e alit y , h ow eve r, th e b io lo gic a l c h a ra cte ris tic s w hic h o fte n m ark m em bers o f th e n on-d om in ant c u lt u re , a nd th e p re ju dic e s th at e xis t a gain st th em w it h in th e
dom in ant c u lt u re , m ay s e rv e to k e e p th em fr o m fu ll m em be rs h ip . T he e nd-p ro ce ss o f
A nglo -c o nfo rm it y m ay in r e alit y fa ll s o m ew here a lo ng th e c o n tin uum d escrib ed b y
G ord on ( 1 964).
A s G ord on e xp la in s, A nglo -c o nfo rm it y a nd th e m elt in g p ot w ere d om in ant fo rc e s in th e
early h is to ry o f th e c o untr y . T he o rig in al c o lo niz e rs w ere la rg ely fr o m N orth ern a nd
W este rn E uro pe. E nglis h P ro te sta nts d om in ate d n um eric a lly , w hile o th er E uro peans –
G erm ans, S co tc h -Ir is h , D utc h , S w edis h , a nd S w is s – w ere e asily a bso rb ed in to th e
la rg er g ro up. A ll o f th e s e ttle rs s h a re d c u lt u ra l a nd r a cia l c h a ra cte ris tic s, a nd
in te rm arria ge a m ong th em w as c o m mon. E nglis h P ro te sta nt c u lt u re , h ow eve r,
r e m ain ed th e n orm . T he te rm to d escrib e th is p erio d m ig ht a ptly b e o ne o f b io lo gic a l
m elt in g p ot a nd c u lt u ra l A nglo -c o nfo rm it y . T his p re va ile d th ro ugh th e W ar o f
In dependence . A fte r th at, th e m ake -u p o f th e n atio n b eca m e m ore c o m ple x: L arg e
w ave s o f im mig ra nts fr o m Ir e la nd, G erm an y a nd S ca n din avia a sse rte d th em se lv e s
cu lt u ra lly ; N ativ e A m eric a ns w ere h erd ed in to r e se rv a tio ns; b la cks w ere e m ancip ate d
but r e m ain ed o uts id e m ain str e am s o cie ty . T he m elt in g p ot w as n o lo nger e it h er a
r e alis tic o r a d esir e d p ossib ilit y ; in ste ad, e xp e cta tio ns o f A nglo -c o nfo rm it y p re va ile d.
E xp ecta tio ns fo r th e lin guis tic a d apta tio n o f im mig ra nts h ave la rg ely fo llo w ed th e lin es
of A nglo -c o nfo rm it y . A s D anie ls ’s ( 1 991) a naly sis o f A m eric a n h is to ry s h ow s, d urin g
th e g re at w ave o f E uro pean im mig ra tio n fr o m th e e arly 1 9th to th e e arly 2 0th
c e ntu rie s, im mig ra nt la nguages flo uris h e d in th e U nit e d S ta te s fo r a w hile – s e rv in g a s
th e la nguages o f p ublic a tio ns, s ch o olin g, a nd r e lig io us in stit u tio ns – b ut w ere
e ve ntu ally o ve rta ke n b y E nglis h . L in guis ts h ave a ls o d ocu m en te d th e fa te o f im mig ra nt
la nguages in th e U nit e d S ta te s. H augen ( 1 956: 1 1 ) w rit e s th at ju st a s “ n ativ e p eople s
have h ad b ilin gualis m th ru st u p on th em ,” im mig ra nt la nguages “ h ave r e m ain ed m ore
o r le ss te m pora ry m eans o f c o m munic a tio n a m on g o ff ic ia lly u nre co gniz e d g ro ups.
P olit ic a l a nd s o cia l p re ssu re s h ave u nif o rm ly b een u nfa vo ra ble to th eir c o ntin ued u se
a nd h ave g ra dually w hit tle d d ow n th eir c o n stit u encie s. F or m an y im mig ra nt g ro ups,
b ilin gualis m h as b een a b rid ge to m em be rs h ip in th e n ew n atio n.” M acía s ( 1 979: 9 6)
w rit e s, “ In a n im mig ra nt c o untr y , th e n otio ns o f la nguage a nd c u lt u re c h ange le ad o ne
to a ssu m e n on-E nglis h la nguag e lo ss o ve r tim e. T o s p e ak a noth er la nguage is o nly a
t e m pora ry p henom enon.” T his a ssu m ptio n h as in fo rm ed th e U S g ove rn m ent’s fo cu s
on tr a nsit io nal la nguage p olic ie s, m ea nt to h elp im mig ra nts s h if t fr o m th eir n ativ e la nguages in to E nglis h , r a th er th an p olic ie s s u p portin g th e m ain te nance o f im mig ra nt
la nguages.
P ara d ig m s o f A dap ta tio n: T w o C ases o f C onflic t
T here is n o d oubt th at c u lt u ra l p lu ra lis m is a p art o f A m eric a n lif e , e sp ecia lly in la rg e
cit ie s. K ore a T o w ns, L it tle Ita lie s, a nd C hin ato w ns a bound. A T M m ach in es a ro und th e
co untr y o ff e r s e rv ic e s in a v a rie ty o f la nguages; p ara des a nd fe stiv a ls c e le bra te
A m eric a ns’ c u lt u ra l a nce str ie s. B ut th is c u lt u ra l d em ocra cy m ee ts r e sis ta nce w hen it is
p air e d w it h e xp ecta tio ns o f A ng lo -c o n fo rm it y a nd h ot- b utto n is su es lik e im mig ra tio n.
U ndoubte dly , th e is su e o f im mig ra tio n h as la te ly ta ke n u p a lo t o f th e s p ace o f p opula r
dis cu ssio n in th e U nit e d S ta te s, a nd w it h in th is d is cu ssio n th e to pic o f la nguage h as
em erg ed. U nsu rp ris in gly , p ublic o ff ic ia ls o fte n e nte r in to th is d is cu ssio n. In th e c a se o f
tw o s u ch o ff ic ia ls , th eir c o m men ts r e gard in g th e u se o f S panis h in d aily lif e , s e t a gain st
th e r a gin g d ebate s o ve r im mig ra tio n, d re w p ublic r e sp o nse . E sp ecia lly o f in te re st is th e
co ntr a st b etw een th e r h eto ric a nd th e p ra ctic e o f th ese o ff ic ia ls r e gard in g th e u se o f
la nguages o th er th an E nglis h .
It s h ould b e n ote d th at th e S pan is h la nguage r e ce iv e s m ore a tte ntio n in th e U nit e d
S ta te s th an a ny o th er n on-E ngli s h la nguage. T his is la rg ely d ue to it s u biq uit y : T he U S
Censu s B ure au ( 2 006) r e ports th at 5 3% o f th e fo re ig n-b orn p opula tio n, o r 1 8.3 m illio n
people , a re fr o m L atin A m eric a . P ublic o ff ic ia ls c o u rt th e g ro w in g L atin o v o te b y
sp eakin g to c ro w ds in o fte n s tr a in ed, e le m en ta ry S panis h . H ow eve r, th e la nguage a ls o
c a rrie s w it h it a s tig m a. T he M exic a n b ord er w as th e c ro ssin g-p oin t o f 6 0–75% o f th e
m ore th an 1 0 m illio n u ndocu m en te d im mig ra nts w ho a re in th e c o untr y ille gally ,
a cco rd in g to d ata fr o m th e M arc h 2 004 C urre nt P opula tio n S urv e y ( P asse ll 2 005).
S in ce m any n ew co m ers fr o m C en tr a l A m eric a a nd M exic o e nte r th is w ay, a nd s in ce
m any le gal m ig ra nts c o m in g fr o m th ese a re as a re p oor, th e S panis h la nguage it s e lf
h as c o m e to b e id entif ie d w it h p eo ple w ho a re u nskille d, n eedy, a nd o fte n w it h out
pro per a uth oriz a tio n – in s h ort, p eople w ho a re s e e n b y m an y a s a b urd en to th eir
a dopte d h om ela nd.
F or th ese r e aso ns, d is p la ys o f S pa nis h in p ublic m ay b rin g to th e s u rfa ce a c la sh o f
va lu es a nd, c o nse quently , c o m pe tin g id eas a bout th e w ays im mig ra nts s h ould a dapt to
U S s o cie ty . O ne s u ch c la sh o ccu rre d in th e s p rin g o f 2 006. A s S enate h earin gs o n
im mig ra tio n r e fo rm w ere s e t to r e su m e a fte r a h ia tu s, H is p a nic g ro ups w ere p re parin g sim ult a neous, p ro -im mig ra tio n r a llie s a ro und th e c o u ntr y . In s u p port o f th e e ve nt,
m usic p ro duce r A dam K id ro n r e le ase d “ N uestr o H im no ” ( “O ur H ym n”), a S panis h -
la nguage v e rs io n o f th e “ S ta r-S pangle d B anner,” th e n atio nal a nth em , s u ng b y s e ve ra l
popula r L atin o s in gers . T he s o ng r e ce iv e d a lo t o f a ir tim e o n S panis h -la nguage r a dio
p ro gra m s. A noth er v e rs io n o f it , w it h E nglis h ly ric s a dded, w as p la nned fo r a n a lb um
ca lle d “ S om os A m eric a nos” ( “W e a re A m eric a n s”) , p art o f w hose p ro fit s w ould g o to a
W ash in gto n-b ase d p ro -im mig ra tio n c o a lit io n ( U SA T o day 2 006).
In th e w eeks th at fo llo w ed, a n um be r o f p eople v o ic e d th eir ir e o ve r th e s o ng. T o th em ,
ch angin g th e la nguage o f th e a n th em p ut in to q uestio n th e s in gers ’ p atr io tis m . F or
exa m ple , in a b lo g a rtic le B ry a nna B eve n s w ro te o f th e s o n g’s p ro duce rs : “ T hese
p eople a re s h am ele ss!… T hey w ant to p ro ve h ow A m eric a n th ey a re … s e rio usly ,
th at’s w hat th ey s a id .” T he tr a nsla tio n a ppeare d to tr a nsg re ss th e s a nctit y o f th e s o ng;
B eve ns ( 2 006) w ro te , “ If y o u w an t to s a y th ese th in gs, p ut th em o n y o ur p oste r b oard ,
but d on’t p ut th em o n th e n atio n al a nth em .” M ark K rik o ria n, o f th e C ente r fo r
Im mig ra tio n S tu die s, a th in k ta nk s u p portin g tig hte r im mig ra tio n c o ntr o l, s a id , “ W ould
t h e F re nch a cce pt p eople s in gin g th e L a M ars e illa is e in E nglis h a s a s ig n o f F re nch
p atr io tis m ? O f c o urs e n ot” ( U SA T o day 2 006).
It w as n ot s u rp ris in g th at th e m atte r w as b ro ught to P re sid ent G eorg e W . B ush ’s
a tte ntio n. R esp ondin g to a r e po rte r’s q uestio n, h e s ta te d, “ I th in k th e n atio nal a nth em
ought to b e s u ng in E nglis h . A nd I th in k p eople w ho w ant to b e a c it iz e n o f th is c o untr y
o ught to le arn E nglis h , a nd th ey o ught to le arn to s in g th e n atio nal a nth em in E nglis h ”
(B ake r 2 006). L ik e B eve ns, B ush s u g geste d th at s p e akin g E nglis h is a s ig n o f g ood
cit iz e nsh ip ; a lt e rn ate ly , s p eakin g S panis h s h o w s th at o ne is u nw orth y o f c it iz e nsh ip .
A ls o , B ush c o nnecte d th e u se o f S panis h w it h a la ck o f d esir e to le arn E nglis h ,
su ggestin g th at s in gers o f th e S pa nis h -la nguage a nth em d on’t k n ow a nd p erh aps d on’t
w ant to k n ow E nglis h .
T he h yp ocris y in B ush ’s s ta te m ent w as e vid ent. A r e sid ent a nd fo rm er g ove rn or o f
Te xa s, a s ta te w it h m any M exic a n A m eric a n s, B ush o fte n u se s S panis h in p ublic
a ppeara nce s. A t th e 2 000 R epublic a n N atio nal C onve n tio n, w here h e w as n om in ate d
fo r p re sid ent, h is n ephew , p art L atin o h im se lf , g ave a s p e ech in S panis h . A cco rd in g to
T he B la ck C om menta to r ( 2 006), d urin g B ush ’s fir s t p re sid entia l c a m paig n h e o fte n
w ent to H is p anic fe stiv a ls a nd jo in ed in s in gin g a S panis h -la nguage v e rs io n o f th e “B anner”; h is 2 001 in augura l c e re m on y fe atu re d a n E nglis h -S panis h v e rs io n o f th e
so ng b y J o n S eca da.
S panis h -la nguage v e rs io ns o f th e “ S ta r-S pangle d B anner” h ave a ctu ally b een a p art o f
A m eric a n lif e fo r s o m e tim e. T he B la ck C om menta to r ( 2 006) p oin ts o ut th at th e U S
Bure au o f E duca tio n c o m mis sio n ed s u ch a v e rs io n o f th e s o n g in 1 919, a nd th at fo ur
S panis h -la nguage v e rs io ns a pp ear o n th e U S S ta te D epartm en t’s w ebsit e . A 1 995
w ord -fo r-w ord tr a nsla tio n o f th e fir s t th re e s ta nza s a ppears o n th e w ebsit e
N uevA m eric a .c o m . It is a ppare nt th at a s lo ng a s c u lt u ra l p lu ra lis m r e m ain s in th e
backg ro und, it is u nnotic e d a nd u nch a lle nged, b ut, e sp e cia lly w hen it in vo lv e s
H is p anic la nguage a nd c u lt u re , w hen it c o m es to th e a tte ntio n o f m ain str e am s o cie ty , it
m eets r e sis ta nce .
It m ay b e in evit a ble th at th e o rig in al s o n g, w rit te n in 1 814, w ould u nderg o c h ange, a nd
m any s u pport s u ch c h ange. In r e sp o nse to th e p re sid ent’s r e m ark s, S ecre ta ry o f S ta te
C ondole ezza R ic e , a n a cco m pli s h e d p ia nis t, s a id , “ I’v e h eard th e n atio nal a nth em
done in r a p v e rs io ns, c o untr y v e rs io ns, c la ssic a l v e rs io ns. T he in div id ualiz a tio n o f th e
A m eric a n n atio nal a nth em is q uit e u nderw ay” ( B ake r 2 006). S anneh ( 2 006) r e m in ds
us th at th e 1 960s r o ck s ta r J im i H endrix ’s v e rs io n o f th e s o n g, “ w it h g uit a r p yro te ch nic s
e ch oin g th e b attle fie ld p yro te ch n ic s, w as o nce s e e n a s a p ro vo ca tio n; n ow it ’s o fte n
tr e ate d a s a n e xu bera nt e xp re ssio n o f p atr io tis m .”
I n lig ht o f th is , it is lo gic a l to v ie w “ N uestr o H im no ” a s a n in div id ualiz e d v e rs io n o f th e
natio nally r e co gniz e d s o ng. T he s o n g it s e lf is m ore th an a m ere tr a nsla tio n. L ik e th e
orig in al, w rit te n d urin g th e W ar o f 1 812, “ N uestr o H im no ” c a lls fo r th e d efe nse o f th e
natio n a nd r e fe rs to th e fla g a s a s ym bo l o f fr e edom . L in es a re a dded, h ow eve r, w hic h
ca ll fo r b ro th erh ood a nd th e e qu alit y o f a ll; “ m y p eople ” a re u rg ed to fig ht o n a nd
“b re ak th e c h ain s” ( N PR 2 007). T hese lin es a ppare ntly r e fe r to th e fig ht fo r th e r ig hts
o f im mig ra nts a nd L atin os in g en era l ( n on-im mig ra nt P uerto R ic a ns a nd o th er L atin os
partic ip ate d in th e p ro -im mig ra tio n r a llie s). S anneh ( 2 006) r e gard s th e s o ng a s a n
exp re ssio n o f b oth p olit ic a l a ctiv is m a nd c u lt u ra l p rid e. T he s o n g’s p ro duce r s ta te d th at
th e s o ng w as n eve r in te nded to u su rp th e tr a dit io nal a nth em ( U SA T o day 2 006); in
o th er c ir c u m sta nce s, th e r a lly p artic ip ants w ould m ost lik e ly jo in in w it h o th ers to s in g
th e o rig in al v e rs io n.
In h is c o m ment a nd in h is a ctio n s, P re sid ent B ush h as d em on str a te d tw o c o ntr a stin g
id eolo gie s. O n th e o ne h and, in h is p ublic lif e , h e h as h ad to a ckn ow le dge th at c u lt u ra l plu ra lis m is a r e alit y o f A m eric a n lif e ; S panis h is a la nguage th at w ill n ot g o a w ay, a nd
th e H is p anic v o te is im porta nt fo r a ny p olit ic a l c a n did ate . O n th e o th er h and, in h is
c o m ments o n th e S panis h -la ng uage a nth em , B ush a ppeare d to b e o ff e rin g a
c o nce ssio n to th ose w ho ta ke a h ard lin e o n im mig ra tio n r e fo rm a nd w ho s u pport a n
A nglo -c o nfo rm it y v ie w o f im mig ra nt a dapta tio n; fo r th e la tte r g ro up, s h ow s o f c u lt u ra l
plu ra lis m a re s e en a s th re ats to n atio nal u nit y , a nd th e p re se n ce o f S panis h is o ne
su ch th re at.
A s e co nd in cid ent o ccu rre d in J u ne 2 007. T he A ustr ia n-b orn g ove rn or o f C alif o rn ia ,
A rn old S ch w arz e negger, a ppearin g b efo re a m ee tin g o f th e N atio nal A sso cia tio n o f
H is p anic J o urn alis ts ( N AH J), w as a ske d h ow H is p a nic c h ild re n c o uld im pro ve
a ca dem ic a lly . H e r e sp onded, “ Y ou’v e g ot to tu rn o ff th e S panis h te le vis io n s e t” a nd
avo id S panis h -la nguage m edia in g enera l. H e c la im ed th at h e h ad le arn ed E nglis h
w hen h e fir s t a rriv e d in th e c o untr y b y u sin g it a ll th e tim e. R esp ondin g to th e
co m ment, A le x N ogale s o f th e N atio nal H is p a nic M ed ia c o a lit io n c a lle d th e g ove rn or’s
r e m ark s n aïv e , p oin tin g o ut th a t im mig ra nts n eed S panis h -la nguage m edia to s ta y
in fo rm ed a nd fu nctio n in th eir n e w s u rro undin gs ( U SA T o day 2 007). A noth er a tte ndee,
how eve r, s a id th at m ost m em bers o f N AH J w ould a gre e w it h S ch w arz e negger th at “ w e
m ust le arn E nglis h to s u cce ed in A m eric a n s o cie ty ” ( T hanaw ala 2 007).
Wh en th is a rtic le w as p oste d o n U SA T o day’s w ebsit e , it r e ce iv e d a s le w o f r e sp onse s,
m ost o f th em in s u pport o f th e g o ve rn or’s s ta te m en t. T here w ere s to rie s o f im mig ra nt
pare nts w ho im mers e d th em se lv e s in E nglis h u pon c o m in g to th e U nit e d S ta te s a nd o f
A m eric a n tr a ve le rs u sin g o nly th e la nguage o f th e c o u ntr y th ey w ere v is it in g. C urre nt
im mig ra nt p are nts w ho te ach th eir c h ild re n th eir n ativ e la nguage w ere a ccu se d o f
hold in g th eir c h ild re n b ack a nd r e le gatin g th em to a lif e o f p oorly -p aid e m plo ym ent.
T he c o m ment b y N ogale s w as c a lle d s e lf - s e rv in g, s in ce th e H is p anic m edia r e lie s o n
th e c o ntin ued u se o f S panis h fo r it s e xis te nce ( U SA T o day 2 007).
S ch w arz e negger’s c o m ment is in fa ct n ot s u rp ris in g. T he g ove rn or h as h ad a lo ng
asso cia tio n w it h U S E nglis h , th e o rg aniz a tio n w hic h is in it s th ir d d eca de o f a dvo ca cy
fo r E nglis h a s th e o ff ic ia l la nguage a nd a gain st b ilin gual e duca tio n. H is n am e a ppears
o n th e o rg aniz a tio n’s s ta tio nery a s a m em be r o f th e b oard o f a dvis e rs . In a b ook
publis h ed b y U S E nglis h , S ch w arz e n egger o ff e rs h is o w n s to ry o f im mig ra tio n,
in sp ir e d b y h is d esir e to b re ak a w ay fr o m a fa m ily lif e th at w as “ tr a dit io nal, r e gim ente d,
and d evo id o f h ig h a sp ir a tio ns o r e xp e cta tio n” ( d e la P eña 1 991: 4 4). H e a ttr ib ute s h is su cce ss to “ a s o lid c o m mand o f E nglis h a nd a s tr o ng d riv e to b e a cce pte d a s a n
A m eric a n” ( 4 7). O n a tr ip h om e h e r e aliz e d th at h e c o u ld n o lo nger b e A ustr ia n, th at, in
h is w ord s, “ I h ad m uch m ore th e A m eric a n s p ir it ” ( 4 5).
S ch w arz e negger’s s to ry s h are s th e c o m mon th em e w it h th e o th er im mig ra nt s to rie s in
t h e b ook: in o rd er to m ake it in A m eric a , it is n ece ssa ry to g iv e u p a ll th at y o u b ro ught
w it h y o u. H ow eve r, it is n ’t c le ar t h at S ch w arz e n egger’s s u cce ss in A m eric a w as a
r e su lt o f h is fo cu s o n a ssim ila tio n . H is in it ia l s u cce ss, a s a c o m petit iv e b ody b uild er,
w as b ase d o n s kills th at w ere d e cid edly n on-lin guis tic . S ch w arz e negger’s c la im o f
m akin g h im se lf a ta bula r a sa fo r th e im pla ntin g o f A m eric a n -n ess d oes n ot jiv e w it h
r e alit y . S hortly a fte r th e p ublic a tio n o f d e la P eña’s b ook, S ch w arz e negger o pened a
r e sta ura nt in C alif o rn ia s e rv in g A ustr ia n c u is in e. S te phen K ra sh en ( p ers o nal
co m munic a tio n, J u ly 6 , 2 007), p ro fe sso r e m erit u s a t th e U niv e rs it y o f C alif o rn ia , L os
A ngele s, n ote s th at S ch w arz e ne gger h as p re vio usly c o m mente d th at th e im pro ve m ent
he m ade in E nglis h p ro fic ie ncy w as g re atly a id ed b y ta kin g E SL c la sse s ( n ot b y
cu rta ilin g h is u se o f G erm an). K ra sh e n b elie ve s th at S ch w arz e n egger’s s o lid
e duca tio n in h is n ativ e la nguage a nd h is w id e r e al- w orld e xp e rie nce a ls o h elp ed h is
a cq uis it io n o f E nglis h . In a ddit io n , S ch w arz e n egger’s c la im th at h e g ave u p s p eakin g
G erm an w hen h e c a m e to th e U nit e d S ta te s is s u rp ris in g to th ose w ho h ave h ad
co nta ct w it h h im . K ra sh en w as a m em be r o f th e s a m e L os A ngele s g ym a s
S ch w arz e negger in th e 1 970s a nd r e m em be rs th at h e o fte n e xe rc is e d w hile c h attin g in
G erm an w it h a fr ie nd.
It b eco m es a ppare nt fr o m th e c ir c u m sta nce s o f S ch w arz e n eger’s im mig ra nt s to ry th at
th e c o m paris o n o f h is e xp erie nce to th ose o f c h ild re n h e d oesn ’t k n ow w as im pru dent.
S ch w arz e negger w as a n a dult w hen h e a rriv e d . H is m ig ra tio n w as n ot p art o f a la rg e
exo dus o f p eople fle ein g e co nom ic d epriv a tio n; h e w as n ot p art o f g ro up th at w as le ss
th an w elc o m ed in to th e U nit e d S ta te s. S ch w arz e n neger d id n ot s h are th e e xp erie nce
o f th e c h ild re n o f th is g ro up, w ho e nte re d a s ch ool s yste m la rg ely u nre sp onsiv e to th eir
n eeds.
In a ddit io n, h ad h e c o m e in a no th er e ra , h e w ould h ave fo und s ig nif ic a ntly le ss
a cce pta nce o f h is u se o f h is n ativ e la nguage. D urin g W orld W ar I, th e N atio nal C ouncil
o f D efe nse c o nce iv e d a p la n to e nco u ra ge G erm an A m eric a n s to a bandon th eir
h erit a ge la nguage. S om e c it ie s p asse d la w s s u p pre ssin g th e p ublic u se o f G erm an,
and s o m e s ta te s p ro hib it e d th e in str u ctio n o f G erm an in p riv a te a nd p ublic s ch ools . Afte r th e w ar s u ch r e str ic tio nis m e ase d , b ut a tta cks o n th e G erm an la nguage r e su rg ed
w hen th e c o untr y e nte re d W orld W ar II ( K lo ss 1 977; G arc ía 1 992). O ne w onders h ow
S ch w arz e nneger w ould h ave r e sp o nded h ad h e n ot b een a ble to u se h is n ativ e
la nguage fr e ely w hile h e s o ugh t to im pro ve h is p ro fic ie ncy in E nglis h .
F in ally , in h is r e m ark s to th e H is p anic jo urn alis ts , S ch w arz e n egger d is p la ye d lit tle
k n ow le dge a bout o ptim al c o ndit io ns fo r th e e duca tio n o f lim it e d-E nglis h -p ro fic ie nt
stu dents . S tu die s s h ow th at s u cce ssfu l a ca d em ic p erfo rm an ce is n ot c o nnecte d w it h
h ow m uch E nglis h th ese c h ild re n a re e xp o se d to ; th ere a re c o g nit iv e a dva nta ges to
b ilin gualis m w hic h a id a ca dem ic a ch ie ve m en t ( C um min s 1 979; B ain & Y u 1 978), a nd
th e a cq uis it io n o f E nglis h is n ot h arm ed b y fir s t- la nguage d eve lo pm ent ( R am ir e z e t a l.
1 991). A ls o , th ose w ho m ake u se o f S panis h -la nguage m ed ia a re m ostly a dult
i m mig ra nts ; H is p anic c h ild re n a nd te ens, lik e o th er s e co n d- a nd th ir d -g enera tio n
im mig ra nt c h ild re n, u su ally o rie nt th em se lv e s to A m eric a n c u lt u re a nd th e E nglis h
la nguage n o m atte r w hat th eir p are nts d o ( S onta g 1 993; R odrig uez 1 999). F in ally , th e
re porte r’s q uestio n m ay n ot h ave r e fe rre d s p e cif ic a lly to S panis h -d om in ant c h ild re n;
m any E nglis h -d om in ant H is p anic c h ild re n fa re p oorly in th e A m eric a n e duca tio nal
syste m ( C um min s 1 987). T his m ake s S ch w arz e n egger’s c o m ment e ve n m ore ill-
c o nsid ere d.
T he C onseq uen ces t o S ocie ty o f A nglo -c o nfo rm it y
In th ese tw o in sta nce s o f p ublic d is co urs e o n im mig ra nt a dapta tio n a nd th e u se o f
S panis h , th e s tr e ngth o f th e id ea o f A nglo -c o n fo rm it y is e vid ent. F or s o m e p eople w ho
have c o m mente d o n th ese in cid e nts , th e m ere p re se n ce o f S panis h in th e p ublic a re na
is c o nnecte d to a la ck o f in te re st in le arn in g a nd u sin g E nglis h a nd, c o nse quently , a
r e je ctio n o f th e A m eric a n e th os, p atr io tis m to th e c o u ntr y , a nd a s e nse o f c it iz e nsh ip .
C ontin ued u se o f o ne’s h erit a ge la nguage is c o n sid ere d a r o adblo ck to th e a cq uis it io n
of E nglis h a nd to a ca dem ic s u cce ss. A nglo -c o n fo rm it y h old s o ut th e p ro m is e , if n ot th e
guara nte e, o f s u cce ss in A m eric a . T he id ea th at tw o la nguages c a n c o exis t in a s u bse t
of A m eric a ns w it h n o d im in utio n o f th at g ro up’s s e n se o f b ein g A m eric a n a nd n o th re at
to n atio nal u nit y , a s d escrib ed b y K alle n ( 1 924) in h is d efin it io n o f c u lt u ra l p lu ra lis m ,
and a s d escrib ed a s a n a sse t b y P orte s a nd R am ba ut ( 2 001), is d if f ic u lt fo r m any
A m eric a ns to g ra sp . T he c h alle nge th at th is p ose s to S panis h -s p eakin g A m eric a ns,
m any o f w hom a re n ot in clin ed to s u b m it to A nglo -c o n fo rm it y , is s ig nif ic a nt. As H artm an ( 2 003) e xp la in s, w hen E nglis h is h eld u p a s th e p re fe rre d la nguage, th ose
w ho s p eak a noth er la nguage a re m ark e d a s “ d if f e re nt” a nd in fe rio r. It is th is a ct o f
ca te goriz in g p eople a cco rd in g t o o utw ard d if f e re nce s th at is th e b asis o f r a cis m , a nd
th e b asis o f th e s yste m o f c o lo n iz a tio n u nder w hic h th e m ajo r W este rn s ta te s to ok
co ntr o l o ve r m uch o f th e n on-W este rn w orld . T he c o lo niz e d s tr iv e to b eco m e a s m uch
lik e th e c o lo niz e rs a s p ossib le , a g oal w hic h h old s o ut th e p ro m is e o f a n im pro ve d lif e
b ut w hic h is , u lt im ate ly , u nre ach a ble . S ku tta bb-K angas ( 1 990: 1 1 ) m ain ta in s th at a s
bio lo gic a lly -b ase d r a cis m h as b e co m e in cre asin gly u nte nable , it h as b een r e pla ce d b y
eth nic is m a nd lin guic is m , in w hic h “ c e rta in e th nic g ro ups, c u lt u re s a nd la nguages…
a re c la im ed to b e fit te r to r u le th a n o th ers , e xp a nd, a nd b e le arn ed b y o th ers .” In th is
w ay, th e d om in ant g ro up, c u lt u re o r la nguage le git im iz e s a nd e nsu re s th e p erp etu atio n
of it s s u perio r s ta tu s.
T he a bove v ie w s p ara lle l th ose o f E dw ard S aid a nd th e c o n ce p t o f O rie nta lis m , “ a
s yste m o f r e pre se nta tio ns … th ro ugh w hic h th e W est s o u ght to u nders ta nd a nd c o ntr o l
it s c o lo niz e d p opula tio ns,” a d is co u rs e “ th at b oth a ssu m es a nd p ro m ote s a
f u ndam enta l d if f e re nce b etw een th e W este rn ‘u s’ a nd th e O rie nta l ‘t h em ’” ( R iz vi &
L in gard 2 006). A cco rd in g to S aid , it w as e sse ntia l fo r c o lo niz e rs to v ie w th e c o lo niz e d
as in fe rio r, in a n um ber w ays, in o rd er to ju stif y a nd r a tio naliz e im peria lis m . In th e
cu rre nt U S c o nte xt, S panis h is r a tio naliz e d a s a la nguage th at c o nnote s a n um ber o f
negativ e a ttr ib ute s; in th is w ay, th e m arg in aliz a tio n o f th e H is p a nic p opula tio n b y th e
priv ile ged c la ss is ju stif ie d.
It is in str u ctiv e to e xa m in e th e d is tin ctio ns th at w ere d ra w n in th e a bove e xa m ple s. A
p ers o n s p eakin g E nglis h is c o nsid ere d to b e s u p erio r to a p ers o n s p eakin g S panis h .
T he fo rm er in div id ual d oes n ot h a ve to w orry a bout b ein g s e e n a s a “ b ad im m ig ra nt”
( o r a n im mig ra nt a t a ll) , a p ers o n u nw orth y o f c it iz e n sh ip , o r a “ b ad A m eric a n.” T hose
w ho k n ow o nly E nglis h , w ho a re b orn a nd/o r b ro ught u p in th e U nit e d S ta te s in to
E nglis h -s p eakin g fa m ilie s, a re a uto m atic a lly “ s a fe .” T hose w ho s p eak S panis h m ay in
r e alit y fa ll in to s e ve ra l lin guis tic c a te gorie s: th ey m ay b e b ilin gual ( c it iz e ns o r n ot) ; th ey
m ay b e r e ce nt im mig ra nts w ho h ave n ’t y e t le arn ed E nglis h ; o r th ey m ay b e lo ng-te rm
im mig ra nts w ho h ave m in im al o r n o p ro fic ie ncy in E nglis h , d ue to th eir lo w s o cio -
eco nom ic s ta tu s. H ow eve r, a t th e m om en t a ny o f th ese p eople u se S panis h – s in gin g
a S panis h -la nguage s o ng, lis te nin g to S panis h -la nguage r a dio o r w atc h in g S panis h -
la nguage te le vis io n – th ey r u n th e r is k o f b ein g lu m pe d in to th e s u bord in ate c a te gory . The h egem ony o f th e E nglis h la nguage p ose s a s e rio us th re at to a n o pen, d em ocra tic
s o cie ty . T he E nglis h -o nly m ove m en t, a th ir ty -y e a r e ff o rt to m ake E nglis h th e o ff ic ia l
la nguage o f a ll s ta te s a nd th e n a tio n, th riv e s o n th e n otio n o f th e im porta nce o f E nglis h
to A m eric a n s o cie ty . N orm an S hu m way, a C ongre ssm an w ho s p onso re d s e ve ra l
ve rs io ns o f th e E nglis h L anguage A m en dm en t, w rit e s th at E nglis h is “ th e ‘g lu e’ w hic h
h as h eld u s to geth er, fo rg in g s tr e ngth a nd u nit y fr o m o ur r ic h c u lt u ra l d iv e rs it y .”
Wi th out th e le gal p ro te ctio n o f th e la w , h e e xp la in s, “ th e p rim acy o f E nglis h is b ein g
th re ate ned, a nd … w e a re m ovin g to w ard th e s ta tu s o f a b ilin gual s o cie ty ” ( 1 988:1 21).
A s n ote d in th e d is cu ssio n o f S ch w arz e n egger, E nglis h -o nly a dvo ca te s b elie ve th at
“g ood im mig ra nts ” g iv e u p n ativ e la nguages a nd c u lt u re s in o rd er to a cce pt A m eric a n
cu lt u re a nd E nglis h . T hey fu rth e r b elie ve th at to day’s im mig ra nts la rg ely r e je ct th is
p ath , a lt h ough th is is c o ntr a dic te d b y c u rre nt r e se a rc h ( N ic o la u & V ald iv ie so 1 992;
W ong F illm ore 1 991). O nce im mig ra nts a re la bele d “ b ad im mig ra nts ,” it is e asie r fo r
gove rn m ents a nd c e rta in n on-im mig ra nt g ro ups to m ake lif e m ore d if f ic u lt fo r th em .
Fir s t, if g ove rn m ents c a nnot c o m m un ic a te w it h th ose w ho a re n ot p ro fic ie nt in E nglis h ,
m any o pportu nit ie s a nd s e rv ic e s th at a re d ue th em m ay n eve r r e ach th em . A lr e ady
under a tta ck b y th e o ff ic ia l- E ngli s h m ove m en t is fe dera l la w m an datin g b ilin gual
assis ta nce a nd b allo tin g to c e rta in m in orit y -la nguage c o m munit ie s ( D ic ke r 2 003). W it h
s o m e s ta te s n ow m andatin g id en tif ic a tio n c a rd s fo r v o te r r e gis tr a tio n, it is n ot
unre aso nable to im agin e a s ta te im po sin g E nglis h -la nguage r e quir e m ents fo r
re gis te rin g a nd v o tin g a s w ell.
S eco nd, A nglo -c o nfo rm it y p hilo so p hy h as a lr e ady in filt r a te d p ro pose d fe dera l
le gis la tio n, m ost r e ce ntly th at p ro posin g c h a nges in im mig ra tio n la w . T he “ S ecu re
B ord ers , E co nom ic O pportu nit y a nd Im mig ra tio n R efo rm A ct o f 2 007,” w hic h d id n ot
get o ut o f th e U S S enate , h as ty p ic a l o ff ic ia l- E nglis h w ord in g in o ne o f it s p ro vis io ns,
c a llin g E nglis h th e “ c o m mon” la n guage o f g ove rn m en t a nd g iv in g g ove rn m ent th e
re sp onsib ilit y o f p re se rv in g a nd e nhancin g it s r o le . It p ro pose s a c o m ple x, m erit - b ase d
syste m fo r th e a cce pta nce o f le g al im mig ra nts , w it h a pplic a n ts g ain in g p oin ts fo r
adva nce d e duca tio nal d egre es a nd h ig h p ro fic ie ncy in E nglis h . T hose w ho e nte r th e
co untr y w it h out p ro per d ocu m enta tio n w ould b e a llo w ed to s ta y b y s a tis fy in g a n um ber
of r e quir e m ents , in clu din g s h ow in g a n a tte m pt to le arn E nglis h b y e nro llin g in o r
havin g th eir n am es o n a w ait in g lis t fo r E nglis h c la sse s. T he S ecre ta ry o f E duca tio n is
c h arg ed w it h d eve lo pin g a n In te rn et s it e fo r th e te ach in g o f E nglis h to th ose w ho
sp eak o th er la nguages ( H erit a ge F oundatio n n .d .) This le gis la tio n c le arly r a m ps u p th e im po rta nce o f E nglis h to n ew co m ers . M ere ly
a pply in g fo r e ntr y in to th e c o untr y w ould r e quir e E nglis h la nguage p ro fic ie ncy, w hic h
p riv ile ges a pplic a nts fr o m th e u pper c la sse s o f th eir h om e c o u ntr ie s. T here is lit tle in
t h e le gis la tio n th at o ff e rs c o ncre te h elp to im mig ra nts w ho w ant to le arn E nglis h .
P uttin g o ne’s n am e o n a w ait in g lis t fo r a n E nglis h c la ss s h o w s in te nt, b ut w hat if th e
pote ntia l s tu dent’s n am e n eve r g e ts o ff th e lis t? In fa ct, th is p ro vis io n s u ggests th at th e
w rit e rs o f th e le gis la tio n a lr e ady k n o w th at th e s u p ply o f a dult E SL c la sse s is n ot
su ff ic ie nt fo r c u rre nt d em and ( S anto s 2 007). M cH ugh e t a l. ( 2 007) d ocu m ent th e
in adequacy o f th e A m eric a n e du ca tio n s yste m in lig ht o f th e e norm it y o f th e ta sk o f
te ach in g E nglis h to im mig ra nts t o th e e xte nt r e quir e d u nder th e te rm s o f th e S enate
b ill. F in ally , a n In te rn et le arn in g s yste m is lim it e d to th ose w ho h ave a cce ss to
c o m pute rs , a nd th ere is lit tle e vid ence to d ate th at s u ch a n a ppro ach to la nguage
acq uis it io n is e ff e ctiv e .
T hir d , b ilin gual e duca tio n, a p ro ve n, s u cce ssfu l a ppro ach to e duca tin g n on-E nglis h -
pro fic ie nt c h ild re n, is a ls o th re ate ned b y a n A nglo -c o n fo rm it y v ie w o f s o cie ty . A lt h ough
th is m eth odolo gy r e ach es o nly a s m all p erc e n ta ge o f s u ch c h ild re n, it is u nder
co nsta nt th re at o f e xte rm in atio n, in a c a m pa ig n b egun b y R on U nz in C alif o rn ia in
1 998 ( D ic ke r 2 003). O nce th is a p pro ach to e duca tio n is b lo cke d, it b eco m es m ore
d if f ic u lt fo r s u ch c h ild re n to a tta in h ig h a ca d em ic a ch ie ve m en t. A s a r e su lt , th e u pw ard
m obilit y o f e ntir e m in orit y -la ngu age c o m munit ie s is th w arte d. F urth erm ore , A nglo -
co nfo rm it y a dvo ca te s m ay ju stif y e lim in atin g b ilin gual e duca tio n b y c la im in g th at
tr a nsfo rm in g c h ild re n in to b ilin gua l a dult s m ake s th em “ b ad” A m eric a ns. ( P riv ile ged
A m eric a ns d o p riz e b ilin gualis m fo r th em se lv e s, b ut th e la nguages th ey v a lu e a re
g enera lly th ose n ot s p oke n b y la rg e, lo w -s ta tu s im mig ra nt a nd m in orit y g ro ups. A nd
th ey a cq uir e th eir s e co nd la ngu ages in e lit e s yste m s o f e duca tio n n ot a va ila ble to lo w -
sta tu s A m eric a ns.)
C onclu sio n
S eve ra l c o ntr a stin g p ara dig m s h ave b een a pplie d to d escrib e h ow d if f e rin g c u lt u re s
have in te ra cte d in U nit e d S ta te s h is to ry a nd h ow to day th ey s h o uld in te ra ct w it h e ach
o th er: a ssim ila tio n, a ccu lt u ra tio n, A nglo -c o n fo rm it y , c u lt u ra l p lu ra lis m , a nd th e m elt in g
pot. Wh ile th e la st o f th ese r e m ain s in th e c o lle ctiv e im ag in atio n a s th e m ost
d em ocra tic o f p ara dig m s, a nd w hile s o m e h ark b ack to a n im ag in ary tim e in w hic h th is
p ara dig m d escrib ed th e r e alit y o f A m eric a n lif e , th e o ve rrid in g fo rc e in th e c u lt u ra l re alit y o f th e U nit e d S ta te s h as b een A nglo -c o n fo rm it y . L in guis tic a lly , A nglo -c o nfo rm it y
r e quir e s th e s u bstit u tio n o f lo ca l o r im mig ra nt la nguages fo r E nglis h . A nglo -c o nfo rm it y
id eolo gy is r e fle cte d in p ublic d is co urs e o n th e r o le o f S panis h in A m eric a n s o cie ty , a s
in th e tw o c a se s d is cu sse d h ere .
A nglo -c o nfo rm it y is n ot u niv e rs a lly a cce pte d, h ow eve r; w hile s o m e m ay b uy in to it s
n ece ssit y , o th ers s e e c u lt u ra l p lu ra lis m a s a v ia ble a lt e rn ativ e . M ore im porta ntly , a
s o cie ty in w hic h A nglo -c o nfo rm it y is e xp e cte d is o ne w hic h o ff e rs fe rtile s o il fo r th e
gro w th o f a nti- d em ocra tic m ove m en ts , s u ch a s th ose c a llin g fo r m akin g E nglis h th e
off ic ia l la nguage, e ndin g b ilin gua l e duca tio n, r e str ic tin g le gal im mig ra tio n a nd
cit iz e nsh ip , a nd r e str ic tin g v o te r r e gis tr a tio n a nd v o tin g. C la sh e s b etw een th ese
p ers p ectiv e s w ill c o ntin ue to b e p la ye d o ut in th e p ublic , a nd e sp ecia lly p olit ic a l,
a re nas.
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