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2 F eb ru ary : U .S . g o ve rn m en t b an s a ll p h oto s o f fl ag -d ra p ed c o ffi ns o f d ea d U .S . s o ld ie rs r e tu rn in g h om e a . B an t o s ta y i n e ff ect f o r 1 8 m ore y e a rs b . C halle n ged i n c o u rt a t t h e t im e b y f o rm er N ew Y o rk T im es r e p orte r S yd n ey S ch an berg a n d o th ers 4 . C N N, t h en n ew c a b le T V n etw ork , d om in ate s c o ve ra g e o f w ar f r o m b eg in nin g t o e n d ( 2 8 F eb ru ary 1 9 9 1) F . T he a ft e rm ath 1 . U .S . n ew s m ed ia c o m pan ie s s tr o n gly c rit ic iz e U .S . g o ve rn m en t c e n so rs h ip — a ft e r t h e w ar 2 . 1 9 92: N ay ir a h ’s t e stim on y o n “ in cu bato r b ab ie s” e xp ose d a s m ed ia h oax ( b y C BC a n d o th ers ) 3 . “ C it iz e n s f o r a F re e K uw ait ” e xp ose d a s “ fr o n t” ( fa k e) g ro u p p aid f o r m ostly b y K uw ait g o ve rn m en t 4 . L esso n s t h e P en ta g o n l e a rn ed a b ou t P ers ia n G ulf w ar: a . W hen y o u w in c o n tr o l o f t h e i m ag es o f w ar, y o u w in t h e w ar i t s e lf b . U sin g a P R c o m pan y i s d efi nit e ly a p lu s i n m an ag in g n ew s c o ve ra g e o f w ar I II. T h e “ F ir s t D ig it a l- A ge M ed ia W ar”: I r a q W ar ( 2 0 03-2 0 11) — “ T he e m bed ded r e p o rte r t a ctic i s s h eer g en iu s. … Takin g r e p o rte rs f r o m b eh in d t h e l i n es a n d p u tt in g t h em o n t h e f r o n t l i n es w as a n o ff er t h e m ed ia c o u ld n’t r e sis t” ( K atie P ain e, P R /m ark etin g a n aly st a n d f o rm er n ew sp ap er r e p o rte r, 2 8 M arc h 2 0 03) A . S ett in g u p t h e s p in m ach in e 1 . E arly 2 0 01: V ic to ria C la rk e a p poin te d “ a ssis ta n t s e cre ta ry o f d efe n se f o r p u bli c a ff air s ” i n B ush g o vt — back gro u n d i n P R /a d ve rtis in g, i n clu din g w it h i n fl uen tia l H ill & K now lt o n P R fi rm ( s e e a b ove ) 2 . E arly 2 0 02: C la rk e b eg in s u sin g T V “ m ili t a ry a n aly sts ” f o r p ro m otin g p ossib le i n va sio n o f I r a q — ob je ctiv e : t o h elp t u rn r e lu cta n t U .S . p u bli c o p in io n i n f a v o r o f f u tu re w ar w it h I r a q a . M an y “ a n aly sts ” t h en w ork in g a s l o b byis ts f o r m ili t a ry c o n tr a cto rs d oin g b u sin ess w it h P en ta g o n b . “ A naly sts ” i n clu ded r e sp ecte d r e tir e d m ili t a ry o ffi cia ls w ho w ere f a v o ra b le t o P en ta g o n p la n s c . “ A naly sts ” r e g u la rly b rie fe d b y U .S . o ffi cia ls ; e xp en se s p aid f o r t r ip s t o I r a q , G uan tá n am o B ay, e tc . d . “ A naly sts ” a p pea re d o n T V /ra d io s h ow s ( e sp ecia lly F o x N ew s) a n d i n p rin t a s i n dep en den t s o u rc e s — th eir p ers o n al b ack gro u n d a n d p ossib le c o n fl ic t o f i n te re st w it h U .S . m ili t a ry u su ally n ot r e ve a le d 3 . L ate 2 0 02 ( fo u r m on th s b efo re I r a q i n va sio n ): “ E m bed ded r e p orte r” s y ste m k ic k s i n to g ea r B . “ E m bed ded r e p orte r” s y ste m 1 . N ove m ber 2 0 02: F ir s t- e ve r U .S . m ili t a ry /m ed ia j o in t t r a in in g ( “m ed ia b oot- c a m p”) s e ssio n s h eld a . O ne-w eek “ M ed ia T ra in in g C ou rs e ”, i n g ro u ps o f a b ou t 5 0 U .S . a n d i n te rn atio n al j o u rn ali s ts b . A t Q uan tic o M arin e C orp s b ase i n V ir g in ia a n d a b oard w ars h ip U SS I w o J im a , o ff c o ast o f V ir g in ia c . R ep orte rs i s su ed m ili t a ry u n if o rm s a n d g ea r ( n o g u n s) t o w ea r a n d b rin g w it h t h em d u rin g w ar d .

R ep orte rs u n derg o m ili t a ry p h ysic a l t r a in in g, s im ila r t o b att le s it u atio n s, i n w ood s 2 . 1 0 F eb ru ary 2 0 03 ( o n e m on th b efo re I r a q i n va sio n ): U .S . D efe n se D ep artm en t i s su es d ocu m en t o n r u le s f o r e m bed ded r e p orte rs — “ P ubli c A ffair s G uid an ce o n E m bed din g M ed ia D urin g P oss ib le F u tu re O pera tio n s/D ep lo ym en ts ” i n M id dle E ast r e g io n a . L on g l i s t o f s u bje cts e m bed ded r e p orte rs c a n not c o ve r i n w ar ( tr o op l o ca tio n s, s o ld ie rs ’ n am es, e tc .) b . N o “ c e n so rs h ip ”, b u t “ s e cu rit y r e v ie w ” o f n ew s s to rie s w hen eve r d eem ed n ece ssa ry b y U .S .

m ili t a ry c . A ll “ s e cu rit y r e v ie w s” o f c o n te n t o f n ew s s to rie s a re “ s tr ic tly v o lu n ta ry ” b u t… d . “ If t h e r e p orte r d oes n ot a g re e [ to a ‘s e cu rit y r e v ie w ’] , t h en a cc e ss m ay n ot b e g ra n te d ” e . N ew s c o m pan ie s/jo u rn ali s ts m ust fi rs t s ig n c o n tr a ct, a g re ein g t o t h ese r u le s 2 3 . 2 0 M arc h 2 0 03 — I r a q w ar b eg in s. 6 00-7 0 0 r e p orte rs f r o m a ro u n d t h e g lo b e a re w it h U .S ./ U .K . t r o op s a . R ep orte rs l iv e i n m ili t a ry c a m ps w it h s o ld ie rs , t r a v e l w it h t h em a t a ll t im es ( in clu din g d u rin g b att le ) b . I n it ia l “ s h ock a n d a w e” a tt a ck s o n I r a q — g en era lly c o ve re d i n p osit iv e t o n es b y m ed ia C . M ed ia m an ip u la tio n a n d “ p h oto o p portu n it ie s” 1 . 2 0 01- 2 0 03: D is c re d it e d r e p ortin g b y J u dit h M ille r o n I r a q i w ea p on s t h re a t t o U .S . ( N ew Y o rk T im es ) 2 . E arly M arc h 2 0 03: P en ta g o n h ir e s H olly w ood s e t d esig n er t o b u ild h ig h -te ch , $ 2 5 0 ,0 00 “ m ed ia c e n te r” — U.S . C en tr a l C om man d ( C EN TC O M ) h ea d qu arte rs a t D oh a, Q ata r ( a cro ss t o w n f r o m A l J a ze era ) 3 .

L ate M arc h 2 0 03: “ R esc u e” o f U .S . a rm y s o ld ie r, J e ssic a L yn ch , a t I r a q i h osp it a l ( W ash in gto n P ost) 4 . A pril 2 0 03: “ T o p pli n g” o f S ad dam H usse in s ta tu e i n F ir d os S q u are , B ag h dad ( w orld m ed ia ) 5 . 1 M ay 2 0 03: “ M is sio n A cco m pli s h ed ” p h oto o p b y B ush o n w ars h ip o ff C ali f o rn ia c o ast ( w orld m ed ia ) 6 . 2 9 N ove m ber 2 0 03: S u rp ris e “ T han ksg iv in g v is it ” b y B ush t o U .S . t r o op s i n I r a q ( w orld m ed ia ) D . T he a ft e rm ath 1 . B y O cto b er 2 0 06 , b ig d ro p i n n um ber o f e m bed ded r e p orte rs i n I r a q ( s o m e c rit ic is m o f U .S .

m ili t a ry ) 2 . S h arp d iv is io n a m on g j o u rn ali s ts f o r a n d a g ain st “ e m bed ded r e p orte r” s y ste m 3 . F in din gs o f j o in t a ca d em ic /m ili t a ry s tu dy ( 2 0 04 ) o n “ e m bed ded r e p orte r” s y ste m : a . E m bed ded r e p orte rs g av e m ore “ fa v o ra b le ” p rin t c o ve ra g e o f U .S . m ili t a ry i n e a rly d ay s o f I r a q w ar t h an d id r e p orte rs w ho w ere n ot e m bed ded b . E m bed ded r e p orte rs d id t h eir c o ve ra g e m ore a s p ers o n al “ e p is o d es” t h an a s w id er “ th em es” o f w ar 4 . P ew R ese a rc h C en te r s tu dy ( 2 0 03) o n e m bed ded r e p orte rs ’ T V c o ve ra g e: fi rs t t h re e d ay s o f I r a q w ar a . “ V ie w ers w ere h ea rin g m ostly f r o m r e p orte rs , n ot d ir e ctly f r o m s o ld ie rs o r o th er s o u rc e s” b . “ N ot a s in gle s to ry e xa m in ed s h ow ed p ic tu re s o f p eo p le b ein g h it b y fi re d w ea p on s” c . O f t h e e m bed ded j o u rn ali s ts ’ T V r e p orts s tu die d , “ 9 4 p erc e n t w ere p rim arily f a ctu al i n n atu re ” 5 . I r a q w ar a s a s u cce ssfu l “ b lu ep rin t” f o r f u tu re U .S . “ m ed ia w ars ” o f t h e 2 1 s t c e n tu ry R efe re n ces / S ou rc es : — N ew s m ed ia a n d V ie tn am w ar • N ew Y ork T im es : “ V ie tn am : T he S ig n s o f S ta le m ate ” ( 7 A ugu st 1 967) h ttp s://g ra phic s8 .n ytim es.c o m /p acka ges/p df/n atio nal/ 1 9670807apple .p df • F air n ess & A ccu ra cy i n R ep ortin g ( F A IR ): “ T he M yth o f t h e M ed ia ’s R ole i n V ie tn am ” ( 6 M ay 2 001) h ttp s://fa ir . o rg /a rtic le /th e-m yth -o f- th e-m edia s-ro le -in -v ie tn am / • N atio n al A rc h iv es: “ P en ta g on P ap ers ” ( c o m ple te r e p ort o f o rig in al 1 967 g ov ern m en t d ocu m en ts ) ( r e le a se d 1 3 J u ne 2 011 ) h ttp s://w ww.a rc h iv e s.g ov/r e se arc h /p enta gon-p a pers — N ew s m ed ia a n d P ers ia n G ulf w ar • C -S PA N : “ M ed ia A cce ss i n t h e P ers ia n G ulf ” ( 2 0 F eb ru ary 1 991) h ttp s://w ww.c -s p an.o rg /v id eo/? 16616-1 /m edia -a cce ss-p e rs ia n-g u lf • F air n ess & A ccu ra cy i n R ep ortin g ( F A IR ): “ G ulf W ar C ov era g e — T he W ors t C en so rs h ip W as a t H om e” ( 1 A pril 1 991) h ttp s://fa ir . o rg /e xtr a /g ulf - w ar-c o ve ra ge/ • N ew Y ork T im es: “ A fte r t h e W ar: L on g S erie s o f M ilit a ry D ecis io n s L ed t o G ulf W ar N ew s C en so rs h ip ” ( 5 M ay 1 991) h ttp s://w ww.n ytim es.c o m /1 991/0 5/0 5/w orld /a fte r- th e-w ar-lo ng-s e rie s-o f- m ilit a ry -d ecis io ns-le d-to g ulf - w ar-n ew s-c e nso rs h ip .h tm l • N ew Y ork T im es : “ R em em ber N ay ir a h , W it n ess f o r K uw ait ? ” ( 6 J a n u ary 1 992) [ o p in io n a rtic le b y jo u rn alis t J o h n R . M acA rth u r, fi rs t e x p osin g “ N ay ir a h h oax ”] h ttp s://w ww.n ytim es.c o m /1 992/0 1/0 6/o pin io n/r e m em be r-n ayir a h -w it n ess-fo r-k u w ait .h tm l 3 • C an ad ia n B ro ad ca stin g C orp ora tio n ( C BC ): “ T o S ell A W ar” ( T V d ocu m en ta ry ) ( D ece m ber 1 992) h ttp s://w ww.y o utu be.c o m /w atc h ?v= ya R 1Y BR 5g6 U &sp fr e lo ad= 10 • P ro P ublic a : “ T he T o p plin g: H ow t h e M ed ia I n fl ate d t h e F all o f S ad dam ’s S ta tu e i n F ir d os S q u are ” ( 3 J a n u ary 2 011 ) h ttp s://w ww.p ro public a .o rg /a rtic le /th e-to pplin g-s a dd am -s ta tu e-fir d o s-s q u are -b a ghdad • A l J a zeera : “ S ellin g t h e F ir s t G ulf W ar” ( 8 J a n u ary 2 011 ) h ttp s://w ww.a lja ze era .c o m /p ro gra m /th e-lis te nin g-p ost/2 011 /1 /8 /s e llin g-th e-fir s t- g u lf - w ar — N ew s m ed ia a n d I ra q w ar • U .S . D ep artm en t o f D efe n se : “ P ublic A ffair s G uid an ce o n E m bed din g M ed ia D urin g P ossib le F u tu re O pera tio n s/ D ep lo y m en ts i n t h e U .S . C en tr a l C om man d ’s A re a o f R esp on sib ilit y ” [ o ffi cia l d ocu m en t] ( 3 F eb ru ary 2 003) h ttp s://fa s.o rg /s g p/o th erg ov/d od/e m bed.p df • N ew Y ork T im es : “ M y W eek a t E m bed B oot C am p” ( 2 M arc h 2 003) h ttp s://w ww.n ytim es.c o m /2 003/0 3/0 2/m agazin e/th e-w ay-w e-li v e -n o w -3 -0 2 -0 3 -p ro ce ss-m y-w eek a t- e m bed-b oot- c a m p.h tm l • U SA T od ay : “ L ig h ts , C am era s, G et R ea d y f o r W ar” ( 9 M arc h 2 003) h ttp s://u sa to day3 0.u sa to day.c o m /lif e /te le vis io n/n e w s/2 003-0 3 -0 9 -m edia -w ar-u sa t_ x.h tm • S la te .c o m : “ T he P R W ar” ( 2 5 M arc h 2 003) h ttp s://s la te .c o m /n ew s-a nd-p olit ic s/2 003/0 3/th e-p r-w ar. h tm l • P ew R ese a rc h C en te r: “ E m bed ded R ep orte rs ” ( 3 A pril 2 003) h ttp s://w ww.jo urn alis m .o rg /2 003/0 4/0 3/e m bedded -re porte rs / • B BC N ew s: “ T he P ro s a n d C on s o f ‘ E m bed d in g’” ( 4 A pril 2 003) h ttp ://n ew s.b bc.c o .u k/2 /h i/ u k_ new s/2 919229.s tm • J o u rn alis m & M ass C om munic a tio n Q uarte rly : “ E m bed din g J o u rn alis ts i n M ilit a ry C om bat U nit s : I m pact o n N ew sp ap er S to ry F ra m es a n d T o n e” ( S p rin g 2 004) h ttp ://s it e .iu gaza .e du.p s/tis sa /file s/2 010/0 2/E M BED DIN G _JO URNALIS TS _IN _M IL IT A R Y_C O M BA T _U NIT S .p df • I n stit u te f o r D efe n se A naly se s: “ A sse ssm en t o f t h e D oD E m bed ded M ed ia P ro g ra m ” ( S ep te m ber 2 004) h ttp s://w ww.id a.o rg /~ /m edia /C orp ora te /F ile s/P ubli c a tio ns/ID A_D ocu m en ts /J A W D/p -3 9 31.p df • F air n ess & A ccu ra cy i n R ep ortin g ( F A IR ): “ Ir a q a n d t h e M ed ia — A C rit ic a l T im elin e” ( 1 9 M arc h 2 007) h ttp s://fa ir . o rg /ta ke -a ctio n/m edia -a dvis o rie s/ir a q-a nd-th e-m edia / • B ill M oy ers J o u rn al / PB S-T V : “ B uyin g t h e W ar: H ow t h e B ig M ed ia F aile d U s” ( 2 5 A pril 2 007) h ttp s://b illm oye rs .c o m /c o nte nt/b uyin g-th e-w ar/ • N ew Y ork T im es : “ B eh in d T V A naly sts , P en ta g on ’s H id den H an d ” ( 2 0 A pril 2 008) h ttp s://w ww.n ytim es.c o m /2 008/0 4/2 0/u s/2 0genera ls .h tm l 4