Please write a 250+ words to each questions I attach on files.
Legacy of Hate: The Conquest ofMexico's Northwest
Leg acy o f H ate : T he C onquest o f M ex ic o 's N orth w est
by R odolf o A cu na
A n O ve rv ie w
T he U nit e d S ta te s in va ded M exic o in th e m id -n in ete enth c e n tu ry d urin g a p erio d o f
dra m atic c h ange. R apid te ch nolo gic a l b re akth ro ughs tr a nsfo rm ed th e N orth A m eric a n
natio n, fr o m a fa rm s o cie ty in to a n in dustr ia l c o m pe tit o r. T he p ro ce ss c o nve rte d N orth
A m eric a in to a p rin cip al in th e w orld m ark e tp la ce . T he w ars w it h M exic o , s ym pto m s o f
th is tr a nsfo rm atio n, s te m med fr o m th e n eed to a ccu m ula te m ore la nd, to c e le bra te
h ero es, a nd to p ro ve th e n atio n 's p ow er b y m ilit a ry s u p erio rit y .
T his [s e le ctio n] e xa m in es th e lin k b etw een th e T e xa s ( 1 836) a nd th e M exic a n ( 1 845-
1848) W ars . It a naly ze s N orth A m eric a n a ggre ssio n, s h o w in g h ow E uro pean p eople s
kn ow n a s " A m eric a ns" a cq uir e d w hat is to day th e S outh w est. T he w ord s " e xp ansio n"
and " in va sio n" a re u se d in te rc h angeably . T he N orth A m eric a n in va sio ns o f M exic o a re
e quate d w it h th e fo rg in g o f E uro pean e m pir e s in A sia , A fr ic a , a nd L atin A m eric a . T he
urg e to e xp and, in th e c a se o f t h e U nit e d S ta te s, w as n ot b ase d o n th e n eed fo r la nd-
th e L ouis ia na P urc h ase , c e ntr a l Illin ois , s o u th ern G eorg ia , a nd W est V ir g in ia la y
va ca nt. R ath er, th e m otiv e w as p ro fit - a nd th e w ars p ro ve d p ro fit a ble , w it h th e E uro -
A m eric a n n atio n s e iz in g o ve r h alf o f M exic o .
N orth A m eric a ns fo ught th e T e xa s W ar-th at is , U .S . d olla rs fin ance d it , U .S . a rm s w ere
u se d o n M exic a n s o il, a nd E uro -A m eric a n s a lm ost e xclu siv e ly p ro fit e d fr o m it .
P re sid ent A ndre w J a ckso n a ppro ve d o f th e w ar a nd ig nore d N orth A m eric a n n eutr a lit y
la w s. T he s o -c a lle d R epublic h eld T e xa s in tr u ste esh ip u ntil 1 844, w hen th e U nit e d
S ta te s a nnexe d it . T his a ct a m ou nte d to a d ecla ra tio n o f w ar o n M exic o . W hen M exic o
re sp onded b y b re akin g d ip lo m atic r e la tio ns, th e N orth A m eric a n s u se d th is e xcu se to
m anufa ctu re th e w ar. M any N orth A m eric a n s q uestio ned th e m ora lit y o f th e w ar b ut
su pporte d th eir g ove rn m ent b eca use it w as th eir c o u ntr y , r ig ht o r w ro ng. This [s e le ctio n] d oes n ot fo cu s o n th e w ars ' b attle s o r h ero es, b ut o n h ow N orth
A m eric a ns r a tio naliz e d th ese In va sio ns a nd h ave d eve lo ped h is to ric a l a m nesia a bout
it s c a use s a nd r e su lt s . W ar is n eit h er r o m an tic n or ju st, a nd th e U nit e d S ta te s d id n ot
act b enevo le ntly to w ard M exic o . N orth A m eric a n s c o m mit te d a tr o cit ie s, a nd, w hen
th ey c o uld , M exic a ns r e sp onded. E ve n tu ally , th e T re aty o f G uadalu pe H id alg o e nded
th e M exic a n-A m eric a n W ar, a nd n orth ern M exic o b eca m e p art o f th e N orth A m eric a n
em pir e . T he tr e aty , h ow eve r, d id n ot s to p th e b it te rn ess o r th e v io le nce b etw een th e
tw o p eople s. In fa ct, it g ave b ir th to a le gacy o f h ate .
B ackg ro und t o t h e In vasio n o f T e xas
A nglo J u stif ic a tio ns fo r th e c o nque st h ave ig nore d o r d is to rte d e ve nts th at le d u p to th e
in it ia l c la sh in 1 836. T o A nglo -A m eric a n s, th e T e xa s W ar w as c a use d b y a ty ra nnic a l
or, a t b est, a n In co m pete nt M exic a n g ove rn m en t th at w as a ntit h etic a l to th e Id eals o f
dem ocra cy a nd ju stic e . T he r o ots o f th e c o n flic t a ctu ally e xte nded b ack to a s e arly a s
1767, w hen B enja m in F ra nklin m ark e d M exic o a nd C uba fo r fu tu re e xp ansio n. A nglo -
A m eric a n filib uste rs ' p la nned e xp edit io ns in to T e xa s In th e 1 790s. T he L ouis ia na
P urc h ase , in 1 803, s tim ula te d U .S . a m bit io ns In th e S outh w est, a nd s ix y e ars la te r
T hom as J e ff e rs o n p re dic te d th at th e S panis h b ord erla nds " a re o urs th e fir s t m om ent
w ar is fo rc e d u pon u s." T he w ar w it h G re at B rit a in in 1 812 In te nsif ie d A nglo -A m eric a n
desig ns o n th e S panis h te rrit o ry .
F lo rid a s e t th e p atte rn fo r e xp an sio nis t a ctiv it ie s In T e xa s. In 1 818 s e ve ra l p osts In
e ast F lo rid a w ere s e iz e d jn u nau th oriz e d , b ut n eve r o ff ic ia lly c o n dem ned, U .S . m ilit a ry
e xp edit io ns. N egotia tio ns th en in p ro gre ss w it h S pain fin ally te rm in ate d in th e A dam s-
O nis , o r T ra nsco ntin enta l, T re aty ( 1 819), in w hic h S pain c e d ed F lo rid a to th e U nit e d
S ta te s a nd th e U nit e d S ta te s, In tu rn , r e nounce d it s c la im to T e xa s. T e xa s it s e lf w as
part o f C oahuila . M any N orth A m eric a n s s till c la im ed th at T e xa s b elo nged to th e
U nit e d S ta te s, r e peatin g J e ff e rs o n's c la im th at T e xa s's b oundary e xte nded to th e R io
G ra nde a nd th at it w as p art o f th e L ouis ia na P urc h a se . T hey c o ndem ned th e A dam s-
O nis T re aty .
A nglo -A m eric a ns c o ntin ued p re te nsio ns to T e xa s a nd m ad e fo ra ys in to T e xa s s im ila r
to th ose th ey h ad m ade In to F lo rid a. In 1 819 J a m es L ong le d a n a bortiv e in va sio n to
e sta blis h th e " R epublic o f T e xa s." L ong, lik e m an y A nglo s, b elie ve d th at T e xa s
belo nged to th e U nit e d S ta te s a nd th at " C on gre ss h ad n o r ig ht o r p ow er to s e ll,
e xch ange, o r r e lin quis h a n 'A m eric a n p osse ssio n.' " In s p it e o f th e h ostilit y , th e M exic a n g ove rn m en t o pened T e xa s, p ro vid ed th at s e ttle rs
a gre ed to c e rta in c o ndit io ns. M ose s A ustin w as g iv e n p erm is sio n to s e ttle In T e xa s,
b ut h e d ie d s h ortly a fte rw ard s, a n d h is s o n c o n tin ued h is v e n tu re . In D ece m ber 1 821
S te phen A ustin fo unded th e s e ttle m en t o f S an F elip e d e A ustin . L arg e n um bers o f
A nglo -A m eric a ns e nte re d T e xa s in th e 1 820s a s r e fu gees fr o m th e d epre ssio n o f
1819. In th e 1 830s e ntr e pre neurs s o u ght to p ro fit fr o m th e a va ila bilit y o f c h eap la nd.
B y 1 830 th ere w ere a bout 2 0,0 00 s e ttle rs , a lo ng w it h s o m e 2 ,0 00 s la ve s.
S ettle rs a gre ed to o bey th e c o nd it io ns s e t b y th e M exic a n g ove rn m ent th at a ll
i m mig ra nts b e C ath olic s a nd th a t th ey ta ke a n o ath o f a lle gia nce to M exic o . H ow eve r,
A nglo -A m eric a ns b eca m e r e se ntfu l w hen M exic o tr ie d to e nfo rc e th e a gre em ents .
M exic o , in tu rn , b eca m e in cre asin gly a la rm ed a t th e flo od o f im mig ra nts fr o m th e U .S .
M any s e ttle rs c o nsid ere d th e n ativ e M exic a n s to b e th e in tr u ders . In a d is p ute w it h
M exic a ns a nd In dia ns, a s w ell a s w it h A nglo -A m eric a n s e ttle rs , H ayd en E dw ard s
arb it r a rily a tte m pte d to e vic t s e ttle rs fr o m th e la nd b efo re th e c o nflic tin g c la im s c o uld
b e s o rte d o ut b y th e M exic a n a uth orit ie s. A s a r e su lt M exic a n a uth orit ie s n ullif ie d h is
s e ttle m ent c o ntr a ct a nd o rd ere d h im to le ave th e te rrit o ry . E dw ard s a nd h is fo llo w ers
s e iz e d th e to w n o f N aco gdoch es a nd o n D ece m be r 2 1, 1 826, p ro cla im ed th e R epublic
o f F re donia . M exic a n o ff ic ia ls , s u p porte d b y s o m e A nglo -A m eric a ns ( s u ch a s S te phen
A ustin ), s u ff o ca te d th e E dw ard s r e vo lt . H ow eve r, m an y U .S . n ew sp apers p la ye d u p
th e r e bellio n a s " 2 00 M en A gain st a N atio n!" a nd d escrib ed E dw ard s a nd h is fo llo w ers
a s " a postle s o f d em ocra cy c ru sh e d b y a n a lie n c iv iliz a tio n."
E xce rp te d fr o m R odolf o A cu na, O ccu pie d A m eric a : A H is to ry o f C hic a nos, 3 rd e d.
(H arp er & R ow , 1 988). C opyrig ht © 1 988 b y R odolf o A cu n a. R eprin te d b y p erm is sio n
of P ears o n E duca tio n, In e.
N ote s o m it te d.
[A filib uste r is a n a dve ntu re r w ho e ngages in in su rre ctio nis t o r r e vo lu tio nary a ctiv it y
in a fo re ig n c o untr y .]
In 1 824 P re sid ent J o hn Q uin cy A dam s " b e gan p uttin g p re ssu re o n M exic o in th e h ope
of p ers u adin g h er to r e ctif y th e f r o ntie r. A ny o f th e T e xa n r iv e rs w est o f th e S abin e—
th e B ra zo s, th e C olo ra do, th e N uece s— was p re fe ra ble to th e S abin e, th ough th e R io
G ra nde w as th e o ne d esir e d." I n 1 826 A dam s o ff e re d to b uy T e xa s fo r th e s u m o f $ 1 millio n. Wh en M exic a n a uth orit ie s r e fu se d th e o ff e r, th e U nit e d S ta te s la unch ed a n
aggre ssiv e fo re ig n p olic y, a tte m ptin g to c o e rc e M exic o in to s e llin g T e xa s.
M exic o c o uld n ot c o nso lid ate it s c o n tr o l o ve r T e xa s: th e n um be r o f A nglo - A m eric a n
se ttle rs a nd th e v a stn ess o f th e te rrit o ry m ad e it a n a lm ost im po ssib le ta sk. A nglo -
A m eric a ns h ad a lr e ady c re ate d a p riv ile ged c a ste , w hic h d epended in g re at p art o n
th e e co nom ic a dva nta ge g iv e n t o th em b y th eir s la ve s. W hen M exic o a bolis h ed
sla ve ry , o n S epte m ber 1 5, 1 829, E uro am eric a n s c ir c u m ve nte d th e la w b y " fr e ein g"
th eir s la ve s a nd th en s ig nin g th e m to lif e lo ng c o n tr a cts a s in dentu re d s e rv a nts . A nglo s
re se nte d th e M exic a n o rd er a nd c o n sid ere d it a n in fr in gem en t o n th eir p ers o nal
lib ertie s. In 1 830 M exic o p ro hib it e d fu rth er A nglo -A m eric a n im mig ra tio n. M eanw hile ,
A ndre w J a ckso n in cre ase d te nsio ns b y a tte m ptin g to p urc h a se T e xa s fo r a s m uch a s
$5 m illio n.
M exic a n a uth orit ie s r e se nte d th e A nglo -A m eric a n s' r e fu sa l to s u bm it to M exic a n la w s.
M exic o m ove d r e in fo rc e m ents in to C oahuila , a nd r e adie d th em in c a se o f tr o uble .
A nglo s v ie w ed th is m ove a s a n a ct o f h ostilit y .
A nglo c o lo nis ts r e fu se d to p ay c u sto m s a nd a ctiv e ly s u p porte d s m ugglin g a ctiv it ie s.
Wh en th e " w ar p arty " r io te d a t A nahuac in D ece m be r 1 831, it h ad th e p opula r s u pport
o f A nglo s. O ne o f it s le aders w as S am H ousto n, w ho " w as a k n o w n p ro té gé o f A ndre w
Ja ckso n, n ow p re sid ent o f th e U nit e d S ta te s .... H ousto n's m otiv a tio n w as to b rin g
Te xa s in to th e U nit e d S ta te s." ...
T he In vasio n o f T e xas
N ot a ll th e A nglo -A m eric a ns fa vo re d th e c o n flic t. A ustin , a t fir s t, b elo nged to th e p eace
p arty . U lt im ate ly , th is fa ctio n jo in ed th e " h a w ks." E ugene C . B ark e r s ta te s th at th e
im media te c a use o f th e w ar w as " th e o ve rth ro w o f th e n om in al r e public [b y S anta
A nna] a nd th e s u bstit u tio n o f c e n tr a liz e d o lig arc h y," w hic h a lle gedly w ould h ave
ce ntr a liz e d M exic a n c o ntr o l. B ark e r a dm it s th at " e a rn est p atr io ts lik e B enja m in L undy,
Wi llia m E lle ry C hannin g, a nd J o hn Q uin cy A dam s s a w in th e T e xa s r e vo lu tio n a
d is g ra ce fu l a ff a ir p ro m ote d b y th e s o rd id s la ve h old ers a nd la nd s p ecu la to rs ."
B ark e r p ara lle ls th e T e xa s filib uste r a nd th e A m eric a n R evo lu tio n, s ta tin g: " In e ach , th e
genera l c a use o f r e vo lt w as th e s a m e s u d den e ff o rt to e xte nd im peria l a uth orit y a t th e
exp ense o f lo ca l p riv ile ge." A cco rd in g to B ark e r, in b oth in sta nce s th e c e ntr a l
gove rn m ents a tte m pte d to e nfo rc e e xis tin g la w s th at c o n flic te d w it h th e ille gal a ctiv it ie s of s o m e v e ry a rtic u la te p eople . B ark e r fu rth er ju stif ie d th e A nglo -A m eric a ns' a ctio ns b y
obse rv in g: " A t th e c lo se o f s u m mer in 1 835 th e T e xa n s s a w th em se lv e s in d anger o f
beco m in g th e a lie n s u bje cts o f a p eople to w hom th ey d elib era te ly b elie ve d
th em se lv e s m ora lly , in te lle ctu ally , a nd p olit ic a lly s u p erio r. T he r a cia l fe elin g, in deed,
underla y a nd c o lo re d T e xa n-M exic a n r e la tio ns fr o m th e e sta blis h m ent o f th e fir s t
A nglo -A m eric a n c o lo ny in 1 821." T he c o n flic t, a cco rd in g to B ark e r, w as in evit a ble a nd,
co nse quently , ju stif ie d.
Te xa s h is to ry is a m ix tu re o f s e le cte d fa ct a nd g enera liz e d m yth . M any h is to ria ns a dm it
t h at s m uggle rs w ere u pse t w it h M exic o 's e nfo rc e m en t o f h er im port la w s, th at
E uro am eric a ns w ere a ngry a bo ut e m an cip atio n la w s, a nd th at a n in cre asin g n um ber
of th e n ew a rriv a ls fr o m th e U nit e d S ta te s a ctiv e ly a git a te d fo r in dependence . B ut
desp it e th ese a dm is sio ns, m any h is to ria ns lik e B ark e r r e fu se to b la m e th e U nit e d
S ta te s.
A ustin g ave th e c a ll to a rm s o n S epte m be r 1 9, 1 835, s ta tin g, " W ar is o ur o nly
r e co urs e . T here is n o o th er r e m edy." A nglo -A m eric a n s e njo ye d v e ry r e al a dva nta ges
in 1 835. T hey w ere " d efe ndin g" te rra in w it h w hic h th ey w ere fa m ilia r. T he 5 ,0 00
M exic a ns liv in g in th e te rrit o ry d id n ot jo in th em , b ut th e A nglo p opula tio n h ad s w elle d
to a lm ost 3 0,0 00. T he M exic a n n atio n w as d iv id ed, a nd th e c e n te rs o f p ow er w ere
th ousa nds o f m ile s fr o m T e xa s. F ro m th e in te rio r o f M exic o , S anta A nna le d a n a rm y o f
about 6 ,0 00 c o nscrip ts , m any o f w hom h ad b een fo rc e d in to th e a rm y a nd th en
m arc h ed h undre ds o f m ile s o ve r h ot, a rid d ese rt la nd. M an y w ere M aya n a nd d id n ot
sp eak S panis h . In F ebru ary 1 836 th e m ajo rit y a rriv e d in T e xa s, s ic k a nd ill- p re pare d to
f ig ht.
In S an A nto nio th e d is sid ents to ok r e fu ge in a fo rm er m is sio n, th e A la m o. T he s ie ge
began in th e fir s t w eek o f M arc h . In th e d ays th at fo llo w ed, th e d efe nders in flic te d
heavy c a su alt ie s o n th e M exic a n fo rc e s, b ut e ve n tu ally th e M exic a ns w on o ut. A s co re
o f p opula r b ooks h ave b een w rit te n a bout M exic a n c ru elt y in r e la tio n to th e A la m o a nd
about th e h ero ic s o f th e d oom ed m en . T he r e su lt w as th e c re atio n o f th e A la m o m yth .
Wi th in th e b ro ad fr a m ew ork o f w hat a ctu ally h appened— 187 filib uste rs b arric a din g
th em se lv e s in th e A la m o in d efia nce o f S anta A nna's fo rc e , w hic h , a cco rd in g to
M exic a n s o urc e s, n um bere d 1 ,4 0 0, a nd th e e ve n tu al tr iu m ph o f th e M exic a ns— th ere
h as b een m ajo r d is to rtio n. Walt e r L ord , in a n a rtic le e ntit le d " M yth s a nd R ealit ie s o f th e A la m o," s e ts th e r e co rd
s tr a ig ht. T e xa s m yth olo gy p ortr a ys th e A la m o h ero es a s fr e edom -lo vin g d efe nders o f
th eir h om es; s u ppose dly th ey w ere a ll g ood T e xa n s. A ctu ally , tw o-th ir d s o f th e
defe nders h ad r e ce ntly a rriv e d fr o m th e U nit e d S ta te s, a nd o nly a h alf d oze n h ad b een
in T e xa s fo r m ore th an s ix y e ars . T he m en in th e A la m o w ere a dve ntu re rs . W illia m
B arre t T ra vis h ad fle d to T e xa s a fte r k illin g a m an , a bandonin g h is w if e a nd tw o
ch ild re n. J a m es B ow ie , a n in fa m ous b ra w le r, m ad e a fo rtu ne r u nnin g s la ve s a nd h ad
w andere d in to T e xa s s e arc h in g fo r lo st m in es a nd m ore m on ey. T he fa din g D ave y
C ro cke tt, a le gend in h is o w n tim e, fo ught fo r th e s a ke o f fig htin g. M any in th e A la m o
had c o m e to T e xa s fo r r ic h es a nd g lo ry . T hese d efe nders w ere h ard ly th e s o rt o f m en
w ho c o uld b e c la ssif ie d a s p eace fu l s e ttle rs fig htin g fo r th eir h om es.
T he fo lk lo re o f th e A la m o g oes b e yo n d th e le gendary n am es o f th e d efe nders .
A cco rd in g to L ord , it is r id dle d w it h d ra m atic h alf - tr u th s th at h ave b een a cce pte d a s
his to ry . D efe nders a re p ortr a ye d a s s e lf le ss h ero es w ho s a crif ic e d th eir liv e s to b uy
m ore tim e fo r th eir c o m ra des-in -a rm s. A s th e s to ry g oes, W illia m B arre t T ra vis to ld h is
m en th at th ey w ere d oom ed; h e d re w a lin e in th e s a n d w it h h is s w ord , s a yin g th at a ll
w ho c ro sse d it w ould e le ct to r e m ain a nd fig ht to th e la st. S uppose dly a ll th e m en th ere
v a lia ntly s te pped a cro ss th e lin e, w it h a m an in a c o t b eggin g to b e c a rrie d a cro ss it .
C ountle ss H olly w ood m ovie s h ave d ra m atiz e d th e b ra ve ry o f th e d efe nders .
In r e alit y th e A la m o h ad lit tle s tr a te gic v a lu e, it w as th e b est p ro te cte d fo rt w est o f th e
M is sis sip pi, a nd th e m en fu lly e xp e cte d h elp . T he d efe nders h ad 2 1 c a nnons to th e
M exic a ns' 8 o r 1 0. T hey w ere e xp ert s h o ote rs e quip ped w it h r if le s w it h a r a nge o f 2 00
ya rd s, w hile th e M exic a ns w ere in adequate ly tr a in ed a nd a rm ed w it h s m ooth -b ore
m uske ts w it h a r a nge o f o nly 7 0 y a rd s. T he A nglo s w ere p ro te cte d b y th e w alls a nd
had c le ar s h ots , w hile th e M exic a ns a dva n ce d in th e o pen a nd fir e d a t c o nce ale d
ta rg ets . In s h ort, ill- p re pare d, ill- e quip ped, a nd ill- fe d M exic a n s a tta cke d w ell- a rm ed
and p ro fe ssio nal s o ld ie rs . In a ddit io n, fr o m a ll r e lia ble s o u rc e s, it is d oubtfu l w heth er
T ra vis e ve r d re w a lin e in th e s a n d. S an A nto nio s u rv iv o rs , fe m ale s a nd
nonco m bata nts , d id n ot te ll th e s to ry u ntil m an y y e a rs la te r, w hen th e ta le h ad g ain ed
cu rre ncy a nd th e m yth w as le gen d. P ro bably th e m ost w id ely c ir c u la te d s to ry w as th at
of th e la st s ta nd o f th e a gin g D ave y C ro cke tt, w ho fe ll " fig htin g lik e a tig er," k illin g
M exic a ns w it h h is b are h ands. T his is a m yth ; s e ve n o f th e d efe nders s u rre ndere d,
and C ro cke tt w as a m ong th em . T hey w ere e xe cu te d. A nd, fin ally , o ne m an, L ouis Rose , d id
esca pe.
T ra vis 's s ta nd d ela ye d S anta A nna's tim eta ble b y o nly fo ur d ays, a s th e M exic a ns to ok
S an A nto nio o n M arc h 6 , 1 836. A t fir s t, th e s ta nd a t th e A la m o d id n ot e ve n h ave
p ro paganda v a lu e. A fte rw ard s, H ousto n's a rm y d w in dle d, w it h m any v o lu nte ers
ru sh in g h om e to h elp th eir fa m il ie s fle e fr o m th e a dva n cin g M exic a n a rm y. M ost A nglo -
A m eric a ns r e aliz e d th at th ey h ad b een b adly b eate n. It d id , n eve rth ele ss, r e su lt in
m assiv e a id fr o m th e U nit e d S ta te s in th e fo rm o f v o lu nte ers , w eapons a nd m oney.
T he c ry o f " R em em ber th e A la m o" b eca m e a c a ll to a rm s fo r A nglo -A m eric a ns In b oth
T e xa s a nd th e U nit e d S ta te s.
A fte r th e A la m o a nd th e d efe at o f a noth er g arris o n a t G olia d, s o uth east o f S an
A nto nio , S anta A nna w as in fu ll c o n tr o l. H e r a n S am H ousto n o ut o f th e te rrit o ry
n orth w est o f th e S an J a cin to R iv e r a nd th en c a m pe d a n a rm y o f a bout 1 ,1 00 m en n ear
S an J a cin to . T here , h e s kir m is h ed w it h H ousto n o n A pril 2 0, 1 836, b ut d id n ot fo llo w
up h is a dva nta ge. P re dic tin g th at H ousto n w ould a tta ck o n A pril 2 2, S anta A nna a nd
his tr o ops s e ttle d d ow n a nd r e ste d fo r th e a ntic ip ate d b attle . T he filib uste rs , h ow eve r,
a tta cke d d urin g th e sie sta hour o n A pril 2 1. S anta A nna k n ew th at H ousto n h ad a n
arm y o f 1 ,0 00, y e t h e w as la x in h is p re ca u tio nary d efe nse s. T he s u rp ris e a tta ck
c a ught h im to ta lly o ff g uard . S hou ts o f " R em em be r th e A la m o! R em em ber G olia d!"
f ille d th e a ir .
H ousto n's s u cce ssfu l s u rp ris e a tta ck e nded th e w ar. H e c a p tu re d S anta A nna, w ho
sig ned th e te rrit o ry a w ay. A lt h oug h th e M exic a n C ongre ss r e pudia te d th e tr e aty ,
H ousto n w as e le cte d p re sid ent o f th e R epublic o f T e xa s.
F ew M exic a n p ris o ners w ere ta ke n a t th e b attle o f S an J a cin to . T hose w ho
su rre ndere d " w ere c lu bbed a nd s ta bbed, s o m e o n th eir k n e es. T he s la ughte r ...
b eca m e m eth odic a l: th e T e xa n r if le m en k n e lt a nd p oure d a s te ady fir e in to th e p acke d,
jo stlin g r a nks." T hey s h ot th e " M eskln s" d ow n a s th ey fle d. T he fin al c o unt s h ow ed 6 30
M exic a ns d ead v e rs u s 2 T e xa ns.
E ve n S anta A nna w as n ot le t o ff lig htly ; a cco rd in g to D r. C asta neda, S anta A nna " w as
m erc ile ssly d ra gged fr o m th e s h ip h e h ad b oard ed, s u b je cte d to m ore th an s ix m onth s'
m enta l to rtu re a nd in dig nit ie s in T e xa s p ris o n c a m ps." The E uro am eric a n v ic to ry p ave d th e w ay fo r th e M exic a n -A m eric a n W ar. O ff ic ia lly th e
U nit e d S ta te s h ad n ot ta ke n s id e s, b ut m en , m on ey, a nd s u p plie s p oure d in to a id
f e llo w A nglo -A m eric a ns. U .S . c it iz e n s p artic ip ate d in th e in va sio n o f T e xa s w it h th e
open s u pport o f th eir g ove rn m ent. M exic o 's m in is te r to th e U nit e d S ta te s, M anuel
E duard o G oro stiz a , p ro te ste d th e " a rm in g a nd s h ip m en t o f tr o ops a nd s u pplie s to
t e rrit o ry w hic h w as p art o f M exic o , a nd th e d is p a tc h o f U nit e d S ta te s tr o ops in to
t e rrit o ry c le arly d efin ed b y tr e aty a s M exic a n te rrit o ry ." G enera l E dm und P . G ain es,
S outh w est c o m mander, w as s e n t in to w este rn L ouis ia na o n J a n uary 2 3, 1 836; s h ortly
t h ere afte r, h e c ro sse d in to T e xa s in a n a ctio n th at w as in te rp re te d to b e in s u pport o f
th e A nglo -A m eric a n filib uste rs in T e xa s: " T he J a ckso n A dm in is tr a tio n m ade it p la in to
t h e M exic a n m in is te r th at it m atte re d lit tle w heth er M exic o a ppro ve d, th at th e im porta nt
th in g w as to p ro te ct th e b ord er a gain st In dia ns a nd M exic a n s." U .S . c it iz e ns in a nd o ut
of T e xa s lo udly a ppla uded J a ckso n ’s a ctio ns. T he M exic a n m in is te r r e sig ned h is p ost
in p ro te st. " T he s u cce ss o f th e T e xa s R evo lu tio n th ru st th e A nglo -A m eric a n fr o ntie r u p
again st th e F ar S outh w est, a nd th e r e gio n c a m e a t o nce in to th e s co pe o f A nglo
a m bit io n."
T he In vasio n o f M exic o
In th e m id -1 840s, M exic o w as a g ain th e ta rg et. E xp a nsio n a nd c a pit a lis t d eve lo pm ent
m ove d to geth er. T he tw o M exic a n w ars g ave U .S . c o m merc e , In dustr y , m in in g,
agric u lt u re , a nd s to ckra is in g a tr e m en dous s tim ulu s. " T he tr u th is th at [b y th e 1 840s]
th e P acif ic C oast b elo nged to th e c o m merc ia l e m pir e th at th e U nit e d S ta te s w as
alr e ady b uild in g in th at o ce an."
T he U .S . p opula tio n o f 1 7 m illio n p eople o f E uro pean e xtr a ctio n a nd 3 m illio n s la ve s
w as c o nsid era bly la rg er th an M exic o 's 7 m illio n, o f w hic h 4 m illio n w ere In dia n a nd 3
m illio n m estiz o and E uro pean. T he U nit e d S ta te s a cte d a rro gantly in fo re ig n a ff a ir s ,
p artly b eca use it s c it iz e ns b elie ve d in th eir o w n c u lt u ra l a nd r a cia l s u perio rit y . M exic o
w as p la gued w it h fin ancia l p ro b le m s, in te rn al e th nic c o n flic ts , a nd p oor le aders h ip .
G enera l a narc h y w it h in th e n atio n c o n sp ir e d a gain st it s c o h esiv e d eve lo pm ent.
B y 1 844 w ar w it h M exic o o ve r T e xa s a nd th e S outh w est w as o nly a m atte r o f tim e.
Ja m es K . P olk , w ho s tr o ngly a dvo ca te d th e a nnexa tio n o f T e xa s a nd e xp ansio nis m In
g enera l, w on th e p re sid ency b y o nly a s m all m arg in , b ut h is e le ctio n w as in te rp re te d
as a m andate fo r n atio nal e xp a nsio n. O utg oin g P re sid ent T yle r a cte d b y c a llin g u pon
C ongre ss to a nnex T e xa s b y jo in t r e so lu tio n; th e m ea su re w as p asse d a fe w d ays befo re th e in augura tio n o f P olk , w ho a cce pte d th e a rra ngem en t. In D ece m ber 1 845,
Te xa s b eca m e a s ta te .
M exic o p ro m ptly b ro ke o ff d ip lo m atic r e la tio ns w it h th e U nit e d S ta te s, a nd P olk
o rd ere d G enera l Z ach ary T a ylo r in to T e xa s to " p ro te ct" th e b ord er.
b ord er w as in d oubt. T he N orth A m eric a n s c la im ed it w as a t th e R io G ra nde, b ut
base d o n h is to ric a l p re ce dent, M exic o in sis te d it w as 1 50 m ile s fa rth er n orth , a t th e
N uece s R iv e r. T a ylo r m arc h ed h is fo rc e s a cro ss th e N uece s in to th e d is p ute d te rrit o ry ,
w antin g to p ro vo ke a n a tta ck.
In N ove m ber 1 845, P olk s e nt J o hn S lid ell o n a s e cre t m is sio n to M exic o to n egotia te
f o r th e d is p ute d a re a. T he p re se n ce o f A nglo -A m eric a n tr o ops b etw een th e N uece s
and th e R io G ra nde a nd th e a n nexa tio n o f T e xa s m ad e n egotia tio ns a n a bsu rd it y .
T hey r e fu se d to a cce pt P olk 's m in is te r's c re dentia ls , a lt h ough th ey d id o ff e r to g iv e h im
a n a d h oc s ta tu s. S lid ell d eclin ed a nyth in g le ss th an fu ll r e co g nit io n a nd r e tu rn ed to
W ash in gto n In M arc h 1 846, c o nvin ce d th at M exic o w ould h ave to b e " c h astis e d"
befo re it w ould n egotia te . B y M arc h 2 8, T a ylo r h ad a dva n ce d to th e R io G ra nde w it h
a n a rm y o f 4 ,0 00.
P olk , In ce nse d a t M exic o 's r e fu sa l to m ee t w it h S lid ell o n h is te rm s a nd a t G enera l
M air a no P are des's r e aff ir m atio n o f h is c o u ntr y 's c la im s to a ll o f T e xa s, b egan to d ra ft
h is d ecla ra tio n o f w ar w hen h e le arn ed o f th e M exic a n a tta ck o n U .S . tr o ops in th e
dis p ute d te rrit o ry . P olk im media te ly d ecla re d th at th e U nit e d S ta te s h ad b een p ro vo ke d
in to w ar, th at M exic o h ad " s h ed A m eric a n b lo od u pon th e A m eric a n s o il. " O n M ay 1 3,
1846, C ongre ss d ecla re d w ar a nd a uth oriz e d th e r e cru it m en t a nd s u pply in g o f 5 0,0 00
tr o ops.
Y ears la te r, U ly sse s S . G ra nt w ro te th at h e b elie ve d th at P olk p ro vo ke d th e w ar a nd
th at th e a nnexa tio n o f T e xa s w as, in fa ct, a n a ct o f a ggre ssio n. H e a dded: " 1 h ad a
h orro r o f th e M exic a n W ar ... o nly I h ad n ot m ora l c o u ra ge e nough to r e sig n .... I
c o nsid ere d m y s u pre m e d uty w as to m y fla g."
T he p oorly e quip ped a nd p oorly le d M exic a n a rm y s to od lit tle c h ance a gain st th e
exp ansio n-m in ded A nglo s. E ve n b efo re th e w ar P olk p la nned th e c a m paig n in s ta ges:
(1 ) M exic a ns w ould b e c le are d o u t o f T e xa s; ( 2 ) A nglo s w ould o ccu py C alif o rn ia a nd
N ew M exic o ; a nd ( 3 ) U .S . fo rc e s w ould m arc h to M exic o C it y to fo rc e th e b eate n
gove rn m ent to m ake p eace o n P olk 's te rm s. A nd th at w as th e w ay th e c a m paig n basic a lly w ent. In th e e nd, a t a r e la tiv e ly s m all c o st in m en a nd m oney, th e w ar n ette d
th e U nit e d S ta te s h uge te rrit o ria l g ain s. In a ll, th e U nit e d S ta te s to ok o ve r 1 m illio n
sq uare m ile s fr o m M exic o .
T he R atio nale f o r C onquest
In h is O rig in s o f tile W ar w it h M exic o : T ile P olk -S to ckto n In tr ig ue, G le nn W . P ric e
sta te s: " A m eric a ns h ave fo und it r a th er m ore d if f ic u lt th an o th er p eople s to d eal
ra tio nally w it h th eir w ars . W e h ave th ought o f o urs e lv e s a s u niq ue, a nd o f th is s o cie ty
a s s p ecia lly p la nned a nd c re ate d to a vo id th e e rro rs o f a ll o th er n atio ns." M any A nglo -
A m eric a n h is to ria ns h ave a tte m pte d to d is m is s it s im ply a s a " b a d w ar," w hic h to ok
pla ce d urin g th e e ra o f M anif e st D estin y.
M anif e st D estin y h ad it s r o ots in P urit a n id eas, w hic h c o n tin ue to in flu ence A nglo -
A m eric a n th ought to th is d ay. A cco rd in g to th e P urit a n e th ic , s a lv a tio n is d ete rm in ed b y
G od. T he e sta blis h m ent o f th e C it y o f G od o n e arth is n ot o nly th e d uty o f th ose
c h ose n p eople p re destin ed fo r s a lv a tio n b ut is a ls o th e p ro of o f th eir s ta te o f g ra ce .
A nglo -A m eric a ns b elie ve d th at G od h ad m ad e th em c u sto dia ns o f d em ocra cy a nd th at
th ey h ad a m is sio n— th at is , th at th ey w ere p re destin ed to s p re ad it s p rin cip le s. A s th e
yo ung n atio n s u rv iv e d it s in fa ncy, e sta blis h e d it s p ow er in th e d efe at o f th e B rit is h in
t h e W ar o f 1 812, e xp anded w estw ard , a nd e njo ye d b oth c o m merc ia l a nd In dustr ia l
su cce ss, it s s e nse o f m is sio n h e ig hte ned. M an y c it iz e n s b elie ve d th at G od h ad
destin ed th em to o w n a nd o ccu py a ll o f th e la nd fr o m o ce a n to o ce an a nd p ole to p ole .
T heir m is sio n, th eir d estin y m ade m an if e st, w as to s p re ad th e p rin cip le s o f d em ocra cy
a nd C hris tia nit y to th e u nfo rtu nate s o f th e h em is p h ere . B y d is m is sin g th e w ar s im ply
a s p art o f th e e ra o f M anif e st D estin y th e a polo gis ts fo r th e w ar ig nore th e
co nse quence s o f th e d octr in e.
T he M onro e D octr in e o f th e 1 820 s to ld th e w orld th at th e A m eric a s w ere n o lo nger
open fo r c o lo niz a tio n o r c o nquest; h ow eve r, it d id n ot s a y a nyth in g a bout th at lim it a tio n
apply in g to th e U nit e d S ta te s. U pp erm ost in th e m in ds o f th e U .S . g ove rn m ent, th e
m ilit a ry , a nd m uch o f th e p ublic w as th e a cq u is it io n o f te rrit o ry . N o o ne e ve r in te nded to
le ave M exic o w it h out e xtr a ctin g te rrit o ry . L and w as th e m ain m otiv e fo r th e w ar.
T his a ggre ssio n w as ju stif ie d b y a r h eto ric o f p eace . C onsid er, fo r e xa m ple , P olk 's w ar
m essa ge o f M ay 1 1 , 1 846, in w hic h h e g ave h is r e aso n s fo r g oin g to w ar: The s tr o ng d esir e to e sta blis h p e ace w it h M exic o o n lib era l a nd h onora ble te rm s, a nd
th e r e adin ess o f th is G ove rn m en t to r e gula te a nd a dju st o ur b oundary a nd o th er
ca use s o f d if f e re nce w it h th at p ow er o n s u ch fa ir a nd e quit a ble p rin cip le s a s w ould
l e ad to p erm anent r e la tio ns o f th e m ost fr ie ndly n atu re , in duce d m e in S epte m ber la st
to s e ek r e openin g o f d ip lo m atic r e la tio ns b etw een th e tw o c o u ntr ie s.
T he U nit e d S ta te s, h e c o ntin ue d, h ad m ad e e ve ry e ff o rt n ot to p ro vo ke M exic o , b ut th e
M exic a n g ove rn m ent h ad r e fu se d to r e ce iv e a n A nglo -A m eric a n m in is te r. P olk
r e vie w ed th e e ve nts le adin g to th e w ar a nd c o n clu ded:
A s w ar e xis ts , a nd n otw it h sta ndin g a ll o ur e ff o rts to a vo id It, e xis ts b y th e a ct o f M exic o
h ers e lf , w e a re c a lle d u pon b y e ve ry c o n sid era tio n o f d uty a nd p atr io tis m to v in dic a te
w it h d ecis io n th e h onor, th e r ig hts , a nd th e in te re sts o f o ur c o u ntr y .
H is to ric a l d is ta nce fr o m th e w ar h as n ot le sse ned th e n eed to ju stif y U .S . a ggre ssio n.
In 1 920 J u stin H . S m it h r e ce iv e d a P ulit z e r p riz e in h is to ry fo r a w ork th at b la m ed th e
w ar o n M exic o . Wh at is a m azin g is th at S m it h a lle gedly e xa m in ed o ve r 1 00,0 00
m anuscrip ts , 1 20,0 00 b ooks a n d p am ph le ts , a nd 2 00 o r m ore p erio dic a ls to c o m e to
t h is c o nclu sio n. H e w as r e w ard ed fo r r e lie vin g th e A nglo -A m eric a n c o nscie nce . H is
t w o-v o lu m e " s tu dy," e ntit le d T ile W ar w it h M exic o , u se d a naly se s s u ch a s th e fo llo w in g
to s u pport it s th esis th at th e M exic a n s w ere a t fa ult fo r th e w ar:
A t th e b egin nin g o f h er in depend ent e xis te nce , o ur p eople fe lt e arn estly a nd
enth usia stic a lly a nxio us to m ain ta in c o rd ia l r e la tio ns w it h o ur s is te r r e public , a nd m any
cro sse d th e lin e o f a bsu rd s e ntim en ta lit y in th e c a u se . F ric tio n w as in evit a ble ,
how eve r. T he A m eric a ns w ere d ir e ct, p osit iv e , b ru sq u e, a ngula r a nd p ush in g; a nd th ey
w ould n ot u nders ta nd th eir n eig h bors in th e s o u th . T he M exic a n s w ere e qually u nable
t o fa th om o ur g oodw ill, s in ce rit y , p atr io tis m , r e so lu te ness a nd c o ura ge; a nd c e rta in
f e atu re s o f th eir c h ara cte r a nd n atio nal c o n dit io n m ad e it fa r fr o m e asy to g et o n w it h
t h em .
This a ttit u de o f s e lf - rig hte ousn ess o n th e p art o f g ove rn m en t o ff ic ia ls a nd h is to ria ns
to w ard U .S . a ggre ssio ns s p ills o ve r to th e r e la tio nsh ip s b etw een th e m ajo rit y s o cie ty
a nd m in orit y g ro ups. A nglo -A m eric a n s b elie ve th at th e w ar w as a dva nta geous to th e
S outh w est a nd to th e M exic a ns w ho r e m ain ed o r la te r m ig ra te d th ere . T hey n ow h ad
th e b enefit s o f d em ocra cy a nd w ere lib era te d fr o m th eir ty ra nnic a l p ast. In o th er w ord s,
M exic a ns s h ould b e g ra te fu l to t h e A nglo -A m eric a n s. If M exic a n s a nd th e A nglo - Am eric a ns d ash , th e r a tio nale r u ns, n atu ra lly it is b eca u se M exic a ns c a nnot
unders ta nd o r a ppre cia te th e m erit s o f a fr e e s o cie ty , w hic h m ust b e d efe nded a gain st
in gra te s. T here fo re , d om estic w ar, o r r e pre ssio n, is ju stif ie d b y th e s a m e k in d o f
rh eto ric th at ju stif ie s in te rn atio nal a ggre ssio n.
P ro fe sso r G ene M . B ra ck q uestio ns h is to ria ns w ho b ase th eir r e se arc h o n J u stin
S m it h 's o utd ate d w ork : " A m eric a n h is to ria ns h ave c o n sis te ntly p ra is e d J u stin S m it h 's
i n flu entia l a nd o utr a geously e th no ce n tr ic a cco unt."
T he M yth o f a N onvio le n t N atio n
M ost s tu die s o n th e M exic a n-A m eric a n W ar d w ell o n th e c a u se s a nd r e su lt s o f th e
w ar, s o m etim es d ealin g w it h w ar s tr a te gy. O ne m ust g o b eyo n d th is p oin t, s in ce th e
w ar le ft b it te rn ess, a nd s in ce A ng lo -A m eric a n a ctio ns in M exic o a re v iv id ly
r e m em bere d. M exic a ns' a ttit u de to w ard A nglo -A m eric a n s h as b een in flu ence d b y th e
w ar ju st a s th e e asy v ic to ry o f th e U nit e d S ta te s c o n dit io ned A nglo -A m eric a n b ehavio r
to w ard M exic a ns. F ortu nate ly , s o m e A nglo -A m eric a n s c o n dem ned th is a ggre ssio n a nd
fla tly a ccu se d th eir le aders o f b e in g in so le nt a nd la nd-h ungry , a nd o f h avin g
m anufa ctu re d th e w ar. A bie l A bbo tt L iv e rm ore In T he W ar w it h M exic o R evie w ed,
accu se d h is c o untr y , w rit in g:
A gain , th e p rid e o f r a ce h as s w olle n to s tili g re ate r In so le nce th e p rid e o f c o untr y ,
a lw ays q uit e a ctiv e e nough fo r th e d ue o bse rv a n ce o f th e c la im s o f u niv e rs a l
bro th erh ood. T he A nglo -S axo ns h ave b een a ppare ntly p ers u a ded to th in k th em se lv e s
th e c h ose n p eople , a nnoln te d r a ce o f th e L ord , c o m mis sio ned to d riv e o ut th e
heath en, a nd p la nt th eir r e lig io n a nd in stit u tio ns in e ve ry C anaan th ey c o uld
s u bju gate .... O ur tr e atm ent b oth o f th e r e d m an a nd th e b la ck m an h as h abit u ate d u s
to fe el o ur p ow er a nd fo rg et r ig ht.... T he p assio n fo r la nd, a ls o , Is a le adin g
ch ara cte ris tic o f th e A m eric a n p eo ple .... T he g od T e rm in us is a n u nkn ow n d eit y in
A m eric a . L ik e th e h unger o f th e p auper b oy o f fic tio n, th e c ry h ad b een, 'm ore , m ore ,
giv e u s m ore .'
L iv e rm ore 's w ork , p ublis h ed in 1 8 50, w as a w ard ed th e A m eric a n P eace S ocie ty p riz e
fo r " th e b est r e vie w o f th e M exic a n W ar a nd th e p rin cip le s o f C hris tia nit y , a nd a n
enlig hte ned s ta te sm ansh ip ."
In tr u th , th e U nit e d S ta te s c o ndu cte d a v io le nt a nd b ru ta l w ar. Z ach ary T a ylo r's a rtille ry
le ve le d th e M exic a n c it y o f M ata m oro s, k illin g h undre ds o f in noce nt c iv ilia ns w it h la bom ba (th e b om b). M any M exic a ns ju m ped in to th e R io G ra nde, r e lie ve d o f th eir p ain
b y a w ate ry g ra ve . T he o ccu patio n th at fo llo w ed w as e ve n m ore te rro riz in g. T a ylo r w as
unable to c o ntr o l h is v o lu nte ers :
T he r e gula rs r e gard ed th e v o lu n te ers , o f w hom a bout tw o th ousa nd h ad r e ach ed
M ata m oro s b y th e e nd o f M ay, w it h im pa tie nce a nd c o n te m pt.... T hey r o bbed
M exic a ns o f th eir c a ttle a nd c o rn , s to le th eir fe nce s fo r fir e -w ood, g ot d ru nk, a nd k ille d
se ve ra l in off e nsiv e in habit a nts o f th e to w n in th e s tr e ets ....
T he T re aty o f G uad alu pe H id alg o
B y la te A ugust 1 847 th e w ar w as a lm ost a t a n e nd. S co tt's d efe at o f S anta A nna in a
h ard -fo ught b attle a t C huru busco p ut A nglo -A m eric a n s a t th e g ate s o f M exic o C it y .
S anta A nna m ade o ve rtu re s fo r a n a rm is tic e th at b ro ke d ow n a fte r tw o w eeks, a nd th e
w ar r e su m ed. O n S epte m ber 1 3, 1 847, S co tt d ro ve in to th e c it y . A lt h ough M exic a ns
fo ught v a lia ntly , th e b attle le ft 4 ,0 00 d ead, w it h a noth er 3 ,0 00 p ris o ners . O n
Septe m ber 1 3, b efo re th e o ccu pa tio n o f M exic o C it y b egan, L os N in os H ero es (T he
B oy H ero es) le apt to th eir d eath s r a th er th an s u rre nder. T hese te enage c a dets w ere
F ra ncis co M arq uez, A gustin M elg ar, J u a n E scu tia , F ern ando M onte s d e O ca , V ic e nte
S uare z, a nd J u an d e la B arre ra . T hey b eca m e " a s ym bo l a nd im age o f th is
u nrig hte ous w ar. "
T he M exic a ns c o ntin ued fig htin g. T he p re sid in g ju stic e o f th e S upre m e C ourt, M anuel
de la P ena, a ssu m ed th e p re sid en cy. H e k n e w th at M exic o h ad lo st a nd th at h e h ad to
s a lv a ge a s m uch a s p ossib le . P re ssu re In cre ase d , w it h U .S . tr o ops in c o ntr o l o f m uch
o f M exic o .
N ic h ola s T ris t, s e nt to M exic o to a ct a s p eace c o m mis sio ner, h ad a rriv e d In V era C ru z
on M ay 6 , 1 847, b ut c o ntr o ve rs y w it h S co tt o ve r T ris t's a uth orit y a nd illn ess d ela ye d a n
arm is tic e , a nd h ostilit ie s c o ntin ued . A fte r th e fa ll o f M exic o C it y , S ecre ta ry o f S ta te
J a m es B uch anan w ante d to r e vis e T ris t's In str u ctio ns. H e o rd ere d T ris t to b re ak o ff
n egotia tio ns a nd r e tu rn h om e. P olk w ante d m ore la nd fr o m M exic o . T ris t, h ow eve r,
w it h th e s u pport o f Wi nfie ld S co tt, d ecid ed to ig nore P olk 's o rd er, a nd b egan
negotia tio ns o n J a nuary 2 , 1 848, o n th e o rig in al te rm s. M exic o , b adly b eate n, h er
gove rn m ent in a s ta te o f tu rm oil, h ad n o c h o ic e b ut to a gre e to th e A nglo -A m eric a ns'
p ro posa ls . On F ebru ary 2 , 1 848, th e M exic a ns r a tif ie d th e T re aty o f G uadalu pe H id alg o, w it h
M exic o a cce ptin g th e R io G ra nde a s th e T e xa s b ord er a nd c e d in g th e S outh w est
(w hic h in co rp ora te d th e p re se nt- d ay s ta te s o f C alif o rn ia , N ew M exic o , N eva da, a nd
parts o f C olo ra do, A riz o na, a nd U ta h) to th e U nit e d S ta te s in r e tu rn fo r $ 15 m illio n.
P olk , fu rio us a bout th e tr e aty , c o nsid ere d T ris t " c o nte m ptib ly b ase " fo r h avin g ig nore d
his o rd ers . Y et h e h ad n o c h oic e b ut to s u b m it th e tr e aty to th e S enate . W it h th e
exce ptio n o f A rtic le X , w hic h c o nce rn ed th e r ig hts o f M exic a n s in th e c e ded te rrit o ry ,
th e S enate r a tif ie d th e tr e aty o n M arc h 1 0, 1 848, b y a v o te o f 2 8 to 1 4. T o in sis t o n
m ore te rrit o ry w ould h ave m ean t m ore fig htin g, a nd b oth P olk a nd th e S enate r e aliz e d
th at th e w ar w as a lr e ady u npopu la r in m an y c ir c le s. T he tr e aty w as s e nt to th e
M exic a n C ongre ss fo r r a tif ic a tio n ; a lt h ough th e C ongre ss h ad d if f ic u lt y fo rm in g a
q uoru m , th e tr e aty w as r a tif ie d o n M ay 1 9 b y a 5 2 to 3 5 v o te . H ostilit ie s b etw een th e
tw o n atio ns o ff ic ia lly e nded. T ris t, h ow eve r, w as b ra nded a s a " s co undre l, " b eca use
P olk w as d is a ppoin te d in th e s e ttle m en t. T here w as c o n sid era ble s u pport in th e U nit e d
S ta te s fo r a cq uis it io n
of a ll M exic o .
D urin g th e tr e aty ta lk s M exic a n n egotia to rs , c o n ce rn ed a bout M exic a ns le ft b ehin d,
exp re sse d g re at r e se rv a tio ns a b out th ese p eople b ein g fo rc e d to " m erg e o r b le nd" in to
A nglo -A m eric a n c u lt u re . T hey p ro te ste d th e e xclu sio n o f p ro vis io ns th at p ro te cte d
M exic a n c it iz e ns' r ig hts , la nd tit le s, a nd r e lig io n. T hey w ante d to p ro te ct th eir r ig hts b y
tr e aty .
A rtic le s V III, IX , a nd X s p ecif ic a lly r e fe rre d to th e r ig hts o f M exic a ns. U nder th e tr e aty ,
M exic a ns le ft b ehin d h ad o ne y e ar to c h o ose w heth er to r e tu rn to M exic o o r r e m ain in
" o ccu pie d M exic o ." A bout 2 ,0 00 e le cte d to le ave ; m ost r e m ain ed in w hat th ey
co nsid ere d th eir la nd.
A rtic le IX o f th e tr e aty g uara nte e d M exic a n s " th e e njo ym ent o f a ll th e r ig hts o f c it iz e ns
of th e U nit e d S ta te s a cco rd in g to th e p rin cip le s o f th e C onstit u tio n; a nd in th e
m eantim e s h all b e m ain ta in ed a n d p ro te cte d in th e fr e e e njo ym ent o f th eir lib erty a nd
pro perty , a nd s e cu re d in th e fr e e e xe rc is e o f th eir r e lig io n w it h out r e str ic tio n." L yn n I.
P errig o, in T he A m eric a n S outh w est, s u m mariz e s th e g uara nte es o f A rtic le s V III a nd
IX : " In o th er w ord s, b esid es th e r ig hts a nd d utie s o f A m eric a n c it iz e nsh ip , th ey ( th e
M exic a ns) w ould h ave s o m e s p e cia l p riv ile ges d eriv e d fr o m th eir p re vio us c u sto m s in
l a nguage, la w , a nd r e lig io n." The o m it te d A rtic le X h ad c o m pre hensiv e g uara nte es p ro te ctin g " a ll p rio r a nd p endin g
tit le s to p ro perty o f e ve ry d escrip tio n." W hen A rtic le X w as d ele te d b y th e U .S . S enate ,
M exic a n o ff ic ia ls p ro te ste d. A ng lo -A m eric a n e m is sa rie s r e assu re d th em b y d ra ftin g a
S ta te m ent o f P ro to co l o n M ay 2 6 ,
1 848:
T he A m eric a n g ove rn m ent b y s u p pre ssin g th e X a rtic le o f th e T re aty o f G uadalu pe
H id alg o d id n ot in a ny w ay in te nd to a nnul th e g ra nts o f la nds m ade b y M exic o in th e
ce ded te rrit o rie s. T hese g ra nts .. . p re se rv e th e le gal v a lu e w hic h th ey m ay p osse ss,
a nd th e g ra nte es m ay c a use th eir le git im ate ( tit le s) to b e a ckn ow le dged b efo re th e
A m eric a n tr ib unals .
C onfo rm able to th e la w o f th e U nit e d S ta te s, le git im ate tit le s to e ve ry d escrip tio n o f
pro perty , p ers o nal a nd r e al, e xis tin g In th e c e d ed te rrit o rie s, a re th ose w hic h w ere
le git im ate tit le s u nder th e M exic a n la w o f C alif o rn ia a nd N ew M exic o lip to th e 1 3th o f
M ay, 1 846, a nd in T e xa s u p to t h e 2 nd o f M arc h , 1 836.
C onsid erin g th e M exic a n o pposit io n to th e tr e aty , it is d oubtfu l w heth er th e M exic a n
C ongre ss w ould h ave r a tif ie d th e tr e aty w it h out th is c la rif ic a tio n. T he v o te w as c lo se .
T he S ta te m ent o f P ro to co l w as s tr e ngth ened b y A rtic le s V III a nd IX , w hic h g uara nte ed
M exic a ns r ig hts o f p ro perty a nd p ro te ctio n u nder th e la w . In a ddit io n, c o urt d ecis io ns
have g enera lly in te rp re te d th e tr e aty a s p ro te ctin g la nd tit le s a nd w ate r r ig hts . In
p ra ctic e , h ow eve r, th e tr e aty w as ig nore d a nd d urin g th e n in ete enth c e ntu ry m ost
M exic a ns in th e U nit e d S ta te s w ere c o n sid ere d a s a c la ss a part fr o m th e d om in ant
ra ce . N early e ve ry o ne o f th e o blig atio ns d is cu sse d a bove w as v io la te d, c o nfir m in g th e
pro phecy o f M exic a n d ip lo m at M anuel C re scio n R ejo n, w ho, a t th e tim e th e tr e aty w as
sig ned, c o m mente d:
O ur r a ce , o ur u nfo rtu nate p eople w ill h ave to w ander In s e a rc h o f h osp it a lit y in a
s tr a nge la nd, o nly to b e e le cte d la te r. D esce ndants o f th e In dia ns th at w e a re , th e
N orth A m eric a ns h ate u s, th eir s p oke sm en d epre cia te u s, e ve n if th ey r e co gniz e th e
ju stic e o f o ur c a use , a nd th ey c o n sid er u s u nw orth y to fo rm w it h th em o ne n atio n a nd
one s o cie ty , th ey c le arly m anif e st th at th eir fu tu re e xp a nsio n b egin s w it h th e te rrit o ry
th at th ey ta ke fr o m u s a nd p ush in g [s ic ] a sid e o ur c it iz e n s w ho in habit th e la nd.
A s a r e su lt o f th e T e xa s W ar a nd th e A nglo -A m eric a n a ggre ssio ns o f 1 845-1 848, th e
occu patio n o f c o nquere d te rrit o ry b egan. In m ate ria l te rm s, In e xch ange fo r 1 2,0 00
th liv e s a nd m ore th an $ 100 m illio n , th e U nit e d S ta te s a cq u ir e d a c o lo ny tw o a nd a h alf
t im es a s la rg e a s F ra nce , c o nta in in g r ic h fa rm la nds a nd n atu ra l r e so urc e s s u ch a s
gold , s ilv e r, z in c, c o pper, o il, a nd u ra niu m , w hic h w ould m ake p ossib le it s
u npre ce dente d in dustr ia l b oom . It a cq u ir e d p orts o n th e P acif ic th at g enera te d fu rth er
eco nom ic e xp ansio n a cro ss th a t o ce a n. M exic o w as le ft w it h it s s h ru nke n r e so urc e s to
f a ce th e c o ntin ued a dva nce s o f th e U nit e d S ta te s.
S um mary
T he c o lo nia l e xp erie nce o f th e U nit e d S ta te s d if f e rs fr o m th at o f T hir d W orld n atio ns.
Its h is to ry r e se m ble s th at o f A ustr a lia a nd/o r S outh A fr ic a , w here c o lo niz e rs r e le gate d
in dig enous p opula tio ns to fo urth -c la ss c it iz e n sh ip o r n oncit iz e n sh ip . N orth A m eric a n
in dependence c a m e a t th e r ig ht tim e, s lig htly p re datin g th e in dustr ia liz a tio n o f
nin ete enth -c e ntu ry E uro pe. Its m erc h a nts to ok o ve r a lu cra tiv e tr a de n etw ork fr o m th e
B rit is h ; th e n ew R epublic e sta blis h e d a g ove rn m en t th at s u p porte d tr a de, in dustr y , a nd
co m merc ia l a gric u lt u re . A N orth A m eric a n id eolo gy w hic h p re su m ed th at L atin
A m eric a ns h ad s to le n th e n am e " A m eric a " a nd th at G od, th e r e alt o r, h ad g iv e n th em
th e la nd, e nco ura ged c o lo nia l e xp a nsio n.
M exic o , lik e m ost T hir d W orld n atio ns a fte r in dependence , n eeded a p erio d o f s ta bilit y .
N orth A m eric a n p enetr a tio n in to T e xa s in th e 1 820s a nd 1 830s th re ate ned M exic o .
T he U .S . e co nom ic s yste m e nco ura ged e xp a nsio n, a nd m an y o f th e fir s t w ave o f
m ig ra nts to T e xa s h ad lo st th eir fa rm s d ue to th e d epre ssio n o f 1 819. L and in T e xa s,
g enero usly c h eap, p ro vid ed r o om fo r th e s p re ad o r s la ve ry . A lt h ough m any N orth
A m eric a ns In a ll p ro babilit y In te n ded to o bey M exic a n la w s a nd m eet c o ndit io ns fo r
obta in in g la nd g ra nts , N orth A m eric a n e th noce n tr ic is m a nd s e lf - in te re st s o on e ro ded
th ose in te ntio ns. C le arly la nd v a lu es w ould z o o m if T e xa s w ere p art o f th e U nit e d
S ta te s.
N orth A m eric a n h is to ria ns h ave fr e quently p ortr a ye d th e T e xa s In va sio n a s a s e co nd
enco unte r in th e " A m eric a n W ar o f In dependence ." M yth s s u ch a s th at o f a ty ra nnic a l
M exic a n g ove rn m ent h ave ju stif ie d th e w ar. In tr u th , th e c a u se o f th e w ar w as p ro fit .
M exic o d id n ot in va de T e xa s; it b elo nged to M exic o . F ew if a ny o f th e N orth A m eric a ns
in T e xa s h ad b een b orn th ere o r h ad liv e d in T e xa s fo r m ore th an fiv e y e ars . M ost h ad
ju st r e ce ntly a rriv e d. S om e r ic h M exic a n s s u p porte d th e N orth A m eric a ns fo r o bvio us
re aso ns— it w as in th eir e co nom ic s e lf - in te re st. A s ta le m ate r e su lt e d, w it h Euro am eric a ns e sta blis h in g th e T e xa s R epublic . In 1 844, th e U nit e d S ta te s b ro ke th e
sta ndoff a nd a nnexe d T e xa s.
P re sid ent J a m es K . P olk m anufa ctu re d th e w ar w it h M exic o . S om e N orth A m eric a ns
oppose d th e w ar— not o n g ro unds th at it v io la te d M exic o 's te rrit o ria l in te grit y , b ut
beca use o f th e p ro babilit y o f th e e xte nsio n o f s la ve ry . M an y N orth A m eric a n m ilit a ry
le aders a dm it te d th at th e w ar w as u nju st, a nd th at th e U nit e d S ta te s h ad c o m mit te d a n
act o f a ggre ssio n. H ow eve r, p a tr io tis m a nd s u p port fo r th e w ar o ve rw helm ed r e aso n in
t h e m arc h " T o th e H alls o f th e M on te zu m as [s ic ]." N orth A m eric a ns, b uoya nt in th eir
p ro sp erit y , w ante d to p ro ve th at th e U nit e d S ta te s w as a w orld -c la ss p ow er.
T he w ar b eca m e a P ro te sta nt C ru sa d e. T e xa n s m ad e e m otio nal p le as 't o a ve nge th e
A la m o. B oth a ppeals w ere in str u m en ta l in a ro usin g N orth A m eric a ns to th e c a ll to
a rm s, to p ro ve th eir v a lo r a nd p ow er o f th e y o u ng " A m eric a n " d em ocra cy. N orth
A m eric a n s o ld ie rs c o m mit te d a tr o cit ie s a gain st M exic a n c iv ilia ns; fe w w ere p unis h ed.
T he T re aty o f G uadalu pe H id alg o e nded th e w ar, a nd th e U nit e d S ta te s g ra bbed o ve r
half o f M exic o 's s o il. T he w ar p ro ve d c o stly to M exic o a nd to M exic a ns le ft b ehin d.
A cco rd in g to th e tr e aty , M exic a ns w ho e le cte d to s ta y in th e c o n quere d te rrit o ry w ould
b eco m e U .S . c it iz e ns w it h a ll th e r ig hts o f c it iz e n sh ip . H ow eve r, th e T re aty o f
G uadalu pe H id alg o, lik e th ose s ig ned w it h th e In dig enous p eople o f N orth A m eric a n,
depended o n th e g ood fa it h o f th e U nit e d S ta te s a nd it s a bilit y to k e ep it s w ord .
