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Schooling

in Capitalist

America

Educational Reform and the

Contradictions of Economic Life

Samuel Bowles

and Herbert Gintis

with a new introduction

by th e authors

t.'Nearly forty years after

its original publication,

Schooling in Capitalist

America remains one of

the most trenchant and

relevant explorations of the

class character of the A m erican

educational system."

■ EEIK OLIN WRIGHT, president.

, A m erican Sociological A ssociationt .

* *

« F tlpa meritpRhf tA '"01 rn 8optE 8CC2p tA ch5 OCl2

B e rto lt B re c h t’s “A W orker Reads H istory,” from his volum e Selected Poem s, is rep rin ted by per

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B erth a G eorgie Yeats. Also reprin ted by p erm ission o f M . B. Yeats, Miss A nne Yeats, and the

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Preface to the 2011 Edition: Schooling in Capitalist Am erica Revisited

Preface

Part I

T H E C O N T R A D IC T IO N S O F

L IB E R A L ED U C A T IO N R E F O R M

1. B eyon d the E du cation al Frontier: The G reat A m erican D ream Freeze

2. Broken Promises: School R eform in Retrospect

Part II

E D U C A T IO N AND T H E S T R U C T U R E O F E C O N O M IC L IF E

3. At the R oot o f the P roblem : The C apitalist Econom y

4. Education, Inequality, an d the M eritocracy

5. E ducation a n d Personal D evelopm ent: The Long Shadow o f Work

Part III

T H E D YN A M ICS O F E D U C A T IO N A L C H A N G E

6. The Origins o f Mass Public Education

7. C orporate C apital a n d Progressive Education

8. The Transform ation o f H igher Education

an d the Emerging W hite-C ollar Proletariat

9. C apital Accumulation, Class Conflict, an d E du cation al Changeeff eee3

102

125

151

180

201aa2 Scho li

G E T T IN G T H E R E

10. E du cation al Alternatives 245

11. Education, Socialism, an d R evolution 264

Appendices 289

Notes 304

In dex 333 CHAPTER 6

T h e O rigins of

M a s s

Public Education

Most of you, indeed, cannot but have been part and parcel

of one of those huge, mechanical, educational machines, or

mills, as they might more properly be called. They are, I be

lieve, peculiar to our own time and country, and are so or

ganized as to combine as nearly as possible the principal

characteristics of the cotton mill and the railroad with those

of the model state’s prison.

Ch a r l e s Fr a n c i s Ad a m s,

addressing the National Education Association, 1880

T h e evidence presented in the previous two chapters leaves little doubt that

the U .S. educational system works to justify econom ic inequality and to

produce a labor fo rce whose capacities, credentials, and consciousness are

dictated in substantial measure by the requirements of profitable employ

ment in the capitalist economy. N or will there be much dissent from the

proposition that an essential structural characteristic of U .S . education is

what we have called the correspondence between the social organization of

schooling and that of work. An understanding of U .S . education, however,

requires that wc know more than the dominant econom ic effects of school

ing and the structural mechanisms which produce these effects. We must

discover how the school system changes. An analysis of the dynamics of

U .S . education may be helpful in two respects. F irst, it will enrich our

understanding of the correspondence between educational structure and

econom ic life. The fit between schooling and work described in the previ

ous chapters is, in one sense, too neat. T h e ensuing study of historical

change in the U .S. school system reveals not a sm ooth adjustment of

educational structure to the evolution of econom ic life, but rather a jarring

and conflict-ridden course of struggle and accom m odation. In this course,

the school system has, fo r substantial periods, been organized along lines

which, far from corresponding to the developing organization of econom ic

life, appear as bizarre or anachronistic throwbacks to earlier times. We Bwpllihna h n w G yhtG ihBt G H cChw GPin2' P0rther' that the process oP change' as e9hiUite2 in the histor" oP

e20cational rePorm mo5ements' contriU0tes signiPicantl" to the impact oP

schooling on conscio0sness' i2eolog"' an2 the class str0ct0re itselPd H artic0 3

larl" important in this respect is the 2iscrepanc" UetDeen the rhetoric an2

realit" o P e20cational rePormd The pop0lar oUvecti5es' slogans' an2 perspec3

ti5es oP rePorm mo5ements ha5e oPten imparte2 to the e20cational s"stem

an en20ring 5eneer oP egalitarian an2 h0manistic i2eolog"' Dhile the highl"

selecti5e implementation oP rePorms has ten2e2 to preser5e the role oP

schooling in the perpet0ation oP econom ic or2erd

%0r secon2 reason Por st02"ing the 2"namics oP the school s"stem is

rather more politicald The apparentl" smoothl" P0nctioning con5e"or Uelt

Dhich carries "o0ng people Prom Uirth to a20lt DorqM the Pamil"' school'

Dorqplace machineM has Paltere2 an2 then Ueen rea2v0ste2 in the pastd As

De Datch the present st0mUling perPormance oP 6 dS d e20cation' De Ditness

the opport0nit" Por ra2ical changed An 0n2erstan2ing oP the 2"namics oP

2e5elopment in 6 dS d e20cation' partic0larl" oP the sometimes harmonio0s

an2 sometimes straine2 relationships UetDeen e20cational str0ct0re an2

econom ic Porces' pro5i2es the in2ispensaUle Po0n2ations Po r a mo2ern

strateg" Po r changed Fe m0st qnoD hoD De arri5e2 here so De ma" 2is3

co5er hoD De ma" mo5e ond

Stepping U acq Prom the historical m aterial' De are str0cq' Pirst' U" the

sheer magnit02e oP e20cational change since the Am erican Far o P bn2e3

pen2enced 6 ntil =0ite recentl"' in no societ" 2i2 more than a tin" minorit"

oP chil2ren spen2 m ore than a small part oP their "o0th in Porm al e20ca3

tional instit0tionsd k5en to2a"' there are relati5el" PeD co0ntries in Dhich

the m avorit" oP "o0ng people spen2 most oP their "o0th in schoolsd bn most

societies thro0gho0t recor2e2 histor"' schools ha5e not pla"e2 a m avor role

in preparing chil2ren Por a20lthoo2d Am erican colonial societ" Das no

e9ceptiond

TD o cent0ries ago' the str0ct0re an2 scope oP American e20cation Uore

little resem Ulance to o0r c0rrent school s"stemd Along the Da"' man" an2

2i5erse alternati5es Dere consi2ere2 an2 trie2d Vooqing UacqD ar2' one

mightM an2 man" e20cational historians 2oM see an ine9oraUle march

along a single line oP ascentd 40t to e20cators' politicians' an2 others li5ing

in each historical perio2' the Da" PorDar2 2i2 not seem so cle a rX e20cation

has reache2 an2 passe2 man" crossroa2sd

Hrior to the nineteenth cent0r"' the main vo U oP 0pUringing an2 training

oP "o0th Das carrie2 U" the Pamil"' occasionall" s0pplemente2 U" appren3

ticeship or the ch 0 rch dE T h e school pla"e2 a rather marginal role in theEf: process oP chil2Irearingd Atten2ance' school rePormers lamente2' Das

sparsed k5en Por those atten2ing' the school "ear Das shortd As recentl" as

E B K w ' less than halP oP the chil2ren oP age Pi5e to se5enteen atten2e2

sch oolX among those enrolle2' the school "ear a5erage2 se5ent"Ieight 2a"s'

or less than a =0arter oP a "eard: To2a"' 5irt0all" all chil2ren in that age

gro0p atten2 school Por an a5erage oP halP oP the 2a"s in the "eard

T h e str0ct0re oP schooling an2 not merel" its e9tent has change2 ra2i3

call" in the past tDo cent0riesd k arl" elementar" schools in the 6nite2

States Dere' not s0rprisingl"' e9tension oP the homed These G 2ame schools'8

con20cte2 more oPten than not in the qitchen oP a literate Doman' pro3

5i2e2 most oP the Uasic Porm al e20cation a5ailaUle in the original thirteen

coloniesd Coe9isting Dith the 2ame schools Dere the soIcalle2 GDriting

schoolsd8 These Dere or2inaril" con20cte2 o0tsi2e the home U0t' liqe the

2ame schools' stresse2 Uasic literac" an2 comp0tational sqillsd V iq e the

2ame schools' too' the internal str0ct0re oP the Driting schools Das inPor3

mal' Uor2ering sometimes on the chaoticd A t the other e9treme' militar"

2iscipline an2 2rill pre5aile2 in most oP the charit" schools Por the poord

_iPPering metho2s oP instr0ction an2 st02ent control' an2 the 5ariet" oP

str0ct0res oP schooling 2o not e9ha0st the range oP alternati5es Pacing

Am erican e20cators a cent0r" an2 a halP agod W ost seeme2 to accept the

Pact that 2iPPerent races an2 classes' an2 Uo"s an2 girls' Do0l2 atten2 =0ite

2iPPerent t"pes oP instit0tionsd 40t e5en then' a s0Ustantial minorit" opinion

in e20cational circles arg0e2 Por the 0niPication oP all gro0ps Dithin the

same school str0ct0red ) a2icall" 2iPPerent proposals Por the control an2

Pinancing oP e20cation Dere also 2eUate2d Some Do0l2 ha5e lePt schooling

in pri5ate han2s' tr0sting to philanthrop" to cater to the e20cational nee2s

oP the poord %thers promote2 p0Ulic schooling' U0t so0ght an e9tension oP

the pre5alent G2istrict s"stem8 Dhich ass0re2 strict neighUorhoo2 controld

%thers' as De shall soon see' promote2 a then thoro0ghl" no5el U0t noD

Pam iliar e20cational str0ct0red H0Ulic nonsectarian comp0lsor" an2 ta9I

s0pporte2 schooling Das Par Prom a Poregone concl0sion in the earl" "ears

oP the nineteenth cent0r"du

4 0 t as the 6nite2 States entere2 the last =0arter oP the nineteenth cen3

t0r"' the mo2ern school s"stem' more or less as De qnoD it' ha2 taqen

Porm most completel" in the 0rUan -ortheastd 4" E B B w ' asserts the e20ca3

tional historian W ichael * at.N

. . . A m e r i c a n e d u ca tio n h ad acq u ired its f u n d a m e n ta l s tr u c tu r a l c h a r a c t e r is ti c s ,

th ey h a v e n o t a lte re d sin ce. P u b lic e d u c a tio n w as un iversal, ta x -s u p p o rte d ,

f re e , c o m p u ls o ry , b u re a u c r a tic a lly a rra n g e d , class b ased, and r a c i s t .4mta Ecp2py1 l6 P n11 FiRupg sfignoply? F 6 Bwp ll ihna h n w G yht G i hBt GH cC hw G) ap i2 groDth in atten2ance parallele2 these 2ramatic changes in the

legal' Pinancial an2 social str0ct0re oP 6 dS d e20cationd TDent" "ears UePore

the Ci5il F ar' v0st 0n2er u B percent o P Dhite chil2ren age2 Pi5eInineteen

Dere atten2ing schoolsdf 4" E B L w ' the Pig0re ha2 risen to fZ percentd Th0s

the PeD 2eca2es oP e20cational change' Dhich ma" U e 2ate2 Prom O orace

W annzs ascen2enc" to the neDl" create2 Wassach0setts State 4oar2 oP

k20cation in E B u K ' marqe2 a m avor t0rning point in 6 dS d social histor"d

( o r a perio2 oP com paraUle importance' De m0st aDait the e5ol0tion oP

corporate capitalist pro20ction an2 the closel" associate2 Hrogressi5e k20 3

cation mo5ement aro0n2 the t0rn oP the present cent0r"d

bn this chapter' De propose to ansDer the =0estionN OoD 2i2 the present

str0ct0re oP 6 dS d e20cation arise o0t oP the political an2 econom ic conPlicts

oP the mi2Inineteenth cent0r"Y bn Chapters K an2 B' De Dill e9ten2 o0r

anal"sis to co5er tDo other t0rning points in 6 dS d e20cational histor"N the

"ears E B Z w I E Z u w an2 the perio2 e9ten2ing Prom ro0ghl" E Z L w to the

presentd bn Chapter Z ' De Dill present an o5er5ieD an2 interpretation oP the

res0lts oP o0r historical researchd

bn the secon2 part oP this chapter De treat' in rather Uroa2 terms' the

voin t e5ol0tion oP econom ic str0ct0re an2 schooling in the anteUell0m pe3

rio2d Tho0gh essential' a Uroa2 s0r5e" o P this t"pe har2l" 2oes v0stice to

the comple9it" oP the materiald -or' De s0spect' Dill it satisP" the critical

rea2erd T h e a5ailaUle primar" historical materials alloD a consi2eraUl"

more searching in5estigation oP o0r interpretationsd F e Dill 2raD 0pon

these materials in three Da"sd ( irst De Dill st02" the e5ol0tion oP economic

liPe an2 schooling in a partic0lar toDnd Secon2 De Dill e9amine the mi2I

nineteenthIcent0r" rePorm mo5ement thro0gh the Dorq oP its greatest

e9ponent' Oorace Wannd Vastl"' De Dill 0se 2etaile2 statistical e5i2ence

Prom toDnIU"ItoDn an2 stateIU"Istate recor2s to present o0r anal"sis oP the

economic Uases Por the rise o P mass e20cationd %0r three t"pes o P e5i2ence

M 2etaile2 st02ies oP a single toDn' a m avor rePormer' an2 the a5ailaUle

=0antitati5e 2ataM cannot' oP co0rse' 2emonstrate Ue"on2 a sha2oD oP

2o0Ut the 5ali2it" oP o0r interpretationd The most De claim is that o0r

2etaile2 st02ies pro5i2e compelling s0pport Por o0r 5ieD an2 are' in im3

portant respects' contra2ictor" to alternati5e e9planationsd

A Dor2 m0st Ue sai2 aUo0t Dhat ma" seem to the rea2er to Ue a pec0liar

geographic narroDImin2e2ness on o0r partd W ost oP o0r e5i2ence in this

chapter comes Prom Wassach0settsd T h e emphasis on W assach0setts is no

acci2entd T h e e20cational rePorm mo5ement Dhich marqe2 the Pirst t0rning

point in 6 dS d e20cational histor" originate2 in the U0rgeoning in20strial

cities an2 toDns oP this state an2 Das 2ominate2 thro0gho0t its co0rse U"GDc the e9ample oP Wassach0setts an2 its e20cational lea2ersdL -ee2less to

sa"' the e9perience oP Wassach0setts Das not perPectl" replicate2 else3

Dhere' U0t De Uelie5e +an2 present some e5i2ence> that the co0rse oP

e20cational change in this state is not at"pical oP the rest oP the co0ntr"duao qEm%mn' i1 9A'' FtMems pgtsACminH C h s v 8 l e u mg e g o 5 l 8 mn l B l e A nC h k cmIme u g o S L 2 Bmi s A L i l n mg e

Whereas our employers have robbed us of certain rights . . .

we feel bound to rise unitedly in our strength and burst

asunder as Freemen ought the shackles and fetters with which

they have long been chaining and binding us, by an unjust

and unchristian use of power . . . which the possession of

capital and superior knowledge furnishes.

“Declaration of Independence”

Beverly, Massachusetts shoe workers, 1844

On M arch 6, 1 8 2 4 , K irk B oott, manager of the Merrimack Manufacturing

Company in Lowell, Massachusetts, drove his carriage to South Boston to

pick up T heod ore Edson, a young Episcopal minister. Edson had accepted

B o o tt’s offer to move to the booming mill town fifteen miles north of

B o ston to preach and establish a school. “Conversation,” Ed son later re

called, “ was easy, various and unconstrained as we drove on together.”

They arrived in time for Edson to tour the cotton mills before they closed

down for the night.7 Edson was to becom e the leading educator of the soon-

to-be-flourishing city. His zeal to establish a modern and well-financed

system of public education brought him into conflict, at one time or an

other, with just about every m ajor political group in town, including his old

friend K irk Boott and the other employers.

At the M arch 1 8 6 0 Town Meeting of Beverly, just a few miles from

Low ell, the shoemakers, farmers, sailors, and laborers of the town out

voted the professional and business people and closed down the town’s

brand new public high school. Few of them had or were likely to have

children in the school; the high school tax seemed to be little more than a

gift to the w ell-to-do. Beverly ’s artisans were just about evenly split on the

vote. B u t the professional and business groups voted to retain the school by

a two to one margin; more than three-quarters of the working people of the

town voted against it.8

Th e shoe workers played a particularly important part in the defeat of255 Bwp ll ihna h n w G yhtG ihBt GH cChwGthe school' casting o5er halP oP the G no8 5otesd 40t to man" oP them' the

school m0st ha5e Ueen a rather minor co n cern N T h a t 5er" Deeq' aPter

months oP angr" 2isc0ssion an2 protest at the loss oP in2epen2ence to the

capitalist emplo"ers Dho ha2 come to 2ominate the shoe tra2e' most oP

them Dent o0t on striqed The striqe' Dhich sprea2 to s0rro0n2ing toDns'

Das to Uecom e the largest in the 6 dS d prior to the Ci5il Fard

The 2e5elopment oP mass p0Ulic e20cation in the 6nite2 States Das the

Dorq oP people liqe * irq 4 o o tt' Theo2ore k2 son' an2 ironicall"' the shoe

Dorqers oP 4e5erl"d As De shall soon see' it Das Ueca0se oPM iP not on

UehalP oPM gro0ps s0ch as the striqing shoe Dorqers oP 4e5erl" that k2son'

4 o o tt' an2 others ha2 Porge2 an 0ne=0al an2 oPten 0neas" alliance oP

rePormers an2 capitalists Por the p0rpose oP estaUlishing mass p0Ulic

e20cationd

bn colonial Am erica' the U asic pro20cti5e 0nit Das the Pamil"d Wost

Pamilies oDne2 the tools oP their tra2e an2 Dorqe2 their oDn lan2d T ran s3

mitting the necessar" pro20cti5e sqills to the chil2ren as the" greD 0p

pro5e2 to Ue a simple tasq' not Ueca0se the Dorq Das 2e5oi2 oP sqill' U0t

Ueca0se the =0ite s0Ustantial sqills re=0ire2 Dere 5irt0all" 0nchanging Prom

generation to generation' an2 Ueca0se the transition to the Dorq Dorl2 2i2

not re=0ire that the chil2 a2apt to a Dholl" neD set oP social relationshipsd

T h e chil2 learne2 the concrete sqills an2 a2apte2 to the social relations oP

pro20ction Dithin the Pamil"d T o p0t the point more technicall"N Hro20ction

an2 repro20ction Dere 0niPie2 in a single instit0tionM the Pamil"d Hrepara3

tion Por liPe in the larger comm0nit" Das Pacilitate2 U" the chil2zs e9peri3

ence Dith the Pamil"d Fhile the n0clear' rather than the e9ten2e2' Pamil"

Das the norm' people 2i2 not mo5e aro0n2 m 0chdZ )elati5es ten2e2 to li5e

Pairl" close to one anotherX chil2ren ha2 ample opport0nit" to learn to 2eal

Dith com ple9 relationships among a20lts other than their parents an2 Dith

chil2ren other than their Urothers an2 sistersdEw

bt Das not re=0ire2 that chil2ren learn a comple9 set oP political prin3

ciples or i2eologies' as political participation Das limite2d The onl" m avor

c0lt0ral instit0tion o0tsi2e the Pamil" Das the ch0rch' Dhich so0ght to

inc0lcate the accepte2 spirit0al 5al0es an2 attit02esd bn a22ition' a small

n0mUer oP chil2ren learne2 craPt sqills o0tsi2e the Pamil" as apprenticesd

klem entar" schools Poc0se2 on literac" training to Pacilitate a Pamiliarit"

Dith the Script0resd AUo5e this le5el' e20cation ten2e2 to Ue narroDl"

5ocational' restricte2 to preparation oP chil2ren Por a career in the ch0rch'

the G learne2 proPessions'8 or the still inconse=0ential state U0rea0crac"dEE

T h e c0rric0l0m oP the PeD 0ni5ersities rePlecte2 the aristocratic penchant

Po r conspic0o0s intellect0al cons0mptiond, F Z uao qEm%mn' i1 9 A'' FtMems pgtsACmin) api2 econom ic change PolloDing the F ar Por bn2epen2ence set into

motion Porces Dhich Do0l2 ra2icall" alter the relationship UetDeen the

Pamil" an2 the s"stem oP pro20ctiond Com merce e9pan2e2 2ram aticall"N bn

the PiPteen "ears UePore E B w K ' the 5al0e oP Poreign tra2e increase2 Po0r3

Po l2 dE: Varger com mercial interests proPite2 Prom the e9pansion oP tra2e'

amasse2 s0Ustantial concentrations oP capital' an2 so0ght neD arenas Po r

proPitaUle in5estmentd bncreasingl"' capital Das 0se2 Por the 2irect emplo"3

ment oP laUor in pro20ction rather than remaining conPine2 to the U0"ing

an2 selling oP commo2ities an2 relate2 com mercial acti5itiesd T h e e9pan3

sion oP capitalist pro20ction' partic0larl" the Pactor" s"stem as Dell as the

contin0ing concentration oP com m ercial capital' 0n2ermine2 the role oP the

Pamil" as the m avor 0nit oP Uoth chil2Irearing an2 pro20ctiond Small shop3

qeepers an2 Parmers Dere compete2 o0t oP U0sinessd Cottage in20str" an2

artisan pro20ction Dere gra20all" 2estro"e2d %Dnership oP the means oP

pro20ction Uecam e hea5il" concentrate2 in the han2s oP lan2lor2s an2

capitalistsd ( ace2 Dith 2eclining opport0nities Po r an in2epen2ent li5eli3

hoo2' Dorqers Dere Porce2 to relin=0ish control o5er their laUor in ret0rn

Por Dages' or piece ratesd The pa" Dorqers recei5e2 increasingl" tooq the

Porm oP a GDage8 rather than a Gp riced8EU

T h e statistics Po r -eD 7 o r q Cit" Por the "ears E K Z f to EBff ill0strate

these tren2sN A Po0rPol2 increase in the relati5e n0mUer oP Dage Dorqers

an2 a re20ction U" tDoIthir2s in the relati5e n0mUer oP in2epen2ent m er3

chants an2 proprietorsdER bn the co0ntr" as a Dhole' agric0lt0ral p0rs0its

M the stronghol2 oP in2epen2ent pro20ctionM lost gro0n2 to man0Pact0r3

ingd bn E B : w ' Po r e5er" person Dorqing in man0Pact0ring an2 2istriU0tion'

there Dere si9 people engage2 in agric0lt0reX U" E B L w ' this Pig0re ha2 Pallen

to th reedEf 4 " the Ci5il Far' the Pamil" no longer constit0te2 the 2ominant

0nit oP pro20ctiond bncreasingl"' pro20ction Das carrie2 on in large organi3

.ations in Dhich an emplo"er 2irecte2 the acti5ities oP the entire Dorq Po rce

an2 oDne2 the pro20cts oP their laUord T h e social relations oP pro20ction

Uecam e increasingl" 2istinct Prom the social relations oP repro20ctiond

T h e emerging class str0ct0re e5ol5e2 in accor2 Dith these neD social

relations oP pro20ctionN An ascen2ant an2 selPIconscio0s capitalist class

cam e to 2ominate the political' legal' an2 c0lt0ral s0perstr0ct0re oP societ"d

T h e nee2s oP this class Dere to proPo0n2l" shape the e5ol0tion oP the

e20cational s"stemd

The e9pansion an2 contin0ing transPormation oP the s"stem o P capitalist

pro20ction le2 to 0nprece2ente2 shiPts in the occ0pational 2istriU0tion oP

the laU or Porce an2 constant changes in the sqills re=0irement Po r voUsd

Training Dithin the Pamil" Uecame increasingl" ina2e=0ateX the pro20cti5e] F ' sqills oP the parents Dere no longer a2e=0ate Por the nee2s oP the chil2ren

20ring their liPetimed T h e apprentice s"stem oP training' Dhich' U" c0stom'

committe2 masters Po r a perio2 oP as m0ch as se5en "ears to s0ppl" ap3

prentices Dith room an2 Uoar2 as Dell as +som etim es> minimal le5els oP

training in ret0rn Po r laUor ser5ices' Uecam e a costl" liaUilit" as the groDing

se5erit" oP 2epressions ma2e the 2eman2 Po r the pro20cts oP the appren3

ticesz laUor more 0ncertaind T h e P0rther e9pansion oP capital increasingl"

re=0ire2 a s"stem oP laUor training Dhich Do0l2 alloD the costs oP training

to Ue Uorne U" the p0Ulicd k =0 all" important' the 2"namism oP the capital3

ist groDth process re=0ire2 a training s"stem Dhich Do0l2 Pacilitate a more

rapi2 a2v0stment oP emplo"ment to the U0siness c"cle an2 alloD the con3

stantl" changing 2ictates oP proPitaUilit" to go5ern the allocation oP laUord

Fhile 0n2ermining the econom ic role oP the Pam il" an2 the a2e=0ac" oP

the apprenticeship s"stem' the e9pansion oP capital create2' at the same

time' an en5ironmentM Uoth social an2 intellect0alM Dhich Do0l2 0lti3

matel" challenge the political or2erd F orqers Dere throDn together in large

Pactoriesd T h e isolation' Dhich ha2 helpe2 to maintain =0iescence in ear3

lier' Di2el" 2isperse2 Parming pop0lations' Das Uroqen 2oDnd F ith an

increasing n0mUer o P Pamilies 0proote2 Prom the lan2' the Dorqersz search

Po r a li5ing res0lte2 in largeIscale laUor migrationsd V a U o r scarcit" in20ce2

U" an aU0n2ance oP lan2 an2 rapi2 capital acc0m0lation le2 emplo"ers in

the e9pan2ing sectors oP the econom " to rel" increasingl" on an inPl09 oP

Poreigners to staPP the loDestIpa"ing voU sd bn the tenI"ear perio2 Ueginning

in E B R L ' the 6nite2 States aUsorUe2 udE million immigrantsM a n0mUer

e=0al to an eighth oP the entire pop0lation at that 2ated + T h e UetterIqnoDn

massi5e immigration oP the preIF orl2 IF arIb 2eca2e constit0te2 a some3

Dhat lesser Praction oP the total pop0lationd> W ost immigrants' arri5ing

Dith PeD reso0rces other than their laU or poDer' Uecam e part oP the groD3

ing 0rUan proletariatd %thers' less Port0nate' sDelle2 the ranqs oP the G re3

ser5e arm"8 oP the 0nemplo"e2' rea2" to taqe 0p voU s at near s0Usistence

Dagesd The" Dere a constant threat to the vo U sec0rit" an2 li5elihoo2 oP the

emplo"e2 Dorqersd TransientM oPten PoreignM elements came to constit0te

a m avor segment oP the 0rUan pop0lation an2 Uegan to pose seemingl"

ins0rmo0ntaUle proUlems oP assimilation' integration' an2 controldEL C0l3

t0ral 2i5ersit" cam e to Ue seen as a social proUlemd k th n ic conPlicts shat3

tere2 the calm an2 threatene2 the political staUilit" oP man" toDnsd

Fith the rapi2 e9pansion oP Uoth in20strial an2 com m ercial capital'

ine=0alities in Dealth increase2d 6sing 2ata Prom -eD 7 o r q Cit"' 4 ro o q 3

l"n' an2 4 o sto n ' De estimate that' earl" in the nineteenth cent0r"' the

Dealthiest E percent oP 0rUan resi2ents in the -ortheast oDne2 somethingBwpllihna hn w G yht G i hBt G H cC hw G] F + liqe a =0arter oP all tangiUle Dealthd 4" mi2cent0r"' the Pig0re ha2 risen to

aUo0t tDoIPiPthsd W oreo5er' Pragmentar" e5i2ence s0ggests a 2rastic re20c3

tion oP general moUilit" into the ranqs oP the 5er" Dealth"dEK SigniPicantl"'

onl" the econom icall" stagnant toDns appear to Ue e9ceptions to this tren2

toDar2 Dealth co n cen tration dEB

bne=0alit" Das increasingl" 2iPPic0lt to v0stiP" an2 Das less rea2il" ac3

cepte2d T h e simple legitimi.ing i2eologies oP the earlier perio2sM the 2i5ine

origin o P social ranq' Por e9ampleM ha2 Pallen 0n2er the capitalist attacq

on ro"alt"' ro"al monopol"' an2 the tra2itional lan2e2 interestsd The

Uroa2ening oP the electorate an2 oP political participation generall"M Pirst

so0ght U" the propertie2 an2 com mercial classes in their str0ggle against

the 4ritish CroDnM threatene2 soon to Uecom e a poDerP0l instr0ment in

the han2s oP Parmers an2 Dorqersd Common people 2i2 not limit their

political ePPorts to the Uallot Uo9 aloned Since the en2 oP the F ar oP bn2e3

pen2ence' Sha"sz ) eU ellion' the Fhisqe" ) eUellion ' the _ orr Far' an2 a

host oP minor ins0rrections ha2 er0pte2' oPten le2 U" )e5ol0tionar" F ar

heroes an2 s0pporte2 U" tho0san2s oP poor an2 2eUtIri22en Parm ers an2

Dorqersd These reUellions seeme2 to porten2 an era oP social 0phea5ald

The process oP capital acc0m0lation 2rasticall" change2 the str0ct0re oP

societ"N T h e role oP the Pamil" in pro20ction Das greatl" re20ce2X its role

in repro20ction Das increasingl" o0t oP to0ch Dith econom ic realit"d A

permanent proletariat an2 an impo5erishe2 an2' Po r the most part' ethni3

call" 2istinct' reser5e arm" oP the 0nemplo"e2 ha2 Ueen create2d k con om ic

ine=0alit" ha2 increase2d Sm all man0Pact0ring toDns ha2 Uecom e 0rUan

areas almost o5ernightd The e9pansion oP capitalist pro20ction ha2 at once

greatl" enhance2 the poDer oP the capitalist class an2 ha2 ine9oraUl" gen3

erate2 a con2ition Dhich challenge2 their contin0e2 2ominationd Fith in3

creasing 0rgenc"' econom ic lea2ers so0ght a mechanism to ins0re political

staUilit" an2 the contin0e2 proPitaUilit" oP their enterprisesd

ConPronte2 Dith no5el an2 rapi2l" changing econom ic con2itions' Dorq3

ing people' too' so0ght neD sol0tions to the ageIol2 proUlems oP sec0rit"'

in2epen2ence' an2 m aterial DelPared The staqes oP the econom ic game ha2

greatl" increase2d As Parmers an2 artisans Uecame Dage Dorqers' the"

so0ght a means U" Dhich the" or their chil2ren might reco0p their lost

stat0sd Som eM s0rel" a small minorit"M propose2 to attacq the DageIlaUor

s"stemd W an" sa5e2 Dhat meager amo0nts the" co0l2 aPPor2 in hopes oP

e5ent0all" getting U acq into U0siness on their oDnd %thers PolloDe2 the l0re

oP in2epen2ence an2 cheap lan2 an2 mo5e2 Festd 4 0 t Por man"' e20cation

seeme2 to promise the respectaUilit" an2 sec0rit" Dhich the" so0ghtd

A similar response to the e9pansion oP capitalist pro20ctionM tho0ghuao qEm%mn' i1 9 A'' FtMems pgtsACminUfZ Bwp ll ihna h n w G y ht G i hBt GH cChw GDith important 5ariations rePlecting 2iPPering econom ic' political' an2 c0l3

t0ral con2itionsM occ0rre2 in other co0ntriesd bn knglan2' Uoth Dorqing

people an2 emplo"ers s0pporte2 some qin2 oP e20cational e9pansion' al3

tho0gh their oUvecti5es Dere ra2icall" 2iPPerentd A n ePPecti5e stalemate

among the proe20cational strategies oP capitalist emplo"ers' the poDerP0l

an2 more conser5ati5e Ch0rch oP knglan2' an2 lan2IoDning interests post3

pone2 the implementation oP p0Ulic e20cation on a national scale 0ntil the

E B K w s dEZ bn a PeD areasM s0ch as Hr0ssia an2 Scotlan2M Dhere militar" or

religio0s p0rposes 2ominate2 e20cational polic"' mass instr0ction Das im3

plemente2 consi2eraUl" UePore the impact oP capitalist e9pansion Das

Pe ltd:w bn the remain2er oP this chapter' De ill0strate hoD this process oP

econom ic e9pansion an2 e20cational change cam e aUo0t in the 6nite2

Statesd

T h e S c h o o l S ystem o f L o w e ll , M a ssa c h u setts, 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 6 0

. . . I.et then the influence of our Com m on Schools be

com e universal, for they are the main pillars of the perma

nency of our free institutions; a protection from our enemies

abroad, and our surest safety against internal commotions.

Lowell Massachusetts School Committee Report, 1846

T h e growing pressure fo r public education which marked the early nine

teenth century reflected an increasing concern with production and with the

conditions of labor. Th is concern took a variety of form s. In B oston, the

cessation of overseas trade during the embargo of 1 8 0 7 and the closing of

the port during the W ar of 1 8 1 2 shifted the interests of the propertied

classes from a preoccupation with mercantile trade to a consideration of

the opportunities of profit through direct employment of labor. T h e eco

nom ic distress o f this period intensified econom ic concerns among artisans

and other workers. B o th concerns were reflected in a petition which was

presented in 1817 to the Boston Town M eeting calling for, among other

things, the establishment of a system of free public primary schools. As this

petition is something of a landmark, it may be worth investigating who

signed it. Fortunately, W illiam W eber has carefully analyzed the occupa

tions and classes of these petitioners.21 While the vast m ajority of the

townspeople fall within W eber’s category, “lab orers,” only 21 percent of

the petitioners cam e from this class. T h e bulk of support ( 5 6 percen t) ishia uao qEm%mn' i1 9A'' FtMems pgtsACminPo0n2 among the DellItoI2o artisans an2 shopqeepersd Varge merchants

an2 entreprene0rs' a min0te percent oP the pop0lace' pro5i2e2 :u percent

oP the signat0res an2 o5er halP oP Dhat FeUer has classe2 as the e20ca3

tional lea2ership oP the perio2d

The 2eman2 Por elementar" schooling in 4 oston apparentl" originate2

Dith the large propertie2 class an2 Dhat might to2a" Ue calle2 the mi22le

classd -ot too m0ch sho0l2 Ue rea2 into these 2ata' hoDe5er' Por 4oston

Das clearl" an at"pical case' representing as it 2i2 one oP the m avor mer3

cantile centers oP the "o0ng nationd 4oston Do0l2 escape m0ch oP the

social 2istress an2 t0rmoil Dhich Do0l2 accompan" the bn20strial )e5ol03

tion soon to sDeep o5er the -ortheastd The Dealth oP the 4oston rich'

hoDe5er' Das intimatel" in5ol5e2 in Uoth in20striali.ation an2 e20cational

G m o2erni.ationd8 Fe ma" learn more aUo0t this comple9 stor" U" looqing

into the e20cational an2 econom ic histor" oP the Uooming in20strial com 3

m0nit" oP VoDell' Wassach0setts' 20ring the Pirst Po0r 2eca2es oP its

e9istenced

Fhen the representati5es oP the 4 oston Wan0Pact0ring Compan" Uegan

U0"ing 0p Parmlan2 along the W errim acq ) i5 er in k ast ChelmsPor2 in

E B : E ' the 2istrict ha2 a pop0lation oP aUo0t : w w d:: Tho0gh accor2ing to

school Uoar2 recor2s' the toDnM soon to Uecome VoDellM ha2 Uoaste2 at

least one G)ighting S c h o o l8 Por o5er a cent0r"' most oP the chil2ren Dere

not in atten2anced Fithin tDo 2eca2es' VoDell Das to Uecom e the thir2

largest cit" in the state' a center oP the te9tile tra2e' an2 a lea2er in

estaUlishing one oP the Pirst mo2ern school s"stems in the co0ntr"d

The oDners oP the neD mills Dhich spr0ng 0p in VoDell so0ght to 0sher

in a neD era oP in20striali.ation' one Dhich Do0l2 ens0re the proPitaUilit"

o P their enterprise Ditho0t spaDning the po5ert" an2 h0man 2egra2ation

Dhich t"piPie2 the knglish man0Pact0ring centersd ( o r the Domen recr0ite2

Prom the s0rro0n2ing Parms' Dorq in the mills Do0l2 Ue DellIpa"ing an2

their leis0re ho0rs Do0l2 Ue spent in c0lt0ral acti5ities an2 other moral

recreationd A literar" maga.ine Do0l2 soon Ue Porme2 Por the mill Domend

A s a more permanent Dorq Porce Das recr0ite2' partic0larl" Prom the ranqs

oP brish immigrants' schooling Do0l2 pla" an increasing role in the o5erall

social strateg" oP the mill oDnersd _0ring the perio2 oP groDth oP the

VoDell econom"' the G respectaUle8 memUers oP the comm0nit" artic0late2

the arg0ments Por a 0ni5ersal p0Ulic school s"stem Dhich Dere later to

Uecom e common thro0gho0t the 6nite2 Statesd

k20cate2 Dorqers' the" note2' Do0l2 Ue Uetter Dorqersd Oom er 4 artlett'

agent oP the Wassach0setts Cotton W ills' Drote in E B R E Nh i h Bwpllihna h n w G yhtG ihBt G H cC hw GF l C u u n C r ph lL o atC A p oA f h B m h l th A E h d ) o u m h l g h E ain poatpgthf aR o a aRh C 5 A hlp

o f m a n u f a c tu r in g p r o p e rty h av e a deep p e c u n ia ry in te re st in th e e d u c a tio n

and m o ra ls o f th e ir help ; and I believe th e tim e is n o t distan t w hen th e tru th

o f this will a p p e a r m o r e and m o r e c le a r. A n d as c o m p e titio n b e c o m e s m o re

close, and sm all c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f m o re im p o rta n c e in tu rn in g the s c a le in

f a v o r o f o n e estab lish m en t o v e r a n o th e r , I believe it will be seen th a t the

e stab lish m en t, o t h e r things being eq u al, w h ich has the b est e d u cated and m ost

m o ra l help will give the g re a te s t p r o d u c tio n at the least c o s t per p o u n d .23

George Boutw ell, who succeeded H orace M ann as Secretary of the

M assachusetts B oard of E d ucation, summarizing the views of employers

interviewed during his visit in 1 8 5 9 , wrote:

In L o w ell, and in m a n y o t h e r p la ce s , th e p ro p rie to rs find the tra in in g o f the

sch o o ls a d m ira b ly ad ap ted to p re p a re the ch ild ren f o r the lab ors o f the

m ills.24

Upbringing in the family, evidently, was not adequate training fo r work

in the rising industrial sector. Particularly after the mass influx of Irish

workers in the late 1 8 4 0 s, the school committee saw the schools as a

partial substitute fo r the home. Many of the city’s children, lamented the

com mittee in 1 8 5 1 :

. . . H a v e t o re c e iv e th e ir first lessons o f su b o rd in atio n an d o b ed ien ce in the

sch o o l r o o m . A t h o m e , th ey a r e e ith e r le ft w holly to th eir own c o n t r o l, o r ,

w h at is a lm o s t eq u ally b ad , th e discipline to w h ich th e y are su b jected a lte r

n ates betw een foolish in d u lgen ce, and e x a s p e r a te d ty ra n n y . . . .25

T h e mill owners echoed these concerns. Boutw ell’s summary reflects the

writings of numerous employers:

T h e o w n ers o f f a c t o r i e s a re m o re c o n c e r n e d th an o th e r classes an d in terests in

th e in telligence o f th eir la b o re rs . W h en the la t te r a re w ell-ed u cated and the

f o r m e r a r e disposed to deal ju stly, c o n tro v e rs ie s and strik e s c a n n e v e r o c c u r ,

n o r c a n th e m inds o f the m asses be p reju d iced b y d em ag o g u es a n d c o n tro lle d

by te m p o r a r y and fa ctio u s c o n s id e ra tio n s .26

T h ese and other salutory effects of schooling could hardly have been

fully appreciated by either Theodore Edson or Kirk B o o tt— textile capital

ist and soon-to-be schoolm aster— as they rode together in 1 8 2 4 from

South B oston to Lowell. But E d so n ’s arrival in Low ell signaled a new

departure fo r the educational system o f the city. T h e changes in the struc

ture and scope of schooling over the next generation were to becom e a

pattern fo r the rest of the state.

T h e numerous and scattered district schools were consolidated and

brought under the control of the central school board. T h is centralized

body, unlike the decentralized district boards, articulated the concerns of

teachers, lawyers, doctors and other professionals, and through them thehio large propert"IoDning elite oP the toDnd Ale9an2er ( ie l2 zs st02" oP the

social composition o P the school Uoar2 re5eals that' o5er the Pirst three

2eca2es oP the VoD ell school com m itteezs e9istence' Bf percent oP the

memUership Das 2raDn Prom U0siness an2 the proPessionsX less than f

percent Dere Dorqersd T h e remain2er' those Dith 0nqnoDn occ0pations'

Dere pres0maUl" Parm ers an2 perhaps Dorqers Dhose occ0pation ha2 not

Ueen tho0ght important eno0gh to recor2 d:K

6n2er the lea2ership oP the centrali.e2 school Uoar2' the Praction oP

chil2ren atten2ing school greDd T h e term Das s0Ustantiall" lengthene2d The

larger n0mUers oP chil2ren in school alloDe2 the school committee' Po r the

Pirst time' to place st02ents in separate classrooms gra2e2 accor2ing to age

an2 scholastic proPicienc"d T h e c0rric0l0m Das Uroa2ene2d T h e Ghi22en

c0rric0l0m 8 oP the school cam e increasingl" to stress Gheart c0lt0re o5er

Urain c0lt0re'8 as the school s0perinten2ent oP neighUoring VaD rence p0t

itd

-ot all oP the citi.ens oP VoD ell en2orse2 these changesd T h e Pirst m avor

so0rce oP opposition came Prom the Parming Pamilies in the o0tl"ing 2is3

tricts Dho resente2 the groDing elite 2omination oP school polic" thro0gh

the toDn school Uoar2 an2 the increasing restriction oP the poDers oP the

2istrict school Uoar2sd The conPlict o5er centrali.ation came to a hea2 at

the E B u : Ann0al ToDn Weetingd T h at night' the citi.ens oP VoDell re3

5erse2 the 2ecision oP the central school Uoar2 to 2is=0aliP" a pop0lar

2istrict teacher an2 later 5ote2 o0t the entire school committeed

As pro20ction e9pan2e2 in the m i2 IEBuws' the prices oP te9tile goo2s

Uegan to Pa lld:B 4" the m i2 IEBRws' prices ha2 Pallen U" UetDeen a thir2

an2 a halPd ) ea l Dages oP te9tile Dorqers Dere ro0ghl" constant o5er the

"ears EBuf to E B f f ' so compan" proPits co0l2 Ue maintaine2 onl" U"

2rasticall" increasing the amo0nt oP Dorq e9tracte2 Prom the operati5esd

_espite the lacq oP signiPicant impro5ement in the technolog" oP pro20c3

tion' o0tp0t per Dorqer rose' proUaUl" U" something liqe f w percent o5er

the tDo 2eca2es Ueginning in E B u f d:Z T h e increase2 press0re on laUor

coinci2e2 Dith' an2 Das partl" responsiUle Por' the gra20al replacement oP

G 7 a n q e e 8 Dorqers U" immigrant laUor 20ring the EBR w s an2 EBfwsd -oD

e5en the pretentions oP a h0mane paternalistic in20strial s"stem Dere 2is3

car2e2d T h e antagonistic relations UetDeen capital an2 laUor Dere re5eale2

in 0n2isg0ise2 Porm as the piecerates Dhich pai2 Dorqers Dere loDere2

"ear aPter "eard

_0ring the Pirst tDo 2eca2es oP V oD ellzs histor" Dhen mill han2s Dere

recr0ite2 on a temporar" Uasis Prom the s0rro0n2ing r0ral toDns' the m avor

capitalists remaine2 2i5i2e2 on the =0estion oP e20cational e9pen2it0red

%n Ualance' e5en in these earl" 2a"s' the corporations place2 their Deightuao qEm%mn' i1 9 A'' FtMems pgtsACminhi C Bw p l l ihn a h n w G yhtG ihBt G H cC hw Gon the si2e oP p0Ulic e20cationd T h e tDo schools most highl" regar2e2 U"

the school committee Dere locate2 on corporation propert" an2 ser5e2

2irectl" the chil2ren an2 Dorqers in the a2vacent millsd OoDe5er' man"

man0Pact0rers oppose2 ta9ation oP their properties Por e9pensi5e school

constr0ctiond * irq 4 o o tt himselP oppose2 one oP k2sonzs plans Por a neD

constr0ction on the gro0n2s that it Das too la5ishd 4 0 t as the proUlem oP

creating' controlling' an2 e9tracting e5erIincreasing amo0nts oP Dorq Prom

a permanent laUor Porce Uecam e more pressing' the s0pport Por p0Ulic

e20caton among emplo"ers Uecam e 5irt0all" 0nanimo0sd SigniPicantl"' it

Das in the 2epression "ears oP the earl" E B R w s that O orace Wann' too'

Uecam e con5ince2 o P the econom ic 5al0e oP e20cationduw

brish parents an2 chil2ren e5i2entl" 2i2 not share the emplo"ersz enth03

siasm Po r schoolingd Tho0gh the precise ca0ses are oUsc0re' the VoDell

School 4oar2 reports 2oc0ment a s0staine2 school Uo"cott U" the brish

comm0nit" an2 a n0mUer oP attempts to U0rn 2oDn the school in the brish

neighUorhoo2duE

4 " the o0tUreaq oP the Ci5il F ar' the o0tlines oP a m o2em s"stem oP

elementar" e20cation ha2 taqen shape in VoDelld Tr0ant oPPicers Dere

emplo"e2 to enPorce comp0lsor" schoolingd Wost schoolIage chil2ren' in

Pact' atten2e2 school Por a goo2 part oP the "eard T h e c0rric0l0m an2

classroom str0ct0re' noD Uarel" recogni.aUle as 2escen2ant Prom the cha3

otic r0ral GDriting schools'8 ha2 Ueg0n to ass0me a Porm all too Pamiliar to

most schoolchil2ren in the present cent0r"d

These 2e5elopments in VoDell Dere har2l" 0ni=0ed The" Dere' in2ee2'

repeate2 all o5er the stated W oreo5er' the changing position oP the state

go5ernment on the =0estion o P schooling ha2 a m avor Uearing on the t0rn

oP e5ents in VoDell an2 elseDhered F e t0rn noD to in5estigate the school

rePorm mo5ement at the state le5eld

H o r a c e M a n n s “B a l a n c e W h e e l o f th e S o c i a l M a c h in e r y ”

. . . Education is not only a moral renovator and a multiplier

of intellectual power, but . . . also the most prolific parent of

material riches. . . . It is not only the most honest and honor

able, but the surest means of amassing property.

Ho r a c e Ma n n,

Fifth Annual Report o f the Secretary

of State Board of Education, 1842elr %ne e5ening in Wa" E B u K ' k2m0n2 _Dight tooq O orace Wann asi2e at a

social gathering an2 0rge2 that he consi2er accepting the Secretar"ship oP

the neDl" Porme2 State 4oar2 oP k 2 0 catio n dU _Dight' a mavor in20strial3

ist Prom SpringPiel2' ha2 pers0a2e2 y o5ernor k 5 erett that the post Das too

important to Ue gi5en to an e20catord W ann seeme2 an i2eal choiced As

Secretar" oP the Wassach0setts Senate' he ha2 a s0Ustantial stateDi2e rep03

tation X his ePPecti5eness as a politician ha2 Ueen ampl" 2emonstrate2 in his

a25ocac" oP railDa" constr0ction' insane as"l0ms' 2eUtor laD rePorms' an2

n0mero0s other h0manitarian rePormsd T h e Porm ation oP the 4 oar2 itselP

rePlecte2 a groDing recognition among in20strialists s0ch as _Dight an2

other respectaUle memUers oP the societ" that the proUlems oP laUor an2

0rUani.ation re=0ire2 strong action at the state le5eld (eD persons' _Dight

tol2 W ann' co0l2 m atch his =0aliPication' to meet s0ch a challenged Sho0l2

Wann accept' _Dight Das prepare2 to pri5atel" s0pplement W annzs salar"

in the neD postd

T h e 4 oar2 Do0l2 ha5e no a2ministrati5e a0thorit"X its responsiUilities

Dere to Ue conPine2 to gathering statistics an2 Driting occasional reports on

the stat0s oP e20cationd T o lea5e the Senate Po r this post m0st' initiall"'

ha5e seeme2 to W ann a political errord The 5er" limite2 poDers oP the

4oar2 Dere har2l" 0p to the tasq oP 2ealing ePPecti5el" Dith the rapi2

transPorm ation oP the Wassach0setts econom" an2 the groDth oP 0rUan

po5ert" an2 0nrestd

T h e str0ct0re oP emplo"ment Das changing 2rasticall"N 4etDeen E B : w

an2 E B R w ' the percentage oP the Dorq Porce engage2 in agric0lt0re Pell Prom

fB to R w percentX U" E B f w ' the percentage Do0l2 Pall to Ef percentdu:

km plo"m ent in man0Pact0ring Das groDing correspon2ingl"d Cities Dere

springing 0p in the onceIr0ral stated Hop0lation greD Prom less than halP a

million in E B : w to o5er a million an2 a =0arter in E B L f d Wan" oP the neD

W assach0setts resi2ents Dere Poreign Uornd

Ve2 U" the te9tiles an2 shoe in20stries' Wassach0setts Das e9periencing

its in20strial re5ol0tiond bncreasingl"' the Pactor" replace2 the home pro3

20ction oP the p0ttingIo0t s"stem or the small artisan shopsd Oo0se2 in

2ormitories or 0rUan sl0m 2Dellings' the neD in20strial laUor Porce consti3

t0te2 a neD an2' to man" oP the DellItoI2o' a threatening element in the

* We have relied heavily on Jonathan Messerli, Horace M ann: A Biography (New

Y o r k : Alfred A. Knopf, 1 9 7 2 ) , and Mann’s Annual State Board of Education Reports

which are found in both Horace Mann, and Life and Works o f Horace Mann (B oston :

W alker and Fuller C o ., 1 8 6 5 - 1 8 6 8 ) ; and Alexander J. Field, “Skill Requirements in

Early Industrialization: The Case of Massachusetts,” working paper in Econom ics,

University of California at Berkeley, December 1973.mta Ecp2py1 l6 P n11 FiRupg sfignoply Bw p l l ihn a h n w G y ht G i hBt G H cC hw Gsocial str0ct0red Alrea2" Pearing the thr0st oP ’acq sonian 2emocrac"' the

respectaUle memUers oP societ" Dere Ueginning to reali.e that in20striali.a3

tion Das 0n2ermining the onceIstaUle an2 2ePerential comm0nities oP the

state' an2 rapi2l" 0shering in an era oP conPlict' contention' an2 possiUle

social 2isr0ptiond

O orace W ann 5ieDe2 these 2e5elopments Dith 2isma"d Some "ears ear3

lier' he ha2 Ueen pers0a2e2 to reenter the political sphere aPter a long

aUsence PolloDing the 2eath oP his Pirst DiPed Ois mission Das to co0nter the

political aspirations oP Dhat a Fhig e2itor rePerre2 to as G d d d a coalition

consisting oP ’acq so n men' A ntiIW asons' Dorqe"s —Forqingmenzs Hart"

people]' (ann" Fright men an2 inPi2els oP all 2escriptiond8 uu T h e 2estr0c3

tion an2 2esecration oP a con5ent U" an antiIC atholic moU in CharlestoDn

in E B u R Das' O orace W ann note2' G a horriUle o0traged8 F hile W ann Das

consi2ering _Dightzs s0ggestion' a riot' sparqe2 U" a collision oP a 7 an q e e

PireIengine creD an2 brish P0neral procession' 2estro"e2 m0ch oP 4 roa2

Street in 4 oston d )ePlecting on the 4roa2 Street riot' Wann Peare2 that the

social PaUric Das Deaqening an2 that chaos Do0l2 ens0e 0nless strong state

action Das taqend A Pter almost a month oP 2eliUeration' he tol2 _Dight

that he Das rea2" to accept the postd

W ann Das a s0pporter o P the in20strial s"stemd Ois a25ocac" oP rail3

roa2s in the state Das Uase2 on a con5iction that the e9pansion oP Dealth

thro0gh in20striali.ation co0l2 pro5i2e the Uasis Por a P0ller an2 more

aU0n2ant liPe Po r all citi.ensd OoDe5er' W ann Das 2istresse2 U" the groD3

ing d d 2omination oP capital an2 the ser5ilit" oP laUor d d d8 Dhich ren2ers

the d d latter d d d the ser5ile 2epen2ents an2 s0Uvects oP the Po rm erd8

T h e str0ct0re oP the societ" an2 econom" Do0l2 not long Uear 0p 0n2er

the straind T h e proUlem Pacing Wann' as he ass0me2 oPPice' Das hoD to

amen2 the e9isting str0ct0res to ins0re their permanenced Ois oUvecti5e' he

Drote a Prien2' Das G d d d the remo5al oP 5ile an2 rotten parts Prom the

str0ct0re oP societ" as Past as sal0tor" an2 so0n2 ones can Ue prepare2 to

taqe their p la ce d8uR 40t hoD to prepare these neD partsY Oe Platl" revecte2

the notion that there Das an" necessar" antagonism UetDeen classesX class

conPlict Do0l2 ha5e no place in his programd 6nliqe man" rePormers oP his

2a"' he 2i2 not s0pport the rights oP Dorqers to organi.ed T h e i2ea oP

G some re5ol0tioni.ers8 that G some people are poor Ueca0se others are

rich '8 he laUele2 as 2angero0sduf A n earl" s0pporter oP tem perance' he

estimate2 that P0ll" Po0rIPiPths o P the pa0perism in the state co0l2 Ue at3

triU0te2 to li=0 orduL bt Das e20cation' he Drote' that Do0l2 Uecom e Gthe

U alan ce Dheel oP the social m achiner"d8 Hroperl" rePorme2 an2 a2minis3

tere2 schools co0l2 pro5i2e a generation o PNhii AtAs oAf 5 hoLtAs rh E o l l th f C e a tA aRh pou h l C C u d oAf rn aRh p ou h RoA fpd

as insist th a t ch ild ren o f different ages and a ttain m en ts should go to the

s a m e s ch o o l, and be in stru cted by the sam e te a c h e r . . . . W h a t a sch o o l system

req u ires is th a t it be s y s te m a tic ; th a t e a c h g ra d e , fro m the low est to the high

est, be distin ctly m a rk e d , and afford a th o ro u g h p r e p a ra tio n f o r e a c h a d

v a n ce d g r a d e .40

M oreover, they noted after a number of years, experimentation with the

system:

T h e exp en se o f in stru ctio n has been m a te ria lly lessened . . . a g re a t deal o f dis

o r d e r h as been c h e c k e d ; punishm ents are alm ost ab o lish ed ; and a m a rk e d

p ro g ress in stu d y has been m a d e . T h e ch a n g e thus m ad e is n o th in g less th an

a public b e n e f a c tio n .41

T h e curriculum was to be broadened; the three R ’s— bread and butter of

the writing schools’ offerings— were not sufficient intellectual training for

the modern era. An understanding of political economy would surely make

better citizens.42 Not surprisingly, the other new subjects introduced often

had an ostensible bearing on the world of industry or commerce. Foreign

languages, geography, and even surveying were introduced. But one is

struck more by the irrelevance of the material than by its utilitarian value.

Consider the entrance examination for the Lowell High School in 1 8 5 0 .

Applicants were expected to be able to nam e:

. . . T h e c a p ita l o f A b b yssin ia, tw o lakes in the Su dan , the riv e r th a t runs

th ro u g h the c o u n tr y o f the H o tte n to ts , and o f the d e s e rt lying betw een the

N ile and the R ed Sea, as well as to lo c a te B o m b e to k B a y , the G u lf o f S id ra,

and the L u p a ta M o u n ta in s .43

E ven such evidently useful training as sewing was introduced less for its

vocational value than for its moral effect. The Boston School Committee

reported:

T h e in dustrious habits w hich sewing ten ds to f o r m and the c o n s e q u e n t high

m o ra l influence w h ich it e x e r ts upon s o c ie ty at large m a y ca u s e its in tr o d u c

tion m o r e exten sively in all the s c h o o ls .44

T h at those involved in education were more interested in the high moral

influence of the school than in the intellectual product of education seems

quite true.

Although we have no direct evidence on this point, it appears likely that

employers shared the educators’ viewpoint. Intellectual skills were not re

quired for most workers on the jo b . L u ft’s study of piece-rate productivity

records of thousands of mid-nineteenth-century Low ell millworkers indi

cated no statistical relationship between individual worker productivity and

literacy.45 T h e elementary educational system was already much larger80p ll ihna h n 0 “ Ght“ ih8t “P cCh0 “hin than necessar" to train the minorit" oP clerical an2 proPessional Dorqers

Dho Do0l2 nee2 literac" in their Dorqd bn E B R w ' ro0ghl" threeI=0arters oP

the a20lt 6 dSd pop0lation +incl02ing sla5es> co0l2 rea2 an2 DriteX the

literac" rate in Wassach0setts Das s0Ustantiall" higherd T h e Praction oP voU s

re=0iring literac" co0l2 not possiUl" ha5e e9cee2e2 : w percentdRL

Concerning cogniti5e sqills more a25ance2 than literac"' De 2o0Ut that

an" emplo"er Pamiliar Dith the 2ail" Dorqings oP their te9tile mills or other

similar Pactories Do0l2 serio0sl" entertain the notion that the c0rric0l0m

ta0ght in the schools oP the 2a" ha2 m0ch connection to the pro20cti5e

capacities oP the Dorqersd T h e reasons Dh" most larger emplo"ers s0p3

porte2 p0Ulic e20cation apparentl" relate2 to the noncogniti5e ePPects oP

schoolingM in more mo2ern terms' to the hi22en c0rric0l0md %n this' De

ha5e ample testimon" Prom the mill oDners themsel5esdRK Some school

committees Dere =0ite e9plicit aUo0t Dhat the" terme2 their moral o U ve c3

ti5esd bn E B f R ' Por e9ample' the SpringPiel2 School Committee DroteX

T h e o b je ct o f e d u c a tio n is by n o m ean s acco m p lish ed by m e re intellectual in

s tr u c tio n . It has o th e r aim s o f equ al if not h igher im p o rta n c e . T h e c h a r a c t e r

and habits are to be f o r m e d f o r life. . . .4S

They go on to designate a few of the prominent points that a teacher should

inculcate in the form ation of ch aracter; . . the habit of attention, self-

reliance, habits of order and neatness, politeness and courtesy . . . habits

of punctuality.”

Th e connections between moral training in school and the needs of the

business world were not missed by educators. A writer in the proreform

M assachusetts T ea ch er wrote:

T h a t the h ab it o f p ro m p t a ctio n in the p e r f o r m a n c e o f the duty req u ired o f the

b oy, by the te a c h e r a t s ch o o l, b e co m e s in the m an o f business co n firm e d ; thus

system and o r d e r c h a r a c t e r iz e the e m p lo y m en t o f the day la b o re r. H e m u st

begin e a c h h alf day w ith as m u c h p rom ptness as he d rop s his tools at th e close

o f it; an d he m u st m e e t e v e ry ap p o in tm en t and o r d e r d u rin g the h o u rs o f

th e d ay with no less p recision . It is in this w ay th a t re g u la rity and e c o n o m y

o f tim e hav e b e c o m e c h a r a c t e r is ti c o f o u r c o m m u n ity , as ap p ears in the r u n

ning “ on tim e ” o f long train s on o u r g r e a t netw ork o f railw ay s; the s tr ic t re g u

lation s o f all large m a n u f a c tu r in g estab lish m en ts; as well as the daily a r r a n g e

m en ts o f o u r sch o o l duties. . . . T h u s, w h at has been instilled in the m ind o f

the pupil, as a p rin cip le, b e co m e s th o ro u g h ly reco g n ized by the m a n as o f the

first im p o rta n c e in the tr a n s a c tio n o f business.49

In Low ell, Theodore Edson designed a special clock fo r classroom use

which divided the school day neatly into thirty-two ten-minute recitation

periods.

But neither M ann nor most of the school committees or manufacturers3ao k1mOmn, i! xA,, Wt—ems pgtsACminhis hif hlpd aRh m ihope lhp C g o E + e tltA s 2A C5 ihf shd aRh fe an C g fCtAs op 5h 5 Ceif

be done by, the c o n n e c t io n betw een p re s e n t c o n d u c t and su ccess, es tim a tio n ,

e m in e n ce in f u tu re life, the p re s e n c e o f an unseen ey e— n o t a syllable o f all

these is set f o r th w ith an y earn estn ess o r insisted up on as th e true s o u rc e and

spring o f h u m a n a c tio n s .53

Through his newly formed normal schools for teacher training, M ann

strongly urged a modification of classroom methods to tap the affection,

loyalty, and other higher motives of students. T h e replacem ent of male by

fem ale elementary school teachers during this period constituted a step in

the right direction. T h e fact that fem ale teachers were much cheaper to hire

than males may have provided the main impetus fo r the feminization of the

teaching staff. B u t the shift in hiring policy was probably at least as much a

reflection of the view that schools should increasingly becom e an extension

o f the family or, when necessary, even its substitute.

N ot surprisingly, reforms of this magnitude generated opposition. T h e

rural population, not yet awakened to the social distress, explosive poten

tial, and commercial needs o f the new industrial order, found the State

B o ard of Education meddlesome and a likely source of increased taxation.

M ann never looked forward to his speaking tours in the rural Berkshires.

T h ose associated with private schools found the common school a threat to

their eminent positions. Many of the unincorporated private academies did

close down during this period, though the more prestigious incorporated

academies prospered. A few critics could not swallow M an n ’s rigid insis

tence on the separation of church and school. T h e B oston masters and

other old school pedagogues felt that permissiveness in the classroom was

an invitation to anarchy in the streets. Abolitionists’ attacks were spurred

by M an n ’s acceptance of racially segregated education, as well, perhaps, as

his attempts to curb abolitionist-minded schoolm asters from speaking pub-

lically on the su b ject.54 (L a te r, as a member of the U .S . House of R ep re

sentatives, Mann would himself adopt the antislavery c a u se .)

M ann did everything possible to portray himself as an embattled cru

sader. “ When I took my circuit last year,” Mann reported to Barnard, “I

mounted on top of a horse, and went Paul Prying along the way, and

diverging off to the right or left, wherever I scented any improvement. I

believe that was substantially the way that P eter the Hermit got up the

Crusades.”55

B u t the history of the period reveals more M ann’s overwhelming politi

cal power stemming from enthusiastic support from virtually all influential

quarters. T h e one serious challenge to his position reflects the political

clim ate of the day, and deserves brief mention.

In 1 8 3 8 , the Tem perance reformers succeeded in gaining passage of a3ao k1mOmn, i! x A,, Wt—ems pgtsACminh g h the present cent0r"d 40t a st02" oP the impact oP W ann an2 the other

rePormers on the schools oP nineteenthIcent0r" W assach0setts is also in3

str0cti5ed As it t0rns o0t' the rePormers 2i2 not maqe progress toDar2 all oP

their oUvecti5esd Consi2ering W assach0setts as a Dhole' the percentage oP

people 0n2er the age oP tDent" enrolle2 in school +U o th p0Ulic an2 pri3

5ate> Pell slightl" Prom R L percent in E B u K to R u percent in E B L w d k 5en

taqing into acco0nt the gra20al increase in the length oP the school session'

the amo0nt oP schooling aPPor2e2 to "o0ng people 2i2 not increase o5er this

perio2dfK As De shall see shortl"' in this respect Wassach0setts Das at"picald

F hat 2i2 changeY Fe are in2eUte2 to W an n zs passion Por n0mUers Por

o0r aUilit" to ansDer this =0estion Dith some conPi2enced The rePormers 2i2

accomplish a signiPicant increase in the percentage oP schoolIage chil2ren

enrolle2 in p0Ulic as oppose2 to pri5ate schoolsd Atten2ance at pri5ate

instit0tions Pell Uoth aUsol0tel" an2 relati5el"d T h e com mon school Das

coming to Ue a realit"d T h e amo0nt oP reso0rces 2e5ote2 to p0Ulic school3

ing increase2 2ramaticall"' not onl" 20e to the e9pan2ing n0mUers oP

chil2ren in p0Ulic school' U0t thro0gh a marqe2 increase in perIp0pil e93

pen2it0resd Taqing acco0nt oP changes in the le5el oP prices o5er this

perio2' the rate oP increase oP perIp0pil e9pen2it0re amo0nts to Dell o5er :

percent per ann0md T h e consoli2ation oP 2istrict schools is rePlecte2 in a

mo2est increase in the a5erage si.e oP schoolsN Prom tDent"Ise5en in E B u Z

to thirt" in E B f Z d W oreo5er' U" the en2 oP this perio2' Domen teachers ha2

come to pre2ominate in primar" schoolsd The" constit0te2 ro0ghl" se5enI

eighths oP all p0Ulic school teachersdfB

OoD are De to assess the impact oP W annzs rePormsY T h at some oP

W an n zs contemporaries pict0re2 him a ra2ical is' perhaps' not s0rprisingX

his rePorms Dere at once progressi5e an2 conser5ati5ed Sensing its pro20c3

ti5e potential' he emUrace2 the neD capitalist or2er an2 so0ght thro0gh

social amelioration an2 str0ct0ral change to a2v0st the social instit0tions

an2 the people oP Wassach0setts to its nee2sd A t the same time' W annzs

rePorms ha2 the intent +an2 most liqel" the ePPect as D ell> oP Porestalling

the 2e5elopment oP class conscio0sness among the Dorqing people oP the

state an2 preser5ing the legal an2 econom ic Po0n2ations oP the societ" in

Dhich he ha2 Ueen raise2d T h e rePorme2 school s"stem oP Wassach0setts

Das W annzs croDning achie5ementd bt Das tr0l" an inno5ati5e sol0tion to

the proUlem oP conser5ati5e a2aption to changed bt Das soon to Ue 20pli3

cate2 aro0n2 the co0ntr"duao qEm%mn' i1 9 A'' FtMems pgtsACminG z S Bw p ll ihna h n w G yht G i hBt G H cC hw Gv h a nCel ECuuCA pERCCi pnpahu sC RoAf tA RoAf 5taR aRh

employment of your people; you may be quite certain that

the adaption of these systems at once will aid each other.

Letter from Abbott Lawrence of Massachusetts

to William Rives of Virginia, 1846

We have argued that the expansion of the industrial capitalist system was a

m ajor force promoting educational reform and expansion in the antebellum

period. Our evidence from the town of Lowell and from the study of

H orace M ann’s reforms certainly point in this direction. Y e t, the reader

may ob ject that these are exceptional cases. Would a detailed study of

another industrial town or another reformer support these conclusions? We

suspect that as more detailed case studies are conducted, our interpretation

will be supported. In the meantime, we must content ourselves with the less

detailed, but quite comprehensive, statistical evidence available in state

educational reports and in the U .S. Census. A number o f excellent studies

are at our disposal. We will consider first a statewide study of M assachu

setts before considering national data.

Th e argument that there was an intimate connection between economic

and educational change is supported by the recent research of Alexander

Field on mid-nineteenth-century M assachusetts.59 Drawing upon town-by-

town statistics and on both schooling and econom ic and demographic

structure, and using the technique of multiple regression, his work supports

the view that the impetus behind the implementation of school reforms was

not from urbanization itself, not the introduction of capital intensive ma

chinery, but rather the rise of the factory as the dominant production unit.

He found that school boards were most likely to press for educational

expansion in those towns characterized by a large percentage of workers

employed in large establishments and a low level of capital per worker. A

more detailed consideration of F ie ld ’s results reveals that it was crowded

conditions (measured by inhabitants per dwelling) and the relative size of

the Irish community, not the size of the town itself, which was associated

with school-board attempts to lengthen the school year.

F ield ’s study is unusual in that it allows us to distinguish between the

intent of the town school boards and the response of parents and students.

The school board determined the length of the school session; its attempts

to expand education are perhaps best measured by this variable. B u t the

levels of actual attendance were, for the most part, out of their hands. TheAme r1.e34 p5 680PSI “48I3GSpWCmr percentage oP schoolIage chil2ren atten2ing school rePlecte2 the comple9

interpla" oP Pactors in5ol5ing parents' chil2ren' social press0res' an2 the

emplo"ment sit0ationd 6sing ( ie l2 zs res0lts' De can 2e5elop a =0antitati5e

pict0re oP the conPlicting interests at Dorq in the process oP e20cational

rePormd SigniPicantl"' 2espite the 2emonstrate2 positi5e relationship U e3

tDeen the length oP the school session an2 the presence oP a large brish

comm0nit"' school atten2ance Das no higher in toDns Dith large brish

pop0lationsd This e5i2ence is consistent Dith the interpretations that the

brish inPl09 pro5oqe2 school Uoar2s to e9pan2 the school s"stem' U0t their

attempts' at least prior to the Ci5il F ar' Dere ePPecti5el" oPPset U" the

in2iPPerence or resistance oP brish parents an2 chil2rend

-0mero0s =0antitati5e st02ies s0pport the 5ieD that resistance to p0Ulic

schooling among the PoreignIUorn Das Di2esprea2d bn their m0ltiple regres3

sion st02" oP atten2ance le5els in -eD 7 o rq State co0nties in E B R f ' * aesI

tle an2 Rano5sqis Po0n2 a strong negati5e relationship UetDeen school

atten2ance an2 the percentage oP the pop0lation Uorn o0tsi2e the 6nite2

Statesd Also negati5el" relate2 to school atten2ance Das a 5ariaUle meas0r3

ing the e9tent oP po5ert" in the co0nt"dLw *aestle an2 Rano5sqis Po0n2 a

positi5e U0t statisticall" insigniPicant relationship UetDeen atten2ance on

the one han2 an2 2egree oP 0rUani.ation an2 per capita ta9 5al0ation on

the otherd % P E 'w L L tr0ants in 4oston in E B R Z ' Z L u + o r Z w percent> ha2

PoreignIUorn parentsdLE Thernstrom zs st02" oP -eDUerr"port' W assach03

setts' shoDs that nati5eIUorn Dorqers ten2e2 to sen2 their chil2ren to

school Dhile brishIUorn Dorqers resiste2 schoolingd brishIUorn prePerre2' iP

possiUle' to 0se Dhate5er sa5ings Do0l2 res0lt Prom their chil2renzs laUor to

U0" propert"dL:

Tho0gh 0seP0l in i2entiP"ing gross relationships' the aUo5e =0antitati5e

2ata are not a2e=0atel" comple9 to capt0re the ethnic 2imension oP the

conPlict o5er school e9pansiond The PoreignIUorn 2i2 not oppose e20cation

itselP' U0t rather p0Ulic schooling controlle2 U" othersd bn -eD 7 o rq an2

elseDhere' the brish comm0nit" Po0ght har2 Por its oDn schoolsd The pro3

Pessional an2 U0siness elite 2i2 not attempt to Porce the chil2ren oP all

PoreignIUorn Pamilies into schoold T h eir Gtarget pop0lations8 Dere the Por3

eignIUorn in the potentiall" e9plosi5e 0rUan proletariat an2 reser5e arm"d

The" Dere concerne2 not so m0ch Dith c0lt0ral 2i5ersit" as Dith the threat

oP social 0nrestd T h e e5i2ent c0lt0ral 2i5ersit" in late eighteenthIcent0r"

-eD 7 o r q Cit"' Dhich incl02e2 signiPicant n0mUers oP economicall" in2e3

pen2ent _0tch' O0g0enot' an2 other nonIenglishIspeaqing people' 2i2

not concern the DellItoI2o nearl" as m0ch as the groDth oP the knglish3uao qEm%mn' i1 9A'' FtMems pgtsACminUKf Bwp ll ihna h n w G yhtG ihBt G H cChw Gspeaqing U0t impo5erishe2 brish comm0nit" in the earl" nineteenth

cent0r"dBu

Th e econom ic transPormation oP Wassach0setts 20ring this perio2 Das

more thoro0ghgoing an2 2ramatic than that e9perience2 in most states' U0t

the con2itions e9isting in neighUoring Connectic0t' -eD 7 o rq ' Henns"l3

5ania' an2 Dhere5er the DageIlaUor s"stem Das coming to 2ominate the

social relations oP pro20ction Dere not so 2iPPerent Prom those Dhich ha2

pro22e2 the capitalist an2 proPessional classes oP Wassach0setts to actiond

T h e sprea2 oP p0Ulic e20cation o0tsi2e Wassach0setts Das har2l" 0niPorm'

or 0ni5ersalX Uoth UePore an2 aPter the Ci5il F ar' the states e9hiUite2

2ramatic 2iPPerences in the pace at Dhich p0Ulic elementar" e20cation Das

e9pan2e2d - or Dere the partic0larl" 0rUan or Dealth" states in the lea2d

A lUert (ishloD has 2emonstrate2 that school atten2ance in the mi2I an2

late nineteenth cent0r" appears to Ue 0nrelate2 to the le5el oP income or

the 2egree oP 0rUani.ation in the statedLR

bn the So0th' prior to the Ci5il Far' the DellItoI2o saD little 5al0e in

p0Ulic schooling' partic0larl" in those states Dith large sla5e pop0lations

an2 relati5el" PeD Dage Dorqersd Fhere man0Pact0ring 2i2 emplo" an"

signiPicant n0mUers oP people' p0Ulic schools PolloDe2d A st02" oP stateIU"I

state e20cation an2 emplo"ment statistics Por the perio2 oP E B R w I E B L w '

con20cte2 U" one oP 0s in conv0nction Dith ’a n ice Feiss' re5eale2' Por

e9ample' that atten2ance at p0Ulic schools Das positi5el" relate2 to the

percentage oP the laUor Porce emplo"e2 in man0Pact0ring an2 negati5el"

relate2 to the importance oP sla5es in the statezs econom"d k9ten2ing o0r

st02" to co5er the "ears E B L w I E B B w ' De Po0n2 that the 2emise oP sla5er"

an2 the )econstr0ction Herio2 Uro0ght Dith it an e9pansion oP schooling'

again PolloDing closel" the e5ol0tion oP the laUor Porce in man0Pact0r3

ingdLf

At least as important in this perio2' De s0spect' Das the 5igoro0s str0g3

gle oP Ulacqs Por more e20cation in the postsla5e So0thd OoDe5er' the

e20cational 2e5elopment oP the So0thern states Das not' as these res0lts

might s0ggest' 2etermine2 solel"M or e5en primaril"M U" Porces internal to

the statesd The rest oP the co0ntr"' an2 partic0larl" the -ortheast' ha2 a

m avor inPl0ence on the So0thern school s"stemN The carpetUagger an2 the

-orthern capitalist Dere =0icql" PolloDe2 U" the schoolmasterd Starting in

E B L L ' -orthern capitalists e9erte2 their inPl0ences 2irectl" thro0gh earl"

e20cational Po0n2ations s0ch as the HeaUo2" (0n2 an2 the Slater (0n 2 dLL

4 " the t0rn oP the cent0r"' ’ohn _d ) ocqePeller an2 other m avor Pinancial

Pig0res ha2 Ueg0n to sense the importance o P So0thern agric0lt0ral pro20c3

ti5it" an2 oP Ulacq laUor in the contin0e2 proPitaUilit" oP capitalist enter39 ' Z prisesd T h e earl" tricqle oP capitalist philanthrop" to So0thern e20cation

greD to a Ploo2d %5er its Pirst 2eca2e oP e9istence + E Z w E I E Z E E > ' the neDl"

Porme2 yeneral k 20cation 4 oar2 M a pri5ate Uo2" channeling corporate

P0n2s into school rePorm M Do0l2 recei5e / f w million Prom ) ocqePeller

aloned This ga5e the 4oar2 an ann0al operating income Par in e9cess oP the

e20cation U02gets o P most So0thern statesd'ET AlDa"s Dorqing Dithin the

PrameDorq oP So0thern poDer an2 race relations' these -orthern philan3

thropists so0ght to era2icate the e20cational UacqDar2ness oP the So0th

Dith the s0pport oP the Ulacqs themsel5esd The" met Dith onl" mi9e2

s0ccessd 4etDeen the Ci5il F ar an2 Forl2 F ar b' enrollments an2 e9pen2i3

t0res in So0thern e20cation e9pan2e2 2ramaticall"' an2 the 20al s"stem oP

school Dith its separate' an2 increasingl" 0ne=0al' Pacilities Por Ulacqs an2

Dhites Das Pirml" estaUlishe2d

bn the Parming areas oP the Fest' the sprea2 oP p0Ulic e20cation appears

to ha5e Ueen associate2 not' as some Do0l2 ha5e it' Dith the strength o P an

in2epen2ent Parming class' U0t Dith its opposite' the 2e5elopment oP a

DageIlaUor Porce in agric0lt0red The st02" U" We2oPP an2 40chele in2icates

that p0Ulic e20cational e9pen2it0res Dere signiPicantl" an2 positi5el" re3

late2 to the mechani.ation an2 increasing 0se oP Dage laUor in agric0lt0red

-o relationship Dhate5er Das Po0n2 UetDeen e20cational e9pansion an2

perIcapita income or 0rUani.ationdww

bnterestingl"' 40chele an2 We2oPi Po0n2 that' taqing acco0nt oP the

apparentl" rele5ant 2imensions oP the econom ic str0ct0re oP each state'

those Dhich Dere the centers oP the Hop0list re5olt +W innesota' the _aI

qotas' -eUrasqa' *ansas' -orth Carolina' an2 A laU am a> 2e5ote2 signiPi3

cantl" less reso0rces to p0Ulic e20cation 20ring this perio2d This Pin2ing' oP

co0rse' in5ites a 5ariet" oP interpretationsd 40t it is har2l" s0rprising in

5ieD oP the Pact that' 0nliqe Oorace Wann an2 the other rePormers' the

Hop0lists i2entiPie2 the str0ct0re oP the econom" an2 not the lacq oP

schooling as the so0rce oP po5ert"' econom ic insec0rit"' an2 ine=0alit"d

Fhile s0pporting p0Ulic e20cation' Hop0list lea2ers ha2 emphasi.e2 a

more imme2iate an2 more 2irect economic oUvecti5ed GFith the collapse oP

political Hop0lism'8 oUser5e2 VaDrence Cremin' one oP the Poremost e203

cational historians oP this perio2' Ge20cational rePorm seeme2 to gain neD

5igord8 Kw 7 e t Hop0lism Do0l2' in the en2' maqe a m avor' iP 0ne9pecte2'

contriU0tion to the groDth oP e20cation in the Fest an2 So0th' Por it Das

precisel" the Pear oP Hop0list re5i5al that le2 man" m avor capitalist o r3

gani.ationsM the )ocqePellerIen2oDe2 yeneral k20cation 4oar2' the

Am erican 4anqers Association' at least Po0r m avor railroa2 companies' the

-ational bmplement an2 Rehicle Association among themM to len2 theiruao qEm%mn' i1 9A'' FtMems pgtsACminy F F Bw p ll ihna h n w G yht G i hBt GH cC hw Gpolitical an2 Pinancial s0pport to the Ple2gling agric0lt0ral e20cation an2

e9tension mo5ementdKE k20cation Das not an oUvecti5e oP Hop0list agitationd

4 0 t it Das certainl" one res0ltd bncreasingl"' U0siness lea2ers came to see

schooling an2 e9tension Dorq as a saPe alternati5e to the G agrarianism8

an2 econom ic transPormation espo0se2 U" so man" late nineteenthIcent0r"

Parmersd

C o n c lu s io n

Education universally extended throughout the community

will tend to disabuse the working class of people in respect

of a notion that has crept into the minds of our mechanics

and is gradually prevailing, that manual labor is at present

very inadequately rewarded, owing to combinations of the

rich against the poor; that mere mental labor is comparatively

worthless; that property or wealth ought not be accumulated

or transmitted; that to take interest on money lent or profit

on capital employed is unjust. . . . The mistaken and igno

rant people who entertain these fallacies as truths will learn,

when they have the opportunity of learning, that the insti

tution of political society originated in the protection of

property.

Th o m a s Co o p e r. Elements of

Political Economy, 1828

T h e statistical studies reviewed in the previous section are not, of course,

all that we would like to evaluate critically in our interpretation of educa

tional history. In our attempt to get a broader picture, we have lost much

of the detail of our earlier case studies. Measures such as capital per

worker, or workers per farm, or slaves as a percentage of the working

population do not adequately capture the relevant data on the class struc

ture and mode of production. Statistics on the growth o f enrollments or

school expenditures fail to capture much of what was important in the

nineteenth-century educational reform movements.

Despite these drawbacks, however, these large-scale statistical studies, in

conjunction with our earlier evidence, present a dramatic if sketchy picture

of educational change. T h ere can be little doubt that educational reform

and expansion in the nineteenth century was associated with the growing

ascendancy of the capitalist mode of production. Particularly striking is the

recurring pattern of capital accumulation in the dynamic advanced sectors

o f the economy, the resulting integration of new workers into the wage-x , ( laUor s"stem' the e9pansion oP the proletariat an2 the reser5e arm"' social

0nrest an2 the emergence oP political protest mo5ements' an2 the 2e5el3

opment oP mo5ements Por e20cational e9pansion an2 rePormd Fe Pin2 also

a rec0rring pattern oP political an2 Pinancial s0pport Por e20cational changeN

Fhile the impet0s Por e20cational rePorm sometimes cam e Prom 2isgr0n3

tle2 Parmers or Dorqers' the lea2ership o P the mo5ementsM Dhich s0c3

cee2e2 in stamping its 0nmistaqaUle imprint on the Porm an2 2irection oP

e20cational inno5ationM Das Ditho0t e9ception in the han2s oP a coalition

oP proPessionals an2 capitalists Prom the lea2ing sectors oP the econom"d

Fe note in closing' hoDe5er' that no 5er" simple or mechanistic rela3

tionship UetDeen econom ic str0ct0re an2 e20cational 2e5elopment is liqel"

to Pit the a5ailaUle historical e5i2enced As De saD in o0r st02" oP VoDell'

Wassach0setts' an2 oP O orace W annzs Dorq' political Pactors ha5e inter3

5ene2 UetDeen econom ic str0ct0res an2 e20cational o0tcomes in comple9

an2 sometimes' apparentl"' contra2ictor"' Da"sd bn the ne9t chapter' De

e9pan2 o0r anal"sis to co5er the Hrogressi5e rePorms oP the Pirst part oP the

tDentieth cent0r"duao qEm%mn' i1 9A'' FtMems pgtsACmin3Yq