Can someone complete this research paper for me about "operant condition & parenting and the two process theory of punishment"? All of the instructions, tips, topic and rubric is in the attached d

Effects of C hronic Ethanol on Orbitofrontal Cortex -dependent Behaviors

Kimberly A. Badanich

University of South Florida

Commented [BK1]: NOTE: this is an excerpt from a paper I published (Badanich et al 2011). I altered it to fit your paper assignment. Please use this paper as a GUIDE for writing your own paper. See comment boxes in righthand margin for tips on organizing the paper. DO NOT COPY MY WORDS PLEASE. USE THIS AS A GUIDE.

Commented [BK3]: A header with page number is still required but the words “Runnin g head” are no longer required. YAY! The header should be in all caps and less than 50 characters. Don’t forget to check font!

Commented [BK2]: APA has 2 versions of the title page 1) Professional and 2) student. In this class we will be using the professional title page format.

Commented [BK4]: Skip 4 lines between top margin and paper title

Commented [BK5]: Paper title is centered, bold , and uses upper and lowercase letters. It does not exceed 12 words

Commented [BK6]: Make sure ENTIRE paper is double spaced from start of title page until the last reference.

Commented [BK7]: Font for entire paper should be consistent throughout, including the header. For assignment clarity , everyone should use Times New Roman size 12

Commented [BK8]: Margins should be 1” on all sides and left aligned . ALCOHOL & REVERSAL LEARNING 2

Effects of Chronic Ethanol on Orbitofrontal Cortex -dependent Behaviors

Chronic consumption of alcohol is associated with various chan ges in cognition and

behavior. These effects include increased anxiety and irritability (Rassovsky et al ., 2004; Thevos

et a l., 1991), memory deficits (Ahveninen et al ., 2000 ), and poor decision making skills

(Kamarajan et al ., 2010 ). Risky (Fernie et al ., 2010) and impulsive (Littlefield et al ., 2010)

decision making skills can predict the s everity of alcohol misuse. However, alcoholics with

“normal” decision -making skills have difficulty making appropriate decisions . In particular,

alcoholics show deficits in behavioral flexibility and reversal learning (Tsuchida et al ., 2010 ).

In reversal learning tasks, subjects are initially taught to respond (R) by using positive

reinforcement procedures to increase the response of the subject when in the presence of a

specific stimulus [(S); Chance, 2014] . Once the subject consistently responds, the S -R

relationship changes, a different stimulus predicts the reward, and subjects must problem solve to

figure out the new S-R relationship (Birrell & Brown, 2000) . Exposure to alcohol seems to

exace rbate behavioral inflexibility. Abstinent alcoholics are able to follow the initial rule and

reach criterion performance prior to the rule switch (Jenkins & Parsons, 1979). However,

behavioral flexibility becomes impaired as indicated by a delay in the ability to reverse the rule

(Badanich et al., 2011; Fortier et al ., 2008; Goldman et al ., 1985; Rourke & Grant, 1999 ). These

data suggest chronic exposure to alcohol impairs behavioral flexibility.

Behavior resulting from a reversal learning task can be explained by Hull’s Drive -

Reduction T heory (Hull, 1943 ). For any task incorporating positive reinforcement, s ubjects are

motivated to respond to a stimulus because the outcome is rewarding (Thorndike, 1927 ).

Specifically, praise and positive feedback can be received if a subject responds appropriately

whe n a visual stimulus is presented ( Jedema et al. , 2011 ). During reversal learning, m otivation to

Commented [BK9]: No abstract is needed for this assignment

Commented [BK10]: Remember the title belongs on the second page as well

Commented [BK11]: Do not skip spaces between title and first paragraph. To fix, select entire paper, right click, select “paragraph” and check the box that says do not skip spaces.

Commented [BK12]: Notice how much I am citing!!

Commented [BK13]: Notice my opening sentence is quite broad. I start by introducing the topic of alcohol and how it ef fects cognition in general

Commented [BK14]: Here I start to get more specific. Here I focus on behavioral flexibility and reversal learning as the specific behaviors I am interested in and how it is effected by alcohol

Commented [BK15]: Do not skip spaces in between paragraphs. To fix, select entire paper, right click, select “paragraph” and check the box that says do not skip spaces.

Commented [BK16]: Here I start to introduce a type of conditioning that is related to my topic of reversal learning and alcohol.

Commented [BK17]: I used the textbook to define the gener al concept of positive reinforcement

Commented [BK18]: Notice how much I am citing

Commented [BK19]: I relate positive reinforcement to original research articles on behavioral flexibility and alcohol

Commented [BK20]: Here I introduce a learning theory

Commented [BK21]: For one or two authors you list the authors’ last n ame and the publication year. Never include initials

Commented [BK22]: It can be hard to find an article on a particular learning theory. Here I reviewed our textbook and searched for references related to positive reinforcement and Drive -Reduction Theory. I then looked up those references, read them, and cited them here.

Commented [BK23]: For 3 or more authors, list only the first author’s last name followed by et al., and the publication date. Never include initials. Pay attention to periods and comma placement in the et al., ALCOHOL & REVERSAL LEARNING 3

receive praise is positively reinforced by subjects learning the correct S -R relationship and

further drives the incentive to problem solve when the rule cha nges (Birrell & Brown, 2000 ;

Jedema et al., 2011 ). If alcoholics have trouble performing reversal learning tasks, it may be that

alcohol disrupts normal function of intrinsic motivational states or drives .

Despite observations that alcoholics show cognitive inflexibility on reversal learning

tasks, there is a paucity of data regarding the long -term effects of chronic ethanol exposure on

reversal learning . The hypothesis of the proposed study would be to determine if deficits in

cognitive performance following alcohol exposure resolve during an extended period of

abstinence. The independent variable will be Treatment and will be divided into 2 groups. H alf

of the subjects will receiv e alcohol exposure and the other half will receive placebo (i.e., the

control group) . A second independent variable of Time will also be included with subjects being

tested 2 weeks or 1 year following alcohol exposure to determine whether alcohol -induced

changes in reversal learning are long -lasting. The dependent variable will be the number of

errors made during a reversal learning behavioral test . Treatment will be a between subjects

variable with subjects onl y receiving ethanol or placebo. Time will be a re peated measure

because subjects will be tested at 2 weeks and again at 1 year . A mixed factor two -way ANOVA

will be used to statistically a nalyze data. It is predicted that ethanol would impair performance i n

reversal learning behaviors by increasing the number of errors made during short -term

abstinence from alcohol, but not after extended abstinence .

Results of this proposed study would suggest that alcohol may alter OFC function.

Future studies should focus on determining what effects alcohol has on the neural activity of the

OFC. Elucidating the impact of ethanol on OFC function and cognitive flexibility is critical for

developing a better understanding of the behavioral consequences of chronic alcohol drinking .

Commented [BK24]: I relate original research articles on reversal learning and alcohol to the learning theory (Drive - Reduction)

Commented [BK25]: When citing a sentence, the period is placed after the citation and outside the parentheses.

Commented [BK26]: Here I indicate what we still need to know. I am l eading us into my hypothesis

Commented [BK27]: Here’s my hypothesis

Commented [BK28]: Notice I switch to future tense once I start to describe my hypothesis and proposed study.

Commented [BK29]: Heres my independent variable and description of each level

Commented [BK30]: Here’s the dependent variable

Commented [BK31]: Here’s a description of the research design and statistical test I would use.

Commented [BK32]: Here’s my prediction

Commented [BK33]: Noticed page li mit is 2 pages of text (does not include title and reference pages). I stop reading here.

Commented [BK34]: Summary paragraph ALCOHOL & REVERSAL LEARNING 4

References

Ahveninen , J., Jääskeläinen , I. P., Pekkonen , E., Hallberg , A., Hietanen , M., Näätänen , R., &

Sillanaukee , P. (2000). Global field power of auditory N1 correlates with impaired

verbal -memory performance in human alcoholics. Neuroscience Letters , 285 (2), 131 -134.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304 -3940(00)01041 -7

Badanich, K. A., Becker, H. C., & Woodward, J. J. (2011). Effects of chronic intermittent

ethanol exposure on orbitofrontal and m edial prefrontal cortex -dependent behaviors in

mice. Behavioral Neuroscience , 125 (6), 879 –891. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025922

Birrell , J. M., & Brown , V. J. (2000) . Medial frontal cortex mediates perceptual attentional set

shifting in the rat. Journal of Neuroscience, 20 (11) , 4320 -432 4.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20 -11-04320.2000

Chance , P. (2014). Learning and b ehavior (7th ed .). Cengage .

Fernie , G., Cole , J. C., Goudie , A. J., & Field , M. (2010). Risk -taking but not response inhibition

or delay discounting predict alcohol consumption in social drinkers. Drug and Alcohol

Depe ndence , 112 (1-2), 54 -61.

Fortier , C. B., Steffen , E. M., Lafleche , G., Venne , J. R., Disterhoft , J. F., & McGlinchey , R. E.

(2008). Delay discrimination and reversal eyeblink classical conditioning in abstinent

chronic alcoholics. Neuropsychology, 22 (2) , 196 -208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0894 -

4105.22.2.196

Goldman, M. S., Klisz, D. K., & Williams, D. L. (1985). Experience -dependent recovery of

cognitive functioning in young alcoholics. Addictive Behaviors , 10(2), 169 –176.

https://doi.org/10.1016/0306 -4603(85)90023 -1

Commented [BK35]: References start on a new page, regardless of w here the body of your paper ended.

Commented [BK36]: Reference page it titled “References” and is centered and bold. No colon .

Commented [BK38]: Use hangi ng indent. Select reference page, right click, select “paragraph” and select “hanging” and “0.5” from the special dropdown menu.

Commented [BK37]: Remember to have at minimum 7 original research articles from peer reviewed journals and at minimum 1 review article and/or book.

Commented [BK39]: Do not skip spaces in between references. To fix, select entire paper, right click, select “paragraph” and check the box t hat says do not skip spaces.

Commented [BK40]: Example book citation. Notice the book title is in italics and the publisher is listed.

Commented [BK41]: The city and state for the publisher is no longer required.

Commented [BK42]: Note formatting of author names

Commented [BK43]: Note placement of publication year

Commented [BK44]: Note that article titles use a capital letter for the first word in the title only. The rest are lowercase. The only exception are proper nouns, abbreviations. Also when there is a colon in the middle of the title. The first word after the colon has a capital letter. The rest are lowercase. ALCOHOL & REVERSAL LEARNING 5

Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior. Appleton -Century -Crofts.

Jedema , H. P., Carter , M. D., Dugan , B. P., Gurnsey , K., Olsen , A. S., & Bradberry , C. W.

(2011). The acute impact of ethanol on cognitive performance in rhesus m acaques.

Cerebral Cortex, 21 (8), 1783 –1791. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhq244

Jenkins , R. L., & Parsons , O.A. (1979). Recovery of cognitive abilities in male alcoholics.

Currents in Alcoholism , 7, 229 -37.

Kamarajan, C., Rangaswamy, M., Tang, Y., Chorlian, D. B., Pandey, A. K., Roopesh , B. N.,

Manz, N., Saunders, R., Stimus, A. T., & Porjesz, B. (2010 ). Dysfunctional reward

processing in male alcoholics: An ERP study during a gambling task. Journal of

Psychiatric Research , 44(9), 576 –590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.11.019

Littlefield , A. K., Sher , K. J., & Steinley , D. (2010). Developmental trajectories of impulsivity

and their association with alcohol use and related outcomes during emerging and young

adulthood I. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 34 (8) , 1409 -1416.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530 -0277.2010.01224.x

Rassovsky , Y., Hurliman , E., Abrams , K., & Kushner , M.G. (2004). CO(2) hypersensitivity in

recently abstinent alcohol dependent individuals: A possible mechanism underlying the

high risk for anxiety disorder among alcoholics. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18 (2),

159 -176.

Rourke , S. B., & Grant I. (1999). T he interactive effects of age and length of abstinence on the

recovery of neuropsychological functioni ng in chronic male alcoholics: A 2-year follow -

up study . Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , 5(3), 234 -246.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355617799533067

Commented [BK45]: Journal name and volume number are italicized

Commented [BK46]: The journal name uses upper and lowercase letters. Words such as “in”, “of”, “the”, “an”, “and” should be lowercase.

Commented [BK47]: New APA rule says to list up to 20 author names before using an ellipsis (…)

Commented [BK48]: When there is a colon in the middle of the title. The first word after the colon has a capital letter. The rest are lowercase.

Commented [BK49]: The issue number is in parentheses and is NOT italicized.

Commented [BK50]: First AND last page number a re listed.

Commented [BK51]: Pay attention to where periods and commas belong ALCOHOL & REVERSAL LEARNING 6

Thevos , A. K., Johnston , A. L., Latham , P. K., Randall , C. L., Adinoff , B., & Malcolm , R.

(1991). Symptoms of anxiety in inpatient alcoholics with and without DSM -III-R anxiety

diagnoses. Alcoholism : Clinical and Experimental Research, 15 (1) , 102 -105.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530 -0277.1991.tb00525.x

Thorndike, E. L. (1927). The law of effect. American Journal of Psychology, 39 , 212 -222.

http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1415413

Tsuchida , A., Do ll, B. B., & Fellows , L. K. (2010). Beyond reversal: A critical role for human

orbitofrontal cortex in flexible learning from probabilistic feedback. Journal of

Neuroscience, 30 (50) , 16868 -168 75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1958 -

10.2010

Commented [BK52]: Yes – you still put a period after the last page number and before the doi hyperlink

Commented [BK53]: Use a doi finder to list the doi. A good one is crossref.org

Commented [BK54]: The doi should be listed as a hyperlink. i t is no longer required to add the label “doi” before the hyperlink. If it lists “doi” in the hyperlink – that is ok!

Commented [BK55]: Do not add a period or anything to the end of the doi because it could change the hyperlink