One expectation among criminal justice administrators and practitioners is that advances in information technology (IT) have the potential to improve the efficiency and productivity of criminal justic

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is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Public Performance & Management Review This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INNOVATIONS An Empirical Assessment of a Local Government Agency MARY MAUREEN BROWN University of North Carolina at Charlotte Ongoing advances in information systems and communication technologies pur- portedly allow organizations to achieve greater levels of productivity, efficiency, and service delivery. Information technology (ITyf F D Q V W L P X O D W H S U R G X F W L Y L W \ W K H J D L Q V R f which are often passed on to customers through improved service delivery. Through the use of technology, task cycle times can also be reduced, eliminating steps in a work process. But, these benefits do not come without substantial investments in a variety of resources. The following study illustrates one agency's attempt to leverage technology to improve responsiveness and stimulate productivity. Relying on a pretest-posttest research design, the findings provide insight into the outcomes achieved from a large-scale IT initiative at a major metropolitan police department. Preliminary find- ings from this study demonstrate that significant achievements can be acquired. But, the study also draws attention to the many intangible resource investments that may be required to achieve success. This article draws special attention to the extent to which public agencies are prepared for both the tangible and intangible costs that result from technology innovations. Background: Community Policing and IT Police organizations are attempting to incorporate many of the management find- ings of the last 25 years. Many organizations are attempting to shift from a reactive approach to policing to a proactive, prevention-oriented approach. Police are no longer viewed as reactionary figures whose primary responsibilities are to respond to calls for service, quell the tension of immediate situations, and file reports. Today's paradigm requires officers to own neighborhood problems, broker resources, and facilitate prob- lem resolution. At a fundamental level, community problem-oriented policing Public Performance & Management Review, Vol. 24 No. 4, June 2001 351-366 C 2001 Sage Publications, Inc. 351 This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 352 PPMR / June 2001 (CPOPyf L Q Y R O Y H V G H Y H O R S L Q J S D U W Q H U V K L S V Z L W K V W D N H K R O G H U V D Q G V H U Y L F H S U R Y L G H U V W o resolve crime-related problems (Goldstein, 1990yf 7 K H & 3 2 3 S D U D G L J P L V U R R W H G L n partnership, problem solving, and communication. Although the effectiveness of the community policing paradigm hinges on several critical success factors, good infor- mation resources and good communication techniques are two of the most important predictors of success. Partnership relationships are more productive when CPOP offi- cers can relate up-to-the-minute information on crimes, resource availability, and progress toward problem resolution to stakeholders and service providers on demand. In testimony before the House Judiciary Committee's Subcommittee on Crime and Criminal Justice, David Boyd (1995yf G L U H F W R U R I W K H 2 I I L F H R I 6 F L H Q F H D Q G 7 H F K Q R O R J y at the U.S. Department of Justice, called attention to the important role that IT and knowledge play in combating crime: If, through technology, the level of crime could be reduced by a mere 1 percent, it could mean 250 fewer murders; 1,000 fewer rapes; 1,000 fewer assaults; 128,000 fewer bur- glaries, larcenies, and robberies; 14,000 fewer victims of crime burdening the health care system; and $700 million less in economic cost. The question is how to increase the effec- tiveness of law enforcement to realize these benefits. (p. 1yf By some accounts, roughly 92yb R I D Q R I I L F H U V W L P H L V V S H Q W D F T X L U L Q J F R D O H V F L Q J , or distributing information in one form or another. All aspects of CPOP rely on quality information. Information that is accurate, verifiable, timely, organized, meaningful, useful, cost-effective, and readily available provides the foundation from which prob- lem identification, program intervention, problem resolution, and program evaluation are achieved. In the course of their work, officers often rely on data from a variety of sources (Goldstein, 1990; Sparrow, 1988yf . Quality information can provide police executives with a valuable resource for ana- lyzing unstructured problems and developing strategic plans. Quality information can provide command staff members with an immediate resource for developing and implementing tactical and operational decisions. Additionally, quality information can provide field level officers with the ability to integrate problem-solving strategies and communicate them to citizens for partnership development and ultimate problem resolution. Through its ability to store, forward, retrieve, and distribute organizational information, IT provides a critical support structure for the community policing para- digm. Police organizations that successfully deploy IT innovations stand to gain much from their efforts. A sound information base and its associated technology tools can facilitate productivity, efficiency, and service delivery (Davis et al., 1992; Lowery, 1998yf . In recognition of the impact that information and its associated technologies can have on operational outcomes, over the past 8 years, more than $6 billion in grant funds has been distributed to roughly 11,300 law enforcement agencies to adopt technology to advance community policing and problem solving (U.S. Department of Justice, 1999yf 7 K H ' H S D U W P H Q W R I - X V W L F H V S U R J U D P & 2 3 6 0 2 5 ( & R P P X Q L W \ 2 U L H Q W H d Policing Services Making Officer Redeployment Effectiveyf K D V H Q D E O H G O D Z H Q I R U F H - ment agencies to replace aging legacy systems and incorporate new technologies that can promote efficiency and effectiveness. Subsequently, in 1998, Congress passed his- This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Brown / INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INNOVATIONS 353 toric legislation authorizing the largest justice assistance program in history. Public Law 105-251 authorized the expenditure of $250 million in each of the next 5 years to promote the integration of justice system technology. According to the legislation, criminal records, arrest records, mug shots, fingerprints, and other relevant data are located in separate, unconnected data systems. "The entire criminal justice system needs immediate access to comprehensive, reliable, and timely data on individuals, incidents, and cases" (Volunteers for Children Act, 1998, p. 1yf 7 R G D W H F L W L ] H Q V , elected officials, and criminal justice professionals all hope to obtain significant crime prevention benefits from these large investments in IT. According to a study of 365 public and private sector IT executive managers, one third of all IT projects were canceled before completion (The Standish Group, 1995yf . Moreover, only 16yb R I W K H S U R M H F W V Z H U H V X F F H V V I X O O \ F R P S O H W H G R Q W L P H D Q G R Q E X G - get. Over 50yb R I W K H S U R M H F W V H [ F H H G H G W K H L U R U L J L Q D O F R V W H V W L P D W H V E \ D O P R V W \b, and roughly one third of the projects experienced schedule delays of 200yb W R \b. The Standish Group estimated that American companies and government agencies spent $81 billion on canceled IT projects in 1995 alone. In another study, Cats-Baril and Thompson (1995, p. 563yf F O D L P H G W K D W \b of all IT projects are scrapped before completion; 80yb R I W K R V H W K D W D U H F R P S O H W H G I L Q L V K E H K L Q G V F K H G X O H R Y H U E X G J H W D Q d with lower functionality than originally anticipated. Over the past 10 years, reports from the U.S. General Accounting Office (1996, 1997a, 1997byf K D Y H F R Q W L Q X D O O y called attention to the high failure rate of IT initiatives at the federal level. Moreover, recent studies have also illustrated many of the difficulties state and local governments experience in their IT efforts (Anthes, 1996; Kavanaugh, 1997ayf . As noted by Sparrow (1993yf , 7 F D Q D G Y D Q F H S R O L F L Q J H I I R U W V % X W S R R U O \ G H V L J Q H d and badly managed systems can frustrate managerial purposes, enshrine old values, emphasize outdated and inappropri- ate performance measures, give power to the wrong people, perpetuate old ways of doing business, create false or misleading public expectations, destroy partnerships, and impose crippling restrictions on new styles of operation. (Sparrow, 1993, p. 2yf Sparrow went on to say that advancing community policing requires police organiza- tions to reexamine the types of data they collect and the manner in which information flows throughout their departments. This study reveals the outcomes field officers received from the implementation of IT. The Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department (CMPDyf U H F H L Y H G V X E V W D Q W L D l funding from the COPS MORE effort. In total, the CMPD was allocated roughly $11 million in federal funds and approximately $8 million in local funds to support its IT initiative. In 1997, the City of Charlotte adopted the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department Master Information System Plan. The plan called for the development of the Knowledge-Based Community Oriented Problem Solving System, which involved three distinct stages. Stage 1 consisted of an in-depth needs analysis and pro- vided a framework for the pretest data collection effort. Stage 2 involved implement- ing much of the system architecture (laptops, servers, networks, etc.yf D Q G V H Y H U D O V R I W - ware applications (e-mail programs, word processors, presentation software, etc.yf . Stage 3 involves upgrading many of the CMPD's most frequently used data sets (e.g., This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 354 PPMR / June 2001 arrests, incidents, problem solvingyf $ V R I Q R Z 6 W D J H K D V Q R W E H H Q F R P S O H W H G 7 K e data collection effort for assessing the impacts of Stage 3 will take place in late 2001. Hence, the results below are based on the pretest and first posttest observation, which took place after the completion of Stage 2. Stage 1: Needs Assessment As mentioned, Stage 1 involved a needs assessment to determine the extent to which field-level officers had access to timely, relevant data that advanced their work efforts. The primary research questions focused on the extent to which community crime information (ayf Z D V D Y D L O D E O H W R S D W U R O R I I L F H U V E \f was of sufficient quality, (cyf was shared among police department units, (dyf I D F L O L W D W H G M R E H I I H F W L Y H Q H V V D Q G H \f facilitated an understanding of community problems. Two data collection efforts occurred to test the degree to which information was of sufficient quality, readily available, shared openly, improved job performance, and facilitated an understanding of community problems. First, a survey was distributed to all patrol officers. The survey tapped issues pertaining to data collection, distribution, and usage. Of the 720 patrol officers who received surveys, 365 responded, a response rate of 51yb . Second, 10 focus group sessions were held involving 112 officers and civilians to help identify the information needs of patrol officers. Table 1 lists the survey and focus group items employed in Stage 1 of the study. SURVEY FINDINGS As illustrated in Table 2, for the most part, crime-related information was not readily available to patrol officers. Only 26yb R I W K R V H V X U Y H \ H G L Q G L F D W H G W K D W W K H y were often informed of the felonies that occur in their districts. Thirty-five percent related that they were often informed of misdemeanor occurrences, and 38yb F O D L P H d that they often had knowledge of suspects operating within their response districts. Eighty-nine percent of the officers claimed that they were not often informed of the investigative status of criminal cases that occur within their jurisdictions. Only 25yb indicated that data are accessible in a timely manner, yet roughly half the sample iden- tified that the information collected is often accurate and relevant to their job needs (46yb D Q G \b, respectivelyyf . In addition, the officers were highly critical of the sufficiency of the information captured (see Table 3yf 2 Q O \ D S S U R [ L P D W H O \ \b of the sample indicated that felony and misdemeanor information was completely sufficient for their needs. Thirty-four percent of the officers indicated that the information captured on calls for service from the community was sufficient. Roughly 70yb R I W K H R I I L F H U V I H O W W K D W L Q I R U P D W L R Q R Q W K e availability of various community services and ethnic and cultural needs was not sufficient. As discussed above, although the officers were quite negative in terms of the avail- ability and sufficiency of various crime-related information, they were especially dis- paraging regarding the extent to which information was shared among departmental units. As shown in Table 4, although 38yb J D Y H W K H L U G H S D U W P H Q W V K L J K P D U N V I R U V K D U - This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Brown / INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INNOVATIONS 355 Table 1. Survey Items Item Scale Survey items How well informed are you on the various felonies that occur within your patrol district? 1 to 7 (not informed to very informedyf How well informed are you on the various misdemeanors that occur within your patrol district? Do you receive information as to suspects operating within your district? I to 7 (never to very oftenyf Do you receive information on victims within your district? Do you receive feedback on reports taken by you, but not assigned to you for follow, as to: Case status Suspect arrested Suspects prosecuted Property recovered Do you find the information gathered from completed offense and supplement reports to be: Accurate Accessible in a timely manner Relevant to job needs How sufficient is the information you receive pertaining to: I to 7 (completely Felony crimes committed insufficient to completely Misdemeanor crimes committed sufficientyf Calls for service in the area Community services available Ethnicity/cultural needs Awareness as to community problems How relevant is the following information to performing your job effectively: 1 to 7 (very irrelevant Felony crimes committed to very relevantyf Misdemeanor crimes committed Calls for service in the area Community services available Ethnicity/cultural needs Awareness as to community problems Focus group and elite interview items What kinds of facts and data do patrol officers need to advance community policing? What are the current barriers to access necessary information? How would you describe overall communications between units and between officers and supervisors? ing information on the presence of suspects operating within their districts, only roughly 10yb R I W K H V D P S O H L G H Q W L I L H G W K D W L Q I R U P D W L R Q S H U W D L Q L Q J W R F D V H V W D W X V , whether suspects had been arrested or prosecuted, whether stolen property had been recovered, or victims is often shared. In short, the survey indicated that the vast major- ity of the officers felt uninformed of felony, misdemeanor, and suspect information. This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 356 PPMR / June 2001 Table 2. Availability of Information to Patrol Officers Survey Item Never Sometimes Often M SD Patrol officers are informed of felonies that occur in district (n = 362yf \b 38yb \b 1.89 0.78 Patrol officers are informed of misdemeanors that occur in district (n = 364yf \b 36yb \b 2.06 0.80 Patrol officers receive suspect information (n = 357yf \b 36yb \b 2.11 0.80 Patrol officers receive case status information (n = 339yf \b 20yb \b 1.41 0.68 Crime data collected is accurate (n = 327yf \b 42yb \b 2.34 0.68 Crime data is accessible in a timely manner (n = 330yf \b 47yb \b 1.96 0.73 Crime data is relevant to job needs (n =331yf \b 47yb \b 2.26 0.69 Note. Scales collapsed for reporting purposes. Table 3. Sufficiency of Information Available to Patrol Officers Perceptions of Sufficiency of Completely Occasionally Completely Information Available On Insufficient Sufficient Sufficient M SD Felony crimes committed (n = 360yf \b 43yb \b 1.97 0.76 Misdemeanor crimes committed (n = 360yf \b 43yb \b 1.86 0.74 Calls for police service (n = 358yf \b 38yb \b 2.06 0.78 Community services available (n = 358yf \b 38yb \b 1.90 0.78 Community ethnic and cultural needs (n = 357yf \b 35yb \b 1.85 0.80 Note. Scales collapsed for reporting purposes. Moreover, the officers claimed that they received little feedback on case status or on residents who had been victimized. Despite the dismal portrayal regarding the availability, sufficiency, and sharing of information, for the most part, officers did appear to believe that information was rele- vant to performing their jobs effectively. When asked about the relevance of different data items to job effectiveness, approximately 60yb L Q G L F D W H G W K D W L Q I R U P D W L R Q S H U W D L Q - ing to felonies, misdemeanors, and calls for police service is very relevant to job effec- tiveness (see Table 5yf 0 R U H R Y H U U R X J K O \ \b of the officers perceived that informa- tion on comnmunity services, community problems, and ethnic and cultural needs was at the very least occasionally relevant, if not very relevant, to job effectiveness. To evaluate more formally the correspondence between the presence of sufficient information and the extent of its influence on job effectiveness, two measures of asso- ciation were obtained. The two statistics, gamma and tau-b, provide evidence of the strength and direction of association between the two variables. The statistics provide a capsule assessment of the degree to which sufficient information influences job effectiveness. Essentially, the primary question was, Do officers perceive greater degrees of job effectiveness when information is available? In other words, in situa- tions where specific information is available, how relevant is it to achieving job effec- tiveness? Many times, officers are asked to speculate on the extent to which informa- tion would improve job performance. The analysis examines those situations where This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Brown / INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INNOVATIONS 357 Table 4. Extent to Which Departmental Units Share Information Information Type Never Sometimes Often M SD Case status (n = 339yf \b 20yb \b 1.42 0.68 Suspects operating in district (n = 357yf \b 36yb \b 2.10 0.80 Suspects arrested (n = 338yf \b 19yb \b 1.41 0.67 Suspects prosecuted (n = 338yf \b 17yb \b 1.30 0.57 Victims within district (n = 356yf \b 29yb \b 1.57 0.73 Property recovered (n = 338yf \b 18yb \b 1.29 0.56 Note. Scales collapsed for reporting purposes. Table 5. Relevance of Infonnation for Improving Job Effectiveness Perceptions of How Information Very Occasionally Very Improves Job Effectiveness Irrelevant Relevant Relevant M SD Felony crimes committed (n = 354yf \b 35yb \b 2.53 0.61 Misdemeanor crimes committed (n = 360yf \b 36yb \b 2.47 0.65 Calls for police service (n = 356yf \b 37yb \b 2.49 0.64 Community services available (n = 353yf \b 38yb \b 2.37 0.70 Community ethnic and cultural needs (n = 354yf \b 35yb \b 2.25 0.77 Note. Scales collapsed for reporting purposes. information is available and the extent to which the information is relevant to job performance. As portrayed in Table 6, the gamma statistics ranged from a low of .23 to a high of .39, suggesting a weak to moderate relationship between items pertaining to crime-related information and perceived improvements in job effectiveness. Each of the relationships is statistically significant beyond conventional levels of acceptance. Although suggesting a somewhat weaker relationship between the variables, the tau-b statistics support the associations and again are significant beyond conventional lev- els. Thus, according to this sample, sufficient crime-related information (e.g., felonies, misdemeanors, calls for service, community services, and ethnic and cultural needsyf does appear to be associated with officer job effectiveness. The study also examined the association between the presence of specific crime information and officer awareness of community problems (see Table 7yf 7 K H J D P P a and tau-b statistics showed a moderate to strong relationship between information availability and perceived awareness of community problems. All gamma and tau-b statistics were significant beyond conventional levels of acceptance. As related in Table 7, the availability of felony, misdemeanor, suspect, case status, service call, and victim information is strongly associated with officers' awareness of community prob- lems (gamma scores were .62, .62, .41, .54, .60, and .48, respectivelyyf 0 R U H R Y H U a moderately strong association was also observed between awareness of community problems and the timeliness and accuracy of available information (gamma scores were .37 and .28, respectivelyyf . This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 358 PPMR / June 2001 Table 6. Officer Ratings of the Extent to Which Sufficient Information Influences Job Effectiveness Survey Item Gamma Significance Tau-b Significance Felony crimes committed (n = 354yf 0 Misdemeanor crimes committed (n = 355yf 0 Calls for police service (n = 354yf 0 Community services available (n = 351yf 0 Community ethnic and cultural needs (n = 352yf 0 Table 7. Cross-Tabulation Results of Factors That Influence Perceived Awareness of Community Problems Survey Item Gamma Significance Tau-b Significance Felony information availability (n = 357yf 0 Misdemeanor information availability (n = 357yf 0 Infonnation on calls for service (n = 355yf 0 Infonnation on suspects (n = 353yf 0 Infonnation on case status (n = 335yf 0 Infonnation on victims (n = 352yf 0 Accuracy of report information (n = 324yf 0 Timely accessibility of infonnation (n = 327yf 0 In sum, the statistical findings indicated that crime-related information was neither readily available nor of sufficient quality for patrol needs. Further, the study revealed that the availability and timeliness of critical information pertaining to felonies, mis- demeanors, suspects, case status, and victimization all influenced the officers' job effectiveness. Additionally, these critical information variables were also tied to the officers' perceptions pertaining to awareness of community problems. According to the findings discussed above, information plays a pivotal role in perceptions of job effectiveness and meeting community needs. The following section explores the results of the Delphi focus group data-collection effort. DELPHI FOCUS GROUP FIDINGS The overall purpose of the Delphi group exercises was to elicit detailed information requirements. The objective was to assess the information needs of the officers, super- visors, and special units of the CMPD. In addition, the participants were asked to iden- tify the existing barriers that stymied the effective use of information in performing their duties and responsibilities. Ten focus groups were selected from several levels and divisions of the CMPD. They included representatives from each of the major units of the CMPD. Participants were chosen by the appropriate deputy chiefs with the assistance of their respective units. The focus groups ranged in size from 9 to 18 people; total group attendance was 1 12. This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Brown / INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INNOVATIONS 359 The groups were asked three broad questions: * What kinds of facts and data do you need to do your job better? * What are the current barriers to your access to necessary information? * How would you describe overall communications between units and between officers and supervisors? Each group session included four rounds of activity. The first three rounds con- sisted of the participants responding to the three questions above in a round-robin dis- cussion format. Each response was numbered and written on a flip chart by a CMPD cofacilitator who was recruited from the group. Responses were posted on the wall so that each participant could refer to the total group responses. The fourth round was a written vote by each participant, identifying the five most important responses, in rank order, to each of the three questions. Each group saw only its own responses, not those of earlier groups. The groups overwhelmingly agreed that there was a need to improve accessibility to departmental data. They felt that arrest records, suspect profiles, field interviews, and related data must be centralized, indexed, and capable of search queries from both district offices and the field. Most groups also felt a great need for more computer equipment. Among all the focus groups, a pattern of responses emerged as to the rea- sons why information is difficult to locate and use. The most frequently identified bar- riers were the lack of adequate training on computer equipment, fragmentation among the databases and information sources, and the lack of information sharing across unit lines and from one level of the organization to another. Finally, the focus group participants were asked to assess the CMPD's overall departmental communications. Their responses identified the need for better ways to coordinate investigations, better communications among departmental units and with other police agencies, and electronic bulletin boards to send information quickly and efficiently. Consequently, in 1997, the Charlotte City Council approved a master plan that authorized the establishment of an information infrastructure to advance commu- nity-oriented problem solving. The assumptions that guided the subsequent efforts were fourfold. First, IT development efforts must be geared toward improving the community's policing efforts. The IT initiatives would specifically target the needs of community policing and the officers in the neighborhoods. The underlying assump- tion was that if the problem-solving officers' needs were met, the technology would also provide the data necessary to serve as a management information system. Next, all efforts should be designed to deliver as much data as possible to the officers in the field. In essence, the police vehicle is the office, and all efforts should support delivering sys- tems and data to the vehicle. Third, officers would no longer be just "report takers." They would own the problems that occurred in their neighborhoods. As such, officers in the field were expected to conduct preliminary investigations. Moreover, unlike under the old policing paradigm, officers would receive updates and feedback on case status and efforts underway to resolve neighborhood-based problems. And, finally, all system development efforts should be focused on empowering the community mem- bers to become active participants in community problem-solving efforts. It is impor- This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 360 PPMR / June 2001 tant to note that these four assumptions had a tremendous impact on the manner in which systems were both designed and deployed. For example, networks were devel- oped to maximize file transfer rates with district offices, and databases were designed to coach officers through the investigative process. Stage 2: Deployment of IT Architecture and Routine Software Applications The passage of the information system plan and the acquisition of substantial fund- ing (approximately $20 millionyf O H G W R W K H O D X Q F K R I D Q X P E H U R I W H F K Q R O R J \ L Q L W L D - tives. Stage 2 involved deploying a wide area network, a local area network, 19 servers, 2,000 laptop computers, and a host of software applications. Table 8 provides an over- view of the computer capabilities that field officers received in Stage 2. After an aver- age of 1 year of experience with the laptop computers, officers were surveyed to deter- mine the effects that information and technology had on the problem-solving efforts. The research setting had the advantage of controlling for several intervening vari- ables that might otherwise have obscured findings. The police officers used identical information, hardware, and software. Moreover, each police officer received the same computer training and was required to pass the same competency examination before a uniform laptop computer was issued. The laptops were issued as standard equipment, and each police officer was required to use the technology in his or her daily opera- tions; other computer technology was not made available to them. Additionally, the laptops provided access to the same databases and the same software applications. Thus, all members of the sample had identical hardware, software, data, training, and experience. To assess the extent to which the technology deployment efforts to date have improved performance and stimulated problem-solving efforts, two data collection efforts were conducted in March 2000. In the first part of the analysis, officers were simply asked to rate the new computers and system support for facilitating community policing. In the second part of the analysis, the extent of the benefits received to date based on the pretest-posttest analysis was examined. Because computer technology is believed to have its greatest perceived effects shortly after its introduction, the group was surveyed when they had had the technology long enough to master it and the tech- nology was sufficiently novel to demonstrate recognizable impacts. STAGE 2 FINDINGS, PART 1: POST-COMPUTER IMPLEMENTATION ATTITUDINAL PERCEPTIONS In the first part of the analysis, patrol officers were asked to rate the extent to which the laptops improved police operations and system operations. The respondents were asked to compare the current laptop technology with the previous, mainframe-based mobile data terminals on a number of criteria (see Table 9yf 7 K R V H U H V S R Q G H Q W V Z K o had not used the old technology were asked to refrain from answering these compari- son questions. Seventy-one percent (n = 21 1yf R I W K H J U R X S L Q G L F D W H G W K D W W K H O D S W R S V S U R Y L G H G S U R - ductivity improvements by a factor of 3 or more (see Table 10yf 2 Q O \ \b of the sam- This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Brown / INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INNOVATIONS 361 Table 8. Computer Capabilities Provided to Officers in Stage 2 Hardware deployed Individual laptops to 1,500 officers Six hundred fifty desktop computers Local area network Wide area network Wireless CDPD network Software applications Computer-aided dispatch E-mail Microsoft Office suite Tax and water records Police master name index Calls for service database Departmental announcements Note. CDPD = cellular digital packet data. Table 9. Additional Survey Items Used in Stage 2 By a factor of -3 to +3, compared to the old mobile data terminals, the new laptops Improve productivity Improve efficiency Save time Enhance call response Enhance problem solving Improve communications On a 13-point scale, ranging from F to A+, rate the new system based on Ease of use System performance System support System reliability System availability Response time ple (n = 57yf L Q G L F D W H G H L W K H U Q R L P S U R Y H P H Q W R U D U H G X F W L R Q L Q S U R G X F W L Y L W \ O H Y H O V ( I I L - ciency gains were similar to those witnessed in the performance arena. Seventy-three percent of the group indicated gains by a factor of 3 or more, and 65yb Q \f claimed high productivity improvements in communications. Although still positive, the officers were less sanguine regarding enhancements in calls for service and problem-solving capabilities. As identified in Table 10, only 54yb (n = 163yf R I W K H V D P S O H S H U F H L Y H G D W K U H H I R O G L P S U R Y H P H Q W L Q F D O O U H V S R Q V H \b (n = 71yf L Q G L F D W H G Q R L P S U R Y H P H Q W D Q G \b (n = 25yf L Q G L F D W H G U H G X F W L R Q V L Q S U R E O H P - solving productivity. Forty-six percent (n = 237yf R I W K H V D P S O H S H U F H L Y H G W K U H H I R O G R r more gains, and 34yb Q \f witnessed either no gains or reductions in problem- solving capabilities. This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 362 PPMR / June 2001 Table 10. Ratings on Improvements in Police Operations Factor Compared With the Old Mobile Data Terminal System, the New Laptops -3 -2 -J 0 +1 +2 +3 Improve productivity (n = 301yf \b 1yb \b 11yb \b 9yb \b Improve efficiency (n = 303yf \b 1yb \b 8yb \b 8yb \b Save time (n = 300yf \b 2yb \b 8yb \b 8yb \b Enhance call response (n = 300yf \b 0yb \b 24yb \b 9yb \b Enhance problem solving (n = 300yf \b 1yb \b 24yb \b 12yb \b Improve communications (n = 302yf \b 0yb \b 15yb \b 7yb \b Overall, the respondents gave system support and operations fairly high marks. When asked about the laptops' ease of use, system performance, system support, sys- tem reliability, system availability, and response time, the average respondent gave the system an academic grade of approximately C+. Few respondents (n = 20, 38, 30, 52, 38, and 39, respectivelyyf J U D G H G W K H R S H U D W L R Q V L Q W K H ' R U ) F D W H J R U \ D Q G I D L U Q X P E H U s (n = 234, 187, 179, 152, 180, and 201, respectivelyyf J U D G H G R S H U D W L R Q V L Q W K H $ R U B category. STAGE 2 FINDINGS, PART 2: PRE- AND POST-COMPUTER IMPLEMENTATION COMPARISON As mentioned, Stage 1 involved the collection of a baseline survey from which future IT efforts could be measured. The findings below are based on a pretest-posttest comparison. The initial survey (the pretestyf Z D V F R O O H F W H G L Q O D W H 7 K H S U H W H V t group consisted of roughly 364 field-level officers and achieved a response rate of 51yb 7 K H V H F R Q G V X U Y H \ W K H S R V W W H V W \f was collected approximately 1 year after the implementation of Stage 2 and was answered by approximately 330 field-level offi- cers, a response rate of 46yb * L Y H Q W K H U D W H R I S H U V R Q Q H O W X U Q R Y H U D Q G U H D V V L J Q P H Q W D t the CMPD (less than 5yb D Q Q X D O O \ \f, the pretest and posttest groups did not differ in important demographics such as sex, race, age, educational level, or length of time as a police officer. The two groups were compared on improvements in the availability of departmental information, neighborhood-based information, and case feedback. As related in Table 12, in comparing the pretest and posttest groups, the posttest group demonstrated greater information benefits. When asked about information from the offense report, the posttest group rated information accessibility, accuracy, and timeliness higher than the pretest group. On a scale of 1 to 7, the pretest group means ranged from 3.5 to 4.0. The posttest group means ranged from 4.5 to 4.7. The differ- ence between the two groups was statistically significant for each of the models (p < .01 for eachyf 0 R U H R Y H U W K H S R V W W H V W J U R X S D O V R J D Y H U H O H Y D Q F H D Q G F R P S O H W H Q H V V R f the information higher marks than the pretest group (Ms = 4.35 and 4.0yf $ Q G D J D L Q , each of these models was statistically significant (p < .01 for eachyf . When asked about feedback information received on the cases to which they responded, officers were less positive. As shown in Table 13, the pretest and posttest groups did not differ in any demonstrable way in terms of their perceptions of feedback This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Brown / INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INNOVATIONS 363 Table 11. Ratings of System Operations Item A B C D F Ease of use (n = 332yf \b 43yb \b 4yb \b System performance (n = 332yf \b 45yb \b 11yb \b System support (n = 331yf \b 37yb \b 8yb \b System reliability (n = 332yf \b 37yb \b 13yb \b System availability (n = 332yf \b 43yb \b 10yb \b Response time (n = 331yf \b 42yb \b 9yb \b Table 12. Mean Comparison of Pretest and Posttest Groups on Evaluation of Offense Information Item (evaluation of information collected on offense reportsyf 3 U H W H V W 0 H D Q 3 R V W W H V W 0 H D Q 6 L J Q L I L F D Q F e Easily accessible 3.52 (n = 330yf Q \f .00 Accurate 4.11 (n = 327yf Q \f .00 Accessible in a timely manner 3.66 (n = 330yf Q \f .00 Relevant to problem-solving needs 4.00 (n = 331yf Q \f .00 Complete 4.00 (n = 327yf Q \f .00 received on case status, suspect identification, suspect arrest, suspect prosecution, or property recovery. The means for these models ranged from a low of 2.4 to a high of 2.7 (none achieved statistical significanceyf . In terms of neighborhood problem-solving information, the pre- and posttest groups differed on some items but were fairly similar on others (see Table 14yf 2 n information pertaining to calls for service, availability of community services, and involvement of residents in problem-solving activities, the posttest group rated the information availability higher than the pretest group. Each of these models was statis- tically significant (p > .01, .03, and .01, respectivelyyf D Q G W K H P H D Q V U D Q J H G I R U P 4 to 3.74. The difference between the two groups on awareness of problem-solving activities was only marginally significant (Ms = 3.35 and 3.53, p> .07yf + R Z H Y H U W K e two groups did not differ at all in their awareness of resident concerns (Ms = 3.48 and 3.53, respectivelyyf . Findings and Conclusion Although the initial findings appear favorable, it should be noted that the achieve- ments that have occurred to date did not occur easily. Transitioning from a minimalist approach to technology (a single mainframe, 200 dumb terminals, and 6 support staff membersyf W R D V H U Y H U F O L H Q W R S H U D W L R Q U H T X L U L Q J V X S S R U W V W D I I P H P E H U s demanded a tremendous amount of resources in time, energy, and capital. Whereas the annual IT operating budget for the CMPD more than tripled from less than $1.8 mil- This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 364 PPMR / June 2001 Table 13. Mean Comparison of Pretest and Posttest Groups on Feedback Received From Reports Item (evaluation of feedback received onyf 3 U H W H V W 0 H D Q 3 R V W W H V W 0 H D Q 6 L J Q L I L F D Q F e Case status 2.73 (n = 339yf Q \f .55 Suspect identification 2.74 (n = 337yf Q \f .73 Suspect arrest 2.69 (n = 338yf Q \f .36 Suspect prosecuted 2.51 (n = 338yf Q \f .39 Property recovered 2.51 (n = 338yf Q \f .39 Table 14. Mean Comparison of Pretest and Posttest Groups on Availability of Neighborhood Information Item (evaluation of availability of neighborhood informationyf 3 U H W H V W 0 H D Q 3 R V W W H V W 0 H D Q 6 L J Q L I L F D Q F e Calls for service 3.74 (n = 338yf Q \f .00 Available community services 3.55 (n = 358yf Q \f .03 Residents' perceptions of pressing problems 3.48 (n = 358yf Q \f .58 Awareness of problem-solving efforts 3.35 (n = 358yf Q \f .07 Involvement of residents in problem- solving activities 3.14 (n = 358yf Q \f .01 lion to nearly $6 million, support requirements increased by a factor of 10 (from 200 dumb terminals to 2,000 client server devicesyf . Similar to most technology innovations, many of the project's subtasks experienced cost overruns and schedule delays. The project suffered from the difficulties associ- ated with anticipating the extent and breadth of the demands the effort would require. The cost overruns resulted primarily from shifting user requirements, which led to pro- ject expansion. Furthermore, the project experienced equipment malfunctions and incompatibilities as well as shortages in technical expertise and high turnover. Given these limitations, the project was forced to take on an incremental, iterative deploy- ment process, meaning that the project had to rely on a very short, iterative, incremen- tal planning cycle that placed other sections of the organization under high stress. The ramifications of the project scope changes, equipment incompatibilities, and short- ages of qualified technical personnel that necessitated the incremental project approach rippled through the organization in interesting ways. The rippling effects demanded heightened levels of internal capacity to sustain the project. For example, technical personnel shortages and turnover rates required the human resources section of the agency to assume the burden of continuous recruitment and hiring. Changes in scope required ongoing, intensive user involvement, and con- tract changes placed heavy burdens on the contracting and procurement section of the agency. Because of the rippling nature of the ongoing horizontal commitment require- ments top-level leadership engagement was vital to the project. Substantial coordina- tion, communication, and leadership capacities were required to sustain the initiative. This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Brown / INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY INNOVATIONS 365 With more than $20 million allocated for new project development and an annual operating budget of approximately $6 million, much has been achieved to date. A very sophisticated computer network has been built linking every remote site and every mobile police vehicle to CMPD headquarters. In sum, the analysis indicates that the efforts of Stage 2 provided substantial benefits to the officers in the field. Productivity and efficiency gains received from the technology of greater than or equal to a factor of 3 were perceived by the majority of officers. Moreover, the majority of the officers were pleased with the system's operations. In terms of the pretest and posttest survey, officers noted that the new system did in fact provide them with many more capabili- ties that did enhance their efforts. Yet, no improvements were made on case feedback or perceptions of residential problems. In total, the results indicate that greater improvements are required before the IT efforts can be seen as truly successful. For the most part, information, although more available than before, remains difficult to obtain for most officers. At no time did the availability of offense information, case feedback, or neighborhood information receive average ratings much above four on a scale of one to seven. Hence, the ratings for information availability, although significantly improved over those of the past, remain unacceptably low. However, given that Stage 3 involves upgrading many of the officers' most frequently used data sets (e.g., arrests, incidents, and problem solvingyf L W L V Q R W V X U S U L V L Q J W K D W K L J K U D Q N L Q J D Q G V L J Q L I L F D Q W L P S U R Y H P H Q W V D F U R V V D O l variables were not noted. If anything, given the tasks that remain, the progress to date is impressive. It should be noted that the generalizability of these findings is somewhat suspect. The study focused on only one agency's attempt to leverage IT to address productivity and performance needs. Nonetheless, the findings are noteworthy. Recent studies have called attention to the difficulties associated with acquiring benefits from IT invest- ments (Anthes, 1996; Davis et al., 1992; Flowers, 1996yf 3 U H O L P L Q D U \ I L Q G L Q J V I U R m this study demonstrate that significant achievements can be acquired. But, the study also draws attention to the many intangible resource investments that may be required to achieve success. Coordination, communication, and leadership commitment requirements placed heavy burdens on the organization. The extent to which public agencies are prepared for both the tangible and intangible costs that result from tech- nology innovations is an important finding worth noting. References Anthes, G. (1996yf , 5 6 S U R M H F W I D L O X U H V F R V W W D [ S D \ H U V E L O O L R Q D Q Q X D O O \ & R P S X W H U Z R U O G \f, 1-30. Boyd, D. (1995, May 17yf 7 H V W L P R Q \ E H I R U H W K H 6 X E F R P P L W W H H R Q & U L P H D Q G & U L P L Q D O - X V W L F H R I W K H - X G L - ciary Committee, U.S. House of Representatives. Cats-Baril, W. L., & Thompson, R. L. (1996yf , Q I R U P D W L R Q W H F K Q R O R J \ D Q G P D Q D J H P H Q W % X U U 5 L G J H , / : Irwin. Davis, G. B., Lee, A. L., Nickles, K. R., Chatterjee, S., Hartung, R., & Wu, Y. (1992yf 6 2 6 ' L D J Q R V L V R I D n information system failure. Information and Management, 23, 293-318. Flowers, S. (1996yf 6 R I W Z D U H I D L O X U H 0 D Q D J H P H Q W I D L O X U H D P D ] L Q J V W R U L H V D Q G F D X W L R Q D U \ W D O H V 1 H Z < R U N : John Wiley. Goldstein, H. (1990yf 3 U R E O H P R U L H Q W H G S R O L F L Q J 1 H Z < R U N 0 F * U D Z + L O O . Lowery, D. (1998yf , 6 2 $ F H U W L I L F D W L R Q E D V H G W H F K Q R O R J \ I R U U H L Q Y H Q W L Q J W K H I H G H U D O J R Y H U Q P H Q W . Public Productivity & Management Review, 22, 232-250. This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 366 PPMR / June 2001 Kavanaugh, J. (1997a, Julyyf & K L O G V X S S R U W V \ V W H P L Q W U R X E O H * R Y H U Q P H Q W 7 H F K Q R O R J \ . Kavanaugh, J. (1997b, Marchyf / $ 3 ' W H F K Q R O R J \ R I I L F H S U R S R V H G * R Y H U Q P H Q W 7 H F K Q R O R J \ . Sparrow, M. K. (1988, Novemberyf , P S O H P H Q W L Q J F R P P X Q L W \ S R O L F L Q J 3 H U V S H F W L Y H V R Q 3 R O L F L Q J 1 & J 114217yf : D V K L Q J W R Q ' & 8 6 ' H S D U W P H Q W R I - X V W L F H . Sparrow, M. K. (1993yf , Q I R U Q D W L R Q V \ V W H P V D Q G W K H G H Y H O R S P H Q W R I S R O L F L Q J 3 H U V S H F W L Y H V R Q 3 R O L F L Q J 1 & J 139306yf : D V K L Q J W R Q ' & 8 6 ' H S D U W P H Q W R I - X V W L F H . The Standish Group. (1995yf & K D R V > 2 Q O L Q H @ : H V W < D U P R X W K 0 $ $ X W K R U $ Y D L O D E O H K W W S - Z Z Z . standishgroup.com/visitor/chaos.htm U.S. Department of Justice. (1999yf & X U U H Q W S U H V V U H O H D V H V > 2 Q O L Q H @ : D V K L Q J W R Q ' & $ X W K R U $ Y D L O D E O H : http://www.usdoj.gov/cops/news_info/press-rleases/default.htm U.S. General Accounting Office. (1996yf , Q I R U P D W L R Q W H F K Q R O R J \ L Q Y H V W P H Q W $ J H Q F L H V F D Q L P S U R Y H S H U I R U - mance, reduce costs, and minimize risks (GAO/OIMC-96-64yf : D V K L Q J W R Q ' & 8 6 * R Y H P Q P H Q t Printing Office. U.S. General Accounting Office. (1997ayf + L J K U L V N D U H D V $ F W L R Q V Q H H G H G W R V R O Y H S U H V V L Q J P D Q D J H P H Q t problems (GAO/AIMD/GGD-97-60yf : D V K L Q J W R Q ' & 8 6 * R Y H P P H Q W 3 U L Q W L Q J 2 I I L F H . U.S. General Accounting Office. (1997byf 0 D Q D J L Q J W H F K Q R O R J \ % H V W S U D F W L F H V F D Q L P S U R Y H S H U I R U P D Q F e and produce results (GAO/T-AIMD-97-38yf : D V K L Q J W R Q ' & 8 6 * R Y H P P H Q W 3 U L Q W L Q J 2 I I L F H . Volunteers for Children Act, Pub. L. No. 105-251, 42 U.S.C. ? 14601 Stat. 1871 (1998yf . Weikart, L., & Carlson, P. (1998yf , P S O H P H Q W L Q J F R P S X W H U V \ V W H P V L Q W K H I D F H R I I L V F D O V F D U F L W \ $ P R G H O I R r technologically frustrated managers. Public Productivity & Management Review, 21, 284-292. Mary Maureen Brown, D.RA. (University of Georgiayf L V D Q D V V R F L D W H S U R I H V V R U R I L Q I R U - mation technology and public administration at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Her teaching and research interests concentrate on the use of information- based technologiesfor reengineering operations to improve service delivery throughout all levels of government. Her service activities focus on the design, development, and implementation of advanced technologies to enhance organizational operations. In her most recent work with the U.S. Department ofJustice, Brown is responsiblefordesigning and implementing over $20 million in technological solutions at the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department to enhance community policing initiatives. Brown's research publica- tions in the area of technological innovations have appeared in Public Administration Review, the Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, Administration & Society, Social Sciences Computer Review, and State and Local Government Review. Contact: [email protected] This content downloaded from 69.210.0.63 on Sat, 19 Nov 2022 02:08:22 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms