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Gender differenceLinguistic variation and social function Early research on gender differences•Sociolinguistic variation•When e.g.a vowel is pronounced in a certain way rather than in another way•E.g.in the midwestof the US the word ‘ham’ is often pronounced more as [hem] than as [hæm]•This variability does not change the identity of the word•The difference in pronunciation carries social meaning Standard/non-standard •Bulk of early research on gender difference looks at use of standard/non-standard speech forms•Standard=standardized norm, RP, careful newsreaders•Non-standard=vernacular, slang Standard/non-standard•Syntax•Detroit Black English -% use of double negative (non-standard)•E.g.“I don’t have no money”menwomenLMC32%1%LWC90%59%(LMC=lower middle class; LWC=lower working class) Standard/non-standard•PronunciationTyneside, Newcastle, UK -% use of glottalizedp (non-standard)menwomenMC96%27%WC99%60% Explanations•Women use less non-standard forms than. Men in all SES categories•Women’s speech is therefore seen as moreconservative•WHY?•Women are more status-conscious•Women are more polite•Women use more overt prestige while men use more covert prestige•Women are upwardly mobile Explanations•Women’s position in society is generally subordinate to men’s and because women have fewer opportunities to secure their positions through occupational success or other abilities, they find it necessary to use symbolic means to enhance their position•Men have greater legitimacy in certain institutions, so women have toprove they belong by means of symbolic capital•Maybe more jobs that are related to languages have traditionally been accessible to women, or because women are more interested in jobs relating to language, they use more standard (e.g.teacher, writer, academic, receptionist) –i.e.need to use standard on a professional level Problems•Later explanations:•Situation-based•Data based on formal interviews •women might be more conscious of how they are perceived in a formal interview situation•Accommodation •CAT, women are more likely to accommodate their interactional partner•Different perception of situation •Mostly male interviewers, so the situation is different for female and male respondents in terms of establishing solidarity Problems•Later explanations:•Interactional patterns•Speech style: Amount of interaction outside community •the more outside contact, the more standard, if community is isolated more non-standard•Strength of social networks •strong network: non-standard; weak network: standard•Working class pattern•men •work together in factories, tight social networks, non-standard•women work in shops or domestic service, more interaction with middle class, loose social networks, more standard•Side note: In situations where women have tight social networksthey also use more non-standard speech! Problems•Later explanations:Construction of identity•Non-standard has associations with male identity; standard has associations with female identity•Speakers chose to speak in a way that projects their identity•Women construct identity in double contrast: contrast with men of same SES, contrast with women of different SES Communicative Competence•Communicative competence is a combination of•Correct grammar and language use•Contextual appropriateness•i.e.you have tolook at both, linguistic features and situational/contextual factors Communicative Competence•Women and men’s behaviourin conversation suggests that they have a different understanding of how e.g.a compliment is done•Gendered differences in conversational strategies have led researchers to talk about male and female conversational styles•Style as a preference, rather than an expression of socio-cultural status Backchannels•Minimal responses•Female ‘speciality’•Used considerably more by women Hedges•Women use more hedges than men•Example: you know•“and it was quite xx well it was it was all very embarrassing you know”•Example: like•“Josephine used to come hereand I was her likereally good friends with her she was likemy best friend” Questions•Who do you think makes more use of questions and tag questions?•Why?•E.g.The crisis in the Middle East is terrible.•Vs. The crisis in the Middle East is terrible, isn’t it? Commands and directives•Fathers were found to use more directives than mothers•Fathers were found to use more directives to sons than to daughters•Children and adults were both found to use different kinds of directives Swearing and taboo language•Gomm(1981) recorded fourteen conversations between young British speakers: the participants were all female in five of these, all male in five, and mixed in four. An analysis of the transcripts reveals no qualitative differences in use of sear words, butshows differences in frequency between male and female usage. Clearly, the male speakers in Gomm’ssample swear more often than the female speakers. Moreover, both women and men swear more in company of their own gender.Single-Sex GroupsMixed GroupsTo t a lMen21425Wo me n729 Backchannels•Minimal responseTina: she provided the appropriate sayings for particular timesand andLyn: rightTina: soon she didn’t actually TEACHthem but she justLyn: right provided a Tina: provided a model you know you –you must refer toLyn: model yeah mhmTina: this and this and she actually produceda bookLyn: mhmmhmmhmmhmTina: that set out some of these ideas at the very simplest levelLyn: mhm(from Holmes, 1995: 55) Backchannels•What characteristics do femaleminimal responses have? What social function do they perform?•Supportive•Facilitative•Skilled placement•No overlap•Non-interruptive•Sensitive•Encouraging•Supporting the other•Maintaining relationships•Solidarity-building Te n t a t i v e / u n a s s e r t i v e•Women use more hedges (I think, You know, sort of, perhaps)•Hedges express uncertainty•Women use a weak style Confidence/uncertainty•Distribution of you know by functionFunctionfemalemaleExpressing confidence5637Expressing uncertainty3350To t a l8987 Context•Gender differences have tobe considered in context•De-contextualized observations, such as ‘women interrupt more often’ is meaningless unless you look at the functions of interruption and the context in which they occur•Differences may be due to •Direct link•i.e.being men or women•Indirect link•Engaging in different activities…•Fulfilling different social roles… …that are associated with a gender Homework•Reading •Textbook: Talbot, M. (2010). Language and Gender. –Chapter 2.•Further reading •Textbook: Eckert, P. and McConnell-Ginet. (2003). Language and Gender. –Chapter 8.