Can you write me an 1100-word paper? I will provide you with notes and instructions.

Gendered speech across cultures Overview•Gender identities & attitudes across cultures•Conversational styles across cultures•Gendered languages Gender & Culture•Gender is constructed and enacted differently across cultures•Different cultures associate different communicative styles with men and women•Such styles are by no means uniform•Different styles are attributed different values Differences across the world•Differences in•Behaviours•Gender-identities•What’s considered ‘normal’•Attitudes to gender•Speech style Distinguish•There is a distinction, however, between sex-exclusive and sex-preferential differentiation•Unlike sex-exclusive differences, sex-preferential differences are not absolute, they are matters of degree•Both types are highly culture-specific•Acquiring them an important part of learning how to behave as ‘proper’ men and women in particular cultures Pohnpei•Ward (1979): •Te e n a g e g i r l n a m e d M a r i a s t a r t e d t o b e h a v e l i k e a b o y•Family and community met and held a feast to declare her a boy•Cut her hair, dressed her as a boy and called her Mario French Polynesia•In Tahiti it is ‘normal’ and frequently observed that men take on a female gender identity•Mahoosor Mahhus(in Samoa fa’afafine= like a lady)•Eldest male in the family was often raised to be feminine •Dress, attitude and mannerism of females•“all the fantastic oddities and coquetries of the vainest of females” •Are effeminate in their voice Weyéwa(sumba)•“unisex” society•Sexual differentiation is played down in this society•Men and women participate on relatively equal basis in most major subsistence tasks and political and economic decisions Weyéwa(sumba)•Pronounced differences exist only in the use of speech•Differences occur in•Content•Form •Verbal resources•Men: •speaking to ancestors & in context of divination, placation rites and celebrationsongs•Is narrative and indirect•Men are paid for performances but are fined for errors•Women: •expresses and evokes personal feelings •Uses in public: in event of misfortune•Evocative laments and ululations•Women are not fined for errors Tz e l t a l•Women•In a family context•More positively polite to intimates and familiars•Expending more interactional effort in reassuring their interest in and appreciation of their interactional contributions •In a public context•More negatively polite•Self-annihilating kinesically•Stringent interactional constraints, including•Avoidance of public displays of emotion•Public confrontation•Self-control•Self-humbling•Avoiding eye-contact•Deference to/social distance from unfamiliars(indicated by using very high-pitched register) Gapun•Women use kros(To kPisinfor “angry ”)•Krosis a female genre•It is abusive swearing•Monologue•Uttered inside the house, but intended for everyone to hear•Lengthy (45 minutes is not unusual)•Ta r g e t i s n o t a l l o w e d t o t a l k b a c k ( o r a n y o n e i n t h e i r d e f e n s e )•If men have something to say they usually get their wives to engage in kros Malagasy•Value indirectness, politeness & maintenance of harmonious social relations•Open confrontation is frowned on•Kabaryis a very formal and indirect traditional style of speaking –used on ritual occasions•This style is highly valued•Only men are considered capable of using it Malagasy Men•Use the polite and informal speech style•Use a highly valued speech style•Leave it to women to communicate unwelcome information•Give women primary responsibility for buying and sellingWomen•Use a more direct style•Use a style that is frowned upon/not valued•Issue reprimands, request favours& ask direct questions•Women dominate one economically important sphere of activity Universal trend•In some traditional societiesindirectness, consensus-seeking speech-styles are valued •This speech style is typically associated with men•Women are considered too direct to make good leaders•In the West, direct and assertive styles are seen as requirement for public and leadership roles •Also associated with male verbal skills•Women are seen as insufficiently direct Diglossia•Women and men use different varieties of language•This can give them/hinder them from privileges•Diglossiacan refer to either:•Two varieties of the same language•Two different languages CaribIndians•In some traditional, tribal societies, men and women have a whole range of different vocabularies at their disposal, to such an extent that researchers initially thought they speak different languages. A European writer-travellerin the 17thcentury had this to say about them: “The men have a great many expressions peculiar to them, which the women understand but never pronounce themselves. On the other hand, the women have words and phrases which the men never use, or they would be laughed to scorn. Thusit happens that in their conversations it often seems as if the women had another language than the men.” (Rochefort, cited in Jespersen, 1922: 237) Ya ny u wa•Diglossiasituation•Men and women speak different dialects•Men’s and women’s roles are not only contrasted by social roles (hunting and nurturing) but also explicitly through their language use Karajá•Allegedly the language with the most differences between male and female speech. In this language, the sex of the speaker is marked phonologically –with systematic sound differences (e.g.an absence of /k/ and /ku/ in the make form Bali•Balinese & Indonesian•Balinese has 4 different registers (equivalent to four different languages)•Yo u have toknow precisely who addressee is and what register they fall under, otherwise you commit a major faux-pas•1stregister is considered quite rude•4thregister is for priests•Balinese fulfills a solidarity function, but is equated to lack of education and is not very refined•Indonesian only has 1 register•Allows to circumnavigate the complexities of the register•Not a language of solidarity Bali•Due to the complexities of the Balinese registers and the attitudes connected with Balinese and Indonesian a gender-specific language use resulted•Females understand Balinese but speak only Indonesian, as they consider the 1stregister in Balinese too crude•This is acceptable and accepted by males•Male speakers speak almost exclusively Balinese amongst each other, but accommodate the females and switch to Indonesian when addressing women•Male speakers, however, refuse to accommodate other males and are unwilling to speak Indonesian to them•There is a considerable amount of peer-pressure for males to speak Balinese, as speaking Indonesian will cast a male as an outsider•Balinese plays a crucially important solidarity role among males Ya h i(yanna/northern california)•Characterized through: •Men using suffixed elements•Women use a shorter version•Men pronounce fully and deliberately when speaking to men, but use a ‘clipped’ version when speaking to women