This essay should be approximately 1 - 2 double-spaced page long. Correct spelling and grammar are important. Despite the well-known history of racism and bigotry in early Texas, ethnic relationships

This amounted t o 30% of all peoples living in Texas. Almost all slaves lived in East Texas. The slave population was increasing at a faster rate than the white population. Much of this increase was due to slaveowners from other southern states shipping their slaves to Texas for "safekeeping." DEGREE OF SLAVE OWNERSHIP A. In 1860, about 25% of white Southerners belonged to families owning slaves . This includes the 21,878 Texan families who owned slaves . B. Less than 4% of the total white population in the South owned 20 or more slaves . This was the “planter class, ” as defined by national census . Approximately 2,163 Texa ns were members of this elite group . C. To live up to the popular conception of aristocratic luxury (mansion, numerous servants, etc.) , the services of at least 50 slaves were required. Less than 1% of Southern whites could boast of this level of prosperity . Only 54 families in Texas owned 100 or more slaves. However, these families established the tone and values for the entire region . They wielded disproportionate influence and political position. POPULAR SUPPORT FOR THE SLAVE / PLANTATION SYSTEM Even NON -SLAVE HOLDING whites generally supported the system. The heavy concentration of blacks in certain parts of Texas and much of the South put whites in a MINORITY position that would be untenable should manumission take place. Some fear ed that freed slaves would seek revenge. Others strongly felt that blacks could not become self -supporting. Historical and "scientific" evidence ab ounded as to the 2 “inferiority ” of blacks, such as a widely accepted (at that time) "scientific" book which claimed that intelligence could be predicted by looking at the shape of the NOSE . According to this theory, wide flat noses predicted a low intellect , while thin and angular noses suggested high intelligence . For evidence, this author studied the results of a standardized test, making note of which races (and nose shapes) scored highest. It is highly likely the test was culturally bias ed and certainly did not consider the degree of formal education (or comprehension of the English language) that the test group possessed prior to filling out the questionnaire . With these criteria in min d, it is no surpris e that those with Native, Asian, or African roots performed at a lower level than their European counterparts. Enslavement was also seen as a means for spreading the gospel to a people who would have lived and died without ever hear ing the Word of God had they not been brought to Amer ica . I n Ephesians 6:5, Paul advised the slaves (of his generation) to "obey their masters." Southerners generally feared that crime and welfare needs would run rampant if slavery ever ended.

Southerners pointed to the depressed condition of free blacks i n the North to prove this point. Texans were quick to point out that adding up the food, clothing, lodging, transportation, medical treatment, and retirement benefits of the slave produced a much greater dollar figure than the ANNUAL WAGE of a factory -wor king free black in the North. Plus, there was no danger of unemployment. Of course, no dollar figure was subtracted to represent the loss of personal freedom and family security. Some poor whites dreamed of owning their own slave someday, but mostly, the lower - class whites needed a socio -economic group to look down on. No matter their depressed state, the white underclass could find positives in the fact that there was another group with less status. Additionally, p oor whites did not want to work alongsid e freed blacks and did not want to compete with them for land or jobs. Emancipation was highly unpopular among lower class whites because it would remove the pride and status that automatically accompanied white skin in th is acutely race -conscious society. Most importantly, the economic success of the planter class , the state, and the region depended upon slave labor. Cotton was the most important commodity in the world at this time , and t he South grew 60% of world’s cotton . Ninety percent of the cotton grown in Texas was produced by the slaveowners. Collectively, the South ern states were richer than all European nations but England . In their world, so much depended upon a massive and reliable labor system. Alternative opinions were not allowed. Holding anti -slavery sentiments was tantamount to political suicide. The dominant class, so dependent upon their "peculiar 3 institution," fine -tuned their "slavery is a positive good" argument by convincing others of i mpending doom if emancipation should ever come to pass. Opinion was consolidated . Only Democrats held office in Texas. T he region was sealed off from Northern ideas , political liberalism, abolitionist literature , and the Republican party . LIFE OF A SLAVE A. The typical slave worked from "Can see, 'til can't ." This means roughly 12 -16 hours per day, about 5.5 to 6 days/week . They clear ed the land, pl owed , pl anted , weed ed , and pick ed . Frederick Douglas , an escaped slave later recalled: "We worked in all weathers. It was never too hot or too cold; it could never rain, blow, hail, or snow, too hard for us to work in the field. Work, work, work, was scarcely more the order of the day than of the night. The l ongest days were too short for him (the overseer) and the shortest nights too long for him. I was somewhat unmanageable when I first went there, but a few months of this discipline tamed me. Mr. Covey succeeded in breaking me." Labor in the RICE fields of East Texas demanded standing in knee -deep water for several consecutive hours. Foot rot and chills, pulmonary diseases, heat exhaustion, typhoid, scarlet and yellow fever epidemics were so bad that most masters would leave the area during the most dangero us months. Household slaves generally enjoyed a more comfortable existence. In many cases, house -hands were the "aristocrats" of the slave world and often passed their position on to their offspring.

Many "Mammies" ruled the household and demanded a cert ain degree of respect from the master's family because of their special skills and talents. Black nursemaids routinely raised white children and frequently nursed the white infants , as well. Frederick Douglas Figure 1: Texas Slaves. Image courtesy of Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, University of Texas. 4 Treatment of slaves ranged from cruel sadism, (needed to get the "animals" to work), to gentle paternalism, (slaves as perpetual children). The Bible was often used to influence slaves to greater control. Apostle Paul said: "Slaves, obey your masters." The 10 Commandments admonished: Do not lie, cheat, or steal. Do not covet your neighbor's goods or wife. Planters gradually developed a slave code. Anyone with a known black lineag e of 1/64 or more was considered a Negro and subject to slavery. Most Texans considered the mixed blood, or mulatto slave, to be superior in intelligence to the full - blooded black, although the former was considered to be less durable than their counterpar ts. The code forbade blacks to own property. Slaves could not leave the plantation without a written pass from the master, nor could any black be out after dark. Slaves never sat down or kept their hat on in the presence of a white. Slaves should never in itiate a conversation. They had to walk several steps behind whites and allow whites ample room on sidewalks --stepping into the street if necessary. Bondsmen could not carry firearms or strike a white person for any reason — even in self -defense . Black testi mony was not accept ed in a court of law . Only in church could blacks group together. The se customs and more would have to be "unlearn ed " after emancipation by white supremacists and loyal slaves alike . The slave code even imposed restrictions upon the masters, after a time. Whites could no longer teach slaves to read and write, and ultimately it became very difficult for a white to emancipate his slave, who would possibly become a "bad example" for the others still under bondage . 5 Lazy, rebellious, or dishonest slaves often experienced the whip. Whipping was brutal and dramatic but usually did not cause permanent physical damage to the recipient. Regional slave patrols circulated constantly, bringing assurance that all was well within the system. Runaway slaves were pursued by bloodhounds and the apprehended could expect appropriate punishment -- per haps having their ears nailed to a tree or a whipping. In extreme cases, disgruntled masters sold the bondsmen to a plantation far away, but generally just the threat of such a sale brought improved behavior. On occasion, slaves were killed or mutilated, b ut financial considerations usually ameliorated even the hottest of tempers. PROVISIONS The CLOTHING provided was normally 2 sets of clothes per year and one pair of shoes. This was entirely inadequate. HOUSING often was a small, drafty, leaky hut or c abin. It was not unusual for the accommodations to be shared by as many as four families. DIET --The typical diet was pork and corn products (bacon and cornmeal or rice). The bacon was all too often spoiled or worm -ridden, and the corn meal could be moldy . But Figure 2: Former slave revealing the scars he received from multiple whippings. 6 these products were plentiful and relatively inexpensive. Uncontaminated water was not in general abundance. Without dietary supplementation, slaves would work inefficiently because CALORIC intake was less than the energy burned from the hard physic al labor. However, a common punishment for sub -optimal work production was a reduction of rations. Lethargy and inability to fight off disease resulted from a dearth of certain vitamins. Eye problems, skin difficulties, weakened bones, perpetually cracked lips, tooth decay, scurvy, and beriberi can be traced to the grossly imbalanced diet. Young slaves, for the most part unattended, often turned to dirt -eating from hunger and degradation and would sometimes have to be muzzled during the day to prevent such dangerous ingestion. Mental illness was common, but not diagnosed. Whenever possible, slaves supple mented their diet with personal gardens, hunting, fishing, and stealing, although some masters insisted that every morsel of a slave's food must come from the master's hand. SURVIVING SLAVERY FAMILY --The maintenance of a family life was central to the slave's emotional survival. There was no legal, binding marriage ( simply a “ jumping over the broomstick ” ceremony), but the slave owners encouraged family life , not only for the abundant reproduction that would increase the size of their wor k crew, but also because slaves who were part of a family were more easily controlled. Blood families were supplemented by adopted (extended) kinship that could include "Auntie," "Uncle," "Brother," and "Sister." Such extended family relation ships also he lped the bondsmen to combat the dehumanization of slavery. However, despite the slave owners' encouragement of family life among slaves, black women were frequently under threat of sexual exploitation by masters (from mutual affection to outright rape) --but rarely the other way around (white females exploiting black males , which could get both parties killed ). Furthermore, about 1/3 of all slaves had families disrupted by sale. The role of the husband and father within the families was difficult. He was not the “bread winner.” He could not protect his family. RELIGION --Most blacks accepted a form of Christianity, and like the family, it became a crucial element of survival. Unlike the Scripture quoted from the white preachers, sin was downplayed among th e bondsmen . Instead, slaves took comfort in the story of Moses , who delivered his people from slavery to the Promised Land. They also appreciated such verses as, "The meek shall inherit the Earth;" "The last shall be first and the first shall be last." Bl acks found comfort in Biblical passages which stressed individual equality before God and salvation for all. The promise of ultimate deliverance gave them hope. Slave religious services were generally practiced at night, away from the prying eyes and ears of the whites. Services tended to be highly emotional, 7 featuring spirited singing, dancing, and shouting. The black "church" allowed for a certain amount of status for preachers, elders, soloists, etc. To a certain extent, a slave CULTURE began to develop. Slaves used music as a survival mechanism. They sang of sorrow, as protest, and as a form of communication with each other. The y sang of their hopes for the future and of their reliance on the Lord. Most songs were performed “a cap pell a” or accompanied by music from homemade instruments . When it was dangerous to voice the lyrics of their yearning for freedom, they hummed the melody. Dancing, storytelling, games, and general fellowship rounded out the cultural activities . SLAVE R ESISTANCE Some historians claim that 200 years of slavery had reduced the slave to a "Sambo" character of childlike dependence — with shuffling feet, head scratching, and perpetually grinning. Docility, though, was more often used as a ruse --an act of feign ed resignation to the status quo. A careful study of slavery suggests that blacks were not mindless children totally broken in spirit by Old Marse. In fact, most blacks developed a strong sense of personal identity. Some took pride in their productivity, w hile others boasted of their malingering. Some were proud of the punishment they could absorb, while others were self -pleased with their ability to avoid it. 8 Most bondsmen resisted their condition in non -violent ways, pushing their boundaries as far as th ey could. They demonstrated quite a lot of deference, but. . . in addition to the chronic malingering (favorite song: "You May Think I'm Workin' But I'm Not"), tools were "accidentally" broken, animals abused. Illness was frequently faked. Women claimed to be pregnant, and after 11 months still bore no child. There were small ways to exact revenge, like: "How many times I spit in the biscuits and peed in the coffee to get even with them mean white folks." Stealing was commonplace. There was no social taboo in the slave community against stealing from the master --indeed it was sometimes essential for survival. Some mulattos were "bright" (pale complexioned) enough to pass as whites and get away for a while or escape altogether . R unning away was very common --sometimes just to get away for a little while --and then returning to take their punishment. Thousands made it to freedom in Mexico, as that country did not extradite for the “crime” of being a fugitive slave. One ingenious slave had friends pack him in a box and send him north to freedom. In total, only about 8 -10,000 slaves in the entire South ever escaped to freedom. Some did not know where to run; some were afraid; some were reluctant to leave their family and home. Slaves delighted in outwitting the mast er, and even immortalized some of their greater victories in story form --such as the UNCLE REMUS chronicles, where a small but crafty slave rabbit bested the powerful, more deadly master bear and overseer fox. Even on the auction block, slaves were not en tirely helpless. Some would kick at or spit on unwanted masters or tell lie s about having diseases. Occasionally, slave resistance took a more violent form, like poisoning the well or food, burning the barn or big house. From time to time there would be one -on-one confrontation s. A slave would rather fight and die than suffer further brutalization. Some were killed for their stand, but in other cases the master's investment was too great, or the overseer's risk was too high not to work out a mutually acceptable compromise. An old slave adage stated: "He was whipped oftener who was whipped easiest." Slaves rarely became involved in group rebellion, as the risk was too great and the punishment certain death. Most revolts were stillborn, betrayed by an unwilling b lack. There is no record of a major slave rebellion in Texas, although fear of such rebellion consistently terrorized the owners. CONCLUSION In conclusion, there seems to be ample proof that slave -owning was not widespread among the white families of Texas, an d those who did own slaves did not have the unquestioned authority over their bondsmen that history has traditionally accorded. Slaves developed a family structure, a religious philosophy, a culture, and a mode of 9 passive resistance that was used to consta ntly probe and stretch the limits of bondage and restraint. The famed white supremacy so widely espoused in the South also merits a second look. It was a strange kind of racial superiority where a southern white would never socialize with a black or recog nize the race’s worth as human beings . Y et when examining the intimate practices of using black wet nurses to feed white babies or the sexual exploitation of black women by the planter class , the student of history senses a hypocrisy and confusion. This was a “racism that would not permit a black to enter the parlor but coaxed them into the boudoir." As one ex -Mammie put it, if southerners felt the black race was so degraded, "Why should poor little white children be forced to draw susten ance from black breasts, be kissed by black lips, and hugged by black arms?" This was a “peculiar institution,” indeed. The financial success of the cotton -slave system i mpeded the development of industry . Only 1% of Texans earned their living from any t ype of industrial position. Because the most money was to be made in the rural areas, few cities of substance evolved in antebellum Texas . Th e cotton/plantation economy c ontributed to high debt, soil exhaustion, and a lack of technological innovation . Th e plantation system r etarded the growth of a transportation network . Southern and Texas s chools lagged behind the rest of the nation. Small Texas farmers could not compete with the large plantations and often sold out to their competitors. Most importantly, the souther n slave system was cruel and immoral. Generations of African Americans were abused in many ways . Repercussions from slavery are still evident today. T he nation is still paying the price from this period of history through continuing racial discord and m istrust. SECTIONAL SPLIT: COMPROMISE BREAKS DOWN The issue of slavery began to rip the nation apart, despite sincere efforts to hold things together. There were 4 major problem atic issues related to slavery : I. SLAVERY IN THE TERRITORIES ACQUIRED FROM MEXICO The Norther n Extremist Point of View --represented by the Wilmot Proviso --stated that there would be no slavery in the new territories acquired from Mexico. This appalled the South. Although the proviso was initially defeated, it was revived time and again. Wilmot tac ked his proviso onto several other pieces of useful legislation. These laws were never passed, because southerners voted against them due to their bundling with the unwanted amendment. The Southern Extremist viewpoint was that there be no limit on slaver y in the Mexican Cession. From this perspective, slavery remained in play for California, Utah, and the rest of the land won from Mexico. As expected, this idea was abhorrent to most northerners. 10 Compromise Plans suggested the continuance of the Missouri Compromise line of 36'30" all the way to the Pacific, or to permit popular sovereignty to settle the issue of whether slavery would exist in the territories. The debate raged, and Congress could create no new states or organize territories until the issue was resolved. In the presidential campaign of 1848 , James Polk declined to seek reelection. The Whig Zachary Taylor was elected. Gold was discovered in California, and over 100,000 "49'ers" (1849) rushed to the coast. California needed to become a state because of its great wealth and growing population. There was mounting pressure to do something. II. SLAVERY IN WASHINGTON, D.C. The northern position was that slavery was a disgrace and it caused embarrassment when foreign dignitaries witnessed the buying and selling of human flesh in the capital of the “land of the free .” The southern view was that slavery could not be abolished in Washington, D.C. without compensation to the slave owners and without the consent of Maryland, which donated the land for the nation's capital. To do otherwise would be a slap in the face to a state that willingly provided the land, with no mention of the future curtailing of slavery. Of course, Maryl and would never give such consent . III. FUGITIVE SLAVES Runaway slaves were difficult to get back. The South needed a national law to facilitate the recovery of their "property." To many southerners, a favorable fugitive slave policy was the most important issue on the table. IV. TERRITORIAL DISPUTE BETWE EN TEXAS AND NEW MEXICO. Northerners wanted to limit the physical size of the Texas slave giant, while Southerners desired that Texas be as large as possible , therefore extending slavery further north and west than ever before . Some Texans claimed that th e northernmost border of Texas extended up into modern -day Colorado, while Figure 3: The shaded area represents the ambitious claims of the Texas north and west borders. Image courtesy of the Texas Almanac, via the TSHA Handbook. 11 others were confident that Texas was considerably smaller. The border dispute would have to be worked out. The South was afraid. They were overwhelmed in the House of Representativ es and barely held a 15 -15 deadlock in the Senate. California, Oregon, and Utah were on the verge of entering the Union as free states. As yet there was no serious political move among Northerners to eliminate slavery where it already existed; however, if there were never any new slave states, the South could expect permanent minority status and possibly future motions to eliminate their "peculiar institution." It was possibly better to secede than to become the satellite of the North. The North had fears of its own. They were fearful of what they believed was a slave - owners' conspiracy , powerful enough to br ing Texas into the Union, f ight the Mexican War, and acquire the Mexican Cession . Northerners saw these actions as a powerplay, designed to spread sla very into the North . T o them , slavery in the northern states would demean the status of free labor. Year by year, national events occurred that rip ped th e nation apart until neither compromise nor even dialogue between the North and South w ere possible THE COMPROMISE OF 1850 In an effort to settle all the above issues, Congressmen hammered out the Compromise of 1850 . Debated for 6 months, the comp romise was initially defeated. It was difficult for legislators to vote for the opponents' required measures. The biggest obstacle was President Taylor , who was not enthusiastic about the project . After he died in office, Millard Fillmore supported the Compromise, as well as did prominent politicians, such as Stephen Douglas and Jefferson Davis . The Compromise was eventually broken into separate parts to secure passage. Congressmen could abstain on the elements they found disagreeable. Provisions of the Compromise included: 1. California was admitted into the Union as a free state. 2. The rest of the Mexican Cession was to be organized according to popular sovereignty. Once the individual territories had suffi cient population to petition for statehood, an election would be held to decide if the new state would be slave or free. 3. Texas yielded the disputed land, accepting the borders in effect today. I n return the federal government picked up the debt of the Texas Republic. This component of the compromise was beneficial to Texas, but disappointing to the rest of the South. 4. The s lave trade, but not slavery itself , was abolished in Washington, D.C. Die hard southerners saw this as a net loss. 12 5. Feeling they had given up several of their strongly held positions in the first four provisions , southern Congressmen insisted upon the passage of a very strong Fugitive Slave Law . Th is law stated that federal agents , such as United States marshals and Justices of the Peace must aid the owners in the recapture of runaway slaves. In case of dispute, the law heavily favored the slaveowner position. For example, if the suspected slave was determined to be someone’s property, t en dollars was paid to the presiding judge . However, if the judge allowed the person in question to go free, the judge was paid only $5. Only the slave owners or their agents could give testimony. Those accused of being runaway slaves could not speak in their own behalf. If anyone obstructed the return of runaway property, the penalty was u p to $1000 in fines, as well as 6 months in carceration . Predictably, t he Fugitive Law became the most contentious component of the Compromise of 1850. Some Northern states passed personal liberty laws to prohibit the return of runaways. Frequently, northern s treet mobs intervened , blocking the return of black men to the South . Escaped and free b lacks became increasingly more militant and willing to hide, and even fight, for accused runaways. These act ions clearly violated the federal Fugitive State Law. F ederal authorities arrested the obstructionists. Simultaneously, anyone facilitating the return of the unwilling to the South was in violation of the state’s personal liberty laws. This time period thus saw state and federal officials arresting each other for violating each other’s laws. The Fugi tive Slave L aw proved very expensive to enforce. In one case, it cost about $100,000 worth of federal security to return slave Anthony Burns to his master in the South. B urns’ “market value,” however wa s only about $2000. Northerners became outraged . Many of them were coming face -to-face with slavery issues that they had comfortably ignored in the past. Others were concerned about the enormous outflow of tax dollars that did not benefit them, at all . Southerners felt cheated , because after compromising on other issues, the one piece of legislation clearly beneficial to them was not being fairly implemented. 13 UNCLE TOM'S CABIN Uncle Tom's Cabin was published a few chapter s at a time from 1851 to 185 2 in an abolitionist newspaper. It seemed as if the entire nation was caught up in the narrative and eagerly awaited the next installation. At the serial’s conclusion, the chapters were consolidated into book form . Ten thousand copies were sold the first week, three hundred thousand the first year. The publisher had to purchase 3 paper mills to maintain enough paper stock to meet sales demands. The book was eventually translated into 37 different languages. The author, Harriet Beecher Stowe said: "God wrote it. I just put down the words." The Sou th, of course, hated the work. BRIEF SUMMARY OF UNCLE TOM’S CABIN Uncle Tom was a slave whose master fell into financial troubles and sought to pay off his debts by selling some of his slave property . Tom, a good Christian man and overseer of the pl antation, and little Harry, who could sing and dance, were sought after by a slave trader. Eliza, Harry's mother, overhear d the proposed deal and ran away with her son that very night . The slaver attempted to capture her but met with little success. After numerous travails, s he reached Canada, became reunited with her husband , and eventually relocated to Africa. 14 Tom refused to run away and left his wife and children in an emotio n-packed scene. The son of the plantation owner promised to buy Tom back as soon as the family fortunes recovered. It wasn’t long before Tom came to run a nother plantation in the deep South . He was on the verge of gaining his freedom when his master was killed in a fight. The m istress of the plantation then auctioned off all the slaves , including Tom . Tom was sold to Simon Legree --a brute of a man, whose philosophy was to use the slaves up and buy more. He was the epitome of evilne ss and cruelty, even demand ing at one point that Tom forsake the Bible and worship him. Tom refused; large black overseers were ordered to beat Tom to death. Ultimately the young m aster from the original plantation arrived just in time to learn of Tom's de ath. He punched out Simon Legree and left the unfortunate plantation to the pleas of "Buy me, please!" from the remaining slaves. Shaken, he departed and emancipated the rest of his own slaves upon returning to his "Old Kentucky Home." The book appealed t o the nation's Christian conscience. After reading this story, many people came to realize that s lavery was incompatible with Christian and American ideals. It stirred up emotions. The book told of babies being sold off of their mothers' breasts and little slave children being whipped and crying while helpless mothers and fathers looked on. 1854 -KANSAS - NEBRASKA ACT In the presidential election of 1852, Democrat Franklin Pierce defeated Whig Winfield Scott. Pierce chose Jefferson Davis to serve on his cabinet. Davis, who would later preside over the Confederacy, quickly came to dominate the Cabinet , always us ing his position to further pro -South causes. By this time, t he U nited States had become so large, there was a pressing need for a transcontinental railroad. Souther ners sought a southern route , and Jeff Davis engineered the Gadsden Purchase to that end. However, Stephen A. Douglas wanted 15 a northern route through Chicago. The main objection to the northern route was the region was filled with hostile Native Americ ans , and there w ere few white settl ers in the area to discourage attacks against the trains . To overcome Southern disappointment and objections and to hasten settlement of the area, Stephen Douglas compos ed the Kansas -Nebraska Act. He proposed to bring popular sovereignty on the slavery issue to the two territories, thus repealing the Missouri Compromise that had forever prohibited slavery north of the southern Missouri border. Under this new law, Kansas was expected to go "slave ," but Douglas expected thousands of pro - and anti -slavery proponents to move into this scarcely populated land, so they could cast their votes accordingly. This would solve the problem of underpopulation in the territories. There was quite a national debate. Sam Houston strongly opposed the legislation. He foretold that this a ct would inevitably lead to uncontrolled sectionalism and war. He predicted it would be a war the South would not win. The Whig party could not agree on this proposal and thus self -destructed, gone by 1856. Northern Whigs opposed the Act, while Southern Whigs approved. Between the South ern support and Douglas' allie s, the motion carried. Now it was the North's turn to feel betrayed . The Kansas Nebraska Act brought the reneging of an earlier compromise (Missouri Compromise) . It gave something to the South (a chance to claim Kansas as a slave territory) without providing anything in return to the North. BLEEDING KANSAS 16 Almost immediately, settlers poured into Kansas, often financed by pro - or anti - slavery organization s. An election was held in 1855 to see if the territory would be organized as slave or free . Thousands of Missourians crossed the border into Kansas and illegally voted in favor of slavery, return ing home shortly thereafter . Although there were only 1500 legal voters in Kansas, over 6,000 voted for slavery. The anti -slavers cried foul play and elected their own officials, who were called treasonous by President Pierce (under Jefferson Davis' influence). A pro -slavery posse a rrested leaders in Lawrence , an anti -slavery stronghold, and sacked the town. There were a few deaths. Ardent abolitionist John Brown at Pottawatomie Creek sought revenge. While not sanctioned by any lawful government, Brown butchered five pro -slavery men in front of their families. The pro -slavery forces sought revenge. G uerilla warfare ensued, resulting in what was know n as "Bleeding Kansas" — a preview of the upcoming War Between the States. THE BEATING OF SENATOR CHARLES SUMNER Meanwhile, in Ma y of 1856 in the U nited States Senate, Senator Charles Sumner regularly denounced slavery and personally criticized the South Carolina Senator, Andrew Butler. Representative Preston Brooks , Butler's nephew, approached Sumner one day, cane in hand, and beat the senator severely about the head and shoulders, making him an invalid for four years. Northern members of the House attempted to oust 17 Brooks, but h is state refused to replace him. Eventually, Brooks resigned his seat to give his constituents the opport unity to reject or ratify his behavior. When he returned in 1860, after being unanimously reelected, he was roundly applauded. The Southern press supported him. As one newspaper opined, "It was the proper act, done at the proper time, in the proper place . Northern abolitionists have grown saucy and dare to be impudent to Southern gentlemen." Brooks received dozens of replacement canes from his admirers, as his personal cane had broken during the attack. Sumner was seriously injured. He was unable to work for three years, but his home state did not replace him. To a standing ovation, he eventually returned to serve his state. Due to this beating, t ension in Congress became nearly unbearable. It was said, "The only Congressmen who do not have a gun an d a knife are those who are armed with 2 revolvers." The country needed a strong hand at the wheel. Instead, Democrat James Buchanan won the presidential election of 1856 . He was woefully inept. 1857 DRED SCOTT DECISION 18 Two days after Buchanan took office, an inflammatory case came before the Supreme Court. A Missouri slave, Dred Scott, was taken by his master to Illinois (a free state) and then to Minnesota (a free territory). He then sued for his freedom, claiming that his residence in a free territory had nullified his slave status. His first owner had died by this time. Scott was passed on to abolitionist relative, so his was freedom assured anyway. Of the 9 Supreme Court Justices, 7 were Democrats and 5 were Southerners. White supremacist Roger Taney was Chief Justice. Taney's decision is paraphrased : "Blacks were not and never would be citizens and had no right to sue in the courts. Slaves are property. One could take his property into any area of the U.S. The Missouri Compromise had alway s been unconstitutional as Congress does not have the power to outlaw slavery in the territories." Northerners were outraged. Some suggested that northern states should nullify the Supreme Court’s Decision. 1858 --Meanwhile, back in Kansas, another electi on was held to select delegates to write the actual state constitution. The anti -slavers boycotted the election; the pro - slaver y force s won and wrote the Lecompton Constitution favoring slavery. However, at the final ratification vote, th ose opposing slavery returned to the polls and rejected the pro -slavery Lecompton Constitution a total of three times, even though rejection would postpone statehood. This was a major blow to the South. Kansas would eventually enter the Union as a free state after the South seceded. In another even t ( 1859 ) at Harper's Ferry , Virginia, John Brown , who had since left Kansas , seized a federal arsenal, and attempted to initiate a slave rebellion. He wanted to arm the slaves and march through the South killing slave owners and ending slavery forever. Cap tured by U.S. soldiers, Brown was executed, rather than committed to an insane asylum, as some moderate Southerners desired. As some had feared, Brown quickly became a martyr, with songs and poems written about the man who sacrificed his own life to help bring about the end of the institution he hated the most. He was a hero to those opposing slavery. He was a murderer to those who supported slavery. This widened the ever -growing rift between North and South. Late in the same year saw the organization of the recreated Republican Party that filled the void left by the dissolution of the Whigs. Abraham Lincoln became a party leader, critical of the backwards, stagnant South. Lincoln supported the dignity of free labor and feared that slavery degraded whites as w ell as blacks. The main plank of the Republican platform was that there would never be any extension of slavery into the territories. There was no mention of total abolition of slavery in the states were it was currently in use . However, Lincoln said: "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanen tly half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved. I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other." 19 ELECTION OF 1860 At the Democratic convention, Southern Democrats wanted official endors ement of the Dred Scott case. Northerners and Westerners offered a compromise platform. The South walked out. Northern Democrats nominated Stephen Douglas; Southerners later nominated one John C. Breckinridge. Another party, the Constitutional Unionists, selected someone named John Bell. The Republicans chose Abraham Lincoln.

Southerners promised to secede if Lincoln was elected. Most Southern states did not even put his name on the ballot. Lincoln gained only 40% of the popular vote, but that was enough to win election in the Electoral College. South Carolina pulled out of the Union almost immediately . Texas and other states followed and formed the Confederate States of America. SECESSION IN TEXAS About 90% of white immigrants to Texas had come fro m the slaveholding states and felt a natural affiliation with the South. Unionist opposition was weak and unorganized, centered mainly around a very old Sam Houston. Since the Republican President was adamant about no more slaves in the territories -- thu s no more slave states --Texas could not remain in the Union. Texans feared that their way of life would be destroyed . They felt northern abolitionists would eventually eliminate slavery altogether or at least stir up bloody slave uprisings, even if existi ng slavery continued. Therefore, i n 1861, Texas drew up a Declaration of Causes, detailing the need for secession: 1. The national government administered the territories in such a way that southerners were excluded (no slavery). 2. Because of the disloyalty and "imbecility" of the North, violence and outlaws reigned in Kansas. 3. The U.S. had failed to protect Texas from Mexican and Indian bandits and had refused to reimburse Texas expenses in protecting itself. 20 4. Northerners were hostile toward the South and were preaching their false doctrine of racial equality. 5. Slaveholding states were in the minority and ha d no protection against those who spoke of a higher law than the Constitution. 6. Northern extremists had now elected Lincoln as president, who would continue the above policies. A secession convention was called in Texas, with all counties invited to send delegates. Only 8 out of 174 convention members opposed secession. The convention called for a general elect ion to take place February 23, 1861.

Opponents of secession were intimidated --except Sam Houston, who stumped the state opposing withdrawal from the Union and stated that if Texas had to leave the Union, it would be better for it to revert to its status as an independent nation, rather than to affiliate with the Confederacy. Houston correctly predicted that an alliance of the southern states could never act in concert, but this argument stirred little enthusiasm . On election day, 76% of Texans voted in favor of secession, and in March of 1861, Texas joined other former Southern states in the Confederate States of America. Governor Sam Houston refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy, and so Lt. Governor Edward Clark was named Governor, a nd Houston was forced out of office . President Lincoln offered to aid Houston with military force if he would remain in office to oppose secession, but Houston was unwilling to bring civil war within the state he loved. With his body and mind battered by battle and politics, his heart broken by Texas leaving the Union and joining the Confederacy, within two years this great Texas stateman quietly passed away at his home in Huntsville, Texas. Figure 4An older Sam Houston with cane and hat. Taken by James Patterson at the Houston Museum in Huntsville. 21 Without firing a shot, the secession committee persuaded all federal troops (many commanders were southern sympathizers) to evacuate Texas and surrender existing forts and supplies --$3 million worth. Once again, a new flag flew over Texas — the Confederate flag . Virtual Reader: Sam Houston’s Final Rest Figure 5 A small bed Sam Houston's sitt ing room where he spent his final days. Taken by James Patterson at the Sam Houston Museum in Huntsville. Figure 6 Portrait of Sam Houston's loving wife, Margaret. Taken by James Patterson at the Sam Houston Museum in Huntsville. 22 Figure 7 Sam Houston's funeral in the upstairs bedroom of his home in Huntsville. Taken by James Patterson at the Sam Houston Museum in Huntsville, TX. Figure 8 Sam Houston's memorial headstone, located in Huntsville, TX. Taken by James Patterson on location. 23 Virtual Reader: The Texas Ordinance of Secession (February 2, 1861) The Texas Ordinance of Secession was the document that officially separated Texas from the United States in 1861. It was adopted by the Secession Convention on February 1 of that year, by a vote of 166 to 8. The adoption of the ordinance was one of a series of events that led to Texas' entry into the Confederacy and the American Civil War. The ordinance text is much less known and less accessible to the gene ral public than the Texas Declaration of Independence. According to some historians, however, it ranks equally with the earlier document in its impact on Texas. A declaration of the causes which impel the State of Texas to secede from the Federal Union Th e government of the United States, by certain joint resolutions, bearing date the 1st day of March, in the year A. D. 1845, proposed to the Republic of Texas, then a free, sovereign and independent nation, the annexation of the latter to the former, as one of the co -equal States thereof, The people of Texas, by deputies in convention assembled, on the fourth day of July of the same year, assented to and accepted said proposals and formed a constitution for the proposed State, upon which on the 29th day of December in the same year, said State was formally admitted into the Confederated Union. Texas abandoned her separate national existence and consented to become one of the Confederated States to promote her welfare, ensure domestic tranquility and secure more substantially the blessings of peace and liberty to her people. She was received into the confederacy with her own constitution under the guarantee of the federal constitution and the compact of annexation, that she should enjoy these blessings. She was received as a commonwealth holding, maintaining and protecting the institution known as negro slavery --the servitude of the African to the white race within her limits -- a relation that had existed from the first settlement of her wilderness by the white race, and which her people intended should exist in all future time. Her institutions and geographical position established the strongest ties between her and other slave - holding States of the confederacy. Those ties have been strengthened by association. But what has been the course of the government of the United States, and of the people and authorities of the non -slave -holding States, since our connection with them? The controlling majority of the Federal Government, under various pretenses and disgui ses, has so administered the same as to exclude the citizens of the Southern States, unless under odious and unconstitutional restrictions, from all the immense territory owned in common by all the States on the Pacific Ocean, for the avowed 24 purpose of acq uiring sufficient power in the common government to use it as a means of destroying the institutions of Texas and her sister slave -holding States. By the disloyalty of the Northern States and their citizens and the imbecility of the Federal Government, in famous combinations of incendiaries and outlaws have been permitted in those States and the common territory of Kansas to trample upon the federal laws, to war upon the lives and property of Southern citizens in that territory, and finally, by violence and mob law to usurp the possession of the same as exclusively the property of the Northern States. The Federal Government, while but partially under the control of these our unnatural and sectional enemies, has for years almost entirely failed to protect th e lives and property of the people of Texas against the Indian savages on our border, and more recently against the murderous forays of banditti from the neighboring territory of Mexico; and when our State government has expended large amounts for such pur pose, the Federal Government has refused reimbursement therefor, thus rendering our condition more insecure and harassing than it was during the existence of the Republic of Texas. These and other wrongs we have patiently borne in the vain hope that a ret urning sense of justice and humanity would induce a different course of administration. When we advert to the course of individual non -slave -holding States, and that a majority of their citizens, our grievances assume far greater magnitude. The States of Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Wisconsin, Michigan and Iowa, by solemn legislative enactments, have deliberately, directly or indirectly violated the 3rd clause of the 2nd section of the 4th article of the federal constitution, and laws passed in pursuance thereof; thereby annulling a material provision of the compact, designed by its framers to perpetuate amity between the members of the confederacy and to secure the rights of the sla ve -holding States in their domestic institutions --a provision founded in justice and wisdom, and without the enforcement of which the compact fails to accomplish the object of its creation. Some of those States have imposed high fines and degrading penalti es upon any of their citizens or officers who may carry out in good faith that provision of the compact, or the federal laws enacted in accordance therewith. In all the non -slave -holding States, in violation of that good faith and comity which should exis t between entirely distinct nations, the people have formed themselves into a great sectional party, now strong enough in numbers to control the affairs of each of those States, based upon the unnatural feeling of hostility to these Southern States and the ir beneficent and patriarchal system of African slavery, proclaiming the debasing doctrine of the equality of all men, irrespective of race or color --a doctrine at war with nature, in opposition to the experience of mankind, and in violation of the plaines t revelations of the Divine Law. They demand the abolition of negro slavery throughout the confederacy, the recognition of political equality between the white and the negro 25 races and avow their determination to press on their crusade against us, so long a s a negro slave remains in these States. For years past this abolition organization has been actively sowing the seeds of discord through the Union and has rendered the federal congress the arena for spreading firebrands and hatred between the slave -holdi ng and non -slave -holding States. By consolidating their strength, they have placed the slave -holding States in a hopeless minority in the federal congress and rendered representation of no avail in protecting Southern rights against their exactions and en croachments. They have proclaimed, and at the ballot box sustained, the revolutionary doctrine that there is a "higher law" than the constitution and laws of our Federal Union, and virtually that they will disregard their oaths and trample upon our rights . They have for years past encouraged and sustained lawless organizations to steal our slaves and prevent their recapture and have repeatedly murdered Southern citizens while lawfully seeking their rendition. They have invaded Southern soil and murdered unoffending citizens, and through the press their leading men and a fanatical pulpit have bestowed praise upon the actors and assassins in these crimes, while the governors of several of their States have refused to deliver parties implicated and indicted for participation in such offences, upon the legal demands of the States aggrieved. They have, through the mails and hired emissaries, sent seditious pamphlets and papers among us to stir up servile insurrection and bring blood and carnage to our fireside s. They have sent hired emissaries among us to burn our towns and distribute arms and poison to our slaves for the same purpose. They have impoverished the slave -holding States by unequal and partial legislation, thereby enriching themselves by draining our substance. They have refused to vote appropriations for protecting Texas against ruthless savages, for the sole reason that she is a slave -holding State. And, finally, by the combined sectional vote of the seventeen non -slave -holding States, they hav e elected as president and vice -president of the whole confederacy two men whose chief claims to such high positions are their approval of these long continued wrongs, and their pledges to continue them to the final consummation of these schemes for the ru in of the slave -holding States. In view of these and many other facts, it is meet that our own views should be distinctly proclaimed. 26 We hold as undeniable truths that the governments of the various States, and of the confederacy itself, were established exclusively by the white race, for themselves and their posterity; that the African race had no agency in their establishment; that they were rightfully held and regarded as an inferior and dependent race, and in that condition only could their existence in this country be rendered beneficial or tolerable. That in this free government all white men are and of right ought to be entitled to equal civil and political rights; that the servitude of the African race, as existing in these States, is mutually ben eficial to both bond and free, and is abundantly authorized and justified by the experience of mankind, and the revealed will of the Almighty Creator, as recognized by all Christian nations; while the destruction of the existing relations between the two r aces, as advocated by our sectional enemies, would bring inevitable calamities upon both and desolation upon the fifteen slave -holding States. By the secession of six of the slave -holding States, and the certainty that others will speedily do likewise, Tex as has no alternative but to remain in an isolated connection with the North or unite her destinies with the South. For these and other reasons, solemnly asserting that the federal constitution has been violated and virtually abrogated by the several States named, seeing that the federal government is now passing under the control of our enemies to be diverted from the exalted objects of its creation to those of oppression and wrong, and realizing that our own State can no longer look for protection, but to God and her own sons - We the delegates of the people of Texas, in Convention assembled, have passed an ordinance dissolving all political connection with the government of the United States of America and the people thereof and confidently appeal to the intelligence and patriotism of the freeman of Texas to ratify the same at the ballot box, on the 23rd day of the pre sent month. Adopted in Convention on the 2nd day of February, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty -one and of the independence of Texas the twenty - fifth. Practice Questions: 1. Although total calories provided to the slaves were sufficient, the lack of variety in their diet led to various health problems. a. True b. False 2. Culture and religion were the two most important social agents in the slaves' survival of the institution of slavery. a. True b. False 27 3. In the South as a whole, separation of young slave children from their mothers was rarely, if ever, practiced. a. True b. False 4. Southern support for the system of slavery is demonstrated in all of the following ways EXCEPT ONE . Which is the EXCEPTION ? a. Southern slaves generally received a greater "dollar value" in food, clothing shelter, etc., than their free African -American co unterparts in the North working for a wage. b. Some seemingly scientific information supported the idea of the inferiority of the African race. c. Even many of the poor whites hoped one day to own their own slaves. d. There was a general fear t hat emancipated slaves would become more successful than many of their white counterparts. e. The lower -class White southerners needed some group they could feel superior to. 5. The Southern "Slave Codes" placed restrictions on the slave owners, as well as on the slaves, themselves. a. True b. False 6. In 1860, only about ________ percent of white Southerners belonged to families that owned slaves. a. 4 b. 10 c. 25 d. 50 7. In many slave folktales and stories, large and powerful animals representing the slave often got th e best of meaner and smaller animals that represented the master and overseer. a. True b. False 8. Significant slave revolts in the Texas and the South were numerous, but rarely successful. a. True b. False 9. Slaves who talked back against whites or who ran away were generally killed or maimed as punishment. a. True b. False 10. The Supreme Court's Dred Scott decision a. mandated congressional control of slavery in the territories. b. declared the Misso uri Compromise unconstitutional. c. granted citizenship to African Americans. d. was later overturned on appeal. e. won widespread approval in the North. 28 11. Because of his discourteous behavior in the Senate, Charles Sumner was not reelected by his home state of Massachusetts. a. True b. False 12. In his presidential campaign, Abraham Lincoln presented himself as an abolitionist, committed to the emancipation of slaves throughout the United States. a. True b. False 13. The book, Uncle Tom’s Cabin , was generally less appreciated in the North than in the South. a. True b. False 14. The Kansas -Nebraska Act was hated by many in the North, because it allowed the possibility of slavery in territories where slavery had previously been prohibited. a. True b. False 15. The primary reason for Abraham Lincoln’s victory in the 1860 presidential election was that: a. he was better qual ified than any of his opponents. b. citizens in Kansas overwhelmingly voted for him. c. Lincoln’s accommodating position on slavery made him a safe candidate for North and South. d. the Democratic party split in two. e. his experience in foreign affairs would help deal with political & economic competition from Europe. 16. Which of the following DOES NOT belong on this list? a. Alabama b. Texas c. North Carolina d. Tennessee e. Maryland 17. At this point in the class, how many of Texas’ 6 flags have flown over the state? a. two b. three c. four d. five e. six 29 For Discussion: Texas Secession From a 19th century (the 1800’s) viewpoint, did Texas make the proper decision in seceding from the Union? Was there any other viable course of action that might have had less disastrous consequences?