book review ppt

P ublis h ed i n t h e U nite d S ta te s b y B an ta m B ooks, a n i m prin t o f R an dom H ouse , a d iv is io n o f P en guin R an dom H ouse L LC , N ew Y ork .

B A NTA M B OOKS a n d t h e H OUSE c o lo phon a re r e g is te re d t r a d em ark s o f P en guin R an dom H ouse L LC .

L IB RA RY O F C O NGRESS C A TA LO GIN G-IN -P U BLIC A TIO N D ATA N am es: C oyle , D an ie l, a u th or.

T itle : T he c u ltu re c o de : t h e s e cre ts o f h ig hly s u ccessfu l g ro ups / D an ie l C oyle .

D esc rip tio n: N ew Y ork : B an ta m , 2 018. | I n clu des i n dex .

I d en tif ie rs : L C CN 2 017002507 | I S B N 9 780804176989 ( h ard back ) | I S B N 9 780804177009 ( e b ook) S ubje cts : L C SH : T eam s i n t h e w ork pla ce. | C orp ora te c u ltu re . | L ead ers h ip . | B IS A C: B U SIN ESS & E C O NOM IC S / O rg an iz atio nal B eh av io r. | P SY CH OLO GY / S ocia l P sy ch olo gy. | S E LF-H ELP / P ers o nal G ro w th / G en era l.

C la ssif ic atio n: L C C H D66 .C 675 2 018 | D DC 6 58.4 /0 22— dc2 3 L C r e co rd a v aila b le a t http s://lc cn .l o c.g ov/ 2 017002507 I n te rn atio nal e d itio n I S B N   9781524797096 E book I S B N   9780804177009 r a n dom house b ooks.c o m B ook d esig n b y S im on M . S ulliv a n, a dapte d f o r e b ook C over D esig n: P ete G arc eau v 5.1 _r1 e p Conte n ts C over T itle P age C opyrig ht E pig ra ph I n tr o ductio n: W hen T w o P lu s T w o E quals T en Skill 1 · Build S afe ty Chap te r 1 : T he G ood A pple s Chap te r 2 : T he B illio n-D olla r D ay W hen N oth in g H ap pen ed Chap te r 3 : T he C hris tm as T ru ce, t h e O ne-H our E xperim en t, a n d t h e Mis sile ers Chap te r 4 : H ow t o B uild B elo ngin g Chap te r 5 : H ow t o D esig n f o r B elo ngin g Chap te r 6 : I d eas f o r A ctio n Skill 2 · S hare V uln era b ilit y Chap te r 7 : “ T ell M e W hat Y ou W an t, a n d I ’ll H elp Y ou” Chap te r 8 : T he V uln era b ility L oop Chap te r 9 : T he S uper-C oopera to rs Chap te r 1 0: H ow t o C re ate C oopera tio n i n S m all G ro ups Chap te r 1 1: H ow t o C re ate C oopera tio n w ith I n div id uals Chap te r 1 2: I d eas f o r A ctio n Skill 3 · Esta b lis h P urp ose Chap te r 1 3: T hre e H undre d a n d E le v en W ord s Chap te r 1 4: T he H oolig an s a n d t h e S urg eo ns Chap te r 1 5: H ow t o L ead f o r P ro fic ie n cy Chap te r 1 6: H ow t o L ead f o r C re ativ ity Chap te r 1 7: I d eas f o r A ctio n Epilo gue Ded ic a tio n Ackn ow le d gm en ts Note s By D anie l C oyle About t h e A uth or CU LTU RE: f ro m t h e L atin cu ltu s, w hic h m ean s ca re .

L et’ s s ta rt w ith a q uestio n, w hic h m ig ht b e th e o ld est q uestio n o f a ll: Why d o c erta in g ro ups a dd u p t o b e g re a te r t h an t h e s u m o f t h eir p arts , w hile o th ers a dd u p t o b e l e ss?

A f e w y ears a g o th e d esig ner a n d e n gin eer P ete r S killm an h eld a c o m petitio n t o f in d o ut. O ver s e v era l m onth s, h e a sse m ble d a s e rie s o f f o ur-p ers o n g ro ups a t S ta n fo rd , th e U niv ers ity o f C alif o rn ia , th e U niv ers ity o f T okyo, a n d a f e w o th er p la ces. H e c h alle n ged e ach g ro up to b uild th e ta lle st p ossib le s tr u ctu re u sin g th e f o llo w in g i te m s:

• tw en ty p ie ces o f u nco oked s p ag hetti • one y ard o f t r a n sp are n t t a p e • one y ard o f s tr in g • one s ta n dard -s iz e m ars h m allo w The co nte st had one ru le : T he m ars h m allo w had to en d up on to p. T he f a sc in atin g p art o f th e e x perim en t, h ow ev er, h ad le ss to d o w ith th e ta sk th an w ith th e p artic ip an ts . S om e o f th e te am s c o nsis te d o f b usin ess s c h ool s tu den ts .

T he o th ers c o nsis te d o f k in derg artn ers .

The b usin ess stu den ts g ot rig ht to w ork . T hey b eg an ta lk in g an d th in kin g s tr a te g ic ally . T hey e x am in ed t h e m ate ria ls . T hey t o sse d i d eas b ack a n d f o rth a n d a sk ed th oughtf u l, s a v vy q uestio ns. T hey g en era te d s e v era l o ptio ns, th en h oned t h e m ost pro m is in g id eas. It w as pro fe ssio nal, ra tio nal, an d in te llig en t. T he p ro cess re su lte d in a decis io n to purs u e one partic u la r str a te g y. T hen th ey d iv id ed u p t h e t a sk s a n d s ta rte d b uild in g.

The k in derg artn ers to ok a d if fe re n t a p pro ach . T hey d id n ot s tr a te g iz e. T hey did not an aly ze or sh are ex perie n ces. T hey did not ask questio ns, pro pose optio ns, o r h one id eas. I n f a ct, th ey b are ly ta lk ed a t a ll. T hey s to od v ery c lo se to one a n oth er. T heir in te ra ctio ns w ere n ot sm ooth o r o rg an iz ed . T hey a b ru ptly gra b bed m ate ria ls fro m o ne a n oth er a n d s ta rte d b uild in g, fo llo w in g n o p la n o r str a te g y. W hen th ey s p oke, th ey s p oke in s h ort b urs ts : “ H ere ! N o, here !” T heir en tir e t e ch niq ue m ig ht b e d esc rib ed a s tr y in g a b unch o f s tu ff t o geth er .

If y ou h ad to b et w hic h o f th e te am s w ould w in , it w ould n ot b e a d if fic u lt ch oic e. Y ou w ould b et o n th e b usin ess s c h ool s tu den ts , b ecau se th ey p osse ss th e in te llig en ce, sk ills , an d ex perie n ce to d o a su perio r jo b. T his is th e w ay w e norm ally th in k a b out g ro up p erfo rm an ce. W e p re su m e sk ille d in div id uals w ill co m bin e to p ro duce s k ille d p erfo rm an ce in th e s a m e w ay w e p re su m e tw o p lu s tw o w ill c o m bin e t o p ro duce f o ur.

Your b et w ould b e w ro ng. In d ozen s o f tr ia ls , k in derg artn ers b uilt s tr u ctu re s th at av era g ed tw en ty -s ix in ch es ta ll, w hile busin ess sc h ool stu den ts built str u ctu re s t h at a v era g ed l e ss t h an t e n i n ch es.

*1 The re su lt is h ard to a b so rb b ecau se it fe els lik e a n illu sio n. W e s e e s m art, ex perie n ced b usin ess sc h ool stu den ts , a n d w e fin d it d if fic u lt to im ag in e th at th ey w ould c o m bin e to p ro duce a p oor p erfo rm an ce. W e se e u nso phis tic ate d , in ex perie n ced k in derg artn ers , a n d w e f in d it d if fic u lt to im ag in e th at th ey w ould co m bin e to pro duce a su ccessfu l perfo rm an ce. B ut th is illu sio n, lik e ev ery illu sio n, h ap pen s b ecau se o ur i n stin cts h av e l e d u s t o f o cu s o n t h e w ro ng d eta ils .

We fo cu s o n w hat w e c an s e e— in div id ual s k ills . B ut in div id u al s k ills a re n ot what m atte rs . W hat m atte rs i s t h e i n te ra ctio n.

The b usin ess s c h ool s tu den ts a p pear to b e c o lla b ora tin g, b ut in fa ct th ey a re en gag ed in a p ro cess p sy ch olo gis ts c all sta tu s m an ag em en t. T hey a re fig urin g out w here t h ey f it i n to t h e l a rg er p ic tu re : Who i s i n c h arg e?

I s i t o ka y t o c ritic iz e so m eo ne’s id ea ? W hat a re th e r u le s h ere ?

T heir in te ra ctio ns a p pear s m ooth , b ut th eir underly in g beh av io r is rid dle d w ith in effic ie n cy , hesita tio n, an d su btle co m petitio n. In ste ad of fo cu sin g on th e ta sk , th ey are nav ig atin g th eir uncerta in ty a b out o ne a n oth er. T hey s p en d s o m uch tim e m an ag in g s ta tu s th at th ey fa il to g ra sp th e esse n ce o f th e p ro ble m (th e m ars h m allo w is re la tiv ely heav y, a n d th e s p ag hetti is h ard to s e cu re ). A s a re su lt, th eir fir s t e ffo rts o fte n co lla p se , a n d t h ey r u n o ut o f t im e.

The actio ns o f th e k in derg artn ers ap pear d is o rg an iz ed o n th e su rfa ce. B ut when y ou v ie w th em a s a s in gle e n tity , th eir b eh av io r is e ffic ie n t a n d e ffe ctiv e.

They a re n ot c o m petin g fo r sta tu s. T hey sta n d sh ould er to sh ould er a n d w ork en erg etic ally to geth er. T hey m ove q uic k ly , s p ottin g p ro ble m s a n d o ffe rin g h elp .

They e x perim en t, ta k e ris k s, a n d n otic e o utc o m es, w hic h g uid es th em to w ard effe ctiv e s o lu tio ns.

The k in derg artn ers su cceed n ot b ecau se th ey are sm arte r b ut b ecau se th ey work to geth er in a s m arte r w ay . T hey a re ta p pin g in to a s im ple a n d p ow erfu l meth od i n w hic h a g ro up o f o rd in ary p eo ple c an c re ate a p erfo rm an ce f a r b ey ond th e s u m o f t h eir p arts .

This b ook i s t h e s to ry o f h ow t h at m eth od w ork s.

— Gro up c u ltu re is o ne o f th e m ost p ow erfu l fo rc es o n th e p la n et. W e se n se its pre se n ce in sid e su ccessfu l busin esse s, ch am pio nsh ip te am s, an d th riv in g fa m ilie s, a n d w e s e n se w hen it’ s a b se n t o r to xic . W e c an m easu re its im pact o n th e b otto m lin e. ( A s tr o ng c u ltu re in cre ase s n et in co m e 7 56 p erc en t o ver e le v en years , a cco rd in g to a H arv ard s tu dy o f m ore th an tw o h undre d c o m pan ie s.) Y et th e in ner w ork in gs o f c u ltu re re m ain m yste rio us. W e a ll w an t s tr o ng c u ltu re in our o rg an iz atio ns, c o m munitie s, a n d f a m ilie s. W e a ll k now t h at i t w ork s. W e j u st don’t k now q uite how i t w ork s.

The r e aso n m ay b e b ase d in th e w ay w e th in k a b out c u ltu re . W e te n d to th in k ab out i t a s a g ro up t r a it, l ik e D NA. S tr o ng, w ell- e sta b lis h ed c u ltu re s l ik e t h ose o f Google , D is n ey , a n d th e N av y S E A Ls fe el s o s in gula r a n d d is tin ctiv e th at th ey se em fix ed , so m eh ow pre d estin ed . In th is w ay of th in kin g, cu ltu re is a posse ssio n d ete rm in ed b y fa te . S om e g ro ups h av e th e g if t o f str o ng cu ltu re ; oth ers d on’t.

This b ook ta k es a d if fe re n t a p pro ach . I s p en t th e la st fo ur y ears v is itin g a n d re se arc h in g e ig ht o f th e w orld ’s m ost s u ccessfu l g ro ups, in clu din g a s p ecia l- o ps milita ry unit, an in ner-c ity sc h ool, a pro fe ssio nal bask etb all te am , a m ovie stu dio , a c o m ed y tr o upe, a g an g o f je w el th ie v es, a n d o th ers .

*2 I f o und th at th eir cu ltu re s a re c re ate d b y a s p ecif ic s e t o f s k ills . T hese s k ills , w hic h ta p in to th e pow er o f o ur s o cia l b ra in s t o c re ate i n te ra ctio ns e x actly l ik e t h e o nes u se d b y t h e kin derg artn ers b uild in g t h e s p ag hetti t o w er, f o rm t h e s tr u ctu re o f t h is b ook.

S kill 1— Build Safe ty — ex plo re s how sig nals of co nnectio n gen era te bonds of belo ngin g a n d id en tity . S kill 2 — Share V uln era b ility — ex pla in s h ow h ab its o f mutu al ris k d riv e tr u stin g co opera tio n. S kill 3 — Esta b lis h P urp ose — te lls h ow narra tiv es c re ate s h are d g oals a n d v alu es. T he t h re e s k ills w ork t o geth er f ro m t h e botto m u p, fir s t b uild in g g ro up c o nnectio n a n d th en c h an nelin g it in to a ctio n. Each p art o f th e b ook is s tr u ctu re d lik e a to ur: W e’ll f ir s t e x plo re h ow e ach s k ill work s, a n d th en w e’ll g o in to th e fie ld to s p en d tim e w ith g ro ups a n d le ad ers who use th ese m eth ods ev ery day . E ach part w ill en d w ith a co lle ctio n of co ncre te s u ggestio ns o n a p ply in g t h ese s k ills t o y our g ro up.

In th e fo llo w in g p ag es, w e’ll sp en d tim e in sid e so m e o f th e p la n et’ s to p- perfo rm in g c u ltu re s a n d s e e w hat m ak es th em tic k . W e’ll ta k e a lo ok in sid e th e mach in ery o f t h e b ra in a n d s e e h ow t r u st a n d b elo ngin g a re b uilt. A lo ng t h e w ay , we’ll s e e t h at b ein g s m art i s o verra te d , t h at s h ow in g f a llib ility i s c ru cia l, a n d t h at bein g n ic e is n ot n early a s im porta n t a s y ou m ig ht th in k. A bove a ll, w e’ll s e e how le ad ers o f h ig h-p erfo rm in g c u ltu re s n av ig ate th e c h alle n ges o f a ch ie v in g ex celle n ce in a f a st- c h an gin g w orld .

W hile s u ccessfu l c u ltu re c an lo ok a n d f e el lik e m ag ic , th e tr u th is th at it’ s n ot. C ultu re is a se t o f liv in g re la tio nsh ip s work in g t o w ard a s h are d g oal . I t’ s n ot s o m eth in g y ou a re . I t’ s s o m eth in g y ou d o.

*1 Team s o f k in derg artn ers a ls o d efe ate d t e am s o f l a w yers ( w ho b uilt t o w ers t h at a v era g ed f if te en i n ch es) as w ell a s t e am s o f C EO s ( tw en ty -tw o i n ch es).

*2 I c h ose g ro ups u sin g t h e f o llo w in g q ualif ic atio ns: ( 1 ) t h ey h ad p erfo rm ed i n t h e t o p 1 p erc en t o f t h eir dom ain f o r a t l e ast a d ecad e ( w here a p plic ab le ); ( 2 ) t h ey h ad s u cceed ed w ith a r a n ge o f d if fe re n t pers o nnel; ( 3 ) t h eir c u ltu re h ad b een a d m ir e d b y k now le d geab le p eo ple a cro ss t h eir i n dustr y a n d b ey ond.

To h elp g uard a g ain st s e le ctio n b ia s, I a ls o l o oked a t m an y c u ltu re s t h at w ere n ’t s o s u ccessfu l ( s e e p ag e 40 f o r a n e x am ple ). M eet N ic k , a h an dso m e, d ark -h air e d m an i n h is t w en tie s s e ate d c o m fo rta b ly i n a w ood-p an ele d c o nfe re n ce ro om in S eattle w ith th re e o th er p eo ple . T o o utw ard a p peara n ces, he is an ord in ary partic ip an t in an ord in ary m eetin g. This a p peara n ce, h ow ev er, i s d eceiv in g. T he o th er p eo ple i n t h e r o om d o n ot k now i t, b ut h is m is sio n i s t o s a b ota g e t h e g ro up’s p erfo rm an ce.

Nic k i s t h e k ey e le m en t o f a n e x perim en t b ein g r u n b y W ill F elp s, w ho s tu die s o rg an iz atio nal b eh av io r a t th e U niv ers ity o f S outh W ale s in A ustr a lia . F elp s h as b ro ught in N ic k to p ortr a y th re e n eg ativ e a rc h ety pes: th e Je rk (a n a g gre ssiv e, d efia n t dev ia n t) , th e Sla ck er (a w ith hold er of effo rt) , an d th e D ow ner (a d ep re ssiv e E ey ore ty pe). N ic k p la y s th ese ro le s in sid e fo rty fo ur-p ers o n g ro ups t a sk ed w ith c o nstr u ctin g a m ark etin g p la n f o r a s ta rt- u p. I n e ffe ct, F elp s in je cts h im in to th e v ario us g ro ups th e w ay a b io lo gis t m ig ht in je ct a v ir u s in to a b ody:

t o s e e h ow t h e s y ste m r e sp onds. F elp s c alls i t t h e b ad a p ple e x perim en t.

Nic k is r e ally g ood a t b ein g b ad . I n a lm ost e v ery g ro up, h is b eh av io r r e d uces t h e q uality o f th e g ro up’s p erfo rm an ce b y 3 0 to 4 0 p erc en t. T he d ro p-o ff is c o nsis te n t w heth er h e p la y s t h e J e rk , t h e S la ck er, o r t h e D ow ner.

“W hen N ic k is th e D ow ner, ev ery body co m es in to th e m eetin g re ally e n erg iz ed . H e a cts q uie t a n d tir e d a n d a t s o m e p oin t p uts h is h ead d ow n o n h is d esk ,” F elp s s a y s. “ A nd th en a s th e tim e g oes b y, th ey a ll s ta rt to b eh av e th at w ay , t ir e d a n d q uie t a n d l o w e n erg y. B y t h e e n d, t h ere a re t h re e o th ers w ith t h eir h ead s d ow n o n t h eir d esk s l ik e h im , a ll w ith t h eir a rm s f o ld ed .” When N ic k p la y s th e S la ck er, a sim ila r p atte rn o ccu rs .

“ T he g ro up q uic k ly p ic k s u p o n h is v ib e,” F elp s s a y s. “ T hey g et d one w ith th e p ro je ct v ery q uic k ly , a n d th ey d o a h alf -a sse d jo b. W hat’ s in te re stin g, th ough, is th at w hen y ou a sk th em a b out it a fte rw ard , th ey ’re v ery p ositiv e o n th e s u rfa ce. T hey s a y , ‘ W e d id a g ood j o b, w e e n jo yed i t.’ B ut i t i s n ’t t r u e. T hey ’d p ic k ed u p o n t h e a ttitu de t h at th is p ro je ct re ally d id n’t m atte r, th at it w asn ’t w orth th eir tim e o r e n erg y. I’d gone i n e x pectin g t h at s o m eo ne i n t h e g ro up w ould g et u pse t w ith t h e S la ck er o r th e D ow ner. B ut n obody d id . T hey w ere lik e, ‘O kay , if th at’ s h ow it is , th en we’ll b e S la ck ers a n d D ow ners t o o.’   ” Excep t f o r o ne g ro up.

“It’ s th e o utlie r g ro up,” F elp s sa y s. “ T hey fir s t c am e to m y a tte n tio n w hen Nic k m en tio ned th at th ere w as o ne g ro up th at fe lt re ally d if fe re n t to h im . T his gro up p erfo rm ed w ell n o m atte r w hat h e d id . N ic k s a id it w as m ostly b ecau se o f one g uy. Y ou c an se e th is g uy is c au sin g N ic k to g et a lm ost in fu ria te d — his neg ativ e m oves a re n ’t w ork in g lik e th ey h ad in th e o th er g ro ups, b ecau se th is guy c o uld fin d a w ay to flip it a n d e n gag e e v ery one a n d g et p eo ple m ovin g to w ard t h e g oal.” We’ll c all th is p ers o n J o nath an . H e is a th in , c u rly -h air e d y oung m an w ith a quie t, s te ad y v oic e a n d a n e asy s m ile . D esp ite t h e b ad a p ple ’s e ffo rts , J o nath an ’s gro up i s a tte n tiv e a n d e n erg etic , a n d t h ey p ro duce h ig h-q uality r e su lts . T he m ore fa sc in atin g p art, f ro m F elp s’s v ie w , is th at a t f ir s t g la n ce, J o nath an d oesn ’t s e em to b e d oin g a n yth in g a t a ll.

“A lo t o f it is re ally s im ple s tu ff th at is a lm ost in vis ib le a t fir s t,” F elp s s a y s.

“N ic k w ould sta rt b ein g a je rk , a n d [J o nath an ] w ould le an fo rw ard , u se b ody la n guag e, l a u gh a n d s m ile , n ev er in a c o nte m ptu ous w ay , b ut in a w ay th at ta k es th e d an ger o ut o f th e ro om a n d d efu se s th e situ atio n. It d oesn ’t se em a ll th at dif fe re n t a t fir s t. B ut w hen y ou lo ok m ore c lo se ly , it c au se s so m e in cre d ib le th in gs t o h ap pen .” Over a n d o ver F elp s e x am in es t h e v id eo o f J o nath an ’s m oves, a n aly zin g t h em as if th ey w ere a te n nis se rv e o r a d an ce ste p . T hey fo llo w a p atte rn : N ic k beh av es lik e a je rk , a n d Jo nath an re acts in sta n tly w ith w arm th , d efle ctin g th e neg ativ ity a n d m ak in g a p ote n tia lly u nsta b le s itu atio n fe el s o lid a n d s a fe . T hen Jo nath an p iv ots a n d a sk s a sim ple q uestio n th at d ra w s th e o th ers o ut, a n d h e lis te n s in te n tly a n d re sp onds. E nerg y le v els in cre ase ; p eo ple o pen u p a n d s h are id eas, b uild in g c h ain s o f i n sig ht a n d c o opera tio n t h at m ove t h e g ro up s w if tly a n d ste ad ily t o w ard i ts g oal.

“B asic ally , [J o nath an ] m ak es it s a fe , th en tu rn s to th e o th er p eo ple a n d a sk s, ‘H ey , w hat d o y ou th in k o f th is ? ’   ” F elp s s a y s. “ S om etim es h e e v en a sk s N ic k questio ns lik e, ‘ H ow w ould y ou d o th at? ’ M ost o f a ll h e r a d ia te s a n id ea th at is so m eth in g l ik e, Hey, t h is i s a ll r e a lly c o m fo rta ble a nd e n gagin g , and I’m c u rio us about w hat e very b ody e ls e h as to s a y . It w as a m azin g h ow s u ch s im ple , s m all beh av io rs k ep t e v ery body e n gag ed a n d o n ta sk .” E ven N ic k , a lm ost a g ain st h is will, f o und h im se lf b ein g h elp fu l.

The s to ry o f th e g ood a p ple s is s u rp ris in g in tw o w ay s. F ir s t, w e te n d to th in k gro up p erfo rm an ce d ep en ds o n m easu ra b le a b ilitie s lik e in te llig en ce, s k ill, a n d ex perie n ce, n ot o n a su btle p atte rn o f sm all b eh av io rs . Y et in th is c ase th ose sm all b eh av io rs m ad e a ll t h e d if fe re n ce.

The se co nd su rp ris e is th at Jo nath an su cceed s w ith out ta k in g an y of th e actio ns w e n orm ally a sso cia te w ith a s tr o ng l e ad er. H e d oesn ’t t a k e c h arg e o r t e ll an yone w hat to d o. H e d oesn ’t str a te g iz e, m otiv ate , o r la y o ut a v is io n. H e doesn ’t p erfo rm s o m uch a s c re ate c o nditio ns f o r o th ers t o p erfo rm , c o nstr u ctin g an e n vir o nm en t w hose k ey fe atu re is c ry sta l c le ar: We a re so lid ly c o nnecte d .

Jo nath an ’s g ro up s u cceed s n ot b ecau se i ts m em bers a re s m arte r b ut b ecau se t h ey are s a fe r.

We d on’t n orm ally th in k o f s a fe ty a s b ein g s o im porta n t. W e c o nsid er s a fe ty to b e th e e q uiv ale n t o f a n e m otio nal w eath er sy ste m — notic eab le b ut h ard ly a dif fe re n ce m ak er. B ut w hat w e s e e h ere g iv es u s a w in dow in to a p ow erfu l id ea.

Safe ty is n ot m ere e m otio nal w eath er b ut r a th er th e f o undatio n o n w hic h s tr o ng cu ltu re i s b uilt. T he d eep er q uestio ns a re , Where d oes i t c o m e f r o m ? A nd h ow d o yo u g o a bout b uild in g i t?

— When you ask peo ple in sid e hig hly su ccessfu l gro ups to desc rib e th eir re la tio nsh ip w ith o ne a n oth er, th ey a ll te n d to c h oose th e s a m e w ord . T his w ord is n ot fr ie n ds o r te a m o r tr ib e o r a n y o th er e q ually p la u sib le t e rm . T he w ord t h ey use is fa m ily . W hat’ s m ore , th ey te n d to desc rib e th e fe elin g of th ose re la tio nsh ip s i n t h e s a m e w ay .

* “I c an ’t e x pla in i t, b ut t h in gs j u st f e el r ig ht. I ’v e a ctu ally t r ie d t o q uit a c o uple tim es, b ut I k eep c o m in g b ack t o i t. T here ’s n o f e elin g l ik e i t. T hese g uys a re m y bro th ers .” ( C hris to pher B ald w in , U .S . N av y’s S E A L T eam S ix ) “It’ s n ot ra tio nal. N obody w ho’s p ure ly ra tio nal a b out it d oes th e k in ds o f th in gs th at h ap pen h ere . T here ’s a te am work th at g oes w ay b ey ond te am a n d overla p s i n to t h e r e st o f p eo ple ’s l iv es.” ( J o e N eg ro n, K IP P c h arte r s c h ools ) “It’ s a ru sh , k now in g th at y ou c an ta k e a h uge ris k a n d th ese p eo ple w ill b e th ere to su pport y ou n o m atte r w hat. W e a re a d dic te d to th at fe elin g.” (N ate Dern , U prig ht C itiz en s B rig ad e c o m ed y t r o upe) “W e a re a ll a b out b ein g a f a m ilia l g ro up, b ecau se it a llo w s y ou to ta k e m ore ris k s, g iv e e ach o th er p erm is sio n, a n d h av e m om en ts o f v uln era b ility th at y ou co uld n ev er h av e i n a m ore n orm al s e ttin g.” ( D uan e B ra y , I D EO d esig n) When I v is ite d th ese g ro ups, I n otic ed a d is tin ct p atte rn o f in te ra ctio n. T he patte rn w as lo cate d not in th e big th in gs but in little m om en ts of so cia l co nnectio n. T hese in te ra ctio ns w ere c o nsis te n t w heth er th e g ro up w as a m ilita ry unit o r a m ovie s tu dio o r a n i n ner-c ity s c h ool. I m ad e a l is t:

• Clo se p hysic al p ro xim ity , o fte n i n c ir c le s • Pro fu se a m ounts o f e y e c o nta ct • Physic al t o uch ( h an dsh ak es, f is t b um ps, h ugs) • Lots o f s h ort, e n erg etic e x ch an ges ( n o l o ng s p eech es) • Hig h l e v els o f m ix in g; e v ery one t a lk s t o e v ery one • Few i n te rru ptio ns • Lots o f q uestio ns • In te n siv e, a ctiv e l is te n in g • Hum or, l a u ghte r • Sm all, a tte n tiv e c o urte sie s ( th an k-y ous, o pen in g d oors , e tc .) One m ore th in g: I fo und th at s p en din g tim e in sid e th ese g ro ups w as a lm ost physic ally a d dic tiv e. I w ould e x te n d m y re p ortin g tr ip s, in ven tin g e x cu se s to stic k a ro und f o r a n oth er d ay o r t w o. I f o und m yse lf d ay dre am in g a b out c h an gin g occu patio ns so I co uld ap ply fo r a jo b w ith th em . T here w as so m eth in g ir re sis tib le ab out bein g aro und th ese gro ups th at m ad e m e cra v e m ore co nnectio n.

The te rm w e u se to d esc rib e th is k in d o f in te ra ctio n is ch em is tr y . W hen y ou en co unte r a g ro up w ith g ood c h em is tr y , y ou k now i t i n sta n tly . I t’ s a p ara d oxic al, pow erfu l s e n sa tio n, a c o m bin atio n o f e x cite m en t a n d d eep c o m fo rt th at s p ark s myste rio usly w ith c erta in s p ecia l g ro ups a n d n ot w ith o th ers . T here ’s n o w ay to pre d ic t i t o r c o ntr o l i t.

Or i s t h ere ? — On th e th ir d f lo or o f a s h in y m odern is tic b uild in g in C am brid ge, M assa ch use tts , a g ro up o f s c ie n tis ts is o bse sse d w ith u nders ta n din g th e in ner w ork in gs o f g ro up ch em is tr y . T he M IT H um an D ynam ic s L ab i s a h um ble s e t o f o ffic es s u rro unded by a rio t o f w ork sh ops a n d o ffic es th at c o nta in , a m ong o th er th in gs, a B ritis h te le p hone b ooth , a m an neq uin w earin g p an ts m ad e o f a lu m in um fo il, a n d w hat ap pears to b e a m in ia tu re ro lle r c o aste r s u sp en ded fro m th e c eilin g. T he la b is ru n b y A le x (S an dy) P en tla n d, a so ft- s p oken c o m pute r sc ie n ce p ro fe sso r w ith brig ht e y es, a b ush y g ra y b eard , a n d th e e asy goin g a ssu re d ness o f a c o untr y docto r. P en tla n d s ta rte d o ut h is c are er s tu dyin g s a te llite p hoto s o f b eav er d en s, esta b lis h in g a re se arc h m eth od th at n ev er re ally c h an ged : u sin g te ch nolo gy to re v eal h id den p atte rn s o f b eh av io r.

“H um an s ig nalin g lo oks lik e o th er a n im al s ig nalin g,” P en tla n d s a y s a s w e s it dow n a t a c o ffe e ta b le in h is sm all h om ey o ffic e. “ Y ou c an m easu re in te re st le v els , w ho th e alp ha is , w ho’s co opera tin g, w ho’s m im ic k in g, w ho’s in sy nch ro ny. W e hav e th ese co m munic atio n ch an nels , an d w e do it w ith out th in kin g a b out it. F or in sta n ce, if I le an a fe w in ch es c lo se r to y ou, w e m ig ht beg in m ir ro rin g.” Pen tla n d le an s c lo se r, ra is e s h is b ush y e y eb ro w s, a n d o pen s h is e y es w id er.

It’ s a l ittle d is c o ncertin g w hen I f in d m yse lf d oin g i t t o o, a lm ost a g ain st m y w ill.

He s m ile s re assu rin gly a n d le an s b ack . “ It o nly w ork s if w e’re c lo se e n ough to physic ally t o uch .” Pen tla n d in tr o duces m e to a sc ie n tis t nam ed O re n L ed erm an , w ho, as it hap pen s, is in th e m id st of an aly zin g a gro up w ork in g on th e sp ag hetti- mars h m allo w c h alle n ge. W e w alk d ow n th e h all to L ed erm an ’s o ffic e to lo ok a t th e v id eo . T he g ro up c o nsis ts o f th re e e n gin eers a n d a la w yer, a n d th eir to w er is co m in g to geth er n ic ely . “ T his g ro up’s p erfo rm an ce is p ro bab ly b ette r th an th e MBA s b ut n ot a s g ood a s th e k in derg artn ers ,” L ed erm an s a y s. “ T hey d on’t ta lk as m uch , w hic h h elp s.” This is n ot ju st L ed erm an ’s o pin io n— it is fa ct. A s w e s p eak , a riv er o f d ata fro m th e g ro up’s p erfo rm an ce is ro llin g a cro ss h is c o m pute r s c re en , in clu din g th e p erc en ta g e o f tim e e ach p ers o n sp en ds ta lk in g, th e e n erg y le v els o f th eir voic es, th eir sp eak in g ra te s, th e sm ooth ness of tu rn ta k in g, th e num ber of in te rru ptio ns, an d th e am ount each p ers o n’s v ocal p atte rn m im ic s th e o th ers .

Led erm an h as c ap tu re d th is d ata u sin g a s m all re d p la stic d ev ic e th e s iz e o f a cre d it c ard t h at c o nta in s a m ic ro phone, G PS, a n d a n a rra y o f o th er s e n so rs . The d ev ic e is c alle d a s o cio m ete r. It s a m ple s th e d ata fiv e tim es p er s e co nd an d w ir e le ssly s tr e am s it to a s e rv er, w here it is r e n dere d in to a s e rie s o f g ra p hs.

These g ra p hs, P en tla n d in fo rm s m e, a re o nly th e tip o f th e d ata ic eb erg . I f th ey desir e , L ed erm an a n d P en tla n d c an e q uip th e s o cio m ete rs to c ap tu re p ro xim ity an d t h e p erc en ta g e o f t im e e ach p artic ip an t e n gag es i n f a ce-to -fa ce c o nta ct.

All in a ll, it is th e k in d o f re al- tim e, d eep -d iv e d ata th at y ou c o uld im ag in e bein g u se d to m easu re p re sid en tia l p ollin g re su lts o r a g olf s w in g. B ut th is is a dif fe re n t k in d o f g am e. T he s o cio m ete r c ap tu re s th e p ro to -la n guag e th at h um an s use t o f o rm s a fe c o nnectio n. T his l a n guag e i s m ad e u p o f b elo ngin g c u es.

Belo ngin g cu es are b eh av io rs th at cre ate sa fe co nnectio n in g ro ups. T hey in clu de, am ong o th ers , p ro xim ity , ey e co nta ct, en erg y, m im ic ry , tu rn ta k in g, atte n tio n, b ody la n guag e, v ocal p itc h , co nsis te n cy o f em phasis , an d w heth er ev ery one ta lk s to e v ery one e ls e in th e g ro up. L ik e a n y la n guag e, b elo ngin g c u es can ’t b e re d uced to a n is o la te d m om en t b ut ra th er c o nsis t o f a s te ad y p uls e o f in te ra ctio ns w ith in a s o cia l r e la tio nsh ip . T heir f u nctio n is to a n sw er th e a n cie n t, ev er-p re se n t q uestio ns g lo w in g in o ur b ra in s: Are w e sa fe h ere ? W hat’ s o ur fu tu re w ith t h ese p eo ple ? A re t h ere d angers l u rk in g?

“M odern so cie ty is a n in cre d ib ly re cen t p hen om en on,” P en tla n d sa y s. “ F or hundre d s o f th ousa n ds o f y ears , w e n eed ed w ay s to d ev elo p c o hesio n b ecau se we d ep en ded so m uch o n each o th er. W e u se d sig nals lo ng b efo re w e u se d la n guag e, a n d o ur u nco nsc io us b ra in s a re in cre d ib ly a ttu ned to c erta in ty pes o f beh av io rs .” Belo ngin g c u es p osse ss t h re e b asic q ualitie s:

1.

Energ y: T hey i n vest i n t h e e x ch an ge t h at i s o ccu rrin g 2.

In div id ualiz atio n: T hey t r e at t h e p ers o n a s u niq ue a n d v alu ed 3.

Futu re o rie n ta tio n: T hey s ig nal t h e r e la tio nsh ip w ill c o ntin ue These c u es a d d u p to a m essa g e th at c an b e d esc rib ed w ith a s in gle p hra se :

You a re s a fe h ere . T hey s e ek t o n otif y o ur e v er-v ig ila n t b ra in s t h at t h ey c an s to p worry in g ab out dan gers an d sh if t in to co nnectio n m ode, a co nditio n calle d psy ch olo gic al s a fe ty .

“A s h um an s, w e a re v ery g ood a t r e ad in g c u es; w e a re in cre d ib ly a tte n tiv e to in te rp ers o nal p hen om en a,” sa y s A m y E dm ondso n, w ho stu die s p sy ch olo gic al sa fe ty a t H arv ard . “ W e h av e a p la ce in o ur b ra in th at’ s a lw ay s w orrie d a b out what p eo ple th in k o f u s, e sp ecia lly h ig her-u ps. A s f a r a s o ur b ra in is c o ncern ed , if o ur s o cia l s y ste m r e je cts u s, w e c o uld d ie . G iv en t h at o ur s e n se o f d an ger i s s o natu ra l a n d a u to m atic , o rg an iz atio ns h av e to d o so m e p re tty sp ecia l th in gs to overc o m e t h at n atu ra l t r ig ger.” The key to cre atin g psy ch olo gic al sa fe ty , as Pen tla n d an d Edm ondso n em phasiz e, i s t o r e co gniz e h ow d eep ly o bse sse d o ur u nco nsc io us b ra in s a re w ith it. A m ere h in t o f b elo ngin g is n ot e n ough; o ne o r tw o s ig nals a re n ot e n ough.

We a re b uilt to re q uir e lo ts o f s ig nalin g, o ver a n d o ver. T his is w hy a s e n se o f belo ngin g i s e asy t o d estr o y a n d h ard t o b uild . T he d ynam ic e v okes t h e w ord s o f Tex as p olitic ia n S am R ay burn : “ A ny j a ck ass c an k ic k d ow n a b arn , b ut i t t a k es a good c arp en te r t o b uild o ne.” It’ s u se fu l to lo ok a t th e b ad a p ple e x perim en t in th is lig ht. N ic k w as a b le to dis ru pt th e ch em is tr y of th e gro ups m ere ly by se n din g a fe w cu es of nonbelo ngin g. H is b eh av io r w as a p ow erfu l s ig nal t o t h e g ro up— We a re n ot s a fe — whic h im med ia te ly c au se d th e g ro up’s p erfo rm an ce to f a ll a p art. J o nath an , o n th e o th er h an d, d eliv ere d a s te ad y p uls e o f s u btle b eh av io rs th at s ig nale d s a fe ty .

He c o nnecte d in div id ually , lis te n ed in te n tly , a n d s ig nale d th e im porta n ce o f th e re la tio nsh ip . H e w as a w ells p rin g o f b elo ngin g c u es, a n d th e g ro up re sp onded acco rd in gly .

In re cen t y ears , P en tla n d a n d h is te am h av e u se d s o cio m ete rs to c ap tu re th e in te ra ctio ns o f h undre d s o f g ro ups in p ost- o p w ard s, c all c en te rs , b an ks, s a la ry neg otia tio ns, an d b usin ess p itc h se ssio ns. In each stu dy, th ey d is c o vere d th e sa m e patte rn : It’ s possib le to pre d ic t perfo rm an ce by ig norin g all th e in fo rm atio nal c o nte n t in th e e x ch an ge a n d fo cu sin g o n a h an dfu l o f b elo ngin g cu es.

For e x am ple , P en tla n d a n d J a re d C urh an u se d s o cio m ete rs t o a n aly ze f o rty -s ix sim ula te d n eg otia tio ns b etw een p air s o f b usin ess s tu den ts w ho p la y ed t h e r o le o f em plo yee an d b oss. T he ta sk w as to n eg otia te th e te rm s fo r a n ew p ositio n, in clu din g sa la ry , co m pan y car, vacatio n, an d health ben efits . Pen tla n d an d Curh an fo und th at th e fir s t fiv e m in ute s o f s o cio m etr ic d ata s tr o ngly p re d ic te d th e o utc o m es o f th e n eg otia tio ns. I n o th er w ord s, th e b elo ngin g c u es s e n t in th e in itia l m om en ts o f t h e i n te ra ctio n m atte re d m ore t h an a n yth in g t h ey s a id .

Anoth er e x perim en t a n aly zed a c o m petitio n in w hic h e n tr e p re n eu rs p itc h ed busin ess id eas to a g ro up o f e x ecu tiv es. E ach p artic ip an t p re se n te d th eir p la n to th e g ro up; th e g ro up th en se le cte d an d ra n ked th e m ost p ro m is in g p la n s fo r re co m men datio n to a n o uts id e g ro up o f a n gel in vesto rs . P en tla n d f o und th at th e so cio m ete rs — whic h tr a ck ed o nly th e c u es e x ch an ged b y p re se n te r a n d a u die n ce an d ig nore d a ll th e in fo rm atio nal c o nte n t— pre d ic te d th e ra n kin gs w ith n early perfe ct a ccu ra cy . I n o th er w ord s, th e c o nte n t o f th e p itc h d id n’t m atte r a s m uch as th e s e t o f c u es w ith w hic h th e p itc h w as d eliv ere d a n d re ceiv ed . (W hen th e an gel in vesto rs vie w ed th e pla n s on pap er— lo okin g only at in fo rm atio nal co nte n t a n d i g norin g s o cia l s ig nals — th ey r a n ked t h em v ery d if fe re n tly .) “T he e x ecu tiv es [lis te n in g to th e p itc h es] th ought th ey w ere e v alu atin g th e pla n s b ase d o n r a tio nal m easu re s, s u ch a s: H ow o rig in al i s t h is i d ea? H ow d oes i t fit th e cu rre n t m ark et? H ow w ell dev elo ped is th is pla n ?” P en tla n d w ro te .

“W hile lis te n in g to th e pitc h es, th ough, an oth er part of th eir bra in w as re g is te rin g oth er cru cia l in fo rm atio n, su ch as: H ow m uch does th is pers o n belie v e in th is id ea? H ow c o nfid en t a re th ey w hen s p eak in g? H ow d ete rm in ed are t h ey t o m ak e t h is w ork ?

A nd t h e s e co nd s e t o f i n fo rm atio n— in fo rm atio n t h at th e busin ess ex ecu tiv es did n’t ev en know th ey w ere asse ssin g— is w hat in flu en ced t h eir c h oic e o f b usin ess p la n s t o t h e g re ate st d eg re e.” “T his is a d if fe re n t w ay o f th in kin g ab out h um an b ein gs,” P en tla n d sa y s.

“In div id uals are n ’t re ally in div id uals . T hey ’re m ore lik e m usic ia n s in a ja zz quarte t, f o rm in g a w eb o f u nco nsc io us a ctio ns a n d r e actio ns to c o m ple m en t th e oth ers i n t h e g ro up. Y ou d on’t l o ok a t t h e i n fo rm atio nal c o nte n t o f t h e m essa g es; you lo ok a t p atte rn s th at s h ow h ow th e m essa g e is b ein g s e n t. T hose p atte rn s co nta in m an y s ig nals th at te ll u s a b out th e re la tio nsh ip a n d w hat’ s re ally g oin g on b en eath t h e s u rfa ce.” Overa ll P en tla n d’s stu die s sh ow th at te am perfo rm an ce is driv en by fiv e measu ra b le f a cto rs :

1.

Every one i n t h e g ro up t a lk s a n d l is te n s i n r o ughly e q ual m easu re , k eep in g co ntr ib utio ns s h ort.

2.

Mem bers m ain ta in h ig h l e v els o f e y e c o nta ct, a n d t h eir c o nvers a tio ns a n d gestu re s a re e n erg etic .

3.

Mem bers c o m munic ate d ir e ctly w ith o ne a n oth er, n ot j u st w ith t h e t e am le ad er.

4.

Mem bers c arry o n b ack -c h an nel o r s id e c o nvers a tio ns w ith in t h e t e am .

5.

Mem bers p erio dic ally b re ak , g o e x plo rin g o uts id e t h e t e am , a n d b rin g in fo rm atio n b ack t o s h are w ith t h e o th ers .

These fa cto rs ig nore ev ery in div id ual sk ill an d attr ib ute w e asso cia te w ith hig h-p erfo rm in g g ro ups, a n d re p la ce th em w ith b eh av io rs w e w ould n orm ally co nsid er s o p rim itiv e a s to b e tr iv ia l. A nd y et w hen it c o m es to p re d ic tin g te am perfo rm an ce, Pen tla n d an d his co lle ag ues hav e calc u la te d noth in g is m ore pow erfu l.

“C olle ctiv e in te llig en ce is n ot th at d if fe re n t in so m e w ay s th an ap es in a fo re st,” P en tla n d s a y s. “ O ne [ a p e] is e n th usia stic , a n d th at s ig nal r e cru its o th ers , an d t h ey j u m p i n a n d s ta rt d oin g s tu ff t o geth er. T hat’ s t h e w ay g ro up i n te llig en ce work s, an d th is is w hat p eo ple d on’t g et. Ju st h earin g so m eth in g sa id ra re ly re su lts in a c h an ge in b eh av io r. T hey ’re ju st w ord s. W hen w e s e e p eo ple in o ur peer g ro up p la y w ith a n id ea, o ur b eh av io r c h an ges. T hat’ s h ow in te llig en ce is cre ate d . T hat’ s h ow c u ltu re i s c re ate d .” They’r e ju st w ord s.

T his is n ot h ow w e n orm ally th in k. N orm ally , w e th in k word s m atte r; w e th in k th at g ro up p erfo rm an ce co rre la te s w ith its m em bers ’ verb al in te llig en ce an d th eir ab ility to co nstr u ct an d co m munic ate co m ple x id eas. B ut th at assu m ptio n is w ro ng. W ord s are nois e . G ro up perfo rm an ce dep en ds o n b eh av io r th at c o m munic ate s o ne p ow erfu l o vera rc h in g id ea: We a re sa fe a nd c o nnecte d .

* Not c o in cid en ta lly , m an y s u ccessfu l g ro ups h av e a d opte d t h e u se o f f a m ily -e sq ue i d en tif ie rs . P eo ple w ho work a t P ix ar a re P ix aria n s, a n d p eo ple w ho w ork a t G oogle a re G oogle rs . I t’ s t h e s a m e w ith Z ap pos (Z ap ponia n s), K IP P ( K IP Pste rs ), a n d o th ers .

I n t h e e arly 2 000s, s o m e o f t h e b est m in ds i n A m eric a w ere c o m petin g q uie tly i n a ra ce. T he g oal w as to b uild a so ftw are e n gin e th at c o nnecte d In te rn et u se r s e arc h es w ith ta rg ete d ad vertis e m en ts , an eso te ric -s o undin g ta sk th at w ould p ote n tia lly unlo ck a m ultib illio n-d olla r m ark et. The questio n w as w hic h c o m pan y w ould w in .

The o verw helm in g fa v orite w as O vertu re , a w ell- fu nded L os A ngele s o utf it l e d b y a b rillia n t e n tr e p re n eu r n am ed B ill G ro ss. G ro ss h ad p io neere d t h e f ie ld o f I n te rn et ad vertis in g. H e had in ven te d th e pay -p er-c lic k ad vertis in g m odel, w ritte n th e c o de, a n d b uilt O vertu re in to a th riv in g b usin ess th at w as g en era tin g h undre d s o f m illio ns o f d olla rs in p ro fits , as w ell as a re cen t in itia l p ublic o ffe rin g valu ed at one billio n dolla rs . In oth er w ord s, th e co nte st betw een O vertu re a n d its c o m petito rs a p peare d to b e a p ro fo und m is m atc h . T he m ark et h ad p la ced a b illio n-d olla r b et o n O vertu re fo r th e s a m e re aso n th at y ou w ould h av e b et o n th e M BA stu den ts to d efe at th e k in derg artn ers in th e sp ag hetti- m ars h m allo w ch alle n ge: becau se Overtu re posse sse d th e in te llig en ce, e x perie n ce, a n d r e so urc es t o w in .

But O vertu re d id n ot w in . T he w in ner o f th is ra ce tu rn ed o ut to b e a s m all, y oung c o m pan y c alle d G oogle . W hat’ s m ore , it’ s p ossib le to is o la te th e m om en t t h at tu rn ed th e r a ce in its f a v or. O n M ay 2 4, 2 002, in G oogle ’s k itc h en a t 2 400 B ay sh ore P ark w ay in M ounta in V ie w , C alif o rn ia , G oogle fo under L arry P ag e p in ned a n ote t o t h e w all. T he n ote c o nta in ed t h re e w ord s:

T HESE A DS S UCK In th e tr a d itio nal b usin ess w orld , it w as n ot c o nsid ere d n orm al to le av e n ote s lik e th is in th e co m pan y kitc h en . H ow ev er, Pag e w as not a tr a d itio nal busin essp ers o n. For sta rte rs , he lo oked lik e a se v en th -g ra d er, w ith la rg e, watc h fu l e y es, a b ow l h air c u t, a n d a te n den cy to s p eak in a b ru pt m ach in e-g un burs ts . H is m ain l e ad ers h ip t e ch niq ue, i f i t c o uld b e c alle d a t e ch niq ue, c o nsis te d of s ta rtin g a n d s u sta in in g b ig , e n erg etic , n o-h old s-b arre d d eb ate s a b out h ow to build th e b est s tr a te g ie s, p ro ducts , a n d id eas. T o w ork a t G oogle w as to e n te r a gia n t, c o ntin uous w re stlin g m atc h in w hic h n o p ers o n w as c o nsid ere d a b ove th e fra y .

This a p pro ach e x te n ded to th e ra u co us a ll- e m plo yee s tr e et h ock ey g am es in th e p ark in g lo t (“ N o o ne h eld b ack w hen fig htin g th e fo unders fo r th e p uck ,” re calle d o ne p la y er) a n d to th e a ll- c o m pan y F rid ay f o ru m s, w here a n yone c o uld ch alle n ge th e fo unders w ith an y questio n under th e su n, no m atte r how co ntr o vers ia l— an d v ic e v ers a . L ik e th e h ock ey g am es, th e F rid ay fo ru m s o fte n tu rn ed i n to c o llis io n-fille d a ffa ir s .

On th e d ay P ag e p in ned h is n ote to th e k itc h en w all, G oogle ’s c o m petitio n with O vertu re w as not goin g w ell. T he pro je ct, w hic h G oogle calle d th e AdW ord s e n gin e, w as s tr u gglin g t o a cco m plis h t h e b asic t a sk o f m atc h in g s e arc h te rm s to a p pro pria te a d s. F or e x am ple , if y ou ty ped in a s e arc h fo r a K aw asa k i H1B m oto rc y cle , y ou’d r e ceiv e a d s f ro m la w yers o ffe rin g h elp w ith y our H -1 B fo re ig n v is a ap plic atio n— pre cis e ly th e k in ds o f fa ilu re s th at co uld d oom th e pro je ct. S o P ag e p rin te d o ut e x am ple s o f th ese f a ilu re s, s c ra w le d h is th re e-w ord verd ic t in cap ita l le tte rs , an d p in ned th e w hole m ess to th e k itc h en b ulle tin board . T hen h e l e ft.

Je ff D ean w as o ne o f th e la st p eo ple in G oogle ’s o ffic e to s e e P ag e’s n ote . A quie t, s k in ny e n gin eer f ro m M in neso ta , D ean w as i n m ost w ay s P ag e’s o pposite :

sm ile y , s o cia b le , u nfa ilin gly p olite , a n d k now n a ro und th e o ffic e f o r h is lo ve o f cap puccin os. D ean had no im med ia te m otiv e to care ab out th e A dW ord s pro ble m . H e w ork ed in S earc h , w hic h w as a d if fe re n t a re a o f th e c o m pan y, a n d he w as m ore th an b usy n av ig atin g h is o w n u rg en t p ro ble m s. B ut a t s o m e p oin t th at F rid ay a fte rn oon, D ean w alk ed o ver to th e k itc h en to m ak e a c ap puccin o an d s p otte d P ag e’s n ote . H e f lip ped t h ro ugh t h e a tta ch ed p ag es— an d a s h e d id , a th ought flic k ere d th ro ugh h is m in d, a h azy m em ory o f a s im ila r p ro ble m h e’d en co unte re d a w hile b ack .

Dean w alk ed b ack to h is d esk a n d s ta rte d tr y in g to fix th e A dW ord s e n gin e.

He d id n ot a sk p erm is sio n o r te ll a n yone; h e s im ply d ove in . O n a lm ost e v ery le v el, h is d ecis io n m ad e n o s e n se . H e w as ig norin g th e m ounta in o f w ork o n h is desk i n o rd er t o w re stle w ith a d if fic u lt p ro ble m t h at n o o ne e x pecte d h im t o t a k e on. H e c o uld h av e q uit a t a n y p oin t, a n d n o o ne w ould h av e k now n. B ut h e d id not q uit. I n f a ct, h e c am e in o n S atu rd ay a n d w ork ed o n th e A dW ord s p ro ble m fo r s e v era l h ours . O n S unday n ig ht, h e h ad d in ner w ith h is fa m ily a n d p ut h is tw o y oung c h ild re n to b ed . A ro und n in e P.M ., h e d ro ve b ack to th e o ffic e, m ad e an oth er c ap puccin o, a n d w ork ed th ro ugh th e n ig ht. A t 5 :0 5 A.M . o n M onday , h e se n t o ut a n e m ail o utlin in g a p ro pose d fix . T hen h e d ro ve h om e, c lim bed in to bed , a n d w en t t o s le ep .

It w ork ed . D ean ’s fix u nlo ck ed th e p ro ble m , in sta n tly b oostin g th e e n gin e’s accu ra cy sc o re s b y d ouble d ig its .

O n th e str e n gth o f th at im pro vem en t an d su bse q uen t o th ers it in sp ir e d , A dW ord s s w if tly c am e to d om in ate th e p ay -p er- clic k m ark et. O vertu re ’s effo rt, ham str u ng by in fig htin g an d bure au cra cy , fa lte re d . I n t h e y ear f o llo w in g D ean ’s f ix , G oogle ’s p ro fits w en t f ro m $ 6 m illio n to $ 99 m illio n. B y 2 014, th e A dW ord s e n gin e w as p ro ducin g $ 160 m illio n p er day , an d ad vertis in g w as pro vid in g 90 perc en t of G oogle ’s re v en ues. T he su ccess of th e A dW ord s en gin e, au th or S te p hen L ev y w ro te , w as “su dden , tr a n sfo rm in g, d ecis iv e, a n d, f o r G oogle ’s in vesto rs a n d e m plo yees, g lo rio us… .I t becam e th e lif e b lo od o f G oogle , fu ndin g ev ery n ew id ea an d in novatio n th e co m pan y c o nceiv ed o f t h ere afte r.” Yet th at w as n ot th e s tr a n ge p art o f th e s to ry . B ecau se in sid e G oogle , th ere re m ain ed o ne k ey p ers o n f o r w hom th is in cid en t d id n’t m ean m uch — fo r w hom th e ev en ts of th at his to ric w eek en d re g is te re d so fa in tly th at he bare ly re m em bere d i t. T hat p ers o n h ap pen ed t o b e J e ff D ean .

One d ay in 2 013, G oogle a d vis e r J o nath an R ose n berg a p pro ach ed D ean f o r a book h e w as c o -w ritin g a b out G oogle . R ose n berg w an te d to g et D ean ’s v ers io n of th e s to ry , s o h e s ta rte d in — I w ant to ta lk to y o u a bout th e AdW ord s e n gin e, Larry ’s n ote , th e k itc h en —natu ra lly e x pectin g D ean to p ic k u p o n th e c u e a n d la u nch in to a re m in is c en ce. B ut D ean d id n’t d o th at. In ste ad , h e ju st s ta re d a t Rose n berg w ith a p le asa n tly b la n k ex pre ssio n. R ose n berg , slig htly co nfu se d , kep t g oin g, f illin g i n d eta il a fte r d eta il. O nly t h en d id D ean ’s f a ce d aw n w ith t h e lig ht o f r e co gnitio n— oh y ea h!

This is n ot th e re sp onse y ou w ould e x pect D ean to h av e. It is ro ughly th e eq uiv ale n t o f M ic h ael J o rd an f o rg ettin g t h at h e w on s ix N BA t itle s. B ut t h at w as how D ean f e lt a n d h ow h e s till f e els t o day .

“I m ean , I r e m em ber th at it h ap pen ed ,” D ean to ld m e. “ B ut to b e c o m ple te ly honest, it d id n’t re g is te r s tr o ngly in m y m em ory b ecau se it d id n’t fe el lik e th at big o f a d eal. I t d id n’t f e el s p ecia l o r d if fe re n t. I t w as n orm al. T hat k in d o f th in g hap pen ed a ll t h e t im e.” It was norm al.

Google pers o nnel were in te ra ctin g ex actly as th e kin derg artn ers in th e s p ag hetti- m ars h m allo w c h alle n ge in te ra cte d . T hey d id n ot man ag e th eir sta tu s o r w orry a b out w ho w as in c h arg e. T heir sm all b uild in g pro duced h ig h le v els o f p ro xim ity a n d f a ce-to -fa ce in te ra ctio n. P ag e’s te ch niq ue of ig nitin g w hole -g ro up d eb ate s a ro und s o lv in g to ugh p ro ble m s s e n t a p ow erfu l sig nal o f id en tity a n d c o nnectio n, a s d id th e n o-h old s-b arre d h ock ey g am es a n d wid e-o pen F rid ay fo ru m s. ( Every o ne in th e g ro up ta lk s a nd lis te n s in r o ughly eq ual m ea su re .

) T hey c o m munic ate d in s h ort, d ir e ct b urs ts . ( Mem bers fa ce o ne anoth er, a nd th eir co nversa tio ns a nd g estu re s a re en erg etic .) G oogle w as a hoth ouse o f b elo ngin g c u es; its p eo ple w ork ed s h ould er to s h ould er a n d s a fe ly co nnecte d , im mers e d in th eir p ro je cts . O vertu re , d esp ite its h ead s ta rt a n d th eir billio n-d olla r w ar ch est, w as han dic ap ped by bure au cra cy . D ecis io n m ak in g in volv ed in num era b le m eetin gs an d d is c u ssio ns ab out te ch nic al, ta ctic al, an d str a te g ic m atte rs ; ev ery th in g had to be ap pro ved by m ultip le co m mitte es.

Overtu re ’s b elo ngin g s c o re s w ould lik ely h av e b een lo w . “ It w as a c lu ste rfu ck ,” one e m plo yee t o ld Wir e d m ag azin e.

G oogle d id n’t w in b ecau se i t w as s m arte r. I t won b ecau se i t w as s a fe r. *1 — Let’ s t a k e a c lo se r lo ok a t h ow b elo ngin g c u es f u nctio n in y our b ra in . S ay I g iv e you a m odera te ly t r ic k y p uzzle w here t h e g oal i s t o a rra n ge c o lo rs a n d s h ap es o n a m ap . Y ou c an w ork o n it a s lo ng a s y ou lik e. A fte r e x pla in in g th e ta sk , I le av e you to y our w ork . T w o m in ute s la te r I p op b ack in a n d h an d y ou a s lip o f p ap er with a h an dw ritte n n ote . I te ll y ou th at th e n ote is fro m a fe llo w p artic ip an t nam ed S te v e, w hom y ou’v e n ev er m et. “ S te v e d id th e p uzzle e arlie r a n d w an te d to s h are a t ip w ith y ou,” I s a y . Y ou r e ad t h e t ip a n d g et b ack t o w ork . A nd t h at’ s when e v ery th in g c h an ges.

With out tr y in g, y ou s ta rt w ork in g h ard er o n th e p uzzle . A re as d eep in y our bra in b eg in to lig ht u p. Y ou a re m ore m otiv ate d — tw ic e a s m uch . Y ou w ork more th an 5 0 p erc en t lo nger, w ith sig nif ic an tly m ore en erg y an d en jo ym en t.

What’ s m ore , th e g lo w e n dure s. T w o w eek s la te r, y ou a re in clin ed to ta k e o n sim ila r c h alle n ges. In e sse n ce, th at slip o f p ap er c h an ges y ou in to a sm arte r, more a ttu ned v ers io n o f y ours e lf . Here ’s t h e t h in g: S te v e’s t ip w as n ot a ctu ally u se fu l. I t c o nta in ed z ero r e le v an t in fo rm atio n. A ll th e ch an ges in m otiv atio n an d beh av io r you ex perie n ced afte rw ard w ere d ue to th e s ig nal th at y ou w ere c o nnecte d to s o m eo ne w ho c are d ab out y ou.

We g et a n oth er e x am ple o f h ow b elo ngin g c u es w ork in a n e x perim en t th at mig ht b e c alle d W ould Y ou G iv e a S tr a n ger Y our P hone? It c o nsis ts o f tw o sc en ario s a n d a q uestio n.

SC EN ARIO 1 : Y ou a re s ta n din g i n t h e r a in a t a t r a in s ta tio n. A str a n ger a p pro ach es a n d p olite ly s a y s, “ C an I b orro w y our cellp hone?” SC EN ARIO 2 : Y ou a re s ta n din g i n t h e r a in a t a t r a in s ta tio n. A str a n ger a p pro ach es a n d p olite ly s a y s, “ I’m s o s o rry a b out t h e r a in .

Can I b orro w y our c ellp hone?” QUEST IO N: T o w hic h s tr a n ger a re y ou m ore l ik ely t o r e sp ond?

At f ir s t g la n ce, th ere ’s n ot a lo t o f d if fe re n ce b etw een th e tw o s c en ario s. B oth str a n gers a re m ak in g a n id en tic al r e q uest th at in volv es a s ig nif ic an t le ap o f tr u st.

Besid es, t h e m ore i m porta n t f a cto r h ere w ould s e em t o h av e l e ss t o d o w ith t h em th an w ith yo u ; nam ely your natu ra l dis p ositio n to w ard han din g a valu ab le posse ssio n t o a s tr a n ger. A ll i n a ll, a r e aso nab le p ers o n m ig ht p re d ic t t h at t h e t w o ap pro ach es w ould y ie ld r o ughly e q ual r e sp onse r a te s.

A r e aso nab le p ers o n w ould b e w ro ng. W hen A lis o n W ood B ro oks o f H arv ard Busin ess S ch ool perfo rm ed th e ex perim en t, sh e dis c o vere d th at th e se co nd sc en ario c au se d th e r e sp onse r a te to ju m p 4 22 p erc en t. T hose s ix w ord s— I’m s o so rry a bout th e r a in —tr a n sfo rm ed p eo ple ’s b eh av io r. T hey fu nctio ned e x actly th e w ay S te v e’s tip d id in th e p uzzle e x perim en t. T hey w ere a n u nm is ta k ab le sig nal: This is a sa fe p la ce to co nnect.

Y ou h an d o ver y our cellp hone— an d cre ate a c o nnectio n— with out t h in kin g.

“T hese are m assiv e effe cts ,” sa y s D r. G re g ory W alto n of S ta n fo rd , w ho perfo rm ed th e S te v e’s tip ex perim en t an d o th ers . “T hese are little cu es th at sig nal a r e la tio nsh ip , a n d th ey to ta lly tr a n sfo rm th e w ay p eo ple r e la te , h ow th ey fe el, a n d h ow t h ey b eh av e.” *2 One o f h is m ost v iv id e x am ple s o f th e p ow er o f b elo ngin g c u es is a s tu dy b y an A ustr a lia n g ro up th at e x am in ed 7 72 p atie n ts w ho h ad b een a d m itte d to th e hosp ita l a fte r a s u ic id e a tte m pt. I n th e m onth s a fte r th eir r e le ase , h alf r e ceiv ed a se rie s o f p ostc ard s t h at r e ad a s f o llo w s:

Dear It h as b een a s h ort t im e s in ce y ou w ere h ere a t N ew castle M ate r Hosp ita l, a n d w e h ope t h in gs a re g oin g w ell f o r y ou. I f y ou w is h t o dro p u s a n ote , w e w ould b e h ap py t o h ear f ro m y ou.

Best w is h es, [s ig natu re ] Over th e n ex t tw o y ears , m em bers o f th e g ro up th at re ceiv ed th e p ostc ard s were r e ad m itte d a t h alf t h e r a te o f t h e c o ntr o l g ro up.

“A s m all s ig nal c an h av e a h uge e ffe ct,” W alto n s a y s. “ B ut t h e d eep er t h in g t o re aliz e is th at y ou can ’t ju st g iv e a cu e o nce. T his is all ab out esta b lis h in g re la tio nsh ip s, c o nvey in g th e f a ct th at I ’m in te re ste d in y ou, a n d th at a ll th e w ork we d o t o geth er i s i n t h e c o nte x t o f t h at r e la tio nsh ip . I t’ s a n arra tiv e— you h av e t o keep i t g oin g. I t’ s n ot u nlik e a r o m an tic r e la tio nsh ip . H ow o fte n d o y ou t e ll y our partn er th at y ou lo ve th em ? It m ay b e tr u e, b ut it’ s s till im porta n t to le t th em know , o ver a n d o ver.” This id ea— th at b elo ngin g n eed s to b e c o ntin ually r e fre sh ed a n d r e in fo rc ed — is w orth d w ellin g o n f o r a m om en t. I f o ur b ra in s p ro cesse d s a fe ty lo gic ally , w e would n ot n eed th is ste ad y re m in din g. B ut o ur b ra in s d id n ot em erg e fro m millio ns o f y ears o f n atu ra l s e le ctio n b ecau se th ey p ro cess s a fe ty lo gic ally . T hey em erg ed b ecau se t h ey a re o bse ssiv ely o n t h e l o okout f o r d an ger.

This o bse ssio n o rig in ate s in a str u ctu re d eep in th e co re o f th e b ra in . It’ s calle d th e a m ygdala , a n d it’ s o u r p rim ev al v ig ila n ce d ev ic e, c o nsta n tly s c an nin g th e e n vir o nm en t. W hen w e s e n se a th re at, th e a m ygdala p ulls o ur a la rm c o rd , se ttin g o ff th e fig ht- o r-flig ht re sp onse th at flo ods o ur b ody w ith stim ula tin g horm ones, a n d it sh rin ks o ur p erc eiv ed w orld to a sin gle q uestio n: What d o I need t o d o t o s u rv iv e?

Scie n ce h as re cen tly d is c o vere d , h ow ev er, th at th e a m ygdala is n ’t ju st a b out re sp ondin g to d an ger— it a ls o p la y s a v ita l r o le in b uild in g s o cia l c o nnectio ns. I t work s lik e th is : W hen y ou r e ceiv e a b elo ngin g c u e, th e a m ygdala s w itc h es r o le s an d s ta rts t o u se i ts i m men se u nco nsc io us n eu ra l h ors e p ow er t o b uild a n d s u sta in your s o cia l b onds. I t t r a ck s m em bers o f y our g ro up, t u nes i n t o t h eir i n te ra ctio ns, an d s e ts th e s ta g e f o r m ean in gfu l e n gag em en t. I n a h eartb eat, it tr a n sfo rm s f ro m a g ro w lin g g uard d og in to a n e n erg etic g uid e d og w ith a s in gle -m in ded g oal: to mak e s u re y ou s ta y t ig htly c o nnecte d w ith y our p eo ple .

On b ra in s c an s, t h is m om en t i s v iv id a n d u nm is ta k ab le , a s t h e a m ygdala l ig hts up in a n e n tir e ly d if fe re n t w ay . “ T he w hole th in g flip s,” sa y s Ja y V an B av el, so cia l n eu ro sc ie n tis t a t N ew Y ork U niv ers ity . “ T he m om en t y ou’re p art o f a gro up, th e a m ygdala tu nes in to w ho’s in th at g ro up a n d s ta rts in te n se ly tr a ck in g th em . B ecau se th ese p eo ple a re v alu ab le to y ou. T hey w ere s tr a n gers b efo re , b ut th ey ’re o n y our te am n ow , an d th at ch an ges th e w hole d ynam ic . It’ s su ch a pow erfu l sw itc h — it’ s a b ig to p-d ow n ch an ge, a to ta l re co nfig ura tio n o f th e en tir e m otiv atio nal a n d d ecis io n-m ak in g s y ste m .” All th is h elp s re v eal a p ara d ox a b out th e w ay b elo ngin g w ork s. B elo ngin g fe els lik e it h ap pen s f ro m th e in sid e o ut, b ut in f a ct it h ap pen s f ro m th e o uts id e in . O ur s o cia l b ra in s l ig ht u p w hen t h ey r e ceiv e a s te ad y a ccu m ula tio n o f a lm ost- in vis ib le c u es: We a re c lo se , w e a re s a fe , w e s h are a f u tu re .

Here , t h en , i s a m odel f o r u nders ta n din g h ow b elo ngin g w ork s: a s a f la m e t h at need s to b e c o ntin ually f e d b y s ig nals o f s a fe c o nnectio n. W hen L arry P ag e a n d Je ff D ean partic ip ate d in th e w hole -c o m pan y ch alle n ges, th e an yth in g-g oes meetin gs, a n d th e ra u co us h ock ey g am es, th ey w ere fe ed in g th at fla m e. W hen Jo nath an p ro te cte d th e b ad a p ple g ro up fro m N ic k ’s n eg ativ e b eh av io r, h e w as fe ed in g th at fla m e. W hen a str a n ger a p olo giz es fo r th e ra in b efo re a sk in g to borro w y our c ellp hone, s h e is fe ed in g th at fla m e. C ohesio n h ap pen s n ot w hen mem bers o f a g ro up a re s m arte r b ut w hen th ey a re lit u p b y c le ar, s te ad y s ig nals of s a fe c o nnectio n.

This m odel h elp s u s a p pro ach b elo ngin g le ss a s a m yste ry o f fa te th an a s a pro cess th at can b e u nders to od an d co ntr o lle d . A g ood w ay to ex plo re th is pro cess is by ex am in in g th re e situ atio ns w here belo ngin g fo rm ed desp ite overw helm in g o dds. T he f ir s t in volv es s o ld ie rs in F la n ders d urin g th e w in te r o f 1914. T he se co nd in volv es offic e w ork ers in B an galo re , In dia . The th ir d in volv es w hat m ig ht b e t h e w ors t c u ltu re o n t h e p la n et.

*1 The G oogle /O vertu re p atte rn i s n ot u niq ue t o t h em . I n t h e 1 990s, s o cio lo gis ts J a m es B aro n a n d M ic h ael Han nan a n aly zed t h e f o undin g c u ltu re s o f n early t w o h undre d t e ch nolo gy s ta rt- u ps i n S ilic o n V alle y .

They f o und t h at m ost f o llo w ed o ne o f t h re e b asic m odels : t h e s ta r m odel, t h e p ro fe ssio nal m odel, a n d t h e co m mitm en t m odel. T he s ta r m odel f o cu se d o n f in din g a n d h ir in g t h e b rig hte st p eo ple . T he p ro fe ssio nal model f o cu se d o n b uild in g t h e g ro up a ro und s p ecif ic s k ill s e ts . T he c o m mitm en t m odel, o n t h e o th er han d, f o cu se d o n d ev elo pin g a g ro up w ith s h are d v alu es a n d s tr o ng e m otio nal b onds. O f t h ese , t h e co m mitm en t m odel c o nsis te n tly l e d t o t h e h ig hest r a te s o f s u ccess. D urin g t h e t e ch -b ubble b urs t o f 2 000, th e s ta rt- u ps t h at u se d t h e c o m mitm en t m odel s u rv iv ed a t a v astly h ig her r a te t h an t h e o th er t w o m odels , an d a ch ie v ed i n itia l p ublic o ffe rin gs t h re e t im es m ore o fte n .

*2 Here ’s a h an dy u se o f t h is e ffe ct: T hin kin g a b out y our a n cesto rs m ak es y ou s m arte r. A r e se arc h t e am l e d by P ete r F is c h er f o und t h at s p en din g a f e w m in ute s c o nte m pla tin g y our f a m ily t r e e ( a s o ppose d t o co nte m pla tin g a f rie n d, o r a s h oppin g l is t, o r n oth in g a t a ll) s ig nif ic an tly b ooste d p erfo rm an ce o n t e sts o f co gnitiv e i n te llig en ce. T heir h ypoth esis i s t h at t h in kin g a b out o ur c o nnectio ns t o t h e g ro up i n cre ase s o ur fe elin gs o f a u to nom y a n d c o ntr o l.

T he C hris tm as T ru ce O f a ll th e d if fic u lt a n d d an gero us b attle fie ld s in h is to ry , th e F la n ders tr e n ch es d urin g th e w in te r o f 1 914 m ig ht to p th e lis t. M ilita ry s c h ola rs te ll u s th at th is is d ue to th e fa ct th at W orld W ar I m ark ed th e h is to ric al in te rs e ctio n o f m odern w eap ons a n d m ed ie v al s tr a te g y. B ut in tr u th , it w as m ostly d ue to th e m ud. T he F la n ders tr e n ch es w ere lo cate d belo w se a le v el, dug out of gre asy cla y so w ate rlo gged th at a ra in sto rm c o uld tr a n sfo rm th em in to c an als . T hey w ere c o ld a n d m is e ra b le , a n i d eal b re ed in g g ro und f o r r a ts , f le as, d is e ase , a n d a ll m an ner o f p estile n ce.

The w ors t p art, h ow ev er, w as th e c lo se n ess o f th e e n em y. O pposin g tr o ops w ere o nly a f e w h undre d f e et a p art in m an y p oin ts a n d o ccasio nally m uch le ss.

( A t o ne p la ce n ear V im y R id ge, t w o o bse rv atio n p osts s to od s e v en m ete rs a p art.) G re n ad es an d artille ry w ere a co nsta n t th re at; a care le ssly lit m atc h w as an i n vita tio n f o r a s n ip er’s b ulle t. A s f u tu re p rim e m in is te r H aro ld M acm illa n , th en a lie u te n an t in th e G re n ad ie r G uard s, w ro te , “ O ne c an lo ok f o r m ile s a n d s e e n o h um an b ein g. B ut in th ose m ile s o f co untr y lu rk … it se em s th ousa n ds, ev en h undre d s o f th ousa n ds o f m en , p la n nin g a g ain st e ach o th er p erp etu ally so m e n ew d ev ic e o f d eath .

N ev er sh ow in g th em se lv es, th ey la u nch at each o th er b ulle t, b om b, a eria l t o rp ed o a n d s h ell.” Ben eath th e m ud r e sid ed d eep er la y ers o f h is to ric al h atr e d b etw een th e A llie s a n d th e G erm an s. E nglis h a n d F re n ch n ew sp ap ers p rin te d fe rv en t m yth s a b out h ow G erm an b arb aria n s w ere m eltin g d ow n in nocen t v ic tim s to m ak e s o ap . F or t h eir part, G erm an sc h oolc h ild re n w ere re citin g E rn st L is sa u er’s “H ym n of Hate ,” w hic h w as o nly s lig htly l e ss s u btle :

You w e w ill h ate w ith a l a stin g h ate , We w ill n ever f o rg o o ur h ate , Hate b y w ate r a nd h ate b y l a nd, Hate o f t h e h ea d a nd h ate o f t h e h and, Hate o f t h e h am mer a nd h ate o f t h e c ro w n, Hate o f s e ven ty m illio ns c h okin g d ow n.

We l o ve a s o ne, w e h ate a s o ne, We h ave o ne f o e a nd o ne a lo ne— EN G LA N D !

The w ar b eg an in A ugust. A s th e w eek s a n d m onth s p asse d , th e tw o sid es sy ste m atic ally k ille d e ach o th er a n d w ere k ille d , th e b odie s s tr e w n in th e b arb ed wir e of no-m an ’s -la n d. A s C hris tm as ap pro ach ed , voic es in dis ta n t cap ita ls arg ued f o r a te m pora ry c ease -fir e . I n R om e, P ope B en ed ic t a p peale d f o r h olid ay peace; in W ash in gto n, D .C ., a S en ate r e so lu tio n r e q ueste d a tw en ty -d ay b re ak in th e f ig htin g. M ilita ry le ad ers o n b oth s id es s w if tly d eem ed th is id ea im possib le an d in fo rm ed th eir tr o ops to e x pect s u rp ris e a tta ck s o n C hris tm as. A ny s o ld ie r who a tte m pte d t o c re ate a n i llic it t r u ce, t h ey w arn ed , w ould b e c o urt- m artia le d .

Then on C hris tm as E ve, so m eth in g hap pen ed . It’ s dif fic u lt to dete rm in e pre cis e ly w here it b eg an , b ut it a p peare d to h av e b een s p onta n eo us, o ccu rrin g in dep en den tly a t s e v era l p la ces a lo ng th e f ro nt. I t s ta rte d w ith s o ngs.

S om e w ere Chris tm as c aro ls ; so m e w ere m ilita ry so ngs. In m ost p la ces, th e sin gin g w en t back an d fo rth fo r a w hile , w ith each sid e ap pla u din g o r je erin g th e o th er’s re n ditio ns.

Then s o m eth in g e v en s tr a n ger h ap pen ed : T he s o ld ie rs b eg an to c lim b o ut o f th eir tr e n ch es a n d a p pro ach e ach o th er in a f rie n dly w ay . O uts id e a to w n c alle d La C hap elle d ’A rm en tiè re s, E nglis h s o ld ie rs h eard a G erm an v oic e c all o ut, in Englis h , “ I a m a lie u te n an t! G en tle m en , m y lif e is in y our h an ds, f o r I a m o ut o f my t r e n ch a n d w alk in g t o w ard y ou. W ill o ne o f y our o ffic ers m eet m e h alf w ay ?” Rif le m an P erc y J o nes f ig ure d i t w as a s u rp ris e a tta ck . A s h e l a te r w ro te :

We c o m men ced p olis h in g u p a m munitio n a n d r if le s a n d g ettin g a ll re ad y f o r s p eed y a ctio n. I n f a ct w e w ere a b out t o l o ose o ff a f e w ro unds a t t h e b ig gest l ig ht w hen … word s w ere h eard ( p ro bab ly th ro ugh a m eg ap hone), “ E nglis h m en , E nglis h m en . D on’t s h oot.

You d on’t s h oot, w e d on’t s h oot.” T hen f o llo w ed a r e m ark a b out Chris tm as. T his w as a ll v ery w ell, b ut w e h ad h eard s o m an y y arn s ab out G erm an t r e ach ery t h at w e k ep t a v ery s h arp l o okout.

How i t h ap pen ed I d on’t k now , b ut s h ortly a fte r t h is o ur b oys h ad lig hts o ut a n d t h e e n em y t r o ops w ere b usy s in gin g e ach o th er’s so ngs, p unctu ate d w ith t e rrif ic s a lv os o f a p pla u se . T he s c en e f ro m my s e n tr y p ost w as h ard ly c re d ita b le . S tr a ig ht a h ead w ere t h re e la rg e l ig hts , w ith f ig ure s p erfe ctly v is ib le a ro und t h em . T he G erm an tr e n ch es… were i llu m in ate d w ith h undre d s o f l ittle l ig hts . F ar a w ay to t h e l e ft, w here o ur l in es b en t, a f e w l ig hts s h ow ed o ur A Com pan y t r e n ch es, w here t h e m en w ere t h underin g o ut “ M y L ittle Gre y H om e i n t h e W est.” A t t h e c o nclu sio n… th e S ax ons b urs t i n to lo ud c h eers a n d o blig ed w ith s o m e G erm an t u ne. T hey a ls o s a n g one o f t h eir n atio nal a ir s t o t h e t u ne o f “ G od S av e t h e K in g.” W e re p lie d w ith t h e A ustr ia n h ym n, a t w hic h t h e a p pla u se w as t e rrif ic .

Back at B ritis h H ig h C om man d, F ie ld M ars h al S ir Jo hn F re n ch re ceiv ed puzzlin g r e p orts th at u narm ed G erm an s o ld ie rs w ere “ ru nnin g f ro m th e G erm an tr e n ch es acro ss to o urs , h old in g C hris tm as tr e es ab ove th eir h ead s.” F re n ch is su ed im med ia te o rd ers to “ p re v en t a n y r e cu rre n ce o f s u ch c o nduct, a n d c alle d th e lo cal c o m man ders to str ic t a cco unt.” H is o rd ers h ad n o e ffe ct. T he tr u ce gre w . T he so ld ie rs in volv ed se em ed to hav e no m ore id ea w hy th is w as hap pen in g th an S ir J o hn F re n ch d id . T hey s a w it h ap pen a n d p artic ip ate d in it, an d it still fe lt u tte rly in ex plic ab le . D ia ris ts o n b oth sid es w ould re fe r to th e su rre ality o f t h e e v en t, m an y d esc rib in g i t a s k in d o f a w ak in g d re am .

For m an y y ears , h is to ria n s a ssu m ed th at th e s to ry o f th e C hris tm as T ru ce w as ex ag gera te d , a n i s o la te d i n sta n ce t h at h ad b een i n fla te d b y s o fth ead ed n ew sp ap er write rs . B ut a s th ey d ug d eep er, th ey f o und th e o pposite w as tr u e. T he tr u ce w as fa r b ig ger t h an h ad b een r e p orte d , i n volv in g t e n s o f t h ousa n ds o f m en a lo ng t w o- th ir d s of th e B ritis h -h eld lin e. The in te ra ctio ns in clu ded eatin g, drin kin g, co okin g, sin gin g, p la y in g so ccer m atc h es, ex ch an gin g p hoto s, b arte rin g, an d bury in g th e d ead .

*1 In th e a n nals o f h is to ry , th ere a re fe w c ase s w here a ll- o ut vio le n ce piv ote d so sw if tly an d co m ple te ly to fa m ilia l w arm th . T he deep er questio n i s h ow i t h ap pen ed .

The tr a d itio nal w ay o f e x pla in in g th e C hris tm as T ru ce is to s e e it a s a s to ry ab out h ow t h e s h are d m ean in g o f t h e h olid ay c an a w ak en t h e b ette r a n gels o f o ur natu re . T his w ay o f th in kin g is a ttr a ctiv e, b ut it fa ils to e x pla in w hat a ctu ally occu rre d . T here w ere ple n ty of oth er battle fie ld s th ro ughout his to ry w here en em ie s e x perie n ced sh are d sp ir itu al h olid ay s, y et d id n ot e n gag e in a n yth in g re m ote ly a p pro ach in g t h is l e v el o f c o nnectio n.

The p ic tu re sh if ts , h ow ev er, if w e lo ok a t it th ro ugh th e le n s o f b elo ngin g cu es. O ne o f th e m ost d eta ile d a cco unts c an b e f o und in Tre n ch W arfa re 1 914– 1918 b y T ony A sh w orth . O ver th e c o urs e o f 2 88 p ag es, A sh w orth p ro vid es th e his to ric al eq uiv ale n t o f a slo w -m otio n re p la y o f th e fo rc es th at tr ig gere d th e Chris tm as T ru ce. H e sh ow s th at it b eg an n ot o n C hris tm as b ut w eek s b efo re , when a s te ad y flo w o f in te ra ctio ns c re ate d b onds o f s a fe ty , id en tity , a n d tr u st.

Ash w orth lik en s th e a rriv al o f th e C hris tm as T ru ce to “ th e s u dden s u rfa cin g o f th e w hole o f a n ic eb erg , v is ib le to a ll in clu din g n on-c o m bata n ts , w hic h f o r m ost of t h e w ar r e m ain ed l a rg ely s u bm erg ed .” Ash w orth d eta ils th e p hysic al c lo se n ess o f th e tw o s id es. W hile th e c lo se n ess bro ught v io le n ce, it a ls o b ro ught c o nnectio n, th ro ugh th e s m ells o f c o okin g a n d th e s o unds o f v oic es, la u ghte r, a n d s o ngs. S old ie rs o n b oth s id es b ecam e a w are th at th ey f o llo w ed th e s a m e d aily r h yth m s a n d r o utin es o f m eals , r e su pply , a n d tr o op ro ta tio ns. B oth s id es d ealt w ith th e c o m bin atio n o f n um bin g ro utin e a n d ra w te rro r th at m ad e u p m ilita ry lif e . B oth s id es h ate d th e c o ld a n d w et; b oth sid es lo nged fo r h om e.

A s A sh w orth p uts it, “ T he p ro cess o f m utu al e m path y am ong a n ta g onis ts w as f a cilita te d b y th eir p ro xim ity in tr e n ch w ar, a n d, f u rth er, was re in fo rc ed a s th e a ssu m ptio ns m ad e b y e ach o f th e o th er’s lik ely a ctio ns were co nfir m ed by su bse q uen t ev en ts . M ore o ver, by gettin g to know th e ‘n eig hbor’ in th e tr e n ch o pposite , e ach a d vers a ry r e aliz ed th at th e o th er e n dure d th e s a m e s tr e ss, r e acte d i n t h e s a m e w ay , a n d t h us w as n ot s o v ery d if fe re n t f ro m him se lf .” Mic ro tr u ces b eg an in e arly N ovem ber. T he B ritis h a n d G erm an s h ad a h ab it of d eliv erin g r a tio ns to th e tr e n ch es a ro und th e s a m e tim e. W hile th e tr o ops a te , th e s h ootin g w ould s to p. T he n ex t d ay th e s a m e th in g h ap pen ed a t p re cis e ly th e sa m e tim e. A nd th e n ex t d ay . A nd th e n ex t. F ro m m eals , th e m ic ro tr u ces s p re ad to o th er b eh av io rs . W hen h eav y ra in fa ll m ad e m ovem en t d if fic u lt, b oth sid es would sto p fig htin g. O n co ld n ig hts in so m e se cto rs , tr o ops fro m b oth sid es would v en tu re fo rth to g ath er d ry s tr a w fo r b ed din g, a n d b oth w ould w ith hold fir e s o th ey c o uld w ork in p eace. T he ta cit c ease -fir e s g re w to in clu de s u pply lin es ( o ff l im its ), l a tr in es ( s a m e), a n d t h e g ath erin g o f c asu altie s a fte r a b attle .

Those in te ra ctio ns so und casu al, but in fa ct each in volv es an em otio nal ex ch an ge of unm is ta k ab le cla rity . O ne sid e sto ps sh ootin g, le av in g its e lf ex pose d . T he o th er sid e se n se s th at ex posu re b ut d oes n oth in g. E ach tim e it hap pen s, b oth e x perie n ce th e re lie f a n d g ra titu de o f s a fe c o nnectio n— th ey s a w me .

The c o nnectio ns g re w . In se v era l se cto rs , c erta in a re as w ere d esig nate d a s “o ut o f b ounds” fo r sn ip er fir e a n d d esig nate d w ith w hite fla g s. O ne E nglis h artille ry u nit s p oke o f its “ p et s n ip er” o n th e G erm an s id e w ho w ould s e n d h is “g ood n ig ht k is s” e v ery n ig ht p ro m ptly a t n in e-fif te en P.M .

, th en s h oot n o m ore until th e fo llo w in g m orn in g. In an oth er se cto r, an E nglis h m ach in e-g unner would s h oot o ut t h e r h yth m o f a p opula r s o ng c alle d “ P olic em an ’s H olid ay ,” a n d his G erm an co unte rp art w ould pro vid e an an sw erin g re fra in .

T he tr e n ch es becam e a p etr i d is h o f b elo ngin g c u es. E ach c u e, b y its e lf , w ould n ot h av e h ad much o f a n i m pact. B ut t o geth er, r e p eate d d ay a fte r d ay , t h ey c o m bin ed t o c re ate co nditio ns t h at s e t t h e s ta g e f o r a d eep er c o nnectio n.

In th e so ld ie rs ’ a cco unts , it’ s p ossib le to se e th ese c o nnectio ns str e n gth en .

One m orn in g a fte r a v io le n t b attle a t th e e n d o f N ovem ber, E dw ard H uls e , a cap ta in in th e S eco nd S co ts G uard , w ro te ab out an im pro m ptu m om en t of em path y.

The m orn in g a fte r t h e a tta ck , t h ere w as a n a lm ost t a cit unders ta n din g a s t o n o f ir in g, a n d a b out 6 :1 5 A.M . I s a w e ig ht o r nin e G erm an s h ould ers a n d h ead s a p pear, a n d t h en t h re e c ra w le d out a f e w f e et i n f ro nt o f t h eir p ara p et a n d b eg an d ra g gin g i n s o m e of o ur f e llo w s w ho w ere e ith er d ead o r u nco nsc io us… .I p asse d dow n t h e o rd er t h at n one o f m y m en w ere t o f ir e a n d t h is s e em s t o hav e b een d one a ll d ow n t h e l in e. I h elp ed o ne o f t h e m en i n myse lf , a n d w as n ot f ir e d o n, a t a ll.

That in cid en t s e em s to h av e a ffe cte d H uls e . S ev era l w eek s la te r, f ro m a p ost beh in d t h e l in es, h e h atc h ed a p la n . H e w ro te :

We r e tu rn t o t h e t r e n ch es t o m orro w , a n d s h all b e i n t h em o n Chris tm as D ay . G erm an s o r n o G erm an s… we a re g oin g t o h av e a ’e ll o f a b ust, i n clu din g p lu m p uddin gs f o r t h e w hole b atta lio n. I hav e g ot a s e le ct l ittle p arty t o geth er, w ho, l e d b y m y s te n to ria n voic e, a re g oin g t o t a k e u p a p ositio n i n o ur t r e n ch es w here w e a re clo se st t o t h e e n em y, a b out 8 0 y ard s, a n d f ro m 1 0 P.M . o nw ard s w e are g oin g t o g iv e t h e e n em y e v ery c o nceiv ab le f o rm o f s o ng i n harm ony, f ro m c aro ls t o T ip pera ry … .M y f e llo w s a re m ost a m use d with t h e i d ea, a n d w ill m ak e a r a re n ois e w hen w e g et a t i t. O ur obje ct w ill b e t o d ro w n t h e n ow f a r t o o f a m ilia r s tr a in s o f “D eu ts c h la n d ü ber A lle s” a n d t h e “ W ach t a m R hein ” w e h ear f ro m th eir t r e n ch es e v ery e v en in g.

The G erm an s r e sp onded w ith th eir o w n b arra g e o f s o ngs. S om e w ere s im ila r, an d th e L atin so ngs w ere id en tic al. F ro m a psy ch olo gic al pers p ectiv e, th ey co nvey ed a m ean in g th at b oth sid es u nders to od, a sh are d b urs t o f b elie f a n d id en tity .

Huls e w alk ed o ut a n d m et h is c o unte rp art, a G erm an m ajo r. T he G erm an s help ed th e E nglis h b ury th eir d ead , a n d th e G erm an c o m man der h an ded H uls e a med al a n d s o m e le tte rs b elo ngin g to a n E nglis h c ap ta in w ho h ad d ie d a n d f a lle n in to th e G erm an tr e n ch a w eek e arlie r. O verc o m e w ith e m otio n, H uls e to ok o ff his s ilk s c arf a n d h an ded it to th e G erm an . “ It w as a b so lu te ly a sto undin g,” h e la te r w ro te , “ an d if I h ad s e en it o n a c in em ato gra p h film I s h ould h av e s w orn th at i t w as f a k ed !” A f e w m ile s a w ay , n ear P lo eg ste ert W ood, C orp ora l J o hn F erg uso n c ro uch ed in h is t r e n ch , t r y in g t o f ig ure o ut w hat w as h ap pen in g. H e l a te r w ro te :

We s h oute d b ack a n d f o rw ard u ntil O ld F ritz [ th e G erm an o ffic er] cla m bere d o ut o f t h e t r e n ch , a n d a cco m pan ie d b y t h re e o th ers o f m y se ctio n, w e w en t o ut t o m eet h im … .“ M ak e f o r t h e l ig ht,” h e c alle d an d a s w e c am e n eare r w e s a w h e h ad h is f la sh l a m p i n h is h an d, puttin g i t i n a n d o ut t o g uid e u s.

We s h ook h an ds, w is h in g e ach o th er a M erry X m as, a n d w ere so on c o nvers in g a s i f w e h ad k now n e ach o th er f o r y ears . W e w ere in f ro nt o f t h eir w ir e e n ta n gle m en ts a n d s u rro unded b y G erm an s— Fritz a n d I i n t h e c en tr e t a lk in g, a n d F ritz o ccasio nally t r a n sla tin g t o his f rie n ds w hat I w as s a y in g. W e s to od i n sid e t h e c ir c le l ik e s tr e et- co rn er o ra to rs … .W here t h ey c o uld n’t t a lk t h e l a n guag e t h ey w ere mak in g t h em se lv es u nders to od b y s ig ns, a n d e v ery one s e em ed t o b e gettin g a lo ng n ic ely . H ere w e w ere l a u ghin g a n d c h attin g t o m en whom o nly a f e w h ours b efo re w e w ere t r y in g t o k ill!

Huls e an d F erg uso n, lik e so m an y o th ers , w ere asto unded . B ut it w as n ot re ally a sto undin g. A t th e p oin t w hen th e E nglis h a n d th e G erm an s s te p ped o ut onto th at f ie ld , th ey h ad a lr e ad y b een in c o nvers a tio n f o r a lo ng tim e, b oth s id es se n din g v olle y s o f b elo ngin g cu es th at lit u p th eir am ygdala s w ith a sim ple messa g e: We a re th e s a m e. W e a re s a fe . I ’ll g o h alfw ay if y o u w ill.

A nd s o th ey did .

*2 The O ne-H our E xp erim ent If y ou h ad to p ic k a n e n vir o nm en t th at is th e o pposite o f th e F la n ders tr e n ch es, you m ig ht p ic k t h e W IP R O c all c en te r i n B an galo re , I n dia . W IP R O i s t h e m odel of a s u ccessfu l c all c en te r. I t is o rg an iz ed . I t is h ig hly e ffic ie n t. T he d ay s c o nsis t of t h e s a m e w ork t h at h ap pen s i n c all c en te rs a ll o ver t h e w orld : A c alle r p hones in w ith is su es ab out a d ev ic e o r a se rv ic e, an d W IP R O ’s ag en ts atte m pt to re m ed y it. W IP R O (p ro nounced W HIP -ro w ) is b y a lm ost e v ery m easu re a n ic e pla ce to w ork . It fe atu re s c o m petitiv e sa la rie s a n d h ig h-q uality fa cilitie s. T he co m pan y tr e ats e m plo yees w ell, p ro vid in g g ood f o od, tr a n sp orta tio n, a n d s o cia l activ itie s. B ut i n t h e l a te 2 000s, W IP R O f o und i ts e lf f a cin g a p ers is te n t p ro ble m :

Its e m plo yees w ere le av in g in d ro ves, a s m an y a s 5 0 to 7 0 p erc en t e ach y ear.

They le ft f o r th e u su al r e aso ns— th ey w ere y oung o r ta k in g a d if fe re n t jo b— an d fo r re aso ns th ey co uld n’t quite artic u la te . A t botto m , th ey la ck ed a str o ng co nnectio n t o t h e g ro up.

WIP R O ’s le ad ers in itia lly tr ie d to fix th in gs b y in cre asin g in cen tiv es. T hey booste d sa la rie s, ad ded perk s, an d to ute d th eir co m pan y’s aw ard as one of In dia ’s b est e m plo yers . A ll th ese m oves m ad e s e n se — but n one o f th em h elp ed .

Em plo yees k ep t l e av in g a t p re cis e ly t h e s a m e r a te a s b efo re . A nd s o i n t h e f a ll o f 2010, w ith th e h elp o f re se arc h ers B ra d le y S ta ats , F ra n cesc o G in o, a n d D an ie l Cab le , t h ey d ecid ed t o e m bark o n a s m all e x perim en t.

The e x perim en t w en t lik e th is : S ev era l h undre d n ew h ir e s w ere d iv id ed in to tw o g ro ups, p lu s th e u su al c o ntr o l g ro up. G ro up o ne re ceiv ed s ta n dard tr a in in g plu s a n a d ditio nal h our th at f o cu se d o n W IP R O ’s id en tity . T hese tr a in ees h eard ab out th e c o m pan y’s s u ccesse s, m et a “ sta r p erfo rm er,” a n d a n sw ere d q uestio ns ab out th eir f ir s t im pre ssio ns o f W IP R O . A t th e e n d o f th e h our, th ey r e ceiv ed a fle ece s w eats h ir t e m bro id ere d w ith t h e c o m pan y’s n am e.

Gro up t w o a ls o r e ceiv ed t h e s ta n dard t r a in in g, p lu s a n a d ditio nal h our f o cu se d not o n th e c o m pan y b ut o n th e e m plo yee. T hese tr a in ees w ere a sk ed q uestio ns lik e What is uniq ue about yo u th at le a ds to yo ur happie st tim es and best perfo rm ances a t w ork ?

I n a b rie f e x erc is e , t h ey w ere a sk ed t o i m ag in e t h ey w ere lo st a t s e a a n d t o c o nsid er w hat s p ecia l s k ills t h ey m ig ht b rin g t o t h e s itu atio n. A t th e e n d o f th e h our, th ey w ere g iv en a f le ece s w eats h ir t e m bro id ere d w ith th eir nam e a lo ngsid e t h e c o m pan y’s n am e.

Sta ats d id n’t e x pect th e e x perim en t to s h ow m uch . H ig h a ttr itio n is th e n orm in th e c all c en te r w orld , a n d W IP R O ’s a ttr itio n ra te s w ere fir m ly in lin e w ith in dustr y av era g es. A nd b esid es, S ta ats w asn ’t in clin ed to b elie v e a o ne-h our in te rv en tio n c o uld m ak e a lo ng-te rm im pact. A fo rm er e n gin eer w ho s p en t th e fir s t y ears o f h is c are er a s a n a n aly st a t G old m an S ach s, h e i s n ’t s o m e p ie -in -th e- sk y a cad em ic . H e k now s h ow t h in gs w ork i n t h e r e al w orld .

“I w as p re tty s u re t h at o ur e x perim en t w as g oin g t o s h ow a s m all e ffe ct, i f a n y at all,” S ta ats sa y s. “I sa w th e o nboard in g p ro cess in ra tio nal, tr a n sa ctio nal, in fo rm atio nal te rm s. Y ou s h ow u p a t a n ew jo b o n th e fir s t d ay , a n d th ere ’s a str a ig htf o rw ard p ro cess w here y ou le arn h ow to a ct, h ow to b eh av e, a n d th at’ s all t h ere i s t o i t.” Sev en m onth s la te r th e num bers cam e in , an d S ta ats w as, as he puts it, “co m ple te ly s h ock ed .” T ra in ees fro m g ro up tw o w ere 2 50 p erc en t m ore lik ely th an th ose fro m g ro up o ne a n d 1 57 p erc en t m ore lik ely th an th ose fro m th e co ntr o l gro up to still be w ork in g at W IP R O . The hour of tr a in in g had tr a n sfo rm ed g ro up tw o’s r e la tio nsh ip w ith th e c o m pan y. T hey w en t f ro m b ein g nonco m mitta l t o b ein g e n gag ed o n a f a r d eep er l e v el. T he q uestio n w as w hy.

The a n sw er is b elo ngin g c u es. T he tr a in ees in g ro up o ne r e ceiv ed z ero s ig nals th at re d uced th e in te rp ers o nal d is ta n ce b etw een th em se lv es a n d W IP R O . T hey re ceiv ed lo ts o f in fo rm atio n ab out W IP R O an d sta r p erfo rm ers , p lu s a n ic e co m pan y s w eats h ir t, b ut n oth in g t h at a lte re d t h at f u ndam en ta l d is ta n ce.

The gro up tw o tr a in ees, on th e oth er han d, re ceiv ed a ste ad y str e am of in div id ualiz ed , fu tu re -o rie n te d , am ygdala -a ctiv atin g b elo ngin g cu es.

A ll th ese sig nals w ere sm all— a pers o nal questio n ab out th eir best tim es at w ork , an ex erc is e th at r e v eale d th eir in div id ual s k ills , a s w eats h ir t e m bro id ere d w ith th eir nam e. T hese sig nals d id n’t ta k e m uch tim e to d eliv er, b ut th ey m ad e a h uge dif fe re n ce b ecau se th ey c re ate d a fo undatio n o f p sy ch olo gic al s a fe ty th at b uilt co nnectio n a n d i d en tity .

“M y o ld w ay o f th in kin g a b out th is is su e w as w ro ng,” S ta ats s a y s. “ It tu rn s out t h at t h ere a re a w hole b unch o f e ffe cts t h at t a k e p la ce w hen w e a re p le ase d t o be a p art o f a g ro up, w hen w e a re p art o f c re atin g a n a u th en tic s tr u ctu re f o r u s t o be m ore ours e lv es. A ll so rts of ben efic ia l th in gs pla y out fro m th ose fir s t in te ra ctio ns.” I t a lk ed w ith D ilip K um ar, o ne o f t h e o rig in al W IP R O tr a in ees w ho h ad ta k en part in th e e x perim en t. I e x pecte d h im to s h are v iv id m em orie s o f th e s e ssio n, but ta lk in g to h im a b out h is o rie n ta tio n w as a lo t lik e ta lk in g to J e ff D ean a b out fix in g th e A dW ord s en gin e: H is se n se o f b elo ngin g w as so str o ng th at h e’d basic ally f o rg otte n t h at t h e e x perim en t h ad e v er h ap pen ed . “ T o b e h onest, I d on’t re m em ber m uch a b out th at d ay , b ut I r e m em ber it f e lt m otiv atin g,” s a id K um ar.

He la u ghed . “I guess it m ust hav e w ork ed , becau se I am still here , an d I defin ite ly l ik e i t.” The O pposit e o f B elo ngin g While it’ s u se fu l to sp en d tim e w ith su ccessfu l c u ltu re s, it’ s e q ually u se fu l to tr a v el to th e o th er e n d o f th e s p ectr u m , to e x am in e c u ltu re s th at fa il. T he m ost in str u ctiv e m ay b e th ose w here th e g ro up fa ils w ith su ch co nsis te n cy th at it ap pro ach es a kin d of perfe ctio n. T his is w here w e fin d th e sto ry of th e Min ute m an m is sile ers .

The M in ute m an m is sile ers a re th e 7 50 o r s o m en a n d w om en w ho w ork a s nucle ar m is sile la u nch o ffic ers . T hey a re s ta tio ned a t re m ote a ir fo rc e b ase s in Wyom in g, M onta n a, an d N orth D ak ota , an d th eir jo b, fo r w hic h th ey are ex te n siv ely tr a in ed , is to c o ntr o l s o m e o f th e m ost p ow erfu l w eap ons o n e arth , 450 M in ute m an III m is sile s. T he m is sile s are six ty fe et ta ll, w eig h 80,0 00 pounds, a n d c an tr a v el 1 5,0 00 m ile s p er h our to a n y s p ot o n th e g lo be w ith in th ir ty m in ute s, each d eliv erin g tw en ty tim es m ore ex plo siv e en erg y th an th e Hir o sh im a b om b.

The m is sile ers a re p art o f a sy ste m d esig ned in th e la te 1 940s b y G en era l Curtis LeM ay , a la rg er-th an -lif e fig ure w hose m is sio n w as to m ak e th e Am eric an n ucle ar f o rc e a p erfe ctly f u nctio nin g m ach in e. “ E very m an a c o uplin g or tu be; ev ery o rg an iz atio n a ra m part o f tr a n sis to rs , b atte ry o f co nden se rs ,” LeM ay w ro te . “ A ll ru bbed u p, n o c o rro sio n. A le rt.” L eM ay w as c alle d “ T he Toughest C op o f th e W este rn W orld ” b y Life m ag azin e, a n d h is c o nfid en ce w as unbounded . O ne tim e h e s te p ped in to a b om ber w ith a lit c ig ar. W hen a c re w mem ber w arn ed him th at th e bom ber m ig ht ex plo de, LeM ay re p lie d , “It would n’t d are .” LeM ay ’s s y ste m w ork ed w ell e n ough f o r s e v era l d ecad es. B ut in r e cen t y ears fa ilu re s b eg an t o o ccu r w ith i n cre asin g r e g ula rity :

• August 2 007: C re w s a t M in ot A ir F orc e B ase m is ta k en ly l o ad ed s ix nucle ar-tip ped c ru is e m is sile s o nto a B -5 2 b om ber, f le w t h em t o B ark sd ale Air F orc e B ase i n L ouis ia n a, a n d a llo w ed t h em t o s it u natte n ded o n a ru nw ay f o r s e v era l h ours .

• Decem ber 2 007: M in ot’ s m is sile l a u nch c re w s f a ile d t h e s u bse q uen t in sp ectio n. I n sp ecto rs n ote d t h at a t t h e t im e o f t h e v is it s o m e o f M in ot’ s se cu rity p ers o nnel w ere p la y in g v id eo g am es o n t h eir c ellp hones.

• 2008: A P en ta g on r e p ort n ote d “ a d ra m atic a n d u naccep ta b le d eclin e” i n th e a ir f o rc e’s c o m mitm en t t o t h e n ucle ar m is sio n. O ne P en ta g on o ffic ia l was q uote d a s s a y in g, “ It m ak es t h e h air s ta n d u p o n t h e b ack o f m y n eck .” • 2009: T hir ty t o ns o f s o lid r o ck et b ooste rs e n ded u p i n a d itc h n ear M in ot when t h e t r a cto r-tr a ile r c arry in g t h em d ro ve o ff t h e r o ad .

• 2012: A f e d era lly f u nded s tu dy r e v eale d h ig h l e v els o f b urn out, f ru str a tio n, ag gra v atio n, a n d s p ousa l a b use i n t h e m is sile er f o rc e, a n d i t s h ow ed t h at co urt- m artia l r a te s i n t h e n ucle ar m is sile f o rc e w ere m ore t h an t w ic e a s hig h a s i n t h e r e st o f t h e a ir f o rc e. A s o ne m is sile er t o ld r e se arc h ers , “ W e don’t c are i f t h in gs g o p ro perly . W e j u st d on’t w an t t o g et i n to t r o uble .” • 2013: M is sile o ffic ers a t M in ot A ir F orc e B ase r e ceiv ed a “ m arg in al” ra tin g— th e e q uiv ale n t o f a D g ra d e— when t h re e o f t h e e le v en c re w s w ere ra te d “ u nqualif ie d .” N in ete en o ffic ers w ere r e m oved f ro m l a u nch d uty a n d fo rc ed t o r e ta k e p ro fic ie n cy t e sts . L ie u te n an t G en era l J a m es K ow als k i, co m man der o f t h e n ucle ar f o rc es, s a y s t h at t h e g re ate st n ucle ar t h re at t o Am eric a “ is a n a ccid en t. T he g re ate st r is k t o m y f o rc e i s d oin g s o m eth in g stu pid .” • 2014: M in ute m an m ain te n an ce c re w s c au se d a n a ccid en t i n volv in g a nucle ar-a rm ed m is sile i n i ts s ilo .

Every tim e a f a ilu re o ccu rre d , c o m man ders r e sp onded b y c ra ck in g d ow n. A s Gen era l K ow als k i p ut i t, “ T his i s n ot a t r a in in g p ro ble m . T his i s s o m e p eo ple o ut th ere h av in g a p ro ble m w ith d is c ip lin e.” A fte r th e str in g o f in cid en ts in th e sp rin g o f 2 013, L ie u te n an t C olo nel J a y F old s w ro te t o th e c o m bat c re w a t M in ot th at th ey h ad “ fa lle n … an d it’ s tim e to s ta n d o urs e lv es b ack u p.” H e d esc rib ed “ro t in th e c re w f o rc e” a n d th e n eed to “ cru sh a n y r u le s v io la to rs .” “ W e n eed to hit t h e r e se t b utto n a n d r e str u ctu re t h e c re w f o rc e t o t a k e y ou o ut o f y our c o m fo rt zo nes ( w hic h a re r o tte n c o m fo rt z o nes) a n d r e b uild f ro m th e g ro und u p,” F old s wro te . “ T urn th e T V s o ff a n d w ork h ard o n y our p ro fic ie n cy … .Y ou b ette r b rin g your A -g am e e v ery d ay . Y ou m ust b e r e ad y, o n a m om en t’ s n otic e, f o r a n y e v al, an y te st, a n y f ie ld v is it, a n y c ertif ic atio n, e tc . G one is th e a cad em ic e n vir o nm en t of t h e p ast ( o r t h e e n vir o nm en t w here w e h an ded t h in gs t o y ou o n a s ilv er p la tte r becau se w e th ought th at’ s th e w ay y ou ta k e c are o f th e c re w fo rc e)… .B rin g to my atte n tio n im med ia te ly an y offic er w ho bad m outh s a se n io r offic er, or bad m outh s th e new cu ltu re we’re tr y in g to re co nstr u ct. There will be co nse q uen ces!” Fro m afa r, it lo oked lik e an im pre ssiv e, all- h an ds-o n-d eck , get- to ugh re sp onse . T he p ro ble m w as, n one o f it w ork ed . T he m is ta k es k ep t h ap pen in g. A fe w m onth s a fte r th e F old s m an if e sto , M ajo r G en era l M ic h ael C are y , w ho w as re sp onsib le fo r o vers e ein g th e n atio n’s in te rc o ntin en ta l b allis tic m is sile s, w as fir e d f o r m is c o nduct d urin g a n o ffic ia l tr ip to M osc o w .

*3 S oon a fte rw ard a n a ir fo rc e in vestig atio n a t M alm str o m A ir F orc e B ase im plic ate d tw o m is sile ers o n ch arg es o f ille g al p osse ssio n, u se , a n d d is tr ib utio n o f c o cain e, e csta sy , a n d b ath sa lts . W hen in vestig ato rs e x am in ed th e c ellp hones o f th e a ccu se d o ffic ers , th ey unco vere d an ela b ora te sy ste m fo r ch eatin g on pro fic ie n cy te sts , sp ark in g an oth er in vestig atio n th at en ded up im plic atin g th ir ty -fo ur of M alm str o m ’s mis sile ers , p lu s s ix ty m ore w ho k new a b out t h e c h eatin g a n d f a ile d t o r e p ort i t.

Every one a g re es th at m is sile er c u ltu re is b ro ken . T he d eep er q uestio n is w hy.

If y ou t h in k a b out c u ltu re a s a n e x te n sio n o f a g ro up’s c h ara cte r— its D NA— you te n d to s e e th e m is sile ers a s la zy , s e lf is h , a n d la ck in g in c h ara cte r. T his le ad s to th e ty pe o f g et- to ugh re m ed ie s th e air fo rc e le ad ers h ip atte m pte d , an d th eir fa ilu re le av es y ou o nly to c o nfir m th e o rig in al a ssu m ptio n: T he m is sile ers a re la zy , i m matu re , a n d s e lf is h .

How ev er, if w e lo ok a t m is sile er c u ltu re th ro ugh th e le n s o f b elo ngin g c u es, th e p ic tu re s h if ts .

B elo ngin g c u es h av e to d o n ot w ith c h ara cte r o r d is c ip lin e b ut with b uild in g a n e n vir o nm en t th at a n sw ers b asic q uestio ns: Are w e c o nnecte d ?

Do w e s h are a f u tu re ?

Are w e s a fe ? Let’ s t a k e t h em o ne b y o ne.

Are w e c o nnecte d ?

I t i s h ard t o c o nceiv e o f a s itu atio n o f l e ss p hysic al, s o cia l, an d e m otio nal c o nnectio n th an th at o f th e m is sile ers . T hey s p en d tw en ty -fo ur- hour ro ta tio ns p air e d u p in c h illy , c ra m ped m is sile silo s w ith E is e n how er-e ra te ch nolo gy. “ T hese th in gs h av e b een liv ed in c o ntin uously f o r f o rty y ears ,” o ne mis sile er to ld m e. “ T hey g et c le an ed b ut n ot r e ally . S ew ag e lin es a re c o rro din g.

Asb esto s i s e v ery w here . P eo ple h ate b ein g t h ere .” Do w e sh are a fu tu re ?

W hen th e silo s w ere b uilt, th e m is sile ers w ere as cru cia l a p art o f A m eric a’s d efe n se a s th eir p ilo t b re th re n ; re ceiv in g a la u nch ord er f ro m th e p re sid en t w as a r e al p ossib ility . S erv in g a s a m is sile er f u nctio ned as a s te p pin g-s to ne fo r a c are er in s p ace c o m man d, a ir c o m bat c o m man d, a n d oth er a re as. B ut t h e e n d o f t h e C old W ar c h an ged t h e m is sile ers ’ f u tu re . T hey a re tr a in in g f o r a m is sio n th at n o lo nger e x is ts . N ot s u rp ris in gly , c are er p ath s o ut o f mis sile s h av e d w in dle d o r v an is h ed e n tir e ly .

“T he w ritin g’s o n t h e w all,” s a y s B ru ce B la ir , a f o rm er m is sile er w ho i s n ow a re se arc h sc h ola r a t th e P ro gra m o n S cie n ce a n d G lo bal S ecu rity a t P rin ceto n.

“N o o ne w an ts to s ta y in m is sile s. T here ’s n o c h an ce o f p ro m otio n. Y ou’re n ot goin g to m ak e g en era l c o m in g th ro ugh m is sile s. W hat’ s m ore , th e c o m man d h as sh ut dow n so m e of th e optio ns of cro ss-tr a in in g out of nucle ar in to oth er co m man ds, w hic h h as d eliv ere d th e m essa g e th at y ou g uys are stu ck o n th e is la n d o f m is fit t o ys.” “F or th e fir s t c o uple m onth s it’ s k in d o f e x citin g,” a n oth er fo rm er m is sile er to ld m e. “ B ut t h e s h in e s ta rts t o c o m e o ff p re tty q uic k ly . Y ou d o i t o ver a n d o ver ag ain . Y ou r e aliz e, t h is i s n ot g oin g t o c h an ge, t h is i s n ev er g oin g t o c h an ge.” Are w e s a fe ?

T he b ig gest r is k in th e m is sile er’s w orld is n ot th e m is sile s b ut th e co nsta n t b arra g e o f p ro fic ie n cy , certif ic atio n, an d n ucle ar-re ad in ess te sts , each o f w hic h re q uir e s n ear-p erfe ctio n a n d e ach o f w hic h m ig ht sc u ttle th eir care er. T hese te sts o fte n in volv e m em oriz in g a f iv e-in ch -th ic k b in der f ille d w ith tw o-s id ed s h eets o f la u nch c o des. M is sile ers m ust s c o re 1 00 p erc en t o n c erta in portio ns o f t h e t e sts , o r e ls e t h ey f a il.

“T he c h eck lis ts a re i m possib ly l o ng a n d d eta ile d , b iz arre ly r ig id a n d s tr ic t. I t’ s basic ally in hum an ,” B la ir sa y s. “Y ou’re eith er p erfe ct o r y ou’re a b um . T he re su lt is th at w hen y ou g et o ut o f th e s p otlig ht o f th e a u th ority a n d tr a v el to a re m ote u nderg ro und la u nch c o ntr o l c en te r w ith o ne o th er p ers o n, y ou c lo se th at eig ht- to n b la st d oor b eh in d y ou. A ll th e sta n dard s g et d ro pped , a n d y ou sta rt ta k in g s h ortc u ts .” As o ne m is sile er to ld m e, “ E very d ev ia tio n is tr e ate d a s if it’ s v io la tin g a pre sid en tia l la u nch o rd er. M ak e a c ritic al e rro r? Y ou’re d one. Y ou’re th e s h itty guy. T here i s n o s u ch t h in g a s d oin g a n o uts ta n din g j o b. Y ou e ith er d o i t r ig ht, o r you get punis h ed . If you ad m it a m is ta k e or ask fo r help , you ru in your re p uta tio n. E very one w alk s a ro und lik e s c are d p uppie s. S o y ou g et a fe ed back lo op. S om eth in g b ad h ap pen s, e v ery body s c re am s a n d y ells , th en th ey in stitu te more e v alu atio ns, w hic h m ak es e v ery body m ore d em ora liz ed , m ore t ir e d , s o y ou mak e m ore m is ta k es.” It a ll a d ds u p to a p erfe ctly d esig ned s to rm o f a n tib elo ngin g c u es, w here th ere is n o c o nnectio n, n o f u tu re , a n d n o s a fe ty . S een in th is w ay , m is sile er c u ltu re is not a r e su lt o f a n in te rn al la ck o f d is c ip lin e a n d c h ara cte r b ut o f a n e n vir o nm en t cu sto m -b uilt t o d estr o y c o hesio n. I n deed , t h e f o rm er l a u nch o ffic ers I s p oke w ith were s m art, e lo quen t, th oughtf u l p eo ple w ho s e em ed to h av e fo und s u ccessfu l an d fu lf illin g liv es o nce th ey le ft th e b ro ken m is sile er c u ltu re . T he d if fe re n ce wasn ’t i n t h e c o nte n t o f t h eir c h ara cte r. I t w as i n t h e l a ck o f s a fe ty a n d b elo ngin g in t h eir c u ltu re .

It’ s u se fu l to c o ntr a st th e m is sile ers ’ d ysfu nctio nal c u ltu re w ith th at o f th eir nav y co unte rp arts w ho w ork in n ucle ar su bm arin es. A t fir s t g la n ce, th e tw o gro ups s e em r o ughly s im ila r: B oth s p en d v ast a m ounts o f tim e is o la te d f ro m th e re st o f s o cie ty , b oth a re t a sk ed w ith m em oriz in g a n d e x ecu tin g t e d io us p ro to co ls , an d b oth a re o rie n te d to w ard C old W ar n ucle ar d ete rre n ce m is sio ns w hose tim e has p asse d . W here t h ey d if fe r, h ow ev er, i s i n t h e d en sity o f t h e b elo ngin g c u es i n th eir re sp ectiv e en vir o nm en ts . Sailo rs in su bm arin es hav e clo se physic al pro xim ity , ta k e p art in p urp ose fu l a ctiv ity (g lo bal p atr o ls th at in clu de m is sio ns bey ond d ete rre n ce), a n d a re p art o f a c are er p ath w ay th at c an le ad to th e h ig hest positio ns i n t h e n av y. P erh ap s a s a r e su lt, t h e n ucle ar s u bm arin e f le et h as t h us f a r mostly a v oid ed th e k in ds o f p ro ble m s th at p la g ue th e m is sile ers , a n d in m an y case s h av e d ev elo ped h ig h-p erfo rm in g c u ltu re s.

So fa r w e’v e e x plo re d th e p ro cess fo r c re atin g b elo ngin g. N ow w e’ll tu rn to th e m ore p ra ctic al q uestio n o f a p ply in g th is p ro cess in th e r e al w orld . W e’ll d o th is b y m eetin g tw o le ad ers w ho b uild b elo ngin g in th eir g ro ups u sin g v astly dif fe re n t b ut e q ually e ffe ctiv e m eth ods. F ir s t, a b ask etb all c o ach w ill g iv e u s a n up-c lo se in sig ht in to th e s k ill o f b uild in g r e la tio nsh ip s. T hen a n u nco nven tio nal re ta il b illio nair e w ill e x pla in h ow h e c re ate s b elo ngin g a t a h ig her le v el th ro ugh sy ste m s a n d d esig n. *1 One s o ld ie r w ho d id n’t a p pre cia te t h e t r u ce w as G erm an c o rp ora l A dolf H itle r, w ho w as i n r e se rv e n ear th e F la n ders f ro nt. “ S uch a t h in g s h ould n ot h ap pen i n w artim e,” h e i s a lle g ed t o h av e s a id t o h is f e llo w so ld ie rs w ho j o in ed i n .

“ H av e y ou n o G erm an s e n se o f h onor l e ft a t a ll? ” *2 The f in al c h ap te r o f t h is s to ry i s l e ss i n sp ir in g b ut e q ually i n fo rm ativ e. T he g en era ls o n b oth s id es, o n le arn in g o f t h e t r u ce, p ut a s to p t o i t w ith r e la tiv e e ase . T hey o rd ere d r a id s, r o ta te d t r o ops t o s to p fra te rn iz atio n, a n d s w if tly d estr o yed t h e f o undatio n o f b elo ngin g t h at h ad b een s o i n cre m en ta lly b uilt. T he fo llo w in g C hris tm as b oth s id es f o ught a s u su al.

*3 Here i s a n e x cerp t f ro m t h e f o rty -tw o-p ag e a ir f o rc e r e p ort o n C are y ’s m is c o nduct: “ [C are y ] a p peare d dru nk a n d, i n t h e p ublic a re a [ o f t h e Z uric h a ir p ort] , t a lk ed l o udly a b out t h e i m porta n ce o f h is p ositio n a s co m man der o f t h e o nly o pera tio nal n ucle ar f o rc e i n t h e w orld a n d t h at h e s a v es t h e w orld f ro m w ar e v ery day .” I n M osc o w , h e d ra n k h eav ily a n d d urin g a m onaste ry t o ur a tte m pte d t o f is t- b um p h is R ussia n t o ur guid e. H e r e p eate d ly i n te rru pte d h is h osts d urin g t h eir c ere m onia l t o asts t o m ak e h is o w n. H e s o ught o ut th e c o m pan y o f t h ose h e c alle d “ tw o h ot w om en ” a n d a cco m pan ie d t h em t o a b ar c alle d L a C an tin a.

Acco rd in g t o t h e r e p ort, h e k ep t a sk in g t h e b an d t o a llo w h im t o c o m e o nsta g e t o s in g a n d p la y g uita r with t h em . T he r e p ort n ote s, “ T he b an d d id n ot a llo w M aj. G en . C are y t o p la y w ith t h em .” T he R ela tio nsh ip M ake r A w hile b ack a w rite r n am ed N eil P ain e s e t o ut to d ete rm in e w ho w as th e b est N atio nal B ask etb all A sso cia tio n co ach of th e m odern era . H e dev is e d an a lg orith m th at u se d p la y er p erfo rm an ce m etr ic s to p re d ic t h ow m an y g am es a t e am sh ould w in . H e c ru nch ed n um bers fo r e v ery N BA c o ach sin ce 1 979 in o rd er to m easu re “w in s ab ove ex pecta tio n”— th at is , th e n um ber o f tim es a c o ach ’s te am w on a g am e th at, m easu re d b y th eir p la y ers ’ s k ills , th ey h ad n o b usin ess w in nin g. H e t h en p lo tte d t h e r e su lts o n a g ra p h.

For th e m ost p art, P ain e’s g ra p h p ortr a y s a n o rd erly a n d p re d ic ta b le w orld .

T he v ast m ajo rity o f c o ach es w in r o ughly t h e n um ber o f g am es t h ey s h ould w in , g iv en th eir p la y ers ’ ab ilitie s— ex cep t fo r o ne. H is n am e is G re g g P opovic h .

C oach o f t h e S an A nto nio S purs , h e r e sid es a lo ne a t t h e f a r r e ach es o f t h e g ra p h, a p la n et u nto h im se lf . U nder h is le ad ers h ip , th e S purs h av e w on n o fe w er th an 1 17 g am es m ore t h an t h ey s h ould h av e, a r a te m ore t h an d ouble t h at o f t h e n ex t- n eare st co ach . T his is w hy th e S purs ra n k as th e m ost su ccessfu l te am in A m eric an s p orts o ver th e la st tw o d ecad es, w in nin g fiv e c h am pio nsh ip s a n d a h ig her perc en ta g e of gam es th an th e N ew E ngla n d Patr io ts , th e St. L ouis C ard in als , o r a n y o th er sto rie d fra n ch is e . T he title o f P ain e’s g ra p h is “ G re g g P opovic h I s I m possib le .” It’ s n ot h ard to f ig ure o ut w hy P opovic h ’s te am s w in , b ecau se th e e v id en ce is i n p la in v ie w o n th e c o urt. T he S purs c o nsis te n tly p erfo rm th e th ousa n d little u nse lf is h b eh av io rs — th e e x tr a p ass, th e a le rt d efe n se , th e tir e le ss h ustle — th at p uts t h e t e am ’s i n te re st a b ove t h eir o w n.

*1 “ S elf le ss,” L eB ro n J a m es s a id . “ G uys move, c u t, p ass, y ou’v e g ot a s h ot, y ou ta k e it. B ut it’ s a ll f o r th e te am a n d it’ s nev er a b out th e in div id ual.” P la y in g a g ain st th em , sa id M arc in G orta t o f th e Wash in gto n W iz ard s, “ w as l ik e l is te n in g t o M ozart.” W hat’ s h ard t o f ig ure o ut i s how P opovic h d oes i t.

Popovic h , s ix ty -e ig ht, is a h ard -c o re , o ld -s c h ool, u nap olo getic a u th orita ria n , a ste el- s p in ed p ro duct o f th e A ir F orc e A cad em y w ho v alu es d is c ip lin e a b ove a ll.

His dis p ositio n has been co m pare d to th at of a dysp ep tic bulld og, an d he posse sse s a te m per th at c o uld b e d esc rib ed a s “ v olc an ic ,” w ith m uch o f th e la v a bein g fu nnele d a t h is s ta r p la y ers . S om e o f h is m ore m em ora b le e ru ptio ns a re co lle cte d o n Y ouT ube, u nder t itle s s u ch a s “ P opovic h Y ells a n d D estr o ys T hia g o Splitte r,” “ P opovic h T ells D an ny G re en to S hut th e F — U p,” a n d “ P opovic h Furio us a t T ony P ark er.” In sh ort, h e e m bodie s a rid dle : H ow d oes a c ra n ky, dem an din g c o ach c re ate t h e m ost c o hesiv e t e am i n a ll o f s p orts ?

One c o m mon a n sw er i s t h at t h e S purs a re s m art a b out d ra ftin g a n d d ev elo pin g unse lf is h , hard w ork in g, te am -o rie n te d in div id uals . This is a te m ptin g ex pla n atio n, b ecau se th e S purs c le arly m ak e a c o ncerte d e ffo rt to se le ct h ig h- ch ara cte r in div id uals .

(T heir sc o utin g te m pla te in clu des a ch eck b ox la b ele d “N ot a S pur.” A c h eck in th is b ox m ean s th e p la y er w ill n ot b e p urs u ed , n o matte r h ow t a le n te d h e i s .) But o n c lo se r e x am in atio n, th is e x pla n atio n d oesn ’t a d d u p. M an y o th er N BA te am s m ak e s im ila r e ffo rts to id en tif y , s e le ct, a n d d ev elo p h ard w ork in g, te am - orie n te d , h ig h-c h ara cte r in div id uals . A nd b esid es, a s ig nif ic an t n um ber o f S purs do not ex actly fit th e E ag le Sco ut pro file . W hen B oris D ia w pla y ed fo r Charlo tte , fo r in sta n ce, h e w as critic iz ed fo r b ein g la zy , p arty -o rie n te d , an d overw eig ht; P atty M ills w as r e le ase d b y h is C hin ese te am f o r a lle g ed ly f a k in g a ham str in g in ju ry ; a n d D an ny G re en w as c u t b y C le v ela n d, in p art, f o r h is c asu al ap pro ach t o t e am d efe n se .

So t h e S purs a re n ot s im ply s e le ctin g u nse lf is h p la y ers o r f o rc in g t h em t o p la y th is w ay . S om eth in g is m ak in g th eir pla y ers — ev en th ose w ho w ere se lf is h els e w here — beh av e u nse lf is h ly w hen th ey p ut o n a S purs je rs e y . T he q uestio n is what t h at s o m eth in g i s .

— It’ s th e m orn in g o f A pril 4 , 2 014, a n d th e m ood in th e S an A nto nio p ra ctic e fa cility is te n se . T he n ig ht b efo re , in o ne o f th e m ost im porta n t g am es o f th e re g ula r s e aso n, t h e S purs w ere t h um ped 1 06–94 b y t h eir a rc h riv al, t h e O kla h om a City T hunder. T he p ro ble m , h ow ev er, w as n ot th e lo ss b ut th e m an ner in w hic h it h ad o ccu rre d . T he g am e h ad s ta rte d o ut p ro m is in gly , w ith t h e S purs r a cin g t o a 20–9 le ad . T hen th e te am h ad im plo ded in a b liz zard o f m is se s a n d tu rn overs , in clu din g s e v era l b y g uard M arc o B elin elli. I t a d ded u p to b e p re cis e ly th e k in d of d em ora liz in g l o ss t h e t e am w an te d t o a v oid a s t h e p la y -o ffs a p pro ach ed . N ow , as p ra ctic e b eg in s, t h ere i s a t ig htn ess i n t h e a ir , a t a ste o f u nease .

Gre g g P opovic h w alk s in . H e’s w earin g a m is sh ap en T -s h ir t fro m Jo rd an ’s Snack B ar in E lls w orth , M ain e, a n d sh orts a c o uple siz es to o b ig . H is h air is sp are a n d f riz zy , a n d h e i s c arry in g a p ap er p la te w ith f ru it a n d a p la stic f o rk , h is fa ce se t in a lo psid ed g rin . H e lo oks le ss lik e a c o m man din g g en era l th an a dis h ev ele d u ncle a t a p ic n ic . T hen h e s e ts d ow n h is p la te a n d b eg in s to m ove aro und th e g ym , ta lk in g to p la y ers . H e to uch es th em o n th e e lb ow , th e s h ould er, th e a rm . H e c h ats in s e v era l la n guag es. (T he S purs in clu de p la y ers fro m s e v en co untr ie s.) H e la u ghs. H is e y es a re b rig ht, k now in g, a ctiv e. W hen h e re ach es Belin elli, h is s m ile g ets b ig ger a n d m ore lo psid ed . H e e x ch an ges a fe w w ord s, an d w hen B elin elli j o kes b ack , t h ey e n gag e i n a b rie f m ock -w re stlin g m atc h . I t i s a s tr a n ge s ig ht. A w hite -h air e d s ix ty -fiv e-y ear-o ld c o ach w re stlin g a c u rly -h air e d six -fo ot- fiv e I ta lia n .

“I’m s u re th at w as th ought a b out b efo re h an d,” s a y s R . C . B ufo rd , th e S purs ’ gen era l m an ag er, w ho h as w ork ed w ith P opovic h f o r tw en ty y ears . “ H e w an te d to m ak e su re B elin elli w as okay . That’ s th e w ay Pop ap pro ach es ev ery re la tio nsh ip . H e f ills t h eir c u ps.” When P opovic h w an ts t o c o nnect w ith a p la y er, h e m oves i n t ig ht e n ough t h at th eir n ose s n early to uch ; it’ s a lm ost lik e a c h alle n ge— an in tim acy c o nte st. A s warm -u ps c o ntin ue, h e k eep s r o vin g, c o nnectin g. A f o rm er p la y er w alk s u p, a n d Popovic h b eam s, h is f a ce l ig htin g u p i n a t o oth y g rin . T hey t a lk f o r f iv e m in ute s, catc h in g u p o n lif e , k id s, a n d te am mate s.

“ L ove y ou, b ro th er,” P opovic h s a y s a s th ey p art.

“A lo t o f c o ach es c an y ell o r b e n ic e, b ut w hat P op d oes is d if fe re n t,” s a y s assis ta n t c o ach C hip E ngella n d. “ H e d eliv ers t w o t h in gs o ver a n d o ver: H e’ll t e ll you t h e t r u th , w ith n o b ulls h it, a n d t h en h e’ll l o ve y ou t o d eath .” Popovic h ’s re la tio nsh ip w ith lo ngtim e S purs sta r T im D uncan is a c ase in poin t. B efo re se le ctin g D uncan w ith th e fir s t o vera ll p ic k in th e 1 997 d ra ft, Popovic h f le w to D uncan ’s h om e in S t. C ro ix , U .S . V ir g in Is la n ds, to m eet th e co lle g e s ta r. T hey d id n’t ju st m eet— th ey s p en t fo ur d ay s to geth er tr a v elin g th e is la n d, v is itin g D uncan ’s f a m ily a n d f rie n ds, s w im min g i n t h e o cean , a n d t a lk in g ab out e v ery th in g u nder th e s u n e x cep t b ask etb all. T his is n ot a n orm al th in g f o r co ach es a n d p la y ers to d o; m ost c o ach es a n d p la y ers in te ra ct in sh ort, h ig hly calc u la te d b urs ts . B ut P opovic h w an te d to c o nnect, to d ig in a n d s e e if D uncan was th e k in d o f p ers o n w ho w as to ugh, u nse lf is h , a n d h um ble e n ough to b uild a te am a ro und. D uncan a n d P opovic h e v olv ed in to w hat a m ounts to a fa th er-s o n re la tio nsh ip , a h ig h-tr u st, n o-b ulls h it c o nnectio n th at p ro vid es a v iv id m odel f o r oth er p la y ers , e sp ecia lly w hen it c o m es to a b so rb in g P opovic h ’s h ig h-v olu m e tr u th -te llin g. A s m ore th an o ne S pur p ut it, I f T im c an ta k e P op’s c o ach in g, h ow can I n ot t a k e i t?

A f e w m in ute s e arlie r th e S purs h ad g ath ere d in th e v id eo r o om to r e v ie w th e Okla h om a C ity g am e. T hey h ad s a t d ow n w ith tr e p id atio n, e x pectin g P opovic h to d eta il th e s in s o f th e p re v io us n ig ht, to s h ow th em w hat th ey d id w ro ng a n d what th ey c o uld d o b ette r. B ut w hen P opovic h c lic k ed o n th e v id eo , th e s c re en flic k ere d w ith a C N N d ocu m en ta ry o n th e fif tie th an niv ers a ry o f th e V otin g Rig hts A ct. T he te am w atc h ed in s ile n ce a s th e s to ry u nfo ld ed : M artin L uth er Kin g, J r., L yndon J o hnso n, a n d th e S elm a m arc h es. W hen it w as o ver, P opovic h ask ed q uestio ns. H e a lw ay s a sk s q uestio ns, a n d th ose q uestio ns a re a lw ay s th e sa m e: p ers o nal, d ir e ct, f o cu se d o n t h e b ig p ic tu re . What d id y o u t h in k o f i t? W hat would y o u h ave d one i n t h at s itu atio n?

The pla y ers th ought, an sw ere d , nodded . The ro om sh if te d an d becam e so m eth in g o f a s e m in ar, a c o nvers a tio n. T hey ta lk ed . T hey w ere n ot s u rp ris e d becau se o n th e S purs th is k in d o f th in g h ap pen s a ll th e tim e. P opovic h w ould cre ate s im ila r c o nvers a tio ns o n th e w ar in S yria , o r a c h an ge o f g overn m en t in Arg en tin a, g ay m arria g e, i n stitu tio nal r a cis m , t e rro ris m — it d oesn ’t r e ally m atte r, as lo ng a s it d eliv ers th e m essa g e h e w an ts it to d eliv er: T here a re b ig ger th in gs th an b ask etb all t o w hic h w e a re a ll c o nnecte d .

“It’ s s o e asy to b e in su la te d w hen y ou’re a p ro fe ssio nal a th le te ,” B ufo rd s a y s.

“P op u se s th ese m om en ts to c o nnect u s. H e lo ves th at w e c o m e fro m s o m an y dif fe re n t p la ces. T hat c o uld p ull u s a p art, b ut h e m ak es s u re t h at e v ery body f e els co nnecte d a n d e n gag ed t o s o m eth in g b ig ger.” “H ug ’e m a n d h old ’e m ” is th e w ay P opovic h o fte n p uts it to h is a ssis ta n t co ach es. “ W e g otta h ug ’ e m a n d h old ’ e m .” *2 Much o f th at co nnectio n h ap pen s aro und th e d in ner ta b le , as P opovic h is obse sse d w ith f o od a n d w in e. H is o bse ssio n c an b e g au ged i n a n um ber o f w ay s:

th e s iz e o f h is h om e w in e c ella r, h is p art o w ners h ip o f a n O re g on v in ey ard , a n d th e c o nsta n t p re se n ce o f th e F ood N etw ork o n h is o ffic e te le v is io n. B ut m ost o f all it can be se en in th e w ay he use s fo od an d w in e as a brid ge to build re la tio nsh ip s w ith p la y ers .

“F ood a n d w in e a re n ’t ju st f o od a n d w in e,” B ufo rd s a y s. “ T hey ’re h is v eh ic le to m ak e a n d s u sta in a c o nnectio n, a n d P op i s r e ally i n te n tio nal a b out m ak in g t h at co nnectio n h ap pen .” The Spurs eat to geth er ap pro xim ate ly as ofte n as th ey pla y bask etb all to geth er. F ir s t th ere a re th e te am d in ners , re g ula r g ath erin gs o f a ll th e p la y ers .

Then th ere a re s m alle r g ro up d in ners , h an dfu ls o f p la y ers g ettin g to geth er. T hen th ere a re th e c o ach ’s d in ners , w hic h h ap pen e v ery n ig ht o n th e ro ad b efo re a gam e. P opovic h p la n s th em , p ic k in g th e re sta u ra n ts , s o m etim es tw o a n ig ht, to ex plo re . (S ta ff jo ke: B ulim ia is a jo b re q uir e m en t.) T hese a re n ot m eals to b e eate n a n d fo rg otte n . A t th e e n d o f th e s e aso n, e ach c o ach g ets a le ath er-b ound keep sa k e b ook c o nta in in g t h e m en us a n d w in e l a b els f ro m e v ery d in ner.

“Y ou’ll b e s ittin g o n th e p la n e, a n d a ll o f a s u dden a m ag azin e la n ds o n y our la p , a n d y ou lo ok u p a n d it’ s P op,” s a y s S ean M ark s, a fo rm er S purs a ssis ta n t co ach w ho’s n ow g en era l m an ag er o f th e B ro okly n N ets . “ H e’s c ir c le d so m e artic le a b out y our h om eto w n a n d w an ts to k now if it’ s a ccu ra te , a n d w here y ou lik e to eat, an d w hat k in d o f w in e y ou lik e to d rin k. A nd p re tty so on h e’s su ggestin g p la ces w here y ou o ught to e at, a n d h e’s m ak in g r e se rv atio ns f o r y ou an d y our w if e o r g ir lf rie n d. T hen y ou g o, a n d h e w an ts t o k now a ll a b out i t, w hat win e y ou h ad , w hat y ou o rd ere d , a n d th en th ere ’s a n oth er p la ce to g o. T hat’ s how i t s ta rts . A nd i t n ev er e n ds.” — One m is c o ncep tio n ab out hig hly su ccessfu l cu ltu re s is th at th ey are hap py, lig hth earte d p la ces. T his i s m ostly n ot t h e c ase . T hey a re e n erg iz ed a n d e n gag ed , but a t t h eir c o re t h eir m em bers a re o rie n te d l e ss a ro und a ch ie v in g h ap pin ess t h an aro und so lv in g h ard p ro ble m s to geth er. T his ta sk in volv es m an y m om en ts o f hig h-c an dor fe ed back , u nco m fo rta b le tr u th -te llin g, w hen th ey c o nfro nt th e g ap betw een w here th e g ro up is , a n d w here it o ught to b e. L arry P ag e c re ate d o ne o f th ese m om en ts w hen h e p oste d h is “ T hese a d s s u ck ” n ote in t h e G oogle k itc h en .

Popovic h deliv ers su ch fe ed back to his pla y ers ev ery day , usu ally at hig h volu m e. B ut h ow d o P opovic h a n d o th er le ad ers m an ag e to g iv e to ugh, tr u th fu l fe ed back w ith out c au sin g s id e e ffe cts o f d is se n t a n d d is a p poin tm en t? W hat i s t h e best f e ed back m ad e o f?

A f e w y ears b ack a te am o f p sy ch olo gis ts f ro m S ta n fo rd , Y ale , a n d C olu m bia had m id dle sc h ool stu den ts w rite an essa y , afte r w hic h te ach ers pro vid ed dif fe re n t k in ds o f fe ed back . R ese arc h ers d is c o vere d th at o ne p artic u la r fo rm o f fe ed back b ooste d s tu den t e ffo rt a n d p erfo rm an ce s o i m men se ly t h at t h ey d eem ed it “ m ag ic al f e ed back .” S tu den ts w ho r e ceiv ed it c h ose to r e v is e th eir p ap ers f a r more ofte n th an stu den ts w ho did not, an d th eir perfo rm an ce im pro ved sig nif ic an tly . T he fe ed back w as n ot co m plic ate d . In fa ct, it co nsis te d o f o ne sim ple p hra se .

I’m g iv in g y ou t h ese c o m men ts b ecau se I h av e v ery h ig h ex pecta tio ns a n d I k now t h at y ou c an r e ach t h em .

That’ s it. J u st n in ete en w ord s. N one o f th ese w ord s c o nta in a n y in fo rm atio n on h ow to im pro ve. Y et th ey are p ow erfu l b ecau se th ey d eliv er a b urs t of belo ngin g cu es. A ctu ally , w hen you lo ok m ore clo se ly at th e se n te n ce, it co nta in s t h re e s e p ara te c u es:

1.

You a re p art o f t h is g ro up.

2.

This g ro up i s s p ecia l; w e h av e h ig h s ta n dard s h ere .

3.

I b elie v e y ou c an r e ach t h ose s ta n dard s.

These sig nals p ro vid e a c le ar m essa g e th at lig hts u p th e u nco nsc io us b ra in :

Here is a sa fe p la ce to g iv e e ffo rt . T hey a ls o g iv e u s in sig ht in to th e re aso n Popovic h ’s m eth ods a re e ffe ctiv e. H is c o m munic atio ns c o nsis t o f th re e ty pes o f belo ngin g c u es.

• Pers o nal, u p-c lo se c o nnectio n ( b ody l a n guag e, a tte n tio n, a n d b eh av io r t h at tr a n sla te s a s I c a re a bout y o u ) • Perfo rm an ce f e ed back ( re le n tle ss c o ach in g a n d c ritic is m t h at t r a n sla te s a s We h ave h ig h s ta ndard s h ere ) • Big -p ic tu re p ers p ectiv e ( la rg er c o nvers a tio ns a b out p olitic s, h is to ry , a n d fo od t h at t r a n sla te a s Life i s b ig ger t h an b ask etb all ) Popovic h to ggle s am ong th e th re e sig nals to co nnect h is te am th e w ay a sk ille d d ir e cto r u se s a c am era . F ir s t h e z o om s i n c lo se , c re atin g a n i n div id ualiz ed co nnectio n. T hen h e o pera te s in th e m id dle d is ta n ce, s h ow in g p la y ers th e tr u th ab out th eir p erfo rm an ce. T hen h e p an s o ut to s h ow th e la rg er c o nte x t in w hic h th eir in te ra ctio n is ta k in g p la ce. A lo ne, each o f th ese sig nals w ould h av e a lim ite d e ffe ct. B ut to geth er th ey c re ate a ste ad y str e am o f m ag ic al fe ed back .

Every d in ner, ev ery elb ow to uch , ev ery im pro m ptu se m in ar o n p olitic s an d his to ry a d ds u p to b uild a re la tio nal n arra tiv e: You a re p art o f th is g ro up. T his gro up is sp ecia l. I belie ve yo u ca n re a ch th ose sta ndard s . In oth er w ord s, Popovic h ’s y ellin g w ork s, in p art, b ecau se it is n ot ju st y ellin g. It is d eliv ere d alo ng w ith a su ite o f o th er cu es th at affir m an d str e n gth en th e fa b ric o f th e re la tio nsh ip s.

— When y ou a sk th e S purs a b out th eir g re ate st m om en t o f te am c o hesio n, m an y o f th em g iv e th e s a m e s tr a n ge a n sw er. T hey m en tio n a n ig ht n ot w hen th e S purs won b ut w hen t h ey s u ffe re d t h eir m ost p ain fu l l o ss.

It h ap pen ed o n Ju ne 1 8, 2 013, in M ia m i. T he S purs w ere o n th e v erg e o f win nin g th eir fif th N BA c h am pio nsh ip in a h is to ric u pse t, h av in g b uilt a th re e- gam es-to -tw o le ad in th e b est- o f-s e v en s e rie s a g ain st th e h eav ily f a v ore d M ia m i Heat. G oin g in to th e g am e, th e S purs w ere co nfid en t en ough to p la n fo r a possib le c ele b ra tio n b y b ookin g a la rg e p riv ate r o om a t I l G ab bia n o, o ne o f th eir fa v orite r e sta u ra n ts .

Fro m tip -o ff, g am e s ix w as tig ht, a n d th e le ad s w ung b ack a n d fo rth . T hen , to w ard th e e n d o f th e fo urth q uarte r, th e S purs w en t o n a d ra m atic 8 –0 ru n to ta k e a 9 4–89 le ad w ith 2 8.2 se co nds le ft o n th e c lo ck . T he H eat sa g ged ; th e cro w d w en t quie t. T he ch am pio nsh ip se em ed clin ch ed . A cco rd in g to w in - pro bab ility s ta tis tic s, th e o dds o f a S purs v ic to ry a t th at p oin t w ere 6 6:1 . A lo ng th e e d ge o f th e c o urt, s e cu rity p ers o nnel s ta rte d a sse m blin g, ro pes in h an d, to co rd on o ff th e c o urt fo r th e c ele b ra tio n. In th e S purs ’ lo ck er ro om , a tte n dan ts pla ced ch ille d ch am pag ne in ic e tu bs an d ta p ed u p p la stic sh eetin g o ver th e lo ck ers .

Then d is a ste r.

LeB ro n J a m es a tte m pte d a lo ng s h ot a n d m is se d , b ut th e H eat c o rra lle d th e re b ound a n d Ja m es m ad e a th re e-p oin te r: 9 4–92. T he S purs w ere fo ule d a n d mad e one of tw o en su in g fre e th ro w s, giv in g th em a th re e-p oin t le ad w ith nin ete en s e co nds le ft. M ia m i h ad o ne p osse ssio n le ft to a tte m pt to tie th e g am e.

The S purs ’ d efe n se d ug in , p re ssu rin g th e H eat a n d f o rc in g J a m es to tr y a lo ng th re e-p oin te r, w hic h m is se d b ad ly . F or a s e co nd, a s t h e b all c aro m ed h ig h o ff t h e rim , th e g am e s e em ed o ver. T hen M ia m i’ s C hris B osh s n ag ged th e r e b ound a n d flic k ed th e b all to te am mate R ay A lle n in th e c o rn er. A lle n ste p ped b ack a n d sw is h ed a th re e-p oin te r th at s e em ed le ss lik e a b ask et th an a d ag ger. T ie g am e.

The co nte st w en t to o vertim e, w here th e n ew ly en erg iz ed H eat k ep t u p th e pre ssu re . T he f in al s c o re w as 1 03–100. T he S purs h ad g one f ro m a lm ost- c erta in vic to ry t o o ne o f t h e m ost d ev asta tin g d efe ats i n N BA h is to ry .

The S purs w ere in s h ock . T ony P ark er s a t w ith a to w el o ver h is h ead , c ry in g.

“I’v e n ev er s e en o ur t e am s o b ro ken ,” h e s a id l a te r. T im D uncan l a y o n t h e f lo or, unab le to m ove. M an u G in obili c o uld n ot lo ok a n yone in th e fa ce. “ It w as lik e death ,” s a id S ean M ark s. “ W e w ere g utte d .” Pla y ers a n d c o ach es n atu ra lly a ssu m ed th e te am w ould s c ra p th e g ath erin g a t Il G ab bia n o a n d g o b ack t o t h eir h ote l t o r e g ro up. B ut P opovic h h ad o th er p la n s.

“P op’s r e sp onse w as, ‘ F am ily !’   ” B re tt B ro w n, th en a n a ssis ta n t c o ach , la te r to ld a r e p orte r. “   ‘E very body t o t h e r e sta u ra n t, s tr a ig ht t h ere .’   ” Popovic h le ft b efo re th e te am , ta k in g a c ar w ith M ark s. W hen th ey re ach ed th e e m pty r e sta u ra n t, P opovic h s ta rte d w ork in g, p re p arin g th e s p ace. H e h ad th e ta b le s m oved — he w an te d t h e t e am t o geth er i n t h e c en te r, w ith c o ach es c lo se b y, su rro unded b y a n o ute r rin g o f fa m ily . H e s ta rte d o rd erin g a p petiz ers , p ic k in g dis h es th at h e k new h is p la y ers w ould lik e. H e c h ose w in e a n d h ad th e w aite rs open i t. T hen h e s a t d ow n.

“H e lo oked a s sa d a s I’v e e v er se en a p ers o n lo ok,” M ark s re calls . “ H e’s sittin g i n h is c h air , n ot s a y in g a w ord , s till d ev asta te d . T hen — I k now t h is s o unds weir d — but y ou c an ju st s e e h im m ak e th e s h if t a n d g et p ast it. H e ta k es a s ip o f win e an d a deep bre ath . Y ou can se e him get over his em otio ns an d sta rt fo cu sin g o n w hat t h e t e am n eed s. R ig ht t h en t h e b us p ulls u p.” Popovic h s to od a n d g re ete d e v ery p la y er a s t h ey c am e t h ro ugh t h e d oor. S om e got a h ug, s o m e g ot a s m ile , s o m e g ot a jo ke o r a lig ht to uch o n th e a rm . T he win e flo w ed . T hey sa t an d ate to geth er. P opovic h m oved aro und th e ro om , co nnectin g w ith e ach p la y er in tu rn . P eo ple la te r s a id h e b eh av ed lik e th e f a th er of a b rid e a t a w ed din g, ta k in g tim e w ith e v ery one, th an kin g th em , a p pre cia tin g th em . T here w ere n o sp eech es, ju st a se rie s o f in tim ate co nvers a tio ns. In a mom en t t h at c o uld h av e b een f ille d w ith f ru str a tio n, r e crim in atio n, a n d a n ger, h e fille d t h eir c u ps. T hey t a lk ed a b out t h e g am e. S om e o f t h em c rie d . T hey b eg an t o co m e o ut o f th eir p riv ate s ile n ces, to g et p ast th e lo ss a n d to c o nnect. T hey e v en la u ghed .

“I re m em ber w atc h in g h im d o th at, a n d I c o uld n’t b elie v e it,” R . C . B ufo rd sa y s. “ B y th e e n d o f th e n ig ht, th in gs f e lt a lm ost n orm al. W e w ere a te am a g ain . It’ s t h e s in gle g re ate st t h in g I ’v e e v er s e en i n s p orts , b ar n one.” *3 *1 This i s m ore i m pre ssiv e w hen y ou c o nsid er t h at s e lf is h ness i s i n cen tiv iz ed i n t h e N BA . I n 2 013, re se arc h ers E ric U hlm an n a n d C hris to pher B arn es a n aly zed n in e s e aso ns w orth o f N BA g am es, co m parin g b eh av io r i n t h e r e g ula r s e aso n w ith b eh av io r i n t h e p la y -o ffs . T hey d is c o vere d t h at p la y ers who m ad e a s h ot i n t h e p la y -o ffs r e ceiv ed $ 22,0 44.5 5 a d ditio nal s a la ry p er f ie ld g oal m ad e. P la y ers w ho passe d t h e b all t o a t e am mate w ho m ad e a s h ot l o st $ 6,1 16.6 9. P assin g t h e b all i n ste ad o f s h ootin g i s t h e eq uiv ale n t o f h an din g a t e am mate $ 28,1 61.2 4.

*2 Popovic h m ak es t h ese c o nnectio ns i n s p ite o f t h e f a ct t h at— or p erh ap s b ecau se — he i s a s tu dio us av oid er o f t e ch nolo gy. H e d oes n ot u se h is c o m pute r; h is a ssis ta n t p rin ts o ut e m ails . W hile h is s ta ff pers u ad ed h im t o b uy a n i P hone l a st y ear s o t h at h e c o uld r e ceiv e t e x ts , h e h as y et t o s e n d o ne. H e d oes all h is c o m munic atin g i n p ers o n, u p c lo se .

*3 The S purs w en t o n t o p la y g am e s e v en w ith c o hesio n a n d e n erg y t h at s u rp asse d t h eir g am e s ix perfo rm an ce, t h ough t h ey e n ded u p f a llin g t o M ia m i. T he S purs k ep t t h e u nopen ed c h am pag ne a n d u se d it t h e f o llo w in g y ear a fte r t h ey d efe ate d t h e H eat i n f iv e g am es t o w in t h eir f if th c h am pio nsh ip .

T he A rc h it e ct o f th e G re enhouse T ony H sie h w as no ord in ary ch ild . H e w as brig ht, pla y in g fo ur m usic al i n str u m en ts a n d s c o rin g s tr a ig ht A s w hile b are ly c ra ck in g o pen a b ook. H sie h ( p ro nounced S hay ) w as a ls o s h y, p re fe rrin g to s p en d h is tim e in s o lita ry th ought r a th er th an so cia liz in g. H e lik ed p uzzle s; h e lo ved th e fe elin g o f d is c o verin g c re ativ e s o lu tio ns to d if fic u lt p ro ble m s. H is fa v orite T V s h ow w as MacG yver, w hose hero w as a re so urc efu l se cre t ag en t w ho use d ev ery day m ate ria ls to e sc ap e im possib le d ile m mas a n d b rin g th e b ad g uys to ju stic e. T his id ea— th at t o ugh p ro ble m s c o uld b e e le g an tly h ack ed — held e n orm ous a p peal. A t a n e arly a g e, h e b eg an t o M acG yver h is w ay t h ro ugh t h e w orld .

For ex am ple , w hen his pare n ts to ld H sie h to pra ctic e his pia n o, vio lin , t r u m pet, o r F re n ch h orn , h e M acG yvere d a m eth od w here h e w ould re co rd c asse tte ta p es o f h is p ra ctic e s e ssio ns, th en p la y th e r e co rd in gs f ro m b eh in d th e c lo se d d oor o f h is b ed ro om s o h is u nsu sp ectin g p are n ts th ought h e w as d utif u lly a t w ork . I n h ig h s c h ool, h e M acG yvere d th e s c h ool’ s p hone s y ste m in to c allin g d ia l- a -p orn f o r f re e ( b rie fly e le v atin g h is p opula rity a m ong t h e b oys).

The p atte rn co ntin ued at H arv ard , w here H sie h M acG yvere d stu dyin g (h e a sse m ble d c la ss n ote s a n d s o ld th em fo r tw en ty d olla rs a p op) a s w ell a s la te - n ig ht sn ack in g (h e b ought p iz za o ven s a n d so ld p iz zas fo r le ss th an th e lo cal o utle t c h arg ed ). A fte r g ra d uatio n, h e c o fo unded a s o ftw are c o m pan y c alle d L in k E xch an ge, w hic h h e a n d h is p artn ers s o ld to M ic ro so ft in 1 998. A t th is p oin t, h e w as t w en ty -fiv e y ears o ld , h e h ad m illio ns o f d olla rs i n h is p ock et, a n d h e w ould n ev er h av e to w ork a n oth er d ay in h is lif e . H e b eg an to lo ok f o r s o m eth in g e ls e to s o lv e.

He f o und i t i n a n o nlin e r e ta ile r c alle d S hoeS ite .c o m . O n t h e s u rfa ce, i t d id n ot se em lik e a p artic u la rly s m art in vestm en t— afte r a ll, th ese w ere th e u npro m is in g early d ay s o f e -c o m merc e, th e b ubble -b urs t e ra o f fa ilu re s lik e P ets .c o m . B ut Hsie h s a w th ese f a ilu re s a s a n o pportu nity to r e w ir e a s y ste m . H e th ought a b out atte m ptin g a v en tu re th at w ould re in ven t o nlin e re ta ilin g th ro ugh a s tr o ng a n d dis tin ctiv e co m pan y cu ltu re . H e w an te d to b uild an atm osp here o f “fu n an d weir d ness.” The site w ould deliv er not ju st sh oes but w hat H sie h calle d “p ers o nal em otio nal co nnectio ns,” b oth in sid e th e co m pan y an d o ut. A fe w month s a fte r m ak in g a n in itia l in vestm en t, H sie h b ecam e C EO . H e r e n am ed th e co m pan y Z ap pos.

Thin gs d id n ot g o w ell fo r Z ap pos a t fir s t. T he b usin ess h ad tr o uble in th e way s y oung b usin esse s u su ally h av e tr o uble — su pply , lo gis tic s, e x ecu tio n. A t one p oin t s e v era l s ta ffe rs w ere l iv in g i n H sie h ’s S an F ra n cis c o a p artm en t. B ut i n th e e arly 2 000s, t h in gs s ta rte d t o i m pro ve s lo w ly , t h en w ith a sto nis h in g s p eed . I n 2002, re v en ues w ere $ 32 m illio n; in 2 003, $ 70 m illio n; in 2 004, $ 184 m illio n.

The c o m pan y r e lo cate d to L as V eg as a n d k ep t g ro w in g, r e ach in g $ 1.1 b illio n in re v en ues in 2 009. Z ap pos, w hic h w as s o ld to A m azo n, n ow h as f if te en h undre d em plo yees an d $2 billio n in re v en ue. It is co nsis te n tly ra n ked am ong th e co untr y ’s t o p e m plo yee-frie n dly c o m pan ie s a n d a ttr a cts h undre d s o f a p plic atio ns fo r e ach a v aila b le o pen in g. It is e asie r to g et in to H arv ard th an to g et a jo b a t Zap pos.

In 2 009, H sie h v en tu re d b ey ond c o m merc e to p urc h ase th e tw en ty -e ig ht- a cre blo ck o f d ow nto w n L as V eg as th at su rro unds Z ap pos h ead quarte rs , w ith th e au dacio us id ea o f h elp in g to r e v iv e it. T his w as n ot th e g lo ssy L as V eg as o f th e Str ip ; th is w as a d eso la te ju m ble o f th ir d -c la ss c asin os, e m pty p ark in g lo ts , a n d ru n-d ow n h ote ls th at, a s o ne o bse rv er p ut it, a sp ir e d to th e c ate g ory o f b lig ht.

Here h e se t o ut to se e if it w as p ossib le to M acG yver a c ity — th at is , to u se Zap pos p rin cip le s t o r e b uild a b ro ken d ow nto w n.

Befo re m eetin g H sie h , I v is it h is a p artm en t, lo cate d o n th e tw en ty -th ir d f lo or of a n earb y b uild in g. I’m n ot a lo ne; I’m a cco m pan ie d b y a d ozen p eo ple a n d a guid e. H sie h , e p ito m iz in g t h e Z ap pos e th os o f r a d ic al o pen ness, a llo w s g ro ups o f vis ito rs t o w alk t h ro ugh h is k itc h en , h is l iv in g r o om , h is l u sh “ ju ngle r o om ” w ith walls an d ceilin gs co vere d in p la n ts , an d th e w ell- s to ck ed b ars , cre atin g th e str a n ge in tim acy o f s e ein g a b illio nair e ’s h alf -e ate n g ra n ola b ar o n th e k itc h en co unte r, h is s o ck s o n t h e f lo or. Then o n h is liv in g ro om w all, w e se e th e p la n : a la rg e sa te llite m ap o f th e Dow nto w n P ro je ct, th e b ord ers m ark ed in b rig ht y ello w , each lo t d esig nate d with w hat l o oked t o b e a n e v er-c h an gin g s e t o f p ossib ilitie s. O n a n a d ja cen t w all flu tte r s e v era l h undre d c o lo rfu l s tic k y n ote s s c ra w le d w ith id eas fo r th ose lo ts :

CREA TIV E CO M MONS… EV ER Y TH IN G RU NS ON SO LA R… DOG PA RK … TO W N HALL DIS T IL LER Y … CO M MUNIT Y G ARD EN . Y ou g et th e f e elin g o f a n im possib ly c o m ple x gam e b ein g p la y ed — a S im C ity u nfo ld in g in re al tim e, w ith H sie h as b oth desig ner a n d p la y er.

An h our la te r, a t a p la ce c alle d C onta in er P ark , w e m eet. H e is a q uie t m an with a c lo se -s h av ed h ead a n d a s te ad y, a tte n tiv e g aze. H e p ic k s h is w ord s w ith care , an d if th ere ’s a pau se in th e co nvers a tio n, he w ill w ait w ith en dle ss patie n ce fo r y ou to fill it. S ev era l p eo ple c lo se to H sie h d esc rib e h im w ith th e sa m e m eta p hor: H e’s lik e a n a lie n o f s u perio r in te llig en ce w ho c am e to E arth an d f ig ure d o ut w hat m ak es h um an b ein gs t ic k . I a sk h im h ow t h is a ll h ap pen ed .

“I tr y to h elp th in gs h ap pen o rg an ic ally ,” h e s a y s. “ If y ou s e t th in gs u p r ig ht, th e co nnectio n hap pen s.” H e sits back an d gestu re s at C onta in er P ark , th e Dow nto w n P ro je ct’ s n ew est c ro w n je w el. A fe w m onth s a g o th e p la ce w as a n em pty lo t. N ow it is a w arm , w elc o m in g gath erin g pla ce built of co lo rfu l sh ip pin g c o nta in ers th at h av e b een c o nverte d in to s h ops a n d b outiq ues. O uts id e sta n ds a g ia n t m eta l sc u lp tu re o f a p ra y in g m an tis th at e m its fir e th ro ugh its an te n nae. A ro und u s s tr o ll h undre d s o f h ap py p eo ple e n jo yin g t h e la te -a fte rn oon su nsh in e. L ate r to nig ht S hery l C ro w w ill p la y a c o ncert in th e p ark . W hile th e Dow nto w n P ro je ct has had its dif fic u ltie s, its early phase s hav e had so m e su ccess: It’ s b ro ught in $ 754 m illio n in p ublic an d p riv ate p ro je cts , assis te d nin ety -tw o b usin esse s, a n d i n fu se d t h e a re a w ith a n ew b uzz.

We ta lk a w hile , m e a sk in g q uestio ns, a n d H sie h o ffe rin g r e sp onse s. I t d oesn ’t go p artic u la rly s m ooth ly , in p art b ecau se h e s e em s to re g ard c o nvers a tio n a s a hopele ssly ru dim en ta ry to ol fo r co m munic atio n. A ty pic al ex ch an ge goes so m eth in g l ik e t h is :

M E : H ow d id y ou b eg in t h is p ro je ct?

H SIE H : I l ik e s y ste m s, I g uess. [ te n -s e co nd p au se ] M E : W hat m odels a n d i d eas i n sp ir e d y ou?

H SIE H : A l o t o f d if fe re n t i d eas, f ro m d if fe re n t p la ces. [ tw en ty -s e co nd p au se ] That’ s a r e ally h ard q uestio n t o a n sw er. He w asn ’t t r y in g t o b e d if fic u lt; i t w as s im ply t h at w ord s c o uld n ot d o t h e j o b.

Then h e s u ggeste d w e g o fo r a w alk , a n d in a n in sta n t e v ery th in g c h an ged . H e se em ed to c o m e a liv e a s h e m oved a ro und th e s tr e ets , m eetin g p eo ple , ta lk in g to th em , i n tr o ducin g th em to m e a n d to o th ers . H e h ad a c o nnectio n w ith e v ery one, an d m ore im pre ssiv ely , h e so ught to b uild c o nnectio ns b etw een o th ers . In th e sp ace o f f o rty -fiv e m in ute s, I s a w h im c o nnect a m ovie d ir e cto r, a m usic -fe stiv al pro ducer, a n a rtis t, th e o w ner o f a b arb ecu e p la ce, a n d th re e Z ap pos w ork ers with s o m eo ne th ey s h ould ta lk to , a c o m pan y th ey s h ould c h eck o ut, s o m eo ne who s h are d th eir h obby, o r a n e v en t th ey m ig ht b e in te re ste d in . H e w as lik e a hum an v ers io n o f a s o cia l a p p, a n d h e m ad e e ach c o nnectio n w ith t h e s a m e l ig ht, lo w -k ey , p ositiv e v ib e. H e h ad a g if t o f m ak in g th ese c o nvers a tio ns s e em u tte rly norm al a n d, t h ro ugh t h at n orm alc y , s p ecia l.

“H e’s v ery s m art, b ut t h e s m arte st t h in g a b out h im i s t h at h e t h in ks s o rt o f l ik e an e ig ht- y ear-o ld ,” sa y s Je an ne M ark el, d ir e cto r o f c u ltu re fo r th e D ow nto w n Pro je ct. “ H e k eep s t h in gs r e ally s im ple a n d p ositiv e w hen i t c o m es t o p eo ple .” “I r e m em ber o ne t im e I w as w ith h im , a n d f o r s o m e r e aso n I g ot i t i n m y h ead th at w e s h ould h av e a Z ap pos b lim p,” s a y s J o e M ah on, m ark etin g m an ag er o f th e D ow nto w n P ro je ct. “N ot so m e little blim p but a huge blim p, lik e th e Goodyear b lim p. I t w as a c o m ple te ly c ra zy id ea, in r e tr o sp ect. B ut T ony d id n’t bat a n e y e. I m ean , h e d id n’t h esita te f o r a s e co nd. H e s a id , ‘ G ood id ea,’ a n d w e ta lk ed a b out i t.” Ben eath H sie h ’s u nco nven tio nal a p pro ach lie s a m ath em atic al s tr u ctu re b ase d on w hat he calls co llis io ns. C ollis io ns— defin ed as se re n dip ito us pers o nal en co unte rs — are , h e b elie v es, t h e l if e b lo od o f a n y o rg an iz atio n, t h e k ey d riv er o f cre ativ ity , c o m munity , a n d c o hesio n.

H e h as s e t a g oal o f h av in g o ne th ousa n d “co llis io nab le h ours ” p er y ear f o r h im se lf a n d a h undre d th ousa n d c o llis io nab le hours p er a cre fo r th e D ow nto w n P ro je ct. T his m etr ic is w hy h e c lo se d a s id e en tr a n ce to Z ap pos h ead quarte rs , fu nnelin g p eo ple th ro ugh a sin gle e n tr a n ce.

And it’ s w hy, d urin g a r e cen t p arty , h e s ta rte d to g et a n u neasy f e elin g— peo ple were sta n din g aro und in is o la te d clu ste rs , not m ix in g. H e notic ed th at th e fu rn itu re w as b lo ck in g th e f lo w , a n d a f e w s e co nds la te r h e w as h eav in g a la rg e co uch a cro ss t h e f lo or. T hen h e s ta rte d m ovin g l a m ps a n d t a b le s, a n d b efo re l o ng he h ad c o m ple te ly re arra n ged th e ro om . “ It w as th e o nly tim e I’v e e v er s e en a billio nair e m ove f u rn itu re ,” a f rie n d j o kes.

“T his p la ce is lik e a g re en house ,” H sie h sa y s. “In so m e g re en house s, th e le ad er p la y s th e r o le o f th e p la n t th at e v ery o th er p la n t a sp ir e s to . B ut th at’ s n ot me. I’m n ot th e p la n t th at e v ery one a sp ir e s to b e. M y jo b is to a rc h ite ct th e gre en house .” My jo b is to a rc h ite ct th e g re en house .

T his is a u se fu l in sig ht in to h ow H sie h cre ate s belo ngin g becau se it im plie s a pro cess. “I pro bab ly sa y th e w ord co llis io n a th ousa n d tim es a d ay ,” H sie h s a y s. “ I’m d oin g th is b ecau se th e p oin t is n ’t j u st a b out c o untin g t h em b ut a b out m ak in g a m in dse t s h if t t h at t h ey ’re w hat matte rs . W hen a n i d ea b eco m es p art o f a l a n guag e, i t b eco m es p art o f t h e d efa u lt way o f t h in kin g.” When y ou ta lk to p eo ple in sid e H sie h ’s g re en house , th ey s e em a s if th ey a re under th e in flu en ce o f a p ow erfu l m ag net. “It’ s n ot lo gic al,” sa y s D r. Z ubin Dam an ia , a ra d io lo gis t w ho le ft a te ach in g p ositio n at S ta n fo rd to h ead up Hsie h ’s h ealth c lin ic . “ H e’s lik e M orp heu s in th e Matr ix m ovie , w here h e g iv es you t h e p ill w here y ou r e ally s e e t h e w orld f o r t h e f ir s t t im e.” “It’ s k in d o f im possib le to e x pla in ,” s a y s L is a S hufro , a D ow nto w n P ro je ct sta ffe r. “ Y ou c o nnect w ith a ll th ese p eo ple , a n d y ou d on’t fe el it in y our h ead , you fe el it in your sto m ach . It’ s a fe elin g of possib ility , an d he cre ate s it where v er h e g oes.” “H e k now s h ow p eo ple c o nnect s o w ell th at it’ s u nco nsc io us w ith h im ,” s a y s Mag gie H su , w ho w ork s o n th e D ow nto w n P ro je ct’ s e x ecu tiv e te am . “ A t th is poin t, h e’s b een d oin g it s o m uch th at h e a lm ost c an ’t h elp it. I’v e a sk ed T ony over a n d o ver— why d o p eo ple fo llo w y ou a ro und? W hy d o th ey re sp ond to you? H e s a y s, ‘ I h av e n o i d ea.’   ” Hsu ’s sto ry is ty pic al. A fe w y ears a g o sh e w as a su ccessfu l c o nsu lta n t a t McK in se y w hen sh e h eard a b out th e D ow nto w n P ro je ct. C urio us, sh e se n t a n em ail, a n d H sie h r e sp onded b y in vitin g h er o ut f o r a f e w d ay s. H su s h ow ed u p ex pectin g th e u su al a g en da o f m eetin gs, v is its , a n d o rg an iz ed to urs . W hat s h e got i n ste ad w as a t w o-lin e e m ail f o llo w ed b y a l is t o f e ig ht n am es.

Meet th ese p eo ple , H sie h ’s n ote re ad . Then a sk th em w ho e ls e y o u sh ould meet .

Hsu w as b uffa lo ed . “ I a sk ed h im , ‘Is th at it? Is th ere a n yth in g e ls e I s h ould do?’ H e s a id , ‘ Y ou’ll f ig ure it o ut.’ A nd h e w as r ig ht— it a ll s o rt o f h ap pen ed . I t was lik e I w as g ettin g th is s ig nal th at g ot s tr o nger w ith e v ery one I ta lk ed to , a n d it w as c ra zy str o ng, a n d I c o uld n’t re sis t. I e n ded u p m ovin g h ere . It w asn ’t lo gic al a t a ll. I t w as l ik e I h ad t o d o i t.” We d on’t n orm ally t h in k a b out b elo ngin g t o b ig g ro ups i n t h is w ay . N orm ally , when we th in k ab out belo ngin g to big gro ups, we th in k ab out gre at co m munic ato rs w ho c re ate a v iv id a n d c o m pellin g v is io n fo r o th ers to fo llo w .

But th at is n ot w hat’ s h ap pen in g h ere . I n f a ct, H sie h is a n tic h aris m atic , h e d oes not c o m munic ate p artic u la rly w ell, a n d h is to ols a re g ra d e s c h ool s im ple — Meet peo ple , y o u’ll f ig ure i t o ut.

S o w hy d oes i t w ork s o w ell?

— Durin g th e C old W ar, th e U nite d S ta te s an d th e S ovie t U nio n co nducte d a decad es-lo ng, an yth in g-g oes ra ce to build ev er-m ore -p ow erfu l w eap ons an d sa te llite s y ste m s. In b oth n atio ns, in sid e h undre d s o f g overn m en ta l a n d p riv ate en te rp ris e pro je cts , te am s of en gin eers sp en t th ousa n ds of hours fe rv en tly work in g on co m plic ate d pro ble m s th at nobody had ev er atte m pte d to so lv e befo re . P artw ay th ro ugh th at r a ce, th e U .S . g overn m en t d ecid ed to lo ok in to th e effic ie n cy o f th is p ro cess. It s o lic ite d re se arc h in to th e q uestio n o f w hy c erta in en gin eerin g p ro je cts w ere s u ccessfu l a n d o th ers w ere n ot. O ne o f t h e f ir s t p eo ple to fo rm ally a tte m pt th at re se arc h w as a y oung M IT p ro fe sso r n am ed T hom as Alle n .

Alle n w asn ’t a ty pic al iv ory to w er a cad em ic ; h e w as a m id dle -c la ss k id f ro m New Je rs e y w ho’d g ra d uate d fro m tin y U psa la C olle g e, th en en lis te d in th e Marin es d urin g th e K ore an W ar. W hen h e g ot o ut, h e w ork ed fo r B oein g, th en wen t to M IT fo r d ual g ra d uate d eg re es in c o m pute r s c ie n ce a n d m an ag em en t, whic h le ft him perfe ctly positio ned to purs u e th e govern m en t’ s re q uest fo r re se arc h . (“ I d id n’t e v en k now th ey h ad a m an ag em en t d eg re e w hen I g ot [to MIT ],” h e s a y s. “ I to ok a f e w c la sse s, lik ed it, a n d s o m e p eo ple ta lk ed m e in to gettin g a P hD .” ) A lle n sta rte d h is re se arc h b y lo catin g w hat h e calle d “tw in pro je cts ,” w here tw o or m ore en gin eerin g fir m s ta ck le d th e sa m e co m ple x ch alle n ge, s u ch a s f ig urin g o ut h ow to g uid e a n in te rc o ntin en ta l b allis tic m is sile or c o m munic ate w ith a s a te llite . H e m easu re d th e q uality o f th eir s o lu tio ns, th en atte m pte d t o f in d t h e f a cto rs t h at s u ccessfu l p ro je cts h ad i n c o m mon.

One p atte rn w as im med ia te ly ap pare n t: T he m ost su ccessfu l p ro je cts w ere th ose d riv en b y s e ts o f in div id uals w ho fo rm ed w hat A lle n c alle d “ clu ste rs o f hig h co m munic ato rs .” The ch em is tr y an d co hesio n w ith in th ese clu ste rs re se m ble d th at b etw een L arry P ag e a n d J e ff D ean a t G oogle . T hey h ad a k nack fo r n av ig atin g c o m ple x p ro ble m s w ith d azzlin g s p eed . A lle n d ug in to t h e d ata to fin d o ut w here th e p eo ple in th ese c lu ste rs g ot th eir k nack . H ad th ey w ritte n f o r th e s a m e jo urn als ? D id th ey p osse ss th e s a m e le v els o f in te llig en ce? W ere th ey th e s a m e a g e? H ad t h ey a tte n ded t h e s a m e u nderg ra d uate s c h ools o r a ch ie v ed t h e sa m e le v el of deg re es? D id th ey posse ss th e m ost ex perie n ce or th e best le ad ers h ip s k ills ? A ll th ese fa cto rs w ould s e em to m ak e s e n se , b ut A lle n c o uld fin d n one t h at p la y ed a m ean in gfu l r o le i n c o hesio n. E xcep t f o r o ne.

The d is ta n ce b etw een t h eir d esk s.

At fir s t he did n’t belie v e it. G ro up ch em is tr y is su ch a co m ple x an d myste rio us p ro cess th at h e w an te d th e r e aso n f o r it to b e s im ila rly c o m ple x a n d myste rio us. B ut th e m ore h e e x plo re d th e d ata , th e c le are r th e a n sw er b ecam e.

What m atte re d m ost in cre atin g a su ccessfu l te am had le ss to do w ith in te llig en ce a n d e x perie n ce a n d m ore t o d o w ith w here t h e d esk s h ap pen ed t o b e lo cate d .

“S om eth in g as sim ple as vis u al co nta ct is very , very im porta n t, m ore im porta n t th an y ou m ig ht th in k,” A lle n s a y s. “ If y ou c an s e e th e o th er p ers o n o r ev en th e are a w here th ey w ork , y ou’re re m in ded o f th em , an d th at b rin gs a whole b unch o f e ffe cts .” Alle n decid ed to dig deep er, m easu rin g fre q uen cy of in te ra ctio ns ag ain st dis ta n ce. “ W e c o uld l o ok a t h ow o fte n p eo ple c o m munic ate d a n d s e e w here t h ey were lo cate d in r e la tio n to e ach o th er,” h e s a y s. “ W e c o uld s e e, ju st th ro ugh th e fre q uen cy , w ith out k now in g w here th ey s a t, w ho w as o n e ach flo or. W e w ere re ally s u rp ris e d a t h ow r a p id ly i t d ecay ed ” w hen t h ey m oved t o a d if fe re n t f lo or.

“It tu rn s o ut th at v ertic al se p ara tio n is a v ery se rio us th in g. If y ou’re o n a dif fe re n t f lo or i n s o m e o rg an iz atio ns, y ou m ay a s w ell b e i n a d if fe re n t c o untr y .” When A lle n p lo tte d th e f re q uen cy o f in te ra ctio n a g ain st d is ta n ce, h e e n ded u p with a lin e th at r e se m ble d a s te ep h ill. I t w as n early v ertic al a t th e to p a n d f la t a t th e b otto m . I t b ecam e k now n a s t h e A lle n C urv e.

*1 The k ey c h ara cte ris tic o f t h e A lle n C urv e i s t h e s u dden s te ep ness t h at h ap pen s at th e e ig ht- m ete r m ark . A t d is ta n ces o f le ss th an e ig ht m ete rs , c o m munic atio n fre q uen cy r is e s o ff th e c h arts . I f o ur b ra in s o pera te d lo gic ally , w e m ig ht e x pect th e f re q uen cy a n d d is ta n ce t o c h an ge a t a c o nsta n t r a te , p ro ducin g a s tr a ig ht l in e.

But as A lle n sh ow s, o ur b ra in s d o n ot o pera te lo gic ally . C erta in p ro xim itie s tr ig ger h uge c h an ges in fre q uen cy o f c o m munic atio n. In cre ase th e d is ta n ce to 50 m ete rs , a n d c o m munic atio n c ease s, a s if a ta p h as b een s h ut o ff. D ecre ase dis ta n ce to 6 m ete rs , a n d c o m munic atio n f re q uen cy s k yro ck ets . I n o th er w ord s, pro xim ity f u nctio ns a s a k in d o f c o nnectiv e d ru g. G et c lo se , a n d o ur te n den cy to co nnect l ig hts u p.

As sc ie n tis ts h av e p oin te d o ut, th e A lle n C urv e fo llo w s e v olu tio nary lo gic .

For th e vast m ajo rity of hum an his to ry , su sta in ed pro xim ity has been an in dic ato r o f b elo ngin g— afte r a ll, w e d on’t g et c o nsis te n tly c lo se to so m eo ne unle ss i t’ s m utu ally s a fe . S tu die s s h ow t h at d ig ita l c o m munic atio ns a ls o o bey t h e Alle n C urv e; w e’re fa r m ore lik ely to te x t, e m ail, a n d in te ra ct v ir tu ally w ith peo ple w ho a re p hysic ally c lo se . (O ne s tu dy fo und th at w ork ers w ho s h are d a lo catio n e m aile d o ne a n oth er f o ur tim es a s o fte n a s w ork ers w ho d id n ot, a n d a s a r e su lt t h ey c o m ple te d t h eir p ro je cts 3 2 p erc en t f a ste r.) All o f w hic h g iv es u s a le n s to u nders ta n d w hat T ony H sie h is u p to . H e is le v era g in g th e A lle n C urv e. H is p ro je cts te n d to s u cceed f o r th e s a m e r e aso n th e cre ativ e clu ste r pro je cts su cceed ed : C lo se n ess help s cre ate effic ie n cie s of co nnectio n. T he p eo ple i n h is o rb it b eh av e a s i f t h ey w ere u nder t h e i n flu en ce o f so m e k in d o f d ru g b ecau se , i n f a ct, t h ey a re .

Durin g o ur co nvers a tio ns, I ask H sie h h ow h e g oes ab out re cru itin g n ew peo ple in to th e D ow nto w n Pro je ct. “If so m eo ne is in te re ste d , an d w e’re in te re ste d in th em , w e in vite th em o ut h ere ,” h e sa y s. “ W e so rt o f d o it in a sn eak y w ay . W e g iv e th em a p la ce to s ta y f o r f re e a n d d on’t te ll th em to o m uch .

They g et h ere a n d th ey h an g o ut a n d s e e w hat’ s h ap pen in g, a n d s o m e o f th em decid e t o j o in . T hin gs j u st s o rt o f h ap pen .” What p erc en ta g e e n d u p m ovin g h ere ?

He p au se s fo r a lo ng tim e. “P ro bab ly ab out o ne in tw en ty .” A t fir s t, th is num ber d oesn ’t s e em a ll th at im pre ssiv e— only 5 p erc en t. T hen y ou th in k a b out what’ s b en eath th at n um ber. O ne h undre d s tr a n gers w ill v is it H sie h , a n d a fte r a fe w co nvers a tio ns an d a h an dfu l o f in te ra ctio ns, fiv e w ill u pro ot th em se lv es fro m th eir h om e an d jo in th is g ro up th ey h av e ju st m et. H sie h h as b uilt a mach in e t h at t r a n sfo rm s s tr a n gers i n to a t r ib e.

“It’ s f u nny h ow i t h ap pen s,” H sie h s a y s. “ I n ev er s a y v ery m uch ; I d on’t m ak e an y b ig p itc h . I j u st l e t t h em e x perie n ce t h is p la ce a n d w ait f o r t h e m om en t t o b e rig ht. T hen I lo ok a t th em a n d a sk , ‘S o w hen a re y ou m ovin g to V eg as? ’   ” H e sm ile s. “ A nd t h en s o m e o f t h em d o.” *2 *1 The A lle n C urv e e ch oes a n oth er f a m ous s o cia l m etr ic , t h e D unbar N um ber, w hic h r e fle cts t h e c o gnitiv e lim it t o t h e n um ber o f p eo ple w ith w hom w e c an h av e a s ta b le s o cia l r e la tio nsh ip ( a ro und 1 50). T hey would s e em t o u nderlin e t h e s a m e t r u th : O ur s o cia l b ra in s a re b uilt t o f o cu s a n d r e sp ond t o a r e la tiv ely sm all n um ber o f p eo ple l o cate d w ith in a f in ite d is ta n ce o f u s. O ne h undre d a n d f if ty f e et a ls o h ap pen s t o be t h e r o ugh d is ta n ce a t w hic h w e c an n o l o nger r e co gniz e a f a ce w ith t h e n ak ed e y e.

*2 Shortly a fte r m y r e p ortin g w as c o m ple te d , D ow nto w n P ro je ct l e ad ers e m bark ed o n a c o ntr o vers ia l s e rie s of b elt- tig hte n in g m oves, w hic h r e su lte d i n t h e l a y off o f t h ir ty s ta ffe rs a n d H sie h ’s p ullin g b ack f ro m h is le ad ers h ip r o le . I t r e m ain s t o b e s e en w heth er t h is e x perim en t c an s u cceed i n t h e l o ng r u n.

B uild in g sa fe ty is n ’t th e k in d o f sk ill y ou can le arn in a ro botic , p ain t- b y- n um bers s o rt o f w ay . It’ s a flu id , im pro vis a tio nal s k ill— so rt o f lik e le arn in g to p ass a so ccer b all to a te am mate d urin g a g am e. It re q uir e s y ou to re co gniz e p atte rn s, r e act q uic k ly , a n d d eliv er t h e r ig ht s ig nal a t t h e r ig ht t im e. A nd l ik e a n y s k ill, i t c o m es w ith a l e arn in g c u rv e.

This le arn in g c u rv e a p plie s e v en to th e sc ie n tis ts w ho stu dy b elo ngin g. F or e x am ple , W ill F elp s, w ho d id t h e b ad a p ple s tu dy ( s e e C hap te r 1 ), d esc rib ed h ow i n sig hts f ro m h is r e se arc h a ffe cte d t h e w ay h e c o m munic ate d i n h is p ers o nal l if e .

“ I u se d t o l ik e t o t r y t o m ak e a l o t o f s m all c le v er r e m ark s i n c o nvers a tio n, t r y in g t o b e fu nny, s o m etim es in a c u ttin g w ay ,” h e s a y s. “ N ow I s e e h ow n eg ativ ely t h ose s ig nals c an im pact th e g ro up. S o I tr y to s h ow th at I’m lis te n in g.

W hen t h ey ’re t a lk in g, I ’m l o okin g a t t h eir f a ce, n oddin g, s a y in g ‘ W hat d o y ou m ean b y t h at,’ ‘C ould y ou te ll m e m ore a b out th is ,’ o r a sk in g th eir o pin io ns a b out w hat w e s h ould d o, d ra w in g p eo ple o ut.” Am y E dm ondso n ( w hom w e a ls o m et in C hap te r 1 ) h as s tu die d p sy ch olo gic al s a fe ty in a w id e v arie ty o f w ork pla ces. “ I u se d to n ot th in k a b out w heth er I w as m ak in g peo ple sa fe at all,” sh e sa y s. “N ow I th in k ab out it all th e tim e, e sp ecia lly at th e beg in nin g of an y in te ra ctio n, an d th en I co nsta n tly ch eck , e sp ecia lly if th ere ’s a n y c h an ge o r te n sio n. I b en d o ver b ack w ard to m ak e s u re p eo ple a re s a fe .” Felp s a n d E dm ondso n a re s p eak in g to th e s a m e tr u th : C re atin g s a fe ty is a b out d ia lin g in to s m all, s u btle m om en ts a n d d eliv erin g ta rg ete d s ig nals a t k ey p oin ts .

T he g oal o f t h is c h ap te r i s t o p ro vid e a f e w t ip s o n d oin g t h at. Ove rc o m munic a te Y our L is te nin g:

W hen I v is ite d t h e s u ccessfu l c u ltu re s, I k ep t s e ein g th e sa m e ex pre ssio n o n th e fa ces o f lis te n ers . It lo oked lik e th is : h ead tilte d slig htly fo rw ard , e y es u nblin kin g, a n d e y eb ro w s a rc h ed u p. T heir b odie s w ere still, a n d th ey le an ed to w ard th e s p eak er w ith in te n t. T he o nly s o und th ey m ad e was a s te ad y s tr e am o f a ffir m atio ns— yes, u h-h uh, g otc h a— th at e n co ura g ed th e sp eak er t o k eep g oin g, t o g iv e t h em m ore . “ P ostu re a n d e x pre ssio n a re i n cre d ib ly im porta n t,” sa id B en W ab er, a fo rm er P hD stu den t o f A le x P en tla n d’s w ho fo unded H um an yze, a s o cia l a n aly tic s c o nsu ltin g fir m . “ It’ s th e w ay w e p ro ve th at w e’re i n s y nc w ith s o m eo ne.” Rela te d ly , it’ s im porta n t to av oid in te rru ptio ns. T he sm ooth ness of tu rn ta k in g, a s w e’v e s e en , is a p ow erfu l in dic ato r o f c o hesiv e g ro up p erfo rm an ce.

In te rru ptio ns s h atte r th e s m ooth in te ra ctio ns a t th e c o re o f b elo ngin g. T hey a re so d is c o hesiv e, in fa ct, th at W ab er u se s in te rru ptio n m etr ic s a s sa le s tr a in in g to ols . “ W hen y ou c an sh ow so m eo ne n um bers th at th e to p sa le sp eo ple h ard ly ev er in te rru pt peo ple , an d th en ra te th em on th at sc ale , you can deliv er a pow erfu l m essa g e,” he sa y s. O f co urs e , not all in te rru ptio ns are neg ativ e:

Cre ativ e s e ssio ns, f o r e x am ple , o fte n c o nta in b urs ts o f in te rru ptio ns. T he k ey is to d ra w a d is tin ctio n b etw een in te rru ptio ns b orn o f m utu al e x cite m en t a n d th ose ro ote d i n l a ck o f a w are n ess a n d c o nnectio n.

Spotlig ht Y our F allib ilit y E arly O n— Esp ecia lly If Y ou’r e a L eader:

I n a n y i n te ra ctio n, w e h av e a n atu ra l te n den cy to tr y to h id e o ur w eak nesse s a n d a p pear c o m pete n t. If y ou wan t to c re ate s a fe ty , th is is e x actly th e w ro ng m ove. I n ste ad , y ou s h ould o pen up, s h ow y ou m ak e m is ta k es, a n d in vite in put w ith s im ple p hra se s lik e “ T his is ju st m y tw o c en ts .” “ O f c o urs e , I c o uld b e w ro ng h ere .” “ W hat a m I m is sin g?” “W hat d o y ou t h in k?” R. C . B ufo rd , g en era l m an ag er o f th e S an A nto nio S purs , is o ne o f th e m ost su ccessfu l e x ecu tiv es in th e h is to ry o f s p orts .

B ut if y ou w atc h h im o pera te , y ou mig ht m is ta k e h im f o r a n a ssis ta n t. H e’s a q uie t, a ffa b le h ound-d og K an sa n w ho ask s q uestio ns, lis te n s k een ly , a n d r a d ia te s h um ility . E arly in o ur c o nvers a tio ns, he b ro ught u p th e lo om in g re tir e m en ts o f se v era l sta r p la y ers a n d sa id , “ I’m ab so lu te ly te rrif ie d o f th e f u tu re .” H e c o uld h av e ta lk ed a b out th e o rg an iz atio n’s vau nte d p la y er s e le ctio n a n d d ev elo pm en t s y ste m s, o r th e p ro gre ss o f th e y oung pla y ers , o r t h e s m art t r a d es t h ey ’d m ad e, o r t h e p ow er o f t h e c u ltu re t h ey ’d b uilt.

But h e d id n’t d o th at— he s a id h e w as te rrif ie d . T his k in d o f s ig nal is n ot ju st a n ad m is sio n o f w eak ness; it’ s als o an in vita tio n to cre ate a d eep er co nnectio n, becau se i t s p ark s a r e sp onse i n t h e l is te n er: How c a n I h elp ?

“T o cre ate sa fe ty , le ad ers n eed to activ ely in vite in put,” E dm ondso n sa y s.

“It’ s re ally hard fo r peo ple to ra is e th eir han d an d sa y , ‘I hav e so m eth in g te n ta tiv e to sa y .’ A nd it’ s eq ually h ard fo r p eo ple n ot to an sw er a g en uin e questio n f ro m a l e ad er w ho a sk s f o r t h eir o pin io n o r t h eir h elp .” Em bra ce th e M esse nger:

O ne o f th e m ost v ita l m om en ts f o r c re atin g s a fe ty is w hen a gro up sh are s bad new s or giv es to ugh fe ed back . In th ese m om en ts , it’ s im porta n t n ot s im ply to to le ra te th e d if fic u lt n ew s b ut to e m bra ce it. “ Y ou k now th e p hra se ‘D on’t sh oot th e m esse n ger’? ” E dm ondso n sa y s. “ In fa ct, it’ s n ot en ough to n ot s h oot th em . Y ou h av e to h ug th e m esse n ger a n d le t th em k now how m uch y ou n eed th at f e ed back . T hat w ay y ou c an b e s u re th at th ey f e el s a fe en ough t o t e ll y ou t h e t r u th n ex t t im e.” *1 Pre vie w F utu re C onnectio n:

O ne h ab it I s a w in s u ccessfu l g ro ups w as th at o f s n eak - pre v ie w in g fu tu re re la tio nsh ip s, m ak in g sm all b ut te llin g c o nnectio ns b etw een now an d a v is io n o f th e fu tu re . T he S t. L ouis C ard in als b ase b all te am , fo r ex am ple , i s r e n ow ned f o r th eir c u ltu re a n d t h eir a b ility to d ev elo p y oung p la y ers in to b ig -le ag ue ta le n t. T he J o hnso n C ity (T en nesse e) C ard in als a re S t. L ouis ’s lo w est- le v el m in or-le ag ue c lu b. O ne d ay o n a b us b elo ngin g to th e T en nesse e te am , o ne o f th e C ard in als c o ach es, s ittin g in th e f ro nt r o w , g estu re d u p to w ard th e t e le v is io n o n w hic h t h e b ig -le ag ue t e am w as p la y in g.

“Y ou k now t h at p itc h er? ” Pla y ers lo oked u p. O n th e s c re en , w earin g a p erfe ct w hite u nif o rm , s to od th e hero ic fig ure o f T re v or R ose n th al, a y oung sta r w ho h ad b eco m e a d om in an t re lie f p itc h er fo r th e C ard in als ; h e h ad p itc h ed in th e p re v io us y ear’s W orld Serie s.

“T hre e y ears a g o,” th e c o ach s a id , “ h e w as s ittin g r ig ht in th at s e at w here y ou are .” That’ s a ll h e s a id . I t w asn ’t m uch — it t o ok a b out f iv e s e co nds t o d eliv er. B ut i t was p ow erfu l, b ecau se i t c o nnecte d t h e d ots b etw een w here t h e p la y ers w ere a n d where th ey w ere h ead ed . Thre e y ea rs a go h e w as s ittin g r ig ht in th at s e a t w here yo u a re .

Ove rd o T hank-Y ous:

W hen y ou en te r h ig hly su ccessfu l cu ltu re s, th e n um ber o f th an k-y ous y ou h ear s e em s s lig htly o ver th e to p. A t th e e n d o f e ach b ask etb all se aso n, f o r e x am ple , S purs c o ach G re g g P opovic h ta k es e ach o f h is s ta r p la y ers asid e an d th an ks th em fo r allo w in g h im to co ach th em . T hose are h is ex act word s: Thank y o u fo r a llo w in g m e to c o ach y o u.

I t m ak es little lo gic al s e n se — afte r a ll, b oth P opovic h a n d th e p la y er a re a m ply c o m pen sa te d , a n d it’ s n ot lik e th e p la y er h ad a c h oic e w heth er t o b e c o ach ed . B ut t h is k in d o f m om en t h ap pen s all th e tim e in h ig hly s u ccessfu l g ro ups, b ecau se it h as le ss to d o w ith th an ks th an a ffir m in g t h e r e la tio nsh ip .

For e x am ple , w hen I v is ite d K IP P In fin ity , a re m ark ab le c h arte r sc h ool in Harle m , N ew Y ork , I w itn esse d te ach ers th an kin g o ne a n oth er o ver a n d o ver.

The m ath te ach ers re ceiv ed T -s h ir ts m ark in g P i D ay a s a s u rp ris e p re se n t fro m th e a d m in is tr a tiv e a ssis ta n t. T hen J e ff L i, w ho te ach es e ig hth -g ra d e m ath , s e n t th e f o llo w in g e m ail t o t h e o th er m ath t e ach ers i n t h e d ep artm en t:

Dear m ath t e ach ers I l o ve, On A sse ssm en t # 7, a m id -u nit t e st o n l in ear f u nctio ns ( p art o f t h e fo undatio nal m ajo r w ork o f t h e g ra d e), t h e c la ss o f 2 024 h as outp erfo rm ed t h e p re v io us t w o c la sse s o n e sse n tia lly t h e s a m e t e st.

See b elo w f o r t h e d ata .

Cla ss o f [ 2 022]: 8 4.5 Cla ss o f 2 023: 8 7.2 Cla ss o f 2 024: 8 8.7 I k now t h is i s a r e su lt o f b ette r t e ach in g a t e v ery g ra d e l e v el f ro m 5th g ra d e o n… so t h an ks f o r b ein g g re at t e ach ers w ho a re p ush in g t o get b ette r e ach y ear. I t’ s w ork in g!

—Je ff While a ll th is th an kin g s e em s o ver th e to p, th ere ’s a s tr o ng s c ie n tif ic s u pport th at it ig nite s c o opera tiv e b eh av io r. In a stu dy b y A dam G ra n t a n d F ra n cesc o Gin o, s u bje cts w ere a sk ed t o h elp a f ic titio us s tu den t n am ed “ E ric ” w rite a c o ver le tte r f o r a jo b a p plic atio n. A fte r h elp in g h im , h alf o f th e p artic ip an ts r e ceiv ed a th an kfu l r e sp onse f ro m E ric ; h alf r e ceiv ed a n eu tr a l r e sp onse . T he s u bje cts th en re ceiv ed a re q uest fo r h elp fro m “ S te v e,” a d if fe re n t stu den t. T hose w ho h ad re ceiv ed th an ks f ro m E ric c h ose to h elp S te v e m ore th an tw ic e a s o fte n a s th ose who h ad r e ceiv ed t h e n eu tr a l r e sp onse . I n o th er w ord s, a s m all t h an k-y ou c au se d peo ple to b eh av e fa r m ore g en ero usly to a c o m ple te ly d if fe re n t p ers o n. T his is becau se th an k-y ous are n ’t only ex pre ssio ns of gra titu de; th ey ’re cru cia l belo ngin g cu es th at gen era te a co nta g io us se n se of sa fe ty , co nnectio n, an d motiv atio n.

In m y r e se arc h , I s o m etim es s a w t h e m ost p ow erfu l p ers o n i n a g ro up p ublic ly ex pre ss g ra titu de fo r o ne o f th e g ro up’s le ast p ow erfu l m em bers . F or e x am ple , th e c h ef T hom as K elle r, w ho r u ns F re n ch L au ndry , P er S e, a n d o th er w orld -c la ss re sta u ra n ts , h as a h ab it o f th an kin g th e d is h w ash er a t h is re sta u ra n t o pen in gs, hig hlig htin g th e fa ct th at th e perfo rm an ce of th e re sta u ra n t dep en ds on th e pers o n w ho p erfo rm s th e h um ble st ta sk . U rb an M ey er, w ho c o ach ed O hio S ta te fo otb all t o a n atio nal c h am pio nsh ip i n 2 015, u se d t h is s a m e m eth od a t t h e t e am ’s post- title c ele b ra tio n a t O hio S ta d iu m , w hic h w as a tte n ded b y te n s o f th ousa n ds of stu den ts an d fa n s. E very one p re su m ed h e w ould b eg in th e cele b ra tio n b y in tr o ducin g th e sta r p la y ers w ho h ad le d th e te am to su ccess. In ste ad , M ey er in tr o duced an u nhera ld ed p la y er n am ed N ik S ara c, a re se rv e d efe n siv e b ack who, a t th e b eg in nin g o f th e s e aso n, h ad v olu nta rily g iv en u p h is s c h ola rs h ip s o th at M ey er co uld g iv e it to a p la y er w ho co uld h elp th e te am m ore . M ey er sp otlig hte d S ara c f o r th e s a m e r e aso n K elle r s p otlig hte d th e d is h w ash ers — Here is t h e u nhera ld ed p erso n w ho m akes o ur s u ccess p ossib le .

Be P ain sta kin g in th e H ir in g P ro ce ss : D ecid in g w ho’s in a n d w ho’s o ut is th e m ost pow erfu l sig nal a n y g ro up se n ds, a n d su ccessfu l g ro ups a p pro ach th eir h ir in g acco rd in gly . M ost h av e b uilt le n gth y, d em an din g p ro cesse s th at s e ek to a sse ss fit, c o ntr ib utio n (th ro ugh d eep b ack gro und re se arc h a n d e x te n siv e in te ra ctio ns with a la rg e n um ber o f p eo ple in th e g ro up), an d p erfo rm an ce (in cre asin gly measu re d b y te sts ). S om e g ro ups, lik e Z ap pos, h av e ad ded an ex tr a la y er o f belo ngin g c u es: a fte r tr a in in g is c o m ple te , th ey o ffe r tr a in ees a $ 2,0 00 b onus if th ey q uit ( a b out 1 0 p erc en t o f t r a in ees a ccep t t h e o ffe r).

Elim in ate B ad A pple s:

T he g ro ups I stu die d h ad e x tr e m ely lo w to le ra n ce fo r b ad ap ple beh av io r an d, perh ap s m ore im porta n t, w ere sk ille d at nam in g th ose beh av io rs . T he le ad ers o f th e N ew Z eala n d A ll- B la ck s, th e ru gby sq uad th at ra n ks a s o ne o f th e m ost s u ccessfu l te am s o n th e p la n et, a ch ie v e th is th ro ugh a ru le t h at s im ply s ta te s “ N o D ic k head s.” I t’ s s im ple , a n d t h at’ s w hy i t’ s e ffe ctiv e.

Cre ate S afe , C ollis io n-R ic h S pace s:

T he g ro ups I v is ite d w ere u nif o rm ly o bse sse d w ith desig n a s a le v er fo r c o hesio n a n d in te ra ctio n. I s a w it in P ix ar’s S te v e J o bs– desig ned atr iu m , an d in th e U .S . N av y’s S E A L T eam S ix ’s ex pan siv e te am ro om s, w hic h re se m ble h ote l c o nfe re n ce a re as (a lb eit fille d w ith e x tr e m ely fit men w ith g uns). I a ls o s a w i t i n s m alle r, s im ple r l e v ers l ik e c o ffe e m ach in es.

A fe w y ears b ack , B an k o f A m eric a w as s tr u gglin g w ith b urn out in its c all cen te r te am s. T hey b ro ught in B en W ab er to d o a s o cio m etr ic a n aly sis , w hic h fo und th at w ork ers w ere h ig hly s tr e sse d a n d th at th e b est re lie v er o f th at s tr e ss was tim e s p en t to geth er a w ay fro m th eir d esk s.

W ab er re co m men ded a lig nin g te am m em bers ’ s c h ed ule s s o th ey s h are d th e s a m e fif te en -m in ute c o ffe e b re ak ev ery d ay . H e a ls o h ad th e c o m pan y b uy n ic er c o ffe e m ach in es a n d in sta ll th em in m ore c o nven ie n t g ath erin g p la ces. T he e ffe ct w as im med ia te : a 2 0 p erc en t in cre ase in p ro ductiv ity , an d a re d uctio n in tu rn over fro m 4 0 p erc en t to 1 2 perc en t. W ab er h as a ls o o vers e en in te rv en tio ns in c o m pan y c afe te ria s:

M ere ly re p la cin g fo ur-p ers o n ta b le s w ith te n -p ers o n ta b le s h as b ooste d p ro ductiv ity b y 10 perc en t. T he le sso n of all th ese stu die s is th e sa m e: C re ate sp aces th at max im iz e c o llis io ns.

“W e u se d to h ir e o ut o ur fo od se rv ic e to a co ntr a cto r,” sa id E d C atm ull, pre sid en t a n d c o fo under o f P ix ar ( o f w hom w e’ll h ear m ore i n C hap te r 1 6). “ W e did n’t c o nsid er m ak in g fo od to b e o ur c o re b usin ess. B ut w hen y ou h ir e it o ut, th at fo od se rv ic e c o m pan y w an ts to m ak e m oney , a n d th e o nly w ay th ey c an mak e m oney i s t o d ecre ase t h e q uality o f t h e f o od o r t h e s e rv ic e. T hey ’re n ot b ad or g re ed y p eo ple ; i t’ s a s tr u ctu ra l p ro ble m . T hat’ s w hy w e d ecid ed t o t a k e i t o ver ours e lv es a n d g iv e o ur p eo ple h ig h-q uality fo od a t a re aso nab le p ric e. N ow w e hav e r e ally g ood f o od a n d p eo ple s ta y h ere in ste ad o f le av in g, a n d th ey h av e th e kin d o f c o nvers a tio ns a n d e n co unte rs th at h elp o ur b usin ess. It’ s p re tty s im ple .

We r e aliz ed t h at f o od r e ally i s p art o f o ur c o re b usin ess.” Make S ure E ve ry o ne H as a V oic e :

E nsu rin g th at e v ery one h as a v oic e is e asy to ta lk ab out b ut h ard to a cco m plis h . T his is w hy m an y s u ccessfu l g ro ups u se s im ple mech an is m s th at en co ura g e, sp otlig ht, an d v alu e fu ll- g ro up co ntr ib utio n. F or ex am ple , m an y g ro ups f o llo w t h e r u le t h at n o m eetin g c an e n d w ith out e v ery one sh arin g so m eth in g.

*2 O th ers hold re g ula r re v ie w s of re cen t w ork in w hic h an ybody can offe r th eir tw o cen ts . (P ix ar calls th em D ailie s, all- in clu siv e morn in g m eetin gs w here e v ery body g ets th e c h an ce to o ffe r in put a n d f e ed back on r e cen tly c re ate d f o ota g e.) O th ers e sta b lis h r e g ula r f o ru m s w here a n yone c an brin g an is su e or questio n befo re th e gro up’s le ad ers , no m atte r how co ntr o vers ia l it m ig ht b e. B ut n o m atte r h ow s tr o ng th e r u le , th e u nderly in g k ey is t o h av e l e ad ers w ho s e ek o ut c o nnectio n a n d m ak e s u re v oic es a re h eard .

A g ood e x am ple i s t h e m eth od o f M ic h ael A bra sh off, a n av y c ap ta in w ho t o ok co m man d o f th e d estr o yer USS B en fo ld in 1 997. A t th e tim e, th e Ben fo ld r a n ked at th e b otto m o f th e n av y’s p erf o rm an ce s c o re s.

O ne o f h is f ir s t a cts w as to h old one-o n-o nes w ith e ach o f th e s h ip ’s 3 10 s a ilo rs f o r th ir ty m in ute s. ( C om ple tin g all th e m eetin gs to ok ab out six w eek s.) A bra sh off ask ed each sa ilo r th re e questio ns:

1.

What d o y ou l ik e m ost a b out t h e Ben fo ld ?

2.

What d o y ou l ik e l e ast?

3.

What w ould y ou c h an ge i f y ou w ere c ap ta in ?

When ev er Abra sh off re ceiv ed a su ggestio n he fe lt was im med ia te ly im ple m en ta b le , h e a n nounced th e c h an ge o ver th e s h ip ’s in te rc o m , g iv in g c re d it to th e id ea’s o rig in ato r. O ver th e n ex t th re e y ears , o n th e str e n gth o f th is a n d oth er m easu re s (w hic h are d eta ile d in A bra sh off’s b ook It’ s Y our S hip ), th e Ben fo ld r o se t o b eco m e o ne o f t h e n av y’s h ig hest- ra n ked s h ip s.

Pic k U p T ra sh :

B ack in th e m id -1 960s, U CLA ’s m en ’s b ask etb all te am w as in th e mid st o f o ne o f th e m ost s u ccessfu l e ra s in s p orts h is to ry , w in nin g te n title s in tw elv e y ears . F ra n klin A dle r, th e te am ’s s tu den t m an ag er, s a w s o m eth in g o dd:

Jo hn W ooden , th e te am ’s le g en dary h ead c o ach , w as p ic k in g u p tr a sh in th e lo ck er ro om . “H ere was a m an who had alr e ad y won th re e natio nal ch am pio nsh ip s,” A dle r s a id , “ a m an w ho w as a lr e ad y e n sh rin ed in th e H all o f Fam e a s a p la y er, a m an w ho h ad c re ate d a n d w as in th e m id dle o f a d ynasty — ben din g d ow n a n d p ic k in g u p s c ra p s f ro m t h e l o ck er r o om f lo or.” Wooden w as n ot a lo ne. R ay K ro c, th e fo under o f M cD onald ’s , w as fa m ous fo r pic k in g up tr a sh . “E very nig ht you’d se e him co m in g dow n th e str e et, walk in g c lo se t o t h e g utte r, p ic k in g u p e v ery M cD onald ’s w ra p per a n d c u p a lo ng th e w ay ,” fo rm er M cD onald ’s C EO F re d T urn er to ld a u th or A la n D eu ts c h m an .

“H e’d c o m e in to th e s to re w ith b oth h an ds f u ll o f c u ps a n d w ra p pers . I s a w R ay sp en d o ne S atu rd ay m orn in g w ith a to oth bru sh c le an in g o ut h ole s in th e m op wrin ger. N o o ne e ls e r e ally p aid a tte n tio n to th e d am ned m op w rin ger, b ecau se ev ery one k new it w as ju st a m op b uck et. B ut K ro c s a w a ll th e c ru d b uild in g u p in t h e h ole s, a n d h e w an te d t o c le an t h em s o t h e w rin ger w ould w ork b ette r.” I k ep t s e ein g th at p atte rn . C oach B illy D onovan o f th e U niv ers ity o f F lo rid a (n ow w ith th e O kla h om a C ity T hunder) c le an ed u p G ato ra d e th at h ad s p ille d o n th e f lo or. M ik e K rz y zew sk i o f D uke a n d T om C oughlin o f t h e N ew Y ork G ia n ts did th e sa m e. T he le ad ers o f th e A ll- B la ck s ru gby te am h av e fo rm aliz ed th is hab it in to a te am v alu e c alle d “ sw eep in g th e s h ed s.” T heir le ad ers d o th e m en ia l work , c le an in g a n d tid yin g th e lo ck er r o om s— an d a lo ng th e w ay v iv id ly m odel th e t e am ’s e th ic o f t o geth ern ess a n d t e am work .

This is w hat I w ould c all a m usc u la r h um ility — a m in dse t o f s e ek in g s im ple way s to s e rv e th e g ro up. P ic k in g u p tr a sh is o ne e x am ple , b ut th e s a m e k in ds o f beh av io rs ex is t aro und allo catin g p ark in g p la ces (e g alita ria n , w ith n o sp ecia l sp ots re se rv ed fo r le ad ers ), p ic k in g u p c h eck s a t m eals (th e le ad ers d o it e v ery tim e), an d pro vid in g fo r eq uity in sa la rie s, partic u la rly fo r sta rt- u ps. T hese actio ns are pow erfu l not ju st becau se th ey are m ora l or gen ero us but als o becau se t h ey s e n d a l a rg er s ig nal: We a re a ll i n t h is t o geth er.

Capit a liz e o n T hre sh old M om ents :

W hen w e e n te r a n ew g ro up, o ur b ra in s d ecid e quic k ly w heth er t o c o nnect. S o s u ccessfu l c u ltu re s t r e at t h ese t h re sh old m om en ts as m ore im porta n t th an a n y o th er. F or e x am ple , s u ppose y ou a re h ir e d a t P ix ar, wheth er it’ s a s a d ir e cto r o r a s a b aris ta in th e c o m pan y c afé . O n y our f ir s t d ay , you a n d a sm all g ro up o f fe llo w n ew bie s a re u sh ere d in to th e th eate r w here sc re en in gs a re h eld . Y ou a re a sk ed to s it in th e f if th r o w — becau se th at’ s w here th e d ir e cto rs s it. T hen y ou h ear th e f o llo w in g w ord s: Whate ver y o u w ere b efo re , yo u a re a film maker n ow . W e n eed y o u to h elp u s m ake o ur film s b ette r.

*3 “ It’ s in cre d ib ly p ow erfu l,” s a id M ik e S undy, w ho w ork s in d ata m an ag em en t. “ Y ou fe el c h an ged .” The O kla h om a C ity T hunder, a s u ccessfu l N BA te am , m ak es s im ila r u se o f th eir fir s t d ay . O kla h om a C ity is an u nlik ely p la ce fo r a p ro fe ssio nal sp orts fra n ch is e : I t is r e la tiv ely s m all a n d is o la te d , k now n m ore f o r to rn ad oes th an f o r nig htlif e . W hen you are hir e d by th e T hunder, eith er as a pla y er or as an em plo yee, t h e f ir s t t h in g t h at h ap pen s i s t h at y ou a re t a k en t o t h e O kla h om a C ity Natio nal M em oria l, w hic h honors th e vic tim s of th e 1995 O kla h om a C ity bom bin g. Y ou w alk a ro und th e re fle ctin g p ool. Y ou se e th e sc u lp tu re o f 1 68 ch air s , o ne f o r e ach v ic tim .

The g en era l m an ag er, S am P re sti, o fte n le ad s th e to ur. H e d oesn ’t s a y m uch ; he s im ply l e ts y ou w alk a ro und a n d f e el t h e s o le m nity o f t h e p la ce. T hen , t o w ard th e en d, he re m in ds pla y ers to lo ok in to th e sta n ds durin g gam es an d to re m em ber th at m an y o f th ose p eo ple w ere p ers o nally a ffe cte d b y th is tr a g ed y.

It’ s a sm all m om en t. B ut it m ak es a b ig d if fe re n ce fo r th e sa m e re aso n th e WIP R O e x perim en t m ad e a d if fe re n ce. I t s e n ds a p ow erfu l b elo ngin g c u e a t th e pre cis e m om en t w hen p eo ple a re r ip est t o r e ceiv e i t.

Of c o urs e , th re sh old m om en ts d on’t o nly h ap pen o n d ay o ne; th ey h ap pen ev ery d ay . B ut th e su ccessfu l g ro ups I v is ite d p aid atte n tio n to m om en ts o f arriv al. T hey w ould p au se , ta k e tim e, a n d a ck now le d ge th e p re se n ce o f th e n ew pers o n, m ark in g t h e m om en t a s s p ecia l: We a re t o geth er n ow .

Avo id G iv in g S andw ic h Feedback:

In m an y org an iz atio ns, le ad ers te n d to deliv er fe ed back u sin g th e tr a d itio nal s a n dw ic h m eth od: Y ou ta lk a b out a p ositiv e, th en ad dre ss a n a re a th at n eed s im pro vem en t, th en f in is h w ith a p ositiv e. T his m ak es se n se in th eo ry , b ut in p ra ctic e it o fte n le ad s to c o nfu sio n, a s p eo ple te n d to fo cu s e ith er e n tir e ly o n t h e p ositiv e o r e n tir e ly o n t h e n eg ativ e.

In t h e c u ltu re s I v is ite d , I d id n’t s e e m an y f e ed back s a n dw ic h es. I n ste ad , I s a w th em s e p ara te th e tw o in to d if fe re n t p ro cesse s. T hey h an dle d n eg ativ es th ro ugh dia lo gue, fir s t b y a sk in g if a p ers o n w an ts fe ed back , th en h av in g a le arn in g- fo cu se d tw o-w ay c o nvers a tio n a b out th e n eed ed g ro w th . T hey h an dle d p ositiv es th ro ugh u ltr a cle ar b urs ts o f r e co gnitio n a n d p ra is e . T he le ad ers I s p en t tim e w ith sh are d a cap acity fo r ra d ia tin g delig ht w hen th ey sp otte d beh av io r w orth pra is in g. T hese m om en ts o f w arm , a u th en tic h ap pin ess fu nctio ned a s m ag netic north , c re atin g c la rity , b oostin g b elo ngin g, a n d o rie n tin g f u tu re a ctio n.

Em bra ce F un:

T his o bvio us o ne is s till w orth m en tio nin g, b ecau se la u ghte r is n ot ju st l a u ghte r; i t’ s t h e m ost f u ndam en ta l s ig n o f s a fe ty a n d c o nnectio n.

*1 One w ay t o d ete ct b elo ngin g l e v els i s b y e x am in in g t h e k in ds o f p ers o nal l a n guag e u se d i n e m ails . A stu dy b y L ynn W u o f W harto n l o oked a t t w o y ears o f c o m munic atio n b y e ig ht t h ousa n d w ork ers a n d sh ow ed t h at t a lk in g a b out s p orts , l u nch , a n d c o ffe e p re d ic te d w heth er a n e m plo yee w ould b e r e ta in ed bette r t h an t h e r e v en ue t h ey b ro ught i n . A s tu dy b y A m ir G old berg a t S ta n fo rd s h ow ed t h at i t w as possib le t o p re d ic t h ow l o ng e m plo yees s ta y ed b y h ow f re q uen tly t h eir e m ails c o nta in ed f a m ily re fe re n ces a n d s w ear w ord s.

*2 My f a v orite m eth od i s T oyota ’s u se o f t h e andon, a c o rd t h at a n y e m plo yee c an u se t o s to p t h e a sse m bly lin e w hen t h ey s p ot a p ro ble m . L ik e m an y o rg an iz atio nal h ab its t h at e n su re v oic e, t h is o ne s e em s in effic ie n t a t f ir s t, o vertu rn in g t h e h ie ra rc h y b y a llo w in g a l o w ly a sse m bly -lin e w ork er t o s to p t h e e n tir e co m pan y. B ut a c lo se r l o ok s h ow s t h at i t c re ate s b elo ngin g b y p la cin g p ow er a n d t r u st i n t h e h an ds o f t h e peo ple d oin g t h e w ork .

*3 Sam an th a W ils o n, w ho w as o rig in ally h ir e d b y P ix ar a s a b aris ta f o r t h e c o m pan y c afé , i s n ow a s to ry man ag er f o r t h e s tu dio , h av in g w ork ed o n In sid e O ut, U p, a n d Cars 2 . O n J u ly 1 0, 1 989, U nite d A ir lin es f lig ht 2 32 l e ft D en ver a n d h ead ed f o r C hic ag o w ith 2 85 p asse n gers o n b oard . T he w eath er w as su nny an d m ild , w ith lig ht w in ds o ut o f th e w est at th ir te en m ile s p er h our. F or th e fir s t h our an d te n m in ute s o f t h e t r ip , e v ery th in g w en t p erfe ctly . O ver I o w a, t h e c re w , c o nsis tin g o f C ap ta in A l H ay nes, fir s t offic er B ill R eco rd s, an d flig ht en gin eer D udle y D vora k , p ut th e p la n e o n a u to pilo t, a te lu nch , a n d s h ot th e b re eze. H ay nes, f if ty - s e v en , w as g ood a t s h ootin g th e b re eze. A lo w -k ey T ex an a n d a f o rm er M arin e, h e h ad a n a m ia b le m an ner a p pre cia te d b y h is c re w s. T w o y ears f ro m r e tir e m en t, h e w as p la n nin g f o r t h e n ex t s ta g e o f l if e , w hen h e w ould p ilo t a n R V a ro und t h e c o untr y w ith h is w if e , D arle n e.

Then , a t 3 :1 6, c am e a lo ud e x plo sio n f ro m th e ta il. T he p la n e s h ook f ie rc ely , t h en s ta rte d c lim bin g a n d tiltin g h ard to th e rig ht. R eco rd s g ra b bed o ne o f th e t w o c o ntr o l w heels , k now n a s y okes, a n d s a id , “ I h av e th e a ir p la n e.” C heck in g t h e g au ges, th e c re w r e aliz ed th e p la n e’s ta il e n gin e— one o f th e D C-1 0’s th re e e n gin es— was g one. M ean w hile th e p la n e k ep t tiltin g f a rth er to th e r ig ht d esp ite R eco rd s’s e ffo rts t o c o rre ct i t.

“A l,” R eco rd s sa id , tr y in g to keep his voic e calm , “I can ’t co ntr o l th e a ir p la n e.” Hay nes s e iz ed h is y oke. “ I g ot it,” h e s a id , b ut h e d id n’t h av e it. H e p ulle d w ith a ll h is s tr e n gth , b ut t h e c o ntr o ls b are ly b udged . T he p la n e k ep t t iltin g t o t h e r ig ht, u ntil i t f e lt l ik e i t w as n early s ta n din g o n t h e w in g.

Late r in vestig ato rs w ould tr a ce th e e x plo sio n to a m ic ro sc o pic c ra ck in a s ix - f o ot- d ia m ete r fa n in sid e th e ta il en gin e. T he co nse q uen ces o f th e ex plo sio n, h ow ev er, w en t bey ond th e lo ss of th e en gin e, w hic h co uld norm ally be overc o m e. S hra p nel h ad slic ed th e m ain an d b ack up h ydra u lic co ntr o l lin es th ro ugh w hic h th e p ilo ts o pera te d th e r u dder, a ile ro ns, a n d w in g f la p s— in s h ort, th e e x plo sio n r e m oved t h e p ilo ts ’ a b ility t o c o ntr o l t h e p la n e.

The te rm th e N atio nal T ra n sp orta tio n S afe ty B oard u se s f o r th is ty pe o f e v en t is ca ta str o phic fa ilu re . A ir lin es d id n’t b oth er tr a in in g p ilo ts fo r cata str o phic fa ilu re fo r tw o re aso ns. F ir s t, su ch fa ilu re s are ex tr e m ely ra re — th e o dds o f lo sin g h ydra u lic s and b ack ups h ad b een c alc u la te d a t o ne in a b illio n. S eco nd, th ey a re i n varia b ly f a ta l.

Hay nes m an ag ed t o s to p t h e r o ll b y u sin g t h e t h ro ttle s t o i n cre ase p ow er t o t h e rig ht- w in g e n gin e a n d d ecre ase p ow er to th e le ft- w in g e n gin e. T he a sy m metr ic th ru st h elp ed th e p la n e to s lo w ly tilt b ack to a ro ugh s e m bla n ce o f le v el flig ht.

But it d id n oth in g to f ix th e b ig ger p ro ble m : T he c o ntr o ls w ould n’t b udge. T he pla n e w as now w obblin g th ro ugh th e Io w a sk y lik e a poorly m ad e pap er air p la n e, p orp ois in g u p a n d d ow n th ousa n ds o f fe et e ach m in ute . H ay nes a n d Reco rd s c o ntin ued t o w re stle w ith t h e y okes. T he f lig ht s te w ard s m oved t h ro ugh th e c ab in , t r y in g t o r e sto re c alm . O ne f a m ily t o ok o ut a B ib le a n d b eg an t o p ra y .

In a n a is le s e at o f f ir s t c la ss, a f o rty -s ix -y ear-o ld m an n am ed D en ny F itc h w as cle an in g u p th e c o ffe e th at h ad s p ille d o n h is la p w hen th e e x plo sio n h ap pen ed .

Fitc h w ork ed f o r U nite d a s a p ilo t t r a in er. H e s p en t h is d ay s i n a f lig ht s im ula to r, te ach in g p ilo ts h ow t o h an dle e m erg en cie s. N ow h e s p oke w ith a f lig ht a tte n dan t an d a sk ed h er to in fo rm th e c ap ta in o f h is w illin gness to h elp . T he w ord c am e back : Sen d h im u p . F itc h w alk ed u p th e a is le , o pen ed th e c o ck pit d oor, a n d h is heart d ro pped .

“T he sc en e to m e a s a p ilo t w as u nbelie v ab le ,” F itc h la te r to ld a re p orte r.

“B oth th e p ilo ts w ere in s h ort- s le ev ed s h ir ts , th e te n dons b ein g ra is e d o n th eir fo re arm s, th eir k nuck le s w ere w hite … .T he fir s t th in g th at s tr ik es y our m in d is , ‘D ear G od, I’m g oin g to d ie th is a fte rn oon.’ T he o nly q uestio n th at re m ain s is , ‘H ow l o ng i s i t g oin g t o t a k e I o w a t o h it m e?’   ” Fitc h s c an ned th e g au ges, tr y in g to m ak e s e n se o f th em . H e h ad n ev er s e en a co m ple te h ydra u lic fa ilu re b efo re , an d lik e th e p ilo ts , h e w as h av in g tr o uble co m pre h en din g w hat w as g oin g o n. F lig ht e n gin eer D vora k w as o n th e r a d io to Unite d ’s m ain te n an ce s e ek in g a d vic e. I t w as a m om en t o f p eak c o nfu sio n.

“T ell m e,” F itc h s a id t o H ay nes. “ T ell m e w hat y ou w an t, a n d I ’ll h elp y ou.” Hay nes gestu re d to th e en gin e th ro ttle s th at w ere lo cate d on th e co nso le betw een th e tw o p ilo ts . A s H ay nes a n d R eco rd s h ad th eir h an ds fu ll w re stlin g with th e y okes, so m eo ne n eed ed to ru n th e th ro ttle s to tr y to m ain ta in le v el flig ht. F itc h m oved fo rw ard , k nelt b etw een th e s e ats , a n d g ra sp ed th e th ro ttle s with b oth h an ds.

Should er to s h ould er, th e th re e m en b eg an to d o s o m eth in g th at n o p ilo ts h ad ev er d one: fly a D C-1 0 w ith out a n y c o ntr o ls . T hey b eg an to c o m munic ate in a partic u la r w ay , t h ro ugh s h ort, u rg en t b urs ts .

H AYNES : O kay , l e t’ s s ta rt t h is s u ck er d ow n a l ittle m ore .

F IT C H : O kay , s e t y our p ow er a l ittle b it.

H AYNES : A nybody h av e a n y i d eas a b out [ w hat t o d o a b out t h e l a n din g g ear]?

He [ D vora k ] i s t a lk in g t o [ m ain te n an ce].

F IT C H : [ D vora k ] i s t a lk in g t o [ m ain te n an ce]. I ’m g onna a lte rn ate -g ear y ou.

May be t h at w ill e v en h elp y ou. I f t h ere i s n o f lu id , I d on’t k now h ow o utb oard aile ro ns a re g oin g t o h elp y ou.

H AYNES : H ow d o y ou, w e g et g ear d ow n?

F IT C H : W ell, t h ey c an f re e-fa ll. T he o nly t h in g i s , w e a lte rn ate t h e g ear. W e got t h e [ la n din g g ear] d oors d ow n?

H AYNES : Y ep .

R EC O RD S : W e’re g onna h av e t r o uble s to ppin g t o o.

H AYNES : O h y eah . W e d on’t h av e a n y b ra k es.

R EC O RD S : N o b ra k es?

H AYNES : W ell, w e h av e s o m e b ra k es [ b ut n ot m uch ].

F IT C H : [ B ra k in g w ill b e a ] o ne-s h ot d eal. J u st m ash i t, m ash i t o nce. T hat’ s a ll you g et. I ’m g onna t u rn y ou. [ I’m g onna] g iv e y ou a l e ft t u rn b ack t o t h e air p ort. I s t h at o kay ?

H AYNES : I g ot i t.

[A f e w m in ute s l a te r.] H AYNES : A l ittle l e ft b an k. B ack , b ack .

F IT C H : H old t h is t h in g l e v el i f y ou c an .

H AYNES : L ev el, b ab y, l e v el, l e v el… D VORA K : W e’re t u rn in g n ow .

F IT C H : M ore p ow er, m ore p ow er, g iv e ’ e m m ore p ow er.

R EC O RD S : M ore p ow er, f u ll p ow er.

F IT C H : P ow er p ic k s ’ e m u p. U NKNOW N V OIC E : R ig ht t u rn , t h ro ttle b ack .

H AYNES : C an w e t u rn l e ft?

D VORA K ( s p eak in g t o F itc h ): D o y ou w an t t h is s e at?

F IT C H : Y es, d o y ou m in d?

D VORA K : I d on’t m in d. I t h in k t h at y ou k now w hat y ou’re d oin g t h ere … .

The te rm p ilo ts u se to d esc rib e th is ty pe o f sh ort- b urs t co m munic atio n is notific a tio ns . A n otif ic atio n is n ot a n o rd er o r a c o m man d. It p ro vid es c o n te x t, te llin g o f s o m eth in g n otic ed , p la cin g a s p otlig ht o n o ne d is c re te e le m en t o f th e world . Notif ic atio ns are th e hum ble st an d most prim itiv e fo rm of co m munic atio n, th e eq uiv ale n t of a ch ild ’s fin ger-p oin t: I se e th is .

U nlik e co m man ds, th ey c arry u nsp oken q uestio ns: Do y o u a gre e? W hat e ls e d o y o u se e?

In a ty pic al la n din g or ta k eo ff, a pro fic ie n t cre w av era g es tw en ty notif ic atio ns p er m in ute .

Durin g th eir in te ra ctio ns a fte r th e e x plo sio n, th e m ak esh if t c re w o f F lig ht 2 32 co m munic ate d a t a r a te o f m ore th an s ix ty n otif ic atio ns p er m in ute . S om e o f th e in te ra ctio ns c o nsis te d o f b ig , o pen -e n ded q uestio ns, m ostly a sk ed b y H ay nes.

How d o w e g et th e [ la ndin g] g ea r d ow n?

… Anyb ody h ave a ny id ea s?

T hese a re not th e k in ds o f q uestio ns o ne w ould n orm ally e x pect a c ap ta in to a sk . In fa ct, th ey ’re th e o pposite . N orm ally , a cap ta in ’s jo b in an em erg en cy is to b e in co m man d an d to p ro je ct cap ab ility an d co oln ess. Y et o ver an d o ver H ay nes notif ie d h is c re w o f a v ery d if fe re n t tr u th : Your c a pta in h as n o id ea w hat is goin g o n o r h ow t o f ix i t . Can y o u h elp ?

This c o m bin atio n o f n otif ic atio ns a n d o pen -e n ded q uestio ns a d ded u p to a patte rn of in te ra ctio n th at w as neith er sm ooth nor gra cefu l. It w as clu nky, unco nfid en t, a n d f u ll o f r e p etitio ns. C oncep tu ally , it r e se m ble d a p ers o n f e elin g his w ay th ro ugh a d ark ro om , s e n sin g o bsta cle s a n d n av ig atin g fitf u lly a ro und th em . We’r e g onna h ave tr o uble sto ppin g to o… .O h y ea h. W e d on’t h ave a ny bra kes… .N o b ra kes? … Well, w e h ave s o m e b ra kes… .J u st m ash i t, m ash i t o nce.

In te ra ctin g in th is s tilte d , u nco nfid en t f a sh io n, th e c re w o f F lig ht 2 32 s o lv ed a co m ple x s e rie s o f p ro ble m s w hile fly in g a t fo ur h undre d m ile s p er h our. T hey fig ure d o ut h ow to o ptim ally d is tr ib ute p ow er b etw een th e tw o e n gin es a n d h ow to tr y to an tic ip ate th e porp ois in g m ovem en ts th e pla n e w as m ak in g. T hey co m munic ate d with th e cab in , atte n dan ts , passe n gers , flig ht co ntr o l, main te n an ce, a n d e m erg en cy c re w s o n t h e g ro und. T hey c h ose r o ute s, c alc u la te d desc en t ra te s, p re p are d fo r ev acu atio n, an d ev en cra ck ed jo kes. A s th ey g ot clo se r to S io ux C ity , th e a ir tr a ffic c o ntr o lle r c le are d th em to la n d o n a n y o f th e air p ort’ s ru nw ay s. H ay nes c h uck le d a n d a sk ed , “ Y ou w an t to b e p artic u la r a n d mak e i t a r u nw ay , h uh?” E very one l a u ghed .

A f e w m in ute s la te r, f ly in g a t tw ic e th e n orm al la n din g s p eed a n d d esc en din g at s ix tim es th e n orm al r a te , F lig ht 2 32 a tte m pte d to la n d. A w in gtip d ip ped a n d dug in to th e ru nw ay , se n din g th e p la n e in to a fie ry c artw heel. T he c ra sh w as te rrib le , b ut 1 85 p eo ple s u rv iv ed , in clu din g th e e n tir e c re w . S om e w alk ed o ut o f th e w re ck ag e in to a c o rn fie ld . T he s u rv iv al o f s o m an y p asse n gers w as te rm ed a mir a cle .

In th e week s afte rw ard , as part of its in vestig atio n, th e Natio nal Tra n sp orta tio n S afe ty B oard p la ced ex perie n ced cre w s in sim ula to rs an d re - cre ate d th e c o nditio ns fa ced b y F lig ht 2 32 a t th e m om en t it lo st a ll h ydra u lic s.

The s im ula tio n w as ru n tw en ty -e ig ht tim es. A ll tw en ty -e ig ht tim es, th e p la n es cra sh ed , s p ir a lin g t o t h e g ro und w ith out g ettin g c lo se t o S io ux C ity .

All o f w hic h u nderlin es a s tr a n ge tr u th . T he c re w o f F lig ht 2 32 s u cceed ed n ot becau se o f th eir in div id ual s k ills b ut b ecau se th ey w ere a b le to c o m bin e th ose sk ills in to a gre ate r in te llig en ce. T hey dem onstr a te d th at a se rie s of sm all, hum ble e x ch an ges— Anyb ody h ave a ny id ea s? T ell m e w hat y o u w ant, a nd I’ll help y o u —can u nlo ck a g ro up’s a b ility to p erfo rm . T he k ey , a s w e’re a b out to le arn , in volv es th e w illin gness to p erfo rm a c erta in b eh av io r th at g oes a g ain st our e v ery i n stin ct: s h arin g v uln era b ility .

— So fa r w e’v e sp en t th is book in w hat you m ig ht call th e glu e dep artm en t, ex plo rin g h ow s u ccessfu l g ro ups c re ate b elo ngin g. N ow w e’ll tu rn o ur a tte n tio n to th e m usc le , to se e h ow su ccessfu l g ro ups tr a n sla te c o nnectio n in to tr u stin g co opera tio n.

When you w atc h hig hly co hesiv e gro ups in actio n, you w ill se e m an y mom en ts o f flu id , tr u stin g c o opera tio n. T hese m om en ts o fte n h ap pen w hen th e gro up is co nfro nte d w ith a to ugh obsta cle — fo r ex am ple , a SE A L te am nav ig atin g a tr a in in g c o urs e , o r a n im pro v c o m ed y te am n av ig atin g a sk etc h .

With out c o m munic atio n o r p la n nin g, th e g ro up s ta rts to m ove a n d th in k a s o ne, fin din g its w ay th ro ugh th e o bsta cle in th e s a m e w ay th at a s c h ool o f f is h f in ds its w ay th ro ugh a c o ra l re ef, a s if th ey a re a ll w ir e d in to th e sa m e b ra in . It’ s beau tif u l.

If y ou lo ok c lo se ly , h ow ev er, y ou w ill a ls o n otic e s o m eth in g e ls e . S prin kle d am id t h e s m ooth ness a n d f lu en cy a re m om en ts t h at d on’t f e el s o b eau tif u l. T hese mom en ts a re c lu nky, a w kw ard , a n d fu ll o f h ard q uestio ns. T hey c o nta in p uls e s of p ro fo und te n sio n, a s p eo ple d eal w ith h ard f e ed back a n d s tr u ggle to geth er to fig ure o ut w hat is g oin g o n. W hat’ s m ore , th ese m om en ts d on’t h ap pen b y accid en t. T hey h ap pen b y d esig n.

At P ix ar, th ose u nco m fo rta b le m om en ts h ap pen in w hat th ey c all B ra in T ru st meetin gs. T he B ra in T ru st is P ix ar’s m eth od of asse ssin g an d im pro vin g its movie s d urin g th eir d ev elo pm en t. ( E ach f ilm is B ra in T ru ste d a b out h alf a d ozen tim es, a t r e g ula r i n te rv als .) T he m eetin g b rin gs t h e f ilm ’s d ir e cto r t o geth er w ith a han dfu l o f th e s tu dio ’s v ete ra n d ir e cto rs a n d p ro ducers , a ll o f w hom w atc h th e la te st v ers io n o f th e m ovie a n d o ffe r th eir c an did o pin io n. F ro m a d is ta n ce, th e Bra in T ru st a p pears to b e a ro utin e h uddle . U p c lo se , it’ s m ore lik e a p ain fu l med ic al pro ced ure — sp ecif ic ally , a dis se ctio n th at sp otlig hts , nam es, an d an aly zes t h e f ilm ’s f la w s i n b re ath ta k in g d eta il.

A B ra in T ru st m eetin g is n ot fu n. It is w here d ir e cto rs are to ld th at th eir ch ara cte rs la ck h eart, th eir s to ry lin es a re c o nfu sin g, a n d th eir jo kes f a ll f la t. B ut it’ s a ls o w here th ose m ovie s g et b ette r. “ T he B ra in T ru st is th e m ost im porta n t th in g w e d o b y f a r,” s a id P ix ar p re sid en t E d C atm ull. “ It d ep en ds o n c o m ple te ly can did f e ed back .” In rh yth m a n d to ne, B ra in T ru st m eetin gs re se m ble th e a tm osp here in sid e th e co ck pit o f F lig ht 2 32. T hey c o nsis t o f a s te ad y s tr e am o f h ere ’s -th e-b ad -n ew s notif ic atio ns a cco m pan ie d b y a fe w b ig , s c ary q uestio ns— Does a nyb ody k n ow how to la nd th is th in g?

P artic ip an ts s p en d m ost o f th e tim e in a s ta te o f b ro w - fu rro w in g s tr u ggle a s th ey g ra p ple w ith th e f a ct th at th e m ovie , a t th e m om en t, is n ’t w ork in g.

“ A ll o ur m ovie s s u ck a t fir s t,” C atm ull s a y s. “ T he B ra in T ru st is where w e f ig ure o ut w hy t h ey s u ck , a n d i t’ s a ls o w here t h ey s ta rt t o n ot s u ck .” At th e N av y S E A Ls, su ch u nco m fo rta b le , c an dor-fille d m om en ts h ap pen in th e A fte r-A ctio n R ev ie w , o r A AR. T he A AR is a g ath erin g th at ta k es p la ce im med ia te ly a fte r e ach m is sio n o r tr a in in g se ssio n: T eam m em bers p ut d ow n th eir w eap ons, g ra b a s n ack a n d w ate r, a n d s ta rt ta lk in g. A s in B ra in T ru sts , th e te am m em bers n am e a n d a n aly ze p ro ble m s a n d fa ce u nco m fo rta b le q uestio ns head -o n: Where d id w e f a il? W hat d id e a ch o f u s d o, a nd w hy d id w e d o i t? W hat will w e d o d iffe re n tly n ext tim e?

A ARs can b e ra w , p ain fu l, an d fille d w ith puls e s o f e m otio n a n d u ncerta in ty .

“T hey ’re n ot re al fu n,” sa id C hris to pher B ald w in , a fo rm er o pera to r w ith SE A L T eam S ix .

“ T hey c an g et te n se a t tim es. I ’v e n ev er s e en p eo ple f is tf ig ht, but it c an g et c lo se . S till, it’ s p ro bab ly th e m ost c ru cia l th in g w e d o to geth er, asid e fro m th e m is sio ns th em se lv es, b ecau se th at’ s w here w e fig ure o ut w hat re ally h ap pen ed a n d h ow t o g et b ette r.” While t h e S E A Ls a n d P ix ar g en era te t h ese m om en ts i n a s tr u ctu re d w ay , o th er gro ups u se lo ose r, m ore o rg an ic m eth ods. A t G ra m erc y T av ern , a N ew Y ork re sta u ra n t w hose s ta ff ra n ks a s th e c u lin ary w orld ’s v ers io n o f a S E A L te am , I watc h ed a s W hitn ey M acd onald w as m in ute s a w ay f ro m a m om en t s h e h ad lo ng an tic ip ate d : h er f ir s t- e v er s h if t a s a f ro nt w aite r. T he lu nch c ro w d w as lin in g u p on t h e s id ew alk , a n d s h e w as e x cite d a n d a b it n erv ous.

Assis ta n t g en era l m an ag er S co tt R ein hard t a p pro ach ed h er— fo r a p ep ta lk , I pre su m ed .

I w as w ro ng. “O kay ,” Rein hard t sa id , fix in g W hitn ey w ith a brig ht, pen etr a tin g g aze. “ T he o ne t h in g w e k now a b out t o day i s t h at i t’ s n ot g oin g t o g o perfe ctly . I m ean , i t co uld , b ut o dds a re r e ally , r e ally , r e ally h ig h t h at i t w on’t.” A flic k er o f s u rp ris e tr a v ele d a cro ss W hitn ey ’s fa ce. S he h ad tr a in ed fo r s ix month s fo r th is d ay , le arn in g ev ery p ain sta k in g d eta il o f th e jo b, h opin g to perfo rm w ell.

S he h ad w ork ed a s a b ack se rv er, ta k en n ote s, sa t in o n lin eu p meetin gs, a n d s h ad ow ed s h if t a fte r s h if t. N ow s h e w as b ein g t o ld i n n o u ncerta in te rm s t h at s h e w as d estin ed t o s c re w u p.

“S o h ere ’s h ow w e’ll k now if y ou h ad a g ood d ay ,” R ein hard t c o ntin ued . “ If you a sk fo r h elp te n tim es, th en w e’ll k now it w as g ood. If y ou tr y to d o it a ll alo ne… ” H is v oic e t r a ile d o ff, t h e i m plic atio n c le ar— It w ill b e a c a ta str o phe .

On t h e f a ce o f i t, t h ese a w kw ard m om en ts a t P ix ar, t h e S E A Ls, a n d G ra m erc y Tav ern d on’t m ak e s e n se . T hese g ro ups s e em to in te n tio nally c re ate a w kw ard , pain fu l in te ra ctio ns th at lo ok lik e th e opposite of sm ooth co opera tio n. T he fa sc in atin g th in g is , h ow ev er, th ese a w kw ard , p ain fu l in te ra ctio ns g en era te th e hig hly c o hesiv e, tr u stin g b eh av io r n ecessa ry f o r s m ooth c o opera tio n.

L et’ s lo ok deep er i n to h ow t h is h ap pen s.

I m ag in e th at you an d a str a n ger ask each oth er th e fo llo w in g tw o se ts of q uestio ns.

S ET A • What w as t h e b est g if t y ou e v er r e ceiv ed a n d w hy?

• Desc rib e t h e l a st p et y ou o w ned .

• Where d id y ou g o t o h ig h s c h ool? W hat w as y our h ig h s c h ool l ik e?

• Who i s y our f a v orite a cto r o r a ctr e ss?

S ET B • If a c ry sta l b all c o uld t e ll y ou t h e t r u th a b out y ours e lf , y our l if e , t h e f u tu re , or a n yth in g e ls e , w hat w ould y ou w an t t o k now ?

• Is t h ere s o m eth in g t h at y ou’v e d re am ed o f d oin g f o r a l o ng t im e? W hy hav en ’t y ou d one i t?

• What i s t h e g re ate st a cco m plis h m en t o f y our l if e ?

• When d id y ou l a st s in g t o y ours e lf ? T o s o m eo ne e ls e ?

At f ir s t g la n ce, th e tw o s e ts o f q uestio ns h av e a lo t in c o m mon. B oth a sk y ou t o d is c lo se p ers o nal i n fo rm atio n, t o t e ll s to rie s, t o s h are . H ow ev er, i f y ou w ere t o d o th is e x perim en t ( its f u ll f o rm c o nta in s th ir ty -s ix q uestio ns), y ou w ould n otic e tw o d if fe re n ces. T he f ir s t i s t h at a s y ou w en t t h ro ugh S et B , y ou w ould f e el a b it ap pre h en siv e. Your heart ra te would in cre ase . You would be more unco m fo rta b le . You would blu sh , hesita te , an d perh ap s la u gh out of nerv ousn ess. (It is n ot easy , afte r all, to te ll a str a n ger so m eth in g im porta n t you’v e d re am ed o f d oin g a ll y our l if e .) The se co nd d if fe re n ce is th at S et B w ould m ak e y ou a n d th e str a n ger fe el clo se r to each oth er— aro und 24 perc en t clo se r th an Set A , acco rd in g to ex perim en te rs .

* W hile S et A a llo w s y ou to sta y in y our c o m fo rt z o ne, S et B gen era te s co nfe ssio n, dis c o m fo rt, an d au th en tic ity th at bre ak dow n barrie rs betw een p eo ple a n d tip th em in to a d eep er c o nnectio n. W hile S et A g en era te s in fo rm atio n, S et B g en era te s s o m eth in g m ore p ow erfu l:

v uln era b ility .

At so m e le v el, w e in tu itiv ely know th at vuln era b ility te n ds to sp ark co opera tio n a n d tr u st. B ut w e m ay n ot re aliz e h ow p ow erfu lly a n d re lia b ly th is pro cess w ork s, p artic u la rly w hen it c o m es to g ro up in te ra ctio ns. S o it’ s u se fu l to meet D r. J e ff P olz er, a p ro fe sso r o f o rg an iz atio nal b eh av io r a t H arv ard w ho h as sp en t a la rg e c h unk o f h is c are er e x am in in g h ow s m all, s e em in gly in sig nif ic an t so cia l e x ch an ges c an c re ate c asc ad e e ffe cts i n g ro ups.

“P eo ple te n d to th in k o f v uln era b ility in a to uch y-fe ely w ay , b ut th at’ s n ot what’ s h ap pen in g,” P olz er s a y s. “ It’ s a b out s e n din g a r e ally c le ar s ig nal t h at y ou hav e w eak nesse s, t h at y ou c o uld u se h elp . A nd i f t h at b eh av io r b eco m es a m odel fo r o th ers , th en y ou c an s e t th e in se cu ritie s a sid e a n d g et to w ork , s ta rt to tr u st each o th er a n d h elp e ach o th er. I f y ou n ev er h av e t h at v uln era b le m om en t, o n t h e oth er h an d, th en p eo ple w ill tr y to c o ver u p th eir w eak nesse s, a n d e v ery little mic ro ta sk b eco m es a p la ce w here i n se cu ritie s m an if e st t h em se lv es.” Polz er p oin ts o ut th at v uln era b ility is le ss a b out th e s e n der th an th e re ceiv er.

“T he s e co nd p ers o n i s t h e k ey ,” h e s a y s. “ D o t h ey p ic k i t u p a n d r e v eal t h eir o w n weak nesse s, o r d o th ey c o ver u p a n d p re te n d th ey d on’t h av e a n y? It m ak es a huge dif fe re n ce in th e outc o m e.” P olz er has beco m e sk ille d at sp ottin g th e mom en t w hen th e s ig nal tr a v els th ro ugh th e g ro up. “ Y ou c an a ctu ally s e e th e peo ple r e la x a n d c o nnect a n d s ta rt t o t r u st. T he g ro up p ic k s u p t h e i d ea a n d s a y s, ‘O kay , th is is th e m ode w e’re g oin g to b e in ,’ a n d it s ta rts b eh av in g a lo ng th ose lin es, a cco rd in g to th e n orm th at it’ s o kay to a d m it w eak ness a n d h elp e ach oth er.” The in te ra ctio n h e d esc rib es can b e calle d a v uln era b ility lo op. A sh are d ex ch an ge o f o pen ness, it’ s th e m ost b asic b uild in g b lo ck o f co opera tio n an d tr u st. V uln era b ility lo ops s e em s w if t a n d s p onta n eo us f ro m a d is ta n ce, b ut w hen you l o ok c lo se ly , t h ey a ll f o llo w t h e s a m e d is c re te s te p s:

1.

Pers o n A s e n ds a s ig nal o f v uln era b ility .

2.

Pers o n B d ete cts t h is s ig nal.

3.

Pers o n B r e sp onds b y s ig nalin g t h eir o w n v uln era b ility .

4.

Pers o n A d ete cts t h is s ig nal.

5.

A n orm i s e sta b lis h ed ; c lo se n ess a n d t r u st i n cre ase .

Consid er th e s itu atio n o f A l H ay nes o n F lig ht 2 32. H e w as th e c ap ta in o f th e pla n e, th e so urc e of pow er an d au th ority to w hom ev ery one lo oked fo r re assu ra n ce a n d d ir e ctio n. W hen t h e e x plo sio n k nock ed o ut t h e c o ntr o ls , h is f ir s t in stin ct w as to p la y th at ro le — to g ra b th e y oke a n d sa y , “ I g ot it.” (L ate r h e would c all th ose th re e w ord s “ th e d um best th in g I ’v e e v er s a id in m y lif e .” ) H ad he c o ntin ued in te ra ctin g w ith h is c re w in th is w ay , F lig ht 2 32 w ould h av e lik ely cra sh ed . B ut h e d id n ot c o ntin ue o n t h at p ath . H e w as a b le t o d o s o m eth in g e v en more d if fic u lt: to s e n d a s ig nal o f v uln era b ility , to c o m munic ate to h is c re w th at he n eed ed t h em . I t t o ok j u st f o ur w ord s:

Anyb ody h ave a ny i d ea s?

Lik ew is e , w hen p ilo t tr a in er D en ny F itc h e n te re d th e c o ck pit, h e c o uld h av e atte m pte d t o i s su e c o m man ds a n d t a k e c h arg e— afte r a ll, h e k new a s m uch , i f n ot more , a b out e m erg en cy p ro ced ure s a s H ay nes d id . I n ste ad , h e d id th e o pposite :

He e x plic itly p ut h im se lf b en eath H ay nes a n d th e c re w , sig nalin g h is ro le a s help er:

Tell m e w hat y o u w ant, a nd I ’ll h elp y o u.

Each o f th ese s m all s ig nals to ok o nly a f e w s e co nds to d eliv er. B ut th ey w ere vita l, b ecau se th ey sh if te d th e d ynam ic , allo w in g tw o p eo ple w ho h ad b een se p ara te t o f u nctio n a s o ne.

It’ s u se fu l to z o om in o n th is s h if t. A s it h ap pen s, s c ie n tis ts h av e d esig ned a n ex perim en t to d o e x actly th at, c alle d th e G iv e-S om e G am e. It w ork s lik e th is :

You a n d a n oth er p ers o n, w hom y ou’v e n ev er m et, e ach g et fo ur to ken s. E ach to ken is w orth a d olla r if y ou k eep it b ut tw o d olla rs if y ou g iv e it to th e o th er pers o n. T he g am e c o nsis ts o f o ne d ecis io n: H ow m an y to ken s d o y ou g iv e th e oth er p ers o n?

This is n ot a s im ple d ecis io n. I f y ou g iv e a ll, y ou m ig ht e n d u p w ith n oth in g.

If y ou’re lik e m ost p eo ple , y ou e n d u p g iv in g a n a v era g e o f 2 .5 to ken s to a str a n ger— slig htly b ia se d to w ard c o opera tio n. W hat g ets in te re stin g, h ow ev er, is how p eo ple te n d to b eh av e w hen th eir v uln era b ility le v els a re in cre ase d a fe w notc h es.

In o ne e x perim en t, su bje cts w ere a sk ed to d eliv er a sh ort p re se n ta tio n to a ro om fu l o f p eo ple w ho h ad b een in str u cte d b y e x perim en te rs to re m ain s to ne- fa ced an d sile n t. T hey pla y ed th e G iv e-S om e G am e afte rw ard . Y ou m ig ht im ag in e th at th e s u bje cts w ho e n dure d th is d if fic u lt e x perie n ce w ould re sp ond by beco m in g le ss co opera tiv e, but th e opposite tu rn ed out to be tr u e: th e sp eak ers ’ co opera tio n le v els in cre ase d by 50 perc en t. That m om en t of vuln era b ility d id n ot r e d uce w illin gness to c o opera te b ut b ooste d it. T he in vers e was a ls o tr u e: I n cre asin g p eo ple ’s s e n se o f p ow er— th at is , tw eak in g a s itu atio n to m ak e t h em f e el m ore i n vuln era b le — dra m atic ally d im in is h ed t h eir w illin gness to c o opera te .

The l in k b etw een v uln era b ility a n d c o opera tio n a p plie s n ot o nly t o i n div id uals but als o to gro ups. In an ex perim en t by D av id D eS te n o of N orth easte rn Univ ers ity , partic ip an ts w ere ask ed to perfo rm a lo ng, te d io us ta sk on a co m pute r th at w as rig ged to c ra sh ju st a s th ey w ere c o m ple tin g it. T hen o ne o f th eir fe llo w p artic ip an ts (w ho w as actu ally a co nfe d era te o f th e re se arc h ers ) would w alk o ver, n otic e th e p ro ble m , a n d g en ero usly sp en d tim e “ fix in g” th e co m pute r, th ere b y re sc u in g th e partic ip an t fro m hav in g to re lo ad th e data .

Afte rw ard th e p artic ip an ts p la y ed th e G iv e-S om e G am e. A s y ou m ig ht e x pect, th e s u bje cts w ere s ig nif ic an tly m ore c o opera tiv e w ith th e p ers o n w ho f ix ed th eir co m pute r. B ut h ere ’s th e th in g: T hey w ere e q ually c o opera tiv e w ith c o m ple te str a n gers . In o th er w ord s, th e fe elin gs o f tr u st an d clo se n ess sp ark ed b y th e vuln era b ility lo op w ere tr a n sfe rre d in fu ll str e n gth to so m eo ne w ho sim ply hap pen ed to be in th e ro om . The vuln era b ility lo op, in oth er w ord s, is co nta g io us.

“W e fe el lik e tr u st is s ta b le , b ut e v ery s in gle m om en t y our b ra in is tr a ck in g your e n vir o nm en t, a n d ru nnin g a c alc u la tio n w heth er y ou c an tr u st th e p eo ple aro und y ou a n d b ond w ith th em ,” s a y s D eS te n o. “ T ru st c o m es d ow n to c o nte x t.

And w hat d riv es it is th e s e n se th at y ou’re v uln era b le , th at y ou n eed o th ers a n d can ’t d o i t o n y our o w n.” Norm ally , w e th in k ab out tr u st an d v uln era b ility th e w ay w e th in k ab out sta n din g o n s o lid g ro und a n d le ap in g i n to t h e u nknow n: f ir s t w e b uild t r u st, th en we le ap . B ut sc ie n ce is sh ow in g u s th at w e’v e g ot it b ack w ard .

V uln era b ility doesn ’t c o m e a fte r tr u st— it p re ced es it. L eap in g in to th e u nknow n, w hen d one alo ngsid e o th ers , c au se s t h e s o lid g ro und o f t r u st t o m ate ria liz e b en eath o ur f e et.

— Questio n: H ow w ould y ou g o a b out fin din g te n la rg e re d b allo ons d ep lo yed a t se cre t l o catio ns t h ro ughout t h e U nite d S ta te s?

This i s n ot a n e asy q uestio n. I t w as d re am ed u p b y s c ie n tis ts f ro m t h e D efe n se Advan ced Rese arc h Pro je cts Agen cy (D ARPA ), a div is io n of th e U.S .

Dep artm en t of D efe n se ta sk ed w ith help in g A m eric a’s m ilita ry pre p are fo r fu tu re te ch nolo gic al ch alle n ges. T he R ed B allo on C halle n ge, w hic h D ARPA an nounced o n O cto ber 2 9, 2 009, w as d esig ned to m im ic r e al- lif e d ile m mas lik e te rro ris m a n d d is e ase c o ntr o l, a n d o ffe re d a $ 40,0 00 p riz e to th e fir s t g ro up to accu ra te ly l o cate a ll t e n b allo ons. T he i m men sity o f t h e t a sk — te n b allo ons i n 3 .1 millio n s q uare m ile s— le d s o m e t o w onder i f D ARPA h ad g one t o o f a r. A s e n io r an aly st fo r th e Natio nal Geo sp atia l- In te llig en ce Agen cy decla re d it “im possib le .” With in d ay s o f t h e a n nouncem en t, h undre d s o f g ro ups s ig ned u p, r e p re se n tin g a div ers e cro ss-s e ctio n of A m eric a’s brig hte st m in ds: hack ers , so cia l m ed ia en tr e p re n eu rs , te ch c o m pan ie s, a n d r e se arc h u niv ers itie s.

T he v ast m ajo rity to ok a lo gic al a p pro ach to th e p ro ble m : T hey b uilt to ols to a tta ck it. T hey c o nstr u cte d se arc h e n gin es to a n aly ze s a te llite p hoto gra p hy te ch nolo gy, ta p ped in to e x is tin g so cia l a n d b usin ess n etw ork s, la u nch ed p ublic ity c am paig ns, b uilt o pen -s o urc e in te llig en ce s o ftw are , a n d n urtu re d c o m munitie s o f s e arc h ers o n s o cia l m ed ia .

The te am f ro m M IT M ed ia L ab , o n th e o th er h an d, d id n’t d o a n y o f th at s tu ff becau se t h ey d id n’t f in d o ut a b out t h e c h alle n ge u ntil f o ur d ay s b efo re l a u nch . A gro up o f s tu den ts , le d b y p ostd octo ra l f e llo w R ile y C ra n e, r e aliz ed th ey h ad n o tim e to a sse m ble a te am o r c re ate te ch nolo gy o r d o a n yth in g th at re se m ble d a n org an iz ed a p pro ach . S o in ste ad th ey to ok a d if fe re n t ta ck . T hey b uilt a w eb site th at c o nsis te d o f t h e f o llo w in g i n vita tio n:

When y ou s ig n u p t o j o in t h e M IT R ed B allo on C halle n ge T eam , you’ll b e p ro vid ed w ith a p ers o naliz ed i n vita tio n l in k, l ik e http ://b allo on.m it.e d u/ yourn am eh ere Hav e a ll y our f rie n ds s ig n u p u sin g y our p ers o naliz ed i n vita tio n.

If a n yone y ou i n vite , o r a n yone t h ey i n vite , o r a n yone t h ey i n vite (… an d s o o n) w in s m oney , s o w ill y ou! We’re g iv in g $ 2000 p er b allo on t o t h e f ir s t p ers o n t o s e n d u s t h e co rre ct c o ord in ate s, b ut t h at’ s n ot a ll— we’re a ls o g iv in g $ 1000 t o th e p ers o n w ho i n vite d t h em . T hen w e’re g iv in g $ 500 [ to ] w hoev er in vite d t h e i n vite r, a n d $ 250 t o w hoev er i n vite d t h em , a n d s o o n… (s e e h ow i t w ork s).

Com pare d t o t h e s o phis tic ate d t o ols a n d t e ch nolo gy d ep lo yed b y o th er g ro ups, th e M IT te am ’s a p pro ach w as la u ghab ly p rim itiv e. T hey h ad n o o rg an iz atio nal str u ctu re o r str a te g y o r so ftw are , n ot e v en a m ap o f th e U nite d S ta te s to h elp lo cate th e b allo ons. T his w asn ’t a w ell- e q uip ped te am ; it w as c lo se r to a h astily sc ra w le d p le a s h oved in to a b ottle a n d lo bbed in to th e o cean o f th e I n te rn et: “ If you f in d t h is , p le ase h elp !” On th e m orn in g o f D ecem ber 3 , tw o d ay s b efo re th e b allo on la u nch , M IT sw itc h ed o n th e w eb site . F or a f e w h ours , n oth in g h ap pen ed . T hen , a t 3 :4 2 P.M .

on D ecem ber 3 , p eo ple b eg an to jo in . C onnectio ns f ir s t b lo om ed o ut o f B osto n, th en e x plo ded , ra d ia tin g to C hic ag o, L os A ngele s, S an F ra n cis c o , M in neap olis , Den ver, T ex as, a n d fa r b ey ond, in clu din g E uro pe. V ie w ed in tim e la p se , th e sp re ad o f c o nnectio ns r e se m ble d t h e s p onta n eo us a sse m bly o f a g ig an tic n erv ous sy ste m , w ith h undre d s o f n ew p eo ple j o in in g t h e e ffo rt w ith e ach p assin g h our.

At pre cis e ly 10:0 0 A.M . E aste rn on D ecem ber 5, D ARPA la u nch ed th e ballo ons in se cre t lo catio ns ra n gin g fro m U nio n Square in dow nto w n San Fra n cis c o to a b ase b all fie ld o uts id e H ousto n, T ex as, to a w oodla n d p ark n ear Chris tia n a, D ela w are . T housa n ds o f te am s s w ung in to a ctio n, a n d th e o rg an iz ers se ttle d in f o r a lo ng w ait: T hey e stim ate d it w ould ta k e u p to a w eek f o r a te am to a ccu ra te ly l o cate a ll t e n b allo ons.

Eig ht h ours , fif ty -tw o m in ute s, a n d fo rty -o ne s e co nds la te r, it w as o ver. T he MIT te am h ad fo und a ll te n b allo ons a n d h ad d one s o w ith th e h elp o f 4 ,6 65 peo ple — or as D ARPA org an iz er Pete r Lee put it, “a huge am ount of partic ip atio n fro m sh ock in gly little m oney .” Their prim itiv e, la st- m in ute , messa g e-in -a -b ottle m eth od h ad d efe ate d b ette r-e q uip ped atte m pts , cre atin g a fa st, d eep w av e o f m otiv ate d t e am work a n d c o opera tio n.

The re aso n w as sim ple . A ll th e o th er te am s u se d a lo gic al, in cen tiv e-b ase d messa g e: Jo in u s o n th is p ro je ct, a nd y o u m ig ht w in m oney.

T his s ig nal s o unds motiv atin g, b ut it d oesn ’t re ally en co ura g e co opera tio n— in fa ct, it d oes th e opposite . If y ou te ll o th ers ab out th e se arc h , y ou are slig htly re d ucin g y our ch an ces o f w in nin g p riz e m oney . (A fte r a ll, if o th ers fin d th e b allo on a n d y ou don’t, th ey ’ll re ceiv e th e en tir e re w ard .) These te am s were ask in g fo r partic ip an ts ’ v uln era b ility , w hile r e m ain in g i n vuln era b le t h em se lv es.

The M IT t e am , o n t h e o th er h an d, s ig nale d i ts o w n v uln era b ility b y p ro m is in g th at e v ery one c o nnecte d to fin din g a re d b allo on w ould sh are in th e re w ard .

Then it p ro vid ed p eo ple w ith th e o pportu nity to c re ate n etw ork s o f v uln era b ility by re ach in g o ut to th eir frie n ds, th en a sk in g th em to re ach o ut to th eir frie n ds.

The t e am d id n ot d ic ta te w hat p artic ip an ts s h ould d o o r h ow t h ey s h ould d o i t, o r giv e t h em s p ecif ic ta sk s to c o m ple te o r te ch nolo gy to u se . I t s im ply g av e o ut t h e lin k a n d l e t p eo ple d o w ith i t w hat t h ey p le ase d . A nd w hat t h ey p le ase d , i t t u rn ed out, w as to c o nnect w ith lo ts o f o th er p eo ple . E ach in vita tio n c re ate d a n oth er vuln era b ility lo op th at d ro ve c o opera tio n— Hey, I’m d oin g th is c ra zy b allo on- huntin g p ro je ct a nd I n eed y o ur h elp .

What m ad e th e d if fe re n ce in c o opera tio n, in o th er w ord s, w asn ’t h ow m an y peo ple a p ers o n re ach ed o r h ow g ood th eir b allo on-s e arc h te ch nolo gy w as— it wasn ’t r e ally a b out a g iv en in div id ual a t a ll. I t w as r a th er a b out h ow e ffe ctiv ely peo ple c re ate d re la tio nsh ip s o f m utu al ris k . T he R ed B allo on C halle n ge w asn ’t ev en re ally a te ch nolo gy c o nte st. It w as, lik e a ll e n deav ors th at s e ek to c re ate co opera tio n, a v uln era b ility -s h arin g c o nte st.

The s to ry o f th e R ed B allo on C halle n ge s tr ik es u s a s s u rp ris in g, b ecau se m ost of u s in stin ctiv ely se e v uln era b ility as a co nditio n to b e h id den . B ut sc ie n ce sh ow s t h at w hen i t c o m es t o c re atin g c o opera tio n, v uln era b ility i s n ot a r is k b ut a psy ch olo gic al r e q uir e m en t.

“W hat a re g ro ups r e ally f o r? ” P olz er a sk s. “ T he id ea is th at w e c an c o m bin e our s tr e n gth s a n d u se o ur s k ills in a c o m ple m en ta ry w ay . B ein g v uln era b le g ets th e sta tic o ut o f th e w ay a n d le ts u s d o th e jo b to geth er, w ith out w orry in g o r hesita tin g. I t l e ts u s w ork a s o ne u nit.” Afte r ta lk in g to P olz er a n d o th er sc ie n tis ts w ho stu dy tr u st, I b eg an to se e vuln era b ility lo ops in o th er p la ces I v is ite d . S om etim es th ey w ere s m all, q uic k ex ch an ges. A p ro b ase b all c o ach b eg an a s e aso n-o pen in g s p eech to h is p la y ers by sa y in g, “I w as so nerv ous ab out ta lk in g to you to day ,” an d th e pla y ers re sp onded b y s m ilin g s y m path etic ally — th ey w ere n erv ous t o o. S om etim es t h ese lo ops to ok th e fo rm of physic al obje cts , lik e th e F ailu re W all th at D un & Bra d str e et C re d ib ility C orp ora tio n b uilt, a w hite b oard w here p eo ple c o uld s h are mom en ts w here t h ey ’d f a lle n s h ort.

Som etim es th ey w ere h ab its o f s e em in gly in vuln era b le le ad ers , s u ch a s A pple fo under S te v e Jo bs’s pen ch an t fo r beg in nin g co nvers a tio ns w ith th e phra se , “H ere ’s a dopey id ea.” (“ A nd so m etim es th ey w ere ,” re calls Jo nath an Iv e, Apple ’s s e n io r v ic e p re sid en t o f d esig n, in h is m em oria l to J o bs. “ R eally d opey .

Som etim es t h ey w ere t r u ly d re ad fu l.” ) E ach l o op w as d if fe re n t, y et t h ey s h are d a deep er p atte rn : a n a ck now le d gm en t o f lim its , a k een a w are n ess o f th e g ro up natu re o f th e e n deav or. T he sig nal b ein g se n t w as th e sa m e: You h ave a ro le here . I n eed y o u .

“T hat’ s w hy g ood te am s te n d to d o a lo t o f e x tr e m e s tu ff to geth er,” D eS te n o sa y s. “ A c o nsta n t s tr e am o f v uln era b ility g iv es t h em a m uch r ic h er, m ore r e lia b le estim ate o n w hat th eir tr u stw orth in ess is , a n d b rin gs th em c lo se r, so th ey c an ta k e s till m ore r is k s. I t b uild s o n i ts e lf .” The m ech an is m o f c o opera tio n c an b e s u m med u p a s fo llo w s: Exch anges o f vu ln era bility , w hic h w e n atu ra lly te n d to a vo id , a re th e p ath w ay th ro ugh w hic h tr u stin g c o opera tio n is b uilt . T his id ea is u se fu l b ecau se it g iv es u s a g lim pse in sid e th e m ach in ery o f te am work . C oopera tio n, a s w e’ll s e e, d oes n ot s im ply desc en d o ut o f th e b lu e. I t is a g ro up m usc le th at is b uilt a cco rd in g to a s p ecif ic patte rn o f re p eate d in te ra ctio n, a n d th at p atte rn is a lw ay s th e s a m e: a c ir c le o f peo ple e n gag ed in th e ris k y, o ccasio nally p ain fu l, u ltim ate ly re w ard in g p ro cess of b ein g v uln era b le t o geth er.

More im med ia te ly , th e id ea o f v uln era b ility lo ops is u se fu l b ecau se it h elp s illu m in ate c o nnectio ns b etw een s e em in gly d is p ara te w orld s. F or e x am ple , w hy are certa in gro ups of co m ed ia n s so su ccessfu l? H ow is th e w orld ’s m ost noto rio us b an d o f je w el th ie v es str u ctu re d ? A nd w hat d oes c arry in g a ro und a re ally h eav y lo g h av e to d o w ith c re atin g th e b est S pecia l F orc es te am s o n th e pla n et?

* The q uestio ns w ere d ev elo ped b y p sy ch olo gis ts A rth ur a n d E la in e A ro n. I n i ts f u ll f o rm , t h e E xperim en ta l Gen era tio n o f I n te rp ers o nal C lo se n ess a ls o i n clu des f o ur m in ute s o f s ile n t g azin g i n to e ach o th er’s e y es.

The o rig in al e x perim en t w as d one w ith s e v en ty -o ne p air s o f s tr a n gers , a n d o ne p air e n ded u p m arry in g.

(T hey i n vite d t h e e n tir e l a b t o t h e c ere m ony.) D ra per K auffm an’s T ru st M ach in e O ne o f th e tr a its th at s e t N av y S E A L te am s a p art is th eir c o m bin atio n o f s te alth a n d a d ap ta b ility . T hey c an r e lia b ly n av ig ate c o m ple x a n d d an gero us la n dsc ap es i n c o m ple te sile n ce. T his is o ne o f th e re aso ns S E A Ls a re c h ose n to ta k e o n o pera tio ns lik e th e m is sio n to k ill O sa m a b in L ad en , th e m is sio n to re sc u e C ap ta in R ic h ard P hillip s o n t h e Maersk A la bam a, a n d t h ousa n ds o f l o w er-p ro file b ut e q ually ris k y m is sio ns. T he S E A Ls c all th is c o m bin atio n o f s k ills “ p la y in g p ic k up b ask etb all.” L ik e a n y g ood p ic k up t e am , t h ey d on’t n eed t o t a lk t o o m uch o r f o llo w s o m e p re d ete rm in ed p la n ; t h ey j u st p la y t h e g am e.

“W e w ere o nce te am ed o n a m is sio n w ith R an gers ,” o ne fo rm er T eam S ix c o m man der t o ld m e, r e fe rrin g t o t h e a rm y’s S pecia l F orc es t e am s. “ T he R an gers c o m man der a n d I w ere to geth er [a t a n earb y b ase ] o bse rv in g th e [d ro ne v id eo ] f e ed o f th e m is sio n. T he e n tir e tim e th e R an ger c o m man der w as o n th e ra d io w ith h is g uys. H e w as ta lk in g, g iv in g o rd ers — ‘D o th is , lo ok o ut fo r th at.’ H e w as actin g lik e a co ach on th e sid elin es yellin g pla y s. A t so m e poin t th is c o m man der n otic es I ’m n ot s a y in g a w ord , a n d h e g iv es m e th is lo ok, a lm ost in d is b elie f. L ik e, why a re n ’t yo u te llin g yo ur g uys w hat to d o?

It w as p re tty s tr ik in g. O ur g uys an d th eir g uys, d oin g th e sa m e m is sio n. H e’s ta lk in g th e w hole tim e, a n d w e a re n ’t s a y in g a th in g. A nd th e a n sw er is , beca use w e d on’t n eed t o .

I k now m y g uys a re g oin g t o s o lv e t h e p ro ble m s t h em se lv es.” With in m ilita ry cir c le s, th ere are se v era l th eo rie s o n w hy th e S E A Ls are s k ille d a t p la y in g p ic k up b ask etb all. S om e p oin t to th e rig ors o f th e se le ctio n p ro gra m , th at ste ep p yra m id o f m en ta l, e m otio nal, a n d p hysic al tr a in in g fro m whic h o nly a s m all p erc en ta g e o f c an did ate s e m erg e. O th ers p oin t to th e h ig h quality o f t h e i n div id uals w ho a re d ra w n t o t h e u nit, a n d t o i ts r e le n tle ss e th os o f se lf -im pro vem en t.

All t h ese t h eo rie s m ak e s e n se , b ut t h ey d o n ot s u ffic e. T ra in in g f o r t h e a rm y’s Delta F orc e, fo r e x am ple , is e q ually d if fic u lt a n d e v en m ore s e le ctiv e.

(It h as a 95 p erc en t d ro pout ra te , a s o ppose d to 6 7 p erc en t fo r S E A Ls.) O th er sp ecia l opera tio ns gro ups dra w hig h-q uality in div id uals an d cen te r on re le n tle ss im pro vem en t. S o w hy d o S E A L te am s w ork s o w ell to geth er? A nd a s y ou d ig fo r th e a n sw er, a t s o m e p oin t y ou re ach th e s to ry o f a s k in ny, n ears ig hte d , a n d tita n ic ally s tu bborn n av y r e je ct n am ed D ra p er K au ffm an .

Kau ffm an w as b orn in 1 911, th e o nly so n o f th e le g en dary n av y ad m ir a l Ja m es “ S to rm y” K au ffm an . H e w as w hat m odern p sy ch olo gis ts w ould te rm a n oppositio nal ch ild . H e w as k een ly aw are o f w hat p eo ple w an te d o f h im an d te n ded to d o th e r e v ers e . W hen h e w as f iv e, h e g ot in tr o uble f o r s ta y in g o uts id e th e h ouse to o la te . “ H urry u p a n d s p an k m e s o I c an g o b ack o ut a n d p la y ,” h e to ld h is m oth er. A m ed io cre s tu den t w ho w as c h id ed fo r la zin ess b y h is fa th er, Kau ffm an g ra d uate d f ro m th e N av al A cad em y in 1 933. W hen h is p oor e y esig ht pre v en te d h im fro m g ettin g a n o ffic er’s c o m mis sio n, h e q uit th e m ilita ry a n d to ok a j o b w ith a s h ip pin g c o m pan y.

Then a s W orld W ar I I a p pro ach ed , h e q uit th at jo b s o h e c o uld v olu nte er a s a driv er f o r A m eric an V olu nte er A m bula n ce C orp s. H is p are n ts a n d s is te r, f e arin g fo r h is s a fe ty , w ro te l e tte rs a sk in g h im t o r e co nsid er. H is r e sp onse w as t o r e q uest a p ostin g to th e m ost d an gero us p la ce p ossib le : th e n orth ern p art o f th e M ag in ot Lin e, w here H itle r had am asse d his tr o ops to in vad e F ra n ce. S hortly afte r Kau ffm an a rriv ed i n F eb ru ary 1 940, t h e w ar b eg an .

Kau ffm an ’s f ir s t j o b w as t o d riv e t h e a m bula n ce t h ro ugh t h e b attle fie ld t o p ic k up w ounded . H e w as u npre p are d fo r th e ch ao tic re alitie s o f b attle . “I n ev er would h av e d one th is if I ’d k now n w hat it w ould b e lik e,” h e w ro te . “ S o m an y sh ells e x plo ded in th e r o ad a h ead … th at m y o nly in stin ct w as to d riv e a s f a st a s possib le a n d I d am n n ear w re ck ed th e c ar d oin g it. A fte r w e g ot [ th e w ounded ] tr a n sfe rre d to a n oth er a m bula n ce to g o b ack to th e h osp ita l, I s a t in m y d riv er’s se at a n d s ta rte d s h ak in g l ik e a l e af.” Aro und th is tim e K au ffm an en co unte re d a gro up of F re n ch so ld ie rs w ho re p re se n te d ev ery th in g h e w as n ot. T he C orp s F ra n c w as an elite g ro up o f volu nte ers w hose jo b w as to s n eak b eh in d e n em y lin es, d is ru pt c o m munic atio n, ta k e p ris o ners , an d w re ak h av oc. T hey w ere o rg an iz ed in sm all te am s, each carry in g lig ht arm s an d ex plo siv es. K au ffm an w as str u ck b y th eir b ro th erly co nnectio n, w hic h f a r e x ceed ed a n yth in g h e h ad e n co unte re d b ack a t th e N av al Acad em y. “Y ou w ere eith er accep te d by th e C orp s Fra n c or you w ere n ’t accep te d , a n d th e tw o w ere m ile s a p art,” h e w ro te h is fa m ily . “ T here w asn ’t an yth in g th ey w ould n’t d o f o r y ou. I f o ne m em ber o f th e p atr o l w as tr a p ped a n d th ere w ere f iv e o th ers , t h ey w ould a tta ck f if ty G erm an s t o t r y t o f re e t h e o ne m an who w as t r a p ped .” Over th e c o urs e o f s ix w eek s, K au ffm an s p en t d ay s a n d n ig hts w ith th e C orp s Fra n c, w itn essin g th eir n ig htly r itu als o f to astin g th e d ead , a n d th eir c o ol u nder en em y f ir e . “ Y ou s in cere ly c all a m an a f rie n d in a v ery s h ort tim e w hen th in gs are h ot,” h e w ro te . “ T his c lim ax ed o ne d ay w hen I p ic k ed T oin e [a m em ber o f th e C orp s] o ff th e f ie ld w ith h is f a ce h alf g one, o ne a rm s h ot to p ie ces, a n d h is le ft f o ot g one. W hen w e g ot h im in to th e lig ht o f th e P oste d e S eco urs , I a lm ost gav e w ay , an d h e d id n’t h elp an y b y w in kin g at m e w ith h is g ood ey e an d sq ueezin g m y h an d w ith h is g ood o ne.” Afte r th e M ag in ot L in e w as overru n, K au ffm an tr a v ele d to B rita in an d volu nte ere d w ith th e b om b-d is p osa l u nit o f th e B ritis h N av al R ese rv es. In J u ne 1943 h e r e tu rn ed to th e S ta te s a n d jo in ed th e N av al R ese rv e. W ord s p re ad a b out th is s k in ny lie u te n an t w ith a ta le n t fo r b om b d is p osa l, a n d h e w as s e n t to F ort Pie rc e, Flo rid a, assig ned th e ta sk of se le ctin g an d tr a in in g so ld ie rs fo r underw ate r d em olitio n u nits t h at w ould p en etr a te t h e G erm an d efe n se s a lo ng t h e Fre n ch an d N orth A fric an co asts . T he ex pecta tio n w as th at K au ffm an w ould fo llo w th e nav y’s te m pla te fo r tr a in in g sp ecia liz ed te am s: a fe w w eek s of modera te ly str e n uous se le ctio n a n d tr a in in g, o vers e en b y o ffic ers . In ste ad , h e th re w o ut t h e t e m pla te a n d d ecid ed t o r e -c re ate t h e C orp s F ra n c.

Fir s t, K au ffm an c re ate d H ell W eek , a w eek lo ng s e le ctio n p ro gra m f ille d w ith Mag in ot L in e le v els o f p ain , f e ar, a n d c o nfu sio n, f e atu rin g f o ur-m ile o pen -w ate r sw im s, o bsta cle co urs e s, h an d-to -h an d co m bat tr a in in g, te n -m ile ru ns, p altr y am ounts o f s le ep , a n d a c u rio us te le p hone-p ole -lif tin g e x erc is e h e’d s e en B ritis h co m man dos u se t o b uild s tr e n gth a n d t e am work . T hose w ho s u rv iv ed H ell W eek (2 5 to 3 5 p erc en t o f th e c la ss) w ere g iv en e ig ht to te n w eek s o f sp ecia liz ed tr a in in g w here th ey le arn ed a n d h oned th e m ore r e fin ed s k ills th ey w ould u se in th e f ie ld .

Seco nd, K au ffm an d ecre ed th at e v ery a sp ect o f th e tr a in in g b e te am -b ase d .

In ste ad o f o pera tin g s o lo , tr a in ees w ere p ut in to g ro ups o f s ix (th e n um ber th at fit in n av y-is su e r u bber r a fts ) a n d k ep t to geth er th ro ugh th e d ura tio n o f tr a in in g. What’ s m ore , e ach te am h ad to b e se lf -s u ffic ie n t, a b le to n av ig ate a ro und o r th ro ugh a n y o bsta cle w ith out r e ly in g o n s o m e c en tr a l c o m man d.

Thir d , K au ffm an e lim in ate d th e h ie ra rc h ic al d is tin ctio n b etw een o ffic er a n d en lis te d m an . In h is p ro gra m , e v ery one d id th e tr a in in g, n o m atte r th eir ra n k.

This , o f c o urs e , in clu ded K au ffm an . T he e n lis te d m en o f th e f ir s t c la ss to ok o ne lo ok a t t h eir u ngain ly , n ears ig hte d c o m man der a n d r e ach ed t h e s a m e c o nclu sio n:

There w as n o w ay th is g uy w ould m ak e it. B ut as th e tr a in ees w atc h ed , h e pro ved t h em w ro ng.

“W e w ere te stin g [ K au ffm an ] a ll a lo ng,” w ro te D an D illo n, a m em ber o f th e fir s t d em olitio n c la ss, “ b ut m y r e sp ect f o r h im d eep en ed b ecau se a l o t o f o ffic ers will te ll y ou w hat to d o, b ut th ey w on’t d o it th em se lv es. T his m an … ask s fo r su ggestio ns. If th ey ’re good, he use s th em … .A nd he partic ip ate s in ev ery th in g… .T he d ir tie st, ro tte n est jo bs th at w e ta ck le , h e is in th ere d oin g a s well a s t h e r e st o f u s. H ow c o uld y ou n ot r e sp ect h im ?” The t e am s t h at g ra d uate d f ro m K au ffm an ’s m ak esh if t t r a in in g p ro gra m w ere a su ccess fro m th e sta rt, fro m O m ah a B each to th e P acif ic . In th e 1 960s, w hen Pre sid en t Jo hn Ken ned y ex pan ded th e natio n’s unco nven tio nal warfa re cap ab ilitie s, K au ffm an ’s tr a in in g p ro gra m w as u se d as th e te m pla te fo r w hat becam e th e S E A L te am s, a n d it r e m ain s s o to th is d ay . A ll o f w hic h a d ds u p to an u nusu al s itu atio n: T he w orld ’s m ost s o phis tic ate d a n d e ffe ctiv e m ilita ry t e am s are b ein g b uilt b y a n o utd ate d , p rim itiv e, w holly u nsc ie n tif ic p ro gra m t h at h asn ’t ch an ged i n i ts e sse n tia ls s in ce t h e 1 940s.

“I c all it ‘u nco nsc io us g en iu s,’   ” o ne S E A L tr a in in g o ffic er te lls m e. “ T he peo ple w ho b uilt t h e o rig in al t r a in in g p ro gra m d id n’t c o m ple te ly u nders ta n d why th is w as th e b est w ay to b uild te am s, b ut th ey u nders to od th at it was th e b est way . I t w ould b e s o e asy n ow to g o b ack a n d c h an ge th in gs, to m odern iz e th em in s o m e w ay . B ut w e d on’t, b ecau se w e a p pre cia te t h e r e su lts .” If y ou g o to S E A L tr a in in g s ite s, y ou w ill f in d D ra p er K au ffm an ’s te le p hone pole s. T hey are sta ck ed in th e dunes near th e SE A L obsta cle co urs e s in Coro nad o an d V ir g in ia B each . T hey lo ok lik e re m nan ts fro m a co nstr u ctio n pro je ct, b ut S E A L c o m man ders c o nsid er t h em s a cre d o bje cts . “ L og P T [ p hysic al tr a in in g] is th e le n s th ro ugh w hic h y ou c an v ie w e v ery th in g th at h ap pen s h ere ,” sa id T om F re em an , a S E A L co m man der.

*1 “It cap tu re s th e esse n ce o f ev ery ev olu tio n, b ecau se i t’ s a b out t e am work .” Log PT is not co m plic ate d . B asic ally , it co nsis ts of six SE A L tr a in ees perfo rm in g a n a sso rtm en t o f m an eu vers t h at s e em m ore a p pro pria te t o a n A m is h barn ra is in g. T hey lif t, c arry , a n d ro ll th e lo g. T hey m ove it fro m s h ould er to sh ould er a n d p ush it w ith th eir f e et. T hey d o s it- u ps w hile c ra d lin g it, a n d th ey sta n d f o r l o ng p erio ds w hile h old in g i t o verh ead w ith e x te n ded a rm s. T here i s n o str a te g y, n o te ch niq ue, n oth in g th at c alls fo r h ig her le v els o f th ought, s k ill, o r re fle ctio n. W hat s e ts L og P T a p art i s i ts a b ility t o d eliv er t w o c o nditio ns: i n te n se vuln era b ility a lo ng w ith d eep i n te rc o nnecte d ness. L et’ s t a k e t h em o ne b y o ne.

Fir s t, v uln era b ility . I n S E A L v ern acu la r, y ou d o n ot do L og P T . Y ou get L og- PT ed . In th e v ast sto re h ouse o f p ain th at co m pris e s S E A L tr a in in g, L og P T deliv ers s o m e o f th e h ig hest, p ure st le v els o f a g ony. “ T here a re tim es w hen th e in str u cto rs w ill te ll y ou to b e a t th e O -C ours e in th ir ty m in ute s, a n d th at’ s w hen you re aliz e: ‘H oly sh it, w e’re g ettin g L og-P T ed ,’   ” F re em an sa y s. “ T hey se n d you to lu nch f ir s t s o y ou h av e tim e to f u el u p a n d d re ad it. T he w ors t p art is th e an tic ip atio n. Y ou’re th ir ty se co nds in to a n in ety -m in ute ev olu tio n, an d y our sh ould ers a re b urn in g, a n d y ou’re re aliz in g th at y ou’v e g ot a n h our a n d a h alf more t o g o.” Seco nd, in te rc o nnecte d ness. T he w eig ht ( a ro und 2 50 p ounds) a n d le n gth ( te n fe et) o f t h e l o g l e n d i t m assiv e i n ertia ; e x ecu tin g c o ord in ate d m an eu vers r e q uir e s each te am m em ber to a p ply th e r ig ht a m ount o f f o rc e a t th e r ig ht tim e, a n d th e only w ay t o d o t h is i s t o p ay k een a tte n tio n t o y our t e am mate s. C oncep tu ally , i t’ s lik e tr y in g to tw ir l a b ato n w ith o ne h an d: If y our fin gers an d th um b w ork to geth er w ith th e p ro per tim in g, th e ta sk is s im ple ; if th e tim in g o f o ne f in ger is off, e v en b y a fra ctio n o f a se co nd, it’ s im possib le . T hat’ s w hy a p hysic ally weak er te am th at’ s w ork in g in sy nc c an su cceed in L og P T , w hile a b ig ger, str o nger g ro up c an f a ll a p art, p hysic ally a n d m en ta lly .

These tw o c o nditio ns c o m bin e to d eliv er a h ig hly p artic u la r se n sa tio n: th e poin t w here vuln era b ility m eets in te rc o nnectio n. Y ou are in im men se pain , in ch es fro m y our te am mate s, c lo se e n ough to fe el th eir b re ath o n th e b ack o f your n eck . W hen a t e am mate f a lte rs o r m ak es a w ro ng m ove, y ou c an f e el i t, a n d you k now t h at t h ey c an f e el i t w hen y ou d o t h e s a m e. I t a d ds u p t o a c h oic e. Y ou can f o cu s o n y ours e lf , o r y ou c an f o cu s o n t h e t e am a n d t h e t a sk .

When L og P T is d one p oorly , th e lo g b uck s a n d r o lls , th e tr a in ees f ig ht e ach oth er, a n d e m otio ns r is e . W hen L og P T is d one w ell, it lo oks s m ooth a n d q uie t.

But th at sm ooth ness is an illu sio n, becau se ju st ben eath th e su rfa ce co m munic atio n is h ap pen in g.

It ta k es th e fo rm o f a lm ost- in vis ib le e x ch an ges:

Som eo ne w eak en s, a n d t h e p eo ple n ex t t o h im a d ju st t h eir e ffo rts t o k eep t h e l o g le v el a n d s te ad y. S om eo ne’s g rip s lip s, a n d th e te am mate s in sta n tly m ak e u p th e dif fe re n ce. A c o nvers a tio n t r a v els b ack a n d f o rth t h ro ugh t h e f ib ers o f t h e l o g:

1.

A t e am mate f a lte rs .

2.

Oth ers s e n se i t, a n d r e sp ond b y t a k in g o n m ore p ain f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e gro up.

3.

Bala n ce i s r e g ain ed .

Than ks to Dra p er Kau ffm an , th is ex ch an ge of vuln era b ility an d in te rc o nnectio n is w oven in to e v ery a sp ect o f S E A L tr a in in g a n d e n sh rin ed in a se t o f ir o n v alu es. E very th in g is d one a s a g ro up. T ra in ees m ust k eep tr a ck o f one a n oth er a t a ll tim es; th ere is n o g re ate r sin th an lo sin g tr a ck o f so m eo ne.

Durin g b oat e x erc is e s, tr a in ees c o nsta n tly tr a d e p ositio ns a n d le ad ers h ip ro le s.

Tim ed p erfo rm an ces o n r u ns a re s u ppose d t o b e h eld t o a n u nbre ak ab le s ta n dard , but in str u cto rs h av e b een k now n to b en d th ose s ta n dard s fo r ru nners w ho s lo w dow n in o rd er to h elp o th ers , b ecau se th ey v alu e th e w illin gness o f o ne p ers o n ta k in g a r is k f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e t e am .

“W e’re a ll a b out s e ek in g th e m ic ro ev en t,” F re em an s a y s. “ E very e v olu tio n is a l e n s t o l o ok f o r t e am work m om en ts , a n d w e b elie v e t h at i f y ou s titc h t o geth er a lo t o f o pportu nitie s, y ou s ta rt t o k now w ho t h e g ood t e am mate s w ill b e. I t c o m es out at th e o ddest tim es. F or in sta n ce, le t’ s sa y th ey ’re ru nnin g la te an d th e in str u cto rs a re g oin g to h am mer th em . D oes so m eb ody ju st u rg e e v ery one to hurry u p a n d ta k e o ff r u nnin g? O r d o th ey s to p a n d s a y , ‘ L ook, w e’re g onna g et ham mere d f o r b ein g l a te a n yw ay , s o l e t’ s t a k e a m in ute a n d g et o ur g ear t ig ht, s o when w e s h ow u p w e’re a h undre d p erc en t r e ad y.’ T here ’s s o m eth in g a b out th at se co nd g uy th at w e w an t. W e w an t to b e w ith h im b ecau se h e’s n ot th in kin g ab out h im se lf ; h e’s t h in kin g o f t h e t e am .” Seen i n t h is w ay , t h e h ig h l e v el o f c o opera tio n a m ong S E A Ls i s n ot a s u rp ris e but c lo se r to a n in ev ita b ility . T hey c o opera te w ell b ecau se K au ffm an ’s tr a in in g pro gra m gen era te s th ousa n ds of mic ro ev en ts th at build clo se n ess an d co opera tio n. “It’ s m ore th an ju st te am work ,” Fre em an sa y s. “Y ou’v e le ft yours e lf w id e o pen . E very body o n y our te am k now s w ho y ou a re , b ecau se y ou le ft it all o n th e ta b le . A nd if y ou d id w ell, it b uild s a le v el o f tr u st th at’ s ex ponen tia lly h ig her t h an a n yth in g y ou c an g et a n yw here e ls e .” The P ow er o f th e H aro ld One e v en in g in 1 999, L orn e M ic h aels , p ro ducer o f Satu rd ay N ig ht L iv e, le ft h is pen th ouse o n W est S ix ty -n in th S tr e et in N ew Y ork a n d h ead ed s o uth to a ru n- dow n p art o f C hels e a. T here h e w alk ed in to a s ix ty -s e at th eate r th at, u ntil a f e w month s b efo re , h ad b een h om e to th e H arm ony B urle sq ue a ll- n ude str ip c lu b.

The air em an ate d m yste rio us sm ells ; th e D um pste r near th e back en tr a n ce ru stle d w ith r a ts . I n th re e y ears , c ity in sp ecto rs w ould s h ut th e th eate r d ow n f o r fir e co de v io la tio ns. B ut th is n ig ht M ic h aels w as n ot p ay in g atte n tio n to th e se ttin g. H e h ad c o m e t o s c o ut t a le n t.

Mic h aels opera te d w ith in th e co m ed y eco sy ste m lik e an orc h id co lle cto r:

se ek in g, lo catin g, an d g ath erin g th e b est sp ecie s. In th e p ast, h e h ad lo cate d re m ark ab le b lo om s o f ta le n t in h is h om eto w n o f T oro nto , in C hic ag o’s S eco nd City , at Im pro vO ly m pic , an d in oth er lo cale s. B ut in re cen t m onth s a new sp ecie s o f c o m ed ia n h ad a rriv ed : s m art, f e arle ss e n se m ble s w ith h ig h v erb al I Q an d a r a u nch y in ven tiv en ess. T hey w ere c o lo niz in g th e e n te rta in m en t la n dsc ap e with b re ath ta k in g s p eed , th e v an guard o f a n in vasio n th at w ould s ta r in a n d/o r write fo r The O ffic e, T he D aily S how , 3 0 R ock, T he C olb ert R ep ort, P ark s a nd Recre a tio n, C om munity , C onan, K ey & P eele , B ro ad C ity , B ob’s B urg ers, N ew Gir l, T he L ea gue, G ir ls , an d Veep —not to m en tio n m ovie s lik e Anch orm an, Talla deg a N ig hts , B rin g it O n, an d Brid esm aid s, am ong o th ers . T hey calle d th em se lv es t h e U prig ht C itiz en s B rig ad e.

*2 The r e m ark ab le th in g a b out th e U CB, f ro m M ic h aels ’s p ers p ectiv e, w as th eir dep th . W hile m ost o th er i m pro v g ro ups p ro duced a s m all h an dfu l o f g re at t e am s, UCB p ro duced d ozen s, a ll o f w hic h c o uld p erfo rm w ith r e m ark ab le s k ill. W hat’ s more , U CB d id n’t se em a t fir s t g la n ce a ll th at d if fe re n t fro m S eco nd C ity o r Im pro vO ly m pic o r a n y o f th e o th er c o m ed y g ro ups. A ll w ere in flu en ced b y th e la te co m ed y le g en d D el C lo se ; all offe re d im pro v cla sse s to cre ate fe ed er sy ste m s o f n ew co m ers ; a ll s h are d a b oundary -b re ak in g, a n yth in g-g oes a esth etic .

In fa ct, th e o nly d is c ern ib le d if fe re n ce w as th at U CB tr a in ed its co m ed ia n s alm ost e x clu siv ely u sin g a s tr a n ge a n d d if fic u lt i m pro v g am e c alle d t h e H aro ld .

Most i m pro v g am es a re b uilt o n s im plic ity a n d s p eed — cre atin g b rie f s k etc h es in re sp onse to a u die n ce p ro m pts — but th e H aro ld is d if fe re n t b ecau se it is lo ng an d c o m ple x . It re q uir e s e ig ht p eo ple , c o nta in s n in e in te rw eav in g sc en es, a n d la sts a ro und f o rty m in ute s— an e te rn ity in th e a tte n tio n-d efic it- d is o rd er w orld o f im pro v. T he H aro ld is h ard to te ach a n d h ard to le arn , a n d a s a re su lt it o fte n en ds in s p ecta cu la r fa ilu re . D el C lo se fa m ously lik en ed a s u ccessfu l H aro ld to watc h in g a g ro up o f p eo ple tu m ble d ow n th e s ta ir s a t th e s a m e tim e a n d a ll la n d on th eir fe et. T he v ast m ajo rity o f th e tim e, h ow ev er, p eo ple ju st tu m ble d ow n th e s ta ir s .

The s tr u ctu re o f a H aro ld i s a s f o llo w s:

• Gro up O pen in g • Fir s t B eat: S cen es 1 A , 1 B , 1 C ( tw o p eo ple e ach s c en e) • Gro up G am e • Seco nd B eat: S cen es 2 A , 2 B , 2 C • Gro up G am e • Thir d B eat: S cen es 3 A , 3 B , 3 C Don’t w orry if y ou c an ’t fo llo w it— in a w ay th at’ s th e p oin t, b ecau se in a Haro ld y ou h av e to c o m e u p w ith in te rlin kin g s c en es o n th e f ly w ith s e v en o th er peo ple ; s o t h at a ll t h e “ A ” s c en es c o nnect, a ll t h e “ B ” s c en es c o nnect, a n d s o o n.

It r e q uir e s y ou t o p ay d eep a tte n tio n t o w hat t h e U CB c alls “ g am e,” o r t h e c o m ic co re o f e ach s c en e, a n d t o h old t h ose t h re ad s i n y our m in d, c allin g b ack p re v io us co nnectio ns a s y ou b uild n ew o nes.

Unlik e o th er co m ed y g ro ups, th e U CB d id n’t p erfo rm H aro ld s o nce in a while . T hey w ere o bse sse d w ith H aro ld s. T here w ere H aro ld te am s, H aro ld nig hts , H aro ld c la sse s, H aro ld c o m petitio ns, a n d H aro ld p ra ctic es, a s w ell a s pra ctic es d ev ote d to a n aly zin g e ach e le m en t o f th e H aro ld . T he w alls o f th eir th eate r w ere c o vere d w ith p hoto s o f th eir b est H aro ld te am s. A s o ne o bse rv er sa id , U CB’s re la tio nsh ip to H aro ld s w as ro ughly th e sa m e as th e C ath olic Churc h ’s re la tio nsh ip to c ele b ra tin g M ass. A ll o f w hic h a d ds u p to a c u rio us situ atio n: U CB w as c re atin g s o m e o f th e m ost c o hesiv e c o m ic e n se m ble s o n th e pla n et b y s p en din g a h uge a m ount o f t im e d oin g a n a ctiv ity t h at p ro duced m ostly pain a n d a w kw ard ness.

To fin d o ut m ore , I g o to a H aro ld N ig ht a t U CB’s n ew (u nsm elly a n d ra t- fre e) th eate r o n W est T w en ty -s ix th S tr e et in C hels e a. I fin d a se at an d sta rt ch attin g w ith m y n eig hbor, a w om an n am ed V ale rie , w ho lik e m an y in th e au die n ce is en ro lle d in U CB cla sse s, h opin g to m ak e it o nto a H aro ld te am so m ed ay . S he h as c o m e n ot to b e e n te rta in ed b ut to le arn . “ I’m w atc h in g fo r te ch niq ue, m ostly ,” s h e s a y s. “ H ow p eo ple re sp ond u nder p re ssu re . I’m re ally work in g o n m y re actio ns, tr y in g to re act to p eo ple in a n a u th en tic w ay a n d n ot with o ld h ab its .” The s h ow b eg in s: th re e te am s, e ach o f w hom p erfo rm s a H aro ld . A fte r e ach Haro ld , V ale rie o ffe rs a h ig h-s p eed an aly sis . “T oo clo se d o ff,” sh e w his p ers afte r a H aro ld t h at i n volv ed a h ead phone-w earin g w om an o n t h e s u bw ay s in gin g an A dele s o ng to o lo udly . “ S he d id n’t le av e ro om fo r a n ybody e ls e to c o nnect.

She w as j u st m ak in g a j o ke, a n d t h ere w as n ow here f o r t h e o th ers t o g o.” “T oo str a ig ht,” V ale rie w his p ers a fte r th e se co nd H aro ld , w hic h in volv ed a co ffe e m ach in e th at use d its artif ic ia l in te llig en ce to se d uce its ow ner’s gir lf rie n d. S he e x pla in s t h at a g ood H aro ld d oesn ’t s ta y l o ck ed i n t h e s a m e s to ry - sp ace b ut a llo w s p la y ers t o m ak e l e ap s t o w ild ly d if fe re n t s c en ario s.

“T hat w as a m azin g,” V ale rie w his p ers a fte r th e th ir d H aro ld , w hic h in volv ed a v am pir e , a f a m ily o n v acatio n, a n d a c o uple w ho g av e b ir th to a n a n im ate s e x to y. “ T hey re ally s u pporte d e ach o th er. D id y ou s e e h ow s o m e o f th em ju st le t th in gs p la y o ut w ith out g ettin g t o o i n volv ed ? I l o ve t h at.” When D el C lo se d ev elo ped th e H aro ld in th e 1 970s, h e w ro te d ow n th e fo llo w in g r u le s:

1.

You a re a ll s u pportin g a cto rs .

2.

Alw ay s c h eck y our i m puls e s.

3.

Nev er e n te r a s c en e u nle ss y ou a re n eed ed .

4.

Sav e y our f e llo w a cto r, d on’t w orry a b out t h e p ie ce.

5.

Your p rim e r e sp onsib ility i s t o s u pport.

6.

Work a t t h e t o p o f y our b ra in s a t a ll t im es.

7.

Nev er u ndere stim ate o r c o ndesc en d t o t h e a u die n ce.

8.

No j o kes.

9.

Tru st. T ru st y our f e llo w a cto rs t o s u pport y ou; t r u st t h em t o c o m e t h ro ugh if y ou l a y s o m eth in g h eav y o n t h em ; t r u st y ours e lf .

10.

Avoid j u dgin g w hat i s g oin g d ow n e x cep t i n t e rm s o f w heth er i t n eed s help , w hat c an b est f o llo w , o r h ow y ou c an s u pport i t i m ag in ativ ely i f y our su pport i s c alle d f o r.

11.

LIS T EN .

Every ru le d ir e cts y ou e ith er to ta m p d ow n s e lf is h in stin cts th at m ig ht m ak e you th e c en te r o f a tte n tio n, o r to s e rv e y our fe llo w a cto rs ( su pport, s a ve, tr u st, lis te n ). T his i s w hy C lo se ’s r u le s a re h ard t o f o llo w , a n d a ls o w hy t h ey a re u se fu l in b uild in g c o opera tio n. A H aro ld p la ces y ou in f ro nt o f a n a u die n ce, th en a sk s you to d is o bey e v ery n atu ra l in stin ct in y our b ra in a n d in ste ad to g iv e y ours e lf se lf le ssly t o t h e g ro up. I n s h ort, i t’ s a c o m ed y v ers io n o f L og P T .

“Y ou h av e to le t g o o f th e n eed to b e f u nny, to b e th e c en te r o f th in gs,” s a y s Nate D ern , f o rm er a rtis tic d ir e cto r o f U CB. “ Y ou h av e t o b e a b le t o b e n ak ed , t o be o ut o f th in gs to s a y , s o th at p eo ple c an f in d th in gs to geth er. P eo ple s a y th eir min ds s h ould b e b la n k, b ut t h at’ s n ot q uite i t. T hey s h ould b e o pen .” UCB is a ls o u niq ue in th at it a p pro ach es H aro ld s a s if th ey w ere a s p ort. T his men ta lity is re fle cte d in th e te rm in olo gy. T here are co ach es, not dir e cto rs ; pra ctic es, n ot re h ears a ls ; a n d e ach H aro ld is fo llo w ed b y a rig oro us fe ed back se ssio n m uch lik e an A AR o r a B ra in T ru st m eetin g. “S om e is p ositiv e, b ut mostly it’ s c ritiq ue-b ase d ,” D ern s a y s. “ T hin gs lik e ‘Y ou d id n’t lis te n to y our sc en e p artn er’s id ea.’ O r ‘Y ou ste am ro lle re d y our p artn er a n d d id n’t le t th em co ntr ib ute .’ It’ s p re tty in te n se . A s a p erfo rm er, it’ s to ugh, b ecau se y ou a lr e ad y know y ou h ad a b ad s h ow , a n d th en y our c o ach w ill te ll y ou a ll th e th in gs th at were b ad .” “In e v ery o th er f o rm o f im pro v, y ou c an g et b y o n c h arm ,” s a y s K ev in H in es, th e acad em ic su perv is o r o f U CB N ew Y ork . “N ot in th e H aro ld . It’ s to ta lly unfo rg iv in g. W hic h is w hy th e p eo ple w ho s u cceed h ere te n d to b e e x tr e m ely hard w ork ers .” In o th er w ord s, th e H aro ld is a g ro up b ra in w ork out in w hic h y ou e x perie n ce, over a n d o ver, t h e p ure , p ain fu l i n te rs e ctio n o f v uln era b ility a n d i n te rc o nnectio n.

Seen th is w ay , U CB’s b rillia n ce o n s ta g e a n d s c re en is n ot a n a ccid en t. I t is th e pro duct o f th ousa n ds o f m ic ro ev en ts , th ousa n ds o f s m all in te rp ers o nal le ap s th at were m ad e a n d s u pporte d . T hese g ro ups a re c o hesiv e n ot b ecau se i t’ s n atu ra l b ut becau se th ey ’v e b uilt, p ie ce b y p ie ce, th e s h are d m en ta l m usc le s to c o nnect a n d co opera te .

“T hey T hin k w it h O ne B ra in ” Aro und 2 000, th e w orld ’s m ost e x clu siv e je w elr y s to re s b eg an to b e ta rg ete d b y a n ew ty pe o f ro bber. T hese ro bbers o pera te d in b ro ad d ay lig ht, in th e to nie st sh oppin g d is tr ic ts , in f u ll v ie w o f s e cu rity c am era s. T he m eth od w as u su ally th e sa m e: T hey e n te re d th e s to re s d re sse d a s w ealth y s h oppers , th en u se d h am mers to s m ash th e je w elr y c ase s, ta k in g o nly th e m ost v alu ab le g em s. T he ro bberie s were w ell p la n ned a n d w ell e x ecu te d — most to ok f e w er th an f o rty -fiv e s e co nds.

Though th e ro bbers w ere o ccasio nally ro ugh w ith g uard s a n d c u sto m ers , th ey were a v ers e t o g unpla y a n d c re ativ e i n t h eir e sc ap es. I n L ondon, t h ey d ep arte d i n a ch au ffe u re d Ben tle y ; in Tokyo, th ey use d bic y cle s. O ne crim in olo gis t desc rib ed th eir w ork a s “ artis tr y .” T he ro bbers w ere y oung, ru m ore d to c o m e fro m S erb ia a n d M onte n eg ro , p arts o f w ar-to rn f o rm er Y ugosla v ia . P olic e c alle d th em t h e P in k P an th ers .

*3 • Paris 2 001: A g ro up o f P an th ers p osin g a s w ork m en u se d b lo w to rc h es t o melt t h e s e cu rity c o atin g o ff t h e w in dow s a t t h e P aris -B ouch ero n f la g sh ip sto re , t h en s m ash ed t h e w in dow s a n d m ad e o ff w ith j e w els w orth $ 1.5 millio n.

• Tokyo 2 005: A g ro up o f P an th ers p osin g a s w ealth y c u sto m ers u se d p ep per sp ra y t o d is a b le s e cu rity g uard s a n d l e ft w ith j e w els w orth $ 35 m illio n.

• St. T ro pez 2 005: P an th ers d re sse d i n s u nhats a n d f lo w ere d s h ir ts b ro ke i n to a w ate rfro nt s to re , t o ok $ 3 m illio n w orth o f g em s, a n d d ep arte d b y sp eed boat.

• Dubai 2 007: F our P an th ers d ro ve t w o r e n te d A udis i n to t h e e x clu siv e W afi sh oppin g m all a n d u se d t h e c ars a s b atte rin g r a m s t o s m ash t h ro ugh t h e doorw ay o f t h e G ra ff j e w elr y s to re . ( T hey h ad d is a b le d t h e c ars ’ a ir b ag s s o th ey d id n’t a ctiv ate .) T hey l e ft w ith j e w els w orth $ 3.4 m illio n.

• London 2 007: F our m ale P an th ers d re sse d a s m id dle -a g ed w om en , co m ple te w ith w ig s a n d e x pen siv e d re sse s, r o bbed a H arry W in sto n s to re an d l e ft w ith $ 105 m illio n i n e m era ld s, r u bie s, a n d d ia m onds t h e s iz e o f je lly b ean s.

When y ou v ie w se cu rity c am era fo ota g e o f th e ro bberie s, th e c lip s fo rm a sin gle , se am le ss lo op. T he P an th ers m ove th ro ugh th e sto re s lik e w ate r; th eir actio ns a re c o ord in ate d , c alm , a n d f o cu se d . T hey d on’t lo ok a t e ach o th er; th ey know w here to g o a n d w hat to d o. T hey s w in g h am mers a t th e c ase s w ith c alm pre cis io n, sw eep aw ay b ro ken g la ss an d ex tr a ct th e d ia m onds w ith p ra ctic ed effic ie n cy , t h en d ep art l ik e s h ad ow s.

Auth oritie s w ere als o im pre sse d b y so m eth in g els e : In a lin e o f w ork n ot know n fo r lo yalty , th e P an th ers se em ed to h av e a g en uin e a tta ch m en t to o ne an oth er. O n ra re o ccasio ns w hen th ey w ere a p pre h en ded , th ey w ere im mune to polic e a tte m pts to g et th em to tu rn s ta te ’s e v id en ce. In 2 005, a P an th er n am ed Dra g an M ik ic e sc ap ed f ro m a F re n ch p ris o n w hen a g ro up o f m en — pre su m ab ly fe llo w P an th ers — use d la d ders , rif le s, a n d w ir e c u tte rs to b re ak in to th e p ris o n an d f re e h im . A s o ne p ro se cu to r s a id , “ T hese g uys d on’t c are a b out b ein g p ut in ja il. T hey k now th ey a re g oin g to e sc ap e.” A s a n oth er o bse rv er p ut it, “ T hey th in k w ith o ne b ra in .” As th e P an th ers ’ n oto rie ty in cre ase d , p eo ple w ondere d w ho th ey w ere a n d how th ey w ere o rg an iz ed . T he m ost g en era lly accep te d th eo ry w as th at th ey co nsis te d o f a g ro up o f fo rm er s o ld ie rs w ho’d s e rv ed in th e Y ugosla v ia n w ars .

Som e b elie v ed th e P an th ers to b e f o rm er m em bers o f a p ara m ilita ry u nit c alle d Ark an ’s Tig ers , an in fa m ous gro up w ho w ork ed fo r str o ngm an Slo bodan Milo se v ic . O th ers b elie v ed th em to b e fo rm er m em bers o f th e JS O , S erb ia n sp ecia l f o rc es.

Where v er th ey c am e fro m , th ere s e em ed n o q uestio n th at th ey w ere s o ld ie rs co m man ded an d co ntr o lle d by so m e cen tr a l fig ure . A s G eo rg e P ap asif a k is , dep uty of th e G re ek Pro perty C rim es U nit, to ld a re p orte r, “S om eo ne is defin ite ly m ovin g th e s tr in gs o n th e g ro und in S erb ia , a n d s o m eo ne is in c h arg e of in itia tin g a n d e d ucatin g th e y ounger m em bers .” I t’ s th rillin g, c in em atic s tu ff:

a s e cre t g lo bal o rg an iz atio n o f e x -c o m man dos-tu rn ed -s u perc rim in als , s u m moned to th eir m is sio ns b y a s h ad ow y le ad er. T his n arra tiv e m ak es s e n se b ecau se w e te n d to pre su m e th at su ch fa u ltle ss co ord in atio n re q uir e s sp ecia l tr a in in g, pow erfu l l e ad ers h ip , a n d c en tr a liz ed o rg an iz atio n.

It is a p erfe ctly g ood th eo ry , b ut it h as o ne p ro ble m : I t is w ro ng. I n th e la tte r part o f th e d ecad e, th e in vestig ativ e e ffo rts o f p olic e a n d jo urn alis ts g ra d ually re v eale d th e su rp ris in g tr u th . The Pan th ers w ere a se lf -a sse m blin g, se lf - govern in g, fre e-ra n ge m ix o f m id dle -c la ss p eo ple , fo rm er a th le te s, a n d sm all- tim e c rim in als . O ne h ad b een a m em ber o f S erb ia ’s n atio nal y outh b ask etb all te am . A noth er h ad atte n ded la w sc h ool. W hat th ey h ad in co m mon w as th e ex perie n ce of liv in g th ro ugh a hellis h w ar, an in stin ct fo r actio n, str o ng frie n dsh ip s, a n d t h e r e aliz atio n t h at t h ey h ad n oth in g t o l o se .

“M ost o f th em g re w u p to geth er in th re e p artic u la r to w ns, a s frie n ds,” s a y s dir e cto r H av an a M ark in g, w ho h elp ed u nco ver th e sto ry in h er d ocu m en ta ry Sm ash & G ra b . “ T he e x perie n ce o f g oin g th ro ugh th e c o m munis t re g im e a n d th en t h e f re e-fo r-a ll n ig htm are o f t h e w ar t h at f o llo w ed , t h at r e ally b onded t h em . They w ere m ostly s m uggle rs a t th e b eg in nin g, to s u rv iv e. T hey w ork ed to geth er in t h ose e n vir o nm en ts , a n d i t w asn ’t f o r m oney , i t w as f o r s u rv iv al. T hey l e arn ed how to fa k e d ocu m en ts a n d c ro ss b ord ers , a s w ell a s o th er sk ills . T hey w ere attr a cte d to a d re n alin e a n d a ctio n. Y ou h av e to u nders ta n d th at c rim e, in th e Balk an s, w as a n orm al lif e . If w hat h ap pen ed in th e B alk an s h ad n’t h ap pen ed , th ese p eo ple p ro bab ly w ould h av e b een e n tr e p re n eu rs , l a w yers , a n d j o urn alis ts .” Each te am w as b uilt a ro und a s e t o f w ell- d efin ed r o le s. T here w as a za vo dnik , a “ se d ucer” w ho s c o uts th e lo catio n ( u su ally a w om an ); a magare , o r m usc le f o r gettin g th e je w els ; a ja ta k, w ho a rra n ged lo gis tic s. W hile th ere w ere le ad ers o n each t e am , t h ey d id n ot i s su e o rd ers . I n ste ad , t h ey o pera te d a cco rd in g t o a s im ple ru le t h at o ne P an th er e x pla in ed t o M ark in g: “ W e a ll d ep en d o n e ach o th er.” This in te rd ep en den ce b eg an w ith th e w ay th e P an th ers p re p are d fo r each ro bbery . E ach te am m em ber ( th ere w ere n ev er m ore th an f iv e o r s ix o n a te am ) moved to th e c ity a n d g ath ere d in fo rm atio n o n th e ta rg et s to re . T hey liv ed a n d work ed t o geth er f o r w eek s o f i n te n siv e p la n nin g. T hey s c o ute d t h e s to re , t r a ck ed th e c o m in gs a n d g oin gs o f th e e m plo yees, a n d s k etc h ed m ap s o f th e la y out to ta rg et th e m ost v alu ab le g em s. W hat’ s m ore , e ach P an th er s h are d th e c o st o f th e pla n nin g ( w hic h w as n ot in sig nif ic an t: th e a d van ce c o sts f o r th e T okyo r o bbery were $ 100,0 00). T hey d id n ot re ly o n a n y o uts id e s tr u ctu re o r s a fe ty n et. T hey were t h e s tr u ctu re , a n d i f a n y o f t h em f a ile d , t h e g ro up w ould f a il.

In o th er w ord s, t h e P an th ers w ere a l ittle b it l ik e c o m ed ia n s d oin g a H aro ld , o r SE A Ls d oin g L og P T — sm all te am s so lv in g p ro ble m s in a co nsta n t sta te o f vuln era b ility an d in te rc o nnectio n. A s o ne P an th er n am ed L ela to ld M ark in g, “M y o ne m is ta k e w ould b e th eir fa ll. If I m ak e a n e rro r so m ew here , th ey a re doom ed .” For h er film , M ark in g in te rv ie w ed a m an a n d w om an w ho w ere fo rm erly o n th e s a m e P an th er te am b ut h ad n’t s e en e ach o th er in s o m e y ears . S he w atc h ed how t h ey i n te ra cte d . “ T hey h ad n’t s e en e ach o th er f o r a l o ng t im e, a n d t h ey w ere re ally h ap py to se e e ach o th er,” sh e sa y s. “ T hey h ad a p ro per frie n dsh ip a n d se em ed to b e g en uin ely c lo se . Y ou k now h ow y ou c an s e n se w hen tw o p eo ple are c o m ple te ly r e la x ed i n e ach o th er’s c o m pan y? Y ou c o uld s e n se i t w ith t h em .” *1 Not h is r e al n am e.

*2 Here i s a p artia l l is t o f U CB a lu m ni: S co tt A dsit, A ziz A nsa ri, H . J o n B en ja m in , M att B esse r, K ay Can non, R ob C ord dry , E liz a C oupe, A ndre w D aly , A bby E llio tt, M ary E liz ab eth E llis , S ue G allo w ay , J o n Gla se r, I la n a G la zer, D onald G lo ver, E d H elm s, R ob H ueb el, A bbi J a co bso n, J a k e J o hnso n, E llie Kem per, N ic k K ro ll, J o hn L utz , J a so n M an tz o ukas, J a ck M cB ra y er, A dam M cK ay , K ate M cK in non, Bobby M oynih an , A ubre y P la za, A m y P oeh le r, J u ne D ia n e R ap hael, R ob R ig gle , I a n R oberts , H ora tio San z, P au l S ch eer, B en S ch w artz , J e n ny S la te , J e ssic a S t. C la ir , M att W als h , T ra cey W ig fie ld , J e ssic a Willia m s, C ase y W ils o n, Z ach W oods, a n d S ash eer Z am ata .

*3 The n am e o rig in ate s f ro m a 2 003 L ondon r o bbery w here p olic e d is c o vere d s to le n d ia m onds h id den i n a ja r o f f a ce c re am , a t a ctic m ad e f a m ous i n t h e 1 975 f ilm The R etu rn o f t h e P in k P anth er.

D ave C ooper’s R ule s I f y ou w ere to se ek o ut th e h ig hest- p erfo rm in g te am s o n th e p la n et, a t so m e p oin t y ou w ould fin d y ours e lf in D am N eck , V ir g in ia , h om e b ase fo r D ra p er K au ffm an ’s d esc en dan ts : th e th re e h undre d N av y S E A Ls w ho m ak e u p T eam S ix . A nd if y ou w ere to a sk a v arie ty o f c u rre n t a n d r e tir e d T eam S ix o pera to rs w hic h l e ad ers t h ey a d m ir e m ost, y ou w ould h ear t h e s a m e h an dfu l o f n am es o ver a n d o ver. B ut t h e n am e y ou w ould h ear m ost o fte n i s D av e C ooper.

This is a su rp ris in g ch oic e, becau se D av e C ooper does not posse ss an y o bvio us ta le n ts th at d is tin guis h h im fro m th e re st o f T eam S ix . C ooper, w ho r e tir e d in 2 012, is n eith er th e s m arte st n or th e s tr o ngest te am m em ber, n or th e b est m ark sm an . H e is not th e best sw im mer nor th e best at clo se quarte rs c o m bat. B ut h e h ap pen s t o b e t h e b est a t a s k ill t h at i s a t o nce h ard t o d efin e a n d i m men se ly v alu ab le . H e’s t h e b est a t c re atin g g re at t e am s.

“C oop is a v ery in te llig en t g uy w ho s ta y ed in th e tr e n ch es fo r a lo ng tim e,” s a y s fo rm er T eam S ix o pera to r C hris to pher B ald w in . “ H e w asn ’t o ne o f th ose p eo ple w ho m oved u p th e le ad ers h ip c h ain ju st to m ove u p. H e’s o ne o f u s. H e u nders to od t h e b ig ger p ic tu re , a n d y ou c o uld a lw ay s t a lk t o h im .” “T here are so m e h ig her-u ps w ho’v e h ad ru n-in s w ith h im , an d h e d oesn ’t a lw ay s f o llo w th e r u le s,” s a y s a n oth er o pera to r. “ B ut if y ou’re o n h is te am , y ou c an s e e w hy h e’s e ffe ctiv e.” Anoth er o pera to r p uts i t m ore s u ccin ctly : “ C ooper i s t h e d ude.” They te ll m e h ow C ooper w ork ed in B osn ia , S om alia , I ra q , a n d A fg han is ta n , a lw ay s in p la ces th at w ere “ sp orty ,” to u se th e S E A L te rm . T hey te ll m e h ow well C ooper’s te am s w ork ed to geth er, an d how ofte n th ey su cceed ed w hen th in gs w en t to h ell— esp ecia lly w hen th ey w en t to h ell. T he m ore th ey ta lk , th e more C ooper e x pan ds in m y im ag in atio n to b eco m e a la rg er-th an -lif e fig ure , a co m bin atio n o f V in ce L om bard i a n d J a so n B ourn e.

Then a t a r e sta u ra n t i n V ir g in ia B each , w e m eet f o r l u nch .

Cooper tu rn s o ut to b e a m ed iu m -s iz e g uy in a b each s h ir t, s h orts , a n d flip - flo ps w ho in m ost a sp ects r e se m ble s a s u burb an d ad . A s y ou m ig ht e x pect, h e is ex tr e m ely fit. A s y ou m ig ht n ot e x pect, h e is c h atty a n d w arm , w ith e y eb ro w s th at s te ep le to geth er in c o ncern w hen h e lis te n s. L ik e m ost S E A L o pera to rs , h e carrie s him se lf w ith his elb ow s slig htly aw ay fro m his body, ra d ia tin g aw are n ess, s c an nin g t h e r o om . C ontr o llin g t h e s p ace, t h is i s c alle d .

He p ic k s a n o uts id e ta b le , s o w e c an s e e th e c ro w d. H e c h ats w ith th e w aite r, lis te n in g to th e s p ecia ls w ith w arm in te n sity . T hen th e e y eb ro w s s te ep le . “ S o, what d o y ou w an t t o k now ?” h e a sk s.

Cooper’s b ack sto ry , lik e th at o f m ost T eam S ix g uys, is id io sy ncra tic . H e w as ra is e d in sm all- to w n P en nsy lv an ia an d g re w u p w an tin g to b e a d octo r. H e majo re d in m ole cu la r b io lo gy a t J u nia ta C olle g e, a tin y lib era l a rts s c h ool th at allo w ed m ilita ry re cru ite rs o n cam pus ju st o ne d ay a y ear. H e h eard o f th e SE A Ls fro m a h is to ry te ach er a n d c o uld still re cite th e lin e th at h ooked h im :

“S E A Ls a re h ig hly in te llig en t, c o pio us re ad ers .” H e w as fa sc in ate d , a n d a fte r gra d uatio n, h e m ad e h is w ay to tr a in in g. H e s u rv iv ed H ell W eek , p asse d D ra p er Kau ffm an ’s se le ctio n p ro cess, an d m ad e it th ro ugh an oth er se le ctio n to jo in Team S ix i n 1 993.

There a re m an y s to rie s C ooper c an te ll— an d m an y h e c an not— ab out lif e a s a Team S ix o pera to r. B ut w hen y ou a sk h im a b out b uild in g te am s, h e te lls o nly one s to ry . It h ap pen ed in A fg han is ta n o n N ew Y ear’s E ve 2 001, o n a d eso la te ro ad b etw een B ag ra m a n d J a la la b ad . C ooper w as o n th at ro ad b ecau se h e h ad re ceiv ed an ord er to acco m pan y his co m man der on a fo ur-p ers o n ro ute - re co nnais sa n ce m is sio n i n w hic h t h ey w ould d riv e f ro m B ag ra m t o J a la la b ad a n d back i n a s in gle d ay .

The ro ad w as a n ig htm are : a n e x plo siv e-in fe ste d , o fte n im passa b le 1 10-m ile str e tc h p opula te d b y b an dits a n d in su rg en ts . B ut C ooper’s c o m man der in sis te d th ey g o, ex udin g co nfid en ce as h e o utlin ed th e p la n : T hey w ould rid e in an arm ore d S uburb an w ith sp ecia lly re in fo rc ed tir e s. T hey w ould be fa st an d ste alth y. E very th in g w ould b e fin e. C ooper h eld h is d oubts , fo llo w ed ra n k, a n d wen t a lo ng. Fro m th e fir s t m ile s o ut o f B ag ra m , th in gs s ta rte d to g o s id ew ay s. T he ro ad tu rn ed o ut to b e w ors e th an e x pecte d — in p la ces m ore lik e a h ik in g tr a il th an a hig hw ay . T he g ro und c le ara n ce o n t h e a rm ore d S uburb an w as o nly a f e w i n ch es, so t h ey w ere s lo w ed t o a c ra w l m uch o f t h e t im e. B y n ig htf a ll, w hen t h ey f in ally re ach ed J a la la b ad , C ooper f ig ure d t h ey w ould s ta y a n d w ait f o r d ay lig ht. I n ste ad , th e c o m man der a n nounced th ey w ould b e tu rn in g a ro und a n d d riv in g b ack to Bag ra m t h at n ig ht s o t h ey c o uld c o m ple te t h e m is sio n a s p la n ned .

Cooper o bje cte d — th at w as a b ad id ea, h e sa id . T he d is c u ssio n g ot h eate d ; Cooper a n d h is c o m man der y elle d b ack a n d f o rth b efo re th e c o m man der f in ally in voked h is ra n k. C ooper s u bm itte d . W ith a s in kin g fe elin g, h e c lim bed in th e Suburb an , a n d t h e g ro up s e t o ff i n to t h e n ig ht.

The a m bush h ap pen ed a n h our la te r. A c o nvoy o f tr u ck s a n d je ep s ru m ble d out o f th e b la ck ness an d su rro unded th e S uburb an . C ooper’s d riv er tr ie d to esc ap e, b ut t h e r e in fo rc ed t ir e s b le w o ut. T hey w ere d riv in g o n r im s, i n t h e d ark , with g unfir e a rriv in g f ro m a ll d ir e ctio ns. O ne S E A L o pera to r w as b le ed in g, s h ot th ro ugh t h e l e g . I t w as, a s C ooper s a y s, a n u nm itig ate d s h it s h ow .

The S E A Ls h ad n o ch oic e b ut to su rre n der, clim bin g o ut w ith th eir arm s ra is e d , s u re th ey w ere a b out to b e k ille d . “ F or s o m e r e aso n, th ey d ecid ed n ot to sh oot u s,” C ooper s a y s. “ E ith er th ey w ere s c are d o f r e ta lia tio n, o r th ey s a w th at we w ere n ’t m uch o f a th re at.” T he in su rg en ts ro are d o ff in to th e d ark ness, carry in g th e S E A Ls’ w eap ons. C ooper a n d h is te am w ere a b le to c o nta ct D elta an d B ritis h S pecia l F orc es u nits , w hic h f le w in to r e sc u e th em a f e w h ours la te r.

He r e tu rn ed t o B ag ra m w ith a s e co nd c h an ce a n d a n ew w orld vie w .

“T hat n ig ht p ut m e o n a d if fe re n t p ath ,” C ooper s a y s. “ F ro m th at m om en t o n, I re aliz ed th at I n eed ed to fig ure o ut w ay s to h elp th e g ro up fu nctio n m ore effe ctiv ely . T he p ro ble m h ere i s t h at, a s h um an s, w e h av e a n a u th ority b ia s t h at’ s in cre d ib ly s tr o ng a n d u nco nsc io us— if a s u perio r te lls y ou to d o s o m eth in g, b y God w e te n d to fo llo w it, e v en w hen it’ s w ro ng. H av in g o ne p ers o n te ll o th er peo ple w hat to d o is n ot a r e lia b le w ay to m ak e g ood d ecis io ns. S o h ow d o y ou cre ate c o nditio ns w here th at d oesn ’t h ap pen , w here y ou d ev elo p a h iv e m in d?

How d o y ou d ev elo p w ay s to c h alle n ge e ach o th er, a sk th e r ig ht q uestio ns, a n d nev er d efe r to a u th ority ? W e’re tr y in g to c re ate le ad ers a m ong le ad ers . A nd y ou can ’t ju st te ll p eo ple to d o th at. Y ou h av e to c re ate th e c o nditio ns w here th ey sta rt t o d o i t.” Sta rtin g th at n ig ht in 2 001, C ooper s e t o ut to b uild th ose c o nditio ns fo r h is te am s. H is a p pro ach to n urtu rin g c o opera tio n c o uld b e d esc rib ed a s a n in su rg en t cam paig n ag ain st au th ority bia s. M ere ly cre atin g sp ace fo r co opera tio n, he re aliz ed , w asn ’t e n ough; h e h ad to g en era te a s e rie s o f u nm is ta k ab le s ig nals th at tip ped h is m en a w ay fro m th eir n atu ra l te n den cie s a n d to w ard in te rd ep en den ce an d co opera tio n. “H um an n atu re is co nsta n tly w ork in g ag ain st u s,” h e sa y s.

“Y ou h av e t o g et a ro und t h ose b arrie rs , a n d t h ey n ev er g o a w ay .” He s ta rte d w ith s m all th in gs. A n ew te am m em ber w ho c alle d h im b y h is title was q uic k ly c o rre cte d : “ Y ou c an c all m e C oop, D av e, o r F uck fa ce, it’ s y our ch oic e.” W hen C ooper g av e h is o pin io n, h e w as c are fu l to a tta ch p hra se s th at pro vid ed a p la tf o rm f o r s o m eo ne t o q uestio n h im , l ik e “ N ow l e t’ s s e e i f s o m eo ne can p oke h ole s in th is ” o r “ T ell m e w hat’ s w ro ng w ith th is id ea.” H e ste ere d aw ay f ro m g iv in g o rd ers a n d in ste ad a sk ed a lo t o f q uestio ns. Anyb ody h ave a ny id ea s?

Durin g m is sio ns, C ooper so ught o pportu nitie s to sp otlig ht th e n eed fo r h is men to s p eak u p, e sp ecia lly w ith n ew er te am m em bers . H e w as n ot s u btle . “ F or ex am ple , w hen y ou’re in a n u rb an e n vir o nm en t, w in dow s a re b ad ,” h e te lls m e.

“Y ou s ta n d in fro nt o f o ne, a n d y ou c an g et s h ot b y a s n ip er a n d n ev er k now where it c am e f ro m . S o if y ou’re a n ew g uy a n d y ou s e e m e s ta n din g in f ro nt o f a w in dow in F allu ja h , w hat a re y ou g oin g to s a y ? A re y ou g oin g to te ll m e to move m y a ss, o r a re y ou g oin g t o s ta n d t h ere q uie tly a n d l e t m e g et s h ot? W hen I ask n ew g uys th at q uestio n, th ey sa y , ‘I’ll te ll y ou to m ove.’ S o I te ll th em , ‘W ell, th at’ s e x actly h ow y ou s h ould c o nduct y ours e lf a ll th e tim e a ro und h ere , with e v ery s in gle d ecis io n.’   ” Cooper beg an to dev elo p to ols . “T here ’re th in gs you can do,” he sa y s.

“S pen din g tim e to geth er outs id e, han gin g out— th ose help . O ne of th e best th in gs I ’v e f o und t o im pro ve a te am ’s c o hesio n is t o s e n d t h em to d o s o m e h ard , hard tr a in in g. T here ’s s o m eth in g a b out h an gin g o ff a c lif f to geth er, a n d b ein g wet a n d c o ld a n d m is e ra b le t o geth er, t h at m ak es a t e am c o m e t o geth er.” One o f th e m ost u se fu l to ols w as th e A fte r-A ctio n R ev ie w , th e tr u th -te llin g se ssio n w e re fe re n ced in C hap te r 7. A ARs hap pen im med ia te ly afte r each mis sio n a n d c o nsis t o f a s h ort m eetin g in w hic h th e te am g ath ers to d is c u ss a n d re p la y k ey d ecis io ns. A ARs a re le d n ot b y c o m man ders b ut b y e n lis te d m en .

There are n o ag en das, an d n o m in ute s are k ep t. T he g oal is to cre ate a fla t la n dsc ap e w ith out ra n k, w here p eo ple c an fig ure o ut w hat re ally h ap pen ed a n d ta lk a b out m is ta k es— esp ecia lly t h eir o w n.

“It’ s got to be sa fe to ta lk ,” C ooper sa y s. “R an k sw itc h ed off, hum ility sw itc h ed o n. Y ou’re lo okin g f o r th at m om en t w here p eo ple c an s a y , ‘ I s c re w ed th at u p.’ I n f a ct, I ’d s a y t h ose m ig ht b e t h e m ost i m porta n t f o ur w ord s a n y l e ad er can s a y : I s c re w ed t h at u p .” Good A ARs f o llo w a te m pla te . “ Y ou h av e to d o it r ig ht a w ay ,” C ooper s a y s.

“Y ou p ut d ow n y our g un, cir c le u p, an d sta rt ta lk in g. U su ally y ou ta k e th e mis sio n f ro m b eg in nin g to e n d, c h ro nolo gic ally . Y ou ta lk a b out e v ery d ecis io n, an d y ou t a lk a b out t h e p ro cess. Y ou h av e t o r e sis t t h e t e m pta tio n t o w ra p i t a ll u p in a b ow , a n d t r y t o d ig f o r t h e t r u th o f w hat h ap pen ed , s o p eo ple c an r e ally l e arn fro m i t. Y ou h av e t o a sk w hy, a n d t h en w hen t h ey r e sp ond, y ou a sk a n oth er w hy.

Why d id y ou sh oot a t th at p artic u la r p oin t? W hat d id y ou se e?

H ow d id y ou know ? W hat o th er o ptio ns w ere t h ere ? Y ou a sk a n d a sk a n d a sk .” The g oal o f a n A AR i s n ot t o e x cav ate t r u th f o r t r u th ’s s a k e, o r t o a ssig n c re d it an d b la m e, b ut ra th er to b uild a sh are d m en ta l m odel th at c an b e a p plie d to fu tu re m is sio ns. “ L ook, n obody c an s e e it a ll o r k now it a ll,” C ooper s a y s. “ B ut if y ou k eep g ettin g to geth er a n d d ig gin g o ut w hat h ap pen ed , th en a fte r a w hile ev ery body can se e w hat’ s re ally h ap pen in g, n ot ju st th eir sm all p ie ce o f it.

Peo ple c an sh are e x perie n ces a n d m is ta k es. T hey c an se e h ow w hat th ey d o affe cts o th ers , a n d w e c an sta rt to c re ate a g ro up m in d w here e v ery body c an work t o geth er a n d p erfo rm t o t h e t e am ’s p ote n tia l.” Cooper u se s th e p hra se “ b ack bone o f h um ility ” to d esc rib e th e to ne o f a g ood AAR. I t’ s a u se fu l p hra se b ecau se it c ap tu re s th e p ara d oxic al n atu re o f th e ta sk :

a re le n tle ss w illin gness to s e e th e tr u th a n d ta k e o w ners h ip . W ith a n A AR, a s with L og P T o r a H aro ld , g ro up m em bers h av e to co m bin e d is c ip lin e w ith open ness. A nd a s w ith a L og P T o r a H aro ld , i t’ s n ot e asy . B ut i t d oes p ay o ff.

Afte r h is re v ela tio n o n th e ro ad to B ag ra m , C ooper sp en t th e n ex t d ecad e le ad in g te am s, m ostly in th e M id dle E ast. H e g ra d ually ro se to T eam S ix ’s hig hest e n lis te d ra n k o f c o m man d m aste r c h ie f, w hic h p la ced h im in c h arg e o f th e e n tir e g ro up’s tr a in in g. I n M arc h 2 011 h e a n d a n oth er T eam S ix le ad er w ere su m moned by Adm ir a l W illia m M cR av en , co m man der of Jo in t Specia l Opera tio ns C om man d, t o C IA h ead quarte rs i n M cL ean , V ir g in ia .

McR av en g ot rig ht to th e p oin t: “ W e th in k w e’v e fo und O sa m a b in L ad en .” He th en o utlin ed th e p la n . T eam S ix o pera to rs w ould f ly in to P ak is ta n in s te alth helic o pte rs , f a st- ro pe o nto t h e c o m pound’s r o of, a n d k ill t h e A l Q aed a l e ad er.

Cooper lis te n ed , h is a tte n tio n d ra w n to o ne e le m en t: th e ste alth h elic o pte rs .

He k new th ey w ere a ttr a ctiv e to M cR av en b ecau se th ey w ere in vis ib le to ra d ar an d w ould th us a llo w th e te am to tr a v el u ndete cte d th ro ugh P ak is ta n i a ir s p ace.

But C ooper a ls o k new t h ey w ere u nte ste d i n c o m bat, a n d t h at s p ecia l o ps h is to ry was l itte re d w ith d is a ste rs c au se d b y u sin g u nte ste d t o ols i n c o m bat. S o h e s p oke up.

“W ith a ll d ue r e sp ect, s ir ,” C ooper s a id , “ I w ould n ot u se th ose h elic o pte rs o n th is m is sio n. I w ould pla n so m eth in g els e in para lle l. If w e can ’t go w ith so m eth in g e ls e , t h en I g o w ith t h e h elic o pte rs .” “W e’re n ot c h an gin g t h e p la n n ow ,” M cR av en s a id .

Cooper d ecid ed to k eep p ush in g. H e w an te d to g et th is o n th e ta b le . “ S ir , I ’d be r e m is s i f I d id n’t t e ll y ou w hat I t h ought.” McR av en r a is e d h is v oic e. “ W e’re n ot c h an gin g t h e p la n n ow ,” h e s a id .

“In th at m om en t, I w as p re tty s u re I w as g ettin g f ir e d ,” C ooper te lls m e la te r.

“B ut I w asn ’t g oin g t o k eep m y m outh s h ut.” H e p ush ed a g ain .

McR av en s h ut h im d ow n a g ain . T he d is c u ssio n w as o ver.

Cooper w alk ed o ut o f th at ro om fa cin g a p ro ble m : H ow d o y ou fo llo w a n ord er t h at c arrie s w hat y ou c o nsid er to b e a n u naccep ta b ly h ig h r is k ? I n e sse n ce, he w as in p re cis e ly th e s a m e p ositio n h e’d b een in b ack o n th e r o ad to B ag ra m on N ew Y ear’s E ve 2 001. S hould h e f o llo w t h e o rd er o r d efy i t?

Cooper c h ose a th ir d p ath . H e a ccep te d th e u se o f th e s te alth h elic o pte rs a n d als o s ta rte d p re p arin g in c ase th ey f a ile d .

I n th e e n su in g w eek s, th e S E A Ls b uilt re p lic as o f B in L ad en ’s c o m pound in N orth C aro lin a, N ev ad a, a n d A fg han is ta n .

In each pla ce, C ooper ra n do w ned -h elic o pte r sc en ario s over an d over. H e sim ula te d c ra sh es o uts id e th e c o m pound, in sid e th e c o m pound, o n th e ro of, in th e yard , hundre d s of yard s aw ay . E ach w as esse n tia lly th e sa m e: P artw ay th ro ugh th e o pera tio n, C ooper w ould s u rp ris e th e te am w ith th e o rd er “ Y ou’re goin g d ow n, n ow .” T he p ilo ts w ould a u to ro ta te t h e h elic o pte r t o th e g ro und, a n d th e t e am w ould t h en a tta ck t h e m ock c o m pound f ro m w here v er t h ey h ap pen ed t o be. “ T here w ere n ev er a n y r ig ht o r w ro ng a n sw ers ; t h ey h ad t o s e lf -o rg an iz e a n d deal w ith th e p ro ble m ,” C ooper s a id . “ T hen w e’d d o a n A AR, ta lk a b out it, a n d fig ure o ut w hat h ad h ap pen ed a n d w hat w e c o uld d o b ette r n ex t t im e.” The d ow ned -h elic o pte r d rills w ere n ot e asy . T hey d em an ded a h ig h le v el o f atte n tio n, c o opera tio n, a n d im pro vis a tio n. I n th e A ARs th at f o llo w ed e ach d rill, th e te am m em bers r e p eate d ly w en t o ver w hat w en t w ro ng, o w ned m is ta k es, a n d ta lk ed a b out h ow th ey m ig ht d o it b ette r. “ W e r a n s o m an y th at it b ecam e a jo ke am ong th e g uys,” C ooper s a y s. “ T hey w ere s a y in g, ‘H ey , C oop, c an w e ple a se ru n a n oth er d ow ned -h elic o pte r s c en ario ?’   ” On M ay 1, th e W hite H ouse se n t th e ord er to la u nch . T he tw o ste alth helic o pte rs lif te d o ff f ro m th e U .S . a ir b ase in J a la la b ad . A t th e b ase ’s c o m man d cen te r, C ooper, M cR av en , a n d o th er c o m man ders g ath ere d a ro und th e s c re en to watc h th e d ro ne v id eo fe ed . In th e W hite H ouse , P re sid en t B ara ck O bam a a n d his n atio nal s e cu rity t e am l e an ed i n , w atc h in g t h e s a m e i m ag es.

The m is sio n sta rte d sm ooth ly . T hey m ad e it th ro ugh Pak is ta n i air s p ace undete cte d a n d a p pro ach ed B in L ad en ’s c o m pound. B ut a s th e fir s t h elic o pte r atte m pte d to la n d, th in gs w en t w ro ng. O ne h elic o pte r s k id ded a ro und in th e a ir as if it w ere on ic e, veerin g an d sp in nin g to w ard th e gro und. T he oth er helic o pte r, w hic h w as s u ppose d to la n d o n th e r o of o f th e m ain c o m pound, s a w th e p ro ble m s a n d v eere d o ff to la n d o uts id e. ( T he e x pla n atio n th at la te r e m erg ed was t h at t h e h ig h w alls o f t h e c o m pound c re ate d d ow ndra fts t h at d is ru pte d f lig ht.

The re h ears a ls h ad a ll b een d one a t m ock up c o m pounds w ith c h ain -lin k fe n ce, not s o lid w alls .) T hen th in gs g ot w ors e . T he fir s t p ilo t, u nab le to k eep a ltitu de, cra sh -la n ded i n t h e c o urty ard , l o dgin g t h e t a il s e ctio n o n t h e w all a n d t ip pin g t h e helic o pte r o n its s id e, b ury in g its n ose in th e s o ft d ir t. I n th e c o m man d p ost, th e gen era ls sta re d w ord le ssly a t th e sc re en . F or th re e o r fo ur se co nds, th e ro om fille d w ith a n u nbeara b le s ile n ce.

Then th ey s a w it: T eam S ix o pera to rs p ourin g o ut o f th e d ow ned h elic o pte r, ju st as th ey h ad in th e d rills , g oin g to w ork . T hey g ot m ovin g an d sta rte d work in g th e p ro ble m — pic k up b ask etb all a t its f in est. “ T hey d id n’t m is s a b eat,” Cooper s a y s. “ O nce th ey g ot o n th e g ro und, th ere w as z ero d oubt.” T hir ty -e ig ht min ute s la te r, it w as o ver, a n d th e e n tir e p la n et h ad a n o pportu nity to a p pre cia te th e te am ’s sk ill a n d b ra v ery . B ut in a ll th e c ele b ra tio n, it’ s e asy to m is s th e deep er sk ill, th e c h ain o f tr a in in g a n d A ARs th at la id th e fo undatio n fo r th at mom en t.

Fro m a fa r, th e B in L ad en ra id lo oked lik e a d em onstr a tio n o f te am s tr e n gth , pow er, an d co ntr o l. B ut th at str e n gth w as b uilt o f a w illin gness to sp ot an d co nfro nt th e tr u th a n d to c o m e to geth er to a sk a s im ple q uestio n o ver a n d o ver:

What’ s r e a lly g oin g o n h ere ?

C ooper a n d h is t e am d id n ot h av e t o g o b ack a g ain an d a g ain to w ork o n d ow ned -h elic o pte r s c en ario s. B ut th ey s u cceed ed b ecau se th ey unders to od th at bein g vuln era b le to geth er is th e only w ay a te am can beco m e i n vuln era b le .

“W hen w e ta lk a b out c o ura g e, w e th in k it’ s g oin g a g ain st a n e n em y w ith a mach in e g un,” C ooper s a y s. “ T he re al c o ura g e is s e ein g th e tr u th a n d s p eak in g th e tr u th to e ach o th er. P eo ple n ev er w an t to b e th e p ers o n w ho s a y s, ‘W ait a se co nd, w hat’ s r e ally g oin g o n h ere ?’ B ut i n sid e t h e s q uad ro n, t h at is t h e c u ltu re , an d t h at’ s w hy w e’re s u ccessfu l.” T he N yq uis t M eth od B ack in th e e arly p art o f th e la st c en tu ry , w ell b efo re S ilic o n V alle y , th e w orld ’s f o re m ost hub of in ven tio n an d in novatio n w as lo cate d in a se rie s of la rg e n ondesc rip t build in gs in su burb an N ew Je rs e y . It w as calle d B ell Lab s.

O rig in ally fo rm ed in 1 925 to h elp b uild a n atio nal c o m munic atio ns n etw ork , B ell L ab s g re w in to th e sc ie n tif ic eq uiv ale n t o f R en ais sa n ce-e ra F lo re n ce: a w ells p rin g o f g ro up g en iu s t h at l a ste d u ntil t h e 1 970s. L ed b y C la u de S han non, a b rillia n t p oly m ath w ho lik ed to rid e th ro ugh th e h alls o n h is u nic y cle w hile j u gglin g, B ell L ab s an d its te am s of sc ie n tis ts in ven te d an d dev elo ped th e t r a n sis to r, d ata n etw ork in g, s o la r c ells , la se rs , c o m munic atio ns s a te llite s, b in ary c o m putin g, a n d c ellu la r c o m munic atio n— in s h ort, m ost o f th e to ols w e u se to l iv e m odern l if e .

Mid w ay th ro ugh th at g old en a g e, s o m e B ell L ab s a d m in is tr a to rs g re w c u rio us a b out th e r e aso ns f o r th eir o w n r e m ark ab le s u ccess. T hey w ondere d w hic h B ell s c ie n tis ts h ad g en era te d th e m ost p ate n ts f o r th eir in ven tio ns, a n d w heth er th ose s c ie n tis ts h ad a n yth in g in c o m mon. T hey b eg an b y e x am in in g th e B ell p ate n t l ib ra ry , w here pate n ts w ere kep t in bin ders org an iz ed alp hab etic ally by th e s c ie n tis ts ’ l a st n am e.

“M ost o f th e b in ders w ere ab out th e sa m e siz e,” re calls B ill K eefa u ver, a l a w yer w ho w ork ed in th e p ate n t o ffic e. “ B ut s o m e b in ders s to od o ut r ig ht a w ay b ecau se th ey w ere fa t— much fa tte r th an ev ery one els e ’s . T hose w ere th e s u perc re ativ e p eo ple w ho h ad file d d ozen s a n d d ozen s o f p ate n ts . T here w ere a b out t e n o f t h em .” The ad m in is tr a to rs stu die d th ose te n sc ie n tis ts , huntin g fo r th e co m mon th re ad . D id th e s u perc re ativ es s h are th e s a m e s p ecia lty ? T he s a m e e d ucatio nal back gro und? T he sa m e fa m ily b ack gro und? A fte r co nsid erin g an d d is c ard in g dozen s o f p ossib le tie s, th ey d is c o vere d a c o nnectio n— an d it d id n’t h av e to d o with w ho th e s u perc re ativ es w ere . I t h ad to d o w ith a h ab it th at th ey s h are d : th e hab it o f re g ula rly e atin g lu nch in th e B ell L ab s c afe te ria w ith a q uie t S w ed is h en gin eer n am ed H arry N yquis t.

This re su lt c am e a s a s u rp ris e , to s a y th e le ast. N ot b ecau se N yquis t w asn ’t well k now n— he w as, h av in g p io neere d im porta n t a d van ces in te le g ra p hy a n d fe ed back am plif ic atio n. B ut in a p la ce fa m ous fo r its d ynam ic an d eccen tr ic le ad ers , N yquis t w as th e opposite : a m ild , gen tly sm ilin g L uth era n know n mostly f o r h is tr a n quil r e lia b ility . R ais e d o n a S w ed is h f a rm , h e a p pro ach ed h is work w ith old -w orld dis c ip lin e.

H e aw oke at pre cis e ly 6:4 5 each m orn in g, dep arte d f o r th e o ffic e a t p re cis e ly 7 :3 0, a n d w as a lw ay s h om e f o r f a m ily d in ner at 6 :1 5. H is m ost id io sy ncra tic h ab it w as o ccasio nally ta k in g th e f e rry in ste ad o f th e su bw ay on his co m mute hom e. (H e en jo yed th e fre sh air .) H e w as so ord in ary a s to b e n early in vis ib le . I n o th er w ord s, th e m ost im porta n t p ers o n in one o f th e m ost c re ativ e p la ces in h is to ry tu rn ed o ut to b e th e p ers o n a lm ost ev ery one w ould o verlo ok. W hic h i s w hy i t’ s i m porta n t t o l o ok a b it m ore c lo se ly at h is s k ill s e t.

Nyquis t by all acco unts posse sse d tw o im porta n t qualitie s. T he fir s t w as warm th . H e h ad a k nack fo r m ak in g p eo ple fe el c are d fo r; e v ery c o nte m pora ry desc rip tio n pain ts him as “fa th erly .” The se co nd quality w as a re le n tle ss cu rio sity . In a la n dsc ap e m ad e u p o f d iv ers e sc ie n tif ic d om ain s, h e c o m bin ed bre ad th a n d d ep th o f k now le d ge w ith a d esir e t o s e ek c o nnectio ns. “ N yquis t w as fu ll o f id eas, fu ll o f q uestio ns,” B ell L ab s e n gin eer C hap in C utle r re calls . “ H e dre w p eo ple o ut, g ot t h em t h in kin g.” “N yquis t w as g ood a t a p artic u la r k in d o f a ctiv ity th at B ell r e ally e n co ura g ed in th ose d ay s,” K eefa u ver s a y s. “ P eo ple in a ll k in ds o f d is c ip lin es, o n a ll k in ds of pro je cts , ta lk in g ab out th eir pro je ct w ith so m eo ne w ho’s w ork in g on so m eth in g en tir e ly d if fe re n t, to p ut a n ew lig ht o n th in gs. P eo ple lik e H arry Nyquis t c o uld c ap tu re w hat s o m eo ne w as d oin g, th ro w s o m e n ew id eas a t th em , an d a sk , ‘ W hy d on’t y ou t r y t h at? ’   ” When I v is ite d g ro ups f o r t h is b ook, I m et a l o t o f p eo ple w ho p osse sse d t r a its of w arm th a n d c u rio sity — so m an y, in fa ct, th at I b eg an to th in k o f th em a s Nyquis ts . T hey w ere p olite , r e se rv ed , a n d s k ille d lis te n ers . T hey r a d ia te d a s a fe , nurtu rin g v ib e. T hey p osse sse d d eep k now le d ge t h at s p an ned d om ain s a n d h ad a knack fo r a sk in g q uestio ns th at ig nite d m otiv atio n a n d id eas. (T he b est w ay to fin d th e N yquis t is u su ally to a sk p eo ple : If I c o uld g et a s e n se o f th e w ay y o ur cu ltu re w ork s b y m eetin g ju st o ne p erso n, w ho w ould th at p erso n b e?

) If w e th in k o f s u ccessfu l c u ltu re s a s e n gin es o f h um an c o opera tio n, th en th e N yquis ts are t h e s p ark p lu gs.

The p ers o n I m et w ho b est e m bodie d t h is p ro cess w as n am ed R osh i G iv ech i.

Rosh i G iv ech i w ork s at th e N ew Y ork offic e of ID EO , th e in te rn atio nal desig n f ir m h ead quarte re d in P alo A lto , C alif o rn ia . I D EO ’s p la ce in th e m odern world is a little lik e th at o f B ell L ab s. It h as d esig ned , a m ong o th er th in gs, th e orig in al A pple co m pute r m ouse , in su lin pen s fo r dia b etic s, an d th e sta n dup to oth paste tu be. It h as w on m ore d esig n aw ard s th an an y o th er co m pan y in his to ry . T he g ro up c o nsis ts o f six h undre d p eo ple w ho a re d iv id ed in to sm all te am s a n d t a sk ed w ith m eetin g c h alle n ges t h at r a n ge f ro m d esig nin g g lo bal p la n s fo r d is a ste r r e sp onse to b uild in g a s m artp hone-c h arg in g h an dbag a n d e v ery th in g in b etw een .

Offic ia lly , G iv ech i is a d esig ner. U noffic ia lly , h er ro le is to s e rv e a s ro vin g cata ly st, in volv ed in a n um ber o f p ro je cts , h elp in g th e te am s n av ig ate th e d esig n pro cess. “ W hen te am s a re stu ck , o r if th ere ’s a to ugh d ynam ic , R osh i is lik e mag ic ,” sa y s D uan e B ra y , an ID EO partn er. “S he’s in cre d ib ly sk ille d at unlo ck in g te am s, a sk in g q uestio ns th at c o nnect p eo ple a n d o pen p ossib ilitie s.

The tr u th is , w e d on’t q uite u nders ta n d h ow s h e d oes it, e x actly . W e ju st k now th at i t w ork s r e ally w ell.” Giv ech i, a sm all w om an in her fo rtie s, w ears flo w in g sk ir ts w ith la rg e pock ets . S he h as d ark , c u rly h air a n d q uic k , d ark e y es w ith s m ile -c rin kle s a t th e co rn ers . O n g re etin g, sh e m ak es n o a tte m pt to c h arm — no jo kes, n o e x te n ded sm all ta lk . S he p ro je cts n one o f th e e n erg etic th eatr ic ality y ou e n co unte r w ith man y p eo ple in c re ativ e w ork . In ste ad , s h e ra d ia te s a c o nte n te d s tilln ess, a s if you’v e m et m an y t im es b efo re .

“S ocia lly , I ’m n ot th e c h attie st p ers o n,” G iv ech i s a y s. “ I lo ve s to rie s, b ut I ’m not th e p ers o n in th e m id dle o f th e r o om te llin g th e s to ry . I ’m th e p ers o n o n th e sid e lis te n in g a n d a sk in g q uestio ns. T hey ’re u su ally q uestio ns th at m ig ht s e em obvio us o r s im ple o r u nnecessa ry .

B ut I lo ve a sk in g th em b ecau se I ’m tr y in g to unders ta n d w hat’ s r e ally g oin g o n.” Giv ech i’ s in te ra ctio ns w ith h er te am s ta k e p la ce la rg ely in w hat ID EO c alls Flig hts , re g ula r a ll- te am m eetin gs th at o ccu r a t th e s ta rt, m id dle , a n d fin is h o f ev ery p ro je ct. (T hin k o f th em a s ID EO ’s v ers io n o f th e B ra in T ru st o r A AR.) Giv ech i ap pro ach es each F lig ht fro m th e o uts id e in . S he d oes h er re se arc h , mostly th ro ugh c o nvers a tio ns, to le arn th e is su es th e te am h as b een w re stlin g with , b oth fro m a d esig n p ers p ectiv e (w hat a re th e b arrie rs ? ) a n d fro m a te am - dynam ic s p ers p ectiv e ( w here is th e f ric tio n?). T hen w ith th at la n dsc ap e in m in d, sh e g ath ers th e g ro up a n d a sk s q uestio ns d esig ned to u nearth te n sio ns a n d h elp th e g ro up g ain c la rity a b out th em se lv es a n d th e p ro je ct. T he w ord s h e u se s fo r th is p ro cess i s su rfa cin g . *1 “I lik e th e w ord co nnect ,” G iv ech i s a y s. “ F or m e, e v ery c o nvers a tio n is th e sa m e, b ecau se it’ s ab out h elp in g p eo ple w alk aw ay w ith a g re ate r se n se o f aw are n ess, e x cite m en t, a n d m otiv atio n to m ak e a n im pact. B ecau se in div id uals are re ally d if fe re n t. S o y ou h av e to fin d d if fe re n t w ay s to m ak e it c o m fo rta b le an d e n gag in g fo r p eo ple to sh are w hat th ey ’re re ally th in kin g a b out. It’ s n ot ab out d ecis iv en ess— it’ s a b out d is c o very . F or m e, th at h as to d o w ith a sk in g th e rig ht q uestio ns t h e r ig ht w ay .” *2 When y ou ta lk to G iv ech i’ s c o lle ag ues, th ey p oin t o ut a p ara d ox: S he is a t once so ft an d hard , em path etic but als o pers is te n t. “T here ’s an underly in g to ughness to R osh i,” sa y s L aw re n ce A bra h am so n, an ID EO d esig n d ir e cto r.

“S he d oesn ’t p re se n t a n a g en da, b ut o f c o urs e t h ere i s a n a g en da b eh in d t h at, a n d it’ s g en tle g uid in g. A nd o ne o f th e b ig gest to ols in h er to olb ox is tim e. S he’ll sp en d so m uch tim e, b ein g p atie n t a n d c o ntin uin g to h av e c o nvers a tio ns a n d mak in g s u re t h e c o nvers a tio ns a re p ro gre ssin g i n a g ood d ir e ctio n.” “T here ’s alw ay s a m om en t w ith R osh i,” sa y s Pete r A nto nelli, a desig n dir e cto r. “ T here ’s a s p ir it o f p ro vocatio n c o nsta n tly a t p la y , to n udge, to h elp u s th in k bey ond w hat’ s im med ia te ly in fro nt of us. A nd it usu ally sta rts w ith questio nin g th e b ig o bvio us th in gs. It’ s n ev er c o nfro nta tio nal— sh e n ev er s a y s, ‘Y ou’re d oin g t h e w ro ng t h in g.’ I t’ s o rg an ic , e m bed ded i n c o nvers a tio n.” Watc h in g G iv ech i l is te n i s l ik e w atc h in g a s k ille d a th le te i n a ctio n. S he l is te n s ch ie fly w ith h er e y es, w hic h h av e a G eig er-c o unte r-lik e s e n sitiv ity to c h an ges in mood a n d e x pre ssio n. S he d ete cts s m all c h an ges a n d r e sp onds t o t h em s w if tly . I f you c o nvey a s c in tilla o f te n sio n a b out a s u bje ct, s h e w ill m ark it a n d f o llo w u p with a q uestio n d esig ned t o g en tly e x plo re t h e r e aso ns f o r t h at t e n sio n. W hen s h e sp eak s, s h e c o nsta n tly lin ks b ack to y ou w ith s m all p hra se s— Mayb e y o u’v e h ad an e xp erie n ce lik e th is … Your w ork m ig ht b e s im ila r… The r e a so n I w as p ausin g th ere w as… — th at pro vid e a ste ad y sig nal of co nnectio n. Y ou fin d yours e lf co m fo rta b le o pen in g u p, t a k in g r is k s, t e llin g t h e t r u th . It fe els lik e m ag ic , b ut in fa ct it’ s th e re su lt o f a lo t o f p ra ctic e. A s a c h ild , Giv ech i w ould u se a c asse tte re co rd er to c ap tu re h er v oic e re ad in g h er fa v orite books o ver a n d o ver, f a sc in ate d b y th e w ay tin y s h if ts in to ne a n d tim in g c o uld tr a n sfo rm m ean in g. A s a c o lle g e s tu den t, s tu dyin g p sy ch olo gy a n d d esig n, s h e volu nte ere d to a ssis t th e b lin d, a n d s h e w ro te h er c o lle g e th esis o n d an ce a n d ch ore o gra p hy. S he u se s t h e i d ea o f d an ce t o d esc rib e t h e s k ills s h e e m plo ys w ith ID EO ’s d esig n te am s: to fin d th e m usic , su pport h er p artn er, a n d fo llo w th e rh yth m . “ I d on’t s e e m yse lf a s th e c o nducto r o f th e m usic ,” s h e s a y s. “ I’m m ore of a n udger. I n udge th e c h ore o gra p hy a n d tr y to c re ate th e c o nditio ns f o r g ood th in gs t o h ap pen .” A y ear a g o I D EO d ecid ed to s c ale G iv ech i’ s a b ilitie s a cro ss th e o rg an iz atio n.

They a sk ed h er to c re ate m odule s o f q uestio ns te am s c o uld a sk th em se lv es, th en pro vid ed th ose m odule s to d esig n te am s as to ols to h elp th em im pro ve. F or ex am ple , h ere a re a f e w :

• The o ne t h in g t h at e x cite s m e a b out t h is p artic u la r o pportu nity i s • I c o nfe ss, t h e o ne t h in g I ’m n ot s o e x cite d a b out w ith t h is p artic u la r opportu nity i s • On t h is p ro je ct, I ’d r e ally l ik e t o g et b ette r a t The in te re stin g th in g a b out G iv ech i’ s q uestio ns is h ow tr a n sc en den tly s im ple th ey are . T hey h av e le ss to d o w ith d esig n th an w ith co nnectin g to d eep er em otio ns: f e ar, a m bitio n, m otiv atio n.

I t’ s e asy t o i m ag in e t h at i n d if fe re n t h an ds, th ese q uestio ns c o uld f a ll f la t a n d f a il to ig nite c o nvers a tio n. T his is b ecau se th e re al p ow er o f th e in te ra ctio n is lo cate d in th e tw o-w ay e m otio nal s ig nalin g th at cre ate s a n a tm osp here o f c o nnectio n t h at s u rro unds t h e c o nvers a tio n.

“T he w ord su btle is th e key ,” sa y s A bra h am so n. “S he’s unassu m in g an d dis a rm s p eo ple b ecau se s h e is s o o pen a n d lis te n in g a n d c arin g. R osh i h as th e ab ility to p au se c o m ple te ly , to s to p w hat m ust b e g oin g o n in h er h ead , to f o cu s co m ple te ly on th e pers o n an d th e questio n at han d, an d to se e w here th at questio n is le ad in g. S he is n ’t tr y in g to d ra g y ou s o m ew here , e v er. S he’s tr u ly se ein g y ou f ro m y our p ositio n, a n d t h at’ s h er p ow er.” “T he w ord em path y s o unds s o s o ft a n d n ic e, b ut t h at’ s n ot w hat’ s r e ally g oin g on,” sa y s N jo ki G ita h i, a se n io r co m munic atio n d esig ner. “W hat R osh i d oes re q uir e s a c ritic al u nders ta n din g o f w hat m ak es p eo ple tic k , a n d w hat m ak es peo ple t ic k i s n ’t a lw ay s b ein g n ic e t o t h em . P art o f i t i s t h at s h e k now s p eo ple s o well th at s h e u nders ta n ds w hat th ey n eed . S om etim es w hat th ey n eed is s u pport an d pra is e . B ut so m etim es w hat th ey need is a little knock on th e ch in , a re m in der th at th ey n eed to w ork h ard er, a n udge to tr y n ew th in gs. T hat’ s w hat sh e g iv es.” “S he’s re ally lis te n in g, h earin g w hat y ou sa id an d ask in g w hat it m ean s, dig gin g d eep er,” s a y s N ili M etu ki, d esig n r e se arc h er. “ S he d oesn ’t l e t t h in gs s ta y uncle ar, ev en when th ey ’re unco m fo rta b le . Esp ecia lly when th ey ’re unco m fo rta b le .” Where u pon w e m ust a sk : W hat is in sid e th at p au se , th at N yquis tia n m om en t of v uln era b le , a u th en tic c o nnectio n? T hat i s , c an w e p eer i n sid e t h is m om en t a n d se e w hat’ s r e ally h ap pen in g u ndern eath ?

That’ s a q uestio n D r. C arl M arc i h as sp en t m uch o f h is care er ex plo rin g.

Marc i, a neu ro lo gis t w ho te ach es at H arv ard , fir s t becam e fa sc in ate d w ith lis te n in g in a m ed ic al s c h ool c la ss th at f e atu re d a s e rie s o f n on-W este rn h eale rs .

These h eale rs w ere u nco nven tio nal, e m plo yin g a s p ecta cu la r ra n ge o f m eth ods th at w ere s c ie n tif ic ally d ubio us— fo r e x am ple , g iv in g m assa g e w here th e h an ds did n’t to uch th e p atie n t, o r a d m in is te rin g d ro ps o f w ate r w ith c o ncen tr a tio ns o f in gre d ie n ts t h at a p pro ach ed z ero — an d y et t h ey a ch ie v ed r e m ark ab le r e su lts . O ne re aso n, M arc i cam e to se e, w as th e co nnectio n th e heale r fo rm ed w ith th e patie n t.

“W hat th ese h eale rs a ll h ad in c o m mon w as th at th ey w ere b rillia n t lis te n ers .

They w ould s it d ow n, ta k e a lo ng p atie n t h is to ry , a n d re ally g et to k now th eir patie n ts ,” M arc i sa y s. “T hey w ere all in cre d ib ly em path ic p eo ple w ho w ere re ally g ood at co nnectin g w ith p eo ple an d fo rm in g tr u stin g b onds. S o th at’ s when I r e aliz ed th at th e in te re stin g p art w asn ’t th e h ealin g b ut th e lis te n in g, a n d th e r e la tio nsh ip b ein g f o rm ed . T hat’ s w hat w e n eed ed t o s tu dy.” Marc i in ven te d a m eth od in w hic h h e v id eo ed c o nvers a tio ns w hile tr a ck in g galv an ic sk in re sp onse — th e ch an ge in ele ctr ic al re sis ta n ce th at m easu re s em otio nal a ro usa l. H e d is c o vere d t h at f o r m uch o f t h e t im e, t h e a ro usa l c u rv es o f tw o p eo ple in c o nvers a tio n b ore little o r n o re la tio n to e ach o th er. B ut h e a ls o fo und s p ecia l m om en ts , in c erta in c o nvers a tio ns, w hen th e tw o c u rv es fe ll in to perfe ct s y nc. M arc i c alle d t h ese m om en ts c o nco rd an ces.

“C onco rd an ces h ap pen w hen o ne p ers o n c an r e act in a n a u th en tic w ay to th e em otio n b ein g p ro je cte d in th e ro om ,” M arc i s a y s. “ It’ s a b out u nders ta n din g in an em path ic w ay , th en doin g so m eth in g in te rm s of gestu re , co m men t, or ex pre ssio n t h at c re ate s a c o nnectio n.” One o f t h e c o nco rd an ce v id eo s i n clu ded M arc i h im se lf . H e i s s e ate d i n a c h air fa cin g a n o ld er m an in a g ra y th re e-p ie ce s u it, w ho h ap pen s to b e h is th era p is t.

Marc i is d esc rib in g th e d ay h e p ro pose d to h is th en -g ir lf rie n d. T he m ach in e s its betw een th em , c ap tu rin g th e flu ctu atio ns o f th e in ner la n dsc ap e a n d p ro je ctin g th em o nto t h e s c re en i n t h e f o rm o f a p air o f b rig htly c o lo re d , s h if tin g l in es: b lu e fo r M arc i, a n d g re en f o r t h e m an i n t h e g ra y s u it.

M ARCI : W e l ik e t o g o t o B re ad a n d C ir c u s a n d g et t h eir v eg eta b le s a m osa s. I sa id , “ W ell, I ’ll t r e at, w e’ll g et s o m e o f t h ose .” S o s h e f ig ure d w e w ere g oin g to h av e a p ic n ic u p t h ere o r s o m eth in g.

G RA Y S UIT :

[ s e rie s o f s m all, a ffir m in g n ods] M ARCI : T he s e co nd t h ought s h e h ad w as m ay be, w e’ll o ccasio nally g o u p th ere a n d w atc h t h e s u nse t, s h e s a id m ay be t h ere w as s o m eth in g f u nky g oin g on i n t h e s k y.

G RA Y S UIT : [ b ig , d efin itiv e n od] M ARCI : A nd s h e s a id l ite ra lly , f o r l ik e a n an ose co nd, s h e e n te rta in ed t h e i d ea th at I w as g oin g t o p ro pose , b ut [ th e i d ea] w en t o ut f a ste r t h an i t w en t i n .

G RA Y S UIT : [ s y m path etic n od, h ead t ilt] M ARCI : S o s h e g ets u p t h ere a n d s h e’s a ll d re sse d , l o okin g s tu nnin g a s s h e alw ay s d oes, a n d s h e s a y s, “ W hat’ s u p?” I n h in dsig ht s h e w as l o okin g f o r fo od a n d c o uld n’t f in d i t.

G RA Y S UIT : [ s m all s m ile .] M ARCI : I s a id , “ C om e s it.” I r e cite d t h e f ir s t s ta n za o f t h e e . e . c u m min gs poem , a n d i t g oes, “ B ein g t o t im ele ssn ess a s i t’ s t o t im e, l o ve d id n o m ore beg in t h an l o ve w ill e n d.” G RA Y S UIT : [ h ead t ilts u pw ard , e y eb ro w s u p] M ARCI ( c o ntin uin g t o q uote ): “ W here n oth in g i s t o b re ath e t o s tr o ll t o s w im , lo ve i s t h e a ir t h e o cean a n d t h e l a n d.” A nd I s a id , “ Y ou a re m y a ir , a n d m y ocean , a n d m y l a n d.” G RA Y S UIT : [ h ead t ilt, s m ile , n od] M ARCI : A nd i t w as j u st t h e m ost t o uch in g t h in g, b ecau se s h e r e aliz ed w hat I was d oin g a s I g ot t h e r in g o ut, a n d j u st w ep t i n a w ay t h at w as s o s in cere a n d so e arn est, a n d s h e w as s o o verw helm ed . I t w as t o uch in g. I t w as n ic e. S he w as psy ch ed . G RA Y S UIT :

[ s m all, a ffir m in g n ods] Watc h in g t h e v id eo , t h e f ir s t t h in g y ou n otic e i s t h at t h e c o nvers a tio n c o nta in s se v era l m om en ts o f p erfe ct c o nco rd an ce, w here th e g re en a n d b lu e lin es m ove with a p erfe ct c o ord in atio n, r is in g a n d f a llin g lik e p en nan ts r ip p lin g in a b re eze.

The se co nd th in g y ou n otic e is th at th ese m om en ts h ap pen w ith out G ra y S uit ev er sp eak in g a w ord . T hat is n ot to sa y th at G ra y S uit is n ot in te ra ctin g. H e ra d ia te s a s te ad y a tte n tio n, a p ois e d s tilln ess. H is h an ds a re f o ld ed o n h is l a p . H is ey es a re u p a n d a le rt. H e r e acts w ith n ods, s m all e x pre ssio ns. I n o th er w ord s, h e is d oin g w hat R osh i G iv ech i d oes a t I D EO , a n d w hat H arry N yquis t p re su m ab ly did at B ell L ab s. H e is dem onstr a tin g th at th e m ost im porta n t m om en ts in co nvers a tio n h ap pen w hen o ne p ers o n i s a ctiv ely , i n te n tly l is te n in g.

“It’ s not an accid en t th at co nco rd an ce hap pen s w hen th ere ’s one pers o n ta lk in g an d th e oth er pers o n lis te n in g,” M arc i sa y s. “It’ s very hard to be em path ic w hen y ou’re ta lk in g. T alk in g is re ally co m plic ate d , b ecau se y ou’re th in kin g a n d p la n nin g w hat y ou’re g oin g to sa y , a n d y ou te n d to g et stu ck in your o w n h ead . B ut n ot w hen y ou’re l is te n in g. W hen y ou’re r e ally l is te n in g, y ou lo se tim e. T here ’s n o s e n se o f y ours e lf , b ecau se it’ s n ot a b out y ou. I t’ s a ll a b out th is t a sk — to c o nnect c o m ple te ly t o t h at p ers o n.” Marc i has co nnecte d in cre ase s in co nco rd an ces to in cre ase s in perc eiv ed em path y: th e m ore c o nco rd an ces o ccu r, th e c lo se r th e tw o p eo ple fe el. W hat’ s more , th e c h an ges in c lo se n ess h ap pen n ot g ra d ually b ut a ll a t o nce. “ T here ’s ofte n o ne m om en t w here i t h ap pen s,” h e s a y s. “ T here ’s a n a ccele ra te d c h an ge t o th e re la tio nsh ip th at h ap pen s w hen y ou’re a b le to re ally lis te n , to b e in cre d ib ly pre se n t w ith th e p ers o n. It’ s lik e a b re ak th ro ugh— ‘W e w ere lik e th is , b ut n ow we’re goin g to in te ra ct in a new w ay , an d w e both unders ta n d th at it’ s hap pen ed .’   ” *1 Half w ay t h ro ugh o ur c o nvers a tio n, G iv ech i a sk ed m e a b out t h is b ook’s t itle a n d s u btitle . I t o ld h er, a n d sh e p au se d — a l o ng, m ean in gfu l p au se . T hen s h e a sk ed , “ D oes t h at s u btitle r e ally w ork ?” A f e w m in ute s la te r, a fte r a f e w b ack -a n d-fo rth s, t h is b ook h ad a n ew a n d i m pro ved s u btitle . I ’m n ot c erta in i f I su ggeste d t h e c h an ge o r i f s h e d id . A s G iv ech i w ould s a y , w e s u rfa ced i t t o geth er.

*2 Robert B ale s, o ne o f t h e f ir s t s c ie n tis ts t o s tu dy g ro up c o m munic atio n, d is c o vere d t h at w hile q uestio ns co m pris e o nly 6 p erc en t o f v erb al i n te ra ctio ns, t h ey g en era te 6 0 p erc en t o f e n su in g d is c u ssio ns.

B uild in g h ab its o f g ro up v uln era b ility is lik e b uild in g a m usc le . It ta k es tim e, r e p etitio n, a n d t h e w illin gness t o f e el p ain i n o rd er t o a ch ie v e g ain s. A nd a s w ith b uild in g m usc le , t h e f ir s t k ey i s t o a p pro ach t h e p ro cess w ith a p la n . W ith t h at i n m in d, h ere a re a f e w w ork out i d eas, f o r b oth i n div id uals a n d g ro ups.

M ake S ure th e L eader Is V uln era ble F ir s t a nd O fte n:

A s w e’v e s e en , g ro up c o opera tio n i s c re ate d b y s m all, fre q uen tly re p eate d m om en ts o f v uln era b ility . O f th ese , n one c arrie s m ore p ow er th an th e m om en t w hen a le ad er sig nals v uln era b ility . A s D av e C ooper s a y s, I s c re w ed th at u p a re th e m ost im porta n t w ord s a n y le ad er c an s a y .

I s a w a v iv id e x am ple w hen I w atc h ed r e sta u ra te u r D an ny M ey er r u n o ne o f h is m orn in g m eetin gs w ith h is s ta ff (a b out tw en ty p eo ple ). M ey er, w hom w e’ll m eet u p c lo se in C hap te r 1 5, is th e f o under o f U nio n S quare C afe , S hak e S hack , G ra m erc y T av ern , an d a n um ber o f o th er re sta u ra n ts th at to geth er are w orth m ore th an a b illio n d olla rs . T he n ig ht b efo re m y v is it, h e h ad d eliv ere d h is f ir s t- e v er T ED T alk . T he sta ff m eetin g b eg an w ith th e g ro up w atc h in g a v id eo o f M ey er’s s p eech . T hen t h e l ig hts w en t u p, a n d M ey er s p oke.

“C an y ou s e e m y le g s h ak in g?” h e a sk ed th e g ro up. “ I w as s o n erv ous, I w as s h ak in g lik e a le af. I’v e g iv en a lo t o f sp eech es, b ut th e T ED p eo ple w an te d s o m eth in g m ore , s o m eth in g d eep er a n d th oughtf u l. S o I s le p t a b out th re e h ours t h e n ig ht b efo re , w hic h is w hy I h av e th ose b ag s u nder m y e y es. W e h ad a t e rrib le re h ears a l, a n d I k ep t sc re w in g u p th e P ow erP oin t. S o it w as a lm ost a c o m ple te sh it sh ow . E xcep t th at I’m lu ck y en ough to h av e so m e ab so lu te ly brillia n t h elp .” H e p au se d a n d p oin te d . “ T han ks, C hip a n d H ale y . T hey m ad e t h e whole th in g w ork . T hey w ro te g re at s tu ff, g av e m e g re at a d vic e, a n d k ep t m e to geth er.” E very one lo oked at C hip an d H ale y an d gav e a sh ort ro und of ap pla u se w hile M ey er l o oked o n a p pro vin gly .

Mey er d eliv ere d th e m essa g e— I w as sc a re d —with ste ad in ess, co nfid en ce, an d c o m fo rt th at u nderlin ed th e d eep er m essa g e: It’ s s a fe to te ll th e tr u th h ere .

His v uln era b ility i s n ’t w eak ness; i t’ s h is s tr e n gth .

Lasz lo B ock , fo rm er h ead o f P eo ple A naly tic s a t G oogle , re co m men ds th at le ad ers a sk t h eir p eo ple t h re e q uestio ns:

• What i s o ne t h in g t h at I c u rre n tly d o t h at y ou’d l ik e m e t o c o ntin ue t o d o?

• What i s o ne t h in g t h at I d on’t c u rre n tly d o f re q uen tly e n ough t h at y ou t h in k I s h ould d o m ore o fte n ?

• What c an I d o t o m ak e y ou m ore e ffe ctiv e?

“T he k ey is to a sk n ot fo r fiv e o r te n th in gs b ut ju st o ne,” B ock s a y s. “ T hat way i t’ s e asie r f o r p eo ple t o a n sw er. A nd w hen a l e ad er a sk s f o r f e ed back i n t h is way , it m ak es it s a fe f o r th e p eo ple w ho w ork w ith th em to d o th e s a m e. I t c an get c o nta g io us.” Ove rc o m munic a te E xp ecta tio ns:

T he s u ccessfu l g ro ups I v is ite d d id n ot p re su m e th at co opera tio n w ould h ap pen o n its o w n. I n ste ad , th ey w ere e x plic it a n d p ers is te n t ab out se n din g b ig , cle ar sig nals th at esta b lis h ed th ose ex pecta tio ns, m odele d co opera tio n, an d alig ned la n guag e an d ro le s to m ax im iz e help in g beh av io r.

ID EO is a g ood e x am ple . Its le ad ers c o nsta n tly ta lk a b out th e e x pecta tio n o f co opera tio n. (C EO T im B ro w n in cessa n tly re p eats h is m an tr a th at th e m ore co m ple x th e p ro ble m , th e m ore h elp y ou n eed to s o lv e it.) T hey c le arly d efin e help in g ro le s a n d m odel v uln era b ility . (T heir in te rn al b ulle tin b oard s a re fille d with r e q uests : Does a nyb ody k n ow o f a g ood y o ga c la ss? C an a nyb ody h elp m e fin d a c a t s itte r fo r C hris tm as w eek? ) In c ase y ou m is s th ose s ig nals , th ey a re als o w ritte n in b ig le tte rs b oth o n th e w alls o f th e N ew Y ork o ffic e a n d in th e pag es o f th e Little B ook o f I D EO , a c o py o f w hic h is g iv en to e v ery e m plo yee.

Am ong th e re fra in s: Colla bora te an d Make O th ers S uccessfu l: G oin g O ut o f Your W ay t o H elp O th ers I s t h e S ecre t S auce. Deliv e r th e N egativ e S tu ff in P ers o n:

T his w as a n in fo rm al ru le th at I e n co unte re d a t se v era l c u ltu re s. I t g oes lik e th is : I f y ou h av e n eg ativ e n ew s o r f e ed back to g iv e so m eo ne— ev en as sm all as a re je cte d ite m on an ex pen se re p ort— you are oblig ate d to d eliv er th at n ew s fa ce-to -fa ce. T his ru le is n ot e asy to fo llo w (it’ s fa r m ore co m fo rta b le fo r both th e se n der an d re ceiv er to co m munic ate ele ctr o nic ally ), b ut it w ork s b ecau se it d eals w ith te n sio n in a n u p-fro nt, h onest way t h at a v oid s m is u nders ta n din gs a n d c re ate s s h are d c la rity a n d c o nnectio n.

One o f t h e b est m eth ods f o r h an dlin g n eg ativ e n ew s i s t h at o f J o e M ad don, t h e co ach o f t h e C hic ag o C ubs a n d a v ow ed o en ophile . I n h is o ffic e, M ad don k eep s a gla ss bow l fille d w ith slip s of pap er, each in sc rib ed w ith th e nam e of an ex pen siv e w in e. W hen a p la y er v io la te s a te am r u le , M ad don a sk s th em to d ra w a slip o f p ap er o ut o f th e b ow l, p urc h ase th at w in e, a n d u nco rk it w ith th eir man ag er. In oth er w ord s, M ad don lin ks th e act of dis c ip lin e to th e act of re co nnectio n.

When F orm in g N ew G ro ups, F ocu s o n T w o C rit ic a l M om ents :

Je ff P olz er, th e H arv ard Busin ess S ch ool p ro fe sso r w ho s tu die s o rg an iz atio nal b eh av io r ( s e e C hap te r 8 ), tr a ces a n y g ro up’s c o opera tio n n orm s to tw o c ritic al m om en ts th at h ap pen e arly in a g ro up’s l if e . T hey a re :

1.

The f ir s t v uln era b ility 2.

The f ir s t d is a g re em en t These s m all m om en ts a re d oorw ay s t o t w o p ossib le g ro up p ath s: Are w e a bout appea rin g str o ng o r a bout exp lo rin g th e la ndsc a pe to geth er? A re w e a bout win nin g in te ra ctio ns, o r a bout le a rn in g to geth er?

“ A t th ose m om en ts , p eo ple eith er d ig in a n d b eco m e d efe n siv e a n d s ta rt ju stif y in g, a n d a lo t o f te n sio n g ets cre ate d ,” P olz er s a y s. “ O r th ey s a y s o m eth in g lik e, ‘ H ey , th at’ s in te re stin g. W hy don’t y ou a g re e? I m ig ht b e w ro ng, a n d I’m c u rio us a n d w an t to ta lk a b out it so m e m ore .’ W hat h ap pen s in th at m om en t h elp s s e t th e p atte rn fo r e v ery th in g th at f o llo w s.” Lis te n L ik e a T ra m polin e:

G ood lis te n in g is a b out m ore th an n oddin g a tte n tiv ely ; it’ s ab out a d din g in sig ht a n d c re atin g m om en ts o f m utu al d is c o very . Ja ck Z en ger an d Jo se p h Folk m an , w ho ru n a le ad ers h ip co nsu lta n cy , an aly zed 3,4 92 partic ip an ts in a m an ag er dev elo pm en t pro gra m an d fo und th at th e m ost effe ctiv e l is te n ers d o f o ur t h in gs:

1.

They i n te ra ct i n w ay s t h at m ak e t h e o th er p ers o n f e el s a fe a n d s u pporte d 2.

They t a k e a h elp in g, c o opera tiv e s ta n ce 3.

They o ccasio nally a sk q uestio ns t h at g en tly a n d c o nstr u ctiv ely c h alle n ge old a ssu m ptio ns 4.

They m ak e o ccasio nal s u ggestio ns t o o pen u p a lte rn ativ e p ath s As Z en ger an d Folk m an put it, th e m ost effe ctiv e lis te n ers beh av e lik e tr a m polin es. T hey a re n ’t p assiv e s p onges. T hey a re a ctiv e r e sp onders , a b so rb in g what th e o th er p ers o n g iv es, su pportin g th em , a n d a d din g e n erg y to h elp th e co nvers a tio n g ain v elo city a n d a ltitu de.

Als o lik e tr a m polin es, e ffe ctiv e lis te n ers g ain a m plitu de th ro ugh re p etitio n.

When a sk in g q uestio ns, th ey ra re ly s to p a t th e fir s t re sp onse . R ath er, th ey fin d dif fe re n t w ay s to e x plo re a n a re a o f te n sio n, in o rd er to re v eal th e tr u th s a n d co nnectio ns t h at w ill e n ab le c o opera tio n.

“I’v e fo und th at w hen ev er y ou a sk a q uestio n, th e fir s t re sp onse y ou g et is usu ally n ot th e a n sw er— it’ s ju st th e fir s t re sp onse ,” R osh i G iv ech i s a y s. “ S o I tr y t o f in d w ay s t o s lo w ly s u rfa ce t h in gs, t o b rin g o ut w hat o ught t o b e s h are d s o th at p eo ple c an b uild fro m it. Y ou h av e to fin d a lo t o f w ay s to a sk th e s a m e questio n, a n d a p pro ach th e s a m e q uestio n fro m a lo t o f d if fe re n t a n gle s. T hen you h av e t o b uild q uestio ns f ro m t h at r e sp onse , t o e x plo re m ore .” In C onve rs a tio n, R esis t th e T em pta tio n to R efle xiv e ly A dd V alu e:

T he m ost i m porta n t p art o f cre atin g v uln era b ility o fte n re sid es n ot in w hat y ou s a y b ut in w hat y ou d o not sa y . T his m ean s hav in g th e w illp ow er to fo rg o easy opportu nitie s to offe r so lu tio ns a n d m ak e s u ggestio ns. S kille d lis te n ers d o n ot in te rru pt w ith p hra se s lik e Hey, h ere ’s a n id ea o r Let m e te ll y o u w hat w ork ed fo r m e in a sim ila r situ atio n b ecau se th ey u nders ta n d th at it’ s n ot a b out th em . T hey u se a r e p erto ir e of g estu re s a n d p hra se s th at k eep th e o th er p ers o n ta lk in g. “ O ne o f th e th in gs I sa y m ost o fte n is p ro bab ly th e s im ple st th in g I s a y ,” s a y s G iv ech i. “   ‘S ay m ore ab out t h at.’   ” It’ s n ot th at s u ggestio ns a re o ff lim its ; ra th er th ey s h ould b e m ad e o nly a fte r you e sta b lis h w hat G iv ech i c alls “ a sc affo ld o f th oughtf u ln ess.” T he sc affo ld underlie s th e co nvers a tio n, su pportin g th e ris k s an d v uln era b ilitie s. W ith th e sc affo ld , p eo ple w ill b e s u pporte d in ta k in g th e ris k s th at c o opera tio n re q uir e s.

With out i t, t h e c o nvers a tio n c o lla p se s.

Use C andor-G enera tin g P ra ctic e s lik e A AR s, B ra in T ru sts , a nd R ed T eam in g:

W hile A ARs were o rig in ally b uilt fo r th e m ilita ry e n vir o nm en t, th e to ol c an b e a p plie d to oth er d om ain s. O ne g ood A AR s tr u ctu re i s t o u se f iv e q uestio ns:

1.

What w ere o ur i n te n ded r e su lts ?

2.

What w ere o ur a ctu al r e su lts ?

3.

What c au se d o ur r e su lts ?

4.

What w ill w e d o t h e s a m e n ex t t im e?

5.

What w ill w e d o d if fe re n tly ?

Som e te am s a ls o u se a B efo re -A ctio n R ev ie w , w hic h is b uilt a ro und a s im ila r se t o f q uestio ns:

1.

What a re o ur i n te n ded r e su lts ?

2.

What c h alle n ges c an w e a n tic ip ate ?

3.

What h av e w e o r o th ers l e arn ed f ro m s im ila r s itu atio ns?

4.

What w ill m ak e u s s u ccessfu l t h is t im e?

A c o uple o f tip s: I t m ay b e u se fu l to f o llo w th e S E A Ls’ h ab it o f r u nnin g th e AAR w ith out le ad ers h ip in volv em en t, to b oost o pen ness a n d h onesty . L ik ew is e , it m ay b e u se fu l to w rite d ow n th e f in din gs— partic u la rly w hat w ill b e d one th e sa m e o r d if fe re n tly n ex t tim e— an d s h are th em a cro ss th e g ro up. A fte r a ll, th e goal o f a n A AR i s n ot j u st t o f ig ure o ut w hat h ap pen ed b ut a ls o t o b uild a s h are d men ta l m odel t h at h elp s t h e g ro up n av ig ate f u tu re p ro ble m s.

Bra in T ru sts , t h e p ro je ct- b ase d m eth od p io neere d b y P ix ar, i n volv e a sse m blin g a t e am o f e x perie n ced l e ad ers w ho h av e n o f o rm al a u th ority o ver t h e p ro je ct a n d le ttin g t h em c ritiq ue i ts s tr e n gth s a n d w eak nesse s i n a f ra n k a n d o pen m an ner. A key r u le o f B ra in T ru sts is th at th e te am is n ot a llo w ed to s u ggest s o lu tio ns, o nly to h ig hlig ht p ro ble m s. T his r u le m ain ta in s th e p ro je ct le ad ers ’ o w ners h ip o f th e ta sk , a n d h elp s p re v en t t h em f ro m a ssu m in g a p assiv e, o rd er-ta k in g r o le .

Red T eam in g is a m ilita ry -d eriv ed m eth od f o r te stin g s tr a te g ie s; y ou c re ate a “re d te am ” to c o m e u p w ith id eas to d is ru pt o r d efe at y our p ro pose d p la n . T he key i s t o s e le ct a r e d t e am t h at i s n ot w ed ded t o t h e e x is tin g p la n i n a n y w ay , a n d to g iv e th em fre ed om to th in k in n ew w ay s th at th e p la n ners m ig ht n ot h av e an tic ip ate d .

AARs, B ra in T ru sts , a n d R ed T eam s e ach g en era te t h e s a m e u nderly in g a ctio n:

to b uild th e h ab it o f o pen in g u p v uln era b ilitie s so th at th e g ro up can b ette r unders ta n d w hat w ork s, w hat d oesn ’t w ork , a n d h ow t o g et b ette r.

Aim fo r C andor; A vo id B ru ta l H onesty :

G iv in g h onest f e ed back is tr ic k y, b ecau se it c an easily r e su lt in p eo ple f e elin g h urt o r d em ora liz ed . O ne u se fu l d is tin ctio n, m ad e most c le arly a t P ix ar, is to a im f o r c an dor a n d a v oid b ru ta l h onesty . B y a im in g fo r can dor— fe ed back th at is sm alle r, m ore ta rg ete d , le ss pers o nal, le ss ju dgm en ta l, a n d e q ually im pactf u l— it’ s e asie r to m ain ta in a s e n se o f s a fe ty a n d belo ngin g i n t h e g ro up.

Em bra ce th e D is co m fo rt:

O ne o f th e m ost d if fic u lt th in gs a b out c re atin g h ab its o f vuln era b ility is th at it re q uir e s a g ro up to e n dure tw o d is c o m fo rts : e m otio nal pain a n d a s e n se o f in effic ie n cy . D oin g a n A AR o r a B ra in T ru st c o m bin es th e re p etitio n o f d ig gin g in to so m eth in g th at alr e ad y h ap pen ed (s h ould n’t w e b e movin g fo rw ard ?) w ith th e burn in g aw kw ard ness in here n t in co nfro ntin g unple asa n t t r u th s. B ut a s w ith a n y w ork out, t h e k ey i s t o u nders ta n d t h at t h e p ain is n ot a p ro ble m b ut t h e p ath t o b uild in g a s tr o nger g ro up.

Alig n Language wit h Actio n:

M an y hig hly co opera tiv e gro ups use la n guag e to re in fo rc e th eir in te rd ep en den ce. F or e x am ple , n av y p ilo ts re tu rn in g to a ir c ra ft carrie rs do not “la n d” but are “re co vere d .” ID EO doesn ’t hav e “p ro je ct man ag ers ” — it h as “ d esig n c o m munity le ad ers .” G ro ups a t P ix ar d o n ot o ffe r “n ote s” o n e arly v ers io ns o f film s; th ey “ p lu s” th em b y o ffe rin g so lu tio ns to pro ble m s. T hese m ig ht se em lik e sm all se m an tic d if fe re n ces, b ut th ey m atte r becau se th ey c o ntin ually h ig hlig ht th e c o opera tiv e, in te rc o nnecte d n atu re o f th e work a n d r e in fo rc e t h e g ro up’s s h are d i d en tity .

Build a W all B etw een P erfo rm ance R evie w a nd P ro fe ssio nal D eve lo pm ent:

W hile it s e em s natu ra l to h old th ese tw o c o nvers a tio ns to geth er, in fa ct it’ s m ore e ffe ctiv e to keep p erfo rm an ce re v ie w a n d p ro fe ssio nal d ev elo pm en t s e p ara te . P erfo rm an ce ev alu atio n te n ds to b e a h ig h-ris k , in ev ita b ly ju dgm en ta l in te ra ctio n, o fte n w ith sa la ry -re la te d co nse q uen ces. Dev elo pm en t, on th e oth er han d, is ab out id en tif y in g str e n gth s an d pro vid in g su pport an d opportu nitie s fo r gro w th .

Lin kin g t h em i n to o ne c o nvers a tio n m uddie s t h e w ate rs . R ela te d ly , m an y g ro ups hav e m oved aw ay fro m ra n kin g w ork ers an d sh if te d to m ore o f a co ach in g model, w here p eo ple re ceiv e fre q uen t fe ed back d esig ned to p ro vid e th em w ith both a v iv id p erfo rm an ce s n ap sh ot a n d a p ath f o r i m pro vem en t.

Use F la sh M ento rin g:

O ne o f th e b est te ch niq ues I ’v e s e en f o r c re atin g c o opera tio n in a g ro up is f la sh m en to rin g. I t is e x actly lik e tr a d itio nal m en to rin g— you p ic k so m eo ne you w an t to le arn fro m an d sh ad ow th em — ex cep t th at in ste ad of month s o r y ears , it la sts a fe w h ours . T hose b rie f in te ra ctio ns h elp b re ak d ow n barrie rs i n sid e a g ro up, b uild r e la tio nsh ip s, a n d f a cilita te t h e a w are n ess t h at f u els help in g b eh av io r.

Make th e L eader O cca sio nally D is a ppear:

S ev era l l e ad ers o f s u ccessfu l g ro ups h av e t h e hab it o f l e av in g t h e g ro up a lo ne a t k ey m om en ts . O ne o f t h e b est a t t h is i s G re g g Popovic h . M ost N BA te am s ru n tim e-o uts acco rd in g to a ch ore o gra p hed pro to co l: F ir s t th e c o ach es h uddle a s a g ro up fo r a fe w s e co nds to s e ttle o n a messa g e, t h en t h ey w alk o ver t o t h e b en ch t o d eliv er t h at m essa g e t o t h e p la y ers .

How ev er, d urin g a b out o ne tim e-o ut a m onth , th e S purs c o ach es h uddle fo r a tim e-o ut… an d th en n ev er w alk o ver to th e p la y ers . T he p la y ers s it o n th e b en ch , waitin g f o r P opovic h t o s h ow u p. T hen , a s t h ey b ela te d ly r e aliz e h e i s n ’t c o m in g, th ey t a k e c h arg e, s ta rt t a lk in g a m ong t h em se lv es, a n d f ig ure o ut a p la n .

The N ew Z eala n d A ll- B la ck s r u gby t e am h av e m ad e a h ab it o f t h is , a s p la y ers le ad se v era l p ra ctic e se ssio ns each w eek w ith little in put fro m th e co ach es.

When I a sk ed D av e C ooper to n am e th e sin gle tr a it th at h is b est- p erfo rm in g SE A L t e am s s h are d , h e s a id , “ T he b est t e am s t e n ded t o b e t h e o nes I w asn ’t t h at in volv ed w ith , e sp ecia lly w hen it c am e to tr a in in g. T hey w ould d is a p pear a n d not re ly o n m e a t a ll. T hey w ere b ette r a t fig urin g o ut w hat th ey n eed ed to d o th em se lv es t h an I c o uld e v er b e.” O ne d ay in 1 975 J a m es B urk e, p re sid en t o f th e h ealth c are c o m pan y J o hnso n & J o hnso n, su m moned th ir ty -fiv e of th e co m pan y’s se n io r m an ag ers fo r an u nco nven tio nal m eetin g. T hey w ere n ’t g oin g to ta lk a b out s tr a te g y o r m ark etin g o r p la n nin g— or a n yth in g to d o w ith b usin ess, r e ally . T he g oal w as to d is c u ss a t h ir ty -tw o-y ear-o ld , o ne-p ag e d ocu m en t c alle d t h e C re d o.

The C re d o h ad b een w ritte n i n 1 943 b y R obert W ood J o hnso n, t h e c o m pan y’s f o rm er c h air m an a n d a m em ber o f i ts f o undin g f a m ily . H ere ’s h ow i t b eg in s:

We b elie v e o ur f ir s t r e sp onsib ility i s t o d octo rs , n urs e s, a n d patie n ts ; t o m oth ers a n d f a th ers a n d a ll o th ers w ho u se o ur p ro ducts an d s e rv ic es. I n m eetin g t h eir n eed s e v ery th in g w e d o m ust b e o f hig h q uality . W e m ust c o nsta n tly s tr iv e t o r e d uce o ur c o sts i n o rd er to m ain ta in r e aso nab le p ric es. C usto m ers ’ o rd ers m ust b e s e rv ic ed pro m ptly a n d a ccu ra te ly .

It g oes o n lik e th at fo r fo ur p ara g ra p hs, d esc rib in g th e re la tio nsh ip to e ach g ro up of sta k eh old ers an d prio ritiz in g th em as fo llo w s: (1 ) cu sto m ers , (2 ) e m plo yees, ( 3 ) c o m munity , a n d ( 4 ) c o m pan y s to ck hold ers . A s v alu e s ta te m en ts g o, it’ s a s o lid o ne: c le ar, fo rth rig ht, a n d rin gin g w ith O ld T esta m en t g ra v ita s.

( T he w ord must ap pears tw en ty -o ne tim es.) The C re d o w as pro m in en tly d is p la y ed a t a ll Jo hnso n & Jo hnso n b usin esse s a n d w as c arv ed in to a g ra n ite w all a t t h e c o m pan y’s N ew J e rs e y h ead quarte rs .

The p ro ble m , a s B urk e s a w it, w as th at th e C re d o d id n’t s e em to m atte r m uch t o m an y e m plo yees— an d w hat w as m ore , h e w asn ’t s u re th at it sh ould m atte r. Tim es h ad c h an ged . I t w asn ’t th at th ere w as a n o pen r e v olt a g ain st th e C re d o; it was m ore th at B urk e p ic k ed u p a s u btle v ib e a s h e tr a v ele d a ro und th e c o m pan y an d w atc h ed p eo ple w ork a n d in te ra ct. A s h e sa id la te r, “ A lo t o f th e y oung peo ple th at w ere co m in g in to Jo hnso n & Jo hnso n re ally did n’t pay m uch atte n tio n to it. M an y o f th em f e lt th at it w as k in d o f a p ublic r e la tio ns g im mic k .

It w asn ’t a u nif y in g d ocu m en t.” Burk e’s id ea w as to h old a m eetin g to d ete rm in e w hat ro le th e C re d o h ad in th e c o m pan y’s fu tu re . W hen h e p ro pose d h is id ea, m an y Jo hnso n & Jo hnso n le ad ers r e je cte d it o utr ig ht. T o q uestio n s u ch a f o undatio nal d ocu m en t s e em ed a waste of tim e. Dic k Sella rs , ch air m an of th e board , calle d th e notio n “rid ic u lo us.” H e to ld B urk e th at c h alle n gin g th e C re d o w ould b e lik e a C ath olic decid in g t o c h alle n ge t h e p ope.

Burk e, a g ra v el- v oic ed V erm onte r w ho’d c o m man ded a la n din g c ra ft d urin g World W ar I I, d id n’t b ack d ow n. “ I c h alle n ge [ th e p ope] e v ery d ay w hen I w ak e up,” h e s a id . “ I th in k a t tim es h e’s c ra zy . I th in k a t tim es m y r e lig io n is n uts . O f co urs e I ch alle n ge it. E very body ch alle n ges th eir v alu es, an d th at’ s w hat w e ought t o d o w ith t h e C re d o.” H e p re v aile d .

The m eetin g w as h eld in a la rg e b an quet r o om . A fte r th e m an ag ers to ok th eir se ats , B urk e o utlin ed th eir ta sk . “ Y ou g uys a re in a p ositio n o f b ein g a b le to ch alle n ge th is d ocu m en t, w hic h is th e s o ul o f th e c o rp ora tio n,” h e s a id . “ A nd if you c an ’t liv e b y its p rin cip le s, w e o ught to te ar it o ff th e w alls , b ecau se it’ s a n act o f p re te n sio n to le av e it th ere . A nd if y ou w an t to c h an ge it, te ll u s h ow it ought t o b e c h an ged .” With t h at, t h e c o nvers a tio n b eg an . “ I t h in k [ th e C re d o] s h ould b e a n a b so lu te ,” sa id o ne m an ag er.

“Y ou c an ’t k id y ours e lf ,” in te rru pte d a n oth er. “ T he p urp ose o f th e b usin ess is to m ak e a p ro fit.” Anoth er m an ag er s p oke u p. “ S hould w e n ot th ere fo re d o w hat is b est f o r th e busin ess, n ot o nly w hat is m ora lly a n d e th ic ally c o rre ct, b ut w hat is b est f o r th e busin ess b y fo llo w in g th e C re d o s o th at w e d o m eet [th e] n eed s o f s o cie ty a n d th ere fo re a re a b le t o d o t h in gs b ette r a n d d ecen t a n d h um an ?” “C harlie , th at’ s m oth erh ood a n d a p ple p ie , a n d w e’re a ll in a g re em en t w ith th at,” sa id a sh arp -v oic ed m an w ith a c o m b-o ver. “ T he q uestio n is , w hic h o f th ese a re le g itim ate d em an ds o f s o cie ty , a n d h ow m an y o f th ese c an w e fu lf ill an d s ta y i n b usin ess.” You g et th e id ea. T his w asn ’t a b usin ess m eetin g; it w as c lo se r to a c o lle g e philo so phy se m in ar. For th e en tir e day , th e th ir ty -s ix peo ple in th at ro om atte m pte d to lo cate th e c o m pan y’s p la ce in th e m ora l u niv ers e ; th at n ig ht s o m e sta y ed u p la te p uttin g th oughts to p ap er. B y th e e n d o f th e p ro cess, th ey r e ach ed a c o nse n su s t o r e co m mit t o t h e e x is tin g C re d o.

Over th e n ex t s e v era l y ears , B urk e k ep t r e -c re atin g th is c o nvers a tio n, h old in g Cre d o c h alle n ges a t a ll le v els o f th e c o m pan y. A nd th e c h alle n ges se em ed to work ; h e a n d o th ers s e n se d th at e m plo yees s e em ed to h av e a f re sh a w are n ess o f th e C re d o. B ut o f c o urs e , th ese k in ds o f th in gs a re m ostly in ta n gib le , d if fic u lt to measu re i n t h e c o urs e o f n orm al l if e .

Sev en y ears la te r, o n S ep te m ber 3 0, 1 982, n orm al lif e c am e to a n a b ru pt h alt.

Burk e r e ceiv ed a p hone c all th at s ix p eo ple w ere d ead in C hic ag o b ecau se th ey had in geste d h is c o m pan y’s p ro duct: E xtr a -S tr e n gth T yle n ol c ap su le s th at h ad been la ced w ith c y an id e. In C hic ag o, p an ic e n su ed . P olic e ro am ed th e str e ets usin g b ullh orn s to w arn p eo ple . B oy S co ut tr o ops w en t d oor to d oor to a le rt eld erly peo ple w ho m ig ht hav e m is se d th e w arn in gs. T he fo llo w in g day a se v en th v ic tim w as fo und, an d w orrie s co ntin ued to sp re ad . O ffic ia ls in S an Fra n cis c o w arn ed re sid en ts n ot to flu sh th eir T yle n ol d ow n th e to ile t le st th ey ris k c o nta m in atin g th e s e w ag e s y ste m w ith p ois o n. O ne n ew s s e rv ic e c alc u la te d th at th e T yle n ol p ois o nin gs g en era te d th e w id est U .S . n ew s c o vera g e s in ce th e assa ssin atio n o f P re sid en t K en ned y.

In a f e w h ours , J o hnso n & J o hnso n w en t f ro m b ein g a p ro vid er o f m ed ic in e t o bein g a p ro vid er o f p ois o n. T he a tm osp here a t h ead quarte rs w as a m ix o f s h ock an d d is b elie f. T he la rg er p ro ble m , fro m J o hnso n & J o hnso n’s p ers p ectiv e, w as th at t h e c o m pan y w as n ot e q uip ped t o d eal w ith t h is c ris is . I t d id n’t h av e a p ublic affa ir s d iv is io n o r a sy ste m fo r re callin g p ills , a n d its m ed ia re la tio ns sy ste m co nsis te d o f a s p ir a l n ote b ook. “ It lo oked lik e th e p la g ue,” s a id D av id C ollin s, ch air m an o f M cN eil P ro ducts , th e J o hnso n s u bsid ia ry th at m ad e T yle n ol. “ W e had n o id ea w here it w ould e n d. A nd th e o nly in fo rm atio n w e h ad w as th at w e did n’t k now w hat w as g oin g o n.” An o ffic e a t c o m pan y h ead quarte rs w as c o nverte d in to a m ak esh if t w ar r o om .

Som eo ne lo cate d d ra w in g p ap er a n d a n e ase l. A s in fo rm atio n c am e in — vic tim s, lo catio ns, lo t n um bers o f th e p ills , lo catio n o f p urc h ase — it w as sc ra w le d o n sh eets o f p ap er, w hic h w ere th en ta p ed to th e w alls . B efo re lo ng th e w alls w ere dra p ed w ith u rg en t q uestio ns t o w hic h t h ere w ere n o a n sw ers . T he o nly c erta in ty was th at T yle n ol w as fin is h ed a s a b usin ess. “ I d on’t th in k th ey c an e v er se ll an oth er p ro duct u nder th at n am e,” J e rry D ella F em in a, a le g en dary a d vertis in g guru , t o ld The New Y ork T im es .

Burk e fo rm ed a se v en -m em ber co m mitte e, w ho sta rte d w ork in g th eir w ay th ro ugh th e casc ad e of to ugh decis io ns. H ow sh ould th ey w ork w ith la w en fo rc em en t? W hat s h ould t h ey t e ll t h e p ublic ? M ost c ru cia lly , w hat s h ould t h ey do w ith o th er T yle n ol p ro ducts t h at w ere o n s h elv es a ro und t h e n atio n?

Four d ay s a fte r th e p ois o nin gs, B urk e a n d o th er m em bers o f th e c o m mitte e fle w to W ash in gto n, D .C ., to d is c u ss str a te g y w ith th e F B I a n d th e F ood a n d Dru g A dm in is tr a tio n (F D A). T he F B I a n d th e F D A s tr o ngly e n co ura g ed B urk e to lim it th e re call to C hic ag o, sin ce n o p ois o n h ad y et b een lo cate d o uts id e Chic ag o. A natio nal re call, th ey sa id , w ould need le ssly frig hte n th e public , em bold en th e p ois o ner, a n d e n co ura g e c o pycats . A nd a s th e F B I d id n’t n eed to poin t o ut, a l a rg er r e call w ould c o st J o hnso n & J o hnso n m illio ns o f d olla rs .

Burk e a n d h is g ro up t h ought a b out i t f o r a w hile . T hen t h ey i g nore d t h e a d vic e of th e F B I an d th e F D A an d o rd ere d an im med ia te n atio nal re call o f ev ery Tyle n ol pro duct on th e m ark et— 31 m illio n pills in all— at a co st of $100 millio n. W hen B urk e w as ask ed fo r his re aso nin g beh in d th e decis io n, th e an sw er c am e q uic k ly : We b elie ve o ur fir st r e sp onsib ility is to d octo rs, n urse s, and p atie n ts ; to m oth ers a nd fa th ers a nd a ll o th ers w ho u se o ur p ro ducts a nd se rv ic es.

Over th e n ex t d ay s a n d w eek s, Jo hnso n & Jo hnso n e sse n tia lly tr a n sfo rm ed its e lf fro m a pharm aceu tic al co m pan y in to a public sa fe ty org an iz atio n. It desig ned an d m an ufa ctu re d in novativ e ta m per-p ro of pack ag in g; dev elo ped ex ch an ge, dis p osa l, an d re fu nd pro gra m s; an d built re la tio nsh ip s with govern m en t, la w en fo rc em en t, an d m ed ia . Four w eek s afte r th e atta ck s, it mobiliz ed m ore th an tw o th ousa n d s a le sp eo ple to v is it d octo rs a n d p harm acis ts to l is te n t o t h eir c o ncern s a n d i n fo rm t h em o f t h e u pco m in g c h an ges.

Burk e te rrif ie d th e c o m pan y’s la w yers b y m ak in g th e ro unds o n th e n atio nal med ia , o pen ly e x pre ssin g h is g rie f a n d r e g re t a n d s h arin g th e s te p s th e c o m pan y was m ak in g to en su re th e public ’s sa fe ty . Six w eek s afte r th e atta ck s, it in tr o duced n ew , s a fe r p ack ag in g.

And th en so m eth in g unex pecte d hap pen ed . T yle n ol’ s m ark et sh are , afte r dro ppin g to z ero a fte r th e a tta ck s, b eg an a s lo w c lim b b ack to p re v io us le v els an d co ntin ued to gro w ; one pundit te rm ed it “th e gre ate st co m eb ack sin ce Lazaru s.” I n e n su in g y ears , T yle n ol’ s r e sp onse h as b eco m e t h e g old s ta n dard f o r han dlin g c o rp ora te c ris is .

“W e h ad to m ak e h undre d s o f d ecis io ns o n th e f ly ; h undre d s o f p eo ple m ad e th ousa n ds o f d ecis io ns,” B urk e sa id afte rw ard . “If y ou lo ok b ack , w e d id n’t mak e a n y b ad d ecis io ns, re ally . W e re ally d id n’t. T hose th ousa n ds o f d ecis io ns all h ad a s p le n did c o nsis te n cy a b out t h em , a n d t h at w as t h at t h e p ublic w as g oin g to b e se rv ed fir s t, b ecau se th at’ s w ho w as a t sta k e. S o th e re aso n p eo ple ta lk ab out T yle n ol w hen th e C re d o d is c u ssio ns c o m e u p is th at th e C re d o ra n th at.

Becau se t h e h earts a n d m in ds o f t h e p eo ple w ho w ere J & J a n d w ho w ere m ak in g th e d ecis io ns in a w hole s e rie s o f d is p ara te c o m pan ie s… th ey a ll k new w hat to do.” On th e su rfa ce, th e sto ry of th e T yle n ol cris is is ab out a la rg e gro up re sp ondin g to d is a ste r w ith e x tr a o rd in ary c o hesio n a n d fo cu s. B ut b en eath th at sto ry l ie s a c u rio us f a ct: T he k ey t o J o hnso n & J o hnso n’s e x tr a o rd in ary b eh av io r can b e lo cate d in a m undan e o ne-p ag e d ocu m en t. T he 3 11 w ord s o f th e C re d o orie n te d th e th in kin g a n d b eh av io r o f th ousa n ds o f p eo ple a s th ey n av ig ate d a co m ple x l a n dsc ap e o f c h oic es.

The d eep er q uestio n is : How c a n a h andfu l o f sim ple , fo rth rig ht se n te n ces make s u ch a d iffe re n ce i n a g ro up’s b eh avio r?

— In th e f ir s t tw o s e ctio ns o f th is b ook w e’v e f o cu se d o n s a fe ty a n d v uln era b ility .

We’v e se en h ow sm all sig nals — You a re sa fe , W e sh are ris k h ere — co nnect peo ple a n d e n ab le th em to w ork to geth er a s a s in gle e n tity .

B ut n ow it’ s tim e to ask : What’ s t h is a ll f o r? W hat a re w e w ork in g t o w ard ?

When I vis ite d th e su ccessfu l gro ups, I notic ed th at when ev er th ey co m munic ate d a n yth in g a b out th eir p urp ose o r th eir v alu es, th ey w ere a s s u btle as a p unch i n t h e n ose . I t s ta rte d w ith t h e s u rro undin gs. O ne e x pects m ost g ro ups to fill th eir s u rro undin gs w ith a fe w re m in ders o f th eir m is sio n. T hese g ro ups, how ev er, d id m ore t h an t h at— a l o t m ore .

When y ou w alk in to S E A L h ead quarte rs a t D am N eck , V ir g in ia , y ou p ass a tw is te d g ir d er fro m th e W orld T ra d e C en te r b om bin g, a fla g fro m M ogad is h u, an d s o m an y m em oria ls to fa lle n S E A Ls th at it re se m ble s a m ilita ry m use u m .

Sim ila rly , w alk in g in to P ix ar’s h ead quarte rs fe els lik e w alk in g in to o ne o f its movie s. F ro m t h e f u ll- s iz e W oody a n d B uzz m ad e o f L EG Os t o t h e t w en ty -fo ot- ta ll L uxo L am p o uts id e t h e e n tr a n ce, e v ery th in g g le am s w ith P ix aria n m ag ic . A s fo r th e U prig ht C itiz en s B rig ad e c o m ed y tr o upe, its b ase m en t th eate r is le ss a th eate r th an a m ak esh if t h all o f fa m e, its w alls p la ste re d w ith p hoto s o f th e Haro ld te am s th at h av e m ad e it b ig . ( Y ou c an s p ot a n ot- y et- fa m ous c ele b rity in alm ost ev ery one.) K IP P sc h ools , th e hig hly su ccessfu l in ner-c ity ch arte r sc h ools , ta k e a sim ila r ap pro ach , nam in g an d deco ra tin g each cla ssro om to sp otlig ht w here t h e t e ach er a tte n ded c o lle g e i n o rd er t o i n sp ir e s tu den ts t o d o t h e sa m e, e v en a d orn in g th e b ath ro om m ir ro rs w ith a n im porta n t q uestio n: Where will Y O U g o t o c o lle g e?

What’ s m ore , th e sa m e fo cu s e x is ts w ith in th eir la n guag e. W alk in g a ro und th ese p la ces, y ou t e n d t o h ear t h e s a m e c atc h phra se s a n d m otto es d eliv ere d i n t h e sa m e r h yth m s. T his is s u rp ris in g, s in ce y ou c o uld e asily p re su m e th at P ix aria n s would n ot n eed to b e re m in ded th at Tech nolo gy in sp ir e s a rt, a nd a rt in sp ir e s te ch nolo gy, th at th e S E A Ls w ould n ot n eed to b e r e m in ded th at it’ s im porta n t to Shoot, m ove, a nd c o m munic a te , a n d th at K IP P stu den ts w ould n ot n eed to b e re m in ded t o Work h ard a nd b e n ic e, g iv en th at t h ey s a y t h ese w ord s m an y tim es each d ay . A nd y et th at is w hat th ey d o. T hese g ro ups, w ho b y a ll r ig hts s h ould know w hat th ey s ta n d f o r, d ev ote a s u rp ris in g a m ount o f tim e te llin g th eir o w n sto ry , re m in din g e ach o th er p re cis e ly w hat th ey s ta n d fo r— th en re p eatin g it a d in fin itu m . W hy?

The fir s t s te p to w ard a n a n sw er m ig ht b eg in w ith a s m all, o rd in ary -lo okin g so ngbir d c alle d th e s ta rlin g. L ik e o th er b ir d s, s ta rlin gs s o m etim es c o ngre g ate in la rg e flo ck s. W hen th ose flo ck s are th re ate n ed by a pre d ato r lik e a fa lc o n, how ev er, t h ey t r a n sfo rm i n to s o m eth in g m ore . I t’ s c alle d a m urm ura tio n, a n d i t’ s one o f th e m ost b eau tif u l a n d u ncan ny s ig hts in n atu re : a liv in g c lo ud th at s w ir ls an d c h an ges s h ap e a t th e s p eed o f th ought, fo rm in g g ia n t h ourg la sse s, s p ir a ls , an d te n drils th at flo w a cro ss th e sk y lik e a sp ecia l e ffe ct fro m a H arry P otte r movie . A f a lc o n s w oops to w ard a s in gle s ta rlin g, a n d a t th e s a m e in sta n t, o n th e oth er s id e o f th e f lo ck ( th ousa n ds o f b ir d s a w ay ), th e o th er b ir d s in sta n tly s e n se it a n d r e act a s o ne t o f lo w a w ay f ro m t h e d an ger. T he q uestio n, o f c o urs e , i s h ow so m an y bir d s beh av e lik e a sin gle en tity . E arly natu ra lis ts th eo riz ed th at sta rlin gs posse sse d so m e quasi- m ystic al ESP to perc eiv e an d pla n gro up movem en ts . O ne B ritis h sc ie n tis t te rm ed it “te le p ath y”; an oth er calle d it “b io lo gic al r a d io .” The re al re aso n, dem onstr a te d in a 2007 stu dy by a te am of th eo re tic al physic is ts f ro m t h e U niv ers ity o f R om e, i s t h at t h e s ta rlin gs’ c o hesio n i s b uilt o n re le n tle ss a tte n tio n t o a s m all s e t o f s ig nals . B asic ally , e ach s ta rlin g t r a ck s t h e s ix or se v en b ir d s clo se st to it, se n din g an d re ceiv in g cu es o f d ir e ctio n, sp eed , accele ra tio n, an d d is ta n ce. T hat sh are d h ab it o f in te n siv e, u p-c lo se w atc h in g, am plif ie d th ro ugh th e f lo ck , a llo w s th e g ro up to b eh av e a s o ne. I n o th er w ord s, th e re aso n sta rlin g flo ck s can b eh av e so in te llig en tly h as n oth in g to d o w ith te le p ath y o r m ag ic a n d e v ery th in g to d o w ith a s im ple r a b ility : to p ay fo cu se d atte n tio n t o a s m all h an dfu l o f k ey m ark ers .

This id ea h elp s g iv e u s a w in dow in to h ow su ccessfu l c u ltu re s c re ate a n d su sta in p urp ose . S uccessfu l g ro u ps a re a ttu ned to th e s a m e tr u th a s th e s ta rlin gs:

Purp ose is n ’t a b out ta p pin g in to so m e m ystic al in te rn al d riv e b ut ra th er a b out cre atin g s im ple b eaco ns th at f o cu s a tte n tio n a n d e n gag em en t o n th e s h are d g oal.

Successfu l c u ltu re s d o th is b y re le n tle ssly s e ek in g w ay s to te ll a n d re te ll th eir sto ry . T o d o t h is , t h ey b uild w hat w e’ll c all h ig h-p urp ose e n vir o nm en ts .

Hig h-p urp ose e n vir o nm en ts a re fille d w ith sm all, v iv id sig nals d esig ned to cre ate a lin k b etw een th e p re se n t m om en t a n d a fu tu re id eal. T hey p ro vid e th e tw o s im ple l o cato rs t h at e v ery n av ig atio n p ro cess r e q uir e s: Here i s w here w e a re an d Here i s w here w e w ant t o g o.

T he s u rp ris in g t h in g, f ro m a s c ie n tif ic p oin t o f vie w , i s h ow r e sp onsiv e w e a re t o t h is p atte rn o f s ig nalin g.

A f e w y ears a g o a p ro fe sso r o f p sy ch olo gy n am ed G ab rie le O ettin gen s e t o ut to p erfo rm w hat m ig ht ra n k a s th e m ost b asic p sy ch olo gic al e x perim en t o f a ll tim e. I n f a ct, y ou c an d o i t r ig ht n ow . I t g oes l ik e t h is :

Ste p 1 : T hin k a b out a re alis tic g oal th at y ou’d lik e to a ch ie v e. It c o uld b e an yth in g: B eco m e s k ille d a t a s p ort, r e d ed ic ate y ours e lf to a r e la tio nsh ip , lo se a fe w p ounds, g et a n ew jo b. S pen d a fe w se co nds re fle ctin g o n th at g oal a n d im ag in in g t h at i t’ s c o m e t r u e. P ic tu re a f u tu re w here y ou’v e a ch ie v ed i t.

Got i t?

Ste p 2 : T ak e a fe w s e co nds a n d p ic tu re th e o bsta cle s b etw een y ou a n d th at goal a s v iv id ly a s p ossib le . D on’t g lo ss o ver t h e n eg ativ es, b ut t r y t o s e e t h em a s th ey tr u ly a re . F or e x am ple , if y ou w ere tr y in g to lo se w eig ht, y ou m ig ht p ic tu re th ose m om en ts o f w eak ness w hen y ou s m ell w arm c o okie s, a n d y ou d ecid e to eat o ne ( o r t h re e).

That’ s it. I t’ s c alle d m en ta l c o ntr a stin g, a n d it s e em s le ss lik e s c ie n ce th an th e kin d o f a d vic e y ou m ig ht c o m e a cro ss o n a la te -n ig ht in fo m erc ia l: Envis io n a re a ch able goal, and en vis io n th e obsta cle s.

The th in g is , as O ettin gen dis c o vere d , th is m eth od w ork s, tr ig gerin g sig nif ic an t c h an ges in b eh av io r a n d motiv atio n. In o ne stu dy, ad ole sc en ts p re p arin g fo r th e P SA T w ho u se d th is meth od c h ose to c o m ple te 6 0 p erc en t m ore p ra ctic e q uestio ns th an th e c o ntr o l gro up. In an oth er, d ie te rs co nsu m ed sig nif ic an tly fe w er calo rie s, w ere m ore physic ally a ctiv e, a n d l o st m ore w eig ht.

Men ta l co ntr a stin g h as als o b een sh ow n to im pro ve th e ab ility to in te ra ct positiv ely w ith s tr a n gers , n eg otia te d eals , s p eak i n p ublic , m an ag e t im e, i m pro ve co m munic atio n, a n d p erfo rm a ra n ge o f o th er s k ills . A s O ettin gen w ro te , “ T he co njo in t ela b ora tio n of th e fu tu re an d th e pre se n t re ality mak es both sim ulta n eo usly a ccessib le a n d lin ks th em to geth er in th e se n se th at th e re ality sta n ds i n t h e w ay o f r e aliz in g t h e d esir e d f u tu re .” Oettin gen ’s w ork doesn ’t lin e up w ith how w e norm ally th in k ab out motiv atio n an d g oals . W e n orm ally th in k ab out th em as b ein g in tr in sic to a pers o n. P eo ple are eith er m otiv ate d o r th ey ’re n ot; acco rd in gly , w e d esc rib e motiv atio n w ith te rm s lik e desir e o r hea rt . B ut in th ese e x perim en ts , m otiv atio n is n ot a p osse ssio n b ut r a th er th e r e su lt o f a tw o-p art p ro cess o f c h an nelin g y our atte n tio n: Here ’s w here y o u’r e a t a n d Here ’s w here y o u w ant t o g o .

That s h are d f u tu re c o uld b e a g oal o r a b eh av io r. ( We p ut c u sto m er s a fe ty f ir st.

We sh oot, m ove, and co m munic a te .

) It doesn ’t m atte r. W hat m atte rs is esta b lis h in g th is lin k an d co nsis te n tly cre atin g en gag em en t aro und it. W hat matte rs i s t e llin g t h e s to ry .

We te n d to u se th e w ord sto ry casu ally , as if sto rie s an d n arra tiv es w ere ep hem era l deco ra tio ns fo r so m e unch an gin g underly in g re ality . T he deep er neu ro lo gic al tr u th is th at sto rie s d o n ot clo ak re ality b ut cre ate it, tr ig gerin g casc ad es o f p erc ep tio n a n d m otiv atio n. T he p ro of is in b ra in sc an s: W hen w e hear a fa ct, a fe w is o la te d a re as o f o ur b ra in lig ht u p, tr a n sla tin g w ord s a n d mean in gs. W hen w e h ear a s to ry , h ow ev er, o ur b ra in lig hts u p lik e L as V eg as, tr a cin g th e c h ain s o f c au se , e ffe ct, a n d m ean in g. S to rie s a re n ot ju st s to rie s; th ey are th e best in ven tio n ev er cre ate d fo r deliv erin g m en ta l m odels th at driv e beh av io r.

Thin k f o r a m om en t a b out th e ju ngle o f d ecis io ns J o hnso n & J o hnso n le ad ers fa ced in th e d ay s afte r th e T yle n ol p ois o nin gs. It is n ot easy to sp en d $ 100 millio n ag ain st th e ad vic e o f fe d era l o ffic ia ls (o r to ex pla in th at d ecis io n to sto ck hold ers a n d a b oard o f tr u ste es). It is n ot e asy to re p urp ose th ousa n ds o f peo ple in to n ew a n d u nfa m ilia r ro le s (o r to e x pla in w hy th ey sh ould e m bra ce th at c h an ge). O ne w ould p re su m e th at th ese d ecis io ns a n d a ctio ns w ould h av e fe lt p ain fu l o r a g oniz in g.

And y et B urk e d oesn ’t d esc rib e th em a s p ain fu l o r a g oniz in g. H e d esc rib es th em a s s tr a ig htf o rw ard . “ W ell, I g ot a lo t o f c re d it f o r th at,” h e to ld a r e p orte r.

“B ut th e fa ct is m y jo b w as m ad e n ot o nly s im ple , b ut… th ere w asn ’t a n yth in g els e I c o uld h av e d one. E very p ers o n w ho w ork ed f o r J o hnso n & J o hnso n in th e world w as w atc h in g th e p ois o nin gs… .I f w e h ad d one a n yth in g o th er th an w hat we d id , th in k a b out h ow th ose e m plo yees w ould h av e f e lt. I m ean , th e v ery s o ul of t h e c o rp ora tio n w as w atc h in g u s.” In o th er w ord s, B urk e a n d h is t e am f e lt a b it l ik e s ta rlin gs i n a f lo ck f e el. T hey moved a s o ne b ecau se th ey w ere a ttu ned to th e s a m e c le ar s ig nal o f th e C re d o re so natin g th ro ugh th e g ro up. We b elie ve o ur fir st r e sp onsib ility is to d octo rs, nurse s, a nd p atie n ts ; t o m oth ers a nd f a th ers a nd a ll o th ers w ho u se o ur p ro ducts and se rv ic es.

T he d if fic u lt c h oic es th ey m ad e w ere n ’t re ally a ll th at d if fic u lt.

They w ere c lo se r t o a r e fle x .

— The m ain c h alle n ge to u nders ta n din g h ow s to rie s g uid e g ro up b eh av io r is th at sto rie s a re h ard to is o la te . S to rie s a re lik e a ir : e v ery w here a n d n ow here a t th e sa m e t im e. H ow d o y ou m easu re t h e e ffe ct o f a n arra tiv e?

Fortu nate ly fo r us, back in 1965, a H arv ard psy ch olo gis t nam ed R obert Rose n th al fo und a w ay . H e a p pro ach ed a C alif o rn ia p ublic e le m en ta ry sc h ool an d o ffe re d to te st th e sc h ool’ s stu den ts w ith a n ew ly d ev elo ped in te llig en ce- id en tif ic atio n to ol, c alle d th e H arv ard T est o f I n fle cte d A cq uis itio n, w hic h c o uld accu ra te ly p re d ic t w hic h c h ild re n w ould e x cel a cad em ic ally in th e c o m in g y ear.

The s c h ool n atu ra lly a g re ed , a n d th e te st w as a d m in is te re d to th e e n tir e s tu den t body. A f e w w eek s la te r, te ach ers w ere p ro vid ed w ith th e n am es o f th e c h ild re n (a b out 2 0 p erc en t o f th e s tu den t b ody) w ho h ad te ste d a s h ig h-p ote n tia ls . T hese partic u la r c h ild re n , t h e t e ach ers w ere i n fo rm ed , w ere s p ecia l. T hough t h ey m ig ht not hav e perfo rm ed w ell in th e past, th e te st in dic ate d th at th ey posse sse d “u nusu al p ote n tia l fo r in te lle ctu al g ro w th .” (T he s tu den ts w ere n ot in fo rm ed o f th e t e st r e su lts .) The fo llo w in g y ear R ose n th al re tu rn ed to m easu re h ow th e h ig h-p ote n tia l stu den ts h ad p erfo rm ed . E xactly a s th e te st h ad p re d ic te d , th e f ir s t- a n d s e co nd- gra d e h ig h-p ote n tia ls h ad su cceed ed to a re m ark ab le d eg re e: T he fir s t- g ra d ers gain ed 2 7 I Q p oin ts ( v ers u s 1 2 p oin ts f o r th e r e st o f th e c la ss); a n d th e s e co nd- gra d ers gain ed 17 poin ts (v ers u s 7 poin ts ). In ad ditio n, th e hig h-p ote n tia ls th riv ed in w ay s th at w en t b ey ond m easu re m en t. T hey w ere d esc rib ed b y th eir te ach ers as b ein g m ore cu rio us, h ap pie r, b ette r ad ju ste d , an d m ore lik ely to ex perie n ce s u ccess a s a d ults . W hat’ s m ore , th e te ach ers re p orte d th at th ey h ad en jo yed t e ach in g t h at y ear m ore t h an a n y y ear i n t h e p ast.

Here ’s th e tw is t: th e H arv ard T est o f In fle cte d A cq uis itio n w as co m ple te balo ney . In fa ct, th e “ h ig h-p ote n tia ls ” h ad b een se le cte d a t ra n dom . T he re al su bje ct of th e te st w as not th e stu den ts but th e narra tiv es th at driv e th e re la tio nsh ip b etw een t h e t e ach ers a n d t h e s tu den ts .

What h ap pen ed , R ose n th al d is c o vere d , w as re p la cin g o ne sto ry — These a re avera ge k id s —with a n ew o ne— These a re s p ecia l k id s, d estin ed to s u cceed — se rv ed a s a lo cato r b eaco n th at re o rie n te d th e te ach ers , c re atin g a c asc ad e o f beh av io rs th at g uid ed th e stu den t to w ard th at fu tu re . It d id n’t m atte r th at th e sto ry w as f a ls e , o r t h at t h e c h ild re n w ere , i n f a ct, r a n dom ly s e le cte d . T he s im ple , glo w in g id ea— This c h ild h as u nusu al p ote n tia l fo r in te lle ctu al g ro w th —alig ned motiv atio ns, aw are n ess, an d b eh av io rs . R ose n th al cla ssif ie d th e ch an ges in to fo ur c ate g orie s.

1.

Warm th ( th e t e ach ers w ere k in der, m ore a tte n tiv e, a n d m ore c o nnectiv e) 2.

In put ( th e t e ach ers p ro vid ed m ore m ate ria l f o r l e arn in g) 3.

Resp onse -o pportu nity ( th e t e ach ers c alle d o n t h e s tu den ts m ore o fte n , a n d lis te n ed m ore c are fu lly ) 4.

Feed back ( th e t e ach ers p ro vid ed m ore , e sp ecia lly w hen t h e s tu den t m ad e a mis ta k e) The in te re stin g th in g a b out th ese c h an ges is h ow s m all th ey a re , c o nsis tin g o f th ousa n ds of tin y beh av io rs over th e sc h ool year. E very tim e th e te ach er in te ra cte d w ith t h e s tu den t, a c o nnectio n l it u p i n t h e t e ach er’s b ra in b etw een t h e pre se n t an d th e fu tu re . E ach tim e th e stu den t d id so m eth in g am big uous, th e te ach er g av e th e s tu den t th e b en efit o f th e d oubt. E ach tim e th e s tu den t m ad e a mis ta k e, th e te ach er pre su m ed th at th e stu den t need ed bette r fe ed back . B y th em se lv es, each of th ese beh av io rs m ean t little . T ogeth er, th ey cre ate d a vir tu ous s p ir a l th at h elp ed s tu den ts th riv e in w ay s th at e x ceed ed th eir s o -c alle d lim its .

This v ir tu ous s p ir a l c an b e s p ark ed b y o th er m eth ods a s w ell. A g ood e x am ple was use d in an ex perim en t by A dam G ra n t, an au th or an d org an iz atio nal psy ch olo gis t a t th e W harto n S ch ool o f th e U niv ers ity o f P en nsy lv an ia , w hose work w e e n co unte re d in C hap te r 6 . A fe w y ears b ack G ra n t w as a sk ed b y th e Univ ers ity of M ic h ig an to lo ok in to th e lo w perfo rm an ce of its call cen te r work ers w ho p honed u niv ers ity a lu m ni a n d a sk ed th em to d onate m oney . T he work w as re p etitiv e an d te d io us, an d th e re je ctio n ra te sto od at a so lid 93 perc en t. T he u niv ers ity h ad tr ie d se v era l in cen tiv es to im pro ve p erfo rm an ce, su ch a s p riz es a n d c o nte sts , t o n o a v ail.

Gra n t k new th at so m e o f th e m oney ra is e d a t th e c all c en te r w en t to w ard sc h ola rs h ip s. H e w ondere d i f t h e w ork ers w ould b e m ore m otiv ate d i f t h ey k new more a b out th e re al- w orld u se s o f th at m oney . S o h e tr a ck ed d ow n o ne o f th e sc h ola rs h ip re cip ie n ts , a stu den t n am ed W ill, a n d a sk ed h im to w rite a le tte r ab out w hat h is s c h ola rs h ip m ean t t o h im . H ere i s a n e x cerp t:

When i t c am e d ow n t o m ak in g t h e d ecis io n, I d is c o vere d t h at t h e out- o f-s ta te t u itio n w as q uite e x pen siv e. B ut t h is u niv ers ity i s i n m y blo od. M y g ra n dpare n ts m et h ere . M y d ad a n d h is f o ur b ro th ers a ll wen t h ere . I e v en o w e m y y ounger b ro th er t o t h is s c h ool— he w as co nceiv ed t h e n ig ht w e w on t h e N CA A b ask etb all t o urn am en t. A ll my l if e I h av e d re am ed o f c o m in g h ere . I w as e csta tic t o r e ceiv e t h e sc h ola rs h ip , a n d I c am e t o s c h ool r e ad y t o t a k e f u ll a d van ta g e o f t h e opportu nitie s i t a ffo rd ed m e. T he s c h ola rs h ip h as i m pro ved m y l if e in m an y w ay s.

Afte r G ra n t sh are d W ill’ s le tte r w ith th e call cen te r w ork ers , he sa w an im med ia te b oost in c alls a n d d onatio ns. S o h e to ok th e n ex t s te p .

R ath er th an mere ly r e ad c all c en te r w ork ers a le tte r, G ra n t b ro ught in s c h ola rs h ip r e cip ie n ts fo r in -p ers o n v is its . T he v is its la ste d f iv e m in ute s. T hey w ere n ’t c o m ple x ; e ach stu den t s h are d th eir s to ry a s W ill h ad d one: Here ’s w here I c a m e fr o m . H ere ’s what th e m oney r a is e d b y y o ur w ork m ea ns to m e . O ver th e n ex t m onth , tim e sp en t c allin g in cre ase d 1 42 p erc en t, a n d w eek ly r e v en ues in cre ase d 1 72 p erc en t.

The in cen tiv es h ad n’t c h an ged . T he ta sk h ad n’t c h an ged . A ll th at h ad c h an ged was t h e f a ct t h at t h e w ork ers h ad r e ceiv ed a c le ar b eaco n o f p urp ose , a n d i t m ad e all t h e d if fe re n ce.

What h ap pen ed in R ose n th al’ s a n d G ra n t’ s e x perim en ts is n o d if fe re n t fro m what h ap pen ed w hen J o hnso n & J o hnso n g ath ere d to c h alle n ge th e C re d o. T hey cre ate d a h ig h-p urp ose e n vir o nm en t, flo oded th e z o ne w ith s ig nals th at lin ked th e pre se n t effo rt to a m ean in gfu l fu tu re , an d use d a sin gle sto ry to orie n t motiv atio n th e w ay th at a m ag netic f ie ld o rie n ts a c o m pass n eed le to tr u e n orth :

This i s w hy w e w ork . H ere i s w here y o u s h ould p ut y o ur e n erg y.

In th e n ex t c h ap te r, w e’ll fo cu s o n re al- w orld w ay s in w hic h h ig h-p urp ose en vir o nm en ts are esta b lis h ed an d nurtu re d . A nd a good w ay to beg in is to ex am in e tw o c ase s w here th ose e n vir o nm en ts w ere b uilt a g ain st th e o dds. T he fir s t in volv es an in novativ e atte m pt to co ntr o l so m e of th e m ost dan gero us so ccer h oolig an s o n t h e p la n et. T he s e co nd i n volv es t e am s o f d octo rs l e arn in g t o perfo rm a r e v olu tio nary s u rg ic al i n novatio n.

T am in g th e H oolig ans P ortu gal w as a b out t o g et w re ck ed .

It w as th e ev e o f th e 2 004 E uro pean C ham pio nsh ip s, an ev ery -fo ur-y ears s o ccer t o urn am en t t h at r a n ks s e co nd o nly t o t h e W orld C up i n s iz e a n d s p ecta cle .

H undre d s o f th ousa n ds o f fa n s w ere s tr e am in g to w ard s p ark lin g v en ues a cro ss t h is s u nny n atio n. F or P ortu gal, th is w as a b ig m om en t, its c o m in g-o ut p arty o n t h e w orld sp ortin g sta g e. T here w as ju st o ne p ro ble m , an d it w as th e sa m e p ro ble m th at has sh ad ow ed Euro pean so ccer fo r decad es: Englis h so ccer h oolig an s.

The P ortu guese org an iz ers knew w hat th ey w ere up ag ain st becau se th e p re v io us c h am pio nsh ip s, h eld f o ur y ears e arlie r i n B elg iu m , h ad p ro vid ed a v iv id l e sso n. T he B elg ia n polic e had pre p are d w ell fo r th e hoolig an s, sp en din g m illio ns tr a in in g th eir fo rc e an d eq uip pin g th em se lv es w ith th e b est an tir io t e q uip m en t, s u rv eilla n ce c am era s, a n d in fo rm atio n s y ste m s a v aila b le . T hey h ad w ork ed clo se ly w ith th e Britis h govern m en t to id en tif y an d bar know n t r o uble m ak ers fro m e n te rin g th e c o untr y . In s h ort, th ey h ad b een a s re ad y a s it w as p ossib le to b e. A nd n one o f it h ad h elp ed . T housa n ds o f E nglis h h oolig an s, s h ow in g th e so rt o f u nif ie d re so lv e th eir te am h as h is to ric ally la ck ed , ro am ed w ild , sm ash in g sh op w in dow s, b eatin g u p b ysta n ders , a n d b attlin g rio t p olic e w ie ld in g b ato ns, fir e h ose s, a n d te ar g as. B y to urn am en t’ s e n d, m ore th an o ne t h ousa n d E nglis h su pporte rs w ere arre ste d , to urn am en t o rg an iz ers co nsid ere d b an is h in g th e E nglis h te am fro m th e to urn am en t, a n d p undits w ere w onderin g w heth er i n te rn atio nal t o urn am en ts m ig ht b e a t h in g o f t h e p ast. Acco rd in g to m ost so cia l sc ie n tis ts , th is re ality w as both lo gic al an d his to ric ally unav oid ab le , as Englis h hoolig an s em bodie d th e w ork in g-c la ss ag gre ssio n k now n a s th e E nglis h D is e ase . D ecad es o f e x perie n ce sh ow ed th at th e dis e ase co uld not be cu re d , only its sy m pto m s co ntr o lle d . A s th e 2004 to urn am en t a p pro ach ed , rio ts se em ed in ev ita b le . A s o ne E nglis h w rite r p ut it, su nny P ortu gal w as a b out to b eco m e th e ta rg et o f th e “ b ig gest E nglis h in vasio n sin ce D -D ay .” T o p re p are , th e P ortu guese g overn m en t p urc h ase d $ 21 m illio n o f rio t- c o ntr o l to ols : w ate r c an nons, tr u nch eo ns, p ep per s p ra y , a n d p olic e d ogs. It als o lo oked at n ew ap pro ach es, in clu din g th e w ork o f an o bsc u re L iv erp ool Univ ers ity s o cia l p sy ch olo gis t n am ed C lif fo rd S to tt.

Sto tt is a p la in sp oken , c re w -c u t m an w ho s p ecia liz es in c ro w d v io le n ce. H e stu die d th e L os A ngele s r io ts o f 1 992 a n d th e U .K . p oll ta x r io ts o f 1 990, a n d a s th e 2 004 c h am pio nsh ip s a p pro ach ed , h e w as w ork in g o n a n ew th eo ry th at h ad le ss to d o w ith th e fo rc es o f s o cia l h is to ry th an w ith s o cia l c u es. H is id ea w as th at it w as p ossib le to s to p c ro w d v io le n ce b y c h an gin g th e s ig nals th e p olic e were tr a n sm ittin g. In his vie w , rio t gear an d arm ore d cars w ere cu es th at activ ate d hoolig an beh av io r in fa n s w ho m ig ht oth erw is e beh av e norm ally .

(N in ety -fiv e p erc en t o f th e p eo ple arre ste d fo r so ccer v io le n ce, h is re se arc h sh ow ed , h ad n o p rio r h is to ry o f d is o rd erly c o nduct.) S to tt b elie v ed th at th e k ey to p olic in g r io ts w as t o e sse n tia lly s to p p olic in g r io ts .

Sto tt’ s early tr ia ls of his m odel w ere su ffic ie n tly co m pellin g, an d th e Portu guese a u th oritie s w ere su ffic ie n tly d esp era te , th at S to tt fo und h im se lf , to his e v erla stin g s u rp ris e , in c h arg e o f a h ig h-s ta k es e x perim en t: C ould th e m ost dan gero us s o ccer h oolig an s i n t h e w orld b e s to pped b y a h an dfu l o f s o cia l c u es?

Fir s t, S to tt s e t a b out tr a in in g th e P ortu guese p olic e. R ule n um ber o ne w as to keep all rio t g ear o ut o f sig ht: n o p hala n xes o f h elm ete d co ps, n o arm ore d veh ic le s, n o rio t sh ie ld s an d b ato ns. In ste ad , S to tt tr a in ed a cre w o f lia is o n offic ers w ho w ore lig ht- b lu e vests in ste ad of th e cu sto m ary yello w . T hese offic ers w ere s e le cte d n ot fo r th eir rio t c o ntr o l s k ills b ut fo r th eir s o cia l s k ills :

frie n dlin ess a n d a b ility t o b an te r. S to tt e n co ura g ed t h em t o s tu dy u p o n t h e t e am s an d f a n s a n d g et g ood a t m ak in g s m all t a lk a b out t h e c o ach es, o n-fie ld s tr a te g ie s, an d te am g ossip . “ W e s o ught o ut p eo ple w ho h ad th e g if t o f th e g ab ,” h e s a y s, “w ho co uld th ro w th eir arm aro und so m eo ne an d ch at w ith th em ab out an yth in g.” The b ig ger ch alle n ge fo r S to tt w as re w ir in g p olic e in stin cts . T he E nglis h hoolig an s h ad a h ab it o f k ic k in g s o ccer b alls in p ublic p la ces, b ootin g th e b all hig h in to th e a ir a n d d ow n o nto th e h ead s a n d c afé ta b le s o f b ysta n ders , th us ig nitin g th e kin d of sm all- s c ale co nfro nta tio ns of w hic h rio ts are born .

Conven tio nal p olic e p ro ced ure is to im med ia te ly an d fo rc ib ly in te rv en e an d co nfis c ate th e b all b efo re a n y o pen fig htin g b re ak s o ut. B ut o n S to tt’ s a d vic e, Portu guese o ffic ers w ere in str u cte d to d o s o m eth in g m ore d if fic u lt: to w ait u ntil th e h oolig an s k ic k ed th e b all w ith in re ach o f th e p olic e. T hen a n d o nly th en co uld t h e p olic e t a k e t h e b all a n d k eep i t.

“Y ou h av e to p la y b y th e s h are d ru le s,” S to tt s a y s. “ T he p olic e c an ’t ju st g o ta k e th e b all, b ecau se th at’ s p re cis e ly th e k in d o f d is p ro portio n ate u se o f fo rc e th at c re ate s t h e p ro ble m . I f y ou w ait u ntil t h e b all c o m es t o y ou a n d s im ply h an g on t o i t, t h e c ro w d s e es i t a s l e g itim ate .” To so m e P ortu guese polic e, S to tt’ s id eas so unded illo gic al if not in sa n e.

Sev era l pro te ste d , sa y in g th at fa cin g gan gs of vio le n t hoolig an s w ith out pro te ctiv e a rm or w as re ck le ss. B y th e tim e th e to urn am en t a rriv ed , th e E nglis h pre ss had deris iv ely te rm ed th e pro gra m “H ug-A -T hug.” T he sp ortin g an d sc ie n tif ic w orld s w aite d d oubtf u lly t o s e e i f S to tt’ s m eth od w ould w ork .

It w ork ed . M ore t h an o ne m illio n f a n s v is ite d t h e c o untr y o ver t h e t h re e-w eek - lo ng to urn am en t, a n d in a re as th at u se d S to tt’ s a p pro ach , o nly o ne E nglis h fa n was arre ste d . O bse rv ers re co rd ed tw o th ousa n d cro w d-p olic e in te ra ctio ns, o f whic h o nly 0 .4 p erc en t q ualif ie d a s d is o rd erly . T he o nly in cid en ts o f v io le n ce occu rre d in a n a re a th at w as p olic ed a cco rd in g to th e o ld -fa sh io ned h elm et- a n d- sh ie ld s y ste m .

In th e e n su in g y ears , S to tt’ s a p pro ach h as b eco m e th e m odel fo r c o ntr o llin g sp ort- re la te d v io le n ce in E uro pe a n d a ro und th e g lo be. O ne o f th e re aso ns it work s is th at it c re ate s a h ig h-p urp ose e n vir o nm en t b y d eliv erin g a n u nbro ken arra y o f c o nsis te n t little s ig nals . E very tim e a n o ffic er b an te rs w ith a f a n , e v ery tim e a f a n n otic es th e la ck o f p ro te ctiv e a rm or, a s ig nal is s e n t: We a re h ere to get alo ng . E very tim e th e polic e allo w fa n s to keep kic k in g th e ball, th ey re in fo rc e th at s ig nal. B y th em se lv es, n one o f th e s ig nals m atte r. T ogeth er th ey build a n ew s to ry .

For S to tt, th e m ost re v ealin g m om en t in P ortu gal c am e h alf w ay th ro ugh th e to urn am en t w hen a y ello w -v este d P ortu guese p olic em an h ad a n e n co unte r w ith an o verly e x ubera n t E nglis h fa n . T he p olic em an tr ie d to c alm th e fa n ; th e fa n re sis te d , a n d t h en t h e p olic em an r e fle x iv ely u se d f o rc e, g ra b bin g t h e f a n r o ughly .

A r ip ple o f e n erg y m oved t h ro ugh th e c ro w d; p eo ple s h oute d a n d p ush ed . I t w as ex actly th e k in d o f situ atio n S to tt fe are d m ost: a sin gle o veru se o f fo rc e th at co uld c au se a d is a str o us s p ir a l.

But th at d id n’t h ap pen . I n ste ad , th e f a n s s h oute d o ut to o ne o f th e b lu e-v este d lia is o n o ffic ers . “ T he fa n s c alle d o ver to th e lia is o n a n d sa id , ‘H ey , c an y ou co m e a n d s o rt th is p olic em an o ut f o r u s? ’   ” S to tt s a y s. “ T he r o le s h ad r e v ers e d , an d th e fa n s w ere polic in g th e polic e. T hey had so cia lly bonded w ith th e lia is o ns. T hey s a w t h em a s t h eir a d vocate .” The F aste st L earn ers One o f th e b est m easu re s o f a n y g ro up’s c u ltu re is its le arn in g v elo city — how quic k ly it im pro ves its p erfo rm an ce o f a n ew s k ill. In 1 998, a te am o f H arv ard re se arc h ers le d b y A m y E dm ondso n (w hom w e m et in C hap te r 1 ) tr a ck ed th e le arn in g v elo city o f six te en su rg ic al te am s le arn in g to p erfo rm a n ew h eart su rg ery te ch niq ue. T he te ch niq ue w as c alle d M IC S, m in im ally in vasiv e c ard ia c su rg ery , an d it in volv ed p erfo rm in g co ro nary arte ry b ypass g ra fts an d v alv e re p air s th ro ugh a s m all c h est in cis io n ra th er th an b y s a w in g th e b re astb one in half . E ach o f th e six te en te am s to ok th e id en tic al th re e-d ay tr a in in g p ro gra m , th en re tu rn ed to th eir hosp ita ls an d sta rte d perfo rm in g th e pro ced ure . T he questio n w as, w hic h t e am w ould l e arn t h e f a ste st a n d m ost e ffe ctiv ely ?

At th e o uts e t, th e C hels e a H osp ita l te am lo oked lik e it w ould w in .

* C hels e a was a n e lite te ach in g h osp ita l in a m etr o polita n a re a. Its c ard ia c s u rg ery te am was le d by D r. C , a natio nally re co gniz ed ex pert w ho had been in volv ed desig nin g th e M IC S te ch nolo gy a n d w ho h ad a lr e ad y p erfo rm ed m ore th an s ix ty pro ced ure s u sin g th e m eth od. In a d ditio n, C hels e a h ad a s tr o ng o rg an iz atio nal co m mitm en t to th e n ew p ro ced ure , w hic h it d em onstr a te d b y se n din g se v era l dep artm en t h ead s t o t h e t r a in in g c o urs e .

At th e o th er e n d o f th e s c ale w as th e te am fro m M ounta in M ed ic al C en te r, whic h w as s m alle r, n ot a t e ach in g i n stitu tio n, a n d l o cate d i n a r u ra l a re a. I ts t e am was le d b y D r. M , a y oung s u rg eo n w ho h ad n ev er d one th e M IC S p ro ced ure an d w ho h ad a s im ila rly i n ex perie n ced t e am a ro und h im .

If y ou h ad to p re d ic t w hic h te am w ould p erfo rm b ette r, C hels e a w ould b e th e lo gic al c h oic e. I t h ad m ore e x pertis e , m ore e x perie n ce, a n d m ore o rg an iz atio nal su pport t h an M ounta in M ed ic al. B ut a s i t t u rn ed o ut, C hels e a’s t e am d id n ot w in .

To t h e c o ntr a ry : I t w as s lo w er t o l e arn , a n d i ts s k ill ( m easu re d b y t h e t im e i t t o ok to su ccessfu lly co m ple te th e M IC S su rg ery ) pla te au ed afte r te n pro ced ure s.

What’ s m ore , th e te am m em bers w ere n ’t h ap py: In in te rv ie w s a fte rw ard , th ey re p orte d fe elin g dis sa tis fie d . A fte r six m onth s, C hels e a ra n ked te n th out of six te en t e am s.

The M ounta in M ed ic al te am , o n th e o th er h an d, le arn ed f a st a n d w ell. B y th e fif th s u rg ery , its m em bers w ere a lr e ad y fa ste r th an C hels e a’s to p m ark . B y th e tw en tie th p ro ced ure , M ounta in M ed ic al w as c o m ple tin g su ccessfu l su rg erie s a fu ll h our fa ste r th an C hels e a a n d, m ore im porta n t, w as re p ortin g h ig h ra te s o f effic ie n cy a n d s a tis fa ctio n. A fte r s ix m onth s, M ounta in M ed ic al ra n ked s e co nd out o f t h e s ix te en t e am s.

This fe ast- o r-fa m in e patte rn w asn ’t uniq ue to th ese tw o hosp ita ls . W hen Edm ondso n p lo tte d th e re su lts , sh e fo und th at h osp ita ls fe ll in to tw o g ro ups:

te am s th at h ad h ig h su ccess a n d te am s th at h ad lo w su ccess.

It w asn ’t a b ell cu rv e; it w as m ore lik e a s p lit s c re en . T eam s w ere e ith er lik e M ounta in M ed ic al or l ik e C hels e a; t h ey e ith er c lic k ed o r t h ey d id n’t. W hy?

The a n sw er, E dm ondso n d is c o vere d , la y in th e p atte rn s o f re al- tim e sig nals th ro ugh w hic h th e te am m em bers w ere c o nnecte d (o r n ot) w ith th e p urp ose o f th e w ork . T hese s ig nals c o nsis te d o f f iv e b asic t y pes:

1.

Fra m in g : S uccessfu l t e am s c o ncep tu aliz ed M IC S a s a l e arn in g e x perie n ce th at w ould b en efit p atie n ts a n d t h e h osp ita l. U nsu ccessfu l t e am s co ncep tu aliz ed M IC S a s a n a d d-o n t o e x is tin g p ra ctic es.

2.

Role s : S uccessfu l t e am s w ere e x plic itly t o ld b y t h e t e am l e ad er w hy t h eir in div id ual a n d c o lle ctiv e s k ills w ere i m porta n t f o r t h e t e am ’s s u ccess, a n d why i t w as i m porta n t f o r t h em t o p erfo rm a s a t e am . U nsu ccessfu l t e am s were n ot.

3.

Reh ea rsa l : S uccessfu l t e am s d id e la b ora te d ry r u ns o f t h e p ro ced ure , pre p arin g i n d eta il, e x pla in in g t h e n ew p ro to co ls , a n d t a lk in g a b out co m munic atio n. U nsu ccessfu l t e am s t o ok m in im al s te p s t o p re p are .

4.

Exp lic it e n co ura gem en t t o s p ea k u p : S uccessfu l t e am s w ere t o ld b y t e am le ad ers t o s p eak u p i f t h ey s a w a p ro ble m ; t h ey w ere a ctiv ely c o ach ed th ro ugh t h e f e ed back p ro cess. T he l e ad ers o f u nsu ccessfu l t e am s d id l ittle co ach in g, a n d a s a r e su lt t e am m em bers w ere h esita n t t o s p eak u p.

5.

Activ e r e fle ctio n:

B etw een s u rg erie s, s u ccessfu l t e am s w en t o ver perfo rm an ce, d is c u sse d f u tu re c ase s, a n d s u ggeste d i m pro vem en ts . F or ex am ple , t h e t e am l e ad er a t M ounta in M ed ic al w ore a h ead -m ounte d cam era d urin g s u rg ery t o h elp f a cilita te d is c u ssio n a n d f e ed back .

Unsu ccessfu l t e am s t e n ded n ot t o d o t h is .

Note w hat fa cto rs are not on th is lis t: ex perie n ce, su rg eo n sta tu s, an d org an iz atio nal s u pport. T hese q ualitie s m atte re d f a r le ss th an th e s im ple , s te ad y puls e of re al- tim e sig nals th at ch an nele d atte n tio n to w ard th e la rg er goal.

Som etim es th ose s ig nals in volv ed th e h osp ita l ( MIC S is a n im porta nt le a rn in g opportu nity ); s o m etim es th e p atie n t ( Patie n ts w ill b en efit ); s o m etim es th e te am mem ber ( You h ave a r o le a nd a fu tu re w ith th is te a m ); s o m etim es th ey p la ced valu e o n r e h ears a l o r r e fle ctio n. B ut th ey a ll p erfo rm ed th e s a m e v ita l f u nctio n:

to f lo od t h e e n vir o nm en t w ith n arra tiv e l in ks b etw een w hat t h ey w ere d oin g n ow an d w hat i t m ean t.

The o th er fe atu re o f th is lis t is th at m an y o f th ese sig nals c o uld e asily b e vie w ed as obvio us an d re d undan t. For in sta n ce, do hig hly ex perie n ced pro fe ssio nals lik e n urs e s a n d a n esth esio lo gis ts re ally n eed to b e e x plic itly to ld th at th eir ro le in a ca rd ia c su rg ery is im porta n t? D o th ey re ally n eed to b e in fo rm ed th at if th ey s e e th e s u rg eo n m ak e a m is ta k e, th ey m ig ht w an t to s p eak up?

The an sw er, as E dm ondso n d is c o vere d , is a th underin g y es. T he v alu e o f th ose s ig nals i s n ot i n t h eir i n fo rm atio n b ut i n t h e f a ct t h at t h ey o rie n t t h e t e am t o th e ta sk a n d to o ne a n oth er. W hat s e em s lik e re p etitio n is , in fa ct, n av ig atio n.

Those s ig nals a d ded u p in a w ay th at y ou c an h ear in te am m em bers ’ v oic es.

Lis te n t o t h ese q uote s f ro m t h e s u ccessfu l t e am s:

[S urg eo n] “ T he a b ility o f t h e s u rg eo n t o a llo w h im se lf t o b eco m e a partn er, n ot a d ic ta to r, i s c ritic al. F or e x am ple , y ou r e ally d o h av e t o ch an ge w hat y ou’re d oin g [ d urin g a n o pera tio n] b ase d o n a su ggestio n f ro m s o m eo ne e ls e o n t h e t e am .” [N urs e ] “ W e a ll h av e t o s h are t h e k now le d ge. F or e x am ple , i n t h e la st c ase , w e n eed ed t o i n se rt a g uid ew ir e , a n d I g ra b bed t h e w ro ng wir e a n d I d id n’t r e co gniz e i t a t f ir s t. A nd m y c ir c u la tin g n urs e s a id , ‘S ue, y ou g ra b bed t h e w ro ng w ir e .’ T his s h ow s h ow m uch t h e dif fe re n t r o le s d on’t m atte r. W e a ll h av e t o k now a b out e v ery th in g.

You h av e t o w ork a s a t e am .” [N urs e ] “ E very t im e w e a re g oin g t o d o a [ M IC S] p ro ced ure I f e el lik e I ’v e b een e n lig hte n ed . I c an s e e t h ese p atie n ts d oin g s o well… .I t i s s u ch a r e w ard in g e x perie n ce. I a m s o g ra te fu l I w as pic k ed .” Now l is te n t o t h ese q uote s f ro m t h e u nsu ccessfu l t e am s:

[S urg eo n] “ O nce I g et a t e am s e t u p, I n ev er l o ok u p [ fro m t h e opera tin g f ie ld ]. I t’ s t h ey w ho h av e t o m ak e s u re e v ery th in g i s flo w in g.” [A nesth esio lo gis t] “ I w ould n’t s p eak u p i f I w ere n ’t c o nfid en t t h at a mis ta k e w ould l e ad t o a n a d vers e o utc o m e. I ’m n ot c o m fo rta b le hypoth esiz in g.” [N urs e ] “ If I s e e a M IC S c ase o n t h e l is t [ fo r t o m orro w ] I t h in k ‘O h! D o w e r e ally h av e t o d o i t? J u st g et m e a f re sh b la d e s o I c an sla sh m y w ris ts r ig ht n ow .’   ” These v oic es s o und lik e th ey a re c o m in g f ro m d if fe re n t u niv ers e s. I ro nic ally , both w ere d oin g t h e e x act s a m e p ro ced ure w ith t h e e x act s a m e t r a in in g. T he o nly dif fe re n ce w as th at o ne g ro up r e ceiv ed c le ar b eaco ns o f m ean in g th ro ughout th e pro cess, a n d th e o th er d id n’t. T he d if fe re n ce w asn ’t in w ho th ey w ere b ut in th e se t o f s m all, a tte n tiv e, c o nsis te n t lin ks b etw een w here th ey a re n ow a n d w here th ey a re h ead ed .

This is th e w ay h ig h-p urp ose e n vir o nm en ts w ork . T hey a re a b out s e n din g n ot so m uch o ne b ig s ig nal a s a h an dfu l o f s te ad y, u ltr a -c le ar s ig nals t h at a re a lig ned with a sh are d goal. T hey are le ss ab out bein g in sp ir in g th an ab out bein g co nsis te n t. T hey a re f o und n ot w ith in b ig s p eech es s o m uch a s w ith in e v ery day mom en ts w hen p eo ple c an s e n se th e m essa g e: This is w hy w e w ork ; th is is w hat we a re a im in g f o r .

Now th at we’v e esta b lis h ed th e basic mech an is m of hig h-p urp ose en vir o nm en ts , le t’ s ex plo re th e n ex t q uestio n: How d o yo u cre a te o ne?

T he an sw er, it tu rn s o ut, d ep en ds o n th e ty pe o f sk ills y ou w an t y our g ro up to perfo rm . Hig h-p ro fic ie n cy en vir o nm en ts h elp a g ro up d eliv er a w ell- d efin ed , re lia b le p erfo rm an ce, w hile hig h-c re a tiv ity en vir o nm en ts h elp a g ro up cre ate so m eth in g n ew . T his d is tin ctio n is im porta n t b ecau se it h ig hlig hts th e tw o b asic ch alle n ges f a cin g a n y g ro up: c o nsis te n cy a n d in novatio n. A nd a s w e’re a b out to se e, b uild in g p urp ose i n t h ese t w o a re as r e q uir e s d if fe re n t a p pro ach es.

* The n am es o f t h e h osp ita ls a n d d octo rs w ere a lte re d i n t h e s tu dy.

W hen y ou th in k o f th e p la n et’ s m ost ch alle n gin g en vir o nm en ts , y ou te n d to e n vis io n p la ces lik e D eath V alle y o r A nta rc tic a: u nfo rg iv in g la n dsc ap es th at r e le n tle ssly ex pose w eak ness. Y ou don’t te n d to th in k of th e N ew Y ork r e sta u ra n t s c en e. T hat i s , u ntil y ou c o nsid er t h e s u rv iv al r a te s.

Each y ear a ro und a th ousa n d n ew r e sta u ra n ts o pen in N ew Y ork C ity . A ll a re l a u nch ed w ith o ptim is m , c o nfid en ce, a n d h ig h h opes f o r s u ccess. F iv e y ears l a te r e ig ht h undre d o f th em h av e v an is h ed w ith out a tr a ce, fo r v ario us re aso ns th at a re , in esse n ce, th e sa m e re aso n. A su ccessfu l re sta u ra n t, lik e a su ccessfu l A nta rc tic ex ped itio n, dep en ds on cease le ss pro fic ie n cy . G ood fo od is not e n ough. G ood lo catio n is not en ough. G ood se rv ic e, tr a in in g, bra n din g, l e ad ers h ip , a d ap ta b ility , a n d l u ck a re n ot e n ough. S urv iv al d ep en ds o n p uttin g a ll o f i t t o geth er, n ig ht a fte r n ig ht. I f y ou f a il, y ou d is a p pear.

With in t h is u nfo rg iv in g e co sy ste m , D an ny M ey er h as b uilt a r e co rd t h at i s n ot a s u nlik ely as it is in co nceiv ab le . O ver th e p ast th ir ty y ears , h e h as o pen ed t w en ty -fiv e re sta u ra n ts . E xcep t fo r o ne, th ey a re a ll s u ccessfu l— an d n ot ju st a l ittle b it. U nio n S quare C afe , M ey er’s fir s t re sta u ra n t, h as w on th e to p s p ot in Z agat ’s best- re sta u ra n t ra n kin gs an unpre ced en te d nin e tim es; his oth er r e sta u ra n ts ro utin ely o ccu py a s m uch a s a q uarte r o f th e to p tw en ty , a n d h is r e sta u ra n ts a n d c h efs h av e w on tw en ty -s ix J a m es B eard a w ard s. P erh ap s m ore i m pre ssiv ely , e ach o f M ey er’s re sta u ra n ts is u niq ue, v ary in g fro m a ta v ern to a b arb ecu e jo in t, to an Ita lia n café , to a fa st- c asu al b urg er ch ain calle d S hak e S hack t h at i s n ow w orth $ 1.5 b illio n.

The r e aso n M ey er’s r e sta u ra n ts a re s u ccessfu l is th e w arm , c o nnectiv e f e elin g t h ey c re ate , a f e elin g t h at c an b e s u m med u p i n o ne w ord : hom e . W hen y ou w alk in to a M ey er re sta u ra n t, y ou fe el th at y ou are b ein g care d fo r. T his fe elin g ra d ia te s f ro m t h e s u rro undin gs a n d t h e f o od b ut m ost o f a ll f ro m t h e p eo ple , w ho ap pro ach e ach in te ra ctio n w ith fa m ilia l th oughtf u ln ess. W hen I a sk ed M ey er’s guests a n d e m plo yees f o r e x am ple s o f m om en ts w here th is f e elin g w as c re ate d , th ey o ffe re d t h e f o llo w in g t w o s to rie s.

A y oung w om an , re cen tly m oved to N ew Y ork fro m th e M id w est, to ok h er pare n ts o ut t o d in ner a t 1 1 M ad is o n P ark t o c ele b ra te h er n ew s ta rt i n t h e b ig c ity —an d to a lla y h er p are n ts ’ fe ars a b out th e d if fic u ltie s o f liv in g in N ew Y ork .

Tow ard th e en d o f d in ner, as th ey lo oked o ver th e d esse rt m en u, th e fa th er poin te d to a f o rty -tw o-d olla r g la ss o f d esse rt w in e c alle d C hâte au d ’Y quem a n d co m men te d o n h ow i n sa n ely e x pen siv e N ew Y ork w as. T he w aite r o verh eard t h e fa th er’s c o m men t a n d, m om en ts la te r, re ap peare d c arry in g a b ottle o f C hâte au d’Y quem an d th re e g la sse s. T he w aite r sa id , “W e are so g ra te fu l y ou cam e to nig ht. I h eard y ou t a lk in g a b out t h e C hâte au d ’Y quem . T his i s o ne o f t h e r a re st an d b est d esse rt w in es i n t h e e n tir e w orld , a n d w e w ould l o ve t o o ffe r y ou e ach a ta ste w ith o ur c o m plim en ts .” A s m all e x plo sio n o f s u rp ris e a n d d elig ht e n su ed .

Then th ere w as th e tim e a d in in g c o m pan io n o f N eb ra sk a s e n ato r B ob K erre y fo und a b eetle in h is sa la d a t G ra m erc y T av ern . T he n ex t d ay K erre y a n d h is frie n ds w ere e atin g a t a n oth er o f M ey er’s r e sta u ra n ts . A fte r th ey w ere s e ate d , a sa la d a rriv ed g arn is h ed w ith a s m all p ie ce o f p ap er o n w hic h t h e w ord Rin go w as writte n . T he w aite r s a id , “ D an ny w an te d to m ak e s u re y ou k new th at G ra m erc y Tav ern w asn ’t t h e o nly o ne o f h is r e sta u ra n ts t h at’ s w illin g t o g arn is h y our s a la d with a B eatle .” If y ou m en tio n th at it’ s y our a n niv ers a ry o r y our b ir th day , th e r e sta u ra n t w ill re m em ber. I f y ou p re fe r a ta b le b y th e w in dow , it w ill r e m em ber. I f y ou p re fe r th e c ru sty e n ds o f b re ad , it w ill r e m em ber.

* T hese ta sk s a re n ot s im ple , b ec au se th ey d ep en d o n a n u nbro ken c h ain o f a w are n ess a n d a ctio n. T he w aite r w ho bro ught th e C hâte au d ’Y quem h ad to (1 ) b e a le rt to th e d ynam ic b etw een th e ex cite d , h opefu l y oung w om an a n d h er w orrie d p are n ts ; (2 ) n otic e th e fa th er’s co m men t a b out th e w in e; (3 ) c o nnect it to a n id ea; (4 ) b e e m pow ere d to s p en d th e re sta u ra n t’ s m oney o n a g estu re ; a n d (5 ) d eliv er th at g estu re w ith g ra ce. A t an y p oin t, th e c h ain c o uld h av e b een b ro ken , a n d n o o ne w ould h av e n otic ed .

But th e c h ain w asn ’t b ro ken , a n d s o it c re ate d th e s ig natu re u pw ellin g o f w arm em otio n th at h as c arrie d M ey er’s v en tu re s to s u ccess. T he q uestio n is , h ow d oes Mey er a cco m plis h t h is s o r e lia b ly a t s o m an y r e sta u ra n ts ?

— When y ou s it d ow n a cro ss th e ta b le f ro m D an ny M ey er, h is e y es lo ck o n y ou in a m ix o f in te re st an d em path y. H is b ody la n guag e is re la x ed an d ale rt but unhurrie d . H is v oic e is ste ad y, w ith a m id w este rn earn estn ess th at’ s v ag uely re m in is c en t o f J im my S te w art. If y ou a sk h im a q uestio n— sa y , w hat’ s th e b est ham burg er i n N ew Y ork — he p au se s b efo re a n sw erin g. H e h as d ev ote d h undre d s of h ours to ex plo rin g th is q uestio n, so h e k now s a g re at d eal.

B ut w hen h e an sw ers , th at a n sw er h as n oth in g to d o w ith h is k now le d ge a n d e v ery th in g to d o with y ou.

“W ell,” h e s a y s. “ W hat k in d o f h am burg er y ou lik e d ep en ds o n w hat k in d o f mood y ou’re i n .” We’re in M aia lin o, one of his re sta u ra n ts near G ra m erc y P ark , an d it’ s bre ak fa st. A ro und us th e M ey eria n univ ers e is sp in nin g co nte n te d ly : fre sh flo w ers b urs t f ro m c era m ic v ase s, a n d h ap py d in ers c h at w ith a tte n tiv e w aite rs .

We’re ta lk in g a b out h ow M ey er s tu die d p olitic al s c ie n ce a t T rin ity C olle g e a n d how h e w ork ed f o r a p re sid en tia l c am paig n ( w hic h h elp ed h im s e e e v ery w ork er as b asic ally a v olu nte er) w hen , b eh in d m e, a tr a y accid en ta lly slip s fro m a waite r’s h an d, a n d s e v era l w ate r g la sse s s m ash o n t h e f lo or.

For a m ic ro se co nd, a ll th e a ctio n s to ps. M ey er r a is e s a f in ger, p re ssin g p au se on o ur c o nvers a tio n s o h e c an w atc h w hat h ap pen s. T he w aite r w ho d ro pped th e gla sse s s ta rts p ic k in g u p th e p ie ces, a n d a n oth er w aite r a rriv es w ith a b ro om a n d a d ustp an . T he c le an up h ap pen s s w if tly , a n d e v ery one tu rn s b ack to th eir fo od.

Then I a sk M ey er w hy h e w as w atc h in g s o c lo se ly .

“I’m w atc h in g fo r w hat h ap pen s rig ht a fte rw ard , a n d I’m lo okin g fo r th eir en erg y le v el to g o u p,” h e s a y s. “ T hey c o nnect to c le an u p th e p ro ble m , a n d th e en erg y le v el g oes eith er u p o r d ow n, an d if w e’re d oin g o ur jo b rig ht, th eir en erg y l e v el w ill g o u p.” H e p uts h is f is ts t o geth er, a n d t h en m ak es a n e x plo sio n gestu re w ith h is f in gers . “ T hey a re c re atin g u plif tin g e n erg y th at h as n oth in g to do w ith th e ta sk a n d e v ery th in g to d o w ith e ach o th er a n d w hat c o m es n ex t. I t’ s not r e ally t h at d if fe re n t f ro m a n a n t c o lo ny o r a b eeh iv e. E very a ctio n a d ds o n t o th e o th ers .” I a sk M ey er w hat a b ad in te ra ctio n lo oks lik e. “ It’ s o ne o f tw o th in gs,” h e sa y s. “ E ith er th ey ’re d is in te re ste d — ‘I’m ju st d oin g m y jo b’ k in d o f th in g. O r th ey ’re a n gry a t th e o th er p ers o n o r th e situ atio n. A nd if I w ere to se e th at, I would k now th at th ere ’s a d eep er p ro ble m h ere , b ecau se th e n um ber-o ne jo b is to t a k e c are o f e ach o th er. I d id n’t a lw ay s k now t h at, b ut I k now i t n ow .” Mey er s ta rts t e llin g m e a b out h is b ack gro und: h is y outh i n S t. L ouis , t h e e arly fa sc in atio n w ith fo od a n d tr a v el, th e e m otio nally d is ta n t fa th er w ho w as in th e hote l a n d fo od b usin ess, M ey er’s la st- s e co nd v eer a w ay fro m la w sc h ool a n d in to th e re sta u ra n t b usin ess, a n d fin ally th e m id -1 980s a n d th e e arly d ay s o f Unio n S quare C afe , w here h is e d ucatio n r e ally b eg an .

“I d id n’t k now h ow to r e ad a b ala n ce s h eet,” h e s a y s. “ I d id n’t k now h ow to man ag e flo w o r ru n a k itc h en . I d id n’t k now a n yth in g. B ut I d id k now h ow I wan te d to m ak e p eo ple f e el. I w an te d th em to f e el lik e th ey c o uld n’t te ll if th ey had s ta y ed h om e o r g one o ut.” To d o th at, M ey er re lie d o n in stin ct. H e h ir e d m id w este rn ers to in cre ase frie n dlin ess. H e tr a in ed th e sta ff him se lf , pla y actin g vario us w aite r-d in er sc en ario s. W hen s e rv ic e w as s lo w , a s it o fte n w as in th e e arly d ay s, h e p la cate d guests w ith fre e w in e a n d g av e th e s ta ff la titu de to p ro vid e tr e ats . H e m ad e a hab it o f g ath erin g t id bits o f i n fo rm atio n t o h elp h is g uests f e el m ore a t h om e. H e paid p artic u la r a tte n tio n to la n guag e. H e h ate d w aite r-s p eak lik e “ A re y ou s till work in g on th at? ” (it’ s not w ork !) or “Is ev ery th in g to your lik in g?” (s o im pers o nal! ). In ste ad , h e s o ught to c re ate la n guag e th at g av e g uests th e fe elin g th at t h e s ta ff w as o n t h eir s id e. F or i n sta n ce, w hen a r e se rv atio n w as u nav aila b le , he w ould s a y , “ C an y ou g iv e m e a r a n ge o f t im es t h at w ork f o r y ou, s o I c an r o ot fo r a c an cella tio n?” Unio n S quare C afe w as a h uge s u ccess, w ith th e e v er-p re se n t M ey er w ork in g th e d oor, b usin g ta b le s, a n d c le an in g u p s p ills . T hen in 1 995 h e o pen ed a s e co nd re sta u ra n t, G ra m erc y T av ern . A nd th at’ s w hen th in gs got dif fic u lt. S erv ic e sta rte d to s lip . F ood w as in co n sis te n t. C usto m ers w ere u nhap py. M ey er w ould sp lit his tim e betw een th e tw o re sta u ra n ts tr y in g fra n tic ally to boost perfo rm an ce, b ut it w asn ’t w ork in g. “ It w as a c o m ple te n ig htm are ,” h e s a y s. “ I was m is e ra b le . I w as r u nnin g b ack a n d f o rth b etw een t h e t w o p la ces, a n d n eith er of t h em w as d oin g a s w ell a s I w an te d . I t w as k in d o f a c la ssic s itu atio n. I m ean , th is i s w hy m ost p eo ple w ho o pen a r e sta u ra n t o pen o nly o ne.” It a ll c am e to a h ead o ne d ay th at fa ll a t G ra m erc y T av ern , w hen a re g ula r cu sto m er w ho w as h ostin g a lu nch f o r s ix o rd ere d s a lm on. S he a te a b out h alf o f it, th en to ld th e w aite r th at sh e d id n’t c are fo r it— co uld sh e h av e so m eth in g els e ? T he w aite r b ro ught a n ew d is h , th en a sk ed G ra m erc y ’s m an ag er w heth er th e s a lm on s h ould s ta y o n th e w om an ’s b ill. T he m an ag er s a id it s h ould . A fte r all, th e w om an h ad e ate n m ore th an h alf o f th e d is h , a n d th ere h ad b een n oth in g wro ng w ith th e s a lm on. W hen th e w om an p aid , s h e w as h an ded a d oggie b ag with t h e r e m ain s o f h er s a lm on. W hen t h e w om an g ot h om e, s h e w ro te t o M ey er, “I c an ’t b elie v e h ow in su ltin g a n d p assiv e-a g gre ssiv e th is w as, a n d it’ s n ot w hat I w ould e x pect a t o ne o f y our r e sta u ra n ts .” “S he w as ab so lu te ly rig ht,” M ey er sa y s. “A nd here ’s th e w ors t part:

Every body at G ra m erc y th ought th ey w ere d oin g a g ood jo b. T he m an ag er th ought th ey w ere d oin g a g ood jo b. T he w aite r th ought th ey w ere d oin g a g ood jo b. E very body s to od t h ere a n d w atc h ed th is h ap pen , a n d n obody s to pped i t. W e had s p en t h ours a n d h ours tr a in in g p eo ple n ot to d o th is k in d o f th in g, b ut th ey were d oin g it, a n d w e h ad n o c o ntr o l. T hat’ s w hen I k new th at I h ad to fin d a way to b uild a la n guag e, to te ach b eh av io r. I c o uld n o lo nger ju st m odel th e beh av io r a n d tr u st th at p eo ple w ould u nders ta n d a n d d o it. I h ad to s ta rt n am in g stu ff.” A f e w w eek s l a te r M ey er i n vite d t h e e n tir e s ta ff t o a S atu rd ay r e tr e at a lo ng t h e Hudso n R iv er a n d sta rte d a c o nvers a tio n a b out v alu es: What w ere th ey re a lly about? W hat d id t h ey s ta nd f o r? W ho c a m e f ir st?

“T hat sa lm on in cid en t w as th e Ply m outh R ock m om en t,” sa y s R ic h ard Cora in e, c h ie f d ev elo pm en t o ffic er o f th e U nio n S quare H osp ita lity G ro up, th e pare n t c o m pan y f o r M ey er’s r e sta u ra n ts . “ D an ny r e aliz ed t h at h e n eed ed t o b e i n tw o p la ces a t o nce. W hic h m ean t th at h e h ad to f in d a w ay to d eliv er th e s ig nal.

Peo ple w ill r e sp ond t o w hat t h eir b oss f e els i s i m porta n t. S o D an ny h ad t o d efin e an d a rtic u la te w hat w as i m porta n t.” At t h e r e tr e at, M ey er a n d t h e s ta ff r a n ked t h eir p rio ritie s:

1.

Colle ag ues 2.

Guests 3.

Com munity 4.

Supplie rs 5.

In vesto rs For M ey er, th is w as a b re ak th ro ugh. “N am in g th ese th in gs fe lt in cre d ib ly good,” h e s a y s. “ G ettin g a ll th is o ut in th e o pen . T he m an ag er w ho’d c au se d th e sa lm on p ro ble m e n ded u p l e av in g, a n d t h at’ s w hen t h in gs s ta rte d t o t a k e o ff, a n d I re aliz ed th at how w e tr e at each oth er is ev ery th in g. If w e do th at w ell, ev ery th in g e ls e w ill f a ll i n to p la ce.” In a s im ila r w ay , M ey er th en a tte m pte d to n am e th e s p ecif ic b eh av io rs a n d in te ra ctio ns h e w an te d to c re ate a t h is r e sta u ra n ts . H e a lr e ad y h ad a n a sso rtm en t of c atc h phra se s t h at h e u se d i n fo rm ally i n t r a in in g— he h ad a k nack f o r d is tillin g id eas in to h an dy m ax im s. B ut n ow h e s ta rte d p ay in g d eep er a tte n tio n to th ese phra se s, t h in kin g a b out t h em a s t o ols . H ere a re a f e w :

Read t h e g uest Ath le tic h osp ita lity Writin g a g re at f in al c h ap te r Turn in g u p t h e H om e D ia l Lovin g p ro ble m s Fin din g t h e y es Colle ctin g t h e d ots a n d c o nnectin g t h e d ots Cre atin g r a v es f o r g uests One s iz e f its o ne Skunkin g Mak in g t h e c h arita b le a ssu m ptio n Pla n tin g l ik e s e ed s i n l ik e g ard en s Put u s o ut o f b usin ess w ith y our g en ero sity Be a w are o f y our e m otio nal w ak e To g et a h ug, y ou h av e t o g iv e a h ug The e x celle n ce r e fle x Are y ou a n a g en t o r a g ate k eep er?

On th e su rfa ce, th ese lo ok lik e g ard en -v arie ty c o rp ora te a p horis m s. In fa ct, each o f th em fu nctio ns a s a s m all n arra tiv e in its e lf , p ro vid in g a v iv id m en ta l model fo r so lv in g th e ro utin e p ro ble m s th e sta ff fa ced . Makin g th e c h arita ble assu m ptio n m ean s t h at w hen s o m eo ne b eh av es p oorly , y ou s h ould a v oid j u dgin g th em a n d in ste ad g iv e th em th e b en efit o f th e d oubt. Colle ctin g th e d ots m ean s gath erin g i n fo rm atio n a b out g uests ; co nnectin g t h e d ots i s u sin g t h at i n fo rm atio n to c re ate h ap pin ess. Sku nkin g is s p ra y in g n eg ativ e e n erg y in to th e w ork pla ce, a s sk unks do when th ey ’re frig hte n ed . By th em se lv es, th ese phra se s are unre m ark ab le . B ut to geth er, e n dle ssly re p eate d a n d m odele d th ro ugh b eh av io r, th ey c re ate a l a rg er c o ncep tu al f ra m ew ork t h at c o nnects w ith t h e g ro up’s i d en tity an d e x pre sse s i ts c o re p urp ose : We t a ke c a re o f p eo ple .

Mey er b ecam e m ore i n te n tio nal a b out e m bed din g h is c atc h phra se s a n d s ta tin g prio ritie s in tr a in in g, sta ff m eetin gs, an d all co m munic atio ns. H e p ush ed h is le ad ers to s e ek o pportu nitie s to u se a n d m odel th e k ey b eh av io rs . H e b eg an to tr e at h is r o le a s t h at o f a c u ltu re b ro ad caste r. A nd i t w ork ed . I n a f e w m onth s, t h e atm osp here a t b oth re sta u ra n ts im pro ved m ark ed ly . M ey er k ep t it u p, ste ad ily ex pan din g a n d re fin in g th e la n guag e. “ Y ou h av e p rio ritie s, w heth er y ou n am e th em o r n ot,” h e s a y s. “ If y ou w an t to g ro w , y ou’d b ette r n am e th em , a n d y ou’d bette r n am e t h e b eh av io rs t h at s u pport t h e p rio ritie s.” A co uple years afte r th e sa lm on in cid en t, an N YU docto ra l stu den t in org an iz atio nal b eh av io r n am ed S usa n R eilly S alg ad o b ecam e c u rio us a b out w hy Mey er’s re sta u ra n ts fe lt so d if fe re n t fro m a ll o th ers . A s sh e c h atte d w ith th e waits ta ff, s h e n otic ed th at th ey a ll te n ded to d esc rib e th eir jo bs w ith th e s a m e word s: hom e, f a m ily , w arm th . S he a p pro ach ed M ey er a n d a sk ed h im i f s h e c o uld mak e t h e r e sta u ra n t t h e s u bje ct o f h er r e se arc h , a n d h e a g re ed , p ro vid ed s h e t o ok a jo b th ere . S alg ad o w ork ed a t U nio n S quare C afe f o r s ix m onth s. S he w atc h ed th e w ay th e s ta ff m em bers in te ra cte d w ith o ne a n oth er a n d w ith c u sto m ers , a n d sh e n otic ed w hat sh e calle d “m ic ro -p ro cesse s” th at d ro ve th ose in te ra ctio ns.

Here is how sh e su m med up her fin din gs in her dis se rta tio n: “T he re su lts in dic ate th at Unio n Square Cafe ach ie v es its dif fe re n tia tio n str a te g y of ‘e n lig hte n ed hosp ita lity ’ th ro ugh a sy nerg is tic se t of hum an re so urc e man ag em en t pra ctic es in volv in g th re e key pra ctic es: se le ctio n of em plo yees base d on em otio nal cap ab ilitie s, re sp ectf u l tr e atm en t of em plo yees, an d man ag em en t th ro ugh a s im ple s e t o f ru le s th at s tim ula te c o m ple x a n d in tr ic ate beh av io rs b en efitin g c u sto m ers .” A s im ple s e t o f r u le s t h at s tim ula te c o m ple x a nd i n tr ic a te b eh avio rs b en efitin g cu sto m ers . S alg ad o d is c o vere d , in o th er w ord s, th at M ey er su cceed ed fo r th e sa m e re aso n Ja m es B urk e su cceed ed w ith th e C re d o ch alle n ge. C re atin g en gag em en t a ro und a c le ar, s im ple s e t o f p rio ritie s c an f u nctio n a s a lig hth ouse , orie n tin g b eh av io r a n d p ro vid in g a p ath t o w ard a g oal.

— All o f w hic h ra is e s th e d eep er q uestio n o f h ow ex actly th is h ap pen s, h ow a han dfu l o f c atc h phra se s a n d a lis t o f p rio ritie s c an p ro duce su ch sm ooth a n d pro fic ie n t p erfo rm an ce. W e c an g et a n a n sw er fro m a n u nlik ely s o urc e: a tin y org an is m c alle d a s lim e m old .

Slim e m old s are an cie n t, blo blik e org an is m s m ad e up of th ousa n ds of in div id ual am oeb ae. M ost of th e tim e slim e m old s are passiv e, se d ate , an d wholly u nre m ark ab le . B ut w hen f o od b eco m es s c arc e, t h e t h ousa n ds o f a m oeb ae beg in to w ork to geth er in a b eau tif u l a n d in te llig en t w ay . B ack in th e 1 940s, a Harv ard u nderg ra d uate n am ed Jo hn T yle r B onner p hoto gra p hed slim e m old s with a tim e-la p se c am era a n d m ad e a f ilm , w hic h h e b eg an to s h ow to a cad em ic au die n ces.

W ord sp re ad , a n d b efo re lo ng le ctu re h alls w ere o verflo w in g w ith en ra p tu re d c ro w ds. A lb ert E in ste in r e q ueste d a p riv ate v ie w in g. J . J . O ’N eill o f th e New Y ork H era ld T rib une to ld B onner th at h is w ork w as m ore im porta n t th an t h e d is c o very o f t h e a to m ic b om b.

The film ’s fir s t fra m es sh ow a d is c o nnecte d sc atte rin g o f sm all g ra y b lo bs.

But th en , a s if r e sp ondin g to a n in vis ib le s ig nal, th e a m oeb ae m ove w ith s in gle in te n t to w ard th e c en te r, w here th ousa n ds o f th em fu se to geth er in to a sin gle org an is m th at s ta rts to m ove. A t th e tip o f th e o rg an is m , a n oth er tr a n sfo rm atio n hap pen s a s s o m e o f th e a m oeb ae c ra w l u pw ard , f o rm in g a s ta lk . O th er a m oeb ae cra w l over th em , w here th ey beco m e sp ore s, to blo w off in th e w in d an d re p ro duce. T he w hole th in g is u tte rly m ag ic al a n d o rc h estr a l, a s if s o m e h id den co nducto r w ere w his p erin g in str u ctio ns: You over here , now here , now all to geth er . T he f ilm b ecam e a s e n sa tio n b ecau se it e m bodie d a p ro fo und m yste ry :

How d oes th is k in d o f in te llig en t g ro up b eh av io r h ap pen w ith cre atu re s th at posse ss n o i n te llig en ce?

For years , re se arc h ers pre su m ed th at th e beh av io r w as a re su lt of an “o rg an iz er c ell” th at f u nctio ned a s a k in d o f b io lo gic al d rill s e rg ean t, te llin g th e oth ers w hat to d o a n d w hen . T his o rg an iz er c ell, it tu rn s o ut, d oes n ot e x is t.

What does ex is t is so m eth in g m ore pow erfu l: a sim ple se t of ru le s calle d heu ris tic s t h at d riv e b eh av io r.

“W e a ssu m e th at b ecau se w e’re c o m ple x , th at th e w ay w e m ak e d ecis io ns is als o co m ple x ,” sa y s M ad ele in e B eek m an , w ho stu die s slim e m old s at th e Univ ers ity o f S ydney . “ B ut in re ality , w e’re u sin g v ery s im ple ru le s o f th um b.

The slim e m old sh ow s us th at it’ s possib le fo r gro ups to so lv e ex tr e m ely co m ple x p ro ble m s u sin g a f e w r u le s o f t h um b.” In t h e c ase o f s lim e m old s, t h ese r u le s o f t h um b a re a s f o llo w s:

If t h ere ’s n o f o od, c o nnect w ith o ne a n oth er.

If c o nnecte d , s ta y c o nnecte d a n d m ove t o w ard t h e l ig ht.

If y ou r e ach t h e l ig ht, s ta y c o nnecte d a n d c lim b.

“H oney bees w ork th e s a m e w ay ,” B eek m an s a y s.

“ S o d o a n ts a n d m an y o th er sp ecie s. T hey a ll u se d ecis io n-m ak in g h eu ris tic s. T here ’s n o r e aso n w e w ould n’t use i t t o o. I f y ou l o ok a t t h ese s p ecie s, y ou c an f e el t h e c o nnectio n. L ik e u s, t h ey all s e ek a c o lle ctiv e g oal.” Beek m an a n d th e s lim e m old s g iv e u s a n ew w ay to th in k a b out w hy D an ny Mey er’s c atc h phra se s w ork s o w ell. T hey a re n ot m ere ly c atc h phra se s; th ey a re heu ris tic s th at pro vid e guid an ce by cre atin g if /th en sc en ario s in a viv id , mem ora b le w ay . S tr u ctu ra lly , th ere is n o d if fe re n ce b etw een If s o m eo ne is r u de, make a c h arita ble a ssu m ptio n a n d If th ere ’s n o fo od, c o nnect w ith o ne a noth er .

Both fu nctio n as a co ncep tu al beaco n, cre atin g situ atio nal aw are n ess an d pro vid in g cla rity in tim es of pote n tia l co nfu sio n. T his is w hy so m an y of Mey er’s c atc h phra se s f o cu s o n h ow t o r e sp ond t o m is ta k es.

You c an ’t p re v en t m is ta k es, b ut y ou c an s o lv e p ro ble m s g ra cio usly .

If i t a in ’t b ro ke, f ix i t.

Mis ta k es a re l ik e w av es; s e rv ers a re r e ally s u rfe rs .

The r o ad t o s u ccess i s p av ed w ith m is ta k es w ell h an dle d .

The t r ic k i s n ot j u st t o s e n d t h e s ig nal b ut t o c re ate e n gag em en t a ro und i t. T his is w here M ey er e x cels . H e a p pro ach es th e c atc h phra se -c re atin g p ro cess w ith th e fo cu se d v erv e o f a p op s o ngw rite r. H e g en era te s c o nsta n tly , te stin g w hic h o nes work . H e se ek s sn ap py, v is c era l p hra se s th at u se v iv id im ag es to h elp te am mem bers co nnect. R ic h ard C ora in e’s offic e co nta in s a w hite b oard th at is co vere d w ith w ork s i n p ro gre ss.

We a re a ll p aid t o s o lv e p ro ble m s. M ak e s u re t o p ic k f u n p eo ple t o s o lv e pro ble m s w ith .

There ’s g lo ry i n m ak in g a m is ta k e.

Sto ne a fte r s to ne t o f o rm a b rid ge.

Mey er’s n ot a lo ne. M an y l e ad ers o f h ig h-p ro fic ie n cy g ro ups f o cu s o n c re atin g prio ritie s, nam in g key sto ne beh av io rs , an d flo odin g th e en vir o nm en t w ith heu ris tic s th at lin k th e tw o. F or e x am ple , if y ou sp en d tim e a ro und th e N ew Zeala n d A ll- B la ck s ru gby te am , y ou w ill h ear th em ta lk ab out “le av in g th e je rs e y in a b ette r p la ce,” a n d s a y in g, “ If y ou’re n ot g ro w in g a n yw here , y ou’re not g oin g an yw here ,” k eep in g a “b lu e h ead ” in ste ad o f a “re d h ead ” (w hic h re fe rs to calm ness under pre ssu re ), “P re ssu re is a priv ile g e,” “T Q B— to ta l quality b all,” “K BA — keep th e b all aliv e,” “F ro nt u p, o r fu ck o ff,” “It’ s an honor, n ot a j o b,” “ G o f o r t h e g ap ,” a n d “ B ette r p eo ple m ak e b ette r A ll- B la ck s.” KIP P, th e netw ork of hig hly su ccessfu l ch arte r sc h ools , is sim ila rly built aro und c atc h phra se s lik e “ N o s h ortc u ts ,” “ W ork h ard , b e n ic e,” “ D on’t e at th e mars h m allo w ,” “T eam an d fa m ily ,” “If th ere ’s a pro ble m , w e lo ok fo r th e so lu tio n,” “ R ead , b ab y, re ad ,” “ A ll o f u s w ill le arn ,” “ K IP Pste rs d o th e rig ht th in g w hen n o o ne is w atc h in g,” “ E very th in g is e arn ed ,” “ B e th e c o nsta n t, n ot th e v aria b le ,” “ If a t e am mate n eed s h elp , w e g iv e; i f w e n eed h elp , w e a sk ,” “ N o ro bots ,” a n d “ P ro ve t h e d oubte rs w ro ng.” At f ir s t e n co unte r, a h eu ris tic -d en se c u ltu re f e els s lig htly o ff-p uttin g. “ F or th e fir s t f e w d ay s I w ork ed h ere , I h eard a ll t h e l a n guag e, a n d i t w as l ik e, ‘ A re w e i n su m mer cam p?’   ” sa y s A llis o n Sta ad , Shak e Shack ’s se n io r m ark etin g an d co m munic atio ns m an ag er. “ It’ s to ta lly h okey a n d c o rn y. A nd th en y ou s ta rt to se e h ow t h ey w ork , a n d y ou s ta rt u sin g t h em i n r e g ula r l if e . T hen a ll o f a s u dden th ey ’re n ot c o rn y— th ey ’re j u st p art o f t h e o xygen .” “T he m ost p ow erfu l th in g a b out a ll th ose p hra se s is th e w ay D an ny e m bodie s th em ,” sa y s C ora in e. “W hat he’s ex cep tio nal at is re aliz in g th at peo ple are lo okin g a t h im e v ery s e co nd, a n d h e’s d eliv erin g th ose m essa g es e v ery s e co nd, ev ery d ay . H e’s lik e a p ow erfu l W i- F i s ig nal. S om e p eo ple s e n d th re e b ars , b ut Dan ny i s a t t e n b ars , a n d h e n ev er g oes b elo w n in e.” * Much o f t h is r e m em berin g t a k es p la ce w ith in t h e r e se rv atio ns s y ste m , w here g uest p re fe re n ces a re re lig io usly n ote d b y w aits ta ff a n d m an ag ers . I s a w o ne g uest n ote t h at r e ad : Lik es e xtr a b utte r w ith b re a d; need s a l o t o f l o ve.

O n a fu ndam en ta l le v el, D an ny M ey er, K IP P, a n d th e A ll- B la ck s a re u sin g th e s a m e p urp ose -b uild in g te ch niq ue. W e m ig ht c all it th e lig hth ouse m eth od: T hey c re ate p urp ose b y g en era tin g a c le ar b eam o f s ig nals th at lin k A ( w here w e a re ) t o B ( w here w e w an t to b e). T here ’s a n oth er d im en sio n o f le ad ers h ip , h ow ev er, w here th e goal is n ’t to get fro m A to B but to nav ig ate to an unknow n d estin atio n, X . T his i s t h e d im en sio n o f c re ativ ity a n d i n novatio n.

Cre ativ e le ad ers h ip ap pears to be m yste rio us, becau se w e te n d to re g ard c re ativ ity a s a g if t, a s a q uasi- m ag ic al a b ility to s e e th in gs th at d o n ot y et e x is t a n d to in ven t th em . A cco rd in gly , w e te n d to th in k o f c re ativ e le ad ers a s a rtis ts , a b le to ta p in to w ells p rin gs o f in sp ir a tio n a n d g en iu s th at a re in accessib le to th e r e st o f u s. A nd t o b e s u re , s o m e l e ad ers f it t h is d esc rip tio n.

The fu nny th in g is , w hen I v is ite d le ad ers o f su ccessfu l c re ativ e c u ltu re s, I d id n’t m eet m an y artis ts . In ste ad , I m et a d if fe re n t ty pe, a ty pe w ho sp oke q uie tly a n d te n ded to s p en d a lo t o f tim e o bse rv in g, w ho h ad a n in tr o verte d v ib e a n d lik ed to ta lk a b out sy ste m s. I sta rte d to th in k o f th is ty pe o f p ers o n a s a C re ativ e E ngin eer.

Ed C atm ull i s s u ch a l e ad er. A s o ft- s p oken s e v en ty -tw o-y ear-o ld w ith a b ris tly b eard a n d q uic k , w atc h fu l e y es, h e is p re sid en t a n d c o fo under o f P ix ar, o ne o f t h e m ost s u ccessfu l c re ativ e c u ltu re s o f a ll tim e. E very o th er s tu dio in th e w orld h opes to c re ate a h it o nce in a w hile . P ix ar c an b e th ought o f a s a m ach in e th at c re ate s h its e v ery s in gle tim e. S in ce 1 995, it h as m ad e s e v en te en fe atu re film s, w hic h h av e e arn ed a n a v era g e o f m ore th an h alf a b illio n d olla rs , w on th ir te en A cad em y A ward s, a n d g en era te d s o m e o f th e m ost b elo ved c u ltu ra l to uch sto nes o f o ur a g e. A d ecad e a g o C atm ull to ok a sid e jo b o f c o -le ad in g W alt D is n ey Anim atio n S tu dio s an d h elp ed it g en era te a str in g o f b lo ck buste rs in clu din g Fro ze n , Big H ero 6 , a n d Zooto pia .

I m eet C atm ull a t P ix ar’s h ead quarte rs in E m ery ville , C alif o rn ia , in sid e th e stu dio ’s s le ek B ro okly n b uild in g. B ro okly n, b uilt i n 2 010, i s a s u nlit b ox o f g la ss an d re cla im ed w ood, brim min g w ith Pix aria n to uch es lik e a sp eak easy , a fir e p la ce, a fu ll- s e rv ic e café , an d a ro of deck . It is easily one of th e m ost stu nnin g o ffic e b uild in gs I ’v e e v er s e en . ( A s o ne e arly v is ito r p ut i t, “ T han ks f o r ru in in g th e r e st o f m y lif e .” ) A s C atm ull a n d I w alk th ro ugh s h afts o f s u nlig ht, I mak e a p assin g r e m ark a b out t h e b uild in g’s b eau ty .

He s to ps a n d tu rn s to f a ce m e. H is v oic e is q uie t a n d a u th orita tiv e, th e v oic e of a d octo r m ak in g a d ia g nosis : “ In f a ct, t h is b uild in g w as a m is ta k e.” I l e an i n , u nsu re I ’v e h eard c o rre ctly .

“T he re aso n it’ s a m is ta k e,” C atm ull co ntin ues ev en ly , “is th at it d oesn ’t cre ate th e k in ds o f in te ra ctio ns w e n eed to c re ate . W e sh ould h av e m ad e th e hallw ay s w id er. W e s h ould h av e m ad e t h e c afé b ig ger, t o d ra w m ore p eo ple . W e sh ould h av e p ut th e o ffic es a ro und th e e d ges to c re ate m ore s h are d s p ace in th e cen te r. S o it w asn ’t lik e th ere w as o ne m is ta k e. T here w ere re ally a lo t o f mis ta k es, a lo ng o f c o urs e w ith th e b ig ger m is ta k e th at w e d id n’t s e e m ost o f th e mis ta k es u ntil i t w as t o o l a te .” This is an unusu al th in g fo r a pre sid en t of a co m pan y to sa y . If you co m plim en t m ost l e ad ers o n t h eir b eau tif u l m ultim illio n-d olla r b uild in g, t h ey s a y th an k you, an d th ey m ean it. M ost le ad ers w ill not ad m it m is ta k es of th is mag nitu de b ecau se th ey f e el th e a d m is sio n w ould p ro duce a d an gero us w hif f o f in co m pete n ce. B ut n ot C atm ull. H e lo ves th ese m om en ts ; in a w ay , h e liv es f o r th em . T here is n o b la m e o r ju dgm en t in h is g aze, o nly a q uie t s a tis fa ctio n b orn of c la rity . We m ade s o m e m is ta kes w ith th is b uild in g, a nd n ow w e k n ow th at, and w e a re s lig htly b ette r b eca use w e k n ow t h at.

If y ou s e t o ut to d esig n a lif e th at re p re se n te d th e p erfe ct m erg er o f a rt a n d sc ie n ce, y ou m ig ht d esig n o ne th at lo oks lik e C atm ull’ s . T he c h ild o f e d ucato rs , he sp en t h is e arly y ears id oliz in g E in ste in a n d D is n ey , stu dyin g d ra w in g a n d physic s, a n d d re am in g o f m ak in g f e atu re -le n gth a n im ate d m ovie s. A fte r c o lle g e, he la n ded a jo b w ith G eo rg e L ucas, w hic h le d to a p artn ers h ip w ith S te v e J o bs an d th e c re atio n o f P ix ar, a s m all s tu dio w ith a m bitio ns o f f u sin g c o m pute rs a n d film mak in g.

For s e v era l y ears , P ix ar s tr u ggle d . T hen in 1 995 c am e th e b re ak th ro ugh, th e $360 m illio n s u ccess o f Toy S to ry . T hat’ s w hen C atm ull b eg an to g et a n ag gin g fe elin g th at s o m eth in g w as o ut o f b ala n ce. H e k new th at o th er c o m pan ie s h ad been in th is p re cis e s itu atio n— on to p o f th e w orld , flu sh w ith c ash , la u ded fo r th eir c re ativ ity a n d in novatio n. A nd m ost o f th em h ad s tu m ble d , lo st th eir w ay , an d c o lla p se d . T he q uestio n w as w hy? A nd h ow c o uld P ix ar a v oid th at fa te ?

Catm ull t a lk ed a b out t h at m om en t i n a p odcast.

“S o th e q uestio n w as, o kay , h ow d o y ou m ak e it so th at it’ s su sta in ab le ?

Becau se t h e p eo ple I k new o f w ho w ere i n t h ese [ fa ile d ] c o m pan ie s— an d I h ad a lo t o f frie n ds in S ilic o n V alle y — were s m art, a n d th ey w ere c re ativ e, a n d th ey were h ard w ork in g. S o w hate v er p ro ble m w as a ctu ally le ad in g th em a str a y w as re ally h ard to s e e, a n d th e im plic atio n w as, w hate v er th at fo rc e w as, it w ould als o a p ply to u s a t P ix ar. S o th is b ecam e th e in te re stin g q uestio n. T hese fo rc es are a t w ork — can w e f in d th em b efo re th ey d o u s in ? S o a t th e e n d o f th e y ear I re aliz ed th at th is is a ctu ally th e n ex t g oal. I t’ s n ot a f ilm . I t’ s h ow w e c an h av e an e n vir o nm en t w here w e c an f in d a n d a d dre ss t h ese p ro ble m s.” We le av e th e B ro okly n b uild in g a n d w alk a cro ss c am pus to th e S te v e Jo bs build in g, w hic h p osse sse s m an y o f th e fe atu re s B ro okly n la ck s: a m assiv e a n d welc o m in g c en tr a l a tr iu m , w id e h allw ay s f o r c o ngre g atio n, a n d a h iv elik e b uzz.

Near th e s ta ir s o n th e s e co nd f lo or s ta n d tw o o ffic es th at e m body th e tw o p illa rs of P ix ar’s c re ativ e a p pro ach . T he o ffic e o n th e le ft b elo ngs to Jo hn L asse te r, Pix ar’s cre ativ e co m pass, m aste r sto ry te lle r, an d m use . H is o ffic e is alm ost in vis ib le b en eath a D ay -G lo m ora in e o f to ys: a ctio n f ig ure s, d olls , b oth o ld a n d new , d ozen s o f v ers io ns o f M ic k ey M ouse , W oody, a n d B uzz L ig hty ear.

O n th e rig ht is C atm ull’ s o ffic e, lo okin g as if it w ere lif te d in ta ct fro m a G erm an aero sp ace f ir m : c o ol, e ffic ie n t r e cta n gle s r e n dere d i n b la ck , w hite , a n d g ra y .

Catm ull sits d ow n an d sta rts ex pla in in g, in h is calm d octo rly v oic e, h ow Pix ar’s c re ativ ity h ap pen s. “ A ll th e m ovie s a re b ad a t f ir s t,” h e s a y s. “ S om e a re bey ond b ad . Fro ze n a n d Big H ero 6 , fo r in sta n ce, w ere u nm itig ate d d is a ste rs .

The s to rie s w ere f la t, th e c h ara cte rs w ere n ’t th ere . T hey s u ck ed . I ’m n ot s a y in g th at in a m odest w ay . I w as in th e m eetin gs. I s a w th e e arly v ers io ns, a n d th ey were b ad . R eally b ad .” This p atte rn is n ot u nusu al a t P ix ar. I n th e o rig in al Toy S to ry , W oody s ta rte d out a s b ossy a n d u nlik ab le ( “ a s a rc astic je rk ,” C atm ull s a y s). T he e arly v ers io ns of Up w ere s o b ad th at th e e n tir e s to ry w as c h an ged .

“ L ite ra lly th e o nly th in g th at s ta y ed t h e s a m e w as t h e w ord up, ” h e s a y s.

When m ost p eo ple te ll s to rie s a b out th eir s u ccessfu l c re ativ e e n deav ors , th ose sto rie s o fte n g o l ik e t h is : The pro je ct s ta rte d o ut a s a c o m ple te d is a ste r, b ut t h en at th e la st m om en t, so m eh ow w e m anaged to re sc u e it . T his a rc is a ttr a ctiv e becau se i t d ra m atiz es t h e i m pro bab ility o f t h e r e sc u e a n d t h us p la ces t h e t e lle r i n a f la tte rin g lig ht. B ut C atm ull is d oin g s o m eth in g p ro fo undly d if fe re n t. H e s e es th e d is a ste r a n d t h e r e sc u e n ot a s i m pro bab le c o m pan io ns b ut a s c au sa lly r e la te d .

The fa ct th at th ese p ro je cts sta rt o ut a s p ain fu l, fru str a tin g d is a ste rs is n ot a n accid en t but a necessity . T his is becau se all cre ativ e pro je cts are co gnitiv e puzzle s i n volv in g t h ousa n ds o f c h oic es a n d t h ousa n ds o f p ote n tia l i d eas, a n d y ou alm ost n ev er g et th e rig ht a n sw er rig ht a w ay . B uild in g p urp ose in a c re ativ e gro up is n ot ab out g en era tin g a b rillia n t m om en t o f b re ak th ro ugh b ut ra th er ab out b uild in g sy ste m s th at can ch urn th ro ugh lo ts o f id eas in o rd er to h elp unearth t h e r ig ht c h oic es.

This is w hy C atm ull h as le arn ed to fo cu s le ss o n th e id eas th an o n p eo ple — sp ecif ic ally , o n p ro vid in g te am s w ith to ols a n d su pport to lo cate p ath s, m ak e hard c h oic es, a n d n av ig ate th e a rd uous p ro cess to geth er. “ T here ’s a te n den cy in our b usin ess, a s in a ll b usin esse s, to v alu e th e id ea a s o ppose d to th e p ers o n o r a te am of peo ple ,” he sa y s. “B ut th at’ s not accu ra te . G iv e a good id ea to a med io cre te am , a n d th ey ’ll f in d a w ay to s c re w it u p. G iv e a m ed io cre id ea to a good te am , a n d th ey ’ll f in d a w ay to m ak e it b ette r. T he g oal n eed s to b e to g et th e t e am r ig ht, g et t h em m ovin g i n t h e r ig ht d ir e ctio n, a n d g et t h em t o s e e w here th ey a re m ak in g m is ta k es a n d w here t h ey a re s u cceed in g.” I a sk C atm ull h ow h e k now s w hen a t e am i s s u cceed in g.

“M ostly y ou c an fe el it in th e ro om ,” h e s a y s. “ W hen a te am is n ’t w ork in g, you s e e d efe n siv e b ody la n guag e, o r y ou s e e p eo ple c lo se d ow n. O r th ere ’s ju st sile n ce. T he id eas s to p c o m in g, o r th ey c an ’t s e e th e p ro ble m s. W e u se d to u se Ste v e [J o bs] a s a k in d o f a tw o-b y-fo ur to w hack p eo ple in th e h ead so th ey co uld s e e t h e p ro ble m s i n t h e m ovie — Ste v e w as g ood a t t h at.

“B ut it b eco m es h ard er a n d h ard er a s tim e g oes o n, b ecau se a s d ir e cto rs g et more ex perie n ce, th ey so m etim es h av e a h ard er tim e h earin g o th er p oin ts o f vie w th at m ig ht h elp th em . T here a re s o m an y p arts y ou h av e to g et rig ht, a n d it’ s s o e asy to g et lo st in th is s w ir lin g m ass. Y our fir s t c o nclu sio ns a re a lw ay s wro ng, a n d s o a re y our s e co nd a n d y our t h ir d . S o y ou h av e t o c re ate m ech an is m s where t e am s o f p eo ple c an k eep w ork in g t o geth er t o s e e w hat’ s r e ally h ap pen in g an d t h en w ork t o geth er t o s o lv e t h e p ro ble m s.” Pix ar re aliz es th ese m ech an is m s in a s e t o f re g ula r o rg an iz atio nal h ab its . In th e D ailie s, held in th e m orn in g, all of P ix ar’s peo ple gath er to vie w an d co m men t o n th e p re v io us d ay ’s fo ota g e. (A nim atio n is a sp ecta cu la rly slo w pro cess; e ach d ay p ro duces o nly a fe w se co nds o f film .) In fie ld tr ip s, te am s im mers e th em se lv es in th e e n vir o nm en ts o f th eir m ovie s ( s c u ba-d iv in g tr ip s f o r th e Fin din g N em o te am ; a rc h ery le sso ns f o r th e Bra ve te am ; c o okin g le sso ns f o r th e Rata to uille te am ). I n B ra in T ru st m eetin gs ( d is c u sse d in C hap te r 7 ) a te am o f Pix ar’s t o p s to ry te lle rs p ro vid es r e g ula r, v ig oro usly c an did , a n d p ain fu l f e ed back on f ilm s in d ev elo pm en t. A t P ix ar U niv ers ity , a n a sso rtm en t o f c la sse s a cts a s a kin d o f m ix er, a llo w in g p eo ple f ro m d if fe re n t a re as o f th e c o m pan y to le arn s id e by s id e. ( T he c la sse s t e ach e v ery th in g f ro m f e n cin g t o p ain tin g t o t a i c h i.) A nd i n th e postm orte m s, off-s ite re tr e ats th at Catm ull org an iz es afte r a film is co m ple te d , th e te am m em bers c ap tu re a n d s h are th e b ig gest ta k eaw ay s f ro m th e pro cess.

Each g ath erin g b rin gs te am m em bers to geth er in a sa fe , fla t, h ig h-c an dor en vir o nm en t a n d le ts th em p oin t o ut p ro ble m s a n d g en era te id eas th at m ove th e te am , ste p w is e , to w ard a bette r so lu tio n. (N ot su rp ris in gly , C atm ull is a passio nate ad m ir e r of th e Ja p an ese co ncep t of ka iz e n , or co ntin ual im pro vem en t.) M ost o f th ese m eetin gs a ccess th e b ra in pow er o f th e e n tir e g ro up while m ain ta in in g t h e c re ativ e t e am ’s o w ners h ip o ver t h e p ro je ct.

* Acco rd in gly , Catm ull has alm ost no dir e ct in volv em en t with cre ativ e decis io ns. T his i s b ecau se h e r e aliz es t h at ( 1 ) t h e t e am s a re i n a b ette r p ositio n t o so lv e pro ble m s, an d (2 ) a su ggestio n fro m a pow erfu l pers o n te n ds to be fo llo w ed . O ne o f h is fre q uen tly u se d p hra se s is “ N ow it’ s u p to y ou.” T his is als o w hy h e te n ds to le t a tr o uble d p ro je ct r o ll o n “ a b it to o lo ng,” a s h e p uts it, befo re p ullin g th e p lu g a n d/o r re sta rtin g it w ith a d if fe re n t te am . “ If y ou d o a re sta rt b efo re e v ery one is c o m ple te ly r e ad y, y ou r is k u pse ttin g th in gs,” h e s a y s.

“Y ou h av e t o w ait u ntil i t’ s c le ar t o e v ery one t h at i t n eed s t o b e r e sta rte d .” Catm ull is c o ngen ita lly w ary o f m otto es a n d c atc h phra se s, a s h e b elie v es th ey can easily dis to rt re ality . N oneth ele ss a han dfu l of “E d-is m s” are heard in Pix ar’s c o rrid ors . H ere a re a f e w :

Hir e p eo ple s m arte r t h an y ou.

Fail e arly , f a il o fte n .

Lis te n t o e v ery one’s i d eas.

Face t o w ard t h e p ro ble m s.

B-le v el w ork i s b ad f o r y our s o ul.

It’ s m ore i m porta n t t o i n vest i n g ood p eo ple t h an i n g ood i d eas. You’ll n otic e th at, in co ntr a st to D an ny M ey er’s v iv id , sp ecif ic la n guag e, th ese a re d efia n tly u n-c atc h y, a lm ost z en -lik e in th eir p la in ness a n d u niv ers a lity .

This re fle cts th e fu ndam en ta l d if fe re n ce b etw een le ad in g fo r p ro fic ie n cy an d le ad in g f o r c re ativ ity : M ey er n eed s p eo ple to k now a n d f e el e x actly w hat to d o, while C atm ull n eed s p eo ple t o d is c o ver t h at f o r t h em se lv es.

Catm ull s p en ds h is d ay s r o vin g a ro und P ix ar a n d D is n ey , w atc h in g. H e h elp s onboard new em plo yees an d obse rv es B ra in T ru st m eetin gs, haw key ein g th e in te ra ctio ns f o r s ig ns o f in cip ie n t tr o uble o r s u ccess. H e c u ltiv ate s b ack -c h an nel co nvers a tio ns t o f in d o ut w hat’ s g oin g o n b eh in d t h e s c en es. H e w orrie s w hen h e se es aw kw ard sile n ces o r p eo ple av oid in g each o th er; h e cele b ra te s w hen a gro up ta k es in itia tiv e w ith out ask in g perm is sio n (s u ch as w hen a gro up of an im ato rs org an iz ed an im pro m ptu B oy S co ut– th em ed sle ep over on P ix ar’s la w n). H e d efe n ds te am s w hen th ey m ak e m is ta k es (a n d th ey c an m ak e s o m e ex tr e m ely e x pen siv e m is ta k es).

If D an ny M ey er is a lig hth ouse , b eam in g s ig nals o f p urp ose , th en C atm ull is more l ik e t h e e n gin eer o f a s h ip . C atm ull d oesn ’t s te er t h e s h ip — he r o ves a ro und belo w deck s, c h eck in g t h e h ull f o r l e ak s, c h an gin g o ut a p is to n, a d din g a l ittle o il here a n d th ere . “ F or m e, m an ag in g is a c re ativ e a ct,” h e sa y s. “ It’ s p ro ble m so lv in g, a n d I l o ve d oin g t h at.” — If y ou w ere to c re ate a f ie ld e x perim en t to te st C atm ull’ s le ad ers h ip m eth ods, it mig ht c o nsis t o f th e fo llo w in g ste p s: (1 ) lo cate a str u gglin g m ovie stu dio ; (2 ) pla ce C atm ull in ch arg e an d, w ith out ch an gin g an y p ers o nnel, allo w h im to re en gin eer t h e g ro up’s c u ltu re . T hen y ou w ould w ait t o s e e w hat h ap pen ed .

That, in fa ct, is pre cis e ly w hat hap pen ed in 2006. T he str u gglin g stu dio hap pen ed to b e W alt D is n ey A nim atio n. A fte r a ru n o f su ccess in th e 1 990s, Dis n ey h ad e n te re d a d ecad e-lo ng c re ativ e w aste la n d, p ro ducin g a s e rie s o f f ilm s th at w ere c o nsis te n tly fla t a n d d ull a n d, n ot c o in cid en ta lly , u npro fita b le . (T his str in g in clu ded The L ost E m pir e , B ro th er B ea r, T re a su re P la net, a n d Hom e o n th e R ange , w hic h f e atu re d a b urp in g c o w v oic ed b y R ose an ne B arr.) S o D is n ey CEO B ob Ig er atte m pte d th e co rp ora te eq uiv ale n t of a heart tr a n sp la n t, purc h asin g P ix ar an d p uttin g C atm ull an d L asse te r in ch arg e o f re v iv in g th e most s to rie d b ra n d i n a n im atio n— an d m ay be i n a ll o f e n te rta in m en t.

Most o bse rv ers d id n’t e x pect th e c o m bin atio n to w ork o ut. F or s ta rte rs , th ere was th e siz e dif fe re n tia l. Pix ar w as re la tiv ely sm all, w hile D is n ey w as garg an tu an , a n d it w as h ard to im ag in e th at C atm ull a n d L asse te r c o uld c o ntr o l it. “ L ik e N em o sw allo w in g th e w hale ” w as th e w ay Fortu ne m ag azin e p ut it.

Anoth er fa cto r w as th e g eo gra p hic ch alle n ge: P ix ar w as in E m ery ville , n ear Oak la n d, w hile D is n ey w as 3 50 m ile s a w ay in B urb an k. E nte rta in m en t- in dustr y his to ry s h ow ed th at th ese k in ds o f a cq uis itio ns w ere r is k y a n d o fte n h arm fu l to both p artie s.

Afte r th e sa le w en t th ro ugh, C atm ull a n d L asse te r tr a v ele d to B urb an k a n d mad e a sp eech to D is n ey em plo yees. L asse te r w as in sp ir in g, ta lk in g ab out le g acy a n d re ju ven atio n. C atm ull, ty pic ally , sa id a b out tw o se n te n ces. “ W e’re not g oin g to tu rn D is n ey in to a c lo ne o f P ix ar. W hat w e’re g oin g to d o is b uild a stu dio o n y our t a le n t a n d p assio n.” They got to w ork , sta rtin g w ith physic al str u ctu re . A t th e tim e of th e acq uis itio n, D is n ey em plo yees w ere sc atte re d acro ss fo ur flo ors of a gia n t build in g, silo ed in gro ups th at re fle cte d th eir ex pertis e (a n im atio n, la y out, desig n) r a th er th an th eir c o lla b ora tiv e f u nctio n. C atm ull h ead ed u p a r e b uild th at sm oosh ed all th e cre ativ e an d te ch nic al peo ple to geth er aro und a cen tr a l gath erin g p la ce c alle d th e C affe in e P atc h . H e th en p ut h is a n d L asse te r’s o ffic es (th ey c o m mitte d t o s p en din g t w o d ay s a w eek a t D is n ey ) n ear t h e c en te r.

Nex t C atm ull fo cu se d on cre ativ e str u ctu re . D is n ey had been usin g th e co nven tio nal film dev elo pm en t m odel, w hic h w ork ed as fo llo w s: (1 ) stu dio ex ecu tiv es c re ate d ev elo pm en t t e am s, w hic h a re c h arg ed w ith g en era tin g s to rie s; (2 ) stu dio e x ecu tiv es e v alu ate th ose id eas, d ecid e w hic h w ould b e d ev elo ped , an d a ssig n d ir e cto rs to e ach o ne; ( 3 ) d ir e cto rs m ak e th e m ovie s, a n d e x ecu tiv es ev alu ate e arly v ers io ns, o ffe r n ote s, a n d o ccasio nally c re ate c o m petitio ns c alle d “b ak e-o ffs ” t o d ecid e w hic h f ilm i s r e ad y f o r r e le ase .

Catm ull flip ped th at sy ste m o n its h ead , re m ovin g c re ativ e p ow er fro m th e ex ecu tiv es a n d p la cin g it in th e h an ds o f th e d ir e cto rs . I n th e n ew s tr u ctu re , th e dir e cto rs w ere re sp onsib le fo r co m in g u p w ith th eir o w n id eas an d p itc h in g th em , ra th er th an b ein g assig ned th em b y stu dio ex ecu tiv es. T he jo b o f th e ex ecu tiv es w as n ot to b e a ll- d ecid in g b osse s b ut ra th er to s u pport th e d ir e cto rs an d th eir te am s a s th ey u nderto ok th e p ain fu l jo urn ey fro m id ea to w ork ab le co ncep t t o f in is h ed f ilm . E arly i n t h e t r a n sitio n, C atm ull i n vite d D is n ey d ir e cto rs an d e x ecu tiv es t o P ix ar t o o bse rv e a B ra in T ru st m eetin g. T hey w atc h ed t h e t e am work t o geth er t o p ic k a m ovie a p art a n d d o t h e h ard w ork o f r e b uild in g i t.

The c h an ge in th e e n erg y a t D is n ey w as im med ia te . D is n ey d ir e cto rs c alle d it a b re ath o f f re sh a ir a n d l ik en ed i t t o t h e f a ll o f t h e B erlin W all. I t w as a m om en t of hope, re in fo rc ed by th e fa ct th at th e D is n ey te am ’s su bse q uen t m ovie im pro vem en t m eetin gs ( th ey d ubbed t h em t h e S to ry T ru st) w ere j u dged t o b e t h e best a n d m ost u se fu l a n yone t h ere h ad e x perie n ced .

Catm ull, h ow ev er, w asn ’t as q uic k to cele b ra te , k now in g th at re al ch an ge wasn ’t g oin g to h ap pen o vern ig ht. “ It ta k es tim e,” h e sa y s. “ Y ou h av e to g o th ro ugh s o m e f a ilu re s a n d s o m e s c re w -u ps, a n d s u rv iv e th em , a n d s u pport e ach oth er th ro ugh th em . A nd th en a fte r th at h ap pen s, y ou re ally b eg in to tr u st o ne an oth er.” Whic h is w hat hap pen ed . T he fir s t fe w film s afte r th e acq uis itio n w ere im med ia te ly b ette r, sc o rin g im pro ved re v ie w s as w ell as b ox o ffic e su ccess.

Then in 2 010, D is n ey ’s te am s b eg an c lic k in g a t a P ix aria n le v el, w ith Tangle d ($ 591 m illio n in w orld w id e b ox o ffic e), Wre ck-It R alp h ( $ 471 m illio n), Fro ze n ($ 1.2 b illio n), Big H ero 6 ( $ 657 m illio n), a n d Zooto pia ( $ 931 m illio n). C atm ull note s th at th e tr a n sfo rm atio n h ap pen ed w ith v ir tu ally n o tu rn over. “ T he p eo ple who m ad e th ese film s are th e sa m e p eo ple w ho w ere th ere w hen th ey w ere fa ilin g,” h e sa y s. “W e p ut in so m e n ew sy ste m s, th ey le arn ed n ew w ay s o f in te ra ctin g, an d th ey ch an ged th eir b eh av io r, an d n ow th ey are a co m ple te ly dif fe re n t g ro up o f p eo ple w hen t h ey w ork t o geth er.” We p ut in s o m e n ew s y ste m s, a nd th ey le a rn ed n ew w ays o f in te ra ctin g.

It’ s str a n ge to th in k th at a w av e o f c re ativ ity a n d in novatio n c an b e u nle ash ed b y so m eth in g as m undan e as ch an gin g sy ste m s an d le arn in g new w ay s of in te ra ctin g. B ut it’ s tr u e, b ecau se b uild in g c re ativ e p urp ose is n ’t re ally a b out cre ativ ity . I t’ s a b out b uild in g o w ners h ip , p ro vid in g s u pport, a n d a lig nin g g ro up en erg y to w ard th e a rd uous, e rro r-fille d , u ltim ate ly fu lf illin g jo urn ey o f m ak in g so m eth in g n ew .

* You s e e t h is p atte rn w ith m an y h ig hly c re ativ e g ro ups, s u ch a s L ock heed ’s f a m ous S kunk W ork s ( w hic h desig ned t h e U -2 , t h e B la ck bir d , t h e N ig hth aw k, a n d s e v era l o th er l e g en dary p la n es i n r e co rd t im e), Xero x’s P A RC ( w hic h i n ven te d t h e c o m pute r i n te rfa ce t h at S te v e J o bs “ b orro w ed ” f o r A pple ), G oogle X , Pro cte r & G am ble ’s C la y S tr e et, a n d M atte l’ s P ro je ct P la ty pus, a ll o f w hic h a re e sse n tia lly t h e s a m e pla ce: p hysic ally d is ta n t f ro m t h e p are n t g ro up, n onhie ra rc h ic al, a n d g iv en m ax im um a u to nom y.

H ere ’s a s u rp ris in g f a ct a b out s u ccessfu l c u ltu re s: m an y w ere f o rg ed i n m om en ts o f c ris is . P ix ar’s c ris is o ccu rre d in 1 998 w hen it s e t o ut to m ak e a s tr a ig ht- to - v id eo se q uel to th e h ig hly a ccla im ed Toy S to ry . T he stu dio e m bark ed o n th e p ro je ct p re su m in g it w ould b e a re la tiv ely s im ple p ro cess— afte r a ll, h ow h ard c o uld a s e q uel b e? B ut e arly v ers io ns w ere a w fu l. T he s to ry la ck ed e m otio n, th e c h ara cte rs w ere fla t, a n d th e film la ck ed th e s p ark le a n d h eart o f th e o rig in al.

C atm ull a n d L asse te r r e aliz ed t h is w as a q uestio n o f P ix ar’s c o re p urp ose . W as i t a s tu dio th at d id a v era g e w ork o r o ne th at a im ed f o r g re atn ess? A t th eir u rg in g, P ix ar s c ra p ped th e e arly v ers io ns a n d s ta rte d o ver a t th e e le v en th h our, a im in g f o r a fu ll th eatr ic al re le ase in ste ad o f v id eo . T his su ccessfu l la st- m in ute p ush c ry sta lliz ed P ix ar’s i d en tity a n d r e su lte d i n t h e i n ven tio n o f m an y o f i ts s ig natu re c o lla b ora tiv e s y ste m s ( in clu din g t h e B ra in T ru st) .

The S E A Ls e x perie n ced a sim ila r m om en t in 1 983, d urin g th e in vasio n o f G re n ad a. T he m is sio n h ad b een s tr a ig htf o rw ard : O ne te am w ould p ara ch ute in to t h e s e a, s w im t o s h ore , a n d c ap tu re G re n ad a’s o nly r a d io a n te n na. U nfo rtu nate ly , a c o m bin atio n o f w eath er, p oor c o m munic atio n, a n d b ad d ecis io ns le d to th e t e am b ein g d ro pped a t n ig ht i n a s to rm , o verlo ad ed w ith g ear. T he r e su lt w as t h e d ro w nin g d eath s o f fo ur S E A Ls— an d a su bse q uen t re b uild in g o f th e g ro up’s d ecis io n-m ak in g a n d c o m munic atio ns s y ste m s.

Dan ny M ey er’s e arly d ay s a s a r e sta u ra te u r, to o, w ere p unctu ate d b y a s tr in g o f n ear-d is a ste rs . “ W e n early k ille d a c u sto m er w hen a lig ht f ix tu re f e ll o ut o f a w all,” h e s a y s. “ A noth er tim e I g ot in to a fis tf ig ht w ith a c u sto m er w ho’d h ad t o o m uch to d rin k. A nd I’m n ot ta lk in g ju st a sh ovin g m atc h . It w as a re al f is tf ig ht i n f ro nt o f t h e w hole r e sta u ra n t. H e p unch ed m e i n t h e j a w a n d s la m med m y h ead in a d oor, a n d I k ic k ed h im in th e n uts . L et’ s ju st s a y th at w e’re lu ck y th at t h e I n te rn et d id n’t e x is t i n t h ose d ay s.” The d if fe re n ce w ith s u ccessfu l c u ltu re s s e em s to b e th at th ey u se th e c ris is to cry sta lliz e th eir p urp ose . W hen le ad ers o f th ose g ro ups r e fle ct o n th ose f a ilu re s now , th ey ex pre ss g ra titu de (a n d so m etim es ev en n osta lg ic d esir e ) fo r th ose mom en ts , a s p ain fu l a s t h ey w ere , b ecau se t h ey w ere t h e c ru cib le t h at h elp ed t h e gro up d is c o ver w hat i t c o uld b e.

This g iv es u s in sig ht in to b uild in g p urp ose . It’ s n ot a s sim ple a s c arv in g a mis sio n s ta te m en t in g ra n ite o r e n co ura g in g e v ery one to r e cite f ro m a h ym nal o f catc h phra se s. I t’ s a n ev er-e n din g p ro cess o f tr y in g, f a ilin g, r e fle ctin g, a n d a b ove all, l e arn in g. H ig h-p urp ose e n vir o nm en ts d on’t d esc en d o n g ro ups f ro m o n h ig h; th ey a re d ug o ut o f th e g ro und, o ver a n d o ver, a s a g ro up n av ig ate s its p ro ble m s to geth er a n d e v olv es t o m eet t h e c h alle n ges o f a f a st- c h an gin g w orld .

Here a re a f e w i d eas t o h elp y ou d o t h at.

Nam e a nd R ank Y our P rio rit ie s:

I n o rd er to m ove to w ard a ta rg et, y ou m ust f ir s t h av e a ta rg et. L is tin g y our p rio ritie s, w hic h m ean s w re stlin g w ith th e c h oic es th at defin e y our i d en tity , i s t h e f ir s t s te p . M ost s u ccessfu l g ro ups e n d u p w ith a s m all han dfu l of prio ritie s (fiv e or fe w er), an d m an y, not co in cid en ta lly , en d up pla cin g th eir in -g ro up re la tio nsh ip s— how th ey tr e at o ne a n oth er— at th e to p o f th e l is t. T his r e fle cts t h e t r u th t h at m an y s u ccessfu l g ro ups r e aliz e: T heir g re ate st pro je ct is build in g an d su sta in in g th e gro up its e lf . If th ey get th eir ow n re la tio nsh ip s r ig ht, e v ery th in g e ls e w ill f o llo w .

Be T en T im es a s C le ar A bout Y our P rio rit ie s a s Y ou T hin k Y ou S hould B e:

A w hile b ack In c.

mag azin e a sk ed e x ecu tiv es a t s ix h undre d c o m pan ie s to e stim ate th e p erc en ta g e of th eir w ork fo rc e w ho co uld n am e th e co m pan y’s to p th re e p rio ritie s. T he ex ecu tiv es p re d ic te d th at 6 4 p erc en t w ould b e a b le to n am e th em . W hen In c.

th en a sk ed e m plo yees to n am e th e p rio ritie s, o nly 2 p erc en t c o uld d o s o . T his is not th e e x cep tio n b ut th e ru le . L ead ers a re in here n tly b ia se d to p re su m e th at ev ery one in th e g ro up s e es th in gs a s th ey d o, w hen in fa ct th ey d on’t. T his is why it’ s necessa ry to dra stic ally overc o m munic ate prio ritie s. T he le ad ers I vis ite d w ith w ere n ot sh y a b out th is . S ta te m en ts o f p rio ritie s w ere p ain te d o n walls , s ta m ped o n e m ails , in can te d in s p eech es, d ro pped in to c o nvers a tio n, a n d re p eate d o ver a n d o ver u ntil t h ey b ecam e p art o f t h e o xygen . One w ay to cre ate aw are n ess is to m ak e a hab it of re g ula rly te stin g th e co m pan y’s v alu es a n d p urp ose , a s J a m es B urk e d id w ith th e C re d o c h alle n ge.

This in volv es c re atin g c o nvers a tio ns th at e n co ura g e p eo ple to g ra p ple w ith th e big q uestio ns: What a re w e a bout? W here a re w e h ea ded ?

M an y o f t h e l e ad ers I met se em ed to do th is in stin ctiv ely , cu ltiv atin g w hat m ig ht be calle d a pro ductiv e dis sa tis fa ctio n. They w ere m ild ly su sp ic io us of su ccess. They pre su m ed th at th ere w ere o th er, b ette r w ay s o f d oin g th in gs, an d th ey w ere unafra id o f ch an ge. T hey p re su m ed th ey d id n’t h av e all th e an sw ers an d so co nsta n tly s o ught g uid an ce a n d c la rity .

Fig ure O ut W here Y our G ro up A im s fo r P ro fic ie ncy a nd W here It A im s fo r C re ativ it y :

E very gro up s k ill c an b e s o rte d in to o ne o f tw o b asic ty pes: s k ills o f p ro fic ie n cy a n d sk ills o f c re ativ ity .

Skills o f p ro fic ie n cy a re a b out d oin g a ta sk th e s a m e w ay , e v ery s in gle tim e.

They are ab out d eliv erin g m ach in e-lik e re lia b ility , an d th ey te n d to ap ply in dom ain s in w hic h th e goal beh av io rs are cle arly defin ed , su ch as se rv ic e.

Build in g p urp ose to p erfo rm th ese s k ills is lik e b uild in g a v iv id m ap : Y ou w an t to s p otlig ht t h e g oal a n d p ro vid e c ry sta l- c le ar d ir e ctio ns t o t h e c h eck poin ts a lo ng th e w ay . W ay s t o d o t h at i n clu de:

• Fill t h e g ro up’s w in dsh ie ld w ith c le ar, a ccessib le m odels o f e x celle n ce.

• Pro vid e h ig h-re p etitio n, h ig h-fe ed back t r a in in g.

• Build v iv id , m em ora b le r u le s o f t h um b (if X , t h en Y ).

• Spotlig ht a n d h onor t h e f u ndam en ta ls o f t h e s k ill.

Cre ativ e sk ills , o n th e o th er h an d, a re a b out e m pow erin g a g ro up to d o th e hard w ork of build in g so m eth in g th at has nev er ex is te d befo re . G en era tin g purp ose in th ese are as is lik e su pply in g an ex ped itio n: Y ou n eed to p ro vid e su pport, f u el, a n d to ols a n d to s e rv e a s a p ro te ctiv e p re se n ce th at e m pow ers th e te am d oin g t h e w ork . S om e w ay s t o d o t h at i n clu de:

• Keen ly a tte n d t o t e am c o m positio n a n d d ynam ic s.

• Defin e, r e in fo rc e, a n d r e le n tle ssly p ro te ct t h e t e am ’s c re ativ e a u to nom y.

• Mak e i t s a fe t o f a il a n d t o g iv e f e ed back . • Cele b ra te h ugely w hen t h e g ro up t a k es i n itia tiv e.

Most g ro ups, o f c o urs e , c o nsis t o f a c o m bin atio n o f th ese s k ill ty pes, a s th ey aim f o r p ro fic ie n cy in c erta in a re as a n d c re ativ ity in o th ers . T he k ey is to c le arly id en tif y t h ese a re as a n d t a ilo r l e ad ers h ip a cco rd in gly .

Em bra ce th e U se o f C atc h phra se s:

W hen y ou lo ok a t s u ccessfu l g ro ups, a lo t o f th eir in te rn al la n guag e fe atu re s catc h phra se s th at o fte n so und o bvio us, ra h -ra h , o r co rn y. M an y o f u s in stin ctiv ely d is m is s th em a s c u ltis h ja rg on.

B ut th is is a mis ta k e. T heir o ccasio nally ch eesy o bvio usn ess is n ot a b ug— it’ s a fe atu re .

Their c la rity , g ra tin g t o t h e o uts id er’s e ar, i s p re cis e ly w hat h elp s t h em f u nctio n.

The tr ic k to b uild in g e ffe ctiv e c atc h phra se s is to k eep th em sim ple , a ctio n- orie n te d , a n d f o rth rig ht: “ C re ate f u n a n d a l ittle w eir d ness” ( Z ap pos), “ T alk l e ss, do m ore ” ( ID EO ), “ W ork h ard , b e n ic e” ( K IP P), “ P ound t h e r o ck ” ( S an A nto nio Spurs ), “ L eav e th e je rs e y in a b ette r p la ce” (N ew Z eala n d A ll- B la ck s), “ C re ate ra v es fo r g uests ” (D an ny M ey er’s re sta u ra n ts ). T hey ’re h ard ly p oetr y , b ut th ey sh are a n a ctio n-b ase d c la rity . T hey a re n ’t g en tle s u ggestio ns s o m uch a s c le ar re m in ders , c ris p n udges i n t h e d ir e ctio n t h e g ro up w an ts t o g o.

Measu re W hat R eally M atte rs :

T he m ain ch alle n ge to build in g a cle ar se n se of purp ose is th at th e w orld is clu tte re d w ith nois e , dis tr a ctio ns, an d en dle ss alte rn ativ e p urp ose s. O ne so lu tio n is to c re ate sim ple u niv ers a l m easu re s th at pla ce fo cu s o n w hat m atte rs . A g ood e x am ple h ap pen ed in th e e arly d ay s o f Zap pos, w hen T ony H sie h n otic ed t h at c all c en te r w ork ers w ere m easu re d b y t h e num ber o f c alls th ey h an dle d p er h our. H e r e aliz ed th at th is tr a d itio nal m easu re was a t o dds w ith t h e g ro up’s p urp ose a n d t h at i t w as d riv in g u nw an te d b eh av io rs (h aste a n d b re v ity , f o r s ta rte rs ). S o h e b an is h ed th at m etr ic a n d r e p la ced it w ith Pers o nal Em otio nal Connectio ns (P E C s), or cre atin g a bond outs id e th e co nvers a tio n ab out th e p ro duct. It’ s im possib le , o f co urs e , to m easu re P E C s pre cis e ly , but th e goal here is not pre cis io n; it is to cre ate aw are n ess an d alig nm en t an d to dir e ct beh av io r to w ard th e gro up’s m is sio n. So w hen a cu sto m er s e rv ic e a g en t s p en t a c o m pan y-re co rd 1 0 h ours a n d 2 9 m in ute s o n a call, Z ap pos c ele b ra te d a n d s e n t o ut a p re ss r e le ase .

* Use A rtif a cts :

If y ou tr a v ele d fro m M ars to E arth to v is it su ccessfu l c u ltu re s, it would n ot ta k e y ou lo ng to f ig ure o ut w hat th ey w ere a b out. T heir e n vir o nm en ts are r ic h ly e m bed ded w ith a rtif a cts t h at e m body t h eir p urp ose a n d i d en tity . T hese artif a cts v ary w id ely : th e b attle g ear o f so ld ie rs k ille d in c o m bat a t th e N av y SE A L h ead quarte rs ; th e O sc ar tr o phie s a cco m pan ie d b y h an d-d ra w n s k etc h es o f th e o rig in al c o ncep ts a t P ix ar; a n d th e ro ck a n d s le d geh am mer b eh in d g la ss a t th e S an A nto nio S purs pra ctic e fa cility , em bodyin g th e te am ’s catc h phra se “P ound t h e r o ck ”— but t h ey a ll r e in fo rc e t h e s a m e s ig nal: This i s w hat m atte rs .

Focu s o n B ar-S ettin g B ehavio rs :

O ne c h alle n ge o f b uild in g p urp ose is to tr a n sla te ab str a ct id eas ( v alu es, m is sio n) in to c o ncre te te rm s. O ne w ay s u ccessfu l g ro ups do t h is i s b y s p otlig htin g a s in gle t a sk a n d u sin g i t t o d efin e t h eir i d en tity a n d s e t th e b ar f o r t h eir e x pecta tio ns.

One g ood e x am ple i s t h e m en ’s h ock ey t e am a t Q uin nip ia c U niv ers ity , a s m all sc h ool in H am den , C onnectic u t. T he te am fie ld s fe w h ig hly re cru ite d p la y ers , yet it h as sp en t th e la st h alf -d ecad e a s o ne o f th e n atio n’s to p-ra n ked te am s.

Quin nip ia c’s co ach , R an d Peck nold , has built a cu ltu re aro und a sp ecif ic beh av io r h e c alls “ F orty fo r F orty .” T he p hra se re fe rs to b ack -c h eck in g, w hic h mean s r u sh in g b ack t o t h e d efe n siv e e n d i n r e sp onse t o t h e o th er t e am ’s a tta ck — basic ally , c h asin g th em d ow n. B ack -c h eck in g h ap pen s a ro und fo rty tim es p er gam e, a n d i t i s P eck nold ’s g oal t h at h is p la y ers g o a ll- o ut w ith 1 00 p erc en t e ffo rt on e ach o ne— in o th er w ord s, F orty f o r F orty . I t i s n ot e asy t o d o. B ack -c h eck in g is e x hau stin g, r e q uir e s k een a tte n tiv en ess, a n d— here ’s th e k ey — ra re ly m ak es a dif fe re n ce i n t h e g am e.

“It a lm ost n ev er p ay s o ff,” P eck nold s a y s. “ Y ou c an b ack -c h eck th ir ty -n in e tim es in a ro w , a n d it d oesn ’t m ak e a n y d if fe re n ce a t a ll in th e p la y . B ut th e fo rtie th tim e, m ay be s o m eth in g h ap pen s. Y ou g et a s tic k in , y ou s te al th e p uck , you s to p a g oal, o r y ou c re ate a tu rn over th at le ad s to a g oal. T hat o ne b ack - ch eck d oesn ’t s h ow u p a n yw here in th e s ta t b ooks, b ut it c an c h an ge a g am e.

That’ s w hy w e a re F orty f o r F orty . T hat’ s w ho w e a re .” Quin nip ia c te am m em bers ta lk a b out F orty fo r F orty a ll th e tim e. T hey ta lk ab out it d urin g p ra ctic e, d urin g g am es, a n d d urin g P eck nold ’s re g ula r o ne-o n- one m eetin gs w ith p la y ers . A nd o n th ose r a re m om en ts w hen a s u ccessfu l b ack - ch eck h ap pen s i n a g am e, P eck nold s p otlig hts t h e m om en t.

“T he n ex t d ay I g et it o n v id eo , a n d I s e t it a ll u p,” h e s a y s. “ I’m n ot o ne to dro p f -b om bs a l o t w ith t h e t e am — you g otta b e r e ally c are fu l w here y ou d o t h at.

But I d o it h ere . I’ll c u e u p th e ta p e o f th e b ack -c h eck a n d s e t it u p lik e it’ s a movie . I’ll sa y , ‘W atc h S hutty [fo rw ard T om my S hutt] rig ht here . L ook at fu ck in g S hutty g o. L ook a t h im ta k e th is g uy o ut.’ A nd e v ery body g oes n uts .

Even if S hutty ’s b ack -c h eck le ad s to a g oal, I n ev er ta lk a b out th e g uy w ho sc o re d th e g oal o r th e g uy w ho h ad th e a ssis t— th ey d on’t e v en e x is t. A ll I ta lk ab out i s S hutty a n d t h is g re at b ack -c h eck , a n d h ow i t h ap pen ed b ecau se w e w ere Forty fo r F orty . Y ou can se e all th e g uys fe elin g it, an d th e n ex t tim e w e pra ctic e, e v ery body i s o n i t, d oin g i t, l o vin g i t.” Peck nold is n ot th e o nly le ad er to b uild p urp ose a ro und s p otlig htin g a s m all, effo rtf u l b eh av io r. A t h is r e sta u ra n ts , D an ny M ey er i s k now n f o r m ovin g t h e s a lt sh ak er if it sh if ts e v en slig htly fro m its sp ot a t th e ta b le ’s c en te r. T each ers a t KIP P In fin ity in H arle m s till ta lk a b out h ow fo under D av e L ev in w ould p la ce each stu den t’ s w ate r bottle in m illim ete r-a ccu ra te arra n gem en t w ith th eir note b ooks o n th e f ir s t d ay o f s c h ool. P ix ar p uts h undre d s o f h ours o f e ffo rt in to th e t e ch nic al a n d s to ry te llin g q uality o f t h e s h ort, s ta n d-a lo ne a n im ate d f ilm s t h at ru n b efo re e ach o f its f e atu re s. T he s h orts lo se m oney , b ut th ey p ay o ff in o th er way s. T hey in vest in th e s tu dio ’s y oung ta le n t, c re ate e x perim en ta tio n, a n d m ost im porta n t, s h ow case t h e a tte n tio n a n d e x celle n ce t h ey c h an nel i n to e v ery t a sk . I n oth er w ord s, t h ese s m all e ffo rts a re p ow erfu l b ecau se t h ey t r a n sm it, a m plif y , a n d cele b ra te t h e p urp ose o f t h e w hole g ro up.

* The c all c o vere d a w id e v arie ty o f s u bje cts , i n clu din g m ovie s, f a v orite f o ods, a n d w hat i t’ s l ik e t o l iv e i n Las V eg as. I t r e su lte d i n t h e s a le o f o ne p air o f U gg b oots .

W ritin g a b ook, l ik e e v ery j o urn ey , l e av es a p ers o n c h an ged . A s I w ork ed o n t h is p ro je ct o ver th e p ast fo ur y ears , I fo und m yse lf n otic in g su btle m om en ts o f c o nnectio n th at I h ad p re v io usly m is se d . I a p pre cia te d h ow c erta in p la ces— th e l o cal b ak ery , m y c h ild re n ’s s c h ool, th e g as s ta tio n— use d s m all in te ra ctio ns to b uild a c o hesiv e c u ltu re . I f o und m yse lf a d m ir in g le ad ers w ho o pen ed u p a b out t h eir s h ortc o m in gs to c re ate h onest c o nvers a tio ns. A t h om e, I p are n te d a little d if fe re n tly : I ta lk ed le ss a n d f o cu se d m ore o n s e ek in g w ay s to c re ate b elo ngin g.

( C ard g am es a re th e a b so lu te b est.) It w asn ’t a s if I w ere s u dden ly g ra ced w ith X -ra y v is io n; i t w as m ore l ik e l e arn in g a s p ort. F ir s t y ou a re c lu m sy ; t h en a fte r a w hile , y ou g et b ette r.

One p la ce I u se d th ese s k ills m ost w as in c o ach in g a te am . I t w asn ’t a s p orts t e am b ut a t e am o f w rite rs a t t h e R uffin g M onte sso ri m id dle s c h ool i n C le v ela n d H eig hts , O hio , w hic h m y tw o y oungest d au ghte rs a tte n ded . T he w ritin g te am c o m pete d in P ow er o f th e P en , a sta te w id e c o m petitio n. S tu den ts p ra ctic e a ll y ear fo r a o ne-d ay to urn am en t at w hic h th ey are g iv en th re e sh ort p ro m pts ( “ K eep in g t h e S ecre t,” s a y , o r “ B urie d T re asu re ”) t o p ro duce t h re e s to rie s, w hic h j u dges th en s c o re a n d ra n k. It’ s a fu n a n d in sp ir in g e v en t, b ecau se it c o m bin es t h e c re ativ ity o f w ritin g w ith t h e s c o re b oard a d re n alin e o f s p orts .

It’ s a ls o a n e v en t a t w hic h R uffin g h ad h is to ric ally s tr u ggle d . I n th e p re v io us d ecad e ( I’d b een c o ach in g f o r t w o y ears ), i ts s tu den ts h ad o ccasio nally a d van ced p ast th e fir s t- ro und to urn am en t b ut ra re ly g ot m uch fu rth er. T his re su lt m ad e s e n se — afte r a ll, R uffin g is tin y, c o nsis tin g o f o nly fo rty stu den ts , c o m petin g a g ain st G olia th -s iz e s c h ools f ro m a ro und t h e s ta te . B ut i t m ad e m e w onder i f o ur t e am c o uld d o b ette r. S o in 2 014, a s a n e x perim en t, I d ecid ed to a p ply so m e i d eas f ro m t h e r e se arc h f o r t h is b ook.

Our fir s t w eek ly p ra ctic e se ssio n in O cto ber d re w n in e stu den ts . C ath erin e, Cars o n, Ellie , V ala , C aro lin e, N ats u m i, D av id , N ath an , an d Zoe w ere an en erg etic g ro up w ith a r a n ge o f s k ill le v els a n d m otiv atio ns. V ala a n d E llie w ere co nfid en t an d ex perie n ced w rite rs , w hile C ars o n an d C aro lin e w ere m ore hesita n t, ju st sta rtin g to str e tc h th eir c re ativ e m usc le s. I w as h esita n t, to o. In years p ast, I’d ta k en a tr a d itio nal (i.e ., a u th orita tiv e) a p pro ach to c o ach in g th e te am : I d id a lo t o f s p eak in g, g av e le ctu re -lik e ta lk s, th en p ro vid ed f e ed back o n th eir p ra ctic e s to rie s. I n te ach in g p arla n ce, I w as “ th e s a g e o n th e s ta g e,” a n d it was a c o m fo rta b le p la ce t o s ta n d. T his y ear, h ow ev er, w ould b e d if fe re n t.

Fir s t, I c h an ged th e se atin g a rra n gem en t. In y ears p ast w e h ad sa t in lo ose pro xim ity a t a s c atte rin g o f s m all t a b le s. N ow I s h oved f o ur s m all t a b le s t o geth er to fo rm o ne ta b le ju st b ig e n ough to fit th e te n o f u s, e lb ow to e lb ow . T hen , ra th er th an la u nch in g in to a le ctu re ab out good w ritin g, I ask ed th e te am , “W hat’ s y our fa v orite b ook rig ht n ow ?” W e w en t aro und th e cir c le . (H arry Potte r m ad e m ore t h an o ne a p peara n ce, a s d id Hunger G am es.

) Then I a sk ed w hy t h ose b ooks w ere s o g ood.

“B ecau se h e’s an o rp han ,” E llie sa id . “P re tty m uch ev ery g ood sto ry h as orp han s.” “B ecau se th ere ’s a n in te n se w ar h ap pen in g,” N ath an s a id . “ A ll th ese p eo ple are d yin g, a n d i t’ s b ru ta l a n d y ou d on’t w an t t h em t o d ie .” “B ecau se i t’ s j u st r e ally , r e ally g ood,” C ars o n s a id .

“W hy?” I a sk ed .

Cars o n sw allo w ed . H e w as a ta ll, sle n der k id , w ith la rg e d ark ey es an d a fo rm al m an ner. H e c h ose h is w ord s c are fu lly . “ B ecau se th e sto ry m ak es y ou worry a b out t h em ,” h e s a id .

“Y es,” I s a id . I g av e h im a f is t b um p, a n d h e s m ile d .

I a sk ed t h e t e am a n oth er q uestio n: “ W hat d o y ou not l ik e a b out w ritin g?” Answ ers c am e fa st: T hey d id n’t lik e c o m in g u p w ith id eas to w rite a b out.

Som etim es s to rie s c am e e asily , b ut o fte n th ey d id n’t, a n d th ey w ere le ft s ta rin g at a b la n k p ag e, w onderin g w hat t o w rite a b out.

“I ju st g et stu ck so m etim es,” C ath erin e sa id , sp eak in g fo r th e g ro up. “ I g et partw ay , a n d t h en I c an ’t t h in k o f a n yth in g.” I to ld th e te am I had so m eth in g to sh are w ith th em . I re ach ed in to m y back pack a n d, w ith a s h am ele ssly d ra m atic f lo uris h , p ro duced a s ta ck o f p ap er— early d ra fts o f t h is b ook. T hey t o ok t h e s h eets e ag erly . T hey k new I w as a w rite r, an d t h ey w ere e x pectin g t o f in d e x am ple s o f f a u ltle ss p ro se . But a s t h ey r e ad , t h ey s a w t h at t h e p ag es w ere n ’t p erfe ct. T o t h e c o ntr a ry , t h ey were r id dle d w ith h an dw ritte n e d its , l in e-o uts , a n d f ix es s c rib ble d i n t h e m arg in s.

Entir e p ag es h ad b een c ro sse d o ut. It d id n’t lo ok lik e th e w ork o f a p ublis h ed write r. I t l o oked l ik e a s c h ool a ssig nm en t t h at h ad e arn ed a r e so undin g F .

“T his i s y ours ? ” N ath an a sk ed .

“Y es,” I s a id .

“A re t h ere t h is m an y c h an ges e v ery t im e?” V ala a sk ed .

“E very t im e,” I s a id .

I to ld th em th at n oth in g I e v er w ro te w as p erfe ct; th at I o fte n g ot s tu ck a n d str u ggle d th ro ugh th e p ro cess o f b uild in g a s to ry . I to ld th em I te n ded to m ak e lo ts o f m is ta k es an d th at n otic in g an d fix in g th ose m is ta k es w as w here th e writin g i m pro ved .

Then I g av e th e te am a p ro m pt. A fte r th ey ’d w ritte n fo r fif te en m in ute s, I ask ed th em to p ut th eir p en s d ow n a n d e x pla in ed a s im ple ru le : E very one w as en co ura g ed to re ad th eir sto ry alo ud, an d ev ery one w as en co ura g ed to g iv e fe ed back . S om e o f th e s tu den ts w ere h esita n t a b out re ad in g th eir s to rie s a lo ud, an d th ey la ck ed th e la n guag e to critiq ue o th er sto rie s. B ut slo w ly , as w eek s passe d , w e g ot b ette r. C aro lin e, w ho h ad n’t w an te d to re ad h er s to rie s a t fir s t, sta rte d to sh are m ore o pen ly , b rin gin g u s in to th e sc i- fi w orld s sh e lik ed to cre ate . N ats u m i, in itia lly hesita n t ab out offe rin g critic is m to her te am mate s, sta rte d w eig hin g i n w ith w arm , p oin te d g uid an ce.

We a d opte d a “ W hat W ork ed W ell/E ven B ette r If” fo rm at fo r th e fe ed back se ssio ns: fir s t cele b ra tin g th e sto ry ’s positiv es, th en offe rin g id eas fo r im pro vem en t. O ver tim e th e ex ch an ges str e n gth en ed in to hab its ; th e gro up sto pped b eh av in g l ik e a t y pic al c la ss a n d s ta rte d b eh av in g l ik e t h e k in derg artn ers in th e sp ag hetti- m ars h m allo w c h alle n ge: w ork in g sh ould er to sh ould er, fix in g pro ble m s, t h in kin g a s o ne.

Mean w hile I f o cu se d o n s u pportin g t h ose i n te ra ctio ns. W hen s o m eo ne w ro te a su ccessfu l s to ry o r o ffe re d a p artic u la rly in cis iv e c o m men t, I d id n’t s a y a w ord but ra th er gav e a fis t bum p. L ik e D an ny M ey er, I flo oded th e zo ne w ith catc h phra se s to g uid e th em th ro ugh th e w ritin g-a n d-fix in g p ro cess. O ne w as “P ow er o f t h e P ro ble m ,” w hic h r e m in ded t h em t h at m ost e ffe ctiv e s to rie s c o nsis t of c h ara cte rs str u gglin g w ith h uge p ro ble m s, th e b ig ger, th e b ette r. (A fte r a ll, Cap ta in A hab d oesn ’t c h ase m in now s.) A noth er w as “ U se Y our C am era ,” w hic h re m in ded th em to c o ntr o l th e p oin t o f v ie w . (D o y ou w an t to ta k e th e re ad er in sid e th e c h ara cte r’s m in d, o r to o bse rv e th em fro m a b ove?) I to ld th em o ver an d o ver: “ E very s to ry s h ould h av e V OW : v oic e, o bsta cle s, a n d w an tin g. T he big ger th e p ro ble m , th e b ette r th e sto ry . Y ou g uys a re c re ativ e a th le te s— you hav e t o h elp e ach o th er g et b ette r.” For m e, in s o m e w ay s, th is c o ach in g s ty le w as m ore d em an din g. It re q uir e d more r e fle ctio n, th in kin g a b out w ay s to ig nite d is c u ssio n a n d to m otiv ate . I a ls o str u ggle d w ith th e ch alle n ge of not doin g th in gs: allo w in g co nvers a tio ns to occasio nally ra m ble o ff-to pic in ste ad o f le ap in g in to se iz e co ntr o l. In o th er way s, h ow ev er, th e n ew sty le w as easie r.

In ste ad o f fo cu sin g o n co nvey in g know le d ge ( w hic h d em an ded lo ts o f p re p ara tio n a n d p re cis io n), I c o uld s e rv e a s a g uid e, le ttin g th e g ro up f u nctio n, w atc h in g f o r m om en ts w here I c o uld s te p in an d, w ith a p hra se o r b ody la n guag e, c re ate s o m e a w are n ess o r, b ette r, h ig hlig ht a s u ccessfu l c h oic e t h ey h ad m ad e.

The dis tr ic t to urn am en t to ok pla ce on V ale n tin e’s D ay . T hat m orn in g a bliz zard d esc en ded o n n orth easte rn O hio , d eliv erin g fiv e in ch es o f sn ow a n d fo rty -fo ur-m ile -p er-h our w in ds. W e d ro ve to th e h ost s c h ool th ro ugh th e s to rm , catc h in g g lim pse s o f cars an d se m is sp un o ff th e ro ad , em erg en cy se rv ic es work ers h uddle d b y th e ro ad sid e, in a ro arin g m oonsc ap e o f w hite th at lo oked lik e th e z o m bie a p ocaly pse . “ W e sh ould w rite a sto ry a b out th is sto rm ,” Z oe sa id , a n d th e re st o f th e te am s ta rte d w eav in g n arra tiv es fro m th e im ag es th ey sa w .

When w e a rriv ed a t th e h ost s c h ool, w e f o und a ta b le n ear th e w in dow . T hen th e k id s b um ped fis ts a n d d is a p peare d in to c la ssro om s to re ceiv e th eir p ro m pts an d w rite th eir s to rie s. T w o h ours la te r th ey e m erg ed , w id e-e y ed a n d w ru ng o ut.

At th re e o’c lo ck , afte r sc o rin g an d ra n kin g all th e pie ces, th e to urn am en t org an iz ers u sh ere d u s, a lo ng w ith se v era l h undre d o th er c o m petito rs , in to th e gym t o a n nounce t h e w in ners .

Long sto ry sh ort: W e d id w ell. In th e se v en th -g ra d e d iv is io n, Z oe fin is h ed fo urte en th . In th e eig hth -g ra d e d iv is io n, N ath an fin is h ed tw elf th , V ala te n th , Nats u m i fo urth , an d E llie fir s t. B y d ay ’s en d, w e w ere lif tin g th e fir s t- p la ce tr o phy f o r e ig hth g ra d e. A f e w w eek s la te r th e te am p erfo rm ed s im ila rly w ell in an oth er d is tr ic t to urn am en t, w here Z oe w on fir s t p la ce a n d b est o f ro und. F our stu den ts q ualif ie d fo r s ta te s, th e m ost in th e s c h ool’ s h is to ry , a n d E llie w on a n aw ard f o r t a le n te d y oung w rite rs .

But f o r m e t h at w as n ot t h e h ig hlig ht. T he h ig hlig ht i n volv ed C ars o n, t h e q uie t eig hth -g ra d er w ho h ad n ev er d one m uch w ritin g. W hile h e d id n ot a d van ce p ast th e d is tr ic t to urn am en t, h e k ep t sh ow in g u p a t T uesd ay p ra ctic e se ssio ns. H e wasn ’t so sh y an ym ore ab out sh arin g his w ritin g, an d he w as sh ow in g his cre ativ ity in o th er w ay s. ( T hat s p rin g, to th e s u rp ris e o f te ach ers a n d p are n ts , h e would p erfo rm a te rrif ic A ttic u s F in ch in th e s c h ool’ s p ro ductio n o f To K ill a Mockin gbir d .

) On th e te am , C ars o n’s s p ecia lty w as w ritin g c o m ic s to rie s a b out a le g en dary ch ara cte r n am ed J o hnny M cT ough, a ta ll, h an dso m e, tita n ic ally c o nfid en t h ig h sc h oole r w ho w as u nder th e m is im pre ssio n th at h e w as th e g re ate st fo otb all pla y er in th e w orld . Jo hnny M cT ough sto rie s w ere w onderfu l p artly b ecau se Jo hnny’s u nsh ak ab le b elie f t h at h e d id n’t n eed a n yone— not a c o ach , n ot a t e am , not h is p are n ts , n ot e v en a h elm et— le d h im i n to a ll k in ds o f f u nny p re d ic am en ts .

But m ostly th ey w ere w onderfu l becau se of th e w ay C ars o n an d th e te am in te ra cte d .

E ach w eek , in a sw ag gerin g, m ach o voic e, C ars o n w ould re la te Jo hnny M cT ough’s l a te st a d ven tu re , a n d t h e t e am w ould l a u gh u pro ario usly . W e would la u gh a t th e s p ecta cle o f th is m is g uid ed h ero w ho th ought h e c o uld ta k e on th e w orld a lo ne. T hen w e w ould a ll s ta rt w ork in g to geth er to m ak e th at s to ry ev en b ette r. For m y f a th er W ritin g t h is b ook w as a t e am p ro je ct, a n d I a m l u ck y t o h av e s o m e e x cep tio nally s k ille d c o ach es. F ore m ost a m ong t h em a re A ndy W ard , m y b rillia n t e d ito r, a n d D av id B la ck , m y s u perb a g en t.

My b ro th er M au ric e is an in cre d ib ly ta le n te d ed ito r an d w rite r, an d w as in valu ab le th ro ughout th e r e se arc h an d w ritin g pro cess, cre atin g co ncep ts , ch alle n gin g id eas, ed itin g m an usc rip ts , an d patie n tly e n gag in g in h undre d s o f c o nvers a tio ns. T hose c o nvers a tio ns, m ore th an a n y o th ers , a re w here th is b ook t o ok i ts s h ap e.

At R an dom H ouse , I’d lik e to th an k K aela M yers , C in dy M urra y , S usa n C orc o ra n , K im H ovey , K ara W als h , S an yu D illo n, D eb bie A ro ff, T here sa Z oro , M ax M in ck le r, S co tt S han non, S im on S ulliv an , A m elia Z alc m an , P ao lo P ep e, a n d G in a C en tr e llo . A t B la ck I n c: S usa n R aih ofe r, E m ily H offm an , S ara h S m ith , a n d J e n ny H erre ra . A t W an ash ak er: M arg are t E w en , K ath ry n E w en , a n d A drie n ne Z an d. A t P ix ar: E d C atm ull, M ic h elle R ad clif f, W en dy T an zillo , an d M ik e S undy. A t th e S an A nto nio S purs : R . C . B ufo rd , C hip E ngella n d, C had F orc ie r, a n d S ean M ark s. A t Z ap pos: M ag gie H su , J o e M ah on, L is a S hufro , A ngel S ugg, J e an ne M ark el, Z ubin D am an ia , Z ach W are , a n d C onnie Y eh . A t ID EO : D uan e B ra y , N ili M etu ki, N jo ki G ita h i, L aw re n ce A bra h am so n, P ete r A nto nelli, a n d N ad ia W alk er. A t K IP P: D av e L ev in , M ik e F ein berg , J o e N eg ro n, A llis o n W illis H olle y , L au re n A bra m so n, A ngela F asc illa , J e ff L i, C arly S co tt, A le x a R och e, a n d G le n n D av is . A t th e U prig ht C itiz en s B rig ad e: K ev in H in es an d N ate D ern . A t U nio n S quare H osp ita lity G ro up: D an ny M ey er, E rin M ora n , H ale y C arro ll, R ic h ard C ora in e, R ach el H offh eim er, S usa n R eilly S alg ad o, S te p han ie J a ck so n, K im D iP alo , A llis o n S ta ad , a n d T an ya E dm unds. I ’d a ls o lik e to th an k t h e m em bers o f t h e N av y S E A L c o m munity w ho p re fe r n ot t o b e n am ed h ere .

Man y w ith in th e s c ie n tif ic c o m munity g av e o f th eir tim e a n d e x pertis e . I’d lik e to e sp ecia lly th an k J a y V an B av el, A m y E dm ondso n, S ig al B ars a d e, G re g ory W alto n, G eo ff C ohen , J e ff P olz er, C arl M arc i, W ill F elp s, T om A lle n , J e ffry S im pso n, C lif fo rd S to tt, A ndy M olin sk y, B ra d le y S ta ats , O re n L ed erm an , A le x P en tla n d, R eb R eb ele , C onsta n tin os C outif a ris , M atth ew C orrito re , a n d B en W ab er.

Man y c o lle ag ues a n d f rie n ds g en ero usly s h are d in sig hts a b out g ro up p erfo rm an ce a n d c u ltu re — in m an y c ase s b ecau se th ey h ap pen ed to b e m em bers o f te rrif ic o rg an iz atio ns. I’d e sp ecia lly lik e to th an k C hris A nto netti, M ik e C hern off, T erry F ra n co na, P au l a n d K are n D ola n , D ere k F alv ey , C arte r H aw kin s, J a m es H arris , C eci C la rk , B ria n M ile s, O sc ar G utie rre z R am ir e z, A le x E ck elm an , E ric B in der, M att F orm an , T om W ie d en bau er, S ky A ndre ch eck , V ic to r W an g, A le x M erb erg , M att B la k e, J o hnny G ory l, M arle n e L eh ky, N ild a T afa n elli, R oss A tk in s, M ark S hap ir o , A dam G ra n t, P ete r V in t, Jo hn K esse l, C hris G ra n t, Je rry A zzin aro , Jo sh G ib so n, S te v e G era , R ic h D iv in ey , S am P re sti, B illy D onovan , M ark D aig neau lt, O liv er W in te rb one, D ustin S eale , S co tt M cL ach la n , M ik e F ord e, H en ry A bbott, D av id E pste in , A le x G ib ney , L asz lo B ock , T om W uje c, B ob B ow m an , D av id M ars h , F in n G unders o n, R ic h ie G ra h am , A nne B ufo rd , T ro y F la n ag an , S haw n H unte r, D en nis J a ffe , R an d P eck nold , B re tt L ed bette r, P ete C arro ll, C in dy B ris to w , M ic h ael R uhlm an , B ill P ab st, J a y B erh alte r, N ic o R om eijn , W im v an Z w am , S co tt F lo od, D an R usse ll, a n d D oug L em ov. On th e p ers o nal s id e, I’d lik e to th an k J o n C oyle , M aria n J o nes, J o hn G iu ggio , R ob F is h er, F re d a n d Beeb F is h er, T om K iz zia , T odd B alf , J e ff a n d C in dy K elle r, L au ra H ohnhold , M ik e P ate rn iti, S ara C orb ett, Mark B ry an t, M ars h all S ella , K ath ie F re er, T om a n d C atie B urs c h , P au l C ox, K ir s te n D octe r, R ob a n d Em ily P olla rd , D av e L ucas, G eo rg e B ilg ere , D oug a n d L is a V ah ey , C arri T hurm an , J o hn R ohr, G eo B each , Sydney W eb b, a n d L is a D am our f o r h er s h arp e d ito r’s e y e.

Fin ally , I ’d l ik e t o t h an k m y p are n ts , M au ric e a n d A gnes C oyle , w ho h av e b een n orth s ta rs o f i n sp ir a tio n an d su pport fro m th e v ery sta rt. I’d lik e to th an k m y c h ild re n , A id an , K atie , L ia , a n d Z oe, w ho a re th e gre ate st s o urc es o f j o y a n d m ean in g i n m y l if e , a n d w ho m ak e m e i n cre d ib ly p ro ud. A nd m ost o f a ll I ’d l ik e to th an k m y w if e , J e n , w hose w arm th , s m arts , a n d k in dness lig ht u p e v ery d ay w ith lo ve. T his b ook o nly ex is ts b ecau se o f y ou.

I n tr o ductio n · W hen T w o P lu s T w o E quals T en F or m ore o n c u ltu re ’s e ffe ct o n th e b otto m lin e, s e e J o hn K otte r a n d J a m es H esk ett’ s Corp ora te C ultu re a nd P erfo rm ance (N ew Y ork : T he F re e P re ss, 1 992); D . D en is o n a n d A . M is h ra , “ T ow ard a T heo ry o f O rg an iz atio nal C ultu re a n d E ffe ctiv en ess,” Org aniz a tio n S cie n ce 6 ( 1 995), 2 04–23; a n d G . G ord on a n d N .

D iT om aso , “P re d ic tin g C orp ora te P erfo rm an ce fro m O rg an iz atio nal C ultu re ,” Jo urn al of M anagem en t S tu die s 2 9 ( 1 992), 7 83–98.

1 · T he G ood A pple s F or m ore o n b elo ngin g c u es, se e W . F elp s, T . M itc h ell, a n d E . B yin gto n, “ H ow , W hen , a n d W hy B ad A pple s S poil th e B arre l: N eg ativ e G ro up M em ber a n d D ysfu nctio nal G ro ups,” Rese a rc h in O rg aniz a tio nal B eh avio r 2 7 ( 2 006), 1 75–222; J . C urh an a n d A . P en tla n d, “ T hin S lic es o f N eg otia tio n: P re d ic tin g O utc o m es f ro m C onvers a tio nal D ynam ic s W ith in th e F ir s t F iv e M in ute s,” Jo urn al o f A pplie d P sy ch olo gy 9 2 ( 2 007), 8 02–11; an d W illia m S to ltz m an ’s “T ow ard a S ocia l S ig nalin g F ra m ew ork : A ctiv ity an d E m phasis in S peech ,” m aste r’s th esis , M IT (2 006). F or an ex plo ra tio n o f so cio m etr ic s, se e A le x P en tla n d’s Honest S ig nals (C am brid ge, M A: M IT P re ss, 2 008) a n d Socia l P hysic s (N ew Y ork : T he P en guin P re ss, 2 014) a s w ell a s B en W ab er’s Peo ple A naly tic s ( U pper S ad dle R iv er, N J: P ears o n F T P re ss, 2 013).

The c o ncep t o f p sy ch olo gic al s a fe ty w as p io neere d b y W illia m K ah n in “ P sy ch olo gic al C onditio ns o f P ers o nal E ngag em en t a n d D is e n gag em en t a t W ork ,” Aca dem y o f M anagem en t J o urn al 1 1 ( 1 990), 6 92–724.

A m y E dm ondso n’s w ork in th is are a is outs ta n din g; you can fin d m uch of it in Tea m in g: H ow O rg aniz a tio ns L ea rn , In nova te , a nd C om pete in th e K now le d ge E co nom y (S an F ra n cis c o : Jo sse y -B ass P fe if fe r, 2 012).

2 · T he B illio n-D olla r D ay W hen N oth in g H appened F or a d eep er lo ok a t G oogle ’s d ev elo pm en t o f th e A dW ord s e n gin e, s e e S te v en L ev y’s In th e P le x (N ew Y ork : S im on & S ch uste r, 2 011). F or m ore o n th e s u ccess ra te s o f d if fe re n t o rg an iz atio nal m odels , s e e J .

B aro n a n d M . H an nan , “ O rg an iz atio nal B lu ep rin ts fo r S uccess in H ig h-T ech S ta rtu ps: L esso ns fro m th e S ta n fo rd P ro je ct o n E m erg in g C om pan ie s,” Califo rn ia M anagem en t R evie w 4 4 (2 002), 8 –36; an d M .

H an nan , J . B aro n, G . H su , a n d O . K ocak , “ O rg an iz atio nal I d en titie s a n d th e H azard o f C han ge,” In dustr ia l and C orp ora te C hange 1 5 ( 2 006), 7 55–84.

For m ore o n b elo ngin g c u es a n d b eh av io r c h an ge, s e e G . W alto n, G . C ohen , D . C w ir , a n d S . S pen cer, “M ere B elo ngin g: T he P ow er o f S ocia l C onnectio ns,” Jo urn al o f P erso nality a nd S ocia l P sy ch olo gy 1 02 (2 012), 513–32; G . W alto n an d P. Carr, “S ocia l Belo ngin g an d th e M otiv atio n an d In te lle ctu al Ach ie v em en t of N eg ativ ely Ste re o ty ped Stu den ts ,” in Ste re o ty p e Thre a t: Theo ry , Pro cesse s, and Applic a tio n, M . I n zlic h t a n d T . S ch m ad er ( e d s.) ( N ew Y ork : O xfo rd U niv ers ity P re ss, 2 012); A . B ro oks, H .

Dai, an d M . S ch w eitz er, “I’m S orry A bout th e R ain ! S uperflu ous A polo gie s D em onstr a te E m path ic Concern a n d I n cre ase T ru st,” Socia l P sy ch olo gic a l a nd P erso nality S cie n ce 5 ( 2 014), 4 67–74; G . C arte r, K .

Clo ver, I. W hyte , A . D aw so n, a n d C . D ’E ste , “ P ostc ard s fro m th e E dge P ro je ct: R an dom is e d C ontr o lle d Tria l of an In te rv en tio n U sin g Postc ard s to R ed uce R ep etitio n of H osp ita l T re ate d D elib era te Self Pois o nin g,” BM J ( 2 005); a n d P . F is c h er, A . S au er, C . V ogrin cic , a n d S . W eis w eile r, “ T he A ncesto r E ffe ct:

Thin kin g ab out O ur G en etic O rig in E nhan ces In te lle ctu al P erfo rm an ce,” Euro pea n Jo urn al of Socia l Psy ch olo gy 4 1 ( 2 010), 1 1–16.

For m ore o n h ow b elo ngin g a n d i d en tity w ork i n sid e t h e b ra in , s e e J . V an B av el, L . H ack el, a n d Y . X ia o , “T he G ro up M in d: T he P erv asiv e I n flu en ce o f S ocia l I d en tity o n C ognitio n,” Rese a rc h a nd P ersp ectiv es in Neu ro sc ie n ces 2 1 ( 2 013), 4 1–56; D . P ack er a n d J . V an B av el, “ T he D ynam ic N atu re o f I d en tity : F ro m th e Bra in to B eh av io r,” The P sy ch olo gy o f C hange: L ife C onte xts , E xp erie n ces, a nd I d en titie s, N . B ra n sc o m be an d K . R ey nold s (e d s.) (H ove, U nite d K in gdom : P sy ch olo gy P re ss, 2 015); a n d D . d e C re m er a n d M . v an Vugt, “S ocia l Id en tif ic atio n E ffe cts in S ocia l D ile m mas,” Euro pea n Jo urn al o f S ocia l P sy ch olo gy 2 9 (1 999), 8 71–93.

3 · T he C hris tm as T ru ce , th e O ne-H our E xp erim ent, a nd th e M is sile ers The C hris tm as T ru ce s to ry h as b een to ld in m an y p la ces; th e m ost in -d ep th v ers io ns c an b e f o und in T ony Ash w orth ’s Tre n ch W arfa re 1 914–1918: T he L iv e a nd L et- L iv e S yste m (L ondon: P an B ooks, 2 000) a n d Sta n le y W ein tr a u b’s Sile n t N ig ht ( N ew Y ork : P lu m e, 2 002). F or a w id e-a n gle lo ok a t h ow a ltr u is m w ork s, se e R obert A xelr o d’s The E vo lu tio n of C oopera tio n (N ew Y ork : B asic B ooks, 1984) an d M ic h ael Tom ase llo ’s Why W e C oopera te ( C am brid ge, M A: M IT P re ss, 2 009).

For m ore o n th e W IP R O ex perim en t, se e D . C ab le , F . G in o, an d B . S ta ats , “B re ak in g T hem In o r Rev ealin g Their B est? R efra m in g Socia liz atio n A ro und N ew co m er Self -E xpre ssio n,” Adm in is tr a tiv e Scie n ce Q uarte rly 5 8 ( 2 013), 1 –36. F or m ore o n th e n ucle ar-la u nch c re w s, I ’d r e co m men d E ric S ch lo sse r’s Com mand a nd C ontr o l ( N ew Y ork : T he P en guin P re ss, 2 013).

4 · H ow to B uild B elo ngin g For N eil P ain e’s stu dy of P opovic h ’s co ach in g dom in an ce, se e fiv eth ir ty eig ht.c o m / fe atu re s/ 2014-n ba- pre v ie w -th e-ris e -o f-th e-w arrio rs / . F or m ore o n th e s tu dy o f w hy N BA p la y ers te n d to b eh av e s e lf is h ly , s e e E. U hlm an n a n d C . B arn es, “ S elf is h P la y I n cre ase s D urin g H ig h-S ta k es N BA G am es a n d I s R ew ard ed w ith More L ucra tiv e C ontr a cts ,” PLoS O NE 9 ( 2 014).

For m ore o n th e m ag ic al- fe ed back stu dy, se e D . Y eag er, V . P urd ie -V au ghns, J. G arc ia , N . A pfe l, P .

Brz u sto sk i, A . M aste r, W . H esse rt, M . W illia m s, a n d G . C ohen , “ B re ak in g th e C ycle o f M is tr u st: W is e In te rv en tio ns t o P ro vid e C ritic al F eed back A cro ss t h e R acia l D iv id e,” Jo urn al o f E xp erim en ta l P sy ch olo gy:

Gen era l 1 43 ( 2 013), 8 04–24 . 5 · H ow to D esig n fo r B elo ngin g For m ore o n T hom as A lle n ’s w ork , s e e Managin g th e F lo w o f T ech nolo gy: T ech nolo gy T ra nsfe r a nd th e Dis se m in atio n o f T ech nolo gic a l In fo rm atio n W ith in th e R & D O rg aniz a tio n (C am brid ge, M A: M IT P re ss, 1984).

Hsie h ’s u rg e t o M acG yver i s s till s tr o ng. A ro und t h e t im e I v is ite d , h e b eg an i m ple m en tin g a r a d ic al n ew man ag em en t a p pro ach c alle d h ola cra cy , w hic h s e ek s to re p la ce tr a d itio nal m an ag ers w ith s e lf -o rg an iz in g “cir c le s” in w hic h p eo ple d ete rm in e th eir o w n ta sk s a n d r o le s. T o s a y th at h ola cra cy w asn ’t a n im med ia te su ccess w ould b e t o p ut i t m ild ly . I t c au se d a w av e o f e m plo yee d ep artu re s, a n d i n 2 016 t h e c o m pan y f a ile d to m ak e Fortu ne m ag azin e’s T op 1 00 B est P la ces to W ork lis t f o r th e f ir s t tim e in s e v en y ears . H sie h h as sin ce m oved to a n e v en m ore a b str a ct m an ag em en t s y ste m c alle d T eal. W heth er th e o rg an iz atio n a n d th e cu ltu re c an c o ntin ue t o t h riv e r e m ain s t o b e s e en .

6 · Id eas fo r A ctio n For m ore o n th e p ow er o f g ra titu de, s e e L . W illia m s a n d M . B artle tt, “ W arm T han ks: G ra titu de E xpre ssio n Facilita te s S ocia l A ffilia tio n in N ew R ela tio nsh ip s v ia P erc eiv ed W arm th ,” Em otio n 1 5 (2 014); a n d A .

Gra n t a n d F . G in o, “ A L ittle T han ks G oes a L ong W ay : E xpla in in g W hy G ra titu de E xpre ssio ns M otiv ate Pro so cia l B eh av io r,” Jo urn al o f P erso nality a nd S ocia l P sy ch olo gy 9 8 (2 010), 9 46–55. F or m ore o n th e sh ortc o m in gs o f s a n dw ic h fe ed back , s e e C . V on B erg en , M . B re ssle r, a n d K . C am pbell, “ T he S an dw ic h Feed back M eth od: N ot V ery T asty ,” Jo urn al o f B eh avio ra l S tu die s i n B usin ess 7 ( 2 014).

Em ails a re r ic h r e p osito rie s o f b elo ngin g c u es; h ere a re t w o s tu die s t h at s h ow h ow t h ey r e v eal t h e i n te rn al fa b ric o f g ro ups: L . W u, “ S ocia l N etw ork E ffe cts o n P ro ductiv ity a n d Jo b S ecu rity : E vid en ce fro m th e Adoptio n of a Socia l N etw ork in g T ool,” In fo rm atio n Syste m s R ese a rc h 24 (2 013), 30–51; an d S.

Sriv asta v a, A . G old berg , V . M an ia n , an d C . Potts , “E ncu ltu ra tio n T ra je cto rie s: L an guag e, C ultu ra l Adap ta tio n, a n d I n div id ual O utc o m es i n O rg an iz atio ns,” Managem en t S cie n ce , f o rth co m in g.

7 · “ T ell M e W hat Y ou W ant, a nd I’ll H elp Y ou” Flig ht 232’s co ck pit voic e re co rd in g can be fo und at av ia tio n-s a fe ty .n et/ in vestig atio n/ cv r/ tr a n sc rip ts / cv r_ ua2 32.p df . C ap ta in A l H ay nes p ro vid ed a d eta ile d a cco unt o f th e c ra sh in a M ay 2 4, 1 991, s p eech to th e N ASA A m es R ese arc h C en te r a t th e D ry den F lig ht R ese arc h F acility in E dw ard s, C A , th e tr a n sc rip t o f whic h can be fo und at cle ar-p ro p.o rg / av ia tio n/ hay nes.h tm l . In ad ditio n, se e Flig ht 232 by L au re n ce Gonzale s (N ew Y ork : W . W . N orto n & C om pan y, 2 014) an d Confr o ntin g M is ta kes b y Ja n U . H ag en (L ondon: P alg ra v e M acm illa n , 2 013).

Anoth er ele m en t o f F lig ht 2 32’s sto ry in volv es a se t o f tr a in in g p ro ced ure s calle d C re w R eso urc e Man ag em en t, w hic h h ad b een e sta b lis h ed b y th e N atio nal T ra n sp orta tio n S afe ty B oard in th e la te 1 970s afte r se v era l c ra sh es c au se d b y p ilo t e rro r. T he tr a in in g so ught to re p la ce th e to p-d ow n “ p ilo t is a lw ay s rig ht” c u ltu re w ith fra n k, fa st c o m munic atio n, te ach in g c ap ta in a n d c re w a s e rie s o f s im ple b eh av io rs a n d hab its d esig ned to re v eal a n d so lv e p ro ble m s to geth er. P rio r to F lig ht 2 32’s c ra sh , C ap ta in H ay nes h ad underg one s e v era l w eek s o f C RM tr a in in g; h e c re d ite d th e p ro gra m f o r s a v in g h is lif e a n d th at o f th e o th er su rv iv ors .

8 · T he V uln era bilit y L oop For m ore o n th e s c ie n ce o f g en era tin g in div id ual a n d g ro up c lo se n ess, s e e A . A ro n, E . M elin at, E . A ro n, an d R . B ato r, “T he Experim en ta l G en era tio n of In te rp ers o nal C lo se n ess: A Pro ced ure an d Som e Pre lim in ary F in din gs,” Perso nality a nd S ocia l P sy ch olo gy B ulle tin 2 3 (1 997), 3 63–77; W . S w an n, L .

Milto n, a n d J . P olz er, “ S hould W e C re ate a N ic h e o r F all in L in e? Id en tity N eg otia tio n a n d S m all G ro up Effe ctiv en ess,” Jo urn al o f P erso nality a nd S ocia l P sy ch olo gy 7 9, (2 000), 2 38–50; an d J. C hatm an , J.

Polz er, S . B ars a d e, a n d M . N eale , “ B ein g D if fe re n t Y et F eelin g S im ila r: T he In flu en ce o f D em ogra p hic Com positio n an d O rg an iz atio nal C ultu re on W ork P ro cesse s an d O utc o m es,” Adm in is tr a tiv e Scie n ce Quarte rly 4 3 ( 1 998), 7 49–80.

For m ore o n th e th e m ach in ery o f tr u st, s e e D . D eS te n o, M . B artle tt, J . B au m an n, L . W illia m s, a n d L .

Dic k en s, “ G ra titu de a s a M ora l S en tim en t: E m otio n-G uid ed C oopera tio n i n E co nom ic E xch an ge,” Em otio n 10 ( 2 010), 2 89–93; a n d B . v on D aw an s, U . F is c h bach er, C . K ir s c h bau m , E . F eh r, a n d M . H ein ric h s, “ T he Socia l Dim en sio n of Str e ss Reactiv ity : Acu te Str e ss In cre ase s Pro so cia l Beh av io r in Hum an s,” Psy ch olo gic a l S cie n ce 2 3 ( 2 012), 6 51–60. F or a d eep er e x plo ra tio n, s e e D av id D eS te n o’s The T ru th A bout Tru st ( N ew Y ork : H udso n S tr e et, 2 014).

For m ore o n th e R ed B allo on C halle n ge, s e e J . T an g, M . C eb ria n , N . G ia co be, H . K im , T . K im , a n d D .

Wic k ert, “ R efle ctin g o n t h e D ARPA R ed B allo on C halle n ge,” Com munic a tio ns o f t h e A C M 5 4 ( 2 011), 7 8– 85; a n d G . P ic k ard , I . R ah w an , W . P an , M . C eb ria n , R . C ra n e, A . M ad an , a n d A . P en tla n d, “ T im e-C ritic al Socia l M obiliz atio n,” Scie n ce 3 34 ( 2 011), 5 09–12.

9 · T he S uper-C oopera to rs For m ore on th e orig in s of th e N av y S E A Ls, se e Am eric a ’s F ir st F ro gm an by E liz ab eth K au ffm an (A nnap olis , M D: N av al In stitu te P re ss, 2 004). F or m ore o n th e U prig ht C itiz en s B rig ad e, s e e Hig h-S ta tu s Chara cte rs b y B ria n R afte ry (N ew Y ork : M eg aw att P re ss, 2 013); The U prig ht C itiz e n s B rig ade C om ed y Im pro vis a tio nal M anual b y M att B esse r, I a n R oberts , a n d M att W als h ( N ew Y ork :

T he C om ed y C ouncil o f Nic ea L LC , 2 013); Yes, A nd b y K elly L eo nard a n d T om Y orto n (N ew Y ork : H arp erB usin ess, 2 015); a n d The F unnie st O ne in th e R oom : T he L iv es a nd L eg en ds o f D el C lo se b y K im H ow ard J o hnso n (C hic ag o:

Chic ag o R ev ie w P re ss, 2 008).

11 · H ow to C re ate C oopera tio n w it h In div id uals For m ore o n B ell L ab s, s e e D av id G ertn er’s The I d ea F acto ry : B ell L abs a nd th e G re a t A ge o f A m eric a n In nova tio n ( N ew Y ork : P en guin P re ss, 2 012). F or m ore o n I D EO , s e e The A rt o f I n nova tio n b y T om K elle y (N ew York : Curre n cy Double d ay , 2001) an d Change by Desig n by Tom Bro w n (N ew York :

Harp erB usin ess, 2 009).

For stu die s o n c o nco rd an ce, se e C . M arc i, J. H am , E . M ora n , a n d S . O rr, “ P hysio lo gic C orre la te s o f Perc eiv ed T hera p is t E m path y a n d S ocia l- E m otio nal P ro cess D urin g Psy ch oth era p y,” Jo urn al o f N erv o us and M en ta l D is e a se 1 95 (2 007),1 03–11; a n d C . M arc i a n d S . O rr, “ T he E ffe ct o f E m otio nal D is ta n ce o n Psy ch ophysio lo gic C onco rd an ce an d Perc eiv ed E m path y B etw een Patie n t an d In te rv ie w er,” Applie d Psy ch ophysio lo gy and B io fe ed back 3 1 ( 2 006), 1 15–28.

13 · T hre e H undre d a nd E le ve n W ord s For t h e s ta rlin gs’ s y ste m o f n av ig atio n, s e e M . B alle rin i, N . C ab ib bo, R . C an delie r, A . C av ag na, E .

C is b an i, I. G ia rd in a, V . L eco m te , A . O rla n di, G . P aris i, A . P ro caccin i, M . V ia le , a n d V . Z dra v kovic , “ In te ra ctio n Rulin g A nim al C olle ctiv e B eh av io r D ep en ds o n T opolo gic al R ath er t h an M etr ic D is ta n ce: E vid en ce f ro m a Fie ld S tu dy,” PN AS 1 05 ( 2 008), 1 232–37.

Gab rie le O ettin gen ’s w ork o n m en ta l c o ntr a stin g c an b e fo und in Reth in kin g P ositiv e T hin kin g (N ew York : C urre n t, 2 014), as w ell as G . O ettin gen , D . M ay er, A . S ev in cer, E . S te p hen s, H . P ak , an d M .

Hag en ah , “ M en ta l C ontr a stin g a n d G oal C om mitm en t: T he M ed ia tin g R ole o f E nerg iz atio n,” Perso nality and S ocia l P sy ch olo gy B ulle tin 3 5 ( 2009), 6 08–22.

For m ore on th e Pygm alio n E ffe ct, se e R . R ose n th al an d L . Ja co bso n, “T each ers ’ E xpecta n cie s:

Dete rm in ate s o f P upils ’ I Q G ain s,” Psy ch olo gic a l R ep orts 1 9 ( 1 966), 1 15–18. F or m ore o n h ow n arra tiv es affe ct m otiv atio n, s e e A . G ra n t, E . C am pbell, G . C hen , K . C otto ne, D . L ap ed is , a n d K . L ee, “ Im pact a n d t h e Art of M otiv atio n M ain te n an ce: T he E ffe cts of C onta ct w ith B en efic ia rie s on P ers is te n ce B eh av io r,” Org aniz a tio nal B eh avio r a nd H um an D ecis io n P ro cesse s 1 03 ( 2 007), 5 3–67.

14 · T he H oolig ans a nd th e S urg eons See C . S to tt, O . A dan g, A . L iv in gsto ne, a n d M . S ch re ib er, “ T ack lin g F ootb all H oolig an is m :

A Q uan tita tiv e Stu dy o f P ublic O rd er, P olic in g a n d C ro w d P sy ch olo gy,” Psy ch olo gy P ublic P olic y a nd L aw 5 3 (2 008), 115–41; C . S to tt an d S . R eic h er, “H ow C onflic t E sc ala te s: T he In te r-G ro up D ynam ic s of C olle ctiv e Footb all C ro w d ‘V io le n ce,’   ” Socio lo gy 3 2, (1 998), 3 53–77; A . E dm ondso n, R . B ohm er, a n d G . P is a n o, “S peed in g U p T eam L earn in g,” Harv a rd B usin ess R evie w 7 9, n o. 9 ( 2 001), 1 25–32; a n d A .

E dm ondso n, R .

Bohm er, a n d G . P is a n o, “ D is ru pte d R outin es: T eam L earn in g a n d N ew T ech nolo gy Im ple m en ta tio n in Hosp ita ls ,” Adm in is tr a tiv e S cie n ce Q uarte rly 4 6 ( 2 001), 6 85–716.

15 · H ow to L ead fo r P ro fic ie ncy See S. R eilly Salg ad o an d W . Sta rb uck , “F in e R esta u ra n ts : C re atin g In im ita b le A dvan ta g es in a Com petitiv e In dustr y ,” docto ra l dis se rta tio n, New York Univ ers ity Gra d uate Sch ool of Busin ess Adm in is tr a tio n ( 2 003).

16 · H ow to L ead fo r C re ativ it y See Cre a tiv ity I n c . b y E d C atm ull w ith A m y W alla ce ( N ew Y ork : R an dom H ouse , 2 014).

Reco m mended R eadin g Lasz lo B ock , Work R ule s ( N ew Y ork : G ra n d C en tr a l P ublis h in g, 2 015) Dav id B ro oks, The S ocia l A nim al ( N ew Y ork : R an dom H ouse , 2 011) Arie d e G eu s, The L iv in g C om pany ( B osto n, M A: H arv ard B usin ess R ev ie w P re ss, 2 002) Angela D uck w orth , Grit: T he P ow er o f P erse vera nce a nd P assio n ( N ew Y ork : S crib ner, 2 016) Charle s D uhig g, The P ow er o f H abit: W hy W e D o W hat W e D o in L ife a nd B usin ess ( N ew Y ork : R an dom House , 2 012) Am y E dm ondso n, Tea m in g: H ow O rg aniz a tio ns L ea rn , I n nova te , a nd C om pete i n t h e K now le d ge E co nom y (S an F ra n cis c o : J o sse y -B ass P fe if fe r, 2 012) Adam G ra n t, Giv e a nd T ake ( N ew Y ork : V ik in g, 2 013) Ric h ard H ack m an , Lea din g T ea m s ( B osto n, M A: H arv ard B usin ess R ev ie w P re ss, 2 002) Chip a n d D an H eath , Sw itc h : H ow to C hange T hin gs W hen C hange is H ard ( N ew Y ork : B ro ad w ay B ooks, 2010) Seb astia n J u nger, Trib e: O n H om eco m in g a nd B elo ngin g ( N ew Y ork : H arp erC ollin s, 2 016) Ja m es K err, Leg acy ( L ondon: C onsta b le & R obin so n, 2 013) Patr ic k L en cio ni, The F iv e D ysfu nctio ns o f a T ea m : A L ea dersh ip F able ( S an F ra n cis c o : J o sse y -B ass, 2 002) Sta n le y M cC hry sta l, Tea m of T ea m s: N ew R ule s of E ngagem en t fo r a C om ple x W orld (N ew Y ork :

Portf o lio , 2 015).

Mark P ag el, Wir e d f o r C ultu re ( N ew Y ork : W . W . N orto n & C om pan y, 2 012) Dan ie l P in k, Driv e: T he S urp ris in g T ru th A bout W hat M otiv a te s U s ( N ew Y ork : R iv erh ead B ooks, 2 009) Am an da R ip le y , The S m arte st K id s in th e W orld : A nd H ow T hey G ot T hat W ay (N ew Y ork : S im on & Sch uste r, 2 013) Edgar H . S ch ein , Help in g ( O ak la n d, C A : B erre tt- K oeh le r P ublis h ers , 2 009) Edgar H . S ch ein , Hum ble I n quir y ( O ak la n d, C A : B erre tt- K oeh le r P ublis h ers , 2 013) Pete r M . S en ge, The F ifth D is c ip lin e ( N ew Y ork : D ouble d ay B usin ess, 1 990) Mic h ael T om ase llo , Why W e C oopera te ( C am brid ge, M A: M IT P re ss, 2 009) B y D anie l C oyle H ard ball W akin g S am uel L ance A rm str o ng’s W ar T he T ale nt C ode T he S ecre t R ace (w it h T yle r H am ilt o n) T he L it tle B ook o f T ale nt T he C ult u re C ode About t h e A uth or D ANIE L C OYLE is th e New Y ork T im es b ests e llin g a u th or o f The T ale n t C ode, T he L ittle B ook o f Tale n t, T he S ecre t R ace ( w ith T yle r H am ilto n), a n d o th er b ooks. W in ner ( w ith H am ilto n) o f th e 2 012 Willia m H ill S ports B ook o f th e Y ear P riz e, h e is a c o ntr ib utin g e d ito r f o r Outs id e m ag azin e, a n d a ls o work s a s a s p ecia l a d vis o r to th e C le v ela n d I n dia n s. C oyle liv es in C le v ela n d, O hio , d urin g th e s c h ool year a n d i n H om er, A la sk a, d urin g t h e s u m mer w ith h is w if e , J e n , a n d t h eir f o ur c h ild re n .

dan ie lc o yle .c o m Tw itte r: @dan ie lc o yle What’s n ex t o n you r r e a d in g l i s t?

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