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S pecia l dis c o u nts are ava ila b le fo r bu lk pu rc h ase s by org an iz a tio n s a n d in stit u tio n s. P le a se c a ll 7 73-5 83-7 884 o r em ail in fo @ haym ark etb ook s.o rg f o r m ore i n fo rm atio n . C ove r d esig n b y R ach el C oh en .

L ib ra ry of Con gre ss Cata lo g in g-in -P ublic a tio n data is a va ila b le . for Stella August (Nuu-chah-nulth Nation) for Sheung Leung (Popo 婆婆 Sue) for Beatrice Starr (Heiltsuk Nation) beloved elder matriarchs in the Downtown Eastside, a borderland of sorts Con te n ts A ck n ow le d gm en ts F ore w ord b y R ob in D . G . K elle y In tr o d u ctio n P art 1. Displacement Crisis, Not Border Crisis C hap te r 1 . H is to ric E nta n gle m en ts o f U S B ord er F orm atio n Conquest as Border F ormation Border Formation through Indigenous Elimination Anti- Black Controls and Border P olitics State Formation through White Supremacy C hap te r 2 . U S W ars A bro ad , W ars a t H om e War on Drugs: Criminalization, Crackdowns, and Counterinsurgency Detention and Globalized Racial V iolence Neoliberal Impoverishment, Border Militarization, and Carceral Governance Preemptive W ars of Terror Chap te r 3 . D is p osse ssio n , D ep riv a tio n , D is p la ce m en t:

R efr a m in g t h e G lo b al M ig ra tio n C ris is Export Processing Zones as Extranational Zones Displacement by Starvation W ages and Rising Seas Global Dispossession through Land Grabs and Climate Change Part 2. “Illegals” and “Undesirables”: The Criminalization of Migration Chap te r 4 . B ord erin g R eg im es F our Border Governance Strategies Externalization as Border Imperialism C hap te r 5 . A ustr a lia a n d t h e P acif ic S olu tio n Colonial Production of White Australia Mandatory and Offshore Detention C hap te r 6 . F ortr e ss E uro p e Imperial Containment Routes of Securitization and Externalization Disrupting Liberal “W elcome” Black Mediterranean Part 3. Capitalist Globalization and Insourcing of Migrant Labor C hap te r 7 . T em pora ry L ab or M ig ra tio n a n d t h e N ew B ra ce ro s Five F eatures of Migrant W orker Programs Domestic Work and Global Care Chains Chap te r 8 . T he K afa la S yste m i n t h e G ulf S ta te s State Development and Gulf Capitalism Kafala as Capture and Control C hap te r 9 . P erm an en tly T em pora ry : M an ag ed M ig ra tio n i n C an ad a Myth of Multicultural Canada Seasonal Agricultural W orker Program Caregiver Program Part 4. Making R ace, Mobilizing R acist Nationalisms Chap te r 1 0. M ap pin g t h e G lo b al F ar R ig h t a n d t h e C ris is o f S ta te le ssn ess White Nationalism, Zionism, Hindutva:

Ethnonationalist Bedfellows P enal Populism under Duterte and Bolsonaro European W elfare Nationalism and Imperial Gendered Racism Statelessness in a State-Centric World Chap te r 1 1. R efu sin g R ea ctio n ary N atio n alis m s Class through the Prism of R ace Making of “Foreigner” through Nationalist Identities Flames of Eco-fascism Con clu sio n A ft e rw ord b y N ic k E ste s N ote s In dex C HAPTE R 7 T em pora ry L ab or M ig ra tio n an d t h e N ew B ra ce ro s On Ju ne 2, 2018, a sc o rc h in g su m mer day in It a ly ’s s o u th ern Cala b ria re g io n , Sou m ayla Sack o an d his c o w ork ers gath ere d alu m in um sh eets fo r th eir San F erd in an do t e n t c it y . S udden ly , a c a r d ro ve u p a n d t h e m en in sid e p oin te d a rif le a t S ack o, s h ootin g h im in th e h ea d .

T he k il lin g is w id ely b elie ve d t o b e a t a rg ete d a ssa ssin atio n g iv e n S ack o’s org an iz in g as a m ig ra n t fa rm work er fr o m M ali a n d la b or le a d er w it h th e U nio n e S in daca le d i B ase . 1 H is b ru ta l m urd er o ccu rr e d in t h e c o n te xt o f b oth a w ave o f an ti- m ig ra n t a n d a n ti- B la ck v io le n ce a ft e r th e e le ctio n o f fa r-r ig h t le a d er M atte o Salv in i as w ell as ag rib u sin ess b ack la sh a g ain st m ig ra n t f a rm work er o rg an iz in g. O ne-t h ir d o f fa rm work ers in It a ly a re m ig ra n t w ork ers , e a rn in g a n a ve ra g e o f t w en ty t o t h ir ty e u ro s a d ay f o r u p t o fo u rte en hou rs of w ork . 2 M an y w ork ers are re cru it e d th ro u gh th e caporalato (g an gm aste r s y ste m ), u nder w hic h th eir w ag es a re o ft e n w it h h eld , th ey a re c o erc e d to ta k e p erfo rm an ce -e n han cin g d ru gs, a n d t h ey e xp erie n ce r o u tin e vio le n ce by em plo ye rs an d la b or bro k ers . W ork ers are s e g re g ate d o u ts id e t o w ns a n d fo rc e d t o liv e in s h ack s t h ey bu ild fr o m sc ra p m eta l an d ca rd board . T hese m ak esh if t t e n t c it ie s h ave n o r u nnin g w ate r, e le ctr ic it y , h ea lt h ca re , o r sa n it a tio n . W hen a n e n ca m pm en t g ets to o la rg e, o ff ic ia ls r a ze it to th e gro u nd. O ne of th e cru ele st ir o n ie s of ca p it a lis t g lo b aliz a tio n is t h e p ro le ta ria n iz a tio n o f d is p la ce d p ea sa n ts in to m ig ra n t f a rm work ers . I n G han a, f o r e xa m ple , tr a d e lib era liz a tio n p olic ie s h ave c a u se d an in flu x o f c h ea p im porte d It a lia n to m ato pu re e an d th e declin e of lo ca l to m ato p ro d u ctio n . 3 C on se q u en tly , G han a h as b eco m e o n e of t h e w orld ’s la rg est im porte rs o f t o m ato p aste , 9 0 p erc e n t of w hic h c o m es fr o m th e E U , m ain ly fr o m It a ly , w hic h is o n e of th e w orld ’s la rg est to m ato pro d u ce rs . 4 Farm ers fr o m G han a n ow h ave t o p ic k a n d p ro ce ss t o m ato es f o r t h e sa m e It a lia n ag rib u sin esse s th at decim ate d th eir liv e lih ood s. T he e xtr e m e a b u se o f m ig ra n t fa rm work ers in It a ly is lin ked both to It a lia n tr a d e polic ie s an d to re p re ssiv e re fu gee polic ie s. Bord er co n tr o ls , gove rn in g th ro u gh ille g aliz a tio n a n d d ep orta b il it y , s e rv e a c rit ic a l fu nctio n in t h e p olit ic a l e co n om y b y p ro d u cin g p lia b le la b or. B ord er co n tr o ls man ufa ctu re sp atia liz e d dif fe re n ce not to c o m ple te ly exclu de a ll p eo p le b u t to ca p it a li z e o n th em , what N ic h ola s De Gen ova ca lls an “a ctiv e pro ce ss of in clu sio n th ro u gh ‘i lle g aliz a tio n .’” 5 H ere w e s ee th e th ir d b ord er g ove rn an ce str a te g y re fe re n ce d in ch ap te r 4 : th e dis c ip lin in g of la b or th ro u gh im mig ra tio n co n tr o ls an d tr a n sfig u rin g ir re g u la r m ig ra tio n in to w hat is kn ow n in in te rn atio n al p olic y c ir c le s a s “ m an ag ed la b or m ig ra tio n .” I n th e U S, n eo lib era l, p ro –D em ocra tic P arty c o m men ta to r T hom as Frie d m an sa ys ca n did ly , “W e have a re a l im mig ra tio n c ris is a n d … th e s o lu tio n is a high wall with a big gate—but a smart gate” ( e m ph asis i n o rig in al) . 6 W hile man y mig ra n t fa rm work ers in It a ly are u ndocu m en te d , o th ers a re b ro u gh t in th ro u gh th e “s m art gate ” o f te m pora ry a u th oriz a tio n s. U nder It a lia n la w , a n an nual flo w s decre e se ts a qu ota fo r co n tr a ctu al an d se a so n al m ig ra n t w ork ers to li v e a n d w ork fo r u p to n in e m on th s a y e a r. 7 T he r e sid en ce p erm it is c o n tin gen t u pon a fo rm al e m plo ym en t c o n tr a ct t ie d t o a n e m plo ye r, c re a tin g a s y ste m ic to o l of exp lo it a tio n . As Sack o’s co m ra d e A bou bak ar Sou m ao ro writ e s, “S ou m ayla did have a te m pora ry p erm it to s ta y in It a ly . B ut e ve n s u ch a s ta tu s does n ot g u ara n te e s ta b le liv in g c o n dit io n s, fo r it is lin ked to a s p ecif ic w ork c o n tr a ct. T he e m plo ye r c a n a ls o u se t h is a s a fo rm o f b la ck m ail a g ain st th e w ork er w ho d ecid es to s p ea k o u t a g ain st e xp lo it a tio n o r fo rm a u nio n , fo r h e c a n th re a te n n ot o n ly th eir s a ck in g b u t a ls o to p u t a n e n d to th eir p erm is sio n t o r e m ain i n t h e c o u ntr y .” 8 T he e xp erie n ce o f m ig ra n t fa rm work ers in th e fie ld s o f It a ly is neit h er an an om aly nor a re ce n t ph en om en on .

B efo re W orld W ar I, a n e stim ate d h alf a m illio n se a so n al fa rm work ers c ro sse d th e b ord er a n nually in to G erm an y. 9 A ft e r W orld W ar II, m ig ra n t work er pro g ra m s were fo rm aliz e d d u rin g t h e r e co n str u ctio n p erio d . O ve r a t w en ty - y e a r p erio d , m illio n s o f m ig ra n t w ork ers , o r Gastarbeiter , m ostly fr o m Alg eria , Gre ece , It a ly , M oro cco , Portu gal, S pain , Tunis ia , Turk ey, an d Yugosla via , work ed in G erm an y, Fra n ce , th e UK, th e Ne th erla n ds, Belg iu m , Sw ed en , an d Sw it z e rla n d. 10 W ork ers en du re d se ve re g eo g ra p h ic se g re g atio n , w ere se q u este re d in to lo w -w ag e in du str ie s, c o u ld n ot b rin g th eir fa m ily m em bers , a n d h ad n o r ig h ts t o p erm an en t r e sid en cy . I n t h e P eo p le ’s R ep u blic o f C hin a in t h e 1 950s, t h e in tr o d u ctio n o f t h e hukou s y ste m o f gove rn m en ta l hou se h old re g is tr a tio n se rv e d as an in te rn al b ord erin g re g im e to b if u rc a te th e n atio n al la b or m ark et by div id in g th e pop u la tio n in to urb an an d ru ra l re sid en ts , e a ch w it h d is tin ctly d if fe re n t e n tit le m en ts . T he te m pora ry m ig ra tio n o f ru ra l su rp lu s la b or to th e u rb an ce n te rs w as c o n tr o lle d th ro u gh th is a d m in is tr a tiv e s y ste m , ch an nelin g m ig ra n t p ea sa n ts in to c e rta in lo w -w ag e s e cto rs a n d w it h ou t th e a cco m pan yin g b en efit s o f u rb an h u kou . C .

Cin dy Fan desc rib es th is as a de fa cto m ig ra n t la b or re g im e, en ab lin g “la b or-in te n siv e in du str ia liz a tio n an d urb an deve lo p m en t at lo w co st” to co n so lid ate C hin a’s s o cia lis t m ark et e co n om y. 1 1 T he In te rn atio n al L ab ou r O rg an iz a tio n (IL O ) e stim ate s th ere a re 1 64 m illio n m ig ra n t w ork ers a ro u nd th e w orld t o d ay. 1 2 I u se “m ig ra n t w ork ers ” h ere n ot to re fe r to a ll p eo p le w ho m ove fo r w ork b u t s p ecif ic a lly th ose m ig ra n ts c o n sc rip te d u nder tr a n sn atio n al la b or m ig ra tio n p ro g ra m s.

L ib era l elit e s pre se n t la b or m ig ra tio n as a tr ip le w in b eca u se h ig h -in co m e r e ce iv in g c o u ntr ie s fil l la b or s h orta g e n eed s, lo w -in co m e se n din g co u ntr ie s decre a se u nem plo ym en t a n d g en era te r e ve n ue th ro u gh r e m it t a n ce s, a n d m ig ra n ts s u pport t h eir fa m ilie s w it h h ig h er w ag es d u e to exch an ge ra te s betw een se n din g an d re ce iv in g co u ntr ie s. T he G lo b al C om pact f o r M ig ra tio n is t h e f ir s t U N ag re em en t o n a g lo b al a p pro ach to a ll fo rm s o f m ig ra tio n .

O ne o f it s c e n tr a l p rin cip le s is to fa cilit a te la b or m ob ilit y t h ro u gh “te m pora ry , se a so n al, cir c u la r, an d fa st-t r a ck p ro g ra m mes in a re a s o f la b ou r s h orta g es.” 1 3 T he c o m pact w as fin aliz e d in 2018 am id rig h t-w in g op posit io n in A ustr a lia , A ustr ia , C an ad a, H ungary , Is ra el, P ola n d, an d th e U S. L ib era l c a p it a lis ts p re se n t te m pora ry a n d c ir c u la r la b or m ig ra tio n a s t h e m ore “ h um an e” ( i.e ., m ark et s u pply – o rie n te d ) alt e rn ativ e to rig h t-w in g ca lls fo r co m ple te m ig ra n t exclu sio n . The Economist arg u es th at den yin g m ig ra n t w ork ers ’ v o tin g r ig h ts , c h arg in g th em e xtr a ta xe s, a n d re str ic tin g th eir a cce ss to p u blic s e rv ic e s is “ h orrib ly d is c rim in ato ry ” b u t s till “ b ette r fo r th e m ig ra n ts th an th e sta tu s qu o, in w hic h th ey are exclu ded fr o m ric h -w orld la b or m ark ets .” 1 4 Mig ra n t w ork ers p ro vid e lib era l c a p it a li s t in te re sts w it h c h ea p en ed la b or w it h ou t alt e rin g th e ra cia l so cia l ord er th ro u gh p erm an en t im mig ra tio n . O f th e te n s o f th ou sa n ds of f a rm work ers c o m in g a n nually t o C an ad a, f o r i n sta n ce , 9 8 p erc e n t r e tu rn to th eir p la ce o f o rig in u pon c o m ple tio n o f th e s e a so n al c o n tr a ct, h op in g t o l e g ally r e tu rn t h e f o llo w in g se a so n ; th ey d o n ot r e m ain a n d b eco m e u n docu m en te d in C an ad a. 1 5 K erry P re ib is c h a rg u es th is fo rc e d ro ta tio n is t h e re a so n fo r Can ad a’s ag ric u lt u ra l mig ra n t work er p ro g ra m ’s in te rn atio n al re p u ta tio n : “T his h ig h d eg re e of ‘c ir c u la rit y ’ i n p olic y -s p ea k —o r c y clic a l l a b or m ig ra tio n t h at d oes n ot r e su lt in p erm an en t s e ttle m en t— is a fu n dam en ta l b en ch m ark fo r whic h th e ‘s u cce ss’ of gu est-w ork er p ro g ra m s is mea su re d .” 1 6 Lib era l dis c u ssio n s ab ou t re fo rm in g C an ad a’s m ig ra n t w ork er p ro g ra m s te n d to b e lim it e d to pie ce m ea l pro te ctio n s fo r m ig ra n t work ers w it h ou t a n aly zin g h ow c a p it a li s m , im peria lis m , e xclu sio n , an d crim in aliz a tio n all sh ap e te m pora ry m ig ra tio n to s im ult a n eo u sly m an ag e la b or p ools a n d c o n tr o l m ig ra tio n flo w s. Can ad ia n m ig ra n t w ork er pro g ra m s, deta ile d in c h ap te r 9 , are str u ctu re d aro u nd m ark et dem an ds fo r ch ea p en ed la b or, an d work ers ’ eco n om ic an d so cia l m ob ilit y is c o n str a in ed b y th e v e ry d esig n o f th e p ro g ra m .

W hile m ig ra n t w ork ers a re t e m pora ry , t e m pora ry m ig ra tio n is i t s e lf p erm an en t. In t h e U S, t h e m ost w ell- k n ow n m ig ra n t w ork er p ro g ra m is t h e b ra ce ro p ro g ra m , w hic h o p era te d b etw een 1 942 a n d 1964. In it ia te d d u e to a la b or s h orta g e d u rin g W orld W ar II, th e p ro g ra m allo w ed m illio n s of M exic a n w ork ers to e n te r t h e c o u ntr y le g ally b u t u nder c o n dit io n s o f p re ca rit y .

A k ey fe a tu re o f th e p ro g ra m w as th e ty in g o f a b ra ce ro ’s t e m pora ry r es id en cy t o a n in div id u al e m plo ym en t c o n tr a ct.

B ra ce ro s d id n ot h ave th e rig h t to p erm an en t re sid en cy , a n d fa m ily m em bers w ere n ot a llo w ed t o a cc o m pan y t h em .

The d ep orta tio n o f u ndocu m en te d M exic a n s, a s e xe m plif ie d th ro u gh O pera tio n W etb ack , fu n nele d M exic a n w ork ers th ro u gh th e b ra ce ro p ro g ra m , th u s re ve a lin g th e lin kag es b etw een im mig ra tio n e xclu sio n a n d c o m mod if ie d in clu sio n .

E ve n w hile m ore th an 1 m illio n M exic a n s w ere bein g dep orte d fr o m th e U S d u rin g th e 1 950s, 1 7 a s m an y a s 4 .8 m illio n M exic a n w ork ers w ere c o n te m pora n eo u sly b ro u gh t in as te m pora ry bra ce ro s. 1 8 The bra ce ro pro g ra m w as b en efic ia l to th e M exic a n gove rn m en t, w hic h m an ag ed su rp lu s pop u la tio n s th ro u gh la b or exp orta tio n , an d lu cra tiv e fo r U S a g rib u sin esse s, w hic h u se d it a s a to ol o f la b or d is c ip lin e b y c o n tr o llin g b ra ce ro s’ w ag es, g ove rn in g bra ce ro s’ liv in g co n dit io n s, an d usin g bra ce ro s as str ik eb re a k ers a g ain st l o ca l f a rm work ers . A ft e r th e pro g ra m en ded , th e re cru it m en t an d exp lo it a tio n of work ers co n tin ued th ro u gh th e H-2 p ro g ra m , th e co u ntr y ’s old est an d th e w orld ’s se co n d- old est m ig ra n t w ork er p ro g ra m , fir s t in it ia te d to re cru it w ork ers fr o m th e B ah am as, B arb ad os, a n d Ja maic a d u rin g W orld W ar II. 1 9 A s m ore m ostly Ja maic a n w ork ers w ere b ro u gh t in u nder th e H -2 p ro g ra m aft e r th e en d of th e bra ce ro p ro g ra m , s tr ik e w ave s a n d d ep orta tio n s in vo lv in g th ou sa n ds o f H -2 m ig ra n t w ork ers b eca m e c o m mon pla ce , esp ecia lly in F lo rid a’s s u gar in du str y , it s e lf a n o u tg ro w th o f U S im peria l in te re sts a n d c a p it a li s t in ve stm en ts in C uban su gar. As Cin dy H ah am ovit c h exp la in s ab ou t Flo rid a’s s u gar in du str y , “ E xp ro p ria te d C uban s u gar m og u ls a d op te d th e la b or p ra ctic e s p io n ee re d b y th e U S S ugar C om pan y, im portin g m ostly Ja maic a n p ea sa n t fa rm ers a s te m pora ry w ork ers a n d d ep ortin g th ose w ho re fu se d to a cc e p t th eir t e rm s.” 2 0 O n t h e F lo rid a p la n ta tio n o f t h e F an ju l b ro th ers , th e n oto rio u s C uban s u gar b aro n s, C arib bea n c a n e c u tt e rs e n gag ed in a w ork s to p pag e in N ove m ber 1 986 to p ro te st th eir w ag es b ein g lo w er th an th eir c o n tr a cts s tip u la te d . 21 A fe w days la te r, 385 w ork ers on th e pro p erty w ere ro u nded u p a t g u npoin t a n d d ep orte d , s o m e b are fo ot a n d w it h in ju rie s su sta in ed fr o m polic e dog bit e s. 2 2 Tod ay, th ere a re 2 57,6 66 m ostly M exic a n a n d C en tr a l A m eric a n w ork ers in th e U S under th e H -2 A te m pora ry fo re ig n ag ric u lt u ra l w ork er p ro g ra m . 23 T he D ep artm en ts o f S ta te , A gric u lt u re , Lab or, an d Hom ela n d Secu rit y have all a n nou nce d t h ey w ill b e “ s tr e a m lin in g” t h e p ro g ra m t o e a se re g u la tio n s fo r gro w er asso cia tio n s an d en su re la b or fle xib ilit y , a eu ph em is m fo r la b or su per-e xp lo it a tio n an d exp en dab ilit y . Hon esto Silv a Ib arra , a 28-y e a r-o ld f a rm work er o n a n H -2 A v is a , c o lla p se d o n th e S arb an an d F arm s in S um as, W ash in gto n , an d d ie d in A ugu st 2 017.

P rio r to h is d ea th , Ib arr a a n d six h undre d o th er w ork ers h ad been giv e n th e ord er: “A l m en os qu e se esté n m urie n do, no fa lt e n ” (U nle ss yo u are dyin g, don ’t m is s w ork ). 2 4 D ays la te r, s e ve n ty o f h is fe llo w w ork ers h eld a s tr ik e to pro te st his dea th an d th eir mis tr e a tm en t, in clu din g la ck of hea lt h an d sa fe ty pro te ctio n s, m ea ls c o n ta m in ate d w it h in se cts , a n d p ic k in g q u ota s. T hey w ere p ro m ptly f ir e d , e vic te d , d ep orte d t o M exic o , a n d b la ck lis te d b y r e cru it e rs f r o m r e tu rn in g. A n um ber o f w ork ers a re n ow filin g c la ss a ctio n la w su it s f o r u n la w fu l t e rm in atio n a n d u se o f d ep orta tio n a s a n i n tim id atio n t a ctic a g ain st o rg an iz in g. T he co n cu rre n t e xp an sio n a n d p riv a tiz a tio n o f th e U S m ilit a ry h as le d to a n in cre a se in m ig ra n t w ork ers in th e m ilit a ry in du str ia l co m ple x. In ad dit io n to th e well- d ocu m en te d , priv a tiz e d killin g mach in e of fo re ig n m erc e n ary arm ie s lik e Bla ck w ate r op era tin g wit h “ im munit y an d im pu nit y ,” 2 5 th ou sa n ds of in vis ib le , lo w - w ag e w ork ers la b or under ou ts o u rc e d co n tr a cts . Sara h S tillm an re p orts th at a se ve n ty -t h ou sa n d-s tr o n g lo g is tic a l arm y of co ok s, cle a n ers , co n str u ctio n work ers , an d bea u tic ia n s s e rv e d th e U S m ilit a ry ’s d ea d ly o ccu patio n s in I r a q a n d A fg h an is ta n . S tillm an r e p orts th at th ese w ork ers were “ro b bed of w ag es, in ju re d w it h ou t co m pen sa tio n , su bje cte d to se xu al ass a u lt , an d held in co n dit io n s re se m blin g in den tu re d se rv it u de by th eir su bco n tr a cto r b osse s.” 2 6 O ne o f th e fir s t c o m pan ie s to b rin g m ig ra n t w ork ers to Ir a q w as H allib u rto n , a ls o t h e f ir s t m ajo r p riv a te p artn er in t h e o ccu patio n o f Ir a q a n d o n e o f th e o ccu patio n ’s la rg est c o rp ora te ben efic ia rie s. Form er U S vic e pre sid en t D ic k C hen ey w as a f o rm er c h air m an a n d C EO o f H allib u rto n a n d still re ta in ed sto ck o p tio n s in th e co m pan y w hen it w as aw ard ed a s e ve n -b illio n -d olla r g ove rn m en t c o n tr a ct. In th e m id -2 000s, w hen o n e th ou sa n d Ir a q is w ere k ille d w eek ly , Ir a q i fo rc e s b eg an ta rg etin g m ig ra n t w ork er co n vo ys to p re ssu re th ir d g ove rn m en ts in to r e fu sin g w ork fo r th e U S m ilit a ry . 2 7 In on e gru eso m e in cid en t, th ir te e n N ep ale se w ork ers w ere c o n tr a cte d b y a H allib u rto n s u bsid ia ry , u nder fa ls e p re te n se s, t o c o ok a n d c le a n f o r U S f o rc e s. Ne pal h ad alr e a d y b an ned m ig ra n t w ork ers fr o m g oin g to Ir a q a n d th ese w ork ers t h ou gh t t h ey w ere b ein g r e cru it e d t o Jo rd an , bu t t h eir p assp orts w ere c o n fis c a te d u pon a rriv a l in Jo rd an an d a H allib u rto n r e cru it e r fo rc ib ly t r a n sp orte d t h em t o A l Asa d A ir B ase in Ir a q . T here , tw elv e o f th e w ork ers w ere k id n ap ped , sh ot, an d beh ea d ed by th e Ansa r al- S unna A rm y. T he fa m ilie s o f th e s la in w ork ers w ere b arre d fr o m p u rs u in g lia b ilit y cla im s ag ain st th e m ilit a ry co n tr a cto rs a ft e r a US fe d era l ju dge fo u nd th e dea th s occu rre d extr a te rrit o ria lly , b eyo n d U S l e g al ju ris d ic tio n . 28 E ve n th ou gh mig ra n t work ers —p re ca rio u s an d dep orta b le — are s o m e o f th e m ost v u ln era b le d u rin g tim es o f eco n om ic cris is , th ey are th e most li k ely to be sc a p eg oate d fo r “s te a lin g” jo b s an d re so u rc e s. M ig ra n t w ork ers are dis c u rs iv e ly an d ph ysic a lly atta ck ed fo r “c a u sin g u nem plo ym en t” a n d b eco m e th e ta rg ets o f r is in g xe n op h ob ia . T he r e a l c u lp rit s —b osse s r e ce iv in g b on use s o r co rp ora te g ia n ts g ettin g b aile d o u t— get o ff sc o t fr e e. In M ala ysia , fo r exa m ple , mig ra n t work ers mostly fr o m B an gla d esh , In don esia , In dia , Ne pal, Vie tn am , an d M ya n m ar c o n stit u te o n e-f if t h o f t h e c o u ntr y ’s w ork fo rc e . I n a d dit io n to e n du rin g d an gero u s w ork in g co n dit io n s, th ey su rv iv e vig ila n te ab u se at th e han ds of Ik ata n R ela w an R ak ya t M ala ysia (R ELA ), a 500,0 00-s tr o n g para m ilit a ry g ro u p h untin g d ow n m ig ra n ts . 2 9 T his v o lu nte er m ilit ia w as cre a te d in t h e 1 970s t o t r a ck c o m munis ts a n d in 2 005 w as g iv e n le g al a u th orit y t o s to p p eo p le t o c h eck id en tif ic a tio n , ra id h om es, m ak e a rre sts w it h ou t w arra n ts , u se fir e a rm s, a n d e ve n ta k e o ve r m an ag em en t o f d ete n tio n ce n te rs . 3 0 A ft e r s c o re s o f te stim on ie s o f a ssa u lt a n d e xto rtio n , a n ew la w w as p asse d in 2 012 th at lim it s R ELA ’s en fo rc e m en t pow ers bu t m ain ta in s th e m ilit ia ’s ro le in su rv e illin g m ig ra n t w ork ers . A s s u ch , R ELA s e rv e s a k ey fu n ctio n in t h e M ala ysia n polit ic a l eco n om y: m ain ta in in g so cia l an d eco n om ic co n tr o l ove r a la rg e se ctio n of th e w ork fo rc e , d is c o u ra g in g m ig ra n t w ork ers f r o m le a vin g t h e e m plo ye r t o w hom th ey are bou nd, en su rin g fa st dep orta b ilit y in m om en ts of eco n om ic dow ntu rn , an d en tr e n ch in g th e “fo re ig n ness” o f a ll m ig ra n t w ork ers , re g ard le ss o f th eir le n gth o f r e sid en cy a n d l e g al s ta tu s.

F iv e F ea tu re s o f M ig ra n t W ork er P ro g ra m s Mig ra n t w ork ers h ave a m yria d o f u niq u e e xp erie n ce s a n d in div id u al su bje ctiv it ie s. H ere I exa m in e th e fo rm s of structural pow er re g u la tin g th e li v e s of millio n s of te m pora ry m ig ra n t w ork ers a n d, h en ce , e xa ce rb atin g th eir v u ln era b ilit y . In an aly zin g la b or mig ra tio n pro g ra m s world w id e, D an ie l C osta an d Philip M artin fin d nota b le s im ila rit ie s acro ss ju ris d ic tio n s. 3 1 Low -w ag e mig ra n t w ork ers a re tie d to o n e e m plo ye r b y c o n tr a cts a n d v is a s an d c a n not b rin g th eir c h ild re n o r o th er fa m ily m em bers . They a re s u bje cte d t o d an gero u s w ork in g c o n dit io n s, f o rc e d la b or, lo n g w ork h ou rs w it h ou t ove rtim e p ay, an d w ag e th eft . M ost w ork ers are in deb te d to re cru it e rs . W ork ers fa ce le g al o r d e fa cto b arrie rs to u n io n iz a tio n , a re d en ie d a cce ss t o la b or p ro te ctio n s a n d s o cia l s e rv ic e s, a n d h ave n o re a l p ath to p erm an en t im mig ra tio n sta tu s. S pea k in g o u t ag ain st ab u se alm ost alw ays re su lt s in re ta lia tio n , te rm in atio n , d ep orta tio n , a n d b la ck lis tin g. A bu se s u nder te m pora ry la b or m ig ra tio n p ro g ra m s a re n ot a co in cid en ce . The m an ufa ctu re d vu ln era b ilit y of m ig ra n t w ork ers is b oth g en era te d b y a n d c o n stit u tiv e o f ra cia l ca p it a lis m ; th e arc h it e ctu re of la b or m ig ra tio n is intended to gu ara n te e ca p it a l accu m ula tio n an d uph old r a cia liz e d gen dere d cit iz e n sh ip . The next tw o ch ap te rs fo cu s o n t h e k afa la s y ste m in t h e A ra b G ulf r e g io n a n d t h e T em pora ry Fore ig n W ork er Pro g ra m in Can ad a. W hile r o u tin ely an d sin gu la rly co n dem ned in th e m ed ia , th e kafa la is not exce p tio n al. Lik e oth er m ig ra n t work er p ro g ra m s, th e kafa la is a fe a tu re of ra cia l- c a p it a lis t sta te cra ft w it h a p ro n ou nce d re lia n ce o n u n fr e e m ig ra n t w ork ers . I n c o m paris o n , t h e C an ad ia n p ro g ra m is u ph eld a s th e fiv e -s ta r m od el fo r la b or m ig ra tio n eve n th ou gh it s o rig in s an d cu rre n t co n fig u ra tio n are ro ote d in th e org an iz a tio n of la b or extr a ctio n w it h in a se ttle r-c o lo n ia l eco n om y. I delv e in to both pro g ra m s in th e fo llo w in g ch ap te rs an d dem on str a te th at th ey are str u ctu ra lly in fo rm ed b y s im ila r g lo b al d yn am ic s o f c a p it a l flo w s, la b or se g m en ta tio n , a n d re g im es o f e xclu sio n ary c it iz e n sh ip , a s d esc rib ed b elo w . Thou gh eve ry ju ris d ic tio n has dis tin ct re g u la tio n s gove rn in g mig ra n t work ers , fiv e ove rla p pin g fe a tu re s ch ara cte riz e m ost m ig ra n t w ork er pro g ra m s aro u nd th e w orld . F ir s t a n d fo re m ost, m ig ra n t w ork er p ro g ra m s a re s ta te - sa n ctio n ed p ro g ra m s o f indentured work. T hese p ro g ra m s ca n b e tr a ce d b ack to th e in den tu re sh ip o f m ore th an 1 .3 m illio n peo p le fr o m th e Sou th Asia n su bco n tin en t, fa cilit a te d b y t h e in te re sts o f e m pir e a n d e m erg in g c o lo n ia l sta te s. 3 2 T he B rit is h E ast In dia C om pan y an d th en th e B rit is h r a j r e g u la te d th e e m ig ra tio n o f in den tu re d w ork ers to su gar, co tto n , ru bber, an d te a pla n ta tio n s an d fo r ra ilr o ad c o n str u ctio n a cro ss th e B rit is h e m pir e , in clu din g to G uya n a, F iji , Ja maic a , K en ya , M ala ysia , M au rit iu s, S ou th A fr ic a , Tan za n ia , Trin id ad , an d U gan da, fo r nea rly on e ce n tu ry . Appro xim ate ly a qu arte r millio n of th ose in den tu re d w ere w om en , m an y o f w hom w ere s e x w ork ers , w id ow ed , or esc a p in g d om estic vio le n ce . 3 3 E ve n th ou gh in den tu re sh ip w as deem ed vo lu nta ry co n tr a ct la b or, th e m ove m en t o f m ostly c la ss - a n d c a ste -o p pre sse d S ou th A sia n in den tu re d la b or th ro u gh ou t th e B rit is h c o lo n ie s, a n d la te r o th er E uro p ea n co lo n ie s, cre a te d so m e o f th e fir s t sta te in te rv e n tio n s in m ig ra tio n a n d fa cilit a te d th e c o n dit io n s o f u nfr e e la b or m ig ra tio n . As part of an im peria l la b or str a te g y in th e a ft e rm ath o f th e fo rm al a b olit io n o f c h att e l sla ve ry , in den tu re d la b or main ta in ed a dis c ip lin ed ra cia liz e d la b or fo rc e su bord in ate d to co lo n ia l- c a p it a lis t p ro d u ctio n . T od ay’s m ig ra n t work ers are sim ila rly bou nd to a desig n ate d em plo ye r or se cto r, an d em plo ym en t is a re q u ir e m en t o f m ig ra tio n . E m plo ye rs c a n d is c a rd m ig ra n t w ork ers th ro u gh te rm in atio n a n d d ep orta tio n w hen th eir la b or is n o lo n ger n eed ed , a ctio n s h avin g m utu al b en efit t o c a p it a l a n d s ta te in te re sts in p ro vid in g a v a lv e to c o n tr o l u nem plo ym en t an d dem og ra p h ic s. M ig ra n t w ork ers are th ere fo re e it h er le g ally o r d e fa cto u n ab le to le a ve th eir e m plo ye r w it h ou t lo sin g th eir im mig ra tio n sta tu s, m ak in g th eir la b or in den tu re d . D avid M cNa lly w rit e s: “ It ’s n ot t h at g lo b al bu sin ess does not w an t im mig ra n t la b ou r to th e W est. It sim ply w an ts th is la b ou r on it s ow n te rm s: fr ig h te n ed , o p pre sse d , v u ln era b le .” 3 4 T his in den tu re sh ip is u nderw rit te n by ab le is m sin ce ca p it a li s m is alw ays u nderg ir d ed by ab le is t id ea s of pro d u ctiv it y . The IL O re co g n iz e s m ig ra n t w ork ers fa ce en dem ic co n dit io n s of co erc e d pro d u ctiv it y : “fo rc e d la b ou r, lo w w ag es, poor w ork in g co n dit io n s, vir tu al ab se n ce of so cia l pro te ctio n , den ia l of fr e ed om asso cia tio n an d un io n rig h ts , d is c rim in atio n an d xe n op h ob ia , as well as so cia l exclu sio n .” 3 5 T he M ig ra n ts ’ T ra d e U nio n in S ou th K ore a , o n e of th e world ’s most activ e mig ra n t work er o rg an iz a tio n s, la u nch ed w it h su sta in ed actio n s ag ain st la b or cra ck d ow ns a n d w ork er d ep orta tio n s. 3 6 C om pris e d m ostly o f S ou th A sia n a n d S ou th ea st A sia n w ork ers , th e unio n a d vo ca te d fo r a n e n d to in den tu re sh ip th ro u gh a n o p en w ork vis a sy ste m an d fu ll im mig ra tio n sta tu s fo r m ig ra n t w ork ers , a n d, in a h is to ric v ic to ry , w on t h e r ig h t t o u nio n c e rtif ic a tio n i n 2 015. S eco n d, mig ra n t work er pro g ra m s are a fo rm of legalized segregation. I n den tu re sh ip f a cilit a te d b y t h e s ta te le g ally sa n ctio n s th e str a tif ic a tio n of la b or ca st as ra cia liz e d ou ts id ers . Desp it e work in g alo n gsid e cit iz e n w ork ers , m ig ra n t w ork ers a re d if fe re n tia lly in clu ded in t h e natio n -s ta te . M ig ra n t w ork ers ca n re tu rn to th e sa m e co m munit y an d w ork p la ce fo r se ve ra l gen era tio n s, bu t bein g le g ally cla ssif ie d as “te m pora ry ” or “fo re ig n ” co n ce p tu ally pla ce s th em ou ts id e th e natio n -s ta te an d ou ts id e th e bou nds of belo n gin g. W ork ers are oft e n sp atia lly an d so cia lly se g re g ate d : th ey are hou se d in s e p ara te la b or ca m ps, th ey are unpro te cte d by natio n al la b or la w s o r u nio n iz a tio n , th ey a re u n ab le to fu lly a cce ss p u blic se rv ic e s su ch as hea lt h ca re , an d th eir fa m ily m em bers c a n not a cco m pan y t h em . T he e n tir e c o st o f s o cia l re p ro d u ctio n is b orn e b y m ig ra n t w ork ers th em se lv e s a n d, as S usa n F erg u so n a n d D avid M cNa lly p u t fo rw ard , “th e so cia l re p ro d u ctio n of th e g lo b al w ork in g cla ss cru cia lly e n ta ils p ro ce sse s of m ig ra tio n an d ra cia liz a tio n th at are in se p ara b le fr o m it s cla ss an d gen der dim en sio n s.” 3 7 M ig ra n t w ork er p ro g ra m s th ere fo re r e p re se n t a n e xtr e m e neo lib era liz a tio n of both im mig ra tio n an d la b or polic ie s, w here th e delib era te desig n of natio n al an d ra cia l d if fe re n ce re su lt s in “in te rn al se g re g atio n in host c o u ntr ie s.” 3 8 T hir d , a s s u ch , m ig ra n t w ork er p ro g ra m s a re a fo rm o f neoliberal insourcing , t h e f lip sid e o f n eo lib era l o u ts o u rc in g. T he den ia l of perm an en t re sid en cy is pre cis e ly what cre a te s an extr a n atio n al se g m en ta tio n of la b or. Eve n th ou gh m ig ra n t w ork ers are la b orin g alo n gsid e cit iz e n s, th eir la b or pow er an d so cia l re la tio n s are org an iz e d to o xy m oro n ic a lly p osit io n t h em a s “ fo re ig n .” T his m ain ta in s a g lo b al d iv is io n o f la b or p ools , r e in fo rc e s a b ord er w it h in t h e in te rn atio n al w ork in g c la ss, a n d s e g m en ts m ig ra n t w ork ers a s “ T hir d W orld ” w ork ers . L ik e t h e o u ts o u rc e d w ork fo rc e i n e xp ort pro ce ssin g zo n es an d maq u ila d ora s, mig ra n t w ork ers a re s u bje ct t o s u ppre sse d w ag es a n d in te n se la b or d is c ip lin e. H en ce , in so u rc e d a n d o u ts o u rc e d la b or a re tw o sid es o f t h e s a m e c a p it a lis t c o in : d elib era te ly d efla te d la b or p ow er im bric a te d w it h h ie ra rc h ie s o f ra ce , c a ste , g en der, s e xu alit y , an d cit iz e n sh ip . Crit ic a lly , mig ra n t work er p ro g ra m s m ak e it c le a r t h at b ord ers d o n ot c o lla p se u nder n eo lib era l glo b aliz a tio n ; ra th er, bord er im peria lis m se g m en ts la b or an d acts as a sp atia l fix fo r ca p it a l accu m ula tio n . 39 M ig ra n t w ork ers th ere fo re re p re se n t th e id ea l, in so u rc e d w ork fo rc e ; th ey are co m mod if ie d an d exp lo it a b le , f le xib le a n d e xp en dab le . F ou rth , m ig ra n t w ork er p ro g ra m s c o n stit u te a distinct mode of racialization , b oth th e re su lt o f a n d re p ro d u cin g ra cis m . C la ss re la tio n s c a n not b e re d u ce d to re la tio n s o f p ro d u ctio n , an d, as B re n na B han dar note s, “[r ]a ce an d ra cis m , g en der, a n d se xu alit y sh ap e th e n atu re a n d fo rm th at cla ss re la tio n s ta k e a n d, sig n if ic a n tly , h ow th ey a re e xp erie n ce d .” 4 0 The deva lu atio n of m ig ra n t w ork ers is a n im ate d by th e sp ecif ic deva lu atio n of th e ra cia liz e d b od ie s p erfo rm in g t h e w ork . M ig ra n t w ork er p ro g ra m s a re n ot o n ly r a cia lly d is c rim in ato ry ; t h ey a re t h em se lv e s a r a ce - m ak in g re g im e. M ig ra n t w ork ers a re ra cia lly c o n str u cte d a n d o rd ere d th ro u gh th e v e ry d esig n o f th ese p ro g ra m s a s a d is tin ct a n d se g re g ate d la b or re g im e. C ap it a li s m re lie s b oth o n th e d iv is io n o f la b or and th e d iv is io n o f la b ore rs . R acia liz e d , a s w ell a s g en dere d , d iv is io n s a re s u pple m en te d b y d iv is io n s b etw een c it iz e n w ork ers a n d m ig ra n t w ork ers , w hat San dro M ezza d ra an d Bre tt Ne ils o n te rm th e “m ult ip lic a tio n o f la b or,” e m ph asiz in g th e h ete ro g en eit y o f la b or b if u rc a te d b y a b ord er. 4 1 T he d en ia l o f p erm an en t im mig ra tio n sta tu s to mig ra n t work ers an d th eir r a cia liz a tio n a s “fo re ig n ers ” n orm aliz e s ra cis m . R ace is a c o n tin gen t s tr u ctu re , a n d t h is d is tin ct o rd erin g o f le g al- b u t- d ep orta b le la b or g en era te s s tr u ctu ra l h ie ra rc h ie s b etw een ra cia liz e d m ig ra n t w ork ers a n d c it iz e n w ork ers , a n d f u rth er a ffix e s r a ce t o c it iz e n sh ip . F if t h , m ig ra n t w ork er p ro g ra m s a re a carceral regime wit h in te n se c o n tr o l, d is c ip lin e, a n d s u rv e illa n ce o f n ot o n ly la b or c o n dit io n s o r im mig ra tio n sta tu s b u t th e to ta lit y o f lif e . C arc e ra l s p ace s a re “ s it e s a n d r e la tio n s o f p ow er th at en ab le a n d in ce n tiv iz e t h e s y ste m atic c a p tu re , c o n tr o l, a n d co n fin em en t of hum an bein gs th ro u gh th e str u ctu re s of im mob ilit y an d dis p osse ssio n .” 4 2 Mig ra n t work ers ro u tin ely re p ort th e co n fis c a tio n of id en tif ic a tio n d ocu m en ts an d passp orts , lo n g w ork hou rs , w ag e th eft , fo rc e d la b or, vio le n ce , im posit io n of cu rfe w s, den ia l of vis it o rs an d ph on e acce ss , fo od dep riv a tio n , an d bein g lo ck ed in an d p re ve n te d fr o m le a vin g em plo ye r-p ro vid ed a cco m mod atio n s— all of w hic h le a ve th em im mob iliz e d . This is partic u la rly heig h te n ed fo r mig ra n t dom estic w ork ers ; a r e ce n t r e p ort o n t h e a b u se o f m ig ra n t d om estic w ork ers in L eb an on is fit tin gly tit le d “T heir H om e Is M y Pris o n .” 4 3 L ik e p ris o n s, m ig ra n t w ork er p ro g ra m s m an ag e su rp lu s pop u la tio n s an d dis c ip lin e la b or th ro u gh ra cia l so cia l o rd erin g, c it iz e n sh ip r e g u la tio n , a n d r e str u ctu rin g o f ca p it a l– la b or re la tio n s in n atio n al la b or m ark ets . W e se e th e lo g ic o f p la n ta tio n r e la tio n s o p era tin g h ere : to c a p tu re la b or w hile a ls o e xce ed in g th e lo g ic o f la b or a lo n e, o r, a s F re d M ote n arg u es, “m ore th an ju st th e co n stit u tiv e o u ts id e o f b ou rg eo is c a p it a li s m .” 4 4 D om estic W ork a n d G lo b al C are C hain s I would get about three to four hours sleep. I would be constantly washing or ironing clothes and if the clothes were not clean enough I would have to wash and iron them again. My hands split and bled because of the work. —M ig ra n t w ork er i n Q ata r, q u ote d i n A m nesty In te rn atio n al, “My Sleep Is My Break”: Exploitation of Migrant Domestic W orkers in Qatar The fiv e fe a tu re s of mig ra n t work er pro g ra m s are e xe m plif ie d in d om estic w ork , w here a g ro w in g p ro p ortio n o f w ork ers are m ig ra n ts in gen dere d , se xu aliz e d , an d ra cia liz e d p osit io n s of p re ca rit y . T he u neve n ly g en dere d w ork o f t h e s o cia l r e p ro d u ctio n o f l a b or w it h in t h e d om estic s p h ere , an esse n tia l co n dit io n fo r th e re p ro d u ctio n of ca p it a lis m , m ea n s t h e p riv a te d om ain o f t h e h om e h as lo n g been a s it e o f s tr u ggle to m ak e th is fe m in iz a tio n o f la b or vis ib le . T he In te rn atio n al W ag es fo r H ou se w ork c a m paig n in t h e 1 970s, le d b y M arx is t f e m in is ts , d em an ded t h at c la ss str u ggle in clu de w om en ’s u npaid d om estic la b or a s a p illa r of p atr ia rc h al c is h ete ro n u cle a r o rg an iz a tio n a n d c a p it a lis t a ccu m ula tio n . W hile th e slo g an fo cu se d on w ag es, th e ca m paig n ers m ad e c le a r it w as a r h eto ric a l d evic e t o m ak e h ou se w ork vis ib le an d hig h lig h t patr ia rc h al so cia l str u ctu rin g u nder c a p it a lis m . R aj P ate l e stim ate s th at th e va lu e o f w om en ’s u npaid w ork c o n stit u te s m ore th an h alf t h e w orld ’s e n tir e la b or o u tp u t. 4 5 In 2 020, th e New York Times p eg ged th e v a lu e o f w om en ’s u n paid la b or a ro u nd th e world at an ove rw helm in g $10.9 tr il lio n . 46 This n atu ra liz a tio n of re p ro d u ctiv e w ork as u n paid , g en dere d w ork la ys th e fo u ndatio n fo r u n derp aid d om estic w ork in t h e w ag e eco n om y. M aria M ie s w rit e s, “W om en are th e op tim al la b ou r fo rc e beca u se th ey are now bein g univ e rs a lly d efin ed a s ‘h ou se w iv e s,’ n ot a s w ork ers ; th is m ea n s t h eir w ork , w heth er in c o m mod it y p ro d u ctio n o r u se v a lu e, i s o b sc u re d .” 4 7 T he racialized , fe m in iz e d natu re of dom estic an d re p ro d u ctiv e w ork fu rth er desta b il iz e s th e m oorin gs of d om estic w ork as w om en ’s “n atu ra l w ork .” P atr ic ia H ill C ollin s arg u es, “T he assu m ed sp lit betw een th e ‘p u blic ’ sp h ere of paid em plo ym en t an d th e ‘p riv a te ’ sp h ere of u npaid fa m ily re sp on sib ilit ie s has neve r w ork ed fo r U S Bla ck wom en .” 4 8 The In te rn atio n al Bla ck W om en fo r W ag es fo r Hou se w ork ca m paig n sp ecif ic a lly lin ked u nw ag ed hou se w ork to re p ara tio n s fo r sla ve ry an d im peria lis m , dra w in g lin ks betw een th e su bsid iz a tio n of ca p it a lis m by fa cto ry w ag es an d un w ag ed la b or in th e hom e an d on pla n ta tio n s, str e n gth en ed th ro u gh im mig ra tio n co n tr o ls an d la w s c rim in aliz in g se x w ork . “B la ck /T hir d W orld w om en in te rn atio n ally , th e m ajo rit y o f th e m ajo rit y o f th e w orld ’s p eo p le , c a rry th e m ajo r b u rd en o f th e w orld ’s w ork a n d g et th e le a st w ea lt h in re tu rn ,” t h ey d esc rib ed . 49 B la ck w om en in th e U S w ere k id n ap ped fr o m t h eir c h ild re n a n d v io le n tly e n sla ve d in h om es, w here th ey w ere f o rc e d t o c o ok , c le a n , a n d c a re f o r a n d a ct a s w et n urs e s f o r w hit e c h ild re n . E ve n a ft e r t h e f o rm al a b olit io n o f ch atte l s la ve ry , M arv e l C ook e a n d E lla B ak er w ro te a b ou t th e h undre d s o f str e et co rn ers in N ew Y ork , w hic h th ey re fe rre d to a s “ s la ve m ark ets ,” w here B la ck w om en w ere h ir e d a s d om estic d ay l a b ore rs b y w hit e e m plo ye rs . 5 0 B efo re s h e w as d ep orte d , C la u dia Jo nes s p en t m uch o f th e 1 940s a n d 1 950s ra is in g th e is su es o f B la ck d om estic w ork ers . S he ch astis e d u nio n s fo r th eir fa ilu re to ce n te r d om estic w ork ers : “ It is m ere ly li p s e rv ic e fo r p ro g re ssiv e u nio n is ts to sp ea k o f o rg an iz in g th e u norg an iz e d w it h ou t tu rn in g th eir eye s to th e p li g h t o f th e d om estic w ork er, w ho, u n pro te cte d b y u nio n s ta n dard s, is a ls o th e v ic tim o f exclu sio n fr o m all so cia l an d la b or le g is la tio n .” 5 1 She arg u ed t h at B la ck w ork in g w om en a re “ th e m ost o p pre sse d str a tu m o f t h e w hole p op u la tio n ” a n d “ fa r o u t o f p ro p ortio n to oth er w om en w ork ers , are th e m ain b re a d w in ners in t h eir fa m ilie s.” 5 2 Jo n es fo cu se d on th e B la ck dom estic w ork er, w hose s u per-e xp lo it a tio n w as ju stif ie d t h ro u gh t h e “w hit e c h au vin is t s te re o ty p e a s to w here h er p la ce s h ou ld b e.” 5 3 D om estic work er str u ggle s have la rg ely been m arg in aliz e d in m ain str e a m fe m in is t a n d la b or m ove m en ts b eca u se of th is his to ry of dom estic w ork as a Bla ck , fe m in iz e d se cto r in th e hyp ers u rv e ille d an d priv a tiz e d d om ain o f th e h om e— ch ara cte riz e d b y a m aste r–s erv a n t, n ot em plo ye r– e m plo ye e , re la tio n an d exe m plif ie d by te rm in olo g y lik e “th e help .” D ue to le g al an d de fa cto s e g re g atio n , 9 0 p erc e n t of B la ck w ork in g w om en in th e so u th ern U S w ere dom estic w ork ers w ho en du re d lo n g hou rs , ea rn ed lo w wag es, an d exp erie n ce d in te n se d is c ip lin e a n d vio le n ce . 5 4 L in kin g sla ve ry o f th e p ast to s e rv it u de o f th e p re se n t, th ou sa n ds o f w ork ers o rg an iz e d fr o m th e 195 0s on w ard , re d efin in g dom estic w ork an d win nin g im porta n t vic to rie s su ch as th e in clu sio n of d om estic la b or in w ag e a n d h ou r la w s. 5 5 P re m illa N ad ase n w rit e s, “D om estic w ork , so re p re se n ta tiv e o f w hit e ra cia l o p pre ssio n f o r t h e A fr ic a n A m eric a n c o m munit y , b eca m e a n im porta n t p la tfo rm f o r t h e p olit ic s o f b la ck l i b era tio n .” 5 6 T he cu rre n t in te rn atio n al div is io n of la b or has als o c re a te d an in te rn atio n al div is io n of dom estic la b or.

A cco rd in g t o t h e I L O , a n e stim ate d s ix ty -s e ve n m illio n a d u lt d om estic w ork ers are em plo ye d w orld w id e, of w hom 8 0 p erc e n t are wom en . 57 Six ty -s ix perc e n t of dom estic w ork ers in h ig h -in co m e c o u ntr ie s a re m ig ra n t w ork ers . 5 8 T he exp an sio n of ca p it a lis t re la tio n s an d in tr o d u ctio n of w om en ’s w ag ed w ork h ave tr a n sfo rm ed g lo b al c o n dit io n s of s o cia l re p ro d u ctio n a n d la b or re la tio n s. T he c o n ce p t o f “g lo b al c h ain s o f c a re ” r e fe rs t o t h e t r a n sn atio n al n etw ork s of p aid a n d u npaid ca re w ork , fo rm ed to re p ro d u ce a n d m ain ta in lif e in a r a n ge o f s e ttin gs, fr o m th e p riv a te h om e to th e se n io r hom e. 5 9 T he glo b al ca re ch ain li n ks lo w - in co m e w om en o p pre sse d b y ra ce , c a ste , c la ss, se xu alit y , a n d n atio n alit y t o t h eir e m plo ye rs , p riv ile g ed b y t h ose s a m e hie ra rc h ie s in th e ad va n ce d ca p it a li s t co u ntr ie s of th e G lo b al N orth a n d, in cre a sin gly , a ls o th e G lo b al S ou th . In t u rn , m ig ra n t w ork ers ’ o w n fa m ilie s—o ft e n fo rb id den fr o m acco m pan im en t— are c a re d fo r b y o th er fa m ily m em bers o r an oth er ch ain of dom estic work ers . Care ch ain s are m ult ip lie d as a re su lt of neo lib era l an d str u ctu ra l ad ju stm en t p olic ie s. In h ig h -in co m e, im peria lis t c o u ntr ie s, a u ste rit y m ea su re s h ave p riv a tiz e d s e n io r c a re , h ea lt h ca re , a n d c h ild ca re , t h us s h if t in g f e m in iz e d c a re w ork a w ay f r o m p u blic in stit u tio n s in to t h e p riv a te a n d p riv a tiz e d d om ain o f th e h om e. In m an y c o u ntr ie s in th e G lo b al S ou th , c o lo n ia l le g acie s o f im pove ris h m en t, co u ple d wit h in te n sif ie d ca p it a lis t e xp ro p ria tio n , h ave c o m pelle d c ir c u it s o f la b or m ig ra tio n . For in sta n ce , la b or m ig ra tio n p olic y w as fir s t in tr o d u ce d in t h e Philip pin es under th e US-b ack ed dic ta to rs h ip of F erd in an d M arc o s, an d th e co u ntr y is now on e of th e la rg est la b or-e xp ortin g c o u ntr ie s in t h e w orld . T en p erc e n t of th e pop u la tio n w ork ove rs e a s, an d m ig ra n t dom estic w ork ers c o n stit u te a w hop pin g 7 0 p erc e n t o f a ll m ig ra n t w ork ers le a vin g th e co u ntr y . 6 0 US im peria lis m has in flu en ce d th is exo d u s. Soon aft e r Fre d eric k Ja ck so n T urn er d ecla re d th e a rc h ip ela g o a n A m eric a n fr o n tie r, th e P hilip pin es b eca m e a U S c o lo n y, w hic h it re m ain ed fr o m 1 898 u ntil 1 946. A ppro xim ate ly 1 .4 m illio n p eo p le w ere k ille d du rin g th e Philip pin e-A m eric a n war, where w ate rb oard in g a n d s c o rc h ed -e a rth t a ctic s w ere fir s t b attle - te ste d b y th e U S. 61 U nder c o lo n ia l r u le , w ork ers fr o m th e P hilip pin es w ere r e cru it e d b y t h e H aw aiia n S ugar P la n te rs ’ A sso cia tio n to w ork th e p la n ta tio n s a n d s e rv e U S im peria l in te re sts t h ere . E ve n a ft e r t h e P hilip pin es w on in dep en den ce , c o n dit io n s lik e a fix e d exch an ge ra te b etw een th e p eso an d d olla r w ere im pose d to pro te ct US co m pan ie s. W it h in tw o deca d es, t h e P hilip pin es w as f o rc e d t o f o llo w t h e d ic ta te s o f IM F an d W orld Ban k str u ctu ra l ad ju stm en t pro g ra m s.

W orld Ban k le n din g in cre a se d a sta g gerin g eig h tfo ld d u rin g t h e p erio d o f m artia l la w , a n d M arc o s s u bse q u en tly m an date d b u dget a p pro p ria tio n fo r d eb t se rv ic e , m ak in g th e Philip pin es th e on ly co u ntr y in th e w orld w it h an au to m atic deb t ap pro p ria tio n la w . 62 Cau gh t in a deb t sp ir a l, th e im pact was se ve re : pu blic se rv ic e s were p riv a tiz e d , c u rre n cy w as d eva lu ed , u se r fe e s w ere ra is e d , fo od p ro d u ctio n w as in du str ia liz e d a n d g ea re d fo r e xp ort, a n d w ag es w ere d ep re ss e d . T he c o u ntr y a ls o s e rv e d a s a p ilo t pro je ct fo r th e World Ban k’s glo b al urb an d eve lo p m en t s tr a te g y, s la tin g s lu m s f o r r e d eve lo p m en t a n d dis p la cin g poor peo p le , while gen era tin g pro fit s fo r deve lo p ers . 6 3 Again st th is back d ro p , th e in stit u tio n aliz a tio n o f la b or m ig ra tio n b eca m e a m ea n s o f q u ellin g d is se n t, s h rin kin g lo ca l u nem plo ym en t a n d p ove rty r a te s, u sin g re m it ta n ce s to se rv ic e d eb t, a n d p osit io n in g th e P hilip pin es in th e g lo b al e co n om ic o rd er a s a s u pplie r o f r a cia liz e d a n d g en dere d la b or, c o n sta n tly p ro d u ce d a n d dis c ip lin ed . M ig ra n te In te rn atio n al c a lls th e g ove rn m en t’s l a b or e xp ort p olic y “ s ta te -s p on so re d h u m an t r a ffic k in g.” 6 4 T he fe m in iz a tio n o f p ove rty , th e fe m in iz a tio n o f la b or, a n d th e fe m in iz a tio n o f m ig ra tio n , th ere fo re , in te rs e ct a n d are su sta in ed by a m atr ix of ra cia l, im peria l, an d cla ss p ow er. S ilv ia F ed eric i arg u es th at th e la b or of m ig ra n t dom estic work ers co n tr ib u te s to th e accu m ula tio n of w ea lt h fo r m id dle -c la ss an d ric h w om en in ad va n ce d , ca p it a lis t co u ntr ie s, who beco m e “lib era te d ” fr o m h ou se w ork in ord er to clim b co rp ora te la d ders . For F ed eric i, m ig ra n t d om estic w ork ers a re “ a c o lo n ia l s o lu tio n to t h e ‘h ou se w ork p ro b le m .’” 6 5 T his e xp lo it a tiv e d iv is io n o f la b or c e m en ts th e h ie ra rc h ie s b etw een m id dle - a n d u pper- c la ss w hit e w om en in t h e s o -c a lle d p ro d u ctiv e e co n om y a n d lo w -in co m e ra cia liz e d m ig ra n t w om en in th e u nderv a lu ed a n d underp aid eco n om y of dom estic la b or. Brid get A nders o n m ain ta in s th at em plo yin g d om estic w ork ers in t h e h om e c o n so lid ate s s o cia l s ta tu s a n d c la ss, a n d t h at t h e hig h ly exp lo it a tiv e co n dit io n s ass o cia te d w it h dom estic w ork e xis t b eca u se it is “ th e w ork er’s ‘p ers o n hood ,’ r a th er th an h er la b ou r p ow er, w hic h t h e e m plo ye r is a tte m ptin g t o b u y.” 6 6 In re sp on se to th ese exp lo it a tiv e la b or re la tio n s an d ca rc e ra l so cia l fo rm atio n s, th e In te rn atio n al Dom estic W ork ers Fed era tio n brin gs to g eth er dom estic w ork ers ’ u nio n s a n d a sso cia tio n s fr o m A fr ic a , A sia , th e C arib bea n , C en tr a l A m eric a , S ou th a n d No rth A m eric a , a n d E uro p e.

T he fir s t g lo b al u nio n o rg an iz a tio n r u n b y w om en , it w on a his to ric D ece n t W ork fo r D om estic W ork ers C on ve n tio n , ad op te d b y th e IL O in 2 0 11. G era ld in e P ra tt a n d M ig ra n te B C pow erfu lly arg u e, “A lt h ou gh dom estic work is f e m in iz e d , th e str e n gth of dom estic w ork er org an iz in g dis ru pts t h e c o n ve n tio n al im ag es o f f e m in in it y a n d m ust b e u nders to od in te rm s o f th e sp atia lit y a n d m ate ria lit ie s o f d om estic w ork ers ’ liv e s.” 6 7 Aro u nd th e w orld , m ig ra n t w ork ers a re sp ea rh ea d in g v it a l la b or, fe m in is t, a n tir a cis t, a n d m ig ra n t ju stic e c a m paig n s c a llin g f o r a n e n d t o p olic ie s o f te m pora ry la b or m ig ra tio n th at fa cilit a te ra cia liz e d , gen dere d in den tu re sh ip base d on cit iz e n sh ip sta tu s. M ig ra n t work er netw ork s su ch as Alia n za Am eric a s, In te rn atio n al Tra d e Unio n Con fe d era tio n , La Via C am pesin a, M ig ra n t F oru m in A sia , P an -A fr ic a n Ne tw ork in D efe n se of M ig ra n ts ’ R ig h ts , an d W om en in M ig ra tio n N etw ork a re m ob iliz in g a cro ss b ord ers a n d d em an din g t h e rig h t to p erm an en t re sid en cy u pon a rriv a l, fu ll a cce ss to s o cia l se rv ic e s, p ro te ctio n o f c o lle ctiv e b arg ain in g rig h ts , a n d l iv in g w ag es f o r a ll.