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REVIEW ARTICLEAdults ’Dispositional and Situational
Perspective-Taking: a Systematic Review
Anett Wolgast 1 &Nancy Tandler 2&Laura Harrison 3&Sören Umlauft 1
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019
Abstract
Social perspective-taking is a multifaceted skill set, involving the disposition, motivation,
and contextual attempts to consider and understand other individuals. It is essential for
appropriate behavior in teaching contexts and social life that has been investigated across
various research traditions . Because social perspectiv e-taking enables flexible
reappraisals of social situations, it can facilitate more harmonious social interactions.
We aimed to systematically review the disparate literature focusing on adults ’social
perspective-taking to answer the overarching question: Are there findings on factors that
positively or negatively related to adults ’social perspective-taking as possible protective
factor for mental health? Specific questions were which internal or external factors are
related to either dispositional or situation-specific social perspective-taking and are both
forms related to each other, or do they vary independently of each other in response to
these factors? We reviewed 92 studies published in 56 articles in last ten years including
213,095 healthy adults to answer these questions. The findings suggested several factors
(e.g., gender, perceived social interactions) related to the dispositional form. Negative
relationships to self-reported or tested (cortisol levels) distress suggested dispositional
social perspective-taking as a protective factor for mental health. Dispositional social
perspective-taking related to the situational form and some findings suggested changes in
both forms through intervention. Thus, coordinating different perspectives on oneself or
others reflects flexibility in behavior re lated to positive social and mental health
outcomes.
Keywords Systematic review . Social perspective-taking . Disposition . Healthy adults . Empathy
Adults need to see and understand others ’perspectives in order to make socially and
professionally appropriate responses within group contexts (e.g., Gehlbach 2004 ). Health
Educational Psychology Review https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09507-y
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article ( https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019- 09507-y ) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
* Anett Wolgast [email protected]
Extended author information available on the last page of the article
(2020)32:353–389
Published online: 14 December 2019 research findings suggest self-reported low levels of distress to be related to the tendency to
understand others ’perspectives in diverse social situations (see Wilkinson et al. 2017 for a
review). For example, teaching is a special context that involves diverse group situations,
raising the question of whether dispositional or situational factors are related to adults ’social
perspective-taking in teaching situations. Educational research findings indicate that some
teachers appear to consider and support students similar to themselves to a greater extent
(Gehlbach et al. 2016 ), while other teachers neglect to consider students ’learning prerequi-
sites, such as beliefs about skills or depressive mood (e.g., Bilz 2014 ). These teachers appear to
focus on themselves rather than on their students; they do not attempt to see what their students
see. We assumed that teachers ’seeing and understanding students ’perspectives may play a
key role in considering students and their learning prerequisites. Our aim was to find evident
factors which explain high levels or low levels of seeing and understanding others ’perspec-
tives for new approaches in teacher education and teacher training.
Seeing what other people see basically involves a skill set (e.g., Erle and Topolinski 2015 ,
2017 ; Hegarty and Waller 2004 ) related to visuo-spatial perspective-taking that is activated in a
social situation or context (e.g., Engen and Singer 2012 ). Social perspective-taking, broadly
defined, allows us to represent another ’s mental perspective and helps us to understand another
individual ’s behavior (e.g., Davis 1983 ). In the narrower sense, social perspective-taking
involves both seeing a target person ’s circumstantial point of view and being motivated to
discern the target ’s thoughts, motivations, and feelings in order to make accurate inferences
about their perspective (Gehlbach and Brinkworth 2012 ;Zaki 2014 ). Motivation and willing-
ness are necessary to discern available sources of evidence (e.g., using information about the
target, conversation contents, or eye movements, Gehlbach and Brinkworth 2012 )forsocial
perspective-taking and to use underlying skills (e.g., mentalizing, Engen and Singer 2012 ;
mental self-rotation, Erle and Topolinski 2017 ) for accurate assumptions about the target.
Research on social perspective-taking encompasses a number of different conceptual and
theoretical as well as methodological approaches. Within the social perspective-taking litera-
ture, primarily, two approaches are employed and relate to different conceptual aspects of
perspective-taking: (1) Social perspective-taking as disposition, the tendency to imagine
another ’s perspective and circumstances, ac ross various contexts (e.g., Davis 1983 ;
Mooradian et al. 2011 ), further referred to as dispositional .Davis( 1980 ) and other researchers
have described it as the cognitive dimension of empathy (e.g., Mattan et al. 2016 ). This
dispositional social perspective-taking is often measured using a standardized inventory (e.g.,
Davis 1980 ). (2) Social perspective-taking assessed using photo, animation, or video-based
tasks (e.g., Erle and Topolinski 2017 ; Gehlbach et al. 2012c ), further referred to as situational ,
reflects current capacities in a specific social situation. These cognitive capacities are often
assessed in experiments using various terminologies and paradigms to simulate specific social
situations which require executing social perspective-taking (e.g., Ames 2004a ,b;Amesetal.
2008 ,2010 ; Epley et al. 2006 ;Pierceetal. 2013 ;Sassenrathetal. 2016 ). Both the dispositional
and situational performance per definition imply perspective-taking with reference to a
human(-like) or social target (e.g., Deroualle et al. 2015 ).
Situational social perspective-taking deals with the cognitive capacity to establish and
flexibly modify a mental representation of another person ’s perspective and circumstances.
This mentalizing can be done remaining fixedly anchored in oneself , thus putting oneself in the
shoes of another person and her circumstances ( What would I think or do in that situation? ), or
simply execute projection or stereotyping (e.g., Ames 2004a ; Gehlbach and Brinkworth 2012 ;
Gehlbach and Vriesema 2019 ; see also Batson et al. 1997 ; Epley et al. 2004 ;Mattanetal.
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 354 2016 ). However, the further capacity to imagine the other person ’s self and her circumstances
as if one was this person requires a flexible self-anchoring (When I was this person, what
would I think or do? e.g., Batson et al. 1997 ;Mattanetal. 2016 ). This mentalizing, in turn,
may help us to regulate our emotional responses (e.g., Engen and Singer 2012 ) within
positively experienced social interactions and negatively experienced conflict situations.
Interestingly, high levels of dispositional or (experimentally induced) tested physiological
distress are related to deficits in social perspective-taking in individuals (e.g., Batson et al.
1997 ; Buffone et al. 2017 ;Lammetal. 2007 ). Distress in these contexts is induced with stimuli
which trigger negative emotional responses in an individual. Indeed, a chronic state of distress
in terms of a chronic imbalance between requirements and protective factors for mental health
might also be related to deficits in social perspective-taking levels. An investigation of the
relationship between self-reported distress, social perspective-taking, and any mitigating
factors is timely, given Americans ’dispositional social perspective-taking decreased signifi-
cantly in 2010 compared to 1979 and 2000 (Konrath et al. 2011 ), as indexed by scores from
the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Davis 1980 ), a commonly used dispositional social
perspective-taking scale. Since we were interested in factors that are positively or negatively
related to adults ’dispositional or situational social perspective-taking, we focused on research
that social perspective-taking included as correlate (nondirected relations) or dependent
variable.
Engen and Singer ( 2012 ) proposed a core network model of empathy including
perspective-taking that we used as template for an extended integrating framework (see Fig.
1 ). The core network model of empathy is outlined in the next section. Drawing upon this
model (Engen and Singer 2012 ), we aimed to demonstrate a proof of concept for this model by
systematically reviewing both correlational and experimental behavioral findings on disposi-
tional and situational social perspective-taking.
Theoretical Approaches on Social Perspective-Taking
Examples of prominent theoretical approaches to the social perspective-taking construct are
the Piagetian theory; the concept of theory of mind; social coordination after Selman ( 1980 ); or
perspective-taking as a dispositional tendency exhibited across various situations (Davis
Appraisal generation
Mentalizing (i.e., imagery perspective, cognitive representations, flexible mental model)
Contextual appraisal (perceived context, beliefs about other ‘s affective state)
Characteristics of oneself (e.g., gender, mood, personality, motivation, dispositional perspective- taking)
(Cooperative) Relationship between oneself and a target-individual (evaluation of other, affective link, similarity)
Affect generation
Features of other ‘s emotional state (valence, intensity, salience)
Self, anchored in oneself Perceived human(-like) target Social perspective-taking as cognitive dimension of empathy
States of oneself (e.g., health, too less/much sleep, distress)
Contextual conditions (e.g., time pressure, concurrent tasks, distress)
Cognitive processing 1(e.g., mental rotation, shifting, information from memory)
Fig. 1 Integrated framework of social-perspective-taking (based on Duran and Dale 2014 ; Engen and Singer 2012 ; Epley et al. 2004 ; Gehlbach 2010 ,2011 ; Johnson and Johnson 2005 ; Libby and Eibach 2011 ).1Working memory (e.g., Meyer and Lieberman 2016 ) and executive functions are probably involved in executing social perspective-taking (e.g., Ruby and Decety 2003)
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 355 1980 ). The ability to step outside oneself and assume others ’points of view is a cognitive
capacity crucial to the development of the self and cognitive skills through interactions (Mead
1934 ). Social interactions and cognitive development are linked to the emergence of formal
operations, including the capacity to engage in making assumptions and deductive reasoning,
logical reasoning, and construing reality from various possibilities (Piaget and Cook 1952 ).
This skill set has been seen as fundamental to perceiving oneself and others and adequately
interpreting social interactions and relationships (Brown 1986 ; Fischer 1980 ; Lewis and
Brooks-Gunn 1979 ).
Selman ( 1980 ) proposed a developmental view on situational social perspective-taking. He
defined social perspective-taking in children and adults as coordinating two or more perspec-
tives (e.g., oneself and another ’s, or oneself and others ’intentions, Selman 1980 ). Social
perspective-taking in terms of mind reading is conceptualized within the cognitive develop-
mental framework of theory of mind (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al. 1985 ; Bukowski and Samson
2015 ; Converse et al. 2008 ; Schneider et al. 2012 ;Toddetal. 2015 ; Wimmer and Perner
1983 ). Theory-of-mind research largely focuses on the development of the ability to distin-
guish between oneself and other individuals (e.g., desires, beliefs) in children, changes over
time in children and adolescents (e.g., Derksen et al. 2018 ; Milligan et al. 2007 ), and cultural
variation (e.g., Lillard 1998 ). False-belief tasks are a prominent method for examining (the
development of) young children ’s (e.g., the famous Sally-Anne task), adolescent ’s, or adult ’s
theory of mind (e.g., Baron-Cohen et al. 1985 ; Derksen et al. 2018 ).
The term perspective-taking is mentioned in syntheses of theory of mind research from
2006 and 2007 (e.g., Milligan et al. 2007 ; Rao et al. 2007 ;Singer 2006 ). Then, Singer ( 2006 ,
p. 856) proposed to differentiate the concepts “theory of mind, ”“ emotional empathy, ”and
“ perspective taking. ”In accordance with that proposal, having the ability to distinguish
between oneself and another ’s mental perspective (i.e., theory of mind) is in our view a
prerequisite for social perspective-taking instead of a synonym for the same. While a shared
history has resulted in both conceptual and methodological overlaps between the social
perspective-taking and theory of mind research traditions, future research should better
disentangle these two constructs conceptually and empirically. Thus, theory-of-mind research
per se is outside the scope of this systematic review in which we aimed to provide an overview
of research on social perspective-taking specifically. Accordingly, given the overlap in usage
of terms prior to Singer ’s2006 proposal, we only included research on adults ’social
perspective-taking from last 10 years in our PROSPERO pre-registration protocol. Research
beyond that point is more selective for social perspective-taking independent of theory of
mind; indeed, two recent syntheses on theory of mind (Schaafsma et al. 2016 ; Derksen et al.
2018 ) do not even mention the term perspective-taking.
Both developmental approaches are consistent in that they assume that perspective-taking is
a cognitive capacity that children learn but use differently in different contexts. Thus, adults
who have normally developed this cognitive capacity are able to use social perspective-taking
appropriately in a given social context (e.g., Bloom and German 2000 ; Epley et al. 2004 ;
German and Hehman 2006 ) without instruction (e.g., Eyal et al. 2018 ). However, these
approaches do not explain adults ’such as teachers ’intraindividual and interindividual differ-
ences in social perspective-taking.
A comprehensive approach relating to individual dispositions and situational social
perspective-taking is based on literature reviews and meta-analytic results (e.g., Engen and
Singer 2012 ;Lammetal. 2011 ). It is the core network of empathy model that explains intra-
and interindividual differences in empathic responses by the role of establishing a mental
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 356 representation of the target individual based on perception (Engen and Singer 2012 ; Libby and
Eibach 2011 ), modulation, and regulation (Engen and Singer 2012 ). Modulational factors are
one ’s own characteristics or dispositions (e.g., dispositional social perspective-taking,
Gehlbach 2010 ,2011 ; gender, mood, or personality traits, Engen and Singer 2012 ; see also
Borkenau, and Tandler 2015 for an overview), features of the target, the relationship between
oneself and the target individual (Engen and Singer 2012 ; see also Davis 2018 for similarity),
and features of the other ’s state (i.e., valence, intensity and salience, Engen and Singer 2012 ;
see Fig. 1). Factors assigned to regulation are contextual appraisal of the perceived situation,
affect, and social perspective-taking (e.g., Engen and Singer 2012 ; Libby and Eibach 2011 ).
Briefly, the core network model of empathy summarizes the networks and factors involved in
mentalizing, action simulation by information of a target person in a given context, and
cognitive processes for emotion regulation (Engen and Singer 2012 ; Libby and Eibach
2011 ). Intraindividual emotion regulation (e.g., Webb et al. 2012 ) is known to be a resource
for dealing with subjectively challenging situations, preventing states of distress, and
protecting health.
Evidence from Previous Research
Social perspective-taking with a focus on the target person has been related to beneficial effects
on cardiovascular health (e.g., Buffone et al. 2017 ). Underwood and Moore ( 1982 ) reviewed
the existing literature on the mediating role of perspective-taking forms (e.g., social vs. visuo-
spatial) on the development of altruism in children and adults. Their meta-analytic results
showed gender differences based on the method of testing. For example, social perspective-
taking differed between men and women (with women having an advantage) when self-report
measures were used but there was no difference when physiological measures or covert
observation were used (e.g., Eisenberg and Lennon 1983 ). Thus, gender is a relevant factor
for dispositional social perspective-taking.
Davis ( 1980 ) proposed social perspective-taking as one dimension of the multidimen-
sional construct of empathy beside empathic concern, fantasy, and personal distress.
Considering Davis ’work, Gehlbach (e.g., 2004 ) conceptualized and investigated social
perspective-taking as a multidimensional construct including the main two dimensions: (1)
ability measured by accuracy in reading another person ’s thoughts and feelings, and (2)
motivation (i.e., is one motivated to try to read someone else ’s thoughts and feelings in the
first place, Gehlbach 2004 ). The motivation dimension can be further distinguished with
respect to one ’s motivation to engage in a particular social-perspective-taking episode vs.
one ’s motivation to engage in soci al perspective-taking acro ss situations. The latter
represents dispositional social perspective-ta king or social-perspective-taking propensity
(Gehlbach 2004 ).
Moreover, Chambers and Davis ( 2012 ) described an ease of self-simulation heuristic for
dispositional and situational social perspective-taking. They assumed that differences in adults ’
situational social perspective-taking might be explained by whether it takes more or less effort
to mentalize about the target ’s mind or to see what a target person sees: Situational social
perspective-taking is more likely when self-simulation is easier, e.g., when similarities with the
target person are perceived. As they predicted, high levels of dispositional social perspective-
taking (e.g., Mattan et al. 2016 ) and perceived similarity (e.g., Chambers and Davis 2012 )or
dissimilarity (e.g., Simpson and Todd 2017 ; Tamir and Mitchell 2013 ; Todd et al. 2011 )with
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 357 the target have been found to be relevant factors for adults ’situational social perspective-
taking. There are indeed further research branches on social perspective-taking in various
contexts (e.g., Ingraham 2017 ), however, often outside educational contexts and including
social perspective-taking as predictor variable instead of including it as dependent variable
(e.g., Galinsky et al. 2005 ;Galinskyetal. 2008 ; Galinsky and Moskowitz 2000 ;Galinskyand
Mussweiler 2001 ).
Taken together, the cognitive capacity to consider other individuals ’points of view via
situational social perspective-taking processes could be a function of dispositional social
perspective-taking as well as further relevant factors (e.g., gender, similarity). Several synthe-
ses published in 2006 and 2007 provided overviews of existing evidence on theory of mind
research from different periods of time (e.g., Milligan et al. 2007 ). Perspective-taking is
mentioned a few times in these syntheses beside the central feature to distinguish between
oneself and other individuals when one has a theory of mind (e.g., Milligan et al. 2007 ).
However, there is a lack of systematically reviewed literature in which studies are explicitly
published under the label social perspective -taking. The relationships between social
perspective-taking and positive social interactions or distress for mental health have rarely
been addressed in systematic reviews. We assumed that intraindividual factors (e.g., gender,
dispositional social perspective-taking, see Fig. 1), and contextual factors (e.g., characteristics
of the target person and social relationship, Duran and Dale 2014 ; Engen and Singer 2012 ;
Johnson and Johnson 2005 ) would affect situational social perspective-taking as proposed for
empathy (Engen and Singer 2012 ). Furthermore, we expected intraindividual changes over
time involving dispositional (e.g., Konrath et al. 2011 ) or situational social perspective-taking
through intervention. A systematic overview of published studies would suggest first insights
on whether adults ’dispositional and situational social perspective-taking skills are related to
each other, as well as whether they are related to the internal and external (protective) factors
discussed above. This is highly important for teachers ’seeing what students see and under-
standing behaviors of these students.
The Current Review
We adapted the core network model of empathy to dispositional and situational social
perspective-taking skills, drawing upon previous theoretical contributions (e.g., Davis 2018 ;
Gehlbach 2010 ,2011 ; Libby and Eibach 2011 ;seeFig. 1). We expected dispositional and
situational social perspective-taking to be re lated to known protective factors for mental and
physical health, e.g., perceived positive social int eractions and social relationships, low levels of
distress, and low levels of cortisol, in corre lational studies among adults. We were mainly
interested in determinants of dispositional or situational social perspective-taking but also
included studies with dispositional or situational soc ial perspective-taking as a correlated variable.
We asked whether dispositional social perspective-taking affects adults ’situational social
perspective-taking skills (assessed by self-report measures vs. tasks respectively); whether
there are published findings available on this relationship; and whether relevant internal and
external factors are related to dispositional and situational social perspective-taking. If specific
conditions activate social perspective-taking processes, is there an interplay between malleable
dispositional social perspective-taking and situational social perspective-taking? Here, we
invoke the term malleability to refer to changes in dispositional and situational social
perspective-taking due to either a specific intervention or the passage of time.
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 358 The primary outcome of interest from published studies was a proof of concept by findings
of dispositions or conditions which improve dispositional or situational social perspective-
taking. Evidence of intraindividual variability in personality (e.g., Fleeson 2004 ) or changes in
personality through intervention (Roberts et al. 2017 ) let us expect changes in dispositional
social perspective-taking through intervention as well. The secondary outcome of interest was
evidence of changes in dispositional or situational social perspective-taking through interven-
tion or over time. Accordingly, the research questions were as follows: (1) Do men and women
differ in dispositional or situational social perspective-taking? (2a) What are predictors of
social perspective-taking? (2b) Which factors relevant for school and health are related to
social perspective-taking? (3) Which situational factors predict high levels of situational social
perspective-taking? (4) What proportion of situational social perspective-taking is related to
dispositional social perspective-taking? (5) What evidence is there to support the hypothesis
that dispositional or situational social perspective-taking can be changed?
Method
Selection Criteria
Target individuals for the current systematic review were healthy adults above 18 years of age
who participated in correlational or experimental studies presented in original peer-reviewed
empirical articles; we also included peer-reviewed theoretical contributions (published in
English or German). Studies of individuals under 18 years of age were excluded, as were
those concerning adults diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, mental illness, or requiring
additional support.
We included studies investigating both dispositional and situational social perspective-
taking. However, studies on perspective-taking that did not include human(-like) targets were
excluded due to our initial research question regarding adults in social situations. Previous
syntheses already summarized evidence on theory of mind (e.g., Derksen et al. 2018 )and
empathy (e.g., Engen and Singer 2012 ). Due to scientific consensus that healthy adults have
normally developed a theory of mind, which serves as a foundation for social perspective-
taking processes (e.g., Bloom and German 2000 ), studies including the words “theory of
mind ”in the abstract or keywords or which focused on false-belief tasks were excluded.
Finally, relational frame theory paradigms —which involve deictic relations that anchor a
person ’s perspective here and now (i.e., Iis coordinated with here and now ), and conversely,
anchor the perspectives of others there and then (e.g., you is coordinated, from my perspective,
there and then )—were excluded due to the focus on aspects of language related to executive
functions (e.g., shifting between relational frames, Wolgast and Barnes-Holmes 2018 ).
Systematic Literature Search Procedures
We followed search procedures outlined in our research protocol in accordance with systematic
review guidelines (Moher et al. 2015 ;Shamseeretal. 2015 ). The protocol is available on
PROSPERO (number: CRD42***BLINDED FOR PEER REVIEW). In contrast to recently
discussed preregistrations of research hypotheses for experimental or correlational studies
(e.g., Gehlbach and Robinson 2018 ), a PROSPERO protocol requires to set the research
questions, searching strategy (i.e., which databases will be used), and inclusion and exclusion
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 359 criteria for conducting a systematic review (Moher et al. 2015 ; Shamseer et al. 2015 ). First, we
initially specified subject terms in English (e.g., “social perspective-taking, ”“ perspective-
taking, ”“ empathy, ”the complete list of terms can be obtained by the authors for reasons of
space) to conduct the systematic review using electronic databases (ERIC, Web of Science,
ScienceDirect, and PubPsych). These subject terms were combined with the inclusion or
exclusion criteria mentioned above, which we expected to find in the title, abstract, or
keywords of a publication. We additionally conducted a broad search for articles containing
the words “perspective-taking AND social ”or“perspective-taking AND empathy ”in the title,
abstract, or keywords to ensure that we had identified all relevant articles. We then conducted
manual searches of the references of eligible articles and key review articles. We re-ran our
database searches twice over several months and retrieved a further 16 studies for inclusion.
An overview gives the PRISMA 2009 flow diagram including numbers of records at each step
of our systematic literature searching identification, screening, and eligibility that can be
obtained from the authors for reasons of space (template from Moher et al. 2009 ).
Overall, the searches initially resulted in 220 publications from the databases. Manual
searches of the references of eligible articles resulted in 30 publications as summarized in the
flow chart. One of three post-doctoral researchers in psychology (the authors) and one student
assistant (psychology graduate) screened the search results, which were then cross-referenced
by the second and third researchers.
We looked for research, including theoretical contributions, on dispositional or situational
social perspective-taking published between January 2008 and October 2018 due to the above-
mentioned published reviews in 2006 and 2007 (Milligan et al. 2007 ; Rao et al. 2007 ; Singer
2006 ). Theoretical contributions were identified and incorporated into the theoretical frame-
work (see the integrated framework in Fig. 1for an overview). This identification step further
involved two researchers screening the titles to identify ineligible records or duplicates; 22
records were excluded due to obvious ineligibility from the title and keywords or because they
were duplicates. We sent inquiries for full texts to the first authors if full texts were not
otherwise available.
In a second step, we screened the full texts of 214 publications and excluded 149
contributions according to the exclusion criteria defined in the protocol mentioned in the
paragraph above or because of missing information (e.g., authors reported aggregate data but
not the sample size at the individual level). We also reviewed the reference lists of the included
studies for further eligible publications. Articles containing results on perspective-taking in
adults with mental disorders, diseases, or the need for additional support, as well as a control
group, were screened; we only included the control group.
Afterwards, a total of 56 publications presenting correlational and experimental studies
remained for the systematic review, as displayed in Table 1. Our criteria for assessing study
quality were that the following points be described: sample size for analysis, including the
number of female or male participants; materials or measures used; survey or experimental
procedure; description of appropriate statistical analysis and results. Questions or disagree-
ments during the screening procedures were discussed and resolved in two one-to three-hour
lab meetings per month.
Summary of Review Results
The systematic literature search procedures resu lted in 56 full texts: 20 full texts including
29 correlational studies and 36 full texts including 63 experimental studies. The full texts
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 360 Table 1
Summary of research in
vestigating adults
’dispositional (DP) or situational (TP) social pe
rspective-taking assi
gned to review questions
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
1) Do men and women differ in dispositional or situational socialperspective-taking? Dugan, et al. (
2015
)
N= 29,811 DP scale (adapted from
Davis
1980
)
Results for four participants
’leadership
development domains (i.e., leadership capacity, leadership efficacy, DP, resilience) indicated the importance oftargeting educational interventions and developmental advising to the domain of interest while simultaneously being aware of how they affect one another.
Gender (without further information), sociocultural conversations with peers
Diehl et al. (
2014
)
N= 119 German Empathy Scale
( Leibetseder
et al.
2001
)
Presenting accurate information about the consequences of sexual harassment to participants decreased their sexual harassment myth acceptance (and men
’s likelihood of sexually
harassing).
Actualizing vs. downplaying report; men were less empathic than women.
DV O
’Brien et al. (
2013
)
N= 75,263 Interpersonal Reactivity Index
( Davis
1980
)
Evidence for an inverse U-shaped pattern by age: Middle-aged adults reported higher DP than both young adults and older adults.
Gender (consistent difference): Women reported more DP than men.
(2a) What are predictors of social perspective-taking?Buffone et al. (
2017
)
N= 212 Imagine self vs. other vs. objective
instructions, help recipient statement, personal distress (according to
Batson
et al.
1997
)
Imagine-self perspective taking (ISPT) compared to imagine-other perspec- tive taking (IOPT)/remaining objec- tive resulted in relatively greater threat, whereas IOPT resulted in mar- ginally greater relative challenge. This effect was mediated by increased per-ceived demands of the situation. Self-reported distress was only asso- ciated with threat during ISPT, not IOPT.
Distress, situational demands
MV Dugan et al. (
2014
)
N= 13,289 DP scale (adapted from
Davis
1980
)
After controlling for students
’pre-college
leadership capacity, DP emerged as an
Individual leadership values
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 361 Table 1
(continued)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
important mediator between individu- al leadership values (i.e., conscious- ness of self, congruence, commitment) and group leadership values (i.e., collaboration, handling controversy with civility).
Kajonius and Dåderman (
2017
)
N1= 284, N2= 599
Interpersonal Reactivity Index ( Davis
1980
,1983
)
Specific dispositions related to personality disorders (e.g., paranoid with low PT). Five Factor Model-based personality-disorder scores overall related to only two of the empathy traits, low emphatic con-cern and high personal distress.
Negatively related to personality-disorder scores
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results (incl. DP changes
over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
DV van den Bos et al. (
2011
) Age 12
–22:
N =62; Age 18 –22:
n =18
Trust game
Older adolescents were more sensitive to the perspective of the other player, as indicated by their reciprocal behavior, than younger adolescents. Theseadvanced forms of DP behavior were associated with increased involvement of the left temporoparietal junction and the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
Age
van Lissa et al. (
2014
) Adolescent-mother
dyads:
N=67
Writing task to prime an empathic mindset (based on
Batson
et al.
2003
);
Interpersonal Reactivity Index (adapted from Davis
1980
;
Hawk et al.
2013
)
Affective empathy manipulation in adolescents led to a non-significant trend in the hypothesized direction that affective empathy promotes active problem solving in a conflict discus-sion with one
’s mother. The cognitive
empathy manipulation led to reduced escalation and greater listening among adolescents low in DP in a conflict discussion with their mother.
Cognitive empathy priming among adolescents
(2b) Which factors relevant for school and health are related tosocial perspective-taking?
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 362 Table 1
(continued)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
Bach et al. (
2017
)
N= 79,563 Interpersonal Reactivity Index
( Davis
1980
)
DP was related to lower violent crime rates, lower rates of aggravated assault, lower rates of robbery, and higher well-being.
-
Barr (
2011
)
N=100 teachers
Interpersonal Reactivity Index ( Davis
1980
)
Teachers
’DP was related to perceived
student peer relationships, educational opportunities and school norms.Personal distress was negatively related to student peer relationships. Teachers higher in DP viewed their school
’s educational opportunities
more positively than those lower inDP.
Positive relations between DP and perceived student peer relationships, educational opportunities, schoolnorms, school culture
DV Bostic (
2014
)
N= 27 teachers, N = 1,861 students
DP adapted from Interpersonal Reactivity Index (
Davis
1980
);
DP differences by type of course taught (workshop/regular/honors) in favor of workshop; teachers
’DP was
positively correlated with years of teaching experience and expectations for students.
Years of experience, course type
Gehlbach et al. (
2008
)
N= 119 students,
N
= 30 teachers
Students
’social perspective-taking
accuracy: Scores were calcu- lated by correlating students
’
predictions with their teacher
’s
actual self-report measure de-veloped by
Gehlbach
et al.
( 2012a
,b,c).
Changes in students
’social
perspective-taking accuracy were as- sociated with improved teacher
–student relationships from
both the student and teacher points ofview.
Accuracy was correlated significantly with the positivity of the teacher-student re- lationship as rated by both students and teachers, homework, self-efficacy, effort extended for the class.
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results (incl. DP changes
over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
Kordts-Freudinger (
2017
)
N2= 198 Interpersonal Reactivity Index
( Davis
1980
)
DP related to the outcome variable student-oriented approach.
Positive relationship between DP and empathic concern and the student-oriented approach, negative re- lation between DP and distress.
Mooradian et al. (
2011
)
N= 245 Interpersonal Reactivity Index
( Davis
1980
)
DP was significantly correlated with all five domains in the NEO-FFI and four of the Mini-Marker dimensions; Inregression analyses, DP appeared to
All dimensions of Big Five (positive relation with extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness,but negative relation with neuroticism)
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 363 Table 1
(continued)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
be primarily a combination of agree- ableness and openness.
Pavey et al. (
2012
)
N1= 70, N2= 166, N3=59
N1: text vignette (adapted from Batson
et al.
1997
);N2:DP
subscale of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (
Davis
1980
);
N3: text vignette (adapted fromBatson
et al.
1988
)
Autonomous motivation to help, rather than controlled motivation to help, was a mediator of the relationship between empathy (state empathy, trait empathy, or empathetic arousal) andhelping.
Autonomous motivation to help
DV Sassenrath et al. (
2014
)
N1= 63,
N2= 78,
N3a=85,
N3b=19
Perspective-taking task
(adapted
from Keysar
1994
)
Avoidance orientation led to higher perceived self-other differences, which in turn led to more accurate TPcompared to an approach motivational orientation.
Avoidance orientation
Sollberger et al. (
2014
) Healthy controls:
n
=19
Empathic concern subscale of Interpersonal Reactivity Index ( Davis
1980
)
Patients with behaviorally variant frontotemporal dementia or semantically variant primary progressive aphasia tended to overestimate their level of empathicconcern compared to healthy controls, and overestimating one
’s empathic
concern predicted damage to predominantly right-hemispheric an- terior inferolateral temporal regions,whereas no neuroanatomical basis for underestimating one
’s empathic con-
cern was found.
–
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results (incl. DP changes
over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
Swartz and McElwain (
2012
)
N= 24 Observations during preservice
teachers
’regular student
teaching hours; Interpersonal Reactivity Index (
Davis
1980
)
Teachers reporting higher levels of DP exhibited more supportive and fewer non-supportive responses to children
’s
negative emotions. Of note is that perspective-taking was associated with greater support of negative emo- tions only when teachers also reportedlow or moderate levels of suppression in regulating their own emotions.
DP positively correlated with support and negatively correlated with non-support with respect to child negative emotional displays.
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 364 Table 1
(continued)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
DV Thoma et al. (
2011
) Healthy controls:
n
=21
Interpersonal Reactivity Index ( Davis
1980
;Paulus
2009
);
behavioral empathy using the Multifaceted Empathy Test (see Dziobek et al.
2008
)
Dispositional and behavioral empathy components administered along with tests of cognitive flexibility, response inhibition and working memory showed higher self-reported empathy in depressed patients, mainly driven by increased personal distress scores,relative to controls. Patients and con- trols did not differ significantly in terms of behavioral cognitive empathy, empathic concern and per- sonal affective involvement or in theirexecutive function performance.
Depression
van Ryn et al. (
2014
)
N= 4,732 Jefferson Empathy Scale Student
Version (Tavakol et al.
2011
);
Interpersonal Reactivity Index, Davis
1980
)
Discomfort, uncertainty, and close-mindedness were negatively as- sociated with attitudes toward physi- cian empathy in patient encounters, while the tendency to respond to others with empathic concern and DPwere positively associated.
Discomfort, uncertainty, and close-mindedness (negatively), empa- thetic responses (positively)
Verhofstadtetal.(
2016
) Couples:
N= 50 Interpersonal Reactivity Index
(Dutch version of
Davis
1980
;
De Corte et al.
2007
);support
interaction task
(adapted from
e.g., Pasch and Bradbury
1998
) For male partners, TP accuracy was related to lower levels of negative support provision. For both partners, higher TP scores were associated withthe provision of positive instrumental support.
Negative or positive support provision
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results (incl. DP changes
over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
3) Which situational factors predict high levels of situational social perspective-taking? DV Agarwal et al. (
2017
)
N= 8 Pictures of a three-dimensional
(3D) virtual environment: first-person perspective-based allocentric object location memory task (OLMT),
3-PP
based egocentric visual
Participants had significantly lower accuracy in a visual perspective-taking task compared to a table task. Subjects took significantly longer in the visual perspective-taking task than in tabletask; fMRI revealed significantly
Visual perspective-taking task vs. table task
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 365 Table 1
(continued)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
perspective-taking task (VPRT), and a table task (TT) as the control task (Amorim 2003
); functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI)
higher activation in the bilateral visual cortex and left temporoparietal junc- tion (TPJ) in VPRT compared to OLMT.
Barber et al. (
2010
)
N= 116 Cooperative
storytelling task
(computer vs. card condition)
Negative relationship with TP in terms of anticipating and source accuracy:Cognitive operations associated with anticipating a partner
’s response
resembled those produced when the individuals themselves took the action.
–
DV Bardi et al. (
2017
)
N=18
3-PP task
: abduction of index or
little finger in response to the number (1: index finger, 2: little finger) while viewing congruent or incongruent finger movements on the computer screen.
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) increased control but did not attenuate task-irrelevant response acti- vation: the effect of motor mirroring was not suppressed or reduced. Facil- itating temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) activity via anodal tDCS selectivelyenhanced the instructed motor plan (self-related representation).
In contrast to sham stimulation, anodal tDCS of the right TPJ (which enhances cortical excitability) modulated motor cortex activation, leading to a suppression of the congruency effect.
DV Beussink et al. (
2017
)
N= 327 Radio broadcast and helping task
( Batson
et al.
1997
); Inclusion
of Other in Self Scale (Aronet al.
1992
)
College students exhibiting higher levels of callous affect can, at least temporarily, demonstrate moreappropriate affect after receiving specific instructions to engage in TP. Results did not support the idea that receiving TP instructions leads to higher levels of sadness, empathicconcern, perceived closeness, and helping.
–
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results (incl. DP changes
over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
DV Böffel and Müsseler (
2018
)
N= 48 Animation-based avatar task Users with the avatar-high-ownership in-
struction reported higher levels of perceived avatar ownership andshowed larger spatial compatibility
Low/high avatar-ownership instruction
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 366 Table 1
(continued)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
effects from the avatar
’s point of view
than those with a low ownership in- struction. Thus, perceived ownership appears to benefit perspective taking.
DV Deliens et al. (
2018
)
N= 24 Visual perspective-taking task
(adapted from Surtees et al. 2016
)
Total sleep deprivation globally deteriorates visual TP and social performance.
Total sleep deprivation
DV Deroualle (
2015
)
N= 20 Virtual ball-tossing game from a
distant avatar (
3-PP task
)
Vestibular signals influenced TP with respect to a human-like avatar (con- tributed to understanding other
’s ac-
tions).
Position predicted response time
Erle and Topolinski (
2017
)
N1= 102, N2= 218, N3= 227, N4= 265, N5= 255
Social
3-PP task
/nonsocial
perspective-taking task (the target person was removed from the pictures and instead an empty chair was displayed; e.g., Kessler and Rutherford 2010
);psychological
perspective-taking task (adopted from Strack and Mussweiler
1997
)
Individuals adopted random thoughts utteredbyanotherpersonmore strongly after imagining how the world visually appears to that person. Taking the target person
’s perspective
led participants to adopt that person
’s
thoughts more strongly and increasedthe perceived similarity between that person and the self and participants
’
liking of that person. These effects were independent of task difficulty, and only present during trials wherean embodied transformation occurred (i.e., at high angular disparities). RTs were very similar between 0° and 80° of angular disparity and only began increasing at the 120° level.
Greater angular disparity between participant and target led to longer RTs
DV Knowles (
2014
)
N1= 40, N2= 60, N3=64
N1: E-task
(Hass
1984
) to measure
TP; Maze task (Stephenson and Wicklund
1984
)
Socially rejected participants displayed greater TP than accepted participants. Even under high cognitive load, rejected participants took others' perspectives into consideration on a task requiring social coordination. The effect could not be attributed to adesire to avoid self-awareness. TP predicted social memory, suggesting
Social rejection vs. acceptance condition; load vs. no-load condition
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 367 Table 1
(continued)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
that this rejection-induced shift in perspectives is adaptive.
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results (incl. DP changes
over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
DV Mohr et al. (
2013
)
n= 369 Mental imagery task on bodily
perspective taking (
3-PP task
,
e.g., Arzy et al.
2006
)
Responses were slower for front-facing than back-facing figures, controlling for background variables and collec-tivism.
Front- vs. back-facing figures; having siblings, parents
’marital status, cultural
background
Morey and Dansereau (
2010
)
n= 162 Decision advice measure
( perspective priming task
;
Levin et al.
2000
);
TP participants were instructed to brainstorm a list of all potential family and friends, heroes, and good-hearted rascals who might be Thought Teamcandidates, examining the strengths of each individual. Participants were asked to choose three or four from the list to create a personal Thought Team. Priming the perspectives of others (the Thought Team during decision advice trials) significantly enhanced the in-fluence of these perspectives of one
’s
own thinking and behavior. TP could be a function of accessibility of per- spectives.
TP activation or accessibility of perspectives
DV Santiesteban et al. (
2017
)
N1= 16, N2=19
Dot perspective-taking task (
3-PP
task
; Samson et al. 2010)
No evidence for a distinction between mentalistic and non-mentalistic stimu- li: stimulation of right temporoparietal junction impaired performance on all self-perspective trials, regardless of the mentalistic/non-mentalistic natureof the stimulus.
–
Seinfeld et al.
2018
N=44, n =39
Interpersonal Reactivity Index ( Davis
1980
,1983
)
Experiencing virtually a different body to one
’s own can influence perceptions,
attitudes and behavior. Altering the perception of the self, from a purely bodily aspect, seems to also modify self-related socio-cognitive processes.
Experiencing virtually a different body
DV Surtees (
2016
)
N1= 32,
Number trials
(alone vs. joint) Joint condition
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 368 Table 1
(continued)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
N2= 48, N3=48
When participants completed the task on their own, they were equally efficient at judging the magnitude of the numbers 8 and 5 as the numbers 9 and 6. When they performed the same task in a pair, however, their responses were faster on trials in which theirperspective was consistent with that of their partner than on trials in which their perspective was inconsistent with that of their partner. The partners did not need to complete exactly the sametask, as TP occurred even when the partner did an irrelevant task.
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results (incl. DP changes
over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
Trötschel et al. (
2011
)
N1= 160, N2= 120, N3= 194
Negotiation task
; questionnaire
assessing social motivation and perspective-taking developedby Trötschel et al. (
2011
).
Whereas negotiators
’egoistic motivation
increased the risk of partial impasses, TP alleviated this risk. This beneficialeffect of a perspective-taking mindset was limited to integrative negotiations and did not emerge in a distributive context, in which negotiators are constrained to achieve selfish goals byinflicting hurtful losses on their coun- terparts. In an integrative context, egoistic perspective-takers overcome the risk of impasses by means of log- rolling.
Manipulation of the perspective-taking mindset (egocentric vs. prosocial con- ditions)
DV Wilson et al. (
2017
)
N1= 32, N2= 48, N3= 48, N4=48
SketchUp stimulis
(based on
Samson et al. 2010)
Interference persists when all social components are removed, and visual processes are sufficient to explain this type of interference, thus supporting a domain-general perceptual interpreta- tion of interference; 1PP interference is not dependent on social factors and
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 369 Table 1
(continued)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
is more likely linked to lower-level domain general processing.
4) What proportion of dispositional social perspective-taking is related to situational social perspective-taking? Edwards et al. (
2017
)
N=136,
n=73
subsampleprovided descriptions of misunderstand- ings
DP (
Davis
1980
); situational
perspective-taking oneself andby one
’s partner (adapted from
Davis
1983
);
DP was negatively correlated with frequency and positively correlatedwith communication satisfaction and using an integrative strategy. TP and partner
’s TP were positively related to
communication satisfaction and the use of integrative strategy by bothoneself and one
’s partner.
Additionally, partner
’s situational
perspective-taking was negatively re- lated to frequency of misunderstand- ings in the relationship.
DP significantly correlated with communication satisfaction, taking anintegrative strategy. DP correlated with TP by oneself and one
’s partner.
Erle and Topolinski (
2015
)
N1=115,
N2= 147,
N3=169,
N4=
163
Interpersonal Reactivity Index ( Davis
1980
;Paulus
2009
), TP
tasks (Kessler and Thomson 2010
)
Individuals with high levels of empathic DP were better at imagining differentviews of the same object (Studies 1 –3). This correlation could not be explained by general intelligence (Study 2) and was nominally stronger among participants who explicitlyreported that they engaged in spatial TP (Study 3). Study 4 showed a correlation between empathic DP and performance on another spatial TP-task.
DP and TP correlated at low to moderate levels.
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results (incl. DP changes
over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
DV Hepper et al. (
2014
)
N1= 282, N2= 95,
N3= 88,
n3=77for
analyses
DP items (adapted from
Davis
1980
); TP manipulation
(adapted from
Batson
et al.
1991
)
DP ameliorated the negative links between maladaptive narcissism and self-reported empathy and heart rate. That is, narcissists can be moved by another
’s suffering if they take that
person
’s perspective.
Reaction to a story in perspective-taking vs. natural respon-ding condition; nar- cissists reported low DP and exhibited low TP.
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 370 Table 1
(continued)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
Slavny and Moore (
2018
)
N=78,
n=59
Intentionality bias task
(Rosset
2008
); Questionnaire of Cog-
nitive and Affective Empathy ( Reniers
et al.
2011
)
Cognitive empathy, but not affective empathy, signifi-cantly predicted the proportion of intentional judgements when participants were asked to inter- pret ambiguous sentences that were prototypically accidental. Greater perspective-taking skills predicted ahigher proportion of intentional vs. accidental evaluations of ambiguous actions.
Individual differences in cognitive empathy were related to higher intentionality bias scores only for perspective-taking ability and not online simulation. Individual differences in in- tentionality bias are related to greater DP in neurotypical individuals.
DV Chambers and Davis (
2012
)
N1= 181,
N2= 131,
N3= 65,N4= 277
Audiotaped interview
;empathic
reaction questionnaire (
N1:
health vs. relationship condition in four perspective conditions: imagine-target, imagine-self, objective, control; N2: three ambiguity conditions; N3: sympathy ratings;
N4: four
typical student scenarios)
Ease of self-simulation had a stronger relationship with empathic reactionsunder specific conditions: when de- liberate efforts had been made to take the target
’s perspective, when there
was ambiguity regarding the target
’s
experience, and when a competing cognitive task made more effortful in- ference strategies less likely. The as-sociation between self-related thoughts and empathic reactions was independent of thoughts about others, such as the degree to which the tar- get ’s problem can be imagined as
happening to a typical person.
Sympathy for the student, willingness to help the student, empathy composite;empathy composite consisting of sympathy and willingness to help
Church (
2015
)
N1= 58,
N2=39
Role-taking experience task
and
Davis
’(1980
) DP subscale
Auditors with role-taking experience (as a manager) were better able to assess whether the manager
’s reported earn-
ings were materially misstated thanauditors without role-taking experi- ence.
Role-taking experience; auditors with high DP are better able to judge managers
’
reported earnings than auditors with low DP.
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results (incl. DP changes
over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
DV Duran et al. (
2011
)
N1= 89,
N2= 96,
N3=80
Object identification task (
3-PP
task
; based on Schober
1993
)
Participants thoroughly invested in either an other-centric or egocentric mode of responding. TP strategies are not al-ways dictated by minimizing
Other-centric vs. egocentric mode of responding; degree of rotation (speaker-listener position). A largeproportion of participants resolved
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 371 Table 1
(continued)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
processing demands, but by more po- tent (albeit subtle) factors related to the social context. The average linear increase in RT for other-centric re- sponders was much higher than that for ego-centric responders.
referential ambiguity in favor of their partner
’s perspective, even when it was
more cognitively difficult to do so.
DV Engert et al. (
2014
)
N= 422 DP scale (Paulus
2009
German
version adapted from
Davis
1980
); Emotional Response
Scale (
Batson
et al.
1997
)
Overall, 26% of observers displayed physiologically significant cortisol increases. This empathic stress was more pronounced in intimate observer-target dyads (40%) and when the stressor was presented in real life(30%). Despite the higher prevalence of empathic stress in the partner and real-life observation conditions, sig- nificant cortisol responses also emerged for strangers (10%) and the virtual observation condition (24%).
DP, observer
’s familiarity with the target
(close relationship vs. stranger) facilitated empathic stress. Empathic stress was modulated by interindividual differences in DP.
Gehlbach et al. (
2015
)
N= 842 Self-report scale on perceived
relationship with other party, DP confidence scale, participants
’own
perspective-taking effort and perception of the other party
’s
DP effort (adapted from Gehlbach
et al.
2012a
)
Perspective-takers who received information about the other party developed more positive relationships and made greater concessions than participants who did not receive this information. Those who experientiallylearned about the other party
’s
perspective felt more positive about their relationships and made greater concessions during the negotiation than those who were simply providedinformation about the other party
’s
perspective.
No learning vs. experiential learning conditions; conditional differences in DP and perceived relationship with other party (which may be linked to TP)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results (incl. DP changes
over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
DV Gehlbach et al. (
2012b
)
N= 116 Scales assessing dispositions
related to participants
’DP, a
case-based scenario with
Participants improved their DP in three ways: by more accurately detecting biases in others, by generating moreinitial hypotheses to explain others
’
Service years correlated positively with TP accuracy, deployments correlatedpositively with TP. A dispositional factor and certain prior experiences
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 372 Table 1
(continued)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
embedded assessment tasks, and
a video-based TP task
.
behaviors, and by adapting their hypotheses in the face of new evidence. The curriculum did not affect participants
’TP accuracy in a
video measure.
appear to be associated with TP accuracy rather than
“reflective
”TP
tasks from scenarios.
DV Gilin et al. (
2012
)
N1= 90,
N2= 135 Interpersonal Reactivity Index
( Davis
1980
);N1:acomplex,
multiple-round, computer-based
“Disarmament
Game
”simulation;
N2: a social
coalition game
Perspective-takers were more accurate in cognitively understanding others,whereas empathy produced stronger accuracy in emotional understanding. DP and empathy were each useful in different types of competitive, mixed-motive situations
—their suc-
cess depended on the task-competency match.
DV Gorgas et al. (
2015
)
N= 33 Intervention (a two-hour session
focused on improving TP skills with a series of four
case
scenarios
, each involving a
person in distress); 10-itemsample of the Hay 360 Emo- tional Competence Inventory (Wolff
2006
)
Intervention effect after six months in the form of increased emotional competence (including DP).
Intervention; TP intervention increased DP.
DV Mattan et al. (
2016
)
N= 43 TP task adapted from Mattan et al.
( 2015
), Interpersonal Reactivi-
ty Index (
Davis
1980
)
High TP was associated with diminished costs of selecting between incongruentperspectives, especially when judging the perspective of the self-avatar. High TP was associated with reduced self-prioritization when the avatars
’
perspectives were congruent. Trendswere observed to the effect that higher TP scores were associated with faster overall RTs and a reduced cost of processing conflicting (i.e., incongru- ent) perspectives.
DP; higher empathy scores were associated with faster overall RTs and reduced costof processing incongruent perspectives.
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results (incl. DP changes
over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
DV Mohr et al. (
2010
)
N=100
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 373 Table 1
(continued)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
Empathy quotient questionnaire (Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright
2004
); mental
imagery task on bodily perspective-taking (
3-PP task
;
e.g., Arzy et al.
2006
)
Results from the TP (3PP) task showed higher rotational costs for women than men, suggesting that mental rotation rather than social strategies had been employed. Faster responding by women with higher empathy scores appears to indicate that some womenengaged in DP irrespective of the fig- ures
’position. Figures
’sex was rele-
vant to task performance as higher rotational costs were observed for male figures in the TP task amongparticipants of both sexes and for fe- male figures in the TP(1PP) task among women.
Gender, empathy as DP, front vs. back-facing figures, displayed figure
’s
gender. Faster responding by women with higher empathy scores.
DV Nielsen et al. (
2015
)
n1= 10, n2=28
TP and digit prompts (first- and 3-PP task
), target stimuli
(avatar, arrow, block); Interpersonal Reactivity Index( Davis
1980
)
RT indices of altercentric intrusion effects were present across all conditions but were significantly stronger for the social conditions compared to the lesssocial conditions.
DP, empathy, social condition; DP and empathy correlated with altercentric intrusion effects in the social condition only.
Pfeifer et al. (
2009
)
N= 12 Direct and
reflected self-appraisal
task
During direct self-reflection, adolescents demonstrated greater activity than adults in networks relevant to self-perception (medial prefrontal andparietal cortices) and social cognition (dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, temporal
–parietal junction, and poste-
rior superior temporal sulcus), sug- gesting adolescent self-construals mayrely more heavily on others
’perspec-
tives about the self.
Participants were asked to describe how they went about answering items in the reflected self-appraisal conditions, with the results suggesting that participantsused a combination of strategies to per- form the task, including DP.
DV Theodoridou et al. (
2013
)
N=96,
N= 120 TP task using photographs,
computer based
3-PP-task
Men responded faster than women in the placebo group but just as slowly as women in the oxytocin group.
Oxytocin, empathy; women with higher DP were found to be slower in TP.
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results (incl. DP changes
over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
Yuan et al. (
2017
)
N=17,
n=16;
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 374 Table 1
(continued)
Study Sample DP/TP-measure Summary of results
(incl. DP changes over time)
Factors related to DP or TP
N = 14 TP motion discrimination task
(based on
3-PP task
;
Interpersonal Reactivity Index ( Davis
1980
)
Facilitation aftereffect when participants were instructed to take the avatar
’s
perspective. Participants
’While
facilitation was induced for participants with low DP (e.g., viewing a leftward motion stimulus from another
’s perspective), those
with high DP showed an adaptation aftereffect (e.g., viewing a leftward motion stimulus from another
’s
perspective weakened one
’s
subsequent perception of leftwardmotion from the self-perspective).
DP; DP correlated with this effect for both instructed and spontaneous TP, when the
“to-be-adopted
”perspective
required participants to mentally transform their self-body clockwise.
Meyer and Lieberman (
2016
)
N=60
Director task
; social working
memory training trials
Social working memory training significantly increased TP accuracy, and these improvements significantly surpassed the improvements made by participants who underwent only working memory training.
Intervention: Twelve days of social vs. working memory training (20 min/day)
DV Wald et al. (
2017
)
n= 180 Social Empathy Index (e.g., Lietz
et al.
2011
)
Participants in the perspective-taking condition, specifically those who lost resources, also lost DP and exhibited egoistic behavior.
Treatment groups that lost resources (start high/end low) reported lower DP scores compared to control groups. Changes in DP after treatment.
DP , dispositional perspective-taking;
TP, situational persp
ective-taking;
DV, social perspective-taking included as dependent variable;
MV
, social perspective-
taking included as
mediator variable. Research paradigms in italics, e.g.,
Batson
paradigm materials (e.g.,
1991
,1997
);Davis
’(1980
) perspective-taking su
bscale (original, adapted, or translated);
Gehlbach
paradigm measures (e.g.,
2012a
,b,c).N, sample mentioned in the article cited,
n, subsample if mentioned,
Nindex
/nindex
, study number as given in the original article. RTs,
reaction times. The tasks are furt
her explained in Online Resource
1
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 375 of all of these 56 included articles were screened by one of the three researchers and the
student assistant to obtain information relevant to our research questions. Another of the
three researchers cross-checked the extracted i nformation. We discussed the information in
lab meetings twice a month. The 92 studies differed in research design, for example, the
combination of measures in correlational s tudies or the research paradigms used in
experimental studies. Table 1gives an overview of the sample sizes and relevant results
extracted from the full text screening of the correlational and experimental studies.
Dispositional social perspective-taking was assessed in both correlational and experimen-
tal studies: as a dependent variable in six co rrelational studies and 27 articles from
experimental research. Interestingly, the m ajority of these studies involved the original
(e.g., Barr 2011 ) or an adapted version (e.g., Bostic 2014 ) of the dispositional perspective-
taking subscale of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) developed by Davis ( 1980 ). We
present the results of the systematic review grouped according to our initial questions as
follows.
(1) Do men and women differ in dispositional or situational social perspective-taking? Men
and women differed in dispositional social perspective-taking where women consistently have
an advantage (e.g., Diehl et al. 2014 ; Leibetseder et al. 2001 ; O'Brien et al. 2013 ). However,
the reviewed studies included in our systematic review found no differences between male and
female participants with regard to the situational form visuo-spatial social perspective-taking
accuracy(e.g.,Arzyetal. 2006 ; Erle and Topolinski 2015 ;Mohretal. 2010 ; Theodoridou
et al. 2013 ; see Online Resource 1for task descriptions).
(2a) What are predictors of social perspective-taking?
Gender, age, self-reported distress, and physiological distress differently predicted disposi-
tional social perspective-taking: In cross-sectional large-scale research, dispositional social
perspective-taking described an inverted u-curve between 18 and 89 years of age with a
plateau between 48 and 64 years of age (e.g., O ’Brien et al. 2013 ). Self-reported low distress
levels (e.g., Buffone et al. 2017 ; see Table 1for a summary) or measured low cortisol levels
(e.g., Engert et al. 2014 ) were related to high levels of dispositional social perspective-taking.
Further findings suggested a relationship between self-reported distress and threat in an
imagine-self perspective-taking condition but not in an imagine-other perspective-taking
condition. This relationship between distress and situational social perspective-taking is in
line with other findings (e.g., Batson et al. 1997 ; Chambers and Davis 2012 ; see Online
Resource 1for task description) that suggest a need to distinguish between imagining how
another feels and imagining how you would feel as two different forms of situational social
perspective-taking with different empathic consequences.
(2b) Which factors relevant for school and health are related to social perspective-taking?
Motivation (e.g., Pavey et al. 2012 ; Sassenrath et al. 2014 ) or the big-five personality
dimensions openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness
(except neuroticism, e.g., Mooradian et al. 2011 ) were positively related to adults ’disposi-
tional social perspective-taking. For example, agreeableness is linked to cooperativeness that
predicted adults ’dispositional social perspective-taking in research on cooperative learning
(Johnson and Johnson 2005 ). Self-reported distress (e.g., Kordts-Freudinger 2017 ), antisocial
behavior problems (Bach et al. 2017 ), and subclinical narcissism (e.g., Hepper et al. 2014 )
were negatively related to adults ’dispositional social perspective-taking. Davis ( 1983 )already
found a negative relationship between self-reported distress and adults ’dispositional social
perspective-taking. Kordts-Freudinger ( 2017 ) conceptually replicated this negative relation-
ship with university teachers and teaching assistants.
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 376 Teachers ’years of teaching experience and positive expectations for students (Bostic 2014 ),
and adults ’supportive responses to children (Swartz and McElwain 2012 )oradults
(Verhofstadt et al. 2016 ) were further factors that positively related to dispositional social
perspective-taking. (3) Which situational factors predict high levels of situational social
perspective-taking? The own perspective (e.g., Agarwal et al. 2017 , Mohr et al. 2013 ;
Surtees et al. 2016 ; Wilson et al. 2017 ) vs. seeing what someone else sees predicted situational
social perspective-taking with adults ’faster responses in own-perspective conditions (e.g.,
Deroualle et al. 2015 ; Santiesteban et al. 2017 ; see also Erle and Topolinski 2017 ;Deroualle
et al. 2015 ; Duran et al. 2011 ; see Online Resource 1for task descriptions). The ease of self-
simulation heuristic related to empathic responses when deliberate efforts were made to
mentalize the target person and their circumstances, when the target person ’s experience was
ambiguous, or when a concurrent cognitive task made further mentalizing about the target
person less likely (e. g., Buffone et al. 2017 ; Chambers and Davis 2012 ).
(4) What proportion of dispositional social perspective-taking is related to situational social
perspective-taking? Dispositional social perspective-taking was positively related to situational
social perspective-taking in 17 articles (e.g., Duran et al. 2011 ; Edwards et al. 2017 ;Erleand
To p o l i ns ki 2015 ;Hepperetal. 2014 ; Mattan et al. 2016 ; Pfeifer et al. 2009 ;Yuanetal. 2017 ;
see Online Resource 1for the task description). Moreover, adults with high dispositional social
perspective-taking and role-taking experience were better able to situational social perspective-
taking than those with low dispositional perspective-taking and no role-taking experience (e.g.,
Church et al. 2015 ).
(5) What evidence is there to support the hypothesis of changes in dispositional or
situational social perspective-taking? The reviewed studies suggest that dispositional (e.g.,
Gorgas et al. 2015 ;O ’Brien et al. 2013 ) and situational social perspective-taking (e.g.,
Gehlbach et al. 2012c ;Gehlbachetal. 2015 ; Lietz et al. 2011 ; Meyer and Lieberman 2016 ;
Trötschel et al. 2011 ;Waldetal. 2017 ;Wolff 2006 ) are malleable, as its level can change after
brief interventions.
Discussion
The actual evidence reviewed stems from heterogeneous research approaches published under
the label social perspective-taking in the last 10 years. The consensus view is that perspective-
taking is a cognitive capacity (Mead 1934 ; Piaget and Cook 1952 ) related to mentalizing that
helps individuals to regulate their emotions (e.g., Engen and Singer 2012 ) and make appro-
priate responses in a social situation (Brown 1986 ; Fischer 1980 ; Lewis and Brooks-Gunn
1979 ). These relations are in accordance with the integrated framework depicted in Fig. 1.
We proposed a specific theoretical position for this manuscript when it comes to the
definition of what we call social perspective-taking. Specifically, the inclusion of visuo-
spatial perspective-taking into this construct is a current trend (e.g., Erle and Topolinski
2017 ). Relations between the different forms of perspective-taking have been disputed since
decades. There are accordingly different approaches to the concept of perspective-taking. Early
findings on egocentrism and perspective-taking in children already stimulated researchers to
discuss different forms such as visuo-spatial and social perspective-taking (e.g., Burka and
Glenwick 1978 ; Chandler 1973 ; Ford 1979 ;Light 1983 ;Morss 1987 ; Piaget and Inhelder
1956 ). For example, responses to the three-mountains task developed by Piaget and Inhelder
( 1956 ) may represent a young child ’s rarely developed skill to see another angle of view visuo-
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 377 spatially or socially (Chandler 1973 ;Morss 1987 ; Piaget and Cook 1952 ). Young children
expect that others see the world just as they do until they begin to experience, in addition to
that egocentric point of view, many other points of view (Burka and Glenwick 1978 ; Chandler
1973 ).
Researchers did not only describe more ego centrism and less perspectivism in young
children but also in children and adults with a mental disorder (e.g., autism-spectrum
disorder). Burka and Glenwick ( 1978 ,p.62)summarized “since developmental delays in
perspective-taking were prognostic of social difficulties in disordered populations, mea-
surements of perspective-taking may also be p redictive of social adjustment of normal
children [or other human populations] as well. ”Furthermore, Light ( 1983 ) highlighted that
Piaget intended “perspective ”to be taken in the visuo-spatially narrow sense and supposed
to extend to interpersonally understand, for example, the other's feelings, thoughts, and
motives (Light 1983 ). Adults who have normally developed this cognitive capacity are
able to use social perspective-taking appropria tely depending on situational requirements,
as results from different conditions in experimental studies demonstrated (e.g., Chambers
and Davis 2012 ). These findings are relevant for guiding teacher ’s appropriate responses
to students (Warren 2018 ).
Interestingly, the reviewed studies showed that moving into a position with a similar visuo-
spatial perspective like a target person ’s perspective may facilitate situational social
perspective-taking compared to staying in front of that person (e.g., Deroualle et al. 2015 ;
Santiesteban et al. 2017 ). Thus, frequent rotating oneself in a position that allows to see what
the students see might facilitate lectures from the university teacher ’s point of view.
The question with regard to factors which support or impair social perspective-taking can
be answered as follows (see “States of oneself ”and “Contextual conditions ”in Fig. 1): Adults
with lower self-reported distress and cortisol levels showed consistently higher levels dispo-
sitional social perspective-taking than those with lower levels of this disposition. The negative
relationship between distress and dispositional social perspective-taking (e.g., Buffone et al.
2017 ;Engertetal. 2014 ) supports our initial assumption of adults ’social perspective-taking as
a protective factor for health since teachers ’distress (e.g., Wolgast and Fischer 2017 ) and self-
focusing (e.g., Bilz 2014 ) are frequently discussed. This relationship is especially important for
developing intervention programs to improve teacher ’s mental health and prevent their
burnout.
Facilitated interpersonal interactions were related to both forms dispositional (e.g., Swartz
and McElwain 2012 ) and situational social perspective-taking (e.g. Verhofstadt et al. 2016 ).
Especially high levels of dispositional social perspective-taking positively related to high
levels of the situational form (e.g., Pfeifer et al. 2009 ;Yuanetal. 2017 ). Only the gender
differences, found when self-report measures were used (see “Characteristics of oneself ”in
Fig. 1), are not reflected in findings from research on situational social perspective-taking the
last 10 years (e.g., Erle and Topolinski 2015 ;Mohretal. 2010 ; Theodoridou et al. 2013 ).
Visuo-spatial social perspective-taking was tested by objective measures in these studies. The
comparable accuracy between females and males using objective measures extends findings
from research using physiological measures or covert observation without finding gender
differences (Eisenberg and Lennon 1983 ).
The results from reviewed studies suggest that if a familiar person is integrated into the
observing participant ’s self, the target-in-distress condition could activate imagine-self situa-
tional social perspective-taking (Buffone et al. 2017 ;Engertetal. 2014 ), as described by
Batson et al. ( 1997 ).
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 378 Situational social perspective-taking appears to be a skill set rather than only one skill: (1)
seeing a target person in real life, virtually, or mentally and imagining the viewpoint of the
target individual; (2) mentalizing about the target ’s social situation and recalling information
about the target person if available.
Although a large body of evidence under the label social perspective-taking exists, we
found some understudied points in our integrating framework (see Fig. 1). These are educa-
tional contextual conditions such as teachers ’situational social perspective-taking in school
with regard to facilitating social interactions and bolster teacher-student relationships. So, we
can only speculate that teachers who experience distress or difficult social interactions rather
focus on students similar to themselves (Gehlbach et al. 2016 ) or focus on themselves (Bilz,
2014 ) than those with low levels of self-reported distress or experienced easy social
interactions.
Limitations of this Systematic Review
An a priori limitation of the present systematic review was that it included only peer-reviewed
theoretical contributions and articles presenting correlational or experimental studies. This
limitation might reflect a tendency to publish mainstream research rather than novel or
marginal approaches. One important limitation is the rather narrow definition of social
perspective-taking and the timeframe for articles included in this review. The systematic
review does not capture the perspective-taking literature exhaustively. It is rather a proof of
concept for our theoretical conceptualization depicted in Fig. 1, not as an exhaustive summary
of the perspective-taking literature.
Only a few studies provided clear information about both the initial sample size ( N)and
sample sizes for analyses ( n). Therefore, it is hard to estimate whether data were censored.
Moreover, some of the reviewed articles on dispositional social perspective-taking were
inconsistent, as they cited social perspective-taking items from Davis ( 1983 ), which does
not provide items. In fact, Davis published the items in 1980 and cited this previous work
(Davis 1980 ) in 1983 without re-publishing the items. Furthermore, missing data were rarely
reported even when large-scale survey designs were applied (e.g., O ’Brien et al. 2013 ). Fewer
than expected numbers of psychological studies in educational contexts could be included due
to the ineligibility of the methods used or the study ’s specific focus (e.g., the effect of autism
on situational perspective-taking in children or adolescents) outside teaching at school or in
higher education. Finally, we included the studies on emotional and cognitive dimensions of
empathy. However, the use of empathy measures that did not clearly distinguish between the
emotional vs. cognitive dimension was a further limitation of the systematic review. Accord-
ingly, we recommend using situational socia l perspective-taking tasks (e.g., Erle and
To p o l i ns ki 2015 ) combined with self-report measures that clearly differentiate between the
emotional and cognitive dimensions of empathy in future research.
Implications for Future Research and Practice
The umbrella term social perspective-taking explicitly mentioned in published articles encom-
passes theoretically and methodologically heterogeneous research. We propose extending the
conceptualization of social perspective-taking in adults as perspective coordination ,inline
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 379 with existing literature regarding children (e.g., Selman 1980 ) and with the present results from
reviewed studies (e.g., Knowles 2014 ). The term perspective coordination serves to highlight
skills involved in coordinating different perspectives with different degrees of similarity to
one ’s own (e.g., Chambers and Davis 2012 ), and thus reflects greater behavioral flexibility
(e.g., Meyer and Lieberman 2016 ) than the narrower concept of situational taking another ’s
social perspective . Indeed, no person can fully and exclusively take the social perspective of
another because she or he remains developmentally anchored to his/her own situational
perspective (e.g., Deroualle et al. 2015 ; Epley et al. 2004 ). For example, under experimental
conditions, a person can empathize with another person and understand what they are feeling,
but all of this is experienced from the person ’s own perspective that has not changed (e.g.,
Buffone et al. 2017 ; Chambers and Davis 2012 ).
In future studies, experimental conditions might be different teaching situations based on
situations observed in reality which are simulated with virtual students in a virtual environment
(e.g., cooperative learning groups who sit around tables vs. move around) and situational
social perspective taking tasks. Student teachers ’dispositional social perspective-taking might
be assessed as baseline before presenting the teaching situation and, subsequently, the situa-
tional social perspective-taking. The experimental design could be extended to interactions
with virtual students. In this case, a teaching situation would be presented, situational social
perspective-taking assessed, and the participant may respond to virtual students. Experimental
studies on situational social perspective-taking linked to teachers ’emotion regulation in classes
would give new insights into the underlying and related processes of this social cognitive skill
set.
The reviewed studies did not apply longitudinal designs. Longitudinal studies across
university or school teacher ’s lifespan and more interventions with undergraduates in teacher
education or teachers would give further insights into changes in their dispositional or
situational social perspective-taking over time. The integrated framework in Fig 1suggests
interactions and indirect effects which may be tested using a longitudinal study design. For
example, teacher ’s characteristics may interact with their states. Appraisals may mediate the
relationship between dispositional and situational social perspective-taking. The intervention
program proposed by Meyer and Lieberman ( 2016 ) might be adapted to teachers.
Conclusion
The actual reviewed evidence explains intraindividual and interindividual differences in adult ’s
social perspective-taking. For example, low levels of distress related to high levels of dispo-
sitional or situational social perspective-taking. This relationship may protect adult ’shealth.
Research in schools or higher education on the difference between the relationship of
dispositional social perspective-taking (cognitive empathy) with low distress levels vs. emo-
tional empathy with high distress levels would make it possible to identify resilient teachers
and teachers at risk of burnout.
However, there is a clear need for research on the relationship of teachers ’dispositional and
situational social perspective-taking with their students ’emotions or even learning outcomes.
Such research might show whether teachers ’dispositional social perspective-taking makes a
contribution to their situational social perspective-taking in class, teacher-student interactions,
and learning in school, college, or university. Especially, visuo-spatial social perspective-
taking of adults in educational contexts has rarely been investigated experimentally (Wolgast
EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 380 and Oyserman 2019 ). Thus, we can only speculate about which research findings might be
valid for adults in educational contexts. A teacher who makes an attempt to see what a student
sees probably makes assumptions about the target; thus, seeing what a student sees might help
teachers mentalize a student ’s steps to solving a task in school or higher education. Further
research would help shed light on basic social cognitive processes in classes.
Acknowledgments This work was funded by the Martin-Luther University ’s Promotion Program for Women. We are furthermore grateful to Vira Sonkina who supported the literature searching procedures, and Miriam Hille who supported task descriptions that we provide in Online Resource 1. The research protocol is registered on PROSPERO (number: CRD42017067341). We did not present the ideas and data appearing in the manuscript on a website or at a conference.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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EducationalPsychologyReview(2020)32:353–389 388 Affiliations
Anett Wolgast 1&Nancy Tandler 2&Laura Harrison 3&Sören Umlauft 1
1 Department of Educational Psychology, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Franckepl. 1, 06110 Halle (Saale), Germany
2 Department of Differential Psychology and Psychological Diagnostics, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
3 Brain and Creativity Institute, Chan Division of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy, Universityof Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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