Ans the following question in-brief essay form (20 lines each) : 1. Describe the importance of the Royal Proclamation of 1763. 2. What role does terminology play in terms of understanding Indigenous P

Unit 3: Perspectives on First Contact

NATV 1220 Indigenous Peoples in Canada: Part 1

The First Explorers

Soon after Christopher Columbus landed in the "New World" in 1492, other European nations began sending expeditions to explore the lands across the sea. In the beginning they were looking for a route to the silk and spices of Asia. Soon they realized these new lands held their own riches.

European monarchs and aristocracy believed in the concept of imperialism. They thought they had the right to dominate, claim, and colonize any lands they found. They hoped for riches like the gold and silver Spain laid claim to in South America. However, even monopolizing trade with any distant land had the potential to increase their wealth, power, and prestige.

Leif Ericson

About the year 1000 the Viking Leif Ericson sailed from Greenland (the island discovered by his father Erik the Red) and explored the east coast of what is now Canada naming the area of Newfoundland and Labrador 'Markland'. Archaeologists excavating at L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland found the remains of buildings and Norse artifacts proving there was a settlement, though no one knows who or for how long. Another 500 years passed before there were any permanent European settlements on the continent.

John Cabot

An Italian Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot) wanted to look for a route to Asia, north of the route taken by Columbus. He won the backing of English merchants and King Henry VII. In May of 1497, Cabot left Bristol England with a crew of 18 including his three sons. On June 24, they reached land and claimed it for England. It was probably Newfoundland or Cape Breton in what is now Canada. This is the first known landing of Europeans in North America since the Viking Lief Erikson 500 years earlier.

After exploring the coast for about a month, Cabot returned to England to much acclaim. He reported that they had reached Asia. He and his men also reported an abundance of fish in the waters of the new land. The king was impressed enough to fund a second trip the next year with five ships and 300 men, but Cabot never returned. It is not known what happened to Cabot or the ships. Cabot's first voyage became the basis of the English claim to North America and the reports of fish triggered the annual spring voyage across the ocean of European fishing ships and whalers.

Others followed such as Portuguese explorer Gaspar Cortes-Real who claimed Newfoundland and Labrador for Portugal in 1500. João Alvares Fagundus, who was also Portuguese, explored the same coast in 1521. Italian Giovanni du Verrazanno claimed land further south for France in 1524 and called it Arcadia. These explorers were all looking for a route to Asia. Most expeditions were funded in part by merchants looking for trade opportunities.

Jacques Cartier

Like many explorers who sailed to America, the French explorer Jacques Cartier hoped to find a route through the continent to Asia. He did not find a route, but during the three expeditions he led, Cartier was the first recorded European to explore the St. Lawrence River. He was also one of the first Europeans to attempt a settlement in what is now Canada.

Cartier's First Voyage - 1534

In 1534, King Francis I of France sent Cartier to search for a northwest passage. Cartier sailed into what became known as the Gulf of St. Lawrence through the Strait of Belle Isle. He and his men explored the coasts of what are now Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick naming points as they travelled. In Chaleur Bay, they were approached by Mi'kmaq who indicated that they wanted to trade their furs. It is likely that they were accustomed to trading with the crew of European fishing ships. Outnumbered by the Mi'kmaq, Cartier was at first reluctant to deal with them and fired cannon shots over their heads. However the next day, he and his men went ashore to trade knives and tools for their furs.

While on what became known as the Gaspé Peninsula, Cartier had a friendly encounter with a fishing party of Haudenosaunee (Iroquois). They were from the village of Stadacona located near the present day city of Quebec. Before leaving to return to France, Cartier erected a cross and claimed the land for King Francis I. This did not sit well with the Stadacona. Chief Donnacona and his sons paddled a canoe out to Cartier's ship to let them know that he did not approve. Cartier indicated through sign language that the cross was a marker to help him find his way back to that location. Possibly this satisfied the Donnacona, because Cartier took the chief's two sons Domagaya and Taignoagny with him to France.

Cartier's Second Voyage – 1535

Cartier did return in 1535 with Domagaya and Taignoagny to navigate the ship up a great river to "kanata" their word for village. Cartier and his crew were likely the first Europeans to sail up what he called the rivière de Canada (St. Lawrence). Donnacona was happy to have his sons back and welcomed them with a feast. However, he discouraged any exploration further up the river that Cartier and King Francis hoped would lead to the Pacific or gold.

Regardless, Cartier carried on up the river as far as the Haudenosaunee village of Hochelaga where they were welcomed, but communication was difficult. Cartier got the impression that gold, silver, and copper could be found by following another river leading north from the St. Lawrence. Since the St. Lawrence was blocked by rapids, Cartier climbed a steep hill to have a look at the other river. He named the hill Mont Réal (Mount Royal) and today the city of Montreal stands on this site.

Cartier returned to Stadacona in October, where his men were building a small fort. It was a cold winter and with no fresh fruits or vegetables, most of the men got sick from scurvy. Though relations with the Stadacona were strained, Cartier finally learned from them how to brew a tea from white cedar as a cure, but it was too late for the 25 men who died. When Cartier returned to France the next spring, he had to leave one ship behind, however he took 10 of the Stadacona with him, including Donnacona. All but one of the 10 Haudenosaunee died in England before his next voyage.

Cartier's Last Voyage - 1541

Cartier had failed to find a north-west passage to Asia, but the Haudenosaunee reports of gold and silver caught the king's attention. To ensure France's claim to the land and any possible riches, Cartier was sent back in 1541 to establish a settlement on the river. An expedition of 10 ships was planned to be led by Jean-François de la Rocque de Roberval, with Cartier as navigator. Roberval's ship was not ready, but Cartier set sail on schedule.

The Stadacona did not welcome the French this time, so Cartier built a fort downriver at a place he named Charlesbourg-Royal. Once again the winter was cold and there was hostility with the Stadacona who no longer trusted the French. At least 35 of the men died or were killed. Despite orders to establish a settlement, Cartier and the surviving men returned to France in the spring with what they thought were gold and diamonds. The "gold" and "diamonds" proved to be worthless iron pyrite and quartz. Cartier never returned to North America, but his exploration helped to establish European knowledge of the geography of the land and he gave many place names to European mapmakers including the name Canada.

Samuel de Champlain

Samuel de Champlain was a French explorer, colonist, and mapmaker. His sketches and books provide a vivid picture of his travels in the land that became Canada and the lives of the First Nations. Often called the "Father of New France", Champlain founded the city of Quebec in 1608. He was largely responsible for its success as a colony and France's claim in North America.

Port Royal

Champlain first visited Canada in 1603 as a passenger on a trading ship that stopped in Tadoussac and then went on to the site of the present day city of Montreal. The following year he accompanied Pierre Du Gua de Monts and about 80 settlers to Acadia to establish a colony. De Monts had been granted a trade monopoly in New France. They explored what became known as the Bay of Fundy for a temporary site and chose the island of St. Croix. It was a disastrous winter. Many of the settlers died from scurvy and they burned all the trees on the island for heat. In the spring, the settlement moved across the bay to a place they named Port Royal (Annapolis Royal).

More settlers came from France in 1605 and the Port Royal colony survived. They grew some food, but relied on the ships that came each spring for supplies. Champlain spent much of his time in Acadia exploring and mapping the Atlantic coast from Port Royal to Cape Cod. In an attempt to bolster spirits during the winter of 1606, he began a club named the Order of Good Cheer. The men were encouraged to outdo each other in planning elaborate meals and festivities. However, when de Monts' trade monopoly was cancelled in 1607, most of the settlers returned to France.

Quebec

In 1608, de Monts sent Champlain to establish a fur trading post and colony inland on the St. Lawrence River. Champlain chose the site of the abandoned Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) village of Stadacona which provided access to the interior via the river and a good vantage point for controlling trade. No one knows what happened to the Haudenosaunee. Possibly warfare or European diseases brought by Cartier wiped out the villages north of the river. Champlain called this settlement Quebec from the Algonkian word "kebec" meaning where the river narrows. The workmen Champlain had brought with him, spent the summer building the "Habitation of Quebec". Champlain spent the rest of his life trying to get financial support for the future capital of New France and this first permanent French settlement in New France.

Champlain quickly developed trade relationships with the Innu (Montagnais) who had been travelling to Tadoussac to trade with the French. To build and maintain these trading relationships over the years, he joined the Innu and their First Nations allies in raids on their enemies the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois). For many years, there had been ongoing warfare between two alliances of First Nations; the League of Five Nations Haudenosaunee Confederacy with their allies living south of the St. Lawrence and the Ouendat (Huron) Confederacy with their allies including the Innu and the Kichesiprini (Algonquin) living north of the St. Lawrence.

In 1609, Champlain accompanied a war party of Innu, Kichesiprini, and Ouendat up what is now the Richelieu River to a lake that was named Lake Champlain. There Champlain helped his allies defeat the Iroquois who had never before seen European guns. This success cemented the French alliances. However, it made enemies of the Haudenosaunee who soon developed alliances and trading relationships with the Dutch who settled on the Hudson and ultimately the British in New England.

Champlain spent the winter of 1609–1610 in France working with de Monts to secure financial support for Quebec from French merchants. On his return he joined another war party against the Haudenosaunee who were once again defeated on the Richelieu River. Also that year, he sent Étienne Brûlée to live with the Ouendat to learn their language and customs. This strategy was designed to build bonds between the Ouendat and the French and other young men followed. Champlain's personal relationship with the Ouendat grew stronger over the next few years as he travelled with them exploring most of the Great Lakes area and raiding the Haudenosaunee.

Henri de Bourbon, Prince de Condé assumed responsibility for New France in 1612. He confirmed Champlain as his lieutenant in New France which increased Champlain's powers to those of a governor. Though he was not given the title of governor, Champlain was no longer just the agent of a fur trading company. The king reminded him of the importance of the search for valuable minerals and a route through the continent. In 1613, Champlain travelled north up the river Cartier had seen from Mont Réal, which became known as the Ottawa River. His mission was to try to convince the Kichesiprini to come to the rapids to trade with the French. On this trip, he lost his astrolabe while portaging. It was discovered in 1867 and is in the Canadian Museum of Civilization. Also in 1613, Champlain's book Voyages and detailed map of New France were published.

Two years later, Champlain accompanied a party of Ouendat up the Ottawa River to Lake Nipissing, and their territory on what became known as Lake Huron. He had travelled the route that was to become the main highway of the fur trade as the population of fur bearing animals declined in the St. Lawrence region from too much trapping.

While visiting with the Ouendat, he joined a war party in an attack on the Oneida and Onondaga of the Haudenosaunee League in their lands at the eastern end of Lake Ontario. They travelled down what are now Lake Simcoe and the Trent River. An attack on a fortified Haudenosaunee village was futile. Champlain was wounded in the leg and spent the winter with the Ouendat while he healed. During this time he learned much from them about their culture and the geography of the land.

Champlain's exploring days were over, but he had acquired a working knowledge of the main First Nations' trade routes from Acadia to the Great Lakes. He devoted himself to developing the colony and his efforts included bringing four Recollet priests to try to convert the First Nations peoples to Christianity. In 1618, he submitted a plan to King Louis XIII for developing farming, mining, and forestry and requested families, soldiers, and priests be sent from France. Champlain believed that it was essential to develop colonies to protect French interests from the Dutch and English. His constant efforts to get support for the struggling colony were rewarded in 1627. Cardinal Richelieu organized the Company of 100 Associates to promote colonization as well as the fur trade.

However, in 1628, Quebec was threatened by David Kirke, an English privateer who intercepted ships with settlers and supplies sent to Quebec by the company. The following year Champlain was forced to surrender his starved-out post to the English privateers. However, thanks in part to Champlain's efforts, Quebec was restored to France by the Treaty of St.-Germain-en-Laye in 1632. Champlain devoted his few remaining years to rebuilding Quebec, which had fallen into ruins under the English fur traders.

When Champlain died in Quebec in 1635, only 150 settlers lived there. Champlain's fur-trade network, however, had laid solid foundations for the French empire in North America.