This assignment is on White collar crimes. THERE IS TWO PARTS TO THIS ASSIGNMENT. ONE IS THE 15-25 PAGE PAPER ON WHITE COLLAR CRIME AND THE OTHER PART IS A POWEREPOINT WITH SPARK NOTES ON WHITE COLLAR

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WORKPLACE VIOLENCE

Workplace Violence in the Criminal Justice Field

Caitlyn Esposito

Department of Criminal Justice, Utica University

Author Note

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Caitlyn Esposito, Department of Criminal Justice, Utica University, 1600 Burrstone Road, Utica, New York 13502, United States. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Workplace violence is a very prevalent issue that affects millions every year in a variety of different professions. It is also a very broad term that can encompass minor aggressions, such as verbal threats, to major aggressions, such as homicide. There are many different types of workplace violence that can fall into Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV offenses. There are also many warning signs that can indicate that a person is likely to become violent or that a person may be abused. Workplace violence is caused by a variety of factors, including social/situational factors and biological factors. There are certain theories that explain why workplace violence exists. Workplace violence is prevalent in many criminal justice professions, specifically with social workers, correctional officers, and police officers. In order to prevent workplace violence, employees and institutions can take a seven-step approach and follow other advice to limit the likelihood of violence. If this is done rigorously, there is hope that cases of workplace violence will continue to decline in the future.

Keywords: workplace violence, warning signs, social workers, correctional officers, police officers, prevention, future

Workplace Violence in the Criminal Justice Field

Workplace violence (WPV) is defined as “behavior that would be interpreted by a reasonable person as carrying potential for violence at the work site or against a worker” (Ray, 2002, p. 12). It can be a threat to harm someone or endanger their safety, physically or mentally. In recent times, the term workplace aggression has also been used to take into account incidents that are not violent but still aggressive and can cause harm to one’s mental state (Johnson & Ortmeier, 2018). Workplace violence is a major problem that is often overlooked. It can range from minor incidents to major incidents, such as death. WPV has many consequences that span from the individual victim to the entire company. It causes job stress and burnout, which, in turn, can cause turnover and absenteeism. This has direct and indirect costs to individuals and companies because it affects sick leave, having to find new employees, and overtime (Ricciardelli et al., 2018). WPV, specifically sexual harassment, was estimated to cost Fortune 500 companies over $14 million in 2017 (Taylor et al., 2022). Overall, workplace violence harms employees’ physical and emotional well-being. It has been proven that it can cause heart problems due to higher levels of stress, higher rates of depression and anxiety, as well as higher rates of alcohol abuse, eating disorders, and even PTSD (Taylor et al., 2022). The effects of WPV are extensive across all fields and careers. This topic is related to security administration because it addresses the personnel security aspect. Personnel security means the protection of the individuals in an organization, including their physical and informative assets (Johnson & Ortmeier, 2018). The purpose of this paper is to make others aware of the severity and prevalence of workplace violence, as well as to apply this knowledge to the criminal justice field specifically. This paper will discuss the types of workplace violence, the causes of workplace violence, workplace violence in criminal justice careers, possible prevention and solutions, and the future of workplace violence.

This topic relates heavily to my major and career aspirations because I want to be a state trooper. As a woman, I am statistically likely to experience or witness some form of workplace violence in my career. With this research, I will be more apt to handle such situations if and when they occur.

Types of Workplace Violence

Many different scholars frame the types of workplace violence in many different ways. Romano et al. (2011) break it down into four different types. Type I offenses are when the offender has no relationship with the victim or the establishment where the incident took place. Type II offenses are when offenders receive a service or services from the company when they commit the act against them. Type III offenses are current or former employees who act out toward their place of employment. Type IV offenses are when the offender has a personal relationship with an employee at the company where the incident took place (Romano et al., 2011). Ray breaks it more simply into two categories. Essentially, either the intent is to intimidate, or the intent is actually to go through with the violence. This separates bullies from criminals (Ray, 2002). Both of these analyses are applicable to the study of workplace violence and its application to criminal justice careers.

Most Common Types

There are many different ways that an offender can harm a victim. It can be physical harm, like shooting, stabbing, cutting, slashing, hitting, kicking, beating, raping, or strangling a victim (Harrell et al., 2022). In the case of workplace homicides, shootings make up 79% (Harrell et al., 2022). It can also be nonphysical harm, like stalking, harassing, or sexually harassing a victim (Mount, 2003). Nonphysical harm is more common than physical harm. It happens more frequently over the phone, email, or in person. It can be as basic as making a sexual innuendo. Many people think those are funny, but it is important to realize that sexual humor or sexual advances at work are not jokes. They are a form of workplace violence.

Sexual harassment is a major issue in many different fields. Sexual harassment is defined as “Unwanted or unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature (such as sexual assaults) which has the purpose or effect of being intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating, or offense” (Taylor et al., 2022, p. 2). The victims of sexual harassment are primarily female. This can be very destructive for women’s careers, especially in male-dominated fields like law enforcement. In a study conducted in 2019, 81% of women and 43% of men reported that they experienced some form of sexual harassment or assault in their lifetime across all settings (Taylor et al., 2022). While this shows that it is a very prevalent issue for women, men are also greatly affected. Interestingly, in terms of law enforcement, it was proven that the officers viewed as the most vulnerable will have the highest probability of being victimized by sexual assault (Taylor et al., 2022). Essentially, this explains why it is not just a problem for women or minorities. It is a problem for those whom others view as vulnerable and susceptible to victimization. In relation, it was proven that “female law enforcement officers who have strong social bonds with their colleagues can reduce the effect that sexual harassment has on job satisfaction” (Harrison, 2012, p. 226). This means that if a law enforcement officer has strong social ties, they are viewed as less vulnerable and are less likely to be victimized by sexual harassment or assault.

Warning Signs

No one can accurately predict how a person is going to act. However, there are many warning signs that experts have pointed out. For one, violent employees typically communicate many times to multiple different people their intent before they commit their acts (Ray, 2002). This is useful when a company has a good reporting standard for their employees so that these acts can be prevented. One of the most accurate warning signs is if an employee changes their behavior. This can be seen through unusual “sadness, depression, threats, menacing or erratic behavior, aggressive outbursts, references to weaponry, verbal abuse, inability to handle criticism, hypersensitivity to perceived slights, and offense commentary or jokes referring to violence” (Romano et al., 2011, p. 3). Other warning signs could be that their work performance is suffering, they can be increasingly late to work or miss days of work, or they have poor relationships with their coworkers (Romano et al., 2011). More warning signs include blaming others whenever anything goes wrong, acting impulsively, being a loner, being obsessed with death, experiencing feelings of worthlessness, deteriorating relationships with supervisors or other coworkers, or even experiencing or thinking that they are experiencing discrimination (Johnson & Ortmeier, 2018). It is important not to judge employees on one specific behavior. For example, if an employee misses a few days of work because they are sick, that does not mean that they are going to commit violence. However, if they are missing days of work because they are stressed due to making many mistakes at work and all their coworkers are mad at them, it could indicate the possibility that the employee may “break” and commit an act of violence.

There are also warning signs that an employee may become a victim of workplace violence, specifically in this case of Type IV offenses or where an offender knows the employee personally. The most significant warning sign would be relationship problems that could include physical or mental abuse, separation, or divorce. This can impact work because there may be disruptive phone calls, poor concentration, unexplained bruises or injuries, use of unplanned personal time, and disruptive visits from their partner (Romano et al., 2011). It is known that domestic conflicts can often go into the workplace. For example, a partner may show up at their partner’s work angry about something that happened at home, and they may physically take it out on them at work. In fact, 5% of women who are assaulted at work are victimized by their husbands or significant other. This is connected to the fact that women are more likely to be victimized by people they know, and men are more likely to be victimized by strangers (Mount, 2003).

There are also certain risk factors for workplace violence. This includes contact with the public, exchange of money, mobile workplace, working alone or in small numbers, working late at night or early in the morning, working in high crime areas, community-based settings, or working with unpredictable people (Respass & Payne, 2008). It is important to note that all of these risk factors—excluding the exchange of money—are present in the majority of law enforcement careers.

Causes of Workplace Violence

Workplace violence can be caused by a lot of different factors. This paper will discuss the common characteristics of offenders, social/situational causes, biological causes, and a couple of theories that explain why it occurs.

Common Characteristics of Offenders

Offenders are mostly male, have a history of violence, have a below-average IQ, or have paranoid ideation (Mount, 2003). As noted previously, the majority of workplace violence incidents are committed by strangers. In fact, 47% of nonfatal workplace violence was committed by strangers (Harrell et al., 2022). Lastly, 78% of offenders are unarmed in nonfatal workplace injuries (Harrell et al., 2022). This indicates the impulsivity behind the acts as well as how uncommon fatal acts are.

Social/Situational Roots

The social/situational roots of workplace violence are comparable to that of violence in society outside of the workplace. The most common social/situational roots are the effects of family life, peers, job instability, weapons interest, and drug/alcohol abuse. A person’s upbringing can point to a lot of a person’s negative qualities. For example, a child who is constantly exposed to parental violence or violence in general may believe that is the norm (Mount, 2003). In the case of peers, if one surrounds themselves with violent peers or even people who are sexist, homophobic, or racist, that can impact who they are as an adult and make them more likely to commit violent acts or make sexist, homophobic, or racist remarks (Mount, 2003). In addition, if an individual is fired from their job, it can lead to them acting out (Mount, 2003). This is the whole idea of Type III offenses. This is shown a lot in the media or in popular movies that depict an angry employee destroying their office in a fit of rage. Also, if an individual has an unusual interest in weapons, that could indicate a higher likelihood of them being a violent individual. In the case of law enforcement, officers may be obsessed with the idea of carrying excessive guns or using excessive force because they see themselves as superior (Mount, 2003). This can indicate violent tendencies towards others. Lastly, drugs and alcohol are correlated with making people violent and distorting their judgment (Mount, 2003). So, they may act in a way that they would not have if they were sober.

Biological Roots

There are some biological explanations for workplace violence. The most notable explanation would be mental illnesses. It is important to note that not all people who have a mental illness are violent. However, some mental illnesses are correlated with violence. If an individual has a history of being violent, then they are more likely to be violent in the future (Mount, 2003). Yet, most people who have a mental illness are more of a threat to themselves than to others (Mount, 2003). This is not as strong of a cause of WPV as the previous sections.

Theories to Explain the Causes

There are a couple of sociological theories to explain the causes of workplace violence. Bandura’s social learning theory states that children learn to act aggressively because they are exposed to it, and it is reinforced (Mount, 2003). This theory is another way to explain the social/situational roots of workplace violence. Another theory is Hirschi’s social control theory, which states that “the bonds of commitment, attachment, involvement, and belief can shield officers from deviant and illegal behavior” (Harrison, 2012, p. 229). Essentially, people are less likely to be affected by workplace violence if they are committed and attached through social bonds.

Violence in Criminal Justice Careers

Workplace violence is very prevalent in the criminal justice field. In fact, protective workers—which count as correctional and police officers—have the highest risk of being assaulted at 12.6%, which is about 14 times above the average of other careers (Ricciardelli et al., 2018).

Social Workers

Workplace violence for social workers is very overlooked and underreported. This is because it is a “helping” profession, and workers are supposed to accept that it is part of the job (Respass & Payne, 2008). Most workplace violence for social workers falls under Type II crimes, meaning offenders are receiving a service through an institution that they are acting violently towards. A lot of social workers do not report acts of violence because it can create more conflict with the client, they have concerns about being blamed, and they also may not want to get their client in more legal trouble. However, even with severe underreporting, 57% of social workers reported experiencing violence during their careers, and 48% of them reported experiencing multiple incidents (Respass & Payne, 2008). A lot of the time, violence occurs during interviews and happens more often when the client is under the influence of alcohol. Sexual or suggestive comments made by the client make up about 28% of violence towards social workers. Other acts include being threatened, having items thrown at them, being physically assaulted by punching or kicking, smashing hands in doors, etc. (Respass & Payne, 2008). Younger workers are more at risk of physical threats, the threat of lawsuits, verbal abuse, and sexual harassment (Respass & Payne, 2008). This could be due to their lack of experience in dealing with clients. Also, men are more likely to report violence, and African Americans report being less fearful of abuse. Lastly, public agencies are more at risk than private practitioners (Respass & Payne, 2008). This could be due to differences in demographic qualities.

Correctional Officers

The majority of workplace violence for correctional officers (COs) also falls into the Type II offenses. The job of COs is to deal with people held against their will. So, it is very common for these people to act out and harm the people holding them captive. COs can suffer bodily injury and psychological distress through verbal insults and threats—which is very common. In a study from 2014, 15% of COs reported being physically assaulted more than three times, 17% were exposed to suicide attempts more than three times, 20% responded to a riot more than three times, and 50% witnessed a physical assault more than three times (Ricciardelli et al., 2018). Certain factors can lead to more violence, including management practices, prison order, overcrowding, gender, staffing, and colleagues. At times, discretion is needed for COs in order to reduce the possibility of violence (Ricciardelli et al., 2018). If a CO follows rules too strictly, it is more likely that the inmate will resort to violence. So, a major part of being a CO is knowing when or for whom to bend the rules in order to serve the system as a whole more efficiently. Statistically, COs have the highest average annual rate of nonfatal workplace violence, which is 149.1 violent crimes per 1,000 workers (Harrell et al., 2022). There are also very high turnover rates for COs—averaging 15 to 25%—due to workplace victimization and fear of crime (Lai et al., 2012). Once again, younger employees are more likely to be victimized, and they have higher levels of fear of victimization (Lai et al., 2012).

Police Officers

Workplace violence against police officers falls mainly under Type II offenses but also commonly falls under Type IV offenses. Type IV offenses deal with officer versus officer violence because each officer has a personal relationship with their coworkers. Police officers have the third highest annual rate of nonfatal workplace violence at 82.9 per 1,000 workers (Harrell et al., 2022). The explanation of COs and the dangers of their jobs with inmates is very similar to the danger that police officers face. So, this section will focus more on Type IV offenses. Law enforcement officials are very susceptible to discrimination because it is an institution that is somewhat tolerant of aggression as a form to keep people in line, it is disproportionately male, it is an institution controlled by traditionally masculine behaviors, the organizational power is concentrated nearly exclusively to higher levels, and it is not very diverse (Taylor et al., 2022). Women make up about 12-15% of law enforcement officers in the United States, and African Americans make up about 14% (Taylor et al., 2022). This is not representative of the population so that can cause backlash and an increase in violence. It is also very known that sexual harassment is very common due to the reasons listed above. Interestingly, it has been proven that women who hold positions of power for longer and have more experience are more at risk for nonphysical harassment (Taylor et al., 2022). This could be due to men still wanting to assert power where they can. This can also be true for the reverse. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that in law enforcement, if one is in a position of power, no matter their demographic, they are more likely to be a target for workplace violence. Finally, the field needs to realize that police officers can still be victims even when they are carrying weapons, body armor, and radios (Taylor et al., 2022). Anyone can be a target of workplace violence. It does not matter how protected they may think they are.

Prevention and Solutions

While workplace violence is inevitable in nearly every field, there are steps that companies can take to reduce the risk of violence. Each company or institution should adopt Ray’s seven-step approach. The seven steps are: (1) form a task force, (2) create a policy—ideally a zero-tolerance policy that specifically outlines procedures for reporting and prosecution/discipline— (3) conduct a risk assessment that calculates the potential and type of threat(s) possible, (4) create a contingency plan—meaning that a company ensures that the right resources are available when an incident occurs, (5) provide for incident tracking— which are detailed reports that can reduce the liability for the company—, (6) investigate all incidents—which can have a deterrent effect, help establish the root of the cause, and reduce the likelihood the threat will happen again—, and (7) provide awareness—which can be done through education and training (Ray, 2002).

A key importance of prevention is that employers and employees should know how to de-escalate potentially violent situations, be aware of warning signs, and know how to act on them. Employers and employees must intervene at the action point. This is when coworkers notice specific unusual behaviors and can intervene before an outburst happens. The flash point is when the act has already been committed and cannot be prevented or undone. Essentially, awareness + action = prevention (Romano et al., 2011). This relates to Harrison’s point that social support is crucial. As previously mentioned, women can thrive in a male-dominated profession by developing strong emotional connections with their colleagues and also by being supported by their departments (2012). So, the more tight-knit and supportive the institution is, the less likely that violence will be instilled in the workplace.

Some adjustments can be made to make workplaces more secure in order to reduce workplace violence. For example, specifically for correctional officers, there can be more CCTVs and employee duress alarm systems, and emergency reporting and safe evacuations can be strengthened (Lai et al., 2012). In addition, the widespread implantation of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to track inmates can help keep COs safer and mentally more protected because their perceived level of safety will increase (Lai et al., 2012). In all fields of criminal justice, increased job training will help reduce the effects. Not only would workplace violence training be useful, but also training on how to deal with everyday tasks more effectively would give officials the confidence to handle their jobs more appropriately, leading to fewer conflicts. Therefore, it is crucial that criminal justice professionals continuously plan, prepare, and train (Lai et al., 2012).

The Future of Workplace Violence

Workplace violence has been around for a very long time. According to recent data, it has gotten significantly better in recent years. For example, workplace homicides have decreased by more than 50% since 1994 (Harrell et al., 2022). With the rise of other technologies, nonphysical workplace violence has taken different forms since the 90s, like threats over emails. However, workplace violence is not as serious as it used to be, so the hope is that it will continue not to be as big of a problem. In addition, it is also helpful that criminal justice agencies have been taking initiatives to make social workers, correctional officers, and police officers more representative of the population. Thus, workplace violence theoretically should continue to decrease. All in all, the more aware people are about workplace violence, the less and less of a problem it will become.

Conclusion

Workplace violence is a very serious issue that plagues many different fields, especially the criminal justice field. Personnel security is a major concern for many companies, and workplace violence can hinder this type of security. This paper discussed the types of workplace violence, the causes of workplace violence, workplace violence in criminal justice careers, possible prevention and solutions, and the future of workplace violence. The best way to prevent workplace violence and make the criminal justice field better for the future is to be able to identify the warning signs of potential violence, understand the causes of such violence, and understand how it can impact one’s career in whatever profession they choose.

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