Research Question: What is the effectiveness of current airport personnel training for active shooter situations in enhancing readiness, and how can existing programs be improved? This section descr

What is the effectiveness of current airport personnel training for active shooter situations in enhancing readiness, and how can existing programs be improved?

A Creative Project Proposal Submitted to the Faculty of American Public University System
by (Name) In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Homeland Security (Month Year)

Capstone Professor: (Professor’s Name)

Introduction

The Transport Security Administration (TSA) is undertaking measures to increase the security of airports following the prevalence of high-rise active shooter incidents. In response to November 2013 shooting at LAX, TSA took various actions, including strengthening and mandating active shooter training for TSA employees and recommending standards for law enforcement presence at checkpoints to improve security in airport public areas (GAO, 2020). The TSA has provided numerous contexts for reporting suspicious activity around airports’ public areas and increased preparedness for unanticipated scenarios such as active shooter incidents. Airports are emerging as ideal targets for mass and active shooters; as such, sufficient guidelines need to be introduced to minimize adverse outcomes or casualties. The proposed program details an active shooter module for the civilians or occupants of the airport and the security personnel to maximize survivability and increase preparedness.

Background of the Study

The United States has seen a sharp increase in active shooter incidents recently. These incidents have resulted in a significant loss of life and property and have profoundly impacted the victims, their families, and the communities in which they occur. In response to this trend, several organizations, including the Department of Homeland Security and the Federal Bureau of Investigation, have developed active shooter training programs for law enforcement and other first responders.

Active shooter incidents are “an individual actively engaged in killing or attempting to kill people in a confined and populated area” (Department of Homeland Security, 2014, p. 1). These incidents are often over before law enforcement arrives on the scene, and as such, first responders must be prepared to respond quickly and effectively to these types of situations. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) recommends that first responders follow the “run, hide, fight” model when responding to an active shooter incident (Department of Homeland Security, 2014). This model advises first responders to try to evacuate the area, hide if evacuation is impossible, and finally, fight as a last resort.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has also developed guidelines for responding to active shooter incidents. These guidelines are based on a study of 160 active shooter incidents between 2000 and 2013. The FBI’s guidelines recommend that law enforcement first responders use a “containment and cover” strategy when responding to these incidents (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2014). This strategy involves law enforcement officers establishing a perimeter around the incident and then moving in to engage the shooter when it is safe.

Purpose of the Study

This study aims to examine the effectiveness of active shooter training programs in preparing first responders for these types of incidents. This study will contribute to the body of knowledge on active shooter training programs by providing a comprehensive review of the existing research on this topic. Additionally, this study will identify gaps in the research and make recommendations for future studies.

Literature Review

Active Shooter refers to a situation where one or more suspects engage in a random or systematic shooting spree to cause ongoing harm to others. The primary purpose is to inflict significant bodily injury or death rather than to engage in other criminal activity (“Active Shooter Training,” 2022). These scenarios are dynamic and constantly evolving, necessitating the urgent deployment of law enforcement forces to end the shooting and reduce the harm to innocent victims. There is usually minimal warning before an active shooter scenario occurs. Preparation increases one’s odds of surviving. To survive, one needs to retain a level head, which can only be achieved through preparation and training. Training is the best approach to ensure individuals are ready to respond swiftly and effectively during an active shooter scenario. However, assessing the relevant individuals’ available resources, skills, and interests before deciding on a training approach is essential. Every possible asset, including program leaders, vendors, airlines, first responders, stakeholders, and local, state, and federal organizations, should be accounted for in this evaluation (Zhu et al., 2020a). Also, a survey of existing emergency plans and training programs is necessary to see if adequate training exists and can be implemented more frequently after the needs have been identified. If not, a new training strategy may need to be developed.

Scholars argue that active shooting incidents are challenging to prevent, but their impacts can be mitigated. According to Sharma and Bodempudi (2022, p 299), “active shooter events are not emergencies that can be reasonably anticipated. However, there is a critical need for an effective emergency preparedness plan that can increase the likelihood of saving lives and reducing casualties in the event of an active shooting incident.” Consequently, the TSA is leveraging the tools at its disposal to create emergency preparedness plans to improve response to active shooter incidents. Similarly, immersive virtual reality is being used in modeling and simulating the behavior of humans during emergency response training to increase survivability during emergencies.

In response to subsequent airport public area security incidents, such as those in Fort Lauderdale in 2017 and Brussels and Istanbul in 2016, TSA has taken additional actions (GAO, 2020). For example, the TSA is collaborating with private actors, such as aviation security stakeholders, to increase individuals’ exposure to emergency scenarios, including active shooter scenarios. Also, aviation security stakeholders have implemented various actions consistent with these best practices, including establishing airport operations centers and deploying enhanced law enforcement teams to serve as a visible deterrent in airport public areas (GAO, 2020). Airport security has been at the forefront of numerous actions because the TSA and aviation security stakeholders strive to make airports safe for individuals. However, the lack of consistent training models and programs has limited the efficiency of the measures developed to increase emergency preparedness.

Training effectiveness has been the subject of multiple assessments, with emphasis placed on realism, frequency, inter-agency coordination, and behavioral preparedness. The Department of Homeland Security (2018) outlines the “Run, Hide, Fight” model as the foundational civilian response to active shooter threats, but this model may be insufficient for structured environments like airports where roles and responsibilities differ drastically. According to the GAO (2020), TSA's 2019 Surface Transportation Security Training Rule expanded mandatory training for security-sensitive employees but allowed significant discretion in content delivery and depth, resulting in inconsistent preparedness outcomes across airports.

Research shows that multi-disciplinary training incorporating law enforcement, emergency responders, and civilian staff increases effectiveness in real-world scenarios. A study by Jencson (2022) found that airports engaging in scenario-based joint exercises reported higher confidence and faster response times among non-law enforcement personnel. These exercises promote muscle memory, improve communication pathways, and reinforce the understanding of individual roles during crises. Similarly, Weick and Sutcliffe’s (2015) theory of High Reliability Organizations (HRO) emphasizes the value of preoccupation with failure and commitment to resilience—principles that are essential in airport environments where the stakes are high and the margin for error is minimal.

Despite increased attention to active shooter threats, training gaps persist, particularly in smaller or regional airports that may lack funding or specialized personnel. Many rely on off-the-shelf materials or outdated PowerPoint briefings, which fail to simulate the stress and chaos of real incidents (Allen & Pittman, 2021). Additionally, the emphasis on procedural compliance often overshadows the need to build adaptive, situationally aware personnel. Research by Kapucu and Khosa (2013) stresses the importance of organizational learning and improvisation in disaster response skills that must be nurtured through dynamic training, not static instruction.

Furthermore, studies suggest that the psychological readiness of personnel confidence, stress management, and decision-making under pressure is as critical as tactical knowledge. Research in the Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management by Stewart and Purdy (2019) shows that personnel who underwent stress inoculation and active simulation training were more likely to recall critical procedures and assist in coordinating crowd control during drills.

In conclusion, the literature points to a pressing need for a standardized, scalable, and airport-specific active shooter training model that integrates federal best practices, psychological preparedness, and inter-agency coordination. The gap between existing general-purpose guidance and the unique operating realities of airport environments represents a vulnerability that this project aims to address.

Methodology

This project utilizes a qualitative case study methodology to evaluate the effectiveness of current airport personnel training protocols for active shooter situations. The choice of a qualitative design is justified by the need to explore complex training dynamics, institutional practices, and context-specific vulnerabilities that are not easily quantifiable. The study seeks to understand how current training measures are implemented, identify operational and procedural gaps, and propose practical improvements grounded in homeland security principles and best practices.

Research Design

A single-case study will be conducted on a mid-sized U.S. airport (to be determined) to serve as the core unit of analysis. The selected airport will provide a contextual basis to examine existing active shooter response training and the extent to which it prepares personnel for real-world scenarios. The case study will allow for the application of detailed, structured thematic analysis to understand the relationship between formal training programs and practical readiness outcomes. The project will not involve human subjects or collection of private organizational data. All data will be drawn from publicly available documents, federal guidance, training manuals, and after-action reports.

This design is appropriate for creative/applied capstone projects within homeland security, as it allows the integration of theoretical insights, federal policy evaluation, and real-world application. The case study approach will also enable a deeper understanding of inter-agency cooperation, the use of simulation in training environments, and the psychological preparedness of personnel under stress.

Data Collection

Data will be collected from a variety of secondary sources, including:

• TSA and DHS active shooter training guidelines

• Airport emergency response manuals (public or redacted versions)

• After-action reports from previous airport active shooter events (e.g., LAX 2013, Fort Lauderdale 2017)

• Government Accountability Office (GAO) and Office of Inspector General (OIG) evaluations

• Peer-reviewed journal articles on emergency preparedness and active shooter response in transportation hubs

• Open-source training materials and advisories available through TSA’s Security Training Rule (49 CFR Part 1570)

By triangulating these sources, the project will ensure data reliability and a comprehensive understanding of training frameworks and outcomes.

Data Analysis

The study will employ thematic content analysis, which allows for the identification and interpretation of recurring patterns within qualitative data. The data will be coded and categorized based on five thematic areas derived from the literature and homeland security frameworks:

1. Training Objectives and Alignment with National Standards
   Focuses on whether training programs follow DHS/TSA mandates such as the “Run, Hide, Fight” model, TSA’s 2019 Security Training Rule, and FAA or FBI guidance.

2. Training Delivery and Methodology
   Analyzes the structure and frequency of training, including scenario-based exercises, computer-based learning, tabletop drills, and interdepartmental workshops.

3. Preparedness of Non-Law Enforcement Personnel
   Explores whether frontline staff such as TSA screeners, customer service personnel, and airline employees are adequately trained to respond and protect the public during an incident.

4. Inter-Agency Coordination and Communication
   Reviews evidence of collaboration between airport security staff, local law enforcement, emergency medical services, and federal agencies during training or live incidents.

5. Psychological Readiness and Behavioral Response
   Examines whether training programs incorporate components of stress inoculation, situational awareness, and decision-making under pressure.

Limitations

This study will rely entirely on secondary data due to institutional requirements prohibiting direct human subject research. As such, it may not capture personal experiences or perceptions of training effectiveness from airport employees. Additionally, the use of a single-case study limits generalizability; however, the findings are intended to be transferable to similar airport environments. Finally, access to comprehensive internal training documents may be restricted, which will be mitigated by focusing on open-source materials and government reports.

Anticipated Findings and Analysis

Although this project does not involve direct fieldwork or interviews, the thematic content analysis of existing training documents, policies, and after-action reports is expected to reveal consistent patterns regarding the strengths and weaknesses of current active shooter preparedness programs for airport personnel.

Findings are likely to show that many existing training models are compliance-driven, focusing more on meeting regulatory requirements than on cultivating practical, adaptive skills. The analysis may highlight a disparity between policy intent and on-the-ground implementation, particularly in smaller or regional airports that lack advanced resources.

Under the Training Objectives theme, many programs may over-rely on generic instruction without tailoring to airport-specific variables. In the Training Delivery theme, findings may show limited use of hands-on exercises or joint simulations. The Preparedness theme may reveal that frontline staff lack role-specific strategies and guidance. The Inter-Agency Coordination theme is expected to show varying degrees of collaboration between airport personnel and emergency agencies. Under Psychological Readiness, findings may indicate minimal attention to stress management and decision-making under duress.

These findings will support the development of an improved training module that integrates realism, psychological resilience, and inter-agency collaboration.

Project Design and Training Module Outline

The final deliverable will consist of:

1. Findings, policy implications, and recommendations.

2. A Training Module Manual (Appendix) with objectives, exercises, scripts, evaluation tools, and scenario templates.

Module Components

• Module 1: Threat Recognition

• Module 2: Role-Specific Tactics

• Module 3: Simulation Drills

• Module 4: Stress Management

• Module 5: Inter-Agency Coordination

• Module 6: After-Action Review Guide

Implementation Considerations

• Format: Hybrid (CBT + in-person drills)

• Timeline: 4 weeks

• Audience: All airport personnel

References