Introduction Thinking critically is important for everyone and underlies a broad range of activities. Thinking both rationally and abstractly touches virtually all aspects of human life. Critical thin

D265 Case Studies

Anika and Daniel, two geriatric nurses, are discussing a patient with worsening dementia. Anika insists they should continue following the doctor's orders to use a mixture of cholinesterase inhibitors to treat the patient. In her view, because the doctor's orders are based on peer-reviewed literature and because rigorous testing has shown that these inhibitors help prevent the breakdown of acetylcholine (a chemical that helps brain cells communicate), these orders are likely to help their patient. Daniel judges this peer-reviewed research and testing as unreliable merely because he believes that mainstream treatments doctors recommend never work. He is frustrated by the lack of improvement so far and thinks they should try something else.

Daniel then shares that he recently performed an online search on "alternative approaches to cholinesterase inhibitors" and found an online health forum where caregivers claim that exposure to certain frequencies of sound helped memory retention. He shares a story about his grandmother who listened to classical music and seemed sharper afterward. He then points out that a well-known wellness influencer recently talked about the effectiveness of a new sound therapy device that emits healing frequencies, and that many of the influencer's audience members have ordered the device already. He suggests buying one of these devices for the patient.

When Anika expresses doubt, Daniel responds, "Nurses should be willing to try anything that might help. Since this might help, we must give it a try. Also, you are from the Midwest, so it is clear that your medical reasoning should not be trusted."

Fatima, a stay-at-home mother of two children, has decided to start a small business to make some extra money. She is excited about her product idea but feels uncertain about the financial side of things.

One evening, she expresses her concerns over coffee with friends.

One of her friends, Jack, points out that according to research from the Harvard Business Review, she should hire a financial advisor to help with payroll and, because they understand current tax laws, would be able to help her with her business taxes each year.

Her friend Amanda, who runs a small online shop, disagrees with Jack. She thinks that Fatima could handle the financial side herself. "Think about it—you handle grocery budgets, bills, and savings for a family of four. That's way harder than tracking business expenses. If you can handle your personal finances, then of course you can do the business finances yourself. Plus, I just left a conference for small-business owners who handle their business finances themselves just fine, and you remind me a lot of them. If they can do it, so can you!"

When Jack points out that there are significant differences between personal and business expenses, Amanda shrugs. "At the end of the day, you can either believe in yourself and do this, or you can give up and hire someone else to do everything for you. I just believe that Fatima can do this, regardless of what the folks at Harvard say. So, I don't think Fatima needs a financial advisor."

Nora, a third-grade teacher at a public elementary school, is concerned about the recent budget cuts that have been proposed in her school district. One of the recommended cuts is the removal of arts education classes from the curriculum. In an attempt to persuade the school board that these classes should not be cut, Nora has decided to write the following letter:

I am writing today to express my opposition to the school board's proposal that arts education classes be discontinued in elementary schools in our district. I'm worried that the increase in student test scores that our neighboring district has seen after dropping art education has played an outsized role in the board's decision-making process in this case. It isn't fair to generalize from one very different district's success to conclude that the same approach will work in all districts and at all schools. The neighboring district was already performing far better on standardized tests before arts education was cut, so their data shouldn't be used to determine what's best for other schools.

I ask that you please consider the benefits that arts education can have. When looking to support this position, I found many articles and studies published in scientific journals such as Psychology Today and Nature outlining the importance of arts education for improving academic performance and aiding cognitive development. It's also the case that schools have made it a priority to include elements of arts education for hundreds of years. In addition, I worry that cutting these classes will set a dangerous precedent. If we get rid of art classes, what's next? In the future, if test scores improve, the board could decide to cut out literature and science courses as well. Eventually, perhaps recess and lunch will be found to be unnecessary. Then school will become just a place where kids memorize math formulas in order to pass a test. Is that really what we consider education?

Maria works as an IT security analyst for Synesthor. Last year, a successful ransomware attack completely stopped Synesthor's business for weeks, losing the company a significant amount of revenue. Maria has tried to convince the chief executive officer (CEO) of Synesthor, Li, that more training is needed to prevent future attacks. The CEO is resistant to spending more money on training given Synesthor's revenue shortfall last year.

Maria: "The ransomware attack last year was caused by phishing. Our operations were severely harmed, and we need to make sure this doesn't happen again. A report from a leading cybersecurity contractor claims that the frequency of phishing attacks has more than doubled in the last five years. I had a hunch that attacks were on the rise, and this source confirms that, so I think this source must be trustworthy. Also, a firm that sells phishing simulations published a report that says that the use of simulations to train employees can reduce the risk of a successful phishing attempt by 85%. Given that these attacks are on the rise and that simulations can help prevent their success, we can clearly conclude that the right move is to use phishing simulations to train our employees."

Li: "It is my job to ensure that our resources are wisely allocated. The fact of the matter is that our revenue shortfall last year requires us to cut costs this year. If we are required to cut costs, then we cannot spend money on new products. So, we cannot purchase phishing training at this time. Don't worry about this year, though. My grandfather always used to say that lightning never strikes the same place twice, so we won't be attacked this year."

Maria: "It sounds like you are arguing that we should never spend any money ever again, but that can't be right! Please reconsider your view on this."

Lucas is facing an ethical dilemma. He was driving without insurance when he ran his vehicle into a very expensive parked car in his neighborhood, and he drove away without anyone noticing. Lucas knows that the expensive car belongs to his wealthy neighbor who can easily afford to repair it. Lucas does not have the money to fix it, and if the crash goes on his record, he will not be able to afford insurance for the conceivable future. But Lucas worries that it might be wrong to hide the accident. He knows his father will ask him how he damaged his car, and he worries that lying to his father might be wrong, too. Lucas asks his friends who have been studying philosophy in an Introduction to Ethics class for help.

Ana: "One ethical theory is called deontology. It says that, morally, you must do your duty regardless of the consequences. One moral duty is to tell the truth. Therefore, even though it will be very bad for you, you have to tell your father the truth about the accident. Also, hiding the accident could be a form of lying. It is always wrong to lie, so it is wrong to hide the accident. That's the theory, at least. And hey, lots of my friends say that deontology is the correct ethical theory, so you can be sure that it is!"

Barry: "Another ethical theory is called utilitarianism. It says that, morally, you have to do the action that causes the most happiness. It would make you very happy to hide the accident, and it sounds like it wouldn't cause your rich neighbor much unhappiness to fix their car. If you admitted the accident, then it would harm you a lot, and it wouldn't benefit your neighbor much. The action that would cause the most happiness is hiding the accident, so that is what you should do. I went to a meeting of the Fans of Utilitarianism Society, and most of them thought utilitarianism was the correct ethical theory. So that means that most people agree with that theory."

Malik has noticed that his teenage daughter, Talia, has been spending increasing amounts of time on her phone. He's worried that her social media habit might be getting out of control. After dinner one evening, he decides to bring up the issue.

Malik: "Talia, I noticed that you didn't look up from your phone once during dinner tonight, and I'm concerned that you're spending too much time on social media. Haven't you seen the scientific studies pointing out the connection between depression and social media use among teens? There was even an article about it this morning in the local paper. This proves that social media can be harmful. And it's not just that. I'm also concerned about how this might be affecting your schoolwork. Our neighbor's kid had that viral post and ended up dropping out of high school. Either you've got to give up social media, or you'll end up dropping out just like him. I know you don't want to drop out of school, so the only solution is to give up social media."

Talia: "Come on, Dad, it's not that big of a deal. What about the hours of TV you watched every day when you were growing up? And besides, all my friends are on social media all the time. If I give up social media, then I'll become an outcast. I definitely don't want to be an outcast, so there's no way I can give up my social media accounts. I know those studies say that social media is bad, but they have completely ignored the positives. I feel that social media can really help bring people together, so I think it's a good thing."