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The factors of child physical abuse in Korean immigrant families Myung Sook Park Department of Social Welfare, Sangji University, 660 Woosan-dong, Wonju City, Kangwon-do, South Korea Received 2 March 2000; received in revised form 22 November 2000; accepted 29 November 2000 Abstract Objective:This study explores Korean immigrant mothers' attitudes toward child physical abuse based on an ecological perspective.

Method:One hundred and forty-four Korean immigrant mothers who came to the US after age 16 and have at least one child under 18 years old participated in this study. Data were collected using instruments translated in Korean that measure mothers' attitudes toward child physical abuse in four areas: degree of agreement with physical abuse, con¯ict tactics, belief in the use of physical punishment, and perceptions regarding physical abuse.

Results:This study found that the following variables affect Korean immigrant mothers' attitudes toward child physical abuse at ecological levels of the environment: amount of time spent with children, experience of corporal punishment as a child, children's gender and age, family acculturation con¯icts, mothers' age, and length of time in US at the micro level; involvement in their children's school and involvement in social organizations at the meso level; level of education and reported stress of immigrant life at the exo level; value of children in Korean culture, familiarity with Child Protective Services (CPS), perceived discrimination, and value of corporal punishment at the macro level.

Conclusions:This study suggests the importance of cultural sensitivity in social work practice when working with Korean immigrants. It also implies that intervention and prevention efforts of child abuse should be targeted at more than one level of the environment. 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:Child physical abuse; Korean immigrant family; Corporal punishment; Cultural diversity Introduction Child abuse, a private family matter in the United States for centuries, became a national concern with C. Henry Kempe's introduction of the `battered child syndrome' in 1962, and Pergamon Child Abuse & Neglect 25 (2001) 945±958 0145-2134/01/$ ± see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

PII:S0145-2134(01)00248-4 the passage of federal child abuse legislation in 1974. According to Kemp's study (1998), more than 77% of perpetrators of child physical abuse are parents, and the abuse tends to be chronic and repeated. More than 3 million children in the United States have been victims of physical abuse in¯icted by their parents each year (Moore, 1995). Previous studies have shown that individuals who indicate attitudes supporting physical punishment are more likely to abuse their children than those who oppose physical punishment (Jackson, Thompson, Christiansen, Colman, Wilcox & Peterson, 1999; Qasem, Mustafa, Kazem & Shah, 1998; Vargas, Lopez, Perez, Zuniga, Toro & Ciocca, 1995). Therefore, a parent's attitude toward child physical abuse seems to be an important predictor of child physical abuse.

However, because perspectives about child physical abuse can be different depending on culture, misunderstanding of cultural child rearing practices by members of the dominant culture can result in damage to certain ethnic groups. Therefore, understanding various child rearing styles of ethnic groups is necessary to develop appropriate policies that protect children and maintain social integration of culturally diverse groups in the US.

Although some attention has been given to relationships between cultural patterns in child rearing and discipline and child abuse among African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans, only a few studies (Ahn, 1994; Ahn & Gilbert; 1992; Dunphy & Mera, 1991; National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect, 1982) deal with the issue of Korean immigrants as a subcategory. When one considers that Asian Americans are the fastest growing immi- grant group since 1980 in the US (48%), with 799,000 Koreans living in the US (US Bureau of the Census, 1992), it is clear that more attention needs to be given to how Korean immigrants adapt to the US, and the impact of Korean culture and their immigration status on how Korean immigrant parents discipline their children.

Traditionally, because one of the most important ethical ideologies in Korean culture is a dedication to one's children, child abuse has not been viewed historically as a serious problem in Korea. However, with changes in Korean society, currently child abuse is viewed as a major social problem in Korea, and many professional disciplines are concerned with how it should be addressed (Chun, 1989; Park, 1998). Immigrant life for Koreans brings even more change, often making it dif®cult to take care of one's children. Immigrant parents often try to balance dualistic perspectives when parenting their childrenÐ encouraging cultural adaptation versus maintaining cultural traditions (Shinn, 1995). This often creates accultura- tive stress, and it can result in child abuse.

Because Korean parents generally think that corporal punishment is necessary for the purpose of disciplining children (Chun, 1989), the combined stress of immigrant life and the cultural sanction of corporal punishment can result in physical abuse of Korean immigrant children. Further, because Korean families have a negative attitude toward outside interven- tion in family issues (Chan, 1992), their children are less likely to receive social support when abuse does occur.

This study can contribute important knowledge to social workers working with Korean immigrants to increase their understanding of how Korean culture impacts child rearing practices of Korean immigrants. The study is also valuable in that it can help direct child welfare policies and programs for Korean immigrant parents and their children.

946M.S. Park / Child Abuse & Neglect 25 (2001) 945±958 Methods Subjects One hundred and forty-four Korean immigrant mothers in Austin, Texas, participated in this study. The sample was limited to those mothers who are ®rst generation immigrants who came to the US after age 16 and have at least one child under 18 years old. Because people who came to the US before age 16 and second generation Korean Americans are likely to be ªAmericanized,º their attitudes cannot be assumed to be based on a Korean identity, as Noh and Avison (1996) point out.

Procedures Recruitment occurred through purposive sampling. Respondents were solicited by the researcher through Korean community networks, with entrance to those networks through three Korean churches and a Korean language school. The researcher received permission from the directors of the churches and the school to meet with Korean immigrant mothers after Bible study or parents' meetings at their sites to explain the purpose of the study and criteria for participation. If, after hearing about the study, a Korean immigrant mother who met the sampling criteria wanted to participate in the study, she was given a consent form explaining the study and asking for her consent to participate. If a mother agreed to participate, she signed the written consent form. Those individuals who agreed to participate were given the survey at that time, which requested demographic information about them- selves as parents and their children, and information about their attitudes on child rearing and child discipline.

Measurement A questionnaire to gather descriptive data and measure mothers' attitudes toward child physical abuse was developed by the researcher, which consists of 26 background questions about the respondent, 10 items to measure acculturation con¯icts that may occur in immi- grant families, and 32 items to measure mothers' attitudes toward child physical abuse. The 26 background questions include questions relating to characteristics of mothers and children at the microsystem level (age, length of time in US, level of English pro®ciency, marital status, experience of abuse in childhood, experience of corporal punishment as a child, experience of being hit by spouse, number of children, importance of children, children's age, children's gender, children's special needs, amount of time spent with children, family acculturation con¯icts); interactions with relatives, friends, neighbors, school, and social groups at the mesosystem level; social economic status (education, income), social stress, and social support groups at the exosystem level; and societal attitudes toward corporal punishment, cultural values about children (value of children in Korean culture, familiarity with Child Protective Services), and perceived discrimination at the macrosystem level.

The 10 items to measure family acculturation con¯icts include questions relating to attitudes, ideas, and expectations of life. These 10 items were adapted from the Family 947 M.S. Park / Child Abuse & Neglect 25 (2001) 945±958 Acculturation Con¯icts Scale (FACTS) developed by Lee, Choe, Kim, and Neg (2000). This scale was initially developed for use with children and adolescents, and was revised by the researcher for use with parents in this study. Mothers were asked to indicate how they would most likely address situations that occur between a mother and children using ®ve-point Likert scales. Higher values indicate more acculturation con¯icts between a mother and children. The FACTS was found to have strong internal reliability, with alpha coef®cients of .89 and .91, and test-retest reliability as measured by the reliability coef®cient overa3week interval. The alpha coef®cients of FACTS in this study are .84. Moderate correlation provided initial construct validity. Further construct validity was established using con®rmatory factor analysis. FACTS also has good concurrent and criterion validity (Lee et al., 2000).

Thirty-two items to measure mothers' attitudes toward child physical abuse addressed questions in four areas: degree of agreement with physical abuse (12 items), con¯ict tactics (5 items), belief in the use of physical punishment (10 items), and perceptions regarding physical abuse (5 items).

Items relating to the degree of agreement with physical abuse were taken from an instrument used in the study ªChild Abuse and Neglect: Texans' Attitudes and Experiences,º conducted by Teske and Whitus-Goodner (1996). Mothers' attitudes toward degree of agreement with physical abuse were measured by using ®ve-point Likert scales, with higher scores indicating more negative attitudes about abusive behaviors of parents. Items relating to the degree of agreement with physical abuse and perceptions regarding physical abuse from Teske and Whitus-Goodner's study (1996) also have shown sound reliability and validity. In this study, the degree of agreement with physical abuse and perceptions regarding physical abuse have alpha coef®cients of .84 and .66.

Items relating to con¯ict tactics were taken from Straus'(1994) Con¯ict Tactics Scale.

These items include scales relating to physical aggression between parents and children. By using six-point Likert scales, mothers were asked to indicate the frequency of occurrence of physical aggression when they have con¯icts with their children. Higher scores indicate greater use of physical aggression toward their children. The coef®cient alpha of physical aggression subscales in Con¯ict Tactics Scale (CT) ranges from .42 to .96. The internal consistency of the reasoning subscales seems lower because the form used in the study had fewer items (Straus, 1994). The coef®cient alpha of CT in this study is .74. Extensive support has been received regarding the CTs validity (Straus, 1994).

Items of belief in the use of physical punishment were taken from the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI), developed by Stephen Bavolek (1984). These items use ®ve- point Likert scales, with higher scores indicating positive belief in the use of physical punishment. The belief in the use of physical punishment scale from the AAPI, based on coef®cient alpha ranges from .81 to .85 and a total test-retest correlation of .69, demonstrates good internal consistency. The coef®cient alpha of AAPI in this study is .86, which indicates sound reliability. Excellent content validity based on expert judges and construct validity data based on different types of analyses have also been veri®ed for the AAPI. The AAPI also has been found to have excellent concurrent and known-groups validity, based on the fact that the AAPI has been able to discriminate clearly among different groups in a number of previous studies (Bavolek, 1984).

Items that address perceptions regarding physical abuse were developed for this study 948M.S. Park / Child Abuse & Neglect 25 (2001) 945±958 based on the study by Teske and Whitus-Goodner (1996). Perceptions regarding physical abuse were measured in two parts. The ®rst three items use ®ve-point Likert scales, with higher scores indicating positive attitudes toward child physical abuse. The next two items ask about the respondent's opinions regarding the causes of child abuse and appropriate interventions with abusive parents. These items also have shown sound reliability and validity with alpha coef®cients of .84 and .66, as explained in the degree of agreement with physical abuse.

Because all of the above scales have been veri®ed regarding their reliability and validity with various ethnic groups in other studies (Bavolek, 1984; Lee et al., 2000; Sohn, 1998), it appears that they can be applied to Korean immigrants. To ensure validity when used with Korean immigrants, the questionnaire, including the scales described above, was translated into Korean. Back-translation also was used to make sure the translation was accurate and understandable to Korean immigrants. A small pilot study with Korean immigrant mothers was conducted to ensure that questions were understood and participants were comfortable addressing the information requested. Modi®cations of several items were made based on feedback received from respondents during the pilot study.

Data analysis The initial data analysis involved completing descriptive statistics relating to the charac- teristics of the sample. Frequency tables were developed to describe demographic charac- teristics of respondents and to determine if there were any problems with the data, including problems relating to assumptions needing to be met to complete higher order analyses.

Multiple regression analysis was used as the main statistical technique to test the research questions in this study. First, stepwise regression analysis was performed in each ecological level. Next, all variables which were statistically signi®cant in each model were entered into a regression model simultaneously. Also, x2analysis was performed because two of the variables relating to perceptions regarding physical abuse were nominal variables.

Results Table 1 provides the demographic characteristics of the 144 respondents. The respon- dents' ages ranged from 24 years to 54 years, with an average age of 35.42 years (Median5 34.0,SD55.92). The average length of time respondents lived in the US ranged from 1 year to 29 years, with an average of 7.87 years (Median55.0,SD57.12). The majority of the respondents (64.1%) have lived in the United States less than 10 years. In regard to their level of English pro®ciency, 91% of respondents indicated that their English was ªnot ¯uentº or ªpoor.º Most respondents, 137 of 144 (95.1%), indicated that they live with their spouses.

The number of years of education the respondents had completed ranged from 9 years to 25 years, with a mean of 15.59 years (Median516.0,SD52.23); 72.3% of respondents reported that they had a university education or higher. In terms of income, 18.1% of respondents reported that they earn more than $6,000 in monthly household income, while 28.5% of respondents reported an income less than $2,000. Because there were some 949 M.S. Park / Child Abuse & Neglect 25 (2001) 945±958 students among the respondents who participated in this study, they might have a low income despite their high educational level.

As shown in Table 2, generally Korean immigrant mothers who participated in this study reported negative attitudes toward physical abuse. However, respondents indicated positive attitudes about physical punishment used as discipline. These attitudes are distinguished from the con¯ict tactics they reported using when they have a con¯ict with their children.

Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the sample (N5144) Variable Frequency Percent Valid percentCumulative percentMean(median,SD) Age35.42 (34.0, 5.92) 20±29 20 14 14 14.1 30±39 91 63.4 64 78.2 40±49 29 20.3 20.3 98.6 50 and over 2 1.4 1.4 100.0 Total 142 98.6 100.0 Missing 2 1.4 Length of time in US 7.87 years (5.0, 7.12) under 3 years 39 27.1 29.1 29.1 3±less than 5 years 22 15.3 16.4 45.5 5±less than 10 years 31 21.7 23.1 68.7 10±less than 20 years 29 20.3 21.5 90.3 20 and more 13 9.1 9.5 100.0 Total 134 93.1 100.0 Missing 10 6.9 Level of English pro®ciency Fluent 12 8.3 8.4 8.4 not ¯uent 71 49.3 49.7 58.0 Poor 60 41.7 42.0 100.0 Total 143 99.3 100.0 Missing 1 0.7 Marital status live with husband 137 95.1 95.8 95.8 Widowed 1 0.7 0.7 96.5 divorced/separated 5 3.5 3.5 100.0 Total 143 99.3 100.0 Missing 1 0.7 Years of education 15.59 years (16.0, 2.23) under 10 years 2 1.4 1.4 1.4 10±12 years 21 14.6 14.9 16.3 13±16 years 81 56.3 57.4 73.8 17 and more 37 25.8 26.1 100.0 Total 141 97.9 100.0 Missing 3 2.1 Household income (per month) Less than $2,000 41 28.5 30.6 30.6 $2,000±$4,000 44 30.6 32.8 63.4 $4,000±$6,000 23 16.0 17.2 80.6 More than $6,000 26 18.1 19.4 100.0 Total 134 93.1 100.0 Missing 10 6.9 950M.S. Park / Child Abuse & Neglect 25 (2001) 945±958 That is, Korean immigrant mothers in the study indicated they are less likely to use physical aggression tactics with children during parent-child con¯icts. This suggests that Korean immigrant mothers who participated in the study recognize that physical punishment with an educational purpose is clearly different from physical aggression toward children in a con¯ict situation. Generally Korean immigrant mothers who participated in the study reported overall negative attitudes about the use of physical punishment, but they reported strong beliefs about the necessity of physical punishment in some speci®c situations, such as cases when parents think that children's behaviors need to be corrected. When perceptions regarding physical abuse were measured, most respondents reported that they do not view corporal punishment as abuse of children. Also, the majority of respondents think that child abuse is the result of parents' love of their children, and therefore, the problem of child abuse should be considered an individual issue rather than a social issue.

Degree of agreement with physical abuse In relation to the degree of agreement with physical abuse (Table 3), mothers who spend more time with their children (R 25.042), have a high educational level (R 25.052), and are familiar with Child Protective Services (CPS) (R 25.073) are more likely to have negative attitudes about abusive behaviors toward children (p,.05). However, mothers who report that children are valued highly in Korean culture are less likely to be negative about abusive behaviors toward children (R 25.043;p,.05). The amount of time spent with Table 2 Descriptive statistics of the dependent variables (N5144) Variable % (N)Mean(SD) Range Middle point Degree of agreement with physical abuse 47.11 (5.83) 12±60 36 Con¯ict tactics 5.62 (4.43) 0±20 10 Belief in the use of physical punishment 28.97 (6.52) 10±50 30 Perceptions regarding physical abuse 1. Item 1,2,3 7.38 (1.56) 3±15 9 2. cause a parent to physically abuse a child parent's love 36.8 (53) parent's authority 13.2 (19) parent's personal problem 16.7 (24) parent's stress of life 22.9 (33) con¯icts with parent and children 8.3 (12) total 97.9 (141) missing 2.1 (3) 3. what should be done with an abusive parent personal basis 19.4 (28) offer help 64.6 (93) receive treatment 5.6 (8) civil court 2.1 (3) criminal court 4.2 (6) total 95.8 (138) missing 4.2 (6)951 M.S. Park / Child Abuse & Neglect 25 (2001) 945±958 children and education were no longer statistically signi®cant variables across all ecological levels, even though they were statistically signi®cant at each ecological level.

Con¯ict tactics In relation to con¯ict tactics (Table 4), mothers who reported experiencing corporal punishment as a child are less likely to use physical aggression when they have con¯icts with their children (R 25.126;p,.05). However, mothers who have a son (R 25.225), young children (R 25.339), high family acculturation con¯ict (R 25.279), and report experiences of stress because of their immigrant status (R 25.032) and discrimination (R 25.035) are more likely to use physical aggression toward children when con¯ict occurs between them and their children (p,.05). The stress of immigrant life and perceived discrimination were no longer statistically signi®cant variables across all ecological levels, even though they were statistically signi®cant at each ecological level. Table 3 Statistically signi®cant variables at each ecological level and degree of agreement with physical abuse Variable B SEB BetaTSig.R 2 Model 1ÐMicro level amount of time spent with children .484 .234 .206 2.070 .041* .042 Model 2ÐMeso level No statistically signi®cant variables Model 3ÐExo level education .609 .233 .228 2.612 .010* .052 Model 4ÐMacro level -value of children in Korean culture21.177 .4232.23622.782 .006*2.043 -familiarity with CPS21.921 .9372.17422.050 .042* .073 *p,.05.

Table 4 Statistically signi®cant variables at each ecological level and con¯ict tactics Variable B SE B BetaTSig.R 2 Model 1ÐMicro level -experience of corporal punishment22.937 .8292.30323.544 .001* .126 -children's gender22.544 .7662.28323.322 .001* .225 -family acculturation con¯ict .203 .058 .314 3.511 .001* .279 -children's age2.220 .0752.26122.923 .004* .339 Model 2ÐMeso level No statistically signi®cant variables Model 3ÐExo level -stress .985 .481 .180 2.049 .043* .032 Model 4ÐMacro level -perceived discrimination 1.005 .458 .186 2.195 .030* .035 *p,.0.5. 952M.S. Park / Child Abuse & Neglect 25 (2001) 945±958 Belief in the use of physical punishment In relation to belief in the use of physical punishment (Table 5), mothers who have high family acculturation con¯icts (R 25.210), feel positively about corporal punishment as a part of Korean society (R 25.130), and report experiencing discrimination because they are immigrants(R 25.166) are more likely to have positive beliefs about use of physical punishment (p,.05). However, mothers who reported experiencing corporal punishment as a child tend to have negative beliefs about use of physical punishment (R 25.251;p,.05).

The experience of corporal punishment as a child was no longer a statistically signi®cant variable across all ecological levels, even though it was statistically signi®cant at the micro system level.

Perceptions regarding physical abuse In relation to perceptions regarding physical abuse (Table 6), mothers who are older (R 25.097) and who are actively involved in their children's school (R 25.056) are more likely to have positive perceptions of physical abuse than other study respondents (p,.05). Table 5 Statistically signi®cant variables at each ecological level and belief in the use of physical punishment Variable B SE B BetaTSig.R 2 Model 1ÐMicro level -family acculturation con¯ict .401 .086 .421 4.690 .000* .210 -experience of corporal punishment22.900 1.2782.20422.268 .026* .251 Model 2ÐMeso level No statistically signi®cant variables Model 3ÐExo level No statistically signi®cant variables Model 4ÐMacro level -value of corporal punishment 2.124 .505 .336 4.210 .000* .130 -perceived discrimination 1.466 .605 .193 2.423 .017* .166 *p,.05.

Table 6 Statistically signi®cant variables at each ecological level and perceptions regarding physical abuse Variable B SE B BetaTSig.R 2 Model 1ÐMicro level -age 9.146E-02 .028 .312 3.231 .002* .097 Model 2ÐMeso level -school involvement .976 .368 .237 2.655 .009* .056 Model 3ÐExo level -education2.123 .0622.17521.998 .048* .031 Model 4ÐMacro level No statistically signi®cant variables *p,.05.953 M.S. Park / Child Abuse & Neglect 25 (2001) 945±958 However, mothers who have a high education level are more likely to have negative perceptions about physical abuse (R 25.031;p,.05). Respondents' education was no longer a statistically signi®cant variable across all ecological levels, even though it was statistically signi®cant at the exo level.

Also, x2veri®ed that the variables length of time in the US, involvement in a social organization, level of education, and value of children in Korean culture affected respon- dents' attitudes about the causes of child abuse (Table 7). Respondents who had been in the US for a long time, are involved in a social organization, have a low educational level, and have a low value of children in Korean culture are more likely to think that the cause of child abuse is parents' love for their children (p,.05).

Through analyses, the variables which affect Korean immigrant mothers' attitudes toward child physical abuse within an ecological perspective were determined as seen in Fig. 1. In summary, this study found that while more of the variance regarding attitudes toward child physical abuse could be explained using a combination of variables at multiple levels of the environment, the micro level was the most important.

Discussion Findings from this study suggest a number of implications for social work practice and policy when working with immigrant parents. This study veri®ed cultural diversity in child rearing styles, especially related to physical punishment of children. CPS workers who are working with different ethnic groups should understand differing cultural characteristics in child rearing practices. Intervention approaches based on understanding of cultural patterns will not only decrease resistance to CPS intervention, but also help to achieve effective services for ethnic groups.

On the other hand, the legal system in the United States might not acknowledge negative behaviors toward children that are acceptable in other cultures, even though attention to cultural sensitivity is given. Therefore, immigrants who are living in a different cultural environment should know the new set of rules, including legal boundaries, with regard to child rearing practices. However, as veri®ed in this study, Korean immigrant mothers have Table 7 Chi-square of perceptions regarding physical abuse Variable Chi-square DF Sig.

Micro level -length of time in US 11.661 5 .040* Meso level -involvement in social organizations 13.430 4 .009* Exo level -education 26.004 10 .004* Macro level -value of children in Korean culture 28.980 10 .001* *p,.05. 954M.S. Park / Child Abuse & Neglect 25 (2001) 945±958 very limited knowledge about CPS. This lack of knowledge of US law and policies relating to child abuse may result in legal problems for immigrant families. That is to say, if immigrant parents raised their children in their own cultural way, without any knowledge or information of US laws and policies regarding the treatment of children, problems may result for immigrant families. Therefore, various outreach programs that can help immigrant parents should be established, for example, campaigns relating to child abuse prevention in immigrant communities.

They also need to recognize that physical punishment actually increases the risk of physical abuse. However, as Negroni-Rodriguenz (1999) points out, because this awareness requires a change in the parent's belief system, part of which is based on his/her cultural values, such recognition is a very dif®cult process that goes beyond the cognitive level. Therefore, educational programs, for example, parenting classes, and parent support programs that encour- age immigrant parents to re-evaluate their child rearing practices should be required.

Fig. 1. Schema of Korean immigrant mothers' attitudes toward child physical abuse from an ecological perspective: study results.955 M.S. Park / Child Abuse & Neglect 25 (2001) 945±958 Also, as veri®ed in this study, acculturation con¯icts, such as family con¯icts between immigrant parents and their Americanized children in an immigrant family or discrimination because of their immigrant status, may affect child physical abuse. Thus, professional services for immigrants and their families are necessary. For example, providing counseling programs for immigrant families could help to decrease their acculturation con¯icts and help them adapt better to the US. Also, various multicultural activities that can give immigrants chances to extend their social relationships should be established. If immigrants can receive appropriate services and supports from communities to sustain their lives as immigrants, this will not only improve immigrants' quality of life, but also contribute to their social integration in US society.

Also, although various ethnic workers are increasingly represented in social work practice, the ®eld continues to be predominantly Caucasian. Therefore, the recruitment of social workers who have different cultural backgrounds will be helpful for effective service to culturally different groups. Furthermore, empowerment of people who have various cultural backgrounds can be another way to improve cultural sensitivity in overall social work practice. When various ethnic groups have their own voices in society, the requirement of culturally sensitive services cannot be perceived any more as an additional burden for social work practice.

This study has a number of limitations. First, because the topic of this study is a very sensitive issue, responses can imply social desirability bias. Second, this study focuses only on physical abuse of children, although most physical abuse often occurs with other types of abuse, such as emotional abuse. Therefore, attitudes about physical abuse in this study can be in¯uenced by attitudes toward other types of abuse. Third, respondents are limited to those in Austin, Texas, and the sampling is based on nonprobability sampling. Forth, although this study mainly focuses on cultural aspects of Korean immigrant mothers, other factors can affect their attitudes toward child physical abuse. Therefore, this study cannot be generalized to all Korean immigrant mothers' attitudes toward child physical abuse. In the future, more studies of child abuse in Korean immigrant families are needed.

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Vargas, N. A., Lopez, D., Perez, P., Zuniga, P., Toro, G., & Ciocca, P. (1995). Parental attitude and practice regarding physical punishment of school children in Santiago de Chile.Child Abuse & Neglect, 19,1077± 1082. Re sume Objectif:Cette e tude explore dans une perspectie e cologique les attitudes des meÁ res core ennes imigrantes au sujet des mauvais traitements physiques in¯ige s aux enfants.

Me thode:Cent quarante-quatre meÁ res coreÁ ennes imigrantes venues aux Etats-Unis apre s l'aÃgede16 ans ayant au moins un enfant de moins de 18 ans ont participeÂaÁ cette e tude. Les donne es ont eÂte recueillies aÁ l'aide d'instruments traduits en core en. Ces instruments mesurent les attitudes des meÁ res au sujet des mauvais traitements physiques envers les enfants dans quatre domaines: l'accord avec les mauvais traitements physiques, les tactiques dans les con¯its, la con®ance dans l'utilization des punitions corporelles, et les perceptions concernant les mauvais traitements physiques.

Re sultats:Cette e tude a permis de trouver que les variables suivantes affectent les attitudes des meÁ res core ennes immigrantes concernant les mauvais traitements physiques aÁ diffe rents niveaux e cologiques de l'environnement. Au niveau ªmicroº: le temps passe avec les enfants, l'expe rience des chaà timents corporels ve cue en tant qu'enfant, le sexe et l'age de l'enfant, les con¯its familiaux lieÂs aÁ l'acculturation, l'aà age de la meÁ re et le temps passe aux Etats-Unis; au niveau ªmesoº: l'implication aÁ l'e colede leurs enfants ainsi que dans les organizations sociales; au niveau ªexoº: l'e ducation recËue et le stress pre sente comme lieÂaÁ la vie d'immigrante; en®n, au neveau ªmacroº la valeur de l'enfant dans la culture core enne, la familiarite avec les services de Protection de l'Enfance (CPS), la perception de la discrimination et la valeur des punitions corporelles. 957 M.S. Park / Child Abuse & Neglect 25 (2001) 945±958 Conclusions:Cette e tude suggeÁ re l'importance de la sensibillteÂaÁ la culture dans la pratique du travail social aupreÁ s d'immigrantes core ennes. Cela implique aussi que l'effort d'intervention et de pre ven- tion devrait eà etre cible sur plus d'un niveau de l'environnement.

Resumen Objetivo:Este estudio explora las actitudes de una madre inmigrante coreana hacia el abuso fõÂsico contra los ninÄ os con una perspectiva ecolo gica.

Me todo:En este estudio participaron ciento cuarenta y cuatro madres inmigrantes coreanas quienes llegaron a los EUA despue s de los 16 anÄ os y tienen por lo menos un hijo menor de 18 anÄ os. Los datos fueron recogidos utilizando instrumentos traducidos al coreano que miden las actitudes de las madres hacia el abuso fõÂsico a los ninÄ os en cuatro a reas: grado de acuerdo con el abuso fõÂsico, ta cticas para el con¯icto, creer en el uso del castigo fõÂsico, y percepciones acerca del abuso fõÂsico.

Resultados:Este estudio encontro que las variables siguientes afectan las actitudes de las madres coreanas inmigrantes hacia el abuso fõÂsico a los ninÄ os en niveles ecolo gicos del ambiente: cantidad de tiempo que comparten con sus hijos, experiencia de castigo corporal en la ninÄ ez, la edad y el sexo de los ninÄ os, con¯ictos de aculturizacio n familiar, edad de la madre, y tiempo de permanencia en los EUA; en el micro nivel: participacio n en la escuela de sus hijos y participacio n en organizaciones sociales; en el meso nivel: nivel educativo y stress reportado de la vida como inmigrante; en el exo nivel: el valor de los ninÄ os en la cultura coreana, familiaridad con los Servicios de Proteccio n Infantil, discriminacio n percibida, y valor del castigo corporal en el macro nivel.

ConclusioÂn:Este estudio sugiere la importancia de la sensibilidad cultural en la pra ctica del trabajo social cuando se trabaja con inmigrantes coreanas. Tambie n implica que los esfuerzos de intervencioÂn y prevencio n del abuso a los ninÄ os debe ser enfrentado en ma s de uno de los niveles del ambiente.

958M.S. Park / Child Abuse & Neglect 25 (2001) 945±958