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Theories
Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics is distinct from both utilitarianism and deontology. Rather than focusing on the consequences of the act we wish to evaluate, or the reason or rule that guides the action, we look at the character of the person performing the act. Virtue ethics, thus, seeks to determine not what makes an act good but what makes a person virtuous.
Deontology
Rather than looking at the consequences of an act, deontology looks at the reason for which an act is done, and the rule according to which one chooses to act. Deontology doesn't deny that acts have consequences; rather, it insists that those consequences should not play a role in our moral evaluation of such acts.
Definition of Deontology
Utilitarianism is sometimes called a consequentialist theory because it evaluates whether an act is right or wrong in terms of the act's consequences. In contrast to consequentialist theories, a number of different approaches suggest distinct ways of evaluating the morality of an act. Perhaps the most famous of these is deontology. Coming from the Greek deon, which means "duty," deontology (sometimes referred to as duty ethics) focuses on what we are obligated to do as rational moral agents. It is particularly important to see that the deontologist does not say that actions do not have consequences; rather, the deontologist insists that actions should not be evaluated on the basis of the action's consequences.
Utilitarianism
A natural way to see whether an act is the right thing to do (or the wrong thing to do) is to look at its results, or consequences. Utilitarianism argues that, given a set of choices, the act we should choose is that which produces the best results for the greatest number affected by that choice.
We should also see that part of this calculation is to minimize pain or suffering; a choice that maximizes utility may often be one that produces the least harm, given the options available. Utilitarianism is the theory that people should choose that which maximizes the utility of all those who are affected by a given act. At thispoint, however, we see the basic utilitarian principle and how to apply it. Now we can start to make it a bit more precise. According to utilitarianism, one should always act in a way that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people relative to any other way one might act, or act in a way that maximizes the utility of all affected by an act, relative to any alternative to that act.
Perspectives
Emotivism
Emotivism offers a perspective on our ethical claims that eliminates much of the traditional kind of argument based on reason. Emotivism, instead, sees our moral evaluations as simply the expression of whether we respond to a given act by liking it or not liking it. Something is good, on this view, if it is something about which we feel good; something is wrong if it is something about which we feel bad.
Definition of Emotivism
Emotivism is a noncognitive theory of ethics because it denies, among other things, that moral claims can appeal to "facts." Rather, emotivism, as the name indicates, simply says that moral claims express an emotional response, or an attitude, we may have toward a given kind of behavior. Emotivists insist that there is a significant difference that we should recognize between moral claims and other kinds of claims.
Ethical Egoism
Egoism—specifically ethical egoism—argues that our moral evaluations should be made in terms of our desires and goals. Something that promotes what I want is regarded as right; something that interferes with what I want, or prevents me from reaching my goals, is regarded as wrong.
Definition of Ethical Egoism
A position that contrasts sharply with the classic ethical theories of utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics—and most religions—is called ethical egoism. The literal meaning of "ego" comes from the Greek word for "self," or "I," and that notion is at the center of egoism: I do what I want to do in order to increase my own happiness, my own pleasure. Simply put, I know what I want, and something is good, or right, if it helps me to obtain that desire (and bad, or wrong, if it interferes with my doing so). If doing something promotes my own happiness or helps me reach my desired goals, I should do it. That is the fundamental principle of ethical egoism.
Ethical egoism, obviously enough, is an approach to ethics, but it should be noted that another kind of egoism, psychological egoism, needs to be kept distinct from ethical egoism.
Relativism
The view of ethical relativism regards values as determined by one's own ethical standards, often those provided by one's own culture and background. Rather than insisting that there are moral absolutes, moral claims must be interpreted in terms of how they reflect a person's viewpoint; moral claims are then said to be "right in a given culture" or "wrong for a given society."
Definition of Relativism
Have you ever ended an argument by simply agreeing to disagree? Relativism is the idea that one's beliefs and values are understood in terms of one's society, culture, or even one's own individual values. You may disagree with someone and believe your view is superior, relative to you as an individual; more often, relativism is described in terms of the values of the community in which one lives.
